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Reviews of National Policies for Education
South Eastern Europe
Educational work is a key element for both human capital formation and the promotion of peace and democratic values. It has therefore been identified as one of the priorities of Working Table I of the Stability Pact. The OECD was asked to be Co-ordinator for “General Education Policy and System Change” within the Education and Youth Task Force, and to carry out “Thematic Reviews of Education Policy” in the countries of the region. The main outcome of this project is a series of reports which provide both country overviews and a regional overview. These reports offer an analysis of the education system and address issues and barriers to reform and recommendations. The recommendations are designed to be of use for national policy-makers and to assist Stability Pact partner countries and institutions target regional assistance in order to achieve the goal of supporting South Eastern Europe towards European integration. These reports are part of the OECD’s ongoing co-operation with non-member economies around the world.
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Reviews of National Policies for Education
The aim of the Stability Pact is to strengthen countries in South Eastern Europe in their efforts to foster peace, democracy, human rights, social development, economic prosperity and a favourable environment for sustainable security, in order to achieve stability in the region. These objectives of the Stability Pact were adopted in the Cologne Document and the Sarajevo Declaration, signed in 1999 by more than 40 partner countries and organisations. The principal strategic goal of the Stability Pact is the fullest possible integration of the countries of the region into the European political and economic mainstream. Therefore, the Stability Pact is particularly committed to regional co-operation, as it serves as a catalyst to the efforts of the countries in the region to integrate themselves into European structures.
Reviews of National Policies for Education
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CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS
Reviews of National Policies for Education
South Eastern Europe FYROM, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia Volume 2
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
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ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote policies designed: – to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy; – to contribute to sound economic expansion in member as well as non-member countries in the process of economic development; and – to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations. The original member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries became members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996), Korea (12th December 1996) and the Slovak Republic (14h December 2000). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the OECD Convention).
OECD CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS The OECD Centre for Co-operation with Non-members (CCNM) promotes and co-ordinates OECD’s policy dialogue and co-operation with economies outside the OECD area. The OECD currently maintains policy co-operation with approximately 70 non-member economies. The essence of CCNM co-operative programmes with non-members is to make the rich and varied assets of the OECD available beyond its current membership to interested non-members. For example, the OECD’s unique co-operative working methods that have been developed over many years; a stock of best practices across all areas of public policy experiences among members; on-going policy dialogue among senior representatives from capitals, reinforced by reciprocal peer pressure; and the capacity to address interdisciplinary issues. All of this is supported by a rich historical database and strong analytical capacity within the Secretariat. Likewise, member countries benefit from the exchange of experience with experts and officials from non-member economies. The CCNM’s programmes cover the major policy areas of OECD expertise that are of mutual interest to non-members. These include: economic monitoring, statistics, structural adjustment through sectoral policies, trade policy, international investment, financial sector reform, international taxation, environment, agriculture, labour market, education and social policy, as well as innovation and technological policy development Publié en français sous le titre : Europe du Sud-Est FYROM, Moldavie, Monténégro, Roumanie, Serbie – Volume 2
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FOREWORD
The Thematic Reviews of Education Policy on education in South Eastern Europe have been prepared within the framework of the Centre for Cooperation with Non-Members (CCNM) of the OECD as part of its programme of co-operation with the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The Secretariat, as Co-ordinator for General Education Policy and System Change of the Task Force for Education on Table 1 of the Stability Pact, prepared individual reports on Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, FYROM, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia and a regional overview which focuses on common findings and provides general recommendations and conclusions for education reform in the region. The themes covered are teachers, curriculum, governance, and early childhood education and care. Each report provides an overview of the education system, issues and barriers to reform, and country specific recommendations. These recommendations are designed to be of use for policy-makers, educationals and to assist Stability Pact donor countries and institutions target regional assistance. The transition of the region towards a pluralistic democracy and a market economy has been marked by economic, social and political changes of extraordinary breadth and depth. The talents, skills and knowledge of the population are crucial in this process; hence the ambitious scale and urgency of the reforms being advanced for education which led the members of Table 1 of the Stability Pact to designate education as one of the four priority areas. This OECD activity was made possible by grants from Austria, Belgium, Finland, Greece, Switzerland and UNICEF. Additional assistance was provided by New Zealand, the British Council, Bureau CROSS (The Netherlands), the European Training Foundation (ETF), the World Bank, the Open Society Foundation and the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS), University of Ljubljana. Fourty-three experts from 28 Countries formed the OECD review teams. The reports of review teams were drafted by Johanna Crighton (The Netherlands). Pavel Zgaga (Slovenia) assisted with the overview. Overall coordination and substantive support were provided by Ian Whitman and Christine Stromberger of the OECD Secretariat.
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The volume is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. Eric Burgeat Director Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ..................................................................................................3 REGIONAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................9 Introduction ...............................................................................................11 Education in SEE.......................................................................................12 The Thematic Surveys ...............................................................................13 Main findings of the CEPS study ..............................................................18 Demographics............................................................................................19 Principal regional recommendations .........................................................27 FYRoM .........................................................................................................31 General Data ..............................................................................................33 Introduction and Context ...........................................................................34 The Education System ...............................................................................36 Statistical data............................................................................................38 Legal Framework, Governance and Finance .............................................41 Equity in access, attainment and achievement...........................................48 Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment ...................................................51 Teachers.....................................................................................................61 Early Childhood Development and Pre-School Education........................66 Vocational Education and Training ...........................................................74 Higher Education.......................................................................................80 Recommendations .....................................................................................86 REFERENCES..............................................................................................95 REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA ........................................................................97 General Data ..............................................................................................99 Introduction and Context .........................................................................101 The Education System .............................................................................112 Statistics...................................................................................................116
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Governance, Administration and Management .......................................121 Finance.....................................................................................................126 Curriculum...............................................................................................129 Textbooks ................................................................................................136 Learner Assessment and Examinations ...................................................140 Issues , Barriers and Recommendations in Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment......................................................................144 Early Childhood Education and Care ......................................................150 Issues and Recommendations on Early Childhood Care and Development.....................................................................................154 Issues and Recommendations related to Children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) ...........................................................158 Teachers...................................................................................................159 Teacher In-service Training related to the new Curricula, Textbooks and Assessment......................................................................165 Issues and Recommendations Related to Teachers .................................167 Non-teaching staff ...................................................................................170 Vocational Education and Training .........................................................171 Higher Education.....................................................................................182 REFERENCES............................................................................................192 MONTENEGRO.........................................................................................195 General Data ............................................................................................197 Introduction .............................................................................................198 The Education System .............................................................................200 Governance, Administration and Reform................................................209 Curriculum...............................................................................................217 Assessment and Evaluation .....................................................................223 Teachers...................................................................................................227 Early Childhood Education and Care ......................................................236 Vocational education and training and adult training..............................242 Higher Education.....................................................................................247 Recommendations ...................................................................................251 REFERENCES............................................................................................263 ROMANIA..................................................................................................265 General Data ............................................................................................267 Introduction and Political Context...........................................................268 Legal Framework and Policy Objectives.................................................269 6
Structure of the Education System ..........................................................271 Levels of Governance..............................................................................273 Levels of Education .................................................................................273 Examinations/Transition Points:..............................................................275 Distribution of Management Responsibilities .........................................275 Stages and Status of Education Reform...................................................276 Other Issues .............................................................................................277 Statistical Data.........................................................................................279 Governance, Management Tools and Practices.......................................279 Inspectorates ............................................................................................280 Finance.....................................................................................................283 Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement .....................................285 Resources, Buildings, Equipment............................................................292 Textbooks ................................................................................................297 Evaluation of Learning Outcomes, Assessment and Examinations.........299 Teachers and Teacher Training ...............................................................302 Early Childhood Development and Pre-school Education ......................308 Vocational Education and Training .........................................................318 Higher Education.....................................................................................322 Recommendations ...................................................................................326 REFERENCES............................................................................................334 FIGURE 1. EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ROMANIA ...............................334 SERBIA.......................................................................................................339 General Data ............................................................................................341 Introduction and Context .........................................................................342 The Education System .............................................................................343 Statistical Data.........................................................................................345 Legal and policy framework....................................................................347 Administration and systemic reform .......................................................350 Re-organisation of the Ministry...............................................................351 Changing the Framework ........................................................................355 Reform of the Inspectorate ......................................................................356 Vocational Education Governance Issues................................................357 Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement .....................................359 Curriculum and Assessment ....................................................................366 Human Resources ....................................................................................374 Early Childhood Education and Care ......................................................381 Vocational Education and Training (VET)..............................................390 Higher Education.....................................................................................393
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Recommendations ...................................................................................398 ANNEX I: LIST OF CURRENT EDUCATION LAWS AND REGULATIONS.........................................................................................408 REFERENCES............................................................................................413
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REGIONAL OVERVIEW
The thematic survey of 10 education systems in South Eastern Europe (SEE) shows commonality in the challenges and problems, e.g., low GDP for education, low teacher salaries, child poverty and overloaded curricula, but that there are no common solutions. The regional diversity is too great. The thematic review covered the current status of the system; equity and access issues; early childhood education and care; governance and quality issues. Like in other regions, the education system can be evaluated in terms of four main characteristics: availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability. This overview contains basic data and demographics: demographic information on migration, birth rates, ethnic composition of the population, poverty, participation in education, enrolment patterns and number of institutions. Attention is paid to curriculum development, administration and teaching, facilities and equipment, as well as costs and financing of education. The overview quotes the main conclusions from a study carried out by the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS) in Ljubljana and lists the principal regional recommendations of the OECD examining team.
REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Introduction The Balkan peninsula in South East Europe is one of the world’s most complex areas in terms of ethnicity, language and religion. Nation states mean less, generally speaking, than ethnic allegiances that cross borders: there are Albanians in Macedonia, Macedonians in Bulgaria, Croats in Bosnia, and Serbs in Croatia – the mix is often uneasy, and in recent times has been explosive (e.g. Kosovo, Bosnia). It can be argued that as there is no majority ethnic group in SEE as a whole; all are, in some sense, minorities, and should be regarded as such. This regional diversity does not apply only to languages, religion and ethnicity – it permeates the entire geo-political history of SEE, preceding even the division of the Eastern and the Western Roman Empire. Later, the AustroHungarian and Ottoman Empires affected most parts of the region with divisions, (re-) unifications, shifting allegiances and diversity. The perception of the region during the second half of the 20th century as a homogenous unit in a political or ideological sense is “a mistake based on ignorance”. The former Yugoslavia, as a “neither an Eastern – nor a Western” country, was highly decentralised and diverse in itself. Since the mid-1960s it was more connected with the West (with one million workers abroad) than with the East. Albania to the south west side of the peninsula was isolated until the late 1980s, while Bulgaria and Romania belonged to the “Eastern bloc” and Moldova was an integral part of the Soviet Union. To the south of the Balkans, Greece was the next frontier to the West, politically speaking. At the same time, it is important – in terms of longer-term policy and strategy – to “think synoptically about the Southern Balkans as a whole”.1 It does not help to approach each country’s interests piecemeal, in isolation from any other. It does not help to try and placate every country or ethnic group by encouraging it to achieve all of its constitutional and territorial ambitions, as 1
Katarina Tomasevski (UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education). The Right to Education. Preliminary Report submitted to the UN Commission on Human Rights, 1999.
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these tend to be mutually exclusive – and as one set of problems is resolved, another one is created. For example, Kosovo cannot be considered as an isolated issue or territory: crucial links (with Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia and Albania, for example, must be taken into account. Equally, it is naïve simply to assert the right of every Balkan child to an education of acceptable quality and duration. Access, equity, language of instruction, quality – all must be negotiated sensitively, patiently and with a deep understanding of how each community has been shaped by its (often painful and bloody) history. Education in SEE Analysing the state of education in countries undergoing economical and political transformation is a sensitive exercise. First, it is easy to identify issues and dilemmas that are universal and relevant almost everywhere, and do not bring any added value to previous reviews of the education system. Second, most of the changes needed to improve the system are so costly that they are not feasible in present circumstances. It is therefore paramount to make only recommendations and suggestions that are within each country’s existing resources and structures. The main message that emerges from the 10 studies is that some problems are common across the region (low share of GDP for education; low teacher salaries; child poverty; overloaded curricula; deteriorating material base etc.), but that there are no common solutions to these problems. The diversity among and within the systems is too great. Some that are closely linked by language, history or culture (Romania, Moldova) can and do find ways to work together across borders, but no easy assumptions of “regional policy” should be made. In general, at the end of the 1980s the education systems in most SEE countries were well developed: therefore, problems that arose during the turbulent transitional period should be seen as a “retrogression” from an essentially sound starting point. These are by no means countries without educational traditions and expertise; but they face serious problems, and therefore need support. After World War II, all SEE countries changed their education systems, mostly (but not completely) due to Soviet influence. The most common aims were the elimination of illiteracy and the extension of basic education from 4 to 8 years. Undeniably, the new systems were highly ideological. At least three distinctive types emerged: the Albanian, the Soviet and the Yugoslavian. Fouryear technical schools became common, while vocational education and training
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were linked to the socialist industrial complex, organised differently in each of the three types.2 The Thematic Surveys The reviews of the 10 education systems participating in the OECD study were “thematic” in the sense that they focussed on certain themes. These were (1) the current status of the system – its governance, administration, financing, and the main reforms; (2) equity and access issues; (3) early childhood education and care; (4) quality issues, in relation to standards, curriculum, teaching and learning methods, textbooks and materials, and learning outcomes. Each review covers these four main themes and gives country specific recommendations. However, in the course of gathering and analysing the material for the reviews, a wide range of important issues emerged that needed to be included. Therefore most reviews also cover vocational education, higher education, and the education of children with special needs. These thematic reviews are not intended to be full-scale OECD reviews of education policy such as have been carried out in many countries. They are meant to be of use to policy makers involved in the work of the Stability Pact, and to the wider education community for discussion, debate, and possible cooperation.3 The Four A’s Any education system can be described and, to some extent, evaluated in terms of four main characteristics: the availability of education (provision, resources, school network); its accessibility (and equity of opportunity); its acceptability, in terms of culture and quality; and its adaptability to changing circumstances and individual needs.4 These four characteristics are considered below with regard to the 10 education systems included in the OECD’s Thematic Reviews.
2
See Pavel Zgaga, op. cit., for details about the introduction of Career Oriented Education in Yugoslavia, 1970s and 1980s. General education was disregarded, and the traditonal gimnazija (grammar schools) were abolished.
3
The thematic reviews are available on www.oecd.org/els/emerging/education. Click on “Documentation” and then on “Working Papers”.
4
See Tomasevski, op. cit., for a more extensive analysis.
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Is Education Available? In general, the answer here is “yes”. A high percentage of the compulsory schooling age cohort is in school; there is, if anything, an over-supply of qualified teachers with low pupil-teacher ratios (P:TR can be as low as 10:1); and the school network, despite the ravages of war, time and lack of maintenance, is generally in place. In other words, nearly every child of compulsory school age can find a place in a school not too far from her/his home, and find a teacher there who is qualified to teach and has some supply of books and materials. But the picture is not uniform. Resources are scarce because (again in general) the share of education as a percentage of GDP is well below the OECD average. Some schools are so small they are not viable as birth rates continue to fall. At the same time, due to employment patterns and “urban drift”, many urban schools are over-crowded, and forced to work on two or even three shifts.5 As a result, instructional time and “opportunity to learn” are seriously eroded, at a time when new curricula and more demanding standards require the opposite. The infrastructure (buildings, books, materials, equipment, heating in winter) is often poor, especially in rural areas. Decentralisation and finance reform have not always resulted in more resources being available to local schools, and their accountability for delivering high-quality education is weak. Is Education Accessible? Again in general, the answer is a cautious “yes”.6 The following observations can be made, however: x
Participation (enrolment, attendance, continuity) is not what it ought to be, especially at post-compulsory (upper secondary) and pre-school levels. Percentages here have been dropping, perhaps not dramatically (except in pre-school) but steadily, even at compulsory schooling age. What are the barriers here? The possibility of early “push-out” by increased selection cannot be ruled out.
5
One school visited in Serbia was on four shifts because of the language mix and high refugee population.
6
Each of the 10 reviews covers access and equity issues in some depth, and should be consulted.
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x
Survival: more children leave school early. Drop out and irregular attendance during compulsory schooling are becoming a problem, and secondary school coverage is falling behind OECD countries.
x
Enrolment rates at upper secondary and tertiary levels are strongly and positively related to family income. Access to better-quality schools and universities increasingly depends on paying “informal” fees and bribes.
x
In terms of gender, the balance is generally even (a legacy from the previous system); in higher education, some countries show more female than male students in some subjects. In our surveys, however, two minorities are consistently at the bottom of the social and educational scale: First, the Roma (Gypsy) population. Not only do they face the typical problems of any ethnic minority, they are often a focus for deliberate unequal treatment, injustice, exclusion and violence, even where they constitute a large minority such as in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. Second, children and young people with special educational needs. The term “defectology”, traditionally used in SEE in relation to educational provision for special-needs children, clearly reflects a tendency to focus on the “defect” (which can be “fixed”) rather than on the child and his or her value as a human being. Fortunately, fewer children than before are now institutionalised,7 and the OECD team noted a growing awareness of the need to integrate special-needs children as much as possible in mainstream schooling. However, much remains to be done in terms of teacher training and public acceptance, and it is certainly our recommendation that this be done as a matter of priority. International experience can help.
x
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The team noted more emphasis on policies of selection (especially for the more prestigious schools) than on the principle of education for all. There is an understandable pride is setting high entrance & performance standards, but too little attention is paid to what happens This is not universally so. UNICEF notes that in some countries more children are now in public care than used to be the case before 1990. See Education for All?, UNICEF-ICDC, MONEE Report No. 5. Florence: 1998.
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to youngsters who are not lucky enough, or clever enough, or rich enough, to be “selected” into high-quality schools. These schools also tend to be in urban areas, raising concern about the realities of access for children from rural areas. x
Access to jobs and university places is also unequal, and weighted against those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Payment for education, especially at tertiary level, is becoming prevalent and obviously creates inequities.
Is Education Acceptable? Education quality, which used to be high and well respected, has suffered over the past decade. Chronic under-funding, as well as disruption and conflicts in the region, have taken their toll. The disparities between “good” and “poor” schools are increasing, not helped by a post-1990 rush to decentralise and devolve responsibility for education to the local level. Clearly, some localities are better able to provide quality schooling than others, making quality a matter of geographical accident rather than an entitlement for all. x
Most systems adjust in ad hoc ways to funding shortfalls. The most common responses are (1) closing schools in winter for lack of heating; (2) deferring maintenance and major repairs; (3) running up large arrears (for example, in payment of teacher salaries, or utility bills); (4) reducing instructional hours, to well below OECD averages; and (5) shifting costs to families, formally or informally, without regard to equity for all.
x
Additional quality issues are (1) the quality of the curriculum, which remains overloaded and too “heavy” for most students; (2) rigid approaches to teaching and learning, with emphasis on the acquisition of large amounts of factual knowledge rather than competence; (3) lack of high-quality learning materials, such as books and supplementary materials linked to standards; (4) insufficient inservice development of teachers, for example in standards-linked teaching and learning, and in supporting special-needs children in regular classrooms.
Quality monitoring systems are inadequate or simply lacking. At best, teachers see their jobs as “teaching the content of the curriculum in the time available on the timetable”; very little attention is paid to what students actually learn and can do. A fundamental shift from a “teaching” to a “learning” view of education is needed. A comprehensive, standards-based quality monitoring 16
system is lacking. A revitalised system of school support and inspection, as well as standards-based assessment of learning outcomes, are needed urgently. Is Education Adaptable? All countries surveyed have undergone profound social, economic and political changes in the past decade, and many are still struggling in an unsteady and volatile political climate. Moreover, the “material base” of the education system is poor and deteriorating, with little prospect of improvement in the short term. How does an education system “adapt” to changed circumstances, particularly when resources are scarce? How can it serve new generations of children whose futures will be completely different from their parents’? Overall, the reviews show that SEE’s education systems are making admirable efforts, but that they lack a coherent strategy to tackle the new demands they face. These include: x
Changes in population and employment structures, and therefore in the demand for certain types of education rather than others (this is especially a problem in VET and adult education);
x
Decentralisation and equity issues, for example the newly affirmed rights of all children (special needs, minorities) to an equal level of education;
x
Relevance to, and links with, the labour market; vocational and adult education and (re-) training;
x
Wider access to early childhood care and development, especially for disadvantaged populations so that any difficulties can be spotted and remedied early;
x
Greater understanding of the human value and rights of children with special educational needs;
x
Greater expectations of (and demand for) upper secondary and tertiary education, and life-long learning.
Several countries surveyed are now formulating longer-term strategies to deal with these and other issues. “White papers” and “Strategy papers” are being prepared, and in a sense the OECD Thematic Reviews seek to contribute 17
to their formulation by bringing cross-country comparisons to bear on the debate. Main findings of the CEPS study Data8 In autumn 2000 and in 2001, the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS, University of Ljubljana) carried out the project Support to OECD Thematic Reviews of Educational Policy in South Eastern Europe, on the basis of an agreement with European Training Foundation and as part of OECD Thematic Reviews of Educational Policy. The CEPS study (11 reports in total) was produced jointly by researchers from CEPS and experts from each education system9 covered by the OECD reviews. Obtaining data presented a number of problems. In some countries of the region – particularly in those affected by wars, ruined institutional networks, changes in population, huge migrations as well as destroyed archives reliable data were difficult or even impossible to obtain. Moreover, human resources in data gathering and analysis are scarce, and in most cases no appropriate training has been provided for a long time. Based on the CEPS experience, therefore, there is a clear need for a support programme to develop the data gathering and monitoring capacity in all countries of the region. Such a support programme can be more effective if it is linked with governmental institutions (e.g. statistical offices), or some NGOs that have already launched important national projects in this direction.
8
See Pavel Zgaga, “The Situation of Education in the SEE Region: Final Content Report on the Project 'Support to OECD Thematic Review of Education Policy in South Eastern Europe”. (Report prepared for the European Training Foundation, Turin.) Ljubljana: Centre for Education Policy Studies, University of Ljubljana. March 2002. All CEPS Project documents are available on web site http://www.see-educoop.net.
9
Researchers include: Dr. 'XNDJMLQ 3XSRYFL .RVRYR 6XDGD 1XPLü %+ – )HGHUDWLRQRI%RVQLD +HU]HJRYLQD $OHNVDQGUD*DNRYLü %+– the Republic of Srpska), Pavli Kisi (Albania), Blagica Novkovska (FYR of Macedonia), Iskra 3HWURYD %XOJDULD 6HQND %RVQHU &URDWLD 1DWDãD äLYNRYLü 0RQWHQHJUR /LOLDQD 3UHRWHDVD 5RPDQLD *RUGDQD =LQGRYLü 9XNDGLQRYLü 6HUELD DQG Anatol Gremalschi (Moldova). See http://pef.pef.uni-lj.si/ceps/ for details.
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The data gathered for each country report were structured into seven clusters: general data, participation in education, enrolment patterns and numbers of institutions, curriculum, administration in primary and secondary education, facilities and equipment, cost and financing. Demographics Migration Data from all countries surveyed by CEPS show significant changes in population, often due to large migrations both within (e.g. urban drift) and among countries, sometimes due to economic circumstances but often also to ethnic conflict and war. Flows of refugees during periods of conflict resulted in parallel or temporary – mostly improvised – school networks, but many children also missed out on education for some time. The projections of both the OECD’s and the UN’s population statistics indicate a continuing fall in European birth rates, and on the economic growth that continues to make the EU attractive to migrant labour. But at the heart of the migration debate lies the issue of development – of how disadvantaged economies can get themselves into some sort of alignment with wealthier ones. It remains the case that few of the world’s 6 billion people migrate: according to the International Organisation for Migration, only about 200 million people (3.3%) live outside their country of origin. But those from disadvantaged economies who manage to do so, or are forced to do so, are ‘ferrymen of wealth and aspiration’ for many others. Often one migrant from a poor country represents a huge investment on the part of his relatives. The global figure for remittances in 1998 was estimated at USD 52.8 billion, significantly higher than official aid flows from donor organisations. In some
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SEE countries (Albania, Moldova) remittances from migrant workers are a significant factor in the national economy. Remittances, like aid, can be divisive and can create conflict and envy in local communities. Unlike aid, however, they tend to hit the mark and are less vulnerable to plunder by corrupt governments. Either way, it is obvious that migrants play a far greater role in the transfer of wealth than anything Western governments can hope to contribute. This is a serious point for those involved in setting or revising migration policy. The down side of migration, of course, is “brain drain” especially at a time when birth rates are falling dramatically in many SEE countries and their resource starved education systems struggle to build the kind of home grown human capital they will need for their nations’ future. The review teams heard some cynics say that the purpose of education in some Balkan countries is “to provide a trained work force for the West” – this cannot be in anyone’s longterm interests. As populations shrink, SEE countries will need to build strategies to retain their “best and brightest” by making it possible for them to support their families as well as their own countries. Declining birth rates While the general trend for the SEE region is downward, there are large differences, e.g. Croatia has one of the lowest birth rates 9.9 % (per 1000 inhabitants) in 1999, Kosovo 21.3 % in 1995 and Albania 17.2 % in 1989 are amongst countries with the highest birth rates in Europe. Mixed ethnic composition of populations Ethnic minorities are an important issue, also in education. Ethnic majorities vary, e.g. from Montenegro (62% ethnic Montenegrin) or Moldova (64%) to Albania with nearly 98%. However, it is not easy to get a clear statistical picture. In Bulgaria, the new Statistical Law does not allow data gathering according to ethnic origin. In the Republic of Srpska it was not possible to gather these data at all. In many cases data that are available are not always reliable. Poverty Increasing numbers of households in the region are living in poverty, especially households with children. The direct relationship between poverty and educational attainment is well documented. The poor face three specific problems in education (1) in an inefficient system, the poor suffer most because
20
scarce resources are less likely to be spent on them; (2) the cost of education takes a larger share of (low) family income, especially in larger families; and (3) the perceived benefits of education – in terms of access to jobs, or escape from poverty – are low. Poor families see little evidence that the sacrifices they make to send children to school will lead to a better life. Participation in education Low educational attainment of the (active) population, particularly in midlife and older generations although in areas affected by conflicts during the last decade this may also be true of young people. Girls, women, older people and some ethnic groups (e.g. Roma) are particularly marginalised. Unemployment rates are high, especially among young people. All too often, schools do not prepare students for the radically changed labour market, so that even those with qualifications cannot find jobs. Structure. Only Romania and Moldova (2002) have 9 years of compulsory schooling; all other SEE countries still offer the traditional 8 years, although changes are planned. The average number of years of schooling is low (mostly, it does not exceed 8 years; below average in Bulgaria and Moldova; some countries even reported that these data could not be gathered). Participation in pre-school education is low, and particularly alarming in the Western Balkans (Romania and Bulgaria do better). In the Western Balkans, Croatia and Albania with approximately 35% of children included in pre-school education report the best participation, while Kosovo with only 3% (an estimation) reports the worst. In basic education all countries report high participation. It has traditionally been high; and, despite conflicts and huge migrations in some parts of the region, the basic obligatory education network seems to have been preserved. In general, there are no reports of alarming dropout from basic education; however, the quality of education could be questionable. In some countries girls are more at risk of not being enrolled at all or dropping out, especially in rural areas. In upper secondary education, participation has increased. However, particularly in the Western Balkans, the situation is not comparable with other transition countries. Considerable numbers of students who finish basic education do not continue in upper secondary education. Serbia reports the highest share of the age cohort continuing in upper secondary education (78.3%; over three times more in VET than in general education), followed by Romania (69.4%), Bulgaria (67%), Macedonia (65.08%) and Croatia (63%). There are no
21
data available for Montenegro, but it is estimated to be in this category as well. reports only half of the age cohort in upper secondary education (56.67%; there are no data for the Republic of Srpska, but the proportion could even be lower). Data are not available for Kosovo, either; according to rough estimation its proportion should be close to the Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina. Albania (41%) and Moldova (39% with almost all the population in general education and only 9% in VET!) are at the end of this scale. It is characteristic for most SEE countries that the proportion of students in general education is lower than it is in VET (Moldova, which was once part of the former Soviet educational system, is an exception). In general, the proportion of female students to male students is equal. There are no data on participation by gender available for Kosovo, but the share of female students is probably lower than in other countries. At postcompulsory level, dropout seems to be an increasingly serious problem.10 For tertiary education, all countries report greatly increased participation. Studying in tertiary institutions at the turn of the millennium: Bulgaria 35.0% of the age cohort (19-24), Croatia 31.3% (age 20-24), Moldova 29.0% (age 19-22), Romania 28.0% (age 19-23), Serbia 22.63% (age 18-24), Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina 21.6% (age 19-25), Macedonia 21.5% (age 19-23), Albania 15% (age 18-23).
10
All country experts reported a lack of reliable data on dropouts from basic and upper secondary education. Therefore, the methodology of calculating dropout was simply based on the number of students who did not complete the school year in relation to the total number of students registered and does not take into account those who were never in the system.
22
For some countries the corresponding data are not available. Enrolment patterns and number of institutions School network, number of institutions. School networks have traditionally been well developed. There is no evidence of any radical closing of institutions, although some countries obviously encounter severe problems with an extremely low enrolment in rural areas or in some types of institutions. The size of institutions differs greatly: there are many institutions with fewer than 50 pupils or even only a few pupils while on the other hand – particularly in urban centres – huge institutions and frequent. The average Pupil:Teacher ratio in most cases is low. In pre-schools, it differs from 7.76 (Republic of Srpska) to 20.73 (Montenegro), in primary schools from 12 (Bulgaria) to 21 (Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina), in general secondary schools from 11.0:11.8 (Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia) to 19 (Kosovo; Serbian schools excluded), in VET schools from 6.5 (Moldova) to 21 (Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina), at universities from 10 (Bulgaria) to 20 (Kosovo) and in non-university higher education institutions from 8.0:8.8 (Bulgaria, Moldova) to 68.0:32.18 (Romania, Serbia). However, these are only averages. VET schools and nonuniversity institutions represent the highest extremes within the region. The subsystem of private kindergartens and schools is not very developed. In some countries there are no such institutions in pre-school and basic education at all (Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro), in some other countries there are only few (Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Republic of Srpska, Kosovo). Adult education is mostly an un-recognised problem in all SEE countries. The former system of adult education has disappeared, and in most cases no new development is taking place. Since there is no relevant monitoring of adult education, there is a total lack of data, which makes a detailed and correct diagnosis impossible. Curriculum Only in some countries – and only since the late 1990s – new curricula have been approved and implemented in basic education, general secondary education, and for at least some professions in VET (Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania). Parallel to this, teachers have been trained but in most cases their training seems to have been insufficient, sometimes lacking appropriate new instructional materials. In other countries, there were only some slight changes in the curricula, often limited to deleting ideological content from textbooks.
23
For the countries of the Western Balkans, a comprehensive reform of the curriculum should now be top priority. Note that this reform should focus on the curriculum framework as a whole, rather than on piecemeal changes in subject syllabuses. Administration and teaching in primary and secondary education School administration is generally neglected as a profession; there is almost no systematic training for school principals. In general, initial teacher training remains traditional and unsatisfactory. Teachers, however, need more support today than they did in previous times. In-service teacher training is almost absent in some countries; what is offered tends to be haphazard and insufficiently related to education reforms. This is particularly important for (future) teachers in VET. Under – or unqualified teachers and educators are mostly found in preschool education (30% in Macedonia, 21% in Romania and Croatia) and basic education (19% in Romania and Federation Bosnia-Herzegovina 13.5% in Kosovo). The ratio of under – or unqualified teachers is surprisingly high in VET schools in Moldova (46%) and Romania (13%) as well as in nonuniversity higher education institutions in Romania (33%). Facilities and equipment Not surprisingly, all SEE countries report severe problems with facilities and equipment. The situation is most severe in these areas affected by war, particularly in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo. Restoration of buildings and modernisation of equipment should be linked with the development of a comprehensive education reform strategy (particularly with regard to rationalisation of the school network). Costs and financing This was the most difficult part of the CEPS study. Reliable data on education costs and financing are scarce, and the research team had difficulty in collecting and analysing them. It was necessary to use a different methodology in each country. In Kosovo, for example, there has so far not been an education budget as such; education has been financed from the so-called “consolidated budget”, which has mainly been supported from international sources. Preschool education is self-financed in most cases.
24
In general, public financing of education is rather poor: on average 3-4% GDP, sometimes even below 3%. Foreign aid is not always sufficiently organised, nor is it properly co-ordinated or sustainable. Nearly all resources available are allocated to salaries (almost all in preuniversity education in Romania, 90% or more in Croatia, Montenegro, Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina). Funds for school equipment (2% or even less in Croatia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania) and investments (3% or even less in Montenegro, Macedonia, Republic of Srpska, Romania, Serbia) are very poor. Chronic under-funding erodes the quality of education, especially in education systems that were clearly designed for a much higher level of public financing. Some conclusions arising from the CEPS study x
Pre-primary education must receive more attention, in policy as well as in financial support. Simply waiting for an “economic boom” will only prolong the present inertia. Moreover, as birth rates fall and the numbers of children in pre-schools decline, new opportunities appear to improve provision and quality of early childhood care and development.
x
Elementary education probably receives the most attention and funding, but it also has to cope with the most severe problems. All SEE countries have reached a level where access to basic education is not the main issue, but quality elementary education for all – including rural children, children of minorities, children with special needs, and children who are socially or emotionally at-risk – is the real task..
x
General upper secondary education today seems to occupy a better position than vocational education and training, in most SEE countries. At the same time, schools of general secondary education (gymnasia, lycea, etc.) in this region are faced with a situation quite different from some other countries: not only do they offer general education, often they are also expected to be a substitute for the lack (or low status and quality) of vocational schools. This problem is reflected in issues of access and equity, but also in the transfer to tertiary education institutions.
x
The term “tertiary education” deserves more attention and debate. Mostly, a traditional model of university education is still in force, and the existing universities – confronted with serious problems – often 25
become the last refuge for young unemployed people. Unfortunately, this only sharpens questions of access, equity, and quality. The development of a diversified system of tertiary education could be an effective step forward. x
Adult education and life-long learning seem to be under-valued. High unemployment and a completely altered structure of industry demand the development of a labour force that has different, broader work skills. The age group between 35 and 50 years is probably most affected by the lack of educational and training opportunities. Public funds have nearly dried up, and most new (re)privatised companies have neither the interest nor the financial resources to support training and staff development efforts.
x
Teachers’ education and development need radical modernisation, both in its pre-service and in-service forms. The entire region needs modern institutions in this area, not only: As a place of quality teachers’ education and development, but also, As a place of substantial educational research, particularly in policy studies, as well as in pedagogical methods and didactics which should be moved out of their traditional and outmoded forms, and As a place of support for further educational renewal and curricular development in each country.
x
The image of education in society must be improved. The share of GDP spent on education in all systems is lower – sometimes critically lower! – than is recommended by international organisations. In consequence, the social status of teachers is weak, their working conditions poor, and their readiness to engage in educational renewal questionable. But apart from improving the material base for education, it is also necessary to link renewal of (national) education to a change of public values and public opinion. Democratic and open societies are based upon individuals who should support equal rights, solidarity with others, and similar values, including quality education for all. These aims cannot be achieved if education (in public opinion) means ruined schools without basic equipment, poorly paid and poorly
26
trained teachers, outmoded curricula, passive learning of facts, and poor prospects for employment. x
A national, regional and international campaign is needed to improve the position and esteem of education in societies throughout the region. Various activities could be launched: public appearances of – regionally and internationally – distinguished personalities drawing attention to education as a tool of individual promotion and national prosperity, but also promotions of successful economic – or cultural – activities based on new knowledge and skills, etc. The planned peer reviews in SEE countries could play an important role here for the VET sector, but the other sections of the system also need attention.
x
External involvement (from international and bilateral donors, and from NGOs) is essential in the Balkans for a number of reasons. Obviously, resources (both financial and human) are needed to repair the ravages of war and years of under-resourcing under previous regimes. More than that, however, is the need for external mediators, people who can bring others together, work towards consensus, defuse confrontations, and help to focus on long-term common interests rather than short-term disagreements. This is often best done not by large international organisations but by smaller NGOs working directly with people in the community. Naturally, NGO activity needs to be co-ordinated and monitored with care, and integrated into the larger development strategy for the region.
Principal regional recommendations Keeping in mind the observation – that while there are many common problems across the region, there are few common solutions – some general recommendations can nevertheless be made. x
Make concerted, strong efforts to increase the share for education in national and local budgets. Reform of the financing of the education system is an essential precondition for further progress on education reform at all levels. Additional investment in education is needed. This is linked to overall economic growth, but problems in financing education also appear to be related to the structure and management of current policies.
x
Redefine the responsibilities and strengthen capabilities of the ministries of education and shift the role of ministries from “micromanaging the system” to setting policy and monitoring quality linked 27
to explicit standards. Increase efforts and capacities of ministries for policy analysis, research and evaluation of policy implementation. x
Develop a comprehensive strategy for the entire education system, based on a philosophy of learning for all. This includes children across the ability range, children with special needs, and those from minority ethnic or linguistic backgrounds or from poor families. Pay attention to rural development issues and narrow the disparities between rural and urban areas.
x
Related to this is the need to increase management and leadership skills and continue to realign the role and responsibility at all levels of the education system to support a more decentralised, responsive and accountable school and institutional network. It is also necessary to improve the co-ordination between the ministries and institutions concerned.
x
Pay more attention to the emotional needs of children (and their teachers!) who have been traumatised by war, conflict, displacement, and family breakdown. No community can be expected to function normally in abnormal conditions; expert help may be needed.
x
Renew and slim down curricula, emphasise integrated and crosscurricular teaching and training. Reform both vocational education and general secondary education to ensure that all students completing secondary education gain the core knowledge and skills to be competitive in the labour market and to counter serious problems of school leavers (dropouts) with no useable qualification. In developing national standards and curricula for general secondary education, the core knowledge and skills graduates will need to be successful in a changing labour market should be emphasised.
x
Improve the formal professional qualifications of teachers and their on-going qualification by improving and intensifying pre-service and in-service training. Improve teacher status and pay greater attention to their development. Make every effort to raise the level of teachers pay. Low salaries and poor career prospects have serious consequences for educational quality. Evaluate performance, and ensure that teachers and schools are held accountable for the quality they provide.
x
Develop a coherent national policy for the social and educational protection of children, including fair and transparent procedures and
28
decisions in the school career of the child or student. Children and their parents should be helped to obtain information about educational and social opportunities suitable to them. Every effort should be taken to avoid any exclusion based on social, ethnic, gender or religious reasons and focus on the principle education for all. x
Develop programmes to identify and diagnose children having special needs and ensure that adequate educational possibilities are provides, wherever the child may be, at home or in a regular school or in a special needs educational institution. Provide teacher training for children with special needs and target social support to at-risk children and families.
29
FYROM
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of FYRoM describes the current status of the education system and reform efforts underway. The country is introduced by general and demographic data; language, the geographic and historical context; the political, economic and the labour market situation; it also describes the structure and the legal framework. The whole education system is covered, from general education to vocational education, from higher education to lifelong learning, but focusing on early childhood and care, teachers and teacher training, curriculum and governance and administration. Equity in access, attainment and achievement are central issues, and special consideration is given to ethnic and minority questions and education for children with special needs. Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of education; to quality, assessment and evaluation in education; to preservice and in-service teacher training; working conditions and teacher salaries, the role of school inspectors; textbook provision and material and resources in general. The report describes issues and barriers at all levels of the education system and gives recommendations for policy makers, practitioners and donors.
FYRoM
General Data
Area:
25 713 sq.km.
Number of inhabitants:
1 945 932 (1999). Age structure: 37.9% under 23 years old.
Overall population growth rate:
0.6 per 1 000 (higher among Albanian and Roma populations; negative in some regions e.g. Orasec – 22.7 per 1 000). The population structure is therefore changing rapidly. Literacy: 89%.
Population density:
78 per sq.km. Urban/rural distribution 61%/39%.
Ethnic composition (1994 census):
66.6% Macedonian, 22.7% Albanian,11 4% Vlach, 2.2% Roma, 2.1% Serbian, 0.4% Turkish, 1.9% others, 0.1% not declared.
Religion:
Orthodox 59%; Muslim 26%; Roman Catholic 4%; other or none, 11%.
GDP:
USD 4 880 per capita.12 Employment mostly in industry, mining, and agriculture (48% of all employed persons).
11
Unofficial estimates are that the Albanian minority now exceeds 30%, most living in the north-west regions (Tetovo and Debar). Also unofficially the Roma population is estimated at 3%.
12
At Purchasing Power Parity, Source: WIIW Database incorporating national and international statistics.
33
Percentage of GDP on education:
4% in 1999 (down from 4.38% in 1996).
Inflation:
2.3% in 1999 (down from 1 691% in 1992).
Unemployment:
32.4% in 1999. A very large proportion (82.8%) of these are long-term unemployed (>1 year). 43.7% of persons under age 30 are unemployed.
Introduction and Context By the time it was dissolved in 1991, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) consisted of six republics (Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina) and two autonomous provinces (Kosovo and the Vojvodina). Of the six SFRY republics, Macedonia was one of the least developed economically. At the time of independence, its GDP per capita was only one-third that of Slovenia. Between 1991 and 1995, GDP fell by more than 30%. Growth started again in 1996, after the blockade imposed by Greece was lifted in 1995. The ‘grey’ economy (outside tax and social security laws) remains large; in 1998 it was said to account for half the Republic’s GDP. Unemployment has been a dominant problem, with the rate rising above 33% in 1995 and 40% in 1998. Since 1998 the rate has been dropping to 32.4% in April 1999, but the proportion of long-term and youth unemployed remains high (82.8% remain unemployed for more than 1 year, and 43.7% of under-30s are unemployed). In 1998, industry accounted for 28% of GDP; agriculture 11%; services 60%. The previous Strategy (2000, see References13) attributes the high unemployment among young people to high drop-out rates – 15% at secondary level in 1999 – and the unfavourable educational structure of the population: it estimates that 52.67% are without education or with incomplete (less than full secondary) education; only 37.7% have 3 or 4 years’ secondary 13
We refer the readers of this Report to a new Strategy 2001-2010 which was finalised by the MoES and adopted by the Government in March 2001, and is now under consideration by Parliament, but not yet (July 2001) approved. However, the MoES considers the Strategy 2001-2010 to be the latest valid document, representing the views of the Ministry and the Government. However, since the OECD review mission visited Macedonia in the autumn of 2000 and the new Strategy was not yet available in February 2001 when the first drafts of this Report were written and discussed with FYRoM authorities, references to the Strategy in this Report are based on the 2000 version unless otherwise indicated.
34
education.14 Greater efforts in adult education and re-training are needed if the country’s economic situation is to improve. The Constitution of FYRoM was adopted in 1991. Parliament (Sobranje) is a single-chamber legislature with 120 members elected for 4-year terms. There is a Parliamentary Commission for Education and Science (11 members),15 the Prime Minister has a special Adviser on education issues in his Cabinet. The Supreme Court is the highest court. Local government is the responsibility of 126 municipalities. The Macedonian language, written in Cyrillic alphabet, is the official language. In units of local government where a majority or large number are of a non-Macedonian nationality, the law permits the use of national languages and alphabets alongside Macedonian. The Constitution is explicit in establishing friendly relations with all of Macedonia’s neighbouring countries without any special relationship with any one of them. This is known as “the policy of equidistance”, and aims at maintaining stability in the Balkans and a firm orientation towards European integration and membership of NATO. Domestic policy aims at economic and political reforms and reduction of the influence of the State in all but social affairs. Education is ‘non-ideological’. Inter-ethnic tolerance is encouraged, and minority rights are monitored with international verification. Nevertheless, the status of Roma remains low, with 90% unemployment and low educational stay-on and attainment rates. Roma communities are concentrated in a relatively small number of locations, mainly the Centar and Kair16 districts of Skopje (3.7% and 15% Roma respectively) Berovo, Vinica, Debar, and Prilep, and should therefore be reachable by well-targeted efforts to improve their living standards and life chances especially through better educational opportunities, starting with targeted early childhood and pre-school programmes. It is encouraging that the new Strategy plans to "build a new high school located in a settlement with a high Roma population" by 2004, with the goal of increasing secondary school attendance by Roma students.
14
Strategy, 2000, page 5.
15
In late 2000, the Ministries of Education and Science were combined into the Ministry of Education and Science.
16
In Kair about 40 000 Roma live in great poverty. Unemployment runs to more than 90%, and children drop out of school early. The Open Society runs a Centre there, and there are two State schools that are trying to work with families to keep children in school. The main issues, however, are poverty and social exclusion.
35
The Education System The system is organised as follows: Age at which compulsory education starts:
7
Age at which compulsory education ends:
15 (basic compulsory education = 8 years).
Structure of general educational system:
Primary 4 years + lower secondary 4 years + general upper secondary 4 years. 67% of students continuing after grade 8 enter VET programmes; 33% enter general secondary.
Structure of secondary vocational education:
3- or 4-year vocational or technical schools offering courses in 25 profiles and more than 100 specialisations.
Examinations/transition points:
Class 8 (end of compulsory schooling); class 12 (end of upper secondary); final exam also after 3-year vocational school. Entrance examinations into (most) university faculties.
Higher education:
The University of Skopje was established in 1949; the University of Bitola in 1979. Ethnic Albanian authorities in Tetovo founded an Albanian-language university there in 1995, but it has not been recognised by the FYRoM government. Overall enrolment in HE rose from 29 583 in 1995 to 36 922 in 1999.
Levels of education governance:
Three. (1) Central: Ministry of Education and Science (MoES); (2) District: 35 district offices of MoES. (3) Local: schools. [Municipalities have almost no role in education. Curricula, assessment and in-service teacher training are the responsibility of the Pedagogical Institute, re-named Bureau for Development of Education (BDE) and its 12 district offices].
36
Special features:
By law, teaching in compulsory school must be provided in the mother tongue of the children (Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish, Serbian17), and curricula, textbooks and tests must be provided accordingly. Most schools operate on a two- or three-shift system to accommodate numbers and languages of instruction. Participation in primary schools is 98.35% of the 7-14 age group; in upper secondary, the percentage of the age group 15-18 is 65.08% (22.16% in general secondary and 42.92% in secondary VET). Approx. 96% of class 4 graduates continue into class 5 but drop-offs at class 8 and class 12 levels are significant (see Tables). 27% of class 12 graduates (12% of original cohort) continue into tertiary, 89.2% of them Macedonian and only 5.5% Albanian, which is an obvious source of tension (1998/99 figures).
Following the break-up of SFRY, public administration reform placed educational administration in the hands of the central Ministry of Education. Municipalities (124 in 2000) do not have a significant role in education although many try to renovate or construct school buildings owned by the central Ministry. The share of the municipal budgets in total public spending was only 2% in 1999/2000. There is no middle (regional) level of public administration, although in education there are 34 regional representative “branches” of the central Ministry (corresponding roughly to the 34 municipalities that existed in 1990). There are now plans to reform public administration, and transferring more power to municipalities. There are concerns that this may have a particularly strong effect on education, because school building ownership could be transferred to municipal level, and teachers’ present civil service status could be removed. This reform is being planned by
17
But not, in practice, Rom, partly because there is no agreed orthography for the language and there are almost no textbooks or materials, or teachers able to speak the language.
37
the Ministry of Justice, with little or no formal consultation with the Ministry of Education and Science.18 Statistical data Table 1. Year
Enrolment
Pre-school education (age group 0-6)
Full cohort
1991/92
35 318
--
Enrolment as % No. of State Teachers, Teachers, of cohort1 Pre-schools qualified unqualified -----
1995/96
38 245
--
--
--
--
--
1998/99
37 766
204 714
18.45
52 2
3 190
1 366
1999/00
38 348
--
--
--
--
--
1. Variations in enrolment are very high, e.g. from 92.4% of 6-year olds in Berovo to 13.5% in Gostivar and 20% in Tetovo. 2. 16 with >1 Separate unit. Source: CEPS (Centre for Educational Policy Studies), Ljubljana, drawn from the FYROM National Observatory.
In basic education, which covers grades 1-8, about 500 schools have all 8 grades whereas about 160 schools are so-called ‘regional’ schools to which 580 schools covering only grades 1-4 are affiliated. The average class size is 24.7 students. The number of teachers is about 13 400, yielding a pupil:teacher ratio (P:TR) of 19:1. There are also boarding facilities that cater for some 5 000 basic and secondary school students. Due to the varying participation in preschool education, there are significant differences in learning achievement among students in the first primary grades. This is one reason why there are plans to add a (compulsory) grade ‘zero’ for 6-year olds to primary education.
18
Peter Darvas, ‘Background information’, 10 February 2000, World Bank ECSHD, unpublished note, p. 1.
38
Table 2.
Participation in school education by level, gender and percentage
1998/99
No. of schools
No. of all students
Percentage of ed. system as a whole
Girls (number)
Girls (% of total)
Basic education 1-8 (ages 7-14/15) Upper secondary, general and VET (ages 15-18) Tertiary education (ages19 plus) Universities Non-university HE
1 041
255 150
67.23
123 068
48.23
98 1
87 420
23.04
42 507
48.62
21
36 922 2
9.73
20 325
55.05
TOTAL
1 160
379 492
100
185 900
48.99
1. Includes 3 private schools. 2. Full-time students: 30 156; 6 766 part time (1999/2000). Source: CEPS, Ljubljana.
The secondary level has a total of 87 420 students and comprises 2-, 3- and 4-year vocational education and training, general high school, and special programmes for arts. Secondary education is provided by a total of 98 schools; in 25 of these, general and vocational education are together, and in others there is often a mixture of arts education, general education and vocational education. The number of gymnasia is given as 42 in the 1997/98 school year.19 There are also 4 special secondary schools, 3 religious schools, and 16 ‘supplementary education’ institutions for music and ballet. Circa 20 000 students graduate from secondary programmes each year (drop-out is high, at 15%). Approximately 27% of secondary school graduates continue into higher education (12% of the original grade 1 cohort). The MoES has now set special quotas for ethnic minorities, amounting to 23% of total enrolment. Entrance tests are provided in the Albanian language, and courses in Macedonian language are provided for Albanian minority students during secondary school, to increase their access to higher education and jobs. Higher education is provided by the University of Skopje, the University of Bitola and some private institutions concentrating mainly on the teaching of foreign languages. Ethnic Albanian authorities in Tetovo proclaimed the founding of an Albanian language university there in 1995, but it has not been recognised by the FYRoM government and is still in dispute. There are a total of 36 000 students at the two main universities, 5 000 of them part-time.
19
Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Macedonia, 1999.
39
Table 4 is particularly interesting, because it follows the 1991 cohort through 4-year secondary and then through 4 years of tertiary education, and gives an idea of attrition in the same cohort over time. Of the 29 697 basicschool graduates, only 18 336 (62%) graduated from upper secondary 4 years later, and only 3 735 (12.8%) obtained a 4-year tertiary degree. Official dropout figures show 3 077 students dropping out during compulsory schooling,20 and 2 028 during upper secondary, so it must be assumed that the steepest dropoff points are between basic and secondary, and between upper secondary and tertiary education. The question then arises whether these drop-offs are due to students dropping out voluntarily, or due to ‘push-out’ by the selection system at transition points? Table 3.
Participation of ethnic groups by level, gender and percentage, 1998/99
Ethnic group
Macedonian Albanian Turkish Roma Vlach Serbian Other Ethnicity not known TOTAL
Primary Education No.% 150 566 59.0 77 035 30.2 10 602 4.2 7 602 3.0 429 0.2 2 887 1.1 5 940 2.3 89 0.03
69 183 13 648 1 378 450 227 1 154 1 339 41
79.2 15.6 1.6 0.5 0.3 1.3 1.5 0.05
31 095 1 916 371 48 329 666 408 17
89.2 5.5 1.1 0.1 1.0 1.9 1.2 0.05
255 150
87 420
100.0
34 850
100.0
100.0
Secondary Education No.%
Tertiary Education No.%
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana.
Table 4.
Students completing levels of education, 1991, 1995 and 1999
Year
Basic (compulsory, 8-yr) ISCED 2
Upper secondary, gen+VET ISCED 3
1991 1995 1999
29 697 29 494 30 389
21 102 18 336 20 515
Tertiary, first degree ISCED 5 3 384 2 830 3 735
Source: CEPS, Ljubljana.
20
This may be partially due to girls in rural areas dropping out after grade 4 to help at home as education for them is considered less important.
40
Legal Framework, Governance and Finance Legal and policy framework The right to education is laid down in the 1991 Constitution, and developed further by Parliament and by Government and Ministry actions and decrees. The Constitution states that parents have the right and responsibility to ensure their children’s education (Art. 4); that all citizens have an equal right to education; and that basic education (grades 1-8) is compulsory and free (Art. 44). Private education institutions may be established at all levels except basic education (Art. 45). Minorities have the right to instruction in their mother tongue at basic and secondary education, but in all minority-language schools the teaching of Macedonian is compulsory (Art. 48). x
Pre-school and Early Childhood: The Law on Child Protection and Pre-School Education is being revised to bring it in line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the UN Standard Rules on Equalisation of Opportunities for Disabled People, and with European trends. There is also a Children’s Ombudsman to protect children’s interests.
x
Compulsory education (grades 1-8) and non-compulsory secondary education (grades 9-12): the framework documents are the Constitution, Arts. 44-48; the Elementary Education Law of 1995, and the Secondary Education Law of 1995. No private elementary (basic) schools may be established, but secondary (grades 9-12) private schools are allowed.
x
Higher Education: Until 2000, higher education in Macedonia was still regulated by the SFRY Law on Vocational Education (1985), which covered both vocational secondary and all tertiary education. Article 46 of the 1991 Constitution, however, already made a major change by granting autonomy to universities and by requiring that higher education be covered by a separate law. This new Law on Higher Education (2000) applies also to private higher education institutions (HEIs); requires equal opportunities for access to higher education; gives autonomy to all HEIs; provides a system for quality assessment of higher education; allows financing not only from the budget of the Republic but also from other sources, including student fees under certain conditions; allow full- or part-time studies, transfers under the Education Credit Transfer (ECT) system, and simultaneous studies at more than one HEI; and specifies degrees offered and qualifications granted. 41
x
There is still (end of 2000) no specific Law on Vocational Education and Training. The ‘old’ (1985, SFRY) Law on Vocational Education divided the whole post-basic phase into levels of vocational specialisation expressed in ‘degrees’. These ranged from Degree I (one year of secondary education) to Degree VIII (Doctor of Sciences). Now that Higher Education has its own law, a new VET law is urgently needed.
Governance and administration The most important documents to have been developed after the changes of 1991 are the Strategy for Development of Education in the Republic of Macedonia 2000 (adopted by the Government in June 2000, see References), and its successor, Strategy 2000-2010 (see footnotes 3 and 11). Together, they give a comprehensive picture of the evolution of goals, values, and forces at work in education in Macedonia, and identify a number of key issues that parallel the ones raised in this review. We will therefore highlight – rather than repeat – the most important ones here21. The Strategy 2000 devoted considerable attention to the centralisation/decentralisation issue, stating that central planning has made the system rigid and uniform, disregarding the needs and characteristics of various communities. It recommended greater private investment in education; better linkages with the labour market; more options in curricula and syllabi with involvement from business entities, local communities, parents, students and teachers; transferring responsibility for school maintenance to the schools themselves, with State help where needed; making school heads responsible for the hiring and firing of teachers; giving schools a greater say in the selection of school heads; liberalising the textbook market; and liberalising requirements for pre- and in-service teacher training. Conversely, the State should remain responsible for quality (standards), equity, fiscal control, accreditation of teacher training programmes, and clear statement of expected outcomes of education as measured by graduation exams and national and international assessments of student achievement. These recommendations are in line with the world-wide trend towards reducing State involvement in the processes of educational delivery while increasing the emphasis on setting standards, monitoring quality, and reliably measuring student achievement against explicit outcome standards. The new Strategy 2001-2010, however, does not deal with decentralisation, leaving this 21
Strategy 2001-2010.
42
issue to the Government Strategy carried out by the Ministry of Justice, and cautioning, with some justification, that ill-considered decentralisation might make matters worse for poor and vulnerable groups. Nevertheless, the OECD team hopes that some education decision-making can be devolved closer to schools, and that careful methods of financial decentralisation can be considered with due attention to social consequences. The education system of Macedonia is owned and governed by the State. No major structural changes have been made since the break-up of SFRY. The Ministry of Education now is the Ministry of Education and Science (MoES). Pre-school education (up to the final year, when children are age 6) is governed by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security; from age 6, it is the responsibility of the MoES. The MoES directly manages some 1 150 basic and secondary schools (allocating budgets, authorising payments, appointing school heads etc.). The MoES is therefore over-burdened with day-to-day administrative tasks at school level, rather than with strategic or policy issues. The MoES is composed of sector divisions each headed by an undersecretary. There is also a finance division. Horizontal links among sector divisions are not strong. The Inspectorate of the Republic, the regional representative offices of MoES, and the Bureau for Development of Education (BDE, formerly the Pedagogical Institute of Macedonia) are formally part of the Ministry. The BDE has a staff of 69 with another 169 at the regional level in 12 units. Its mandate covers pre-school, primary and secondary education; its functions are curriculum development, assessment of educational outcomes, inservice teacher training, and advisory services to schools and teachers. A department for assessment has been established and may be transformed into an independent agency. Only 3% of the BDE staff are Albanian, including the recently founded post of Deputy Director General. The plan is to reduce the size of BDE by 30 posts, as part of a general reduction in the size of Macedonia’s civil service. Regional administration of education takes three different forms, all under MoES supervision. (1) The MoES has 15 regional branches with a staff of 34 professionals (regional representatives or RRs). These units have pedagogical, financial and administrative functions but no decision-making powers. They represent MoES on local school boards. RRs are subordinated to the undersecretary for primary education but also have responsibilities for other levels. (2) The Inspectorate has a staff of 35 inspectors, each inspecting about 30 schools annually. Inspectors report to the Minister of Education and Science. (3) The BDE has 95 advisors assisted by technical staff at its 12 regional units. Their main task is to follow and control compliance with pedagogical and other regulations; in theory, they are expected to meet every teacher once a year. 43
At municipal level, the current number of municipalities is 126 (4 in Skopje), up from 35 in 1990. Municipalities have only limited links with education; they have the right to appoint some members to school boards. At school level, heads of schools are appointed by the Minister but school boards and education advisors (BDE and RRs) also have an active role. School heads are not specifically trained, although there are plans (Macedonian/Dutch) to do so. Some ad hoc training is provided by the BDE and Inspectorates, but school management is not seen as a profession which requires special competence or training. School heads do, however, influence the choice of teaching staff and sign their contracts. Schools are often successful in initiating informal contacts with local businesses and raising extra funds, and local stakeholder involvement is often high. The School Board is the executive body that makes decisions on issues such as the use of the annual budget, collecting funds, and obtaining additional resources for their school. Representation includes the MoES, teachers, and parents. Parents’ Councils are also operating, either at school level or by class or grade. Finance Although expenditure on education is low in absolute terms, in relative terms it is not much worse (at 4% of GDP in 1999) than the average of most countries in transition.22 One positive sign is that teachers and other employees are paid regularly. Within education expenditure, basic education receives 57%, secondary (general and VET) receives 24%, and higher education 19% (1999). Salaries make up by far the largest part of education spending (>80% in 1999/00), with goods and services (including books) receiving only a small percentage and capital investment even less. This is of course a familiar scenario in many countries, but the chronic under-investment in materials and buildings creates long-term impoverishment of the system’s infrastructure, and cannot continue without serious damage to educational quality. Re-allocation within the education budget (from salaries to development) is not only necessary but inevitable.
22
The political situation in the first half of 2001, has led to an estimated 10% reduction of the 2001 education budget.
44
Table 5.
Financing of education by level and type of expenditure (in dinars)
Education level Pre-school 1 Basic education (grades 1-8) Upper secondary (general + VET) Tertiary education (univ. + post-sec) TOTAL
Salaries
Goods & Services
Subsidies
Capital expenditures
3 926 650 559
339 348 088
201 711 532
76 651 075
1 652 667 926
150 849 554
70 500 376
73 605 788
1 128 051 439
136 655 814
235 941 510
29 997 062
6 707 369 924
626 853 456
508 153 418
180 253 925
1. Pre-school finance is the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. However, the MoES subsidises about 15 000 children in 720 groups at 16 000 dinars (approximately US $223) per teacher per month. Source: MoES, 2000.
The MoES decides on each school’s annual budget; it is based on the number of classrooms and teachers, and is divided into specified line items. Schools have very little if any freedom to reallocate funds from one line item to another according to specific need. Schools and universities are entitled to raise additional moneys which, at the moment, can be retained by each institution in a separate account. The Ministry of Finance would like to see a uniform treasury system that would also include moneys raised by schools and universities. Not surprisingly, this is strongly opposed by institutions, and would seriously demotivate them from seeking their own funds. Judging from the allocation of funds to the various levels within the system, there is some evidence that higher education and pre-school education are relatively over-funded compared to the compulsory (basic 1-8) level. Preschool in particular is heavily subsidised by the State. Since both pre-school and post-secondary (higher) education are non-compulsory and accessible almost exclusively to urban and more well-off families, a case can be made for reallocating funding to the compulsory sector which is often the only schooling available to rural and poor children. Pupil/teacher ratios (P:TRs) for Macedonia are low compared with other countries, but because of geographical and language distributions it may be difficult to make them more efficient e.g. by increasing class sizes. Most schools already work on two or more shifts to accommodate various language groups. Nevertheless, use of the teaching force is not always efficient. Universities train teachers (for grades 5 and upwards) for one subject specialisation only, so that they are qualified to teach that subject only; this
45
means schools need more teachers but are unable to offer them sufficient teaching hours. Inflexible employment regulations restrict possibilities of parttime and shared employment between schools; smaller and poorer schools or groups of schools therefore have no access to better-qualified teachers, especially in subjects like languages and IT. Over-employment in the teaching force23 cannot be solved just by reducing numbers – only structural changes (increasing school sizes, for example) may lead to gradual decrease in demand over time. However, there may be more room for manoeuvre in teachers’ salaries. The salary scheme is very flat with small increments. Linking salary and promotion with performance would create a more differentiated scale, a better chance to weed out unsatisfactory teachers, and improvement in quality as well as efficient use of scarce resources. Although for now teachers are not immediately affected by the newly enacted Law on Public Administration, the reforms will have a significant impact on the employment of non-teaching staff. If, as planned, school maintenance services will be based on contracts between municipalities and contractors, the MoES could target this area for significant funding reduction. (However, this will also require a change in the legal status of non-teaching staff). As a result of a new human resources policy implemented in late 2000, technical staff has been reduced by 30% resulting in a 2.8:1 ratio of nonteaching staff to teaching staff. The goal is to ultimately reduce this ratio to 1:4. Issues and barriers in Governance, Administration and Finance Centralised, top-down governance; out-dated and unwieldy structures. The organisational structure of the central and regional governance of education was retained during the transition period. The MoES organisation follows the traditional sectoral pattern (BDE is reformulating its missions). There are three overlapping sets of sub-MoES units (altogether 52) without any decisionmaking powers and with a controlling rather than a consulting role. Also, the autonomous governance of universities is based on a strict faculty model, without any major arrangements for horizontal co-ordination via a uniform strategy.24 A further issue is the lack of co-ordination among the various
23
In 1997, 3.9% of the working population in FYRoM were teachers, and the percentage of non-teaching school personnel at basic level was 19.4% (IMF data). Both are much higher than in other countries.
24
This is now changing as a consequence of the new Law on Higher Education (2000).
46
ministries involved in education – the MoES, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of Public Administration. Top-down policy and management. Educational policy with regard to finance, subjects of study, content of teaching and management of schools reflects a traditional top-down model. The curricula for primary and secondary education are very detailed. Teacher training and teaching methods are mainly based on the teaching and learning of facts rather than general skills. On the other hand, the tradition of school management and teaching methods have produced levels of discipline in the schools and classrooms which provide a good basis for the development of more interactive and learner-centred education methods. Ownership and implementation of the new Strategy once it has been passed by the Parliament.. However, it seems inevitable that many of the activities will be funded by international donors. Officials stated that there are three sources of funding for the Strategy: “The national budget, loans and donations”. Continuing international co-operation is clearly expected; there are now 150 funded projects in education, but realistically their long-term status is not always clear. Moreover, it is important that principals, teachers and parents are aware of the Strategy and its main priorities, and feel a sense of ownership in their implementation. If all is left to external projects, such ownership is difficult to achieve. Decentralisation. The main principles in the previous Strategy2000 were decentralisation and liberalisation. The new Strategy 2001 does not mention decentralisation (this is left to a wider Government decentralisation strategy under the responsibility of the Ministry of Justice). The reality is that, thus far, no measures have been taken towards decentralisation in education. It should be pointed out that this will not only mean altering "structures of governance": liberalisation is even more important, for example in teaching and learning, and in the provision and quality of text books by privatising the government’s leading publishing house. (But given the current state of the economy, no real competition has yet arisen.) Centralised and detailed funding, combined with unawareness of real cost, and insufficient management information. Methods and delivery of funding are main issues in any decentralisation process. Funding at present is highly centralised – yet no unit in governance is really aware of the total expenditure in education, or the real costs of schooling. There is not enough systematic information about the condition and performance of schools, and of the system as a whole. Schools and universities do raise their own extra-budgetary funds, but the Ministry of Finance may now require that these be included in a uniform 47
treasury system, despite opposition from school leaders. Although transparency of public revenue and equity of expenditure are important aims of public administration reform, serious efforts should be made to develop methods of financial administration that motivate schools and universities to find additional revenues. Minority issues. The position of the Albanian and other minorities in the SEE region and in Macedonia is self-evidently of utmost significance. In education, as this report shows, the issue is particularly acute. In addition, the problem of refugees still exists. Most Kosovar Albanian refugees have returned home, but most Kosovo Roma refugees have stayed in Macedonia. While the provision of primary and secondary education for ethnic minorities seems to be relatively well organised, there are major problems with the Roma families and children. The Tetovo university issue is a major point of controversy between the Macedonian and Albanian communities. Poverty and social polarisation. The minority issue is closely connected with the poverty problem and with the development of sharp distinctions between social classes in Macedonia. This has implications for education, and the provision of equal educational opportunities for all children. The Strategy 2001 identifies poverty as a major and deepening threat to the social and educational development of Macedonia. It forecasts that, by 2010, more than 30% of the population may be living below the poverty line, up from 22% in 2000.25 Interestingly, the Strategy therefore concludes – probably correctly – that vulnerable areas and population groups will continue to need centralgovernment assistance to protect their interests, and that decentralisation of the education system must be considered at a later stage and with careful attention to social issues. Private sector investment. Ideas on private schooling were not clearly expressed during the OECD visit, although it was mentioned in many statements. A few private schools have been established, but they are attended exclusively by children whose parents can afford to pay the full fee. The privatisation of kindergartens has already begun, and probably means the introduction of fees, as in most European countries. Equity in access, attainment and achievement Participation rates. In Macedonia, primary enrolment rates have improved (93.2% of the 7-14 age group in 1990 to 98.35% in 1998). Given the economic 25
Strategy 2001-2010, op.cit. 2001.
48
and social conditions, this is a considerable achievement. In secondary education, enrolment is also up, from 56.8% in 1990 to 65.08% in 1998. Access to higher education has traditionally been more restricted, although it has remained stable at about 12-14% of the age group since 1990 (12% in 1998/99). Attainment. Drop-out rates (and a certain degree of ‘push-out’, possibly due to selection procedures at basic/secondary and secondary/tertiary interfaces) are high (see Table 4 above), despite official figures. Of the age group graduating from grade 8 in 1991, for example, only 62% graduated from secondary school 4 years later, and only 12.8% obtained a first degree at tertiary level. Survival rates of Roma students, and indeed of Albanian and Turkish ones, are unsatisfactory beyond grade 8 (see Table 3). Provision. The Ministry and its regional representatives make strong, positive and commendable efforts to ensure that all children in Macedonia – regardless of gender, race, colour, national or social origin, political or religious beliefs, property or social status26 – have equal access to and opportunities in education. Inevitably there are differences in provision in urban and rural areas, and participation rates of some minorities (e.g. Roma) are lower than others, especially in secondary and higher education. There are also obvious inefficiencies in providing every curriculum, textbook, test etc. in four or even five languages, but this is accepted for the sake of protecting every child’s educational rights. Nevertheless, Macedonians make up 66.6% of the population but 79.2% of secondary school and 89.2% of tertiary enrolments, while Albanians (22.7% of the population) account for 15.6% of secondary and 5.5% of tertiary enrolment. For Roma (2.2% of the population), primary enrolments are acceptable (3%) but only 0.5% of secondary school students and 0.1% of university students are Roma. (See Table 3 above.) Sector inequities. In the section on Finance (above) mention has already been made of the relative over-funding of non-compulsory sectors of the education system vis-à-vis compulsory basic education, which for many rural and poorer children is the only schooling available. Figures show that public current expenditure on basic education as a percentage of GNP has gone down from 3.08% in 1990 to 2.49% in 1995, and to 2.18% in 1997. In view of the huge unemployment rates among young school leavers, it is clear that more investment and attention are needed to ensure the quality of their basic skills, and thereby their employability in Macedonia’s difficult job market. 26
Article 9 of the Constitution of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
49
Gender. There appears to be no significant difference in the overall participation rates for girls and boys. Gender parity at pre-school level is 50/50, even though gross enrolment is low (18.38% in 1997) and only less than half of new grade 1 entrants had at least one year of pre-school experience. Gender parity in basic school (grades 1-8) is also 50/50. At secondary level (especially in vocational education) there are slightly more boys than girls, and there is still a clear segregation between ‘male’ subjects (mining, mechanics, carpentry) and those that are traditionally ‘female’ (medical subjects, hairdressing, secretarial, catering). At higher education level, more women overall are enrolled (53.6%) than men, but there are significant variations by subject. There are suggestions that more Albanian-minority girls are staying on in school beyond basic level, but no data were available to support this. Urban/rural. At the time of FYRoM’s independence, there was significant ‘urban drift’ from rural areas into towns, often by families in search of work or better living conditions. During that period, the Ministry closed some rural schools in areas where de-population was severe and schools were in bad condition. In the Kriva Palanka district, for example, 19 rural schools – nearly half the total – were closed by June 1995.27 More recently families have begun to return to the villages, putting pressure on the MoES to rehabilitate and reopen schools. Due to lack of funds and the almost complete absence of any capital investment budget in the MoES, many rural schools are dilapidated, overcrowded, insufficiently furnished and heated. A further source of urban/rural inequity is the lack of qualified teachers in some subjects or languages of instruction. However, pupil:teacher ratios (P:TRs) are more favourable in rural areas (15.23:1 in 1997) than in urban ones (21.35:1).28 Family income. The dramatic rise in unemployment (about 43.7% of persons under 30), lay-offs, arrears in salary payments, and a rise in living costs have increased the percentage of the population living below the poverty line (18.6% in 1996). Payments for pre-school education (as high as $32$50/month), or for school books, shoes and clothes for basic school children, are beyond the reach of an increasing number of families. At the same time, the costs of schooling have gone up; parents pay for textbooks, which can be quite expensive. Parents also pay for food (can be as much as $30/month), and in some secondary vocational courses (dental technician) schools can charge a laboratory or registration fee that can be as high as $350 for the course. In 27
Cohen and J Mace, ‘Public Expenditure on Education in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia’, UNESC/UNDP mission report, June 1995, p. 17.
28
Republic of Macedonia, MoES, Education for All: Report 2000, Skopje, August 1999, page 132.
50
addition there are routine expenses for exercise books, art materials, etc. Unemployed and poor families are clearly at a disadvantage. Student outcomes (Achievement). Because not all children entering grade 1 have had any kind of pre-school experience, student achievement during the first year is uneven, and there is discussion of adding a compulsory year ‘zero’ for 6-year olds to primary education. This would be valuable especially for children in rural areas or children whose home language differs from the language of instruction used by their first-year teacher (this is an issue for Roma children in particular because Rom-speaking primary teachers are rare), but would have obvious resource implications for schools. As mentioned above, survival rates and achievement levels are uneven for different ethnic groups, and by the time students reach the end of grade 12 the vast majority of those continuing into higher education are Macedonian. Prior to the conflict, Macedonian Albanians graduating from high school nearly all attended Prishtina University in Kosovo; (in 1991/92, out of 22 994 registered students in Macedonian HE, only 386 were ethnic Albanians, 172 Turks and 14 Roma,29 by 1998/99, the figures were only slightly better – out of a total of 34 850, 1 916 were Albanian, 371 Turks and 48 Roma.) Since the highest number of young unemployed persons are those with only basic or secondary education, the implications for ethnic minorities are clear. Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment Curriculum By law, the MoES is responsible for setting the framework for all curricula. This work is delegated to the Bureau for the Development of Education (BDE). Although pre-school education is non-compulsory, curricula are developed by the BDE and go through the same adoption and approval cycles as any other. The full pre-school programme covers about 900 hours including physical and health education, language and elementary arithmetic, introduction to nature and society, art and music. There are abbreviated versions of this programme to encourage as many children as possible to take part in pre-school education even if the fully programme is not feasible. These abbreviated versions cover 150, 300 or 450 hours offered continuous throughout the year. From about 29
Hugh Poulton, The Balkans: Minorities and States in Conflict, 1993, pp. 221 and 243.
51
1996, Zabaviste classrooms have been established in some primary schools, operating on a half-day schedule for 6 year olds. After independence, changes were made to school curricula and textbooks where the ideological content was no longer appropriate. These included mother tongue, introduction to science and society, history, geography and (at postprimary level) defence and protection. Efforts to streamline and renew the curriculum encountered many difficulties; by 1995 little progress had been made, and the curriculum reform process was essentially stalled.30 Since then, new curricula have been introduced on a rolling programme, starting in 1996 with grade 1. They place greater emphasis on child-centred and flexible methods and reflect the impact of international curriculum initiatives on Macedonia’s basic school curriculum. The main focus of these changes has been on methodology rather than content, moving towards child-centred and competence-based active learning models. The Open Society’s ‘Step-by-Step’ programme is now used in 150 schools; the UNICEF-funded ‘Interactive Learning’ programme involves more than 18 000 children. In addition, a programme called ‘20 000 Computers’ has not only placed computers in classrooms but has also trained teachers and students in their use. In 1998/99, civics was integrated into the curricula for grades 1, 4 and 6. The common curriculum for basic school (grades 1-4 and grades 5-8) is developed by the BDE as required by the Laws of 1995, and are approved by the National Pedagogical Council. During the first (primary) phase all subjects are taught by the same class teacher. Subjects include mother tongue language, Macedonian language for speakers of other languages; mathematics; nature and society; physical and health education; art & music; and (from grade 4) a choice of a first foreign language. Ecology and crafts are added from the third year. Compulsory numbers of hours per week rise from 18 in grade 1 to 20-22 in grade 4. Supplementary teaching (one hour per week) is used to help students who are struggling, or to give extra attention to gifted students.31 Curriculum innovation is easier at this level of education, because a single teacher is involved and in-service training can be very effective. From grade 5 onwards, students are taught by subject specialist teachers. Subjects include history and geography, biology, physics, chemistry and 30
Stamenka Uvalic-Trumbic and George Bethell, ‘The Education System of the Republic of Macedonia’, OSI, January 1995, p. 5.1.
31
The Law of 1995 provides for gifted and talented youngsters in primary and secondary schools to proceed more rapidly through the school system, e.g. through exams for advanced placement.
52
technical education. Elective subjects are informatics and a second foreign language. The number of hours per week is 22-25 (40 minutes each) at grade 5, rising to 24-26 by grade 8. Curriculum innovation at this level is more difficult because many teachers are involved in teaching each student, and coherent inservice training across subjects is rare. The drop-out rate in compulsory basic school is probably higher than the official figures show, although the situation is improving with more ethnic Albanian girls remaining in school. Table 6.
Curriculum for the primary grades (1-4) as of June 1996
Subjects
Number of lessons per week Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
Mother tongue - Macedonian or national language - Macedonian for non-Maced. speakers Mathematics Introduction to science and society Introduction to science Introduction to society Art (drawing) Music Physical and health education TOTAL Foreign language Supplementary teaching Free activities (sports, clubs) Optional activities - Minority language - Additional activities -Ecology, practical or field work
5
5
5 2 2 1 3 18 1+1 1
5 2 2 1 3 18 1+1 1
5 2 5 2 2 2 3 19-21 1+1 1
-
1 -
2 2
5 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 20-22 2 1+1 2 2 2 2
Source: Elementary Education: Content and Organisation of Educational Activities, BDE, June 1996, p.15.
Secondary education (after grade 8) is non-compulsory, and is divided between ‘high schools’ (general secondary schools or gymnasia), technical schools, vocational schools for other trades and professions, and arts schools. Gymnasium study lasts 4 years and is organised in three streams – General, Natural Sciences and Mathematics, and Languages. The core curriculum has as many as 15 compulsory subjects, which make up 75% of a student’s programme. Work is being done to streamline gymnasium curricula by integrating subjects or reclassifying art and music as optional rather than compulsory subjects. Drop-out during the secondary cycle has decreased somewhat, from 20% in 1996 to 15% in 1999.
53
Table 7.
Curriculum for subject teaching (grades 5-8) as of June 1996 Subjects
Number of lessons per week Grade Grade Grade Grade 5 6 7 8
Mother tongue - Macedonian - Macedonian for non-Maced. Speakers - First foreign language Mathematics History History and civil society Geography Biology Physics Chemistry Technical education
4 3 3 4 2 1 2
Art
4 3 3 4 2 2 2 2 1
4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 1
1
2 2 22-25
1 2 23-26
1 2 24-26
1 2 24-26
3 -
3 -
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
Music Physical and health education TOTAL core curriculum Electives: -Second foreign language -Informatics -Technical education Optional activities - Minority language - Additional activities -Ecology, field work, sports, traffic education Additional teaching Extra teaching Students’ free activities
4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 -
Source: MoES, Education for All, Report 2000, August 1999, p. 168.
Curriculum review for secondary vocational education (see separate section below) was accomplished in 2000, as a strategic plan for 1998-2010 under the EC/Phare VET reform programme begins to take effect. Changes include greater teacher involvement in curriculum planning, production of materials, and cross-curricular activities such as ‘Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking’. Efforts are also being made to link vocational curricula more closely with the labour market.
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Curricula for higher education are the responsibility of the two autonomous universities32 and their colleges and faculties. There are at present no private universities in Macedonia, although there is a non-accredited Albanian-language institution in Tetovo. This is, however, a sensitive political issue and efforts are now made to widen coverage of subjects taught in Albanian at the two main universities. For teacher training, for example, the Pedagogical Faculty in Skopje has (1996) created a separate course for teacher training in the Albanian language. Textbooks and materials One approved textbook for each subject at each grade level is still the general norm. Only those textbooks approved by the National Pedagogical Council may be used in basic and secondary schools. Until recently all such books were produced under the auspices of Prosvetno Delo, Macedonia’s textbook publishing house. Prosvetno Delo is no longer State-owned but operates as a ‘social enterprise’ – that is, an independent body controlled by a governing council that includes representatives of the State and the public. It is not clear whether complementary and supplementary books (such as readers) are included under the law, but they are currently submitted for approval in the same way as textbooks. Subject committees (with BDE representation) review manuscripts. There is also a legal requirement33 that competent staff from the BDE must review proposed textbooks for appropriateness and suggest changes if needed. The law requires that manuscripts be selected through open, public competition. Authors (or more recently, publishers) anonymously submit three copies of a complete manuscript. These are then screened by a committee comprising one university expert, one or two teachers, and one BDE representative. If given preliminary approval by at least two members of the committee, they are sent to the relevant editorial board which consists of 7 expert members from universities and schools. Editorial boards give suggestions to authors, and revisions are made as needed, after which the manuscript is submitted to the National Pedagogical Council, which seeks advice from its own sub-committees before approving the book. The NPC’s 32
Sv. Kiril I Metodij, Skopje, and Sv. Kliment Ohridski, Bitola. They have a total of 24 faculties, 5 ‘higher schools’ and one ‘interdisciplinary study’ institution. Both universities have a Pedagogical Academy for teacher training.
33
Law on Elementary Education, Art. 80; Law on Secondary Education, Art. 31 (1995).
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decisions are published in its Official Bulletin; approvals are for an indefinite period. Printing is then arranged either through Prosvetno Delo or a wide range of Macedonian printing houses. From 1998, textbooks for basic school (1-8) are provided free, but parents usually buy the textbooks for secondary students. It takes about 14-18 months for a book from manuscript to warehouse (7-8 months for the competition, 3 months for review, 4 months for translation into the main school languages, and 2-3 for printing). Prices for textbooks are agreed between the publishers and the MoES which puts smaller publishers at a disadvantage due to the high cost of translation and small print runs. All titles are published in Macedonian and in three minority languages for basic schools, and in at least two languages (Albanian and Macedonian) for secondary schools and must show respect and tolerance for all cultures. Although alternative textbooks are readily available in Turkish and Serbian, they are in principle not allowed. The appearance, physical quality, and availability of books are good, although their content is widely criticised for being too fact-laden and old-fashioned. The ‘life’ of a book is said to be about 4-5 years, but because many have soft covers and are glued rather than sewn, this is an over-estimate. There is no organised way of re-using books although many schools collect books at the end of the year, repair them, and make them available for sale in school-based ‘book fairs’. In higher education, the university publishing house ‘Studenski’ is a small and relatively ineffective institution with a small staff (about 15) and a limited list of titles, although their books are much cheaper than expensive imported textbooks needed e.g. in the natural sciences, medicine and technology. There is a small but growing commercial sector in university textbook production, as there is in general textbook publishing. Assessment and Examinations Standards. Up to now, the MoES receives only summarised exam results from schools. However, these are not comparable across schools, districts, or over time. Some anecdotal evidence on (mostly mathematics and science) Olympiad performance does exist. Standards exist for basic and secondary education. A re-grouping of vocational subjects into 15 clusters with 111 specialisations was done under an EC/Phare VET project, and (some) occupational standards were set as part of the project. The Laws of 1995 prescribe the grading system (5-1 with 5=highest), and new-style grade 8 and Matura exams by 2003.
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Assessment and examinations. By law, the MoES delegates responsibility for curriculum and assessment to the BDE and its 12 district branches. Regulations allow BDE to make ‘periodic external checks’ of learner achievement. By law, teachers are required to ‘monitor pupils’ progress’ and make ‘diagnostic and formative evaluations’ as well as summative evaluations four times per year. There is a formal examination at the end of grade 8 in Macedonian language and literature and mathematics (set by the BDE, but marked by students’ own teachers). There is a formal school-leaving exam at the end of grade 12 (Matura), now under revision. The new exams are expected to cover 2 compulsory plus 3 elective subjects plus one ‘theme’ or extended essay on a topic chosen by the student. Students in 4-year vocational schools sit a final plus a graduation examination consisting of a compulsory part plus electives. Students in 3-year vocational education sit a final exam with practical work. Grade 8 and grade 12 certificates are a necessary but not a sufficient condition for selection into upper secondary or tertiary. Graduates from 4-year general or 4-year vocational secondary also need to take entrance exams set by colleges and faculties. Secondary school grades count for 30% of university entrance requirements; the entrance exam counts for 70%. Phasing-out of university entrance exams is controversial. Once the planned new Matura exams gain national respect, it is hoped that they will gradually replace entrance exams but selection for popular disciplines will remain an issue. An Assessment Unit has been set up within BDE which plans National Assessments of Pupils’ Achievement at the end of grade 4, to measure student achievement in the crucial first cycle of schooling and to have some indications of effective school organisation and teaching methods. These national assessments will be sample-based, and conducted in four-year cycles, the first in May 2001 in students’ mother tongue (Macedonian and Albanian) and in mathematics. Statistically stratified representative samples of classes (with a total of up to 4 000 students) will be assessed as to the content and structure of their knowledge and skills. Explicit assessment objectives have been defined and communicated to teachers, parents and the public at large, through a series of booklets published in Macedonian, Albanian and English. Successful pretesting has already taken place. The assessment tests will be administered in a total of 90 minutes (2 x 45). All pupils in selected classes will take part. In addition to students’ subject knowledge, the National Assessment will, through a questionnaire, gather information about the conditions in which teaching takes place; the way teachers teach, and what teachers think about the curricula; the socio57
demographic characteristics of students; and students’ own study habits and attitudes to learning. The first results are expected by early 2002. It is expected that these National Assessments will produce reliable information about trends in student learning over time, and an evaluation of educational standards in grades 1-4. Schools, parents and the general public will have access to results. The Assessment Unit is receiving international technical assistance. A substantial EC/Phare VET project started in 1998 has an assessmentand exams-related component that needs to be carefully co-ordinated with the work done in the BDE Assessment Unit to avoid fragmentation. Macedonia takes part in two major international comparative studies of student achievement – the Third International Mathematics and Science StudyRepeat (TIMSS-R) and the Programme of International Student Assessment (PISA) project of the OECD.34 Issues and barriers in curriculum, materials, and assessment Curriculum implementation has been slow for several reasons. One is the insufficient communication between the MoES, the BDE, the Inspectorate, and teacher trainers both at pre- and in-service levels. These relationships must be made to work faster and better if curriculum innovations are to reach the students quickly. Lack of suitable textbooks also hampers innovation. It takes too long for new books to come on stream, and teachers have to make do with the books they have regardless of curriculum change. Moreover, school libraries are not up to date and poorly stocked with reference books. Curriculum overload. Despite great efforts to reduce the required content of the curriculum, there is still a consensus that students have too much to cope with, and that the content is still fact- and knowledge-based instead of allowing for the development of critical thinking skills and other competencies. This is true not only of secondary curricula but even of lower primary school curricula where greater flexibility is important to accommodate the different backgrounds of students arriving in school. Curriculum choice. The compulsory core takes up so much of available classroom time that there is little room for school-based curriculum planning and development, and through lack of training and materials, teachers tend to spend 100% of their time on the required core. In addition, since of course only 34
The international overheads of joining PISA have been covered by a grant from Finland within the framework of the Task Force for Education of the Pact for Peace and Stability in South Eastern Europe.
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the core curriculum can be formally assessed, there is a natural tendency for teachers to focus on what is nationally required, and indeed for parents to insist that they do so. Leadership from school heads to help teachers interpret the new curriculum guidelines is essential, as are attempts at cross-disciplinary collaboration within schools. Modification of curricula according local and individual needs should be provided by legal framework and supported by teacher training. Curriculum balance. In secondary education, which shows the same shift away from vocational and into general secondary as other countries, it is important to achieve a balance between academic and professional education for all students. General academic (gymnasium) schools will increasingly need to cater for students of a wide range of academic abilities, and curricula need to be adjusted so that they suit not only the academically gifted but also the average and slower learners. Curriculum specialisation. Secondary vocational courses are still, despite strenuous efforts, too specialised and not sufficiently linked with Macedonia’s economic needs. Students are still prepared too narrowly for jobs that in many cases no longer exist. The EC/Phare VET programme will play a crucial role in changing this, but employers must also accept that graduates will need more training on the job because schools will no longer function as ‘training factories’ for specific industries. Textbooks. The issues here are competition, fairness, quality, and price. The liberalisation of the textbook market is of the utmost importance to speed up curriculum renewal. There is high-level political commitment to this, but what is also needed are incentives for small publishers to compete for contracts, especially since the language requirements mean that every textbook must be printed in at least four languages, often with only very small ‘runs’ which are expensive and inefficient. Proposals from publishers now have to be presented as complete manuscripts, and are expensive to produce; this discourages small publishers from competing with Prosvetno Delo.35 Moreover, members of the selection committees are often themselves authors of textbooks, which creates a clear conflict of interest. Prosvetno Delo’s own role in the selection process is too prominent, given that it has a near-monopoly on textbook publishing. Macedonia is fortunate in that it has a flourishing (general) book publishing sector, with some having their own bookshops and 35
For example, it was reported to the team that one small publisher had submitted 20 complete texts but only 2 were accepted. Up-front costs are too high.
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marketing/distribution networks. Parents have shown themselves willing to buy high-quality materials if they are available at a reasonable price. The stage seems set for a rapid and successful opening-up of the school book market, but at present it is not attractive to private publishers unless unprofitable small runs (e.g. in Turkish or Serbian) are subsidised. Assessment and examinations. The advent of the Assessment Unit within the BDE is a great step forward in that it provides a focus for expertise in modern educational measurement. The first national assessment for grade 4 is planned for May 2001 and should lay the basis for periodic assessment of the achievement of standards at that level. However, the reform of ‘high-stakes’ examinations (grade 8 and the Matura at grade 12) is a large task, especially since by law the ‘new’ Matura (in 5 subjects) will need to be introduced for grade 12 by 2003.36 The new Strategy 2001-2010 gives high priority to the introduction of "final examinations" (a new Matura) at secondary level, with the objective of "making university entrance examinations unnecessary". It envisages a "standard national final examination" by 2006. A great deal of work will be needed, especially with the universities which are reluctant to change the present system for a variety of reasons (including financial ones). Knowledge-based to competence-based assessment. Teacher-made tests, test questions at the end of textbook chapters, and BDE-set grade 8 tests are still heavily content- and knowledge-based, and ask for ‘factography’ rather than the application of higher-level thinking skills like problem-solving or critical thinking. As long as ‘factography’ is what tests require, ‘factography’ will be what teachers teach and what children learn, regardless of efforts in curriculum renewal. Educators at all levels will need training in the evaluation of competence and skills, rather than knowledge and content. Assessment finance. The MoES does not, at present, earmark any funds specifically for evaluation of student outcomes. With an education budget of 7.6 billion Dinar (1998 figure, approximately USD 106 million or EUR 120.1 million), this reflects an unfortunate lack of commitment to quality assurance in the Macedonian education system. As education diversifies (different textbooks, local curricula, etc.) there will be a growing need for reliable measurement of student outcomes, especially if comparisons to European standards are 36
The new Strategy 2001 - 2010 postpones this deadline until 2006 (p. 11). Since the preparation, with the assistance of Dutch CITO and Slovenia, for math and mother tongue with pilot Matura in 6 gymnasia will be completed in 2001, the OECD team questions the delay.
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considered important. The present funding for the Assessment Unit is minimal and supported by international (World Bank and Dutch government) finance, but a stable, sustainable financial basis is necessary. Teachers The role of teachers in all countries has changed radically over the past years. In Macedonia, the role of teachers in the development of the country’s human capital is well recognised and respected, but there are practical issues and constraints that hinder the transformation of FYRoM’s teaching force to what is required in a modern education system. Current situation of teachers In Macedonia, there are 340 334 students at pre-university level, and 18 602 teachers are on duty. In primary schools, the total number of teachers was 13 376, and 7 271 of them were female and 607 were part-time; 9 175 taught in Macedonian, 3 817 in Albanian, 300 in Turkish and 84 in Serbian. In the same year there were 233 teachers in special elementary (there are 45) schools, teachers in adult elementary (there are 21) schools, and 249 teachers in supplementary (music and ballet) education schools. At secondary level, the total number of teachers was 5 226 of which 2 720 were female, and 1 184 were part-time; 4 422 taught in Macedonian, 692 in Albanian, 72 in Turkish and 40 in English. In addition, 73 teachers were employed in special secondary schools, and 45 in religious secondary schools. In higher education, in 1998/99 there were 1 385 teachers (143 of whom were part-time) in 33 HEIs. The total number of students was 35 141, 1 026 of them in higher schools (Higher Medical School, Higher Agricultural School etc.). Beside the 1 385 qualified teachers (647 professors, 332 associate professors, 275 docents and 131 lecturers), there were 1 269 instructional support staff. In schools, teachers are appointed by the school director after a selection process. In case of complaint, the appointment is discussed by the School Board. New appointees are usually sent to rural schools which are often affiliated to larger urban schools where the recruitment process takes place. The final appointment of school principals is done by the MoES. However, the applications are first assessed by the School Boards and then sent to MoES, which also asks the opinion of the BDE advisors before deciding. Preparatory training does not take place, but after the appointment of a school principal, the Inspectorate and the BDE try to provide some ad-hoc training.
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Inspection is done by both the Inspectorate and the BDE. The 35 inspectors in FYRoM visit schools and prepare reports on pedagogical processes and on individual schools. The advisors of the BDE visit individual teachers to check compliance with regulations. Both services are too over-stretched to provide pedagogical support to classroom teachers. Teacher qualifications Although the qualification of teachers is considered an important issue in FYRoM, there is no defined set of national standards for teachers’ qualifications in Macedonia. Most teachers are university graduates, and are qualified to teach one subject only. This creates problems in subject teaching grades (grades 5-8) in primary education, and also in secondary education. Small schools can offer just a few teaching hours for each teacher, yet all schools must provide teachers to cover the compulsory curriculum subjects; this creates inefficiencies on the part of schools, and limited job opportunities for teachers. Teacher salaries Teacher salaries are based on a unit referred to as UNR (uslovnonekvalifikovan rabotnik) which is the lowest salary for a conditionally employed. UNR indexes run from 1 to 5.5. It is commonly agreed that teachers are not paid well. They receive on average 9 200 Dinar (approximately USD 128 or EUR 145) per month, which is lower than for some other civil servant categories. However, considering the economic development of the country, teacher salaries are not too far out of line. Teachers do, however, have a flat salary system with very small career differentials; their performance, dedication, and involvement in school development are not reflected in their remuneration. A pro-active promotion scale does not exist; teachers are not motivated to support reforms or develop themselves professionally. Teachers do qualify for certain benefits – for example, if a teacher lives more than 2.5 kilometres away from school, he/she receives a transport allowance (usually in the form of a bus ticket), but these benefits are insufficient. Part-time teaching jobs and job-sharing among neighbouring schools are very limited. Well-qualified teachers in rural and poorer schools are scarce, especially in foreign languages and computer literacy. At the same time, as was stated above, there is an over-supply of some types of teachers due to narrow subject specialisation and small scattered settlement areas. The MoES is addressing this problem by training teachers to
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teach several subjects at grades 5-8, or teach two subjects in secondary schools. Teachers, especially vocational or technical subject teachers, often have additional jobs after school hours, either in industry or in their own business. Work environment Teachers are required to be in school for 26 hours a week, and have to teach 20 hours. The Early Retirement Law put 5 400 workers out of the system, but the Constitutional Court voided this law and most of them are expected to return to schools. Still, planned public administration reforms clearly require a reduction in the number of civil servants, which puts pressure on teachers and in particular on non-teaching support staff in schools. Although the pupil: teacher ratio can be as low as 7:1 in some rural areas, most urban schools have overcrowded classrooms. Shifts are commonplace, mostly due to the requirement of providing instruction in national languages even where numbers are small. Teachers have difficulties in obtaining instructional materials. Based on an interactive learning approach, some innovative projects are being implemented through international and other donor organisations, but the learning/teaching materials, equipment and even textbooks that are used in pilot schools are not readily available to other schools. Teacher training Pre-service Teacher education is the highest priority and the key problem. Changes and developments in education cannot be achieved without teachers trained in new methods and technologies. Teacher colleges in Skopje, Stip, and Bitola prepare teachers for preprimary schools. At this level of education, the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy is responsible for salaries, but training of pre-school employees is under the responsibility of the MoES. Grade teachers (grades 1-4) for primary schools are also prepared at these colleges. Teachers for grades 5-8 at primary school and all grades at secondary level are trained at university pedagogical faculties for teachers. There are two universities in the Republic of Macedonia – in Skopje and in Bitola. The faculties where subject teachers are prepared are Language Teacher Philology, Social Science Teachers, Philosophy, and Natural Science, Teachers for Science, and Teachers of Maths. Teachers of professional and vocational
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subjects may also be the graduates of other faculties, such as faculty of economics, faculty of electronics, faculty of information technology, etc. There are 1 234 university teachers at the St. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje and 309 university teachers at St. Clement Ohridski University in Bitola. The training, election, and promotion of university teachers are in line with the universal approach. Teaching and research posts in higher education institutions are filled through election and re-election of the candidates by the Teaching Council/Academic Council of each institution. The Review Commission (Recenzentska Komisija) is established by the Teaching/Academic Council to elect or re-elect staff. In-service Primary and secondary school teachers are required to attend in-service training. Such training is usually in the form of seminars. The BDE is the government body responsible; it has 12 regional offices throughout the country that co-operate with School Boards to implement in-service programmes locally. In the 1999/2000 school year, the BDE organised 10 seminars which 250 principals attended. Through the in-service training activities at school level, almost 8 000 teachers were trained. In-service teacher training gained special importance in recent years due to changes in the curricula and introduction new teaching subjects and techniques. Introduction of civic education, ‘Step by Step’ programmes, integration programmes for handicapped children, etc. necessitated in-service training for the teachers involved. International organisations such as UNICEF, the European Union, the European Education Foundation, and the Soros Foundation as well as some countries such as the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Austria, France, United Kingdom, and China have been (and still are) contributing to pre-service and in-service teacher training. In-service training is also very important to increase the quality and equity of the learning environment for minorities. Education is provided in Albanian, Turkish, and Serbian as well as Macedonian, but due to the different dialects within the Roma language, Roma students are not usually offered training in their native language – they are taught in Macedonian. In-service teacher training to help Rom-speaking children, especially in the lower grades, would help motivate these children to attend and remain in school. Based on the notion that teachers should have access to education and training all their working lives, a “National Board for Teacher Training” for secondary vocational teachers is being set up within the framework of the Phare
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VET programme; however, it is not functioning yet as intended. University teachers also received some training, both in FYRoM and abroad, within the TEMPUS programme. A new system for external teacher evaluation requires that each teacher be evaluated at least every 6 years. Assistant teachers who are successful by their sixth year will become teachers; those who are successful at their twelfth year examination will be given the title ‘distinguished teacher’; and those who are successful in their eighteenth year will have ‘mentor’ status. Mentors are used as teacher trainers. Issues and barriers related to teachers The new Strategy 2001-2010 and the document on the Strategic Planning of Vocational Education and Training Reform are important source documents for policy setting. Both stress the need for investments in intellectual capacities and human resources, the need for replacing the traditional education with lifelong learning, acceptance of market economy, the need and importance of privatisation, and the necessity to improve the system of financing in education. Teachers, school principals, school boards, parents and schools will have more authority and fewer limitations, but also be more responsible and accountable for results. A clear re-definition of the jobs of teachers, principals, and other key educators will be needed. In this context, the new external evaluation of teachers (in addition to in-school evaluation) is important. Clear job descriptions and objectives-based, regular evaluation will help teachers to develop their skills, and stimulate lifelong learning. It should be strongly supported by the MoES. Reform-related training is the key. Pre- and in-service training programmes should be radically renewed and linked with the Strategy (e.g. the planned establishment of a new Institute for Teaching Methods by 2002) and the reforms. It makes no sense to keep training teachers in methods and theories that no longer apply in Macedonia’s classrooms, job markets and general social conditions of the 21st century. This will, of course, also require an assessment of re-training needs of university professors and other teaching staff, although there will be resistance to this. For the sake of the future of Macedonia’s children, however, such a top-to-bottom review is essential. The over- and under-supply of teachers in particular areas, subjects or grade levels needs to be addressed strategically. Simply reducing numbers across the board will not resolve the issue. Efforts to ensure that new teachers are qualified in more than one subject will help in the longer term. A suggestion
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has been made (see Recommendations) to work towards a ‘norm cadre’ for each district, based on the specific characteristics, demographics, and needs of that district, and used for the most effective deployment of its available teaching force. In-service programmes (mostly in the form of one- or two-day seminars away from school) are being offered by a large number of NGOs besides the BDE, which is legally responsible for in-service. The result is that some teachers, especially in urban areas, are over-trained while others receive hardly any training at all. Whole-school, school-based in-service training is far more effective, cheaper to organise and co-ordinate, and easier to link directly with reform objectives. The Phare VET ‘National Board for Teacher Training’, together with the BDE, can play a central role in needs assessment, evaluation and co-ordination of reform-linked in-service teacher training, and in the compilation of a Register of approved providers of such training. If then inservice training could be linked with career advancement – for example through a more differentiated pay scale – it would motivate teachers to take part. The legal status of non-teaching school staff is an issue, in the context of the Public Administration reforms. Changes in their status will be difficult for individuals, but may yield benefits for the school system. A careful balance will need to be struck, but the interests of educational quality should prevail over the protection of jobs. Early Childhood Development and Pre-School Education The Department of Protection of Children (Ministry of Labour and Social Policy) is responsible for the finance and provision of pre-school education. However, the MoES (through the BDE) is responsible for pre-school curriculum and teacher in-service training. The Law on Child Protection and Pre-School education dates from 1981; it is being revised (see section on Legal and policy Framework). The Law on Social Welfare (1997) stipulates that children from 0-18 years are entitled to benefits, and at present there are 76 000 children in FYRoM who receive benefits under the Law. New legislation on Social Welfare is being prepared. The low participation rates in pre-school education have a negative effect on children’s performance in primary school. There are now plans to extend compulsory schooling to the year before children enter primary school (i.e. to introduce 9 years of compulsory education, 1 year on compulsory pre-school and 8 years in primary). At present, less than 20% of pre-school age children attend (see below); therefore, if the whole (100%) group is to be
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accommodated, a very large number of additional school places, qualified preschool teachers etc. will be needed by 2005, which is the time-line the Strategy sets. The demographics of FYRoM are shifting to some extent, although not as sharply as in some neighbouring countries (e.g. Slovenia where the birth rate has gone down by as much as 50% since independence). However, the number of live-born children is decreasing each year, regardless of parents’ ethnic nationality. Although the percentage of ethnic Albanian children within the total population is still growing, the birth rate among in the Albanian community is actually dropping. Only the Roma nationality shows a significant increase in the number of live-born children. The new Strategy foresees that demographic shifts will have a significant impact on educational policy for the future. Moreover, internal migration creates high-growth areas in some parts of the country and negative growth areas in others. In 1999, 38 348 children between the ages of 6 months and 6 years were in some form of early childhood or pre-school programme. This represents only 18.73% of the age group, but recently the participation rate has risen slightly. Nurseries cater for children aged 0-2; kindergartens for 2-7, and infant schools or classes for 6-7 year olds. There are also preparation (Zabaviste) classes for 6year olds in some primary schools; some of these also cater for 1-7 year olds. Public nurseries and kindergartens are concentrated in urban areas. The statistics for 1998 show that pre-school education included 143 nursery divisions, 169 kindergarten divisions, 96 half-day pre-school divisions in kindergartens, and 411 pre-school divisions in primary schools. Provision can be in four different languages – Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish and Serbian – depending on the surrounding community (however, in practice, many pre-schools have Macedonian-speaking teachers only).37 The largest number of children (79% of the age group, compared with 72% in 1991) attend pre-school during the last year (at age 6). The Tables below show the distribution by nationality. Participation is also affected by the social status of parents, and whether the mothers are employed or not. Especially low is inclusion of Roma children, although attempts are being made to improve this. Variation among regions is very high, from 94.24% participation in Berovo and Vinica, to 13.50% in Gostivar and 20% in Tetovo.
37
There are six bi-lingual kindergarten groups (Macedonian-Albanian) using a Swiss system called “Mosaic”. This is a successful system which has been in use for three years.
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The inclusion of children with special needs in pre-school programmes is a priority for the Ministry for Labour and Social Affairs, but is still at the very beginning. According to data38 only 20 of 50 kindergartens agreed to accept about 77 children with special needs, showing that old stereotypes are very strong. Most children are not even included in the special development divisions inside pre-school units, but stay at home. The total number of employees in pre-school education is 4 556 (see Table 10); approximately 90% are Macedonians, and 10% are other nationalities. Most of them have higher or secondary degree (1 583 and 1 616 respectively), less then 10% have university degree (105), others have lower degree (395) or are without qualifications. According to the law, on work with pre-school children, a two-year programme after secondary degree is needed, or secondary school for medical nurses; for other profiles additional qualifications are needed which are defined by law. However, the new law for higher education reorganises higher schools, changing them into university programmes in the pedagogical faculty, aiming to upgrade the quality of training. Table 8.
Children in kindergartens and pre-school divisions in primary, by age
Year 1997 Total number of children 36 666 Girls 17 737 Whole day in kindergartens Age under 1 539 Age 1-2 1 542 Age 2-3 2 566 Age 3-4 3 124 Age 4-5 3 935 Age 5-6 9 571 Age 6-7 15 245 Age over 7 144 Half-day programme in kindergartens .. Age 4-5 .. Age 5-6 .. Age 6-7 .. Over 7 .. Half-day programme in primary schools .. Age 4-5 .. Age 5-6 .. Age 6-7 .. Over 7 ..
1998 37 766 18 378 567 1 649 2 278 3 415 4 296 9 999 15 448 114 4 943 26 1 128 3 732 57 15 763 213 5 109 10 402 39
Source: MoES, 2000.
38
Education for All: Report 2000. Republic of Macedonia, Ministry of Education and Science, Skopje 1999.
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Table 9.
Percentage of children in pre-school education, by ethnic origin
Ethnic origin
Year 1994/95
Year 1997/98
Macedonians
74.6
67.0
Albanians
23.5
30.6
Turks
1.5
1.9
Serbs
0.3
0.4
Source: MoES, 2000.
There is no organised, systematic in-service education for pre-school professionals. Practically all are included in in-service courses organised by the BDE; in addition, many NGOs are organising in-service training. Because of lack of co-ordination, teachers in pre-school divisions in primary school tend to be excluded from the system. The supervision as well as the pedagogical advising on running programmes is the responsibility of the BDE, but is very limited, often to very few visits. The advisory function is subordinate to the control of administrative work and supervision of legal requirements, and advisors are not trained for preschool work and no specific procedures exist. Table 10. Employees in kindergartens and pre-school divisions in primary schools 1998 Total number of employees
4 556
-in nurseries
560
-in kindergartens, youngest group
1 470
-in kindergartens, middle group
413
-in kindergartens, older group
384
-in half-day programmes in kindergartens
231
-in half-day programmes in primary schools
798
Kindergartens and pre-school divisions in primary schools are the responsibility of the Ministry for Labour and Social Affairs. Almost all are public; only few are private and are not supervised by the State. The organisation is centralised; local authorities or organisations have no competence to be involved in pre-school education. However, they often
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actively co-operate with the management of kindergartens or primary schools in different activities. The parents are also sometimes involved. Pre-school education is still regulated by the old and largely obsolete law of 1983; a new law has been submitted to Parliament. Besides the Ministry for Labour and Social Affairs (responsible for finance), the MoES is responsible for programmes and their implementation, supervision and advisory functions, as well as in-service training for professional staff. However, the division of responsibilities causes problems and inefficiencies. All pre-schools have the same basic curricula. Four were prepared at the beginning of the 1990s, but only two are in use: the whole-day and half-day programmes. Other programmes are also being used, most of them very successfully. The most important is the Step-by-Step programme (OSIMacedonia with help from Georgetown University in Washington, USA), followed by Interactive Learning (UNICEF), Step Forward (University of Skopje, Department for Psychology, with financial support of UNICEF), Let’s Go and Learn Together (also financially supported by UNICEF). The two latter programmes were developed for children from lower social environments or rural areas. In addition, UNICEF supports, together with the University of Skopje, a model for pre-school education called Lifestart. The programme originated in Northern Ireland and is now used and taught in Macedonian. The focus is on child development and empowerment of women. It also has a community cohesion component. Children from birth to age 5 take part in early learning and stimulation activities in rural communities. The Lifestart project also supports parents with better parenting skills and promotes their competence and self-esteem. Community educators are trained to work with parents in rural areas. During the Kosovo refugee crisis, UNICEF set up an emergency project among the Albanian population in seven communities most affected by the immense influx of refugees. The project was so successful that a plan for national expansion was drawn up in collaboration with the Union of Women’s Organisations (an umbrella organisation of Macedonian, Roma, Serbian and other minority women’s groups) and the Albanian League of Women. So far, 650 villages have been assessed and individual plans set up. During the crisis, community educators were supporting more than 20 000 families and over 30 000 children. The refugee crisis is now abating and most (except many Roma) families have returned home, but the positive effects of the project are still felt in many places. However laudable and important they are, the long-term sustainability of international projects is of concern. In the past, several successful initiatives had 70
to be abandoned when financial and professional support ceased. Moreover, there is an understandable tendency to rely on externally financed international projects rather than develop home-grown ones, especially when the BDE is over-stretched with new responsibilities, insufficiently trained staff and scarce resources. Children in Marginal or At-Risk Situations Roma. Outreach to children from the Roma community is particularly important, because of the high unemployment and low school survival rates among young Roma. Since many have not completed basic schooling, they were not, under the previous law, eligible for social security. The new law, however, will abolish this requirement, and while this is a fair and welcome change, it may also have the possible side effect that some Roma families will no longer be motivated to send their children to school at least through grade 8. Roma and other socially disadvantaged children who leave school at a young age often become street children and spend their time begging. This reinforces social prejudice, and also puts children at great risk of exploitation and physical and psychological harm. A change in attitudes is needed. The NGO Caritas has started Centres aimed at Roma children in areas with a large Roma population. (In one such area, 40 000 people live in poor conditions, with only two schools for 2 000 pupils each and no Roma-speaking teachers.) One Caritas Centre in the vicinity of Skopje cares for 270 children; 100 of these are of pre-school age, who spend two hours a day at the Centre. Roma children usually have no knowledge of the Macedonian language, which they are taught at the Centre to make their transition to primary school easier. The Centre has two teachers and two social workers employed full time. The children who have attended the Centre have better primary school results and survival rates. The Centre and the schools co-operate, and the Centre’s teachers follow the children’s work at school. The social workers have dossiers on the children’s home and economic situations so as to be able to assist when needed. The parents are often illiterate, but they support the work of the Centre and are keen for their children to succeed. Nevertheless, these initiatives cannot reach all Roma children, and much more concerted effort is needed to respect all children’s rights to education and a secure environment. Orphans. In Skopje there is a home for 130 children from 3 to 18 years of age. It is financed partly by the State, partly by donations. In Bitola there is a home with 350 children from 0 to 3 years old. Some children are in foster homes. These children attend ordinary schools. Many become street children
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when they have turned 18, as they then have to leave the orphanages but have no social connections or coping skills. Children with special needs Most children with special needs still attend special schools. Social attitudes towards disabled people still tend to be negative, and the issue of mainstreaming disabled children into regular schools is resisted, often on the pretext that resources are lacking or buildings are unsuitable. While both of these objections are often valid, they also serve to give schools, teachers and parents of ‘normal’ children an excuse to marginalise children with special needs. Some small-scale efforts, however, are successful. For example, five regular schools participate in a pilot integration project with help from the United Kingdom. The integration has so far been satisfactory, and could serve as a model for mainstreaming special-needs children into the ordinary school system. The European Children’s Trust has 10 groups for children with disabilities in kindergartens. The parents and teachers are being trained, but there is a great need for co-operation and experience within the field of special needs. There is also a great need for technical aids and funding. The Child Protection Department at the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy is putting much effort into this at present. Thirty children with disabilities will be transferred from special institutions to ordinary kindergartens. These children live together with disabled adults in institutions, and they are brought to the kindergartens during the day. However, it is now internationally accepted that, whenever this is at all possible, children with disabilities should live at home with their parents and families, instead of in special institutions. Officials at the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy expressed a need for international assistance. Issues and barriers in Early Childhood, Special Needs, and Children At Risk Early Childhood Education There is a distinction between early childhood (age 0-6) and schoolpreparatory education (age 6-7). That final year is, organisationally, part of the pre-school system and therefore managed by the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy. But many kindergartens are in fact located in primary schools, and therefore under the MoES’s sphere of influence. The MoES is also responsible for the pre-school curricula. Moreover, pre-schools are located in all 126 municipalities, and there is discussion of transferring decision-making and
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financing to the local level. It is not yet clear what the new laws on local autonomy will mean for pre-schools, and the relative responsibilities of the Ministries are unclear as well. Rural provision of early childhood and pre-school education is an issue, as is provision for ethnic minorities and socially disadvantaged children. The cost for food (paid by parents) is 1 178 dinars (approximately USD 16 or EUR 18.13) per month. While child nutrition is important, cost may be prohibitive for the very families who need help most. Teaching and learning materials, buildings, classrooms, sanitary facilities, all need updating and upgrading, especially in rural areas. Mobilising private financing and initiatives is one way of meeting the needs of this noncompulsory but important sector of education. Pre-school curricula are developed by the BDE and are under review. Two areas seem especially important in pre-school curriculum: civic education and environmental education. Children need to be introduced very early to these topics. Environmental education already exists in pre-schools using the Step-by-Step method, and this could be built upon. The previous Strategy 2000 stated that environmental education should start “as early as possible in childhood, at home, which also requires education of the parents; the education should be continued in pre-school education.” The new Strategy 2001 makes no mention of environmental education, but places some emphasis on civic education through the introduction of new teaching materials by 2004, in particular new history textbooks, because the present ones allow "certain ideological burdens from the socialist period" to persist. No mention is made of incorporating civic education into the whole curriculum, as well as in the overall culture, values and practices of the school and the classroom, from pre-school onwards. Special Needs There is still a tendency – evident in the continued use of the old Soviet term ‘defectology’ in relation to special needs care and education – to see disability in medical terms and to focus on the ‘defect’ rather than on the child. As long as disabled people are seen as ‘defective’, their full integration into Macedonian society is blocked. Schools can take the lead in breaking down barriers and prejudice by encouraging the inclusion of special-needs children and by supporting teachers who accept them. When special needs are combined with other forms of disadvantage – poverty, ethnic origin, minority language, rural location – it becomes very
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difficult to make sure that children are provided with the quality of care and education to which they are entitled by law and civil rights. Municipalities and the two responsible Ministries need to work together to clarify and co-ordinate their roles and resources. The definition of ‘special needs’ should be much wider, and include gifted and talented children, as well as less obvious learning disabilities such as dyslexia, attention deficit syndrome, etc. All these are ‘special needs’ that have to be recognised and met in classrooms rather than institutions. At-Risk Children The problems of access, equity and early drop-out have been mentioned earlier in this review. Children drop out of school for a variety of reasons, but one of the most frequently mentioned by marginal, disadvantaged, or lowachieving children is that the school is unfriendly: they are made to feel that they ‘don’t fit in’, or that school has no relevance to their real lives. Given Macedonia’s huge youth unemployment problems, it is vital that outreach and drop-out prevention efforts be stepped up. Vocational Education and Training The Strategy 2001-2010 recognises that education should allow for personal and professional training of youth and adults according to the changing demands of the labour market and life in general. The concept of lifelong learning and adult education now needs to be translated into practical action in VET in Macedonia. The initial VET system Vocational education and training starts after the completion of primary education, i.e. after grade 8 of basic school, and may last 2, 3 or 4 years. There are 93 public secondary schools out of which 11 provide only gymnasium education while the remainder are either vocational (56) or a mixture of both in the same building (25). There were 87 420 students enrolled in secondary education in the school year 1998/1999 corresponding to approximately 80% of those who left compulsory education. Enrolments at entry are 67% into VET and 33% into general secondary education, and show a gradual decrease in VET entry during the last 10 years of almost 20%.
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The structure of VET is as follows: x
2-year vocational education and training programmes train for immediate employment. Curricula cover general and vocational education with practical sessions. The range of practical sessions depends on the educational profile. In some profiles 75% of the time is devoted to vocational training with emphasis on practical work, and 25% to study of mother tongue, public affairs and protection. Practical sessions take 40% of vocational training time. Graduates cannot go on directly to higher level education; they can enrol in the first year of a 3-year vocational education and training school.
x
3-year programmes cover general and vocational education and training, and practical work. In some profiles vocational education and training covers 45% and general education up to 55% of the time. Graduates can continue their education for another year in order to acquire a 4-year vocational education. VET for the most educational profiles for the labour market takes 3 years.
x
4-year VET programmes are the most attractive for students. This type of education has two goals: preparation for university or preparation for employment in industry, trade, tourism, or any other cluster chosen by the students. Curricula cover general education, vocational-theoretical subjects and practice sessions (35-40% of the teaching time is for general education and 60-65% for VET). Fouryear VET ends with a final exam. The diploma gives students the right to take the entrance exam to a university faculty.
x
A special type of VET takes place at art schools. There are three types: music, ballet and applied arts. Assessment of students takes place during the school year both in school and at the practical work location. Each school sets a final exam at the end of 3-4 years.
Enrolments in secondary education in school year 1998/1999 were: x
General
32.15%;
x
Vocational (four-year)
50.30%;
x
Vocational (three-year)
16.45%;
x
Arts
1.10%.
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With the assistance of the EC/Phare programme, the MoES started to reform and modernise the VET system in April 1998. The main aim of the reform is to prepare school graduates better for the labour market. Practical reforms have been implemented in 16 pilot schools, including analysis of the labour market, revision of curricula, teachers and principals training, establishment of partnership with EU schools, and the development of a strategy for VET. The strategy for VET identifies the following benchmarks for the process: democracy, high quality, coherence and continuity, labour market relevancy and flexibility, social partnership, transparency, integration of general and vocational subjects, internationalisation and lifelong learning. The strategy for VET covers the period 2000-2010. Finance of VET As stated earlier, secondary education (including VET) absorbs 24% of the total education budget, compared to 57% for compulsory education and 19% for higher education. 82% of the allocation is spent for staff costs, 6% for running costs, 6% to subsidies and 6% to capital expenditure. The amount for salaries is based on the number of classes and teaching hours as required by the curricula. Funds are transferred directly from the MoES to the schools, and they have to be refunded if they are not used. This also applies to income generated by vocational schools, which are often needed for supplementing running costs and other expenditures. The present system does not provide incentives for schools to find additional funding. The low allocation to capital expenditure badly affects vocational schools (especially in terms of up-to-date equipment) and lowers the quality and effectiveness of practical training. Standards, curriculum and assessment in VET The VET system covers 15 occupational clusters corresponding to 111 educational profiles out of which 57 with 4 years education, 40 with three and 14 with two years. An occupational cluster covers a group of occupations, which share a common vocational education core curriculum. Each educational profile, however, also contains a special vocational curriculum, which are at a lower level than in gymnasium and vary to some extent between the occupational clusters. Practical training is also part of the curriculum. The duration of practical training varies considerably between different vocational courses. The
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significant decline in the industrial base of the country in recent years, has made it more difficult to secure substantial on-the-job placement for students. Within the EC/Phare VET reform programme, a survey of labour market demand was carried out in December 1998. A national sample of 376 enterprises was selected, including small, medium and large size companies and covering agriculture and agro-business, services to persons and enterprises, tourism, hotel and catering, electrical engineering and electro-technics and mechanical engineering. The survey showed that emphasis should be given to establishing levels of knowledge that would provide at least the minimum required qualifications for VET students to advance to higher education, while also providing them with better practical training, which was mentioned by the companies as being of paramount importance. Low rate in language skills, entrepreneurship, presentation techniques, planning, innovative working and taking initiative should also be seriously addressed in the development of curricula. The issue of certification should also be brought into line with European profiles. The survey has allowed establishing a sustainable research system, which is fully automated and could be implemented on a regular basis by an appropriate institution with minimum supervision. As a result of the survey, the following changes have been introduced: x
Further reduction from 38 to 23 of the occupational profiles related to 10 clusters;
x
Establishment of 7 levels of educational standards;
x
Introduction of a modular structure;
x
Definition of standard subjects for general education, for vocational education core-curriculum and vocational curriculum;
x
In general education, the teaching of the three mother tongues (Macedonian, Turkish and Albanian) has been extended to include also communication techniques and a stronger emphasis on IT, entrepreneurial development and foreign language;
x
Introduction of educational and vocational guidance in pilot schools;
x
Establishment of curriculum working groups with representation from schools, social partners, and subject experts; 77
x
Provision of textbooks and equipment to the 16 pilot schools.
Standards and certification A system of educational standards has been developed for secondary VET and discussions about the need to develop a system of occupational standards have been started with the participation of social partners, but their role is still weak. Certification of VET takes place at the institution providing the training. The Bureau for the Development of Education (BDE) also gives input into the setting of certification and standards in secondary VET schools. However, there is no unified VET certification system, which objectively measures achievement to a national standard. The design and establishment of an assessment and evaluation system started to be implemented in close co-operation with the related Dutch-funded “Assessment capacity building project” which forms part of the World Bank “Educational rehabilitation project”. Teachers and principals training: in 1998/1999, there were 3 531 teachers in VET. Teachers of secondary VET schools are trained in the Faculty if they are general or vocational/theoretical teachers over a 4-year period. In addition the Faculty of Philosophy of the University St. Cyril and Methodius in Skopje is responsible for the initial (basic) pedagogical training of the teachers. Pedagogical training of graduates from vocational faculties such as engineering, health, law and economics, agriculture, forestry and tourism is acquired through three specific exams: pedagogy and didactics, methodology of research and psychology. This approach leads to lack of adequate integration between the general and vocational aspects of the training. The new legislation specifies that new teachers have to take an examination in teaching skills and the end of their first year of teaching. Teachers are assessed on a 2-year basis by a Committee, whose members are the principal, a member of the staff from the school and an external advisor representing the Bureau for the Development of Education. Practical subject teachers are typically 4-year VET graduates who undergo further one-year training in pedagogic and teaching techniques on a part-time basis.
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The in-service teachers and principals training is regulated under the Law of Education. However, mainly because of lack of financial resources and lack of motivation by the teachers, this is not done on a structured way. The BDE is responsible for in-service teachers training and there is lack of co-operation between this institution and the university’s faculties. A National Board for Teachers Training has been set up by the MoES to supervise the issue. Issues and barriers in VET Affordability and sustainability. The present school system remains rigid, with all decisions taken at central level. Schools have little incentive to innovate or generate their own income; teachers’ salaries are bound by standard rules without any link to performance or experience; curricula are the same all over the country, and do not reflect the specificity of their region, the characteristics of the population, the interest of local enterprises, the potential for economic development, etc. Teachers have no access to the decision-making process but can only implement decisions taken at central level. The same is true for school directors, who in theory are proposed by the School Board but in practice are appointed by the Minister. Decentralisation and liberalisation are key objectives of the Strategy. For VET, this would mean: x
Opening the educational system to private investment;
x
Stimulating schools to become active providers of continuing VET to adults;
x
Allowing flexible curricula, which the schools could adapt to local needs;
x
Allowing flexible use of State resources for school maintenance, depending on a school’s capacity to generate extra-budgetary funds;
x
Allowing a flexible approach in the recruitment and training of teachers and principals;
x
Opening up the textbook market to improve textbook quality and choice.
Efficiency. Statistics show growing enrolments in general (rather than VET) secondary education. The potential over-provision and overlap of secondary VET needs to be critically assessed in the light of changing demand from employers, students and parents, and a relevant and cost-efficient distribution of schools, teachers and staff needs to be planned to reallocate 79
and/or renew resources, equipment, buildings and human resources. In particular, the deployment of teachers needs to be reviewed in the context of low teacher/student ratios (1:16) decide how best to use available teacher resources to deliver a restructured, competence-based VET curriculum. Equity. The Strategy recognises a lack of equity in the provision of education for vulnerable groups (students with handicaps), for communities in less developed rural areas and for ethnic groups, which, in accordance with the Constitution, have the right to receive education in their mother tongue. There are obvious difficulties in providing VET instruction across many subjects in four or more languages; at the same time, vulnerable groups are most at risk of early drop-out and unemployment. Inter-sectoral co-ordination. The MoES is solely responsible for education and training. Other ministries or local public administration, social partners, and NGOs are completely absent in the definition of policies at central level and of actions at local and school level. Intra-sectoral co-ordination. The multi-ethnic approach to educational policy helps the country to foster a greater sense of social cohesion and this is extremely important in the context of creating a politically stable democracy. However, education should also be seen as an instrument, which may contribute to the establishment of a common State identity. Higher Education Legal and policy framework for Higher Education The Constitution of 1991 (Art. 6) grants autonomy to universities and institutions of higher education. Until 2000, Macedonian higher education was still regulated by the ‘Law on Directed Education’, (1985) covering secondary, vocational and higher education. This law was part of a global concept of vocationally-oriented education in the former Yugoslavia. It was superseded by the new ‘Law on Higher Education’ (adopted 2000). The new Law emphasises university autonomy, and open access by qualifying students on the basis of a competition for available places. There is now a quota system whereby a specific percentage of places is allocated to ethnic minorities. The Government of the Republic of Macedonia determines the number of available places funded by the State, but institutions may accept additional (paying) students according to their capacity and licence. Studies
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may be full- or part-time, or by distance learning. Diplomas and titles are specified in the new Law. Undergraduate (first-degree, Bachelor’s or equivalent) studies last from 4 to 7 years, while ‘professional’ higher education (short-term) may last less than 2 years. At higher vocational schools, undergraduate studies last from 1 to 3 years. Graduate (after the first degree) studies, e.g. for a Master’s degree or for post-graduate vocational degrees, are organised by semester, with a minimum of three semesters for a Master’s degree. They are based on a credit system. Doctoral (PhD) studies can be undertaken after a Master’s degree or equivalent level of education, including a publicly defended thesis. Doctor of Sciences (PhD) studies last a minimum of two years and include a thesis. Quality assurance The new Law devotes several sections to issues of quality assurance and recognition of diplomas and degrees. The main requirements are for the licensing of a HEI by a Licensing Board, and the periodic evaluation of management, financing, academic and other activities such as research. The latter is to be accomplished through self- and external evaluation, and joint quality assessment of the academic staff by the Higher Education Evaluation Agency of Macedonia (Art. 23-32). Apart from assuring the quality of the education given to students at university level, the quality assurance mechanisms are aimed at attaining European and international standards, and are mainly focused on curriculum development and staff evaluation. There are also plans for introducing a credit transfer system and greater modularisation of the curriculum to make the system more flexible. However, financing mechanisms are still based on quantitative rather than qualitative criteria. Finance of Higher Education The new Law states that the Parliament of the Republic adopts the HE Activity Programme for Macedonia with the advice of the Inter-University Conference. The programme is valid for 4 years, but a financial plan is adopted every year.
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A Higher Education Activity Fund has been created within the Ministry. A 15-member Management Board with academic, student and ministry representation manages the Fund. The Board sets the annual budget and distributes resources according to the Activity Programme, decides on scholarships, investments, maintenance, equipment and books, and establishes the levels of student fees (called ‘co-financing’ in the Law), and attracts additional funds from other than State sources. The Fund is also authorised to subsidise private HE provided that this is in the interests of the Republic of Macedonia. (Art. 85). The question arises, however, whether the detailed responsibilities of this Management Board leave much room for university autonomy, if scholarships, investments, maintenance and even books are decided by the Board. Moreover, if the Board controls the levels of student fees it may also control the number of students, and the use of non-State funding. In that case, the university management would find it difficult to take any serious strategic decisions at all. Indeed the team had the impression that top university management had little room for new initiatives, in particular because some university leaders tend to take on (temporary) political or administrative roles in the Ministry from time to time, and are therefore not themselves strictly ‘autonomous’. Students may be expected to pay for their studies if they fail to meet the criteria for State funding or other criteria laid down by the HE institution. The amount of fees is proposed by the HE institution but must be agreed by the Fund. (Art. 89.) Educational expenditures on higher education have been declining; between independence and 1995, they declined by 60%. In 1994, the part of the national budget allocated to HE was less than 1%. Universities and institutions All higher education institutions in Macedonia – a total of 31 faculties plus 2 higher schools – are united in two universities, the St Cyril and Methodius (Sv. Kiril i Metodij) University in Skopje and the St Clement of Ohrid (Sv. Kliment Ohridski) University in Bitola. The Skopje university consists of 27 faculties (including 3 offering inter-disciplinary studies). The Bitola university consists of 4 faculties (located in Bitola, Prilep and Ohrid), and 2 higher schools (medicine and agriculture). Each of these sub-units of the two universities tends to consider itself a separate higher education institution, while in reality FYRoM has only two higher education institutions – and not 33! This may seem a minor point, but in
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practice the fragmentation prevents any serious strategic reforms taking place, because central management at the two universities is not sufficiently strong to provide policy leadership and quality control over the 33 sub-units. This lies at the heart of HE reform not only in FYRoM but in Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo and BiH, and remains an issue even in Slovenia, although there the issue has (at least legally) been resolved. The language of instruction in universities is Macedonian (Art. 95 of the new Law), but in certain circumstances national languages other than Macedonian may also be used, as long as Macedonian is studied as well as a separate language. A ‘world language’ (e.g. English, French and German) may also be used as a language of instruction. At the time of the OECD review there was no private university in Macedonia. An Albanian-language university in Tetovo has not been officially recognised. In addition, the FYRoM government has also entered into discussions with the OSCE about the establishment of a private university in Tetovo, which would cater mostly for the local Albanian-speaking population. The building and the study programmes were nearing completion in July 2001 and a request for accreditation has been submitted to the Government for approval. The opening date has been set for 1 October 2001. This is a sensitive political issue and in the present political climate, the utmost care and diplomacy will be required. Student admission to Higher Education The new Law sets out conditions for higher education entrance (Art. 100 et seq.) and students’ rights and responsibilities (Art. 156 et seq.). The latter includes the right to study part-time simultaneously at more than one institution (as long as the student pays the fees), and the right of transfer from one study programme to another. Both of these make higher education more flexible and adaptive to changing needs. Four-year secondary school graduates, either from gymnasia or secondary vocational schools, with the required school leaving certificate, are entitled to apply for higher education admission. About 27% of secondary graduates (approx. 12% of the entering grade 1 cohort) enrol in HE. Admission is based upon the evaluation of secondary school grades (30%), Matura examination results, and results obtained in faculty-set entrance examinations (70%). Students with the highest results qualify for State-funded places within the limits set by the Activity Programme and the budget approved by the Fund for the year.
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The two universities announce an open competition for university entrance in daily newspapers (in spring of each year). The announcement sets out the basic enrolment policy for the year: the number of students to be admitted, criteria for admission, percentage of students from national minorities, percentage of female students, enrolment of part-time students, paying students, foreign students, and dates and deadlines for examinations. In recent years, the available numbers of places at HE level have not been completely filled (e.g. in 1993 only 94% of the quota for full-time students and 83% of the quota for part-time students were filled). The largest number of students enrol in technical and mathematics subjects, followed by humanities, biotechnology, medicine and arts. Gender balance (1998) is 53.5% women (overall), but women are more strongly represented in the humanities and medicine and less strongly in engineering, forestry etc. The Higher Medical School in Bitola has 85% women students; the Higher Agricultural School 56%. In 1998, 3 000 students graduated (down from 3 125 in 1997). At Masters’ and Doctorate levels, the percentage of females (1998) was 52% and 39% respectively. More illuminating is the fact that the overwhelming majority of students (92.8% in 1998) take longer than the normal time set for completing their degree. Higher schools statistics are particularly striking; in 1994, about half the students did not finish on time, while in 1998 100% of the cohort did not. This raises the question whether students (especially fee-paying ones) find it necessary to have part-time or even full-time jobs, or whether other factors – sector unemployment, military service – play a role. Teaching staff in Higher Education In 1998/99, there were 1 385 teachers (143 part-time) in 30 HEIs: 647 were professors; 332 associate professors, 275 docents and 131 lecturers. Academic support staff was 1 269. The total number of students was 36 167, 1 026 of them in higher schools. The teacher-student ratio was 1:13.6 (including academic support staff). Higher education teacher salaries are calculated on the basis of a unit called the UNR (uslovno nekvalifikovan rabotnik), representing the lowest salary of an unqualified employee at an HEI. Ratios vary from 1 UNR for a cleaner to 5.5 UNR for professors. Most of an HEIs budget is spent on staff salaries.
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Educational materials in Higher Education The material base in higher education – books, equipment, buildings, overall maintenance – is at a very low level, and deteriorating more as capital expenditure and investments remain low. Laboratory equipment is out of date and in poor condition; textbooks are scarce and not of high quality. There has been a dramatic decrease in library exchanges and the purchase of professional literature. Study visits of professors and researchers, and participation in international conferences have decreased. The quality of scientific research suffers accordingly. External assistance (from the Government and international NGOs) has been important, especially with regard to internet connections and university information systems such as MARNET, the Macedonian Academic and Research Network, but covers only a small part of what is needed. In particular the issue of library exchanges and the accessibility of good professional literature to students remain vital to the quality of higher education studies in Macedonia. Issues and barriers in Higher Education Higher education across Europe is undergoing important changes. For example, the Bologna Declaration and its associated follow-up processes will have a profound effect on the way in which higher education is provided, organised, financed, quality-controlled, and certificated. It is essential that Macedonian higher education aligns itself very firmly with these developments, and takes an active part in the design and implementation of European models of higher education reform. The new law on higher education emphasises the establishment of high standards and quality in higher education. This ambitious goal can be achieved, if it is supported by good organisation, co-ordination, and dissemination networks. Such support is crucial, because analyses show that many well developed projects are implemented slowly or even totally lost due to poor organisation and horizontal and vertical co-ordination. The increased autonomy of HEIs is undeniably a positive development. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that accountability is also built into the system, to protect equity of access and to align the curriculum with the developing economy of the nation. Financing mechanisms that are qualitative rather than quantitative would be one of the ways to promote reforms in faculties that no longer respond to the needs of students and the labour market,
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and to ensure that pre-service teacher training reflects educational reforms and policies relating to schools. Recommendations Recommendations on governance, administration and finance Improve State financing of higher education and develop new mechanisms to make the entrance system more fair and transparent (e.g. a credit system). One of the side effects of low financing by the state – apart from low quality of study – is that universities tend to keep the number of state-funded places as low as possible while raising the number of fee funded places. Furthermore, the university based entrance exams lack transparency, and are perceived as a way for faculties and teachers to earn extra money. Poorer candidates cannot afford to pay for special tuition or preparation courses, and rural candidates are disadvantaged if they cannot find (or travel to) places where such tuition is available. The high cost of university entry acts as a disincentive for otherwise able and well-motivated students to apply for university. Review and change the basic organisational structure of MoES to follow the different areas of expertise and missions identified in the Strategy 20012010. Among the priorities listed is 'Institutional strengthening of the MES (a statistics and analysis unit to be added in 2001) and training the management staff of the MoES and its schools".39Organisational arrangements in MoES are needed for the practical and gradual implementation of the Strategy. Continuity in organisation and human capacity should also be stressed, because achieving sustainable results in reforms of education takes more than 10 years. The mission and regular tasks of BDE as an expert organisation, for example in career guidance and counselling, should be defined and clarified. Continue liberalisation, e.g. with regard to competition between textbook publishing houses. Substantially reduce and combine the number of regional units of MoES. The mission of the regional units needs to be redefined and clarified stressing consulting, advising, assessing, information and data services rather than control and inspection and administration of schools and teachers. Establish a Ministerial Task Force, with representation from other Ministries, to create an Action Plan for the implementation of the Strategy. The table of priorities provides deadlines, but achievement of the goals depends 39
Strategy 2001-2010, table of priority activities, no. 8. March 2001.
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heavily on the availability of donor funding, and in most cases a great deal of policy and regulatory ground work is needed that will affect the pace of reform. Establish an Inter-Ministerial Standing Committee reporting to the Prime Minister with responsibility for co-ordinating the overall development of policies and strategies in education and training. Membership of the committee might be drawn from the Ministries of Education and Science (Chair), Labour and Social Policy, Public Administration, and Economy and Finance. Initiate a horizontal assessment of the results of existing pilot projects. The Ministry of Education and Science, in co-operation with the donor community, needs to decide about (where appropriate) their system-wide dissemination and application. Establish a Standing Committee at the MoES to propose solutions to the problems of education, particularly higher education, for ethnic minorities in Macedonia. These proposals – and precise, concrete suggestions about addressing their complex legal, social and economic ramifications – should be submitted to the Education Commission of Parliament. If this recommendation is taken seriously, it could help resolve many urgent and potentially dangerous problems. Give greater operational power to School Boards to permit more flexible decision-making at the school level regarding curricula, administration and teaching as well as the collection and use of funding. In the second phase, responsibility for schools should be handed over to the municipalities to promote local responsibility and authority for education. Develop a per-capita system of state funding of schools. The level of percapita money should be varied by the level of education, school size and field of education and training. Greater operational control over the school budget should be given to School Management Boards in order to permit a more flexible use of budgetary categories and lines. The present incrementally-based method of funding schools and higher education institutions should be replaced by a normative, criteria-based system, and incentives should be introduced to promote revenue-generating activities within individual institutions. Set up a functioning information system for education. The governance of education, as well as the follow-up of the implementation of the Strategy, need to be supported by reliable information. Relevant information on the state and development of education, and bench-marking indicators should be regularly produced and delivered for all levels. The new statistics and analysis unit to be established at the Ministry this year will be an important step.
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Develop a capacity-building programme for the continuing development of institutional and human resources, oriented primarily to educational administrators and principals. The in-service training of teachers in a decentralised and liberalised system would be the responsibility of principals. Best results would be guaranteed if in-service training were closely connected to, and scheduled in accordance with, the gradual implementation of programmes and projects emanating from the action plan of the Strategy. Recommendations on Curriculum, Materials and Assessment Clarify and improve the relative roles of, and communication among, the MoES, the BDE, the Inspectorate, and teacher trainers. These relationships need to work better and faster to implement new curricula in classrooms. Make additional efforts to slim down curricula, and improve choice. Students remain over-burdened with content and factual knowledge, and the compulsory core curriculum still occupies nearly all the available classroom and teacher time. Ensure that secondary curricula strike a balance between general and vocational preparation, and that they are suitable for students across a wide range of academic ability including average and slow learners in order to reduce early drop-out and push-out which have disastrous consequences for youngsters’ long-term employability and life chances. Reduce specialisation to ensure that students are not locked into specific vocational directions too early. Schools can no longer be ‘training factories’ for narrowly defined occupations. Liberalise the textbook market to speed up curriculum renewal. Incentives are needed for small publishers to compete for textbook contracts. Improve transparency in competition procedures, reduce potential for conflicts of interest. Improve choice, quality, and price structure of textbooks and materials to benefit students and implement new curriculum goals. Make a firm commitment to modernise the examinations at grade 8 and Matura. Especially the introduction of a new-style Matura by 2003 (as the law requires) is a large task that requires strong MoES leadership as well as sustained, budget-level financial support. Train teachers and textbook writers to ask competence-based rather than knowledge-based questions. Students will not learn higher-level thinking skills
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like problem-solving and critical thinking unless their teachers and textbooks require them in the classroom. Recommendations related to teachers Create a national committee to develop a standard document on teacher qualifications, preferably with international technical assistance or expertise. The criteria will be used for more than one purpose, first and foremost for the development of teacher training programmes. Second, they will be used in teacher recruitment and deployment. Thirdly, they can be used in teacher assessment, either internal or external. All criteria will be made publicly available. Train teacher mentors. The system needs change agents within each school to promote reform awareness. To train these agents, mentor training courses for selected experienced teachers and the principals of the schools should be held continuously, starting with the principals of pilot schools. Clarify and improve the status of teachers. Within the framework of public administration reform, the government should reduce the number of civil servants. In order to provide teachers to settlement areas with small number of students, to eliminate crowded classrooms in urban schools, and to keep a certain number of teachers in in-service training all the year round to raise quality, the system should keep the existing number of teachers. To do this without problems, teachers can be put into a category called “Local Employees” employed and deployed by the local government based on the centrally set selection criteria and allocated cadre. Create a ‘norm cadre’. To have a stable and sufficient teaching force throughout the country, there should be a ‘norm cadre’ for each school district. Based on some pre-defined criteria, school districts should be set up in which all resources could be used anywhere they were needed for optimum cost effectiveness and efficiency. For each district, the number of principals, teachers according to area of specialisation, the number of local inspectors, and the number of non-teaching staff should be decided based on the teaching, administration and service load and pre-defined criteria. The existing bussing system should be reconsidered within the framework of each school district. The transportation may be the responsibility of the teacher. There should be an annual review process to increase or decrease the ‘norm cadre’, in accordance with changes in needs. The creation of the ‘norm cadre’ could be seen as a midterm strategy, but preparation could start immediately.
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Revitalise teacher and principal training, especially in VET. With the implementation of the EC/Phare VET reform programme, research has been carried out to identify the needs for teacher training. Most teachers still use the traditional system of frontal lecturing and only a minor portion uses the team working approach. Modern information tools are seldom utilised because teachers are not capable of using computers and textbooks as basic tools. Short training courses are needed in relation to the new curricula. Through the EC/Phare Tempus programme, two projects are presently under implementation to strengthen the system of training and re-training in VET. A Centre for the Development of VET was established in Bitola in 1998 and became very active in the field of management training for school principals thanks to the support received from the Soros Foundation. As a consequence of political changes, this Centre was closed down in 1999, and since then the issue of management training for school administrators has never been tackled again in a systematic way. Re-activating the Centre would be an important step. Recommendations on early childhood, special needs and at-risk children Clarify responsibility for the final pre-school (age 6) year when these classes are located in primary schools that come under the aegis of the MoES. Moreover, ensure that when decision-making and financing are transferred to municipal level, it is clear to the 126 municipalities where the ultimate authority lies for 0-6 education as well as for 6-7 education. Improve access to pre-school education for rural, ethnic minority, and socially or linguistically disadvantaged children. These children are often most at risk of early drop-out and therefore most likely to fall into lifelong ‘poverty traps’. Targeted subsidies, e.g. for free school meals, could be a powerful incentive for parents to send children, and would also help in early diagnosis of health and nutrition problems before children enter primary education. Funding for such targeted subsidies could be freed up by encouraging more private investment in pre-schooling in wealthier and urban areas. Such State funding as is available for non-compulsory sectors like pre-school should be spent on children and families most in need of State support. Refrain from using the term ‘defectology’ when referring to special needs. This may appear a minor matter but it signifies a major shift in the way people with disabilities are perceived by society, and the chances of children with special needs to be integrated into the regular school system. It is important to focus on the child, not just the ‘defect’.
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When responsibilities are devolved to municipal level, ensure that roles, responsibilities, and finance for children with all types of special needs – poverty, rural location, disability, ethnic origin, language needs, as well as children with special gifts and talents – are clear among all levels of governance. Take early action to prevent drop-out by ensuring that there are no unnecessary barriers to children remaining in school (e.g. by too many exams and other hurdles at critical points), and by making school a more friendly and accepting place for socially disadvantaged pupils and for slow and average learners. Given Macedonia’s huge youth unemployment problems, it is vital that community outreach and drop-out prevention programmes (especially among Roma) be stepped up. Recommendations on VET Implement reform actions identified in the Strategy for VET. A clear development framework has been defined, and it is important to secure that, from the side of the institutions, political turbulence will not delay or jeopardise the process. The reform should take into consideration the need for decentralisation of the system in order to improve its efficiency, quality, equity and transparency and should lead to the development of a specific law on VET. Initiate a process of consultation with stakeholders to ensure a shared vision of VET’s future in Macedonia. Consolidate the network of VET schools. It is characterised by a too large number of relatively small schools providing a narrow specialisation. The present school network is dysfunctional and financially not sustainable and the consultation process will contribute to the development of Regional VET centres. Introduce educational and vocational guidance in all VET schools and institutions. Improve curricula. The structure of the present curricula does not allow free horizontal transitions from one type of education to another. Also vertical transition is limited. Because of the rigidity of the system, a high number of early school leavers still enter the labour market without any recognised qualifications. The system is not prepared to promote lifelong learning. Develop standards. A national qualification system can only function if it is based on occupational and educational standards that have been agreed upon
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jointly by representatives of the social partners and education. The technical support structures have to be established for development and maintenance of a national qualification structure. In addition to quality assurance based on outcome standards, mechanisms should also be developed to assure quality of educational inputs and processes. Link the pre-service and in-service teachers training in order to define a teacher career development pathway. The teacher training system is only partly integrated into the process of VET reform. Future development will include post-secondary and continuing VET, and it is of vital importance that teachers are fully involved in this process and ready and capable to provide their contribution. The teachers and school principals trained under the EC/Phare VET Programme should become resource persons for the system and contribute to a cascading effect of their knowledge. Reduce the mismatch between demand and supply for VET. A leaner, better-focused VET system can respond better to changes in society. Management of present VET resources is a mixture of over- and underutilisation; e.g. although most schools operate a dual shift system, in some schools the timetable sometimes leaves classrooms or workshops empty. Increase the pupil:teacher ratio. It is now 16:1 in VET schools. More efficient utilisation of teachers and staff resources would improve their status and salaries. Recommendations on Higher Education Introduce incentives for HEIs to mobilise additional sources of revenues. Adequate funding of public universities is a major challenge for the government, and is likely to remain so for some time to come. HEIs should be allowed to retain the revenues they obtain through entrepreneurial activities, and these should be encouraged further by appropriate incentives. The present incrementally based method of funding HEIs should be replaced by a normative, criteria-based system that provides incentives for revenue generating activities. Introduce a new Matura examination system. The high drop-out rate and extended time taken by many students to complete their studies are signs of inefficiency, and could be improved in part by a uniform Matura examination that would allow schools to prepare their students more effectively for
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university studies.40 It would also enable schools to compare their students’ performance with other schools and with the national average, and would lead to a fairer and more transparent selection system. The new-style Matura could be developed by a professional organisation (accountable to Parliament) staffed by specialists in external, standards-based assessment and examinations, and could serve to improve quality in schools as well. Improve pre- and in-service teacher training at universities. Content of training should be linked to educational reforms and policies, should be efficiently organised, and should allow trainee teachers easy access and information (e.g. through distance learning opportunities). Address the issue of the increase in the Albanian-speaking population. Demographic shifts will be reflected in the make-up of entering university cohorts. It would be helpful if members of the Albanian community could have more input into educational policy and if more efforts could be made to encourage Albanian girls to continue their studies. The MoES should continue its policy of increasing opportunities of studying in the Albanian language at existing universities. Introduce more choices in higher education courses for students, especially more inter-faculty and inter-disciplinary study programmes. These choices should be linked to employment demand in local, national and European labour markets, and could include shorter professional studies in fields such as business and management. Improve applied research in highly needed fields, especially in sectors closely linked to the reform process (education, social affairs, economics, governance and administration, information technology). Ensure that FYRoM’s higher education system attaches itself very firmly to developments in higher education across Europe: specifically, the Bologna Declaration and its follow-up process. Most Balkan countries are making efforts in this direction, although it requires considerable commitments in terms of quality assurance, academic recognition and student mobility, modernising curricula and degree structures, making these more relevant to the labour
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This does not imply that secondary schooling should become predominantly a preparation for higher education; simply that study for a modern-style Matura should include the acquisition of skills needed for success in work or further studies of any kind, such as independent learning, critical thinking, problem solving and research skills.
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market, etc. It is important to the future of FYRoM and its young people to take part in such key European initiatives.
Figure 1. Education system in FYRoM
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REFERENCES
Bethell, George and Uvalic-Trumbic, Stamenka ,‘The Education System of the Republic of Macedonia.’ Skopje: The Open Society Institute-Macedonia. January 1995. Cohen, M. and Mace, John (1995), ‘Report of the UNESCO/UNDP Factfinding Mission on Public Expenditure on Education in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia’. UNESCO: Division of Policy and Sector Analysis, 21 June 1995. Crighton, Johanna. ‘FYR of Macedonia: Consultant Report on Curriculum and Assessment Issues.’ For the World Bank; unpublished report, December 1996. Darvas, Peter. ‘Background information for the outcomes of the discussion between [the World Bank] and [the Minister of Education, FYRoM], 10 February 2000. Washington: The World Bank ECSHD, unpublished note. European Training Foundation ‘Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Labour market-vocational education and training assessment.’ Turin: ETF. November 2000. Pedagogical Institute of Macedonia Assessment Unit. National Assessment of Pupils’ Achievements in Grade-teaching Phase. Skopje: PIM, 2000. Republic of Macedonia, Ministry of Education and Science. Education for All: Report 2000. Skopje. August 1999. Republic of Macedonia, Ministry of Education and Science. ‘Pre-school Education.’ Monograph. Skopje: MoEPC/UNICEF: 1995. Republic of Macedonia, Ministry of Education and Science. Draft Strategy for Development of Education in the Republic of Macedonia, Skopje: MoES, 2000.
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Republic of Macedonia Ministry of Education and Science. Strategy for Education Development 2001-2010, MoES, February 2001. Statistical Office of Macedonia), Census 1994. ‘Data for the Present and the Future.’ Skopje: November 1994. Statistical Yearbook for the Republic of Macedonia, 1999. CD-ROM, Skopje: 2000.
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MOLDOVA
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Moldova describes the current status of the education system and reform efforts underway. The country is introduced by general and demographic data; language, the geographic and historical context; the political, economic and the labour market situation; it also describes the structure and the legal framework. The whole education system is covered, from general education to vocational education, from higher education to lifelong learning, but focusing on early childhood and care, teachers and teacher training, curriculum and governance and administration. Equity in access, attainment and achievement are central issues, and special consideration is given to ethnic and minority questions and education for children with special needs. Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of education; to quality, assessment and evaluation in education; to preservice and in-service teacher training; working conditions and teacher salaries, the role of school inspectors; textbook provision and material and resources in general. The report describes issues and barriers at all levels of the education system and gives recommendations for policy makers, practitioners and donors.
REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
General Data41 Independence:
27 August 1991. Admitted to the United Nations on 2 March 1992. Constitution adopted on 29 July 1994. Parliamentary democracy (unicameral, 101 deputies elected every 4 years).
Area:
33 700 km2 incl. Transdnistria.42 Moldova is the second-smallest country in the Former Soviet Union, after Armenia).
Population:
4 281 500 (start of 2000, estimated). Approx. 700 000 of these live in Transdnistria. Age structure: 0-14 years: 27%; 15-64 years: 64%; 65 years and over: 9%. The youngest age group (0-14) comprises more males than females; in all other groups, there are considerably more females than males. Urban/rural population: 46/54%.
Population density:
127 per km2; highest density in FSU republics.
Demographic data:
Birth rate: 10.6 births per 1 000 population (1999). Infant mortality rate: 18.2 per 1 000 live births (1999). Death rate: 11.3 deaths per 1 000 population.
41
Sources for these data are CEPS, Ljubljana (Statistical Data for Background Purposes of OECD Review, Moldova, August 2001); Government of Moldova web sites; National Observatory of the Republic of Moldova, National Report 2000; the Department of Statistical and Social Analyses; and various Ministries. NOTE that it is not always explicitly clear whether data include or exclude Transdnistria. Wherever possible, this report will include such information; but caution is advised as to the reliability of any data given here.
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Eastern bank of the Dniestr river (capital: Tiraspol), plus the right-bank city of Tighina (Berdery). Transdnistria still has 20 000 Russian (14th Army) military personnel within its territory.
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Population growth rate: -0.2 (2000, est.). Total fertility rate: 1.4 children born per woman (down from 2.4 at the start of the 1990s). Life expectancy at birth: 64.2 for males; 71.5 for females (1999). Migration:
During the Soviet period, there was an influx of labour from other regions of the USSR. From 1990, large numbers of highly qualified labour (approx. 28 000 per year, dropping to 3 000 per year by 1998) returned to Russia. More recently, temporary migration for employment is common, both legally and illegally. Estimates are (2000) that as many as 600 000 Moldovans are working in Romania, Israel, Greece, Italy, Portugal, USA, Germany and Hungary. In some parts of Moldova, about one-third of children are cared for by relatives or neighbours because their parents are working abroad.
Ethnic composition:
Moldovan 64.5%; Ukrainian 13.8%; Russian 13%; Gagauz 3.5%; Bulgarian 2%; Jewish 1.5%; Roma 0.5%; others (Belarus, Polish, German) 1.2%. (Census of 1989).
Languages:
Moldovan,43 Russian, Ukrainian, Gagauz, Bulgarian.
Religions:
Eastern Orthodox 98.5%; Jewish 1.5%; small number of Baptists ( 1 year): 74% of all unemployed.
Levels of education Unclear as of October 2001. The Law on Administrative and Territorial Reform (1998) governance: consolidated the 38 mid-level jurisdictions (mostly raions) into 11 judets including the autonomous region of Gagauzia and the Municipality of &KLúLQ X+RZHYHUWKHUHLVQRZ 6HSWHPEHU a plan to revert to the earlier raion structure with 28 raions; some judets may remain as over-arching structures covering several of these smaller raions. There are thus 3 or 4 levels: central Ministry; judet Councils; and/or raion Councils; and local governments with their mayors (municipalities, cities, villages/communes). Introduction and Context The purpose of these OECD Thematic Reviews is a narrow one, restricted to a survey of education systems in SEE and their present status and needs. The 44
Purchasing Power Parity. This is a calculation on a comparable scale at the international level, introduced by the UN Project of International Measurements, using "purchasing power" as the factor of comparison. Expressed in MDL (Moldovn lei), GDP per capita was MDL 4 105 (EUR 324.5) in 2000.
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background literature on the Republic of Moldova and its political and territorial history is extensive, and therefore no detailed discussion is necessary here except as political, ethnic or language issues affect Moldova’s education system. A brief overview of the Republic’s context will therefore suffice; but see also sources listed in the References at the end of this report, in particular the two books by Charles King. The Country Given its geographical location at one of Europe’s crossroads of empires and peoples, the territory of the present Republic of Moldova has traditionally been populated by a variety of ethnic groups. Although this cohabitation has not always been amicable, it has established a “habit” of multi-ethnicity in cultural and social terms that is still reflected in today’s language and citizenship laws. For example, the Constitution (June 1991) is among the most inclusive in postSoviet Europe: all persons living in Moldova on the date of the declaration of its sovereignty were automatically eligible for citizenship, regardless of ethnicity, language or other criteria.45 The Republic of Moldova declared its independence on 27 August 1991, and since then has experienced many of the same problems facing other newly independent republics in the region: economic decline, political instability, inter-ethnic and separatist antagonism, and an uncertain relationship with the Russian Federation as well as with its former Romanian motherland. “Poised precariously between Bucharest and Moscow”, Moldova is struggling to construct a distinct national identity at the same time as it faces a crumbling economy and territorial separatism (Transdnistria and Gagauzia).46 History and Geography “Moldova”, as an independent political entity within its present borders, never existed before 1991. From the mid-14th to the early 15th century, an independent Principality of Moldova existed briefly between the Carpathian Mountains and the Black Sea, but it soon became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire.47 In 1812, the eastern half of present-day Moldova – the “Bessarabia” 45
Charles King, Post-Soviet Moldova: A Borderland in Transition. 1997, page 52.
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Ibid., page 16. A more complete picture is given in Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture, 1999.
47
Portions of the medieval Principality of Moldova now lie in Romania and Ukraine as well as in the present Republic of Moldova, and some Moldovan nationalist factions want these lands to be united in a "Greater Moldova". Others,
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region, between the Prut and Dniestr rivers – was annexed by the Russian Empire while the western half was incorporated into newly created Romania in 1859. After the First World War, in 1918, political leaders in Bessarabia voted for union with Romania, and it remained a province of the Romanian Kingdom between the two wars. The “Bessarabian Question” remained a source of constant tension between Moscow and Bucharest during the inter-war period. In 1924, an autonomous Soviet republic was created on the Romania’s eastern border. This “Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic” (MASSR) was established inside (then Soviet) Ukraine on October 12, 1924. This area, known to Romanians as “Transdnistria”, had changed hands some twelve times during the Russian civil war, but by 1920 was Ukrainian and therefore by 1924 part of the Soviet Union. Ethnic Ukrainians formed nearly 49% of the republic’s 1926 population, while 30% were Moldovan, 9% Russian, and 8% Jewish. Bessarabia remained in Romanian hands. Moscow claimed that Bessarabia remained an illegally occupied portion of Soviet Moldova; the banks of the Dniestr were heavily fortified shots fired across the river were frequent, and sorties into Bessarabia from Transdnistria were commonplace. In 1940, Bessarabia was annexed by the Soviet Union, and united with a strip of land east of the Dniestr – “Transdnistria” – to form the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic (MSSR). Although Transdnistria had (and still has) a sizeable Moldovan/Romanian population, the Dniestr has long been regarded as the eastern border of Romanian “ethnic and cultural space”, while Russian “space” begins across the river. Transdnistria The separatist “Transdnistrian Moldovan Republic” or simply Transdnistria, situated in the eastern region of Moldova, was declared on September 2, 1990 as the Dniestr Moldovan Republic (DMR). Clashes along the Dniestr river, between Moldovan police and Transdnistrian irregulars, escalated in the spring of 1992 with involvement of volunteer and Cossack however, see union with Romania into a "Greater Romania" as the most desirable and logical outcome. In the past few years, "Moldovanist" factions have argued that while Moldova and Romania are linked by a shared history, they are nevertheless two separate nations in two separate states, with two separate languages: Romanian and "Moldovan". The issue of separatist Russianspeaking Transdnistria and Gagauz/Russian speaking Gagauzia creates further internal tensions and contradictions in defining a Moldovan national, cultural and linguistic identity.
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forces from Russia and the Ukraine, culminating in June 1992 in major fighting around Bender and intervention of the Russian 14th Army under Alexander Lebed. Moldovan forces were driven from Bender. At least 1 000 people we wounded or killed on the Moldovan side alone, and some 30 000 refugees fled westwards across the Dniestr. In July 1994 the new Moldovan Constitution promised special autonomous status for Transdnistria. However, a January 1996 joint Russian-Ukrainian-Moldovan statement recognises Transdnistria as a “constituent part” of Moldova, committing sides to co-existence within a “common state”. De facto, however, Transdnistria maintains its separatist stance. The violence and fighting of 1992 were quickly mythologised as “a war for the independence of the Transdnistrian fatherland”. School books and history texts used in Transdnistrian schools, for example, came to treat the 1992 violence “with the language and symbolism of the Soviet Great Patriotic War, teaching Transdnistrian schoolchildren that independence had been sanctified with the blood of their heroic compatriots…[making] a solution that would allow Transdnistria to remain within Moldova profoundly difficult”.48 As of the end of 2001, there were reportedly still 20 000 Russian 14th Army personnel stationed in Transdnistria, in spite of a 1994 accord on the withdrawal of Russian troops. The situation of Moldovan-language schools on the left Bank of the Dniestr River and the city of Bender One of the most striking characteristics of the separatist regime was, and still remains, the violation of certain basic human rights on its territory, including the right to mother tongue education. The proclamation of Romanian as the official language of the state, and the introduction of Latin script (replacing Cyrillic), were major developments in post-Soviet Moldova. However, they also became major sources of tension with Transdnistria, which did not recognise these decrees on its territory. The language issue (in particular the use of Latin script in Moldovan-language schools) has become one of the most acrimonious and repressive conflicts affecting schools, families and children. At present, on the left Bank of the Dniestr and in the city Bender, there are 51 operational pre-university institutional establishments teaching in Moldovan 48
Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture, page 197.
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(using Cyrillic script), which account for about 12 000 students; 7 mixed schools – Russian/Moldovan (211 Moldovan students); 33 groups of vocational schools (676 students); and 29 groups at Tiraspol University (472 students). These schools comply with the separatist curricula and are subordinated to separatist authorities. The curricula, textbooks and other didactic materials are old and do not meet modern standards of education. Another seven educational institutions in Transdnistria are subordinated to the central Government (Ministry of Education) of Moldova and teach Moldovan in Latin script (which is, essentially, Romanian). The total number of children in these schools is about 5 378, Bendery – 2 014, Tiraspol – 780, Ribnita – 760, Dubosary – 650, Roghi – 150, Grigoriopol – 734, Corjevo – 290. They are financed from the central budget under Government Decision N 750, as of October 10, 1994: “On direct financing from the Republican budget of Moldovan schools located on the left bank of Dniestr and city of Bendery with teaching in Latin script and meeting the repeated requests from parents, students, didactic staff”. These seven schools function in extremely difficult conditions due to policies designed to suppress the teaching of the mother tongue in Latin script. They are situated in premises which are totally unsuitable (even in wardamaged buildings), they are overcrowded (some teach in two and even three shifts due to lack of space – e.g., Tiraspol school), they are poorly equipped (no specialised labs or equipment or sports facilities). Besides, cases of harassment have taken place (teachers found to violate separatist language laws are dismissed, forbidden to travel to central government controlled territories, etc.). For this reason, only a limited number of teachers of these schools have the courage to attend training courses, seminars or other activities organised by the Moldovan Ministry of Education on the right bank. In spite of severe pressures these schools are following the curriculum approved by the central Government, using the textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education and financed under the General Education Project of the Government of Moldova and the World Bank. At present these schools are deprived of any legal status, and operate unofficially, without a licence (only one received in 1999 official permission – a licence – to operate as a private school which has since expired). The major problem, however, is that they are not considered part of the “normal” educational system and receive no support from the local authorities. The Ministry of Education of Moldova has to bear all expenditures related to the
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support of these schools (salaries for teachers, rent for the space, utilities, transportation, repair and maintenance costs, etc.). Under the current Draft Budget Law for 2002, it is envisaged to increase the allocations for Moldovanlanguage (Latin script) schools in Transdnistria by 30%. A solution to the problems of schools teaching Moldovan in Latin script could be reached in the broader context of negotiations between the central Government and the Transdnistrian enclave. In the meantime, a working group led by a Deputy Minister of Education has been set up to co-operate with Tiraspol authorities in charge of education, with the view to finding ways of normalising the situation of Moldovan schools teaching in Latin script located on the left bank. A number of meetings have already taken place, in the presence of UNHCR and OSCE representatives. In the framework of these meetings, a number of important issues were raised, such as the content of education, implementation of curriculum for different subjects, textbook supplies to these schools, opportunities of employment for school graduates, financing, educational standards, licensing and accreditation of these institutions as public schools, validation of graduation documents etc. The working group co-operates closely with international institutions, including OSCE, UNHCR, and UNICEF and with the Moldova Social Investment Fund. Some of them, e.g. UNHCR, have given considerable financial assistance for left-bank schools and the city of Bendery. Between 1998 and 2001, UNHCR allocated about USD 155 000 (EUR 165 393) for school rehabilitation and supplies. The Japanese Government recently approved a grant of USD 800 000 (EUR 853 670.6) for assistance to Moldovan schools located in the Transdnistria separatist region. The World Bank in partnership with the UNHCR (umbrella agency) and MSIF (implementing agency) will administer this grant. Tension, however, remains high and recent reports indicate further repression by the separatist regime on the seven remaining schools teaching Moldovan in Latin script. Gagauzia In August 1990, the Gagauz (Orthodox Christians of Anatolian Turkish origin) settlements in the impoverished southern raions of Comrat, CiadirLunga, Basarabesca, Vulcanesti and Taraclia declared their own “Republic of
106
Gagauzia”. Apart from a few skirmishes, no serious fighting took place between Moldovan and Gagauz irregulars, and serious negotiations between Comrat and &KLúLQ XUHVXOWHGILUVWLQWKHSURYLVLRQRI“special status” for Gagauzia in the 1994 Constitution, and then a more specific law on local autonomy (December 1994) setting Gagauzia up as a “national-territorial autonomous unit” as a component of the Republic of Moldova. This unit, known as Gagauz Yeri, has its own flag, a locally elected president, executive committee and legislative assembly. Three languages – Gagauz, Moldovan and Russian – have equal status. Social disadvantage has long been the lot of southern Bessarabia, and the Gagauz have been one of the most disadvantaged ethnic groups. At the end of the nineteenth century, illiteracy rates stood at 88% for men and 98% for women. Under the Soviets, a Cyrillic Gagauz alphabet was developed only in 1957, and a few Gagauz-language schools were opened, but closed again in the early 1960s when the language of instruction in all schools became Russian and Gagauz disappeared from the school system altogether. Teacher qualifications were also problematic. By 1990, the percentage of teachers with higher degrees was lower in Gagauz raions than in the rest of the MSSR Only 647 Gagauz were studying in higher education, and about a quarter of all teachers had only secondary school diplomas themselves. Lack of access to potable water led to severe health problems: in 1990, more than 50% of children in the Comrat raion had functional health disorders, in particular kidney, respiratory and digestive ailments. Access to medical care was, however, far below the republican average. A serious earthquake in May 1990 added to the problems of the region. In the past few years, there has been a considerable revival of Gagauz language and culture. There is a Gagauz university in Comrat, and Gagauzspeaking teachers teach Gagauz (in Latin script) in schools. Local radio and television broadcasts have helped to revive folk traditions, and there is a museum of Gagauz history and folklore in Comrat. The “Gagauz question” has turned from one of territorial separatism to one of effective local government, albeit still with financial dependence on theFHQWUDOJRYHUQPHQWLQ&KLúLQ X Schools in Gagauz Yeri The school system is governed by Republic of Moldova education laws DQG UHJXODWLRQV DQG VXERUGLQDWH WR WKH 0R( LQ &KLúLQ X WKURXJK D *DJDX] Education and Sports Department in Comrat. Boarding schools and VET VFKRROVDUHSDLGHQWLUHO\IURP&KLúLQ XEXW*DJDX]LDUDLVHVLWVRZQORFDOWD[HV
107
to support the 14 lyceu (from the Gagauz main budget) and the pre-schools and general secondary schools (from local budgets). There are 32 000 students in all in the Gagauz school system, in about 136 institutions from pre-school through university (66 pre-schools; 3 primary schools 1-4; 11 gymnasia 5-8; 26 full secondary schools, 1 Moldovan-language and 25 Russian-language); 14 lyceu – most of them Russian language; 3 VET schools referred to as “training-production colleges”, such as agricultural farms;49 Comrat State University and (new) Comrat National University; 2 colleges; and a pedagogical college (in Comrat). There is also a private TurkishGagauz lyceum, which teaches in English, Gagauz and Turkish. Most teaching is in Russian, but there is a serious shortage of Moldovan language teachers. Moldovan curricula are used, but “adapted to Gagauz conditions”. However, they are not satisfied with the number of hours available to teach Gagauz language and history. Problems specific to Gagauz schools are:
49
x
Old and poorly maintained buildings. The last school was built in 1988; some schools have never been completed, and none has been properly maintained.
x
acute shortage of textbooks, especially Russian language books. Russia has offered to provide books, but the curricula are not the same. The rental scheme works well, but Gagauz and Bulgarian language textbooks are three to four times more expensive than Moldovan or Russian ones, and in some classes a single book is shared by several children. External testing (e.g., grade 9) is in Russian.
x
Social problems – poverty, unemployment, and inadequate health care. More than 30% of children cannot live at home because their parents have gone abroad to find jobs; relatives look after them where possible, but many children are without adequate care, and there has been a rise in street children and children at-risk. Some humanitarian help is available, e.g. for providing food in schools. There is also an increasing problem with non-attendance and drop-out.
These were common in Soviet times, but no longer exist in most of Moldova. There are plans to offer vocational training also in general secondary schools (9th graders) to ensure that students have job skills when leaving school.
108
x
Relations with the MoE are good, but the administration wants to set its own education law and assert its autonomy more strongly.
Demography and Language According to the latest census figures available (1989), ethnic Moldovans comprise 64.5% of the population. Ukrainian, Russian, Gagauz, Bulgarian, Jewish, Roma, Belarus, Polish, and German minorities are dispersed throughout the Republic, although the Gagauz live mostly in the autonomous Gagauz region known as Gagauz Yeri (capital: Comrat). Rural populations are mostly HWKQLF 0ROGRYDQV ZKLOH WKH PDMRU FLWLHV &KLúLQ X % O L 7LUDVSRO DQG Bendery) have large ethnic Russian and Ukrainian populations. Outside the major cities, the most significant concentration of ethnic Russians is in Transdnistria, where they form 25% of the population but still rank third behind ethnic Moldovans and Ukrainians. Russian remains de facto Moldova’s second official language. Birth rates began to decline in the 1990s and are still falling. Between 1999 and 2014, the population numbers for grades 1-12 are expected to fall by 40% (from 816 800 in 1999 to 489 900 in 2014). Obviously, grades 1-4 will be the first to be affected; by 2004, there will be 25% fewer children in these grades than in 1999. This will have a profound impact on the school system, especially in rural areas where smaller schools are already affected by a drop in enrolments,50 and in schools serving a number of minority-language groups where class sizes may become too small to sustain the necessary teaching staff in more than one language. Conflicting demands of access for everyone versus efficiency in a resource-starved system will soon need to be resolved by policy makers, on the basis of reliable, national, up-to-date school-mapping information which does not exist at present.
50
One school visited by the team in Todiresti had to reduce from two grade-1 classes in 1999/2000 to one class in 2000/01, making one teacher redundant. Problems of drop-out and non-attendance due to increasing rural poverty (see elsewhere in this report) are acute.
109
Table 1.
Demographic trends: 1999-2014 (in ‘000)
Age Group 1 to 6 year old (pre-school) 7 to 10 year old (G 1/ 4) 11 to 15 year old (G 5/ 9) 16 to 18 year old (G 10/ 12) 19 to 23 year old (higher education)
1999 285.4
2004 242.3
2009 258.5
2014 256.7
247.7
185.0
156.9
170.0
364.9
298.9
223.5
194.9
204.2
216.0
167.8
125.0
307.2
339.8
334.8
Source: Population Projections; CEPS Ljubljana; Institute for Public Policy,&KLúLQ
X
257.1 .
Economics Moldova’s already weakened economy suffered another blow from the monetary crisis in Russia in August 1998; economic performance was poor in 1999, and has still not recovered, although the steep decline seen in 1998 has been halted. Real GDP fell by 4.4% in 1999 (compared with a 6.5% drop in 1998), industrial production by 9% (15% in 1998), and agriculture by 8% (11% in 1998). During 2000 the economy registered a modest growth of approximately 2%, its first since reforms began in 1997.51
51
"Vocational Education and Training in NIS and Mongolia: National Report, The Republic of Moldova", National Observatory for the Republic of Moldova, 2000, page 5.
110
Table 2.
Main macro-economic indicators for the Republic of Moldova
Population (1999) 4.2.8 million incl. Transdnistria
Year -1.4 1.4 Average inflation rate Consumption/GDP (%) Budget deficit/GDP (%) Broad money change, % end of year External State debt, USD millions External State debt/GDP (%) Exchange rate average (MDL/USD) * Up to 1998: registered unemployment; from 1998: according to ILO methodology.
1995 -5.9 1.5 30.2 82.9 -6.7 66
1996 1.6 1.5 23.5 94.3 -7.6 15.6
Population growth rate (19942000) –03% per annum GDP per head at market exchange rates (2000): USD 350 1997 1998 1999 2000 -6.5 -4.4 7.7 39.3 31.3 11.8 7.7 97.4 100.9 87.8 95.8 -7.8 -3.3 -3.2 -4.1 34 -9 42.7 39.8
825.7
1 040.9 62.5 4.59
1 216.7 63.0 4.63
57.2 4.49
1 360.1
1 344.7
1 330
80.5 5.38
116.0 10.52
103.7 12.40
Source: Government of Moldova, National Bank of Moldova. In: UNDP Human Development Report 2000, page 73.
Poverty With the average income standing at USD 35 (EUR 37.3) per month in September 2001, poverty affects a large, and growing, part of Moldova’s population, and the effects of poverty on school attendance and duration of schooling in European and Central Asian transition countries are well documented.52 The poor face three specific problems with regard to education: (1) the system as a whole does not work well, and while this affects all children, the children of the poor suffer most; (2) the cost of education to families has gone up, so that education – as a commodity – competes with other claims on the shrinking household budget; (3) the perceived benefits of education (in terms of higher earnings or better jobs) are still low, undermining long-term incentives for families to invest in education. Although a “taste” for education remains, there is an increasing risk that poor children drop out of education and inevitably fall into poverty themselves. School and textbook fees, for example, are usually charged as a flat fee; this hits poor families more than more affluent ones because flat-rate charges 52
Nancy Van Dycke, Access to Education for the Poor in Europe and Central Asia: Preliminary Evidence and Policy Implications. April 2001. Technical Discussion Paper. Washington: The World Bank, ECSHD.
111
absorb a higher percentage of their family income; moreover, poorer families tend to have more children (see section on Early Childhood in this review), so that they face higher overall costs. It is therefore no surprise that in Moldova absenteeism and drop-out rates among the poor have risen. In Gagauzia, the team was told “Sending a child to school is a catastrophe for a family…costs can be as high as USD 100 (EUR 106.7) per year in clothes, books and fees”. Moreover, the perceived benefits of education are low. Among the unemployed in Moldova, the poverty rate for those with no education or 1-4 years of primary education is only slightly higher (at 32%) than for those with a university education (27%). Those with secondary education make up twothirds of all unemployed (64%).53 The level of education thus seems to offer little insurance against unemployment and poverty. Also, having a job does not, per se, guarantee an escape from poverty: 45% of working age persons in Moldova are classified as poor, yet two out of three of them are employed. Set against these unhappy statistics is that, compared to its Western CIS neighbours, Moldova has a high percentage of its population with general secondary or vocational secondary education (45% for general and 27% for vocational, for a total of 72%). For Russia these figures are 24%/12%, and for the Ukraine 31% /9%.54 The Education System Age at which compulsory education starts:
6/7
Age at which compulsory education ends:
15/16
Years of compulsory schooling:
9
Structure of the education system:
x
Nursery school (ages 3-6); one year pre-school preparation (ages 6-7) ISCED level 0
x
Primary school (4 years, ages 7-10) ISCED 1
53
World Bank Poverty Assessment for Moldova, 1999.
54
World Bank Education Strategy Paper, 2000.
112
x
Gymnasium (5 years, ages 1015/16) ISCED 2
x
Lyceum (3 or 4 years) or general secondary (3 years) ISCED 3A
x
Secondary vocational school (ISCED 3C) or Polyvalent VET School levels I and II (ISCED 3C)
x
School of trades (ISCED 4B) or Polyvalent VET School level III (ISCED 4B)
x
University (4-6 years) ISCED 5A
x
College (2-3 years) ISCED 5B
x
Post-university (graduate studies, doctorate, post-doctorate) ISCED 6
Examination/transition points:
Grade 4 national tests in mother tongue language and mathematics; grade 9 examinations at the end of compulsory education [cohort size 2000: 59 920]; lycea entrance exams; grade 11 completion exams. Since 1994, there has also been a Baccalaureate exam at the end of grade 12 in lyceu. In addition to the formal examinations after grades 9 and 11/12, students take school-based “promotion exams” at the end of each secondary school grade where no graduation examination is given. A certificate of full secondary (grade 11) education or the Baccalaureate (grade 12) gives the student the right to apply for higher education. University faculties set their own entrance exams.
Post-compulsory (grade 9) destinations:
In 2000/01, 27 122 students (45%) did not continue. 21 931 (36.6%) went to general secondary or lyceum. 1 854 (3.1%) went to vocational secondary (some after grade 8); 8 467 (14.1%) to Polyvalent vocational 113
secondary; and 546 (0.9%) to 5-year Pedagogical Colleges. See Table 7 below. Higher education:
The Higher Education (HE) sector has grown rapidly since 1995/96 (up by 15%), with most of the growth in part-time and correspondence students (up by 44%). In 2001, there were 49 legally operating university level HEIs (14 of them State universities, 35 private), and 61 tertiary education colleges (43 State and 18 private). Nearly 29% of the 19-22 age cohort is in HE – 22.5% in university and 6.5% in nonuniversity studies. (212 per 10 000 inhabitants in universities, 70 per 10 000 in non-university colleges [1999/2000].)
Special features Moldova shares with other transition countries a number of problems that particularly affect the social sector, including education. A combination of government cut-backs, poverty, conflict, political instability, and a legacy of rigid approaches to education mean that an increasing number of children may not receive the basic education they are entitled to. In 1999, UNICEF’s MONEE Project calculated that one in seven children of compulsory school age does not attend regularly or does not attend at all.55 The main challenges for Moldova’s school system, are:
55
x
Lack of resources, and lack of a coherent strategy to increase efficiency and effectiveness.
x
Falling birth-rates, enrolments and attendance. By 2009, there will be 36% fewer children in primary schools. Drop-outs are estimated at 9% of children in grades 5-9; and only 45% of students continue in school after grade 9 (i.e., after the age of 15/16).
UNICEF ICDC, After the Fall: The human impact of ten years of transition. November 1999. Florence: The MONEE Project, page 6.
114
x
Rising costs for families: “extra” hours in school, textbooks, clothing, shoes. Income, location and “connections” have become important factors in education access.
x
Declining quality of education, in terms of school environment (lack of heating, poor building maintenance, lack of safe and clean sanitary facilities, lack of books, equipment and learning materials); in terms of content (too many subjects taught in too little time; remaining knowledge and memory based rather than performance and skillsbased); and in terms of delivery (reduced number of instructional hours and days, many schools on shift systems, low- or unpaid teaching staff who need to find additional employment to survive). The World Bank found (2001) that the average 5 year old in Moldova now can expect nearly 3 years less education than in 1990/91, and nearly 4 years less than the average OECD 5 year old.56 This means that Moldova is building less human capital for its future than other countries, reducing the nation’s prospects for recovery (see Table 3 below).
x
Political instability and continuing tensions, e.g. with Transdnistria and (to a lesser extent) with Gagauzia. Frequent changes in the top leadership in the Ministry of Education hinder long-term vision and continuity in education policy. Political difficulties (e.g., with separatist groups) take attention away from the interests of children and the quality of their learning.
x
Disparities in provision, affecting rural, poor, disabled, and (some) ethnic minority populations such as Roma. Four-fifths of the children who dropped out of school before finishing their compulsory education in Moldova came from rural areas.57
56
The World Bank, Moldova’s Education Sector: A Financing Strategy to Leverage System-wide Improvement. August 2001, page 59.
57
After the Fall, op.cit. page 10.
115
Statistics58 Data on age-specific population numbers by ethnicity are not available, and thus enrolment rates by ethnicity cannot be calculated. However, data from the Centre for Statistics Moldova (CSM) show that 20% of students enrolled in grades 1-12 come from minority groups. This is shown in Table 4. Data on schools by language of instruction (Table 5) show that in the 1998/99 school year 25% (390) of grade 1-12 schools conducted instruction in minority languages, with Russian language schools predominating. Table 6 shows the number of students by language of instruction. The percentage of students receiving minority language instruction in grades 1-12 (day instruction) and secondary professional education, combined, is virtually identical to the percentage of minority students enrolled (see Table 4): 20%. Thus, it appears that if a minority student is enrolled, he/she seems to receive instruction in his/her language.
58
It is difficult to be consistent in the way Moldovan statistics are presented, because figures sometimes include (and sometimes exclude) Transdnistria, and – as is so often the case – different sources give different answers to the same question. Nevertheless, the statistics included here will give a fairly accurate picture. The reader is also directed to the data available from the Centre for Educational Policy and Statistics (CEPS) at the University of Ljubljana. These were prepared by the Institute for Public policy, Chisinau, in 2001. See References.
116
Table 3. Trends in gross enrolment rates and expected years of education (1990/91-1999/2000) Level of Education
Pre-school (ages 1-5) Pre-school (age 6) Primary (grades 1-4) Lower secondary (grades 5-9) Upper secondary (grades 10-12) Professional and Polyvalent Colleges Universities Expected Years of Education Including pre-school Excluding pre-school OECD (excluding pre-school)
1990/91 67.6 141.9 109.0 111.9 37.1 34.3 21.6 23.6 19.2 15.8
School Year 1997/98 1998/99 31.2 29.8 97.4 91.1 98.6 99.9 87.8 87.5 29.3 31.7 16.9 16.5 10.8 9.7 21.7 23.8 13.9 12.3
13.9 12.8 16.4
1999/2000 23.2 85.7 101.8 91.0 28.8 16.5 8.3 25.2 13.7 12.5
Notes: The rates for 1990/91, but not for 1997/98, 1998/99, or 1999/2000, include the Transdnistria population and enrolments. Gross enrolment rates are calculated by dividing enrolments at a given level by the total population in the age group corresponding to that level. When enrolment rates are greater than 100, it is because those enrolled at a given level of education include children at ages outside the usual age range for that level. Sources: World Bank, MoE, IPP, CEPS Ljubljana.
Table 4. Distribution of grade 1-12 students by gender & ethnicity (1999/2000) Ethnic Group Total
1
Total
Boys
Girls
666 103
331 020
334 453
Moldovans
533 456
265 751
267 705
Ukrainians
44 794
22 361
22 433
Russians
37 865
18 609
19 256
Gagauzians
32 522
16 094
16 428
Bulgarians
11 258
5 612
5 646
Jews
1 090
510
580
Roma (Gypsy)
1 798
1 002
796
Other nationalities 3 320 1 711 Including secondary professional students.
1 609
Source: CSM and Claude Tibi et al., op. cit. 2001.
117
Table 5. Number of grade 1-12 schools by language of instruction and school year Language of Instruction
1995/961996/971997/98 1998/99
Moldovan
1 065
1 081
1 097
1 115
Russian
281
277
277
266
Moldovan and Russian
113
115
111
114
Ukrainian and Russian
7
8
3
3
Bulgarian and Russian
1
1
1
3
Hebrew
2
2
2
2
English
1
1
1
1
1 470
1 485
1 1 493
1 1 505
Turkish Total Schools
Source: Statistical Yearbook. and Claude Tibi et al, op. cit., 2001
Table 6. Number of students by language of instruction, level of education, and school year (thousands) Level of Education
1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99
Pre-school Moldovan language
122.6
110.7
104.4
94.7
37.9
35.5
33.9
30.6
Bulgarian language
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.4
Ukrainian language
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
-
0.1
0.0
0.1
Moldovan language
477.5
485.0
492.0
495.1
Russian language
Russian language
other languages Grades 1-12 (excluding secondary professional) day-time teaching
156.9
156.3
153.9
148.4
Ukrainian language
2.2
1.7
0.3
0.3
Hebrew language
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
other languages
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.6
Moldovan language
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
Russian language
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
27.0
25.8
24.5
25.4
6.4 0.1
6.3 0.1
6.2 -
7.1 -
evening teaching
Secondary professional (day-time teaching) Moldovan language Russian language Moldovan and Russian language
Source: Statistical Yearbook and Claude Tibi et al., op. cit., 2001.
118
Transition flows after compulsory education After grade 9, students take a school-leaving examination as well as (for those who wish to continue in upper secondary) an entrance examination into the school they wish to enter. In 1994/95, the grade 9 cohort was said to be 67 000.59 At that time, about 34.4% of grade9 graduates went to general secondary (GSS) schools, 14.4% to the (at that time, new) lyceu, and a total of 36.2% went to various forms of vocational and technical schools (9.5% to “colleges” offering 4 to 5 year courses, 15% to 3 year technical/vocational schools, and 10.7% to 2 year vocational schools). This indicates that at the time, roughly 70% of students continued post-grade 9. Table 7 shows more reliable figures for the last 2 years. Between 2000 and 2001, the size of the cohort rose by 15% to nearly 60 000, but the number of students continuing in general (GSS) education or in lyceu dropped from 30 810 in 2000 to 21 931 in 2001 (from 60% in 2000 to 36.5% in 2001), while enrolment in secondary professional and polyvalent schools remained constant (10 449 and 10 321). Polyvalent schools, however, were more than four times more popular than professional secondary schools. In summary, in 1995 70% of grade 9 students continued in some kind of education; in 2000, 82% did; while in 2001 this had dropped sharply to 55% of the grade 9 cohort. This indicates that fewer young people are now motivated to remain in school, even though youth unemployment rates are high and it cannot be assumed that many of the youngsters (45%) leaving the system did so because they had found work. The benefits of staying in school are clearly not convincing to many young people and their families (see section on Poverty, above).
59
Without Transdnistria. These figures are not reliable but were the only ones available at the time.
119
Table 7. Transition flows after grade 9, 2000 and 2001 School year
Transition GSS Lyceu post-grade (10- (109 (cohort 11) 11size) 12)
1999/2000
51 145
2000/2001
59 920
14 753
Professional/Voc. secondary (some also take grade 8 students)
16 057
21 931
Polyvalent vocational secondary (2+2+1)
10 449 1 854
8 467
Pedagogical Percentage colleges of grade 9 (5 years cohort post-grade continuing in 9) some type of education 560
82%
546
55%
Sources: CEPS Ljubljana, Statistical Data for Thematic Reviews, and review team calculations.
Table 8. Competition on entrance exams to colleges and higher education institutions Applicants per 100 places
Year 1985
1990
1995
1997
1998
Colleges In all college institutions
212
289
240
175
156
industry
185
236
182
164
108
civil engineering (construction)
162
189
131
185
-
-
-
411
197
193
transport and communications
207
228
178
122
agriculture
190
222
140
143
economics
236
325
355
175
law
117
healthcare
223
363
346
190
117
education
230
340
274
225
256
arts and cinema
229
204
189
150
-
194
227
174
154
134
industry
149
173
156
196
123
agriculture
173
185
150
157
126
law
-
-
228
169
160
economics
-
-
131
132
120
healthcare
194
217
223
210
152
-
-
215
176
173
220 201
264 200
187 198
148 170
100 179
Higher education institutions In all HE institutions
physical education and sport education arts and cinema
Note that applicants for education courses in colleges substantially outnumber those who wish to study education in universities. Source: Statistical Yearbook 1998.
120
Governance, Administration and Management Introduction In general, public perception of the quality of government in Moldova is not favourable. Different reasons are given, but the one most persistently mentioned is corruption, which, according to public surveys, ranks second – after poverty – as Moldova’s greatest problem. International studies place Moldova among a group of countries with a high corruption index – in one 2000 study, for example, Moldova ranked 76th among countries studied, judged to be worse than the Ivory Coast and only slightly better than Ukraine and Venezuela. The causes of corruption are legal (outdated or ineffective legislation); institutional (lack of transparency in decision-making; unofficial connections among top officials); economic (low and often delayed wages for government employees), political (frequent power shifts, vested interests, hidden “agendas”), social and moral (erosion of ethical values among public officials, insufficient pressure form the media, public tolerance – even expectation – of corrupt behaviour). More surprising is that education and health are perceived as Moldova’s most corrupt public sectors, more so than customs, the police force, etc. About 81.5% of households believe that corruption in the education system is likely to happen always, very often, or frequently.60 Most schools, of course, have no choice but to ask parents to pay for a range of routine services, activities, and building maintenance. However, many parents are now expected to supplement teachers’ salaries, to pay for “extra” lessons, additional books and materials. Many also expect to have to make so-called “gratitude” payments to build good relations with teachers or school directors. About 70% of parents believe that unless they make such payments, their child’s grades will suffer. In addition, more than two-thirds (73%) of parents believe that they will need to make “unofficial payments” to secure a university place for their child. Often the “price” for passing a test is openly known; it can vary from USD 50 (EUR 53.3) to USD 500 (EUR 533.4). Considering that the average monthly wage in the education sector is now about USD 35 (EUR 37), it is clear why such bribes are hard to resist.61
60
Centre for Strategic Studies and Reform (CISR), Corruption and Quality of Governance, 2001, page 50 et seq.
61
There was even, until very recently, a web site for students which displayed a "price list" for tests in some institutions.
121
To improve both the actual and perceived quality of education governance in Moldova, it will be necessary to update and strengthen the legal framework, and develop an active, explicit strategy to combat corruption; make decisionmaking more transparent and participatory; raise wages of public officials and teachers; strive for political stability and continuity of leadership; and ensure that neither the government nor the media condone or tolerate corrupt behaviour in public life. Clearly, these are near-impossible tasks in Moldova’s present circumstances. Governance and Administration of Education in Moldova Public institutions (including universities and schools) are created by the Government, not by the Ministry of Education. There is a special Division for Social problems under the Government Chancellary which oversees education issues, and which authorises the opening (or closing) of public institutions at the request, with justification, of the Ministry. Private Higher Education institutions are established by the Chamber for Licensing. ThH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQ 0R( LQ&KLúLQ XLVWKH6WDWHERG\UHVSRQVLEOH for public education in Moldova. The MoE has a number of Departments, Directorates, and Sections, each responsible for specific sectors or functions. At the time of the review team’s visit, the sub-Ministerial levels of governance and management were being restructured, and as of October 2001 the decisions about “territorial reform” had not been finalised. A draft organisation chart follows as Figure 1.
122
Academic Mobility
Boarding Schools Department
General Department Department
123
School Supply and Libraries
Teaching Means
general department
Orientation
education and scientific research
and Professional
High, post graduate
Vocational Education
Department
and Recognition of Diplomas
General Department
Department
National Minorities Education
and Licenses Department
Private Education
Department
Department
Documentation Staff
Teaching, Managing and
Accounting Department
and Administration Department
and School Inspection
International Collaboration
Procurement, operations
General Education Problems
Development Department Teacher Formation and Training
Finance Department
Department
Education General Department
Education System
Information and
Statistics and Planning Department
Learning Assessment
General and Complementary
Analysis, Planning,
Department
Material Resources
VICEMINISTER
VICEMINISTER Economy, Finances and
COUNSELLORS
VICEMINISTER
MINISTER
MINISTRY COLLEGIUM
Figure1. Organisation Chart of the Ministry of Education and Science
The Law on Administrative and Territorial Reform (1998) consolidated the 38 mid-level jurisdictions (mostly raions) into 11 judets including the DXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQRI*DJDX]LDDQGWKH0XQLFLSDOLW\RI&KLúLQ X The new government’s 2000/01 election campaign, however, argued that these judet administrations were too large and too far removed from local concerns. There is now (October 2001) a plan to revert to the earlier raion structure, with approximately 28 raions; some judets may remain as overarching structures covering several of these smaller raions. At the time of this writing, there are thus 4 or 5 levels of educational governance: central Ministry; judet Councils; [and/or raion Councils]; local governments with their mayors (municipalities, cities, villages/communes); and schools. Decentralisation As part of its transition towards a market economy, the newly independent Republic of Moldova put in place the legislation needed to support the establishment of a decentralised fiscal system. Implementation has, however, been erratic, and problems remain. The Constitution (July 29, 1994) assigned legal status and a considerable level of administrative autonomy to local governments. Likewise, the Law on the Budget System and Process (1996) formally made local governments into autonomous entities in the country’s Consolidated Budgetary System. In 1997 and 1998 additional conventions and laws established the basic rules for the functioning of councils62 as sub-national policy-making bodies. Mayor’s offices and judet councils (through their financial divisions) had the power and autonomy to formulate, approve and execute their own budgets, with a resource basis that includes locally raised taxes, shared State taxes, and non-tax revenues, some flexibility in a transfer mechanism between budget lines as well as some authority to borrow money. However, this legal framework was not supported by specific regulations – for example, there still are no clear statements on the functions of, and relations between, the judets and the municipalities. Nor was there any consistent implementation of the fiscal decentralisation policy, or capacity building at local level. During and after the 2000/01 election campaign, these weaknesses became a major political focus for public discontent. As a result, the new Government – instead of persevering towards fiscal decentralisation as 62
"Primarias"/municipalities (local level of government) and Judets (county or intermediate level of government) with elected representatives.
124
envisaged in the framework laws – reversed the policy of fiscal decentralisation. The “Amendment Law”, passed at the end of June 2001, shifted the General Financial Division from the locally elected judet councils to the centrally appointed Prefect’s Office,63 thereby depriving the councils of their legal fiscal autonomy.64 As a further move, a Parliamentary Commission is now reviewing the present territorial division of the country (10 judets, the municipality of &KLúLQ X DQG *DJDX]LD DQG LV OLNHO\ WR UHYHUW WR WKH 6RYLHW-period raion structure, albeit with fewer raions (about 28 instead of 38). It is expected that these raions will in essence be local branches of central government, rather than autonomous units as intended by the 1997/98 legislation. Interviews with government officials during the review team’s visit confirmed a clear intention to reassert vertical control in the social sectors, and to re-centralise payment mechanisms. The review team noted several other “straws in the wind” indicating a general tendency to revert to earlier, pre-1991 policies, values and structures. For example, the team noted an intention to re-introduce Russian as a compulsory subject from grade 2, and a reluctance to sustain the present policy of textbook provision by a variety of publishers on the basis of open competitive bidding. Mention was also made several times of a revival of “Olympiads” for high-ability pupils, and of a plan to establish a “National Programme for Gifted Students”. Of course, the pursuit of excellence is essential in any education system, and “Olympiads” do foster national and school pride. But given Moldovan students’ below-average results in recent international comparison studies,65 it would be more important to focus on improving learning across the whole ability range, and to ensure that Moldova honours its commitment to Education for All.66
63
A phrase introduced in the "Amendment Law" which greatly extends the executive powers of the Prefect’s Office while eliminating financial authority of elected judet Councils.
64
Unpublished paper on Sub-National Governments Finance, The World Bank, July 2001.
65
On the 1999 TIMSS (mathematics and science for 8th graders) study Moldovan students’ scores in both subjects were statistically significantly below the average scores for their counterparts in all participating OECD countries AND in other participating transition countries, with science performance being worse than maths. See section on learning achievement in this review.
66
See UNDP, Republic of Moldova, National Human Development Report 2000.
125
Finance Public financing for education as a percentage of GDP has declined steeply since 1996; by 1999, it was about 50% of its 1996 level.67 Figure 2. From 1994-1999: Education expenditures declined sharply as share of GDP and total public expenditures
25
20
Public Education as % of Total Expenditure
15
10
Total Education as % of GDP
5
0 1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
Source: Tibi, Claude, Berryman, Sue E., and Peleah, Moldova’s Education Sector: A Financing Strategy to Leverage System-wide Improvement." (August 2001.) The World Bank: Washington DC.
Attempts at reducing costs have achieved some savings, but these have not been part of a coherent strategy that would seek to preserve quality and equity. For example, the reduction of instructional days from 210 to 175 per year may save on heating costs, but seriously affects students’ opportunity to learn. Similarly, arrears in the payment of salaries, overdue heating, utilities and maintenance bills, and chronic lack of investment in books, teaching materials and teacher training are taking a heavy toll on the quality of school life. An
67
Claude Tibi, Sue E Berryman, and Michael Peleah, Moldova’s Education Sector: A Financing Strategy to Leverage System-wide Improvement. The World Bank: Washington DC, August 2001, page 6.
126
important World Bank study68 states that they “represent deferred expenses, and a de facto decision to borrow against the future at high rates of interest.” The same study concludes that in relation to OECD standards, Moldova over-spends at pre-school level, under-spends at basic and (general) secondary level, and over-spends on ‘polyvalent’ secondary schools (3-4 times higher than for general secondary), and college/university education. Moreover, within these overall allocations, the distribution of resources by type of expenditure shows an unusual ranking of priorities. A high percentage goes to energy and water costs (21.6% in 1999); a very low share goes to textbooks, materials and staff training (0.6%); and a low share to teacher salaries (30.1%) especially when compared with the share that goes to nonteaching staff (25.1%). Table 9. Total resource allocation by level of education and type of institution (percent)
Level of Education/Type of Institution Pre-school Primary Secondary general
1998 18.4
1999 14.5
1.3
1.1
1.2
40.3
38.8
37.7
Secondary boarding
2.5
2.3
3.4
Boarding handicapped
2.1
1.9
2.6
Polyvalent schools
6.3
5.9
5.9
Professional schools
0.2
1.1
1.3
Colleges
5.9
5.7
6.0 18.0
Universities
11.1
15.9
Extra-curricular institutions
2.9
3.3
3.2
Others
5.2
3.3
4.2
Central Administration
0.5
0.6
1.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total Source: Tibi et al., pages 32 and 34.
68
1997 20.2
Ibid., page 7.
127
Table 10. Structure of total public expenditure by item of expenditure (percent)
Expenditure Item Teacher salaries Non-teaching staff salaries Heating Electricity Water Food Scholarships Textbooks, teaching materials & staff training Repairs Equipment Others Total
1997 23.9 24.5 23.7 3.4 4.3 7.0 3.4 0.8 3.0 1.9 4.0 100.0
1998 26.9 25.1 13.4 4.6 6.0 9.6 3.8 0.9 4.0 2.1 3.7 100.0
1999 30.1 25.1 12.4 5.2 4.0 9.6 4.5 0.6 4.1 0.7 3.8 100.0
Source: Tibi et al., pages 32 and 34.
Arrears have been increasing significantly since 1997, for both state and local budgets and in absolute value as well as relative to total actual expenditure. In 1999, arrears were 70% of total education expenditures. Salaries accounted for nearly half of total arrears, by far the bigger share (151.4 million MDL) (EUR 12 million) for staff funded by local budgets, with a much lower (but still increasing) share at state level (19.2 million MDL) (EUR 1.5 million). In some localities, teachers can remain unpaid for as long as 6 or 7 months; according to the Teachers’ Union of Moldova, which represents more than 98% of teachers, “some mayoralties have not paid salaries for 28 months”; as a consequence, thousands of teachers have been forced to leave the profession or have had to resort to asking parents to pay for so-called “additional hours”.69 The system’s internal efficiency, it must be said, is improving. Staff/student ratios (especially non-teaching staff/student ratios) have increased; savings are being achieved in heating and utilities; pre-schools are starting to be integrated into primary schools; and the number of pre-schools and secondary VET schools is shrinking, though not yet fast enough, considering the decline in enrolment. The overall view, however, is of an educational system that is fiscally unsustainable, of deteriorating quality, and increasingly inequitable because access depends more and more on family income and urban/rural disparities. Clearly, continuing on the same basis is not an option. The World Bank has set 69
Interview, 21 September 2001.
128
out a number of scenarios aimed at rationalising education financing, and is in discussion with the Ministries of Education and Finance about alternative strategies for improvement. All will require fundamental (and probably unpopular) changes. All will require a great deal of political courage and a steady nerve on the part of the national and local leadership; but there is no alternative. Finance flows The State (central) budget, as approved by Parliament, covers boarding schools for orphans and for children with disabilities; colleges and universities; various national institutions under MoE’s jurisdiction; and those professional and tertiary institutions that are under other ministries (Justice, Health, Agriculture etc.). The State (through the Ministry of Finance) also makes transfers to judets to complement local taxes and to equalise public expenditure among jurisdictions. These transfers are based on national norms, and are earmarked (e.g., for salaries). Judet budgets are approved by judet Councils. judet budgets are responsible for lyceu, boarding secondary schools, vocational and arts schools within their jurisdiction. Primarias (municipalities) are responsible by law for pre-schools, primary and secondary schools (grades 1-12), gymnasia, sports and cultural activities. Roughly 65% of expenditures in education, health, housing and public utilities are financed from local government budgets. Education absorbs about 40% of local budget resources; health care about 20%; social protection, housing, and public utilities between 5 and 6%. Schools do not have control over their own budgets, except such extra resources as they are able to generate themselves, e.g. by renting out space or selling products or services. Curriculum Introduction The transition process in Moldova is proving more difficult than first thought. Despite a series of clear-cut reform plans developed between 1994 and 1997 and some encouraging steps undertaken in that period, the economical reform and stabilisation strategies of the 1990s have not lived up to expectations.
129
Similarly, public policy over the last 10 years has placed great emphasis on education to energise the economy by producing a modern, skilled and educated workforce for Moldova – but these expectations, too, have been slow to materialise. Educational policy documents in Moldova In 1994/95, the Moldovan Parliament and Government developed an overall education reform policy, reflected in three basic documents:
70
x
The Conception concerning the “Development of Education in the Republic of Moldova” (adopted by Parliament on 15 September 1994).
x
The Education Law (adopted by the Parliament in July 1995).
x
The National Programme for Education Development (1995-2000).70
x
According to these, the core components of the education reform (as defined at that time) were:
x
Reform of the education structure towards a system comprising a mandatory one-year pre-school, four-year primary school, and fiveyear gymnasium, plus an optional upper secondary level offering a general lycea track and a flexible 1.5-5 years vocational educational track with three completion levels or exit points.
x
Reform of the education programme, i.e. curricula, teaching materials, textbooks and teaching methodology at all levels.
x
Reform of teacher training and retraining.
x
Introduction of new education standards and assessment of student learning.
In the Romanian version of the document the year mentioned here is 2005. Meanwhile in May 1996 a draft revised version of this document was issued, incorporating the proposals made in the Consultants’ earlier Reports on Curriculum Development and Textbooks and Teaching Materials Production (see para 3.4.2, Actions 3, 5, 7.3 and 7.5 of the draft revised National Programme).
130
As a consequence, a Government of Moldova/World Bank (GoM/WB) Education Project started in 1997 with a range of ambitious objectives, some of them – perhaps unexpectedly – attained, against all odds. The deep economic and fiscal crisis, however, has badly affected education in the last few years. Description of the curriculum71 system: facts and figures Moldova’s Ministry of Education (MoE, 2001) states72 that the “National Curriculum Framework” – as an educational policy and strategy document – takes into account the country’s general objectives in education. It “aims at assuring the development of human personality in accordance with the personal needs and interests of the students as well as the expectations of a democratic society”. Usually, however – and Moldova is not an exception – curriculum is just one factor in an overall set of conditions that determine quality education; the important role curriculum has to play must be taken in conjunction with other aspects of the educational system such as central, local and school governance; all should be viewed from an integrative perspective aimed at producing highquality education in Moldova’s classrooms. Current Status of Curriculum Design and Implementation in Moldova73 According to the Education Law and current regulations in the framework of the Government of Moldova/World Bank (GoM/WB) Project, curriculum issues (policy and implementation procedures) are addressed and resolved at the level of MoE and its underlying structures. The MoE – through its Collegium or “Managing Council” – generally has a policy-making role, determining 71
“Curriculum” – as used in this chapter – includes the principles, underlying educational philosophy, goals, content and concrete functioning of the “instructional programme” in the classroom, as well as the written and other materials needed in support of instruction. It also includes the testing and evaluation regimen used for assessment and evaluation of the success in attaining curriculum objectives.
72
Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei, Curriculum National. Planurile de Invatamint pentru Invataminatul Primar, Gimnazial, Mediu Genral si Liceal. 2001-2002 (‘National Curriculum. Framework Curricula for Primary, Lower and UpperSecondary Education’), /\FHP&KLúLQ X3DJH
73
Mostly qualitative assessment may be given in this chapter in the absence of sound quantitative data (see Statistical data for background purposes of OECD review. Country: Moldova, Centre For Educational Policy Studies, Ljubljiana, August, 2001).
131
educational philosophy as well as the main directions of education for the nation. The MoE periodically issues a general educational policy document entitled “Conception (Philosophy) of Education in the Republic of Moldova”.74 In its 2000 version, the “Conception” contains an important chapter on the National Curriculum. First, this chapter identifies the values and attitudes promoted by the national curriculum; second, it defines the main strands underlying this educational reality: the “cultures” of appropriate healthy life, private and family relations, gender, ecology, moral, aesthetic, national, and civic domains and their related educational indicators. In terms of professional analysis, irrespective of the possible agreement or disagreement with the ideas it promotes, the review team considers that this is one of the best educational policy documents in the SEE region as it aims at assuring a complex and coherent vision of the whole system. In terms of a national curriculum, the tremendous role such a document can have in an education system that is in continuous change. What is less clear is to what extent the Communist Government, appointed after elections on the 25 February 2001 does or does not support this document or at least some of its basic prerequisites. In 1997 the MoE established the National Council for Curriculum and Evaluation (NCCE). It is made up of a number of educational policy makers and professionals. The role of the NCCE – as planned in the framework of the GoM/World Bank Project – is to design curriculum policy and documents, to decide on implementation and to permanently check on the quality of the curriculum process as a whole. Initially the NCCE was seen as a purely technical body, but during the last 3-4 years its functions have shifted towards educational policy-making. According to the discussions and observation made during the OECD mission, this shift is perceived very positively by Moldovan educational stakeholders, as they felt the need of a professional education policy-making body while the MoE as a whole is mostly seen as a managerial and monitoring body. The NCCE has a series of “commissions” or working groups by curriculum areas, domains, subjects etc. The members (5 to 7) are mostly teachers or subject specialists, sometimes university staff who gradually have become professional “curriculum developers”. Co-operation and cross74
Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei, Conceptia Educatiei in Republica Moldova (‘Conception of Education in the Republic of Moldova’), /\FHP&KLúLQ X
132
disciplinary co-ordination have thus far been good. The process has involved (to some extent) class teachers and principals throughout Moldova, which has helped to prevent frustration among school staff. These commissions design the draft subject curricula and implementation guidelines, conduct national debates about them, carry out implementation plans, pilot implementation, and finalise and review curricula according to feedback from schools, teachers, students, parents etc. Draft curricula produced by the commissions are submitted for approval to the NCCE and the Collegium. These institutional structures and mechanisms have functioned well up to 2001, contributing to the impressive results of the curriculum reform in Moldova. Indeed, according to all parties met during the OECD mission (representatives of the MoE, teachers, students, parents, other stakeholders), the curriculum reform has been considered as the most successful sectoral reform in the framework of the educational changes in Moldova. It also had a positive effect in reforming the evaluation and assessment, teacher training, and management of the education system. The OECD mission is therefore concerned that the new Ministry leadership has changed the membership of the NCCE, reducing the members to 6 people only rather than expanding the membership to include community representatives, as intended under the project. A World Bank mission (October 2001) also raised this concern, noting for example that the NCCE membership no longer includes practising teachers. Assurances were given at that time that this would be rectified, and that the NCCE (which had met only sporadically since the change in Government) would resume its regular meetings. The Curriculum Structure A National Curriculum for primary was issued in 1996, adopted and implemented in 1997/98. It replaces the curriculum that had been in place for the previous 10 years. The primary curriculum reflects the philosophy of the National Curriculum Framework and its associated components. Indeed, the development of a new national curriculum had already begun during the preparation of the Moldova GoM/World Bank Education Project – and was to a large extent in place by the time the Project came on-stream. The best examples are the core “regulatory documents” published in 1997 that ensured the frame of reference for all further evolutions in curriculum: (a) Core Curriculum: Guidelines for Curriculum Developers; (b) Core Curriculum: Regulatory Documents. Based on these, the following set of
133
curriculum documents have been prepared, issued and gradually implemented between 1997-2000: x
National Curriculum Framework (educational philosophy, list of subjects and time schedules for the whole education system) (19982001).
x
New Subject Curricula for Lower Secondary (1999/2000), adopted and implemented under the GoM/World Bank Project.
x
Implementation Guidelines for all subjects taught in lower secondary education (1999/2000).
x
New Subject Curricula for Upper Secondary (1997-2000), developed and implemented with Moldova Open Society Foundation financing and co-ordination through Pro-Didactica (the most important OSF education spin-off in Moldova); 1997/98 – curricula approved; 1998/99: grade 10 implemented; 1999/2000: grade 11 implemented.
x
Guidelines, curriculum support materials etc.
The new national curriculum has two main components: the core curriculum, compulsory for all students, and – for the first time in Moldova – a clearly defined school-based curriculum. A 70% compulsory core is complemented by a 30% locally (generally school) determined component. This change is meant to allow for students’ individual abilities or interests, to cater for more able students or to accommodate to local needs or interests. At present, ‘curriculum’ is generally perceived not as a simple ‘document’ that regulates the system but as the real teaching and learning process that happens in or outside the school. As such, it is completely different from the previous “programmes of study” that encouraged rote learning and contentbased education. The new national curriculum is open and flexible, and promotes student-centred approaches, active learning and higher order learning skills, critical thinking, and questioning attitude of students. In terms of educational policy analysis, the Moldovan curriculum is one of the best realisations of the reform processes in the SEE region. The formal institutional structures and mechanisms that have been created in order to develop and review curriculum, as well as the quality of the “written curriculum” documents themselves, the Moldovan curriculum meets all European standards in this specific domain. However, some of the subject curricula are still considered overcrowded, and some revisions concerning the 134
workload they impose on students should be carefully examined. The list of subjects can also be a matter for further discussion. Are all subjects of the curriculum really necessary for all students, especially in light of the reduced instructional time from 210 to 175 days per school year? Implementation In principle, the judet (department) inspectorates and schools are supposed to implement the national curriculum and the subject curricula. Even if there is a clear trend – extremely well sustained by central and local authorities – to bring and implement a coherent curriculum system for the country as a whole, this process has so far proved very slow and difficult. The MoE has a special directorate that works on managing and monitoring the implementation process. Interesting studies have been carried out in this respect. Indeed, the monitoring process carried out by the MoE has involved all judets of the country, even though it is still unclear to what extent the current Ministry is using the information collected. Municipal and judet directorates and inspectorates have an important role in curriculum implementation. They have developed special monitoring instruments that are not only reliable but also very well received by teachers. Compared to other countries visited in the SEE region, Moldovan inspectors and local educational authorities seem to be not only the most supportive and reform-oriented but also the most competent in curriculum – related issues. Many of them are real promoters of the new curriculum. This is probably one of the explanations of a generally positive perception of the inspectors among teachers; an aspect difficult to find in other countries visited by OECD review teams. An estimation of the current stage of curriculum implementation is presented in the following table: Table 11. Implementation of national curriculum
Implementation Issues
Primary
Adoption of the ideas of the new curriculum
Grades 1-4 Grades 1-4 100%
Coverage/dissemination of the curriculum through new textbooks Teachers trained in the new curriculum Availability and use of new instructional materials
new
55%
Source: OECD review team, 2001.
135
Lower secondary Grades 5-9
Upper secondary
Grades 5-6
Grades 10-11
Approx. 70%
Approx. 20% (no reliable data) Grades 10-11: no data
Grades 5-6: 90% Grades 7-9: no data
Grades 10-11/12
At the same time, there are serious problems and issues concerning implementation and functioning of the curriculum process (see the section on issues and recommendations). Some of them have been generated by the socalled “internal factors” (i.e. aspects due to the normal difficulties of any curriculum change process), but others can be explained by the key dilemma facing the current Government: whether or not to continue the reform process which is based on European practice? And if not, how to manage the shift, and what kind of philosophy and “reform content and values” should be put forward in order to replace the current ones? Textbooks Textbooks for all primary grades and all lower secondary education are being published in both Romanian and Russian, under the GoM/World Bank loan. As of November 2001, a total of 123 textbooks and teachers’ guides have been published in 59 subjects for grades 2-9, with a further 37 titles under contract and 114 titles out to bid, covering grades 1-9 – a total of more than 5 million books. Books for Ukrainian, Gagauzian and Bulgarian-language students are also included. This is a remarkable achievement, especially since a “revolving” system has been devised to ensure that this initial investment is recovered through rental fees which in turn are used to replace the books in due course. This system involves a competition among different publishing houses (state-owned and private); a single textbook is selected for a certain grade and subject. Textbooks are then produced and allocated to schools according to the number of students, and paid for by a textbook rental scheme whereby the books belong to the school but are “rented” to students annually at a percentage of the total cost of the book. The funds generated through this rental scheme accumulate in a revolving Textbook Rental Fund which will pay for replacement of the textbook at the end of its 3-5 year life-span. This system reduces the annual financial burden on parents while ensuring that money is available for replacements in due course. The scheme is considered successful, in that a high proportion (approximately 89%) of rental fees are in fact collected from parents, and most teachers and parents support the scheme because it offers a low-cost alternative to having to buy books at full price. The scheme also allows for provision of free textbooks to students from poor families, although this latter provision (to be administered locally) is not yet functioning satisfactorily since local authorities do not have the necessary funds. Currently, the GoM/World Bank Project Management Unit (PMU) organises the competition; a Textbook Approval Committee decides on the winners, according to the quality of the manuscripts and the financial conditions 136
put forward by the publishing houses. There is a certain frustration among publishing houses who believe that sometimes factors other than quality and price decide on the winners. A certain worry has also been expressed about some new regulations issued by the present political leadership, which indicate a tendency to return to the previous monopoly of state-run publishing houses and thereby re-assert state control over textbook provision. The textbooks for primary grades 1 and 2 were published before the start of the Project based on the new curriculum which had been elaborated for these grades. (In fact, the curricula reform began in Moldova in 1995). The rest of the textbooks remained based on the old curriculum. Beginning with September 1988 the first new textbooks for grade 3 were published under the project, and in 1999 the rest of the textbooks for grade 3 and new textbooks for grade 4 were published. In 2000 and 2001 new textbooks for grades 5 and 6 were published. By September 1, 2002 new textbooks for grades 1, 2 and 7 will be published and in 2003 for grades 8 and 9. All of these textbooks are included in the textbook rental scheme. Starting with 2002 two alternative textbooks have been approved for grades 1, 2 and 7. Despite many difficulties, Moldova is quite advanced in the aspect of curricular reform. All schools will receive a free copy of each alternative textbook; the books themselves will not be included in the rental scheme. As for the upper secondary textbooks, they are also selected competitively. Students buy those books, so the market can be considered “free”. New books for grades 10 and 11 were issued in September 2001. Textbooks for minorities are published in a variety of languages (Ukrainian, Bulgarian and Gagauzian). In Moldova’s precarious financial situation, it seems wasteful that some of these (relatively expensive) books are currently published in greater numbers than necessary, and warehoused for years instead of being distributed to students. One possible reason is that these books tend to be three to four times more expensive than majority-language ones, while at the same time the minority students for whom they are intended are among those least able to pay the rental fees.
137
Table 12. Selected titles printed, left in warehouse, and value of unused books
Grade 4 4 4 4
No. in storage75
Value of (stored) bks(MDL)
Subject
No. printed
Unit cost (MDL)
Ukrainian language Gagauzian language Bulgarian language Romanian language
7 000 5 000
31.09 37.15
5 944 1 496
184 799 55 576
1 500 81 000
138.49 13.37
441 18 585
61 075 248 481
6 6
Ukrainian language Gagauzian language
3 000 3 600
136.00 128.00
2 137 725
290 632 92 800
6 6
Bulgarian language Romanian language
1 500 68 750
248.00 26.00
612 13 180
151 776 342 680
Source: MoE, "Textbooks Stored at Mold-Didactica", November 2001.
Table 13. Cost of a full set of textbooks by grade and language Grade
Current rental fees by language (in MDL)
Romanian
Russian
Harmonised rental fee (in MDL))
Ukrainian
Gagauzian
Bulgarian
All Languages
Grade 3
13.2
13.3
28.7
31.7
74.5
14.8
Grade 4
25.6
26.3
41.7
44.7
94.7
27.6
Grade 5
34.7
26.8
57.5
60.6
107.7
35.4
Source: MoE rental scheme programme; World Bank calculations, 2001
Another possible reason is that parents do not want their children to be educated in a minority language and are therefore unwilling to rent the textbooks.76
75
As of November 2001.
76
Most ethnic Bulgarian students study in Russian, even in Gagauzia. A small Bulgarian pedagogical college and school were set up in Taraclia, the only town with a Bulgarian majority, and Taraclia has resisted absorption into the neighbouring Cahul judet. However, the overall demand for Bulgarian-language books is not strong.
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Better local distribution of free textbooks to students from poor families would help; so would bringing the print-runs of minority-language books in line with the number of minority language students in the system.77 Several important inferences can be drawn. First, there is no real shortage in terms of numbers of textbooks printed. Second, the unit prices of textbooks vary enormously – in grade 3, for example, a mathematics book costs less than 2 MDL (EUR 0.2) while a Bulgarian language book costs 126 MDL (EUR 10). Third, many books remain unused in warehouse storage – and not only minority-language books, but mainstream textbooks as well. Many thousands of books for Romanian and Russian language, mathematics, biology and history remain un-distributed, representing a value of more than MDL 10 million (EUR 790 232). Teachers, students and parents believe that in the future debate should shift from current disputes on the mechanism to issues like the quality and design of the textbooks, their authorship (still considered too ‘academic’ at the moment), and to the shortage of supplementary instructional materials. Teaching and Quality Assurance The lack of some textbooks and the shortage of others have a critical effect on teaching and learning. They affect the depth of understanding and the development of higher order skills, as well as the preparation of students for their future social insertion, in spite of the willingness of most of the teachers to do their best. As mentioned before, monitoring – and sometimes supervision – of quality in ‘delivering the curriculum’ falls under the responsibility of central and local educational authorities. School principals and local specialists in the methodology of teaching ensure the supervision of quality in classrooms. However, quality control is deeply affected by serious financial constraints. In the Moldovan system, there are a number of “pilot schools”; some of them created by the MoE and some others being mostly the result of work of a number of local or international NGOs. For example, the “Step by Step” curriculum or new methods promoted by Pro-Didactica in Cupertino with MoE – which encourage “interactive learning” and more parental involvement – are used in many schools. Teacher training for supporting the implementation of the 77
For example, there are 16 000 Bulgarian-language textbooks in stock just for grades 3-6, although there are only 11 000 students registered as Bulgarianlanguage minorities in the entire grade 1-12 school system.
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new curriculum has also started some years ago. As a result, in more and more classes the didactic approach in the classroom is student-centred and challenging; most schools now try to engage students as active participants in the learning process. But because teachers have little or no exposure to foreign experiences – except those offered in the framework of the GoM/World Bank Project – high-quality school-based in-service training should be encouraged, to sustain the current (unexpectedly positive) motivation of teachers and to develop an authentic ‘questioning and reflective attitude’ among them. Learner Assessment and Examinations Introduction The Education Law and other policy documents make it clear that assessment should not be confined to “testing” of learner achievement alone, but should cover a whole range of evaluative activities designed to monitor the overall quality of education in Moldova. However, the mechanisms needed for efficient monitoring of educational quality are not yet in place, although some elements (quality assurance in higher education, national assessments in primary schools, examinations in secondary schools) do now exist. During the preparation phase (1994-96) of the GoM/World Bank Education Reform Project, it was decided that the strong features of the Moldovan tradition – specifically the tight, immediate relationship between teaching and learning through school-based (often oral ) assessment – should be retained and built upon, rather than replaced by a strongly external system. At the same time, the Ministry agreed it had a responsibility to obtain reliable information about overall educational quality in relation to new national standards and curricula, and therefore needed to have ways to collect such information. A mixture of external and internal assessment was therefore proposed, and incorporated into the Project. Until 1997, a welter of “control”, promotion, and graduation tests were prescribed by an annual Ministerial Order. This was replaced (1997) with a simpler system requiring only end-of-cycle examinations at the end of grades 4, 9 and 11/12. Nevertheless, the format of these examinations, and the way in which they were designed and administered, had many serious flaws which prevented this simplified system from providing the kind of reliable information required, both for individual pupils and for the system as a whole. The key issues were:78
78
J Crighton, World Bank/Moldova General Education Project, Consultant Report
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x
Students were over-tested yet under-“assessed”, in terms of formative or diagnostic information and the acquisition of higher level thinking skills;
x
Examinations and classroom tests were heavily content- and knowledge-based;
x
The Ministry-set written examinations were of low technical quality: they lacked validity (in particular face validity), reliability, and comparability in terms of difficulty levels and over time;
x
There was a severe lack of expertise and examples of good practice;
x
There was a vital need to synchronise the introduction of new-style assessment types with the introduction of new curricula and textbooks;
x
There was no identifiable “cadre” of trained measurement specialists with adequate time and resources to develop such new style assessment types, and no clear lines of accountability for examination quality within the MoE.
The present system of examinations and assessment in Moldova. Primary education (grades 1-4) The assessment of student learning is entirely school- and classroombased. Teachers assess their own students using a variety of methods, including oral questioning, short quizzes or end-of-chapter tests, work done in class, or homework. Marks are entered into each student’s individual “diary” or notebook. Three times per year, an overall mark for each subject is given; these are aggregated into a final mark at the end of the school year. Some schools send end-of-year reports to parents, but often each student simply brings her/his “diary” home and parents are asked to sign it, to show that they have seen the child’s marks. Normally, students in primary are promoted with their classmates, unless they are falling seriously behind in which case they either receive special help, are retained for a year in the same grade, or are assessed for possible placement in a special education programme.79
on Assessment and Examinations. Cambridge: May 1996, page 6. 79
A recent Ministerial decision (May 2001) specified that children are not to be
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Grade 4 tests The first semi-external exam comes at the end of grade 4, where children sit “control” tests in mother tongue language and in mathematics. These tests are based on the new national curriculum, and are set by subject specialists in the Department for Evaluation and Examinations (DEE). The question papers are pre-tested, and the final version(s) printed and distributed to the schools in sealed envelopes. On the day of the exam, every child receives his/her own copy of the question paper, as was intended in the Project objectives. Teachers mark the tests according to instructions given by the Department for Evaluation and Examinations (DEE), and results are collected and announced to students very quickly (often within a week). The DEE collates and analyses all received results for the grade 4 examination, and prepares a summary report which is presented verbally to a meeting of the MoE Collegium. A written version of this report is also prepared, and sent back to the schools via the inspectorates for feedback to teachers. Formal examinations: Grades 9 and 11/12 Within the existing system of “complete” (11-year) education, formal examinations occur at two points: at the end of compulsory education (end of grade 9), and at the end of grade 11 to mark the end of complete secondary education. Since 1994, there is also a Baccalaureate examination at the end of grade 12 in the new lyceum. The primary function of all these exams is certification, not selection. According to the Education Law, the final responsibility for examinations in pre-university education lies with the MoE. The present legislation on examinations is not expected to change in the near future. Approximately 65 000 students take the examination at the end of compulsory education (grade 9). About 90% of them pass. In principle, the transition from grade 9 to full (11-year) secondary education is open to every student, but many secondary schools have their own entrance procedure – for example, an entrance exam, a competition, or an admission interview. held back even if they have failing marks. This decision was based on a finding that students who have to repeat a grade are often de-motivated and drop out of school altogether. The review team has, however, some concerns that children may simply be passed from grade to grade falling ever more behind. No systematic remedial help is available to students who are struggling, so that problems are just deferred from year to year, rather than resolved as soon as they arise.
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A certificate of full secondary education (grade 11) gives the right to apply for higher education, but not automatic access because university faculties set their own entrance exams. In 2001, about 36.5% of the grade 9 cohort continued into 11-year general secondary or 12-year lyceum, and 16.7% into some form of vocational or technical education (see Table 7 above). The Baccalaureate after grade 12 of the lycea had 11 700 candidates in 2001; 98% of them passed. In 2001, of the 3 921 students who entered higher education on the state order (financed from the State budget), 60% came from lyceums, 30% from general secondary schools, and 10% from colleges. Students not paid for by the State have contracts with various state institutions, or they have private contracts (for example, with employers), or they pay for their studies themselves. Until recently, one of the problems with the formal examinations at grade 9 and grade 11/12 was the low social value attached to them. This was due to the uncertain and uneven quality and level of the examinations. In addition, the high pass level obscured more specific information about the achievement of individual students. With the rapidly improving professional capacity of the DEE, the quality and therefore the value of the exams is increasing, and it is hoped that in particular the Baccalaureate (at the end of grade 12 in lyceum) will become a socially respected qualification that is valued by employers and universities as well as by students and parents. But for now, the most socially important, “high stakes” examinations are the entrance (receiving) examinations, both for grade 10 (especially for lycea entrance) and for higher education. These entrance examinations still are completely non-standard in that every institution sets its own, creating obvious problems of quality control, access and equity as well as presenting a “double hurdle” for students. Moreover, university entrance exams and procedures (such as special “preparation” classes by the same professors who set the exams) are notoriously subject to bribery and corruption (see section on Quality of Governance in this review). There was even a web site for students which displayed “price lists” for tests in a number of institutions. The only way forward seems to be the development of a credible, external, independent examination service that is perceived to be fair and “clean” not only by the participating schools and universities but by the students and their parents. Unfortunately, the present DEE is too small and under-resourced to develop and deliver such a service.
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Issues , Barriers and Recommendations in Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment. Issue: Re-establishing the Institutional Structures and Mechanisms for Curriculum Design and Implementation. Currently the formal institutional structures and mechanisms created in the framework of the GoM/World Bank reform in order to develop, implement and gradually review curriculum have stopped functioning as intended. After the 2001 election, the National Council for Curriculum and Evaluation (NCCE) in essence ceased to function (in practice if not officially), so that it is difficult to understand how subject-based commissions could continue to work and how – generally speaking – the sustainability of the whole institutional structure would be assured after the GoM/World Bank project ends. First, the biggest danger is to consider that the NCCE and its working groups have in essence “finished” their work with the implementation of the National Curriculum. But curriculum development is not a “product” but a process that does not finish once a certain curriculum is in use. Second, the current officials (or new political representatives) from MoE are not professionally experienced enough to perform the tasks assigned to them in curriculum reform, unless they are willing to co-operate with the experts trained during the GoM/World Bank Project. The review team fears that at present they “contribute” to a re-fragmentation of the curriculum by adopting again a heavily subject-based and “programmes of study” focused approach to curriculum development and implementation. Recommendation Take a clear-cut decision about the institutional structure and mechanism aimed at permanently developing and reviewing curriculum. This might be organised as a permanent department in the Ministry, an external agency, or a consultative body. It should include, first of all, professional experts in curriculum development, selected according to a set of professional criteria. Their task would be to continually develop and review the National Curriculum, as foreseen in the original framework. Only in this way will the continuity of the reform process be assured, and “European standards” met. Issue: Reconciling the reduced number of school days per year with students’ curriculum load Evidence shows that the number of lessons/days that students in Moldova spend in school is far below OECD averages, especially for grades 1 to4. There
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were compelling economic reasons for reducing the number of instructional days, for example reducing the budget for teacher salaries as well as heating costs. However, it has seriously affected the quality of education in the classroom. The number of subjects is the same, while the number of weekly lessons per subject is less than before. Maintaining such a large number of subjects means that learning is necessarily superficial with no time for teachers and students to reflect on concepts and practice skills. For example, one mathematics teacher told the team that she now had only one lesson period (45 minutes) to introduce the essential concept of x2 and was then obliged to move on to the next chapter before her students had a chance to absorb and practice what they had learned. Reports at the end of December 2001 stated80 that 80 schools were working in unheated classrooms and 6 were closed from the beginning of December due to lack of fuel. In the previous school year, about 300 schools closed from mid-December 2000 until the end of January with another 100 institutions remaining closed until early February. It is said that (some of) these schools recovered lost time on Saturdays and during the autumn and spring vacations; nevertheless, schooling in winter can be an uncomfortable and oftendisrupted experience for many children and teachers. The combination of an overloaded curriculum with sharply reduced instructional time inevitably affects the quality of learning. Recommendation Either the number of school days should be raised again urgently, or the curriculum should be adapted by reducing the number of subjects taught (not the number of hours per subject, as is now the case). The review team understands that the latter recommendation may mean that some teachers lose their jobs, but in times of tough decisions it is the quality of student learning – not the maintenance of teachers’ jobs – that should be protected. Also, studies have shown that in practice there are only very limited savings in heating costs because many schools keep their heating systems going when hours (or days) are cut.81 The new instructional plan, submitted to the Collegium in March 2002, gives each grade level an additional 2 hours per week. While this is a step in the right direction, such abrupt and arbitrary changes (up or down) without
80
Chisinau, 27 December 2001 (BASA-general).
81
Claude Tibi et al., Moldova’s Education Sector: A Financing Strategy to Leverage System-wide Improvement." (August 2001.) The World Bank: Washington DC.
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clear adjustments of the curriculum or to textbooks create frustration and confusion among classroom teachers. Issue: Synchronising curriculum development and the publication of textbooks The new subject curricula were published between 1997-2000. Most teachers have adopted these curricula, and are well trained to implement them. However, they have to wait for new textbooks to be written to support the new curricula. The situation is more than critical as far as the lower secondary grades 7-9 are concerned. As mentioned before, even if the GoM/World Bank’s initial model is strictly followed, then textbooks for grade 7 will enter classrooms in 2002, for grade 8 in 2003, and grade 9 in 2004. Most teachers and educational authorities are dissatisfied with this situation. For grades 7-9, there is even a shortage of “old” Moldovan textbooks; and in any case these books are outdated. It is not clear to the review team how, and with what materials, students are expected to learn in grades 7-9. At best, they use “reform-based” Romanian textbooks (published after 1996 in Romania); at worst, they resort to pre-reform Romanian or Russian textbooks. The new curricula assume that teachers will use separate teachers’ guides and supplementary materials, and these are not covered by the rental scheme but must be bought at full price. For example, one teacher said that for grades 3 and 4 the rental fees were approximately 50 MDL (EUR 4), but teachers had to collect 100 MDL (EUR 7.9) to cover all didactic materials they needed. There are “test collections” available as well, but these too cost 12 MDL (EUR 10) for each grade. As a result, in some classes about one-third of the students may not have a book and many teachers have to work without guides or supplementary materials. Recommendations Resolve the textbook provision problem for grades 7-9 as quickly as possible. Textbooks should enter classrooms much earlier than first planned. The speeded-up mechanism by which textbooks for grades 10-11 were issued in the autumn of the 2000/01 school year could be a good example. A second recommendation is to take a critical look at the sizes of printruns compared to actual demand, especially (but not only!) with regard to books printed in minority languages. These books tend to be very expensive, and many remain undistributed despite the favourable terms of the rental scheme.
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Finally, some thought should be given to making use of the many thousands of warehoused books (see Textbooks, above), for example by making them available free to children of poor families. In particular, it would seem important to ensure that teachers’ guides and supplementary materials are put to use in classrooms, rather than be kept in storage. Issue: History and Mother Tongue With the arrival of the new Government, old discussions have started again about the teaching of history and mother tongue, two subjects that previously have had a clear status in the National Curriculum. Now, politicians claim that instead of “History of Romanians”, “Moldovan History” should be studied, and the name of the mother tongue should be “Moldovan” and not “Romanian”. The last statement is against all scientific evidence that shows there is not a Moldovan language nor a Moldovan dialect of Romanian language. Instead of being involved in a politicised debate that should be a matter for scholars and scientists, teachers and students should be left to focus on the quality of the teaching/learning activity in the classroom. The team is concerned about a general tendency to “politicise” the curriculum; for example, a State Commission appears to have been set up (April 2002) to resolve the controversy about the teaching of history, but it could not be discovered whether this State Commission has history teachers or curriculum specialists among its members, nor whether the decisions made by this State Commission bypass the regular curriculum development process set up under the NCCE. Recommendations Make clear decisions about the status and content of contentious subjects, according to scientific research and evidence. This is the only way to prevent political conflicts and antagonism. Political bias should not be reflected in classroom teaching and learning. For example, current-day professional literature and empirical evidence show that attainment targets and standards in learning mother tongue(s) (MT) and national literature(s) (NL) are relatively the same all over the world – irrespective of the name of that specific MT. Generally speaking, the teaching/learning process of any MT in the world aims at developing appropriate social communication skills, fostering a personal scale of values – national and other values – understood within a framework of tolerance. From a pedagogical point of view, things are more than clear: based on a conceptual outlook, it is clearly a scientific issue, and not a political one about the name of the national language. As for the teaching of history, the International Commission on Education in the 21st Century singled out, as the first pillar on which education should be 147
founded, ‘learning to live together by developing an understanding of others and their history, traditions and spiritual values’.82 Re-casting the history curriculum in Moldova in narrowly nationalistic terms seems counter to this aim, and counter to the need for a broader, more tolerant and more self-critical view of the country’s historical context in the SEE region and in Europe. Issue: The Quality of Learning, Access and Equity The present educational systems in many FSU countries – Moldova included – often place excessive curricular emphasis on selectivity, the performance of the best students (see the renewed interest in Olympiads in Moldova) and on “excellence” of a small number of students. The learning needs of average and disadvantaged pupils (by social strata, gender, ethnicity, or location) are easily neglected. In Moldova a general lack of interest in education, dropout, the lack of hope in the future are characteristic for important segment of the populations at risk (rural and disadvantaged areas, children from poor families, orphans). The result is that education, despite its substantial accomplishments in promoting learning achievement among “the best” students, can fail to fulfil its role as a source of equity among social groups. The danger is that education will be very good indeed for a few, and unsatisfactory for the majority. The relatively poor performance of Moldovan students in a recent international comparative study is one of the most serious issues of current-day Moldovan education. Recommendations The MoE and the whole pedagogical community should seriously address these issues. A change in the curricular capacity of teachers and administrators (including school inspectors), achieved through improved selection, assignment and training, is needed to emphasise the curricular considerations of access, retention, career development, pedagogy and classroom remedial treatment of the socially disadvantaged. Quality training of teachers for special-needs education, inclusive and remedial education should be provided at all levels. Curriculum should be flexible enough to meet the needs of all, and to help students of all abilities to attain their full potential. 82
UNESCO, Learning: The Treasure Within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the 21st Century. Paris: 1996, page 22.
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Issue: Curriculum Design and Implementation: the Participatory Model One of the current dangers in Moldova is that the curriculum development process will be more and more centralised, and that curriculum decisions will be made without any real involvement of stakeholders and interested parties. Curriculum changes in many countries put great emphasis on offering participatory opportunities to all those concerned in education (teachers, school management, parents, students, and representatives of economic and civic institutions). Between 1996 and 2000, public debate and consultation on curriculum issues became more and more important in Moldova; these participatory processes should not be lost. Recommendation Preserve and foster the mechanism of public consultation already in place, raise public awareness of the need to reform the current education system, and motivate teachers in a process aimed at creating “ownership” among all parties concerned. Issue: Shifting the emphasis from “teaching the curriculum” to monitoring student learning outcomes. The main goals of learner assessment reform were to (1) place a goodquality question paper (or a well-constructed “ticket” for oral examinations)83 before every candidate, on time and without relying on radio broadcasting or writing out examinations on the blackboard; (2) ensuring that those papers and “tickets” reflect a range of domains and skills other than re-call of factual material; (3) creating a stable, identifiable quality evaluation function within the MoE, supported by a small but expert and well resourced Department for Evaluation and Examinations (DEE); (4) disseminating good practice to the raion directorates, and (5) creating mechanisms to support teachers in their own classrooms in improving their assessment techniques. A great deal of progress has been made towards achievement of these goals. The DEE has been established within the MoE, and – with the help of foreign technical assistance paid for from Project funds – a small cadre of trained specialists has been created. However, there is now a serious risk that these achievements will not be sustained and built-upon by MoE funding after the end of the project. The DEE is (perhaps fatally) under-staffed, and official 83
For oral and practical exams, a set of questions or so-called “tickets” (“bilete”, numbered cards with typically three questions) are devised by the MoE. These questions are derived from booklets published by the MoE, which are available in every school library.
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support for the DEE is, at best, lukewarm. There is a strong lobby of higher education rectors and other HE officials against the introduction of external, national, impartial maturity examinations, because the university entrance tutoring “industry” is one of the main sources of additional income for universities and individual tutors. Recommendation Immediate, strong and sustained support must be given to the work of the DEE and to the entire notion of fair, transparent and technically competent assessment of student progress and achievement. In the first instance, the DEE should be fully and permanently staffed by specialists in assessment. Secondly, a commitment should be made by the MoE to include in its annual budget a special line for student assessment, both during schooling (formative – e.g., the grade 4 assessments) and at key transition points in the system (summative), for example the grade 9 and grade 12 exams. Thirdly, in all its policy deliberations the MoE should focus on what improves the quality of student learning, rather than its usual preoccupations with organisational matters, “delivering the curriculum”, and institutional control. Early Childhood Education and Care Introduction Because the poverty rate increases sharply for families with more than two children under 14 – 42% of families with three children are poor – younger children in larger families are likely to be disadvantaged. Add to this the effect of transition-induced poverty on out-migration, particularly of women, and the high number of children left in the care of grandparents or other relatives, many young children in Moldova are at considerable risk. In young children, the linkages between poor health and poor learning are known. But in Moldova there is little understanding on the part of the general public of the stages of child development and the consequences of poor socialisation and diet in the early years. Nutritional support for children is poor, with 46% of children under five suffering from anaemia (UNICEF; Ministry of Health). Although there are no signs of acute malnutrition, this survey found 810% of children under five with stunted growth, an indication of chronic malnutrition.84 In addition, the collapse of community institutions and changes 84
Selection for the army shows that 60% of the age group is unfit for military duty due to "physical and moral dysfunctionalities". Interview, MoE, 17 Sept. 2001.
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in family structure mean that young children may lose normal socialisation opportunities, making systematic attention to their mental and physical development crucial. Increases in violence against women, and marital break-up fostered by such situations, increase the dangers for small children. The government has done considerable work with UNICEF, Soros, the World Bank and other agencies on the diagnosis of poverty-related issues, and education issues, including early childhood and financing for the education system. This work forms a good foundation for further analysis of the situation for early childhood education and care, and the options open to the government for ensuring that this age group is not without services in a time of social and economic difficulty. Status The present government programme hopes to maintain the structure of the previous system, including the use of institutional care for a range of children needing attention because of social deprivation or disability. It is placing emphasis on the training of social workers, new regulations on the relationship between parents and children, and support programmes for socially vulnerable children, together with support for new approaches to teaching. It has enacted much new legislation on the rights of the child and social protection for vulnerable groups. However, a framework for rationalising the service provision system and maximising expenditures is still developing, and the recommendations have in many cases not been acted upon. Provision and access of pre-school care and education The education system under the former Soviet Union system provided comprehensive coverage for young children, although this was “old fashioned” in concept and expensive to provide. Comprehensive services were available for children aged 0-6 through government run crèches, nurseries and pre-school institutions. Technically, this system still exists but has almost entirely ceased to function for the 0-5 year old group; and quality and access to services for 5-7 year olds are variable. Children are grouped according to age: 1-3 years, 3-4 years, 4-5 years – and preparatory groups for 5-6 and 6-7 year olds. At present, only about 35% of the total number of children aged between 3 and 7 (267 000) are enrolled. Enrolments vary enormously among judets and municipalities. For example, according to recent MoE data, only 25% of children between the ages of 1-7 are covered by the system in Lapusna judet, whereas 69% of children from this age range are covered in the municipality of &KLúLQ X 151
As attendance below age 5 is not compulsory, it is therefore sporadic, often depending on weather or the availability of the parent. The service is therefore far more of a drop-in day care facility for the under fives. According to recent World Bank data, the gross enrolment rate of 67.6% for pre-school ages 1-5 in 1990/91 (including Transdnistria) had dropped to 24.8% in 2000/01. For 6-year olds, the gross enrolment rate dropped from 97.4% in 1990/91 to 77% in 1999/2000.85 The MoE runs 1 094 pre-schools, and there are some 41 private ones. A provisional regulation, issued jointly by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Finance in June 1999, regulates the provision of private pre-school services and contains a sample contract. The final pre-school (preparatory) year, sometimes called ‘0’ year, is compulsory as children are meant to be able to read and write on admission to the first grade of primary school. The preparatory system is set apart from the general education system, and has its own norms and facilities. Facilities Pre-school facilities are often not open during the winter months because of lack of heating. In addition, in some communities the parents are not convinced of the value of education, and child labour (among older children) is said to be on the increase. In theory, children who are chronically ill or hospitalised receive teaching in their homes or in hospital, but in recent years this service has become only sporadically available. All told some 300 preschools have been closed across the country. However such decisions have been much more random in the countryside. In theory, children are also able to benefit from programmes in clubs and holiday centres. Due to the shortage of funds most of these activities have closed down and only in some cases have private donors come forwards to subsidise activities. Pre-school facilities themselves have become a burden on the education service, and constitute a disproportionate drain on the education budget. Built for larger enrolments and expectations of full day care from 0-5, they once were flourishing establishments often supported by local industries. Now they are large and decaying, often without connections to water and sporadic or nonexistent electricity supplies. Most have no heating, and many resort to illegal and dangerous use of wood burning stoves placed in each classroom. At the 85
National Consultations on “Education for All”. Preschool and Basic Education: Status, ,VVXHVDQG2SWLRQVIRUD1DWLRQDO3ODQRI$FWLRQ&KLúLQ X'HFHPEHU 2001.
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local level municipalities have been able to rationalise some of these facilities, but in others fiscal need has forced the sale of the land and buildings and the provision of pre-school activities is not seen as a major need for the community. It is suggested that perhaps 50% of classes are overcrowded, but there are also cases where the enrolments have fallen and the facilities are inappropriate. The economic crisis has meant that buildings have deteriorated, equipment is in short supply, and there is insufficient budget to rectify these shortcomings. In addition, the design of some pre-school buildings does not lend itself to modern approaches to pre-school education. Finance Funding allocations are made from central government, on the basis of percapita funding for children. Municipalities create a budget based on these principles, which bears little relation to the actual money available for the system. In one municipality visited, the official pre-school budget was MDL 967 (EUR 73.4) per child, compared to MDL 875 (EUR 69.1) per child for primary school. There are considerable disparities in access to early childhood services between rural and urban areas due to population and income differences. Because of the drop in enrolments, and the need to consolidate schools, some schools have been allowed to integrate the pre-school (0) year into the primary school facilities. A decision on such UDWLRQDOLVDWLRQ ZDV WDNHQ E\ &KLúLQ X municipality in 19 schools, and has assisted in the maintenance of the basic early childhood development system in the city. Education from 0-6 is still is technically free, but as with many aspects of the government-run service, increased cost recovery has become a fact of life, due to the inability of the education budget to cover even basic costs. For the preparatory (0) school year parents are required to pay 50% of the food costs. These vary according to the school menu and are set locally. Average costs are between 15 and 35 MDL (between USD 1.20 and 3) per month.86 There is no doubt that the institution of these fees has led to a decrease in enrolment, although municipalities are in many cases subsidising children whose parents cannot afford the fees. It is also clear that the deplorable state of schools is not just a recent phenomenon. One regional office stated that it had spent no money on furniture for 15 years. 86
Considering that the average monthly salary is about USD 25 (EUR 25.3) or 320 leu, a family with several young children would find it difficult to meet these costs.
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The review team accepts that countries struggling to maintain state provision of compulsory education are unlikely to divert large amounts of resources to children of pre-school age. But many programmes for early childhood development and care are inexpensive, making the most of careful planning, plenty of ingenuity and maximum community involvement. Governments can and must help to mobilise local communities to take on this work, with or without state backing. Locally developed schemes have been the most successful, some of them including home-based initiatives. UNICEF has initiated some innovative approaches, e.g. in FYR of Macedonia working with local women’s organisations in rural areas to help set up schemes for children without access to public-sector pre-schools.87 Curriculum Aspects of pre-school teaching and education pertaining to establishing and carrying out the functions of pre-school institutions are regulated by a series of legislative norms. Municipal authorities are responsible for verifying compliance with these requirements before an institution can open. Pre-school education is provided in Romanian, Russian, Polish, Ukrainian and Hebrew. Some schools are Romanian or Russian language only, or have special classes for linguistic minorities. There are no data available on the number of Roma children of pre-school age in Moldova or their enrolment in pre-school. Issues and Recommendations on Early Childhood Care and Development Issue: Social breakdown and poverty now existing in Moldova An effective system of support for families with small children is of immediate importance to ensure that the next generation does not suffer unduly through the transition period. Although it is clear that the government cannot provide the same comprehensive range of services as was previously the case, care must be taken to ensure that the most vulnerable children receive adequate socialisation and early childhood care. With regard to access, the 0-5 group is more at risk than the 5-7 group, and provision in rural areas is more uncertain than in urban ones. In some areas (e.g., Gagauzia) it appears that some 30% of school-age children live with relatives or neighbours because their parents are obliged to look for work outside Moldova. Clearly such arrangements can be detrimental to the healthy and secure social development of children.
87
After the Fall: The human impact of 10 years of transition, UNICEF/MONEE Project, Nov. 1999, page13.
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Decentralisation of the responsibility for maintenance and funding of preschool from the state budget to cities and municipalities is said to have increased regional and local differences, with pressure in some areas while buildings may be empty in others, e.g. where the distance between the preschool’s location and where families now live is too great. However it is at the local level that administrations can take difficult decisions to rationalise services and provide creative alternatives. The regulation of an activity (central government responsibility) and its implementation (local government) should not be confused here. At present there are few incentives for improving services, as standards tie funding and salaries to the existence of facilities. Recommendations As the agency charged with setting national standards, the central ministry should review the standards for the provision of services for children below the age of seven. Foremost in this consideration should be provision for a range of services provided at local level, with parental contributions or subsidised services as relevant and feasible. Where space is available, the preparatory year should be merged into the primary school, or in a more radical reform, the compulsory pre-school years could be amalgamated with primary school to form an extra year of formal schooling. Villages could consider formalising transportation for older children, or creating small local playgroups rather than larger school centres. Parental involvement in the establishment of local programmes should be encouraged. Such schools can be linked to a larger parent school, or even take the form of mobile centres. However the formation of such alternative forms of early childhood experience should be undertaken with due care to the maintenance of standards, as there is little experience of running these groups outside the formal system, and in a situation of poverty and low income, the inspection system for such groups would need to be designed with care. At the present time there are few inspectors for the pre-school years and their access to transport and supervisory capacity is limited. Issue: Quality in the Curriculum and Teaching Practice The “Outlines of the Basic Programme for Pre-school Institutions” for children up to three years of age were introduced in 1994, while similar “Outlines” for children from 3-7 years of age and those for children in ethnic minorities came in to being in 1996. The aim of these regulations is to define the goal and tasks of teaching, create an adequate atmosphere for child development in general, social and emotional relations between the children and those who take care of them, and establish the potential activities designed for 155
children and the terms of co-operation with the family in the process of children’s development. Legal regulation, including defining the “Outlines”, does not guarantee, however, an automatic change in the actual practice of preschool institutions. A new curriculum for pre-school was developed in 1999. The essential feature of the curriculum for children from 3-7 years of age is the provision of conditions for the positive physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral development of children who are viewed as active, interactive and creative beings. However not all educators have received training in the use of this curriculum, and the outline of the school day has not changed and remains standardised across all pre-school institutions. This limits the ability of teachers to adapt their schedules at the local level to take account of special projects or simply the needs of their own community and children. Almost all those caring for pre-school children are appropriately trained with a child-educator ratio of 14. The teacher training system has recently been rationalised and there are now four pedagogical universities providing training for new teachers and five colleges which train “educators” for the pre-school years. Those training as educators for the pre-school level can return to university to get additional qualifications for teaching at primary level. However early childhood development courses do not figure highly in the curriculum for pre-school educators nor is the level of practical experience adequate. There is no association active in maintaining professional standards for the pre-school years. Educators are sometimes assisted by nursery nurses for the younger years who have only basic training. Each kindergarten also still has a music teacher, and staff of pedagogue and psychologist. Although the ratio of children per educator seems high, most pre-schools visited did not have their full complement of children in the 3-5 year old classes. School Heads must have a diploma or higher education qualification and at least 5 years of pedagogical experience – in-service training is only compulsory every five years and there was never a sustained effort to provide in-service training. In recent years, international NGOs have played a leading role in not only analysing the needs of the early childhood education system but in providing intensive learning experiences at the school level for education professionals. These reinforce child centred approaches in teaching, promote community and parental involvement, enhance the creativity of the teacher in making and utilising materials, and focus on the needs of the individual student. The programmes have been run for several years, but do not reach all schools and all teachers. Part of their attraction is also the provision of equipment and materials that comes with each project and which act as incentives for the teaching staff. UNICEF is also running new programmes aimed at integrating 156
these ideas of good teaching practice into pre-service training and the creation of teacher resource centres. Recommendation There is considerable need to upgrade pre-service teacher training courses, to include options on special needs and early childhood development and to introduce social work as a professional skill. The Ministry of Education has already taken some steps in these regards. Given the lack of incentives for good teacher performance, a review of the human resource management strategies for the teaching profession should be undertaken, with the aim of providing increased opportunities for staff development as an incentive for remaining in the system. Staff, in particular in institutions, need further training in the new pre-school curriculum and in ways to better prepare children socially as well as intellectually to transition to school or regular life. Initial teacher training should also focus more on how to identify and address specific learning needs which may delay development but which do not require children to be institutionalised. The inclusion of mobile or where necessary on staff, special needs teachers in regular pre-schools should be seen as acceptable and would prevent unnecessary institutionalisation. Issue: Equity and Access Issues of equity emerge in the ways a system addresses the needs of children with regard to their ability, gender, income level, ability or social characteristics. In Moldova gender equity at pre-school is more of an issue for boys than for girls, for unknown reasons. Girls enrol at pre-school at the same rate as boys. Enrolment in pre-school is heavily defined by the educational status of the mother, and by socio-economic status (Govt. of Moldova). There may well be a gender equity issue with regard to pre-school staff all of whom are women and who have less pay and less opportunity for promotion than men. With regard to income levels, it has been noted that there is inequitable distribution of quality education between urban and rural areas and this correlates with the poverty of the population. Extra lessons, such as language lessons in the pre-school year are fee for service and cannot be taken advantage of by all. Pre-school students are also required to purchase books and workbooks and this may discourage poor parents from sending children. With regard to health, medical treatment for children and women which are technically free, sometimes require a fee for service. One example, the medical check up for entrance to primary school, requires fees for different specialists and may be discouraging parents from entering children in primary school.
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Issues and Recommendations related to Children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) There were some 12 400 children with disabilities in 1998, rising to 14 000 in 1999. There is considerable resistance to the integration of children with either physical or mental disabilities into any level of schooling in Moldova, or to the integration of children from general boarding schools into the general school system. A general attitude prevails towards the preservation of the existing institutional system as a form of social protection agency for those considered “vulnerable groups”. Although every country has a blend of institutional and non-institutional care, it would seem that the present decisions might not always be based on the best interests of the child. Children with disabilities and children in need of social care are disadvantaged by the type of education they receive, not by their access to it, as the system of institutional care and exclusive classroom arrangements for these groups is still officially in place in Moldova. A new order was issued by the MoE in June 1999 on the circumstances in which children could be considered to be from vulnerable families and therefore either exempt from payment for pre-school or eligible for care in boarding schools. Thus there are a series of institutions both educational and medically based which provide either permanent or transitional care for a wide range of children. These are run by the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Science and the Ministry of Labour. The Ministry of Education runs two institutions for children in need of protection and orphans, and one for deaf children. These are mainly for children over seven, but some institutions do include pre-school groups and 10% of preschool children (10% of children included in a recent UNICEF survey on institutionalised children were of pre-school age). Issue: Better diagnosis and more appropriate, more “porous” placement of SEN children. Once in an institution, the majority of children do not return home, even when there is an existing family. This poses long term problems when children reach 18 and are required to leave the institution they have known for many years. Institutionalisation at an early age thus can contribute to children being poorly prepared for life and, in a situation of high unemployment, very poor prospects in later life. Institutions receive inadequate funding and conditions can be worse than those in the general schools, with decaying infrastructure, poor materials and with poorly trained staff. Only about 30% of institutional needs are actually met by existing budgets, and non payment of staff, few teaching or educational aids, isolation from families and caring caregivers and
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the lack of personnel qualified to work with children with special needs can lead to poor conditions. Recommendations The Ministry of Education and those of Social Protection and Health acknowledge the need for more options in service provision, better training in early diagnosis and treatment of special needs children, and smaller, more family based institutions. Some issues may take time to address, but there are a range of options which are not costly and which would benefit children at risk. The central ministries should discuss possible options for foster care with local government and NGOs and promote legislation that would ensure high standards for such service programmes. Previous studies have recommended improved data on children in institutions and their families and an improved case management system, so that this information is readily available to all agencies dealing with child care. The inflexibility of the present diagnostic system does not allow for easy reassignment of children to different kinds of options for education and care. The review team suggests that the system for allocating children to different kinds of educational institution be re-examined. Members of the special medical psycho pedagogical screening committees, which sit both at local and central level and have responsibility for admitting children to institutions, should urgently receive further training in the diagnoses of special needs, and the options available for caring and educating children. All the Ministries are aware of possible options for child care, and need to work together to devise optimal care and funding options for the range of social and developmental needs. Some consideration should be given to the development of formal inter-agency co-ordination committees or other mechanisms to ensure that services for vulnerable children are co-ordinated and resources well used. Teachers Legal and policy framework Training and retraining of teachers are considered a priority. The legal framework is laid down in the Conception Concerning the Development of Education (adopted by Parliament on 15 September 1994) and the Law of Education (1995) (Art 54). The main provisions are: x
The State provides training and retraining opportunities and sets didactic levels (grade didactice).
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x
Teacher and school manager training takes place in higher education institutions or other institutions accredited by law, as accredited and co-ordinated by MoE.
x
Higher education staff can receive in-service training through professional development programmes and scientific research at postuniversity level.
x
Teacher ‘upgrade’ training is compulsory for all teachers at least once every five years. This is done according to the education system’s needs and the individual choices of teachers.
x
Teachers have the right to be assessed in order to reach a higher didactic level (grade didactice) according to regulations established by the MoE.
The National Plan for Education Development, 1996-2005 (revised version May 1996),88 sets out a more detailed regulatory framework for a national system for pre- and in-service teacher training. Current State of Teacher Education: Facts and Figures 89
Table14. Basic education Status
Number
Qualified Under-qualified Unqualified Total
40 739 1 357 0 42 096
88
Programul National de Dezvoltare a Invatamintului in Republica Moldova 19962005, Ministerul Invatamintului, Institutul de Stiinte Pedagogice si Psichologice, May 1996.
89
These numbers include schools for general education, which also provide upper secondary education. Laboratory assistants are also included in total number
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Table 15. Upper secondary education Status
General Education
Qualified Under-qualified Unqualified Total
4 241 135 21 4 397
VET 1 255 1 075 0 2 330
The normal teaching load of a full-time teacher is 18 class periods per week, although the average is 30 class periods per week and some work as many as 60 (and are paid for 60). Teacher salaries (for a regular 18-hour, full-time teaching post) are now about USD 25 (EUR 26.7) per month. Primary teachers received a substantial salary increase in 2000 (about 50%), and secondary teachers an increase of 20% starting September 2001. Nevertheless, with the basic “basket” of living necessities costing about MDL 1 200 (EUR 106.7) per month (approximately USD 100, it is impossible to survive on a single teacher’s salary, and nearly all teachers have second or third jobs or teach many additional hours for extra pay. Pre-service teacher training system According to the Law of Education (1995, Art 54, par. 2), teacher training is offered at a single level in universities. Moldova has several types of higher education institutions that train teachers: x
Pedagogical University (“Ion Creanga”LQ&KLúLQ X ;
x
6WDWH XQLYHUVLWLHV &KLúLQ X % O L 7LUDVSRO – VLWXDWHG LQ &KLúLQ X Comrat);
x
National Institute for Physical Education and Sport;
x
Polytechnical University.
These are the main routes for lower and upper secondary teachers, although the Pedagogical University and some of the State universities also have faculties that train primary school teachers. In fact, the Law allows any graduates of HEIs other than the Pedagogical University to work as teachers, provided that their curricula included elements of pedagogy, psychology and subject methodology. 161
The former “normal schools” that used to train primary teachers up to 1995 have apparently been closed. Entrance mechanism and duration of courses Students can enter university to follow a teacher training course after obtaining the Baccalaureate at grade 12 from a lyceum. If they obtain a high enough grade, they do not have to pass the entrance examination for the university. Alternatively, they can enter university after grade 12 without the Baccalaureate qualification or with a low grade, provided they pass the entrance examination. In both cases the teacher training course lasts for four years. Another option is to enter university following grade 11, after passing an entrance examination. In this case the course lasts five years. Structure of the courses At the Pedagogical University, pre-service courses comprise four main strands: x
academic subject study (40-45%);
x
general subjects (philosophy, logic, economics, etc. ~20%);
x
pedagogy (psycho-pedagogy and didactics ~20%);
x
school practice (theoretically 15-20%, but see the following paragraph).
School practice starts in the second year of the course, with one day in every two weeks spent in a school, following the same class throughout the student’s training course. The students participate not just in lessons but in all aspects of everyday school life. At first they just assist in lessons given by the usual class teacher, then, starting with the second semester of the third year, they become responsible for giving lessons themselves (at least six lessons per year). During the fourth and fifth year, because in some areas or subjects there is a shortage of teachers, an MoE order allows students to choose to teach fulltime in schools. The university ensures organisational facilities that allow the students to continue their studies in their spare time, with only occasional visits to the university. This need for teachers varies across the country, and is SDUWLFXODUO\DFXWHLQ&KLúLQ X
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State universities and other higher educational institutions generally follow the same pattern of training, although the emphasis on academic studies is much greater. Qualifications Successful students are awarded a diploma. The Pedagogical University diploma is a teaching qualification, generally in two subjects. Other higher institutions provide a general diploma in the major subject studied; this general qualification can also be used as a teaching qualification. In-Service Teacher Training Compulsory in-service training According to the Law of Education (Art 54, par. 8), serving teachers are required to undergo a period of compulsory retraining every five years. These courses usually last for 1-2 weeks, although there are a variety of 1-2 day courses. Currently they are co-ordinated and carried out by the “Institute of Educational Sciences” (IES), the former “National Institute for Teacher Retraining” (Institutul National de Perfectionare a Cadrelor Didactice – INPCD).90 At present the IES is the only institution which carries out this compulsory retraining. However, it has capacity for re-training only 5 000 teachers per year, and therefore the Law cannot be fully implemented. Continuous monitoring and assessment of teachers is compulsory at all levels of the education system. Mechanisms and procedures are generally established by special orders issued by the MoE. The Inspection Service carries out this assessment at judet level. The review team was told, however, that participation in in-service training activities is low: according to the MoE, on one occasion planned for 100 teachers, only seven participants turned up. Ministry officials believe that motivation among teachers is very low, and there are no incentives for them to attend.
90
The Institute of Educational Sciences was created in1999 and is structured into a research department (the former Institute of Pedagogical Sciences) and a training department (the former INPCD).
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Non-compulsory in-service training, central level In addition to the compulsory retraining, the IES organises special one- or two-week training courses focused on current issues concerning the new curriculum and new teaching methods. The main strands are: courses for trainers of trainers in primary education; training for deputy directors of the judets; training for subject inspectors from the judet; training for primary teachers and subject teachers in secondary schools. Other courses include distance learning course for technology teachers and courses for unqualified teachers. One further type of centralised retraining takes place at the Ion Creanga Pedagogical University. The university has a Faculty of Training and Retraining School Managers. Courses are aimed at school directors, deputy directors, inspectors, methodologists and staff of the judet directorates. On completion of the course, the successful participants receive a Certificate in School Management. Non-compulsory in-service training, local level. Inspectors and methodologists at judet level carry out a continuous programme of local retraining. There are compulsory meetings at least twice per year (in August before the school year starts and during the winter vacation) for all teachers, and there is a subject-based activity for each subject at least once every 6 months. Other workshops are organised according to local needs. The methodologists also work individually with teachers, especially younger ones, in order to support and improve their teaching skills. Another aspect of local retraining is that in any school where there are three or more teachers teaching the same subject, these teachers operate as a special methodological body (intruniri metodologice) in order to improve their everyday teaching practices through informal internal in-service activities. This system also operates at judet level, enabling teachers to visit other schools and so improve their teaching methodology. Didactic degrees (grade didactice) After three years, any serving teacher, whether university or Normalschool trained, may apply to be assessed for the award of a didactic grade or step on the career ladder. There are three levels: (a) Second; (b) First; (c) Superior.
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Teachers may choose for which level they wish to be assessed, although there are certain criteria that they must meet in order to be assessed for First and Superior levels. For example, to be assessed for a Superior level the candidate must already be a textbook author or have written at least one methodological research paper. In terms of salary, teachers are awarded two minimum salaries for a Second level degree, three for a First level degree (that is, if they move from the Second to the First level, they are awarded one extra minimum salary) and four for a Superior level degree. Teachers who do not wish to be awarded a didactic degree are generally assessed every five years according to a methodology developed by the MoE. Teacher In-service Training related to the new Curricula, Textbooks and Assessment To ensure a rational and coherent teacher in-service programme related to the new curricula, textbooks and assessment procedures, the teacher training component of the GoM/WB Project has used the existing institutional structures, adapting their functions according to the challenges of the education reform in Moldova. The in-service training carried out in order to prepare teachers for the implementation of the new curricula, textbooks and assessment procedures has operated in parallel, but in close relationship with the existing in-service training activities. Key features of this new strand of in-service training were: x
“Cascade” training, whereby training started centrally, and spread out progressively into local training at judet level and finally at school level.
x
Two types of trainers were used. Staff at the seven central in-service institutions (the current universities plus the (IES) – Institute of Educational Sciences) trained the first (central) level of trainers. They in turn were responsible for training the judet inspectors, methodologists and other specialists designated by the judet directorates, who then constituted the second level of trainers.
x
The training activities also took place at two levels – centrally in the institutions already listed (especially IES), and locally.
x
The content of the training sessions focused on general methodology of managing and monitoring teacher training activities, and secondly on subject-specific curriculum, textbooks and assessment issues.
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Teachers’ Status: Career and Professional Structure, Financial Issues Status and Salaries The status of teachers is low. This is due first to the low income teachers earn, and secondly to the very poor school facilities which discourage young people from entering the teaching profession. Teachers’ salaries are among the lowest in the country; improvement will be difficult to achieve in Moldova’s current economic situation, although from September 2001 primary teachers apparently received a 20% increase in salary. The team heard some ideas about offering four year grants to students who come from the countryside and commit themselves to return to teach in their villages after graduation, but a much more long-term and strategic approach is needed. Another important issue (and deterrent for young people to become teachers) is that teacher salaries are paid irregularly. Salaries accounted for nearly half of total arrears in financing of education; by far the bigger share (151.4 million MDL) (EUR 12 million) for staff funded by local budgets, with a much lower (but still increasing) share at state level (19.2 million MDL) (EUR 15.3 million). In some localities, teachers can remain unpaid for as long as 6 or 7 months; according to the Teachers’ Union of Moldova, which represents more than 98% of teachers, some mayoralties did not pay salaries for as long as two years. As a result, many teachers have been forced to leave the profession, seek additional employment, or ask parents to pay (see section on Finance, above). The World Bank study cited earlier in this review [Tibi, Berryman and Peleah, 2001] provides some carefully worked out scenarios for a financing strategy that would improve education efficiency as well as quality in Moldova. Among the recommendations is one that asks the MoE to: x
"Get ready to raise teacher salaries and work loads. Higher teacher salaries and teaching loads should only be introduced after two actions are taken – one technical and the other political. The Government of Moldova must conduct studies that identify the salaries required if teachers are to live adequately on their income from teaching and if the sector is to attract and retain qualified individuals in the teaching force. There are standard methodologies for conducting wage comparator studies that yield such estimates.
x
Politically, the GoM has to involve teacher unions and other organisations of teachers in discussions about changing salaries and work loads. These groups should be privy to the wage comparator studies used to establish wage increases – both the methods and 166
results – and should understand the fiscal tradeoffs between salary levels and teaching loads."91 Reform scenarios for low, medium and high-salary increases (and corresponding increases in number of teaching hours) are given, for example: x
Low salary: the assumption is that teacher salaries increase 5% per year and the number of class periods increases from 18 to 24 by 2004.
x
Medium salary: the assumption is that teacher salaries increase 7.5% per year and the number of periods increases from 18 to 24 by 2004.
x
High salary: the assumption is that teacher salaries increase progressively to the averages for OECD countries at different levels of education. These averages range from 1.0 GDP per capita at preschool to 2.0 GDP per capita. This assumption implies an annual increase of 11-12%. It is also assumed that the number of periods increases from 18 to 24 by 2004.
Career and Professional Development The structure of, and criteria for, a teaching career are unclear, and to some extent illogical. Many university faculties and courses purport to train teachers; it is difficult to understand how two quite different types of HEIs (“Pedagogical” and “State” universities) can offer the same qualifications in terms of content, quality and classroom practice. The curricula are quite different, even though there is now a certain willingness to create a common “pedagogical module”. Another problem is that teachers for secondary schools are trained only to teach one “single specialisation”. It would be far more useful – especially to small rural schools – if teachers were qualified to teach more than one subject, as they frequently are in other countries. Issues and Recommendations Related to Teachers Issue: Teacher salaries and workload It is a commonplace to say that teachers are poorly paid, work in difficult conditions, and have low social status in today’s Moldova. Teachers in VET, for example, are paid the equivalent of USD 8 (EUR 8.5) per month for a beginning teacher, and up to USD 32 (EUR 34.1) per month for a very experienced 91
ClaudeTibi et.al., op.cit., page 99.
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teacher. This is well below the average monthly income (all occupations) in Moldova, which in September 2001 stood at about USD 35 (EUR 37.3), and also well below the actual cost of living. Recommendation Act upon the detailed strategies and useful advice contained in the World Bank study (Tibi, Berryman et al.), and “Get ready to raise teacher salaries and work loads. Higher teacher salaries and teaching loads should only be introduced after two actions are taken – one technical and the other political. The Government of Moldova must conduct studies that identify the salaries required if teachers are to live adequately on their income from teaching and if the sector is to attract and retain qualified individuals in the teaching force. There are standard methodologies for conducting wage comparator studies that yield such estimates.” Issue: Insufficient exposure to classroom practice in Pre-service Training Pre-service training in the universities does not offer a satisfactory foundation for future teachers. Curricula are not adapted to the challenges of the education reform, and students’ practical work in schools is not sufficient. The practice whereby some students spend their final year as ordinary classroom teachers (because of a shortage of teachers) weakens their training and hence their competence as teachers. The structure of the curriculum is at present content- and knowledge based and taught at a highly theoretical level. For example, in subjects such as pedagogy, psychology and psycho-pedagogy, the emphasis is on theoretical domains (theory of education, history of pedagogy, general pedagogy). This is at the expense of applied domains like classroom organisation and management, differential pedagogy (i.e. treatment of pupils of different abilities in the same classroom), group work, communication in the classroom, conflict resolution, etc. The content of the academic subjects in which students are prepared (mathematics, history, etc.) centres on the subject itself, and is not sufficiently related to the teaching and learning of the subject. Alongside the methodological courses, in which students are taught how to teach, there should be a focus on the cognitive processes by which pupils learn and acquire competences and capacities characteristic of those subjects.
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Recommendations The content of pre-service courses needs to be continually reviewed, and amended as necessary in line with educational reforms, in particular as new school curricula, textbooks and types of assessment are introduced. In spite of the often-quoted “autonomy of universities”, the MoE should formulate its own “teaching profession standards”. “Autonomous” universities and faculties are, of course, entitled to teach what and how they wish. But the MoE, as the main employer of teachers in Moldova, is perfectly entitled to require that graduates who apply for teaching positions in public schools must meet certain professional standards set down by the MoE. Once the MoE refuses to hire applicants who do not meet such standards, universities might be more inclined to switch to a more needs-based approach. Issue: Teaching methods The teacher-centred approach by which students are taught is predominant in Moldova. University teachers citeste (meaning ‘read’ in Moldovan) a course in front of the students. The lecture mode should be only one of many teaching strategies used by university professors, in order to prepare trainee teachers to deal with different learning styles and needs of students of varying interests and abilities. Recommendation University courses should encourage the use of interactive methods, practical work, critical thinking, group work, discussions, problem solving, project work, student portfolio work as well as students’ reflective learning processes. Since much of the curriculum reform, textbook reform and assessment reform aims to place much more emphasis on higher-level thinking skills, it is essential that new teachers are familiar with methods that stimulate the development of these skills in students of all abilities. Issue: Resources Severe budget constraints in recent years have resulted in the institutions being unable to renew and upgrade essential resources: for example, expertise of staff, equipment, teaching/learning materials and supplies, current literature, international contacts.
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Recommendation x
Facilities in universities must improve, or the quality of teacher training – in particular pre-service training – will remain unsatisfactory. For example, information technology and Internet facilities should be introduced in teacher training programmes. Students in universities should have much broader exposure to international literature and sources, so that they can gain an understanding of what is meant by the frequently cited “European and international standards”. Moreover, teachers have to gain some basic knowledge of how their teaching (and students' learning) can be enhanced through the use of computers, not only in computer classes but in all school subjects including language, geography, science, arts, etc.
Issue: Maintaining a cadre of trained trainers The mechanism of implementing a complex in-service training process has been developed and is now in place. However, there are serious problems concerning the continuous training of trainers, as well as their payment. Most of the trainers consider their payment to be too low, and this could precipitate a real crisis in the whole system of in-service training. Recommendation Establishing a sustainable mechanism for the continuous upgrading of trainers’ knowledge, skills and training standards is urgent. Without such a mechanism, the chances for continuing the cascade process are small. Indeed, the entire question of adequate payment for trainers should be resolved as soon as possible. Non-teaching staff Norms for the number of non-teaching staff exist for pre-schools, secondary general, lyceu, professional and “polyvalent” schools, colleges and universities. They specify the authorised number of positions for each of more than 20 categories of non-teaching staff in general education institutions, and 33 categories of non-teaching staff in professional schools. The number of positions depends on the size of the institution (usually in terms of the number of classes). This has led to an excessive number of non-teaching personnel in the education system: for example, in professional and polyvalent schools,
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colleges, and universities, the number of non-teaching staff exceeds the number of teachers, and their salary bill is higher.92 In 1999, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Education sought to reduce the number of non-teaching positions by 15 000, and by the end of 1999 this goal was nearly achieved, reducing the number of non-teaching staff from more than 90 000 to 76 000, a reduction of 14 000 or 15.5%. However, there was little change in the ratio of students to non-teaching staff – from 9.7:1 to 11.2:1 overall. Issue: Overly complex and inflexible norms for a very long list of nonteaching positions. Even the new norms for non-teaching staff in general secondary schools (determined on 29 September 1999) regulate the number of staff in various-size schools for 12 different positions, from the director to the cloakroom attendant. Recommendation School heads should have more flexibility in deciding how to use their nonteaching positions to suit the needs of their school. A global ratio (e.g., student/non-teaching staff) rather than strict specifications would be helpful. Controlling staff costs, and directing them to where they are most needed, is now more important than the full-employment policies of the past. Vocational Education and Training Introduction The Law on Education of 1995 sets out the basic structure for the present system of vocational education and training (VET) in Moldova The implementation of the new structure of versatile (polyvalent) vocational schools (scoala profesionala polivalenta) and professional schools (scoala de meserii) started in 1997 (Government decision No. 795 of 20/08/97). In 1999 a new law on vocational education and training was drafted, and was in September 2001 under consideration in Parliament. However, it is likely that the Ministry of Education will withdraw this draft law. The versatile vocational school has three steps. Step I lasts two years and provides graduates with a basic qualification in one profession. Step II takes two years as well and leads to the ‘foreman’ (maistru) level, with the right to 92
Claude Tibi et al., op.cit., page 48.
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compete for higher education. Step III provides one year of post-secondary training leading to the level of ‘technician’ and aims at entering the labour market, but can also lead to access to higher education institutes. There are 52 public versatile vocational schools. The professional school, also called the “school of trade”, provides graduates from lower (post-grade 9) and upper general secondary education (post-grade 11) with training from 0.5 to 1.5 years for low-level skilled workers. There are 18 public professional schools in Moldova. The versatile vocational schools also provide this type of professional education. There are 6 private professional schools. The Ministry of Education is responsible for the co-ordination of the VET system. It is in charge of the strategic development, financing, licensing and accreditation, development of standards, quality assessment and teacher training and retraining. The Ministry of Economy defines the list of professions and the enrolment plan for secondary VET and higher education, on the basis of an assessment of the development of the labour market. The Ministry of Labour co-ordinates continuing vocational training and deals in particular with training for the unemployed. After the administrative reform of 1999, which created the 14 judets (regions), the Government has decentralised the responsibilities for the VET schools on an experimental basis to the judets of Lapusna and Ungheni. These judets decided to close down two VET schools. The Minister of Education and Research (MoE) considers this experiment of decentralisation unsuccessful, and counter-productive to the socio-economic demands for increased skilled workers. There are no recent documents available in which the MoE elaborates its policy on VET. The latest relevant policy document is the “State Programme for Educational Development”, which was adopted by the Government in early 1999. It gives priority to linking VET with the labour market, development of standards, quality assessment and the development of adult education. Not much has been realised by the different governments so far. International donors have not been very active in the field of VET. The most substantial contribution is delivered through the European Union TACIS project on “VET Reform in Moldova” (1998-2000), which, among other documents, has produced a Green Paper with policy recommendations. Sweden and Germany are the most active bilateral donors in VET.
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Labour Market Trends and the Relevance of VET Since 1995, official employment figures have declined by more than 45%, with particularly sharp declines in 1999 and 2000. Agriculture remains the most important economic sector, both in terms of contribution to GDP (24.5% in 2000) and in terms of employment (27%). In 1995 the agricultural sector was still employing 43.5% of the total work force, of which approximately one half were self-employed or involved in family farming. The employment share is stable or declining in the manufacturing industry (although food processing, which forms 42 % of industrial revenues, recently shows a remarkable growth in production) and in construction. Relative growth sectors are public administration, education, health, trade and transport and communication. Figure 3. Employment by Sector, 1995-2000
Employment by Sector of Activity (% of total number of employees) Health & social services Education State administration Real estate activity
2000 1999 1995
Financial activity Transport, warehousing & communications Wholesale and retail trade Construction Electric energy, gas & water supply Manufacturing industry Agriculture, hunting & related services
0
10
20
30
40
50
Source: European Training Foundation, 2001.
The profiles of VET schools do not correspond to employment trends. According to 2001 data provided by the Institute for Public Policy, 28% of the profiles are related to the manufacturing industry, 16% to the food industry, 12% to construction, 10% to service and trade, 9% to transport and telecommunications and 8% to agriculture. At the same time, in some towns a concentration of VET schools offer similar training profiles, thereby restricting choice for students.
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The unemployment rate according to ILO criteria was 6.8% in the second quarter of 2001.93 In urban areas, unemployment is 13.5% and almost 60% of the unemployed are men. Youth unemployment (15-24 years) has slightly increased to 31.2% of the total number of unemployed. Almost 40% of the age cohort does not complete full secondary education. Only 1 out of 5 graduates finds a job in his or her speciality. There is no co-ordinated system of vocational guidance, and recently some private initiatives have been undertaken in this field. With an increasing number of people without basic or relevant qualifications, and because of the sharply declining demographic trends from 2004 onwards, it is important to have a good functioning system of continuing vocational training (CVT). However, the retraining of skilled personnel is still largely based on the old traditions remaining from the Soviet system, while the training of the unemployed is not widely spread. In 1999, 7 300 unemployed were retrained. The Employment Service predominantly uses the VET schools for training of unemployed persons. An agricultural VET school trains 350 students to become tractor mechanics, cooks, carpenters and tailors/dressmakers. Around 40% of the graduates after Step I find jobs. Almost no graduate in tractor mechanics finds a job. Nevertheless the school continues with this training. Obviously students are not well informed about labour market perspectives before or during the training.
Recommendations Although the information provision on developments in the economy, labour market and VET is well developed, there is little evidence that the information is used for developing a co-ordinated analysis and strategy to improve the relevance of VET to Moldovan society and economy. A Council for VET should be established, in which the ministries of Education, Labour and Social Protection and Economy and social partners would agree on a common strategy for:
93
x
Regular assessments of national, regional and local developments of the labour market and its translation into training needs;
x
Continuing Vocational Training and its links with initial VET within the concept of life long learning;
Data from Statistics and Sociology Department of the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection
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x
Providing vocational guidance and counselling to students and job seekers.
The MoE should, in co-operation with regional authorities, analyse the match between the existing VET infrastructure and the developments of the labour market in order to optimise the network of VET schools and its profiles to meet national, regional and local needs. At school level, VET School Boards should be set up, with membership of local and regional stakeholders, including representatives of local employers and parents. Access to VET Demographic trends show that after 2003 the group of 16-19 years old will start to decrease rapidly. From 2004 to 2014 the group cohort is expected to decline from 214 000 to 125 000. The average number of years of schooling in Moldova has declined by three years since 1990 and is estimated by the Institute for Public Policy to be 10.5 years, which means that, after lower secondary (grade 9), students on average receive only 1.5 years additional schooling. 17% of students do not continue education after lower secondary school. This group of early school leavers is a potential social risk for Moldovan society. In addition, Moldovan legislation does not allow for employment before the age of 18 years. The number of students in VET decreased from 34 800 to 22 800 between 1994 and 2001, whereas the number of students in upper general secondary education increased from 47 200 to 65 500. The main reason is that the MoE funds only a limited number of places in VET. The number of contract students, who have to pay fees between 800 and 1 700 MDL (EUR 63.2 and 134.3), (USD 70 and 150), is growing and constituted 12% of the total number of VET students in 2000. Table 16 shows that in 2000, 75% of the students who finish Step I of the VVET will not continue in Step II. This means that at best they only receive a basic qualification in one profession after two years of secondary schooling. More than 60 % of VET students receive the professional education of 0.5 to 1.5 years. Only some 6% of VET students receive more than two years of schooling. Within this context, the drop-out rate of students who did not complete the school year successfully was estimated at 10 %.
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Table 16. Enrolment in VET 1999-2001
Type of school VVET schools step 1 VVET schools step 2 VVET schools step 3 VVET schools, groups of professional education after grade 9 VVET schools, groups of professional education after grade 11 Additionally, enrolled on a contract basis in VVET schools Professional Schools after grade 9 Professional Schools after grade 11 Professional Schools (Contract basis)
Enrolment of students Year 2001 1999 2000 (Plan) 5 155 4 134 4 350 1 600 1 037 900 59 51 50 4 315
3 800
4 384
3 265
3 130
1 870
1 563
1 576
1 510 1 381
1 580 1 530
411
603
No data 1 886 1 060 No data
Source: The National Observatory of Moldova
Recommendation The Moldovan economy risks losing its stock of skilled specialists. Although the team fully recognises the Government’s financial constraints, its strong advice is to aim at providing as many people possible with a basic and relevant qualification to find jobs or arrange self-employment. The VET sector could or should absorb a major part of the high percentage of students who leave the education system after lower secondary school. In particular, funds should be mobilised from increased cost-effectiveness and external sources, as will be argued later on. VET system, standards and curricula An overdose of ambition and a lack of funding have seriously hampered the introduction of the versatile (“polyvalent”) vocational school (VVET). The VVET school provides students with a full general secondary curriculum as well as training for a profession. VVET students need to pass the same national exam after Step II as their colleagues from general secondary education. If they pass this exam, they have the right of access to higher education or to Step III of VVET. Step III has only been implemented in one school, covering 51 students. The programmes of Step III are close to what colleges are providing, with usually better skilled teachers. The combination of general academic and vocational curricula has overburdened the students and schools of VVET with little added value. The
176
general curricula could have been better acquired in upper general secondary schools, while the same professional qualification could be obtained by lower secondary school leavers after 1.5 years. In the first year of common examination, only one VVET student for every 30 upper general secondary students passed the national exam. Last year the examination criteria were changed by the MoE to allow larger groups of VVET students to pass. For the schools, the system means they must have a large teacher/instructor staff to teach the full curriculum. In July 2000, legislative amendments were adopted to create in every region one vocational lycea comprising only Steps I and II of the VVET school. This would imply the abolition of Step III of the VVET. This amendment has not been implemented yet, due to lack of resources and it is doubtful whether it would solve the underlying problems. School heads tend to strive for achieving higher status, and therefore focus their attention to the highest-level school type. The VVET status might in some cases have led to neglect of regular professional education in the school. Vocational standards have been developed for 25 out of around 100 professions. The Ministry of Economy and the MoE do not agree on how narrowly or broadly the standards should be defined. Approximately 50% of the vocational curricula are covered and disseminated, whereas 65% of VET teachers have been trained in the new curriculum. Last year new curricula for 8 professions were developed and implemented. For the remainder, the old Soviet curricula are still used. Functional skills and key competences (such as team work, problem solving) seem to get very little attention in the curricula. Also, the lack of equipment in many cases hampers the implementation of new curricula. In some schools computer classrooms have been set up, but most schools visited by the team mentioned that the last equipment deliveries date from the 1980s. Recommendations In theory, the introduction of the VVET school might have been justified, as it provides a solid base for students to enter the labour market or higher education. Moldova, however, cannot afford such a system under present circumstances. It is recommended to create an affordable system, in which a clear choice for vocational education is offered for as many as possible, leaving out large parts of the general curriculum and placing more stress on the development of the functional skills and key competences demanded by the labour market. Whether this should be an upgraded professional school or a slimmed-down VVET is a choice for the Moldovan government.
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A further recommendation is to set up a system of VET standards that specify employment, learning and assessment requirements for the identified occupational profiles. This system needs to have a strong involvement of social partner representatives. Priority should be given to the standards for professions that are most in demand on the labour market. In the present economic situation it is important to define the relevant curriculum not only geared towards dependent employment, but also towards self employment. Financing and Cost-effectiveness The VET sector is relatively expensive. Partly it is the nature of VET, which in OECD countries is usually 1.5 to 2 times higher than general secondary education; partly it is due to inefficiencies. In Moldova the costs per VET student are estimated to be 3 to 4 times higher than those per general secondary student. In 1990 the share of expenditure on education in GDP was 5.6%, whereas the share of VET was 0.75%. In 1998, these figures were 7% and 0.65%. In 1999 and 2000 the education share dropped to 4.7%. The VET share in current public expenditures on education was 7.2% in 1998 and 1999, and has increased compared to 1996 when it was 6.2%. The share for the versatile vocational schools (VVET) in 1999 was 5.9%, and for professional schools 1.3%. The total expenditure for education dropped in this period by 25%. According to a study done in the framework of a TACIS project on VET Reform94 the 1999 public expenditure could cover only 38% of the financial needs of the VET system. The same study estimates that extra-budgetary funds of VET schools generate an extra 14% of income. These extra funds are generated through student fees from contract students, adult training and other educational services, production and other services like renting of premises. The Ministry of Education is rightly stimulating schools to generate extra income, but there is a need to monitor carefully whether the income is spent on upgrading the quality of its education. The Education Law of 1995 (Art. 21.7) introduced a system by which employers were to pay a payroll tax of 2% to support vocational education and training. However, such a system has never been implemented. The budgetary difficulties of the State and the withdrawal by State enterprises from supporting the VET system have, since 1990, caused a sharp 94
“Methodological Recommendations for VET Reform in Moldova”, TACIS/NEI, 1999.
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decline in the number of VET students, but not an equal decline in costs. Several factors contribute to the relatively high costs of the VET system. First, school buildings and student hostels are seriously under-used due to the decrease in student numbers. The number of schools has remained at a stable level over the last 5 years, although the average number of students per school declined from 520 in 1990 to 375 in 1999, with the sharpest decrease after 1997. Many classrooms are empty, and student hostels are increasingly used by poor families with no relation to VET. 7KH99(7VFKRROVYLVLWHGE\WKHWHDPLQ% O LPHQWLRQHGWKDWRQO\RIWKHSODFHVLQ student hostels were actually used. The schools and student hostel premises are within a distance of a few hundred meters from each other.
A second factor is the low student/(non-)teacher ratio, which is estimated around 5:1 for VET schools. This is in particular due to the very large number of non-teaching staff of which most are instructors of practical training for VET. In 1999, their total was 4 327 compared with 907 teachers. Once again, the reduction in student numbers has only worsened the student/(non-)teacher ratio. A third factor of inefficiency is the use of energy. A World Bank study95 estimates that in 1999 21% of the education budget was spent on heating in spite of its high price level, its scarcity and the fact that many schools close down for several months during winter. Recommendations Until the economy improves substantially, the policy focus of the MoE should be on increasing efficiency. Keeping in mind the decline in the relevant age cohort after 2004, and not taking into account any major policy shifts that may occur, a cost reduction policy for VET should be developed, aimed at:
95
x
Reducing the number of VET schools and increasing the students per school, in line with the recommendations made above;
x
Increasing the student/teacher ratio, supported by a re-orientation of curricula;
x
Reducing energy costs through serious cost-saving measures. Moldova’s Education Sector: A Financing Strategy to Leverage System-Wide Improvement, Claude Tibi, Sue E. Berryman and Michael Peleah, August 2001
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At the same time the MoE should continue to stimulate VET schools to look for external sources of income. Transparency and accountability need to be carefully secured through regular monitoring of the sources of income, and of how the money is allocated to the education process. Student fees should be aimed at increasing the access to VET, but there should be targeted State support to students from low-income families. The system of payroll taxation of enterprises has not worked. It might be more effective to involve employers in the process of decision-making on education and training, to help support the links between education, schools and enterprises. If employers are aware of the benefits of investments in education and training, they are more likely to participate financial support. The extra funds generated through cost savings and from additional sources could be invested in improving the material base of schools, the salaries of teachers, and financing innovative measures that will improve the VET system in the medium or long term. VET Teachers and Teacher Training Teachers in VET receive a monthly salary between 100 MDL (USD 8) (EUR 8.5) for new teachers to 400 MDL (USD 32) (EUR 34.1) for very experienced teachers. These salaries are well below the average monthly wage of 439 MDL (EUR 34.7) in 2001. Moreover, as in other levels of education, there are substantial wage arrears in education. These arrears are in particular caused by local authorities that are in some cases unable to pay teachers’ salaries for five to six months or even longer. It is therefore no surprise that the profession of teacher/instructor in VET is in low demand. The Institute for Public Policy estimates that more than 45% of the present VET teachers/instructors are under-qualified, i.e. without a higher education degree, pedagogical training or relevant work experience. There are no specialised teacher training institutes for VET teachers or instructors. There is no occupational profile of a VET teacher and/or an instructor. Most qualified teachers have taken a technical higher education course or come directly from enterprises. Very few have followed any kind of pedagogical course. The infrastructure for in-service training for VET teachers and instructors is limited. According to the law, every teacher has to be retrained every five years, and this is a condition for career development and salary increases. The Technical University of Moldova is one of the few institutes that provides retraining courses for VET teachers and instructors. The University has unsuccessfully attempted to get support from the MoE to set up a pre-service
180
teacher training or to develop a post-graduate pedagogical course for university graduates. High quality teacher training and retraining are important motivators for teachers, and a crucial instrument for innovation and dissemination in the teaching process. In particular it is essential for the quality of education that teachers be regularly updated with developments in the labour market, in their professions, in pedagogy, core skills etc. An example is the lack of knowledge about, and teacher training for, the use of computers in education. Many informatics teachers spend a great deal of time on how a computer works and on programming languages. There is little evidence that computers are used for subjects other than informatics.
Recommendations Although full pre-service training for VET teachers and instructors should be the long term target, it is probably more realistic to recommend setting up a scheme for in-service teacher training on the basis of existing higher education institutes. Key areas for in-service training courses are school management, new teaching methodologies, curriculum development, and core skills. Reduction of teachers and an increase in teaching hours, possibly the remuneration of teachers could be improved. Salaries of young teachers should have priority in order to make the profession of teacher more attractive to university graduates. Conclusions on VET The Moldovan VET system is in a difficult situation. VET reform has been started, but implementation has been slow due to declining economic conditions. Conservation of old traditions still is a widespread objective. However, it becomes more and more urgent to develop a mid- and long-term strategy for VET, in particular because the number of VET students is due to decline sharply after 2004. Such strategies need to be realistic, and take into account the conditions and constraints for VET reform, and should be shielded, insofar as possible, from short-term political change.
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Higher Education Introduction The first universities in Moldova were established during the first half of the twentieth century. The oldest institutions are the Moldova State University and Moldova Agrarian University. Currently, there are altogether 49 legally operating university-level higher education institutions (HEIs) and 61 tertiary education colleges. Among the university level institutions, 14 are State universities. There are also 35 institutions operating as private legal entities. In the college sector, there are 43 state and 18 private institutions. It should be emphasised that, with few exceptions, the so-called private universities are formally established organisations with a limited number of students that are usually housed on the premises of state universities. On the other hand, there are excellent examples of truly professional private universities, such as the International Independent University of Moldova, where favourable conditions for quality studies have been created. The total number of tertiary level students in Moldova is 99 000:72 500 regular and 26 500 correspondence students. The number of students has been gradually increasing since the middle of the 1990s. In the 1993/94 academic year, the total number of registered students was 80 700. A network of research institutes exists in the State-supported research sector of the country. Most of these institutes belong to the Moldovan Academy of Sciences. A considerable number of researchers from Academy institutes have changed employment, and now teach in private or state HEIs. Many researchers, still employed in the Academy of Sciences, are engaged in teaching activities at the tertiary level of education. The available statistical data do not provide a sufficient basis for assessing the current state and the development trends of the Moldovan HE sector. The OECD team’s visits to Government offices and HEIs showed that the sector functions under enormous financial pressures and constraints. Through the wider introduction of paid education, the HEIs are trying to preserve their capacity to educate and perform research, and eventually to satisfy the public demand for quality education. In spite of the difficulties and problems, there are a number of positive developments in Moldova’s higher education after the country gained independence in August 1991:
182
x
The curricula of most academic programmes have been updated and relieved of the ideological dogmas typical of Soviet education;
x
New academic programmes linked to the market economy and the development of civil society have been introduced;
x
A flexible system of university level degrees has been adopted to widen personal choice and to reflect market demands;
x
A non-university (college) level of higher education has been introduced;
x
An accreditation system for HEIs has been established to ensure the quality of studies;
x
The number of students has significantly increased, in line with the international trend towards mass higher education.
There are many factors, however, that have a negative effect on the development of the higher education sector. Reduced funding from the State budget, falling share of GDP for national education; a legal framework that does not guarantee stability for the HE sector; the quality of education – especially in the paid-education sector – is questionable; extensive brain drain, and muchreduced social status of university teachers and researchers. Issues: Legal, policy and financial The Law on Education adopted in 1995 defines the legal framework for the higher education sector. In general, the current legislation provides a satisfactory basis for the operation of HEIs. A new university degree system was introduced that corresponds to prevailing international standards. It includes the bachelor, master and doctoral levels of studies. The document also regulated the reforms in curricula and the development of new academic programmes. The autonomy of HEIs is also clearly stipulated. The Law requires a final approval by the Ministry of Education of curricula and even syllabi. Both curricula and syllabi should conform to adopted State standards. Though such provisions are not always accepted in an international context, it can be argued that in a period of profound social change, more control over the activities of HEIs may be in the public interest. The legislation also provides for the establishment of colleges as a new type of HEIs for short-cycle studies (2-3 years). Thus, the new Law aided the process of diversifying the higher 183
education to better accommodate the personal preferences of students as well as the market demands. The Law stipulates that the Ministry of Education shall plan every year the number of student places for the different academic programmes in State higher education institutions. This is the so-called “state order”. International practice shows that such planning is rarely accurate because the economy and labour market usually change rapidly and in ways that are difficult to predict several years in advance. Moreover, with the admission of a considerable number of students on a paid education basis outside the state order, the planned proportions between different fields might be substantially altered. The Law on Education introduced the present system of quality assurance in higher education through the mechanism of institutional accreditation. After several years of delay, the process of accrediting HEIs is now under way. The impression is that more details of the accreditation procedures need to be specified in the law to ensure greater positive effects. The current legislation provides a relatively simple procedure for the establishment of new or private HEIs. The final decision is left to the MoE; the Government and the Parliament are not involved. Thus, such an important public act is considered to fall entirely within a closed administrative cycle, without sufficient opportunities for public scrutiny and debate. As a result, a considerable number of “phantom” HEIs have been set up (called universities, academies, institutes, etc.). Many of these legal bodies do not have their own academic staff, premises, libraries, or other essential facilities. Usually, such institutions operate within existing State universities. In many cases their function is to by-pass the limitations set for the number of fee-paying students in State HEIs imposed by the MoE. In the view of the OECD study team, speedy legislative and administrative actions are needed to normalise the situation with some of the private institutions. The Law on Education stipulates that colleges and even lyceu (upper secondary schools) can become integral parts of universities. International practice shows that the association of institutions engaged in different levels of education is usually counterproductive. The existence of secondary schools (lyceu) in universities raises also the issue of equal access to higher education. The academic objectives in school level, college level and university education are quite different. Policy development for the HE system is co-ordinated by the MoE. The Parliamentary Commission on Education considers important educational issues, and also has the capacity to implement, by legislation, important policy 184
measures in the sector. The current Law on Education provides sufficient leverage for the State to exercise public control over the activities of HEIs. Nevertheless, it is widely accepted in Moldova that the State HEIs function quite independently from the State bodies in some important aspects of their activities. These include the overall funding, the total number of accepted students in different fields, and many others. Some HEIs have facilitated the establishment (within the premises of State universities) of private institutions. In some cases these are registered as limited companies. Officially, the university rents space to these organisations. Private HEIs can be set up with authorisation from the Chamber of Licensing. Most private universities have no clear legal status and are registered in different ways. In many cases, these institutions do not have the legal status of non-profit organisations. There are different explanations for the existing problems in the interaction between the Ministry of Education and HEIs. The funding from the State does not satisfy the basic needs of the institutions. In many cases, it covers only official salaries and student stipends. All other expenses including the greater portion of actual salaries come from the income generated by HEIs themselves. Typically, this represents about two-thirds of the budget of State universities, mostly from study fees. With such a budget structure it is not surprising that HEIs are more focused on activities that bring additional income than on the co-ordination and policy alignment with State bodies. Nevertheless, it should be underlined that the Ministry of Education and HEIs have established mechanisms for policy discussions. The main discussion forums are the meetings of the Rectors’ Council, attended usually by high-level Ministry officials. Defects in the current legislation are another reason for the discord between governmental policies and the practices of HEIs. The Law on Education does not clearly stipulate a definition of a non-state university, or of establishment procedures that would safeguard public interests. Thus, any legally registered organisation – e.g. non-profit foundation or even a commercial company – can call itself a university (or academy) and start its activities. A large number of such institutions have appeared during the past several years. The Government has only limited control over the activities of these private universities. Curricula and syllabi are expected to conform to the adopted State standards and the institutions are also subject to accreditation. No accreditation has been granted so far to a private university. As already mentioned, the insufficient budget funding of HEIs is a barrier to the successful implementation of state policies in the higher education sector. The level of funding for education is certainly closely linked to the overall 185
shape of the economy. Moldova experienced during the past decade several major political crises including the war in Transdnistria as well as separatist upheavals in other parts of the country. Progress towards a market economy and civil society was seriously impeded by internal political instability. The economic development of the country has been slowed down, leading to severe social problems. As a result, the funding for education has decreased, as has been shown earlier in this review: the share of public expenditures for education was 10% of the consolidated (national and local) budget in 1997, 7% in 1998, 7% in 1999, and only 4.7% in 2000. The problems are clearly understood in the MoE and the Ministry of Finance, as well as in the Parliamentary Commission on Education. The intentions are to raise the budgetary funding to the level of 7% of GDP (as required by law) over the next 2-3 years. Various initiatives have been taken by HEIs to create additional sources of income. In many instances, the quite liberal (in some aspects) legislation has been used to its farthest possible limits. In other cases, practices go beyond the limits of the law. These are most often related to paid education services, and especially to the mixing of activities and funding of State and private HEIs. There is evidently a serious institutional problem that needs to be resolved through policies based on a strategy agreed between state governing bodies and HEIs. Some of the outstanding current issues in the educational system of Moldova, as viewed by the Ministry of Education, are: x
Hampered access to education for some social groups;
x
Low level of availability of information technologies;
x
Low overall funding of education;
x
Decreased social status of teachers.
While these problems apply to the entire educational system, it should perhaps be underlined that the HE sector experiences them, too. With the wide introduction of paid education in the sector, young people from socially and financially weak backgrounds have fewer chances to study at tertiary level. On the other hand, however, the total number of students entering tertiary level institutions increased considerably after paid education was introduced. The main problem is therefore one of equity of access, rather than availability of student places in HEIs.
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The wider introduction of information technologies is a priority for all HEIs in Moldova. Some of the institutions visited – the A. Russo University in % O LDQGWKHSULYDWH8/,0 ,QWHUQDWLRQDO,QGHSHQGHQW8QLYHUVLW\RI0ROGRYD LQ&KLúLQ X– have built a quite good information technology (IT) infrastructure for studies and research. The library in A. Russo University is an excellent achievement, reached through institutional and personal initiatives under difficult financial conditions. IT is a priority for the university management in Comrat University, where well-equipped classes for foreign languages and computer science have been created, with good IT facilities. The level of salaries for the university lecturers is very low in a comparative regional context, even though the HEIs usually pay salaries that are two to four times higher than the official state levels. The additional payments come from extra-budgetary income, mostly from student fees. In spite of this, many university lecturers are forced to take a second and even a third teaching job in other universities or in colleges and schools. As a result, they have considerably less time to devote to their main duties. Governance and administration Partly due to currently stringent budgetary constraints, the role of the State administration in defining strategies and policies in HE appears to be somewhat reduced. In practice, HEIs enjoy greater autonomy than is stipulated in the existing legislation. This is, however, hardly surprising taking into account the low proportion of state funding in the overall budgets of institutions. In Moldova State University, the oldest and biggest higher education institution in the country, about 80% of the yearly budget comes from own income. By law, the Government has considerable powers of control in the HE sector: x
The MoE has the power to open and close HEIs.
x
All universities are required to use curricula and syllabi that conform to standards adopted by the Government.
x
The Council of Ministers approves every year the number of students to be admitted by State universities, by field of study (state order).
x
The Ministry operates some limited programmes for funding research in HEIs.
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x
The MoE has the power to approve or disapprove the appointment of Rectors, after elections in the Senates of HEIs.
x
The Accreditation Council grants institutional accreditation to State and private universities. In administrative terms, the Accreditation Council is a division in the MoE.
In spite of the considerable powers envisaged in the legislation, the overall impression is that the state organs, and in particular the MoE, do not exercise sufficient public control over the activities of HEIs. It appears that, in practice, HEIs decide the number of accepted students in different fields, either through accepting greater number of fee-paying students or through co-operation with private training institutions housed within the State universities. The share of State funding is between 20% and 50% of overall budget; and the State provides just 20% to 40% of the actual salaries of teachers. In terms of administration and management, co-operation between State administration and the managements of universities appears to be quite good at both national and regional levels. The main consultative body is the Council of Rectors of Moldovan universities. Senior ministry officials take part in its meetings. At regional level, representatives of the university managements are usually appointed as members of committees in the administration. At institutional level, internal management is the responsibility of the Rector and his/her deputies and the university Senate. The autonomy HEIs acquired after the political changes has resulted in a considerably increased role of university and faculty managements. As already mentioned the university administration oversees a budget mostly derived from the institution’s own sources. These new responsibilities and opportunities have allowed university managements to maintain the quality of studies and the motivation of the lecturing staff, in spite of severe cuts in State funding. The OECD team saw excellent examples of determination and foresight by university management in achieving adequate conditions for studies and research for both students and teachers. For example, the $ 5XVVR 8QLYHUVLW\ LQ % O L LV FRPSOHWLQJ D QHZ university building with well-equipped lecture rooms and laboratories. Comrat University, established only 10 years ago, now has good facilities for training in a number of fields. These achievements are the result of great efforts to attract funding from different sources, including foreign aid. The private International Independent University of Moldova (ULIM) is a very good example of the determination and focussed policies of its management. The university provides excellent facilities for its students and staff, and also stimulates academic research.
188
Nevertheless, the processes of democratisation of higher education were accompanied by a number of negative developments, linked mostly to the policies and practice of university management: x
The inter-dependence between labour market and education has been distorted, especially in some fields. For example, in the year 2000 alone, the number of students who graduated in law from State and private HEIs reached 6 000. The figure is out of any proportion with market needs. At the same time, the number of students in technical fields has dropped. It is quite clear that the search for extra income has been the priority for many HEIs.
x
The quality of education has suffered in a number of fields. It is quite clear that the country does not have the human and institutional resource to provide adequate training to 6 000 law students admitted every year. The same is true for a number of other fields of study.
x
It appears that some universities help create “phantom” private universities within their own premises, in the pursuit of extra income. This, in effect, is being regarded as unofficial (and uncontrolled) privatisation of State HEIs.
x
Research activities have diminished in a number of HEIs, in absence of adequate funding from the State budget; moreover, research thus far has not attracted private money, e.g. from enterprises.
The negative consequences of these developments are well appreciated by the university administrations, and there is a general understanding that measures need to be taken to stabilise the sector. The Government and Parliament are working on a new Law aimed at improving the legal basis for quality assurance and accreditation of HEIs. Relationship with general pre-university education Admission of students to Moldovan HEIs (see Table 8) is based on the academic results in schools and, with greater weight, on the results of entrance examinations. The introduction of national maturity examinations as an alternative has been also considered. HEIs are reluctant to accept students on the basis of tests or examinations organised outside their own university or faculties. However, these faculty based examinations create considerable inequity with respect to access for prospective students coming from under-privileged 189
social backgrounds or from rural areas. It is well known that students in the bigger cities can attend special preparation courses for faculty entrance examinations, often given by the same professors who set the exam. A sizeable private lessons “industry” has also developed, often within the university centres themselves. This is clearly a conflict of interest, as well as an unfair advantage to students from urban and better-off families compared with their (equally talented and qualified) poorer or rural counterparts. The paid tutoring system in particular has grown in the past few years, as has the occurrence of corruption and bribery96 in university entrance procedures (see section on Quality of Governance in this review). There was even a web site for students which displayed “price lists” for tests in a number of institutions – this now appears to have been closed down, but the message remains clear. The introduction of paid higher education has led to further inequalities. In some fields of study, the fees are so high that it has become impossible for school leavers from poorer families to apply for such studies. Recommendations Legislation and Policies:
96
x
Stricter procedures and requirements for the establishment of new higher education institutions should be introduced.
x
A unified legal status of private HEIs should be stipulated. All decrees for the foundation of current private universities need to be reviewed.
x
The role of accreditation and academic assessment should be strengthened to ensure the quality of studies in HEIs.
x
The funding of the HE sector needs to be increased in line with the projected overall rise in the share of GDP allocated to education.
x
Development of research activities in HEIs should become a policy priority for Government and institutions.
x
A special programme for wider introduction of information technology can be implemented with the aid of international donors.
See Corruption and Quality of Governance. January 2001. Dr Lilia Carasciuc, CISR.
190
The results from external, national, technically competent maturity examinations should gradually become the main criterion for admittance to higher education studies.
Figure 4. Structure of the National Education System
Post-university education
College
AGE
University
VVETS III
(1 year)
VVETS II
(2 years)
VVETS I
(2 years)
15|16|17|18
School of Trades.
Lyceum
GCSS
Compulsory Education
15
School of Trades.
10
10
Gymnasium (5 years)
6
Primary School (4 years) 56
x
Compulsory Pre-school Preparation (1 year)
ISCED:
0
1
2
= competition based entrance
3
4
5
= enrollment based entrance
= labour market exit = compulsory baccalaureate = optional baccalaureate GCSS = General Culture Secondary School VVETS = Versatile Vocational and Technical School ISCED = International Standard Classification of Education
191
6
REFERENCES
Bradbury, B, (2001) Jenkins, Stephen P.; and Micklewright, J., The Dynamics of Child Poverty in Industrialised Countries. UNICEF/ICDC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Centre for Strategic Studies and Reforms (CISR), (2001) Transparency International – Moldova Corruption and Quality of Governance. Dr Lilia Carasciuc, CISR. &ULúDQ$OH[DQGUX *XWX9ODGLPLUProiectarea curriculumului de baza: Ghid metodologic (“Designing Core Curriculum: Guidelines” &KLúLQ X TipCim. EU-TACIS Project No. 97-0454, (1999) Working Group (MoES, Association of Employers, and TACIS), “Methodological Recommendations for VET Reform in Moldova”)LQDO)LQDQFH5HSRUW&KLúLQ X Gutu, Vladimir, (2000) Dezvoltarea si implementarea curriculumului in invatamintul gimnazial: Cadru conceptual (“Curriculum Development and Implementation in Lower Secondary Education: Conceptual Frame”), &KLúLQ X/LWHUD Hammarberg, Thomas, (1997) A School for Children with Rights: The significance of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child for modern education policy. Florence: UNICEF/ICDC: Innocenti Lecture. King, Charles, (1997) Post-Soviet Moldova: A Borderland in Transition. Iasi: Centre for Romanian Studies. King, Charles, (2000) The Moldovans: Politics and Culture between Romania and Russia. Washington: The Hoover Institution. Lindauer, David, (1997) “Labor and Poverty in the Republic of Moldova” Washington: The World Bank, Mimeo. Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei, (2000) Consiliul National pentru Curriculum si Evaluare, Curriculum scolar: Gimnaziu (“Curricula for Lower Secondary Education”), Iasi, Dosoftei.
192
Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei, (2000) Consiliul National pentru Curriculum si Evaluare, Centrul Pro-Didactica, Curriculum scolar: Liceu (“Curricula for Upper Secondary Education” &KLúLQ X Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei, (1999) National Report, Education for All – 2000.&KLúLQ X Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei, (2001) National Report on the Follow-up to the World Summit for Children&KLúLQ X National Observatory of the Republic of Moldova, (2000) Vocational Education and Training in NIS and Mongolia: National Report, The Republic of 0ROGRYD&KLúLQ X 7$&,6 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), (2001) Education At A Glance 2001. Paris: OECD. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), (2001) Statistical data for background purposes of OECD Review for Moldova. Tibi, Claude, Berryman, Sue E, (2001) and Peleah, Moldova’s Education Sector: A Financing Strategy to Leverage System-wide Improvement.” The World Bank: Washington DC. UN in Moldova, (2000) Common CouQWU\$VVHVVPHQW&KLúLQ X UN in Moldova, (2000) The situation of women and children in Moldova – Assessment and Analysis UNICEF-Moldova. UNICEF International Child Development Centre, (1999) After the Fall: The human impact of ten years of transition. Florence: ICDC, The MONEE Project CEE/CIS/Baltics. UNICEF International Child Development Centre, (1998) Education for All? The MONEE Project CEE/CIS/Baltics. Regional Monitoring Report No. 5. Florence: ICDC. UNICEF International Child Development Centre, (1997) Children at Risk in Central and Eastern Europe: Perils and Promises.The MONEE Project CEE/CIS/Baltics. Regional Monitoring Report No. 4. Florence: ICDC. UNICEF, Moldova, (2001) Status of Institutionalised Children in Moldova – Summary of Study&KLúLQ X
193
University of Ljubljana CEPS, (1996) Evaluating and Reforming Education Systems. Paris: OECD. Van Dycke, Nancy, (2001) Access to Education for the Poor in Europe and Central Asia: Preliminary Evidence and Policy Implications. Technical Discussion Paper. Washington: The World Bank, ECSHD. The World Bank, (2000) Hidden Challenges to Education Systems in transition Economies. Europe and Central Asia Region, Human Development Sector. Washington: ECA. The World Bank, (2001) “Moldova: Sub-national Governments Finance (A Component of the Public Expenditure Management Review”. Mission aide-mémoire. The World Bank, (1997) Staff Appraisal Report: Republic of Moldova General Education Project. Washington. The World Bank, (1999) Moldova – Poverty Assessment Technical Papers. Volumes II and I. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, ECA Region. The World Bank, (2001) Access to Education for the Poor in Europe and Central Asia: Preliminary Evidence and Policy Implications. Washington: The World Bank, ECSHD.
194
MONTENEGRO
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Montenegro describes the current status of the education system and reform efforts underway. The country is introduced by general and demographic data; language, the geographic and historical context; the political, economic and the labour market situation; it also describes the structure and the legal framework. The whole education system is covered, from general education to vocational education, from higher education to lifelong learning, but focusing on early childhood and care, teachers and teacher training, curriculum and governance and administration. Equity in access, attainment and achievement are central issues, and special consideration is given to ethnic and minority questions and education for children with special needs. Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of education; to quality, assessment and evaluation in education; to preservice and in-service teacher training; working conditions and teacher salaries, the role of school inspectors; textbook provision and material and resources in general. The report describes issues and barriers at all levels of the education system and gives recommendations for policy makers, practitioners and donors.
MONTENEGRO
General Data97 Area:
13 812 sq.km (13.5% of the area of FRY).
Number of inhabitants:
658 000 plus 45 000 refugees (estimate)98; age structure: 58.5% under 24; 66.5% of working age -12.2% (2000 estimate); birth rate +0.6% (1998 estimate) or 14.9 births per 1 000 inhabitants (2000 estimate) 52 per sq.km including refugees. Urban/rural: 59%/41% (1998 estimate).
Population growth: Population density:
Ethnic composition:
62% Montenegrins, 15% Muslims, 9% Serbs, 6.6% Albanians; Roma 0.53%; others 7%.
Religion:
Serbian Orthodox (majority), Muslims, few Catholics.
Languages:
95% Montenegrin (a form of Serbian, but with 33 rather than 31 characters and considered socio-linguistically specific to Montenegro), 5% Albanian.
Labour force:
184 834 (1999).
GDP per capita:
USD 1 709 (1998) down from USD 3 000 (1989) and up from USD 1 650 (1997); agriculture 20%, industry 50%, services 30%
97
All statistics must be treated with care, given the poor state of Montenegro’s statistical system. Most data used in this report are based on information from the MoES, the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS) in Ljubljana or from other sources as indicated. Conflicting data from different sources are nearly inevitable, and ’a fact of life’ in the Balkans.
98
The Republic of Montenegro Statistics, September 2000.
197
(1998 estimate). Percent of state budget and GDP spent on education:
Budget share 30% (OECD average is about 12%); share of GDP 7.1% (2000).
Inflation:
42% (1999 estimate); retail prices increased by 24% between December 1999 and November 2000 99 64% (1999, according to government officials)100 Long-term unemployment: 73% more than 1 year; 50% more than 3 years, 30% of these with university education (1999). Unemployment is highest in Podgorica and Niksic (40% of all registered unemployed).101
Unemployment:
Introduction102 Montenegro is a small, Mediterranean and continental republic and is, along with the Republic of Serbia, part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The majority of the population is Montenegrin; there are also some 140 000 Montenegrins living in Serbia. Since 1990, Montenegro has faced tremendous difficulties and has been cut off from the international community economically, culturally and socially. The longer-term future of Montenegro in terms of its political relationship with Serbia has not yet been resolved, which adds a note of uncertainty to any attempts at strategic planning. In 1999 and 2000, the European Union and the United States pledged some DEM 485 million in assistance to Montenegro. Another DEM 280 million in support has been announced for 2001, and a recent donors’ conference (29 June 2001) produced nearly USD 1.3 billion in pledges for the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, of which Montenegro will receive its share also. However, there is as yet little sign of real institutional change within Montenegro. 99
Montenegro Economic Trends, January 2001.
100
“Problems and Needs of the University of Montenegro”, report prepared by WUS Austria, February 2000.
101
Labour market – vocational education and training assessment. Working document, April 2001. ETF, Torino, page 9.
102
This section was taken from Heather Iliff et al., Education in Montenegro: Needs Assessment, OSI/IEP, p. 4. Other sections also rely on information provided there, as well as on various websites and CEPS Ljubljana. See References listed at the end of this report.
198
The size, cost and bureaucratic reach of the government administration have continued to grow in comparison to 1990. Some 60% of Montenegro’s workforce are now employed by the state or in publicly owned companies. The cost of supporting this huge administration absorbs two-thirds of the Montenegrin budget, and can only be sustained by foreign assistance. The consolidated budget deficit is a startling 15% of total GDP. A careful case study of Montenegro 1998-2001103 concludes that no real attempt has yet been made to identify the human and financial resources needed to implement complex reforms. Foreign assistance has, thus far, mainly served to maintain a political economy based on heavy industry, a bloated and still growing administration, and a large security apparatus: the state is the largest employer, the most important consumer, and the mainstay of loss-making public enterprises. “The rhetoric of reform has become a substitute for the reality – the impact of outside assistance has been mixed … [and] the risk of Montenegro entering a further spiral of social decline is real”.104 Further social decline will inevitably affect the most vulnerable families and children, and thus will soon be manifest in Montenegro’s schools unless a serious, concerted effort is made to prevent it. The education system has suffered 10 years of isolation, chronic lack of investment and general decline of infrastructure and quality. Nevertheless, the system is functioning reasonably well, considering its limited resources. Schools operate for the entire academic year, albeit in double and triple shifts in places. The government has demonstrated a significant commitment to education, investing 30% of its overall budget, as compared with the OECD average of about 12%. The value placed on education is high, and a substantial portion of society is said to have received higher education (although at present only 15% of the age cohort (19-23) attends university). The Stability Pact initiative recognises that education plays a key role in promoting peace and democratic principles throughout the Balkans. The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) in Montenegro is committed to education reform and improvement, and is ready to form constructive partnerships with the international community. Investment is needed to support the system in the short term, as present levels of funding are not adequate to sustain it. The percentage of government funding for education cannot be expected to increase beyond its present (high) level, and in all likelihood it will 103
See “Rhetoric and Reform: A Case Study of Institution Building in Montenegro 1998-2001”, European Stability Initiative (ESI), supported by the German Foreign Ministry and the ESI Montenegro Project. Podgorica and Berlin: 28 June 2001, http://www.esiweb.org.
104
Ibid., page ii.
199
decrease to allow the government to invest in other crucial areas such as health, justice and social welfare. The Education System Age at which compulsory education starts:
7 years
Age at which compulsory education ends:
15 years. Of all students, 84.2% complete compulsory education in 8 years. Average education for population: 8.16 years. Dropout is said to be low at 1.82% for compulsory education and 3.11% for secondary. According to the MoES, 80% of basic school graduates continue into upper secondary; 28% in general and 72% in vocational upper secondary (1999/2000 data).
Levels of education governance:
Three: Central Ministry (MoES); Municipal (very limited involvement in education); and Local (school units).
Structure of the education system:
Child care 0-3; Pre-school education: ages 37; participation rate 22%. Compulsory basic education: ages 7-15 (current structure 4+4); participation rate 98.47%. Upper secondary education: ages 15-18 (4-year general and vocational); occupational secondary education: ages 15-17 (3-years). Tertiary education includes short university (2 years) and full university (4, 5 and 6 years). Postgraduate: specialisation (1-2 years) or Master of Art or Science followed by doctoral thesis (no “taught” doctoral studies). No examination at the end of grade 4. At the end of compulsory schooling (grade 8), schools issue a certificate. If students wish to continue into grade 9, they must, in most cases, take an entrance examination set by the receiving school. At the end of full upper secondary education (gymnasium or 4-year vocational/technical schools) an external
Examinations/transition points:
200
Matura examination is set by the MoES but administered and marked by the students’ own teachers. Entrance exams into university are by law set by the university and its faculties, in an ‘open competition publicised at least 2 months before the start of the academic year’. The grading system is 5-10; 6 is the lowest passing mark. The government and the University Senate set the number of students to be admitted, and how many of these will be state-funded. Special features A substantial number of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) came to Montenegro during the Kosovo crisis starting in early 1998. By the end of that year, there were an estimated 20 000 IDPs in Montenegro, mostly Kosovo Albanians, and at the height of the crisis in spring 1999 the number had risen to about 80 000. After the agreement between FRY and NATO in June 1999, the majority of Albanian Kosovars returned home, but then a second wave of IDPs – this time non-Albanian inhabitants of Kosovo – came to Montenegro. By March 2000, the number of Kosovo IDPs stood at 30 389 according to the Montenegrin Commissioner for Displaced Persons and UNHCR. The majority (67%) of IDPs are Montenegrins and Serbs; 20% are Roma; and 13% Muslims105. In the school year 1999/2000, more than 5 000 primary school children registered as Kosovo IDPs were in basic school (ages 7-15) in Montenegro, as well as another 4 000 refugee children from BosniaHerzegovina and Croatia. Serb, Montenegrin and Muslim ID children were easily absorbed into the regular school system, but ethnic Albanian children from Kosovo came from the unofficial, “underground” or “parallel” Albanian school system there [see the OECD report on Kosovo (CCNM/DEELSA/ED(2001)6)], and their school records – if available at all – were not recognised in Montenegro. Roma children also had problems, because of social exclusion and cultural differences, and again because they frequently lacked proper documents. Children of these two groups are allowed to attend a Non-Formal Education (NFE) programme arranged with the help of the MoES, UNHCR and UNICEF. At the time of the OECD team visit, most Kosovar Albanian children had returned to Kosovo. 105
UNICEF Podgorica, “Report on Primary Education for ID Children in Montenegro: Emergency Assistance in 1999”. 2000, OSI/IEP, page 1.
201
(Most of the refugee children [i.e. from Croatia and BiH] are in Montenegro’s official system.) The majority of school-age children not in regular school in Montenegro, estimated at 1 200, are Roma, from Kosovo as well as from Montenegro itself. The main reasons for their non-attendance are (1) language problems (many children do not speak Montenegrin well enough to attend school in that language); (2) poverty, (3) social segregation and exclusion, (4) limited space in classrooms and schools, especially in Podgorica and areas with a high influx of IDPs. Nevertheless, when Roma children have access to “friendly” NFE in their own settlements, attendance is good and interest/support from their families is high. International assistance will be needed to “bridge” NFE to the state system and to improve local tolerance and awareness of minority rights. Education finance Currently, the financing formula introduced at the time of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) remains in force, although both Serbia and Montenegro now foresee a more decentralised financing model in the future. The budget for education in Montenegro in 1999 was approximately 120m DEM (USD 63m). For 2000, the total state budget was planned at DEM 394m (USD 66 million), with 116m DEM (just under 30%) devoted to education. This is of course a very high share, and the share of GDP spent on education (7.1% in 2000) is well above the regional and even the OECD average.106 Salaries account for at least 88% of current expenditure; other major categories are school heating, textbooks, meals and accommodation costs for kindergartens and special-needs boarding schools, and transportation for children in rural areas. Not enough state funding is available for school materials, teacher training, equipment, or other development needs. Municipal administrations depend on the central government for more than half of their overall revenues, and raise local revenues from communal taxes and fees, building site charges, and administrative taxes, some of which are transferred back to the central budget. The municipal share of income tax varies by the size and wealth of each municipality; the formula is set by the central authorities. Separate figures for Montenegro are not available to the team, but for Serbia and Montenegro the share of local government expenditures in education is very low at about 2% (compared with 84.3% in 1989), the lion’s share now being carried by the central budget (76.4% compared with 0.2% in
106
CEPS, Ljubljana, and Republic of Montenegro Statistics, December 2000.
202
1989).107 (On average, local authorities spend just 10% of their total municipal expenditures on education, much lower than in many OECD countries.) Table 1. Schools, Teachers and Pupils in Montenegro (1999/2000) Level
Pupils
Teachers
Pre-schools
12 500
603
Basic education
78 037
4 888
Upper secondary
31 817
2 321
Schools 19 167 central +303 ‘branch’ = 470 44 central +1 ‘branch’ = 45
Pupils per Teacher 20.73 15.97
18.3
13.71
13.7
Total 7 982 667 1 (15 faculties) 11.97 (4 688 full time) TOTAL 130 336 8 479 535 Source: CEPS, Ljubljana, 2001. Drawn from Ministry of Education and Science data. University
OECD Average 17.6
15.7
Legal framework. The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) is responsible for all aspects of pre-school, primary, secondary and higher education. The most recent education law was passed in 1991; it states that schooling is compulsory for 8 years, with primary and secondary education free of charge. General elementary schools must be state-run. However, elementary schools for art, adult education, pre-school institutions or secondary schools can be established with state, joint and/or private ownership. A new law on higher education is currently in preparation, and a draft was made available to the OECD team. A White Paper proposing changes in the organisation and governance of education, and new legislation in accordance with international best practice, is being written with assistance from Slovenian experts. The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) is divided into three sectors with 46 staff plus the Inspectorate, and a small number of support staff, for a total of 149 persons. The Department of General Education (27 staff) covers pre-school, primary, secondary and special education. Higher Education and Science (10 staff) covers the University of Montenegro with its various faculties and colleges. Student Services (6 staff) provides for the dormitories, meals, and other student needs. Education in Albanian Language (3 staff, one of whom is a Deputy Minister) oversees Albanian-language schools, serving some 3 800 students. In addition, an Inspectorate (90 staff) covers primary and secondary 107
M. Mertaugh et al., “Recovery Needs in the Education Sector: Serbia and Montenegro”, for the World Bank, 2001, page 12.
203
schools and reports to the General Education sector of the Ministry. See also the section on Governance and Administration, below. MoES Priorities for State Investment. The priorities for 2000-2001, as stated by the MoES, are (a) to improve overall teaching and learning conditions in terms of constructing new buildings and reconstructing existing facilities, and (b) to foster the education reform process which comprises education legislation reform, human capacity building, curricula and textbook innovation, quality system development, and improvement of education employee living standards (MoES, 1999). Structure and status of the system Pre-school education:
Provides nursery schools for children aged 0-3 and kindergartens for children aged 3-6. Participation is estimated at 22% of the age cohort in public pre-school institutions; most of them have both parents working. The groups are overcrowded (up to 45 in a group) due to lack of space (average 3.4m2 per child). There is a general shortage of equipment and teaching materials. Kindergarten expenses for orphans and disadvantaged children are covered by the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare.
Primary education:
Is compulsory for children aged 7-14 and consists of two stages. Grades 1-4 are classteacher based, while grades 5-8 are subjectteacher based. Participation rate: official enrolment is 98.47% but especially among refugee, IDP, and Roma populations actual attendance rates are lower. Also, nearly 16% of each entering cohort does not complete compulsory schooling in 8 years, so repetition and irregular attendance are a problem. There is a serious lack of space in primary schools (average classroom space is 2.18m2 and total school space is 4.5m2 per pupil). Schools in urban areas have up to 35-40 pupils per class, and schools operate in double and triple shifts. Instructional time in the first two grades is very low (14.5 hours per week or 464 hours per
204
year, compared with an OECD average of nearly 800 hours). Albanian-language instruction is provided in 40 primary schools; average class size for minority-language students is 4 students per teacher, and Albanian textbooks are not always available. Secondary education:
Lasts three or four years, depending on the course of study. There are three main types of secondary schools. Grammar schools or gymnasia offer four years of general academic education which is completed by the final ‘Matura’ exam. Some gymnasia are specialised, such as in mathematics or philology. Technical and art schools offer four years of specialised education as well as an academic curriculum. Vocational schools offer 3 years of practical education. Participation rate: officially 96.9%. However, the percentage of Albanian-language students drops from 4.2% in primary to 2.4% in secondary (in numbers: from an average cohort of 1 500 in primary to no more than 200 in secondary). This may of course mean that more students switch to Montenegrin after grade 8, to have a better chance to enter university. The lack of space at secondary schools is even more acute than at primary. The physical conditions of most vocational schools are extremely poor, and lack the basic equipment they need to deliver the curriculum. Class sizes in rural areas are small (sometimes 40 years)
640 800 (2-6 years) to 847 800 (>40 years)
593 700 (0-14 years) to 720 500 (>40 years)
Pedagogical Institute
640 800 (6-10 years) to 863 500 (>40 years)
574 800 (2-6 years) to 762 500 (>40 years)
565 400 (0-14 years) to 699 200 (>40 years)
Sources: Ministry of Education, Bucharest, June 1998. Lei exchange rate was USD 1 = 8,500 lei. Teachers salaries ranged from a low of USD 66.52 per month for a newly graduated pedagogical institute teacher to a high of USD122.35 for a university graduate with more than 40 years’ experience. Note that these figures are straight lei/dollar conversions and do not represent purchasing power parity with dollar incomes e.g. in the US.
There are a considerable number of unqualified teachers in the system.146 [‘Unqualified’ can mean either that a teacher has a university degree but no teaching qualification, or that a teacher is a liceu (high school) graduate only.] It is also difficult to attract qualified young people to teaching jobs in rural areas, and to teaching jobs in certain specialties, such as foreign languages. Taken as a whole, however, there is a surplus of teaching staff: the total number of teachers has risen since 1990 at the same time that birth rates have dwindled and school attendance rates have dropped in some sectors. Pupil:teacher ratios (P:TRs) are still low (at 17.7 in urban areas and 14.7 in rural ones), and 18 contact hours per 146
According to data provided by CEPS, 31 706 teachers out of a total of 166 332 (about 20%) were un- or under-qualified in 1999/00, and about 80% qualified (see Table 7), but significant differences exist by level.
305
week is considered a full-time teaching job - low by international standards, where the average is between 24 and 30 contact hours per week (see Table 5). Such inefficiencies in the system help keep salaries low; large scale teacher layoffs or dismissals, however, would create social and political problems, and swell the ranks of the unemployed. Any significant contraction of the teaching force is therefore unlikely. Table 7. The proportion of qualified teachers Level of education
Number of teachers Qualified teachers (%)
Pre-school
36 555
79.1
Primary
64 710
84.3
Lower secondary
100 045
78.0
Upper secondary
66 101
91.4
9 898
62.2
22 139
79.0
Professional/Vocational Tertiary Average
Source: MER and CEPS, 2001.
A particularly important programme of training courses was organised for VET teachers and principals in the following subjects: training standards and curricular developments, information technology, specific teaching subjects, vocational guidance, entrepreneurial skills, evaluation and assessment, school partnerships and school management. In each school a Teachers’ Board (Consiliul Profesoral) makes decisions concerning all teaching staff, including work plans, which teachers are to participate in teacher training, validating student grades and assessment, and career counselling. The Board involves all teachers in its processes, so that the teaching staff is actively involved in every pedagogical aspect of School Unit activity. It advises and validates the director’s decisions on curriculum, student relations, and academic staff development. Teacher’s Boards participate in establishing annual teaching staff incentives, using a “marking (point)” system based on teachers’ self-evaluation. These incentives, which total less than 10% of the School Unit salary fund, are questioned by teachers who reject the appraisal system. In Romania, teachers’ unions are non-governmental organisations established by the 1991 law on syndicates (trade unions) to defend the economic, social, professional, and cultural rights of its 200 000 members in more than 10 unions. This represents one-half of the nation’s teaching and nonteaching staff. Teachers’ unions have no decision-making responsibilities but have created a wide local institutional network and play a consultative role to 306
the administration. They are accredited observers of the decision-making process at central, regional, and local levels and try to influence the legislative process, policy-making, education management and funding. They are on the periphery of the school system but have a major impact on implementing educational innovation through their programme for teacher advancement. Their marginality could allow them to link school and society and facilitate the reform process, but since unions concentrate on promoting teachers’ economic wellbeing, they avoid responsibility for development and reform Issues and barriers related to teachers and teacher training x
Urgent need for a national strategy to improve initial (pre-service) teacher training. While there were some activities in the last few years (a National Seminar of pre-service, a Survey Report and proposals for change submitted to the Ministry that resulted in a Ministerial order redesigning content of teacher education and time allocated for practical pedagogical practice as part of training), real restructuring did not take place until 2000/01. A plan to revise initial training to enrich initial academic training with school practice by incorporating into the formal training the two years of initial teacher’s induction in the classroom is being developed. A mentor teacher, who will be part of the University staff, will guide students’ pedagogical practice. Probationary teachers will be supervised by a guiding teacher; and the definitivat exam will require a portfolio review of the two years of work. The decision to again offer initial training for pre-school and primary school teachers in pedagogical high schools (starting in 2001/02) is significant, but the quality of training (and of supervision of practice teaching) in these high schools will need to be watched closely.
x
Need for professional standards for teachers that will provide a basis for a new definitivat examination. It is hoped that the new definitivat will place more emphasis on pedagogy and school-based practical experience, and less on theoretical and subject knowledge, especially at primary and lower secondary levels.
x
Need to co-ordinate and improve in-service training. In June 2001 the National Centre for Teacher Training was created by Government Ordinance, as an institution subordinated to the Ministry. The Centre is expected to ensure the sustainability of reforms in in-service teacher training. It will be essential for this Centre to be aware of, and work with, NGOs and other in-service teacher training providers, in order to
307
ensure that training is in line with the spirit and objectives of education reforms in general. x
Need to provide opportunities for unqualified teachers to become qualified without having to return to full-time university studies. Seven “Distance Education Centres” (in the judets of Hunedoara, Bihor, Calarasi, Salaj, Botosani, Arad and Valcea) have been equipped since 1997 as part of an initiative to create a Distance Education Centre in the Institute for Educational Sciences (IES). The intention was that teachers would receive training in a series of modules, and provided with tutoring. These activities were never implemented, due to lack of staff at the IES and support staff. There are now plans to develop materials for distance in-service learning; this is a highly specialised task for which expert technical assistance will be required from countries that have distance education for serving teachers.
x
Need to make optimum use of the training capacity developed under the GoR/World Bank Education Reform Project. The Government of Romania has invested a great deal in the equipment of 42 Casa Corpului Didactic (CCDs), the training and certification of a cadre of National Trainers, and the work with 1 400 local trainers to work directly with teachers in schools. Any strategy for in-service teacher training must take account of these important resources, which would be very difficult (and needlessly expensive!) to replace.
Early Childhood Development and Pre-school Education Early childhood education and care (ECEC) There are many players within the Government that are responsible for policy making in the field of early childhood education and care (ECEC). Among them: Ministry of Education and Research, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, Ministry of Justice, and State Secretariat for the Handicapped. These institutions and their corresponding regional structures (i.e. regional school Inspectorates, local councils, mayors, etc.) have clear responsibilities in budget planning and management. Some other institutions develop activities targeted on childhood education and care. The need for a coherent view across government of the future strategy in this field was the reason to set up a new institution with clearer responsibilities. The National Authority for Child Protection (AuWRULWDWHD 1DWLRQDO SHQWUX 3URWHF LD Copilului), set up in 2000 under responsibility of the Government, seems to be
308
much better articulated with the specific needs and actions at the national and regional level. Most of the institutions operating in this field are public institutions, but there are also many private ones. Their activity is regulated by specific legislation issued by the Department for Child Protection within the Government. The main categories of institutions are: x
Social institutions for child protection and care (i.e. nurseries, nursery schools, pre-school foster homes, juvenile centres);
x
Medical institutions such as residential hospitals for children with serious deficiencies requiring specialised medical assistance;
x
Educational institutions – kindergartens;
x
Institutions for special education (i.e. special pre-school child homes or kindergartens);
Nursery schools are subordinated to the Ministry of Health, caring for children with normal psycho-physical development between the ages of two months and three years. Children attending crèches have their own families, but the family cannot provide the time required for child protection and education. Depending on the situation of both parents, children may be placed with these institutions for day or weekly care. Table 8. Number of nursery schools and available places (1989 – 1998) Years
1989
1995
1996
1997
1998
Number of nursery homes
Total
847
573
546
464
425
Number of beds
Total (thou)
78
36
34
29
25
Source: National Commission of Statistics, Statistics Yearbook of Romania, 1998.
The scarcity of funds is the main cause of the decrease in the number of nursery schools from 847 units in 1989 to 425 units in 1998. During the same period, the number of children attending crèches decreased from 49 342 to 14 625. Other causes are related to: a low birth rate, decreasing from 16% (1989) to 10.8% (1998); high unemployment rate for female workers; new maternity facilities, including paid maternity leave until the child is 2 years old, and a decrease in income, as parents have to pay a part of the cost of their child’s daily attendance.
309
Although the number of children attending crèches has diminished, the teaching staff is not sufficient. At the same time, the staff, most of it medical, lacks the required psycho-pedagogical training. This fact reduces the activity in nurseries to the supervision and medical assistance of the children, and no ageadjusted educational programmes are developed. Recently, the MER initiated a training programme for paediatric nurses. Some non-governmental initiatives are focused on the training of specialised staff and development of educational programmes in nurseries. The quality of staff has also been improved due to training programmes initiated by the Department for Child Protection, the Ministry of Health, or through EC-Phare pilot projects aimed at facilitating family links, reducing the child-abandonment phenomenon, and organising individualised care programmes. Nurseries are also social institutions caring for children aged 0-3 years who are orphans and infants from dysfunctional, poor, or large families. According to a census of institutionalised children made in 1997 by the Department for Child Protection, the main reasons for infant abandonment are: social causes (68.7%), economic causes (21.5%), medical reasons (5.3%), and mental and psycho-motor deficiencies in the child (2.3%). The care system in nursery homes has an excessively medical nature and ignores child socialisation and education. This issue has an influence on the social and affective development of the child and may hinder his/her first steps within the system of formal education. Some nursery schools have medical sections for premature infants or infants requiring permanent specialised care. Hospital homes take care of children and adolescents aged between 3-18 with motor handicaps and serious mental deficiency. The County Commission for Juvenile Protection makes the decision for institutionalisation in such homes. Most of the children in these homes come from nurseries. In 1997, there were 33 hospital homes caring for 4 473 children, of which 6.5% were under 6 years old. A small percentage (about 6.8%) per year leave the institution: some return to their natural family (8.9%), 80% leave for another care institution, and the others (10%) are left outside the protection system, often ending up as socially at-risk or street children. Juvenile placement centres have a transitory purpose and are designed for children aged 3 to 18 with behavioural and social adjustment difficulties. In 1997, there were 40 such centres sheltering 379 children.147 The centres place their children with families or other protection institutions.
147
Website: http://crips.digiro.net/statrpom.htm
310
Homes for pre-schoolers, subordinated to the Ministry of Education and Research, are designed for children aged 3-6 years, orphans, abandoned children, or children from “problem” or poor families. Most of the children come from nursery schools. After 1990, children’s homes were restructured: their capacity was reduced (from an average of 400-500 children to a maximum of 200 children per nursery), the number of children per team fell from 20-30 to 10-15, while the number of nurses/educators increased from one to three per group of children. When they leave, about 30% of the children are directed toward similar institutions. Each year, about 9% of the institutionalised children leave the protection system. Many of them, again, become so-called “street children”. A survey conducted in 1995 by “Save the Children” indicated that 23% of these were children who had left protection institutions. Special kindergartens operate for children with special needs, both in public education network and in pre-school child homes. Inter-school logopaedic centres employing specialised teachers are organised as structures of integrated special education. A systematic monitoring process of the evolution of special needs children is carried out, and proposals can be made for their reorientation from a specialised to a mainstream school. A teacher and a school psychologist, who has dealt with the child, subject to the family or legal tutor’s agreement, can make such proposals. Children with special educational needs (SEN) who could not be re-oriented toward regular school by the time they complete their primary education will continue their schooling in special education units – gymnasiums, vocational and post-higher secondary schools – according to the type and degree of their handicap. In Romania, most children with special educational needs, those with less serious disabilities, as well as socially at-risk children, attend regular schools. Recent trends indicate some specific co-operative measures, such as common activities run by the regular education system together with the assistance and education system dedicated to children with special needs or with serious health problems. Children who recover from their disabilities, as well as those with less severe disabilities, living with the family or under public care, may continue to study in both special and regular vocational schools, high schools and post secondary schools. At each level of care, the child may return to his family, if the family can guarantee the appropriate conditions to raise and educate her/him or, according to the legal provisions, the child can be adopted or placed in a foster family. In Romania the categories of “children at risk” are: institutionalised children; children in foster families; adopted children; “street children”; abandoned children; delinquent children; and children partially deprived of a family environment. A large majority of these children (aged 0-15) live with 311
their families and only a small percentage is now institutionalised under legal conditions. New legislation introduced foster care or professional maternal assistance as an innovation and a better alternative to the child protection system. All persons who agree to receive children in trust or foster care are entitled to receive financial support. Along with the issue of children in difficulty, special attention has been given to the improvement of the situation of children with physical and mental disabilities. The institutionalised system of protection is now in the process of an important reform that aims at ensuring a gradual approach between special schooling for disabled children and regular school. The objective is to ensure progressive improvement of living and educational conditions in child-care institutions by opening residential institutions to the community, and encouraging interaction of orphaned, abandoned or disabled children with other children of the same age. In fact, the protection of children with special needs has been a priority since 1990 and the Government continues to show a special concern in this respect. In 1991, the Government created a State Secretariat for Disabled Persons that sets policy in this field, and co-ordinates the activities of all institutions serving children with special needs. The policy objectives are clearly stipulated in the new Law on Education and the Regulations for the Organisation and Functioning of Special Education. As a consequence of this strategy, in 1999, the process of decentralisation, through transferring the child-protection residential institutions (crèches and children’s homes) from the Ministry of Health and the MER to specialised public offices at county level, has been finalised by offering them the instruments for accomplishing their new obligations under the new legislation, and ensuring an efficient management of resources at county level. In many cases, a child’s “institutionalisation” extends until the age of 11, which limits access to pre-school and school education for such children. To avoid these negative effects, since 1991, some nursery homes have limited institutionalisation to the age of 5, with corresponding adjustment in their education. After this age, the child is transferred to a foster home. In 1997, out of a total of 9 309 institutionalised children in 57 nursery homes, 78.3% were 03 year old infants, 8.3% were 3-5 year olds, and 3.4% were children aged between 6 and 11. With respect to children’s destination when leaving the nursery home: in the course of one year, 27.8% of the infants return to their families, around 28% enter other families (adopted: 25.5%, family placement: 0.45%, entrusted: 2%), 40% go to another care institution, and the others (4.2%) remain outside the protection system. (This still means that 391 children under the age of 11 leave “the protection system” long before they can fend for themselves.) 312
The reform of the institutionalised care system is leading to the development of “policies of de-institutionalisation”, finding an alternative so that children with special needs can be raised in a family or community environment. This policy is based upon the premise that families provide the optimal environment for child development, and that, when children cannot be placed in families, an environment as close as possible to a family one must be created for them. For this purpose, placement centres have been set up within institutions to create the best solution for each child’s protection and care. This policy developed following the public reaction to the conditions existing in the crèches, orphanages and hospital-homes during the first years after 1990, but also due to the costs of placing children in residential institutions. It should be noted that the cost of the alternatives to placement centres represent less than half the cost of raising children in these centres. Following this new policy, schools, regional Inspectorates and the MER took action to support inclusive education: x
Participation of some groups of pre-school children, classes, groups of pupils from special institutions in common activities together with children from regular kindergartens and schools (drawing classes, physical education, sports, etc.).
x
Adjustment of the teaching process of some of the special schools (for the partially blind, partially deaf and motor-disabled children) to the curriculum of the regular schools.
x
Assessment under regular conditions, giving to disabled children the feeling of being treated in a non-discriminatory way; mainstreaming of some disabled children within regular vocational schools and centres by doing practical activities together.
x
Creation of special classes and groups (with specific programmes) within regular kindergartens and schools, enrolling, where possible, children from special schools.
x
Creation of new teaching positions which better meet the requirements of qualified teaching staff: support-schoolmaster, support-teacher, teacher of special education; psycho-diagnostician; psychologist teacher et al.
There has been some evidence of more involvement of local communities in projects run by state institutions and various governmental institutions. For instance, the “Project of Reform of the Child Protection System 1999-2001” run 313
by the Romanian Government (Department for Child Protection) in partnership with public local authorities and the participation of several international organisations (World Bank, FDSCE, UNICEF, USAID, EC-Phare, The Spanish and Swiss Governments, SERA Foundation). The first component of this project refers to the establishment and development, in Romania, of a system of child-protection services based on the growing involvement of local communities in the organisation of inclusive education. Table 9. Number of pre-school institutions, enrolled children, and available places (1998) Type of Kindergarten Weekly Programmes Extended Programmes Normal Programme Handicapped Children Homes for Able Pre-schoolers Homes for Deficient Pre-schoolers Total
Kindergartens
Children
68 1 223 11 361 57 41 10 12 760
5 873 128 928 485 301 2 340 1 869 467 624 778
Available places 6 520 148 431 500 525 2 786 2 722 733 661 717
Source: National Commission for Statistics. See also Table 1, 1999/2000.
According to the new law on local public finance, allocation of funds and resource management is decentralised in the field of child protection and education. Thus, local funds are spent on maintenance, current and capital repairs and investments in public services specialised in child education and protection. After 1989, in addition to public financing, important additional financial support from international organisations was made available by: the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, UNICEF, the European Union, Council of Europe, UNDP, etc. Budgets are further supplemented by the financial and material contributions obtained through charitable donations, sponsoring by enterprises and the civic society. The evolution, in terms of number of units, enrolled children and quality of teaching in pre-school education, reveals improved service quality and educational activities. The children/educator ratio decreased from 28 to 17 in the 1997/98 and 1998/99 school years. However, while the ratio is only 14.5 in urban areas, it is 20.5 in rural areas. Thus, in rural areas, the number of children in a group (20) exceeds the legal maximum. However, these values are sometimes higher in large cities and lower in rural areas with a reduced school population, where groups bring together children aged from 3 to 6 years. Educators and teachers employed in pre-school education are graduates of the pedagogical high schools, colleges, or a higher-education institution, and of a training course in psycho-pedagogy. For some activities (foreign languages, 314
drawing, music and dance), teachers holding higher education qualifications are employed. The restructuring of the curriculum and activity programme in pre-school education was carried out by the Directorate for Pre-school Education of the MER. Aiming at a better articulation between pre-school and primary education, it is planned to place the restructuring of the pre-school curriculum within the purview of the National Council for the Curriculum. The revision of the pre-school curriculum is based on the new concept of educational objectives promoted by the reform of Romanian education and by a series of studies and analyses undertaken by the Institute for Sciences of Education since 1990. The issues researched were: x
The introduction of educational alternatives in pre-school education and assessment of their impact on the psycho-social development of the young child;
x
The assessment of pre-school education in Romania (an international IEA project);
x
The development of a democratic culture in school;
x
Language development of the young child;
x
child preparation for school;
x
Psychoanalysis and education of the pre-schooler; and
x
Training of the teaching staff employed in pre-school education.
The training-educational programme in pre-school education includes common and optional activities. The main curriculum areas of pre-school education include: language education (communication and written language elements), education for science (maths and environmental activities), education for society (moral, civic and religious education, practical activities), aesthetics education (music and arts), psychomotor education (physical education, eurhythmics). The teaching plan also provides for a series of optional activities: foreign languages, initiation to computer science, ballet, drama, vocal, and instrumental arts, ecology, etc. The total number of common activities varies from five per week (younger group), to seven per week in the intermediate and older groups. Also, children may select at least one of the optional activities in the teaching plan. With 315
respect to children with special needs, curricula, programmes, textbooks and teaching methodologies are designed according to the type and degree of handicap. The new curriculum was prepared from the perspective of dividing schooling into curriculum cycles, which involves changes in the teaching plan in terms of school subjects and their relative weight in syllabi, textbooks, and teaching strategies. The acquisition of basic competencies and school-readiness (for primary school) are seen as the major objectives of preparatory education. The new programme provides for an increased number of mandatory weekly activities, from seven in the senior group to nine in the preparatory group. Working with the Government, local authorities, and non-governmental organisations through its office in Bucharest, UNICEF develops programmes to support children and families in vulnerable situations. Among the programmes that have been developed are: Child and Woman Health Care (main objectives: support of medical services granted to young mothers and promote a national strategy against HIV/AIDS infection), Family Education (community development and parental resource centres), Children in Highly Difficult Situations (services for families at risk and support for the integration in normal schools of children with special needs), Planning and Development of Social Policies (support for the reform of child protection). Other programmes include: x
Programme for early education by areas of incentives (PETAS), for children from 1 to 6 years old, organised by the MER in co-operation with the Ministry of Health Care and UNICEF. The programme started through a pilot-project developed in 10 nurseries and kindergartens for the period 1991-1994. PETAS proposes a pattern of individualised education of the young child by using specific tools and procedures in the study of each child’s personality and by organising educational activities by areas of incentives. Currently, a project is under elaboration to extend the programme to rural kindergartens.
x
The Soros Foundation for an Open Society initiated the Step-by-Step programme in Romania in 1994 under its Head Start activity. In 1995, the programme was accredited by the MER as an alternative to public education. Started in 1998, the programme is continued by the Stepby-Step Centre for Vocational Education and Development. During the 1998/99 school year, the Step-by-Step programme was developed in 5 crèche groups and 192 kindergarten groups in 24 counties.
316
x
The Institute for Educational Sciences initiated its own project for the implementation of the Montessori Pedagogy for Sciences of Education in co-operation with the Montessori Association in Romania. At present, an urban kindergarten group is in full operation and training courses for educators are underway with a view to founding 4 more groups in Turnu-Severin.
x
The Jena Plan educational alternative was an experiment in Roma education. The Plan began in 1994, operating with 8 groups of preschool education in urban areas and one group in a rural area. The methodology uses education/instruction of children in combined age groups, interdisciplinary educational content, and an emphasis on social development.
x
The Waldorf programme started in 1990 in over 20 counties. The programme is based on the principles of Waldorf pedagogy founded by Rudolf Steiner: age heterogeneity of the children in a pre-school group, imitation as main method of education, activities carried out in rhythmical structures, repeated teaching content for one or several weeks.
Issues and barriers in ECEC x
No coherent strategy supported by adequate legislation exists yet in terms of community involvement in solving family and child education problems. But there is a trend toward the decentralisation of the management of financial resources, and delegation of administrative responsibilities to the level of local community.
x
Insufficient financial support from the Government. Although many donors are involved, some important areas are not covered.
x
Uneven co-operation between Government and “players”. The reform of child-care institutions can raise problems, especially in the case of units with more than 200 children. In some counties, the detached units of the various ministries involved are less collaborative. In fact, teachers strongly oppose their detachment from the administration of the MER.
x
There are still very serious social problems. Many families continue to live in very poor economic conditions. Child support allowances are low in real terms, and other forms of financial aid are insufficient. The fact that allowances are subject to the child’s school attendance 317
has led to a higher school attendance, but the school drop-out rate remains high. x
New social phenomena. The emergence of a new at-risk categories must be taken into account; higher divorce rates, and increasing unemployment, especially among women and young adults, create new difficulties in raising children, and have increased the number of single-parent households.
Vocational Education and Training Vocational and technical education and training (VET) has a long tradition in Romania, going back more than 100 years. During the period between the World Wars, the system – because of its structure and content – was considered quite prestigious. After the 1970s, inspired by models adopted by other communist regimes, the tendency was to reduce the number of enrolments in classical high schools in favour of technical and vocational schools; by the end of the Ceaucescu period, less than 8% of secondary school students were in theoretical (academic) education, by far the lowest percentage in any postcommunist country. The remaining 92% were in different types of vocational programmes. Schools were classified on the basis of sectors and profiles. Students failing the entrance examination of one institution were directed to another school whose quotas had not been met. Firms and co-operatives played an important role as “sponsors” for the VET system. The enterprises not only helped by supporting the school budget, but also helped to define the number of enrolments and the structure of the programmes. Lessons for practical training sometimes took place in the enterprise itself or in the workshops of the school, but organised with equipment and trainers provided by the enterprises in accordance with the production standards. The relationship between the school and the enterprise was often based on a contract, through which the company had to provide employment after graduation. Employers also frequently provided teachers for practical skills, and scholarships which were not far below the future initial salary of a young worker. There was a steady and rapid decline in the enrolment rates at secondary level as the size of the cohort entering the first year of compulsory education decreased throughout the 1980s (reaching its lowest point in 1990/91). The rate increased in the following three years but decreased again after 1995 under the influence of the drop in the birth rate which has occurred since the 1980s. VET enrolment for the school year 1998/99 represented 58.21% of total secondary
318
education. In 1998, approximately 64% of the students attended vocational schools (special profile schools, vocational and apprenticeship schools). Table 10. Enrolment rates in secondary education (1990 – 1998) 1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Admission rate in secondary education
Indicators (%)
...
...
88.4
98.0
93.6
94.6
93.5
95.4
95.9
Enrolment rate in secondary education
90.7
76.1
65.7
63.7
66.1
68.6
69.1
68.6
67.8
Percentage of students enrolled in vocational education
84.4
75.5
70.3
67.3
65.3
65.8
64.8
64.3
63.8
Source: National Commission for Statistics
Between 1990 and 1998 the Ministry made a substantial investment effort in improving school infrastructure; however, the total number of school units of all types has remained relatively steady at around 29 000, and now (2001) stands at 29 128.148 In the absence of a real partnership between school units and companies, the major part of education expenses remained the State’s responsibility and this situation was convenient to employers. Attempts made to transfer some educational costs to employers frequently failed because of their lack of financial resources. The reform of vocational and technical education was carried out with the support of the EC-Phare programme. In the school year 1999/2000 the results of this programme were generalised within the entire VET system in Romania. The decision was based on the conclusions of the final evaluation of the reform programme, carried out under the responsibility of the European Training Foundation (ETF). In the 2000/01 school year the new curriculum for high school was implemented after the end of the EC-Phare programme. The principles are those proposed in the programme for the technological stream. In the case of vocational schools, the MER approves the framework educational study plan and compulsory syllabi at the national level. The development of these documents is co-ordinated by the National Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and must be approved by the National Commissions which are organised by subject. The school Inspectorate, with the authorisation of the Local Committee for Social Partnership Development, approves the local component of the curriculum, developed by school 148
MER, 2001. This figure, however, differs from the CEPS data reflected in Table 1, which show that there were 27 533 schools in 1999/2000. The definition of ‘unit’ may be the cause.
319
representatives with the participation of social partners. Generally speaking, curriculum restructuring was aimed at adopting a multi-level structure ranging from a broad to a specialised, modular-type training and based on a “tree-andbranch” structure that ensures connections and horizontal mobility within the system. Pupils themselves decide, in the last year of study, on a particular trade or specialisation in the case of vocational and high school education. Apprenticeship, post-high school, and foremen education represent forms of specialisation; they therefore have a curriculum where occupational skills prevail. Social partners play an advisory role in the following areas: designing development policies and strategies for vocational and technical education, the school network, approval of compulsory curriculum for high schools, vocational schools and post-high school units, specific specialisations, teacher training, establishing types of continuing training programmes in which the school may participate on its own, in association with other schools and economic agents or non-governmental organisations, establishing the occupations, trades, specialisations for which training is organised and certifying pupils’ training through specific examinations. At the level of the educational unit, social partners take part in identifying the school mission and its fulfilment. Apprenticeship schools, established according to the Law on Education, are locally administered and controlled, and the social partners, together with the local public authority, are responsible for the entire organisation. The outline education plan is established with the approval of the MER. The consistency of technical and vocational education with continuing vocational training continues to be a priority from the legal and institutional points of view. The capacity of schools to become resource centres for community development needs to be enhanced in order to improve the training provision, both from qualitative and quantitative approaches. The National Centre for Technical and Vocational Education carried out an evaluation through the regional Inspectorates. One of the main purposes of the evaluation was to assess the principal results of the first year of generalisation of the programme and to identify potential corrective actions. A major concern is the insufficient practice included in the educational study plan, which could endanger the achievement of the planned qualification level. Issues and barriers in vocational education x
Misjudgment of vocational education. The current problems of employability of vocational graduates and the reduced demand for this training should not be seen as a failure of vocational education and
320
training itself, but rather as a failure of the previous form of education and training to adapt to the requirements of the new society. x
Drop-outs. Between 1994 and 1998 the school drop-out rate in secondary education ranged from 4% to 6% (in vocational education) and from 6% to 8% (in apprenticeship schools) but over 70% of the pupils who dropped out of secondary education came from vocational schools. The situation in post-high school education does not differ significantly.
x
Maintaining development. With the exception of externally financed technical assistance on training projects which have had an impact at national-level institutions, lack of resources (public and private) have caused vocational education to stagnate.
x
Constraints imposed by the present budget structure. High pressure on recurrent costs against a background of budgetary austerity exacerbates the rapid decrease in capital expenditures. The legislative framework recently passed (i.e. a Special Education Fund) has not had an impact, at least for the moment, on the level of investments.
x
Low external efficiency of the VET system. Matching vocational qualifications to the expectations of the labour market is still a problem; in 1999, more than 40% of the total number of unemployed were high school graduates, and 20% of this group remained unemployed for more than two years. The average length of unemployment after leaving school was 13.9 months in 1999.
x
Demoralised teaching force in VET. Too many teachers have operated within a system where neither market nor student interests have played a role in determining teaching content or style. The vast majority of teachers can adapt but need help to do so. The problem of teacher adaptation is made more difficult by the salary and recruitment systems for VET teachers. The pay (poor and especially unattractive for those teachers who have the most marketable skills) and failure to recruit and retain the best teachers are problems that nearly all VET systems face, but the difficulties are especially severe in Romania because of the current fiscal crisis.
x
Lack of modern textbooks for VET. Because of financial constraints in updating the equipment and in providing the necessary training to teachers for implementing the new curricula, the reforms have had
321
little influence on the VET sector. Unfortunately, there was no financial provision for the production of textbooks during the project implementation. Therefore, the textbooks used in the schools do not match the curricula, and are frequently outdated, in particular for vocational subjects. Higher Education During the 1980s, Romania faced a major discrepancy inside the system: high enrolment rates at the pre-tertiary level, but one of the lowest rates at the tertiary level. The years after 1990 showed a different situation. The number of students enrolled at the tertiary level tripled, while the number of pre-university pupils decreased, mainly at the secondary level. Moreover, the general economic and budgetary context of Romania implies the need to establish some priorities. Through 1999, increases in population, participation rates, and availability of new places have been rather low, each constraining the potential growth of new higher education enrolments. However, at the beginning of the first year of the new century, participation rates began to increase rapidly and, by 2002, the age cohort will again begin to increase. The result will be a dramatic change in aggregate participation in higher education, from 13.1% of the age cohort in 1996/97 to over 30% in 2002/03. The private share of higher education will increase from 26.2 to 29.9% and the private institutions’ share of first year students will increase from 22.5 to 29.9%. Table 11. Higher education enrolment data and projections, 1996/1997 – 2002/2003 (in thousands) Item / Year
1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03
18-year-old cohort
383
380
368
340
301
306
339
Total upper secondary pupils
792
760
727
804
8812
958
1035
Pupils in grade 12
190
192
203
176
160
161
200
Total public higher education students
261
263
272
330
388
446
505
Total private higher education students
93
93
93
123
153
183
216
Total all higher education students
354
356
365
454
543
632
721
First year public students
62
50
65
66
77
98
101
First year private students
18
18
18
24
30
36
43
Total first year students
80
68
83
90
107
134
144
Source: Ministry of National Education, “Higher Education in a Learning Society – Guidelines of the New Policy for Development of Higher Education in Romania”, 1998.
322
With the end of communist rule in 1989, the institutions themselves established major reforms in programmes and management, within the framework of new education legislation which continues to evolve. An explosion of private higher education institutions led to the creation of an Accreditation Council, under the Parliament. In 1996, under the higher education reform project, the implementation of the accreditation system began. New “buffer” councils were created, block grant financing was developed, and a competitive system of incentive grants for research and development activities was introduced. In its structure, the tertiary education sector consists of both private and public institutions of six types: x
Universitate (University) –The largest tertiary institutions include a broad number of faculties and programmes and award advanced scientific and professional degrees while combining teaching and research responsibilities.
x
Academie (Academy) – A higher education institution training specialists, normally in a single general field (e.g. Academy of Music).
x
Universitate 3ROLWHKQLF (Polytechnic University) – This name was given to former polytechnic institutions after 1990 (programmes emphasising technical and practical fields of study).
x
Institut (Institute) – An institution that awards professional degrees based on study and professional experience in limited fields of specialisation.
x
Colegiu Universitar (University College) – Institutions offering 2 to 3-year courses leading to a diploma but which do not qualify graduates for admission to postgraduate study (may either be part of a university or operate autonomously).
x
Postgraduate schools independent from the universities.
The legislative framework for reform, established in 1990, has the following broad objectives: x
Changing the relationship between the Government and the institutions by enhancing university autonomy.
323
x
Modernising and improving the quality of education.
x
Creating mechanisms and procedures for academic assessment and accreditation of institutions.
x
Introducing new financing mechanisms.
x
establishing centres of excellence and of technological and innovation transfer.
From its origins in 1990 and with increasing effect from 1997, there were some areas in which progress has been visible: x
Further elaboration of diversified, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary study programmes; increased market orientation of the curriculum and of institutional services.
x
Development of information technology and quality management systems.
x
Accreditation and transferability among institutions and programmes through a credit transfer system.
x
Promotion of scientific research in universities; additional decentralisation of budgetary funds and creation of a new perspective on finance and social services for students.
x
Development of additional opportunities for postgraduate studies, including the organisation of new schools for advanced studies.
On the basis of the authority granted by Act 10/1991, the MER establishes the amount of state funding to be allocated to each institution, with advice from the National Council for the Financing of Higher Education. Institutions may decide for themselves the internal allocation of the funds they are given, have complete autonomy over expenditure of their own resources and have the right to ask for fees from students. Internal institutional resources include incomes from services and research activities, contributions from individuals and economic agencies and fees paid by students. External resources for tertiary education have increased in recent years, the World Bank Project, the ECTempus Programme, bilateral assistance and the Soros Foundation being the major sources of funds.
324
The new relationship will be one in which the MER plays a facilitating and regulating role but where individual institutions and the tertiary education sector in general take greater responsibility for planning, management, and finance. With autonomy of administration must come accountability for effectiveness. The new legislation and the current institution-based reforms are designed to promote this balance of authority and responsiveness to social and individual needs. Specifically, the Ministry has the responsibility of co-ordinating the development of the education system (including tertiary institutions), establishing a framework for institutional competence through the evaluation of quality and through performance-based funding and the prevention of blockages and distortions created by inefficient institutions. For the future, the MER will have an increasing role in information provision in response to the needs of institutions and students and to employers as well as the public demand for accountability. The major financial reform in tertiary education is the shift to “global” financing. This means that the funds provided by the State will not be dedicated to highly detailed uses, which allow little if any discretion on the part of the institution. Instead, institutions will qualify, according to a common formula, for a certain level of funds and will be held accountable for the effectiveness with which these funds are used, but not for a detailed accounting of how each amount of funds is spent. While normal accounting and auditing procedures will be maintained to protect against misuse of funds, the institution will be the primary decision maker on expenditure of resources. Issues and barriers in tertiary education x
Government will face two profound but distinct challenges. First, financing partnerships (including student fees and loan systems) will be necessary if the expansion of public higher education is to happen as anticipated. Second, the Ministry must improve its assessment and information/dissemination capacity if it is to protect the interests of private (and public) students in the new market for higher education.
x
Some shortcomings of the current formula funding. The formula funding system will retain the benefit of greater predictability for the institution, link funds to students more than to faculty (thus introducing a market test for programmes) and will provide a more transparent budget mechanism than has been the case heretofore. The formulas remain in part subjective (and potentially arbitrary depending on the parties recommending weights and unit costs) and do not take into account the need to develop new or innovative programmes, which may have initially high costs and few students. 325
x
The impact of multiple jobs on quality. Many teachers of public institutions teach also in private institutions (especially in evening and for extra-mural courses). This provides the private institutions with a higher quality faculty and greater prestige than they could afford if they had to pay a full competitive salary. Similarly, without the supplemental earnings from private colleges and universities, some public institution teachers would not be able to make ends meet. The danger, of course, is for students (who may have less access to faculty outside normal class times) and to research which may be foregone or postponed because the teacher is engaged in two sets of teaching responsibilities.
x
Equity and flexibility. The approach to higher education emphasising market relevance, internal competition for state resources and support for entrepreneurial efforts requires also a focus on student interests, including equity issues. The one caveat to be given that applies to the entire education sector: planning and implementation is not to create a new rigidity to replace the old one but to create a fluid and adaptable process that can adjust to the expected and the unexpected in Romania’s future.
x
Colleges. Existing colleges are sometimes perceived, often incorrectly, as institutions inferior to universities, not as distinct institutions offering a different type of quality education. Many such institutions, while they may not receive full accreditation as universities, could evolve into colleges, able to offer short-cycle higher education linked to regional needs and appropriate to local conditions.
x
The number of university specialisations does not reflect the market needs. A rapidly evolving economy such as that of Romania is likely to undergo frequent and dramatic changes in the structure of labour demand. Attempts to improve the predictability of manpower supply and demand estimates should be secondary with respect to the training of more adaptable graduates (based on broader curricular structures or multiple-fields specialisation).
Recommendations A first basic and general recommendation is to maintain the goal of a systemic and sustainable process of change, taking into account the demographic and economic context of the country, the main challenges of a fast changing world and the consequences of globalisation, as well as the 326
interdependence of the various components of an educational system: basic educational goals, curricula, assessment and evaluation tools and procedures, teaching technology and practices, teachers’ professionalism and management capacity at all levels of responsibility from national to class level. Recommendations: Governance, management and finance x
Information system. A first priority is to improve the information system of basic data on pupils/students (enrolment at different levels and social background), teachers and their qualification, pupil/teacher ratios, financial resources, real full costs, educational equipment and materials, student and teacher absenteeism, drop-outs, number of qualifications delivered, etc. A good statistical system is a major tool for steering at all levels of decision-making. Some standards and controlling procedures for checking the reliability of data must also be defined and implemented.
x
Education and assessment. A second major tool for steering or monitoring the whole system or school units is evaluation and assessment. It is all the more necessary as school units and higher education institutions are given more autonomy for reasons of accountability and of overall consistency with respect to the general objectives set up by the Government and the Parliament in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and equity. The evaluation function can be more effective if some basic indicators are defined at national, judet and school levels. They will be tools for self-evaluation at all levels of responsibility and will help the audits of the Inspectorate for external evaluation. The new model for the Inspectorate must be implemented as fast as possible, as it is very relevant in all respects. Evaluation of outcomes implies that assessment of students’ achievement relies partly on national standardised tests, in particular to check the evolution over time of student outcomes and to limit as much as possible discrepancies between regions and schools. The evaluation function should also include assessment of teachers and other educational staff, including headmasters and principals. This requires an official document that states precisely the functions and tasks of the personnel. The process of reform itself must be continuously assessed so that the feedback from the field can show the shortcomings or the unforeseen effects of the decisions made. More generally, the 327
forecasting tools must be developed in order to estimate the future flows of enrolment at different levels and the future qualifications required by the labour market. There must be tight co-operation between the statistical offices of the Ministry of Education and the Ministries of Finance and of Labour. It is particularly important to know the transition process between school and the first job, the average time to find a first job after leaving school according to the level of attainment and the type of qualification achieved, where there is a shortage or an excess of qualifications, and even the wages and salaries corresponding to different levels and types of qualifications. At regional level, a forecasting and planning body should be created, establishing priorities for technological and vocational types of qualifications, given some strategic priorities of economic and social development. x
Another major tool for monitoring is strategic communication at all levels. It requires first a clear explanation of the set of objectives and their purpose, as well as what exactly is expected from each teacher or principal. This communication must not overlook the teachers’ unions, the associations of parents and the different stakeholders: municipalities, local authorities, employers and the media. Strategic communication must not be limited to information of the top-down variety but also include bottom-up information. It must also facilitate exchanges of experiences and ideas at all levels and enhance crossfertilisation of innovations throughout the educational system. Networks of schools with the participation of economic, social and cultural partners should be created at local level (sub-regional) and monitored by a judet inspector.
x
Managerial capacity. Upgrading the managerial capacity of all administrators of school units and tertiary institutions is necessary. This requires to set as a priority the initial and in-service training of these administrators. An important part of this capacity-building programme should be about human resources management and the specificity of management in the field of education.
Recommendations: Equity and access x
Appoint a special inspector at MER with specific responsibility for ensuring equity for Roma children. Equity should be understood in the widest sense: not only access to school, but survival in school (i.e. 328
drop-out prevention strategies), equal treatment and opportunity of choice during school, and support for children and their families in taking a full part in school life. It would also help if a similar inspector could be assigned to each judet Inspectorate, at least in those judets with large Roma populations. x
Continue to improve high-quality access and equity for children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). It is particularly important to review and widen the definition of ‘special needs’ to include not only physical and mental handicaps but less obvious learning disabilities like dyslexia and Attention Deficit Syndrome, and psychological, social, and behavioural problems. This will require training and awareness raising among teachers and school directors, as well as Inspectorates and methodologists.
x
Scrutinise existing laws, regulations and practices to identify and eliminate unnecessary barriers. For example, it may be necessary to remove the pre-requisite of a capacitate certificate for access to basic vocational education – this requirement acts as a barrier to children who, for reasons beyond their control, are unable to complete 8 or 9 years of basic education, but who still need to be able to earn a living. Likewise, eliminate unnecessary ‘double’ exams that do not add any useful information about a student’s ability, may block her/his progress, and place a great deal of stress on students, parents and teachers.
Recommendations: Curriculum, materials and assessment x
Implementation of the new curriculum. The actual implementation of the new curriculum will require some time and cannot be expected to appear by magic. Because of financial and practical constraints, a time-schedule is necessary, establishing priorities. It seems consistent to start with insisting first on pre-primary and primary education. Education is a cumulative process and the school career of a child is largely determined at an early age. Both for efficiency and equity reasons, it would be rational to implement thoroughly the new curriculum at an early stage. It is relevant to prepare as from preprimary education the mindsets of the children to live in a rapidly changing world requiring adaptive and innovative skills. For equity reasons it would be relevant to enrol disadvantaged children earlier, for example at the age of four. The initial marginal cost of doing so would save social and unemployment costs later on.
329
x
Education for citizenship. The general framework of the new curriculum is quite relevant in its systemic approach and in its focus on skills and competencies as well as on interdisciplinary studies and activities. However, it does not focus enough on the important issue of education for citizenship and private life. The qualities required to be a good citizen are similar to those asked by the employers, i.e. those which allow for good professionalism. Education for citizenship cannot be restricted to “civic education” alone. It implies a complementary approach between civic education, the attitudes and expectations of teachers in all subjects, and the rules of life within the school. Some formal democratic rules should be set up within the schools, defining the rights and the duties of pupils and students, and some participative bodies must allow for students to learn to be responsible by participating in some decision-making processes concerning school life.
x
Content of curriculum. More effort could be made to identify the basic knowledge and skills that all students should have acquired by the end of compulsory education. This should be the primary goal of schools, it being critical for social cohesion as well as for economic efficiency. Economic health relies more and more on the qualifications of the entire labour force.
x
Regulation of textbook market. Although competition among publishers has brought about progress in terms of choice, regulations must be put in place to control not only content, quality and relevance to the curriculum, but also as regards marketplace practice. Competition must be preserved in order to stimulate innovation and allow choice, but it must function within well-defined limits.
x
National, standardised forms of assessment must be designed, to be used for diagnostic and information purposes. With better national examinations, some redundant examinations could be dispensed with. It is vital that information obtained from national assessments be used to improve the quality of teaching in classrooms. The measurement of learning outcomes is not an end in itself, but a means of raising teaching standards, and motivating students.
Recommendations: Teachers x
Standards for teachers. Create a national task force to design a national standard stating the tasks, duties and qualifications of
330
teachers and principals, as well as a code of ethics. It should be used as a basic reference for initial training, recruitment, in-service training, inspection and assessment of teachers and principals. x
Training. Give a higher priority to initial training of all teachers and to in-service training of teachers in compulsory education for the implementation of the new curriculum; and in certain subjects for a relevant and efficient use of IT.
x
Mentors. Ask the inspectors to select mentors among the best teachers and organise intensive training courses for them. They could be given a financial bonus and asked to become local co-ordinators for the implementation of the new curriculum, while continuing to teach parttime.
x
Active learning. Organise at least one short training session a year in each school, focusing on the articulation between subjects and how to monitor active learning of small groups of students (methodological tools for concrete projects rather than theoretical issues).
x
Teamwork. Facilitate team work of teachers by subject with an interdisciplinary approach. Focus on the issue of assessment of students by building up common tests and discussing performance standards, criteria of assessment and scoring grids.
x
Distance education. Implement, strengthen and accredit high-quality distance education for serving teachers, so that unqualified or underqualified teachers can gain full qualifications without having to leave their jobs and return to university. Since most unqualified teachers are found in rural or underprivileged areas, it would be disruptive to schools if they left their classrooms, as well as inconvenient (or simply impossible) for the teachers themselves.
Recommendations: Pre-primary education x
Give priority of early access to school to disadvantaged areas and children.
x
Develop links between teachers of pre-primary and of first grade of primary schools.
331
x
Develop, as much as possible, specific and individual support to disadvantaged or handicapped children while integrating them into regular schooling.
Recommendations: Vocational and technical education and training x
Design, in close co-operation with employers, attainment targets – including transversal skills and competencies.
x
Design larger domains of competencies for most of the qualifications and develop a flexible system of units/credits for obtaining the diploma.
x
Improve communication between classes/lectures within the school and training sessions within the enterprise.
x
Design a regional map of courses offered in different specific domains which should be revised each year for the following three to five years.
x
Improve career and vocational guidance at school and judet levels.
Recommendations: Tertiary education Institutions must be prepared to successfully exploit the new financial autonomy promised by MER. Autonomy brings with it a new responsibility for decision making; too many institutional administrators have developed as implementers rather than true managers of their institutions. x
Management. Institutions must select and train a new generation of managers who can take advantage of the opportunities inherent in the new funding schemes.
x
Core skills versus specialisation. In the new environment of Romania there are still too many specialisations in tertiary education. Students need to be trained to adapt to new occupational demands over their career.
x
Public/private balance. Attaining a proper “balance” between the public and private sectors is not a matter solely of how many students are in each type of institution, but rather the creation of appropriate incentives and information so that both sectors operate effectively (and perhaps even in co-operation with one another). 332
x
Increased accountability to government by providing evidence that tertiary institutions have used state funds in a manner which matches the intent of government.
x
Improved data collection. Tertiary institutions must collect and assimilate effectiveness data to show the benefits being generated through investment in tertiary education.
333
Figure 1. Education system in Romania 4-6 yrs
Doctorate (Ph.D.)
courses)
Academic
post-graduate
1 yrs
Further
Post-
graduate
Specialisation
Refresher
courses
specialisation
1 yrs
2 yrs
(day and extra-mural
1 yrs
2 yrs
studies (Master)
1 yrs
3 yrs
1.5 yrs
6 5 4 3 2
1
Licence Diploma 6 yrs
III
II
II
term
I
I (liceu)
4th grade
III
3rd grade
II
2nd grade
7 I
PRIMARY
5th grade
IV
1st grade
Group for age 5 children
4
Group for age 4 children (middle age)
3
Group for age 3 children
334
EDUCATION
Preparatory group for school
PRE-SCHOOL
6 5
COMPULSORY EDUCATION
6th grade
V
GYMNASIUM
VI
(LOWER SECONDARY)
8th grade 7th grade
12
8
1 yr
Graduation Certificate
Diploma
VII
9
2 yrs
Apprenticeship schools
IX Capacitate
10
1 yr
4 yrs
High school
X
schools
Vocational
2 yrs
(upper secondary)
XIII XII XI
3 yrs
11
2 yrs Postsecondary education
Certificate
5 yrs
4 yrs
13
3 yrs
Baccalaureate Diploma
Diploma de absolvire
14 VIII
Graduation Certificate
LABOUR MARKET
Short
LABOUR MARKET
education
2 yrs
4 yrs
Short term
higher education
3 yrs
VI V IV III
5 yrs
Diploma
REFERENCES
BIRZEA, C. (1994) “Educational Policies of the Countries in Transition.” Strasbourg: Council of Europe Press. BIRZEA, C. and BADESCU, M. (1998) “Financing the Public Education System in Romania: Policy Issues and Data Availability.” Bucharest. Editura Alternativa. CRIGHTON, J. (1998) “Romania: Some Notes on Education Issues.” Open Society Institute, Institute for Education Policy. Budapest. FONSECA, I. (1996) Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey. London: Chatto & Windus. FRETWELL, D.H. (September 1997) “Secondary Education in Transition Economies: Rethinking the Balance Between General and Vocational Secondary Schooling.” Paper presented at the Oxford International Conference on education and geopolitical change. Oxford. LAPORTE, B. and PAPALI, A. (1995) Social Challenges of Transition: Education Sector. The World Bank Human Resources Sector Operations Division, Central & Southern Europe Departments. Washington: The World Bank. LAPORTE, B. AND RINGOLD, D. (1997) Trends in Education Access and Financing during the Transition in Central and Eastern Europe. World Bank Technical Paper no. 361. Washington: The World Bank. LIEGEOIS, J-P. (1994) Roma, Gypsies, Travellers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
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MINISTERUL EDUCATIEI NATIONALE (1997) Consiliul National pentru Curriculum, Curriculum National. Politica in domeniul dezvoltarii noului curriculum national, Bucuresti. MINISTERUL EDUCATIEI NATIONALE (1998) Curriculum National pentru Invatamintul Obligatoriu: Cadru de Referinta. Bucharest. MINISTERUL EDUCATIEI NATIONALE (1998) Planul-Cadru de Invatamant pentru Invatamantul Preuniversitar. Bucharest. MINISTERUL EDUCATIEI NATIONALE (1998) Programe Scolare pentru Invatamintul Primar. Bucharest. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL BOARD OF CURRICULUM [1998 (in English)] “National Curriculum: Reference Points”. Bucharest: NBC. MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION, INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES (1999) Education for All: National Report on Romania. Bucharest: Ministry of National Education. NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR STATISTICS AND ECONOMIC STUDIES (2000) Annual Statistical Indicators. Bucharest: National Commission for Statistics. OECD (2001) Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD. OECD Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members (2000) Romania: Education and Skills. Review of National Policies of Education. Paris: OECD. OECD Centre for Co-operation with the Economies in Transition (1996) Secondary Education Systems in Phare Countries: Survey and Project proposals. Paris: OECD. PARLIAMENT OF ROMANIA (1996, and subsequent amendments) Education Law. Bucharest: Government of Romania.
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PHARE VET PROGRAMME (1998) The Reform of Vocational and Technical Education in Romania. Bucharest: Ministry of National Education. ROMANIAN NATIONAL OBSERVATORY (2000) Modernization of Vocational Education and Training in Romania. Bucharest: Romanian National Observatory. UNICEF/ICDC (1998) Education for All? The MER Project CEE/CIS/Baltics, Regional monitoring Report No. 5. International centre for Child Development. Florence: UNICEF. VÁRI, P. (ed.) (1997) Are We Similar in Maths and Science? A Study of Grade 8 in Nine Central and Eastern European Countries [incl. Romania]. Budapest, International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and TIMSS. THE WORLD BANK (1994) “Staff Appraisal Report: Romania Education Reform Project.” Washington: The World Bank, 1994 (and subsequent mission reports, 1994-2001).
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SERBIA
The Thematic Review of Education Policy of Serbia describes the current status of the education system and reform efforts underway. The country is introduced by general and demographic data; language, the geographic and historical context; the political, economic and the labour market situation; it also describes the structure and the legal framework. The whole education system is covered, from general education to vocational education, from higher education to lifelong learning, but focusing on early childhood and care, teachers and teacher training, curriculum and governance and administration. Equity in access, attainment and achievement are central issues, and special consideration is given to ethnic and minority questions and education for children with special needs. Attention is paid to decentralisation and financing of education; to quality, assessment and evaluation in education; to pre-service and in-service teacher training; working conditions and teacher salaries, the role of school inspectors; textbook provision and material and resources in general. The report describes issues and barriers at all levels of the education system and gives recommendations for policy makers, practitioners and donors.
SERBIA
General Data Area:
88 361 sq km
Number of inhabitants:
7 807 000 (1998 provisional)149. Population growth is negative, with a birth-rate trend (1998 provisional) of – 2.9 %. Age structure: approximately 30 % under 24 years old; life expectancy 65 for men and 72 years for women.
Population density:
95 per sq. km. Urban/rural distribution: 65 % urban, 35 % rural.
Ethnic composition:
80 % Serb; 4.4 % Hungarian; 2.3 % Muslim; 1.5 % Montenegrin; 1-2 % Croat; 1.2 % Roma (latest census, 1991: no recent data available; see footnote). Other small minorities include Bulgarians, Romanians, Slovaks and Ruthenians.
Languages:
Serbian (95 %), Albanian (5 %). Minority language rights in education are protected by the Federal Constitution.
GDP (1998):
16.4m. US$ GDP per capita $1,793 US$ 43 % lower than in 1990. In terms of purchasing power parity, US$ 3500. Agriculture 20 %; industry 50 %; trade and retail 30 %. Percentage of GDP on education: 3.2 % in
149
A census was planned for March 2001 but has been postponed.
341
1999, excluding pre-primary. Inflation rate:
42 % (1999).
Unemployment:
731 400 at end 2000, about 37 % of working population. About 13 % are long-term unemployed (i.e., for 10 years or longer). Serbia’s total (active) work force was nearly 2 million (end 2000)).
Levels of education governance:
The new Ministry of Education and Science was constituted on 20 February 2001. At the time of the OECD visit in January 2001, restructuring was underway and no new structure had yet been agreed upon. The issue of the administration structure for the Vojvodina also needs to be settled.
Introduction and Context In the aftermath of the last decade with its government and its wars the present day democratically elected Serbian government faces some difficult issues. The territorial future of Kosovo remains unsolved, there is a secessionist movement in South Serbia and the confederation with Montenegro is being questioned. The economy faces what one of our interlocutors called “a double burden”, namely the former socialist system on the one hand and the politics of the last decade on the other. The economy has also suffered from a lack of investment in the last decade as well as from the damage caused by the war and the NATO bombing. The unemployment rate is very high: 37 % (some 730 000) of the workingage population, plus another estimated 25 % “redundant” labour force (some 800 000 technically employed, but not working); yet only 0.4 % of the GDP is available for unemployment benefits. Fifty per cent of the unemployed are under 30 years old. More than 1 million people are engaged in the shadow economy which represents more than 40 % of the GDP. The people have unrealistic expectations of an improvement in their living standards in a short time. Organised crime and corruption are pressing issues that need strong measures: “The problems linked to the emergence and growth of organised crime and corruption in Serbia can be resolved with the influx of financial
342
resources and expert know-how, that is by introducing systemic stability as the basic precondition for the introduction of effective mechanisms to control corruption. Such financial resources and expert know-how are vital in order to achieve regional stability in South-eastern Europe.”150 As a consequence of the wars in the past decade Serbia has to deal with some 800 000 refugees and IDPs (internally displaced persons), some of whom want to return to their places of origin. On the other hand for many there will probably be no way to return and they will have to be integrated into Serbian society. Some 35 000 of them are still in collective centres living under very difficult circumstances. Because of the political situation in the past decade and because of the sanctions, Serbian society was increasingly cut off from the outside world. This is true for all areas and has of course its especially negative effects in the field of education. As part of the process of political reform and normalisation of external relationships, links with the outside world need to be newly established. The Education System Some key facts about the education system:151 Age at which compulsory education starts:
7.
Age at which compulsory education ends:
15 (compulsory education is 8 years).
Structure of education system:
(see also chart): pre-primary (up to age 7), primary, lower level 4 years, upper level 4 years; secondary education 4 years, both general (grammar schools, gymnasiums), art schools, and various types of vocational schools. There are two main types of tertiary education – colleges (2-3 years) including art academies and university (4-6 years).
150
United Nations Development Programme, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia/Republic of Serbia: Vulnerability Trends & Perceptions. Suspended Transition. Background report. “0” edition (Serbia) of the Early Warning System for FRY, January 2001, page 6.
151
Education in Serbia 1999/2000, prepared by Victor Majic, Petnica Science Centre, Valjevo, Yugoslavia.
343
More than 75% of students who continue beyond compulsory education enter vocational education; the remaining 25 % enter general secondary. Examination/transition points:
Entrance exam at the end of compulsory education for entry to secondary education; Matura at the end of general secondary education; bridging exam at end of vocational secondary education; entrance exam for university entry.
Higher education:
There are five universities in Serbia with about 208 000 students enrolled (2000/01). In 1998, the distinction between full-time and part-time was abolished, and a new classification was introduced, based on source of student financing: “budgetfinance” students (full- or part-time) and fee-paying students, i.e., students who pay the full cost of their education (full- or parttime).
Schooling expectancy for a 5-year-old child in 1999 is about 13 years. Pupil:teacher ratios (P:TR) are as follows (2000): Primary education:
16.7 : 1
Secondary education:
15.77 : 1
Tertiary education: non-university: 24.15 : 1).
16.2 : 1 overall (university: 15.72 : 1;
Table 1. Teachers (2001) Level Primary education (1-8) Secondary education Tertiary education Total
No. of teachers 44 064 24 603 9 561 78 228
Source: Institute of Psychology, Belgrade.
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Percentage of women 61 % 53 % 40 %
Differences among cities and rural areas are significant in most education indicators, especially in the rate of students who leave primary or secondary education. School facilities (buildings, equipment, libraries) are in poor condition. Out of about 5 500 school buildings, 25 % are over 60 years old. More than 55 % of buildings need partial or complete reconstruction. Moreover, the typical architecture of school buildings is inefficient in terms of heating and optimum use of space (large hallways but cramped classrooms; concrete construction; poor insulation; ill-fitting windows). According to the MoES, 50 % of schools lack even basic furniture such as desks and chairs. Statistical Data152 About 165 000 children under 7 were in pre-primary education in 1999/2000. This represented a considerable increase since 1993/1994, when enrolment was 132 000, but there had previously been a sharp decline since the beginning of the 1990s. In 1999/2000 there were 1 661 state/public kindergartens. Table 2 shows statistics of basic education, covering children between 8 and 14. Table 2. Basic Education School Year
N° of Schools
N° of Pupils
State
Private
Total
lower grades 1-4 higher grades 5-8
1999/2000
3 616
0
731 427
350 819
380 608
1995/1996
3 626
0
794 664
386 761
407 903
Source: Federal Statistical Office.
In 1999/2000 there were 1 443 eight grade – full primary schools – (2A level ISCED). Other school units may have four or six grade classes only. According to the Ministry of Education and Sport (MoES) report (Education in Statistics, Belgrade 2000) there were in 1999/2000 1 239 central schools with several units/branches, in total 3 626 schools. These figures do not 152
These are enrolment data, but it is difficult to determine what proportion of the relevant age groups they represent because of the massive fluctuations in population since the last census (1991). In 1989, for SFRY in general, coverage was said to be 95% for 8-year primary; 80% for 4-year secondary, and 19% for higher education.
345
include special education schools (227 special schools, with 937 classes, according to the MoES, 2000). Several mainstream schools also have students with special needs. In 1999, 242 primary schools were damaged by NATO bombing. Table 3 shows the secondary level with about 330 000 students with the great majority in vocational education. Table 3. Upper Secondary Education School Year
N° of Schools State Private
Total
N° of Students General ed.
VET
1999/2000
473
2
332 559
80 643
251 916
1995/1996
466
0
318 809
71 426
247 383
Source: Federal Statistical Office.
Table 4 shows the number of students completing various levels of education in 1991, 1995 and 1999. Instructional time in Serbian schools is well below international standards, particularly in the initial primary grades. In grades 1 and 2, students attend for just 18 hours per week (576 hours per school year), and some experimental schools offer even less (11.5 hours per week or 368 hours per school year). This is far lower than the OECD average of more than 800 hours153 and should be increased significantly, especially since children enter school late (at age 7 rather than 6) and learning capacity between the ages of 7 and 10 is at its height. Since average class sizes are small by international standards and teachers’ working hours are not high (single-subject teaching starts in grade 5), it would seem important to ensure that instructional time for students is increased significantly. Table 4: School Leavers and Graduates ISCED levels 1991 1995 1999
11 99 934 99 943 92 501
22 96 437 95 415 97 998
33 68 765 73 516 82 546
5 15 140 15 194 15 607
Source: Federal Statistical Office. Notes:1.First grade of compulsory school (four years of schooling) 2.Second grade (eight years of schooling-basic/primary education) 3. Upper secondary.
153
Education at a Glance: 2001. OECD.
346
The team accepts that a sizeable number of primary schools (more than 2 000) have fewer than 50 students, and that most of these are in small rural communities and offer only the first four years of primary education, often in multi-grade teaching,154 which is highly demanding for teachers (while generally beneficial for children). Nevertheless, it appears that schools and students could work more effectively than they do at present. Legal and policy framework A complete list of all current Laws and major Regulations applicable to education is found in Annex 1 to this report. It is expected that a number of important changes will be passed at the September 2001 Assembly with immediate effect. In spring 2002 more substantial legislative changes pertaining to primary and secondary education in Serbia will be prepared by the 6 strategic expert teams which are currently being formed by the MoES (decentralisation, quality monitoring and assurance, school system structure, democratisation of education content and governance, minority education, and vocational education and training). The main objectives of these changes are:
154
x
Stronger responsibility of local communities, and devolution of power from the Ministry of Education and Sports and the Republic Administration;
x
More significant role of stakeholders in the education process (teachers, parents, municipalities) concerning school management;
x
Separation of functions of governance and professional pedagogical supervision, to emphasise the educational function of schools;
x
regulation of in-service teacher training.
Statistical data from CEPS, Ljubljana, (January 2001) indicate that there are 2 008 primary schools with fewer than 50 students; there are 491 four-year primary schools with a single teacher for all four grades, and an average of 11 students per school. Some multi-grade teaching occurs in 60% of primary schools in Serbia.
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The following are among the more important changes expected by 2002: x
School Boards consisting of nine members – three representatives each of School Council, Parents Council, and local authorities (for primary schools and gymnasiums); or of the Ministry (three representatives of secondary vocational schools).
x
The Directors (Heads) of some schools will be elected by the School Board, on nomination by the School Council. Selection remains subject to approval by the Minister of Education.
x
More precise determination of the role of supervisors (management supervision) and school inspectors (professional/pedagogical supervision).
x
School Boards to manage any non-budgetary income that is collected into the School Fund (e.g. through donors’ assistance, sponsorships, profit made by commercial activities, membership fees etc.).
x
Ministry’s right to revoke legal documents if it has been proven that they were issued without proper authorisation.
x
Professional development of the teaching staff will be regulated, publicised and offered in a much wider scale.
In addition, a new law has been proposed to give universities their autonomy back. This is seen as a first step but other steps have to be taken to tackle the above mentioned problems of which the ministry is well aware. One reason for this awareness is that the many of the people working in the ministry were personally affected by opposing the introduction of the 1998 Law which stripped the universities of their autonomy. Education Forum (Obrazovni Forum) A number of organisations, including NGOs, are involved in the discussion and development of an education strategy for Serbia. One of these, the Education Forum (see above), is an independent think tank whose aim is to analyse the current state of education in Serbia, as well as to investigate the perspectives and modalities of its future development. The Forum brings together experts in various fields dedicated to the modernisation of education in Serbia, as well as to reform.
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The goal of the Forum is to “contribute to the planning and practical implementation of an education system that will be able to meet a variety of societal and individual needs that will emerge during the future development of the country”. Its central tenet is that a high quality system of education represents the keystone of successful and stable economic and social transition, and that as such it constitutes the necessary precursor that will enable Serbia to join European and global integration processes. The current MoES leadership maintains contacts with the Forum, as well as with a number of other interest groups and stakeholders, as an important part of education policy development and reform. Education finance155 The financing formula introduced under the former Government remains in force, although both Serbia and Montenegro propose some decentralisation of financing in the future. The FRY budget for education in Serbia declined sharply during the decade of the 1990s. The decline is especially pronounced in comparing Republic expenditures on education in 1998 and 2000; they declined from $621 million or about 3.8 % of GDP156 in 1998 to $209 million, or 2.3 % of GDP in 2000. The central budget predominantly finances the salaries and social benefits of teachers and other school staff; as well as facilities construction and maintenance, educational equipment and materials, and operations and maintenance for university faculties. In principle, the municipalities are responsible for financing all school construction, school maintenance, utilities and heating, and provision of furniture, educational equipment and educational materials for primary and secondary schools, but they lack the resources to do so. In some cases, the Republic budget also helps to finance these expenditures, although the procedure for selecting schools and municipalities to receive this financing has lacked transparency and objectivity. For higher education in Serbia, there are major expenditures in several poorly defined categories of “special expenditures”, which together account for almost as much as total salaries of higher education staff. Funds from the Republic budget finance 76.4 % of total expenditures for education in Serbia.157
155
This section draws heavily on M. Mertaugh’s Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Recovery Needs in the Education Sector Unpublished paper. Washington: World Bank, 2001, pp. 11-12.
156
Statistical Data for Background Purposes of OECD Review: Serbia, University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education, Center for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS), January 2001.
157
Education, a background paper foUWKH(GXFDWLRQDO)RUXPSUHSDUHGE\0LURVLQND'LQNLü
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Table 5: Republic Expenditures on Education by Level (US$ millions) Primary Serbia158 salaries educational materials Administration Stipends and other Total Serbia
80.8 6.8 0.7 0.0 135.8
Secondary
Higher
Total
37.4 3.9
34.7 4.7 0.1 34.1 73.6
152.9 15.4 0.8 40.3 209.4
6.2
Source: World Bank, 2001, based on figures supplied by the Education Forum.
Municipalities are responsible for financing the “material costs” of primary and secondary schools, comprising construction, furniture, educational equipment and materials, maintenance, heat, water, and electricity. The expenditures of the municipalities on education vary by needs in each local area, but account for a surprisingly small share of municipality expenditures: the amount spent on education amounts to just 10 % of total municipal expenditures. This is a much lower share of local government expenditures than in many OECD countries. There is no doubt that a major injection of resources is needed within the next year if Serbia’s school system is to avoid a further breakdown in quality. An expanded share of GDP could be negotiated with the Ministry of Finance as an emergency measure, to boost teachers’ salaries in anticipation of the planned review of their public sector employee status. Administration and systemic reform The new Government is developing policy, governance and strategic reforms across a number of areas. These include reform of the Ministry of Education and Sport, the pre-school and school sector (on which a strategy document, “Strategic Priorities in Pre-schools, Primary and Secondary School Education.”159 has been issued as an agenda setting document by the Education Development and International Co-operation Section of the MoES), higher education and vocational education. The following sections summarise the reform proposals. Reforms are also planned in the areas of teacher education, textbooks information technology and computers.
158
Realized Republic Expenditures for 2000, Republic of Serbia
159
The following sections draw on this report issued by the Ministry of Education and Sports, Belgrade, 2001.
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Re-organisation of the Ministry The Government plans to reorganise the Ministry with the aim of building an efficient and functional structure, compatible with similar European institutions. A parallel, major aim is to decentralise management and finance of schools to municipal (or school160) level, and for the Ministry to focus on standard setting, policy making and quality monitoring. The proposed reorganisation includes the following changes in the functioning of the Ministry: x
Shifting the emphasis from controlling schools to directing and supporting their performance;
x
Development of an information based educational policy;
x
Team working with external experts on the development of the strategies for educational system changes and their implementation;
x
Intensive and open international co-operation.
It proposes to do this by surveying the current state of the Ministry, establishing new units or departments and training personnel for new tasks within a short time – February –April 2001 (except for the training in the department of educational policy and statistics staff, which is anticipated to take longer). The OECD team fully supports the aims of this planned reorganisation. The MoES paper suggests that until the finalisation of a broad policy framework, enabling legislation, and an implementation plan occurs in Autumn 2001, the new Ministry structure should remain temporary, with flexible teams, so that a more permanent structure for 2002 onwards can be developed learning from the experience of the developmental process in 2001. The Strategy Paper also suggests that a project management model be developed, i.e. defining all the existing and reform tasks as projects, with a defined task and duration, to enable management and staffing resources to be diverted to emerging priorities as parts of the reform process are implemented in planned phases and stages. Rigid structures early in the reform process could hamper effective change management. The use of a flexible structure and 160
Discussions are still taking place (June 2001) about which functions will be devolved to which level(s).
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project management techniques should also assist in making the most effective use of the assistance of international organisations, NGOs and donors in an overall planned approach. Pre-School Primary and Secondary School Education – Policy and Governance Issues, Legal Framework and Policy Objectives The Ministry of Education and Sport (MoES) has developed three main goals as part of its overall strategy (described in detail in the Strategic Priorities document). They are: x
Establishment of schools as democratically framed institutions fostering democratic education and atmosphere.
x
Channelling education towards modern educational goals essential for social and economic development, notably towards acquiring the skills of independent learning, critical opinion and co-operative problem solving in all areas.
x
Linking secondary vocational education and adult education with the future requirements of the economy.
The first of these heralds major changes in governance and a “new way of school managing”. The Ministry intends to establish “independent institutions” to deal with the reorganised school system, “school system centres” at the local self-government levels, and to reduce the Ministry’s current “interfering” role to a “co-ordinating –directing role”. At present the aim is to have the new independent institutions developed through new legal and expert frameworks and an implementation plan established during 2001 and in place by Autumn 2001, in time for actual implementation to occur in 2002. A key element of the policy and governance reforms proposed are the “activation and reformulation of the role of school councils and initiation of school co-operation with the local community”. The Ministry anticipates that this work will be carried out with the assistance of the NGO supporting group in co-operation with local self-government representatives and the MoES. The Ministry anticipates the following steps: x
Survey of the current state (law and regulations, functioning, identified problems) by expert teams;
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x
Survey of foreign experience (possible roles of school councils, methods of their selection, ways of functioning and responsibilities);
x
Selection of experimental schools for the appointment of new school councils (about 5 % of all schools);
x
Six-month follow-up period, evaluation and reporting;
x
Recommendations for constituting new school councils;
x
Implementation.
It recommends “a short-term project, open for the strategic decision results regarding school system decentralisation, focused on the identification of recommended forms of council selection and performance, rather than on laws and regulations”. The OECD team supports the aims of the “Strategic Priorities” of the MoES and the following suggestions are made for consideration by the new Government: first, the initial creation of a “strategy of educational system goals directed towards democratically framed institutions”, for “the (proposed) independent institutions”, for “local self government” and “for school councils” to be developed as a shared vision in genuine partnership with local schools, institutions and communities. The creation of the framework should occur through open and intensive local consultation processes involving all stakeholders – teachers, parents, principals, community organisations, teacher associations and local government – to ensure maximum ownership of both the vision and conceptual aspects and the details of how it will be implemented. A number of phased consultations may be needed as the detail of the total reform package is progressively designed. Secondly, building into the reform management model as a fundamental principle that management of the reform will be responsive and flexible so that sensible change and adjustment can occur whenever it is required. Thirdly, the establishment of an enabling legal framework rather than detailed prescriptive legislation and regulations. International experience indicates that highly legislated and structurally managed educational reform often fails, because successful reform requires the individual elements of the reform being developed in harmony with each other, a shared vision and ownership, particularly at the local school or institutional level and sufficient time for new tasks, capacities and behaviours to be learned by individuals and
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team. A flexible, consultative, continuous improvement approach enables easier, more carefully managed transition from the old to the new. This will enable agreed strategies to be continuously modified and improved by testing models and systems adopted by the Government and making any necessary changes by administrative instructions. In this way flexibility during the reform process will be retained to enable consolidation of those elements of the reform process which work and the amendment or replacement of those which do not. It is suggested that continuous improvement over a significant period, e.g. 3-5 years would allow elements of the reform to be revised yearly, assisted by evaluation received from the proposed independent institutions, local authorities and school councils and the Ministry. This approach will enable the Ministry to build the reformed education system from its existing base and respond in a timely and flexible way to the views of all stakeholders – thus ensuring ownership of and commitment to the reforms at all levels. Fourthly, it is suggested that a voluntary process designed to unlock the local energy and creativity which is the hallmark of successful reform be considered. The establishment at the local level of school, school council and local community of partnership arrangements operating within the concept of “democratically framed institutions fostering democratic education and atmosphere” requires special attention in the design of the reforms. Unless the reforms at this level are fully and enthusiastically embraced by principals, teachers and parents, international experience suggests that the reform process will have little effect on school operations and on student learning outcomes unless the reform process specifically allows for teacher “ownership” of the reform. Unless professional development programmes allow for new skills, attributes and understandings to be gained by teachers. the reform will not actually pass through the classroom door, and unless parents and the local community are similarly committed, the hoped for benefits from community support will not occur. It is recommended that: x
Volunteer schools and communities be actively sought for trial of the reform model after the completion of proposed survey of current laws and regulations, the proposed survey of international experience and the design of a reform model for local self management, school councils and community co-operation.
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x
Allow admission to the trial through submission by volunteer schools on the basis of three year strategic and operational plans including targets for school improvement. These plans would be assessed and agreed by the MoES with the proposed independent institutions.
x
Use the first group of volunteer schools to be part of the development process for refining the chosen reform model and the training of later intakes of volunteers.
In this way the process of reform will be enhanced and accelerated because the volunteer trial schools will be highly committed to the reform process, better able to constructively comment on it because they will have first been through a creative planning process involving the principal, all staff and their communities. For each year of the first three years, an additional intake of volunteer schools could join the reforms based on readiness. An advantage of this approach is that the most able and ready schools who join first can be used to work with the second and third intakes enabling fast and orderly mobilisation. Changing the Framework A number of important changes to the existing legal and policy framework are under consideration (see above). To reorganise the school system, however, a new institutional framework is needed that includes newly established independent institutions. With the assistance of international partners, the Government proposes to establish a number of these by the end of 2002. Given the very strong emphasis on local self governance, school councils and cooperation with the local community, it is suggested that the following principles and ideas from international experience be considered. First, the school should be seen as the key unit for reform and innovation i.e. support systems and institutions need to be designed to enable the school to operate as a creative, high performing unit within a broad national policy framework. Second, in designing control, local self governance management and school self-management responsibilities, care should be taken to ensure that only two levels of decision making and reporting occur i.e. for some matters the school might relate to a central body and for others to a local/regional authority but not to both for the same things. Three tiers of administration and reporting creates a middle level of bureaucracy which is an expensive use of resources and reduces both flexibility and responsiveness.
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Third, encouragement should be given to collaborative local structures and service centres where expert support can be accessed easily by schools and through which schools can share their experiences in implementing reform with colleagues. Involving schools in the governance of shared service centres can enhance the matching of school needs to services provided. Reform of the Inspectorate A key aspect of the reform of the MoES is the Government’s proposal for the reform of the Inspectorate. The planned changes to school management will require the role of school inspection to be changed to facilitate democratic school development. The Ministry acknowledges that most of the current inspectors “probably shall be inadequate for this transformation, yet it is but rational to try the re-training of those potentially competent for the new task”. The Ministry aims to “forge a new model of school development facilitating experts through the training of selected inspectors along with the elaboration of most suitable forms of training for the future personnel for this job”. The Ministry anticipates the following steps for the project: x
Study of school development facilitating models in other countries, elaboration of experimental training for inspectors;
x
Selection of inspectors for the training;
x
Training;
x
Monitoring the performance of newly trained inspectors;
x
Evaluation;
x
Elaboration of the model of training for future personnel.
This project is strongly supported. Most countries that have moved from a centralised to a decentralised system have experienced the need to reorient their leaders, particularly at the supervisor level between the school principal and the central or regional components of the Ministry. In a decentralised system featuring local self government and activated and reformulated school councils, changes in the role of inspectors must take account of the need for complementary changes in the role of principals. The model proposed by the Ministry intends to confer greater freedom, authority and responsibility on school councils and principals than in the past. It is suggested 356
that expanding the project to include a re-examination not only of the role of inspectors – but also of principals – would offer great benefits for the reform process. The Inspectorate should, as proposed, be given a key role in the design, explanation, consultation and marketing of reforms in partnership with principals and the leadership team within each school (i.e. all those in positions of responsibility). In this way the reform implementation team can be expanded to include every site. To achieve these roles will require a different division of labour between principals and inspectors. To free inspectors for these tasks could require principals being formally given some of the existing Inspectorate responsibilities, particularly the key role in assessing and reporting on teachers work and subject standards within their schools. This significant change would free inspectors to become more involved in training and developing principals’ personal capacity to implement the reforms within their schools. Inspectors would continue to be responsible for the performance management of principals. Principals would be expected to focus less on internal administrative roles which would be reallocated and delegated internally. They would instead focus on their core responsibility for implementing the teaching and learning reforms elaborated elsewhere in this report as their top priority. As a consequence of the change in emphasis on the principal’s role, the administrative staff in the school would require training in the necessary skills for a locally governed and managed school. In summary, planning for the training and capacity building of inspectors and principals together would substantially enhance the chances of successful implementation of the Government’s reforms by mobilising a much larger human resource available for deployment to reform tasks. It is also recommended that the Ministry’s proposed programme for training of directors in their new managerial roles should focus in part on how they can support and add value to the role of inspectors and principals. Vocational Education Governance Issues161 The vocational education and training (VET) system is highly centralised. The Ministry of Education nominates the directors and is responsible for financing, the qualifications provided, curricula and textbooks.
161
Other aspects of Serbia’s VET system are discussed in the VET section, below; additional recommendations are given at the end of this report.
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There is a relatively broad network of vocational schools (378 out of the 550 secondary schools in Serbia are vocational) which are mainly concentrated in bigger cities. In fact the bigger the city, the better the chances for provision of quality vocational education and training. Due to many years of underinvestment, vocational schools, in particular those south of Belgrade, are in poor condition. The equipment available for the theoretical and practical work is outdated (computers hardly exist in schools) and occasionally there is a lack of materials for practical training. The funding of the vocational education and training system has been very low for the past years, due to the economic situation of the country. As finances are unlikely to improve very quickly, it will be necessary to mobilise sources from the private sector. However, there are two possible impediments to that, namely: (i) the limited resources of enterprises to contribute to training, and (ii) the lack of fund raising skills of the schools to attract money from the private sector. The Government envisages the linking of secondary vocational education and adult education with the future of the economy as one of its three main goals. An Educational Task Force which had been developing education policy prior to the change of government has advised the incoming Government of the need for legislation to create an authority and processes to accredit public and private vocational education. Serbia has not yet focussed on the link between secondary education and the labour market. The current priority is to restructure existing industries towards profitability and sustainability but at present there are insufficient funds to accomplish this goal. The Government has recognised the importance of education and training and has actively encouraged professionals to attend international symposia with beneficial outcomes. While it also has a well functioning labour bureau with an impressive network for information gathering and services, it has not yet determined how the links between secondary vocational education, adult vocational education and lifelong learning, and the labour market and economic growth can be strengthened and co-ordinated. The proposed independent National Board for vocational education and training will have a vital task to make these links and develop a coherent and integrated national vocational training system to support the Government’s economic growth policies. The lack of such a system means that existing
358
vocational training is conducted mainly in vocational secondary schools and colleges in a way which is not adjusted to current and future needs. Vocational schools and colleges are not only inefficient because of outdated curricula and lesson plans; they are not in harmony with the needs of the economy and they are totally unprepared to deal with the challenges of privatisation. The skills, attributes and understanding for the level of entrepreneurship needed to work in enterprises of different sizes and types is almost entirely missing. It is recommended therefore that, as a matter of urgency, the Government develop: x
An education and training strategy to support its economic development strategy.
x
A national accreditation body, which would be linked to the proposed National Board and have responsibility for quality issues including accreditation of vocational education and training to international standards, regardless of whether it is provided in secondary schools, public or private colleges or within industry.
x
A formal network of industry advice to Government on future training needs linked to labour bureau market information to reduce the current significant disparity that exists between existing labour market skills and those required for new and emerging industries.
x
Reform of vocational curricula, including the exploration of possibilities for collaboration in the use and development of curriculum and learning materials from other countries of the region.
x
Development of enterprise education skills and attributes for all students at appropriate stages in primary, lower secondary and vocational secondary education to assist in mobilising the future workforce to be ready for the new economic environment.
Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement Equity: access is not enough Access to education, and a reasonably fair distribution of resources, are only two aspects of “equity” not only in Serbia but in any national education system. There must also be equity in terms of “school survival” (the number of years children stay in school; drop-out rates), in terms of teaching and learning conditions (quality, content, school friendliness), and in terms of life opportunities resulting from education (jobs, university access).
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Provision of schooling, in Serbia’s case, is fairly evenly spread across the country, although some areas have suffered more than others from war damage, lack of routine maintenance, internal migration etc. In fact it can be argued that in some respects there is an over-supply of education: low pupil:teacher ratios, many small, barely viable schools, and falling birth rates. School survival is increasingly a problem. While the numbers for primary education (grades 1-8) have declined only slightly between 1990/91 and 1999/00, the large influx of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) from other parts of FRY should have caused those numbers to rise rather than decline. The team suspects therefore that the percentage of the compulsory age group actually attending school has dropped significantly; fewer children enter school, and fewer children complete their basic education, than was the case in the past. Thus far, this can only in small part be ascribed to Serbia’s negative population growth (-2.9 %), although in future the effects will be felt more acutely. At secondary (post-grade 8) level, absolute numbers have increased slightly, by 4.3 % between 1995/96 and 1999/00; but average participation in secondary education in OECD countries has risen sharply to 76.3 % of the relevant age group, while participation in Serbia is virtually stagnant.162 This will have serious implications for Serbia’s labour force, at the very time when the country needs a well qualified workforce for its recovery. Improving transition and retention rates at secondary level would seem a priority. Youth unemployment is a further indication of a mis-match between schooling and the needs of the labour market. Unemployment (2000) stands at 37 % of the total working-age population; 50 % of them are under 30 years old. Job opportunities are few, especially for youngsters with low qualifications. Access to university has widened with the introduction of fee-paying students, but at some cost to quality; moreover, many students now enrolled in higher education are there to “fill in time” while they are looking for a job. Noncompletion rates are high, and those who do stay take on average far longer than the normal time to complete their degrees. As in other countries, there is growing evidence of, and concern about, inter-generational transmission of poverty and unemployment; in some families no one has a job, or any hope or expectation of getting one. Low expectations among young people, and despair about their future, contribute to underperformance by students and to increased drop-out rates. 162
M. Mertaugh . (2001) ‘Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): Recovery Needs in the Education Sector.’ Washington: The World Bank, unpublished report, p. 5.
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Equity in finance and resources. The Government has acknowledged that the development of new systems of funding is a priority. Recognising the enormous financial difficulties facing the new Government and the problems faced in developing an education master planning database, it is considered that the opportunity should be taken to concurrently plan a new funding system which takes into account equity in both access and quality and which is designed to allow a fair distribution of resources to all levels of schooling while at the same time being inclusive by building in formulae for special needs. International experience in financial reform indicates that major changes in finance and staffing allocations are very difficult to achieve in a running system because vested interests often make variations in allocations politically sensitive. Reforms now offer a window of opportunity to implement transparent, formula-based funding systems, which build in equity and inclusiveness from the beginning. For example, formula funding could be established with base funding for a particular type of school, taking into account the provisions for staffing, facilities, maintenance and infrastructure common to all schools of that type, according to size. To that base would be added a general per-capita enrolment-based allocation, according to type of school, student enrolment, transport needs etc. A third increment to the base could be indexing for the characteristics of the student population – e.g. taking account of the requirements of schools with high numbers of low-income families, bilingual entitlements, refugees and internally displaced students, and special needs students. Other indices could also be identified, for example linked to students’ learning achievement, but these would require sophisticated and reliable forms of measurement that at present are not available. The development of an equity-based global budget for schools, in which all costs, including teacher salaries, would be covered according to the type of school, its enrolments and other characteristics, would create greater transparency and demonstrable fairness. Although at present there is very limited community capacity to contribute to education costs, such transparency might encourage voluntary contributions by individual parents for specific activities, contributions from local authorities and local industries to support schools, together with other kinds of voluntary in-kind contributions including labour for individual school projects such as grounds improvement, playgrounds, etc. Such an equity based system of funding may also be more sustainable; and, as the economic situation of the country improves, school funding can be enhanced through increasing the base rate, per-capita and indexed allocations – again in a way that is seen by all to be transparent and fair.
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Parents already contribute in substantial ways to the cost of education – for example, they pay for private tuition by their children’s own teachers in what is referred to as the “grey” economy. It was suggested to the team that if ways could be found to “harness” these ad hoc contributions and bring them into the school system, it would increase school budgets considerably, help raise teacher salaries, and combat the inequities and possible corruption that result from the “grey” tutorial market. Equity for Children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) The present legal and policy framework for SEN children is weak163 and practices still reflect the Soviet view of “defectology”: a highly centralised, “medical” approach to services for all groups of children and adolescents with special educational needs. Little distinction is made between physically handicapped and mentally disabled, socially or emotionally deprived, psychiatrically or psycho-socially disturbed learners or those with mild learning disabilities such as dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. In SFRY times, few alternatives existed to (often large) institutions. Children were placed in orphanages or “closed” correctional institutions, or in units for children within adult psychiatric hospitals, often on the basis of superficial, prejudiced or faulty diagnoses at a very young age. It is said, for example, that the large majority (as high as 80 %) of all children in special educational needs (SEN) education in Serbia are Roma. It was not possible for the team to verify this claim, but there is undoubtedly a serious issue that cannot be ignored. After the changes of 1991/92, society in post-communist countries became more sensitive to the needs of SEN children and adolescents. Modern approaches towards social welfare and the empowerment of families (which had for years been stigmatised and blamed for having exceptional children) began to make inroads. Social attitudes in Serbia, however, have been slow to change, partly due to Serbia’s increasing isolation during the 1990s. Yet many more families now face economic, psychological and social difficulties. The trauma of conflict, the rise in poverty, unemployment, suicides, juvenile delinquency, violence towards and by children, alcohol and drug abuse reflect the dark side of Serbia’s troubled decade of wars and 163
The team has been able to find only two regulations pertaining to SEN: one sets out the syllabus for one-year vocational training for children with mild handicaps (1994), and the other pertains to teacher qualifications for teachers in schools for mildly handicapped children (1995).
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transition. More children and youngsters are at risk; and the narrowly “medical” approach towards special educational needs must now be replaced by a broader view which accepts that these needs and social disorders require a more inclusive, professional and community-based approach. At the same time, experience in other countries has shown that the ideal of “care in the community” easily slides into “neglect in the community”, especially where support services are fragile and resources few. Families in rural or deprived areas, for example, would find it very hard to look after the medical needs of disabled children at home; a certain level of institutional care will, therefore, remain necessary for some time. Issues and barriers in Special Education x
The debate about mainstreaming children, insofar as their condition allows, in “regular” schools is still only just beginning in Serbia. Public attitudes are not always friendly. Teachers in “regular” schools do not consider themselves sufficiently trained to deal with a variety of learning difficulties, needs and handicaps among their pupils. Preservice teacher training now includes some work on slow learners, but the quality of these courses varies. In-service teacher training tends to be directed at teachers already teaching in SEN schools, and rarely at teachers in regular classrooms (where the need is greatest). Little interaction takes place between special and regular schools, or among special and regular teachers.
x
The practical ability of schools to provide a suitable environment for SEN students is still very limited. Buildings are old and in poor repair; wheelchair access and appropriate sanitary facilities are still a rarity, even in newly rehabilitated school buildings. Most schools have concrete staircases, narrow doors, high thresholds, narrow toilet cubicles, and other features that are barriers to physical access.
x
As for financing and co-ordination, several Ministries (e.g., Ministry of Labour, Health, Social Welfare as well as Education and Sports) share some responsibilities for SEN children and adolescents and their families. This fragmentation hinders co-ordination and competent supervision, financial efficiency, and information sharing. Moreover, the lack of a strong, coherent legal framework aimed at social protection of families with SEN children increases the risk of children “slipping through the net”: those in institutions do receive special funding, but the team is not convinced that the same support reaches children who are cared for at home, or those who are struggling to cope in regular classrooms. Resources should be targeted for 363
maximum benefit to children wherever they are being educated; it will be important to scrutinise any new rules or legislation carefully to ensure that this is so. Equity and Ethnicity The situation here is complex and politically sensitive, and for the purposes of this report we will highlight only two main issues that affect education, while acknowledging that others exist. In relation to minority groups in Serbia, the first issue is minority-language education; the second is the chronic under-enrolment and under-attainment of Roma students. Minority-language instruction The Federal Constitution gives all minority-language groups the right to mother-tongue education at all levels of schooling. There are 284 primary and secondary schools in Serbia which deliver the full curriculum to 46 500 students in the Hungarian, Albanian, Romanian, Ruthenian, Slovak and Bulgarian languages, with Serbian as a second language as required by law164 While the team supports the inclusive spirit of Serbia’s language policy, there must be some concern about its affordability, and about the capacity of the system to supply qualified teachers in all languages in every subject. The European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages requires initial minority-language instruction in any region where the minority constitutes at least 20 % of the population; the Constitution of FRY-Serbia calls for minority-language to be provided wherever the population of any particular class exceeds 15 students. Because of the low average class sizes (approx. 16.3 students per teacher), this is entirely fair; but in practice, in many classes minority-language instruction is offered to classes with only four or five (sometimes three) students.165 Again, the team supports the spirit of the practice, but questions whether it contributes to schools having to work in double or triple shifts to accommodate various language groupings. Moreover, there is a question about the effectiveness (in terms of maintaining a diverse cultural heritage) in that the minority-language curricula and textbooks are translations of those used in Serb-majority schools. There is little evidence of minority-specific teaching and materials in schools, partly 164
Figures from Statistical Data for Background Purposes of OECD Review: Serbia. CEPS, Ljubljana, January 2001; and from Evaluation of Elementary Education in the Federal RepXEOLF RI <XJRVODYLD 6YHWODQD 0DURMHYLü GUDIW ZRUNLQJ SDSHU FLWHG LQ 0 Mertaugh, unpublished paper, World Bank 2001, p. 6
165
M. Mertaugh, op.cit. p.6.
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because of the disproportionate costs and partly because teachers are inexperienced in school-based curriculum and materials development. Roma Despite its relatively large size compared with other ethnic minorities (e.g., Romanians and Slovaks), the only linguistic minority that does not have a minority-language programme is Serbia’s Roma. The standard response to this question is that there is no agreed orthography for (or indeed version of) the Romany language, and that therefore it is difficult to provide instruction and materials. Nevertheless, there are now a considerable number of books, materials, dictionaries and other publications that could be used, in collaboration with NGOs working throughout the SEE region, perhaps adapted to accommodate the Serb curriculum. The most urgent need for this to happen is in the compulsory grades 1-8, where a serious gap exists that affects education coverage of Serbia as a whole. Of the Roma population, 40.7 % are under 14 years old. Statistics available to the team suggest that 75 000 Roma children of compulsory school age are not in school; this constitutes roughly 10 % of total enrolments grades 1-8 in Serbia. Most Roma children do not start school at all, start late, or drop out after only one or two years. Only one-third of Roma children who enter school complete primary education.166 Literacy rates among Roma are much lower than those in the general population; their access to jobs, health care, social services, and housing is severely restricted. Moreover, schools and communities tend to be less than welcoming, causing even more children to withdraw from the education system which they experience as hostile. Because of their social isolation, few Roma children have a command of any of the languages of instruction offered in schools. A large proportion of those who do attend are classified as having “special needs”, and relegated to programmes or institutions for learning disabled children, regardless of their own intellectual abilities.167 The low participation rates among Roma are hardly surprising; but they are unacceptable. There are now some excellent early-childhood initiatives by NGOs in collaboration with Roma associations, parents, and communities, that show excellent results not only in preparing children for Serbian-language primary 166
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As mentioned previously, the team heard that 80% of all children in special education in Serbia are Roma. It was not possible for the team to verify this claim, but an investigation is needed.
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school but in encouraging children to stay in school beyond the first grade. Other approaches are to offer grants to schools that attract and retain Roma children; “drop-in” classes for drop-outs, and special training for teachers in lower primary grades to assist children with language difficulties. Curriculum and Assessment Before 1990, the Serb educational authorities – through the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture – were responsible for developing and approving the curricula and controlling the whole educational system of the Socialist Republic of Serbia (SRS). At that time, in primary and secondary schools, Serbian and minority languages (Albanian, Hungarian, Romanian, etc.) functioned as parallel mediums of education. This arrangement was based on the Yugoslav constitutional framework of 1974 that included regulations for minority protection, which guaranteed national equality among all the nations of the former SFRY. The educational system, curriculum included, was relatively successful in raising quality and standards. In fact, up to 1989/90 it was an advanced, liberal and Western-oriented educational systems in comparison to other former communist countries. The Current State of the Education and Curriculum Systems The current education system in Serbia is composed of pre-primary (from 3 to 6/7 years), primary (with two cycles: grade 1 to 4, and 5 to 8), and secondary education (either Gymnasium of 4 years or Vocational Secondary for 3 or 4 years). In the first cycle of the Primary, children are taught in selfcontained classes. After the fourth grade, students enter a four years second cycle of primary where different teachers independently teach all subjects. The curriculum includes mother tongue (Serbian or minority languages), Serbian for minority students, a foreign language (primarily, English, French, German and Russian), mathematics, biology, physics (from the sixth grade), chemistry (from the seventh), social sciences, arts and physical education. The gymnasium curriculum is much like a continuation of the compulsory 8 years education with some additional subjects, as many as 15. The Quality of the Curriculum With the exception of pre-primary education (with two alternatives) piloted from 1999 –current curricula are old-fashioned and most still pay tribute to curriculum practices harking back to the seventies or eighties. The curricula were designed and approved by the Ministry in a highly centralised procedure and design with most of the syllabi dating back to the late 1980s or early 1990s.
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It appears that groups composed mostly of academics (university professors or researchers), some inspectors and a few teachers drafted a first version. There was little or no communication or horizontal co-ordination across the different groups working in different areas of study. Generally, the syllabi were discussed with teachers and other experts and then approved without any major changes. Teachers’ participation in the process has been minimal. Subject matter syllabi mostly consist of “lists of content items” without any reference to the real learning process in the classroom, and the curriculum contains only compulsory subjects which must be completely covered in the classroom. Managers, teachers and inspectors all know that it is simply impossible to teach and/or learn all the information the curricula cover. In addition, the curricula offer a narrow variety of learning opportunities and experiences. Even if those appear, they do not encourage personal views and opinions, creative or critical thinking or the development of life skills. There is no choice of subjects for the students. Furthermore, the narrow subject-based approach excludes any interdisciplinary or cross-curricular connections. As school-based curriculum processes have no tradition in Serbia, teachers continue to look for central management and decision-making in curriculum design and development. It seems that in ten years of totalitarian regime and international isolation, personal and local initiative quite disappeared: there is a chronic lack of enthusiasm and personal commitment for change. Approach to Teaching and Learning As in many other countries of the region, the teaching and learning methods are behind the current European trends and developments and do not reflect any of the major evolutions in OECD countries or some of the former transition countries over the last 10 years. They are out-of-date, and the teachercentred model (the “frontal” and “directive” ex cathedra approach, and lecturing) predominates. Students are not encouraged to express their opinions: debate, discovery, problem solving, classroom interaction, group work, individual or group projects, are rare. Many teachers would like to change, but lack the necessary training to become facilitators for students to learn according to their own interests and rhythm. The result is a lack of student initiative to engage in their own learning and in developing a “school culture”. Another issue is the bias towards gifted students at the expense of the majority. Substantial progress will need to be made for education for all, quality education and equal access to become a reality. Even excellent centres, like the Petnica Science Centre, focus principally on the “best of the best”. All these 367
characteristics offer the image of an “elitist” educational philosophy and a system in which exclusion is not seen as a problem. There are of course exceptions, such as the experimental programmes introduced by various local and international institutions. During the Milosevic regime some local organisations, mostly of academics, have played a tremendous role in maintaining relations with the external world, promoting successful models and fostering educational policy and strategic thinking and development for the future (e.g. the Education Forum, the Alternative Academic Educational Network, the Petnica Centre as well as an important part of the academic community). Textbook Provision and Teaching Aids In Serbia, textbooks are not free-of-charge, and parents must buy them for their children as the state only gives some modest subsidies for a small category of really disadvantaged families. The National Textbook Publishing House is the highest authority in producing and supervising all textbooks and educational materials in the country. In principle, the Ministry is expected to approve textbooks in order for them to be used in the classroom, but the team formed the impression that this does not always happen. The Publishing House selects the authors through rather unclear procedures. Sometimes, a competition is organised in order to appoint a group of authors; on other occasions the Publishing House “invites” a group of authors to write a certain textbook, mostly university professors or researchers who –sometimes – work in cooperation with primary or secondary teachers. A committee made up of 3 to 5 persons, including both teachers and university professors, reviews the text and gives advice before publication. There are quite strict lines of division between selection committee and authors; this is basically a good idea because it limits potential conflicts of interest. The National Textbook Publishing House is not only unprepared for, but is openly against, alternative textbooks and an open textbook market. The Institute considers that its hegemony on textbook production is more than normal as over time it has been able to cover the market. In the last two or three years, private publishing houses have issued two or three textbooks for mathematics and sciences that have been approved by the Ministry. Even so, the Institute (in league with the inspectors) does not encourage these books. Although the Publishing House considers its textbooks the best, they are with relatively few exceptions (e.g. the textbooks for the first cycle of the primary school), old-fashioned, overloaded with information, encyclopaedic, and unappealing to students. Since the curriculum did not change in the last 10 years textbooks have not changed much, and inspectors, students, teachers and students consider all textbooks for grades 5 to 12 as being mostly 368
“university level” books, sometimes nearer to encyclopaedias than to students’ textbooks. In addition, they do not offer any challenging or exciting learning activities for students, nor are they adapted to their interests and to real life needs. Despite these shortcomings, the Publishing House has no short –or longterm strategy for change. The team learned that there is now a plan to create a Textbook Commission that would give “licences” to books that can be provided to and used in schools. Anyone would be free to write a textbook and submit it to the Commission for a check on compatibility with the curriculum and general suitability for use in schools, and if a licence is issued teachers would be free to use it. The National Textbook Publishing House would no longer have a monopoly, but would be on an equal footing with other commercial publishers. The team supports this plan, although care should be taken that books remain affordable for parents, and that unprofitable (small) publishing runs (for example, in minority languages) are not neglected. Assessment, Examination and Evaluation Assessment and evaluation in Serbia involve daily marks given to students in the classroom based on oral examinations, some written tests prepared by the teacher, rare testing when inspectors visit schools, entrance exams to the secondary school, the Matura after the secondary168 and, finally, the entrance exam to the university. Most controversial at present is the secondary school entrance examination, which is in essence a selection exam for varying types of upper secondary schooling. The questions for this exam are set by the MoES, but administration and marking is done within (receiving) schools, who then set their own entry requirements in accordance with the profile of the school and places available. There are some concerns about the fairness and transparency of the selection process, as well as the prevalence of private (paid) after-school tutoring by teachers of their own pupils, which disadvantages poorer youngsters. Most assessment is “internal”, carried out by and in the school. Cases when a group of teachers would decide together on the type and content of a certain assessment are exceptions rather than the rule. In the last ten years there were no base line surveys conducted, so it is difficult to have any reliable data or idea on how well the system is performing. There were no standardised tests applied; as in most of the other countries in the region, there is no independent body or institution that develops and implements nation-wide external evaluation. The Ministry has no special function that is supposed to carry out 168
For the past two years, this exam has essentially been abandoned, and students are assessed on course work and project work undertaken in the school itself.
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this task. Generally, the subject inspectors in the Ministry develop the tests or questionnaires for the Matura exam. The format and content of university entrance examinations to (either oral or written) are decided by the faculties. There is a powerful “backwash” effect of university entrance exams on teaching and learning in upper secondary schools, and great pressure on parents to pay teachers privately to prepare their children for these exams. The ethics of this practice are of course questionable; but until the examination system is reformed and teachers receive better salaries, it will be difficult to change. Because the assessment of student learning is decentralised and teachers are not trained in systematic assessment of learning against agreed standards, very little is known about what students in Serbia really know, understand, and can do. The emphasis in classrooms is on teaching; not on how, and what, children actually learn. There is some anecdotal evidence of good performances by high-ability students – for example, in “Olympiads” in various subjects – but only one recent study of actual achievement across the ability range.169 The results were disappointing, to say the least. In this study, a representative sample of 1 300 grade 8 students (who had just been promoted on the basis of end-of-grade-7 exams) were tested on basic “literacy” skills in language, mathematics and science. The results are worrying for a number of reasons. First, the test covered only 25 % of curriculum content, but the majority of students could answer less than half of the (basic) questions. Second, there was a wide divergence between teachers” evaluation of their pupils and the results of the external tests: in the survey, 48 % of the students would have failed outright,170 while in the school-based promotion exams from grade 7 to grade 8 not one student had failed. Third, teachers gave 36.5 % of these students a mark of 5 (highest) and 31 % a mark of 4, while in the survey not one single student achieved the highest mark, and only a few achieved the second highest. In basic scientific literacy, 53 % of students scored less than 50 % of available points. Some important conclusions can be drawn from this. First, it is not necessarily true that teachers are the best judges of their own pupils’ attainment: external evaluation can throw a clearer light. Second, a majority of Serbian children now arrive in grade 8 without basic literacy in language, mathematics and science, even though schools assume that “all is well”. Third, it is not enough for teachers to simply “deliver the curriculum according to the timetable”. Basic skills, which need to be learned by all, are not reflected in 169
Professor Nenad Havelka, Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade, 2000.
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‘Failure’ defined here as getting less than 50% of available points.
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teaching programmes; yet it is those skills that enable youngsters to progress in further schooling, find employment, or participate usefully in daily life. The emphasis needs to shift from teaching to learning, and teachers need to have a much better understanding of standards-based, formative assessment in their own classrooms. Vocational Education: curricula Many of the above problems also apply to vocational education. Curricula do not prepare young people for work. According to teachers and students, at the end of their studies, young people are not able to perform in the work place. This can be attributed to the fact that, curricula are overburdened (there are approximately 15 subjects in the programme of one school year), too broad (in the sense that they include too many general subjects) and they provide too little opportunity for practical experience. In principle, in the 3-year vocational schools general subjects account for 35-40 % of the whole programme, theoretical subjects linked to the vocational profile account for 21-31 % of the programme and practice and practical instruction for 29-45 %. The corresponding percentages for the four-year vocational schools are 47-53 %, 1531 % and 16-38 %. However, it seems that in reality the percentage of practical instruction is lower. On the other hand, vocational profiles are too narrow and lead to overspecialisation of the students who at the end of their studies are destined for work in one or two occupations. In addition, there are clear barriers among different vocational profiles determined by the differentiation of the curricula from one profile to another and the lack of articulation among the curricula of different profiles. This does not permit students to move from one profile to another, thus introducing rigidity into the system. Future Plans The Need for Change Immediately after the September elections and the events of 5 October 2000, the change process gained new dimension and dynamics. At the time of the OECD visit, some models of change were being discussed and promoted, and the Educational Forum – which intends to keep its independent status vis-àvis the Ministry – has developed a basis for dialogue and common ideas concerning a possible strategy for the education change.
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Key representatives of the Ministry are fully aware of the fact that Serbian education must recover as soon as possible to meet current needs and expectations of the young generation as well as the so-called and undefined “European standards”. In such a context, in Serbia, the discussion of school reform is now fully aware that curriculum improvement and change is one of the key elements necessary to meet these challenges. In fact, concerns for curriculum and curriculum standards generate many questions about the learning process and student achievement. In February 2001, the newly created Ministry of Education and Sport (Ministarstvo Prosvete i Sporta) issued a document called “Strategic Priorities in the Pre-school, Primary and Secondary-school Education”. The Strategy highlights some of the main issues and priorities for curriculum development, textbook issues, assessment and evaluation as well as of teacher training for the new curriculum. First, activating teachers’ teams in schools on the first steps of curriculum reorganisation and reduction seem to be an important preparation for future curriculum change; second, setting the stage for a new generation of textbooks (training of textbooks’ authors, teachers for their application, and publishers); third, joining the next round of OECD PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment).171 Overall, there seems to be a consensus that current syllabuses need to be replaced as soon as possible with a more up-to-date curriculum framework and a set of consistent performance standards. Both teachers and students are looking forward to better education for all; however, teachers want textbooks and basic teaching aids while students seek more freedom of choice in curriculum. Both agree that reform is needed but, remembering the Communist “reform”, they prefer to use the word “change”. This time they would like a change where their real participation and ownership would be valued, rather than a change designed by a small number of experts. Issues and barriers in Curriculum, Assessment and Standards x
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Curriculum development as a participatory process. In Serbia, the current curriculum change is the first sound renewal in the domain in the last 10-20 years. Consequently, there is no appropriate institutional structure or function in or outside the Ministry that can undertake this task; there are no professionals in curriculum design and development, and there is no culture of ongoing curriculum development. It should
The international overheads of joining PISA have been covered by a grant from Finland within the framework of the Task Force for Education of the Pact for Peace and Stability in South Eastern Europe.
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be noted, however, that the MoES is well aware of these shortcomings and has solicited assistance from the international community. x
Building public awareness. In Serbia there is no clear-cut curriculum policy or mechanism that can ensure the ongoing curriculum change process. The change should be undertaken in a very short time in order to build up public awareness and confidence in the fact that the change process is necessary, effective and successful.
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Top-down attitude of many experts. Because of the situation before the elections and the lack of experience among teachers and other stakeholders, different groups of highly qualified academics tend to believe that curriculum change and educational change in general can be designed by a small number of experts and then implemented in schools by teachers.
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Curriculum coherence and consistency. The curriculum in place in Serbia is mostly a collection of subject-based syllabi with little horizontal and vertical coherence. There is no systemic consistency within the curriculum for primary, and secondary and specific objectives and outcomes of different subjects are not defined, nor is there conceptual and structural coherence across different subjects.
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A student-oriented curriculum. Courses are too rigid, overloaded, information- and content-centred. They are too theoretical and there is no room for students’ individual practical work, critical thinking and life- oriented learning and questioning attitude. The unattractive and outdated textbooks are a serious obstacle to positive change.
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School-based curriculum and teacher training, school improvement, Climate. Lack of school-based curriculum and school-based curriculum culture. Schools and school staff have no kind of curriculum culture. Local needs, students’ interests, and teachers’ creativity are not taken into account and, at the same time, there is a lack of exposure of the staff to new methods and procedures.
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Assessment and standards. Currently, in Serbian education there are no standards that can offer the basis for comparison, nor is there a coherent system of monitoring learning outcomes. Among teachers, principals and public servants of the former Ministry there is no awareness of the importance of such data for designing future educational policy and there is no reliable evidence concerning the
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quality of education in Serbia. There are no common standards or criteria for the school-based marking system; and, consequently, data concerning the results obtained by the students are not reliable, nor are they comparable with the results of other students’ school. In addition, assessment and testing are not seen as approaches to improving students’ or school performance and effectiveness, nor to monitoring school improvement or to certifying learning outcomes. x
The need for data. A series of baseline surveys for a number of key subjects (for instance mother tongue, mathematics, and sciences) and certain phases of schooling (for example, grades 4 and 8) should be carried out in a relatively short period of time, to offer a clearer picture of why educational change is needed and where and how some changes should start. In addition, training for teachers is needed in order to develop a new culture of marking, and a modern culture of reliable assessment and examination throughout the system.
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Vocational education. Both vocational profiles for which young people get trained and the knowledge and skills that they receive through the present curriculum correspond to an outdated economic and industrial structure. These vocational profiles and the content of vocational education, overall, need to be reviewed taking into account the needs of the newly emerging market economy. However, at this stage there is a lack of expertise in the country on modern techniques for standard setting and development of curricula for vocational education that are responding to the needs of the labour market.
Human Resources General observations Serbian teachers have been under a highly politicised regime since the late 1980s. For example, school principals were appointed by the Minister and were thus in the service of the political leadership. This system did not necessarily guarantee that the best managers and educational leaders were selected and, consequently, Serbian teachers have been for a long time under close control not only by their chiefs in schools but also by the government inspection system. The OECD team found the situation concerning teachers’ work was somewhat confusing. First, data are frequently unavailable or unreliable. Second, new legislation had not been adopted and schools continue to function under the old laws but with new intentions and promises. Third, there was no 374
comprehensive policy for education that would outline the main directions and strategies for renewing the education system. There seems to be still rather wide-spread beliefs concerning good schooling that are based on the old paradigm of quantity-driven goodness – achievements in national competitions, international Olympiads and the number of students enrolled in foreign universities. Finally, and most importantly, the salaries of Serbian teachers are relatively much lower than in other countries of the region. The previous high status of teachers has dropped dramatically and many teachers simply have to take additional jobs in order to earn a living for themselves and their families. In some respects Serbian teachers face the same problems related to their working conditions, challenges and threats as their colleagues in other parts of South Eastern Europe. However, what makes Serbia particularly interesting and important is its size as country and its influence not only in education in other Serb-populated areas of the SEE but also in political and economical development of the region. Preparation and training of teachers There are approximately 112 000 teachers in pre-schools,172 primary schools, secondary schools and tertiary schools in Serbia. Practically all teachers were prepared in the teacher training system of the previous system. A common characteristic of teacher preparation in Serbia, similarly to other republics in the region, is the predominance of subject knowledge over pedagogic understanding of how to compose lessons that enable pupils to learn and comprehend. Hence, one of the most frequently mentioned needs for reforming the education system is related to teacher training. Teachers for pre-school are trained in a variety of ways, set out in detail in the section on Early Childhood Education and Care, below. “Generalist” teachers for elementary classes 1-4 are trained in five relatively new teacher colleges that were set up at higher education level in 1993. Four of these are networked under the University of Belgrade, and one is independent. Training lasts 8 semesters. There are approximately 3 000 students in these colleges, which are just now beginning to produce their first graduates. Single-subject (specialist) teachers for classes 5-8 and for secondary schools are trained in a wide range of faculties and departments in universities. Duration of the training is 8 semesters (4 for pedagogues). Enrolment totals 172
Teacher pre- and in-service for pre-primary education (ages 3-7) is discussed in the section ‘Early Childhood Education and Care’, below.
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about 2 800, with approximately 200 students graduating each year. This training is highly decentralised and non-standardised, and diplomas are given by a variety of faculties in various subjects (mathematics, philology etc.) not necessarily specialising in the training of teachers. Training for teachers of children with special educational needs (SEN) is done at university level (“Faculty of Defectology”); the approach is still heavily medical, focussing on “correcting defects” rather than on the optimum development of the whole child as she or he happens to be. The team heard it said that the Faculty of Defectology is now the “main obstacle to SEN reform” in Serbia. Moreover, teachers trained for SEN tend to remain trapped in separate schools or classes, with little chance to interact with other teachers or participate in in-service activities that might be important to their professional development or indeed to the development of “regular” teachers who will increasingly need to know how to deal with SEN children in mainstream classrooms. All pre-service teacher training is said to be heavily content oriented, focussing on the delivery of the curriculum; there is little or no emphasis on students’ learning, or on developing an understanding of child psychology or different learning styles suitable for students of varying personalities or levels of ability. Typically, trainee teachers first obtain a university degree or teaching certificate in their chosen subject. However, these study programmes do not normally include practical training in schools. In some cases, brief introductions are given to the topics of educational psychology, child development and teaching. Issues such as curriculum planning, learning assessment, or social psychology or special educational needs are not included in these courses. The present pre-service training system in Serbia does not prepare teachers adequately for their work in schools and classrooms. The problem is made worse by the lack of systematic organisation in inservice teacher training. Despite comments from teachers saying that they have several opportunities to attend professional teacher training workshops and training, there is a lack of coherence and relevance in in-service training, certainly in terms of the real needs and requirements of reform. Furthermore, the availability of such training is often limited to the upgrading of knowledge and skills of foreign language teachers, and class teachers teaching in the early grades of elementary school. Petnica Science Centre near Belgrade is one of the exceptions in this. This centre provides in-service training courses for small groups of teachers in foreign languages, information technology, science education, cultural studies, 376
geography and the Internet in education, among other courses. Some of these courses are international programmes. Within the premises of this Centre there is the only functioning Teacher Resource Centre in Serbia. Teachers from throughout the Republic attend the courses organised in Petnica Science Centre. At the same time, Petnica Science Centre serves as a parallel-to-school learning arena for students. Teachers in vocational schools Teachers in vocational education (as in the rest of the education system) are seriously under-paid. This not only creates dissatisfaction and lack of motivation among teachers but it also endangers their social status. They also lack training and exposure to modern teaching and learning methods. In addition, controls are exerted by the Inspectorate on teachers for the way they teach in the classroom. As a result, the best teachers are leaving the profession for more rewarding occupations. The improvement of the financial conditions for teachers and also the increase of their motivation through training in new teaching and learning methods, their involvement in the development of new curricula, and the improvement of their social status will be pre-requisites for any further steps in education reform. There is already a shortage of qualified teachers with knowledge of new technologies, foreign languages and other areas in demand such as management. This shortage is expected to increase in the future taking into account the big demand for skills in these fields. Working conditions There is a striking disparity in Serbia between what can be called good schools and those in very poor condition. Obviously, the physical conditions in which teachers deliver their daily lessons play an important role in overall quality of education. Most schools in urban areas function in two, three or even four shifts and with over-crowded classes. In general, educational facilities are in poor condition or are lacking. In addition, the salary level of those in the teaching profession is so low that it has led to a decreasing social status and morale in schools. Lack of capacity Due to returning refugees and refugees from other parts of South East Europe, schools in Serbia are heavily over-crowded, especially in Belgrade and other urban areas. Some of the suburbs of Belgrade are growing so fast at the moment that one single primary school has to fulfil the educational needs of the
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catchment area of what normally is done by four schools. Obviously, this pressure on school places leads to multi-shift functioning, shortening the lessons from 45 minutes to 40 or even less in order to maintain at least a minimum level of schooling. There is also evidence of some schools (particularly the more prestigious ones) selling places above the regulatory maximum 30 pupils per class. The incentive to do this is based on the current funding mechanism that is by class. The MoES intends to take measures to stop this practice in the 2001/2 school year. More importantly, lack of appropriate school space and classrooms has led to increasing class numbers in many schools. Instead of working in classes of 25 to 30 pupils many teachers have over 40 and sometimes 50 students in their classes. Unfortunately, there are no accurate statistics on this but according to informal reports it appears to be typical situation in many urban schools. Large classes have other consequences for quality of teaching and learning. One of these is the emergence of parallel semi-private tuition systems for those students who can afford to pay for additional lessons. In large classes students and parents feel that they do not have opportunities to learn and understand and, therefore, they hire private teachers to teach them properly after normal school hours. Many teachers working in schools also have private students to top-up their salaries and help the students to achieve their goals. In a way this is a vicious circle: the fewer opportunities there are in regular schools for students to learn, the more markets exist for private tuition. Another issue concerns the overloaded curriculum. The curriculum that is in use in Serbian schools is a heritage of the socialist era and thus has all the peculiarities of the previous party/state ideological system. All of the teachers seen by the team emphasised that the over-loaded teaching programmes and heavy focus on mathematics and natural sciences are the biggest single problems in Serbian schools today. This forces teachers to deliver information and facts to students without providing them with opportunities to discuss, reflect or critically review the knowledge they are supposed to learn. An inspection system that still functions primarily as a control mechanism is a formidable regulative threat for teachers to do anything that goes beyond the official curriculum. Salary and employment As is the case in other SEE countries, it goes without saying that the level of financial compensation for teachers is too low in Serbia. At the time of the OECD mission the fixed salary of teachers was DM 66 (USD $365 per year) while the minimum amount for covering basic only food and housing is 300 378
DM, and it is often paid with delays. Average net salaries of teachers and other workers in the education sector in Serbia were 18 % below the public-sector average in 2000, when a teacher earned less than 10 % of what he or she was making in 1990. Amazingly, there seems to be no major attrition to other professions. However, due to the opening of Serbia to the international community there will be more opportunities for foreign language teachers, computer specialists and other teachers who are able to work in international circumstances. Hence, in the near future, if the political development is towards opening and democratisation, many teachers are expected to leave their professions for better salaries and more comfortable working conditions creating the possibility of a serious brain drain from the profession. Control, authority and responsibility There is very little autonomy or local management at the level of schools, particularly in the teaching field. The curriculum, regulations related to study programmes, and the control-type of inspection create a system in which teachers’ work is almost totally externally regulated. Because this culture of control has a long history in Federation of Yugoslavia, it is difficult for most of teachers to imagine a situation in which they had some authority over planning and deciding what to do in their schools. As the Minister appointed school principals, they were seen, therefore, as controllers of order for the central authorities. The principal was not an educational leader but a manager of order and work. At present, most of the school principals of that era still work in schools, and this creates some tension within the schools and among their staffs. Under that arrangement teachers had no authority, and no possibilities to participate in decision-making. Their responsibility in school was limited to coverage of study programmes and filling in the lesson plans and reports. Disparity between good and poor schools Quality of schooling is not evenly distributed in Serbia. Good schools are good by international standards while poor schools are next to impossible settings for proper learning. At the time of the OECD visit, little data existed on the physical infrastructure. Based on the team’s observations, many schools had broken windows, inappropriate heating and sanitation facilities and out-dated furniture and equipment. Disparity in terms of infrastructure and facilities has other consequences as well. So-called “good” teachers move from poorer schools to the better ones, and thus there is a “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer” syndrome. There is also a remarkable mobility among the students
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as they look for better learning opportunities, especially in upper secondary schools. Issues and barriers in Human Resources x
Salaries and professional status are low. Teachers’ salaries in Serbia are relatively lower in comparison to their colleagues in other parts of the region. Low salaries gradually lead to decreasing professional status in the labour market. Most of the teachers, especially in lower educational levels of the system need additional income in order to make a proper living. In some cases the teaching profession is only a minor source of income. The multi-shift school system actually makes it easier for many teachers to have other occupations. Naturally, the quality of teaching and other duties in schools are not improved under these circumstances.
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Pre-service training is weak. Some Serb experts commented that “the initial teacher training system is practically non-existent”. As noted above, the emphasis on educational and practical pedagogical studies is very weak in pre-service training programmes; the entire Serbian teacher training system is not harmonised; and standards for the professional training of teachers are lacking. There is a huge disparity between the theoretical content of subjects and pedagogical skills training in the university faculties and teacher training institutions. Pre-service training of vocational teachers is particularly unsatisfactory, in that few vocational teachers receive adequate training in teaching methodology and didactics.
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In-service training is not in accord with reform needs. Teacher inservice training is not aligned to the needs of the changing education system. Several agencies are providing teacher in-service training courses and workshops while the government is unable to deliver these services to the teachers. There is the danger that when the intensity of teacher in-service training grows and more external agencies penetrate into the schools, the situation will become even more confusing and chaotic. As a result, there may be a huge number of isolated and loosely connected initiatives that are not able to help the schools but only provide temporary assistance to individuals. It is important there be a holistic policy with clear priorities that will guide teacher development initiatives. There should be an increasing focus on whole school development as well as the professional development of individual teachers.
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Local decision-making opportunities are inadequate. Teachers, students and parents have little opportunity to participate in decisionmaking concerning their school. For historical reasons it is sometimes difficult for the individuals to see how they could be involved. Many teachers seemed to welcome more choice in their work concerning curriculum and teaching arrangements. It was also reported that schools as communities should have a more active role in assessing the achievements of pupils and the quality of teaching. Teachers also need to be much more aware of the different learning styles of pupils, and shift their main focus from “delivering the curriculum” to ensuring that their pupils do, in fact, learn and develop basic competence to the best of their ability.
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University teachers deal with huge numbers of students. Universities faced several problems during the 1990s due to political reasons culminating in the new University Law of 1998 which forced several professors to leave their faculties. From that time many of these professors began to work in parallel institutions and networks, such as the Alternative Academic Educational Network (AAEN). As the number of university students has started to increase, so has the size of “courses” or “classes”, and generally speaking, professors and university lectures are working with groups that are too large to make teaching effective. Supervision and guidance are practically impossible, especially since the number of students forces lecturers into presentation-recitation modes of teaching.
Early Childhood Education and Care According to data available to the team, about 165 000 children under 7 were in pre-primary education in 1999/2000. This represents a considerable increase since 1993/1994, when enrolment was 132 000, but there had previously been a sharp decline since the beginning of the 1990s. In 1999/2000 there were 1 661 state/public kindergartens. Regulation, Organisation and Access Pre-school education is regulated under the Social Child Care Act. Under this Act, municipal authorities can organise education and health care for preschool children within their geographic jurisdictions and cover the expenses for children from low income families who are educated in pre-school institutions. The budget of the Republic provides funds for pre-school and for children without parental care, emotionally or mentally disturbed children and children who have to be hospitalised for a long time. 381
Aspects of pre-school teaching and education pertaining to establishing and carrying out the functions of pre-school institutions are regulated by a series of legislative “normatives” based on the Social Child Care Act. Conditions that must be met – premises, equipment, the number and type of employees, the numbers of children in teaching groups etc. – are agreed to by the Social, Health and Education ministries. Municipal authorities have responsibility to verify compliance with the requirements before an institution can open. Pre-school education is provided in Hungarian, Slovakian, Romanian, Ruthenian and Albanian, as well as bi-lingually with Serbian. However, no instruction is offered in the Roman language, a barrier to Roma participation that has been identified earlier in this report (see Equity and Ethnicity: Roma). There are some small-scale but excellent NGO initiatives for Roma children between 3 and7 years old that work with families on health care, family participation and school-readiness for Roma children. Follow-up studies indicate that 100 % of Roma children attending one such programme passed the school entry test; 97.3 % were competent in the Serbian language (compared with 33.3 % among other Roma entrants); and nearly all (99.8 %) completed the first year, compared with 40 % of the others.173 This indicates strongly that early-childhood, comprehensive work with families with young children pays off handsomely. Private pre-school institutions are permitted, although they receive no funding from the state or municipality. While they can establish their own programmes of activity, MoES endorsement is required. There are no data available on private providers and their work is not supervised regularly, but the current economic conditions provide an incentive for them to register under one of the related provisions, for example as a baby-sitting agency or a pre-school institution which organises foreign language courses rather than as a private nursery or kindergarten. Pre-school institutions provide day care and education for children from age 1 to 7 through programmes for 1-3 year olds, and 3-7 year olds. Pre-school programmes designed to prepare children for school may be provided for 6 year olds. There is considerable flexibility in whether a pre-school provides for only one age group or the whole age range – and sometimes space for other children’s activities as well. Similarly the one pre-school institution may provide any or all of whole day (up to 11 hours), half day, short stays or occasional attendance. Three-hour programmes of teaching and education are 173
Cassie Landers, Early Childhood Development in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Suggested Strategies for UNICEF. New York: 2001.
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provided for children in hospitals and in pre-school institutions for groups of children with special needs because of physical, emotional or intellectual difficulties. In addition to the predominant pattern of full day and half day programmes in pre-school institutions, a wide range of other education services exist for preschool for 6 year old children in rural areas; playgroups of children aged 3-7 years of age and their parents or other adults; clubs for children aged 3-7; workshops in various arts and in ecology for different age ranges between 37/10 years; and groups of 3-7 year olds learning foreign languages. Recreation centres, comprising separate buildings for children’s holidays and recreational activities throughout the year, come within the framework of existing preschool institutions in a number of cities also. Outlines for the programmes in such centres are put out by the ministry in charge of pre-school teaching and education. The level of pre-school provision does not meet the needs of families with young children, or those of the children themselves. Members of the OECD team heard that in Serbia a smaller proportion of children (the suggested proportion ranged between 20 %-30 % overall) have been involved in early childhood education and care than in other countries with similar economic and social development. Older children comprised the greatest number attending. There are significant regional differences in the number of pre-school institutions which are found predominantly in big cities, urban areas, and municipal communities. There are few in rural areas. More than one child can be enrolled per child place and there are regional differences in this also. Decentralisation from the state budget to cities and municipalities in the allocation of funds for erecting new buildings and maintenance of premises is said to have increased regional and local differences, with pressure in some areas while buildings may be empty in other, e.g. where the distance between the pre-school’s location and where families now live is too great. It is suggested that perhaps 50 % of groups have a greater number of children than the regulations allow. The economic crisis has meant that buildings are often in need of repair, and equipment is in short supply and poor repair. In addition, the design of some pre-school buildings does not lend itself to modern approaches to pre-school education. An insufficient network of provision and overcrowding can have negative outcomes for children’s health and learning, makes both the teaching process and interaction with parents more difficult, and puts even greater strain on buildings and equipment. Increasing the numbers of children in a classroom 383
rather than establishing new ones also limits the opportunities for new teachers to come into the profession, exacerbates the trend towards an ageing teaching force, and makes it more difficult to introduce new practices. Lower cost constructions or re-locatable buildings, which would still meet safety standards, could be used to overcome the shortage of pre-schools, particularly in areas with small populations, or where there have been or are likely to be significant population changes. This would increase the ability to provide services for a greater number of children and families and respond to population change while minimising the likelihood of being left with an under used or inappropriate building. A larger number of smaller pre-school centres rather than few large ones may make it easier to find a site for the pre-school, help parents who may not be comfortable with a large institution to be more easily involved in smaller settings, and make it easier to develop links with the local community. Any possible disadvantages for staff, such as a feeling of professional isolation or a lack of administrative support, could be overcome by forming networks of smaller pre-schools or through links between smaller pre-schools and a larger one (a “hub and spoke” effect as exists in Croatia). The re-introduction of travelling or mobile pre-schools to increase access to pre-school experiences should also be considered. Curriculum The “Outlines of the Basic Programme for Pre-school Institutions” for children up to three years of age were introduced in 1994, while similar “Outlines” for children from 3-7 years of age and those for children in ethnic minorities came in to being in 1996. Their aim is to define the goal and tasks of teaching, create an adequate atmosphere for child development in general, social and emotional relations between the children and those who take care of them, and establish the potential activities designed for children and the terms of co-operation with the family in the process of children’s development. Legal regulation, including defining the “Outlines”, does not guarantee, however, an automatic change in the actual practice of pre-school institutions. For children up to the age of three years, evaluations show that while there has been progress in achieving the desired change established in the new “Outlines”, practice is still in general closer to the traditional rather than to the contemporary approach to supporting very young children’s development by integrating care and development activities. Routines and practices still tend to be based on adult convenience and large group sizes, insufficient and
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inadequate supplies of education materials, and insufficient professional support to staff have been identified as exacerbating difficulties in changing practice. The essential feature of the curriculum for children from 3-7 years of age is the provision of conditions for the positive physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral development of children who are viewed as active, interactive and creative beings. Two models exist, with pre-schools able to choose between them: x
Model A is the curriculum applied in an open system of teaching and education, wherein the starting point is the child with his need and right to be what he is, to grow and develop. The pre-school teacher provides the conditions for and directly stimulates children’s learning; is an autonomous decision maker and a member of a team of preschool workers; and involves, works with, and is responsive to parents as true partners in the pre-school endeavour. She operates on a cycle of observation, programme planning and evaluation of the child’s achievement and her own work. This model not only leads to the transformation of the institution and the teaching practices within it, but it also transforms the professional development of practitioners.
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Model B is more of a structured curriculum model and therefore somewhat more traditional in approach. It deals separately with principles, goals of the system of activities, and to some degree with the content of the programmes, the organisation of the daily routine in the pre-school, and co-operation with the family and the local community.
Evaluation indicated that the choice of model was influenced by the suggested method of work, pre-school teachers’ previous experience and teaching, their greater autonomy, their desire for changes and knowledge, and the possibility of children opting for certain activities. In an evaluation of the “Outlines” by 10 % of all teachers, specialists and managing directors of preschool institutions in Serbia, factors identified as making their work more difficult were: lack of financial means and insufficient educational materials, method of planning a programme of activities, difficulty in accepting a working relationship with parents and children, traditional organisation of work, more open relations with the family, the burden of stereotypes, and reluctance to accept innovations. The introduction of the 1996 “Outlines of the Basic Programme of PreSchool Education in Language of National Minorities” involved a series of stages: collecting data on existing conditions of pre-school education; 385
identifying relevant socio-linguistic factors and developing ethno-linguistic profiles of teaching groups; familiarisation with the Outlines and their new methodological approach; and the writings of manuals designed for the specific purpose of teaching pre-school children in the language of ethnic minorities. An evaluation of the “Outlines” application in the first few years showed that communication between children and their teachers had improved considerably, although one problem identified was teachers’ insufficient knowledge of Serbian as a second language. Co-operation among NGOs, the Ministry of Education and Sport, some academics, and teachers has brought about some major changes towards the more open programme approach that involves parents and children as active participants with teachers. The teachers involved have found the implementation and impact of the new approach professionally stimulating and satisfying, despite the limits imposed by outdated physical conditions and many of the educational materials themselves. They also have no doubt of the value for children and their families. However, the institutions and teachers implementing these new approaches appear to represent only a relatively small proportion of the overall system of pre-school education in Serbia, with the “closed pre-school institution” of the past still predominating. While the changes that have occurred are very positive, the consequence has been an increase in the differences in conditions and the quality of the teaching and educational practice between pre-schools. Unfavourable conditions – lack of specialists, isolation of practitioners, lack of an ongoing network of in-service training, insufficient funding etc. – have limited the implementation of the new approach. The changes introduced in 1996 are really only the beginning of the process of diversification and responsiveness. The new Outlines provide a sound basis for supporting young children’s development and learning, and for involving their families in a true partnership. Their impact will however remain limited by the lack of a comprehensive programme of in-service professional development and appropriate physical conditions in pre-schools. A further extension of options to enable introduction and evaluation of a wider range of pre-school services and programmes that incorporate different approaches to teaching and education practice would be in keeping with today’s understandings of social sciences and pedagogy. It would also increase the potential of services to respond effectively to young children and their families who live in a wide range of contexts and may have very different needs.
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Teacher Training for Pre-School Education Pre-service training for pre-school teachers Staff currently working in pre-schools will have received their initial training during several different periods and according to different approaches. Initial training was given at high school level; at the higher professional level, incorporating a preparatory stage; as a two-year course of study at higher professional education without a preparatory stage; or in one of the 11 higher education institutions of pre-school teacher training (colleges), where a curriculum established by the Associations of Institutions of Pre-School Teacher Training of the Republic of Serbia and accepted by the Ministry of Education was implemented in 1993. At this time the training of primary school teachers moved to the university level, and pedagogical academies became pedagogical faculties where all pedagogical specialists, apart from pre-school teachers, are now educated. The current curriculum in institutions providing pre-school staff training consists of four basic categories; general and specific subjects; professional disciplines; practicum/practical subjects; and pedagogical practice. There is concern that the schools from which students come do not provide the necessary kind of introduction to the teacher training that is provided. As students can enrol from general or vocational schools, provided they have passed the entrance requirements, their previous education can vary considerably. A two-year training course does not allow for students from a wide range of backgrounds to continue their education and develop practical teaching skills adequately. Today there are more complex requirements of teachers. They are expected to provide a wider range of programmes, activities and services, better matched to families in a variety of circumstances (e.g. cooperating with parents and promoting their knowledge and understanding of young children’s learning). A higher level of education among parents in general also increases expectations that pre-school teacher will have a fully professional training that prepares them to work in institutions that are responsive to the needs of individual children, parents and communities. The number of classes in the methodology of each discipline is generally regarded as insufficient for practical work. Practical training is not designed to develop more critical attitudes towards offered models or to ones own teaching, but rather follows a pattern of imitation. Neither does it develop an ability to provide new creative solutions to pedagogical problems, which would result in activities designed specifically for particular situations and children’s needs. Large classes mean that teachers cannot follow the practical work of students appropriately and large groups observing in pre-schools disrupt routines. Apart 387
from observations, future pre-school teachers have only five weeks of experience during their professional training. A further problem at both the teacher training institution and the pre-school is the lack of equipment and resources that are needed for effective practical training. In-service training for pre-school teachers In Serbia, in-service training at the level of the pre-school institution is compulsory and forms part of the Programme of Activities in every pre-school institution. In the last decade however, in-service training has been affected by insufficient funding, and inefficient standards in the organisation, implementation and co-ordination of training. Motivation for professional development has also been affected in some cases by inadequate income and difficult work conditions. Recently, NGOs have also contributed to in service education (e.g. topics on children’s rights and “active learning” have been organised by experts from Serbia in co-operation with UNICEF). While there is no over-arching framework, in-service education is provided through seminars, lectures, conferences, workshops and meetings and professional discussions. In addition, centres of methodology (represented by one of several pre-school institutions where in-service training for that region or area of training is organised) and model centres have been used very effectively to bring about changes in professional practice. Ongoing opportunities for in-service training are needed to assist teachers to connect initial training with practice and with the actual needs of children and parents in various environments; to develop further in areas of understandings which can only be introduced in a pre-service programme e.g. involving and working with parents and working with children with specific needs and to remain abreast with contemporary knowledge and practice. A system of inservice education is also important for bringing about changes associated with new curricula or other government “directives”; mandating changes will not in itself bring about changes in practice – those who are in charge of the procedures, the pre-school teachers, have to be involved. In-service training is particularly important since many staff received their initial training some time ago and under different systems.
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Training of Pedagogues, Psychologists and Special Education Teachers for Pre-schools The initial training of pedagogues, psychologists and special education teachers employed in pre-school institutions is regulated by the Higher Education Act, but as their status and role are not specified, the nature of their role can depend on the head of the institution, other staff, or themselves. This does give important flexibility to meet particular needs in different institutions, but in practice their ability to plan and organise children’s activities appears to be limited by a lack of practical training in planning, designing programmes, observation, and evaluation procedures. Pre-service training in special education does not appear to suffer a similar lack of practical experience; the theoretical frameworks and practical experience in the disciplines selected by students are brought together in the ninth semester of their training. More systematic connections between training at initial and higher levels are needed. This would decrease misunderstandings between pre-school teachers and other professional staff in pre-school institutions that are based on different concepts and training, lead to more effective outcomes for children and families, provide a better pathway for pre-school teachers moving on to higher level studies and roles, and increase the effectiveness of the other professional staff employed in pre-school institutions. The balance between the numbers of pre-school teachers and pedagogues, psychologists and other pre-school specialists being trained also needs to be considered given evidence that the number of pre-school teachers is (in many cases) below what it should be according to the planned pupil:teacher ratios. Training for Specialist Roles The director of a pre-school institution and the supervisors/inspectors from the MoES can have a major impact, both tangible and intangible, on the operation and tone of pre-schools. Given the considerable size and complexity of many pre-school institutions in Serbia, and the desire for early childhood education and care provision and practice to be consistent with modern understandings and meet diverse family and community needs, training for these roles is needed. A “training framework” for the pre-school sector that identified in broad terms the training provisions needed, the appropriate level for different elements (e.g. initial/pre-service training; in-service provision; higher qualifications; specialist roles) and the links between them would assist in achieving, and maintaining a coherent, and thus more effective and efficient training sector that was consistent with the requirements of the sector. Such a framework could 389
assist those wanting a professional career in the pre-school sector to identify appropriate training pathways. Vocational Education and Training (VET) Initial Vocational Training Vocational schools provide 2- 3- or 4-year vocational education (only the 4-year type provide the possibility for access to higher education). After two years of working experience, holders of a vocational qualification can receive one year additional training to acquire a specialist diploma. Each vocational school provides education in one of 15 vocational fields. Within each vocational field, there are vocational profiles specialising in one or more occupations. There are 118 profiles for the 3-year vocational schools and 131 profiles for the 4-year schools. The secondary vocational education and training system remains as it was 10 years ago; i.e., it is still designed to serve the needs of a centralised economy, mainly based on heavy industry. An example of this is that 20 % of the students in secondary vocational education are enrolled in metallurgy and mechanical schools, despite the fact that, since the sanctions, the attractiveness of these types of schools has declined, and drop-out rates have increased. Overall, vocational education and training do not enjoy a high reputation among parents and students today. Although 75 % of all students in secondary education are enrolled in vocational schools, the majority of the pupils who finish primary education would prefer to enrol in secondary general education. Because the number of places in general secondary schools is limited, most pupils are obliged to enter vocational schools. The preference for secondary general education is well justified, considering that in recent years 90 % of vocational school graduates have been unemployed for 1 to 5 years before they were able to enter the labour force. Meanwhile they often enrol in higher education, which helps to explain the steep rise in the number of young people in universities (142 000 in 1997 to 200 000 in 2000). Students finishing 4-year secondary vocational education usually apply to enter university. Also the government, in order to postpone the problem of high youth unemployment, purposely lowered the criteria for entry to the university.174
174
See the Higher Education section of this report.
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Adult Education and Training Adult education and training are currently almost non-existent. It is estimated that in the past few years only 1 % of the adult population received training. Traditionally, adult training has been provided by a number of institutions, including: x
11 schools for adult education; however, most of the participants have always been young people between 15 and 18 years old, thus using these schools as a second-chance facility rather than a (re)-training facility.
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Workers Universities, where adults can take short or longer-term courses to complete their knowledge or develop new skills. However, today only 10 WUs are functioning.
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Facilities of the Employment Offices, which provide training for job seekers and employees. They function well, and have good links with enterprises. They provide mainly courses in computing, project management, management, and job-seeking methods. However, the volume of training they provide is not enough to cover all needs due to financial and capacity constraints.
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Enterprise training centres; however, at this stage it is not clear to what extent they are in a position to train their personnel adequately.
The future demand for (re)-training of the labour force is expected to be extremely high, due to the large-scale economic re-structuring Serbia will have to undergo. Large state enterprises need to be restructured in terms of ownership, production technologies and products. Accordingly, new managerial capacities have to be developed for the management of those enterprises, but also for their staff who have to be (re)-trained in the use of new technologies and products. Official estimates are that approximately 800 000 people will become redundant as a result of the first phase of re-structuring. In addition, 730 000 people (25 % of the labour force) are registered unemployed today. The low-qualified are over-represented in this number, and 13 % of all unemployed are unemployed for 10 years or more. This demonstrates that a serious (re)-qualification effort is needed to avoid discouragement of the low-qualified and long-term unemployed, and keep them economically active where possible.
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However, there are a number of impediments to retraining and requalification of Serbia’s labour force. First, there is a lack of a clear view and strategy on how to modernise the vocational education system to adapt it to the requirements of an economy in transition. Second, there is a lack of knowledge of new technologies and management skills at the level of the trainers themselves. Third, there is a lack of training capacity in terms of infrastructure and organisation of this infrastructure. Fourth, there is a lack of funds for investing in a massive training effort. Issues and barriers in VET x
The discrepancy between demand and availability. One of the main problems is the discrepancy between the demand for certain types of vocational education (vocational fields and vocational profiles) and the availability of places in the schools. Places in the 3-year vocational schools exceed the demand for those places, while the opposite is true for 4-year vocational schools. Also, in the 3-years schools there is high demand for profiles linked to the provision of personal services, engineering, transportation and administration while productionrelated profiles (in mechanical engineering, metal processing, mining, etc.) are not popular. In addition, in the 4-years schools, the demand for nursing and commercial services, trade and tourism, art, etc. is double the available capacity. This demonstrates that the present provision of vocational education and training does not correspond to the requirements of the economy and also lacks flexibility. Rationalisation and optimisation of the school network and of the places offered for different vocational fields and profiles should be reconsidered according to the present needs of the economy and society.
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Are the regions ready for decentralisation? The future decentralisation of the management of the whole education system towards the schools and municipalities, which was announced by the MoES, will be a positive step towards this rationalisation and optimisation of the school network, as it will bring decisions about training provision closer to the needs of the local economy and society. However, it is questionable at this stage whether agents in vocational schools and in municipalities are ready to undertake this responsibility, taking into account the long period of passive attitude and the lack of skills and motivation. A capacity-building effort will be required to activate local actors and develop their skills.
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The role of stakeholders. The role of enterprises in the definition of skills and qualifications needed, the structure of the training provision, and their impact on the training programmes have been marginal for several years. The current economic restructuring, the privatisation process and the development of a private sector will require a reconsideration of the relation between education institutions (Ministry of Education and Sport) and economic agents (enterprises, trade unions, chambers of commerce, employment services, etc). In fact, economic agents will have to become more active in the definition of the qualifications to be provided and in the training programmes themselves. New institutions and processes will need to be developed to ensure that there is close communication between education and the economy. The reactivation of the Educational Council which will bring together a large number of stakeholders is a good opportunity for the promotion of better links between the two sides.
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Need for labour market information. To improve the responsiveness of the VET system to the changing needs of an economy in transition, together with better communication links between education and the economy, there is also need for a developed labour market information system which can give early warning messages on skill shortages and mis-matches. Today, there is a well established information system in Serbia. The Employment Office runs detailed registers of unemployed and vacancies, the Statistical Office runs monthly surveys of the enterprises and undertakes an annual household employment survey. However, this system has been developed to function in a centralised economy. There is a need for a close review of this information system and its (eventual) adaptation to the needs of a market economy. Moreover, there is also a need for capacity building in the analysis and interpretation of the information produced.
Higher Education Background In Serbia, Higher Education Institutions include universities and arts academies on the one hand, non-university higher schools or colleges (teacher training et al.) on the other. There are five universities with a total of 90 faculties. These faculties will want to stay as they are, but regrouping them according to academic fields would bring synergy effects (e.g. university for medicine, social sciences, technology etc.). One possible reason for resistance 393
on the part of the faculties could be that they receive funds according to the number of students enrolled. These numbers do not reflect the actual number of students in class nor the output of academics. Students’ unions and other stakeholders have had little or no influence in reforms since 1998. One interesting development in higher education was the founding in 1998, when universities lost their independence and some 200 professors were fired, of the Alternative Academic Educational Network (AAEN), an association of non-governmental and non-profit oriented organisations and programmes. The basic aim is to provide additional and alternative graduate education for young academics (students and junior faculty members) and a model for university reform, thus helping the processes of transition towards an open civil society, a market economy and political democracy. The initial intention was to “preserve and advance excellence and social relevance in higher education”. The programmes offered were very well received, in fact there are three to four times more applications from students than they can accept. In the near future AAEN will try and develop a centre for advanced post-graduate interdisciplinary studies (probably also changing the name to Advanced Academic Educational Network) putting the stress on the disciplines and problems not present in the curricular of the state universities. Students graduating from these programmes will be ready to fill the positions that are opening within the public and local government, market economy, civil society, modern business and engineering etc. In addition they will be capable of taking up posts at the state universities as junior staff and disseminate the knowledge further. At the time of writing, AAEN has 96 professors, 100 visiting lecturers and 180 students. In the academic year 2000/2001 it offered six graduate programmes. AAEN has received support from OSI/HESP, the Association of European Universities (CRE), the Council of Europe as well as World University Service, Austria and the German and Austrian Rectors Conference. In the coming years AAEN will face some structural questions: on the one hand it could change its NGO status to that of a regular school, on the other hand the question of re-integrating into a university or remaining independent will have to be tackled. All in all, AAEN can be seen as a highly innovative and flexible institution providing a good example in terms of curricula and teaching methods. It is to be hoped that they will influence university reform in such a way that there will be higher standards, more accountability and more orientation towards the needs of society. A new legal framework for higher education has been proposed providing for university autonomy to be restored, and this is expected to be passed by Parliament as one of the first pieces of legislation of the new Government. New regulations have enabled elections for all positions of Rector, deans and 394
professors, thereby making it possible for any appointment improperly made in the past to be rectified. This process was almost complete at the time of the team’s visit. The new legislation provides for an accreditation board, which will initially operate for three years. While the purpose of the board is supported, regional universities are concerned about the dominance of the board by one central university which has six out of the nine board members. It is understood that this is a matter which will be resolved during Parliamentary debate on the new legislation. There is general support for the direction of the new legislation and the open processes used to remedy past difficulties. At the same time, other issues will need to be considered. Financing The Ministry receives a lump sum for education and sport, and is in the process of developing a system to share the budget between the various levels. In principle, only state universities and higher education institutions (2-4 year vocational schools) are financed by the Ministry, while private universities are supposed to finance themselves completely. The system has been funded in recent years according to a decree (1995) which gave a formula to calculate the total amount of money that should be allocated monthly to each faculty. There are two categories. One is related to salaries based on the number of faculty members, their grade and years of employment as well as the number of students, courses, study groups, etc. The assumption is that the weekly norm is four lecture hours, (which the current Ministerial team believes is too low and plans to increase). The second category covers teaching and material expenses. This is based on faculty groupings, type of course and estimated cost (e.g. the material costs of delivery of a chemistry course are higher than a mathematics or history course). In theory there is also a line in the budget for capital investment in buildings and laboratories, but in reality there has been no funding for these items for the past several years. Another item that has not been funded in recent years is financial support for academics to attend conferences or take part in exchanges. The Material Situation Universities suffered from a severe lack of investment over the past decade, which means that some premises need renovation, libraries are understocked and under-equipped, modern technology is outdated or does not exist, and means for experiments and research are lacking. All these constraints combine to cut off Serbian universities from the rest of the world and seriously impede their possibilities to compete in the scientific world. Of course, the students also suffer from these shortcomings – especially when it comes to teaching materials, learning to work with computers, and research. Since the 395
change of government, there has been a “rush” from foreign universities to work with their Serbian counterparts, but it will take some time to see the benefits of these exchanges and to assess the quality of these projects, agreements and other activities. Curricula Although it has been stressed that in former years the achievements of Serbian students were good and comparable with other universities in Europe, it was also stressed that the curricula are overburdened, in some respects outdated and too heavily information-oriented and too little skills-oriented. “The entire educational system focuses on the implementation of set curricula. Due to the excessively detailed nature of curricula and exceptionally outdated teaching methods dominated by “transmissive” forms (i.e. teachers’ lectures), the activity of pupils and students is basically reduced to pointlessly memorising myriad unrelated facts.”175 In other words: the curricula need to be adapted to the needs of the society and to European standards. It will be difficult to change the well entrenched system of teacher-centred teaching techniques and adopt more skills-oriented methods. Consequently, it will be important to combine curricular reform with the retraining of university teaching staff since the introduction of new programmes into a rigid faculty system may have little effect on teaching methods. Another point is that the faculties offer only compulsory courses, and no electives. Teachers Standards and evaluation. Universities complain that over the past decade they have had to lower their standards because of the great influx of students many of whom were refugees. On the one hand, many vocational school graduates were unemployed for periods of up to five years, and have used this time to enrol at university. On the other hand, there was a strong influx of refugees, many of whom also entered universities. In most academic fields this resulted in an unfavourable student:teacher ratio, although some fields appear to be overstaffed (e.g. over 90 professors for surgery at the medical faculty). So far, the quality of departments and faculties has been measured only against the academic achievement of their best students; little attention has been paid to the average student’s performance, or to the teaching-learning environment. Students have so far not been involved in evaluating the 175
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performance of their university teachers. Evaluation methods are needed to enhance curriculum development, teaching techniques, communication with the scientific community etc. “The quality of education is a special problem. There is no objective mechanism of evaluating educational achievements (objective knowledge tests, achievement tests based on national norms, participation in international school achievement evaluation, etc.) nor any established rating of educational institutions.”176 Issues and barriers in Higher Education
176
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A long period of isolation. As a result of the politics of the past decade, the impoverishment of a large part of the population, and the sanctions, it was very difficult or even impossible for the teaching staff and the students to travel. Thus neither could take part in programmes such as TEMPUS, and most academics could not attend conferences abroad. Teaching staff, therefore, could not keep in touch with scientific developments in their field nor establish or keep up personal links with staff of other universities abroad. Today they are confronted with a whole generation of students who have never been abroad, and whose experience is limited only to Serbia in the past decade. To include Serbian students and teaching staff from all academic fields in international networks is of great importance to the future of the universities and society as a whole.
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University as an alternative. Only about 30 % of enrolled students ever finish their studies. Thirty per cent of students take more exams than do all the rest together. A reason for this is that “being a student” has so far been perceived more as a permanent social category rather than as a temporary occupation leading to an academic degree. Thus the university does not function as an educational institution producing graduates, but as an alternative to the labour market.
x
The effect of shortened classes on student achievement. Over the past decade the academic achievement of students has suffered from the fact that the teaching staff had to engage in all sorts of non academic activities (including black market, smuggling, catering etc.) to make a living during the academic year (this is especially true for the academic year 1999, which ended on 24 March because of the NATO bombings). Prior to that, heating problems and strikes for higher
Ibid., p 9.
397
salaries caused significant loss of teaching hours. Predictably, student learning and achievement suffered. x
Missing links. There is no in-service training institution, and there are only scattered in-service teacher training initiatives (e.g. from the Department of Psychology, Belgrade University). "What is dramatically missing is a non-formal system, i.e. an educational system for the population above the age for regular schools. This system would include primary education for adults, vocational education, in-service professional training, education through the mass media, education in the media, educating adults for the role of citizens, education of the village population, etc."177
Recommendations Recommendations: Policy and Management
177
x
Establish comprehensive, coherent and clear policy and strategy for education reform. With the new government in position, previous education policies are no longer valid or useful. Despite their recent arrival, the new team at the Ministry of Education and Sport has already had important opportunities to choose its future directions. The role of the Education Forum and other advisory bodies and NGOs in policy formulation has been especially useful, and should be drawn upon.
x
Redesign the functions of the Inspectorate. Fundamental transformation of the roles and functions in education administration cannot happen overnight, but the MoES should make the reorganisation of the existing Inspectorate a priority in management reform. Inspection should be transformed from a purely control function to a support and advisory function. Obviously, this will not be possible only by re-training existing staff; new experts will need to be recruited as well.
x
Train education leaders and school principals. Again, because school heads were politically appointed and under mandate from the Minister, reform of education will be difficult with the old leadership. The MoES should seek to recruit new school principals and establish a compulsory training structure for all new school heads. Training
Ibid., p 10.
398
should also include municipal authorities in charge of education locally. x
Extend support to developing local management. In political and economic transitions, the majority of interventions (in terms of both financial and technical support) flow usually through the central administration. In the case of Serbia, it is of paramount importance that education reform be designed so that local management structures and regional administration receive a sufficient slice of intervention resources.
x
Co-ordinate external co-operation. It is probable that the restructuring of a democratic society in Serbia will awaken the interest of external donors and other partners. There are alarming examples elsewhere that, when fragmented project proposals enter a fragile and illprepared education system, actions are driven by bureaucratic models of project approach and the interests of external experts. In order to avoid chaotic management of numerous single initiatives, the MoES should prepare a strategic plan for co-ordinating and managing the emerging foreign support.
Recommendations: Equity in Access, Attainment and Achievement x
Ensure that state and municipal legislation and policies are familyand child-friendly, both in intention and effect. Some child-related benefits and services that used to be linked to the workplace are no longer available; as the state retreats from daily life, new social networks and the emergence of a non-government civil society need to fill the gap. However, poor families, families in deprived areas, families in “marginalised” groups, and families with special-needs children are more vulnerable than others to changes in state-funded social protection; adequate provision must be made for them. In particular, ensure that health care for women is maintained, as this is a prime determinant of children’s physical and mental health, and therefore of their educational attainment.
x
Support efforts to co-ordinate the work of various ministries (Labour, Health, Social Protection, Finance, and Education) for the maximum benefit of families and children, especially those at-risk socially, geographically, or economically.
399
x
Ensure that no child in Serbia is denied her or his right of access to quality and equality in education.178 This includes children of minority-language groups (especially Roma), children with special educational needs (including gifted and talented children), children at risk (such as street children, juvenile delinquents, children in poor or dysfunctional families) and children traumatised by war and dislocation (refugee and returnee children, orphans, internally displaced [IDP] children).
x
Work towards full integration of disabled people in community life. “De-medicalise” the approach; abandon the term “defectology”; improve teacher preparation and in-service training; and fit provision to the needs of children, rather than to the convenience of schools and teachers.
x
Widen the definition of “special needs” to include common learning disabilities like dyslexia and behavioural and post-war stress disorders, which can be even more detrimental to successful learning than the more obvious handicaps traditionally catered for in the previous system.
x
Require that the specifications for all building and rehabilitation projects take full account of the needs of disabled youngsters.
Recommendations: Curriculum, standards and assessment
178
x
Make curriculum development a participatory process. The Curriculum Development structure or unit of the MoES should be upgraded as soon as possible inside the Ministry, or moved outside it as a professional (semi) autonomous body but under policy direction from the Ministry. This unit should have clear functions and tasks, as well as a body of highly professional curriculum developers. Technical assistance and exposure to current day experiences is needed most urgently.
x
Develop a coherent and valid curriculum policy. This should be formulated as soon as possible, based on a clear educational
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. A number of articles are relevant; e.g., Art. 19 (protection of children against all forms of violence); Art. 22 (rights of refugee children); Art. 23 (rights of children with disabilities); Art. 24 (child health); Art. 30 (children of minorities); Art. 28 (education as a right for all); Art. 29 (respect for the child’s parents, cultural identity, language, and national values, as well as respect for others).
400
philosophy and a set of firm curriculum principles. It should encompass short-, medium- and long-term curriculum development policies and practices for the education system. x
Combine a bottom-up and top-down process of curriculum design. Curriculum design and implementation processes should proceed simultaneously: bottom-up (as firmly stated in the recent Strategy Paper issued by the Ministry) and top-down. The development of the curriculum framework should be done with the participation and ownership of all those interested. It should advance in parallel with concrete changes that are introduced at the level of the “real classroom curriculum and setting”.
x
Promote curriculum coherence and consistency. A Curriculum Framework should be established as conceptual basis for all further changes (introduction of new subjects, reduction of the content, new pedagogical outlook etc.). This could offer: A coherent conceptual component (i.e. the rationale for the need for change; including educational philosophy as assumed and promoted by Serbian society; a common set of educational principles concerning curriculum, learning, teaching, assessment and evaluation; common national standards and expected outcomes of the system; core and school based curricula). A strategic component (i.e. short- medium- and long-term curriculum priorities, procedures for planning, designing, implementing and reviewing curriculum on an ongoing basis; clear actions and timelines). An institutional, managerial and monitoring component (i.e. establishing professional bodies as well as a set of appropriate capacity building and staff development policies and regulations for implementing, managing and monitoring the ongoing curriculum development process).
x
Create a student-oriented curriculum. The range of student learning activities should be enlarged; exercises, debate, group work, interactive learning, project work, field studies, problem solving and discovery should be introduced into current classroom practice. It is time-consuming to develop higher order learning strategies, and they
401
cannot be developed if all the available teaching time is used to satisfy the requirements for factual knowledge and rote learning. x
Work towards a more holistic view of education. While not neglecting the traditional basics such as literacy, numeracy and scientific knowledge, the school should devote more attention than at present to wider humanistic fields such as citizenship, values, culture, economy and ecology. The conduct of each individual citizen towards others is a main outcome of an educational system. Schools must respect their educational responsibilities and strive to enable students to grow both personally and socially, thus allowing them to mature from their school experience to society at large.
x
Give more scope to the development of school-based curriculum and teacher training, school improvement, school climate. Schools, teachers and principals should take part in the design and development of the new curriculum. In-house training of teachers that supports school-based curriculum development should be fostered, involving teachers and administrators from the same school as groups to ensure that changes have a discernible and sustained impact on classroom practice. The improvement and curriculum renewal process in schools should target the group of professionals and administrators – in fact the whole school – fostering its status as a learning organisation.
x
Overhaul and liberalise the textbook approval and provision process. Open it up to competition, and ensure that textbook content reflects new emphases on higher-level thinking skills (e.g., problem solving, critical thinking, application of concepts to new situations, etc.) rather than knowledge and repetition of facts.
x
Ensure quality through agreed standards and standards-based assessment of student learning. A professional institutional structure – preferably independent or semi-independent from the Ministry – should be created as soon as possible, in order to develop a clear policy and strategy concerning assessment and examination in Serbia. Such a unit would have an important technical task in developing standards and criteria for different types of educational measurement, including sample-based national assessments and better ways for teachers to assess pupils’ progress in the classroom, as well as “external” examinations.
402
x
Conduct a series of baseline surveys in a number of key subjects (for instance mother tongue, mathematics, and science) at certain stages of schooling (for example, grades 4 and 8) in a relatively short period. The results will offer a clearer picture of why educational change is needed, and where and how changes should be made. (A useful start has already been made with a recent national study of basic literacy skills among grade 8 students, discussed earlier in this report.) In addition, training for teachers is needed to develop a new culture of standards-based marking, a modern culture of reliable measurement, and assessment and examination throughout the system.
Recommendations: Teachers
179
x
Reduce the content of curricula. This is the first and most straightforward act of reform that should be done as soon as possible. Teachers are able to do much more with much less content. At the same time the workload of pupils should be limited to a reasonable level, teaching in the elementary grades should be more child-centred, and teachers should have more possibilities together with parents to decide what is best for their pupils in any given grade.
x
Reduce the number of pupils per class, especially in urban areas. It is of paramount importance that during the early phases of educational reform in Serbia this recommendation be taken seriously. Overcrowding is a serious threat to reform and improvements in education. There should be a regulated limit to the maximum number of students per grade class for all schools.179
x
Create a comprehensive strategy for teacher training and professional development of teachers, including in-service training. Initial teacher training should focus more on educational and pedagogical issues and less on content knowledge of the subject. A principle of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) should be followed in teacher training reform. This strategy is particularly important now when there will be more external donors and co-operating partners who certainly will have intentions and interest to invest in in-service training of teachers. Therefore, it should be made clear that any activities in the field of teacher training should be based on the demands of reform and the
The team is aware that the opposite problem – very small classes, multi-grade teaching, schools with fewer than 50 pupils – exists as well, especially in rural communities. Nevertheless, the recommendation to establish a maximum (if not a minimum) class size remains.
403
overall system, rather than on the supply and expertise of foreign consultants. x
Improve the salaries of teachers. Salaries should be raised, certainly to put teachers on a par with other professional salaries in Serbia, and if possible to bring them in line with teacher salaries in other countries and republics in the region. Successful reform will only be possible if teachers are adequately paid. Emergency measures – such as negotiating an increase in education’s share of the national budget for the next three years – are needed in the immediate future. Also, there should be incentives to keep good teachers in the profession, as more tempting opportunities appear for them. A major injection of financial resources in the next few years is essential if Serbian education is to make up for lost ground.
x
Improve professional networking and exchange of ideas and experiences. At present, Serbia has no professional newspaper or magazine for educators, even though 120 000 people work in the system. Teachers and other interested people need some common forum to express their views, especially in times of reform. A monthly professional journal or magazine would be an important contribution to the reform; a high-quality web site would also be helpful.
Recommendations: Early Childhood Education and Care Serbia’s pre-school service has a committed and professional teaching staff which is supported by officials and academics with expertise and enthusiasm. Progress towards the reform of pre-school care and education has already begun, and provides a sound basis on which to build. The following recommendations focus on expanding the good things that are already happening, and closing gaps – either in access for children, or in the overall system – that determine the quality of what is provided. Expand provision and access to pre-school through: x
the use of lower cost constructions and re-locatable buildings (which still meet safety standards);
x
the adaptation of space in conveniently located buildings that have been used for other purposes;
x
travelling or mobile pre-schools; and
404
x
the development of community/family “playgroups” in neighbourhood or local community facilities (in co-operation with NGOs where appropriate).
Strengthen professional practice and the provision of effective pre-school programmes through: x
A comprehensive and ongoing programme of in-service education and training, with an initial focus on the further implementation of the new Outlines, implemented with the co-operation of all stakeholders;
x
Provision of a wider range of pre-school programmes involving different approaches (e.g. Montessori or Step by Step) to be implemented and evaluated.
Improve the match between training provision and the requirements of modern pre-school care and education, through: x
A “training framework” for the pre-school education and care sector that identifies in broad terms the range of provision needed, the appropriate level for different elements (e.g. initial/pre-service training; in-service provision; higher qualifications; specialist roles) and the links between them, with the participation of all stakeholders;
x
Comprehensive training provision for the entire pre-school sector.
Recommendations: Vocational Education and Training (VET) x
Develop an education and training strategy to support Serbia’s economic development strategy. New profiles, corresponding to the needs of the new economic reality, new curricula and new training methods will need to be developed.
x
Find new methods to ensure links between the economy and the training system (including a new institutional approach and the development of an appropriate information system). This could be achieved by the establishment of a national body linked to the proposed National Board which intends to accredit vocational education in line with international standards, wherever delivery occurs i.e. in vocational secondary schools, in public and private colleges, or within industry.
405
x
Develop a formal network to provide industry advice to Government on future training needs linked to labour market information in order to reduce the current significant disparity between existing labour market skills and the skills required by new and emerging industries.
x
Reform vocational curricula and explore possibilities for collaboration in the use and development of curriculum and learning materials from other countries of the region. All students should be able to acquire enterprise skills at appropriate stages in basic and vocational secondary education. This should be part of the proposed three- to five-year plan to comprehensively upgrade all vocational curricula.
x
Become familiar with new concepts and approaches for VET developed in recent years in the EU Member states, and in other European economies in transition. At the same time, make a critical assessment of Serbia’s present VET system, identify its strengths and weaknesses, evaluate short- and long-term needs, and on that basis rationalise Serbia’s network of VET schools. Inevitably, such rationalisation will mean that some schools or specialisations have to close down; and others to open.
x
Substantially increase the volume of training provision, for (a) the requalification of a large part of the adult population (low qualified and long-term unemployed, redundant workers) and (b) the (re)-training of employees in large state enterprises. However, it is essential to ensure that training develops skills needed by the local and national economy; there is no point in training people in skills for jobs that no longer exist.
x
Attract private capital for investment in VET. Given the limited public resources available, it will be necessary to involve private investors in VET development.
Recommendations: Higher Education x
Use national and international co-operation to re-think the role of universities. The whole higher education sector needs restructuring. Ample time and consideration should be given to decide on the extent of changes. A thorough analysis of the whole sector with its many different faculties, as well as the role of universities in modern Serbian society, should form the basis of any decision. A broad public discussion of the role and function of universities would help to raise
406
the social status of universities, and at the same time involve all stakeholders. Experienced advice from European countries could help facilitate the reform process, or help explore different models for discussion and adaptation. Communication with other European universities should be encouraged by extending the existing links, establishing new ones, exchanging teaching staff and students and designing joint research programmes. x
Rapidly improve the material situation of universities to ensure quality in teaching, and to enable students and staff to communicate with the outside world (e.g., through the Internet).
x
Review and develop curricula. They are overburdened and outdated, and need to be brought in line with modern developments and practices. Stakeholders (students, teaching staff, representatives of the economic sector, social sector, etc.) should be involved in this developmental process. Reform steps should also take into consideration teaching standards and evaluation procedures.
407
ANNEX I: LIST OF CURRENT EDUCATION LAWS AND REGULATIONS180
The following list contains all Acts (i.e., Laws) applied to education, a selection of the most important regulations (from about 100), and a selection of rule-books (from about 50). Acts relating to Higher and University Education: 1.
Two-Year Post-Secondary School Act (adopted 1996)
2.
University Act (1998)
3.
Professional Titles Act (1995)
4.
Act on Establishing Teacher Training Faculties and Abolition and Change of Activities of Teacher Training Colleges and two-year Post –Secondary Schools (1993)
5.
Textbooks and Other Teaching Aids Act (1993)
6.
Police Academy Act (1993)
Other Acts related to Tertiary Education: 7.
Scientific Research Activity Act (1993)
8.
Librarian Activity Act (1994)
9.
Endowments, Foundations and Funds Act (1989)
Sub-legal Regulations in Tertiary Education: 10. Regulation on Standards for Setting the Price of Tuition Fees at twoyear Post-Secondary Schools Established by the Republic of Serbia (1995) 180
A number of changes are being prepared for some of these Laws and Regulations; see section on ‘Legal and Policy Framework’ in this report.
408
11. Regulation on Scale of Norms and Standards for Working Conditions at Universities and Faculties Financed by the Budget of the Republic of Serbia (1995) 12. Resolution on Establishing the Republic Council for University Education Development (1997) 13. Resolution on Number of Students Enrolled in the First Year of Studies at Faculties Established by the Republic of Serbia and on Setting the Price of Tuition Fees for 1997/98 Academic Year (1997) Regulations for Pre-School Education: 14. Children Social Care Act (1996) 15. Rule Book on Professional Qualifications Type – for Educators, Nurses and Associates in Kindergartens (1989) 16. Rule Book on the Curriculum Framework for Pre-School Educational Work and Education for Children Age Three to Seven (1996) 17. Rule Book on The Basic Facts of the Programme for Children up to Age of Three (1994) 18. Rule Book on Funds Scale of Norms Needed for Realization of Educational Work in Pre-School Institutions (1994) 19. Rule Book on the Basic Facts of the Programme for Social Welfare in Pre-School Institutions (1994) Regulations for Primary Education: 20. Primary School Act (1994) 21. Textbooks and other Teaching Aids Act (1993) 22. Rule Book on Professional Qualifications Type – for Primary School Teachers and Senior Associates (1999) 23. Rule Book on Professional Qualifications Type – for Teachers Carrying Out Educational Work According to Primary School Selection Programmes (1987)
409
24. Rule Book on Professional Qualifications Degree and Type – for Primary School Teachers at Music Education Schools (1979) 25. Rule Book on Certificates for Schoolchildren’s Exceptional Performance at Primary Schools (1993) 26. Rule Book on Class Norm for Direct Work of Teachers, Senior Associates and Pedagogues with Schoolchildren at Primary Schools (2000) 27. Rule Book on Activities Programme for Senior Associates at Primary Schools (1994) 28. Rule Book on the Realization Method of Professional Pedagogical Supervision at Primary and Secondary Schools (1993) 29. Rule Book on Primary Education Curriculum (2000) 30. Rule Book on Educational Work for Adult Elementary Education (1991) 31. Rule Book on Method of Grading Schoolchildren at Primary Schools (1994) 32. Rule Book on Conditions and the Progress Procedure of Schoolchildren at Primary Education (1994) 33. Rule Book on Textbook Plan at Primary Education (1987) 34. Resolution on Competence, Number and Appointing of Education Council Members (1994) 35. Resolution on Number and Territorial Organization of Primary Schools in the Republic of Serbia (2000) Regulations for Secondary Education, and Other Regulations: 36. Secondary School Act (1996) 37. Textbooks and Other Teaching Aids Act (1993) 38. Rule Book on Method of Passing on Examinations, their Contents and Standards for Schoolchildren Enrollment at Secondary Schools (2000)
410
39. Rule Book on Pedagogical Norm for all the Methods of Teachers and Senior Associates Educational Work at Secondary Schools (2000) 40. Rule Book on Passing on State Examination of Trainees, Teachers, Senior Associates and Pedagogues (1999) 41. Rule Book on Realization Methods of Professional Pedagogical Supervision at Primary and Secondary Schools (1993) 42. Rule Book on Legal Documents Issued by Secondary Schools (1999) 43. Rule Book on Certificates for Exceptional Performance of Students at Secondary Schools (1993) 44. Rule Book on Grading Students at Secondary Schools (1999) Regulations for Gymnasiums: 45. Rule Book on Gymnasium Curriculum (1997) 46. Rule Book on Professional Qualifications Type – for Teachers, Senior Associates and Associates in Gymnasium Teaching System (1999) Regulations for Vocational and Art Schools: 47. Rule Book on Curriculum for General Education at Vocational and Art Schools (1996) 48. Rule Book on Syllabus for General Subjects in two-year Education Process at Vocational Schools (1993) 49. Rule Book on Professional Qualifications Type – for Teachers, Senior Associates and Associates Engaged in Vocational School Teaching System (1999) Regulations for Schools for Children with Special Needs: 50. Rule Book on Syllabus for One-Year Vocational Training for Schoolchildren with Special Needs (Light Handicap) (1994) 51. Rule Book for Professional Qualifications Type – for Teachers, Senior Associates and Associates Engaged in Teaching at Schools Specialized for Children with Special Needs (Light Handicap) (1995.)
411
Figure 1. Structure of the education system and classification of educational programmes by stages and levels according to ISCED:
Source: Ministry of Education and Sport, 2000
412
REFERENCES
Alternative Academic Educational Network, Academic Year 2000/2001, Belgrade. Center for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS), January 2001. Statistical Data for Background Purposes of OECD Review: Serbia, University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education. 'LQNLü0LURVLQND Education. A background paper for the Educational Forum, Belgrade. Havelka, Nenad (2001). “Survey of Basic Literacy Skills in Serbian Language, Mathematics and Science in Grade 8”. Unpublished. Presentation at Conference on Perspectives of Education Change in Serbia, MoES, Belgrade, 3 June 2001. ,YLþ,YDQ ³7UDQVIRUPDWLRQRI(GXFDWLRQ– Education and the transformation of Yugoslav Society”. Institute of European Studies, Belgrade. Landers, Cassie (2001). “Early Childhood Development in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Suggested Strategies for UNICEF”. New York: UNICEF. 0DMLü9LFWRU Education in Serbia 1999/2000. Petnica Science Centre, Valjevo, Yugoslavia. 0DURMHYLü6YHWODQD ³(YDOXDWLRQRI(OHPHQWDU\(GXcation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia”. Draft working paper. Mertaugh, Michael (2001). “Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): Recovery Needs in the Education Sector”. Washington: The World Bank, ECSHD. Unpublished paper. Ministry of Education and Sports (2001). Strategic Priorities in the Pre-School, Primary and Secondary-School Education, Belgrade.
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Republic of Serbia (2001). Realized Republic Expenditures for 2000.United Nations Development Programme (2001). Federal Republic of Yugoslavia/Republic of Serbia: Vulnerability Trends & Perceptions. Suspended Transition. Background Report, “0”edition (Serbia) of the Early Warning System for FRY.
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LIST OF EXAMINERS
Helmut Bachmann (Austria), Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Department for Research, Planning, Quality Development and International Cooperation. Mircea Badescu, European Training Foundation. Steven Bakker (The Netherlands), European Education Testing Service. Ibrahim Barbaros (Turkey), Ministry of National Education, Deputy Undersecretary for External Relations. Linda Beijlsmit (The Netherlands), Bureau CROSS, Acting Director. 9LUJLQLD %XGLHQ /LWKXDQLD 'LUHFWRU &HQWUH IRU (GXFDWLRQDO 6WXGLHV DW WKH Open Society Fund and the Education and Science Programme. John Coolahan (Ireland), Professor for Education, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Vice-President of the European Union Study Group. Milena Corradini, European Training Foundation. Johanna Crighton (The Netherlands), General Rapporteur, education consultant and senior education advisor to the Open Society Institute, Budapest; former Senior Assistant Secretary to the University of Cambridge Examinations Syndicate, United Kingdom. $OH[DQGUX&ULúDQ 5RPDQLD &HQWHURI(GXFDWLRQ%XFKDUHVW Ernesto Cuadra, World Bank. Ulrike Damyanovic, European Training Foundation. Peter Darvas, World Bank. Yael Duthilleul, World Bank.
415
Anastasia Fetsi, European Training Foundation. Slavko Gaber (Slovenia), Professor University of Ljubljana; Minister of Education. 6HUJHM *DEUãþHN 6ORYHQLD )RUPHU 'LUHFWRU RI 7KH 1DWLRQDO ([DPLQDWLRQ Centre; Director of R & D Unit International Centre for Knowledge Promotion. Boris Galabov (Bulgaria), Professor of Chemistry, University of Sofia, former Deputy Minister of Education. Georg Gombos (Austria), University of Klagenfurt, Institute for Educational Science. Peter Greenwood, European Training Foundation. Anthony Gribben, European Training Foundation. Peter Grootings, European Training Foundation. Aims C. McGuinness (United States) Senior Associate, National Centre for Higher Education Management Systems; advisor to state governments on education reform; former Director of Higher Education policy, Education Commission of the States. Elsie Hunt (United States), Member of the US Teacher Qualification Commission. Julian Huppert (United Kingdom), Cambridge University, Trinity College. Gia Kjellén (Sweden), Social worker, expert in education for children at risk; President of UNIFEM Sweden. Jan Kovarovic (Czech Republic), Member of the Education Committee, Centre of Educational Policy , Faculty of Education University Prague. Elena Lenskaya (Russian Federation), Deputy Director British Council Moscow; former Deputy Director for International Relations, Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation. John Mallea (Canada), President Emeritus, Brandon University.
416
Alain Michel (France), General Inspector of National Education, Ministry of Education; former Dean of the l’École National de l’Administration (ENA). Reema Nayar, World Bank. Francesco Panzica, European Training Foundation. Ala Pinzari, World Bank. Kari Pitkanen (Finland), Director of the National Board of Education. Egle Prankunien /LWKXDQLD &HQWUHIRU6FKRRO,PSURYHPHQW Gregor Ramsey (Australia), Director Tertiary Education Consulting Services, former Chairman of the National Board of Employment, Education and Training, and former Managing Director, New South Wales Technical and Further Education Commission. Graham Reid (United Kingdom), Former senior official of the Department for Education and Emplyment; former Chairman of the OECD Education and Employment, Labor and Social Affairs Committee; former Member of the Education Committee. Rosemary Renwick (New Zealand), Senior Policy Analyst, Ministry of Education, early childhood and curriculum expert; former member of the OECD Education Committee and CERI Governing Board. Eluned Roberts-Schweitzer, World Bank. Pasi Sahlberg (Finland), former head of Curriculum Unit at the National Board of Education; University of Helsinki; World Bank. Peter de Souza (Sweden), University of Oerebro, Department of Social Sciences. Geoff Spring (Australia), Federal Education Department, Canberra. Frances Tsakonas (Greece), Ministry for Foreign Affairs. 0HWND 8UãLþ-*DEUþãHN 6ORYHQLD 'LUHFWRU RI WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &HQWUH IRU Knowledge Production.
417
Evelyn Viertel, European Training Foundation. Arjen Vos, European Training Foundation. Doulgas M. Windham (United States) Emeritus Distinguished Service Professor, University of Albany, State University of New York. Pavel Zgaga (Slovenia), University of Ljubljana, Director of the Centre for Educational Policy Studies, former Minister of Education and Sports. Ian Whitman (OECD) Christine Stromberger (OECD).
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