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Integrated Solid Waste Management: a Life Cycle Inventory
Integrated Solid Waste Management: a Life Cycle Inventory second edition
Forbes R McDougall, Peter R White, Marina Franke and Peter Hindle
© Procter & Gamble Technical Centres Limited 2001 Blackwell Science Ltd, a Blackwell Publishing Company Editorial Offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK Tel: +44 (0)1865 776868 Blackwell Science, Inc., 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 5018, USA Tel: +1 781 388 8250 Iowa State Press, a Blackwell Publishing Company, 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA Tel: +1 515 292 0140 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd, 550 Swanston Street, Carlton South, Victoria 3053, Australia Tel: +61 (0)3 9347 0300 Blackwell Wissenschafts Verlag, Kurfürstendamm 57, 10707 Berlin, Germany Tel: +49 (0)30 32 79 060
First edition published by Blackie Academic and Professional, 1994 Second edition published by Blackwell Science, 2001 Reprinted 2002, 2003
The right of the Author to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
TD794.2 .158 2001 363.72’85–dc21
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Integrated solid waste management: a life cycle inventory/Forbes R. McDougall ... [et al.]. – 2nd ed. p. cm New ed. of: Integrated solid waste management/P.R.White, M. Franke, P. Hindle. 1994. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-632-05889-7 1. Integrated solid waste management. 2. Product life-cycle–Environmental aspects. I. McDougall, Forbes R. II. White, Peter R. Integrated solid waste management.
2001025429 ISBN 0-632-05889-7
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Set in Gill and Bookman by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.blackwellpublishing.com
Contents
Preface Currency conversion values
xxiii xxviii
CONCEPTS AND CASE STUDIES Chapter 1 Introduction
1
Summary The aims of the book What is waste? The concerns over waste
1 1 1 3
The old concern – the conservation of resources The new concerns – pollution and the deterioration of renewables Sustainable waste management Pollution
4 6 6 7
Objectives Current approaches – legislation
9 9
End-of-pipe regulations Strategic targets
9 9
Economic costs of environmental improvements
11
Internalising external environmental costs Building environmental objectives into the waste management system
11 12
An integrated approach to solid waste management
13
Chapter 2 Integrated Waste Management
15
Summary
15
The basic requirements of waste management
15
The generation of less waste
16
The concept of Sustainable Waste Management
18
Characteristics of a Sustainable Waste Management system
18
An integrated system Market oriented Flexibility
18 19 19 v
vi
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Scale Social acceptability
20 20
Development of the Integrated Waste Management concept Implementing Integrated Waste Management
21 22
The importance of a holistic approach Paying for Integrated Waste Management Waste management planning and the Hierarchy of Waste Management
23 24 24
Integrated Waste Management in countries with developing economies
26
IWM systems for countries with developing economies Dumping and landfilling Separation and treatment of organic waste Recycling and scavenging Incineration The benefits of IWM to countries with developing economies
26 26 27 28 29 29
Modelling waste management – why model?
29
Previous modelling of waste management Using Life Cycle Assessment for Integrated Waste Management Models Data
30 30 30 31
Chapter 3 The Development of Integrated Waste Management Systems: Case Studies and Their Analysis 33 Summary Introduction Case study format Case studies
33 33 33 35
Difficulty of comparison Common drivers Legislation IWM begins at a local level System evolution
35 36 40 40 40
Case study details – schematic diagrams
42
Abbreviations Definitions (see also Chapters 8–14)
42 42
Pamplona, Spain, 1996
43
Summary – Pamplona Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
43 43 43 45 45
Contents
vii
Prato, Italy, 1997
45
Summary – Prato Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
45 47 47 47 47
Brescia, Italy, 1996
48
Summary – Brescia commune Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
48 50 50 51 51
Hampshire, England, 1996/97
51
Summary – Hampshire Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
53 53 53 54 54
Helsinki, Finland, 1997
54
Summary – Helsinki Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
54 56 56 56 57
Lahn-Dill-Kreis, Germany, 1996
57
Summary – Lahn-Dill-Kreis Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information – how to move towards Integrated Waste Management
57 57 59 59 59
Vienna, Austria, 1996
61
Summary – Vienna Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
61 61 63 63 63
Malmö Region, Sweden, 1996
64
Summary – Malmö Region Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
64 66 66 66 67
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Zürich, Switzerland, 1997
67
Summary – Zurich Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
67 69 69 70 70
Copenhagen, Denmark, 1996
71
Summary – Copenhagen Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
71 71 73 73 73
Seattle, USA, 1998
74
Summary – Seattle Collection Treatment Landfill Additional information
74 74 76 76 77
Case study analysis – conclusions 78 Madras, India, 1999 – a case study from a country with a developing economy 79 Introduction The development of EXNORA The scale of EXNORA’s success Future plans for EXNORA Conclusions
79 80 81 82 82
Optimisation of Integrated Waste Management systems
82
Chapter 4 Life Cycle Assessment
85
Summary 85 What is Life Cycle Assessment? 85 Benefits of the Life Cycle Approach 86 Limitations of the Life Cycle Approach 87 International Standards Organisation (ISO) – The ISO 14040 series 88 Structure of a Life Cycle Assessment 89 Goal and scope definition Defining the Goal of the study Defining the Scope of the study Product System Functional unit System Boundaries Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI) Data quality requirements
90 90 91 91 91 92 93 94
Contents
ix
Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis Transparency Critical review Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) Classification Selection of impact categories Characterisation Normalisation Weighting Life Cycle Interpretation Identification of significant issues Evaluation Conclusions, recommendations and reporting
94 95 95 96 99 99 99 99 99 100 101 101 102
Life Cycle Inventory of solid waste
102
Chapter 5 A Life Cycle Inventory of Solid Waste
103
Summary Integrated Waste Management and Life Cycle Inventory A Life Cycle Inventory of waste
103 103 104
Goal definition What are the purposes of the LCI? Defining the functional unit System boundaries Where is the cradle of waste and where is the grave? The cradle The grave What level of detail? The Inventory stage
104 105 105 107 107 109 109 112 113
Results of the Life Cycle Inventory model: system inputs and outputs
117
Net energy consumption Air and water emissions Landfill volume Recovered materials and compost Other statistics
117 117 118 118 118
Fuel and electricity consumption in the Life Cycle of solid waste
119
Electricity consumption Petrol and diesel consumption Natural gas consumption
119 122 122
The economic assessment The main differences between IWM-1 and IWM-2 Life Cycle Inventory models Other LCI models for waste management
122 124 125
x
Contents
US Environmental Protection Agency Life Cycle model for waste management The UK Environment Agency model CSR/EPIC model The relationship between a Life Cycle Inventory for waste and product or packaging Life Cycle Inventories
Chapter 6 LCI Case Studies Summary Introduction
125 125 126 126
129 129 129
Caracas, Venezuela – LCI scenarios for the recovery of recyclable material
129
LCI tool Baseline scenario Recycling scenario Comparison Conclusions Acknowledgement
129 131 131 131 132 132
Pamplona, Spain – LCI scenarios for separate collection of organic material 132 LCI tool Baseline scenario Pamplona scenarios Results Conclusions Acknowledgement
132 132 133 133 134 134
Gloucestershire county, UK – LCI scenarios for composting, recycling and incineration
136
Development of waste management scenarios for Gloucestershire Baseline scenario Results Conclusions 1 Application Further studies Use of LCI results by local authorities Conclusions 2 Acknowledgements
136 136 136 139 139 140 140 141 141
Barcelona Metropolitan Area – LCI for long-term Integrated Waste Management strategy planning 142 Collection and disposal Objectives of the new waste management system Use of an LCI tool to help develop the new Integrated Waste Management system
142 142 142
Contents The new Integrated Waste Management system Conclusions
xi 144 145
London, Ontario, Canada – LCI for assessment of different materials recycling options
147
Results from the LCI model Energy Global Warming Potential (GWP) Conclusions Acknowledgements
149 149 150 151 151
United States Environmental Protection Agency case studies
152
Background Decision Support Tool Testing the Decision Support Tool in local communities Wisconsin case study methodology and results Waste composition, generation, and recycling data Collection, recycling, and disposal options for residential, multi-family, and commercial waste Key assumptions employed Discussion of results Acknowledgements
152 152 154 155 155 155 156 157 158
United Kingdom Environment Agency case studies
159
Introduction Interpretation of the data from WISARD Brighton & Hove Council Carmarthenshire County Council Nottingham City Council Dorset County Council Gateshead Metropolitan Borough Council Pendle Borough Council (Lancashire) Powys County Council Shropshire County Council Surrey County Council Conclusions Acknowledgements
159 160 162 162 162 162 162 162 163 163 163 164 164
Where to from here?
164
Chapter 7 The Overall Picture
165
Introduction From Life Cycle Inventory results to sustainability The progress so far
165 167 167
Future directions
168
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ELEMENTS OF IWM Chapter 8 Solid Waste Generation and Composition
169
Summary Introduction
169 169
Solid waste generation Solid wastes dealt with in this study Quantities of MSW generated
170 175 175
Composition of MSW
178
Composition of MSW – by materials Composition of MSW – by chemical analysis
178 184
Variability in MSW generation Effects of source reduction MSW classification – the need for standardisation MSW analysis methods
184 187 187 191
Chapter 9 Waste Collection
193
Summary Introduction Home sorting
193 193 194
Sorting ability Sorting motivation
194 194
Bring versus kerbside collection systems Collection systems
196 199
Dry recyclable materials Single (mono) material banks Mixed recyclables banks Kerbside collection Amount of material collected Contamination levels Biowaste and garden waste Biowaste definition The advantages of including non-recyclable paper in the definition of biowaste Possible disadvantages of including non-recyclable paper in the definition of biowaste Amounts of biowaste collected Contamination levels Collection methods Packaging waste Status of implementation Inconsistencies between packaging recovery schemes
199 199 202 202 203 204 206 207 208 210 211 211 213 213 214 216
Contents
xiii
Costs of different recovery schemes Results of used packaging recovery schemes Hazardous materials in household waste – the exception that proves the rule Bulky waste Restwaste
217 218 218 219 219
Variable rate pricing systems (pay-as-you-throw) Case study: San Jose, California, USA Case study: Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
220 221 222
Lessons learned Success: increased recycling participation
222 223
Integrated collection schemes
223
Chapter 10 Central Sorting
227
Summary Introduction General sorting techniques
227 227 227
Manual sorting Mechanical sorting Screening Air classification Air knife Sink/float separation Flotation Magnetic separation Electromagnetic separation Electrostatic separation Detect and route systems Roll crushing Shredding Baling
228 229 229 229 229 230 230 230 230 231 231 232 232 232
Central sorting at a Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)
232
Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) design Advances in MRF technology Single-stream processing of dry recyclables Integrated waste processing
233 235 235 235
Sorting of mixed waste for Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF)
236
Status of RDF RDF sorting processes Waste reception and storage Waste liberation and screening Fuel refining Fuel preparation Fuel storage and quality control
238 239 239 239 240 240 240
xiv
Contents
Chapter 11 Biological Treatment Summary Introduction
241 241 241
Biological treatment objectives
243
Pre-treatment for disposal Volume reduction Stabilisation Sterilisation Valorisation Biogas production Compost production
243 243 243 245 245 245 245
Overview of biological treatment Biological treatment processes
246 252
Pre-treatment Aerobic processing – composting Dry stabilization Anaerobic processing – biogasification ‘Wet’ anaerobic digestion ‘Dry’ anaerobic digestion Maturation and refining
252 256 260 260 261 262 262
Compost markets Compost standards
263 267
Chapter 12 Thermal Treatment
273
Summary Introduction Thermal treatment objectives
273 273 273
Current state of thermal treatment Mass-burn incineration of MSW
274 277
The incineration process Grate incinerators Fluidised bed incinerators Rotary combustors or rotary kilns Multiple-chamber incinerators Multiple-hearth furnace Pyrolysis or starved air Energy from waste plants (EfW) Emission control Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon monoxide (CO) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
277 279 279 280 281 281 281 281 282 283 283 283
Contents
xv
Hydrogen fluoride (HF) Sulphur oxides (SOx) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Particulates Heavy metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr) Dioxins and furans Gas-cleaning equipment Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) Fabric filters Scrubbers (wet, dry, semi-dry) Dry scrubbing Nitrogen control Treatment of solid residues
283 283 284 284 284 284 287 287 288 288 288 289 290
Burning of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Burning of source-separated paper and plastic Emission limits Public acceptability
291 292 293 295
Chapter 13 Landfilling Summary Introduction Landfilling objectives Current landfilling activity Landfilling – basic philosophy Landfill siting Landfill site design and operation Landfill leachate Landfill gas Waste inputs Scavenging
Chapter 14 Materials Recycling Summary Introduction
297 297 297 298 299 299 302 303 304 305 306 307
311 311 311
Materials manufacturing and recycling processes
314
Transportation Paper and board manufacturing and recycling Glass Ferrous metal manufacture and recycling
314 314 316 318
xvi
Contents
Non-ferrous metal manufacture and recycling Plastic manufacturing and recycling Textiles
319 321 323
IWM2 MODEL GUIDE Chapter 15 IWM-2: A Life Cycle Inventory Model for Integrated Waste Management
325
Summary Introduction
325 325
Who are the potential users of the model? What are the potential uses of the model? What data are needed to run the model? What is the goal of the model? What is the scope of the model? What is the functional unit of the model? What are the system boundaries (cradle and grave) of the model? Allocation procedure
325 325 325 326 326 326 326 327
Conventions used in this chapter The IWM-2 computer model The user guide
327 327 330
Welcome to IWM-2 IWM-2 Main screen
330 331
Chapter 16 Waste Inputs
333
Defining the waste input for the LCI computer model – data sources Classification of solid waste used in the Life Cycle Inventory The Waste Input screen
333 333 335
Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab
335 336 336 337 338
1 2 3 4 5
System area (Screen 3) Collected Household Waste (Screen 4) Delivered Household Waste (Screen 5) Collected Commercial Waste (Screen 6) Input Summary (Screen 7)
Chapter 17 Waste Collection
339
Summary Defining the system boundaries Environmental burdens due to transport Other burdens
339 339 340 341
Collection bags Collection bins Pre-treatment of waste
342 342 346
Contents
xvii
Economic costs
346
Material bank systems Kerbside collection systems
346 347
The Waste Collection screen
347
Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab
347 349 349 351 353 354 356
1 System Area (Screen 8) 2 Collected Household Waste (Screen 9) KCS#1 MBCS#1 (Screen 10) 3 Delivered Household Waste (Screen 11) 4 Collected Commercial Waste (Screen 12) 5 Summary (Screen 13)
Chapter 18 MRF and RDF Sorting
357
Summary Defining the system boundaries
357 357
MRF sorting Inputs Outputs
358 358 358
RDF sorting
359
Inputs Energy consumption Outputs Data used in RDF sorting section of the model
359 360 361 363
Economic Costs
364
MRF sorting RDF sorting
364 364
MRF/RDF Sorting screen
366
Tab 1 MRF Sorting (Screen 14) Tab 2 cRDF Sorting (Screen 15) Tab 3 dRDF Sorting (Screen 16)
366 368 370
Chapter 19 Biological Treatment
371
Summary
371
Defining the system boundaries
371
Waste Inputs
372
Energy consumption Composting Biogasification
372 372 374
Outputs
375
Secondary materials from pre-sorting Biogas/energy Compost Compost quantity Environmental benefits of using compost
376 376 378 378 383
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Contents
Sorting residue Compost-refining residue Air emissions Water emissions
383 383 383 387
Economic costs Biological treatments
387 387
Tab 1 Process Input (Screen 17) Tab 2 Composting (Screen 18) Tab 3 Biogasification (Screen 19)
387 389 390
Chapter 20 Thermal Treatment
393
Summary Defining the system boundaries Data availability Waste Inputs Energy consumption Outputs
393 393 394 394 395 395
Energy Mass burn RDF Source-separated fuel Energy recovery Air emissions Mass burn RDF and source-separated fuels Water emissions Solid waste Mass burn RDF Source-separated fuel
395 396 396 396 396 397 397 401 401 401 401 401 404
Economic costs of thermal treatment
404
Mass burn RDF and source-separated materials
404 405
Thermal treatments
405
Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab
405 406 408 408 409
1 2 3 4 5
Process Inputs (Screen 20) Incineration #1 (Screen 21) Incineration #2 RDF Burning (Screen 22) PPDF Burning (Screen 23)
Contents
Chapter 21 Landfilling Summary Defining the system boundaries
xix
411 411 411
Waste inputs
412
Restwaste Sorting residues Biological treatment residues Ash Solid waste from energy production or raw material manufacture
412 413 413 413 413
Energy consumption Outputs
413 413
Landfill gas production Gas production Landfill gas from Municipal Solid Waste, Restwaste and Sorting residues Landfill gas from biologically treated material Landfill gas from ash Landfill gas composition Gas control and energy recovery Leachate Leachate production Leachate composition Leachate collection and treatment Final inert solid waste
414 414 414 417 417 417 419 422 422 422 424 425
Economic costs Landfilling
426 427
Tab 1 Process Input (Screen 24) Tab 2 Transfer Station (Screen 25) Tab 3 Non-Hazardous Landfill Management & Costs (Screen 26) Tab 4 Hazardous Landfill Management & Costs
427 428
Chapter 22 Materials Recycling
429 430
431
Summary
431
Defining the system boundaries Inputs Transport burdens
431 432 434
Feed-stock energy Paper
434 434
Carbon balance
437
Glass
440
xx
Contents
Metal
440
Metal – ferrous Metal – aluminium
440 444
Plastics Textiles
446 450
Economic costs Model data Materials recycling (Screen 27)
451 451 455
Chapter 23 Advanced Variables
457
Summary
457
Tab 1 Fuels & Electricity (Screen 28)
457
Waste Collection
459
Tab 2 Waste (Screen 29) Tab 2 Waste (Screen 30) Tab 2 Waste Tab 2 Waste
Collection – Kerbside Collection System (KCS) #1 459 Collection – Material Bank Collection System (MBCS) #1 Collection – Bins & Bags (Screen 31) Collection – Commercial (Screen 32)
460 461 462
RDF Sorting
463
Tab 3 RDF Sorting – cRDF (Screen 33) Tab 3 RDF Sorting – dRDF
463 464
Thermal Treatments
464
Tab 4 Thermal Tab 4 Thermal Tab 4 Thermal (Screen 35) Tab 4 Thermal Tab 4 Thermal
464 465
Treatments – Incineration Process #1 (Screen 34) Treatments – Incineration Process #2 Treatments – Incineration Emissions Treatments – RDF Burning (Screen 36) Treatments – PPDF Burning
465 466 467
Landfilling
467
Tab 5 Landfilling (Screen 37)
467
Recycling
468
Tab 6 Recycling (Screen 38)
468
Other Variables
469
Tab 7 Other Variables (Screen 39)
469
Chapter 24 Waste System Flow Waste system flow
471 471
Contents
Chapter 25 Streams Button Streams
Results 1 2 3 4 5 6
Results Results Results Results Results Results
473 473
Chapter 26 Results Button Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab Tab
xxi
475 475
– – – – – –
Costs (Screen 42) Fuels (Screen 43) Final Solid Waste (Screen 44) Air Emissions (Screen 45) Water Emissions Emissions Guide (Screen 46)
Chapter 27 Scenario Comparisons
475 475 477 477 478 479
481
Compare Scenarios Making comparisons Identifying improvement opportunities
481 484 487
The importance of operations in the home System improvements
487 488
Chapter 28 What Parameters Have Changed? What’s Changed? References Index
489 489 491 507
Preface
Preface to the second edition ‘The life cycle of waste can be considered to be a journey from the cradle (when an item becomes valueless and, usually, is placed in the dustbin) to the grave (when value is restored by creating usable material or energy); or the waste is transformed into emissions to water or air, or into inert material placed in a landfill.’ So began the preface to the first edition of this book, which first appeared at the start of 1995. Since then, the whole subject of Integrated Waste Management (IWM), and the use of life cycle tools to assess waste systems have travelled a considerable way on their own journey.
The journey so far . . . In 1995, many debates were raging on the benefits of recycling versus energy recovery, and on how to implement kerbside collection schemes for recovering recyclable or compostable waste fractions. Today, there is growing acceptance that a combination of integrated options, is needed to handle all materials in municipal solid waste in an effective way. There are also now excellent examples of integrated waste systems on the ground, as detailed in this book. In fact, the debate has progressed further than the Integrated Waste Management advocated in the first edition, and is now focused on sustainable resource and waste management. There is recognition that waste needs to be regarded more as a resource, and that its management needs to be environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable. If this is achieved then such systems will contribute to the sustainable development of society. But how can we assess the sustainability of waste management systems? In 1995 decision makers relied on the hierarchy of waste management options, which ranked treatments in order of preference, but which was not based on any scientific or technical evidence. The first edition of this book provided an alternative approach by modelling the whole solid waste system, including any combination of options, to provide both an environmental and economic overall assessment. This was one of the first attempts to apply the tool of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) to solid waste management to produce a tool for waste managers, policy makers, regulators and other decision makers. Since 1995, this idea of using LCI tools for solid waste has travelled far too. The model provided in the first edition (IWM-1) has been applied at local, regional and national levels. It has been used by municipalities to assess Integrated Waste Management systems in many countries in Europe and elsewhere. It has been used by waste management companies to assess the tenders they submit to municipalities, and by the municipalities to assess such tenders. It has xxiii
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Preface
been used by consultants in reports on waste management strategy for the European Commission (Coopers & Lybrand, 1996). Since the appearance of the first model, we have also seen the development of a number of other, more sophisticated LCI tools for solid waste management. In the UK, the Environment Agency has launched WISARD – a software package for use by municipalities; in the USA, the Environmental Protection Agency is completing its own model, while in Canada, two industry organisations – CSR (Corporations Supporting Recycling) and EPIC (the Environment and Plastics Industry Council) – have launched a further model specific to Canadian conditions. LCI models for solid waste systems are also available from several consultants. This mushrooming of interest in the application of LCI to solid waste suggests that this is an idea whose time has come. Talking to users shows that there is growing experience of using the tools for several different functions: 1 A planning tool – to do ‘What if . . .?’ scenarios of possible future systems. 2 A system optimisation tool – to model existing systems and look for improvements. 3 A communications tool – the tool has been used in public meetings to explore, with all stakeholders, the possible ways in which a community’s waste could be handled, and the environmental and cost implications of such options. 4 A source of data – for use in other tools or assessments. There is also now an International Expert Group on Life Cycle Assessment for Integrated Waste Management, supported by the UK Environment Agency and the US Environmental Protection Agency, where workers in this field can discuss applications and resolve issues. Two of the authors of this book are members of this International Expert Group.
Why write a second edition? The first edition proposed a vision of IWM, and the use of tools such as LCI to provide a way to assess the environmental and economic performance of waste systems. We now see actual examples of IWM systems on the ground, and published accounts of how LCI models for solid waste have been applied. This seemed a good time, therefore, to stop and take stock of what has been achieved, and to draw out the lessons learned. For that reason, a significant part of this edition focuses on case studies – both of IWM systems, and of where LCI has been used to assess such systems. The second reason for a new edition was to provide a more user-friendly model (IWM-2) for waste managers. The feedback we received from readers of the first edition was that while the book effectively conveyed the concepts of IWM and the application of LCI to solid waste, only computer experts felt comfortable with the spreadsheet tool provided. To make the tool more widely accessible, this edition provides a new tool in Windows format, with greatly improved input and output features, and the ability to compare different scenarios. A significant part of this edition provides a detailed user’s guide, to take the reader through the use of the IWM-2 model, step by step. Finally, the whole field of LCI has progressed over the past 5 years, with the acceptance of ISO standards (14040 Series on Environmental Management) which stress the need for trans-
Preface
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parency. The new model, IWM-2, presented here allows for total transparency as to how it calculates results, and as to the sources of data used.
Do we need another computer model? When the computer model IWM-1 was released in the first edition of the book, it was a relatively novel concept. Today, however, as listed above, there are more sophisticated LCI models for solid waste available, so where does this IWM-2 model fit? It is designed to be an ‘entry level’ LCI model for solid waste – user-friendly and appropriate to users starting to apply life cycle thinking to waste systems. More expert users may find many of the advanced features of the IWM-2 model helpful, but in time they will probably graduate onto one of the more sophisticated models, with perhaps more geographically relevant data. If IWM-2 helps introduce waste managers to the concept of Integrated Waste Management and the need to take an overall approach, it will have served its purpose.
Why did Procter & Gamble write this book? As explained in the previous edition, Procter & Gamble (P&G) is concerned with solid waste because some of our products, and most of our packages enter the solid waste stream. Our products are found in 140 countries around the world. Our consumers want us to do everything we can to make sure that our products and packages are sustainable, in environmental, social and economic terms. This involves us in constantly seeking improvements in the design and manufacture of our own products, but in addition we have been working with others in many countries to help develop improved Integrated Waste Management systems that are environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable. As part of this, P&G has set up a Global Integrated Solid Waste Management Team, made up of its experts around the world – many of whom have contributed to this book. The aim of the team is to promote effective integrated systems for municipal solid waste; this book forms part of that ongoing effort.
Who are the intended readers? The intended audience is large and diverse: • Waste managers (both in public service and private companies) will find an holistic approach for achieving sustainable solid waste management, together with an improved modelling tool to help assess the environmental and economic aspects of their own, or proposed schemes. • Producers of waste will be able to understand better how their actions can influence the operation of effective waste systems. • Designers of products and packages will benefit by seeing how their design criteria can improve the compatibility of their product or package with Integrated Waste Management systems.
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• Policy makers will see examples of effective approaches to waste management and the tools needed for their implementation. • Regulators will see the impact of existing and proposed regulations on the development of more sustainable Integrated Waste Management systems. • Politicians (trans-national, national or local) will see how specialists in many areas are combining their expertise to seek better ways of handling society’s waste. They will find data and management approaches that they can use and support as they seek to provide direction to the social debate on the emotive issue of solid waste. • Waste data specialists (whether in laboratories, consultancies or environmental managers of waste facilities) will appreciate the importance of their data, and the ways in which its scope, quality and quantity can be improved to facilitate better management of solid waste. • Life Cycle Assessment specialists will see an LCI tool that has already been used in many countries to support decisions on Integrated Waste Management. • Environmentalists (whether or not in environmental organisations) will see how the application of science, financial management and social involvement can be combined in the search for solid waste systems that do not cost the earth. • Concerned citizens will see some of the efforts being made to improve solid waste management around the world, and the tools used to assess this progress. They will also see recognition that science and management do not have all the answers. In the democratic process, there is a role for the concerned citizen to influence developments and to ensure that reasoned decisions are made.
Acknowledgements We are indebted to many different people, both inside and outside P&G, who have contributed to the content of this book. To start with there are the P&G staff, past and present, who contributed to the writing of the first edition: Derek Gaskell, UK; Mariluz Castilla, Spain; Klaus Draeger, Germany; Dr Roland Lentz, Germany; Philippe Schauner, France; Dr Chris Holmes, Belgium; Willy van Belle, Belgium; Dr Nick de Oude, Belgium; Dr Celeste Kuta, USA; Keith Zook, USA; Karen Eller, USA; Dr Bruce Jones, USA; Dr Eun Namkung, Japan; and Tom Rattray, USA. For this second edition, we would like to thank the members of P&G’s Global Integrated Solid Waste Team, and in particular, AnaMaria Garmendia, Mexico; Joaquin Zepeda, Venezuela; Dr Rana Pant, UK; Arun Viswanath, India; Mine Enustun, Turkey; Klaus Draeger, Germany; Glenn Parker, Canada; Kim Vollbrecht, USA; Briseida Paredes; Mexico; and Suman Majumdar, India. Externally we would like to acknowledge the considerable contribution to the subject of Integrated Waste Management by Jacques Fonteyne and the European Recovery and Recycling Association (ERRA), especially Elizabeth Wilson who is now with the US EPA, and also that of the Organic Reclamation and Composting Association (ORCA) and the European Energy from Waste Coalition (EEWC), all based in Brussels. Each of these three organisations started off by focusing on one specific recovery method (recycling, composting and energy from waste), but soon realised that there was no single solution, and that a combination of options is required. To match this, from March 2000, the activities of the three organisations have been integrated into ASSURRE – the Association for the Sustainable Use and Recovery of Resources in Europe
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(see www.assurre.org). We owe special thanks to Andrew Richmond of Richmond Design Programming, whose expertise and patience made the development of the IWM-2 software possible. Finally, we thank the contributions of the members of the Peer Review panel who reviewed the IWM-2 model and the associated user’s guide: Professor Dr J. Jager, University of Darmstadt, Germany; Terry Coleman, Environment Agency, UK; Dr Matthias Fawer, Eidgenoessische Materialpruefungsanstalt (EMPA), Switzerland: Dr Susan Thorneloe, US Environmental Protection Agency; and Dr Keith Weitz, Research Triangle Institute, USA. FMcD, PRW, MF, PH.
Currency conversion values
Country/currency Argentina – peso Austria – schilling Belgium – franc Brazil – real Canada – Canadian dollar China – yuan Denmark – krone Finland – markka France – franc Germany – mark Holland – guilder Hungary – florint Iceland – krone India – rupee Ireland – punt Italy – lira Luxembourg – franc Mexico – peso Norway – kroner Poland – zloty Russia – rouble Spain – peseta Sweden – krona Switzerland – franc Turkey – lira UK – pound sterling USA – dollar Venezuela – bolivar Values as of 1 June 1999. Source: http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory.
Amount for 1 euro 1.0436 13.7603 40.3399 1.8054 1.5456 8.6395 7.4418 5.9457 6.5595 1.9558 2.2037 249.2850 77.7795 44.7183 0.7875 1936.2700 40.3399 10.1203 8.2434 4.1462 25.8395 166.3860 8.9783 1.5929 424568.0000 0.6510 1.0436 625.6380
Integrated Solid Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory, Second Edition Forbes R McDougall, Peter R White, Marina Franke, Peter Hindle Copyright © 2001 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
The concept of waste as a by-product of human activity and the current concerns over waste disposal are discussed. From these the objectives for sustainable waste management are formulated. Current approaches to reaching these objectives rely on both end-of-pipe and strategic legislation, and voluntary initiatives such as Eco-Efficiency and Design Waste Out. The principles of, and difficulties with, present legislation are discussed. An alternative approach, Integrated Waste Management, is introduced as the underlying theme of this book.
The aims of the book This second edition of the book Integrated Solid Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory has four key aims. 1. To provide data, in the form of case studies, that support the concept of Integrated Waste Management (IWM) as a sustainable method of managing solid waste. 2. To provide data, again in the form of case studies, that support the use of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) as a tool for the environmental and economic optimisation of solid waste management systems. 3. To introduce and describe in detail a new LCI computer model for Integrated Waste Management. This model allows the development of Integrated Waste Management systems in practice. It is easy to use, transparent and contains a range of default data to help the modelling process. 4. To present detailed descriptions and data on current waste management practices, such as waste generation, collection, sorting, biological treatment, thermal treatment, landfill and recycling.
What is waste? Definitions of ‘waste’ invariably refer to lack of use or value, or ‘useless remains’ (Concise Oxford Dictionary). Waste is a by-product of human activity. Physically, it contains the same materials as are found in useful products; it only differs from useful production by its lack of value. The lack of value in many cases can be related to the mixed and, often, unknown composition of the waste. Separating the materials in waste will generally increase their value if uses are available for these recovered materials. This inverse relationship between degree of mixing and value is an important property of waste (Box 1.1). 1
Concepts and Case Studies
Summary
2
Chapter1: Introduction
Concepts and Case Studies
1. The relationship between waste and value:
Consumption or Use
USEFUL PRODUCTS
WASTE
Restore Value
2. The relationship between value and mixing: Value = f
1 degree of mixing
3. Possible classifications of waste. These can be by: – physical state – original use – material type – physical properties – origin – safety level. BOX 1.1 Waste: some key concepts.
Waste can be classified by a multitude of schemes (Box 1.1): by physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), and then within solid waste by: original use (packaging waste, food waste, etc.), by material (glass, paper, etc.), by physical properties (combustible, compostable, recyclable), by origin (domestic, commercial, agricultural, industrial, etc.) or by safety level (hazardous, nonhazardous). Household and commercial waste, often referred to together as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), only accounts for a relatively small part (
