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Characterization

Class (age)

Phase of ...

Newborn

0.1 - 0.2

non-directional mass movements

Baby

0.4 - 1.0

adopting first coordinated movements

Toddler

1.1 - 3.0

adopting manifold movement patterns

Early childhood

3.1 - 6/7

perfectioning of manifold movement patterns and adoption of first combined movements

Medium childhood

7.1 - 9/10

fast progress in motor learning aptitude

Late childhood

10/11 - 11/12

10/11 - 12/13

best motor learning aptitude

Early youth (pubescence)

11/12 - 13/14

12/13 - 14.5

restructuring kinetic skills and proficiencies

Late youth (adolescence)

13/14 - 17/18

14.6-18/19

developing gender-specific differentiation, progressive individualization and increasing stabilization

Early adulthood

18/20 - 30

relative maintenance of learning aptitude and kinetic performance

Medium adulthood

30 - 45/50

gradually declining kinetic performance

Later adulthood

45/50 - 60/70

Later adulthood

from 60/70

considerably declining kinetic performance distinctly declining kinetic performance

Table 1.1 Phases of human motor skills

Table 1.1 details human motor skills changing throughout a lifetime. For the technical recording of kinetic processes, a distance-time diagram is used which depicts illustration of various movement features. This method can also be used for determining the fine motor skills necessary for gripping workpieces.

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1.1 The Handling Process The process of handling component parts or workpieces in production is often underrated as technically simple or even trivial. From the production point of view it is obvious that the workpiece itself does not increase in value during the handling process. As far as technical solutions are concerned, handling is secondary to the manufacturing process. The time necessary for production is separated into machine time and handling time (see figure 1.2). Machine time is the period of time during which a machine is operating, i. e. making changes to the workpiece itself. Machine time can be further separated into pre-operating time, operating time, and post-operating time. Pre- and post-operating time include all necessary operations before and after operating time, such as supplying a tool or coolant. These intervals have been reduced to a minimum by high traverse rates and appropriate control technology over the past few years. Handling time or auxiliary process time can be separated into single steps from setting up a workpiece to testing it. Production planning aims at synchronizing handling time and machine time in order to prevent time-consuming handling processes from taking up valuable machine time; or at least to keep handling time at a minimum and to move as many workpieces as possible per time unit. Machine time and handling time have to be coordinated: Machinery idling during workpiece handling is generally not acceptable, just as fast robots waiting for machinery do not make sense.

21

Handling: The Underrated Process

gripping

moving

placing

start

1

Influencing factors

• ambient conditions: type, temperature • workpieces: orientation, quantity, position, size, type

Figure 1.3 Phases of a handling process and its ambient conditions

The handling process can be basically characterized by counting the workpieces moved per unit of time. This characteristic, however, does not specify the amount of technical requirements for obtaining a desired cycle time. Complex workpieces and multiple ambient conditions can create different handling tasks to such an extent that a simple task of moving a workpiece from point A to B can become an extremely complex process. Human beings are naturally equipped with an enormously flexible “gripping technique”, efficient “sensors” and highly complex “data processing” and, therefore, tend to underrate such tasks. From practical experience in automation projects we know that unexpected technical and economic problems tend to occur especially when the handling process and all its parameters are not sufficiently analyzed and evaluated at an early stage.

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Handling: The Underrated Process

Setup The term is used in connection with the availability of workpieces. A workpiece is made ready when it is able to be gripped. Handling Handling means creating, defined changing or temporarily maintaining a pre-set alignment of geometrically defined bodies in a system of coordinates. Further parameters such as time, quantity, and path can be pre-set (source: VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Guideline 2860).

1

Handling is a subfunction of the materials flow and categorized on the same level as conveying or storing.

effecting materials flow

conveying VDI 2411

storing VDI 2411

handling VDI 2860

Handling is divided into the following single steps: • Store • Change Quantities • Move • Secure • Control

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Handling: The Underrated Process

1.3 What Are The Main Points of This Book? The following chapters focus on the realization of handling technology tasks. Keynote is the process of integrating a workpiece into a moving device and put it into a new position or orientation. In order to illustrate the subject in a sensible selection we draw the analogy to human object handling. In line with this analogy we concentrate on gripping techniques which follow mechanical principles (force-lock and/or form-lock). Vacuum grippers and other gripper types are included but not covered in detail. However, workpiece movement with moving axes and robot technology from the gripper finger to the six-axis robot arm are thoroughly described.

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Chapter 1 explains terms and fundamentals of the subject. Chapter 2 gives an insight into the history of automation technology and robot development over the past 30 years, highlighting the milestones without any claim for completeness. An outlook on future developments awaiting us over the next few years, supported by statistics and statements by the German federation of the engineering industries VDMA (Verband Deutscher Maschinen und Anlagenbauer) is included

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The trend illustrates a daily scenario in the automotive industry: highly innovative and complex products cannot be produced at a high value added ratio. In order to satisfy customer requirements for high-quality, constant improvement, and good price-performance ratio, it is essential to purchase structural components from specialized producers. The VDMA survey comments on the declining manufacturing intensity of production as follows: “If products are in strong demand on the domestic market and capacities to meet this demand are not sufficient, they must be purchased on foreign markets. All enterprises which have established competent cooperation partners or suppliers in the past few years, can cope with an increase in demand. By concentrating on key competences, the prospects of playing a leading role in international competition in terms of quality, velocity, and prices, are good. Customers will naturally continue to appreciate delivery times and reliability as well as high-quality products. Short time-to-market requires enterprises to have the necessary parts ready for assembly. It is of secondary interest if these parts are manufactured in-house or purchased.” In manufacturing today, machine technology is expected to be much more flexible than it was 50 years ago. Product life cycles, i. e. the period of time during which a product is developed and marketed, is counted in months for some products of the consumer goods industry, e. g. mobile phones. Timing its market entrance has become essential for a product`s economic success. In case of a late market entrance a product may not be able to cover its development expenses.

37

Evolution or Revolution

+

development cycle

market cycle

turnover

2

earnings

time development expenses

product planning

development

–

market entrance

growth

maturity & saturation

decline

product service life

Figure 2.2 Model of a product life cycle

The higher the development expenses for a product become, the more damaging a late market entrance becomes. For this reason the automotive industry started early on making their manufacturing plants more flexible with the result of customized vehicles leaving the conveyor belts today. Although this idea would have been considered as futuristic in the 50s, it was realized by strategic use of efficient automation technology components. 2.2 Developmental Stages of Grippers At an early stage the idea of offering complete unit construction systems and feeding technology, robots, and grippers, for automation technology was of major importance in order to be able to flexibly react to Mechanical Engineering demands. Consequently, the first gripper modules were developed as standard products as early as 20 years ago.

38

(ω - ω ) ω⋅ = 2 1 t a Z = ω2 r at= αr

By comparing three parallel jaw grippers at various stages of develaR = aZ2 + a2t opment, the efficiency increase can be illustrated (see figure 2.3). az gripper The standard ω2 PPG offered by SCHUNK in 1983 already had β = arctan at = arctan α very good ratios at the time. The force/weight ratio, i. e. the gripping FC = 2force m v ω in relation to the weight of the gripper multiplied by the stroke of the finger, was at 2.4 J/kg for the short stroke. The next was set by the PGN gripper which was built on the m aNA FN A =milestone same functional principle as the PPG. This PGN was able to reach =mar aM energy/weight ratio of 7.3 J/kg. The following generation of this successful gripper series significantly increased the energy/weight 2ρ ω = to 8.1 J/kg while its service life was improved at the same ratio t time. E=

1 2 Jω 2

Fg s

C=

Nm kg

G

Fg = gripping force [N], s = stroke [m], G = weight [kg] λ -λ ω= 1 2 t

Type: PPG 100 Weight: 1.6kg Energy/weight ratio: 2.4 J/kg Gripping force at 6 bar at 6mm stroke: 650N at 3mm stroke: 1,450N

Type: PGN-plus 100 Weight: 0.81kg Energy/weight ratio: 8.1 J/kg Gripping force at 6 bar at 10mm stroke: 660N at 5mm stroke: 1,370N PGN-plus

PGN

PPG 1983

Type: PGN 100 Weight: 0.75kg Energy/weight ratio: 7.3 J/kg Gripping force at 6 bar at 10mm stroke: 550N at 5mm stroke: 900N

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

Figure 2.3 Comparing parallel grippers as an example for efficiency increase

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types of artificial hands

modular hands • are adaptable to any kinematics • include all components required for function (sensors, actuators, ...) • are larger than human hands due to the size of current actuators • have a lower gripping force than integrated hands • require overall complex design

integrated hands • hand is integrated into the robot arm • components, e. g. actuators, can be outsorced to the arm • larger actuators produce higher gripping force • transfer of forces to the fingers or joints is difficult

The first modular hands were the Stanford Hand and the Barret Hand. Hand/arm integration: Modular Abilities: Internal manipulation Number of fingers: 3 Number of links: 10 Number of joints: 9 Degrees of freedom: 9 Palm: No Size compared to human hand: Equal

Stanford/JPL Hand

Sensors: • rotary transducers in each motor • strain gauge sensors • tactile sensor array at the finger tip joints (8x8) Reference: Salisbury, Stanford University, 1983

The Stanford Hand was built in 1983 and is equipped with tactile sense contacts on the fingers which are to imitate the human sense of touch. The gripper was equipped with just three fingers but could still manipulate the workpiece in its hand.

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Evolution or Revolution

Other gripping technology modules have gained considerably in functionality, quality, and sensor integration. The increasing number of application fields are a clear sign of this development. The broader the range of applications and the greater the required flexibility of the respective gripper, the more it usually costs if such a gripper module has to cope with several products.

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Figure 2.4 Expenses/flexibility ratio for gripper applications

Figure 2.4 clearly shows this fact. Naturally, for many automation tasks a simple but relatively unflexible gripper will be sufficient. For more demanding applications, a special construction, possibly in combination with standard grippers, is required. Only applications which do not allow the gripper to be changed and have to deal with numerous different workpieces make a highly flexible gripper solution a necessary investment. Special solutions currently on the market are close to their efficiency limits in relation to payload and velocity. As a result, “artificial hands” are mainly used for service robots and in Research & Development today.

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Evolution or Revolution

So-called “human” robots were already one of the goals of early robotics. In 1963, researchers at Rancho Los Amigos Hospital in Downey, California, constructed the Rancho Arm for the support of physically challenged people. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1968, Marvin Minsky developed the Tentacle Arm with twelve joints designed to reach around obstacles Victor Scheinmann, a Mechanical Engineering student working in the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL), developed the Stanford Arm in 1969. This 6degree of freedom (6-dof) all-electric mechanical manipulator was hardly a human-like hand but one of the first “robots” designed exclusively for computer control and micro surgery. Projects included the assembly of a Model A waterpump in 1974 and this is how the “arm” development found its way into the automotive industry.

2

Syntelmann II Electric tele manipulator with 9 degrees of freedom per arm, position- and force-controlled, sensors for forces, sounds, temperatures (in front); operator with exo-skeleton transducer system, force feedback system, and stereo image transmission system (in the back). (Source: K. H. Dröge)

46

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Evolution or Revolution

2

IRB 6 by ASEA with 6kg payload capacity (source: ABB)

IRB 60 by ASEA with 60kg payload capacity (source: ABB)

Meanwhile every larger robot producer offers a broad range of robot kinematics for various needs. These kinematics and its variants are detailed in Chapter 4. At this point we are concentrating on comparing renowned robot producers and their products today and 30 years ago. A direct comparison of kinematics and its controllers shows a clear trend: Major progress has been made in drive and control technology as well as in software for robots, i. e. developments which are not always obvious at first sight. Special kinematics were developed for handling presses in order to significantly increase the cycle time of robots. The Bilsing-Unimate, which you can see in the picture, is a good example of a highly individual solution which can hardly be used for any other purpose. Limited application was responsible for uncompetitive prices with the result that standard kinematics are mainly used for press handling today.

48

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Evolution or Revolution

In 1984 the MBB VFW managed a regular payload of 50kg up to a maximum 200kg while it weighed a solid 2,350kg. The approximate list price of $165,000 compared to an industrial worker‘s $10,000 labor costs (incl. ancillary wage costs) per year. Looking at these power and price levels it is obvious that robot producers were hardly able to sell their products.

2

At the same time the ROBOT 625 by Reis Obernburg had the same kinematic principle as the MBB-VFW. The ROBOT 625 only weighed 750kg at a regular payload of 25kg, a clear improvement on the weight/payload ratio. Even with its 64 inputs and 32 outputs it exceeded the MBB-VFM by the factor 4. In addition, it offered a significantly larger workspace and at $80,000 cost less than half the price.

MBB-VFW robot with controller (source: Fraunhofer IPA) 50


Ãʓ>˜Õv>VÌÕÀiÀÃÊ̅i˜ÊVœÕ`ʘœÌʜvviÀʓœÀiÊ̅>˜Êœ˜iÊ̜Ê̅ÀiiÊ `ˆvviÀi˜ÌʅœÕȘ}Ê>˜`Ê«>ޏœ>`ÊV>Ìi}œÀˆiÃʈÌÊÜ>ÃÊiÃÃi˜Ìˆ>ÊvœÀÊ̅i“ÊÊ ÌœÊw˜`Ê̅iÊÀˆ}…ÌÊ>««ˆV>̈œ˜ÃÊvœÀÊ̅iˆÀʎˆ˜i“>̈VðÊ/…ˆÃÊÈÌÕ>̈œ˜Ê…>ÃÊ ˜œÌÊV…>˜}i`ʓÕV…]Ê܈̅Ê̅iÊ`ˆvviÀi˜ViÊ̅>Ìʓ>˜Õv>VÌÕÀiÀÃʘœÜÊ œvviÀÊ>ÊLÀœ>`ÊÀ>˜}iʜvʅœÕȘ}Ê>˜`Ê«>ޏœ>`ʜ«Ìˆœ˜ÃÊ>˜`]Ê̅iÀivœÀi]Ê >ÀiÊ>LiÊ̜ʓiiÌÊ>“œÃÌÊ>˜ÞÊ>««ˆV>̈œ˜°Ê

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Evolution or Revolution

All robot producers try to add new applications to their key applications as shown by the figures on plans for the VW robot application. Bosch first used the SCARA SR 800 for internal purposes while current systems are used for the most diverse assembly tasks.

2

Plans for the use of a VW robot for feeding

Typical application of a VW robot for inserting

tooling machines (source: Fraunhofer IPA)

the spare wheel into the Golf II (source: Fraunhofer IPA)

Left: BOSCH SCARA series SR800 at a double belt transfer system (source: Bosch Rexroth)

Right: Current SCARA-Roboter SR 8 (source: Bosch Rexroth) now sold by Stäubli

52

xÎ

Evolution or Revolution

Just a few robot producers survived the stiffening competition during the first years. In the first robot catalogs published in the former German Democratic Republic (1983 edition by the Forschungszentrum des Werkzeugmaschinenbaus, Karl-Marx-Stadt) and nearly parallel in the Federal Republic of Germany (1984 edition by the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automation IPA in Stuttgart, Germany) all robot procucers and their products are listed.

2

The 1984 Fraunhofer IPA catalog names approximately 80 producers while a much lower number appears in the AUTOMATICA 2004 Munich Germany exhibitors directory. Although the AUTOMATICA 2004 fair just started in 2004, the reduced number of German robot producers is clearly visible. After 20 years, only five out of 35 German robot producers listed in the 1984 Fraunhofer IPA catalog are present at the AUTOMATICA 2004. Producers such as Pfaff Industriemaschinen or Jungheinrich were two of the pioneers, just like large enterprises such as Siemens or Volkswagen. However, most of the smaller robot producers simply could not cope with the target quantities. A complete overview is bound to exceed the volume of this book. The photographs and figures illustrate the impressive number of different companies in Germany which were engaged in the production of robots. Robots initially started out in the U.S. but today‘s world production is mainly situated in Japan, Sweden and Germany. Fast growing markets in China and India are setting out to enter the market with their own products. Major Japanese companies building robots are Yaskawa (also known under the name MOTOMAN in Germany), Kawasaki and Fanuc. Renowned brands for small robots are EPSON, Mitsubishi and Hirata.

54

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xx

Evolution or Revolution

As shown in figure 2.6 the first 15 years of robot production at KUKA accounted for 12,000 robots as compared to 48,000 produced in the years between 1996 to 2003. Four times as many robots were built and sold within about a third of the time. This enormous growth rate is connected to the introduction of the first PC based robot control in 1996. PC technology created new opportunities for sensor integration and ideal preconditions for user-friendly applications.

2

introduction of PC technology into robot control

12,000 produced robots

1981

1985

1990

1995

60,000 produced robots, of which 48,000 with PC technology

2000

2004

Figure 2.6 Development of industrial robot technology (source: KUKA)

Right: Robot control unit in 1982 (source: Fraunhofer IPA)

56

xÇ

Evolution or Revolution

Former machine/operator interface (source: Fraunhofer IPA)

In terms of user-friendly machine operator interfaces, enormous improvements have been made which are illustrated by some examples of robot programming devices.

2

Modern machine operator interfaces particularly show a trend towards user-specific interfaces which can be customized to meet individual requirements. Significantly it can be seen the reduktion of hardware switcher and better graphical possibitlities. The dynamic development of robotics is depicted in figure 2.12. Significantly it is visible that the productlife of a robot has declined also over the last years. Modern machine/operator interface (source: ABB)

KR 6 - 350

IR 700

IR 300

IR 400

IR 100

IR 200

IR 600

1980

1990

Figure 2.12 Different series of one robot producer (source: KUKA)

58

2000

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x™

Evolution or Revolution

(1)

3 translations Main workspace extension option

2

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

2 translations 1 rotation

1 translation 2 rotation

1 translation 2 rotations

3 rotations

moving unit

moving unit

moving unit

moving unit

Kinematic substitute picture Axis name

XYZ

CZR

CBR

CZA

CBA

Workspace

Figure 2.7 1983 regular kinematic types and their workspaces

Camera technology is an essential part of the quality control of workpieces. Image processing has developed into a robust and easily accessible technology as sufficient piece numbers of these sensors are currently offered on the market. In addition, camera technology is directly connected to the digital camera mass market, which results in favorable prices at parallel development boosts on a yearly basis. While a 256 x 256 pixel standard used to be available, today‘s industrial standard is 1300 x 1024 pixel. Within the next years industrial evaluation cameras will reach a 2000 x 2000 pixel standard, which again allows evaluating and measuring workpieces with even higher precision. 2.4 Robot Statistics Higher flexibility and efficiency enabled robot technology to conquer more and more applications in numerous fields. The quantity record speaks for itself as it documents robot technology distribution.

60

Horizontal tilt (4) arm devices Unit construction systems (3) Spherecoordinate devices

(5) Vertical tilt arm devices

11% 5%

40%

8%

16% (2) Cylindercoordinate devices

20%

(1) Cartesian devices State:12/1983 100% = 134 industrial robots

Figure 2.8 Proportion of kinematic types distribution (source: Fraunhofer IPA)

1983 statistics show the distribution of robot types used in Germany (figure 2.8). Basis of the statistics were 134 three-axis robots. In comparison, the figures 20 years later are quite much more impressive: In 2003 an overall 2,522 three-axis robots were statistically registered by the VDMA; an overall 9,040 robots with six axes had already sold in Germany alone.

9.040

6-axis and more

8.129

221

5-axis

266 2003

1.598

4-axis

2002

1.204

2.522

3-axis

2.263 0

2.000

4.000

6.000

8.000

10.000

pieces

Figure 2.9 Development of the German robotics market in relation to the number of axes (source: VDMA)

61

Evolution or Revolution

If you consider the fact that each robot usually needs additional peripheral devices such as feeding technology, magazines, grippers, sensors, and safety technology, the enormous market volume becomes obvious. The market volume can be specifically determined by the number of robot applications.

2

9.884

Automotive

7.402 1.044 1.003

Machines (incl. electric)

876 752

Synthetics/Rubber/Chemistry 337 345

Food/Food processing Iron/Steel products

254 249

Iron/Steel

243 208

Non-prod. Industries

177 187

Wood/Furniture/Paper

163 174

Ceramics/Glass/Stone

138 131

Measuring/Lab/Control technology

79 141

2003 2002

1.186 1.270

Other 0

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

7.000

8.000

9.000

10.000

pieces

Figure 2.10 Industrial robot applications according to industries 2002 and 2003 (source: VDMA)

It is interesting that applications for industrial robots with three or more axes account for a high proportion of robots handling workpieces. The great rise from 2002 to 2003 with more than 30 percent in this category is remarkable. As this increase was initiated by applications in the automotive industry it can be assumed that an enormous rationalizing potential has been successfully opened up by the automotive industry. Gripper technology, which is normally used for handling applications, has especially profited from this growth. Other applications came to a standstill as soon as they had reached a certain level.

62

The German Federation of the Engineering Industries VDMA gives the following outlook in its yearly published statistics for the year 2004: “In 2004 a further increase in robot piece numbers is expected for the German market as well. The automotive industry will remain the largest customer with substantial investments in 2004. Rubber and synthetics producers, the chemical industry, machine (incl. electric) producers, and the metal manufacturing industry will have to increase their investments accordingly. The potential for using robots in the food processing and the packaging industry is obvious as the demand for automated solutions is high. The furniture industry is another potential customer as it it forced to reduce costs of production, too. Higher payloads, higher dynamics, sensor technology, network technology (of communicating robots), and image processing systems, offer increased application options for so-called “intelligent robots” or “multi-robots”. Robot technology faces another quantum leap. In high-wage countries, the unit labor costs can be effectively reduced by automated solutions. Technical concerns of some industries, such as food processing, are answered by user-friendly systems. The food processing industry in Germany still offers great potential for the use of robots and automated systems.”

6.969

Handling

5.272 2.962 2.977

Welding Palletizing

884 823

Coating/Sticking

770 900 725 787

Assembly

518 533

Other

2003 2002

256 199

Processing

149 130

Research/Education 0

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

7.000

8.000

pieces

Figure 2.11 One- and two-axis moving modules – applications 2002 and 2003 (source: VDMA)

63

Evolution or Revolution

2 First CAD-based planning tools

3D-planning environment for robot simulation (source: plusdrei GmbH)

industrial robot

offline programming terminal

computer

robot control

robot kinematics

multi-sensor system Figure 2.13 Offline programming in the early 80s

64


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A possible trend in robot and automation component technology can be seen in the pictures of service robots venturing from factory halls into “unstructured” environments. During refueling, for example, a robot has to deal with a technical object, i. e. the car, but situations and fabricates vary. Robot fueling technology is being tested worldwide for filling up liquid hydrogen. A system installed at the Munich airport is already under trial operation. Service robots are expected to grow in numbers, exceeding those of industrial robots. Nevertheless, the requirements are by far more diverse so that clear definitions cannot be found as easily as for industrial robots. Due to the fact that robots move towards new applications the robot industry hopes to increase significantly the numbers of robots which are produced today. 80% of the robots today are used in automotive production. The next 10 years we will face a big shift to other industries. The robot manufacturers cop the new boundary conditions with specialized robots which are able to work for example in wet environments. Components of the automation industry like for example grippers are also highly improved in hygienic design.

Robot fuel filling station, different car geometries 66

have to be detected (source: Reis)

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In the early 80s the VDI regulation 2860 gave a rather plain description of gripper function: “A gripper is the subsystem of an industrial robot which maintains a limited number of geometrically defined workpieces for a set period of time, i. e. secures the position and orientation of the workpieces in relation to the tool`s or the gripper`s system of co-ordinates. This Secure function is usually built up before the moving process, maintained during the moving process, and finally reversed by releasing the workpiece.”

Figure 3.1 Workpiece/gripper system of coordinates, Xm – Ym – Zm

From the current point of view this definition needs to be extended as modern gripper design and sensors offer new opportunities and we will concentrate on this reality in the following chapters. The object of gripping, the product, the workpiece, or component, is put at the center of our initial analysis. The term “workpiece” will be used, even when there is no work being performed on the piece while it is being gripped. The workpiece can be a finished product or a product that is still being processed. Subsequently, technical tasks of mechanical grippers for pick- and place operations and related aspects are presented and explained in detail.

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Getting To Grips With Handling Tasks

3.2 Gripper Fingers As Operating Elements

Forces are transmitted by gripper fingers, the so-called operating elements of the gripper. The amount of force which needs to be applied depends on the body mass, surface friction, and geometry of the workpiece. Workpiece geometry defines criteria such as:

• distance between force induction point and mass center of gravity

3

• mass moment of inertia • type of force induction

If gripping force just needs to be transmitted via surface friction, pressure must be put on the workpiece surface. For workpieces which easily react to pressure, e. g. the surface of which is easily deformed or damaged, a maximum pressure must be determined. For safety reasons maximum pressure during gripping must be clearly lower than the approved pressure for the respective material. Calculations on maximum pressure for different contact bodies are shown in table 3.9 distinguishing point and linear contact between gripper fingers and workpieces. Gripping forces vary according to form and number of active surfaces between workpiece and gripper fingers. In table 3.10 three typical combinations of force-fit gripping are compared. The influence of surface types on gripping force is expressed by the respective formule. Differing coefficients of adhesive friction for defined material combinations are detailed in table 3.11.

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As shown in table 3.16 a spherical workpiece is clamped between two prismatic jaws with the opening angle α. The gripping force is calculated with the appropriate formule. In the first case we need to consider the fact that weight acts against acceleration. The latter and the resulting adhesive friction must be completely assimilated by force-fit gripping, which requires higher gripping force than in the other examples. Form-fit gripping in the direction of acceleration and of gravity is provided in the second example. The gripper must counteract the force which stretches the gripper fingers caused by acceleration. The third example just requires half as much gripping force because the latter can be equally distributed to both gripper jaws. This type of handling is especially kind on the gripper and the workpiece as forces can be kept low.

Kinematics or drives for grippers Gripper fingers need to be set in motion to build up gripping forces on the workpiece. Grippers can be categorized by their principles of drive. Our overview shows that mechanical grippers constitute the main representatives of gripping technology. Suction grippers, i. e. grippers with one or more switch-on/switch-off contact surfaces, are being widely used for industrial applications. Magnetic grippers, adhesive grippers, mold grippers, and needle grippers are still exeptions to the rule. Mechanical gripper kinematics must transfer movement of drive into movement of gripper fingers, e. g. rotary drive movements have to be transferred into linear gripper finger movements. This type of kinematics includes all drive, transmission, and guiding elements which are necessary to realize the movement of the drive. The kinematic scheme shows most gripper drives in use, categorized by their input or output movement. The input movement is contrasted to the output movement for rotary and linear movements respectively.

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Getting To Grips With Handling Tasks

A revolver gripper consists of more than two grippers which are able to work independently and is predominantly used for handling several workpiece types. One workpiece type is distinguished from another according to which gripper is able to cope with it. The structure of the operating elements on a dual gripper or a revolver gripper may be parallel, coniform or radial. Small and medium-sized product lines demand gripping technology to be even more flexible as the aim is always to cover the broadest range of workpieces possible. Gripper fingers with a long stroke meet this demand.

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piezoelectric

electric

pneumatic

hydraulic

Various gripper drive types can be categorized according to their respective principle of function. In table 3.19 current gripper drive types are compared. Electrically and pneumatically driven grippers cover a broad range of handling tasks while hydraulic drives are predominantly used for grippers handling high payloads. The piezoelectric drive is rarely used and generally reserved for gripping technology in the micro range due to its particular gripping force and gripper finger stroke. The best gripper principle of function always needs to be selected in relation to the specific handling task. payload

The pneumatic drive stands out for its simplicity and long service life, good-quality air pressure for it is usually available in production workshop environments. Pneumatics enable compact housing of the drive element. This type of drive is protected against overload by compressible air pressure. Pneumatically driven grippers are able to cope with extreme conditions, e. g. coolants or dust from casting or grinding processes. Moreover, these drives reliably operate in powerful electric or magnetic fields. Another benefit is fast opening and closing times. In comparison to other types of drive pneumatic drives are a very low in prime costs and save energy costs. Additionally, these drives have the feature of being explosion-proof.

energy density weight housing system complexity velocity adjustability suitable not suitable

Table 3.19 Principles of gripper drives and their performance features (source: Fraunhofer IPA)

Adjustability of pneumatics is very limited compared to other types of drives. Waste air which is drawn off directly from the gripper is to be treated separately for special applications in cleanroom or strict hygiene environments. Pneumatic drives frequently require final position stabilizers to avoid damage in case the gripper moves too hard into its final position. The noise level of pneumatic drives is higher than that of other types of drives. The hydraulic drive can transmit great forces despite small housing. Moreover, it permits an infinitely variable regulation of constant velocity of travel and gripping force can be upheld over the entire gripping path as well. Maximum force is achieved even at small distances because mass moment of inertia of the elements moved and compressibility of the oil are low.

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Each principle of drive requires a transformation of the respective type of energy into movement by a so-called actuator. Actuators are used as gripper drive components. Gripper kinematics are driven by either translatory or rotary movements. Components of pneumatic drive technology are pneumatic cylinders, swivel cylinders, or airpressure motors. Hydraulic cylinders, swivel cylinders, or hydromotors can be considered as drive components of hydraulic actuators as well. Drives based on the electric principle of function include electromagnets, piezo drives, linear motors, as well as rotary actuators such as stepping motors, direct-current (DC) and alternatingcurrent (AC) motors. pneumatic translatory drive movement with limited travel

pneumatic cylinder

hydraulic hydraulic czylinder

Piezo gripper

electric electromotor

linear motor

translatory drive movement with unlimited travel rotary drive movement with limited rotary angle

swivel/rotary cylinder

swivel/rotary cylinder

rotary drive movement with unlimited rotary angle

air-pressure motor

hydromotor

stepping motor DC motor AC motor

Table 3.20 Various gripper drives for different types of energy sypply

Selecting a gripper drive in relation to kinematics determines how the operating elements move in terms of gripping radius and velocity. This also specifies the type of gripping force which can be applied to the workpiece, and together with the type of gripper fingers it finally determines the principle of gripping, e. g. form-fit or force-fit gripping.

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A pressure =

F

force surface

p =

F A

Example p

F = 2MN : piston . ∅ d = 400 mm ; p =

1 Pa 1 bar

p = ?

F N = N = = 2000000 159,1 bar 1591 π . (40cm)2 cm2 A 4 =1

N = 10-5 bar m2

N cm2 = 100000 Pa = 10

1 mbar = 100 Pa

Pneumatically driven grippers normally use a piston to convert the energy saved in compressed air into a translatory movement. The piston force is calculated as described. In modern pneumatically driven gripper systems even elliptic pistons are employed. This type of construction is ideal for exploiting the plane area determined by kinematics.

circular and elliptic piston surface

With the feed generated both finger holders are moved through the wedge drive as illustrated. Together with the gripping force producers usually recommend a workpiece weight which is valid for a specific friction coefficient and for a friction pair without form lock. Product specifications usually include the safety tolerance calculated for the respective weight of the workpiece. Practical experience shows that it is important to know how the force is distributed over the length of the finger stroke. In accordance with the kinematics used gripping force differs over the entire stroke. The gripping force diagrams in table 3.16 show that only the parallel jaw gripper with one wedge principle of function, for example, will achieve a constant distribution of force over the entire stroke.

129

PGN 100 - 1 Fa = 800N

PGN 100 - 2 PGN 100 - 1 / AS/IS PGN 100 - 2 / AS/IS

Mx= 100Nm

My= 70Nm

gripping force diagram gripping force in relation to the finger length L at 6 bar

Mz= 80Nm

PGN 100 - 1 Fa = 2000N

PGN 100 - 2 PGN 100 - 1 / AS/IS

gripping force in N

Mz= 45Nm

My= 45Nm

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 25 50 finger length L in mm

75

100

125

0

75

100

125

2500 2000 gripping force in N

Getting To Grips With Handling Tasks

Mx= 95Nm

gripping force diagram gripping force in relation to the finger length L at 6 bar

PGN 100 - 2 / AS/IS

1500 1000 500 0

25

50

finger length L in mm

3 Mx = 55Nm

My = 10Nm

Mz = 35 Nm

200

Fa = 1200N

gripping force (P) 6 bar and spring

1400 1200

DWG 100

1000 800 600 400 200 0

50 100 finger length L in mm

150

200

Figure 3.16 Different force distribution for various gripper types – maximum admissible forces and moments at the gripper fingers in addition to the gripping force.

The length of the gripper fingers influences the forces and moments occurring at the gripper kinematics. Therefore, gripping force is frequently specified in relation to the finger length in such a diagram to exclude overload or premature wear. The characteristic curve for each gripper type shown in the gripping force diagrams falls with increasing finger length. Most evident is the difference between swivel grippers and grippers based on the wedge principle of drive. The gently declining curve of the PGN gripper and the nearly identical PGN plus 100 reflects high load capacity and robust guides for long finger capability.

gripper with serrated guides for increased moment capacity

130

The curve of angular grippers must obviously drop as in the example of the DWG 100 by SCHUNK, falling from a gripping force of 1,400N at 50mm finger length to a gripping force of 500N at 200mm finger length. This drop in gripping force, however, is not only a matter of straining guides and bearings of the gripper kinematics. The moment of an angular gripper, which is induced through the extended lever arm of a finger into the kinematics, counteracts the force of drive so that the piston must counteract the latter. Opening and closing time of mechanical grippers In most applications cycle time or process time for performing a handling task are essential for the efficiency of an automated solution. Part of the entire process time is taken up by opening or closing the gripper. Opening and closing times depend on the length of stroke, on the type of drive, and on gripper kinematics. A gripper with gripping force maintenance (GFM) will have different opening and closing times as the spring force at opening must be overcome. When closing the gripper the spring will function as a support. As compared to other kinematics in table 3.21 the rack and pinion principle does have the shortest opening and closing times in relation to the stroke.

type of gripper

kinematics

drive

stroke

opening

closing

2-finger parallel

wedge principle without GFM

pneumatisch

4 mm

0.04 s

0.4 s

2-finger parallel

wedge principle with GFM

pneumatisch

4 mm

0.05 s

0.03 s

3-finger concentric

wedge principle

pneumatisch

4 mm

0.03 s

0.03 s

2-finger parallel

lever principle

pneumatisch

4.5 mm

0.05 s

0.05 s

2-finger parallel

rack and pinion

pneumatisch

15 mm

0.045 s

0.06 s

Table 3.21 Opening and closing times of various gripper constructions (GFM= gripping force maintenance)

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a

a

c

Figure 3.17 Axial grip

c

Figure 3.18 Radial grip

Their housing determines the application options of mechanical grippers because interfering edges must always be taken into account. Collisions with the gripper in open position occur every time the stroke has not been considered for or adapted to the size of the housing. Possible pick situations of different workpieces must be taken into consideration to avoid collisions. Long-stroke grippers cover a broad range of workpiece dimensions and can be used more flexibly for different workpiece sizes. The decision for a particular gripper not only depends on workpiece- and gripper-related characteristics but also to a great extent on the ambient conditions of the pick operation.

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Scenario 1: Workpieces Without Order Status Picking up workpieces which are presented to the gripper without any order status is referred to as “grip at random”. This expression already suggests that it is hardly possible to calculate all eventual collisions with the gripper jaws in advance. According to position and orientation of the workpieces lying in a box at random, the gripper fingers are faced with most different interfering edges of the workpieces. Therefore, this gripping situation requires sensors and subsequent safe actuation of the handling device. There are exceptions to the rule, e. g. if workpieces are made of elastic material and thus can be simply pushed aside by the operating elements of the gripper. In an entirely unsorted situation hardly any automated system can cope. The “grip at random” has been repeatedly promoted and demonstrated at trade fairs but such gripping systems are hardly used in practice. Nevertheless, developing a sensor technology necessary for analyzing the workpiece to be gripped under such conditions is a major technical challenge. Using direct grip in such undefined situations a gripper cannot be expected to perform a reliable pick operation. Workpieces frequently have to be monitored again after the pick operation to make sure that they have been picked up safely. In addition to expensive sensor technology for workpiece analysis, the pick operation must also be monitored. So far the overall expense prevents an efficient use of grippers for this kind of application. For workpieces which undergo further processing it does not make sense to reduce their order status by placing them into a box at random. A gripper placing workpieces into a box is generally used for reject goods as this undefined situation does not permit safe product placing. The workpiece falls from an undefined height onto other workpieces in the box which may cause workpiece damage.

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Special Challenges For Grippers In Motion More and more machines and component functions of production systems are directly linked to each other. This interlinkage demands continuous materials flow which possibly should exclude buffers as the latter will frequently change a workpiece`s degree of orientation and require additional investment resources. The three scenarios for pick operations as described above often occur in case of interlinked machines overlapping with workpieces in motion. Pick operations for workpieces in motion can be distinguished as follows: 1.

Pick operation without relative movement from gripper to workpiece Vg ≠ Vw

2.

Pick operation with relative movement from gripper to workpiece Vg = Vw

Many handling systems already connect workpiece and gripper movement and convert workpiece movement into the respective gripper system of coordinates without any problem, i. e. synchronizing workpiece movement with robot movement. Problems occasionally arise when workpieces are picked in motion, e. g. from a steadily moving conveyor, which may lead to positioning errors at the place station. Figure 3.20 illustrates the problem of a two-finger parallel jaw gripper trying to pick workpieces from different positions on the conveyor. In the first picture of table 3.21 the workpiece moves with its contact surfaces, which are supposed to be touched by the jaws, in the same direction as the conveyor. The handling system positions the gripper above the workpiece and parallel to the movement direction of the conveyor and synchronizes it with the latter.

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&LEXIBLEWORKPIECEPREPARATIONFOR MANUFACTURINGCARBODIESWITHTHE HELPOFSYNCHRONIZEDROBOTMOVE MENTS 

direction of conveyor

divergence d

d

d

d

Figure 3.21 Workpiece divergence as a result of faulty synchronization during transport on conveyors

Synchronizing gripper and workpiece movement nearly equals the workpiece situation at rest. Therefore, workpieces cannot be misplaced during pick operations when the gripper closes with the gripper jaws reaching the workpiece at the same time. In case the gripper is not synchronized or positioned correctly in relation to the conveyor, a divergence between workpiece and gripper occurs. In a worst-case scenario this divergence may lead to a collision between gripper jaws and workpiece. If workpiece contact surfaces are aligned with the conveyor`s movement direction, it can be assumed for a two-finger parallel jaw gripper that workpiece positioning will not be influenced. The second picture of figure 3.21 shows a workpiece with its contact surfaces relevant for the pick operation moving vertically to the direction of the conveyor. Synchronizing and positioning errors may lead to faulty positioning of the workpiece within the gripper as illustrated. This error is critical with regard to the subsequent place operation. If the workpiece contact surfaces are situated diagonally in relation to the movement direction of the conveyor, velocity components along and diagonally to this direction are the consequence of the workpiece hitting the first gripper jaw. Thus the workpiece will not able to reach the correct position within the gripper. It is evident that accurate gripper positioning in relation to the workpiece is essential for successful pick operations.

141

Getting To Grips With Handling Tasks

a)

TCP

TCP

b)

3

90°

For applications requiring very high cycle times the workpiece is preferably picked up on the fly. This type of gripping is characterized by the effort to pick the workpiece up without letting the handling system move into a set position for the pick operation. The type of movement is generated by “overlapping” positions and is possible only if the workpiece has degrees of freedom along the movement direction. As illustrated in figure 3.22, proper gripping strategies can be developed for picking workpieces up safely. By means of these strategies the workpiece can be well positioned within the gripper without having to resort to expensive sensor technology. In addition to using gripper movements to adjust workpieces for the pick operation, specially selected gripper jaws can help centering the workpiece. This type of pick operation requires the workpiece to be positioned at a stop ring which supports positioning with the relative movement. The gripper jaws can be used as stop rings as well.

c)

sliding grip a) external sliding grip b) internal sliding grip c) centering grip

TCP = tool center point

Figure 3.22 Gripping strategies

142

Gripping Accuracy Control As detailed above precise presentation of the workpiece and accurate gripping during pick operations are essential for reliable place operations. Any errors in a pick operation can only be compensated by appropriate gripper or handling system sensors at a later stage. With smaller tolerances picking errors can be compensated by feed rails. Three reasons for faulty positioning of the workpiece are distinguished:

1.

faulty positioning of the workpiece before pick operation

2.

faulty positioning of the gripper in relation to the workpiece (handling system error)

3.

workpiece slipping within the gripper at gripper jaw closing or caused by faulty contact surface combination or gripping forces

Faulty positioning of the workpiece might be due to faulty synchronization of the gripper in relation to workpiece movement on a conveyor or workpiece support as described above. Other reasons could be faulty clamping devices or hazardous materials between clamping device and workpiece. In any case it is important to pay attention to the degrees of freedom the workpiece has while being gripped, i .e. if the workpiece is still in the preparatory position when the gripper jaws close or if it is able to move within certain degrees of freedom. If the workpiece cannot be adjusted, faulty positioning of workpieces may cause premature wear or damage of gripper or handling system in the long run. The same applies to faulty positioning of the gripper in relation to the workpiece. Integrating a mechanical collision and overload protection unit between gripper and handling system is one way to avoid strain or damage (see Chapter 4). This protection measure can be applied in case of workpiece tolerances leading to bracings.

143

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Getting To Grips With Handling Tasks

Workpieces stored

3

within a stack gripper

Pick operation of stack gripper

150

In addition to placing them in stacks the workpieces can be placed in rows if the gripper is first turned into a horizontal position by a rotary unit or by the kinematics. Although this principle of stack gripping cannot be compared to the performance of a parallel gripper it does perform much better than a regular single gripper. The advantages of performance have been identified for parallel kinematics, also called delta kinematics, in tables 3.22 to 3.26.

A higher workpiece weight is calculated for a multiple gripper because the number of workpieces stacked within the gripper increase the overall weight (table 3.22). Compared to a regular single gripper a stack gripper can be expected to improve performance by nearly 20 percent if four workpieces are stored within the gripper (table 3.23). The same stack gripper with a storing capacity of eight workpieces will increase performance by about 30 percent (table 3.24). If the entire stack is placed at once performance can even be raised by 75 percent if the stack gripper holds four workpieces (table 3.25). Pick- and place performance can be more than doubled by about 116 percent if the stack gripper can store eight workpieces and place them at the same time (table 3.26).

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Getting To Grips With Handling Tasks

3.5 Safe Gripping Losing our grip on a coffee-cup or accidentally letting a jar of mixed pickles slip from our hands in the supermarket does not do great harm. Losing the grip on workpieces during handling, however, may lead to major financial damage. For example, a workpiece accidentally lost in a processing machine may cause serious mechanical defect after re-start. Just imagine a workpiece within the gripper of a robot rotating with an action radius of three feet at full speed turning into a kind of projectile, even more dangerous at a robot payload up to 1,100 pounds. High-grade workpieces require maximum protection against loss or damage, too.

3

Risk of workpiece loss or damage is evaluated with the help of the Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) which has become part and parcel of a methodical handling task approach. Risk evaluation is a future-oriented method for analyzing potential hazards and the probability of such hazards. Beyond mere damage repair this method is a significant step towards far-sighted and safe gripper design and construction.

systematically avoid potential errors

continuous improvements

consequently avoid recurrent errors

permanently eliminate detected errors

avoid errors

past

future

problem analysis Grafik 3.25 Evaluating risks and eliminating defects

152

risk analysis

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The following symbols are important for calculations: Relevant symbols and their meaning

a

acceleration

aR radial acceleration overall rotary specs at tangential acceleration

k

correction factor

I,L lengths of links M moment m mass

aNA emergency stop acceleration

p

az central acceleration

PO over-pressure

normal pressure

A plane

PU under-pressure

B magnetic induction

r

radius

D diameter

s

distance

E elasticity module

S security factor

F

t

time

FC Coriolis force

v

velocity, translation

FG gripping force

α jaw opening angle

FH force to lift

β

force

auxiliary angle

FNA emergency stop force

ϕ friction angle

FS force to fall

ς

FR resulting force

μ rotary angle

FV force to displace

μ friction value

FZ centrifugal force

ω permeability ω⋅ angle velocity, rotary velocity

G weight g

opening angle

acceleration of the earth

Table 4.3 Relevant symbols and their meaning

Effects of The Forces of Inertia The forces of inertia result from acceleration of the workpiece`s mass. F= ma F= force [N], m = mass of the workpiece [kg], a = acceleration [m/s2]

These forces must overlap the forces which result from the acceleration of the earth, in order to calculate the force required for force-fit gripping. Profound knowledge of the movements performed by the gripper permits a competent decision on the gripper construction. The following overview includes the necessary steps for analyzing workpiece kinetics and calculating the corresponding gripping force. 173

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Figure 4.8 Principle of function: Compensation unit removing a bolt from its faulty position

The AGE compensation unit enables passive compensation of position errors along the x- and y-axes up to ±4mm depending on the size of the component. Faulty angle positioning can be compensated up to 16°. The compensation unit can be pneumatically locked to keep it stable during robot movement errors. It is possible to lock the center position or any other position. Faulty positions caused by robot teaching, for example, can be compensated and “saved”. This reduces the force which acts on the robot and gripper during pick operations. Magnetic sensors can be fitted to tongues to make sure that the compensation unit has been locked.

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If the compensation unit is directly fitted to a robot flange it is easier to integrate the component. ISO 9409 specifies drilling for flanging components which makes the flange adapter plate redundant. This reduces weight and cost.

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This sensor can measure forces up to 300N and torques up to 15Nm taking into consideration the directions of force and torque. Workpiece displacements which the sensor tolerates are maximum ±1.4mm for the directions x, y, z, and maximum ±1.4° for the rotary directions α, b, γ. The data measured by the sensor can be exported by CAN, DeviceNET as well as by RS232 or RS485. The data are updated per millisecond in each case.

Figure 4.9 FTC principle of function

The sensor comes with a PC compatible test software for checking all functions and putting it into operation. All sensor functions can be triggered by a simple parameter input. No extra drivers are required and the test software is compatible with any software. spring packs

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Another type of FT (Force Torque) sensor is based on a tactile measuring procedure. As illustrated, the forces and torques are measured with so-called DMS. The tool is fitted to the inner ring of the sensor. The tool (or gripper) force is transmitted by three crossbars onto the fixture ring of the robot.

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4.2 Realization of Kinetic Processes Workpiece movement is expressed by Newton`s kinetic equation. A movement in space is basically defined by its velocity, acceleration, and direction. In automation technology, movements are realized in different ways. All basic options are listed in a structured overview in the VDI Guideline 2860:

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Kinetic path with acceleration and deceleration in different colors

Kinetic device

Kinetic device with set main function

Kinetic device with variable main function

Manually controlled kinetic automats

Program-controlled kinetic automats

Programmed kinetic automats

Freely programmable kinetic automats (axes/industrial robots)

Industrial robots without active program control

Industrial robots with active program selection

Industrial robots with active program adaption

Figure 4.12 Kinetic device options (VDI 2860)

Generally speaking, a kinetic device with a set main function is a low-cost option for changing workpiece position or orientation, such as pneumatic cylinders and mini slides for workpiece positioning. Kinetic devices with variable main function include both manually controlled and program-controlled kinetic automats.

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Simple Rotation First we take a look at kinetic devices with a set main function, i. e. components performing the most simple translatory or rotary movement in order to reach an end position. The so-called rotary or swivel units with their rotary movements are used

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as components for multiple grippers to reduce cycle time and

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as a kinetic device for workpiece orientation

Swivel unit

Cycle time reduction is achieved by attaching several grippers to the swivel unit. These swivel head grippers or revolver grippers take a finished workpiece out of a processing maching and swivel another gripper with an unprocessed workpiece into the pick position. Auxiliary process time for feeding the processing machine is reduced to a minimum as the swivel movement can be performed without any or with minimum effort by the handling device. By using the swivel unit for pick operations, the handling device is able to avoid movements that would pick up an unprocessed workpiece.

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Special rotary distributors with 6 pneumatic and 12 electric bushings with gripper change system and torque reactor strut

Special rotary distributor at 1,500A

Pneumatic transmission is problematic for applications which do not permit valve technology to be integrated into the gripper. As a result, all switch operations must be performed within the reach of the robot arm, or even further away and separately through the rotary distributor to the gripper. Transmitting information from the gripper to the robot becomes more and more important with the increasing number of sensors. Rotary distributors make this transmission possible without twisting any cables. An alternative for transmitting information from the gripper to the control of the kinetic device is wireless transmission technology. The latter can be expected to greatly reduce the amount of cabling in automation over the next few years.

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Figure 4.21 Components of a freely programmable axis

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Various mounting options for 5-axis robots – to ceiling, wall, and floor 211

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Figure 4.32 Core competence of a robot producer – harmonizing all components

Other important influencing factors include the type of programming and the influence of external sensors, which have to be taken into consideration when planning automated solutions. If the robot is required to perform processing tasks on a workpiece, high demands on the flow of movement and the precision of movement are made. As explained, it is essential to move according to the path along the workpiece with the respective orientation. Accurate repeatability is most important when approaching a point. The point needs to be reached as precisely as possible. Accuracy of positioning and accuracy of repeatability of a robot need to be distinguished. The latter is the result of a measuring series where the robot repeatedly moves from the same starting point to a measuring point. Compared to the accuracy of repeatability, the accuracy of positioning does not reach the same level of accuracy because the robot has to move from different starting points to a defined point in space.

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Figure 4.33 Deviations from the programmed set point when approaching from one direction (accuracy of repeatability)

The demands on the quality of a movement vary according to the moving task of the robot. In general high accuracy of repeatability can be assumed, which is sufficient for most applications. For specially dynamic tasks in the packaging industry, the accuracy of repeatability is not essential because tolerances for the placing position may amount to several millimeters.

Placing in trays (source: SIG Packsystems)

Robot path along a workpiece, generated from CAD data

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Robot producers offer simulation systems for a nearly realistic preview on the robot and its control in order to check the application option of different robot kinematics before the actual test.

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5.6 Heavy and Delicate Aluminum rolls with a 40cm diameter weigh an impressive 50kg. In our example, it was not possible to pick up the rolls from the outside because the workpieces had to be taken up from a pallet. Therefore, the rolls are picked up by a triple concentric gripper from the inside opening. The gripper fingers were designed to maintain the weight of the rolls by either force-fit or form-fit gripping. Thus the four-axis robot can pick and place the rolls from the pallet as well as from the cutting machine. In addition, increased air pressure is used to ensure the necessary gripping force. Two rolls are taken up in one stroke, the gripper needs to bring both gripping components into the right distance to each other. A spindle driven linear axis takes the gripper into position before it enters the opening of the rolls. At the same time, an optical sensor monitors the position of the workpiece. The robot service R2 GmbH in Rodgau, Germany, realized this system and built the gripper on the basis of SCHUNK components.

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