Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers

FOREIGNERS AT ROME C I T I Z E N S AND S T R A N G E R S

David Noy

Duckworth with

The Classical Press of Wales

First published in 2 0 0 0 by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 61 Frith Street, London W1V 5 T A Distributor in the United States o f America: T h e David Brown Book Co. PO B o x 5 1 1 , Oakville, C T 0 6 7 7 9 Tel: (860) 9 4 5 - 9 3 2 9 Fax: ( 8 6 0 ) 9 4 5 - 9 4 6 8 Originated and prepared for press at T h e Classical Press o f Wales 15 Rosehill T e r r a c e , Swansea SA1 6JN Tel: 0 1 7 9 2 4 5 8 3 9 7 Fax: 0 1 7 9 2 4 1 9 0 5 6 © 2000 All rights reserved. No part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the

prior

permission o f the publisher. ISBN 0 7156 29522 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Typeset by Ernest Buckley, Clunton, Shropshire Printed and bound in the UK by Antony Rowe Ltd., Chippenham, Wiltshire

T o the memory o f Jean Norris Midgley 1914-1996

CONTENTS Page Introduction

'

ix

S e c t i o n I. E v i d e n c e a n d a n c i e n t a t t i t u d e s 1. T h e e v i d e n c e a n d t h e p r o b l e m s i. L a t i n t e r m i n o l o g y

1 1

ii. T e m p o r a r y a n d p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e at R o m e

3

iii. S t a t u s

4

iv. T h e limitations o f t h e e v i d e n c e v. I n t e g r a t i o n a n d s e p a r a t i o n

4 10

2. T h e d e m o g r a p h i c a n d legal b a c k g r o u n d

15

i. T h e size of R o m e ' s w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n

15

ii. N a t u r a l d e m o g r a p h i c d e c r e a s e

18

iii. T h e military p o p u l a t i o n

19

iv. F l u c t u a t i o n s in i m m i g r a t i o n

22

v. C i t i z e n s h i p a m o n g f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e 3. Attitudes to f o r e i g n e r s

23 31

i. Positive s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e 3 1 ii. N e u t r a l s t a t e m e n t s

33

iii. N e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s

34

iv. F o r e i g n slaves

37

v. E x p u l s i o n s o f f o r e i g n e r s from R o m e

37

vi. E x p u l s i o n s o f specific g r o u p s

41

vii. E n c o u r a g e m e n t o f i m m i g r a t i o n

47

S e c t i o n I I . M o v i n g to R o m e 4 . W h o m o v e d to R o m e ?

53

i. P a t t e r n s o f m i g r a t i o n

53

ii. S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d o f m i g r a n t s

56

iii. W h e r e did i m m i g r a n t s c o m e f r o m ?

57

iv. T h e g e n d e r o f i m m i g r a n t s

60

v. T h e a g e s o f i m m i g r a n t s

63

vi. T h e i m m i g r a t i o n o f individuals a n d family g r o u p s

67

vii. L e g a l status o f i m m i g r a n t s

75

5. W h y did p e o p l e m o v e to R o m e ? i. E v i d e n c e

85 85

vii

ii. Push a n d pull factors iii. T y p e s o f motivation s u g g e s t e d by S e n e c a iv. E d u c a t i o n v. G o v e r n m e n t a n d politics vi. Provision o f g o o d s a n d services vii. F a m i l y a n d religion 6. T h e practicalities o f m o v i n g to R o m e i. H o w to g e t to R o m e ii. F i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s o f R o m e iii. W h e r e to g o w h e n you r e a c h e d R o m e iv. W h e r e to stay v. F i n d i n g w o r k vi. L o c a t i o n o f h o u s i n g S e c t i o n I I I . L i v i n g at R o m e 7. Aspects o f f o r e i g n e r s ' lives at R o m e i. G r o u p identity - a n d lack o f it ii.

Stallones

iii. C o n t a c t with t h e h o m e l a n d iv. H o m e s i c k n e s s v. L a n g u a g e vi. N a m e s vii. C u l t s viii. B u r i a l p r a c t i c e s 8. F o r e i g n g r o u p s at R o m e i. G a u l a n d H i s p a n i a ii. C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e iii. G r e e c e iv. Asia M i n o r v. S y r i a vi. E g y p t vii. N o r t h Africa viii. J e w s Conclusion A p p e n d i x : A list o f individual i m m i g r a n t s r e c o r d e d inscriptions Glossary Abbreviations Bibliography Index

viii

INTRODUCTION

Leaving behind Nicaea in Bithynia while I was still a youth, I went to the glorious city and the land o f the Ausonians. In hallowed Rome I taught accounts and measures. I, Basileus, obtained the tomb, the work o f my mind. I G U R 1176 In the second year o f the dictatorship o f C. Caesar, with M. Antonius as magister equitum [47 B C E ] , the site o f the tomb was bought from Q. Modius L.f. Qui. 24 feet wide, 24 feet deep. C. Numitorius C.l. Nicanor, by birth a Theban, eye doctor. Numitoria C.l. Philumina, by birth a Phrygian. C. Numitorius C.l. Stabilio, by birth a native slave. P. Opitreius C.l. Butas, by birth a Smyrnan. They built the foundation. In their tomb is buried: Numitoria C.l. Erotis, by birth a Carthaginian. Q. Numitorius C.l. Isio is buried there. AE (1972) 14 Papiria Rhome made this (monument) for herself while alive, and for Papiria Cladilla aged 19, and for P. Papirius Proculus aged 13(?), her children. Here the wretched(?) mother held two funerals, and she buried their bones with rites which are not just. For at Rome a falling roof-tile carried off Proculus. T h e deceased Cladilla lay on her funeral pyre at Sipontum. Your parental wishes did you harm. T h e cruel gods gave more good things so they could take more away. Also for P. Papirius Cladus her husband and for P. Papirius Celerio and Papiria Hispanilla her ex-slaves. C I L iii 2 0 8 3 (Salona) Flavia Valeria placed this inscription for her well-deserving daughter Flavia Viventia, who lived 18 years. She had her burial on 3 1 July. This girl came from the province o f Pannonia. She (lived) with her husband one year 8 months. In peace. I C U R 13155 s t

B e o f good cheer Serenus, child, untimely dead, aged 4 years 8 months 19 days. Fuscinus the emperor's provocator his father and T a o n his mother, Egyptians, made this (tomb), being left behind. IGUR 939 = ICUR 4032

IX

Introduction Sacred to the Di Manes. Aurelia Marcia, by birth a Thracian from the Promesian city, who lived 36 years 5 months 8 days. Aurelia Zenodora her sister and Aurelius Herodes her husband, beneficiarius o f the 10th praetorian cohort, made this tomb for the well-deserving woman. C I L vi 2734 T h e p e o p l e c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e s e e p i t a p h s a r e a few e x a m p l e s o f t h e c o u n t l e s s n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n e r s w h o m a d e t h e i r way to t h e city o f R o m e . M a l e a n d f e m a l e , slave a n d free, s o l d i e r a n d civilian, following t h e i r families o r b r i n g i n g t h e i r own m a r k e t a b l e skills - t h o u s a n d s o f n e w c o m e r s arrived in R o m e e a c h year. S o m e b e c a m e so well i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e city t h a t they left n o t r a c e o f t h e i r o r i g i n s . S o m e stayed at R o m e for t h e rest o f t h e i r lives but, like t h e p e o p l e a b o v e , left e p i t a p h s r e c o r d i n g w h e r e they h a d c o m e f r o m . S o m e did n o t die at R o m e b u t r e t u r n e d h o m e first. T h e p u r p o s e o f this b o o k is to e x p l o r e t h e reality b e h i n d t h e e p i t a p h s : how a n d why f o r e i g n e r s c a m e to R o m e , h o w they w e r e t r e a t e d w h e n they w e r e t h e r e , how they a d a p t e d to life in t h e city, how far they w e r e able to o r wished to retain a distinct 'foreign' identity. R o m a n social h i s t o r i a n s a g r e e that a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a ­ tion o f R o m e c o n s i s t e d o f i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s . M o s t immigration happened

i n v o l u n t a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e slave t r a d e ,

but

a substantial p a r t was o f a v o l u n t a r y n a t u r e , p r i m a r i l y for e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s . T h e fact t h a t R o m e m u s t h a v e d e p e n d e d o n i m m i g r a n t s for its p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f its h u g e size has b e e n widely a c k n o w l e d g e d (see, e.g., P l e k e t 1 9 9 3 , M o r l e y 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , m a n y i m p o r t a n t studies o f life in t h e city pay very little a t t e n t i o n to t h e r o l e p l a y e d by f o r e i g n e r s , e.g. t h r e e p a g e s in S t a m b a u g h ( 1 9 8 8 , 9 3 - 5 ) ; n o specific discussion at all in R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e only e x i s t i n g l e n g t h y w o r k o n t h e s u b j e c t is a l o n g b u t n o w s o m e w h a t o u t d a t e d article: L a P i a n a ( 1 9 2 7 ) ; this was n o t i n t e n d e d to b e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e survey, s i n c e it was a i m e d specifically at e x p l a i n i n g t h e s p r e a d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d m u c h o f it has n o w b e e n s u p e r s e d e d by r e c e n t e p i g r a p h i c discoveries. Cecilia Ricci has s u r v e y e d t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for i m m i g r a t i o n from s o m e o f t h e p r o v i n c e s very t h o r o u g h l y in a series o f articles o n G a u l ( 1 9 9 2 a ) , S p a i n ( 1 9 9 2 b ) , E g y p t ( 1 9 9 3 a ) , t h e B a l k a n s ( 1 9 9 3 b ) , G e r m a n y ( 1 9 9 3 c ) , a n d Africa ( 1 9 9 4 b ) . My d e b t to t h e s e in w h a t follows will b e o b v i o u s . T h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for C h r i s t i a n i m m i g r a t i o n is s u m m a r i z e d by A v r a m e a ( 1 9 9 5 ) . My i n t e r e s t in t h e t o p i c a r o s e from s t u d y i n g t h e J e w s o f R o m e , p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d b e g i n n i n g to w o n d e r h o w far t h e i r - e x p e r i e n c e s a n d self-identity w e r e c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e o f o t h e r p e o p l e w h o w e r e in s o m e s e n s e ' f o r e i g n ' , as visitors o r i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s , o r as t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f i m m i g r a n t s w h o r e t a i n e d s o m e x

Introduction link to t h e i r a n c e s t r a l t r a d i t i o n s . I g r a d u a l l y realized t h a t t h e r e was a vast a m o u n t o f e v i d e n c e available, frustrating in what it d o e s n o t say b u t still potentially r e w a r d i n g in what it c a n reveal. T h e b u l k of t h e m a t e r i a l is e p i g r a p h i c : • i n s c r i p t i o n s (mainly e p i t a p h s ) w h e r e s o m e o n e ' s p l a c e o f o r i g i n is explicitly stated, o r a n ' e t h n i c ' label is used; t h e s e m a y p r o v i d e infor­ mation about both foreigners themselves and their descendants. • i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k ( a n d o t h e r n o n - L a t i n l a n g u a g e s ) ; n o t n e c e s ­ sarily c o n n e c t e d to f o r e i g n e r s , b u t likely to b e so. • i n s c r i p t i o n s which use f o r m u l a e o r n a m e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f places other than R o m e . • e p i t a p h s from b u r i a l a r e a s u s e d by i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d ­ ants, e.g. t h e Jewish c a t a c o m b s . • e p i t a p h s from t h e p r o v i n c e s r e c o r d i n g t h a t s o m e o n e d i e d at R o m e . • i n s c r i p t i o n s r e c o r d i n g t h e cults o r o t h e r institutions o f f o r e i g n e r s at Rome. T h e r e is also m u c h literary e v i d e n c e , from p a g a n , C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h writers: • complaints about the prevalence o f immigration and

'un-Roman-

ness' in t h e city; t h e s e a r e largely o f a r h e t o r i c a l n a t u r e a n d limited historical value, b u t m a y c o n t a i n s o m e useful

have

information,

particularly o n m o t i v a t i o n . • r e f e r e n c e s to t h e p e r i o d i c e x p u l s i o n s o f f o r e i g n e r s . • n e u t r a l o r positive r e f e r e n c e s to t h e p r e s e n c e o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e . • a n e c d o t e s a b o u t individual f o r e i g n e r s . • t h e w o r d s o f writers w h o w e r e t h e m s e l v e s i m m i g r a n t s to t h e city, s u c h as M a r t i a l , G a l e n a n d A u g u s t i n e . W h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e , I h a v e also m a d e use o f c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , d r a w i n g o n studies o f E u r o p e a n cities in t h e m e d i e v a l a n d

early

m o d e r n p e r i o d , a n d o f R i o d e J a n e i r o in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e only city w h o s e slave p o p u l a t i o n is likely to b e c o m m e n s u r a t e with R o m e ' s . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y helpful in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , a n d in a t t e m p t i n g to estimate the n u m b e r s involved at R o m e . T h e definition o f a ' f o r e i g n e r ' for t h e p u r p o s e s o f this w o r k is p r i m a r i l y : s o m e o n e w h o was b o r n o u t s i d e Italy a n d m o v e d to R o m e , b u t c o n t i n u e d to h a v e a ' h o m e ' (in t h e i r own t h i n k i n g o r in o t h e r p e o p l e ' s ) e l s e w h e r e . M o s t f o r e i g n e r s w e r e i m m i g r a n t s , b u t since s o m e w e r e at R o m e for t e m p o r a r y r e a s o n s r a t h e r t h a n with t h e i n t e n t i o n o f settling p e r m a n e n t l y (see p. 3 ) , it is t h e i r status as ' f o r e i g n ' r a t h e r t h a n as ' i m m i g r a n t ' w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e i r i n c l u s i o n h e r e , given impracticability o f separating temporary m i g r a n t s in m o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e . XI

visitors f r o m

the

permanent

Introduction P e o p l e w h o w e r e b o r n at R o m e c o u l d still b e c o n s i d e r e d ' f o r e i g n ' , by t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s , i f t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to a n o t h e r p l a c e ( t h e b i r t h ­ place o f their ancestors, or the centre o f their religion) seemed greater t h a n t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to t h e city o f R o m e . T h e s e p e o p l e will b e discussed in S e c t i o n 3 , w h e r e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f f o r e i g n c o m m u n i t i e s at R o m e is i n v e s t i g a t e d , b u t they a r e n o t i n c l u d e d in S e c t i o n 2 , w h i c h focuses o n those who actually moved to R o m e d u r i n g their own lifetimes. T h e definition which I a m u s i n g d o e s n o t take i n t o a c c o u n t s o m e ­ o n e ' s a n c e s t r y . A p e r s o n d e f i n e d as S p a n i s h h e r e c o u l d equally well b e d e s c e n d e d from, say, native S p a n i a r d s o r from R o m a n colonists w h o h a d c o m e to S p a i n two o r t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s e a r l i e r . E x c e p t in a very few cases, it is i m p o s s i b l e to m a k e this distinction o n t h e basis o f t h e available e v i d e n c e : a p a r t from ' f o r e i g n ' e m p e r o r s ( a n d n o t always e v e n for t h e m ) t h e r e is simply n o r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e u l t i m a t e a n c e s t r y o f a n y individual. T h i s is u n f o r t u n a t e , b e c a u s e p e o p l e w h o w e r e ( o r b e l i e v e d t h e m s e l v e s to b e ) d e s c e n d e d e x c l u s i v e l y f r o m R o m a n colonists w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e h a d a very different c o n c e p t o f ' h o m e ' f r o m p e o p l e d e s c e n d e d from S p a n i s h tribes. T h e w o r k c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e p r e s e n c e at R o m e o f f o r e i g n e r s w h o w e r e free, civilian, a n d b e l o w e q u e s t r i a n r a n k . R e f e r e n c e will, h o w ­ e v e r , b e m a d e to f o r e i g n slaves, soldiers a n d t h e a r i s t o c r a c y w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e . Italians a r e e x c l u d e d from t h e definition o f f o r e i g n e r u s e d h e r e . T h i s is p r i m a r i l y a d e c i s i o n b a s e d o n practicalities, since t h e e v i d e n c e for p r o v i n c i a l a n d o v e r s e a s m i g r a t i o n is very substantial by itself, a n d I h o p e to look at i m m i g r a n t s from within Italy in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d s e p a r a t e l y ; d i s p l a c e d I t a l i a n p e a s a n t s in t h e late R e p u b l i c h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n well s t u d i e d . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a t e a c h e r o f r h e t o r i c from T a r e n t u m a n d o n e from D y r r a c h i u m m a y h a v e b e e n m i n i m a l , b u t o n t h e w h o l e it s e e m s likely t h a t t h e situation o f n o n - I t a l i a n s at R o m e would h a v e differed substantially f r o m t h a t o f I t a l i a n s . A p a r t from t h e q u e s t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e a n d p r o x i m i t y , p e o p l e from N u m i d i a o r P a n n o n i a may h a v e b e e n m o r e likely to feel solidarity with e a c h o t h e r , o r at least a specific identity t h r o u g h s h a r e d g e o ­ g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n s , t h a n p e o p l e from Italy w e r e (even i f s o m e ' e t h n i c ' l a b e l s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y i m p o s e d by t h e R o m a n s , as s u g g e s t e d

by

M a t t h e w s 1 9 9 9 , 1 6 ) . Life at R o m e w o u l d h a v e b e e n different

for

s o m e o n e w h o s e h o m e was twenty days' sea v o y a g e away, as c o m p a r e d to s o m e o n e w h o c o u l d walk to t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e in a day, a n d

the

b o u n d a r y o f Italy s e e m s t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a b l e c u t - o f f p o i n t to s e p a r a t e short-range

and

l o n g - r a n g e m i g r a n t s . T h e u s e o f provincial^

as

o p p o s e d to Italian shows t h a t t h e R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s s o m e t i m e s m a d e t h e distinction. xn

Introduction F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this work, ' R o m e ' i n c l u d e s O s t i a a n d P o r t u s , since r e s i d e n c e in t h e p o r t s was often a p r e l i m i n a r y to m o v i n g to ( o r leaving) R o m e , a n d since a n u m b e r of individuals k n o w n from i n s c r i p ­ tions, such as M. A n t o n i u s G a i o n a s (see p. 2 4 0 ) , w e r e active b o t h at R o m e a n d at t h e p o r t s . T h e b o o k is divided i n t o t h r e e sections. S e c t i o n 1 looks at t h e b a c k g r o u n d : t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e , t h e d e m o g r a p h y of t h e city o f R o m e , a n d t h e attitudes to f o r e i g n e r s t a k e n by writers a n d by t h e state. S e c t i o n 2 deals with t h e individuals w h o c a m e to R o m e , u s i n g t h e vast n u m b e r o f f r a g m e n t a r y case-histories from i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d l i t e r a t u r e to try to build up a p i c t u r e o f what sort o f p e o p l e c a m e to R o m e , why they c a m e a n d how t h e y dealt with t h e practicalities o f m i g r a t i n g to t h e city. S e c t i o n 3 e x a m i n e s f o r e i g n e r s living at R o m e : t h e ways in which they u s e d (or did n o t u s e ) tools such as l a n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n a n d n a m e s to p r e s e r v e a s e p a r a t e identity. T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f this section consists o f a r e g i o n - b y - r e g i o n s u r v e y of f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e , s u m m a r i z i n g t h e n a t u r e o f m i g r a t i o n from e a c h r e g i o n a n d t h e different ways in which different g r o u p s r e a c t e d to b e i n g at R o m e . T h e A p p e n d i x has a c o m ­ p l e t e list o f all t h e e p i g r a p h i c f o r e i g n e r s ( a c c o r d i n g to t h e definition given at p. 6 ) used in t h e study: while it will n o d o u b t b e possible to point out omissions, and there may be disagreement about

some

i n c l u s i o n s , t h e total n u m b e r o f individuals ( 1 , 2 8 4 ) is l a r g e e n o u g h for t h e s e to b e unlikely to affect t h e c o n c l u s i o n s which I h a v e d r a w n (mainly in c h . 4 ) from this b o d y o f e v i d e n c e . Parts o f t h e b o o k h a v e b e e n u s e d as s e m i n a r p a p e r s , at L a m p e t e r a n d at t h e c o n f e r e n c e o n Race,

Religion

and Culture

in Late Antiquity

at

S w a n s e a . I a m grateful to t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s for t h e i r n u m e r o u s c o m ­ m e n t s , a n d to c o l l e a g u e s at L a m p e t e r for p r o v i d i n g f r e q u e n t advice a n d h e l p . T h e last stage o f t h e w o r k was a l m o s t c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g a t e r m ' s study leave in e a r l y 1 9 9 9 . I a m also very m u c h i n d e b t e d to t h e p e o p l e w h o h a v e r e a d t h r o u g h p a r t o r all o f t h e draft w o r k a n d m a d e m a n y s u g g e s t i o n s for its i m p r o v e m e n t : D a n i e l l e d e L a b o r i e , S t u a r t d e Laborie, Andrew Erskine, Val Hope, G r e g Horsley, Stephen Mitchell, Neville M o r l e y , M a r g a r e t W i l l i a m s , a n d two a n o n y m o u s r e a d e r s o f a n early v e r s i o n ; also to A n t o n Powell for t a k i n g o n t h e b o o k for t h e Classical Press o f W a l e s a n d for giving m u c h helpful advice. Additional thanks to Susan S o r e k for suggesting the title ('citizens a n d s t r a n g e r s ' c o m e s from a J e w i s h e p i t a p h from E g y p t , J I G R E 3 6 ) , a n d to t h e m e m b e r s of t h e Ipswich T o w n M a i l i n g List for p r o v i d i n g interruptions.

Xlll

frequent

Chapter 1

T H E EVIDENCE AND T H E PROBLEMS

T h i s c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s to d e f i n e t h e f o r e i g n e r s w h o a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e b o o k , a n d to c o n s i d e r h o w far t h e R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s

had

a s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r y o f ' f o r e i g n e r s ' . I t investigates t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e a n d t h e p r o b l e m s which it p r e s e n t s , t h e socio-legal status of f o r e i g n e r s in t h e city, a n d t h e n e a r invisibility o f t h o s e w h o w a n t e d to i n t e g r a t e fully into R o m a n society - issues which a r e essential to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d later in t h e b o o k .

i. Latin terminology T h e p e o p l e w h o a r e s t u d i e d h e r e w e r e n e v e r neatly c a t e g o r i z e d by t h e R o m a n s . L a t i n d o e s n o t h a v e a t e r m to m a t c h t h e full r a n g e o f t h e E n g l i s h ' f o r e i g n e r ' . Peregrinus,

d e f i n e d by Lewis & S h o r t as 'a for­

e i g n e r , s t r a n g e r ' was p r i m a r i l y a legal t e r m for s o m e o n e w h o was free 1

b u t n o t a R o m a n citizen. It was s o m e t i m e s u s e d in c o n j u n c t i o n with advena,

a more general term meaning 'newcomer' or

A peregrinus/peregrina

'stranger'.

2

m i g h t e v e n c o m e from a family which h a d lived

in R o m e for g e n e r a t i o n s , s p e a k only L a t i n , a n d h a v e n o k n o w n kin o u t s i d e R o m e , b u t t h e lack o f R o m a n citizenship was t h e c r u c i a l fea­ t u r e o f his o r h e r status. C o n v e r s e l y , a civis Romanus/Romana

might

k n o w n o L a t i n , n e v e r visit R o m e a n d h a v e n o d e a l i n g s with a n y o n e w h o did, b u t was d e f i n e d by a status which was i n h e r i t e d ( o r b o u g h t , o r a c q u i r e d by m a n u m i s s i o n ) . H o w e v e r , w h e n R o m a n citizenship b e ­ c a m e a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l a m o n g t h e free p o p u l a t i o n after 2 1 2 , t h e m e a n ­ i n g o f peregrinus

c h a n g e d , a n d in t h e fourth c e n t u r y it was t h e label

u s e d for t h e ' f o r e i g n e r s ' w h o w e r e p e r i o d i c a l l y e x p e l l e d from R o m e . C h r i s t i a n i t y g a v e it t h e a d d i t i o n a l s e n s e o f ' p i l g r i m ' , so it a g a i n acquired connotations which were different

from

those o f the

English word. Provincialis

c o u l d b e u s e d for t h e i n h a b i t a n t o f a p r o v i n c e as o p p o s e d

to an i n h a b i t a n t o f Italy, as w h e n T a c i t u s was a s k e d w h e t h e r h e was an 3

Italian o r a p r o v i n c i a l , b u t it did n o t a p p l y to f o r e i g n e r s from o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e E m p i r e . Transmarinus

( ' o v e r s e a s ' ) was m a i n l y

a p p l i e d to i n a n i m a t e t h i n g s a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s , especially in t h e

1

Evidence

and ancient

altitudes

p h r a s e ' o v e r s e a s p r o v i n c e s ' ; it is only very occasionally u s e d for p e o ­ pl e , a l t h o u g h a c h a r a c t e r in Plautus i n t r o d u c e s himself: ' I a m a visitor from o v e r s e a s ' .

4

Alienigenus/alienigena

is a m o r e inclusive t e r m for s o m e o n e

'born

e l s e w h e r e ' , b u t was used frequently by only a few writers. C i c e r o a n d Livy r e g u l a r l y gave it n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s , associating it with a n d barbarus,

a n d o p p o s i n g it to positive d e s c r i p t i o n s such as

( s o m e o n e c o n n e c t e d with h o m e ) a n d noster

externus domesticus

( ' o u r ' ) ; only V a l e r i u s 5

M a x i m u s s e e m s to h a v e u s e d it in a n e u t r a l s e n s e . A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s is d e s c r i b e d as hominem

Syrum el alienigenam

('a S y r i a n m a n a n d b o r n

e l s e w h e r e ' ) in an e x p r e s s i o n o f s u r p r i s e that s o m e o n e o f such a b a c k ­ ground should alienigenus

make a good emperor.

6

T h e V u l g a t e , which

f r e q u e n t l y , often associates it with empticius

c o n t e x t o f slaves. T a c i t u s refers to ex Italia

uses

('saleable') in t h e

aut provinciis

alienigenae

('those b o r n e l s e w h e r e from Italy o r t h e p r o v i n c e s ' ) , s h o w i n g that it 7

c o u l d a p p l y to a n y o n e b o r n o u t s i d e a specific p l a c e . T h u s it d o e s n o t e x a c t l y m a t c h t h e r a n g e o f ' f o r e i g n ' ; its s e m a n t i c force was p e r h a p s c l o s e r to ' a l i e n ' . Externus

has t h e basic m e a n i n g o f ' f o r e i g n ' o r ' e x t e r n a l ' . It is a p p l i e d

to t h i n g s (particularly wars) m o r e often t h a n p e o p l e . W h e n a p p l i e d to p e o p l e , it m o s t often g o e s with ' e n e m y ' a s s o c i a t e d with alienigena,

advena

8

9

o r ' k i n g s ' . I t is s o m e t i m e s 10

o r barbarus.

b e u s e d as t h e e q u i v a l e n t of peregrinus

V e r y occasionally it c a n 11

or the exact opposite o f

civis.

A c c o r d i n g to C i c e r o , it is o n e o f t h e g o o d t h i n g s a b o u t R o m e that homines

externos

r e c e i v e hospitality in t h e h o u s e s o f g r e a t m e n .

E l d e r Pliny c o m p l a i n s a b o u t t h e lurba externa

1 2

The

o f foreign slaves which

fills t h e h o u s e s o f his day, with a c c o m p a n y i n g social p r o b l e m s .

13

A c c o r d i n g to D a u g e ( 1 9 8 1 , 3 9 6 - 4 0 2 ) , t h e s e t e r m s w e r e a m o n g t h e m a n y for ' o t h e r ' which, a l t h o u g h

often p e j o r a t i v e , c o u l d in s o m e

c o n t e x t s b e n e u t r a l o r e v e n f a v o u r a b le ; only barbarus

always h a d n e g a ­

tive c o n n o t a t i o n s . Y e t all t h e w o r d s t e n d to h a v e d e r o g a t o r y i m p l i c a ­ tions m o r e often t h a n not; only peregrinus,

provincialis

and

transmarinus

s e e m n o r m a l l y to h a v e b e e n value-free. A f o r e i g n e r implicitly h a d a ' h o m e ' s o m e w h e r e o t h e r t h a n at R o m e : a p l a c e o f b i r t h , o r o f religious o r c u l t u r a l loyalty. T h e r e is insufficient e v i d e n c e to discuss what ' h o m e ' actually m e a n t to f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e , b u t individual cases s u c h as M a r tia l a n d A u g u s t i n e show that it c o u l d r e t a i n g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . R a p p o r t a n d D a w s o n ( 1 9 9 8 , 6 - 1 2 ) discuss s o m e of t h e ways in which m o d e r n

migrants conceptualize home.

T h e y s u g g e s t (p. 9 ) that ' t h e r e is also t h e p a r a d o x t h a t it is p e r h a p s only by way o f t r a n s i e n c e a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t that o n e a c h i e v e s an

2

The evidence

and the

problems

u l t i m a t e s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g . ' H o m e ' s g r e a t e s t significance c a n b e for p e o p l e w h o d o n o t live t h e r e .

ii. Temporary and permanent residence at Rome L a t i n is e v e n f u r t h e r r e m o v e d from h a v i n g a w o r d for ' i m m i g r a n t ' t h a n it is for h a v i n g a w o r d for ' f o r e i g n e r ' .

11

I n fact, t h e fullest discus­

sion by a n y R o m a n w r i t e r o f t h e r e a s o n s for p e o p l e m o v i n g to R o m e , by S e n e c a (see p. 9 0 ) , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y m i x e s r e a s o n s for t e m p o r a r y visits a n d p e r m a n e n t m i g r a t i o n , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e R o m a n s t h e m ­ selves did n o t c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e . S o m e p e o p l e c a m e to R o m e for a specific, t i m e - l i m i t e d p u r p o s e (e.g. legal p r o c e e d i n g s , e d u c a t i o n , military s e r v i c e , e m b a s s i e s ) . S o m e c a m e with t h e e x p e c t a ­ tion o f staying t h e r e for t h e rest o f t h e i r lives, w h e t h e r this was by t h e i r own c h o i c e (free m i g r a n t s c o m i n g to find w o r k ) o r n o t (slaves sold to residents o f R o m e ) . In

t h e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e , it is r a r e l y p o s s i b l e to

between temporary

and

permanent

differentiate

residents. Literary anecdotes

show t h a t s o m e o n e lived at R o m e at a p a r t i c u l a r stage o f h i s / h e r life, b u t d o n o t usually i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r this was i n t e n d e d to b e p e r m a ­ n e n t . E p i t a p h s r e c o r d f o r e i g n e r s w h o died at R o m e , b u t r a r e l y show w h e t h e r t h e d e c e a s e d h a d i n t e n d e d to die t h e r e . A m b a s s a d o r s w e r e n o r m a l l y t h e r e only for a limited p e r i o d , d u r i n g which a significant n u m b e r s e e m to h a v e d i e d . S o l d i e r s usually r e t u r n e d h o m e on dis­ c h a r g e , b u t s o m e stayed in R o m e ; t h e e p i t a p h s o f t h o s e w h o d i e d while s e r v i n g at R o m e d o n o t i n d i c a t e t h e i r u l t i m a t e i n t e n t i o n s . T e a c h e r s , c r a f t s p e o p l e a n d s h o p k e e p e r s may h a v e i n t e n d e d to live o u t t h e i r lives at R o m e , b u t s o m e m a y h a v e wished to e a r n e n o u g h m o n e y to b e able to afford to r e t u r n h o m e in t h e i r old a g e . S o m e p e o p l e m o v e d from o n e c a t e g o r y to t h e o t h e r : e.g. a s t u d e n t w h o d e c i d e d to r e m a i n at R o m e as a t e a c h e r , o r a s c u l p t o r w h o failed to find w o r k a n d r e t u r n e d h o m e . T h i s possibility is illustrated by s o m e literary s o u r c e s . C r a t e s o f Mallos, s e n t to R o m e as a n a m b a s s a d o r by K i n g Attalus in c. 1 6 9 B C , b r o k e his leg by falling i n t o t h e o p e n i n g o f a s e w e r o n t h e P a l a t i n e , a n d while c o n v a l e s c i n g , gave i n s t r u c t i o n in grammar;

1 5

h e t h u s c r e a t e d for h i m s e l f t h e e c o n o m i c possibility o f

b e c o m i n g a p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t . M a r t i a l in t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d A u g u s t i n e in t h e late f o u r t h b o t h , for very different r e a s o n s , r e t u r n e d h o m e after a p e r i o d o f living a n d w o r k i n g at R o m e (in A u g u s t i n e ' s c a s e , p a r t of a m o r e c o m p l e x m i g r a t i o n p r o c e s s ) , b u t i f t h e y h a d d i e d at R o m e , t h e i r e p i t a p h s w o u l d n o t h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t they w e r e n o t p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t s .

3

Evidence

and ancient

attitudes

It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s u n r e a l i s t i c to try to differentiate b e t w e e n t e m p o ­ r a r y a n d p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s (visitors a n d i m m i g r a n t s ) for m o s t o f this s t u d y .

16

T h e two g r o u p s c a n b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y in t h e discussion

o f t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n , a n d d i f f e r e n c e s a r e also likely to e m e r g e in o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r , b u t in t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , a n d in m u c h o f t h e literary m a t e r i a l , they a r e largely i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .

iii. Status F o r e i g n e r s at R o m e c a n b e d i v i d e d

into three broad socio-legal

categories: a) Slaves. T h e s e w e r e n e a r l y all r e s i d e n t at R o m e t h r o u g h n o c h o i c e o f t h e i r own. S o m e w e r e e v e n t u a l l y m a n u m i t t e d , after which they p r o b ­ ably t e n d e d to r e m a i n at R o m e ; t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e of ex-slaves r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r o r i g i n a l h o m e s . b) S o l d i e r s . T h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d a n d t h e various o t h e r military units f o r m e d a substantial p r o p o r t i o n o f R o m e ' s p o p u l a t i o n , a n d from t h e t i m e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s they w e r e virtually all r e c r u i t e d

outside

Italy. M o s t r e t u r n e d h o m e after d i s c h a r g e in t h e i r late 3 0 s o r 4 0 s , b u t s o m e r e m a i n e d at R o m e .

1 7

S o l d i e r s c o u l d b e a c c o m p a n i e d by, o r

j o i n e d by, civilian relatives. c) Civilians. Civilians o f all classes c a m e to R o m e , from s e n a t o r s to t h e u n s k i l l e d p o o r . L e g a l l y , b e f o r e t h e e x t e n s i o n o f citizenship in AD 2 1 2 , t h e y w e r e e i t h e r R o m a n citizens o r peregrini,

a n d t h e i r status c o u l d

h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e l e v a n c e to how they fared at R o m e .

Peregrini

m i g h t still b e citizens o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l cities, s o m e t h i n g which c o u l d b e c o m m e m o r a t e d o n t h e i r e p i t a p h s b u t was p r o b a b l y o f little practical value while they w e r e at R o m e . T h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s a r e clearly s e p a r a t e in t h e o r y , b u t in p r a c t i c e t h e r e w e r e p e r m e a b l e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e m . Slaves o n

manu­

mission a n d soldiers o n d i s c h a r g e c o u l d m a k e a c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n to stay at R o m e a n d effectively join t h e n u m b e r s o f t h e civilian f o r e i g n e r s . T h e r e a r e also i n d i c a t i o n s that p e o p l e s o m e t i m e s c h a n g e d status in ways w h i c h t h e law did not, in p r i n c i p l e , allow, p r i m a r i l y by u s i n g slavery as a r o u t e to a c q u i r e R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p t h r o u g h m a n u m i s s i o n . S o m e cases w h e r e this may have h a p p e n e d will b e discussed below (p. 2 5 ) .

iv. The limitations of the evidence A l o n g with t h e n u m e r o u s g e n e r a l c o m m e n t s o n i m m i g r a n t s in R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e a r e m a n y literary r e f e r e n c e s to individuals w h o c a m e to live at R o m e . T h e s e a r e usually in t h e c o n t e x t o f b r i e f b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , o r as t h e b a c k g r o u n d to a n e c d o t e s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e y g o

4

The evidence

and the

problems

b e y o n d t h e basic ("act o f m o v i n g to R o m e to say why s o m e o n e did it, o r to show that t h e i r m i g r a t i o n history was m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n simply m o v i n g from t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e to R o m e . O n e such c a s e is p r o v i d e d by Prisc(ill)a a n d Aquila, m e n t i o n e d in Acts a n d Paul's letters, w h o m o v e d from P o n t u s to R o m e to C o r i n t h to E p h e s u s a n d b a c k to R o m e (see p. 2 5 9 ) . T h e i r b u s i n e s s as t e n t - m a k e r s may e x p l a i n why they c a m e to R o m e , b u t this is n o w h e r e m a d e explicit. It is typical o f t h e literary e v i d e n c e for o n e a s p e c t o f s o m e o n e ' s life to b e m e n t i o n e d while m o s t o f t h e r e l e v a n t details a r e c o m p l e t e l y o m i t t e d . M o s t o f R o m e ' s l e a d i n g writers w e r e n o t natives o f t h e city, b u t they h a v e left few d i r e c t discussions o f t h e i r position a n d e x p e r i e n c e s . F r o n t o , w h o c a m e from Africa a n d a c h i e v e d g r e a t e m i n e n c e at R o m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, was a p p a r e n t l y r e f l e c t i n g o n his own e x p e r i ­ ences when he wrote:

18

...for there is nothing o f which my whole life through I have seen less at Rome than a man unfeignedly affectionate (^i^oaxopyot;). T h e reason why there is not even a word for this virtue in our language must, I imagine, be that in reality no one at Rome has any warm affection. B u t h e gives n o o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t c o m i n g to R o m e . T h e most d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s is by A u g u s t i n e , w h o c a m e to R o m e from Africa in s p r i n g (or l a t e r ) 3 8 3 .

1 9

He provides some information

a b o u t d e c i d i n g to m o v e , m a k i n g t h e j o u r n e y , b e i n g r e c e i v e d at R o m e by a M a n i c h a e a n c o n t a c t , b e i n g followed t h e r e two years l a t e r by his m o t h e r , a n d e v e n t u a l l y c h o o s i n g to leave for M i l a n . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e gives is i n v a l u a b l e , b u t h e was n o t i n t e r e s t e d in leaving a full a c c o u n t , a n d t h e r e a r e m a n y m i s s i n g details; m o s t n o t a b l y , w h e t h e r his c o n c u b i n e c a m e with h i m . Q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , it is t h e e v i d e n c e o f i n s c r i p t i o n s which is m o s t i m p o r ­ t a n t for t h e study o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e . A m o n g t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s , e p i t a p h s vastly o u t n u m b e r o t h e r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l , such as d e d i c a t i o n s to g o d s , h o n o r i f i c i n s c r i p t i o n s for i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e a n d r e c o r d s o f victories at t h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t an

inscription

m e n t i o n s a f o r e i g n e r d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n f o r e i g n e r s b e i n g clearly identified as such by t h e m s e l v e s o r t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t o r s . T h i s is 20

usually d o n e with a f o r m u l a such as natus/natione /ex/domo

followed by

t h e n a m e o f t h e b i r t h p l a c e , o r simply by t h e b i r t h p l a c e itself given in t h e ablative case, o r by t h e use o f an ' e t h n i c ' such as Pannonicus Graeca.

or

T h e e x a c t m e a n i n g o f such d e s i g n a t i o n s to t h e p e o p l e w h o

u s e d t h e m is n o t always c l e a r (see f u r t h e r discussion in c h . 8 ) : s o m e o n e w h o s e b i r t h p l a c e was New C a r t h a g e m i g h t b e d e s c e n d e d from Italian settlers, P u n i c settlers, S p a n i a r d s , o r a n y c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e .

5

Evidence

and ancient

attitudes

T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o m e o n e asAfricanus

m i g h t m e a n only t h a t h e c a m e

from t h e p r o v i n c e o f Africa, n o t t h a t h e felt m o r e 'African' t h a n ' R o m a n ' . P e o p l e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r own e t h n i c i t y c a n n o t b e dis­ c u s s e d p r o p e r l y , at least at this stage o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n s c r i p ­ tions, a l t h o u g h it is occasionally m a d e c l e a r , as in t h e e p i t a p h o f a w o m a n which r e a d s ' G r e e k by r a c e ("EXkr\v u.ev TO y£vo

W )

6 7

()8

0 9

/()

7 2

/ 3

29

Chapter 3

A T T I T U D E S T O FOREIGNERS T h i s c h a p t e r surveys t h e a t t i t u d e s to

foreigners

at R o m e

found

in

l i t e r a t u r e , v a r y i n g from t h e very positive to t h e very hostile a n d s o m e ­ t i m e s i n f l u e n c e d by p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t slaves. I t also c o n s i d e r s

the

n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s o v e r a p e r i o d o f five c e n t u r i e s to e x p e l s o m e o r all o f t h e f o r e i g n e r s from t h e city, a n d t h e ways in which t h e state o c c a ­ sionally e n c o u r a g e d

specific t a r g e t - g r o u p s

to c o m e to R o m e . T h i s

c o m p l e t e s t h e survey of t h e social, legal a n d d e m o g r a p h i c b a c k g r o u n d against which

the e x p e r i e n c e s o f individual

f o r e i g n e r s at

Rome

w e r e set.

i. Positive statements about the presence of foreigners at Rome The

p r e s e n c e o f a l a r g e a n d c o n s p i c u o u s n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n e r s at

R o m e (slave, freed a n d f r e e b o r n ) is s o m e t h i n g which is t a k e n

for

g r a n t e d by m a n y a n c i e n t writers w h o d e s c r i b e t h e city a n d its living c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s it vary c o n s i d e r a b l y . N o - o n e a c k n o w l e d g e s directly t h a t i m m i g r a t i o n was a d e m o g r a p h i c necessity for R o m e . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n c e p t o f R o m e as t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e w o r l d , a city to w h i c h p e o p l e f l o c k e d from

everywhere, could make

the

foreign p r e s e n c e into s o m e t h i n g positive. T h i s view is t a k e n by s o m e a n c i e n t writers, b u t n o t very m a n y . S u c h positive s t a t e m e n t s a r c n o t only r a r e b u t a r c all written by p e o p l e w h o w e r e n e i t h e r natives o f n o r p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e . 1

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t e n t h u s i a s t i c is A t h c n a e u s . H e d e s c r i b e s t h e city as the 'epitome o f the world'

(£7UTOUTIV Tfj

I b

7 7

7 8

7 9

lS

u>

1 7

127

Moving

lo Rome

1 8

Hopkins 1978, 39. Brunt 1980. Fleket 1993, 1 9 - 2 0 : in early modern Paris and Rome, 2 5 3 3 % o f the adult male population worked in the building trade. Kolb (1995, 4 8 5 ) estimates that there would have been 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 building workers in Rome in the 1st and early 2nd centuries AD. Brunt (1980, 93) suggests that people would go from Rome to work at Ostia during the summer; this work would presumably end with the sailing season. Kolb (1995, 4 8 6 ) estimates that 4,000 men would have been involved in transport between Ostia and Rome, and several thousand more would have worked at the quays and warehouses in Rome. Pleket 1993, 2 1 ; Lampe 1989, 3 8 . Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1 9 9 8 , 8 5 ; cf. Fischer, Martin and Straubhaar 1997, 59. Cf. Pleket 1993, 2 3 - 4 ; Purcell 1994, 6 6 3 . Nevertheless, the comment by Hopkins (1978, 13; cf. ibid. 4 9 , 105), that 'large numbers o f the displaced citizens migrated to the city o f Rome to take advantage o f the increased expenditure there' still stands. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 104. On the lure of the city in the modern world, cf. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 1 2 8 - 1 4 0 . b. Kidd. 49b (tr. H. Freedman); cf. p. 4 8 on R. 'Ulla's misinformation about the corn dole. Martial 3.14. Bjeren 1997, 2 4 3 . Cf. Moretti (1989, 9) on the possibility o f a similar situation at Rome. Cf. Doblhofer 1987, 2 5 3 - 4 . Sailer (1982, 1 7 9 - 8 1 ) notes the importance for comrnunicipes o f patronage by Africans who were already established in aristocratic circles at Rome. Greek-speaking teachers sometimes swapped languages. T h e rhetor L. Cestius Pius from Smyrna taught in Latin ( P I R C694). Hierius, a Syrian orator known to Augustine at Rome, taught first in Greek and then in Latin (Augustine, Conf. 4 . 1 4 . 2 1 ; PLRK i 431 (Hierius 5 ) ) . Balsdon (1979, 5 4 - 8 ) gives a lengthy list. Digest 5.1.18.1 Ulpian, 12.1.17 Ulpian, 4 7 . 1 0 . 5 . 5 Ulpian, 5 0 . 1 . 3 6 Modestinus. Josephus, Ant. 15.342. T h e text only refers to him as 'Pollio', and it is not completely certain that Asinius Pollio is meant. SHA, Sev. 1. Bardy 1948, 89; Barnard 1967, 1 2 - 1 3 . ICUR 23076. C I L iii 6 4 1 4 . C I L xiii 2 0 4 0 . Gorce 1925, 15; J e r o m e , Ep. 3.5. Sidonius, Ep. 9.14. C.Theo. 14.9.1; cf. J o n e s 1964, 707. See J o n e s 1964, 6 9 1 . Philostratus,/lp.7: 7.42. 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

2

3 3

3 4

3 d

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

128

Why did people 4 6

move to Rome?

I G U R 1186. Augustine, Conf. 6.8; PLRE i 8. Aulus Gellius 13.13.1; Robinson 1992, 142. Pliny, Ep. 1.10. Hopkins 1978, 79; B o n n e r 1977, 161. Philostratus, V.S. 5 8 0 . ° Philostratus, V.S. 5 8 9 - 9 0 ; the age is an exaggeration according to the Loeb introduction, xxxviii. Philostratus, V.S. 5 9 4 . Philostratus, V.S. 5 9 6 . Bonner 1977, 161. Philostratus, Ap.T. 4.42; B o n n e r 1977, 6 6 . ° Suetonius, Gramm. 7. Suetonius, Gramm. 11. ° Suetonius, Gramm. 10, 15. Lenaeus achieved fame by translating Mithridates' medical treatises into Latin. Bonner 1977, 6 0 ; see p. 2 3 5 . B o n n e r 1977, 154 and fig. 8. Iulius Hyginus (a freedman o f Augustus, originally from Alexandria), died poor despite being a well-known teacher, writing a commentary on Virgil, and being in charge of the Palatine Library: Suetonius, Gramm. 20. Strabo 14.1.48. SHA, Ant. 10. Strabo 14.5.4. Pliny, Ep. 2.3. IGUR 872. IGUR 320. I G U R 1176. Bardy 1948, 86. Philostratus, V.S. 557. Philostratus, V.S. 5 9 3 ; Loeb introduction, xxxviii-xxxix. AE (1947) 162. Augustine, Conf. 5.8. Strabo 13.1.54. Strabo 14 p. 6 7 5 . On the Palatine Library, see Horsfall 1993. Diodorus Siculus 1.4.2. Clark 1979, 6 8 . Chevallier 1988, 2 9 6 . PIR E74. PLRE i 6 0 3 - 4 ; in Rome in 3 5 8 according to Jerome, Chron., s.a. 3 5 8 (PL 2 7 . 6 8 7 - 8 ) ; Ausonius, Prof. 2 . 3 - 4 . P I R F59. Whittaker 1982, ix. Eunapius, V.S. 324 (tr. W.C. Wright). SHA, Marcus 2.3; Sailer 1982, 184. P I R A503. He was much travelled: he lectured at Antioch, Rome, Tarsus, and in Egypt (Philostratus, V.S. 2 7 1 ) . 4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

5 1

2

5:5

5 4

5 5

5 0

7

5 8

9

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 3

6 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

6 8

0 9

7 0

7 1

7 2

7 3

7 4

7 5

7 6

7 7

7 8

7 9

8 0

2

8 1

8 2

2

8 3

8 4

8 5

8 6

2

129

Moving

to Rome

8 7

PLRE i 6 6 0 (Palladius 12). Statius, Silv. 4.pr and 4 . 5 . IGUR 371. PI R A145. Bowersock 1969, 2 1 . Porphyry, V.Plot. 7. This is often the significance o f his use o f ambilio elsewhere, e.g. de Ira 1.21.3 'the ambitio o f a great mind is not content with yearly honours'; Cons, ad Marc. 2 3 . 2 : Marcia's son sought honores sine ambitione; de Brev.Vit. 6 . 1 : Livius Drusus' youthful interference in judicial affairs showed inmatura ambilio; ibid. 15.3: honores and monumenta are examples of what ambitio builds impermanently. Plutarch, Mor. 470G (tr. Talbert 1984, 6 7 ) . Patterson 1992a, 2 0 4 . Pliny, Ep. 6.19. Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 9 0 (tr. W.C. Wright). Sidonius, Ep. 1.6. Acts 27.42. Ignatius, Rom. 5. C I L vi 2 7 6 5 7 . It could also be translated 'as a boy once a Phrygian shepherd'. Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 9 2 ; PLRE i 7 3 1 . Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 9 3 (tr. W.C. Wright); PLRE i 303 (Eusebius 12). A tribe transferred to Pannonia by Diocletian. Ammianus 28.1.5. Ammianus 28.1.12 (tr. W. Hamilton). PIR D126. 108 P I R 2 j r g g Q[ Champlin (1980, 18) on successful advocates from Africa. Martial 3.38. i.e. the sort of lifestyle satirized by Lucian in On Salaried Posts (De Mercede). AE (1953) 2 0 0 , vv.1-6. PIR A943. La Piana 1927, 2 7 8 . PIR D169. There have been a number o f studies o f the topic, and no attempt will be made to give a complete list here; see Chevallier (1988). 1 was unable to consult Canali de Rossi (1997). Affortunati (1994) gives a full survey o f all the evidence for German embassies at Rome. In a particularly unlucky group, two o f the three men from Termessos in Pisidia died o f disease at Rome and were commemorated there ( I G U R 1204). Nicias o f Xanthus in Lycia died on his third embassy ( I G U R 815). e.g. C I L xii 1750 (a decurio o f Lyon). Affortunati 1994, 108. S I G 6 5 6 (tr. Erskine 1994, 4 7 - 8 ) . Digest 50.7.13.pr Scaeuola. Talbert 1984, 2 0 8 , 4 1 2 . Andre and Baslez 1993, 105; Richardson 1992, 4 3 0 . 8 8

8 9

9 0

2

9 1

9 2

9 3

9 4

9 3

9 6

9 7

9 8

9 9

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 0 2

1 0 3

1 0 4

1 0 5

1 0 6

1 0 7

2

1 0 9

1 1 0

1 1 1

1 1 2

2

1 1 3

1 1 4

2

1 1 5

1 1 6

1 1 7

1 1 8

1 , 9

3

1 2 0

1 2 1

1 2 2

130

Why did people 1 2 3

move to

Rome?

Digest 4.6.35 Paul, 4.8.32.9 Paul; 5.1.39.1 Papinian. Chevallier 1988, 2 0 6 . Me gives some statistics at p. 2 3 6 . Pausanias 7.9.4. Erskine 1994, 50. Suetonius, Aug. 2 1 , Tib. 16; Strabo 15.1.4, 15.1.73; Aurelius Victor, de Caes. 1.7; Augustus, R.G. 3 1 . Tacitus, Ann. 3.73. Suetonius, Clau.25. Friedlander ( 1 9 0 8 - 1 3 ) , vol. 3, 12-17, has a lengthy list o f ambassadors from outside the empire. Pliny, H.N. 6 . 8 4 - 9 1 . Dio 60.28.7. I G U R 567 = C I L vi 5207. The leg(atus) Bosp(h)or(anorum) commemo­ rated in C I L vi 2 9 6 9 4 seems more likely to be from the Crimean Bosporus than a Thracian as claimed by Ricci (1993b, no. T 4 ) . Suetonius, Nero 13; Tacitus, Ann. 16.24; Dio 6 3 . 1 - 2 ; Pliny, H.N. 3 0 . 1 6 - 1 7 . Josephus, B.J. 2 . 2 1 , 2.39; Ant. 17.219, 17.250. Penguin Gk.Anth., 179. Philostratus, V.S. 5 2 0 - 1 ; Bowcrsock 1 9 6 9 , 4 4 - 5 . Summarized in JRS 87 (1997), 2 1 1 . Suetonius, Tib. 52. Talbcrt 1984, 4 2 3 . ILS 3 8 9 6 ; Williams 1967, 4 7 5 . ILS 6 1 0 7 ; Williams 1967, 4 7 5 . • 42 Williams 1967, passim. I G U R 60. C I L v i 1401 (Bisica Lucana), 1684 (Chullu, AD 3 2 1 , honouring the magis­ trates who undertook the delegation at no expense to the city), 1685 (Thaenae, AD 3 2 1 ) , 1686 (Zama, AD 322, listing the people who apparently came to Rome), 1687 (Hadrumetum, 3 2 1 ) , 1688 (the Faustianenses, 3 2 1 ) . PLRE i 7 4 9 . Aulus Gcllius 6 . 1 4 . 8 - 1 0 ; Pliny, H.N. 7.112; Cicero, Rep. 3 . 8 - 9 . S I G 7 8 3 B ; Talbert 1984, 4 1 4 . Pliny, H.N. 8.135; Talbert 1984, 4 1 6 . Talbert 1984, 4 1 7 . C I L viii 2 2 7 3 7 , discussed by Sailer 1982, 70. Tacitus, Ann. 4.37, 4 3 , 5 5 . Philo, Leg., passim. Josephus, Ant. 15.403 ff. Josephus,/In/. 2 0 . 1 9 3 - 4 . Josephus, Vita 16; Lichtenberger 1996, 2 1 4 6 - 8 . Reynolds 1982, nos. 8, 9; Talbert 1984, 3 9 4 . Suetonius, Gramm. 2. Plutarch, Cato Mat. 2 2 . PIR C706. Philostratus, V.S. 6 0 0 - 1 . Bardy 1948, 9 0 , citing P.Oxy 4 1 2 , but the eds. follow the Suda that he was (|)iA.6ao8 Friedlander 1 9 0 8 - 1 3 , vol. 2, 322 (he thinks that native Italians were predominant in painting, however); Pliny, II.N. 36.38 (he also mentions someone from Tralles); I G U R 3 7 0 . Pliny H.N. 34.46. Martial 9.40. I G U R 1222. According to Ward-Perkins (1992, 102), Aphrodisian sculp­ tors enjoyed particular prestige. IGUR 251. I G U R 1425. C I L vi 18175. 26o Augustine, Civ.Dei 7.4; he is comparing the proliferation of workers with the proliferation o f pagan gods. e.g. Aurelius Agathias, a Syrian: I C U R 1860. Strabo 12.8.14 describes the export o f Docimaean marble to Rome for building purposes. Walker 1985, 1 8 - 3 5 ; Ward-Perkins 1992, 2 1 - 4 , 3 1 - 7 . I.Porto 3 8 . I G U R 4 1 3 ; Rigsby 1997. Ward-Perkins (1992, 69), suggests that he dealt in 'any stocks from the adjoining marble-yards that were surplus to official requirements.' He argues for the great importance o f Nicomedia as a centre o f the Roman marble trade. C I L vi 10091 = I G U R 1567; Vidman, S I R I S 4 3 2 = IG xiv 1093. 2 3 6

2 3 7

2 3 8

2 3 9

2 4 0

2 4 1

2 4 2

2 4 3

2 4 4

2 4 5

2 4 0

2 4 7

2 4 8

2 5 0

2 5 1

2 5 2

2 5 3

2 5 4

2 5 5

2

2 5 6

2 5 7

2 5 9

2 6 0

2 6 1

2 6 2

2 6 3

2 6 4

2 6 6

2 6 7

2 0 8

2 6 9

2 7 0

2 7 1

134

Why did people 2 7 2

move to Rome?

Avramea 1995, 4. C I L vi 9907. Another structor with a Greek name and a Latin epitaph, Cn. Cornelius Anthus, had a Greek wife but his own origin is not stated: C I L vi 9 9 0 6 . I G U R 1263. Solin 1983, 6 7 1 ; P I R A922. Loane 1938, 2 0 - 3 . Pleket 1993, 23. S E G xxxv 1039, interpreting I.Porto 4 5 . AE (1983) 111, interpreting I.Porto 1. 280 p,Mich, viii 5 0 0 - 1 ; see p. 165. Another possible trader is Sohaemus, probably a Syrian, who is described in his epitaph as 'both traversing the land and crossing the waves in ships' (IGUR 1334). P.Fouad i 77 (tr. W.G. Waddell). Cf. P.Mert. ii 8 1 . Cicero, Pro Flacco 7 1 . Minucius Felix, Octavius 2 . 1 . NS (1953) 2 4 0 no. 2. C I L xiv 4 6 2 6 . Digest 5.1.19.3 Labeo; 40.2.22.2 Paul. C I L xiv 397. C I L vi 9677; Ricci 1992b, no. a6 and p. 137. C I L vi 2 9 7 2 2 , discussed at p. 2 0 8 . 290 Mciggs (1960, 289), but he thinks the name is too common to be sure. Granino Cecere (1994a, 2 1 1 ) , and her new reading o f C I L vi 1885; AE (1980) 9 8 . AE (1973) 7 1 ; Panciera 1980, 2 4 4 - 5 ; Taglietti 1994, 1 6 2 - 3 , 1 7 2 - 4 . C I L vi 9 6 7 5 ; Loane 1938, 3 6 . Di Stefano Manzella 1 9 7 6 - 7 , 2 7 7 - 8 no. 11. Cf. Stanley 1990, 2 5 0 . C I L vi 5 6 3 9 = i 1334; Solin 1983, 6 7 5 . For the purposes o f the statistics in this book, he has been counted as a Bithynian. C I L vi 9 9 9 8 . C I L vi 9 7 1 7 . ICUR 19790. AE (1973) 7 1 : a female dealer in the 2nd century AD. C I L xv 3 7 8 2 - 3 : amphorae from the stock o f D. Caecilius Onesimus, found at Monte Testaccio. C I L vi 1935: a man who was both viator tribunicius and a dealer in oil from Baetica (not shown to be Spanish himself). Cf. p. 2 0 8 . C I L vi 1625. Ricci 1992b, 129. C I L vi 2 9 3 3 ; Ricci, 1993b, no. Mo2. C I L vi 3 3 0 3 6 ; cf. p. 271 n. 105. C I L vi 8 8 8 3 ; Solin 1983, 6 7 2 . His j o b could also be a military rather than civilian one. C I L vi 2 9 1 5 2 . Bevilacqua 1978. C I L vi 9 7 0 9 . 2 7 3

2 7 4

2 7 5

2

2 7 6

2 7 7

2 7 8

2 7 9

2 8 1

2 8 2

2 8 3

2 8 4

2 8 5

2 8 6

2 8 7

2 8 8

2 8 9

2 9 1

2 9 2

2 9 3

2 9 4

2 9 5

2 9 6

2

2 9 7

2 9 8

2 9 9

3 0 0

3 0 1

3 0 2

3 0 3

3 0 4

3 0 5

3 0 0

3 0 7

3 0 8

135

Moving

lo Rome

3 0 9

Eulropius, Brev. 3.1. Ovid, A.A. 1.174. Martial, Sped. 3. Florus, Vergilius Orator an Poela 1.1. C I L vi 3 2 0 9 8 1, m. They may, o f course, have been in Rome for other reasons. Theodoret, II.E. 5.26 (PC 82.1256). Dio 7 8 ( 7 7 ) . 2 1 . 2 (tr. E. Cary). He achieved great influence under Caracalla. C I L vi 10127. C I L vi 10110. Gk.Anth. 16.290. PIR B91. Juvenal 3 . 9 3 - 5 . SHA, Verus 8 . 1 0 - 1 1 . An honorific inscription for this man by one o f his freedmen is preserved on a marble altar: C I L vi 10117. Apolaustus' legal status at the time o f the inscription was imperial freedman. BCAR 51 (1923), 74 no. 16. C I L xiv 4 6 2 4 , with additions in J I W E i 15 a n d J I W E ii p. 5 7 1 . Dio 51.22. C I L vi 10194. I G U R 9 3 9 = ICUR 4 0 3 2 . C I L vi 10197. AE (1988) 24; Ricci 1993a, no. A19. C I L x 1685 (place o f origin unknown): procur(ator) ludi famil(iae) glad(iatoriae) Caesaris Alexandreae ad Aegyptum. C I L vi 10184. C I L vi 10187. Wiedemann (1992, 114) describes this as 'perhaps an example o f double deracination'. See Toynbee 1973, 6 5 - 6 , 8 2 - 3 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 3 3 8 - 4 0 . Strabo 17.1.44. Toynbee 1973, 4 8 . C I L vi 10048. C I L vi 10050. C I L vi 10058. He was also honoured by the town council a t T e a n u m : AE (1979) 155. C I L vi 3 3 9 3 9 (including 10060), apparently dated 2 7 5 . Symmachus, Ep. 6.33, 6.42. I C U R 10549. I C U R 5 6 8 8 , as interpreted by Feissel (1982a, 3 5 3 - 7 ) . Dio 8 0 . 1 5 . 1 . e.g. M. Aurelius Polynices had two sons; all three were charioteers, and all three were born slaves but died free: C I L vi 10049. Suetonius, Cal. 18; Moretti 1989, 15. T h e games were still attracting Olympic champions in the early 3rd century, e.g. Aurelius Helix, a Phoenician ( P I R A1520). An inscription from 3 1 0

3 1 1

3 1 2

3 1 3

3 , 4

3 1 5

3 1 0

3 1 7

3 1 8

3 1 9

2

3 2 0

3 2 1

3 2 2

3 2 3

3 2 4

3 2 5

3 2 6

3 2 7

3 2 8

3 2 9

3 3 0

3 3 1

3 3 2

3 3 3

3 3 4

3 3 5

3 3 6

3 3 7

3 3 8

3 3 9

3 4 0

3 4 1

3 4 2

3 4 3

3 4 4

3 4 5

3 4 0

2

136

Why did people

move to Rome ?

the reign o f Commodus refers to the departure o f competitors to Rome from Aphrodisias, presumably for the Capitoline Games: Reynolds 1982, no. 5 9 . Artemidorus 4.82 (tr. R . J . White). Cf. 4.42, the pancratiast Menippus o f Magnesia. Moretti 1989, 15. Pleket 1973; I G U R 2 3 7 . 3:>o P I R 2 F 2 2 1 ; I.Napoli 5 0 . His father, referred to simply as Artemidorus, was apparently not a Roman citizen. I.Napoli 5 1 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 2 1 8 - 2 0 . I.Napoli 4 7 . Cf. I.Napoli 5 1 : T . Flavius Archibios, a pancratiast from Alexandria victorious at Rome four times, AD 9 4 - 1 0 6 . I C R iv 1636 records a musician from Philadelphia in Lydia who was crowned at all the sacred games from Rome to Antioch. I C U R 12841 = I G U R 4 0 4 . Caldelli 1992; I.K.Ephesus iv 9 3 0 , 3 5 8 1 . Pleket 1973; Palmer 1981, 3 9 0 - 1 ; Bollmann 1997, 2 1 4 ; I G U R 26, 2 3 5 - 6 . Caldelli 1992; C I L vi 10154. La Piana 1927, 267. I.Porto 16. 3o9 Florus, Vergilius Orator an Poeta 1.3-4; P I R A650. 360 ] y i t i i 9.4() this is presumably what he means by the 'Tarpeian crowns'. Antipater o f Thessalonica 27, Crinagoras 2 4 , Antiphilus o f Byzantium 16, Leonidas o f Alexandria 8, Lucillius. Cicero, pro Arch. 3 . 4 - 5 . Suda, s.v. M8ao|or|8r| a , a g e d 4 5 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d in M o e s i a . • P r a e t o r i a n u s , a notarius

2 1 7

w h o died at R o m e a g e d 17 in AD 2 2 5 , was

c o m m e m o r a t e d at Sitifis in M a u r e t a n i a with his father, a l o n g with his sister w h o d i e d t h e following y e a r a g e d 8 .

2 1 8

• L. C a e c i l i u s F r o n t o o f Volubilis d i e d at R o m e a g e d 2 5 ; t h e cityc o u n c i l o f Volubilis, to which his family p r e s u m a b l y b e l o n g e d , d e c r e e d h i m a statue a n d a funeral at public e x p e n s e , b u t his s t e p m o t h e r accepted only the h o n o u r and c o m m e m o r a t e d him herself.

219

• L . S e n i u s F l a c c u s , a g e d 3 0 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d at T h a m u g a d i s N u m i d i a by his b r o t h e r .

in

2 2 0

T h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f m e n in t h e i r twenties a n d thirties is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g , as they a p p e a r to have f o r m e d t h e largest p a r t o f t h e i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n . N e i t h e r is t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f a r e a s fairly close to R o m e : w e s t e r n a n d c e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d N o r t h Africa. T h e e v i d e n c e shows that t h e d e s i r e for b u r i a l o r c o m m e m o r a t i o n at h o m e

was

w i d e s p r e a d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d lasted for several c e n t u r i e s . O n t h e w h o l e in t h e s e cases, u n l i k e in t h e literary e v i d e n c e , t h e d e s i r e o f p a r e n t s to b r i n g t h e i r d e c e a s e d s o n s ' r e m a i n s h o m e m a y h a v e b e e n o f m o r e i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e i m m i g r a n t s ' own wishes a b o u t w h e r e to b e b u r i e d . P e o p l e w h o died at R o m e while they still h a d a p a r e n t alive w e r e clearly m u c h m o r e likely to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e t h a n t h o s e w h o outlived t h e i r p a r e n t s .

221

T h e vast majority o f e p i t a p h s at R o m e follow fairly s t a n d a r d f o r m u ­ lae, a n d s o m e of t h e m o r e o r i g i n a l o n e s h a v e n o parallels a n y w h e r e o u t s i d e R o m e . H o w e v e r , in s o m e cases t h e w o r d i n g o f G r e e k e p i t a p h s c a n b e l i n k e d with f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n which w e r e used e l s e w h e r e , in a r e a s from w h e r e i m m i g r a n t s c a m e to R o m e . T h e f o r e i g n w o r d i n g m a y b e c o m b i n e d with typically R o m a n f o r m u l a e like 0(eoi.A,r|vic; Zupo^oiviKiaca TW yevei); Lib.Pont., Euaristus: 'a Greek by nationality, an Antiochenc' (natione Grecus Anliochenus). Cf. Solin 1983, 6 0 1 - 2 ; Matthews 1999, 16. Hall 1997, 3 3 : 'Ethnic identity can only be constituted by opposition to other ethnic identities.' Matthews 1999, 29. McCormack (1984, 3 5 7 ) notes the emergence o f a pan-British identity among immigrants to Canada in the face o f competition from other ethnic groups. He also (p. 3 7 1 ) refers to the formation o f local societies such as the 'Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine Association' among British immigrants at Winnipeg. C I L vi 342 = 3 0 7 4 2 . Kaimio 1979, 67: '...we cannot, therefore, compare them to the door plates of consulates o f foreign states in modern capitals'. Moretti 1958, 1 1 5 - 1 6 . Pliny, H.N. 16.236; Moretti 1958, 1 1 5 - 1 6 . However, Moretti believes that these were different from the overseas stationes. 2

3

4

6

7

8

9

1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

197

Living

at Rome

1 3

Moretti 1958, 105-7. Statio-ma.na.ger}; the word can also mean the users of, or contributors to, a statio. T h e same man made a dedication to Nomioi Theoi (IGUR 163). I G U R 80 = C I L vi 3 1 1 2 8 . IG xiv 8 3 0 . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 3 - 6 ; Pohl 1978, 3 3 3 - 4 ; Bakker et al. 1999. They are not necessarily all of the same date; the tenants o f some o f the rooms no doubt changed. T h e identity o f the users of many o f the rooms has not been preserved. C I L xiv 4 1 4 2 . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 5 ; he dates it no later than the reign o f Hadrian. Meiggs 1960, 2 8 6 . I.Porto 2. Cf. ibid.3, the z%i\iz\r[V(\c, o f the whole Alexandrian fleet. Meiggs 1960, pi. X X I I I b . I.Porto 5. C I L xiv 4 6 2 0 . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 6 . Meiggs 1960, pi. X X I I I d . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 7 , pi. X X I I la. A dedication to Diva Sabina by the Sabrathenses, found in Caesar's Forum and dated to AD 138, may suggest that there was a statio at Rome as well: AE (1934) 146. Meiggs 1960, pi. X X I Vb. C I L xiv 4 7 7 . Loane 1938, 5 6 . La Piana 1925, 2 5 9 . ' Suetonius, Nero 37. Meiggs 1960, 287. B G U ii 4 2 3 ; Winter 1933, 4 1 - 2 . Martial 1.49. 1.61, 1 0 . 1 0 3 - 4 . P.Mich, viii 487; cf. viii 4 6 5 - 6 and 4 8 6 , probably concerning the same man. Sempronius may not actually have been at Karanis when he received the letter. T h e use of family terminology in such letters does not necessarily indicate a real family relationship. P.Mich, viii 4 9 0 - 1 (ed. H.C. Youtie and J . G . Winter). P.Mich, viii 5 0 0 - 1 (ed. H.C. Youtie and J . G . Winter). BGU i 27; Winter 1933, 3 8 - 9 . C I L vi 2 4 2 5 ; C I L iii 1479; Ricci 1993b, 189, 2 0 6 . C I L viii 2 8 9 0 . C I L v i 9677; C I L ii 1971; Ricci 1992b, 111. C I L v i 16247; C I L ii 3624; Ricci 1992b, 111. Sailer 1982, 191. Talbert 1984, 4 2 . SFIA, Sev. 2. °° Digest 50.7.13 Scaevola refers to an ambassador coming to Rome from Nicopolis (it does not say which one), and buying a house at Nicopolis before he had completed the business o f the embassy. 15

17

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

3 3

3 4

3;

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 3

4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

198

Aspects offoreigners' 5 1

lives at Rome

Morley 1996, 175. R. Harder, Didyma II (Berlin, 1958) no. 2 9 6 11. 6 - 1 1 (quoted from Talbert). Talbert 1984, 9 5 . Pliny, H.N. 2 9 . 5 . 7 - 9 ; Bowersock 1969, 6 5 ; Talbert 1984, 4 1 3 ; Jackson 1988, 5 6 - 7 . Further bibliography in Nutton 1986, n. 2 0 . Millar 1 9 8 1 , 1 5 8 - 9 ; the son was also a patron o f Tibur. PIR CI637. Talbert 1984, 4 0 . Martial 10.96.1-4. Lucian, My Native Land (Patriae Laudatio) 8 (tr. A.M. Harmon). Doblhofer 1987, 4 7 , 6 3 - 4 ; Edwards 1996, ch. 5. Athenaeus 1.3b (tr. C.B. Gulick). C I L vi 3 1 0 6 6 . A word written at the end in the Greek alphabet is probably a name: perhaps Ariphilos. Guarducci 1 9 5 1 - 2 ; Gager 1992, no. 7 9 ; S E G xiv 6 1 5 . It was found in a grave near the Porta Ardeatina; such curses were normally left at tombs. This is how it is understood by Guarducci ( 1 9 5 1 - 2 , 6 3 - 4 ) . Gager trans­ lates: 'who has worked as his assistant'. Perhaps 'Do not allow him (i.e. the doctor) (to prevent the departure)', as suggested by Gager. Guarducci ( 1 9 5 1 - 2 , 6 6 ) , takes this as a reference to the mouth of the Tiber, which she thinks the speaker is asking to be blocked with sand. She goes on to suggest (p. 6 9 ) that this idea would be most likely to occur to someone from the coast o f Syria or Palestine. However, asking for the exit route to be blocked would be rather strange for someone so anxious to leave Rome. Stevens 1994, 1 8 1 - 2 . Kajanto 1980, 8 5 . Or in Greek (MacMullen 1990, 51). Slaves at Rio de Janeiro used Portuguese to each other if they did not share an African language (Karasch 1987, 2 1 5 ) . This would probably not apply if the native language was Greek. Cf. Karasch 1987, 2 1 5 . SHA, Sev. 19.9: 'sed Afrum quiddam usque ad senectutem sonans'. SUA, Had. 3 . 1 . Spanish accents seem to have attracted particular com­ ment (Balsdon 1979, 130), but regional Italian accents were also mocked (Talbert 1984, 3 7 ) . Lucian, On Salaried Posts (De Mercede) 24 refers to the 'villainous accent' o f highly educated Greeks. Quintilian 1.1.4; Soranus, Gyn. 2.19. La Piana 1925, 2 2 3 ; Bardy 1948, 8 1 - 9 4 . Kajanto 1980, 9 3 . Moretti (1989, 6) rather oversimplifies the issues by claiming that there was no need for Greek-speakers to use Latin because everyone at Rome understood Greek. Despite the predominance o f Greek in Moesia Inferior itself, noted by Kaimio (1979, 8 9 ) . Ricci 1994a, 1 8 - 1 9 . See below, p. 190. MacMullen 1993, 4 8 - 9 . 5 2

5 3

5 4

5:>

5 6

2

5 7

5 8

5 9

6 0

6 1

6 2

0 3

0 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

0 8

6 9

7 0

7 1

7 2

7 3

7 4

7 5

7 6

7 7

7 8

7 9

199

Living

at Rome

8 0

Juvenal 3.62 it.; Kajanto 1980, 87. Kaimio 1979, 166. Philostratus, V.S. 491 (tr. W.C. Wright). Philostratus, V.S. 5 8 9 (tr. W.C. Wright). IG xiv 1440; I G U R 1317. Cf. I G U R 1171, a bilingual Latin and Greek inscription for a charioteer family, and 1350, a Greek epitaph for a girl o f 'Ausonian family'. Moretti 1989, 7. Solin 1983, 7 2 1 . His figures are rather different from those given in the table below, due largely to new publications since his study, but the overall picture remains similar. Kajanto 1980, 9 1 - 2 . Kajanto 1980, Tab. 2. Lombardi (1997) gives a full list of those now in the Musei Vaticani. I C U R was incomplete at the time o f Kajanto's study. Kajanto 1980, 9 8 . This date is somewhat later than the probable date o f the Roman church's change from Greek to Latin as the main liturgical language (see above). ' Bardy 1948, 87. Cf. Kajanto 1980, T a b . 3. Either Latin and Greek, or Latin/Greek and another language (Hebrew, Palmyrene, Nabatean). Solin 1983, 7 2 1 . Noy 1997, 3 0 9 . C I L vi 3 0 9 2 5 = 374 = I G U R 6. C I L vi 1508 = I G U R 7 1 . Noy 1997, 307. Kajanto 1980, 9 5 ; C I L vi 18175, 2 0 5 4 8 , 3 3 9 7 6 . Cfi Noy 1997, 3 0 7 - 8 . Kajanto 1980, 9 6 . Noy 1997, 3 0 8 . Edwards 1995, 8 3 ; Boyance 1956, 125. J o n e s 1993, 1 0 6 - 1 5 . Noy 1997, 3 0 8 - 9 . Solin 1983, 7 2 0 . Suetonius, Aug. 4 3 . T h e reference might be to other Italian languages. Suetonius, Nero 13. Rochette (1996) finds very little evidence for any sort of interpreters o f languages other than Greek at Rome. Kaimio 1979, 3 2 0 . Bardy 1948, 89. C I L vi 19134, 3 4 1 9 6 (CIS ii 159). Noy 1999. J I W E ii 5 8 ; see p. 283 n. 4 8 6 . Noy 1999; Equini Scheider 1988, 6 4 . I G U R 166; see p. 2 4 1 . ICUR 5693. ICUR 1861. ICUR 4891. 8 1

8 2

8 3

8 4

8 5

8 6

8 7

8 8

8 9

9 0

9

9 2

9 3

9 4

9 3

9 6

9 7

9 8

9 9

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 0 2

1 0 3

1 0 4

1 0 5

1 0 6

1 0 7

1 0 8

1 0 9

1 1 0

1 1 1

1 , 2

1 1 3

1 1 4

1 1 5

1 1 6

1 1 7

1 1 8

200

Aspects of foreigners' 1 1 9

lives at Rome

J I W E ii 5 6 2 . IGUR 119-20. I G U R 122: 'Arcs the ancestral god who listens to prayer'. In the following discussion, I shall refer to names which are not Greek or Latin as 'local', in the absence of any standard terminology - writers such as Kajanto tend to refer to them as 'barbarian' or 'barbaric'. T h e most obvious example of this is the use of Semitic names by Christians. Solin 1977b. They were much commoner in Greece: 4 . 8 % out o f 3,530. Solin 1977b, 2 1 0 . Kajanto 1963a, 57; 1997, 106. T h e same proportions apply in both Latin and Greek inscriptions. Solin 1977a, 163; Kolb 1 9 9 5 , 4 6 0 . Kaimio 1979, 183; Solin 1977a, 164. Includes one case where the father has both a Latin and a Greek name. Includes one case where the child has both a Latin and a Greek name. Kajanto (1963a, 5 9 - 6 0 ) , surveying cognomina o f fathers and sons in Christian inscriptions from Rome, produced similar results with a much larger sample (N = 212). He found that 4 8 % were Latin in both generations, 2 4 % Greek in both, 12% Latin father Greek son, 16% Greek father Latin son. As interpreted by Ricci (1993b, no. P3). T h e father was a veteran. Solin 1983, 7 2 2 . I f the new recruit was not previously a Roman citizen, he would take on a complete Latin name. BGU ii 4 2 3 ; Winter 1933, 4 1 - 2 . Solin 1983, 7 2 2 ; cf. p. 169. Cf. Kajanto 1963a, 2 8 . I G U R 1 1 8 - 1 9 . Cf. p. 2 4 3 . On Semitic names at Rome and in the West, see Solin (1983), csp. 6 3 3 - 4 7 . Cf. Kajanto (1963a, 5 6 ) : 'it is often impossible to decide the particular provenance o f a barbaric name'. Some names can have two different prov­ enances, e.g. Simon can be both Greek and Semitic. Solin 1983, 7 2 3 , 7 8 2 . Cf. for example C I L vi 8 6 5 3 , where the father is called Bclambclus (a slave o f Tiberius) and the son Primus, evidently named after his mother Prima. C I L vi 9 2 7 6 . It is not certain that these people were slaves. Zevi 1973. See p. 2 3 9 . Sec p. 2 3 8 . See p. 2 4 8 . Solin 1983,635. As he notes, the Jews of Rome were an exception (see p. 262). Solin 1977b, 2 1 1 - 1 2 . McCormack 1984, 3 5 8 . Dion.Hal. 2.19.3 - Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, no. 8.7a. ' ° Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, p. 3 0 0 : 'It is easy enough to imagine how a rootless immigrant, lost in a great city, might have found attraction in the community or worshippers o f Isis. But there is no reason to suppose that such people made up the majority o f the cult's adherents or explain its success.' La Piana 1927, 2 8 6 . 1 2 0

1 2 1

1 2 2

1 2 3

1 2 4

1 2 5

1 2 6

1 2 7

1 2 8

1 2 9

1 3 0

1 3 1

1 3 2

1 3 3

1 3 4

1 3 5

1 3 6

1 3 7

1 3 8

1 3 9

1 4 0

1 4 1

1 4 2

1 4 3

1 4 4

1 4 5

1 4 6

1 4 7

1 4 8

1 4 9

h

1 5 1

201

Living

at Rome.

1 3 2

Dahya 1973, 2 4 6 . La Piana 1927, 2 6 5 . Karasch 1987, 2 5 4 - 6 6 . Cf. McCormack 1984, 3 7 0 . Augustine, Ep. 53.2. Frend 1952, 164, 1 6 9 - 7 0 . His no. 72 ( I C U R 4 4 3 7 ) . No. 74 ( I C U R 4 4 4 1 ) has a Galatian immigrant who might be a Montanist. No. 93 ( I G C V O 134) has a Montanist doctor named Alexander. Although there is nothing to connect him with Asia except the use o f Greek in his epitaph, Tabbernee writes (p. 5 4 6 ) : 'Presumably Alexander was a member o f the thriving Montanist congregation o f immi­ grants from Asia Minor resident in Rome... This community was centered around the Via Aurelia.' La Piana 1925, 2 1 3 - 1 6 ; Bardy 1948, 97. Bardy 1948, 8 1 - 9 4 . Apart from the prevalence of Greek names in some cases, which is not in itself necessarily a sign o f foreignness (cf. p. 180 above). T h e possibility o f a link between foreigners and particular burial societies is not even considered by Patterson (1992b). AE (1972) 14. In the Jewish catacombs, the designation Ioudaios seems largely to have been reserved for those who were somehow on the fringes o f the Jewish community (Williams 1997). Bardy ( 1 9 4 8 , 2 7 4 ) suggests that Pope Victor may have got from Carthage the idea o f establishing corporate ownership o f the Christian cemeteries o f Rome. Nuzzo 1997, 707. La Piana 1925, 2 2 9 , quoting Marucchi. Bardy 1948, 9 6 . Bertolino 1997. Feissel 1982a, 3 7 1 - 7 . I C U R 4437 (following Feissel 1982a, 3 7 1 ) , 4 4 3 9 (Feissel 1982a, 3 7 3 - 4 ) , 4441, 4442, 4443=4444. ivi 4 4 3 4 ^ w p t o v j with an otherwise unknown village name (contra Avramea (1995, no. 259), who tentatively attributes it to Syria). Ferrua 1939, p. 148 no. 10, uses x^ptou with an unknown village. I C U R 4 2 7 1 b + 4 4 5 2 a , joined by Nuzzo 1997, refers to Kcopiw MiKpdq KC6|JT|. A8pi)|Ltr|Ti[vovL8o noXzox) 7tdxpr| noXiq BaPuA,covoensis 3201 Aurelius Diso dec n. Thrax 3202 Aurelius Dizala dec nat. [ T h r a x ? ] 3205 T . Aurelius Gaius decFl. Scupis nat. Bessus 3216 Aurelius Mucianus dec domo Thracia Iulius Valens comm municeps 3217 M. Aurelius Optatus dec nati. Tra. [nat.Thr]ax 3250 f—] M.f. Deciminus dec Valerius Augustus [—] Dolens [—J Sebastianus Aurelius Zinama Aurelius Pyrrhus Aurelius Victor Aurelius Buris Aurelius Diszairai Aurelius Asclepiades Diogenes Gaius Aurelius Erodes Aurelius Mestrius

2616

8 2

83

84

89

322

A list of individual

immigrants

3303 3314 3447 32714 32768 = xiv 236 32836 32867a 33040

M. Ulpius Longinus (name lost) P. Aelius Severus (name lost) M. Flavius Valens (name lost) (name lost) (name lost)

dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec

37255 xiv 234 xiv 240 AE (1931) 89 A E ( 1 9 8 0 ) 141 AE (1981) 94

Ulpius Valentinus L. Carisius Valfens] C. Valerius Festus Ti. Claudius Dolens Flavius Mucianus T . Aurelius Secundus

dec dec dec dec dec dec

N S ( 1 9 0 6 ) p . 209 no. 6 Ferrua 1943-4, no. 93 Ferrua 1951, no. 22 Ferrua 1951, no. 109 Speidel 1994a, 209

(name lost) Sisitianus Clemens (name lost) (name lost) P. Aelius Bellicus

dec dec dec dec dec

Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel

T . A[urelius — ] [—JIngenuus [—] Veratius [—] Apronius (name lost) lulius Lucius Aurelius Daicosis Aurelius Daicon

dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm

Aurelius Lucius Aurelia Marcia

comm dec

86

1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a,

216 243 253 545 546 567 608

recorded

in

inscriptions

natione Bessus natus Ulpia Serdicae nat. Bessus [Sjerdic. natio. Bessus [Th]raci [nat.] Trax [Heraclea] Sentifca], [na]t. Bessus nati. B(essus) nat. Vcssus Bessus nat. Bes. dom. Nicopoli nat. Thrac[—] Ulpia Tonzo Bess[us| nat. Vessus [nat.] T r a x n. BesL—] [nat.] Bess[us] civitas U[--] [nati]on. Bessu[s] [natiojne Bes[sus] [nat. B]essu[s] [nat.] Bes. [nat.] Bes. n. T r . nat. Thrax brother

Thrace (Civilian) 2570 2734

2785 2954 3163 3303 6519 9709 9719 10187 18066

Aurelia Zenodora Sudicentius Tataza Tataza Mucapora C. Cassius Censorinus L. Sentius Fortis Secunda T . Flavius Genethlius Crescens Thelyphus Flavius Felix [Flavius EJxupergius Fidus 323

brother n[a]tione Trax civitau Promesiana comm sister comm brother comm mother comm wife comm brother comm father dec Thraecida builder natione Bess. dec natione Bessus dec natione Traex dec na[tio]ne T r h a x comm brother 87

Appendix 20718

Iulia Tyndaris

builder

26608

Sitalces Iulia Phyllis f—]thus [—]ruillio Se[-1 Aurelius [—J T . Aurelius Bithus (name lost) Aurelius Puris Iulius Valerianus (name lost)

dec dec dec comm comm dec dec dec dedicator comm dec

30584 32714 33005 34619 34635 I G U R 134 A E ( 1 9 8 0 ) 141 AE (1993) 332

NS (1922) p. 417 Ti. Iulius Diogenes no. 51 Remothalcianus

builder

freedwoman of K. Rhoemetalces opses Thracum sister lna]t. Thrax brother brother nat. T[hrax] Thrax nacione Thracia eic 8e xcopiric; Tryseoc, cousin cives Bes[sus regione —]ese vico Trifon. Fabre and Roddaz 1982, 87

Thrace (Christian) 14201 (name lost) 16873 Paula 23627 Valerius Dalatfralis]

dec dec dec

Serdica an[6] NetKorcoAlecocJ [e pro]vincia Tracia vicuf—J

Unknown (Military) 2740 Ti. Claudius Ti.f. Rufus 2741 C. Commagius Secundinus

dec dec

2992b 3239a

dec dec

Apsoles commemorated by municeps natio. MINOPf—] domu I [—]

T . Aurelius Salvianus M. Aurelius [—]

Unknown (Civilian) 2741 (name not given) I G U R 962 Artemidorus Socrates Dionysis I G U R 1257 Lacon I G U R 1313 (name lost) SEG xiv 615 Demetrius (name not given)

comm dec comm comm dec dec dec comm

Unknown (Christian) 1491 Aestonia 2274 Honoratus 13226 Victor

dec dec dec

MGR 18 (1994) pp.177-285 no. 87

Asclepiodj—]

dec

municeps e m cjevric;

brother brother rarcplg 5e M[—] [e]jii cjelvnCj see p. 168 brother

perecrina peregrini qu <ma>ria treiecit in peregre [obitus/a]

A list of individual

immigrants

recorded

in

inscriptions

Notes 1

The criteria for inclusion here are set out at pp< 6 - 7 . For the 'military' and 'civilian' categories, references are to C I L vi if there is simply an Arabic numeral, or to another volume of C I L if there is a Roman and then an Arabic numeral. For the 'Christian/Jewish' category, references are to ICUR if there is simply a numeral. I have tried to give the most accessible reference rather than the original publication. Names are given in the nominative case and, as far as possible, in standard­ ized spelling. 'comm' = commemorator, 'dec' = deceased, 'builder' = builder of tomb, 'grafF = graffiti. Where the reason for inclusion is quoted directly from the inscription, the exact form and spelling used in the inscription is given here (with restoration or expansion where necessary). I have not used 'sic' to indicate non-standard spell­ ings and grammar, because these are too common. Ricci (1994a, no. A l ) gives a family tree. Two charioteers who appear to have been working at Rome. Following Ricci 1997b. I have assumed that there is a connection with the city in Media called Gauna (RE vii 876). Ricci (1993b, T 4 ) treats these people as Thracian. This could be in Asia or Greece. See Moretti, ad loc. There is a different interpretation in SEG xliv 822. T h e man is described as a banker in the Roman Forum. Avramea 1995, 307. Moretti, ad l o c , takes this as an alternative form of'Nicomedian'. ' Restoration by Avramea 1995, 299. This is almost certainly military. T h e man in the inscription could be Athenaeus the Cilician or Cilix the Athenian; I have assumed the former. Published independently by Speidel 1994c, 584. Ricci 1993b, D e l 3 , following Vulpe 1925, 143. Corrected by Ferrua 1951, 135. Printed as 3 1 0 9 in CIL. S e e p . 118. Interpretation from Ricci 1993a, A5. This inscription is very fragmentary; Moretti restores ['Avxivor)rcaxpu;]in 1.1 and AvxivforiJ in 1.4; the latter seems more likely to be the beginning of a personal name. However, since the deceased was an ambassador from some.where, Moretti has been followed here. As interpretated by Avramea 1995, 2 9 1 . Mateescu (1923, 193) takes Nysius as a mistake for Mysius, and Speidel (1994c, 435) understands it as Moesius. It is assumed here to be the ethnic for Nysa. According to RE xxiii.2 2 1 0 7 - 8 , the Pylaemenes who was the previous owner was the son of King Amyntas of Galatia. Interpretation from Avramea 1995, 319. 2

3

4

5

b

7

8

9

1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 6

1

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2;)

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

325

Appendix 3 1

For the assumption that this and some other unknown villages are Galatian, see p. 2 3 2 . Interpretation from Feissel 1982a, 3 7 1 . Interpretation from Feissel 1982a, 3 7 3 - 4 . Feissel 1982a, 375-7. Interpretation from Feissel 1982a, 3 7 3 - 4 . Interpretation from Felle 1997, 331, 4 0 0 . 25249 is probably the same inscription. Following Ricci 1992a, A44, contra Nu/./.o 1997. C I L restores [nat. Noviomjagi. Following Ricci 1993c, B 6 0 . Restoration from Dobo 1975, 585. Restoration from Granino Cecere 1994b. This is from a gravestone now at Fiesole but most likely to originate from Rome. Following Ricci 1993c, A9. Legaand Felle 1997. Tainaron in Laconia according to Nuzzo 1997. Restoration by Ricci 1992b, b l 9 . Includes C I L v i 3654. Corrected in AE (1994) 193. It is unclear if these are two separate people or one person with a double name. Interpretation from Ricci 1994a. ° I have assumed this to be Caesarea in Mauretania as the man in question is a charioteer, and therefore more likely to have been of North African than Eastern origin. Corrected by Ferrua 1951, 135. Restoration by Ricci 1993b, N41. ' Name interpreted by Vulpe 1925, 146. Corrected by Ferrua 1951, 135. Joined by Speidel 1994c, 346. C I L vi 32830, 32835, 32837d. Interpretation from Ricci 1993b, P3. Interpretation from Ricci 1993b, P I 9 . One o f the commemorators, Valerius Antonius el Aurelius Victorinus, is the deceased's cousin, but it is not stated which one. Interpretation from Ricci 1993b, P20. Different interpretation by di Stefano Manzella 1997a. Lega and Orlandi 1997. Corrected by Speidel 1994c, 133. S e e p . 195. Who travelled with her. AE (1992) 92.109. T h e interpretation of the text is uncertain. It reads: Bassus bixit annus XXf—J \ civis Arabus vola Marina vixit [—] Feissel 1982a, no. 11.3. Feissel 1982a, no. I; the 'ethnic' could be from anywhere in the East. Avramea 1 9 9 5 , 2 8 6 . 3 2

3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

2

5 3

5 4

:

5

5()

5 7

5 8

5 9

6 0

1,1

6 2

0 3

6 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

0 8

()9

7 0

7 1

7 2

326

A list of individual 7 3

immigrants

recorded

in

inscriptions

Nuzzo 1997, 706. Feissel 1982a, 3 6 1 . Feissel 1982b, 3 3 8 - 9 . Nuzzo 1997, 706. Feissel 1982b, 3 3 0 - 1 . Feissel 1982a, 358. Nuzzo 1997, 706. Feissel 1982a, 2 6 7 - 9 . It is uncertain which Tripolis is meant. Ricci 1993b, 206 n. 14. Joined by Ricci 1993b, T 2 6 . Restoration from Mateescu 1923, 192. Although commemorated by his brother, someone else acted as curator, so I have assumed that the brother was not present at Rome. Mateescu 1923, 203. She has been included because of her Thracian name. 7 4

7 5

7 0

7 7

7 8

7 9

8 0

8 1

8 2

8 3

8 4

8 5

8 6

8 7

327

GLOSSARY Advocatus fisci Annona Apparitor Assessor Beneficiarius Civis Romanus/a Classiarius Cognomen Collegium Cursus publicus Dextrarum iunctio Di Manes Domesticus

Duo/tria nomina

Equites

Equites singulares Evocatus Familia Filiusfamilias Frumentarius Grammaticus Hospitium Iudices quinque decuriarum

A barrister working for the state. Rome's corn supply and the administration dealing with it. T h e servant of an official. A judge's assistant. A soldier seconded to special duties. Someone with the legal status of a Roman citizen. A soldier serving in the Roman fleet. T h e final part o f a Roman name, e.g. M. Tullius Cicero, Vipsania Agrippina. A society or association, usually with a nominal religious function. T h e state-run system for delivering official corres­ pondence. T h e joining of right hands symbolizing marriage. T h e spirits o f the dead, regularly invoked in secondthird century AD epitaphs. Probably a personal assistant to an officer of state such as the urban prefect, but could also be an army officer. T h e name of a Roman citizen, usually with three parts for a man (M. Tullius Cicero), two for a woman (Vipsania Agrippina). People of the rank immediately below that o f the sena­ torial class, normally having to meet a property qualifi­ cation o f HS 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 . The cavalry, normally recruited outside Italy, who formed the imperial bodyguard (see p. 2 1 ) . A semi-retired soldier, liable to be called up in an emergency. A household, including free members and slaves. A male whose father was still alive and who was there­ fore legally under his father's control. A soldier whose duties included security and sur­ veillance. A teacher o f grammar. The moral right to claim hospitality or the duty to give it. Men selected for jury service, who had to meet a property qualification. Only those designated inter seleclos served at Rome.

329

Glossary

Latus clavus Loculus Magister officiorum Mcrcator Munera Navicularius Negotiator/negotians Nomen (gentilicium) Notarius Officina Patria Peregrinus/a Praenomen Praeses Praetorian Guard Provocator Quinquennalis Sacerdos augustalis Signum Stator Structor Urbanicianus Verna Viator Vicarius urbis Vigiles Vir clarissimus

The broad stripe on a toga which denoted someone entitled to seek office o f senatorial status. A burial slot in a catacomb. T h e official in charge o f the central bureaucracy from the fourth century. A merchant. T h e Financial responsibilities undertaken by city mag­ istrates or other wealthy citizens. A shipowner. A dealer or trader. T h e inherited part o f a Roman name, e.g. M. Tullius Cicero, Vipsania Agrippina. A civil servant, originally with secretarial functions but also used for diplomatic and under-cover activity. A workshop. Someone's home city or country. Someone who was o f free status but not a Roman citizen. T h e first part o f a Roman man's full name, e.g. Marcus Tullius Cicero. A provincial governor. T h e main body o f troops stationed at Rome to guard the emperor and keep order (see p. 2 0 ) . A type of gladiator. T h e leading magistrate in a collegium or a city, appointed once in five years. A priest o f the imperial cult. An additional name (the word is usually found in the ablative case, signo). An official servant of a provincial governor or general. A building worker. A member of the Urban Cohorts, the main lawenforcing body in Rome. A home-bred slave. A magistrate's attendant and enforcement officer. A deputy to the Urban Prefect. T h e night-watch o f Rome, mainly responsible for detecting and fighting fires. A man o f senatorial status.

330

ABBREVIATIONS AE b. BCAR BGU CCSL CIG CIL CIS CSEL EE ICUR IG IGCVO ICR IGUR IK 1LCV ILS IMS JK J I WE m. MAMA MGH NDIEC NS PG PIR PL PLRE RE RIT SB SEG SHA SIG TAM t. y-

Annee Epigraphique Babylonian Talmud Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunalc di Roma Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin Griechische Urkunden Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum Ephemeris Epigraphica Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae Inscriptiones Graecae Inscriptiones Graecae Christianae Veteris Occidentis Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae Inschriften griechischer Stadte aus Kleinasien Inscriptiones Latinac Christianae Veteres Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae Inscriptiones Moesiae Superioris Jewish Encyclopaedia Jewish Inscriptions o f Western Europe Mishnah Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua Monumenta Germaniae Historica New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity Notizie degli Scavi Patrologia Graeca Prosopographia Imperii Romani Patrologia Latina Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Die romischen Inschriften von Tarraco Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Aegypten Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum Scriptores Ilistoriae Augustae Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum Tituli Asiae Minoris Tosefta Jerusalem Talmud

Other abbreviations which are not self-explanatory follow the Annee logique system. 331

Philo-

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Wessel, C. 1989 Inscriptiones Graecae Christianae veteres occidentis, ed. A. Ferrua and C Carletti, Bari. [IGCVO] White, L.M. 1998 'Synagogue and society in imperial Ostia: archaeological and epigraphic evidence', in K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in First-century Rome, Grand Rapids, 3 0 - 6 8 . Whittaker, M. 1982 Tatian: Oratio ad Graecos and Fragments, Oxford. Wiedemann, T . E . J . 1992 Emperors and Gladiators, London. Williams, M.H. 1989 ' T h e expulsion of the Jews from Rome in AD 19', Latomus 4 8 , 7 6 5 - 8 4 . 1994a ' T h e organisation of Jewish burials in ancient Rome in the light o f evidence from Palestine and the Diaspora', ZPE 101, 1 6 5 - 8 2 . 1994b ' T h e structure o f Roman Jewry re-considered - were the synagogues of ancient Rome entirely homogeneous?', ZPE 104, 1 2 9 - 4 1 . 1997 'The meaning and function of Ioudaios in Graeco-Roman inscriptions', ZPE 116, 2 4 9 - 6 2 . 1998 ' T h e structure o f the Jewish community in Rome', in M. Goodman (ed.) Jews in a Graeco-Roman World, Oxford, 2 1 5 - 2 8 . Williams, W. 1967 'Antoninus Pius and the control o f provincial embassies', Historia 16, 4 7 0 - 8 3 . Winter, J . G . 1933 Life and Letters in the Papyri, Ann Arbor. Wrigley, E.A. 1967 'A simple model o f London's importance in changing English society and economy, 1 6 5 0 - 1 7 5 0 ' , P&P 37, 4 4 - 7 0 . Reprinted in People, Cities and Wealth, Oxford, 1987, 1 3 3 - 5 6 . Zappata, E. 1996 'Les divinites dolicheniennes et les sources epigraphiques latines', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 8 7 - 2 5 6 . Zevi, F. 1973 'P. Lucilio Gamala senior e i "Quattro tempietti" di Ostia', MEFRA 85, 5 5 5 - 8 1 . Zgusta, L. 1984 Kleinasiatische Ortsnamen, Beitrage zur Namenforschung Beiheft 2 1 , Heidelberg.

350

INDEX Abdera 101 Achaea see Greece Achaean League 101, 107 Acmonia 2 5 8 actors, actresses 4 0 , 4 5 - 6 , 9 4 , 1 1 7 19, 122, 148, 177, 2 0 9 , 2 2 9 , 247, 252 Adara 120 Aedui 2 0 7 , 211 Aelius Aristides 3 1 , 9 7 , 1 4 1 - 2 , 1 5 3 4 n. 30 Africa x, 5 - 6 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 33, 3 5 , 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 7 6 , 82 n. 67, 82 n. 7 4 , 9 3 - 4 , 9 7 - 8 , 103, 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 124, 1 2 5 - 6 , 128 n. 3 1 , 130 n. 108, 144, 147, 149, 152, 153 n. 9, 157, 162, 1 7 0 - 1 , 1 8 5 - 6 , 188, 1 9 2 - 3 , 2 5 1 - 5 , 2 7 8 - 9 n. 3 2 3 , 287, 2 8 9 - 9 1 age-rounding 6 6 - 7 Agrippa, M. Vipsanius 4 5 , 2 6 5 Agrippa I 107, 2 6 0 Agrippa II 104, 2 6 0 Agrippinilla, Pompeia 2 2 6 , 2 8 4 n. 491 Aix-en-Provence 116, 2 6 9 n. 38 Alabandae 34 Albanians 101 Alexander (s. o f Herod) 9 2 , 2 6 0 , 267 Alexander Severus 2, 2 4 , 3 2 , 4 0 , 4 5 , 105, 123, 2 3 6 Alexandria 22, 2 5 , 3 1 - 2 , 3 5 , 5 6 - 7 , 7 8 , 8 5 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 97, 9 9 , 100, 104, 109, 110, 112, 1 1 8 - 2 2 , 124, 126, 129 n. 6 2 , 137 n. 3 5 2 , 1 4 3 - 4 , 146, 148, 153 n. 9, 157, 159, 162, 1 6 4 - 5 , 175, 192, 2 1 9 , 2 4 6 - 5 1 , 2 5 9 - 6 0 , 2 6 2 , 2 6 5 - 7 , 2 6 8 n. 5, 279 n. 3 3 5 , 2 7 9 n. 3 4 3 , 287 Alypius (friend o f Augustine) 9 3 - 4 Ambrose 18, 4 0 - 1 , 125 351

Ammianus Marcellinus 32, 3 5 , 4 0 , 50 n. 6 6 , 5 9 , 1 4 4 - 5 , 147, 177 Amydon 34 Anazarbus 160, 2 3 4 Andros 34 Antioch (Syria) 3 1 , 50 n. 6 1 , 5 6 , 9 5 , 116, 1 2 0 - 1 , 123, 1 2 5 - 6 , 129 n. 8 6 , 137 n. 3 5 2 , 144, 175, 197 n. 6, 2 2 9 , 2 3 5 - 7 , 282 n. 4 4 8 Antioch on Maeander 122 Antiochus I V 107 Antoninus Pius 9 5 , 105, 1 2 1 , 160, 161, 282 n. 4 4 2 Apamea 6, 111, 159, 178, 2 3 £ - 7 Aphrodisias 5 5 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 113, 134 n. 2 6 1 , 137 n. 3 4 6 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 3 4 Apolaustus 118, 247 Apollonius o f Tyana 143, 1 4 8 - 9 , 224 Appian 3 5 , 4 4 , 52 n. 112, 100 Apuleius 148 Aquileia 2 3 7 , 2 5 8 Aquincum 7 1 , 271 n. 103 Aquitania 193, 2 0 6 - 7 , 211 Arabians 3 6 - 7 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 122, 237 Aramaic language 1 7 8 , 2 6 4 Arcadians 2 2 4 Area Libani 2 5 8 Archagathus 4 7 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 Archelaus (s. o f Herod) 1 0 2 , 2 6 0 , 267 Archias 38, 106, 1 2 1 , 146, 2 3 6 architects 114, 2 3 6 Arduinna 2 1 2 Aristobulus II 107, 191, 267 Aristobulus (s. o f Herod) 92, 2 6 0 Aristonicus 108 Aries 9 6 , 138 n. 4 1 5 , 163, 171, 2 1 2 , 2 6 8 n. 17, 2 6 8 n. 25 Armenia 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 8 0 n. 3 1 ,

Index Bidis 110 Bilbilis 5 4 , 164, 167 Bithynia et Pontus ix, 5, 3 1 , 5 4 - 6 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 67, 7 6 , 82 n. 74, 8 6 , 9 8 , 103, 105, 111, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 118, 120, 126, 172, 1 7 4 - 5 , 181, 1 9 4 - 6 , 224, 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 8 5 , 287,294-5 Boeotia 95 Bordeaux 9 6 , 2 0 9 Bosporan Kingdom 59, 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 76, 80 n. 3 1 , 82 n. 70, 102, 131 n. 132, 174, 271 n. 9 8 , 291 Bostra 126 Brindisi 1 4 2 - 5 Britain (Roman province) 2 1 , 4 6 , 59, 1 0 8 - 9 , 171, 2 9 5 Byzantium 105, 126, 2 7 5 n. 231

1 0 1 - 2 , 109, 156 n. 100, 174, 177, 227, 2 3 9 , 291 Artemidorus (writer on dreams) 8 6 , 120 Arvernes 113 Ascalon 118 Asclepius 1 6 7 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 3 Asia 2 5 , 34, 4 1 - 2 , 4 4 , 51 n. 80, 5 5 6, 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 7 6 - 7 , 80 n. 3 1 , 82 n. 70, 9 4 , 9 9 , 102, 104, 106, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 4 - 1 6 , 1 2 0 - 2 , 126, 143, 151, 157, 1 6 5 - 6 , 1 7 1 - 2 , 174, 186, 1 9 5 - 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 - 3 4 , 287, 2 9 1 - 3 Assyria 9 5 , 96 Astigi 116 astrologers 4 1 , 4 5 - 6 , 2 4 6 , 2 6 6 Athanasius 126, 148, 247 Athenaeus 3 1 , 168 Athens 3 1 , 5 6 , 83 n. 104, 9 4 - 7 , 9 9 , 1 0 3 - 4 , 113, 126, 143, 175, 2 2 4 5, 3 2 5 n. 19 athletics 113, 1 2 0 - 1 , 2 2 9 , 247 Attalia 111 Augustine xi, 2, 3, 5, 82 n. 77, 8 6 7, 9 3 , 9 6 , 113, 1 2 4 - 5 , 128 n. 3 2 , 142, 148, 150, 186, 192, 2 3 6 , 253,255 Augustus 2 0 - 1 , 26 nn. 2 - 3 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 3 , 4 7 , 51 n. 8 5 , 9 5 , 1 0 1 - 3 , 1 0 6 7, 109, 111, 117, 129 n. 62, 1 3 2 3 n. 199, 155 n. 9 3 , 2 0 6 - 7 , 247, 251, 259, 265 Aurelian 106, 108, 207 Ausonius 59, 9 2 , 9 6 , 2 0 9 Aventine 152, 2 0 8 , 244

Cadiz 117, 153 n. 9, 2 0 7 - 9 , 2 1 1 , 268 n. 36 Caesarea (Cappadocia) 9 4 , 126 Caesarea (Mauretania) 119, 2 5 3 , 326 n. 52 Caesarea (Palestine) 9 9 , 126, 2 5 8 Calagurri 9 6 , 2 0 6 Caligula 4 3 , 104, 107, 120, 2 4 6 , 256,260 Camulus 212 Capitoline Games 5, 81 n. 4 6 , 1 2 0 1, 176, 2 2 9 Cappadocia 3 1 , 37, 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 76, 9 3 - 4 , 107, 119, 126, 133 n. 2 1 5 , 1 7 3 - 4 , 2 0 6 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 3 4 , 2 7 4 n. 2 0 2 , 2 9 5 Caracalla 108, 114, 136 n. 3 1 5 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 9 , 250 Carales 162 Caria 119, 120 Carnuntum 271 n. 116, 271 n. 122 Carthage ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 9 4 , 107, 1 1 4 15, 126, 162, 187, 202 n. 164, 206, 2 5 1 - 3 , 281 n. 4 2 0 , 2 8 5 catacombs xi, 7, 2 1 , 148, 152, 1 7 3 5, 1 8 7 - 9 1 , 197, 2 2 3 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 4 , 239, 2 5 8 , 2 6 2 - 4 , 2 6 6 , 3 3 0 Catania 2 5 8 - 9

Bactrians 101 Baquates 252 Barcelona 167 Batavians 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 222 beggars 28 n. 6 0 , 4 0 , 52 n. 112, 126-7, 150 Berber 2 5 1 , 253 Berytus 9 8 , 2 4 5 Bessans 1 1 7 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 1 9 , 2 7 3 n. 158

352

Index Catullus 1 6 7 , 2 2 7 Celeia 272 n. 126 Celtic languages 177, 209 Cenchreae 2 5 9 Ceraunus 83 n. 104 Chaeronea 95 chain migration 54, 9 0 - 1 , 123, 146, 234,238 Chalcis 95 charioteers 5 6 , 117, 119, 2 0 0 n. 84, 209, 2 1 5 , 2 2 9 , 253, 271 n. 103, 325 n. 7 Chatti 106 Cherusci 106 children as migrants 6 4 - 6 8 , 74, 107,169-70, 239 Chios 9 8 , 120 Christians x, 1, 2 8 n. 4 9 , 34, 4 2 , 4 6 , 51 n. 7 6 , 5 6 - 6 2 , 6 5 - 6 , 6 8 , 7 4 - 5 , 92, 1 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 2 5 - 6 , 145, 1 4 7 - 9 , 1 5 1 - 2 , 1 5 7 - 8 , 170, 1 7 3 - 5 , 1 7 8 - 9 , 1 8 0 - 3 , 186, 1 9 2 - 3 , 201 n. 123, 209, 216, 223, 225-6, 230, 232, 236-9, 245, 247-9, 253-5, 257, 259, 265-6, 286 Cicero 2, 3 6 , 3 8 - 9 , 4 4 , 94, 100, 110, 115, 121, 146-7, 175, 2 0 5 , 227, 235, 2 5 1 , 267 Cilicia 14 n. 3 8 , 32, 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 94, 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 120, 174, 2 2 8 - 9 , 231, 234, 295-6 Cirta 148, 2 5 2 , 254 citizenship 1, 4, 1 0 - 1 2 , 15, 18, 2 1 , 2 3 - 6 , 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 4 - 5 , 47, 5 2 , 7 0 , 7 6 - 7 , 8 8 , 9 4 , 103, 1 0 5 - 6 , 112, 120, 171, 176, 2 3 2 , 2 4 2 , 2 5 3 , 256-8, 329 Cius/Prusias 196 Claudian 32, 2 4 6 Claudiopolis 161 Claudius 24, 4 2 - 3 , 99, 102, 104, 1 0 6 - 8 , 111, 122, 207, 2 0 9 , 2 2 5 , 233,253,257-9 Cleopatra 24, 2 4 6 clothing 3 6 , 116, 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 2 9 Collippo 2 0 6 Cologne 217

columbaria 174, 187 Columella 207 Commagene 107, 2 4 5 Commodus 28 n. 3 8 , 9 5 , 117, 162, 206, 240-1 Conimbriga 192 Constantine 2 0 , 125, 149 Constantinople 2 3 , 37, 4 1 , 79 n. 10, 96, 9 8 , 125, 197 n. 2, 2 2 6 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 234, 236, 253 Constantius II 3 2 , 5 9 , 1 4 4 - 5 Corcyra 123, 143 Cordoba 2 0 8 Corinth 5, 9 4 , 113, 143, 2 2 5 , 2 5 9 corn dole 16, 18, 2 4 , 4 2 , 4 8 , 8 8 , 259 corn trade 114, 117, 1 6 2 - 3 , 165, 246, 2 5 0 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 5 Corsica 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 9 9 , 171, 2 9 6 Corycus 237 Cos 110, 120, 167, 2 2 5 Costobocesians 108 Cotini 222 Crates o f Mallos 3, 104 Crete 6 0 - 2 , 7 6 , 82 n. 7 0 , 111, 120, 122, 138 n. 3 8 5 , 174, 2 5 1 , 2 9 6 Cumae 5 6 Curubis 162 Cybele see Magna Mater Cyprus 6 0 - 2 , 7 6 , 120, 122, 174, 277 n. 2 9 9 , 2 9 6 Cyrene 6 0 - 2 , 7 6 , 143, 153 n. 14, 165, 2 5 1 , 2 5 4 , 2 8 0 n. 3 7 0 , 2 9 6 Cyzicus 5 6 , 111, 2 3 0 Dacia 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 77, 92, 103, 1 0 7 - 8 , 118, 166, 171, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 215, 2 1 8 , 271 n. 105, 2 9 7 - 8 Dalmatia 59, 6 1 - 2 , 67, 77, 82 n. 7 0 , 171,193-4, 212-13, 215-16, 218, 222, 2 7 0 n. 9 2 , 2 9 8 Damascus 114, 118, 245 Dardanians 6, 2 1 5 , 2 1 8 - 1 9 Dea Syria 2 4 0 Demetrius I 1 0 7 - 8 Dendera 119 Dio, Cassius 2 1 , 3 8 - 9 , 51 n. 74, 51

353

Index epitaphs x-xi, 3 - 1 1 , 1 6 , 2 1 - 3 , 2 5 , 5 3 - 6 , 6 3 - 9 , 7 1 - 2 , 74, 76, 7 8 , 9 2 3 , 9 5 , 99-100, 107-8, 113-14, 116, 118, 1 2 1 - 2 , 1 2 4 - 5 , 156 n. 100, 159, 163, 1 7 0 - 9 , 183, 1 8 5 - 9 , 192-7, 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 9 20, 2 2 2 , 2 2 4 - 5 , 2 2 8 - 3 0 , 2 3 2 - 4 , 236, 238-9, 241, 247-51, 253, 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 2 - 6 , 287 Epona 212 equites singulares 13 n. 30, 13 n. 32, 2 0 - 1 , 2 5 , 36, 6 3 , 6 8 , 70, 190, 2 0 6 , 2 1 4 - 1 6 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 2 - 3 , 227, 2 3 6 , 2 5 3 , 3 2 9 Ethiopians 3 7 , 5 1 n. 80, 117, 119 Eumeneia 25 expulsions xi, 1, 2 3 - 5 , 3 7 - 4 7 , 9 4 , 96, 118, 123, 2 0 6 , 2 1 4 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 3 , 250, 2 5 6 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 8 6 ex-slaves see freedmen/women

n. 77, 51 n. 8 5 , 54, 2 0 8 , 263 Dio Chrysostom 146 Diodorus Siculus 9 6 , 142, 148 Dionysius o f Halicarnassus 39, 144, 184, 2 2 3 , 233 disease 18, 111 Docimaeum 114 doctors ix, 4 7 - 8 , 5 6 , 1 1 0 - 1 3 , 150, 167, 169, 173, 202 n. 158, 2 0 5 , 209, 225-6, 229, 233, 246, 286 Domitian 20, 4 5 - 6 , 9 6 , 102, 120, 121, 189, 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 227 Donatists 186, 255 Edessa (Macedonia) 142 education ix, 3 - 4 , 39, 4 7 - 8 , 54, 67, 9 1 - 7 , 150, 158, 207, 2 3 5 - 6 , 2 6 0 , 285-6 Egypt i x - x , 6, 22, 2 4 - 5 , 37, 4 2 - 3 , 4 5 , 51 n. 80, 56, 6 0 - 2 , 67, 7 7 - 8 , 82 n. 7 4 , 104, 109, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 3 15, 1 1 7 - 2 0 , 1 2 5 - 6 , 129 n. 86, 138 n. 3 9 0 , 1 4 2 - 3 , 149, 157, 159, 1 6 4 - 6 , 174, 181, 183, 1 8 9 - 9 1 , 193, 2 0 2 n. 171, 2 0 4 n. 2 2 1 , 2 1 9 , 226, 232, 235, 244, 245-51, 266, 285,287, 298-300 Egyptian calendar 6, 165, 179, 2 4 8 - 5 0 , 287 Egyptian language 1 7 7 , 1 9 0 , 2 4 8 Elagabal (god) 106, 245 Elagabalus (emperor) 1 1 9 , 2 3 6 Elea 265 embalming 189, 1 9 1 - 2 embassies 3, 8, 13 n. 3 0 , 4 4 , 6 8 , 9 0 , 1 0 0 - 5 , 107, 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 123, 175, 191, 193, 198 n. 5 0 , 2 0 6 - 7 , 2 1 2 , 213, 2 2 2 - 3 , 2 2 8 , 2 5 1 - 3 , 2 5 6 , 260, 2 8 6 Emesa 108, 2 3 6 , 2 4 5 Emmaus 105 Emona 2 1 6 Emporium 2 0 8 Ephesus 5 , 9 6 , 105, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 114, 121, 148, 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 9 5 - 6 , 2 2 9 - 3 1 , 234,259 Epictetus 4 5 , 9 6 1

families as migrants 9, 2 0 , 2 2 , 5 4 , 7 0 - 5 , 87, 9 0 , 9 6 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 114, 1 2 3 - 4 , 166, 171, 1 8 0 - 1 , 194, 207, 2 1 6 , 2 5 2 , 2 8 5 - 6 Favorinus 3 5 , 9 6 , 171 Florus, P. Annius 117, 121 food shortages 3 9 - 4 1 , 2 8 6 freedmen/women ix, 9, 2 5 , 26 nn. 2 - 3 , 3 5 , 39, 4 2 , 7 1 - 3 , 7 6 - 8 , 80 n. 3 5 , 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 4 - 6 , 9 9 , 108, 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 1 5 - 1 8 , 1 2 2 - 4 , 151, 157, 166, 1 7 1 - 2 , 176, 179, 1 8 2 - 3 , 187, 193, 2 0 6 - 9 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 1 , 224-6, 229, 233, 235-6, 238-9, 2 4 2 - 3 , 2 4 5 - 8 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 2 5 6 - 8 , 285 Frisians 1 0 5 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 Fronto 5, 3 2 , 97, 1 4 8 - 9 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 Gaionas, M. Antonius xiii, 7 6 , 185, 2 4 0 - 2 , 265 Galatia 5 5 , 6 0 - 2 , 77, 9 8 , 120, 1 3 2 - 3 n. 199, 1 5 1 - 2 , 1 7 3 - 4 , 186, 1 8 8 9, 2 1 9 , 2 3 0 - 2 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 6 - 7 , 2 6 5 , 276 n . 2 7 9 , 2 8 6 - 7 , 3 0 0 - 1 Galba 2 1 , 9 6 , 100, 2 2 3 , 2 4 8 Galen xi, 4 8 n. 2, 5 4 , 5 6 , 6 6 , 7 9

354

Index n. 2, 1 1 0 - 1 2 , 143, 148, 150, 153 n. 4 games 105, 114, 1 1 7 - 2 3 Garamantes 101 Gaul x, 6, 2 1 , 27 n. 22, 34, 4 4 , 4 8 n. 11, 57, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 7 - 8 , 74, 77, 82 n. 70, 82 n. 7 4 , 89, 94, 9 9 , 112, 120, 153 n. 4, 159, 174, 193, 2 0 5 - 9 , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 217, 2 2 3 , 2 3 2 , 301-3 Gaza 1 6 2 , 2 4 5 Germanic languages 177 Germanicopolis 2 7 4 n. 202 Germany x, 18, 2 1 - 2 , 4 4 , 47, 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 1 , 77, 82 n. 70, 83 n. 9 4 , 102, 109, 130 n. 115, 137 n. 3 7 4 , 171, 190, 203 n. 185, 2 1 2 - 1 7 , 2 2 2 - 3 , 2 5 9 , 2 7 8 - 9 n. 3 2 3 , 2 8 7 , 303-6 Gigthis 103

Hebrew language 178, 2 0 0 n. 9 5 , 248, 260," 2 6 3 - 4 Heliopolis 2 4 0 - 2 , 2 4 4 Helvetians 113, 2 1 6 Heraclea 106, 161 Hercules Magusanus 222 Hermopolis 2 4 9 Hierapolis (Phrygia) 96 Hieropolis 125 Hippo Diarrhytus 162 Hippo Regius 162, 2 5 5 Hispania x, xii, 5, 2 1 , 2 3 , 34, 37, 54, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 6 - 7 , 77, 82 nn. 6 7 - 8 , 89, 9 1 , 9 4 , 1 0 2 - 3 , 105, 112, 1 1 4 17, 119, 122, 1 2 5 - 6 , 166, 170, 174, 193, 2 0 5 - 1 2 , 217, 2 7 0 n. 89, 287,307-9 Horrea Galbiana 2 4 0 , 2 4 3 , 2 7 8 n. 3 1 8 hospitium 146-7, 149, 3 2 9 hostages 67, 81 n. 57, 1 0 6 - 9 , 122, 215, 2 3 5 , 2 8 6

gladiators ix, 39, 67, 1 1 7 - 1 9 , 2 0 9 , 215, 2 4 7 , 2 8 5 goldsmiths 113, 2 2 5 Gordian 5 6 , 108, 1 6 1 - 2 Greece 2 3 , 37, 47, 5 6 , 6 0 - 2 , 77, 9 4 , 98, 101-2, 114-15, 120-1, 142-3, 165, 171, 174, 176, 2 2 3 - 6 , 2 2 9 , 306-7 Greek calendars 1 7 8 - 9 Greek language xi, 7, 2 3 , 2 5 , 27 n. 10, 3 6 - 7 , 5 5 , 7 1 , 76, 9 1 , 9 4 - 5 , 1 0 3 - 4 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 111, 114, 133 n. 2 0 8 , 1 6 0 - 1 , 168, 1 7 0 - 9 , 182, 186, 188, 190, 194-7, 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 20, 2 2 2 , 2 2 5 - 6 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 - 4 , 2 3 6 , 238-9, 241, 243, 248-50, 254-5, 264,285,287 Greeks 6, 3 4 - 5 , 4 4 , 4 6 , 7 1 - 2 , 80 n. 3 1 , 100, 104, 111, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 118, 146, 150, 1 5 8 - 9 , 170, 192, 199 n. 72, 2 0 5 , 2 2 3 - 9 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 6 , 251, 254 Gummi 162

lambadoules 2 2 2 Iberians 101, 109 Ignatius o f Smyrna 9 9 Indians 101 integration x, 1 0 - 1 2 , 1 5 7 - 6 0 , 242, 262, 287 Isis 4 3 - 4 , 148, 171, 179, 184, 190, 203 n . 1 8 7 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 9 - 5 1 Israel, Land of see Palestine Italica 207 iudices 207, 2 5 2 , 271 n. 116, 281 n. 3 9 9 , 3 2 9 J e r o m e 5 9 , 9 2 , 149 Jerusalem 89, 1 0 4 - 5 , 110, 2 5 9 , 2 6 5 , 267 Jews x - x i , 7, 13 n. 2 4 , 2 4 , 3 6 , 4 1 - 3 , 4 5 - 7 , 5 5 , 57, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 5 - 7 , 7 5 - 6 , 86, 104, 108, 122, 127, 1 4 7 - 8 , 151, 155 n. 97, 157, 159, 167, 172, 1 7 4 - 6 , 178, 184, 187, 189, 1 9 1 - 2 , 196-7, 201 n. 146, 2 2 6 , 235, 237, 246, 248-9, 251, 253, 2 5 5 - 6 7 , 287

Hadad 2 4 0 Hadrian 9 8 , 105, 1 2 1 - 2 , 149, 170, 179,206-7, 246

355

Index Josephus 4 2 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 110, 1 4 2 - 3 , 148, 150, 2 5 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 267 J u b a 118, 2 5 1 - 2 J u d a e a see Palestine Julius Caesar 4 7 , 9 4 , 102, 111, 123, 206, 246, 251, 265 Jupiter Dolichenus 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 5 5 Jupiter Heliopolitanus 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 , 255 Jupiter Maleciabrudes 2 4 0 jurists 100, 252 Justin Martyr 34, 47, 79 n. 22, 9 2 , 9 6 , 227 Juvenal 34, 114, 118, 127, 127 n. 13, 142, 146, 150, 159, 171, 177, 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 6 Karanis 165 Koprithis 2 4 8 - 9 , 251 Laconia see Sparta Lambaesis 166 Laodicea ad Lycum 5 6 , 113, 114, 122, 175, 189, 2 2 8 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 5 8 , 274 n. 2 0 5 , 275 n. 2 2 9 Laranda 9 5 , 122, 2 2 9 Latin language 1-3, 7, 10, 2 5 , 3 6 - 7 , 42, 4 5 , 5 5 , 83 n. 108, 9 1 , 9 4 - 7 , 103, 1 0 6 - 9 , 114, 118, 124, 133 nn. 2 0 8 - 9 , 149, 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 6 8 - 7 1 , 173, 1 7 5 - 9 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 185-7, 190, 195, 2 0 7 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 6 , 228, 233, 236-9, 241-4, 248-9, 253, 2 5 4 - 5 , 2 6 3 - 4 , 2 8 5 , 287 Lepcis 3 3 , 9 2 , 9 5 , 97, 170, 254 Lesbos 2 2 6 letters home 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 8 7 letters o f introduction 9 3 , 126, 146, 148, 150 Lex Gabinia 101 Lex Papia 3 8 - 9 Libanius 4 0 libraries 9 5 - 6 , 105, 129 n. 62 Libyans 3 3 , 3 5 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 3 - 4 Limyris 2 2 9 Lingones 108 Livy 2, 2 3 5

356

London 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 3 , 159, 2 7 4 n. 195 Lucan 3 4 , 6 6 , 95 Lucian 3 5 , 110, 130 n. 110, 141, 168, 199 n. 72 Lucretius 189 Lusitania 119, 127 n. 1, 2 0 9 - 1 0 Lycia et Pamphylia 6 0 - 2 , 77, 103, 106, 112, 120, 174, 2 2 7 , 2 3 1 , 309-10 Lydia 120, 2 2 4 , 227 Lyon 5 6 , 9 2 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 126, 130 n. 117, 159, 193, 2 0 7 - 8 , 2 1 2 , 2 6 8 n. 17, 2 6 8 n. 30 Macedonia 2 1 - 2 , 4 4 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 77, 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 147, 174, 2 1 2 - 1 4 , 218, 220, 224, 2 5 1 , 2 7 0 n. 8 9 , 3 1 0 magicians 4 5 , 150 Magna Mater 4 4 , 9 9 , 106, 125, 203 n. 187, 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 - 3 , 2 7 0 n. 65 Magnesia on Maeander 79 n. 2, 137 n. 347 Malaga 115, 166, 2 0 8 , 211 Manichaeans 5, 148 Mantinea 103 marble trade 114, 2 2 9 , 281 n. 4 0 1 , 287 Marcion 5 6 , 126, 1 4 7 - 8 Marcionopolis 222 Marcomanni 106, 2 1 5 Marcus Aurelius 5 6 , 7 9 n. 2, 9 5 , 97, 108, 142, 146, 160, 2 4 0 - 1 Maroboduus 106, 215 marriage 1 7 - 1 8 , 5 3 , 6 7 - 7 2 , 7 4 , 1 1 1 , 124, 1 5 8 - 9 , 2 5 8 Marsacians 2 1 5 - 1 6 Marseille 104, 111, 113, 2 0 5 Martial xi, 2, 3, 3 1 , 37, 5 4 , 6 6 , 87, 89, 100, 117, 1 2 1 - 2 , 164, 167, 2 0 7 - 9 , 2 1 1 , 2 4 6 , 2 6 9 n. 6 0 , 2 7 0 n. 79 Matres Suleviae 223 Mauretania 6 0 - 2 , 74, 77, 82 n. 7 4 , 119, 162, 174, 2 0 6 , 2 5 1 - 3 , 3 1 0 - 1 1 Medes 101, 109, 3 2 5 n. 9 Melos 111, 192 Messene 9 3 , 102

Index Milan 94 Miletus 166, 2 3 0 minium 116, 2 0 8 Minucius Felix 115, 123 Misya 162 Moesia 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 77, 80 n. 3 1 , 116, 171, 194, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 8 20, 3 1 1 - 1 2 , 3 2 5 n. 28 Mogontiacum 217 Montanists 126, 186 Mopsuestia 161 mummification 189 municeps 70 musicians 118, 1 2 0 - 2 , 137 n. 352 Musluvium 162 Mygdonians 227, 2 3 0 , 2 3 3 Mysia 120 Mytilene 1 0 2 - 3 , 123 Nabataean language 178, 2 0 0 n. 9 5 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 264 names 6, 11, 2 5 , 28 n. 4 3 , 29 n. 6 3 , 51 n. 8 0 , 7 0 - 2 , 7 6 - 8 , 83 n. 109, 112, 157, 172, 176, 1 7 9 - 8 3 , 185, 188, 191, 195, 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 220-1, 224, 226, 233, 235-6, 238-9, 242-3, 247-8, 259, 262, 272 n. 153, 2 8 7 , 3 2 9 - 3 0 Naples 1 2 0 - 1 , 167 Narbonne 116, 159, 162, 212 Naucratis 95 Neapolis (Samaria) 79 n. 22 Nebridius 82 n. 77, 123 Nero 28 n. 4 4 , 4 5 , 9 6 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 102, 1 0 7 , 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 177, 207 Nerva 146, 2 6 3 Nicaea ix, 5 6 , 9 5 , 1 9 4 - 5 Nicomedia 3 1 , 9 6 , 112, 114, 117, 121, 126, 134 n. 270, 194, 196, 229, 2 3 1 , 3 2 5 n. 16 Nicopolis 4 5 , 9 6 , 198 n. 50 Nimes 100 Nisibis 5 6 , 92, 109 Noricum 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 77, 116, 161, 171, 190, 193, 2 1 2 - 1 5 , 217, 2 2 1 , 270 n. 89, 3 1 2 - 1 3 Noviomagum 217

357

Numidia xii, 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 114, 174, 251-2, 254, 289-91 Nysa 9 5 , 161 oil trade 80 n. 3 5 , 114, 116, 163, 208, 2 1 5 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 2 5 5 , 287 Osrhoene 108 Ostia xiii, 26 n. 1, 74, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 118, 128 n. 2 0 , 1 4 2 - 4 , 153 n. 9, 1 6 0 4, 182, 193, 2 0 3 n. 183, 207, 2 1 2 , 222, 247, 2 5 0 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 5 , 267, 2 7 3 n. 158, 275 n. 2 5 0 Ovid 117, 168 Ovilavis 213 Oxyrhynchus 25 Palestine 6, 6 0 - 2 , 77, 79 n. 3, 81 n. 64, 8 6 , 8 9 , 104, 107, 110, 1 4 2 3, 159, 167, 171, 174, 189, 191, 193, 199 n. 6 6 , 203 n. 191, 2 5 5 7,259-67, 318-21 Palmyrene gods 177, 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 - 5 Palmyrene language 1 7 7 - 9 , 1 8 2 , 200 n. 9 3 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 - 4 , 2 6 4 , 2 7 8 n. 3 1 6 Pannonia ix, xii, 2 1 - 2 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 7 0 - 2 , 74, 7 7 - 8 , 9 9 , 110, 130 n. 104, 1 4 8 - 9 , 171, 188, 190, 212-14, 216-20, 222-3, 270 n. 92, 2 8 5 , 287, 3 1 3 - 1 7 pantapolae 45 Paphlagonia 14 n. 3 8 , 7 8 , 116, 141, 2 2 9 , ' 2 3 1 , 274 n. 195 Parthia 2 1 , 3 6 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 67, 7 6 , 80 n. 3 1 , 1 0 1 - 2 , 106-7, 109, 118, 122, 174, 183, 191, 2 3 9 , 2 7 8 - 9 n. 323, 291 Patrae 147 Paul, Saint 5, 29 n. 6 5 , 5 5 , 99, 125, 142, 147, 2 5 9 , 2 6 2 , 2 6 6 - 7 Paul (jurist) 100 Paulinus o f Nola 149, 2 0 9 peregrini 1-2, 4, 15, 17, 2 1 , 2 4 - 5 , 32, 3 8 - 4 1 , 7 3 , 7 6 - 8 , 82 n. 82, 9 2 , 112, 125, 171, 179, 228, 2 3 0 , 247, 2 5 0 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 7 - 8 n. 4, 272 n. 150, 3 3 0

Index Praetorian Guard x, 4, 7, 13 n. 2 5 , 13 n. 32, 2 0 - 1 , 4 4 , 4 6 , 5 5 , 6 3 - 4 , 6 8 - 7 1 , 7 7 - 8 , 8 2 - 3 n. 8 6 , 8 5 , 166, 1 6 8 - 9 , 183, 196, 2 0 6 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 - 2 2 , 2 3 6 , 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 272 n. 141, 2 7 4 n. 2 0 2 , 2 8 5 - 6 , 3 3 0 Prisc(ill)a and Aquila 5, 4 3 , 47, 2 5 9 Proconnesus 114 prostitutes 4 5 , 1 2 2 - 3 Prusa 195 Ptolemais 54, 2 7 9 n. 323 Ptolemy VI 109, 142, 148, 2 4 5 Ptolemy X I I 1 0 9 , 2 4 5 Punic language, people 5, 3 3 , 157, 172,177,253-4 push and pull factors 7 4 , 8 6 - 9 1 , 126, 2 2 4 Puteoli 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 1 4 3 - 5 , 153 n. 9, 161, 163, 247, 2 6 0

Pergamum 5 6 , 6 6 , 79 n. 2, 104, 111, 115, 141, 143, 148, 153 n. 4, 167,227 Perge 97, 2 2 9 Persia 189 {see also Parthia) Persian language 177 Pessinus 4 4 , 233 Peter, Saint 4 2 , 5 5 , 125 Philadelphia (Egypt) 164 Philadelphia (Lydia) 1 2 1 , 1 3 7 n. 3 5 2 , 2 2 9 Philippopolis 2 2 2 Philo 51 n. 7 5 , 104, 151, 2 4 6 , 2 5 6 , 2 5 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 2 6 7 , 2 7 9 n. 3 3 5 , 284 n. 4 9 9 philosophers 8, 4 4 - 6 , 5 6 , 9 4 - 7 , 1 0 3 - 5 , 111, 125, 143, 1 7 1 - 2 , 225,229 Philostratus 9 2 - 3 , 111, 1 4 3 , 2 2 4 Phoenicians 125, 136 n. 3 4 6 , 178, 197 n. 6, 2 3 4 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 0 , 251 Phrygia ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 5 6 , 67, 7 3 , 99, 114, 116, 126, 176, 186-7, 2 2 4 , 227-30, 232-3, 236, 285 Plarasa 1 0 4 - 5 Plautus 2, 171, 2 3 5 , 246 Pliny, Elder 2 , 4 7 , 103, 111, 113, 122, 160, 2 3 5 Pliny, Younger 4 5 , 9 4 - 5 , 105, 112, 121, 144 Plotinus 5 5 - 6 , 9 6 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 126, 250 Plutarch 9 8 , 122 Poetovio 271 n. 103 poets 8, 3 8 , 5 4 , 6 6 , 100, 102, 1 2 0 2, 2 2 5 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 6 Polybius 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 7 - 8 , 223 Pomponius Mela 207 Pontus see Bithynia popes 2 3 , 4 6 , 5 5 , 1 2 5 - 6 , 173, 186, 202 n. 164, 2 3 5 population o f Rome, size 1 5 - 2 2 , 257 Porphyry 9 6 - 7 Portus xiii, 79 n. 27, 114, 121, 1 4 3 4, 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 162, 165, 196-7, 2 2 9 , 241, 245, 250 praetor peregrinus 41

Quintilian 9 6 , 100, 207 rabbis 4 8 , 8 6 , 8 9 , 1 4 4 - 6 , 1 9 1 - 2 , 2 5 7 - 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 267 Raetia 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 77, 171, 2 1 2 13, 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 271 n. 115, 317-18 returning home x, 3 - 4 , 13 n. 2 5 , 22, 5 3 - 4 , 87, 8 9 - 9 0 , 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 8 , 107, 109, 112, 119, 1 2 1 - 2 , 126, 132-3 n. 199, 143, 1 6 7 - 9 , 185, 1 9 1 - 4 , 2 5 7 , 287 Rhodes 9 5 , 106, 146 Rio de J a n e i r o xi, 17, 2 3 , 4 9 n. 18, 63, 8 8 - 9 , 185, 199 n. 6 9 Sabaeans 117 Sabazius 4 2 , 4 4 , 2 3 4 Sabratha 163 Saetabis 166 Saguntum 105 sailors 22, 165, 181, 2 1 9 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 6 , 2 4 5 - 6 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 272 n. 150, 3 2 9 Salamis 125 Sallust 35 Salona ix, 193, 2 8 5 Same 2 2 4

358

Index Samos 34 sarcophagi 109, 114, 190, 193, 196, 204 n. 23 Sardinia 4 2 , 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 9 9 , 103, 116, 162, 174, 257, 2 9 6 Sardis 161, 2 3 3 - 4 Sarmatians 1 0 1 - 2 , 117 Sarmizegethusa 166 Savaria 110, 272 n. 128 Scardona 92 sculptors 3, 5 5 , 8 9 , 113, 2 2 5 , 2 2 9 , 275 n. 2 5 0 Scythians 3 1 , 101 Seceni 2 6 5 Segesta 103 Segisama 211 Seleuceia 9 5 , 97 Semnones 2 1 5 senate, senators 4 , 15, 3 2 - 3 , 3 6 , 39, 44, 47, 5 4 , 57, 9 2 , 9 6 , 9 8 - 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 - 6 , 148, 166-7, 180, 2 0 7 , 216, 2 2 4 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 6 , 246, 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 , 287 Seneca, Elder 2 0 7 - 8 , 211 Seneca, Younger 3, 3 3 - 4 , 8 5 , 9 0 - 1 , 97-8, 100,117, 121-3 Sepphoris 2 5 8 , 2 6 5 Serapis 4 3 , 114, 138 n. 3 9 0 , 171, 179, 184, 190, 2 4 9 - 5 1 Serdica 271 n. 105 Severus, Septimius (friend o f Statius) 3 3 , 81 n. 5 3 , 97, 2 5 4 Severus, Septimius (emperor) 2 0 , 28 n. 3 8 , 6 4 , 7 1 , 74, 92, 9 8 , 105, 1 2 3 - 4 , 144, 146, 149, 166, 170, 214, 2 3 6 , 2 5 2 , 282 n. 4 2 2 Sicca Veneria 97, 192 Sicily 6 0 - 2 , 77, 97, 103, 1 1 1 , 1 1 9 , 138 n. 3 8 5 , 143, 174, 195, 257, 318 Sicyon 34 Side 112 Sidon 111 Sidonius Apollinaris 32, 92, 9 8 , 111, 149, 153 n. 4, 2 0 9 Sigambrians 117 silversmiths 113

Sinope 68 Siscia 188 Sitifis 74, 194 slaves ix-x, xii, 2 - 4 , 6 - 7 , 9, 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 9 , 2 3 - 6 , 3 1 - 2 , 3 4 - 7 , 39, 4 8 , 6 7 - 8 , 7 3 - 4 , 7 6 - 8 , 85, 88-90, 92, 9 4 - 6 , 108, 111, 113, 115, 1 1 8 19, 1 2 2 - 3 , 1 4 3 - 4 , 148, 157, 160, 1 6 9 - 7 2 , 1 7 9 - 8 0 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 185, 187, 205-7, 213-15, 221, 223-6, 2 2 7 8, 2 3 3 , 2 3 5 - 6 , 2 3 8 - 9 , 2 4 5 - 8 , 250-1, 253, 256-7, 260, 286 slaves, imperial 6 8 , 9 9 , 156 n. 9 8 , 225, 227, 233 Smyrna ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 6 6 , 79 n. 22, 92, 9 4 , 9 9 , 102, 112, 122, 128 n. 32, 192, 195, 2 2 8 - 3 0 , 2 3 3 , 285 soldiers xii, 3 - 4 , 6 - 9 , 11, 15, 18, 20, 2 2 - 4 , 28 n. 57, 29 n. 6 5 , 4 9 n. 4 0 , 53, 5 7 - 6 0 , 6 2 - 4 , 6 6 - 7 5 , 78, 85, 99, 116, 164, 169, 171, 181, 1 8 3 4, 186, 191, 196, 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 1 7 22, 2 2 9 , 237, 252 Sopianae 99 sophists 92, 9 5 - 7 , 102, 1 0 4 - 5 , 143, 192,229 Soranus 111, 113, 170 Spain see Hispania Sparta 74, 101, 103, 107, 2 2 5 , 326 n. 4 6 Sri Lanka 102 stationes 94, 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 6 0 - 4 , 2 1 2 , 221, 229, 234, 252, 255, 270 n. 74, 275 n. 2 4 8 , 287 Statius 3 3 , 189 Strabo 32, 9 5 - 6 , 119, 169 Suebians 1 1 8 , 2 1 6 Suetonius 3 6 , 3 9 , 4 2 - 3 , 47, 51 n. 7 3 , 52 n. 9 8 , 177, 2 0 6 , 247 Syllectum 163 Symmachus 4 1 , 79 n. 3, 119, 153 n. 6 Syracuse 110, 117 Syria 2, 6, 10, 2 3 , 3 1 - 2 , 3 4 - 5 , 37, 51 n. 80, 5 6 , 6 0 - 2 , 6 6 - 7 , 7 6 - 8 , 81 n. 64, 82 n. 7 6 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 9 4 - 5 , 100, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 118, 120, 1 2 5 - 6 ,

359

Index 128 n. 32, 134 n. 2 6 6 , 135 n. 280, 143, 151, 159, 165, 171, 1 7 3 - 5 , 178, 1 8 2 - 3 , 1 8 5 - 8 , 191, 193, 199 n. 6 6 , 202 n. 171, 2 1 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 4 45, 248, 255-6, 258, 262, 265, 284 n . 5 0 0 , 2 8 6 - 7 , 3 1 8 - 2 1 Syriac language 177, 2 7 8 - 9 n. 323 Syrian Sanctuary 2 4 0 - 2 Tacitus 1, 2, 18, 3 4 - 5 , 4 3 , 51 n. 73, 52 n. 97, 164, 257 Tarragona 121 Tarsus 32, 5 5 , 9 5 , 129 n. 86, 161, 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 234 Tatian 92, 9 6 , 177 teachers see education Teos 101, 195 Terence 251 Termessos 130 n. 116, 191, 228 Thabraca 258 Thagaste 94 Thamugadis 194, 252 Thebes ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 112, 118, 187, 285 Thrace x, 7, 2 1 , 37, 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 7 1 , 77, 80 n. 3 1 , 82 n. 70, 82 n. 74, 83 n. 9 3 , 101, 107, 117, 119, 153 n. 4, 171, 174, 1 8 3 - 6 , 190, 2 1 2 15, 2 1 8 - 2 3 , 2 3 2 , 237, 2 3 9 , 2 4 5 , 262, 2 8 5 , 287, 3 2 1 - 4 Thracian language 177, 1 7 9 , 2 1 9 - 2 0 Thyateira 5 6 Tiberias 161, 2 5 8 - 9 , 265 Tiberius 2 0 - 1 , 4 2 - 3 , 4 5 , 51 n. 8 5 , 1 0 1 - 4 , 106, 122, 146, 201 n. 140, 250, 257 Timagenes 85 Tiridates, K. o f Armenia 102, 177 Trajan 9 8 , 105, 107, 112, 114, 118, 207, 213 Tralles 3 4 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 115, 134 n. 2 5 8 , 161,228 Trastevere 20, 28 n. 5 1 , 9 1 , 149, 1 5 1 - 2 , 182, 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 5 , 2 5 0 , 278 n. 323 Treves 92, 126 Tripolis (Asia) 114, 2 5 8 - 9 , 265

360

Tripolitania 252 Tungrians 2 1 1 , 2 6 9 n. 53 Turris Libisonis 163 Tyre 9 4 , 9 6 , 100, 115, 126, 161, 163, 172 Ubians 215 Ulizibbira 252 Urban Cohorts 22, 4 6 , 6 8 , 82 n. 82, 116, 166, 193, 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 5 3 , 3 3 0 Urban Prefect 4 0 - 1 , 9 3 , 122, 148, 188, 2 2 3 , 2 6 8 n. 29 Uselis 103 Vaga 252 Valerius Maximus 2, 4 1 , 43 Vandals 106 Vatican region 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 192, 2 3 2 , 2 4 8 , 275 n. 2 3 9 Verus, Lucius 109, 118, 122, 247 Vespasian 2 0 , 4 5 , 9 4 , 105, 108, 150, 160, 227 Vienne 1 0 0 , 2 0 7 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 , 2 6 9 - 7 0 n. 64, 2 7 0 n. 74 vigiles 13 n. 32, 2 5 3 , 3 3 0 villages 72, 7 5 , 159, 178, 1 8 5 - 6 , 188, 202 n. 171, 202 n. 173, 2 1 8 21, 230-2, 234, 237-8, 247-8, 265, 272 n. 157, 275 n. 232 Virgil 127 n. 14, 144 visitors (temporary migrants) xi, 3 4, 8, 57, 81 n. 57, 9 0 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 114, 117, 121, 123, 125, 2 1 1 , 242 Vitellius 45 Vocontia 118 Volubilis 194, 253 wine trade 1 1 4 - 1 6 , 162, 2 0 8 , 2 5 2 , 281 n. 401 Xanthus 130 n. 116, 2 2 8 xenophobia 3 5 - 6 , 2 2 6 , 2 8 6 Zberthourdos 222 Zeno o f Aphrodisias 5 5 , 113 Zenobia 108 Zeus Keraunios 2 4 0