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Greece a n d Macedonia Chapter 1 T he City States 800-360 BC 10
Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4
The States at War II The Phalanx 37 The Phalanx in the Field 44 Armour and Weapons 51
Chapter 2 M acedon 360- 140 BC 64 Part 1 T he M acedonian Wars 64 Part 2 The New Macedonian Army 68 Part 3 The L ater Macedonian Army 75 Italy a n d T he Wester n Med iter ranean Chapter 1 T he Rise of Rome 800-275 BC 86
Part 1 T he Struggle for Italy 87 Part 2 The Italian Military Systems 91 Chapter 2 Rome 275-140 B C 129 Part 1 T he Roman Army 160 BC 129 Part 2 T he Great Wars 143 The Ro man E m p ire Chapter 1 T h e Empire 140 BC-AD 200 210
Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4
Conq uest of the World 210 Army Organisation (D r Brian D obson) 213 Equipment 228 T h e Army in the Field 239
Chapter 2 The Later Empire
AD
200-450 249
Pa rt 1 T he M obile Army (D r Roger T omlin) 249 Part 2 Equipment 259 Appendix 1 War at Sea 262 Appendix 2 Fortifications and Siege W arfare 274 Appendix 3 Roman Military Costume 304 Bibliography 314 Index 316
GREECE AN D MACEDO:--IA
The City States 800-360 DC
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T H E C ITY STAT ES 800-360 Be T HE STATES AT WA R
Int roductio D Soon aftfi 1200 Be the great Bronu_ Age crvilisauon which had f1ourishC'd in Greece for several ceerunes ...-ent into a rapid decline and tinally collapsed. Barbarou s uibn poured southwards obliterating the last re mnants of th e xt ycenaean culture, and a dark age descended on G reece. T his book is a surve y of t he militar y system. th at emerged from this dark age. An au empt is made to t race t h~ developm~ nt of militar y organisation, tact ics and ar mament in Greece and Italy from t he 8t h cent ur y Be, when ci"ili.ation once more began to eme rge in Gree« , unt il the onsct of the second dark age when t he Roman em pire in the West collapsed. Both Greece and Rome had to face the supreme tnl. With G reece it WI$ .....hCII the Penian. in.-a.de:ntury , ...·hile Rome faced a similar cruci al situation whe n the gratest of the ancienl generals, Hannibal, invaded I taly 260 yea" later. Both t hese wan are examined in considereble detail to show how the t wo military syste ms rose to t he situaILon. .\toll of Rome's or ganisation and equipmen t was borrowed from the nation. with whom she came into confl ict: the Etruscans, Samnites, Celts, Canna ginians and, of course, the Gree ks , T he contr ibutic ns c f each of the . e sta tes will be examined in tu rn . Alread r by t he late M ycenaea n period in the 13th and t 2th cent uries Be central European influences were bei ng fel t in t he Aegean world. T his continued in the succeeding centuries and. b>· the time that Homer 's epic poems of t he .\i.ycenaean era, the l/iad and the Odyruy, were commiued 10 " Titing, pra.;ticall>· nothi ng of the ancient weaponry survived. For t his reason , unless there is adeat derivation from theearlier period, the Bronze Age ...i ll be ignored. O ur knowledge of the 8t h and l1 h centuries is very sparse b ut, by t he 6th, we have a conti nuous written history. T he hislory of the 6t h and 5t h cen· rune s is dom inated first by t he rise of Persia and later by the bl uer war betwee n Sparta and At hens. T he period is very well docume nted by IWO great wnrers-c- Hero dot us, who ",·as alive at the time of the Pen ian invasion of Gt'eece, and T bucydides, the greatest of the ancie nt historians, who "'as actually
involved in ue .... r betwee n Spana and Athens, T o t hese one mu st add Xenophon, who " Tore alVUIld t he beginning of mc 4th century Be. Xenophon's writ ings arc not in the same class as Herod OllIS or Thucydid es but he was a soldier and served for man)· }'e an with the Spanan•. He is t hus an incom parable sou rce of infor m at ion about t he Spart an military system. The~ e literary sources ar e supple_ mented b y a mass of archaeological evidence. An er a battle it was custom ary for the victor to dedicate some armou r in a sanct uary such as Olympia. In time t hese shrines became .0 clutte re d wit h armou r that it became neceasar}' to t hro...' out the older pieces. At O lym pia some were dumped in t he 5treams and dis used " "ells. whib t other pio;es ~re used to reinforce t he banks of the stadium. In rece nt years some of this armour has been recovered during exca'·at KlIIS.
The S tates a t War
When t he M ycenaean states fell soon after t 200 IIC, hotdes of savage tribesmen, G reek speaking but from the mountaimlU' north · ....e.tern region , moved down into sout hern G reece. T he most formid abl e of t hese invaders were the Dori ans. M any of t he origina l inhabitants fled fro m G r eece and settle d along the west coast of Asia M inor (Turkey ) in Ihe area t hat became kno",'n as Ionia. T he invasions and subsequenl m igrations came 10 an end about 1000 BC. This ....as followed by a period of settlement. Finally, order began to ret.um . The little states ,.'hich emerge.goras "'as thrown out, he appealed to his personal friend Cleomenes for assista nce. Clcomenes, wit h a small bod y of rel ainers , agai n invaded Attica, and so great was t he aura of Span a tha I he took the city wit hout a blo w and gar risoned t he Acro rcn•. When the Athenians discovere d t he paltry size of Cleomenes' party, t hey besieged the Acropolis and Clecmenes, in the face of starvation, .... a. forced to sur render, Fear ing repri s.ls, t he Athenians felt ob liged to release the king and his retainers. Enr aged at his humiliat ion Cleome nn re lurned to Spana and mobilised t he entir e Peloponnesian League against Athens. Accompanied b y t he rr
G R EE C E A:-JD MACE DON IA
other king Dema ratus, he led his arm~ to"'ards the borders of A ttica. In the non h T hel:>l:s and C hakis, Alhens ' ~'OlTlmcrcial ri"al, se ized the o p portunity to stri ke at Ihcir enem y and alw mobilised . hUI I:>I:fo"" the assault CQUld be launched d isse nsion broke out in t he Peloponnestan ranks , !o.1any of the allied Slates refuse;,cd t he Danu be and imade d Scythia, Next T hraee was o verru n and .\-tacedo niu forced to submit. Only 'I'hessaly now , «x,d hel ween t he Greek states and Persia. In 500 the Greek slate, in Asia ,\ I m" r, led by Mil" IU' , revolte d and looked for help from t he wes t . Athens and Eretr ia on the wes t CQ;lSt uf Huboe a se nt expe ditionary
fo rces to Ionia which res ulted in t he saet inll end bur ning of Sardis, capi tal of t he Persian san ap~·. T he Persians rUl h l essl~' put down the "" '011 .•\li lerlli> was overt hrown and its pnpu lark>ll ooId into d a,'ery, By -194 the revcn " -as over and the Pers,ans prepat'N for a pumnve o f"'dition against GINa . An embassy was se nt (0 G reece demanding eart h and water, the traditional symbols of suhm ission. All hough practically all t he Greek states refused , " .::gina. which ha d t rad ing links wnh t he eaSl , su bm itted . Aegi na lies in the Saronic gulf " nly te n kilometres olf the An ic coaSi and cont rols access to At he n. ' harbouMi. W ith t he Isla n d under Persia n contro l Al hens woul d be: strangled . Aegina was a mem hcr of the Pcloponne sian League and Athens appealed to he r old enemy C le" me nes , The Spartan king to"k up t he Atheni an cause hur nnce aKain he Ca rne int o co nfl ict with his co llealo:ue Dema rat us. The enmit y which had smouldered between the I WO ' ince the abortive at tempr to invad e All iea some t 7 years he f"re now bursl into flame , Cjeomenes laid charges of illegit imacy against his colleague and Dema ratus " 'as depmcd. T he fonner king fled GR'eCe and toot ..,fuge wil h the l' eMilans . Cleomenes, freed of his partner, forcibly ..,turned A\'gina 10 its former loy'allies and pa tched u p an alliaOCe ,,-ith Athens agai m l the t hreatened lOva,ion . T he PeMiians om"iously in_ lended only a lim iled puniti"e o peration agalOst At hens and l':.-etria which had aid ed t he loman eevon. I n 490 the P ersia'" launched a seaborne anack . Er etria was sacked and the llcct moved dow n 10 t he ba~' of .' laratoon ..,ady for 1he sIri ke agains t Athens. The Al henians scm a ru nner 10 Sparta and marched QU I 10 meet the inva ders. W hat ha ppened at Uarathon isconfused and t he tru th will pro ba b ly ne'"er be known . The S partans delayed their march be cause they were ecl ebn ting a resli val and ar rived 100 late fo r t he batt leo T o t he ir ast onishment they di scovered lhal the At he nians bad decisive ly defeated Ihe Persia ns and dr iven t hem Out of Attica. The defeat at Maratho n serve d onl y 10 in itat e t he Persia ns. All knew fha t t he matl el WIS unsettled, but it was te n years hefore a """ontJ arternpr " as matJe" [n
t he meamime Athens was a ble to build u p he r lleel u nt il it ",as eq uai lOr he combmed fleels of all tbe ot her Greek stales. \X"hen it became obvious t ha t the Persi.an in" sion was imm ine nt. a C\)f1g"'ss was as5Cm bled at the i.thmus of U>rlnlh 10 try 10 'el tl e fhe imCTnal d ifrere ncn of the G reet Slates SO t ha t they oould present a united front. In l~ sprmg of 480 BC lhe Persian t ing Xe n:es, accompanied b)" D~ mar alUt, the deposed king of Spar1a. crossed the He llespont. H it vase army advanced on (irec l)" L"Overcd with hide, wh ich were
T H E C IT Y ST ATES &>0-360 lie TH E S T ATI\S AT W AR
som e w hat SIm ila r in a ppeara nce (0 the
U." eOliafl . hid d., this was a ce ntralhand grip tv pc on It, wh ich was stitched a metal 00"•. Their weapons co nsrsred of a 'ho rt sp~3 r . bou t zm in le n gt h, a lu ng composite lin'" with hronz e- lippe d ITcd arruws and . dai/;ger w h ich hu n g on the rig ht . ide, The elite of t he !' eThlan anny werC rhc klll g '6 pe rsonal Ix>dygu a rd, the 10,000
Im mort als, '" called
he~au,e
thei r
st rengt h w a, alw ays kept up to t hi, numhe r. T h" 'I cq uipm GR EECE A:-.: n .'I.1AC f: DO :--J I A
At T hermopylae the mou ntains come in cl",e to the sea, leaving only tWO possible ro ute! south -one along t he CNS! and the (Mher a vcry di fficult route over the mountains . T oda y t here is a ma rshy plain berween t he hills and the sea, brou ght about by the silting of the ri,·cr Sperchrius ; in t he ~th ~n1Ur)· tIC t here was only a nalTow passage between the hills and the sea. Th ese hills, the Callidromus ra nge, streich in an easl-wnl direcnon down t he ecase and al t hrtt points ther co me very dose: to the sea . T he lint of t bese (t he west gate) is at the very beginning of the pass. Herodotus descr ibes t his as so narro"· lhat t here was only roo m for a single cartway. Here the hills are not very high and could easily be crossed. Beyond t he wnl gat e the pass wide ns. Here was situated the and ent vilb ge of Anthela T wo and a half kilometres beyond the west gate lay the village of The rmopylae, named after the hot springs which still rise there today. T he calcium car bonate in these ther mal spr ings gives t he land· scapc t he appear ance of cru sty grey rock. A great cl iff, know n as Zastano , to wers nearly r.ocorn above Thermopylae_
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Th is cliff is the ke~· to t he pass . A shon distance be}·ond the cliff a spur jUls out towards the sea (t his is t he m iddle pass). Along t his spur t he people of Phocis had const ructed a ..-all st re tc hing OU t into l he manM 10 stop the Malians in,.,.d_ ing Iheir CO!.Inlry. An }-one ",~shing to bn'lss this poi nl ....oeld neve to neg0nate the Zan ano cliff_About t hree kilometres fan her along the pass is a t hIrd narm'" poi nt (Ihe east gate) wit h t he ancient ,-mage of ..\ lpe ni built on a spur jut ting out into the mars hes . Here t he hills are low and easy to CIo. s. As me nt ione d before, th ere ....as anot her stee p and d ifficult route into cent ral Greece at the CS t end of Ihe range. T his rout e follo s the valle}" of the Asopu s, which passes t hrough a precip itous gorge. T oday the railway and road bot h follow th is route , th e for mer passing t hrough a tunnel on th e we, t . ide of t he gorge, whilst th e lalter climb. up th e hillside "n t he east of the ravine and then runs over t he hills above t he gorg e. T his route was guar ded by t he ancient citadel of Trac hi. built on top or t he stee p cliff. overlooking the ..-est side of the gor ge. "So commander
" 'ou ld auempr to force a passage at Ihis point in thefaeeoCdetermined and wellorganised opposition_ .-\ shun d istance off the coast lies t he long island of Euboea, which st retehe, for 1 7 ~ km in a south-eas te rly di rection, leaving onl)· a narro.... channel bet....een {he isla nd and the mainland . Here, unlike t he original position a{ T empe , i{ "as posMblr for Ihe Grttk tlerI: 10 p~_ '·ent the Pen ian na'-y bypass ing the G rttk army on the mainland . This, lhen, ....al t he area .,,-here the Grttks elected to halt t he Persian ad.-ancr _ An edvance guard ....a s imme di alely sent out to man the pass until tbe rest of t he army could be bro ught up. Cleomenes had met a violent end .e'"en years earlier and had bee n succeeded by his you nger brot her Leonid as. It .... as Ihis new Spart an king who marched nort h .... it h hi. h..,dyguard of 300, th e h'ppm , to hold t he pa•• a_l ow A model 01 Il"Ie p. .. 31 Trn.,rnopyl... o. ,t prob 30'" 3l>p"a'lld c 500 Be. Tho Po,...,.,. "",comped i~ I'" pla n on " '" 1011 T"'" 01\0S "u,J1d have had am ple space to beach in a single line . Lookoul posn we re ""lab-lished o n Ille lIill•. O ne of these mu.t certainly ha"e been placed abo" e Cape ....rtemision , len kilometres cast of Pe"1 '''''wn '"
in the .\1&lian gulf o n the loort eent h da y, after Ihe arm y had secured ancoorago there fu r t he fleel. Xerxes al read~' knew lhal the pesses into Thessal)" we~ no! occupied and he entered lhe plain ....-n hour o pposit ion. A, he ad ''aOCCd sout h his S's only a rouple of da~', later . COISt.
The ba ilie for Thermo p ylae It was well int" August when Xerxc-s reacbed the plain of Lamia, He hope d lhat when his ann)' .....as assemhled . its sheer size would cause the Greeks in the pass to Iosc hean and dcs,," their polIS . The Great K ing waited for fou r da ys, probabl y anucipanng the arrival of the lIeel . W he n Ihe)' did not show up, and rhe G r«l:s remained obSlinatel)' loo!!ed in t he pass, he ral her flamboyantly orde red for....ard his Medes and Cjssians (who wele , im ilarly ar med . but the lat ter wo re turbans) , wil h o rde .. to 'brinll: t hem hack alive', The M cdes launched a ,eric, of cha rges whic h failed to make any im_ pr~sion on Ihe G reek s. W hen Xerxes law lhal t ile Greeks were holding firm. he .ounded the recall and scm forward hi, pe rsonal bod yguard, t he Imm ort als, led hy their com ma nder H ydarne• . Ten
"
GREECE ....!';I)
.\iACEDO~IA
thou sa nd " ra"k troops " f the g reate$t ar m y that the ,,'mid had ever seen mUl'hed out w do the ir kin !!'. hiddinl!' ' ) '0 tho'" wlm wat"hed from the Pcrs ian l-amp a, they moved fo r"o ard, il m us t Ita\"e seemed imp"", iblc that they could fail. ...., tM I mmonals ad\"aill-cd. the Sparta rrs p",,,,,d th rough 1M "-all 10 m«1 t hem , For all Ihe aura that sUJ'To u nJcd t he Immort al••.tbeycould achieve not Itin.o: agamSlthe heavily armed Spa rl aos, III t he wntincd ' pace of t he !Xl"' t heir numbe r. were of no ad\'amage and. hoeeause thei r spears were .llOrler t itan tholan ships had be en delayed at their anchorage farther up the ,0051 and did nol set out {() j", n rhe mai n fleet at i\pherae unt il lon g afrer t he other ships had left. T hese late comers did not reach thc channel betw een Skiathos and the mainland unril late 111 the afte rnoon , Whetl lhe ir view we,t wa, blind ed by t he glare of t he sett ing sun . T hey failed to ,ee tht ir com pani on s in the shadows at Platania Bay bU I did ,ee the G reek \'e"eb shining in lhe evemn g sun 10 t he south- west. .'vli :e from t he battle into the Pers ian ancho rages and it hecarne entangled in the ,hip" whic h were only half beache d , Alt ho ugh t he fleet at Aphetae suffere d con'iderahly , t he ir troub les wer e as nothin>: compared with the plight of th eir companio n, tr ying to round t he southern end of Euhoea . They ....·ere caught by Ihe fu ll fo rce of the storm and das hed on 10 the rock y Coa~t at the SOUl h end of the island. Herodotus , tates that t he follow ing morning the 53 At henian sh ips which had be en left to watch the southern end ofEu hoea saile d into Anemisium hring_ ing the news of the total destruction of t he PelSian detachment . T h is is impossible and clearly a day has Ix..,n loS!. I n all likel ihood no t hing happened on t his day' as both sides re paired their sto rm damage. It w(mld be t he following morning, t he ni net eenth, that the
Alhenian sh ips arrived bringing tbe new~ of t he shipw reck . L ate that afternoon t he reinforced Grttk lIeet o nce more rowed OUI into the channeL Thi, time , probably because of t he haze, t hey managed to cross the channel unobserved and swooped upon t he C ilician galley's which were st ill at thei r moori ngs, destro yed some of the ,hip" and then with drew into t he dusk It i, poss ible that t he Cilician squadro n was moore d in Olizon Rayand that the Greek Beet was able to sail unohserved past Cape Griba , roun d the we' tern head lan d and into t he hav to attack the Cilician squad ron before it co uld be manned , T his is feasible as they would have been approaching out of the setting ,un. The en d of T hc rm op r la c M ea nwhi le, at Thcrmopyla c the second day's figh ting had com e to an end. D ay afler day Leon idas had sellt messengers ,oulh ple ading fo r reinforceme nt s but it was no w clear t ha t none were coming. The Spa rtans were o n their o wn and their code of honour express ly forbadj; t hem to de, ert t heir posts. Xerxes and
his advi'e rs had pro ba bly bee n aware si nce soon after their arrival t hat the re was a route ove r the mountai n whIch could be used to o utflank the Spartans in Ihe pass. T he Call id rom us mountain is laced wit h paths va ryin g from st eep and narrow goat tracks to fairly wide paths. T he tro u ble wa , that the mountain was de m el y fores ted and it wou ld he impossible to find o ne's way across without a guide. T oday, whe n a g reat d cal of deforestation has taken place, it is st ill easy to lose one's way u p thcre, even in daylight . At last the Persians found a local pe~sant nam ed Ephialtes who informed them that t here was indeed a ro ut e know n as t he Anopa ea path, and that fo r a price he wou ld lead them across. ThaI night, as soon a, it was dark , H yda rnes led the Im mort als o ut of camp and, wit h Ephialtes showing t he way, hegan t he ascent oftbe mountain. Be low T h~ v,ew a clOSS the Euooe an ch a on", hom lhe Athe n '8n DoM ion at Pevk; B8y. The Pe";80 ancho'age to the fight of cent,e DO the oppoS ite 'ide of the , ,,ait i' as deafly v i s i bl~ as it to Ihe Gree k,
w"
TH E CIT Y STATES 800-360 lie T HE STATES AT WAR
All night long t he Pers ians toi led up the winding pat h until, at last, as t he sky began to grey m the east , the grou nd levelled off and t hey entered a smal! plain . T hey were plodd ing along beneath oak trees. Last year's leave, lay thick "n the ground and ru stled he ne ath the ir feet. Ahead of thcm there was a movemem and vokes hroke the sile nce , then they saw Greek hopl ite s ha,t ily donning t hcir armour . lI ydarnes asked who these men were, ad ding in consternation, ' Are they S partans? ' T hese were in fact t he t ,000 P bocia'" whom l.c'Onida , had detailed t o cover t he m"untain path , H av mg est ablished their identity, Hydame, arrayed his men for batt le and showered the Ph""ians with arrows. T he Phocians, f"rgett ing their m is_ sion, be came convinced th at they were the Immo na ls' prime larget, wilhdrew to Ihe top of the hill and t here prepared !() ' ell their lives dearly. W il h t he mute d ear the Persians ig nored Ihe l' hocians on the hill and pushe d on over the moumam. The ro Ul e taken by t he ImmonaJs ha' provoked a great deal of debate . In
rec ent yea r, P ritchett has made a ve ry de ta iled ' lUd y of t he , it e and has suggest ed a route wh ich se ems to satisfy most of the criteria. He rodotus claim' thal H yda rnes look with him t he men he comm anded, i ,e. Ihe 10 ,000 I mmo r tals. There seems no reason to dou ht t his. If the route were a narrow goat t rack wh ere the men co uld o nly m arc h in single fi le, t hen the co lumn would ha ve str etched ou t for ten kilo metres or m ore. T his i, unacceptable , and Pritchett conclud es thai one m ust be looking fo r a broad path wh ere the so ld ier' could march three o r fo ur ah reaSL There is one po int in Herodotus ' topography which is easy to identify : ' It begi", at the river Asopus wh ich flows th rough the tavine.' T he site of t he Asopus gorge can hard ly he in q ues tion . l ie continu es t hat the Persians crossed the Asopm before start ing the asce nt. Thi, m ndu sively pla~es t hem On t he eas t side of the go rge. T here is a very easy rout e u p the hill,ide a\xmt o ne kilo metre east of t he Asopu s gorge , T his is both the short est and the easiest route u p t he mountain sid e fro m t he Lamian plai n , l t lead, by wa y " f t he Chalkomata
spring to the village of Elcut he rochori, where the re are t he rema in' of an ancient fo rt covering t he begin ning of t he route. Thi~ proves th at t he path was in use in anc ient ll mes. Herodotus de scribe' Ihe Pen ' an, as m arching all night with the m"untain , of the Ocracans on Ihe r ight and those of t he Traehinian, on thcir left. O n me face of it t his i, im possible 10 reco nn le with any oft he suggested ro Uies over t he mou ntains, pa rticularly if t he Pe"ians crossed the Asopus before they started the a,cent , fm Trae his and ,'-Iount Oeta are hoth wes t of t he Asopu, gorge. However, since T her mopy lae itself was in t he terr ito ry of Tr actus and J\ Iount Octa mus l surcly be included amongst t he mo untains of the Oetaeans, one mu st conclu de t hat the mountains of Trac his include d t he northern pa rt ofthe Call id romus range . T his is admitted ly d um ,y hut there ""em , to be no ot her explanat ion, especially as Herodo tus say s t he P ers ians march ed 'all nig ht ' hetwee n these mount ain s. [f this is t he r ightcxplana lion , l hen the march woul d be in a southerl y d irecti on along the west , ide of !\1ount Callidromu" Herodotus also de' cr ihe' t he ro ute as pa" ing along the ha ck\xme of t he m{)un~ lain . Thi, is an accurat e de script io n of t he ro ute from E lcuthcrochori across the Ncvrcpohs pla in to t he pass between t he Liathitsa and C allid rom us pcab. Thi , ro ute follows the plateau iu' t hel" w the ridge of the moun tain on the south side .The Ph"cians,a ccord ingto H erodm us, were statio ned in a posit ion from which t hey could defend t he route over the m (mnta ins and the route 10 thei r own count r y. Thi, can he no ot hn place than the Ken opolis plain , w hich lies about Iwo kilometres from t he su mm it of the pass , Here the re is a sm all lake which today drie' out in the summer h ul may not have in ancient t ime' There i, also a spring wh ich would give an ample su ppl y of dr inking wate r for the 1 ,000 hopliles. The pat h from P hoeis joinslhe Anopaea route at t his point; if t he P hocians had taken up their positio'" any neare r t he pa" , they would have Le ft The plain of Nevropolis juS! \0 \~e ' ouln of ,he l i.t hitsa· C" II ,dromus pat• . Its P'Us i' ion .tthe
iunction of the "'ute to the pass oM the route 10 Ph"" i, ma 'e 11 1he most l,ke1v " Ie for th e Phocian po. it>on
{~ RE ECE
AND M AC EI) O NI A
Till , CI TY STXI ES S OO - , ~Q ~.; ". I'un henn",." ~n~' r"ul,' o,cr lh., L ia,hlt>;l-C"lhd , n", u, r a" w"uld h~"e I" g" Ihl> "~, . Ik'i h Jlu ,n ~ndl'rildl"lr arc agreed lh~1 Ih,' 1'1.. ",i"n< up Ih,.." '00 ur .I".. ' ",,,"n " 'n "n .\ \' J\lm I j~ t hi l >~ '" the ",,"h "I rill' r"lh. ~nJ Ihi, """IJ "en,"nl" lil 11.-"..I" IU' · d.......·rif'l ",,,. T h" I'.,'-" Ian, ", lJ hm'" r...""h" d Ill. lop of ,lie r>a" ..1:'< 1 I hr,·...·<jlLln " r' " I an hour Lu,·, -al\o.,u' h~lf 1''''' ,j\ in
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,h.,
"""nlng
L," 'niJ.h ' CW1".,J ,h., """, lha' ,h., Imm on al, '....re ,·r..., ,";( the m"" m alll> li...a [r"m ,k-erl"l', wh.. , am, ,,, ,l uli ng 'ht nig hl. anJ Ih,'n I" ,,,, I,,,,,,,'m , l' "k'-.l On rh" hci~ h l ' "h" ,a n J "wn ' 0 lllf"UT' hr m )U" a ll,1' da wn T h, ,'''Ill malllkr, imlll,dr ~I "h' hdd J ,oun, ,1 .\1>" , W~ f\' f,, ' ,, " hdr~wing ,,'hik Ih,'~ ' till haJ a ,'han ,'" . 1..,,, niJ a, . ,,'I1,'n h" , a,\, thar t heir h,'an, '\'\1'" tI,'1 in iI, ,em lhem on t heir way , ..h " SI''''I,' ,lrn 'en "n WlIh """r)!,'" an.i d a,,-,hc,,-J "Wr the r de' ,,.' Ih"ir J~ad h' !l.el ~ : Ih" ( ;"...·k,. :-.'~'n m,"1 "flh. (ir",-\.: ' I'_a" were hr"h.., ~ n,l l "e h.'phl'" J",,\\ rh,';r ,,,,,,J, 3n ,1 n." " '-.I in d,,,~r. h..... king~' rhe ,,-~ "f f;o,.-.." lx·f,."" ,hem H.·,,· I.,"'" 01,13' tdl ~n,j Ihe battle r~~J ,..-,., h\> ""I""~' ( ,r" ek and P""ian 'lru~t.-,I I" " " "" " '" " , 'he t-.lo.iy . " " ur l im,... the l'er ' lan, "'''I'lu,,-'.1 il anJ 1~'uI II,",'" Ihc ( 'h·,.. k, Jr ~l!ged 11 h ""k "I(" i". :-." (he .1 '''~". I":r" ' l,,d unllll.",J,;,'m, ",,, u!!t ht Ih" ne'" that (he I mm,'n" l, h~J ""adl'.1 'he l\o.'I,,'m ,,1' ,he f'alh . Till: ('re,·k. "I,.....·" r~n'" a",1 ""l"".lred h'...a, J . Ih, \\ all. ' I'he~' f'a,,,·" Ih",u ;,, " Ihe 1("'''' anJ \\ II hd l' C\\ I" " 'mall hill"." k n""l( at-.'lI l r cm ali-,.-.- th, mar- Ill' ~"'UIl J ",h," ,' t hcv ("'''1se,,-ed ""Mn the . h,p .hed, al ua .... ~re ell~"""aleJ_ A ela... tc 1 shrine al Ihe "illage of Agio, C-,"'ma, a' also fo und helo"" Ihe water lel'el. The re is a ,mall reef 350m " n Ihe All ie coas t " ppsite l'erama , in ..-[u" ical Below the bonle of
ceo" e of
Sa,-,.
''''or t
iu,,, onO''''''' tt1e
""0 001
of "" _...,,_
r""
'",., "'a IS
P!>oen,c " . . wn
GRE ECE AN D MACEDO N I A
ti mes Ihis m un bave M.: O ao island. Ik n , ""o this i~Land and I ~ mainland t bere wou ld beve been a sballo'" chan",,] ".~", the water was not d«p enoug h for gal"'ys [0 navigate. Thi. small island would made an excd lem point 0 0 ro which t he G ree ks could lock t heir left wing without fear of missile all ac k from the P enian infant ry o n the mainland o r of hc ioll out fl anked. T heir inferio rity in n umhers made it all the more im portant fo r t he G reeh t o avoid bein g ou tflanked , For this rea, On t he Corint hian Iteet of 40 ships was despalChed to prevent the Eg vpuans enteri ng t he WC$t end of the channel. T h ere can be no t ru th in Herodot us' S1ateme nt_almos t cert ainly laken from a biased Athe nian source -c- rhar t he Corint hians fled befOl e l he battle . This also undermi"". Ille argume nn of t """" ",'ho ...-ould ~ t ile bailie ana fart her u p tile channe l in front o f the island of Agios Grorgjos ,,-jth no 1od::ing point for t he n g hl ...-jog. This wou ld hi,·e allowed Ihe P ersian ship'" to break t hrough t ile r ight ",-jng at will. T ile G reek fleet wo uld have been d rawn u p in front of t hei r anchorages wilh t he
ha,·.,
Peloponnes ian I1«t of 49 ships occupyiog the Iefl ..i ng and Inling o n t he i.let. It is also inc:onsi5'l em to att emp t 10 reconci le Ae",hylus' figure of 3 10 for lhe GTttI: fleet wit h H erodOlus' 380 by suggesling l hat the missing 10 ships fOTmed Ihe Cori nt hian squadron which left before t he ban le. This w'e dolHOVod in,o h nol ,n ,he Sto .. , T"" r.!O(>Onn,....ns t oo-mod up """,,",to lhe PhOO'loe,.ns and the Alhe....... ~t" the Ion,..... w haSl the ,..t (e 110 Shop$) 'ay in w ar< ,n bay 01 Atnf>eoIo u. h om _ thov anacQd the 'WNlong Pe<s .. n S'IoOO
.a"
t'"
"
T HE C ITY STATES 800-360 BC T H E S TATES A T WA R
Persian fleet , crammed hel plessl)' in t he chan~l, ",as in a despet au~ posil>on. ~ bIInercd fleer tried to d isoengage. A s Ihe~' "'ilhdrew from the narro"'~, t he ships from Aegina la~' ...'aiti ng foc lhem in t he hay of AmbeLaki and , IS they p~, ca ugh t lhem m a d e.... taHng Oank a u"",k , T he Alhenians too, fullo",· ing up Ih e retreat , pla yed havoc amongst the fleeing sn ips. The victuriuus Gree k sailor-s showe d no me rc y to their shipwrecked enem ies , Grahh ing oa n; nr any other weap"n I har cam e to hand, t he y dubl>cd to dealh o r dro wned t he enem ~' uilo" a. t hey slruggled helplessly in the water. .\leaowhi1e, Ansndes , t he Alhenian exile, galhered logelher man~' of the hop hles "'ho were o n the shore .... tching tile sca hattie, and " 'itb these maruged 10 captu re lhe Isla nd o f Psyllalea and .Lo.ugbu~r lhe Pers1aIl gamson l here , tbus W iling o ff the last resort foc the wreck ed Persian shi ps , Those ...nd.s tha i d id flOC drift asllon: on t he island Iioaled do",n l he e asl and came a.bore on the pru munlury of ColilS a bout four kilome tr es $OIIl b of Phalerum . AlthUg h the P ersia n fleet was f.. from being dc,troye d a nd . till p ro ba bl)' outnu mhere d t he Greeks, Xe rxes now realised lhal his hopes of a q uick campaign were go ne. He ha nck d ove r c" m · mand of lhe bulk "f his anny _po. ",sihly 150,000 me n-to Mardoniu. and rclurned to Asia, Mardc nius withdrew into Thes.aly and t here went int o wimer quarters. For a fe", month s at lca" iOulMm Greece had a breallung , ~, Xerxes feared l hal the defeat al Salantis m ighl encourage t he lcmans 10 revoh, so he \\~Ihdrewlhe fleet 10 Cyme and lhe foll"",~ng spri ng stationed il al
s.m...
The S p..rl. ns lJlobilisc In t he following spring Ar1 S1 id es and Xanrhipp us, another e xile w ho had returned 10 de feml his coum ry, ",c re elected generals at At he ns, M ardoniu s no w tr ied by d iplomac y to separa te At hens from her allia n,'e witb the Pcloponncs ians , offering her "cr y ha ndsome terms, Bu t Athens was full of bine rness over wha t had happened a nd, alt ho ugh unde r normal errcum"anccs she. like all t he other G TC'e1< stales , would TIOI shy a....a y from betTII )'ing a cause m the preferenwcd Ihe I' e" ian army imo Ilo~olia Onc"C past ,U num I'"rnc" they lurned west along Ihe '''u t h side of t he A",I"'" I Inodo lU' lell, u, Ih~t th,' n reck armv rea ched Erylhrae wh ere thq' learned ~f rhe Pe rsian I""it ion •. AeIIl 1..0 kilomelres fanher "'nt. m'er anJ charged ur II\.: hillside in Th i, ""uld hll.'e been the route 10 'ng connngem of po int "Ionl( lhe 1:>;o$C of the hills aU tile lig hl-armoo u o f",m ren k,lomel rC'! farther ".."t. E,'en if .\Iegar;,l. "'er" I"km g a terrible healing Ik rodulUs' .talement i!; dJSreg,u ., Ihey t hen proceeded 10 move westwa rd . ea"al r~' ch arges. Allain anJ again lhe 3l1:ain, ()ne must therefo re conclu de t hai srwurd an d ga ze in a we o n t he bod y T he G reek ge n~rah decided to ta ke ad,-antage o f Ih e d i, turbance in the Pe rsian ca mp a nd move the ir p", it ion The y marched d o wn to Plat aca in the p h m a hout r z krn far ther we st , Herod ow , ,aY' that the grou n d was tiller t he re in all wa y' , hut c' hiell y hecause the re w ~, a n ahu ndan t supply of wa te r fro m a fountain called G a rga p h ia. W he re (h~ y were il was impo" ih le to gel sufh cient wat er as t her~ we re u n ly t in y st re Qo_." 01 "," G<ee.. fro'" ' .... AOOPUI
""goo The L.I",,'~ p'anned lOt
-."" " ... 1. ..."....,.
to
tt>e
ltIen nea ""a:ed a n'llht lOt t.... So¥1_ to ""O"'t n Sl' ". 01 "'" fact ""',,...,. _e l v _ I .wav. .-...: '0 !ry ro' lhe _ _ ,.... Sr>¥t__ nr;l 'he 01'* G,,,,, ~, el P,. .....
__ 33&
, Pl A 'A f A
Below The t>Bn l.t elO ot PI_,... >@en from ' '''' norlh " de 0' lr>f A",pus look,ng ,0u'h ·nS! M od~, n PI_' Na con t>/! SMn a, the foot ot Mo uN C,th .. ,on on "," ,igo.' Anci. ot Plat.e o " OU ld ha.. bn n just in fro'" 01 " Modern E"" hraa " ,n ,he centro ..,'h , he Gy p ~ ,oca" ,a paS! t>en,nO'nd ,ne m,oo he, d' N". I,n l. ' 0 ,~ e "On, D. ph"" con IU" toe >@en a~ ,he '.!r·n. nO ~de T~,. w" I"" Ii,,, G'ee k The '>O pic ked men, the flower of the Persi an a rmy_ The.e m en fo ught valia ntly chargin g the Laccda emoni an. and many a Spa rta n reU before them But the nee of lhe battle was inexorab le. Gradually the Spartan hoplitt'S C\lt their ...·a)· th ro ugh the 1,000. Fina ll y .\{ardonius himself ns struc k from his horse . So long .. he ..as a li ve the Persian••tood Iheir ground. but when the ntIL"S spread through the n. nks lhal Mardonius ...·as dead and the majority of his bodyguard wi th him. the army began to falter and gtve gro und. Soon their line broke and they turned in Dight. rushing head long fo r their camp wit h Its wooden wall ' ac r"~s the river, \\:'h en they saw the Persians fl eeing lhe other A, lan s also look to thei r hee ls, Only the Ilocotians. perh aps because of th eir age-old e nmity with At hens . co nunued the fight They she....ed great bravery and all 300 of lheir Sacred Band fell ' n the ballic. but at 13S1 they too bro l:e an d ned across the r iver to Thebe-.. The Persian rerrear ....as covered by the cavalry ",,-ho l:ept b commanded by a pt1tU/to"ln, si mi larl~' fighting al Ihe front of tbe righl·ltioond fik of his unit. So " e ha ,'e a loo-strong 1«Jws with its offiCU\ fightmg in lhe from rank and ils ~ar _rank oftk'ers standing proud allhe hack. Th is ,,,,,,Iated position of t he rea r- ran k ortcers is illustrated hI' XenOJ'ho n at Ihe Ii,,tion al baule of T hym brara. wh ere the light-a rmed troops arc placed he hind Ihe phala nx and the 'rear ran ker s' d ra"; n u p hcl ll nd Ihe m to kee p lhe m in o rder. T he new for m ation wu adllJ'ted by all t he cit y states and , alt h" ug h de talls va ried from Slate 10 n ate, t he basic o rganisat io n alwa)" rem ained rhe same. T he Alhenian a.-m y AI Alhens, which " 'as the largC"'1 of the city states, all Athenian cit ize ns be t ween l he agC'" of 17 and S9 "ere liable fOf mdtlat }, .en.;o: . Dur ing lhe Slh Cl:n IUT)' AlhenS was abk to field ahout 30.000 hopliu:s of who m nearly ha lf "'e~camp.aign sol dier.;. The remai nder, I ~e under t 9 and t he '·eter"ns. pe r formed garr iso n duties, These nopl iles were d rawn from t he ",'calthier classes as ea"h man had to supply his own eq uipment which o nly lhe well-off coul d alfo rd . Ho wever, a sol d ier wh",,, father had been killed in battle was armed oil pu blic expe nse. As far as can be see n, the At henians retained the basic 'archaic IlXhos' and gene rally fought eigfn dee p. The army am.isted of ten dh'isi"n. (I" Xe..), t:"; t"h commanded by a ,arihlC'" wno, in splle of Ihei r name, mppns. we~ infanl ry, nol cavalry_ Ongmally both kings went on cam pai gn but . shon ly be fo re Ihe l'er, ian wars . it was restricted to nne. lf our knnwlcd ge of t he At henian m ilita ry system i ~ sparse, the absolute rev erse is true ul 600 BC be"'" en me """""Iogoca, '""~ 7l/'l'~
39
G RE EC E Al':D MACIinONI."t.
In Xcnophun's ..l a )' t he strenll: th uf the S panan locllOS was t 44, being ~'Um · posed of fOUT 36-strong trt 01,•• moo. "W..
""'0
comfnllO(led
b~
ao enomor.-.:h r
el>()m(Jt,.,
we'e J
3 A mOo'" COtT1P05'O men. T hi, cxplams why t he I",;h~xo.,· ,\momph arel us felt that h." could challenge lhe aut ho rit y of t he mmmander-in-ehld Pausanias because
under no rma l ~'ircum stances he would have b een pr ese nt ur Ihe cou nd l of war. N o dou bl lhese su pe r 10O'tlrhcai .",1 t>oo~
on
POM' '''9o loo1y s!>o"M1
At eue,
on Gr"", ........
rest,ng aga,nst n,s 'h ig~ o ano ,oea' boH on I~ groono, Some" """ :n" p$ "'on seM,d . , a o'g n 01 conwmo, w~n lac'r>g 2 Allent on . w,1l' h' o SOQ' ·ol"""G' ""'0 ohoeld
1
.-
l The _
It>...
w ; t~ ~ i •• hoeld
'he_
.-roo tI1n••llr>g pg$tloOn, '1_0 'n
pCIOO''''''' ltIal h. _"""'"" ,nlO bottle
• T.. _.-m t"l\'e r and d raw up level wu h the fi rst IIXMs. was about too a year , Allowi ng for The deployment of Ihe indi\'idual l«1wt losses either in bail ie or fro m natu ral would he as lhey had learned in basic ceuses. one mal' assume t hat about 50 training. T o fonn up in ope n order t1. veterans reached retirement each year ranks deep t he rear lodlOJ would have to and that about 200 replacements were ccunr off70 paces to the lefl. The w hole need ed . I n order 10 make room for t he ...."." ",'nuld ha,'e a front of 48 m en ne'" recruill one ~;IJ in taCh """iovorq • """. 1r(lO'l'l carpenrers and leather ....o rkas 0( m iliIUy age. ,~ hhough non-eomhatanlS, l he}' were a regular part of the army. On the ma r ch
Before me Spartan army set out t he kin!! offered s"'critic'e at home , If l he omens were fa~""urah1e a fire bearer tok t he tire from t he all ar and carried it ahead of l he ar m,· um illhey reached lhe bo rder, ot Lacoma. Here lhe king .a.:rificed again and . if t be omens were "ill fa" ourab le, look lhe fire from Ihis allar and led the annyon . This fire ....-as never
T HE C IT Y STAT ES 800-360 Be T HE PHALA;\iX (]';' THE HELD
quenched . All t he sa~ri f,~i" l victims (hat were likely (0 be needed on t h£ nrn paig n were l ak£n with t he 3rmy. O n (he march the Sparta n 3rm y wa, led by (he cavalry and thc , ciriw c wh o fann ed out in a screen ah~ad of t ne col umn . T he ' C"iIUCwere ha rdy mount3incers fro m the nor thcrn frontier of 1.3ceda~mon, T hey wer~ lig ht armed and us~d for scou ting anJ outpost d uties. Of cour"~ Xcnoph on i" h~r~ d£,cr ibing the praCli £~ of his own day ; at t he time of t h~ PnS13n war s the ,out h~tn G reeks did not ha ve ca\'alry and t hi. d ut y wou ld ha ve be~n per fo rm ed "olely hy t he >eiriuu . Behind t h,'
Be low A va ,e pa ,n1 ing s ho w, ng a do nkey w i1l1 a wood_ lramOd pa c , From Atnen" c .475 Be M"s.um of F,ne Arls, Bos to n
l e ft Bronl e lig"" n" of a pacl ~ o n k ev T~e P Below Whe n ad "anc ,ng t hroug h a d oh l. ,he lochoi redu ce the ir w ,dt h '0 fo ur. two Qr e""n . ingle file ac cord ing to t he oa"owness 01 thur in\l: the da)' cavalry uut pos, s were se t u p on ,-,,-un · manding hills, At mghl Ihese o utpost s ,,'ere taken o,'er by t he uiri l"" . ~o dou bt befo re Ihe int rod uction of ca.-alry l he~' performed t his duty in the davum e 100, Thc reason t ha t ca" alr)' are used is becaU,"" 1M,' Can bring informalMm more quid t.ly. Ol he r ""0111' posts were also "'I up at nighl command ing rhe a pproaches to lhe camp, The o nly detailed aeL'OU nt l ha l ""c "",'Cof a n arm~' on the mar"h is Xcnophon'. rel reat of the 10.000. In Ihis account , in which the ar my is ba sicall y' Spart an, in spil e of Ihe consr am t hreat of an ene my altack, no artern pt waS made to fort ify a cam p, T he)' relied o n somes to kee p the enemy al hay . h was 01'1 11.' when a lo ng-ter m occu pat ion was 'ntended Ihal a di tch and palisad e were cn' lru'-'1 ed . II i. amusing 10 note Ihat Ihe S parlans feared a sla"e re"o lt so much Ihal il " 'as conside re d more imporl ant 10 guald t he armS Ihan t he I"'rimeter of the cam p. T he cam p had nO sanila!1' arrangemenls and il ,,'as ms isted o nl}' l ha l ~ldiers relieve Ihemselves at a suffK:iem distance SO "" not 10 o!fend l he ir comrades , Ea.:h mora enca mped ~ a unil with sl riealC'J t he usee ..I' iavelins by rhe cavalry rarhe. lhan t be tradil ional ' I""'T. T he lig ht _armed soldier pa. u .u/fmu was the prrc: are IWO main o h jn:tio ns to Ihis : Iin l, priminve an lSta al"'l1)"$ drew hisl,,, ical
charael .... in contem porary coslume. and "'"COIld. the artist .... ho made t his clay shield knew exao..-rly ,,'hat he ""IS making fo r il o tl\"lously represent s a ",ick... shie ld wn h stret chers o n Ihe m.ide. II is inconc-ei.·able t hat such accuracy of t errnenl'lIion could have sUlvi'-ed for over 600 years wilhom degenerating into a sy mbolic fo rm with. for example, a small er""s o n the back. T his has have bee n copied from an actual ,hield . T he fact that i" shape d iffels q ui le cons ide lah ly ftom lhe M y_ Ce naean type reinforces ils authell1icity and suggests a pattern of evolu tio n . The earlier shields m usl OO" e had a reinforced rim 10 retain their figure---eighl . ha pe. bUI in th e D ipvlc n tn'" the stretchers OO" e dictated Ihe shape. There would be a natural lendenC}' for such a shield to a.. um.. Ihis sha pe: "" the ends of l he stre-tchen. ...'hich had 10 be fitted tight!)·. t hrust t hei l ....ay oul wa rds form fOU l poinu o n t he ri m . The conseq uent strain o n the ' pinching' at th~ .:elll re woul d for~.... it into a genll e curv.. producing l he two umi -ci rcu lar indent_ alion~ o n either side:. The implicatio n of t his argument IS Ihal ll( At hens, which survived the da rk -age invasion, and had an unbro ken connection wilh th e .\1.1'_ cenaean age, the fi llure-e ig ht Iype shield survived t hrou ghout t he later .\\ vcenaean era and Ihc dark aile that succeeded II.
'0
'0
8 elo,.. 1 '" wd pa ont'ng at e le w".,,,,· '" V~
tc. s2s Bel T,-......,
."" "')S'
_ k..- V,..
"""OtIO.... -.r,'-ed .. G,.... ~ Romo sc.I& 1 6
F'~ .... n (. SCI(e , .J
S-B
of 6'h ·"" nlury Arg've , h ie lds
S Pilt of Ina e l bl~, plttemod lim of the ; h i~ld h om e lri (ef no. 3 opp<J" tej 6 A , ", ry,ng ' HOp a ttach nt. 1 and 8 H.ndg, ip . He ch nts The ; eetoon opPO"te ,hows 01....... ho-w these we'" fixed to tl>e w e>od.." COe sh ",ld a "lt II .., 11'>0 th 'c 'n".. of ti'>o sh ~d al th is poonl _il>S1 aboul 'em , 1 1nd 8 0,., .11 ftom O1ymp, " 01\"T'P'1
"_ m
9 A ...const,,,,,,,.,,, of a 6th-century Alg,ve ...e1d based.", , .... finds from Olvml>a
hlI... r-n
T HE CI T Y STATE S Koo- j 60 lie AR MOU R A.... D WEA I'O:'liS
overla p ,,'hich lIua rdcd his uncovered sidc. One of the g reat problems of t he phalanx " lIS this tendency to close u p towards lhe ri ght. Afrcr lhe end of rhe 61h cen tury , probably as a res ult of l he Persian invasions and the increase in , he use of Iighl- armcd rroops anncd wi rh mi5!Jiles, a kllher curtai n was sometimes au a.:hcd 10 rhe bouom of rhe shie ld ro prolecr rhc ..-llI"f'i ""nlu ry 1 The ,nside of th. ,hleld shOWi ng Inc armband. wh,en wou ld have l>een Iin-ed WIth hrde, the hand g" o ar>l1 and ha!\dQ" o 4 ReconslruC1>on of lhe nandg"p a!\d "''' SP'I(Mo'ng lhe 01 ""OOd u sed to !'ll l he 10m
""pS
l3
GR EECE AND M ACEDO N I A
making a copy of l~ Yal ican sh~ld and Ining it OI.It. The sbarp curve bay [wo iron spikes on Ihe from plate which passed through eorresp<mdi ng holes found in fhe l>ack plate ( S) . A sem i-circular bronze pla te ca lled a mitTa (Ihis term is probably wrong but used for co nven ience) could be suspended from a belt to CO"er l he abdomen . All hough lhere ar e rome Greek examples of these, mos r come from Crete. Exam ples have been found 10 Thntcc " ; Ih la'tT \'enions of the bell cuirass sho..;ng lha l lhe }' "~ re: used logel her. In t he second half of the 6th cent ury the bell cuirass ded ined in popularilY and was su perseded by rhe linen corse_ let as rhe basic hoplile hody armou r. Howe.-er, Ihe b ronze cuirass continued in m e and gradually evolved into [he e1eganf m uscled cuirass . Alt hough il never enjoyed t he same popularilY as the bell corselel, probal>l)' because u wu so expensive 10 ma ke, itlasted unt il l he end oft he Roman era 1,000 years laler, and bttame parr of [he uniform of seniol officers. T he new cuirass came in IWO In"'S, eil her shore, fi nishing at the wais. , Or long 10 cover the abdomen. The mu sded cuila," was usually joined al the sides , and sometimes al l he shooldel'S, ,,'irh hin ges, one balf of the hinge being anached to the fronl plale and one to the back. There "'ere usuall y six of t hese hiniles- Iwo on each side an d one on each shoulder. I n order 10 pUilhe cu irass on, th e hinge pi ns were remo.-ed from one side (us ually rhe right) and from the shoulders. The corselet was then opened out as with the previous IYpes , When fi lled t he fronl and back plates would be drawn 10gerber and the hi nge pins in ser ted on the r ighl side and [he shoulders. On eil her side ot t he hin ge was a ring whi ch was us ed to p ull the fro nt and back plates logel her. A fragmem of a coilass in the British ,\ t useum (9:' has a d ear impre:1ISion of a buckle nexl 10 the nng
showing that a strap and buckle werr used 10 r ull t he IWO sides together. Some of lhese conelCis h&\'e no hi nges and were held toge-ther wit h rings and straps onl~· . Some 4Ih -cen IUr ~' cuir~es haw a Iefl- hand hi nge "" rending fro m the ar mpil 10 th e hip. Since ir would be impssihle to inserl lhe pin in such a hinge when th e cuirass was being worn, one mUSI assume rhar t he lefr side was juineJ before il was pUI on, Although t he developmenl of t he mu scled cuira' s can be t raced on Greek va""s, Ihe archaeological finds are ma inly Italian. In ,he 4fh cent u ry the full-length mU'lg/I ,o0;ןII,
c,,"...
M""""m,
c,,"...
....
• "
l 55
GREECE AKD M ACEDO N I A
Above f ro nt VI@w of a 4 t~ . ce n lU f Y muscl ed cu irass fro m Conv@r"" no ned ' Ba,i in southe rn 11a ly It has 0 full. l@ngth hinge o n the left side. The mu , c11Od cu irass Meam e 1' to go b~' .
ult a n d
arlll guards
T he full-length ],o.... er leg guard or g~a" e only came into general use in the 1th century. ,,' t first it cO\'ered the lo,..-er leg only from belo,..- the h ee to t he ankle, hut was late r extended to cover the knee . The n n- and 6lh-culationofthe later t ypes i, generally less sty lised than th e late 6th-cen tur y ty pe shown here, The Greek greave was pulled open and clipped on to th e leg, but in ILaly lhe}' w'ere often st ra pped on to t he leg. Several Italian examples ha"e been fou nd with rings for straps. .\ Iany exam ples of ankle guard. ha" e bec.n found ....hich co"ered not jun the ankles but atso the heels. These are the anklets that Homer is so fond of describing. T hey " ",", tied on. There ar e also a fe.... examples of foot guar ds ....hic h were fi tted to the sandals, These were made either m one piece or hinged at rhe toes to allow more mOvem em, Although thigh guards are shown in sCMioitl T - . o r lIlrd ... ,tl'l the .....
armaoc
"""...noCfl ..
d'spIaveul " .....1 be borne ,n
..-...0""'" """..
rn,nd that tvPn olowly ,n some plloceo than ot.... " 1 From Argos Argoo I,! ....." 2. • $ 7 1$ . "" 17 ... .,1"""" 0Iy""".. Olympa M.-.,rn 12 Itom C...,n'" C""nlt> "'_
T il l' CITY STATES 800-) 60 Be ARMO UR AND WE AI' O NS
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13 From t"" ","crapol;. al Cam po' . 'an o d ' C.mp l, CMieti Mu "'um 18 From To>e 01 & lal. S'Cl IV II ~9, No . ',
6t h-oen,u,,! Co"nth.an hOlme\ was 1".,0\' Iplrl pons
11 0\11" . - 7 rt.e ..-.,.,., "' ..... G'ee. """"'" • &nd 5 T_ Ia", I,l..,...,_ (!Vl>e II I bforve .......,.,. lrom ..... :hN. e t 200 BC 1M ' he _Ie d a .om..... >Word from Italy I Eart,o GC-3btwd 0/ G,... . 'We "".,,, bone .ntav tl...., the CamPO"a1ar>o d. e".mplI "«".".,.os, e 500 BC (hoet. I,l """"m 8 Iron "",,",""lid of G_ k "'" . fr...., me C&mp 31J.o-140 Be T ilE MACEDONIAN WARS
,heir h onk,,_ H a ,-;n g 'ettled t he nnnh
and .....e't , he sel . boUl establishing roUle, to {he east .nd south , Gradually he captured ,he lown, along the CO"", m an }' o f which ha d 'tr<mg cnnncetiom
with the city ' tales, and so opened {he roUles to T hessaly and {he Helle,pont. In 35 3 he . nte rce! Thc""ly and t he fol _
lowin g year
~"nquered
rn,,,, of it
I n the ,ummerof3 5z he advance d 10"'.rds T hermopyl... In pamc the Atheni.n. sern a hoi ding for ce 10occupy ' he p o" an d P h ilip w it hdTew O n ly n ow
do t he Greek, ""cmcd to h.". realised the gre. t lhre,,! that was h. tljI;ing o\'cr {hem, but {hey were far 100 busy fight. ing each other to do anything . ho ut it. P hilip did n n' try 10 advance ,outhward again for six years. I n ,he interveni n~ per iod he continued to .st. h.lish his po'i,ion in the ca."
re ducing t h e
' wn, of C h.kidice and lhe ThT""i.n coosl. I n 350 he g.ined ~ontrol of m uch
of Epirus on his south-west bordcr, and hy 34S the last of lh e Chak id i.n towns h. d surrendncd The Greek st ates werc becomi ng ever more aware of the gi.nt thaI was rising in lhe norlh, bUl lhey were no t yet prepared to hury their di ffer ences and do any thing . b<mt it. They needed a brealhing space .nd in 346 signed a non _ aggre;sion Ire. ly wit h P hilip. T his treaty , "' Philip' s insistence, expre;sly exd uded P ho" i, which was .ccuse d of ou tTages .gain" Delp hi. T he ink wa, hardly dry on the pape r before Phili p pas, ed T hermopylae and overranPhoci, . lIe was imo G reece, Ha\'ing established his fOOlhold , Phi lip withdrew to .'vlattdonia to '-'In_ solid .te his bor ders in the nort h, west and eaSl h"f m c cm har ki ng on the fin. l ~ onftiTeCh a' Delphi. They t hcn ret ired nonh....a'd' ravallinll M acedon;" a. thcy ""cn!. An ~ tillonus Gonatas, the oon of D cmclriu>, who had rema ined in "o n[TOI of the Moced"ni on ",,...,.. ion. in G 'e J),,,,,n , a..umc d p"weL I n thc sou, h a re juvcnoled S paTI a undcr its king Cleomen et had begun to makc in· road. into ,he poolse.. i,,", of lhe Ach:ocan league , Co ntu'}' i.. avowed aim. the leaguc turncd tn Maced nn for assista nce an d fonncd an . lI iance ....ith Anti/tOn,.. I>OOUn agains' S patU . A[ thc ""nlc of Sellasi. the Spartan. ....< ratc of M acedon " ... ",ak d . In 1 ~7 Philip "'at defcatcd at Cy n""""p h.I. e and r"reed ,n .oe thc Rom an line, Ant iochu•• s«kin~ to pr06, by thc "acuum left in Gr«q' '\[Uoo put '........J. 1tu, -~ u, p....-. f'OOJI' tuUOU!W<X>:>q' ""... »'.ll .\u:>q~ u. 'l""-OW "'ll. ' .'~"1\" U! .'1ll1J~, \ ,. D:I l' 1I 0Jl u. Aql"~ II ,,>! . ,,1Id 0,'" II! ~p"W 1I ""'l ~""4 ,{ow Dm" ", ~IJJ. " { I ' n",,~, 1""01"1'"0' "'l '" '04 >Jn~lj "mqAI" .1 104' ooho'l"'l ,oll ln. "'I' '",'ncw ''"II' nlu! 40' """;U d» p ru- ~~p~I ·""" ~ '{'.IIIP'''''JlX~ .,O!q -Arod plllW II! ~1I1l.~ '1IOIU'h "'l' ""'1' '~'"""I 'I""w ..,.. xU.l"'Id ""'I') "'l' '"'II 1" ""1""1 ·{II.J.:I\I ~ ' ! II Xfl"" ->q A[Umu "' "''I' loq '.n,,'""ldwlu. "'I u~., lJ ~ "", u """.J 110111100 ·\ I.rqoq"S \ Wt ' t '~) 9 1 u»q -'II. _ulJuo PftI II ' "'II po. (W{ '9 .,) .. ",'" II '.{tp " 'I " ' " "'1' , w'-P .mq -·'1".1 ''''01 (wt " ',) . "q n, t , ,",, , ... _""",,~uol >q1 '01j"W'I')" ,~u.x'IV pu. d'l"'d JO .... c'odw~'u ,~,. '.n " c' 4" -IJlJt:> '''~UOP ':'.l\" "''''II "'l' PO "Pll pUt ,.11>tll.\.' " u~l ..ad >ti l lUY 0'l lll~h dl a.. , ." '"4 ' 'Awre ll"!uop "'I 011l\l.1"'I d ' !'1 " ' od.lI P""""'" -"'1"". -"""\\' p;>' :>td;>p "'I "'11' 'U.''''~d !luI - IJUp ••,,, J"PU"UIV U"'l." ':llI { ~ { 1111111 -X~I V '.p""'ll"~ JO ~11~ "'l l IV ' .( 1Il.Jt lOU .. II ' J~A~"AO H ', H: pon: 6H II»''', 'pU"'~'" III UOI lIsod _ "'" p :>]}', -""I . ~'l '~J!) "'I' '11'-" ""1JlIOO ""n -re U»q ~"01j "I:U'" ,."W " pue'1l"" :>IJlJt:> "" 'X1pW>:S"'JJC "'II >ql OS '~'lI l'q "sod ».1'1' ~'1I"'''''b ,ou 0'"1 a" 'I," ",II " l!j 01 W~ "" " ", op 4"''1.'' ''''I ..,"d. 'N"I, Oh" a4' II! P~,'Old 'w~X!1 ~"III""U'W '{'I p:>SflJ -'p "'""1 'h"'1 PI"'>;> XU' I"Il" """P- l'l~" -II "~ AP, "" n" OJ" fI " " '1.1 . 'tJ!f'U,;m ,u ,f, "" "4' 1"~lldo"" ' ! ''' ' !I" W " ' ""I ' W X!, O' " ! p'p!,\!P'q Ploo." '!X~l 'I'"' 11''1' "" s" o" " " ,'1 lU"~U" II" JO P~W'OJ" I ""'l .I1'11!qoJd ' ,n lq·' I"d 'd:x>p l'lll>;> ' ;>so, ' '1' 'J~," '!'I ',ll ,(tt ." ~ ..) .I' " " ,. ,apll""'I'o' ""I '" ' '''I 4' !'I'" 11.111.10 1I0W pliO 91 'of " P hlS= ""';HI , f f III "[O""'~ JO -" . n I. xU.[1''1d SIll dn "'' '1'' " 'pu.""1V "'l l "' 'u•.,,.,,,,,, , noJ " 'u, I»PL" p '.4' 1l1l'w,l')~ ," on"'l.II"d .(q p;>)OfIb .. '''In. ..... '1"' '1.'' '\",,~, .10) _Ir,....... 'Ut!tJ01"'I1""!lI0 .. UOOll~U ','1"'" p~I'" lllln 1l1l''''.-9~~ • JO """"sr,., ~ -xW r-.I!) ~'1' p;>ldOVO >plhtp '"," XII"I~4" 0ll.L ', ' UOIII "" W"" ''1 l " "" ~OOI ''I II''I,~ "ppow IIc'!''1.t lOOJ. W"'l ' ~IIlU"" .Iq x" ol' '1d P'w '''J ~4 i u" p ' ..q 1'11101" 011 ' '''' '1''1'' " 0,"1 ,\JlUO.11I1 .IA"' 4 "Il r;>uJ-JOj '" dl[llld AI·""" "4 J" ""llll,p ' 41 p:>SI"' dlll'ld 'wnWIII' W . 01 ',\111-'" '(!"Ir"w ) "" l[UlIJ ""'" "'l l u"'"" ,"""IS 1I~I , "''', "'ll 1""" "'P~ .,"" o. "J.IO." )0 """•., lU."UU ~ ...... :>JOw OIl p.....,!"' llllq "-'" Oil·" ~l I'll. ""W '""'I I II»'", "" " JqI JO """IWnll "'ll "' p>"'!Jl' ...., :U 001 .ute.,.,. "'lJ. 'ull""'","" 00 -"'l U'''''= J1'P ·(I"""du IJ1t!-llY .. '''''!."oo pooll "OI ."lK"" ." 'X~ 1111'."= ,no I~ U"'l." .~ " "'l ' u .""" .. '''OJ "'. " "'lJ. " I!I [~W""U ~'1' JO '-"" ~O .I.'tp o£ "-u..-. 0, p;>:>JOJ ~J"" "'''1''1'''' • • • :>.1...... ,
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'0n demanJ al.., popuJ. r a, , hi. , ime. Diod nru. Ott m, to imp!l' ,hal equi pmcnt wa•• upplicd free. Thi, .ppr.... l0 he supporled by rhe late 3rd-< frontien of .,~ and 1,000 arcl>O!d< ""II ' =ro<j ""I ' JO '1' ~"l ~, 0' ~U!."O 'd""'P l'llh~ rPU~X"IV p"uod - woo., " 04 ·" ,;JI""'~ V'>J~ ~ ~'1 ,1. ~ U t 'l'! WJ '~'
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_ ......8Jl< "~4 ' ,,'u~ 01' ~."" ''I ' lW '''' J!"4 1 JoU ~l~." ~J"'l ' , ,,u,, ,' U" W ." "'l ."ou ~ IOU 01' ~," ·' I"n1n""Ju:l '~o". OOil" (1)[0 <e." ·'-'Iho, u~'l"'''''ll. '.Uf"lu:llV 1''''1'''''''' ....."... "'J' SUI'" u>q." XJoq "'l' uO .,"" o. J'r"" UI 'lbJ ' ,""" ~ "'4' dul 0' "'"'1 PI""" """ '''lr r n . 0 dnJll l' 1n'''I'l'' "",!I " ' 0 J0JUI~J 'r"v u, ' "~-' ""l ' 'I ' J" 1'''' ~4"V 'O l l >q "nw ...e called ou" oo k up the po, i,ion "I' honour. Our mai" "'uree of kn"wledge of caval,y equIpment d uring ' he 4' h ""n_ 'ury is Xenophon. who wrol e ..,me So ~'eon Wore ,he . ime of Alt-lUndc.. He rec'OmmeOO_ I a coval!)"man _hould " "elr a cui " ' th proIccrk>n for lhe ,high>. • jl:Wlrd for ,he lef, .rm and • Boeotian helme. ,,-i. h all_rou nd ,-i_ion. An excelle", example of on~ of I~ hel mets, mayhe " 'en l>e ll,"~ing '0 on.
or
a,
'0
of Alexander'. lroope"" " ,," fou nd in T he a rm y in .h" fie ld Ihe T igris. T he .hig h pun,"",i..,n w.o In re. pe1' a shield. de. cri bed hI' Xenophon 50 yea" earlier ' , in ",me ,,,,pee'''.•imil., til <eTIt out .he.d and . •inc-e .hey are re. ha, tliscnnred a' V~rgin. ( k " _'e m to have CXlme into use only about Ihe time of Xenophon , but even so t hey seem to have been litt le used in Greece , Although Alcxandn, and pre_ 'umably Philip, mad e g(~>d use of Ihe, e scouts , late r armies seem 10 h.,'e f. llen back into the old ways and Ihe Koman republican .rm ie, were no bo, h , th C_"'ury ' M m.d. ;" th_ ,.m. >oulh lM an "o« , hop 4 Horse, we O''"9 ,"cO, " ' ;O''' 'VO ,Md.. 'M"" on a pa,ntrn9 "om Ihe K."ol" tomb on BU'g.", (, "" ont Th" c_j
writing a life " f Alexan der and wi,he, 10 c~m "e ntr.le on the hero of his story, In fact lhe cav.lry is only lhe sledgeha mmer which ; ha llers the cohe';o" " f the Persian f", ,,~s_ It i; the pha lanx wh i~h rou" win Ihe batt k _ A k ~a nder may be lhe most successfu l commander of all lim~ but he can bardly b-...-ren ,he Ii...... to fonn b,..k ...... hield, r"""",ion. 1""""",. ing ,he elephant' w;, h a rna.. "r'rnn. and in thi' format ion J " ","e [hem t>aI[ "If .. he ..... in Eg>'r [. ,uprl i", ..-" re hard I" ,..,.". by and it " 'n no( long hef..re the Afrie...n elephant " 'a, bei ng u",d, Ii'" h)' 'he Egyp[ ian> and laler bl' , h. Conhagini an,. l>ol;-hiu•• in hi' 'fri _ can forc", ty pe wa, ral h~r '00 sma ll to carr y a tower , and ecrtainly lh c , ,,,,, haginia", never see m to have u' cJ them . However, at R"phia Ptolemy', dc-
no' "'
pham, cena in ly carricd ' hem . T hi, ,m ailer elep hant with its , ad dle back wou ld us"a lly h,,'e ""en r id den like a hor, e. I II 2 1H Be lhe d ep han t reached the height of its fame when Hannibal crossed ,he Alp, at the head of an ar m y which iJ\d uM J 37 elep h"n l< . How cver lh c heyday nf thc elephant was pa" and they fd l out of f,,'our. T he tater Macedon ia", seld om o,od ele phants and cert. inly the y played no signific"", part in the ir cam paign, . ' I 'hi, wa, pro bably bee'au" of the diffi "ulty of obt aining lh em,
''''In
The Later Macedonian Army S lo" of ou r know kdgc of ' hc ph" lanx and of lId leni" i" war fare in genera l "omc, from ,he I",er Hdle nistj " period ( 0, n o-,6 HB ~ ) . Ou r principa l so",ce j, l'" ly him, the mo" rdi abk of all the ""eien! historians on mi li' ary matt crs He gi,' e' m" ny descr ir ,ions of batt les in whi c'h the ,\lacedon ian l)'P~ of phalanx was used, and at one po int c,'en de _ , cri bes lh e basic structure and fun" tion
()fl he pha lanx , However , he nc,'er goe, fun her . H e wro t~ a separate tre ati", on thi s sub ject whic'h i. n() longer ."tant, and pm bably for thi, rea, on did Ilc\t elaborate on ,he sllbject in hi, hi" or y Arr ian in hi, AT)' T~a ic" "onfi, m, thc existence of thi, wor k b ut ~iw s no de tails, It is un fon unate tha' l'o lybiu' no,'cr m~n, ioIlS the title of e,'en onc " f the , uhordinalc officers of th e phal. nx . which wo uld gi,'e U> a fOOlhol d whe n ex.mi ning the wr iring, of t h ~ later tac"Clan' By th, ' " ,'en 'ur}' He Ile llenist ic " 'arfare wa, virt ually J c" d and the stu d" of .\Iacedonian taW ", had bc""",e a branch (}f ph iloso phy, Fro m thi, pcr ioJ ,,",lme, the wor k of A,ciepiodotus . I n hi, treati, " he givc, all "CCOUnt of the sm",tu re, dr ill and tactic, of an idealised phalanx . H e gi"C, a com p lct e bre akJown of a phalanx of 16, 384 men. which i, com posed of ',024 files. each J '00;' 0 e"oh.nt w,m towe' ,how'n"o a " " e'
The H€tm,toge. len,ng,.d 4 '" c'eo"v ,,","" Od Af,;c,n . 'eOhant shown 0' ,h, 01, C,,,h,g,n,,n 00'" Note ,,,", e. " and ,.dd'e bac' ~ ". I"," .
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GREECE AND M AC ED ONI A
mathematical formula lor the ph. l. nx. A' nre, are c"upkd in 'w"s, fours, eights . nd so " n, he can reco,d th" n.me of every unlt and officer Arrian in hi' A" Ta ct ica ~ ;,"e , a n . Im",' i d enti~ al aCc ount dm'in eil he< (to m Ascieplodo!lLs or ftom a common sou",e T he basle un it of Asdep i"d otu, ' phalan x i' , h. ,yn ,agma (meaning literaily lh at which is put together) It consi", of 256 men (16 nit, of (6) r im • rear guard " mee r (ou'ago,) , adiutant (hY MrtI« ), herald (",a,ol",J.'x). signaller (" m e iop ~ o ro1d ,he st""Y 01 Mae""","" 1act>;O, had """"""'. ",...-en of
"""""""" ,_
t""" the """"'k 01 """""'" taeOCaI rr>l tcfct It> !he nf:Inal wort. bu' 'I>cfc probably neve, ~__ such I phalan. as tbla , _ ollhc divisioos lod ome~ " a bo~ ~ 'be IY . ' ~ t .. ~ .. ~ p.obably h ~ po' betiu l. I"i~ed " b~ eoll~ elinl 'h~ ""lma .hlt co uld ~ found and mob.., u p 'host that could 001. '0 b udd u p I rlJjd m.,hem,,,ic.1
"'adc.
,n
~~m
T h .. A n.ph i poli o .... iIi ' ary cod .. In 191~ lod t9lS I r"llmentlry Ii.. of
."IIc~donian militlry ,elllllllioo. ~'hich bId b~~n found II Amphlpoll' "'.. publi'hed. Th IS In.cnp'ion. v,bich da'~' to the relgo or Phihp V (22t -11 8 scj. lim. omonll otb.. 'bin",. 0 , .. it, of fine' be lmpo.ed for I"" of equip mm ' and d i" ·iplln. , y ma l.. " .uch a• • k ep in g when on guard II al.o ", en lions seve ", 1 lower o!J1cors I nd tlnll,. TI,C 'y m affma is ,,""c, ",. n'IOll "d, no, i' it me"'iollcd b y Poly hl us, The G ree k hist o,i o" , howc"", rc~ularly "'en ,l" m a u tli' called s Hc liso u"'. 'hi. word for ,h. Roman .., .~ ,p l•. •,hleh ,.'a. t h ~ . maile.. ' "Clleal unl, of ,he legion. just as tbe ,).,,,.., .... I. lbe . m . II ~ .. " ,he
""'''ti' only "oub~ .. "h I Nsic "",,,p'•
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of around
m.n la Ihlt .. ~ a,. be ~i nn,nll ll~t bloc k ,h. pmbkm. f""St'd hy Ascd pi ke. S.sm long. lod pIke. liP 10 S.7sm in lcn g'b at~ ptUe"-ed in . be Sew ."""""00C$ ollhe T........ ol London. Pol~biu, . I II~ . lhat Ib~ .. . i,, ~ ~... -'ri&h1N II ,lit- hun end (presumably this ......... tha' il hod a beny ""od. !k!beo eocs on 10 explain how it ..... bdd. Tbe (ron, hand (lcft) 111">1'" ,lit- ",riss.. aboo, 4 pil:e blOk•. The hopli'~ . ....o,d remlioed in us Macl"', ' '''''' .n ' he A'......
....I AC E D O N 360- ' 40 II' Il ,..... ,he ahocn a:: of , hi> ri dge on lhe . hM rhe .hield had no IDP. Reprl'C' lhat made a car-l)ing .ions of . he ,\ t acedonian , hield ,ho", ....p ~' . Thi.....r .......Id oJ...
'0
'0
-_ . _ ,_ on_on_
I '" ~ to< _ _ l ' '_"'."'a~ ...._ " ' T u ' 5coIoI \~ OA "'_ P . N y metal pl.'ed. Th.i. d,lf""ffl« i. amphfied when one l would rJoCOCd g",a>·cs . TI>e """Iprurcs . nd pain, in r of , he period, both G .....k and E, ru..,.n• • 1100-0< the ,,'ide variety of armour in u~ a, ,his lime . Resides . he baD; linen cui.... l)·ptCl l of .he daso>cal en, quihed cuir· "'"" alto appea, on lal"" F.rruocan """'plu..,.. On ,~ sculplu.... """' al.., find. varieties of pla.ed linen cui ......, owcntd .." h ei.her scaJcs 0' ",'Crlapping ",cungul. r pl.tcs (l. ..... ll..). l"hf: moa, f.mous ol , ~ i. , I\(, .' !.an from T odi in 'he Mu,co G regorianu a, the V.uean . The victory frieze from 'he Tem pI. of Alhe"".' Pergam um in wen ,,,-=
'loor" ....,
,ha,
,hi.
,ha,
~ncnJ 'endcncy I Oadop!. hilth--crovo'ned helmeu.
The eo m poK" lon of lhe . r my A ' • glance: , he composnion of , be lat... Helk niotiU • il ..... in lhe Roman army. 'lltr Ampltipol.is code .t=seo thal , at nil hl, inopeer;on, . houI d he nude without a Iieh. so a• . - to gi,.., adv""", WllmiJlllto the guard. 'lltr line-up for banle wu . til l bai I nl~,""
f'e"",,,
Abo•• T"" ""ttl. of Ga uga""," >lte, E W M",de n AI." "",,, d'"", up h', w'th the w ho le 01
T"e b,"'e at R,ph,' (of'e, H H. Scull , 'dl fo" g o, ""t"",.n PlOlomy 'Vand " nMehuS ti l PlOlemv 10" 0" "" 'M' ""ng but won 0" h" "ght. r"" b.",%was won bVh" ph, I," , '" ,0. C€ot f......ght 'o.-i,h man}' ""It>o..i.>mpanicd b,' long period!. of conoOli,Jalion. ,,'hich ...... ,he "",in ~ fOIl' lhe 10r'¥ and , ri,' er to .,ad" .. ith ' rocnia n Sea at Pi.. ....hil>l th. Tiber !k»e army of Poneno marched on in,o I..aIium, ad....ncing 011 Aricia, the cent", of .he l .&fin ,..,.;.unce. 1l>e Gtttlr.s o f Cumac, m l;"ing that Ih;" ,,'to ,heir gm , opportunity, also the field. Cau~ht bct'*ttfl the ' W forces, ,ho E, ruscan army"'"
""li:
-""
\!:'i. h ' hei,land route cu, I~ Etruscans "'ere f,,,......,d to ma,n,a;n con,..... wi, h . heir s",,,hern colonicl bJ' sea. In
474 ,hey suffel' laler Falerii ioined in and tho< fono...~na l"ar ,be ....., of the E.ruso:an fcdenllion aI... 'ook up armr.. .-\ pilil... ...-or er,.ued in ...-hich ""'h ';..1.. """ri1es.1}" ma...acoed pri""""", F inall)', in 35'. Ihe I.ugu. launch.d an all-out offen'ive . nd brought T. rq uinii and Falerii to Ihe ir knce' . It w"' ditlicuh for th. l:t ru scan, to mak e • concert e. KC'CPine ,he Roman arm in in Apulia and .he Lir~ "alley OCCllpiaJ, Ihey brwhed a,id. the C.... mpanian ar m y and Ihru' t north_ " 'Ird, . The Roman, hand. dov.. pow. r to a die"1ator who gathered .11 .,'ail.bl. f,,,,-c. and pre"eO an.d ra>'aging ,he 'crcd , I f lhe)' defect ed. R""",', arm!' in Apulia " ""Id ht "'" ,,11 A. ,h;; p '0
i. al,"",,1 Impossible a.:t in unison ....1 s",n1lnum . he Samnlle and Gall if ,be ( :':I,ic "'hieh ..... "" crth"",' . he king.Jom of Thrace ond pl unge .\b ....,donio in.o chaos. lhe 'k.......,., , be 'lame tr ibe " 'h ieh had ucked Romc a hundred )'' '''' befo.." m,w('d f ' hei r ' erti'or!' on 'hc ... d.iarie ,..,." north " f Ane"'llll, ~ro."ed the Apcnnine; and ra ided Etru .ia, The Rom an a, my whid, nl .,~he d nort h It' deal wilh the in" ade" . utTt·.e d a , h< treat)" ".. hich [." ed r"r so )'" '' \\i'ilh , be (011 of Samnium . Rom c wru ru lled almos. the ,,'I> hi< Ios>e>. , "", a ' l')'ntue •..,....." . h«:ome .be pto\'erbiol n p....oion fo. an """rn pe n>l~e gaIn . Thc follo..., n& yca. Rome de.pa lched 40.000 'H"'J>'I aKainsl , he in,..dor. T h i. timc I)'rrhm "a' ,upf",rTcd hy , he ' " " II" ,,,, 1t. Ii,Itl" T he ",c~",d h.mle la,"ed for lWO day, hUl it< re,,,11 wa; nlu~h 'he ",me a' ,he h"l. Dq>r""sed hj' his I",,,,,, . Ihe king ~n:,.",d ''''cr 10 S idh' help I hc G = ks 'herr al\tlinsl Ih e Canbagin ian. , Fearing 'h.... he CarThagi man. had arrange.! a ha of h.. army. The ~'rrhic ...., .. lhe key pinl in Roman milll~ry h....Jr}, Hanm bal c~ l')'rrh ... as oeoond ""Il' l .... leunder in hi, h"" itl' f le""",I., II i. unforrunar" ' l nu Iinl-hanJ rcpun of hi. ,:amp'"ln, or hi, trC"~t ik ,... military l"""lio.. . ha"e ,"rri.-ed, We ha"e onll' lhe ~e'l' un""li,factr y aeroun .. r [.i"~' , l'lula,ch and D i""),. i,,•. I [a"; n,l ,u"';"ed 'he Pl'n-hie "'a, 'he 1I." "",n. "etC n,,,,· potent iall~' 'he fm em' '''l amo.mK lhe m,lilaT)' po"ers of the ,\ teol;' erra " ea"
The Italian Military S ystems Tbe lfe of Ko m u l ,,~ T he 'nmm ni, k , e, lahlished on t he hill. "r Rom e in ,he M.h .-em u,y woul d ha" e bc, Jawn and n .... Only lhe "'cahhlecn>.c _ can o;o '-
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TH E RISIi OF RO ME 800- 275 Be Til E ITALI AN MILITARY SYSTEMS
from m1t~n m~taJ. Iron weapon~ had to be beat~n ''litO ~ru.po",""'w_ _ n
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"""¢ bcv¢nana i. unttrt"..... Tho: ¢I "bora t~ I",,,,,,ho ' n'" cuira.. '. ' .' wa. di""overed a' Nar"~ in Etru ria , " WaS f r l.,e. were rivet~d 10 eu her end of . 1~'lher belt , Th... ~ belt ,'1•• 1" cvol" ed int" the , imple later ElTud 970..
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on ".. ".nculptunl nop',"",n'a,ion of a .h,eld ,he whl«n found ,n ,he Po ,·.lIe~' and in AUSlfl.l, Thi' d,ffe'· Ii,..,
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£Iruscan o,'erlords.. perhaps bcca..... Iff hIS La'in origin, "oed '0 tn'eara" , ,IIr h'hnl, The Etru,".n. .mu"' " ill h.," f" rmcod th e m.ioril y rd to, ,he >hleld "nd U ion ,,,, ,,,. deocnho-s " a. lin Argolic (ArJi' -") .tueld, T here can be no I) 01...,...... _ .. ,he Glee' , _ '0 oon"","" 01 .................. . . . . , I I ) _ o n l _..... I"", . _(~
'_"0. ond accordina '0 D ionl·, illo both sling"" and ia.."hTte w.";,,, (;gur., ,hown on,ot C" ' O" "tv'"
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T HE RIS E OF RO~tE 800-275 EC THE ITALI AN MILITAR Y SYSTEM S
of Rome, a large proport ion of the fir" class mUSt have gone wit h them T hi, wou ld ha\'e . e , ' hey ,"e"loon· ....o~ ""..-,.,.. Z '..'..... 'Ne9ou lVI>t
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' P Ul P 'I ,od J" " wou I "'-'u,~ ~ ~l "'pu " , ,, ~ 0 ] p , ,, , p J SI 'lU l" 1 h m lU ' J -~ 1 9 JO dn oJ ~ " WOJJ P"-'IOA' ~d.;;1 "W[ ' q lU\ ISW ' 4,1 'pu noJ ' ,",,, W '~l J O P q w n u " ~ 1 " 1 " ' ' ' '1.'' .' '" I, oS n,\ U1 , t"llI h " J' IJ " p~W " U ' , d .11 n" ~ , ." ' 41 ' "11\ .W Il d in ,he Tomh or S.... n Roo m. a t 0Mt1O ..... Lake 1loIs ........... or I 1yplCai Enusc.n mu.cl.d cui ra.., 10.. classlcll ~a vcs. Arziw s11 ldd and I Mon tcforlino h,lme ' wl' h Wpl, di.c check plec• • In neld or weaponry I considerable cho nge had Iaken pl. "• . A I ' h "u ~ h the hopli" . word remolned In usc lhe w•• 'upersed'd by • heavy lovelln
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poo boeca<M 1bc: primaTJ' o/fMUlW pon or 1bc: Roman IeVoo- It had • Ion& iron shank and _ all.toed to the wooden haft by I .oc ket, .pi k, ta"ll or • no t W1lI: wi' h ..... or IWO m ClS ·Ib••o.
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13 TM w.."o.- of Ca p.ostr ar>Q. bco""plat . and '''' oTOIl7>: hacked wi.lI iron . The example $ho"'"Il here i. fn'm lhe roecro-po li,.' Alfedona. The di...... are ~ 3_ Scrn in d i.tme-ter (they are l e""nlly beI..""o J O and ~~crn ..inmon On """'*" v' go" ... "'-"'
Ie , , _ "" wiatl le and were used 10 cia" and dale ol heT examples , Fortunalely an exee llent specimen was found in a grave at Campo\'alano which pb ced il firmly al Ihe end of Ihe 61h c-.,ntury. T he 'e helmets , of wh i~h aoout ten example, exi" (half of lhem bave no provenance) would seem 10 be limiled 10 Ihe Adriatic ~"a" hetween An,'ona and Hari. T hey aTe characteTised b y an in,el ere st channel at the fro nt , a pro nounced wai" like Ihe Ne ~au lype and Iwo h emi.phCTi~al ho,"s which are ri\'eled to the , ide . T he ,e Ix,,,e' are made of beaten bron ze filled with lead and backed wil h on iro n disc, T he Cc rto, a , iwla , how, a peculiar helmet made up of Ix" " , or dis cs (6a), Examples of helmets of this type have been found in Yugoslavia (6), T hese are made of a wicker cap covered wilh bron7.., di,~ •. The gaps ocl ween lhe discs are filled with bro nze . lud, Cuirasses made in a similar fashion have also bee n found in Yugoolavia , T he last Iyp< (7 ), which is shown on t he Bologna ,iwla (7a), i, c o n i~a l in shape, It was nol \'ery IX'Pular and cert ainly nO! as effeCli\'e as lhe brimmed lype" hut a fcw example. ha\'e becn found T he one shown here is fro m Oppeano near Verona , It is made in lwo pieces tiveted 10geIher and has a ~a" bron ,.., topknot. T here arc two , mall bTonze loops on the inside for fa s teni n ~ a chi n strap , The othe r types
."
wete also held on by a chi n strap which wa, umall, ' allached to t he lini ng ,'ap and is often , 'i, ihk on the ,iwla. T he watrior of Ca pe'trano i, weaTing a throat ~uard : a very similar example wa, foun d at Alfedena, On his upper left aTm he wears an armband . Such armbands have bee n found in POSilion arou nd the left h ume.-", in t he warrior graves III Alfedena, which brin.o;s to mind the stor,. of T ar peia, t he Roman maiden .t lhe lime of Romulus, who betrayed lhe C. pi101 10 lhe Sabin.. in relurn for Ihe gold bracdets that lhey wmc on their left arms . There i, so often an underlying tr uth in the old legend" Even lhe sequel may havc a grain of tru th in iI, for Ihe Sabine, pTOha bly spoke O""an and they may ha\'e had difficu hy in undcT"anding what Tarpeia ""a",ed when she lX'i nlcd to whal lhey were wearing on theiT left arm, and o/feTed hn Iheir , hield s, T he warr ior of Ca pe" rano has no shield and no shield remain. have bee n fou nd at the excavalions. It th erefor~ seems mOSllikely lhat lhe non-metallic ' CUl um in one of its for ms was used . A d""or ated brcast dis" fTOm Ihe Anco na area further nor th shows a fallen warrim holding wha l must be an Argive ,hield . The Ancona area ha. produced abundant evidence t haI the full h(}pJi te equipment had been adopled there, but lhere is no similat evidenc~ for its adoplion in the central area , G re~ k arm"ur wa. having only the slightest infl uence in lhe c~ ntra l area . Of all the ~ra v es exea \'aled at Alfedena and Ca mpovalano unly one ha s yielded any G reek armour; Ihe unique OscoCorint hian helmCl (sec p . 6', ' 3) and a 6th_century Gt~ek greave (.ee S, p . '03) were fou nd logelher in a grave at Campovalano. T his greave is eKeep· lio nal, and lbe warr i"r of C aI'C' trano cert ainly doe , nol wear an y, Further nort h , pro bably under lhe influence of the G reeh . nd Etru.~ans , gTea\'cs hecame com mon p la~e and. pair were found in the famous warrior gra\'e at Sesto C olende , A very sim ple upper and lower ann guard were also found at AlfeM n. bUI Ihe, e 100 are unique. Armour uoually comi ' ted only of a cui" ," and helmet. Su . pended fro m the harness of hi, cui rass on lhe right side, lhe Ca pestr ano warrior has an elaboralely decoraled
swor d . An almost identical sword was fou nd", Alfeard, thaI have bee n found. T hc," SW'Tds are all of Greek hoplile lype probably ado pted from lhe Etruscans. T heir hlade length, \'ary octwcen 60 ancl ,ocm . ' I'he handles and the top and Ix)[[om of Ihe scabbards of these , word, aTe made of bone covered with iron . T his iro n facing ofren has pierced decoralion so lhal Ihe Ixmc ,how, Ih ro ugh. The handles "fR oman dagge", of lhe caTly empiTe are made in exact ly the same way. T his and the wides pread remains of hoplile swords fw m Ihe Po valley 10 Apulia and from Ihe Adriati,' [() Corsica, wilhoul ",unling the areas such a, Hruttium, Lucania, Ca m p.nia an d Sicily which came direcl ly under Greek influence, leave no c10uhl Iha' Ihis wa' also the primary sWOTd used by Rome and the I.a lin League before lhe introduction of the S panish lype in lhe 3rd century , On t he Capesltano sta lue a small knife is visible a11a~hed to t he fronl of the swt>Td ,eahhard . S imi lar knives, with a blade lenglh of 20- 25cm, have been found lying on to p of th e sword scabbard in the gr",'es al C. mpovalano. So me of the gravc' eon lained iro n daggers complete with their iTon scabba rds and chains for attaching them to , he belt. The blades (}f these weapo n. werc 25-301 helmel wa, the mo"common form . It was gradually superseded by the Negau type dur i n ~ the 51h century. Shields of all , hapes and size> are , hown on ,he siuda., from round Argiv e type' , ,, oval and rectangular body , hidds . The iro n shie ld 00.. (' 4 , p 103) undoubted ly comes ftom a body , hield , I" sections show lhat lhe shield w", convex. The figu re from , he Arnoaidi situta (1 3 , p . 103) i, ohen identified as an invadi ng Ce il, and indeed it i, just possible that he is., but his heime!, Iwo spe ars or javelins , tunic and spined , hield should ' urely make him an halian. Howev~r, onl;' a ,hort time later bo, h lhi, lype of shield and h~ lrnet were he ing used by lhe Ce l" of the Po valley and wer~ uIlq ue>tionabiy .dopted fro m ,he Italian, . M elal euirass", do not , "em'" ha " e been u,ed and the C" idcnec of the ,imla. suggests Ihat "'en the linen cuirass was rejected. Bronze sloured tunica ",-jth gold scabbards and baldrics. 111< 1IOld>en wore a brea.. plll' e ,,'hieh L vy con . 0 ' poIlIl'C (~..)" This QOUId be in,e 7 Po;n,,"Q ...
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""'''''Il T,," , which see m, to be unique as nonc " f t hc o'her painling' of warriors show, swo,d s at . 11 All oft hc warr i"" depicted wear broad bells and helmets , usually of AHic lype, lOpped Wilh crest and fealhcrs _Sme wca, gr~. ,' c s ; these are e"en worn by lhe oce..iona l h'm c_ man and a few wear a breastplate. T his is u' u. lly triangular in form and em\"",,"I~r> wou ld prefer an earlie' J a't, "" rt tha t ;, (a",d rom L""ania, T he g,ea,'.,., ",hich al' pes' to he of late arehai,' t)'"". though the)' are ","nainl¥ much late. than thi', ha,.., ",rap fa..eni"lt' at the had, "Il>c helrnct "of An "" 'ypeand ha, ..-jnlt' of thin . h<xt bronze. f",,'he. hoIdcn in lhe form of ooiled . flak... and a rai>ed ern t holdt-r , It i. " cry .i "'t lar to the hel",et wOrn hy 'he Capoan h"".,,,,an , 11tur ed "n the local ,'a,e pa;m i n ~ " T he '0_ called h al,,_Corinthi.n helmet seem. '0 h. ve ori,o:inate and in one mi d_3rd---centur )' gr ave at Can",. a m u'ded cui, . " and CeI,ic hclmet were f" und together, To , umm.ri", : the ."uther n 1•• lian highland "'arrior in the -4th ""n'"r~' " '.. a fairly light]y armed ja"eltne-er or 'f'Carrnan Un.. 01 f.,.the ( ired ",,",lan~ , Surpn,i"l ' hough if mal' """", .ina lheir Ilomrland ...... in , he highl andt, , he s..mni,.. produced the bes t horse _ men in Italy, I n the pl.in. " f Cam p,mi. a fm mi da ble cavalr y fore o evol ved and in the 3,d an d 2nd centuries the '.-IIm p. nia", f",m ed the t.ackhonc of the Rom.n ,,,vall'}', 5o" era] C.-II m panian and norther n L uca nian paintinll' sl>o'" ,hese I'1oon(:men, The.., li"" eum plc fn>m Cal'''''' ...·hieh un_ fununa' e1)' ....' ''''"cdduring , he Second lJ:'or ld W'ar , In this I""inlin,o: . he horse wars " cham f'"" , unnounted by fea_ , bers, On anoth", example f",m Pac. _ tum the ht"", wea" ,,,me frn-m of pcytr.L Exam ples of h. ' th types 0 1 . , ,,, ,,ur can be at "' . p le" Th e ho=men "'em to be arme • tv,," of """" a1
P"" " um Mu.....m
T HE R iS E O F RO.\1 E gOO-275 Be THE H ALlA.'! :rl IUTA RY S YSTE MS
The Celts T he Ce l" or iginat ed In southern Germ,ny and I;- ~' I
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be d..." "" ed w"h tigur~ em oo...<e hronu . Chariots '«"' u.cd for fi;:.l"il18 alt"in.. Clvall)" . lX'hen tlgh'ing from I"s ,,...,..11r... m.... "'"" champion» ..""Id ..ep 0cir ..-aJ'< d " IlJrnllC "'a' acted .he dumpi",... on , rue bart>aric f""hion. '...lUJd break imo song. ex,oIling ,he dc-ed. of hi. a""",,'o" and bo3s' ing of hi. ow .....'com r!ishmcn.. ,,·hil.. a' ,he ..."'" nme I""mng scorn on ,he c hallenl!"r. T he Ruma "s tw",'u",d . ...' ·e"l "f 'heir general. "'hi' had a,",er ' ed ,he challenge and killed a Cel.ie ch am pion in 'i ngle comha" They "'rre rewa,ded hy hring pc,miued !O dedic~" ' he ,pu ils (prima ' f'< ,lt a) in the ' em ple "f Jupiter I'c, el,iu. , T herc "'e'C al,o .«w ndQ and I""a ,polia , which dcp.:nded on ,he rank of t he winner, Ti, u, Manli us. in ' he 4lh cen' ury, ,e ru'edly "vercamc a gigan,ic Cell and m irpcd h im of hi. golden ' ''''lue, lh u. ""'eivintl- lhe c"lt""me n of T orqualu, The mo.,., ",..ewonhy of th... hen"" "'a' .\ l at'Cll. C1ludi ....\ lo rttllt" . who
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killed ,I>< G illic chid l. in Viridumaru. in single '~""Nl in 22: IIC. lie "en' un hecome R""""s ......, ...=sful l!"nc,al . tl-l',n.. lI a nnibal during his Clmpaill"" in haly. \I'''''n I>< had killed hi. enemy, ."" C.d'ic "..rnor cu, " lJ his heaod and hung i' frunt his hone 's ned . He ....,.,ld . hen .. rir l he body and hi. oqui,e carry oil l he bloo.J__nerN .poi," ..hil.. he s" ng a racan .,.."" ,hem. '1''''' . poil s ""re ...,Ied 10 , he ....II of h is house. T he htaoh of his fl'lOS( disungu..hcd """"";", "...,.., cmboolmcd in ado' oil. T he head oJ ,he cons,,1 Luciu. Poo,,,mi,,s, ,,'ho "'I' killed 1:>y the Celt. in 'he 1' 0 Yalley in 2 [6. " 'liS d"rla~'Cd in I le...ple. The cxca,·~,ion. carried ,lU' II En.remo."" ha,'C r",...,.led lha' 'he "",'ered hc. ,Jo "'e'e fa r more 'ha n meTe , r" phies and hrt:onlC pan of a relig;ou. r;' ual. Al En tr emont bead, we, e d i s rl a~' cd in nic h ~s a",und a .-.: , em"" ial ~ .t ,'w ... . llef,,' e m,,,,ing on 10 a dotai led exami,,,ti,,,, " f Ceh ie eq uipment it m i~hl he helpful '" make a few commcna alx,u' (:': hic warfarc in general It w.. lhl: g< ""..1"rini"" " f ' he ancient o" th" " lha ' lite Cell• •It,,wod no app' eci, ' i"n "f 1",'1;" ,,,. ,,,a,el\Y, Polybius "''"''"'''' . hem "f h.,'ina: ""ither a r lan ,>/' cam l"'ign ,," r judgemen, in ",,,...:un na: i, . and add. ' hal they did ,,'hate' 'CT .he heal " f I"'" ion a>m-
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manded . Thi• .... v giYe Ihe impression tlta' , he Cel.. f""ght a. a rabble. bu' ,he inel", ,,,n of " andards anJ 'ru mpet' alff(>nll l ite Celt,c .",~t. , I>:' '''n on ,he areh of Oranl!" I fairly rigid orga ni... 'iI.... and C........·• description of pol., rteranc ,he Vt1'lllpping "'odds of , he Ctll. m , rtftr '0 a do.c:_kni' pltalln. ,,·h...-h """ i' can""" ......, bet.. ,he n...rmal Celt ic formalion• s........ , bar , hey could i". is full oJ adm ,rali".. f" r .hio Ii...· " r and ...y'. [hal Ct...,n in hi. do~'. 7~ )" ~~ bIer. i' was o;" u'io", of Cd' i~ an""' ,,,mcIlU of wa. ; " . nd;lTd•. hOTlls and lrumpcts. T ho: ~ nmm o .... Sl form or Ir ump"l u,,,d by ,h,' C"lt. was lhe "arny~ T his wa, • k'l\~ in,trumem wil h it. mou th in 'he f"rm of' an animal ', h• •d at righl a"!ll... t he ned: or lh" ,n"rumetll, 1"..., .. ~ .ho.. 'n o n , he (;und,-suup cauld'on an d on ,he ar.::h a' Orange. ... c.am~'X ho:ad ,,,.. found a, De.Hord 1ft Scolland . O rigi nal!)' , his h.ad a """'..bIe jaw' anJ a ,,'OIkn 'nguc "" ,hat ..-hen " ..cas bIolA... " ,m..1J h.a,'" em",a! " ",uc"OUl n lliina sound. TI", 'uM of" GUTI~'x " " . f nd at Tan e._ ,hall Bridge in '-i ""~>l hi,,,. The " '"" of thc ' -n i. a"".."d 1»' P"I~t'iu . and i, ' '''''''n O il a ",litf from ",mllio in n,..,hcrn Italy l ie." ,I>< hornblower i. 'huwn wit h a m und . pinod ,hiold .imil"r 10 ,he ty pe u>cd hy , h" ~av alr y . T ho ,am" ,eulplure ,huw, a " and"rd be.",r wear ing a hor""d l'elliau helmet and carrying a Ji'l in" li,'d }' , haped ""ield, A , imilar .h ield "'0 he ••,,,n on ,he 'om!»,one of I Roma n aoxilia'}' ,,"ndard hca,-er from Il lod ril " "' Wall. The oddt)· ,haro::d .pear"""d at . he I<JOI of the Bo<mio .. an1"'"...-
,h.
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.... ,,, ,.. de. " "'" primaril}' . ..-ord>m< . ....... d i, aloo rcflee,cd in 'he mller onclenl .ource•. H.."'.......r, it i. not " nti"'h' 1ft>
17 F,om E"" 10 oo"he'o Ital, 4th_3' d co,,,"'" Be E,,< Mesoum 18 f,om c. Ten• . 1,d_2n d ",,"," 'V Bf Neooh; lol Museum 19 ' '' 'eent"" 'ype 0' hoo' ' ,,'ene' Rom'W-.e , G.,,-o, oiseh.. Len" .l mu, eum
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20 R", 0"
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21 22. 23 hom L. Iene
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25
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25
(0 32 J .V, ;1n h e, ~ 26. 29 " 0 30 f 'o", the Mat'. are, 0' F"ooo. 51 Go"".," .M" ... ,m ~ 5 . 27. al ,o ~ a2 O" gio u,,'nown Sl Mu, eum. 33_36 5",,,,ho,d, f,om l . Too, ~ooJch;", Mu,"om ]1 SpoarMM h o m the M"oe "e, 0' f ,, ';" MUS. 45 J , vel; " OlI,oI "'_
h"""7'p """
Sw"'''''od 1 rho ',on' '" "... 00' ."'.Id "--" " grasp lhe ru.nd k . This ' if lhe: iro n which wa, nai leJ 10 the shield a' . hk ld and ha"e I>c"n do ubled up .Iong eilher enJ , A reeta ngul" iron pla' e the edge to reinfor"" Ih e rim . An ~x· wa, na iled . eros, .he fronl a .. wooden . hicld. wcr• • 1", ened by b.J:j na: . al\.. her ,hield. The or igin of lhi. Iyp"'ure The , imilarilie, be, ween Ihe other c-eremo nials a' Ihey obvious l;- Roman ",.m"" and lhe ('.chic ,hield are """re ,n pr imilive Urete to 'he period hefm e 2 ~Z Be, el"borote butt er fl y oo"e, fotllld in when ,hc,~ Cel" wer c d riven Ollt by the Bri..in in the '" cent ur y M' . Alt hollgh Romam. T hey ore generally da'ed to all ' he bo"c, ' hown, exce p' ' 9 , were the lale 4th or e. rly .'lrd cen tur y, Th~ fOll11d on the '~ ll1 t i nc n t of Eur ope, in helmets from the Sen o n~, ' graYe, are most coses s;mil" exam ple' ha,·c heen llSU" lJy m. de ~i , her comp letely of iro n fou"d in Br;t.in , or of iron and hrome, thOllgh 0 few T he ma jor;, y of Celt ic shield' were co n tinll ~ he maJ e entirely of bronze. oval, bu t ' he archa~1ogic" 1 nam ple, Several ex.mpl es h.ve . m ultipl e ere" .nd the repre""nutiom , how that they holde' m.d o of iro n fitt ed 10 the lOp_ could also be rectangular, hexag()nal kno t (see no , 6 ;,. f hi' pre,"mahly held or round , T hes e ,.me repr esent. tions f~a the" a' the , ide' and. horseh.i r ,how the 'hield' J~coratcd wi' h sym - ere" a' the top T he cheek pieces of bo h , anima h or gc~,me ' ri c desig n, these helmets o, e near ly alw"y, of tho Diodoru s elaims that these mot ifs wcr e tr iple disc type ( Stt 6 1 which m uo• • A, Celt"
ch.F" om G," I., th ' ' ;'-1'0 of C,o,., " . W OO" a n ito o 001",,, . od "" , , h" t H" long , w ",~ o,"gs 00 h i, 'ig h' " ip. Swo< "om on . _
.... n" _"""\0",-. ough Ihe Cell. had been almo;l dri,'.n OUI f hal )' b)' Ih. fi",' quartet ofille 2nd ",n1ltty II nample found in J'n""" Although il ".... never . , I""f"lla. n .1>< .\Iontefonino'j"I>¢. it, "OC' bttarnt ",id.. preaJ in 'M 'st c..,mury 1lC . R a
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""'....al nampln c( a Cellic for m of S egllu hellmt in ,he c.mral All"tlC ..•.. ' 4· 1'· 11:). In the , . 1 cem ury IIC IWo n.w appellr, T hl:y are ct< "I-em,ury AI> impcril.l GallIC I, .uch .. ) . p . 12a, .tto,,' ,hi...yle. Thi. an.mpl 10 make the h~.. .,and 01' lik. an an,..red alumal i. exceedIngly primitive and mal' po;n, '0 Ihe origin of honchoir """,to on helm. " . Some ,,~tue, from ..,u, her n Fr ance IA'Cst uf the Rh6ne , shuw an extr a_ ordinar y' headgear like a h,,,,d wi,h " or.. t un it (see below). T he, e rna)' he pre_Celtic and r leather cui" " " , , h""I _n
'" "".., """''''' n M.-... $ I 13 ""...,_ " ..- . .1100/1.......... 7 ..,,1> cap ," 9 ...... jo;nI 1 g 11 e. -.. , u H"'''' ~ " po'l< of
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T HE IU SE 0 1' ROM E 800-l7 S tIC THE IT ALlA.'Il MILI T ARY SYSTEM S
and lhe far end must how hoo ,n
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"" . . - ..................... """"" !IIOn. oars ,ha, ttlc lia.!he arm ~' had 2O,lXlO ""\1llry and ehano... Thi. is ,1"0< I.., ref~r~n,..., ,,, ehariol. being ua" e ~n d,ocovercd in France. (;nfon una' el~' mos, or ,he ,,,,hiclM appea r I" have ~n dlOman,led before buria1. .\\ony ur , he me,al pan. of ehorim. have ~n pre'erved in ,he.. gra" ... Amung ,he•• ar e art icu la,ed hamessings (""e p. ' 34, 5 . 6 ond t ) .' which con onl)' hav. hee n ",cd fenq .....t or Gaul . O l, ie ca... lry became .hr ma,m ' ay- or 'M Roman arm )·. Yet i, has ~n ' ''lll!'CSled , hal , he Cel.. had "" 'N. covalry and 'he~' di.""",nl.d and fougb, on foo,- A' .hr baule of C"nna. (2 ' 6 llC) ,he Ceh. , Spaniard. " no.l Roman. ce r_ ,ainly did ,hi. b", i, may ha". been nee"".r)' beeau•• uf lhc exc..,d ingly c'amped ,pace in whkh ,he)' we.. figh'i ng . T hc commcn, uf Hannib.1 a, , he b. 111e uf Cannac «curded by I.iv)' ,eem. til ",gge.' tha, ,hi, was no' n",mal ~,ac!i",, : wh"n he w., lold ,hat Paull... had o, d.'ed his ca,'a l,y di,moun' , lIannibal commented he migh' a, wdt ha,-. deli\-ered 'hem up in ""aim . Thi. implt.. ,hat d i,muun,ed CI"al l")' " 'ere u..less. [n IN, h i< i. hard concci'·.Ia..... numbers of co...I.,· di.moun, i ~ '0 fttlb'. If ,hr Ronun. had dol"< , his, PoIlN .... commenlO abou' thri'lIdorn of . he G ift\: 'f'C'Ir ,,'h.ieb did Il<J' ..",...,. in ' M charge would ha,-. I>ccn mnningkss. The O l. ic CI~ all")' emplo)'ed by ,hr Roman. in ' hr early .mp". is regularl)' depict.d fi, b, ing fro m """"t>ack. 11 ,I>na bl. ' 0 conclude from ,hi, pcN"••ive .~ i de nce ,ha, ,he Ceh. indeed prod uc. d lNe cO\'alr y. M any Celti. hur..bi" ha,'e bITn fuull d. These are u'uallj' uf ,he , naUk ')'pe T hesclIlpm r. " n 1', III (u) , how,
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a ""'-an !In,..' lhe Grttk... ,h;, " ",< four_pommelled oaoidle .......-n '" "",Ipout. i. Celtic and ""'" Roman. n.e Gundcouup CI..ldron al.., . ........ ,hr discs ,hoi ,,~ u"",,, 10 O l,ie hones-. Some of .1>cK, made of .. IWI', hov-. b«n r nd in nonhern llaly. Thcor f>Ir<J-. l>edivid.d into ,hre. p.'" (w~"Idu;>S;>J> ""I >d~ "llftWO'> PI"""" ~II""'I"-"POUI ~H ' P'04PW "... ,,~. 01 Iltl " p~J"I" ' '''I k'r l 1"'l 1 ,( n "'l." ~" U .(~ 0>1 ', ) ''''4''10,1 .14 P"'l !JOSOP '"'II pur (:m 0>' . ~) .Iw ," o r."nJI:~ ' 'II " >OMI"" ""·\\jl"4 O! Ii w J. o."~!'[ ' ;>11 0> ' pur ot f U»'''' '''l p..xu·" p -un """IOW:>J ~ I' Jl ~ aUl"" ..t»A "4 plnn.. " pur IU~w.1op.~ IURI""'" J" ~IRlS • Ul ..... muJOli "41 '.o.u.owH .~J', "41J"lU:I""'''41 '" WJOJ""" 01 " JO UOl1.1U....", '"", ,, p~P:>l:>J ~.''''I ""'1"'1"" '''''W :)Uno
JO r ~ I "' u,, ~ "II.<J[~.~ ~Jl4 ':>q1 JO 4·'0;1 P""'l ",:>q ' l':>ql 1"'1"'.1.,. "'" uop .(.,q 'I"'" p;.uu~ """'''
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! form ,he hastati, those in Ihe p, imo of lifo the pr incip" .• " d the oldesl the "iarii Th e rorarii Th ~ palriOtit Livy usually sa ys lha t bad w031 hor '" opp od play' '0 account for the Koma n, not gaining a vicror y The ~ rt.tes l of lhese defe at' was Iho d i, a" or at the Allia ( 390 Be). The se defe ats , , nd the Ali ia In p. n icul.., m.y 3ccount for the mongly
detens ive eh araCler of lhe 4th-century kginn Tht mort mob ile to rmalion of the h~,,~ r ; p,ine;p « wa, pro b"h ly . n answer to lhe fasl-moving ar mies of the Cd t> and $am nites Th e I,,'elineers at the f", nt m3Y have beon p. Tl icul..ly desig ned 10 wilh ' tan d and h'eak the force of the Cdtic char ge
.he Ma cedonian. a, Pydna . nd reductd ,h. homel.n d of Philip and "'ltunde, '0 a Roman pro' i"" . , "'flor the battie a n" ,nb" of Grteh who had ' ided wi'h M.e. don w... b,ou~h' Rom. fn, Que"innln~ .\monK rile...... llIe hb'onan Polybios H..... placed in ,h. cu..ody of the SdplOfo. ~ • clooe mend of Scipio .'>fmilianu•• nd accompanied him on hilt CMBP8J1tBS In orde, ,ho, bi. G<S. As _ ' he Grttb. i...... a priYiLt.,. ... ~ in !be army and only _ ""'" o.. n.d ove, a ce rratn ..nouo, "e,e IlalM loT >Cf\I1ce. 0I'l an .ppoin..d day etC h y. .. . 11 c IU z. n• • ligibl e for milit..y .~rv i ce .... mbl~d on ,he Capllol He lt 'h ey were divIded "cord ing ' n p",pe"y T he p'''" •• '
dozens _'. Itn, ... "'~ na...,.. 'The ""XI group (th~ -";tb • ""...... or 0 ....' 400 d..cbm •• ) ..,,,,.d in the 'nfantry, and th. rich. " •• ",~d io ,h~ Clvalry The 1,200 men needed for 'h e ,"volry "'~rt ,.Ie"e d hy Ih. c~n .or her" .. Ihe ~.ner" 1 ~n r " l m e n l b . ~ an Th re e hundred of ,helt we re . "ached 10 • • eh I'gion. A ca,,"lryman b.d to ...... fo, ten ye..o and an Inf.n ,ryman for ,6 yea.. before h. reached 'be.,. of 46. [0 um. or ~. , danger a .. infantryman migh' ho.... 10 ......, lor ao yeats. ~ thooe .UlPbl. fo, 'nfanny >ervi"" hod be.n .epar,u.d 'hey ..... divid.d in,,, ,h~" "U>.. F,om n ch Inbe four m. n "'ere ..I«led of about Ih••ame age and build . nd btoogh' before ,be trlbll"es. Th~ Iftbunes of lhe I~ g i o n had n", ChOice. , hen ' hc ,,,'ond and third, tb. f" urlh legion taking Ih~ one that wa. !tn. \l'h~ n ,h~ ..cond gtoUP of f"ur was brough' fOnl;a, d tb. . .cond I'Kion hod nUl c boice ond th. firs, legio n look ,he man that "'.. I. ft. So th~ ... 1«ס0o ronhnutd unr~ 4.200 had been d .... n lor each Iepon, In lim.. of n ceptlonal danKer lhe legio n .,rt""h .... raiKd ,,, S.ooo. II m... , bt p" in 'ed Oot lhat .Is. .. b... Polybiu. st" te. ,hal ' he leilon .tr. n ~lb ...... 4.001I Infantry and 200 c..alry an d ,h. , ,hi' was ra ised to S,OOG inf,n try .n d 300 c, ""l ry In lim •• o f gre.. d a n~. r. It . ..ms unfair 10 day that f'o lyblu, i. co n" adicling him.elf, U 'he.. flKUIC. mus' ha\lt' ... ri.d con.idenbl,. Once . h• • nrolm.nl had b.... compl••ed . be oalh . 'U r. ke n One m Iec ted bJ rio. t" b.. nts to co m. r" d ond ..... r ' 0 obey hi. office nd .."".... th.i, orde far .. in hi. power. The o'he 'he n com< fo""a,d on. 01 • 'im••nd ''''Ort th.t they would do ' he . am. . . th< ftrst man ('Idem in mi l Th. ,,' hunc. then g. Y< a !>IOIer and despatched 'h.m When 'h. y anived a' 'b. rend..vou, Ihey we .. " n cr mo rt d ivIde d Int o
n",
groupo ..cordi"l '0 __ I,h and _
. In
each • .~oo·>Iron ~ lellOn lh. younK'" and 1'00"" 1.l00 fo rmed lh. I!~hr armed (wlim), Of ,h. o,her 3,000 ,he ~ " u n ~ . S1 UOO formed th. first line of h• • vy Inf, ntry (ha" M i) . tho. e in th. prime of Ilf. form. d th. second line (p.ine;pe,) . [.0 1.~on ."ong an d tb. otdeS! formed 'he ' hlrd line (,,".rii or pilr) _ Re~rdl ... of lh..... ot lbe letion. the .ruori; weft al..ays _ ..",ng 1lle olh.. 1rOOpf _ft increaoed prnporti(>tuoltly. From .och of th.... voups. -";,h ,bt nce pllon of ,h. ~d"•••. ,h e 'n bune. . I"" ,ed 'en crn' u" on......o in tum .ach nomln ote d 0 p. rtner who ""as .1.0 called 0 ce nturion Were caUed p, ia. 0" 0.1 po"" i" r, ' he elH ' ed Ce nturl"," he lng lilt p.;o, centurion), The fin t centu rio n .ltcted In the le~l o n (p.;.. . . , il".) had . . . ., wit h 'he tribune. on the milillry cnu ncil. Th. cen,urlon o "He cbn.. n for lh.l r ....dine... Th. cen '.."on. ~.cb aI' _ po' nted a ....gu ..d Om etT (.....ri..) Polyblu. catt. ,Ilem ". ,,,,~i, .quati..g them "lIh the ·...' ·ranke..· in ",. Gftd ..m,ca. The lribun~. and crnlOriou. divid. d .ach d .., (Jt4Har;, " in, ;, .. a nd "i 4d ;) in to lt n unllS (m. n lpl.. ) wh lionally one mample '" ha>ta'i, " "e of pn~,ipI.d,n 61em and 66.m Ion,. _~. It, n.m~ impliu , 'hiO .....mn originaled In 5"",n. rrobably • Iong-poim..... ,..,tsIoQ of ,II< ,..,llIC .........-.:1 The adopllon of thi....ord muot h.v. occurred dmi,. ,II< S«OIId runic .... u ,h~ Smlh~1 , ,,'n rd•• rc o
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RO.\\ E n S- I40 Be THIi ROMA '\ A R.\l Y "e
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guUing a nJa[] described by Livy in th e ' econd .\ \acedonian war of 200-1 97 6e thro" n back TI,e e. rlieS! ex,mpl.. of the n" ' tanged type were found at Te l' mon in southern Etruria, pro bably from the banle to ught there ,,, n s >lC Th ~ , e were ;,ery d lOrt weapo ns , o, - 35em lo ng, Sim ilar s ho rt "",ap<J n, w,n found al Smihel ;n Slovenia (c, 17 5 BC) and Ephyra in Greece (t 67 .d , Longer e""mp les up '0 ;7cm were aiso lo und at i;mlhel and . n cxamp lt 740m l o n ~ wa, found a[ ~ um . n l i . in Sp. in (153-133 "C! , Many of ,h" e have the ' ide ,dges of the flat tang bern over to lock ,hem i",o the woode n hall The earliest "amplc, have J . n ~igM
S FI.' ·IO"lI"d pdum from Rorwa Dlas " Spa 0 5 "",""" """" '" " pikim ['om R"""""., In Sp" o, 7_9 SocM' od p',a from Ron,ob'. slN, maor,. ,n
" od .bovo
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rI'ul ..i ,h hio bod}lluord, ma ,hem $0 ' ha' , he-y could ,urn ;nlo billie orde' wi'h lhe Itt:u/a'i fonn _ ,n, ,he fronl h"", the """"'''' lhe """"'d .nd ,h~ 'ria"i , he rear (.... r . ' 41). In ' hi' co", ,he ba_ _ would ~ on , he left . iM of ul.'h Iin~. If the
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'Q ",oje. Each maniple "liS ollourd • of ,he Offlturiom ...-Ito .."re spccilkally OCClioon of lhe lkfencn, The a nt .. rion> eho.ll"'! Wl.h the duty of scl«ting ,he rhecked tlu. the: wod " 'as done pr.... site of 'he e"""",pment ""Cre oent on pe.ly " 'h, l11 t"" tribu"",, su pe.yiselfcr CO'"Cf T he hagpge InUn " 'u plactd behind 10 lhe .......y and had to be dose to lbe line of the rampan (""/' _). The .'alCf. wli..., ""',ahy and half the heaty H" 'ing decided ",here the ci< ,ns ed 10 which ..ake; no. "... i, e.,y t" I'u ll '"'" one by itself. A. the)- "'t'rc planted ,·efl' dose toget"'" il " .... difficult for more lhon one a"ack.. to .... hold of . he same .. ake , and the!' """,ld g:osh ,heic ""noJ. , ry ing to oJ '0 O O" e the d. k ncc. wrre 'ecure , the w ldi.rs could set up thr com p , The 1a~"Ul of , he ",,-m l" w"' alway. lbe ... ~ and ",'er)' man kne'" ",aJi, and on cit"'" .ide of ,be The eavalf}' ,,'cIC rnc"",ped ,,""" b)' ' u r""" f.ei ng , he ",'~ 1"a~'on~ . the Ii,,, W r m a being neacost thr p rueluri" m and tbe rampart_ T he thr tentll neKt """,', "'ere encamped bact '" hack 10> ,he ca,..lf}' "i,h II>< li", manipk """'est tbe ""atl....t_. Th... the JWi..... of ..... 11 Ieg;.,n Wt>Uld be the nearnt centurion 10> the general'. trnt. In ftunt of ,be Icn" of ,he """,n ran another rood 15m wide . lo ng which the p ri~ dp .. were <Jrawn up facing t he ' .....' ii and hack to hac'k with tbe ""' .pea... The space beh,nd the tribunes' ICO" on ei,he. side of the 1"_ '''''''''' ".... used ror , he mark ct ([""",) on one ,it wcre encamped ""yond 'he ~,,,..,,""'''' and I"'h'" on either side. They wo" in " " " tant attcnd.n,,,
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I T A L Y ASD T H E WESTER!>: MEDl T ERRAl'EAS
on the ~om u l. T he ""t or the ~ .val , y and infant ' y or the exm w rdinarii w... encamped behind 'he /W!Utorium ; n I similar fa, hion [he Ofl> "".. .._ .. $o>WI T... _ · _
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..hoeloon 01 ono 01 II.. _ _ block> ""'" .._ , Sapon, ib le fo' k~l" nll 'he "''' p.,-"",pal" d.an, a, 'he ""Id ie.. ga' he,ed in , hi. loo- fl -wiJ e ,hn'nughf•.., d u, ing the d, y. rhe ' w" maniple. had [0 " " . 'ha' it wa< " " epl and w",e'eJ carefu lly. T h' ,"" of lh,' remaini"g I ~ man iple' wero a,,;gned hy I", each of the lribune•. Th",,, manipl.. a"endod lhe ,ribune in lur n " n a Ihree -day w la. T hey we, e ,..,.ponsihle f'" pit"hing hi, lent and levelling 'he g,ound around it The)' had 'n r~n,.., ' ound .ny of hi' baggage tha' n«Jed p'ltt ,ing and . upplied gUll,ds f"r ,he fron' and ,..,..or of hi. ten, where ,he tt.>nes uwe kept. Each ....n'pJe of ,n.,.;; h.ad ' 0 supply al"""d r"" 'M ,..""" of "" ..If)' behind it. Beoidn keeping a Iookou', this ~ kep, an el"e ..... ,he hones ' 0 see , ha, 'My did ..... iniu,.., ,he"""I,'''' bceorne en,~nckd , n ' heir .0 v"lun,ee n be1id~ 'he ~,,,",,... and 1_.... A gUllrd ""'" 21$0 1l 10 the tden tab l"..
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ITAL Y AN D T H E \'(' E ST ERN M EDIT ERR AN EAN
"""ld otter _ r,fie""" each morning and ha"e lhe orom> r""d by ,he aug........1to ......"t>m!"'nied lhe ;ormy bcr""c offering banle. \I'hen t>auk had bo ""..., ."..r.tN to .he ,,",·.11;' for .imilar f"",o,
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dency In ek••e up loward. ,Ix: ngh' .......h n """gh, .he proteclion of hi. nc-illhbou.o .hield (a n, urion. """'" ehooc:-n fr"m ....., who """,-,ld Sland thr:O gro<Jnd 10.lo,,,hi. happening). SecondI)' •• he soldic:-r-< ........ Id Ila~e discn~ from the ......m y.nd ' "".. m..' bact again hero« lhe li could inlc-rOsterior ceo tu' i.s ,. """ " g , p, The y ca" Mw ' ''he' ed .""'P' in fron., 'hi< ,..;tic ..... ""utn.lised and . ho hanle bepn ",ith a ' kinnish. ~ ' he n ,he enemy cam< wi, hin range of.he !>eavy infan try , the lrumpl ali drew thdr s"'ord. and charged into th e enemy, th rowing the whole weight of . hei, bodi.. again" ' heir .hie ld, in an a, temp' .0 knock 'hei r OpponenlO olf balance. Then, allowing ' he ir k>na . hidd, '0 rest on ,he JfOUnd ,,'hih. ..itt leani ng . heir k f. ohouJdcn .,.;",. .Mm and 't'}ing .0 [orce .he enem~' bad, 'My foug h' from behind 1M . hidd. Sometime' . his fin , charge "'.. suffieien, '0 b..ak .11tI " rde. heh ind " hod~ e of
,,'hen "'e ~no'" .ha. ,.ooo-stronl!' Ie'gIons w..,~ UoN _ Tela"""' . Conn.. and Py d n~-'hc legion. d, lIer had to "'i, n_ ... nd I particul.lly violent charst ,,' h" Pdcned d)'no mi",' . l''''''h m.n had hto regul a' j'>l nt "",ms to he d..illned for jll" ' h" placc in ,he ra nk and fi le ;u,,~, h. had purrd o, e. In the ..lUth ,h" Roma" , n" ..' p;,,,,d ,he "rai" of ,l,tn,ioa to Si.-il)', h ..... ine...i,. hk tho' Rome'.npansion ..,."h_ ..-ards """,Id Mna: her inlo heood-on coIl ~" ..',h , he gtn'n' .......1 0( ,he '0 .e,,,,,
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T he follo"'lng ) 'eaf an ~ll~m pl by ,h ~ Romllns 10 k"""'k ou, I}Kpana mulled in d , _ , ~ r anct apin Ronp Th~ Ia~ k
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ha,;ng a dc..-.ltoing clftct at Canhagc ann'ed Sardinia in q nical dioreprd of the 11'Cl1}lhal she had j\lOl .worn. Can hagc's sit ualion ...... deore n,~ . S Ol only had . he loot .n her ~ off ,he Italian """"' but in .... ~ffon. 10 KUin her posi.ion in Sicil~ .be had been comrell~d 10 diven all her reoouroeo 10 , he i.l~n d and ,n conocque""" 1"'1 her v~rnmc n t ...hich had bellay~d , he ar my in Sici ly, " !f"'ed hi. serYi"". f" r , h~ r.' D T HE W ES TERS MED ITERR AS E....N
ellnie, at Rhod c and Emporia( n o aliltal~ Cl al,mg the 1'0 ; on. on the nort h hank Cre mon. in the ,~rril()ty of , he In'ub..... nd ' M ot her o n ,he "",t h bank at Placen' il in the terrilor)' 011"" Boii. S ince the anncxatK>n of SaNrnia, Rome ha . 1bc IOCCIlrac}' of these figurn, and ",hen, i• •nntef cuir.....,.. and .hidds. The cui......., which are aim"," certainly "",ii, .re t>f the .ype worn by Hd lmjS(ic offict-n , The . hield. are oftwo typn : lhe .....1r""m tlKd by ,he 0.1,. and SpIlniud. ; .nd • hilheno unk"",,-n .....nd form """","'ha, simil.. 10 tltt Arci'" . hidd bul wilh .n imct c~"..1 dioc and • cun'C' '0
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ncc",ion, Polyhiu' n:-fo... In lhe lightly .......,.j ptkemm in Hannibal' , anny. Thnc ........ ....,d to perform jobs .-maIly rn,ri",od 'n ,Itt lightly armed troops. On , he ..... hand ,hi, ma~' n:-lIe ROME Z7S-'4C111C THE GREAT W AltS
Apon from . he l.i~_PboenM:ia..... troops IltId one ,"'OUld ""'e .1>< African '1'\Xlf'O tha, Cartbag(' f'tnpected ,ban to ......e " nde-r lin;'n Ili<xn. 1I~. i. i. dear cnU.ro in numhcn " ..,..., ,he rernukabk Sumidian covall1' Numi(tom PoIybi...' o.:,:' ""n' oi .~ oi ..... ,.,.,.., ..."..,
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_ _ ""T ".'T,," _ _ .... " "0 o> , horr ,ul· and -thrust sword, They wore , hoTt white tunics bord ered Wil h pur ple (by ,hi, he probably mean, cr im, on), Scu lplUre, from Osuna in , ,,ulh em Spain show "-"Trio" ,,-ho fit Po lybiu,' description well. A seoond type of infantry who were probably iaveli neers are me" ' ioned hy D;od oru, _ Tn~ y are ar med wit h round shield' a" d "ppe" to be the s.me as the light ly ar med troops c.lled w n rw i by C.e,.r, Li,'y u sc, lhis wotd to describe !he pe lm", of Philip V', ",m y_ T he, e are ai'" shown on l he O,u na relids_ Their shields h.-'e a eentr. 1 bms and ' hey wear louse moics which come dow n to ju1"'9°' ,wo ·edged Sp, ni, h ,wo,d 22 ,M 23 Two type, 0' S""oi, ,, OIl found . , Ago," " , Anq"". ,n weth'''" S".io
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worn by the ~aetratl: A few bron7.c belmet, have heen found, but they arc \'ery ra", Spanish cavalr y, like 'hal of lhe Roman< and Ce ll', i' rather m nfu,ing to a modern reacler for it is quite dca' lhal lhese horsemen ofte n dism ounted and fougbt on foot , Sometimes a horne would carry two m~n ancl on~ w(}uJc! jump if to figbt T he Sp.ni,b hor, e_ man used a sma ll round , hield wi'h a c~ntra l ha ndgrip I ik erhaIof the ~a. l ra IU.< (, ee ' 7 and . 8, p . J~ ll . Th ~ rid er i' dr~"ed like an infantryman and appea rs '0 b~ we~ ring the sametype of headgear. I n hi, righ' h. nd be hold' a/alca,a. T h~ borse (19) , ho w, lhe bridling and a .addle blanker held in plac'e by a girt h slr ap. Sla tues also sometimes ,how rhe He llenist ic type of saddle. Horscb irs are u;ually of [he sname type and come in many fonn,. Th~ ring ( z}) and cre; cent (zz) types are lhe most common . II is dear fro m the many representati(}n;of elephants on C",lha~jnjan coins 'ho' th~ war e1~ph.n" used hy lhe Puni,' .rmie, were Afric .n. T he C.rth. ginian' hunted the fore" elephan' in I>Iorocco and . lso on t he edge of the Sah ~ra de,ert at the ""'is of Ghad.mes some 800km so u, h of C.rth.ge. T he,e elepha nts were introduced du, ing rhe first war wllh Rome at the lime of the 'iege of Agt igento in 262 8t: and were
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used ~ g. i n" inf. ntry a, well as caval ry, T hey shattered ' he Ro man morale and for a long lime the Romans would not face them, Tbey won th~ir burel, in 255 wh~Il ,h~y tmmpkd Regulus' legion' in' o the dU81 on the B.grodas plains Fi na lly, d"' ing lhe siege of Paler mo in ~so, the Romans caplured some of lhese heast' and " , regained ' heir confidence . The'e elephants, like the larger Afric an bu,h elephant , hod . saddle b.ck .nd th" Carlh'!finiam rode lhem like a hmsc. Having ,ubjugated lhe area north of lhe Eb ro, llannib.1 left H.nno 'here Wilh . g.rri",n of to,OOO foo' and J,OOO ho"e 10 keep lhe road open , Leaving behind . 1I ' he he.,'y haggage, ind ud ing his siege equipmen' , he pu, heJ on .cro" 'he Pyrence ' wi' h so,OOO infantry, abou' 9,000 cavalr y and the elephant s, T he Romans also planned 10 fi~ht the war o\' erse. s on two fronts, and lh~ two cons ul' for 2t X 8e drew lots fm their pnwinccs. Tihe,iu, Sempronius Longu' drew Af'iea .nd l'ublius Corne liu, Sci pio drew S pain . \'\' hilst enrolling thei r legion; the y ga\'" ",d~" for lhe "'t.bli,hment of ' wo ",lonies in , h ~ Po valley at C,emona and Placent ia, Each of lhes e reui\'ed . boUI 6,000 colonist s who wer~ ordered to report , bere within 30 day' , The two colonies had hardly hee n e' tahli ,hed when the Roii and Ins ttbres, in .tltic ipal ion of
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Map '''"'''' ''"9 ,"e camp" go o' Se'"'o ,od
H, on ,b. I ;" the .uWm" 01 ~ l S 8 (, T"" Po vallev oiln~ at n~a u e a i re. From hete the road foJJowcd the ' -alley of ,he Durance in lo the Alp" cross ed l h ~ M ontgenevTe pa" and desce nded lhe ,-alley of lhe Dora Riparia into Italy. Hanniba l's spies had infor med him tha , Scipio wa, "' lhe mouth of tbe Rht>ne , and in order to .void encount ering him while he was tryin~ to cross , he river he continued in a n o rt h . ea S! ~ rl y dl re ~tio n, planning 10 cwss nca r ;>,vig_ non and TIel dm ppcd anchm off lhe eaS!~r n mouth of the Rh(me with the hft b and , ixth legions ,
A lill ie hdorc dawn on the fifth nighl H. nnib. 1embarked his men , filling lhe hoo" with his Ii ~ht ca,·. lr~· and lhe canoe, with his liglu infan" y T he lorger boa" were pla, the;poured out of lheir camp and thm nged ,he river oonk Ih soon as lhe prearranged smoke signal appeared on the op pmite bank , Hannib.1 or dereel hi, soldiers 10 pull out .g~inS! lhe curr ent , T he reS! of lhe army cheere d on their comrad.. whil" the natives on the f.r han k 'C'rcamed lheir war erie, and pranced aro und br. ndishing their sword, and bragging oft beir pa' t deeds. As lhe ooats .pp ",ach~d the shore, part of lhe det. ehme nl already on the far , ide of lhe river a!lacked lhe Ce ils in lhe rcar whilst lhe rest SC I fire to ,heir deserted cam p. T.ken "om plclcly by , urprise the barha rian< Hed , lea,'i n~ lhe landing unop!"l",d, D uring lhe remainder of l h ~ day Ha nnibal managed w gel the reS! of hi, men acru" . nd p ile"'11 , , _ 0 '0
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pas""d t ne Cel(i~ 'I rong nold' a I (;norg~' and Embrun which had been paid off (he previous winter and was approaching the junction of (hc (iuil . Here the}' were met by nativ e" fm m higher up tht "a lley , tarryin~ olive branche, and wrea, h, a, signs of friendsh ip, T hese were pm hal>l y willow hran~hcs, which arc plentiful in t l> i, area wherea, oli.'e lree s are not . The nali, 'c, otfe reJ guide the . rmy along the n e ~ t part icu larl y difficult stretch of lhe roUle , Han nil>al wa, , m picious bUI felt il be st to .c~e pt (I> eir offcr. A , a precaution he placed lh e ca" alry.t (I> e head of (he co lu m n and lhe infant r y at the h ac ~, wi(1) , he I>aggage train in (he ce ntre For , everal day' (he ar m y had been marching lhrough open ~ oun t r y, I>U( now the mountains began to ~rowd in again . On (he eighlh day of the .,,;ent they r eac h ~d the poim ju,t nor th of mod ern I'Ar gcntiere_I. _lk osee, where the D urance pass e, th' ough a narr ow go rge, Here the ro ad take , to the hill_ , ide' and once more lhe lroop, were , tru ng out along a narrOw path , T he ar my wa, carr yin g wit h it an im me nse amo unt of go ld Hl P" y for lhe
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mer cenarie' Hannib" 1 planned 10 hire in Italy, Fo r sa fc ~ e e p i ng thi, " 'as l>n and Sir Gavin de Heer, who was once D irector of the N atural Hi,wry Mu>eu m in L ondon. The aUlh"r ha, 'pen t many ;-ears tracking down th" e various itineraries and feels that the time i, ripe for a new approach to lhese 'ludi"" Both Polybiu, an d Livy gi\'C an accc'unt of the CfO" ing . It i, gellerally agreed ,hat Li\'y's ,"coull! i, corrup, and that he is pmbably mixing two c<mlradictm y , ourc·e, . h i, impo" ible to rcco n,'ile l'olybi! toute via the Col de Larche is appr",i matd y 500km. Travelling up the lse re '-alley and over the I.ittle St Bornard, the C1apier or thc .\10nt Cenis passes would stretch the dista nce to over 6ookm. The,e are all the low passes in the westeTn Alp;. T hese fi gures OffOT a simpk cxplanat ion of the ro ute followed by tho Vi. l)lero n), Ca turi ge' (Ch",ge,), E bllrodun um (Embru n), Brig. ntio (BTian, on) on ,he western side of the pa" and Segu' io (S m a) on t he eastorn side . 11 have Cd tic n. mes and thelefore mllst ha"e been lheTe hd ' >re the Rom a'" built their roule There were abo oppida nca r Ap t and Mom Dauphin and two mm e octween Manos que .nd Si'lero n Thc,e foc'u,,, make Out an ove r",he l m i n~ c",e fm the exi>!cnce of a pre- Rom an route along the Via Dom,tia T ho pseudo Aristolle writing in ,he second h. lf of ,he l rd ~ e n t ur y BC _ loft Th ds<eo, ',om the Mon'ge n" v," p", fo l>o,.,.iog the p,"cip ito ", _cent the re is, perm"en ' '. nd, """ or,. where '0' rnoy , ,,,nc r." CO"""" (I,tt ' M m,,,,-," of p'c'u" l
alx,u t the time of Ilannih. l_ m nl'Trm thi , whcn he rcree. t() an Alpine route on which one h, d to pay" toll to the CdlO-Liguri, n people living along it. J"hi, mu " be a Tefere nce 10 the , arne sou, hern route , a, the l. iguTian, c" uld hardly oc e(}nnected with a nOr( her n mute. It may the refore be st ; ted t h.t thore wa' a wd l_k nown rOU,e fro m Spain a CTOSS t he Alps u' Ita l;- which ",as in use "t the time of Ha nnihal and that it followed the sam e route a, the Roma n Via Dom itia.
l'o(,'biu' Vol. ! , p. 373 and Vol, []!, p. 76h), T h ~ rOule of t he Roman t o. d ca n be d early traC'ed on the we>!ern , ide orthe Rh6 ne between ...I,mtpd lier and N imes. H ere it fo llows the ridge of high gTound ; kirl ing ,he coas ta l ma"he, .bout nine kilome tTe' fro m the pre, ent coa.lI ino. \X' hen we take into acrot",t the clim. t ic cond ition, de, cribed above, the pos ition of the road is n", ' urpri' ing. E.'en tod. ;, the coast is m. " hy Tbe ,'oa" line i, consta n ,l}' c ha ng i n~ as the Rhone bring. down an estim.ted 20,000,000 tonnes of sill • Pu lybiu s' tb r ee ~ h ec k poin'. y~ar . M ost of tbi, i, caTried westward , In hi, acco um of ,he journey from the fm ming red, . nd lag()()n, . 11 ,h~ w. y Pj-"Tenee' to the Po valley Polybius gives along the ~O"' t to S pain . I n prehi" ClTic u. three ~'heckpo i nts: th e h rSl i, the tim.. the coas t would have beon milc h roaJ fro m the Pyronees 10 the Rh6 ne; nearcr , he road, the 'ec"nd i, a >!t etch of land called the Polyhim gi,-e' us • , et of Jistances ' Island' whi says that tho road mu ltiple. of eight .iu,' acc"OUn, i. a marching I'"c"" liven, )u.1 bef",c begin_ ning Ihe ..cenl we learn ,h., the ar my matched lIoo IIcJd.. in ten da\" , Allowing fur ",'..ee,; on III Ihe " catc", 200 ' lad.. , 'hi , tepte,,"I , . t.'c of be' ween '] an d '7km pct d.y. However, I his fig ure i. no, vory helpful .. Ihe army wa' probably foralling befnre beginning tlte . ""enl. T be only c"""lmi" n one can dra'" frum , hi, i. a nega'i ve onc.~~ tlte river CfO$ting could 001 be more ... """" '" ... '"" INp pl ,.... ~'*'"_. bl: D T H E W'ESTERl>: M EOI T ERR AN EA l>:
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Pu, , hi, " 'O\Ild """'" _ "''I",p[ I'C'LamN ....[ the Rh one and II is j Ul! ove r ;rokm fr.. m Old Lund _ al T i" inu. histury had be r...·rin en. • re.wnable fou r day. ma«h. ·T he "" "I~"ding p,>!yhiu" I b nnil>ool did « .....,n fn. I lannil>al' . choice of crossing not hear of ScipiO" pre""ncc a' the poinl a' Avignon he . in , he movement mOUlh of.he RMne un'il afle r !>e had (or ra,her la"k nf m,>Vemcn') or Scipio. •w.,ed ,he ,i" er , I lere h. i. on"e ag. in Poiybiuo ,elis us , hal Scipio ,c' , ail in r gini a" bt, a hair ' , h,nd!h . If Scipio f.miliar wilh l>t h lhe newl}' introouced reached [he Rh6"" earlier , !!>cn HanJulian t'O k-ndar and ,he earlier Ro.....n nihal knew al>""" [hII, tbe lq:ionI "'. re close of J"ne , A_her problem .. puoN by ,be lxhind . hem and rur [hr. raoon he limine of Ihnn,I>aI ·. am,-"I ,,' . be .ba~d hi. rlan ... rol""" ,he rou ,e RhOne . Poly"'''' .. ~-. ,...., he reached or Hen:ule-o anJ ,"" ead .umed up!be sumrn.i. of the A I", 'dooe Roo"" \'Illq .. ~,,,:h tri be pu.heJ. he nex, une f"rth.r do,""n T he. e muS! ha,'c also been in.er- lfiN I ...... A. ,he .im~ of HanniNI .... ca n"", e"en be cen ain ,lUI, , he IId " e[ii had o",:u p;" d S..·itzerland ..,i, h [he " phno,'a1 , ha[ IOu", haee
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H annibal in••• 'w ned Ie a diopone in ,he ' ls1anJ·. This hi. led oome """"""",,[on w r"",,"1 [be area bn"... n ,he I ...... and t he RM ne .. duri nl!:' , he .m('li", ,his ...... , he hoIne or , be .-\llobrt:>in. and Pol)'billl ""pressl~' Hannr l>otl later had ,rouble ,,';[ 1'0 [he .-\llottrogn. Hu[ a. " " ....,·c """n, i. is Im!'<JN,bk "'). ..-here , hese tribesmen ....~." .. , he limo or HanniN L So i. be.:"me. a or dc>< •....nd · :u~ .. btg a. t l>< S il< llelta II>< oizc an I>< illnorN. 11 " impossi ble '0 com"",n. on ,I>< P"f'tlla. ion-o"" con only poi nl 10,1>< a~. A, fo.- th ~ abundantt of cum, w hil~ il must I>e admllt ~ d lh:.>t lhe Aill"e. a,..,. is mo"e fe rt ile, Ih~ lse..~ arc a, t>< Chan........ ;\b.. if and II>< .\ Ionl du OUt. In addilion i. .. p....ecIed by II>< La k ~ of Bout,n and if< ma.."'" ..-hlCh "'en today ocrveh 10 . h< bonk. of Ih< R.........,.
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] . Th~ paS5 Every 1"'' ' frum Ihe (;,,1 de La'ehe 10 I h~ S implo n in Switler lan d ha' bee n .dv,"'. ted , It would he I>< heigh. of Ih< pau. PoIybtu> sa), 1"'1 tl>< """... of the Alp' ...-.:K '''''''''-em'CKd . 1I 1h< )"CI" rou nd. " ·... n hi: mne-s ' hit .. at~mcn. h< mool be incl uding .... 10..''''' ras-scs , u.h as t he .\ lonlg e"",\"Te and th~ L ittle S, Iktnat d a, these an: lhe only passe, in Ihe w ,," l ~'n Alp' that we knn '" We'~ in u," . 1 Ihi. time, Thi' w"uld accnrd well wit h I I II, l."m h·s
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1"'1 I'" '00"" \e><el ....... f'f')bahly.""", Ip:x>m 1o...,C1' . han il i' .oday. TherefOk HannIbal's pass. which .,ill ~ lbe ~-io... }"n r's.oow lyi ng on iI, d, .... 001 h'1\"~ 10 be hllth. I' ,>lyhi". c1.im. Ih., I>< himself e'o>""d " h e paso' . II i' de« ription of Ih e .ol,lief< ,Ii di n~ O il Ih~ congealed , n" w corro borate' t hi••' ;t is 100 \'ivid to hoc , ""'nnd- hand . l'rom the Greek hi"",i.n·, ...;o" n' u it I"",ihle 10 d ... .., ..,v~ r. 1 du." Olh e ide n, ilY of II>< pa," , The ' ix main d ..... are h'led helow ' I. T he ...... should Ito,·• • ddik ...i lhi n • do )" , maKh 01' i.. ..."''''il _ Th;, mUS! be ..... lhan :t wno,. no c,m""" h
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Icc, aJon.o an a,m )'. h IS also "eIl' ddficull '0 I" , ,,fy a ' ''rtt-day march from.he: ~'.".n . ilk of .he:~. to 'ho: lUI "..,.."d, 0 01 ) .nd dc:oc..nd bl' [he .\ lon, Cenio rou'c " 'hich .urcll' be would bo,'~ d.orK. 0 , I"',bop>. lik. ml'sdf, Hanni bal ..·. n. ;>1 " i us gi,.... ,he 'OIai from the .-roo imercstinil ,,, note ho...· od .", oommc-",alO" Iu,-e been ron--cd to w e Hannibal <We' unn",'('>,-"ry p••""" in orde, to lin d ••prough, them do,,·n in,o lhoc "allty •.r ,lit; Dur. ..... I"-",.ihl)' nca r Eml>.un _ . distanc"" of ."" " t 9Okm. From I", .\ tur i. 'M ""01 ol the individual .lis.....,.....
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Th.. b .nle for t he I'o ..a ll.. y It took Han nibal t S days 10 en,.s ,he Alp" nu rinlf lhi . time he had I"", nearly l>alf his army and even n"'. ~n , he R""",n. 'J'l'""ition, "'_
''''a, ed " p.'ream .nd c·r"..ed , he ri,,~r o'" of ",ach o f , he Romans. All th e local Celts no ", U""ked to join , he Cart ltaginia n army, T",o day. la'e. Hanniba l appeated before Placentia and
0.1",..- "I' hi. army in bailie order. \l;l>eri Scipio ref" sc'" baltle , he ("..arl haginian pitc hed ""mp .hout ten kilometres we" of ,h e minny, Sh"... ly before d.wn on , he foll"",in. """rning. ,ho (".drs ",rvi nll' ",i,1s Scipio de ......ed 10 ,he enemy. In typicol Cel," .. yle. before rhey "'Cn, [...,. killed ....... of ,he Romans and cu' oil" ' hei r J>ea,h 10 rake ..'n h ,hem. '11Ie Roii . ...100 ,,,",, pied tt.. area .o,nh of ,he Po immed ioldy beh ind x i pio, now ,Is",,,, in [heir 10' ",i,h H~nni l>al Scipio realised th at his I""ilion ..-OJ ,,,m pletely "nten able, If [he Hoii mo,,"'" "I' behind h,m he was !rapped, T be foll" ",ing ..-nillJl . ju", before dayb reak. he hroke camp and ret roa,ed '0 , t.. Trel'o l'o ia river lu" wnl of Pia,.......... F...... hne.ihl>e ....... ltapper>te Puw> llclla Scoff.... ' n (ie...,. and ,hen along ,he "0'''' '0 T "OCltny. h [o w M,p of m" " .. "",weeo l onltllo 'no f;deO lO ,,",wm~ the """ ,I",a"". d S""""'Ia r ... "' • .nomo" , ad ' 0Il '" c'. .... ",_0>." ' _ ,... Po _ _ oons o! ..... r""",,, on """ 0' n ., lI .nnibencd he sent out hi. N umidi. n ,'a"alry in pu", uir. It wa, fort u nale foe the Romans thaI the l"um idians stopped to bu m tbe deserted Roman camp bdme st.n ing theie punmi t ; mos t " fthe Romam managed to ceo" the river , befN e the Afeican hors emen caug ht up -r-, with them . T his retreat on the T rebbi. 1 \"; would be inconc·ei,'. ble if PIa"cntia t~ ~~, w~rc at Piacenza , for tbe T eebbia i, . bout five kilometres west of t hat to wn. T he Rom ans now encamped on the low hills west of the T ttobbi. ne.r mo,k rn > Rivcrg"o, c(wcring tbc ir ow~ line of retreat . H a~~i ba l m,wed up his ~a m p and pitched it aboul eight kilometres west of the Rom.n position . A few doy, laler Sempronius, wit h the thi rd % and r"urt h lcgion. , rea~hed Scipio', camp , ha\'ing c<wC' ed an in," edibk 1,780km from Lil ybaeum (M arsala) I, " ia Rome and Rimin i in 40 days, an . verage of 44k m per (by . To a~hi eve this thc army had b~~ n di. bandcd and told to meet at Ri mini by a certain date . Som e ti me later oneof those cum ulative skitm i,h., lOok place in which ~.~ h side keeps o ~ ,e~di ng ,t,oo. ot tho as a tactician would dC"idc thc day C, no, gini, ", and Rom, o, 0 0 tho T,. bp,O Th, ceOU' w"" tM . '. Oh , o" '" tront 01 , i'he, T he Rom an, considered the Car- eight ""to" th, ... w. H, nn,"", pl, c," 1.000 Ib n'. He pleed oi, AI' i hom the 'eO'. tho '"9'''''' peon ius wou ld respond to a lill ie ' M 109,,,,,, '" '0. ceOUe , nd [ho ,II••, 00 the moo.goa to b" , k th'ough tho '.''''• • od encour a~ emenl. T he space between the " ' 01" The Ro",. " c, ". I,y 'NO" 00 tho ' igo' .'co"" 1en; oursc•. If he a ofkrcd hallIe here the Romans would _A"~"Punic have 10 ad\'ance into lhe plain with theit left wing resting on the hil)' Dur ing the night H annihal , en t out t.poe infa nt r y and J ,OQ() cavalr y undet A lii", Le9"'''' A lii ... the com mand of his y ouJl~ er bf()ther Ma~() to hide "long the >leeam bed. where th ~y cntcred the hilh At da;-break he , en t out his N u m i d i a ~ ''''\'alr;- to heat up the Rom" n cam p and then ordered his whole ~r my to bre akfast and stand b y their . em,. Hi , plan was to draw out the Roman, and pc~ _ cipitate th e full-" alc ball ie for which a ho was prepared and they were nm , l ie could har dly ho,'e expected his pion lO
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'oh. -hius h.,oe "e Swl! lhem I he mu" nO" !'h ' l' lkemen menttOn ':o,ermgfo,"-.: ea,a ln on drawn h" up hehmd lhe \.re <e nt ahead were d, a" : hlht the \oRhl'" arme d ' r n,me aneach to JOI n I e Ime I he Hom. Polv_ lhelr loree' .I hc mfant", o" dra" n up Ihelr ' l'Ua " h,le had ' hat th e, CltlZen i' ",""h t e mthe centre hm, ooo men) order, t ul 16.000 men,' legIon< . aho Ill ed 'Ic~wns (ZO' hlCh had ondthefou'a I he e. ,alr y, ,, ' ursutl
crn"~orce R'~r';"t o"d s ~~hlnd thIS screen. hiS mfamry arm~ nibal dr~" u p . camp Till' Ha m n in "rom , ' " j 1'h". lme. (,f aho ul d f a ,mg Afri~an" con"'le : niords. Cells ani~ f' onl of 20,~ S~' hi'a"u"elephams He p,a~e ' he cava Irv _ be\'ond ,
on I e ailed from ," r awn upon the heen m,d," ns . ""' dT n hor<eme n "I th e u I he Roma b h " as a k \\ln g' \\ ,,' e ,,,e " b< ,u' 4 .000, .. , hceause mhc re" " " ,.. ~)"""u, h A"~ ..,UI . nu r S!.. litt le unden lhe earhe ' have !>een of l","e, , , them "0" " .. 0 lCu \\ere z~ PC' centd the remam der a" In Homan . n Roman cO, a and the T he lhe riRht veliw a, on the infanl ry dr.wn 3.000 , ·, d auea v must I were p' ac >d lhere lue, h us"a Rom. ns st"'- h d happened 1o A, 1 C d whal a he;- had ha,'e won~e:e ,I>"'t whtle ago ~ed an d them On y up , Now. soa hcen , getting
. ful'IIa,inC it "w"", hi,, be as , ucce" paW ale d andand - ··...io sl, . full com m . had o,er . :-.!umidian'
S: ~ os thev slUm "heor the ",m" • RmR a mR m I 'he " mer droR and th~ , hIng e, , ~ed d"" n ogam unnl J h e , p,un b 1 th~ mer k g, nug h' 0 tbn agam tntO the t~ nd sh,,'c n ng. 'oa ke" a k al last. d p the far ban h Romans clamhc rc u hal ,a" that t e ard a W h~n H anm h' threw fo'" d ,h~ mer e ,kemen hod of about 01 h" ~O'ertnR I gers anu~ d ..", "I' t
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n", immedi.o'd)' kno"" ~, Rom. '" S=r ",m u' haJ claimed a 'iClOI'}', but i' ""'" becam~ oto"iou> a' , he '''-'' annie-> "'~'" ,hUl tip al Pla PO'JOO1Mljl "" Mpoq 'P.-quou Iu,UUlU. """"1I ." r-u ' .oJlron! AI'l'ssod _UD,.... .. und. won.L p". 0 U>Pi' '~""~ uu ' 11''1 ~41 uu OdOOJ1'!'I P;>'' ''ld l~lUu.11 p«" ' '1' UQll"pJ '" p ~ J ~ p" U q l'nw "0110""1 ~H
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""001, wouI and Spaniard. bloclr.;ng their path . TIt< Roman "''''Illn, 1yole m ....... 10 inefficient tha"he n l>;wrJ.......-uwho mode tip the Roman ,.. nguard c:amc in,o conlaCt ...·ilh lhe Canhaginian foro:.-. bdore ,hey reali..d lhaltlte)" " 'cr e ' here. At I1nt the Roman, thoughllhallhey had fallen in with the "unic ..,,,rg uard . but Ihen tru mpe" echoed along Ihe hill s and the "'a' CI)' ...... ra ised o n all . ides .s Hannib. 1 relayed d" wn lhc Io nc Ihe order to cha. ge, The fro nl of t he Roman col um n " a, e.ught in an ••'aull fro m Ih ree side. but somehow manaiff'd 10 break throug h, The reO{ "f Ih e col um n w. s . t Ihe mercy of the cavalry. T hey h.d no . ime to form up in ballk ordCT o r probably even 10 . hro w lheir pil~ bdore lhe horsemen Were upon lhem. U vy gi ,... more credi' 10 Flam,nius 'han Pol~-b,,,,,, lie oaY1 lhat Jolaminius lried ' 0 bnnaordcr ' 0 ,Ite lqiom. hurryina lhe point < IllSubreo deopoilon8,h. body . T .... Ro ma n, held o n f" .thr"" houn bUI the Celt. bad cu, off lhe li ne of r et.... 1 .tlhe T""ro . pur and .he... was n"e""oro, Gradually Ih.y wer e d r;" en bad t" ,,·. rd, the ma"he. a. Ihe water', edge. II.... , ami d'l the cwaking frOlls , they Iighl -~rmcd
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ITALY AN D T H E W ESTE Rr00 ci' y pract'" ...mrnoned ........,.. or .he people in ,he forum, """"'t«l ,he ","rum and said oim ply, 'W e hllve been defea'ed in a ~ Mtlle' . 1lw m.., ,,*"... mor'od., bII>o
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H. " nlMI '. more,," _ ,",Ugh It. ... to Apuh .od , _ ' " C. mp.nl••od Oar' ". ",,,kod .., ed .he Sdla di Comopau owr .1ot Apenni..... and arrwcd a' the COlI" .... r lIe~ he r"'ted hi..... n and ~ oye much_needed an enlion 10 hi, ",,",,", ",hich had suffered 'errihl~ from th. exert ion. " f , he previou , year. Al Trehhi••no.! T ra,imcne H annihal had caplu red an enormou, amount "f Rom. n . r mour . nd ",eapons , Selccti ng th. most f uilah le pieces he rearmeo.! hi. Alr ie. "" pri"" ipaJJ)' ,,; , h ar mour but
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abo """"iN)" wit h ...-urdo. A. """" as . Iot Pun;,; ann)' had ~_ ropera.ed .ufficiornlly lhey con. inued •heir oul nine kilometres fro m Hannibal'. pos ition Th e Carthaginian immediate ly led out hi, army and offered ban le but ,he dietalor declined. It was Fab iu,' inten_
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7 Ab o y. Mop ot th e """ leOOi09 from Cam """ia to ,he vau", of H,. Voltumo .. v" " no Hooo ib, I', t.'o , "',th the o, eo i, , ho",o with , bm w " o" ow , th. """ , h, us' w"h , ,,,d .",,"'
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, ion '" rdme ha"k hu ' w follow the ( :art hagini an around , hum ing the erop' and cutt inR off foragers and straRRlers and ,hus gtadua lJy w~a ring down 'bc Car, haginian arm;- whih t at the ,arne timc "i,ing t he strength and morale of hi, own troops, many of whom h.d only re~ell1ly enlisled, II would be wrong 10say tha, they were raw teerui" since mosl of thcm would have raye Fabiu, no time
~ O.\-IE ~7' -L~O
RIC TH E GREA T WARS
'0 nplolt " SummonillJl the com"",no;k.of the army IICrvan. ... heordercd him '0 p 'her .. many faggo.. ,.. pol4'bIc and ......... l>k ahou' Z,OOO of ,he .trunsrt' pIouah oxen from , he many ' ..... they had "*PfUl', Ih el' saw tlte maos of charging up ,he hill .nd ad.·.nced meet .hem. He'Te lItey ......... . hrown ,n,o complete confu>i<Jn by 1/'1 vaguen« , . boU l wher e (hellC evenlS look place. He im plies that lIaonibal len lhe Fal orn;. o p1.,n hI' lhe . ame r oute he had u,e~ tn ente' it, U nt'"rmnarely he i.
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very " ~ue on thi. poi",. He >al" thai aftc . k avi ng Samnium HannlbaJ Lra",r>ed the pa.. ncar .he hIli called "'nhianu. and """"loped he<jde lhe n"", A,hym us (VoI. u"",), En bian us. 110",,,,',,-, is «IIil~",ly un_ known . 1 '; ,")· rbtake, as i. io . i" ... cd on ,he ",her oide oJ the Vol tu""" in cen. ral Campoo m_, He m;,h, be referrn ng 10 Caia, " (Carano) 0.- Callif.. (Cal, .,.;) 0.- .. ' me unkn""'n town of a .. mila r na.... . Ao SO orte n " ; I h l..i,")·, ...·e arc kf. in .he dark. T he Roma n hi( .0 ........ , he Volt.."",. h i. doobi~ ful that ,here ,,·u . ,.,..j along ,he nonh ..dt of , he Vollurno. A opur (M on. e Il.aggdo) iu" out fro m the main ra nge of hin, at ,he no n h .ide of .he VoI. ur"" and pindleolhe " vcr al the poin, ...-he,.., it emc... lhc plain , H..~ ...'ec n herc . nd C.i...", .hcrc i, ..'me very lo...·-Iying ground ...-hich hn now been drained, Thi. ma ke. it unhkely firs, thaI lhe,.., wa. a ,oad anJ .,,,,,nd , hat Hannibal wou lJ ha"e co",c thi. way , lf lh i, i, «' the n Hann ihal had "" olte rn al i,-e hut
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'oenter lhe plaIn from , he nort h. Livy All'" llUC' ,... m pktcly ha~-..;n:. He rb and elk.1lmpcd in _ Iof,y si rong pooll ion a""'" Ahfe . s., 'c mu.. 10.... ro.- . hi. pas' liomc_ .....he,.., ithi n aboul 'skm "f Alik T he most lik. ll· poo;, i,," i. the gop in lhe hill. at Pic"o,'ai ra"". A. this i. ,he ....i""'" and co.."" ro Ute " .... 10 he the "nc Fabiu . bloc ked Ilut there are se"eral o, he r ",'" ' e. , IX' hy di~ Hannibal nn, u,. onc of ,he . e ? The anliwer may lie in the ...."rd. "f Polybiu" 'F. hiu< ' ho ug ht that gt Iould read T illur no n ( Lal in T ife,nu. ). .\I on. Tifernu. (m,>dcrn Mon.agna del Mot""' ) ri se. ahlwe Alife. I, i, the hig he.. "",untoin in , hi. an:. of .he Apennin",. In rooi, ion and . i' e oo th , ugge", , hal it i. l'" lyhiu.> L iburn on. Ila nnibal h.d hecn lo ld lh at he woulll fi nll ab" oda", earn a",u nll
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RO ME 275-'40 BC THE G R E I\ T WARS
L ueera , whic h probably follows the tr.ck of the ancient road , This would cenainly accord wiIh Polybim ' topo_ grap hy for the ens uing c'ampaign, T he easiest w"~' to get here from Alife is by skirt ing thc north side of Ihe M onti del Mate;e by way of !semia and Boiano, and then taking thc road to Ca mpoba"o and clescending the vanc y, or lhe Tapino and FOrl ore. As usual thc Rom. ns followe d, keeping lO the hi.o;h ground . From Ca mpobasso lhey prob.bly followed the roUle of the modem S S S. n nilic. ( Rollle 81) along t he hillwp', '\'\eanwhile Hannibal had encam ped ncar Gerunium . The town;people refused his offers of alliance , .nd he "",med the town pUlling the inhahi_ the ,word , Be did not de'troy lhe town but kep' its walls .nd houses intact so lhat he could usc it as a corn m.ga"ine . He lhen c". bli,hed his winter quarlers in front of the town, fortifying the eamp with a trenc h and palisadc . Having ' horo Ujl;lily defended h" po,ition he sent ou t , wo_thirds of hi, .emy w ga, he r in rhe corn . T he o,her ,hird of the army guarded lhe
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camp and covered ' he foragers . Thi, was normal praclice. Caesar did rhe ,arne Ol Alesia, The Romans had now arrived in lhe area. F. bim had been ree.lled 10 Rome 10 presid e o\'er , orne relig iou, ceremonies and his master of the cavalry , M inuciu; , had laken over comm.nd , Poly'bim ""y' tba' when M inuciu, bca rd lhal Ha nnihal was encamped ar Gerunium and foraging in the dislricl, 'he turned and de",,"ded fmm the hill, by a ridge rh" slope, down to tbc town. Arrivi ng . , a height in lbe terr ilory of Lar inum ( L arino) called Ca lena, he enca mped lhere .' . Just befor e the SS Sannilica re.ches Casacalenda it is ioined by • road which f"lIows the cre" of the hill '0 Hon d '" (all. 606m) . AboUllhree kilometres beyond Bone fro there is a spur jutting Out 10 lhe south_ e",L At the end of this ,pur i, • hill called M onte Ca lvo (. Jr, 409m) , T hi, hill ovedooks the Fortore river and is , e\'en and a half kilometres fro m the suggested site "f G~runium. l' olybiu, "a'ed that this hill was called Calena and wa, in lhe lerritory of Larino" In nonhern Ca mpania lhere
was a Roman town called Cales with an adjec tival form ofCalenum ( U vy VIII, 6) . T he na me ha, been corrup' ed 10 the modern Calvi. It is hardly ,tretchin.o; Ihe bound s " f po" ihility to suggesl ,hat Caleno hos bc...,n corru pted to Ca lvo. It i, al,o imer~" i ng to nole that th~ town at the olher end of this rid ge is called Ca.acalenda Larino is I 7km from M"nte Calvo (ts lerritory wos pm_ hab ly bounded by !he Biferno and l'ortore rivers, in whic'h "",e Monte Ca lvo would be just wilh in its borders. The model show, the are. between Monte Ca lvo and Colle d'Armi (( ",runiuml. The manoeuvres that follow are .n object lesson ill t a~tics ; a leXI book le" on " n how 10 draw an opponent fro m an una"ailable po,ilion fir" aer"" a river and secondly into an . mhush. Leaving one-l hird of his soldiers to forage Hanniba l ad\"anced 16 lll '" -" ;>.>PP" , n'4•.~ ' P"""'''l p30UnAp" ,n" ,."".d liUl~ .'OJ u."'''N " 'I 1"" ""''''1' -nUl W pu" ' p'''pu"" 341 p31U.l d ~341 'Xl IOU PIn,,,!, " ' '11 l"'1' "pJ" 3' ~ H ' I U ~ l "mq.,j J" lUOJJ u' l"U'''41 01 d ~I" ''II 3ljJ _ ·uoII ....4' '"'I' jU1"~lf '.l1,w . ''''11 3ljl jO ll"L"""' ':ol ' It ) " --..011 ''111...... ,.,,, JJ>'f' .1->.\00 "'l' J>pUn ":>J"" AI.>PJO U. """W i f 1 ."''''''U' I\' pun w m........J JO pun ""'ll punoJ. p>J lUO-'j u , dw,"" 1.1~'UII'" 1I".. 1>lI. '"ld'u~ "'l' IIl1'woo ''''''',1 pn '"l \ c:-"'41 ""'l." ·....S ~ U31q U'"I '" po•.....,..", 1"'1' 1"'L'""'l' os 11»Ul " H "'''''''''1\- liOI,lSOd '"I ' II' " q '»IIL'V-- >q' punoo u:>l>p1_"P .1......» 'J-M,:1" , ..o"ne> '_.I"'Jn:l "'U. '1"'" "",.. "U. ''''"'' "10'311. UO"I[ ''!I:''''' 4'4' u,," llut>q J.. J>llIu.p u' ...... ""'OJ ·'1 '= PI""" .n!""u' l'" --""I." wowolf J'I [Ow , ''lL ',":>J pU" , ~ u .1l - woo u, .>II" "'. WJ>d llUl>'1 .Ilb,..... '"1 .111 ,,'. wolf ' '11 I"'IIJt'p PU" pUT>OJIl " 'I , nu" u"" ,'I"" I'lnro '"I , oJ ~ WJ" >til WWJ J' •• >SJO.I d'''''1 " IJ. d' ''".1. '"I I llm1l11d. un P'II!~II >.lOW '1.-.n", " ' I 'os I"" ~t>' ''"'' llUll" "'1.1 'o "" nJu"" "' UI U·""'41 ' "'" "4.1. ·,>W' . >41 all,p"" I' '''J 1" 100 .n" 'i~ ' 1i"" 1 ' '1 . lIU,p' All' 3104," 3'1"1""" "" pUI " ldlu. ", _nu,\-\' PI'" ''11 ul 'd "1I ''11 P_P ~p.>J II " \. '1 ' '' -p,m'l'''O' " !W' " 'Ot"'''''" '" ••oddl "1[ ," ~J lU"jUI ~ Au4 ' 41 uo " ''1'" U"W"N IU'"" ~ " - '~"p "PJO'IP U! p',"'J l>J "'3'1 .1..,"'/'" ' 4) 31,,"J~1 11 U" liu, pu.ww", J" >0 '04' °' 1" Inq U~"''''J,\1= 1'"'1 oq , . '.n"l. ,I >:>1 1WI' 3ljl '''' ' P"II"uun lU'," 'u ,p' 4 III "'~., "'"'I J,,"'" PIn"" 3'"U>S ' '1 ' '" u oddn. lluOJ .. P"'l ,,\"'1 ,.nw ' ...,,,, ,,>w "'l1 1'''" 'm4 '"I I II" '11Ieq ' '1 ' uo 11... '.I>J'IO .....' II' dn U...... p '1'lL 'JOI.""P""" ... , .-.nu, ~ ... .-.pow pu• •~'I " 'I jO pr.>q "'II I. dn p~ d,,, P>lu'~dun U. "''''1 .. . 011 .\"'11 -l"J PU" .u (I.' u .. q ~~.Id.. p '3;}ut':UUUp>d . u.>.J:I»,pu' -""II" ,d PI""" oq.,. 1"'1"'>fiI-u """'}l I'" '1""l' UUI " II:IW->l(Id "'I ,no ..... '"I ... '......1"1".,. 01 ""J 'ITDIJI'p JuJ"'>Q ....... lIu,n...J p>J>U>"" '"I • 'otI l1 "l p>Id"""" "'I1IJtI·.. J'»'PUI pun 'u:>X>n1 'I , ~.... I"'IIp l"'lllluu,ou I[UONI " ' Ip»>poro,p lluUpun :u>-.. '''"'''''''If "'lL JO "",!II">lII' au peq r-l.III1.H ' '''''''''''''1 ''''AU '"I' JO ""'" "'I uo SIftUIO}f "'I ' J>K'l ......, '"I : r-l' UU. H 0' ulbql-JQ '"I I :olIJ>OI"P 01 p"p.~ "'l lno III1,pu>l A[>'I1p>AIJ '"I' fIJ'SS"J"'l"'~d"'Ulll1l1ohq U':l '"II -'''''''"'"' '1"-'" p>pUOd.... "''''''11'1\" lJUI>:IS '....WOli >ql .>"1' 1"-"" >ill 'wn'lI "I'l."nq l I"'I''''''H ,noq.'I"d d",.., OJ' 'PI """'J "'II '1" .11. l"'I'n",.:\ 1I"'l1 ·11'\11»»' ;>.JOU1 "J ;>;'>l . . .Jd OIU' Inti ....",,, U' ''l.".i 1'>11""'" '"I IJ'> ,.OJ '"II "",II' 0' "'" W"'I' ' " '" JlU" ........1........ " "" U"/~ pun .U[l.u:> "'l -p>pt.\ 'P >q >11I11 >Willi "'II IV 'p>Uljuo:'ll"'1!U""1l .1nide> OU.WO"l/ "'I ' 'I" '" -" ,.o ,.o"'l.. ul 'u"",,~lq.>lM ,p on"",u ' l'" 'fIIJ""I.'.p '... 1I.w"""" 01 u>UI3ll.'d IXICI'r ,no ,.... '"I'q"u .1"".\00 -"'l"'n ·'llIu, p""",,\, '1I'"1d "'I' WOJJ 11" ...". l>q l u»'''l>lI. ' urqd "'II "' U>kJoJ '"I ' ~"". I"'" .' >[1'''"' J.JuUO.~ '"II ptJ>:>I:>p 0> W>ti. JOJ IITDIJIIP .I.JJA " "J'"W 'I I) dWD lIowo H "'I' wosJ •••. Jl"4 • puc JnoJ 1""'11- ~luO ,,,,,,,,,0011._ ,,",'' 1
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RO .>'I E 275- ' 40 kC T H E G REAT WAR S
man ner of a w m in the fir" war _. n om inou> choi ce . Two new consuls were elected for the f.t eful year of zI 6 nc, I ,uci", Aemilius P.ullm and Gaim Terentius Var m. I'au llu, waS the ~ ," n d fa , h e r of Sc ipi o Aemili anns and is a mem her " f the ~roup of people whom Polybiu, will nur criticise, T horefore Va"o becomes ,he sC'p"g" al for lhe impendi ng disas' cL So m uch malice sur ro unds ,he name of Va"o , hat it i, impo, sible a' this di"ance to reco o" struet a rca l pcrson , All one can do is to point out thc ' , was recalled . Hc and Regulus were' apfX,imed ~"oconsuls and placed in comm and of ,he . rmy .t Ge ru nium A Ie" }' was "a iled to rai se the exi sti n ~ llpk>il hi, enomieo' mi..ake<cu rely encamped hen: i' is now ",,",ible ,,, sile tbe Rom.n cam ps (.... lbe mo p). The positioning of the (2M p on lhe .....'h bo.N. rIOw mak.. ,o " op Hannibll f...-agil1ll on ,hat ';de 0{ . he ri""r and is clearl y put of tbe CNOnIll Roman Ifra,OJ}' . Thi.. makoo "'",••, ..... of t be , bc-ory , he t",o con,ul, ""I
'n the ce"". " ... O"",,,nUO '''''' " , ,,. u n"~, thoy .,., ,,",,0'" The Celt"~ ood S P' " " " c".>ry "OW char",, " 9' 0 0' ," the ' ..'
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~7S-1 40 II< hill ••nd OI'I",";tc 'h~ alli.d hOlse, he plac..,d hi. ~um idj a n., It i. p" " ible to make a fairly accurot. . .t;m>lc of ,hei l num _
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ben. When he am.,cd In haly .lbnnibal hada ' Ola! of 6,ooocavalry, part Spanish an1 caval lY numl>ered 10,000 muM ha,·. Ix",n 4 .000 SllOng. wc,c dr.",n up nex' 'he rivel , Becau •• "f , heir numbel . which ,,'as four ,ime. lh. t " f lhe " 1'1'" sing Roman canlr y. they m uil have becn dr...," up in fou' line., T he Carthaginian infantr\" con.i..cd liul. mo, e lhan 40.ooo .....n of ",-'hieh alx"" u ,ooo ""re African an1 lhot Ihc Roman f" rc", g,eaI1y outnu m bn.d the Carl haginian, The Afri,'.n pik.men , who u p ,ill now had i>c caval'j' on .ach ..'ing ..'ilh Ih. fil. leade.. in each a .. formi.... ,hot inside file 00 lha, ()th wing1' . l.e a vi n ~ the 0lumidi.n> to mop llP the lta li. n>, for which thev were best fined , Il..druhal recalled hi; Ce l" and Sponi.rcl,· and cbarged the reaT of thc legions. The maniples were forced to turn to meet the a"ock ftom whatever direction ;t came. In t he , entre the pr",,,,re wos " If ond t he Celts an d Sponiarcl, were ah le to cou nter.n.d . It was the bloodie't day in Rom. n hi" ory. Paullus died fightin~ in the ranh . T he proconsuls Gemi nll' and Re~ulus also fell, .s did ' he former master of the horee, M inllciu, Ru fu" who probahly he ld the rank of a tri hu ne. He'ide' the'e both Ihe consul' s quaestors .nd 80 sen_"", were left on the field, I n pressing forwarcl'" far the Roman, had lost contact with the for d and there_ fore the 10,000 men left in the la'ger camp on ,he other side of the river CQltld do not hing to help them . The enormous ca,u_ltic~' ,,( all , he men Va , he ance of ,he highland, ,,·hil.t he took lhe ... nI " and , ..." OC''"' legions " -ere <JI her half and sl i" ed t he nonh.ide of ro.-t (22nd and 2}1'd ). II>< Picm' i"" .....,."'.aino, I>nc:.rnding In ,""'" di re "nns II>< Senate de- ;nt Campania he- made • < prisone... nd pan,a. Thi. explain> hi. appa",,,,I)' on amboouoc3d of lhi< fottt of about 2S,OOO men he oct out for Cam' poon... Dna Iht d ..." taw.. had arrived M .r_ ecllus " ':ils fr« '0 acr.. Ctm pania had ~n an aUy of ROllIea ancitm c.pua ..... Jeauuyed by .he S...-... ill the 11th centul')" and its inbabitanlO emiRroted 10 Ca,ilinum, ' aking lhti' ""me: ,,'ilh lhem. H.nnibal no w mO\'rd " I' to the to" 'n and whe n ho , aw that there w.o no chance of l. king il b~' a"alllt he drew , iege line . ",und it to prevent suppli.. gellin~ in , Then. leaving ' ume;ont f",,-c, 1 hold t hc' c linc ,. he W"m inw wint er q u."e,", at Capua fou r kilomel ''''' further d" ", n 'he road , T he legend that lIannibal". lroop' wem ooft dllr;n. thei r ,,'inter in lhe ~eohl"'lo of CapItO hoo heen dehu nked '" man~ lUlt". lhat i' " 'OII1d he pointleu le' .1 11 on il ,""", "I1>e-y ....." r won anoo ..... ..cal bank sim pl y' beca ..... lhty ........, """'" Ii,,,,,n """,her "l'f'O"Iunily . In lhe carl l' opri ng of 21S Hann' ha1 rdurncJ to lhe:.ic-Ke ofCasilinum , Tht bl"':lr.adoe ..... beginnTng .0 ...~ tIS dfn"l and the " a...-ing garn..,n ......, .......hing rht end of t hei r endurance. The di..,alr had """ ,ned 10 Rom e a"d 1"iheriuo Scmpron iu, G"",chuo, the ma" e' "f the 11< w.t in halj' wa, ove•. T IIlave .lcgi,m. rulk.w~d and wen, in'o "in,~. qua" ... al tIM: Rornon colony of Lucctia ( L u.. ra) .
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!'obi"s . nd .\lat~~lh.. " .... el"'"Ied limited .0 j..-.in Gracch", "" 00 ..... already tl>U' e h j' which M a,cdl u, had reach ~d ea"r. C laudiana . He hod taken up this ..me rc ..-nc. H,ero's 1 5-~-oI d grand--""" Hieron ymus as«nded , he ' hronc. By skilful dirlomao.-y H. nnibal ","~d '0 detach lhe imp",ssio""hle you'h from , he Roman .lli.nce and open up. ne"" rron, in S,cily . T his beCarthagc's "'ar , all ,upport "'a' ,;ome f" m' Africa, leo"ing lIan nih al free deal wi,h hi. in",..,o_ing prohlem, in hall', Hut har dly had ,h e war begun ,han Hieronymu . wI' a"a"i"'ned. It wa, Rome', chance re"erse , he ,i tua,ion . nd ,he Senat e di_pa,c hed Mar"" llus with th e n nd and 2)rd I.gion. to 'he i. land . T hey had .c,~d '00 , lowly. The
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Sj'racusan, in • fi, of .n,i_Ruman rer_ vour had .Ieeted . , leneral. Han nibal', .......Iffl", Hlppocratn and Epieydes. and 1Ift>' ""t • .000 me.. under HippocraIn 10 -'*C'S. '" S)"DCUW. H ipp:>cra'", "....j these roren 10 ... VIlt'C the bordenof,1>< Roma4 province, deliber· .tely 1< "";nler Irying ' 0 ~ia'e a .... kme nt . In . to< ,prinl h. d grea' ditticuhy obtaining t he reeruits ' 0 hring tbe exi"i ng le ~ions up to strength, let alone form ' h< 'wo n<w legion, . T h e t ide 'urn s For three yea1:' the fiel d, of Campania had been hi d waste as Roma n and Car_ ' haginian 'y stematically de stroyed the cmps ' 0 de ny each other forage , As a result Ca pu. was beginni ng [0 feel the pinch and sent n,.",e ngcro'" H.nnibal beggin g for su pplies, Tbe C.rthagi nian sent H.nno north with orders to gather in su ppli.. in 'he ,'alley of the Calare near Beneven' o where the C.m!",nians were to collect them, Haec'u' m:eived int elligence of this from the colonists at BenO" ento and marched inlO the Apennines , If the Ca mp.ni an, ha d , howed mme energy in collecting their sup plies all would have been well, but before they could tran,fer 'b e , up pJi" 10 C. mpani a Fhccu s w"' on tnem , Thc con, ul " mmed Hanno' s camp, capturing tbe ' upplic' and ' aking prisoner many of Hanno 's , oldier' and Cam!",nian" Capua , dep ri"ed of suppli.., faced " arv.,ion, and the Roman' were quick 10 exploi, the 'ituation , Pulcher joined hi' colle.gue a' Iknc.'ento an d with the 20th, 2"t, 29th an d 30l h legion, they
moved down ;n lO Campania inten t on destroying the corn, wnich " '" now ~ree n, and i"" esti ng the city in the plain If they were to ope rale in the " p ...-ell "",;~d
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them""I,..,.. o n t h ~ me'Mal <X\Dt~mplate Barca. I. i. i"'''.....'in. tho.thi. " It", only ..... jor ....'....., tha' lIalidrul>o.l ff...."j bdOfdr uh. 1 wa•• hle re_cnte. , he fray in Ih e .p.in~ of 2 t. and th" fortune, of th. Scil'io. changed. They had split , hei, ar my to m. ke . l""o -p"'n;: ,uo" ..
'0
'"
I TA LY AND T HE WE STER N MEDI TE RRAl' EAN
.\ lorw. Ooudnl•.\~I h.. r Ques l of Apu lia, """"'" and Ar-p; in , ho: """ h had Ilttn reo;:aroured .-be-. and Manrn,.. IJOVIi m od< SaIoJU 011 l he Adrialie ...... 17km """h·" "'1 of Can...., before .......inl ;n. o S.omnium ..-OOe "" cap{"red , _ of Hannibal'. . upply baxs. A _ d army of ."'" Ioginn.' (71 h and Slh) "nder G naeus F..lvi... Gon l.. mal" . mov'/(Cn>en ' "'-;Ih II,• ....Ii.e>, Haodrubal di~n gaged and wit hd ~ .... north",m:l. Scipio """, Id e1a,m • tactical ...ictory bu, ,he WIl y Conllallinian had not only """"ped alm""t un....thed but had also oultna"""uvred Scipio. wllooe principal objective ...... to k... p him tied down in Spain , Ila. druN I now headed for ,he c-cn,,,l re/t'un of S pain and Scipio ""a, in nu po.i tiun ,u follow lIim. T hcre were twu P',.. ihililie, upen to him , fiTS! , 10 retrea l tu tile roo" and roce lIasdruba l to the P yren.... ; nt. , ec" ndly, 10 ignore him and CunCe ntrate on hTeaking u p the C arth . ~ini a n I"'we r base in Spain. Rightly ur w,,>n)!l y, Scipio elected tu du the latter. S ew, ur H..druhol' , . ""ape from Scipio and hio m..ch north ward , must ha..e ~ached Rome by tile autumn of 208 T here """ Id he Hnle doub, as 10 hio in,en"",no. It could IIot dl)' 1Io" e 1Iopperled at • ""one mu me nt f.,,- the Rumans . Wi th F abiu. and J-laoccu. well past tlte ./te for ener(tC'lic cam paigning ond ,heir onll' . ..........ful field rom_ mandrn, M arcdlus and GT-acch=, both dead Ii",)' "'-ere hard pressed to find leaden car-ble of dcahng "ilh tI>c sifUa, ioo . 11Ie tas k fell to .\wcu. Cla udius S ero ond Marcus I",iu, Salinat"' . Sero had !lC'ncd under ,"weeU", and as p of Vas.o ermm ed b}' ,I>< ,,,"'n of 1I..",ni um and on along the endlc.. roas. mod. A ,,'~k .f'er Ih ey SCI ou, lhe}' were approauld find Ihe road. A, h... ligh' the Homan. I< ""tposts of H anni bal's C*mp. H. nnibal inbIa and Canna< II.. had Oludicd Han rubel'. t.l.1e ......... ca rrlully and ~.... ~ d 10 Inm. 1lIc d,tIi""Il~" ... """,. ' u a.brt .hnc lano, .. hoch dod ...... figh. In phaWa. ,,..,. . .n _ hine he """ld ha "C ' 0 Iea.n by nrcricnio in mind . h.< bTe-A fo"ed hi, men . led ' h.<m ou' of ""mrand dro.. . hrm up in Ih " O(fposit.. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •, ",de . ' " ,he p.nk",. daY'. Th" "'".. the I"ai"n. ...... " n .he ",·in~ . ond ,he Sp"mord. in ,he: .... nt •• . H• • h. n ",n' II nu, hi. covol. }' and Ii~ h' -a.m..d "''''PO; '0 bu , " I' , h•• ncm ~ .a ml', Lik.. S.m pro ni", l."n~u . u y ca rli... U n · d. uha l ....' ..d in ho leoJin~ ou' hll a. m)' bd"'" , he~ II.od ..a'..n Ind draw· in K ' tlcm "pi n ,tlci. ulual f"' mation S.:ipio tlcld h" ,..",nd . I..... in~ , tic CIvll l)' I nd lia h••I.......< upper r~a< learnl nf ,he Canhagi nian wnoenlraliun Scipio Id. fW'I c( hi. r",en 10 OOftlinuc , h~ G r('a' Plain. and dre,," up hi, fur~ .. ahoul 1.4oom from the Ca n haginian """i , ~'n , T he • nnies . kirmished for do), before dra';ng up in bornle ."""l·. Scipio lin~d up hi, 'roopo in ..... _ I faohion..-jt h ,he: lotH,,,,; in ,he: (ron' ,lhe 'n....ii . ' < Carthoaini,m ..iDllS_Once ' hoor were (In r Scipio d~ploycd his pn~'~1 .nd ,n'an; on the "';ng., surrounded ,hr Cellibrri.ns . nd CUI Ih. fi....' dedsi..~ la~l ical triumph, T hree ,ilDoCll he had tried " , duplica,e Hannibit'. oult\anking Ibccula, Ilipa and ...,.. al lbe Cnn, Plai.....-\r 10>1 he had f"",nd .he' ...."'-.::r-llOI lo """ lhe wing. of hi. infanlry bur 10 deploy his fn'i,u:i~, .nd /n'an'i. Afrer , he balli e Sci pio deejded 10 di.'i d. his f"rt: ~, l'rt a ~. i n . P. rl of lh e arm)' ..... d~'ached 10 complele rhe cIef""r o( S)"J>bax, ""hilsl Scipio. af,er omdinl hi. booly 10 Cas.... Comc:li>., aJ.'aDCCd "" Carthol" i'self and T"mi•. This etreclively cut Canhage's of "ommunica,ion with ,h~ in· lttn cor"'pl~d bu. il i, ""... mor~ likrly . h. , U vy h:. . ,ubsrilu'~d a nam~ he kno",.,. fo. 0 "" Ite docs n"'. I h nnibal "dv. nced 10 wit hin 6km of Scipio' s camp .n d her ~ . frer a n . borr ive mttline bet"'-.::en the ' W com m.nde.... , he: bank ..,," foughl. The .ile oi. Ih ~ toa,tk i. unknown. Kromayer and ScuIW'd .dvoca,e. si,e u km ..,."h·..-est oi. FJ Kr f which filS IIw ba.. l.. ,opognphy "",II. Tlti, ,ir~ i, shown in lhe phologr.ph on p. l Q.l hUI it remain, fur from cert. in. Early on I h~ morning afrertheir meeting hol h .id~, 01 .... e.t""tn ,
on , " o n ~ """
e-"
H • . . . - d,_
,,,'. . ""'~ ....
.,..,.....,
',
L'.. ·PI'o;>tn....n.
" "'. _ _ ..
........ 'n f."", _0 OIOO"n" ",,'OgI1< . .,roo
-, .lfI. ginians 0'" of Spain, i, ..... a fun,," two cen,uries before lhe peninsula .... fmally poocified. Three ...."......, fOUl ht ,n Spain in en the '.-n ot S umanlia " 'IS 'aUn by Scipio Aemili.anu. I fter alon.lls;"'" in ' 33, orpm1... 10 build up • "eCJI .e''1Jratc pict ure " f the o,gan;"' ion of the a,m)' du'inll: , he empi,e, T h. '''''l in, 'In ' he " r g. ni, ation of lhc R' ''llan im pe' ial army h. " . hecn W';l1en by lwo leadi ng <eh" I"" in ' he Held, Dr Bri an Doh'on and 0, Ro~e, Toml in.
'0
'1'''''''
Con q u esr of t h e Wo r Jd Dy 14b IIC Rome f""nd hendf'inuall)'
in oon trol of the " 'hole of , he .\ 1edi'ff_ ro......n "".... " i'h La..,., r-n. of Grcccc. Spain I nd ~orIh Af rica tmdc-r hc-r direct conlrol. Thi. W20 IUIt"" mull oloonx , ra. plan bUI had en>e .bout hcca..... or ,"" i",,:t'edible ,.....-cess of lhe anny in waro ,,'hich a' lea.. r""" 11.""", ', poi'" of vie w were not of he. ow n making, Wi, h the deo"ueli"n of Canha~e in ' 4b 11Iitician (ia,,,. J uliu. Caco.a, and the w.al,h)· bu.inc..man era.."., T hi' . lIionee ...,:ured lh e con.uhhip for Cae.ar in 59· I n lhe la" q" arl er (\f lhe 2nd ""m",\" " p"", inee had !>ccn c"ahlished in
'0
THE EMPt RIi ' 40 Be- AD 200 C O :"Q l:E S T O F TH E wO R LD
"""'hem GIUJ ,,'hidl had IHuuSh' """"" dqtr"" of oecuri' )· 10 nonh·"nl h.ly and enabled R"",e elo'abli.h a land ro u,e l(J Spain , T he Cell s rema,ned a ",," ,,a n, 'htea' , h""'dnd 'he Rh ine u far a' , be Elbe, bu' in ~D 9 ,be R n ,enera! Vvuo ",i. h IIIIft legions "' amhushed and hi. fOKe ",'iped _ , in 'he Teu'Qburg fon:>l , Aug....lu. " 'i, hdre"" h.. 'mops he hind ' M Rh;ne and 1Od"ioed hi. . ..ec",,"o ' T iberiu. nUl ' 0 Iry 10 e ~'e nd , he empire fun he•. Dur i n ~ hi. 'eign August u, reo, gan_ i. ed 'he arm y and put il On a p" rmanen' profc" i" nal M si. , lie die'" li" e yea.. .fle, Ih. T eu,uhurgcr....ld d,oa"er . nd T iberi u. , hi. predecessor'. re_ '1 u'-"S' , anem p,ed no fun her """""""'-
"IIC '0
T hco final a«eninns I n 4 1 Cbud,u. hearne emperor and, f""li ng 'ha' ht nttde cor>qUC'Oto ,
Fron';....... e-,. blia lwd Traian was ~ by Hadria" ",'110 embarked on an en,i.ety differen' poIky of ~ida,,"1 ,he borden '""'" aban_ do.ung ~ prm-incn ."",h as lbose beyond ,he E"phrat.... Had rian Jnllia"'d ,he building of mmodus ho.bIndoncd rhe problem. oi the empire in flTOUr of more p!aoural:>k """,,ito Ind fell ,be ......in'. blade in I \U. .... f'c' hi. dea'h thcno ...... _blc for power .. hich ..... only broullh' I.. an end in 191 ahcr S"l"imi... ScvcnI., lhe CO''Cmur of UI'J'Cf Pln""",ia, marchcdon Rome and dd",,'c-d ,wo ""he, daiman.. '0 'hoIhrone, the Il''''ernon of S)Tia and Brillin, s..",n ar,c. hi. lCCC>.ion the Panh;.n. again ;nv.ded Ihe Eo" ern
of rhe Rrit;. h fron'''''' up in,o &O,l.nd whcno ,he An""'i"" Will w.. built, and tho- pulli", do...n of revolt. i" I"In. of tM empin-, no si&nifican. caml"Ii.gno """" u ~ n During ,be reilln or his ."""".... M"n-uo Aureli"" ( ' 6 ' _' 110) ,he Romo" annie> agai" advanced ;'1' 0 Mc«lJ'O'*"'ia and made: i' a Roman vr<Xf/CWl1l'e, oocc m
~oo
p",vinc~'
and in retali.ofi"n Meoop,amia "'as for Ih~ lau , irnt con'l u~rtd by fh~ legions bUI allain wi,ho,,, a perman~n, ""lll~rntnl.
Army Organisation Dr Brian Dobson T he ne..' le llio n . Original!}' lhe .nn~' of Kme had l im p!}' been i15 cilizens, called nu. 10 fiJh' " " h fhe weaponland armour .hey could alford. When oome order "'"" hrou,hl infO fhi., a minimum propcn y 'lualinc:"ion "'as es,ablilheerVi<x in all. He " ... expcaed 10 p""'Wt his.,...., arrnouI. Ahhough he "'as paid • small amounl fOl" his lirnt in lervKe-, lhil ..... more in ,he ....ure of expenses ; hil ma.., lOUr« 0( ,""""'" 1A'as his fum "" his b<W_ inlefUlS ..
,ha,
....
,hc-n:f"""
II is hardly l urprisin,. lhal he ..... "'" keen on ....., ptrinds 0( ..".. vice. e.-cquenLly re.;ruj.ina: beam< inCOI and , ~ .. " ol>IOI"_
t ... cOllor!" ''''' ""'" ol C...., to. ""' ,.. "ovo been AI, Iag ;ona"a' ... naw "mod ,"","
' W{)O'~
o • OP',0, S T ~ w b'C< proptT'tl. qualifialion had """" .I read)' con.odttobly k".... ...-.d. Hut ... did gi"e an "'= ~...- impoc'd 10 enrer lbe a .... ' e of .pcciali... of.he .\lc.:lnctnneafl_Cre_ Senare or ",I> .im ply " .... mihtu)" hfe, The« " ""e only 1JO pIaceo Wi RaJe.ri,; ~ S umidian ligh' hone. Bu, "","' large numben of a J'ca r .. f'IdnI"" (mint m um .oae ] 0 ;' fo< ca. ...]!')' "..,..., ""IU,red, c.ev.r used ca.-- me n en,c-rins ,he S.:nare. As ,be", " "'" ma ny mote ,nhunn. ,be 'eu, all ""I...... alI')' from Gaul .nd Getmany. indudi"l!' trian. (t he 0C
_"""'1>
'0
'0
'0
ifII'Ji""'.
mag-i........, · of l.i ke '" man)' of 'he pooto in t he Roman . rmy i' had bccl in exi"e~ • lone li me, The ngh' 10 appoint men ,.,I>m powen and reopomibilitin mig h' be delegated ( , he .....e ..._ d_fOOI •• kp'e) " '.. nonnaIly gnR'ed 10 • oomrnandcme ocher c harge, There permanen' rel.,ionship of Ieg.,c legion . bu' .ueh mcn ""re et...-Iy more . ui ta blc 'han , be trin"n.. of Caesar'. da)' to unden ake leading the legion onwar, The con,,,I, had ,ueceeded the king
'0
w., ""
'0
Bolow A "0"" I,,,,,, T"J. n', Col umn ,~ow , n~ 'O\Iioo"i. , . "". t\C I,,~ wl>d..... , .,i..i.. ' or be gi"en for valuu r in banle or These Jo-odd lellion" retained OUt luyally .u the em""ror of the man)' I.gions of 'he civil wa "" we.. now to ha v•• ""l1\'Ulnen' existence The life o f . legIon ary A Iegionar)' had lu be a Ruman citizen, M~ n ~n li" ed for. fixed ""rind of yea"" and v"lun '"".. we" pr« he wOll ld he wi' e '0 hri!l~ a Idt ~r uf C~nl u ry AI> the 1i"'1
'0
...-=
.~-
A tot.
til ooo""v A D !egooo on
po,_
" dard ..-as I cult .ym bol and irs t.- mi gh. mean . he d,.bandlng or the un" . Finall)' then: ..... ~ to ,he em peror and ,,",," hip of the andemperor. , Their binhday., a ",8om
t_ .....,..,"'._ ,t..... .... _ on t._ ', ~
CoIunw»
J --..,.,.,., '" .., ...,.. _ ........ - . . '" Go-.. lol..... • 'IolI~i " fi. m• • nd in ~ny ~ . .. Ih ere wa, Ihe tr e" mendou s horr ier of the otlkial military rt' Ii~iou. colenda r, in volvinil' I he worship of pag~n god•. A llnlll dernen. was underlying ,u rer " stition, fear of.he ",'il eye, of witchN lh- I>ou... see m to been provided fOI legi"nary for "C1Isa, and they also hecame "andard for ~ux iliar y f",n, T he;' offered " Cam bath, and dry heat rooms, Th••team ha'h. we lerm ' Turki, h' are descended direcdy from ,I>osc of Rome Ihrough Con_ .tantinople. There ..... also provision for exerrisc , A later """elopmeru "'. dub room. for junior officers' dub" formed an an$,octac y of mililary sen/icc. PJon>o w"'"
' M ' b. y 'ought .n mue" tho ""'" "" no", ,, 'hO log'oo", Aux;, ia" un its " "" . 0, iOOO311,'
'po"
" i",o tn "'" p,ov;nco, H. i, "me . nd E.".,"
",che"
T H F. f. MI' I Il.E ' 40 Be_AD 200 ... II.M\, O R GA~ ISATlO:"l
>a,'ing., ~nd helow him , he "PI"', who 'nok ",'e' if ,he cen,unon fdl and ,.... ~rbablj' n-.. ,,,,,,,erne.! ,.·"h ' rolining, The-... " 'on both on duuNe pay, ~nd ,he 1n0 ,.. • compk'ed b~' ,he on ' I Ply . ,.,hoK or,S'",,1 rnpoo."bdi,ie> "-en: pri",..,paI1y ~ned ,.i ,h guard du,ies, The "",.:In" m each or!Ktt'••ulJ,.-as ,he _jia.." ..., l"enoll~' ,hot bn>cll'ed ...... as , he ~1 'hough' mas a gift, ... btw/i04...... ,. allaChcd all otIi~ ....... bu' onIl' ..,niur olfla,rs. do"'n '" Ihe .-ank of ","4"'''' ,...,........... had a """"OJ........., ..."" headed , he ,.Ti'ing _ olfla, "'hich deah "'lI h ,he: copious 110' " of documen t. , h.iI. a.1cri.,ic of Ihe R"" maO army. The H.o"",n arml' &eocrated an enormou. number of documents, Many oflhne. " 'nllen on papyru•• haw been found in tile M iddle f "" t, From ,he,e we can id"ntify d,,,,umen" relll,ing 10 the medical . u mina' ion of r.CTui". di,palch "f re>:rui" 10 their uni", dut y r""ers , daily r""",d, "I' wa",h~ wot .I,. h"ad,! Uart".. g u. rd., depa rlUres. a"ivol. , and ",,' oal ."englh of the unil. Annual return. w"n' in tu R"me , how _ ing both perman"nt and '"mporary
,...,.",ni and _did ). T h" re " "rc ' peeiali" offi""" , u" h • • d.." t.. rs (0.1", called ",.d id ) .nd ",~hll«li_ In I he H.om an ""tid Ihe laller pc.formed . he job of ,u",eym•. huild"... en~jnccrs and 'rlil · IeTy "ffi,. .". an ,1 liko tho d,> and ptt>C'<M\>..I. if 'Mi. annie> "'f"Cnted in combination, Thel' had POW'" 0\' " cttuen. and """-ei';.e,,, in pea.. . . nd ,n " 'lit' ; J"U...,I~· milit. C)· .uthon ,)' ,.,os unkno'...n. ...bo\'e ,he Icgionarj' Iega,es came only- ,hot emperor pr0consular pow , ,.."""" '~i"",,' (. p h• ..., ..f . ..' ho. i'y) included of , he: prO\';""". (It""ltraphica.l di ,ioion.) containing 'ro(Iro, .... l'ompe ~' and Cae_ 50r h.ild on,:e th" legio naC)', Archen " "re . lso formed inlO cohort.; .hnltCn con"nued 10 he used. ,hough .p patcnrl~- in "'para.. f", mo(ion •. In ,he >etll , he same lImc 'M lin. cohort ,n.1c-pon .... ""'-TCaOCd ;n .ize, "!be)' ,.-en: composed of 'en centurin. OOI'rnpondinl lhe double ""nlum of , he ...,modelled finl Ieg:ion_ 01)' co/s"... "me aUJ(ililC)' cohort. " 'er" origi nally T>li se,J In the p..o.,·i...,.... Some " 'ere ptlS,.-d .""~', bu' othen " 'er. SI."Oned d ose hom". moo, I'IUllI.blj- on the II.hi Ole, A dangero u. m utl" j'on the Rhine during the " ivil wor of60 cavalry ,n 'Ile ' soo' uni. and 1-40 cavalry in .... ' 1,000' unit . Thi. ""v.lry i. often does· CT,hrd mistakenly .. """' nted infan.l}'. M"u nted infan,l}' ' ide '" ~ll ie and di,mount to figh' , hu' Ihe . aval!)' of the .q"ilal ~' were hriKadcd wi'h , h. d not_ mally in Rome -relatively fe w ernpewn look the Guard on cam paii". T hings chang"" 01 Ihe end of . he lnd century . The Guard had been d......n into whal w.s only the second ma,or civil war , . nd in an unfor grnable epi sode put Ihe em pire up for auc' ion. ARain their I'"
poart promoted ttntur>on••nd . .. bu"", .""""",i,·ely of lhe ...,,160 . l1>e nr;Jn ...-etc a ""m;.mili'ary force foolkkd by Augu.,,,,, primarily as • fire.figh.ing...,.".;ce , .Ilhoulh ''''y al"" performed 'it f
.{'i9'
7 A group of log;ona,;o, _ " ; "I1 I"" c~ ",_",.,. .hown on T'alao', COrk!<Je t>oof< t, pe "" t a"" hinq. , . A't
T"" m.'n''' ' ' Od.' ")9"'''''' """
I<me8 sOg~,",". oM", ""'I W. MI<J lhe SIlO""'''', COO".OO"PI'[ s ign ifi ca ntly Cell ic fea tur e of Ihe,e helmets was the che ek pieces, wbich owed n(} lhi n ~ [ 0 the ear li er Rom an lypes Anot her fe atu re w" , reinf",,,ing strip acr oss the front of the cap w'h ich hel p ed 10 protect lh e foc e fr om a downward ,word , loch. Thi' featur e . Iso app ears on late Ilelie ni" ic belmets, By the second qua rter of rhe , st cent ury .W , car gll ard s h. d be en added , . 11 the fe.t ures that wer e to Ch. raCleri , e the Koma n infamry heimel for the next two com urks h.d now been established TI,e hrom e C,mlus t)'p" di, . ppeorcd in the midd le of the 1st cemu r)', and f[om [hen on practi ca lly all the Rh inel and kgion. ry hel me" "'" made of jron in t he , eco nd hal f of the cen tu ry reinforc ing br. ce s wer e added to tbe erown of [he helmet. A[ fi rst the" were ju, t two fl. l strip , of hronze. but I. ' er they were replaced by tW(} thick b.nds , When the ch. rt (}n p. 228 was firs t published the re waS no examp le of .n imperial G. llic helmet with tbe, e thick bands (7) . nd one "' " forced ,() maKe. t"nunu, connediM hetween bdme[" J' .nd t2 on Ihe chart which c(}m e from opposit e end s of the empire . nd are separated hy abo ut 30 years But in tbe last few years several ex. mple, of the
T H E EM PIRE ' 40 Be-AD 200 EQ L:IP M E NT
im~nal
GaJUc 1Ytlt.
u.. sam~
..
1)-pe ~
but """UI crou b ~ UI:t " . b.I~ ~n rool"K1 Thos probably ,n r«p= [0 [h~
book
n.
publi.h~
A ~ ~, ~J J",pt";,,1 R"",•. by H Russtll Robinron in
1915. ,n .. Iu c h he po",ula,ed sucb a
helme' and ..h,eb s~em. '0 hH. p[om p,ed mu,~ums '0 loo k in 'heir _rooms lor UIlpublWocd bd....... Wo rks bop s io Ita ly con'inued [ 0 prod~
Iw:l...... wIlleb .... ~
somtti~
a • •
• F>ooon"".,,,,,," 01 ' hO .._
of 0 ' "
"""'cry
AD <w '"", boood Of' lhO .'''old r,om DlK. E", ape., ThO " "'" oI>iek;I, ""d . mO,.1, im (5) ""',,... ' ha 0 " ,. ,," , ape. . .. mplO hoor from N~ ws " . d of ,h . ,. me d.,. 0... m c.ntury) do no, app"" 10 have Ihe", hinge" The n. rro.... b.nd, on Ih~ shoulde" , ..alS! and upper back "Ol' "vtr.d 10 l e .,h~ , . " . ppiDg aDd ,h . .... ill b.nd. ..e'e lac~d ,ogtlher., ,he f,OO1 and boKk. 11>t ~
hem usoed in anger. 11> .M"
and. hld,nll lIthlnd , h. m. mlnall.d ro inllltra1e 1be ~"."ny b...... "Wllfre they pu' a CllIpult ou, of Ic1lon. /u. 'his "..... n!&h' "irll only the moonliJlI! to I t t by. i1 $Ullll" " that ,h. lall:' 1Il0!!fs pain' ed on ,he .h ield , .... e'e a recogni, abl• tdomine. lIon .ymbol " fa unit, The pilu rn r.mained In usc thro ughour 'h e lot and l nd centu, ie" Re main, of m.ny pllu. bulh of the s()C k~ t e d and nal10 nlltd ,ypes, h.ve b. en fo und ....lth h. ld. lI~nOl. lly be tw• • n 6S . nd 7)cm lonll. The best pre"" rved u a mpl., of me n.Hang.d ,y pe com . f,om Obmlden in nonhem ~nnany. H..., not only Ih~ iro n but Ibo pvr of 'h~ """""'n sbaI'I llave .urv!.-..d, ~ are oirnUaf 10 rlIf: hn..,. """ ol1be previous periods...."h m. Da' hlIII Mld in'O the "WOOd~n .hln by ....0 nv~lS. Ho" ·ever. 'h.y ... much Iigh, ~ r In conmu elion ,h.n the cu mpl., from Numan,i., and w h ~ n ,~c o n , ,,u C! .d ..... Igh a littl. Ie.. ,h. n llronu froIM 11>hard af"f'C"". Th" i5 mad< (rom an c~ br....., fron. and t.d: platC riW1N to a wooden I>ast. Tbo o:!a&et< -.n. to haw d.... pp:ared from ~ u•• h.c: d ...ical period, ~ uri"a1 of the RolWlani, • Sanna_ .ian ...crc ormed u;,h a hca" y lance (' '''' ' " , ). At the t her e nd of ,he """ Ie ,he Rom a... em ploy'ed NumiJi""", rom_ ple. ely unannourcck piece> or ned< It d. to allow all-round vio.ion and hearing, Tbc R0man a"a1 1)-maD, _-c"er , wore a hel...... , !>al "",,-c.cd th~ whol e ... t>d. Iea" ing only , he cy.... nose and "",u, 1I ... i.. ble, the u n bring complc-1ely cndolcd , In . h~ lnd cenlUry, like 'he I~gionary hel me... "avalry helme" were reinforced wi,h ""'" h'",e, Toward, the end of
the 1M cenlUl)' a rcinforci nl .. ri p U'" a1'1O of.en applied to the f",..,head, T1>i. came 10 I poi nl fron•. Bod y armour ...'a. eit her mail or oco.le, The mail , hi,.. ,hou'o nn e.,.alty ,ombolOne, nf
."he
lhe 10• .,.n. ury!\D arc , DOl: owpn.;ngl)' , denvcd from {he Celt i" cuira.. wilh i" .bouldcr a pe: (sec p . ' 2}). 'Ill i. ~'pe u-cilhed I bnu' l(,kg, The cape: WI' brld 10 t he " h..t by a pa;' of . ...; ..clling
"".Roma-n. llomantvPe _, """"tbOCa!T"'1> dod no' ,how ,...., own men t~ e
ca"caIry a>MEST
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boio2 ) , and ,he firsl example, were f" und in 7lh _cenlury Avar ,o;raves in Daeia T he earli e" O\'idence for "ir_ r ups come, from China in lhe Slh ce n_ tury AD , T hey WeTe probab ly brought to
the lX'est by the T ut h and A,'a", per _ haps arri,'lnl'; in Euro pe in Ihe first half of the 6th cen tury . Spur" in C(ln".,t, were in m e t hTOughollt the empire, and m, ny examples have been dIscovered, A large number of horses hoe, (}f Ihe lradi lional nailed -on lype have a!so heen found, Example' weredi,cm'e red al lhe Belgle 1,,'eJ at Colchester and il mal' be ." umed , hal th ..e were of I. te Cellic origi n and adopted by the R"mam .
T here wa, al,o a type of detac'h,ble horse shoe known as the hippo-sandal which was s" apped 10 the horse 's hoof, T he pur po"" "r ,he hippo_, anclal i, un_ clear. Hmh typc, "r , hoc are mainl;fou nd arou nd civil settlements and were the refore probably used for drau,o;hl anim.ls, T l1ere were two 'ype, o f bit in usc, thc ,naffi e type with two ring, to hold the rei ns and l1arne" , which was of
tz
,
T" Roman "my on I.. Mo'ch " de,w b€d bv toe J ew"h h."",ion Flav,", Jo>ephU 5 1 Con1H>gent> of ,.. light '''Med mt,m,\, , nd cav,l,\, """ 'ch soout '''ead " , p'ecoU1'On og.'n" .mQu,", 2 The vongc " d COMpO'OO 01 one legion plU' , fo"e of e,",I,v A, '" Polybiui c1,y. to. I. gion, d' ew lot> 6, ,,. to dec''''' w h'Ch On. ' 00016 f",,,, 'M v'"9UO'6 3 TOe c'"'o ,u'Yel"''' compo,oo ot IOn m.n hom .>co CeOlu'Y. Tn i. mo" m,,"" 00< m,n "om eo"" te n,. E. ch m,n co"'. 1 " ,' owo , ,' Olu' 'OO i"' ''om. n" O..,."MV fo< m"kinQ ou' ,he c,mo 4 Toe 0'00'"'' c"'o' who," job" ",os '0 c1. ar 0' b,ia go . ny ""u,.1oOmcl., 5 The ".,wnol ~'Qgag. oM "," of ~ i , lio" . o. n" .coom""o i.d by, " ",og mountoo e'co' l 6 Tho gene'a' "d.ng w'th h" bodyg, ,,d "'oicl1 ",os 6..w" t'OM tho 'ao '" at the 'u .. c,"al,y . n6 i"'an"y 7 T,," comb'"ed ",,",onary C'v"' Y. TOe'e we'e , 20 of """ 0 to o.ch I. gioo S The mute' c",ym ~'M 6" m, n". 0 , ioge oog,,,"'_to,,,e,,. '3m, ealaOu'" etc. 9 T,," ""'"' offi, .,,_ IOjJates, " ,buo", ,od ,,,",..y P..t.ct> w'th en at p·ck.d "oop, 1 0 T ~e leg,on, E' Ch logion w" he,d, 6 by ,,' • • Qui"'., 'o trOuod. d by the ot,,",
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sland"d ea,." 0' ,.. ",,"'00 It '. un""," ," w,," the' thO "0"''''''. '' aM o",nblowe" p'e"" ded '" f"" ow"" ,,," , ,,M ,,d b€, .." as ) o, . " h,," 'wO 'ccouo," ditte, 00 tht> ooiot TM y M • • "'al'S ,oow'n i" tmot on T"j.n·, Column. Beoi"d the "umDe'e" and en"9"' c,me the ",,,Ching "~x ab' . '" and ,eOl ,n ",de' by """ , "" nlO non'. JO' . """ ' , e, '''II'''''''''''
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THE EM P IRE t 40 8e- AI) 200 Til E AR MY I N TilE FIE LD
Celtic on"n, and an Italian In"" ...· hich i. far mp usnnbk fo. lhe march. J.....phus· d...,:nption of . he legionari es ' eq u ipm~nt w ugh for ' 5 oJay. , Th" ",'Idi," " has ic' die' "'h"n "I' cam paign "'I' "'heal haked in ' h" lo,m of ",1,,'lemeal h,<cuilS, Thi, ",as 'uppl.men,.d hy .....u n, eh""", and oour " 'in,,, all 1'« _ .....-ed 1)'1'' '' of food, lX'ho:n in cam p 'ho: soIdtcr'1 y (I n [he third ltum!""" , iR",,1[h" "rall glce> ru,hed '" ' "ke " I' [hcir p",i' i" ", i" 'he r.nk>, IId"r" "'!l ing O U I , a herald , ' . nd ing 10 hi' righl of lh. genera l ,' 1'qu lt"d Ihrc. l imc' ,,'1>d,' n ' uPC" ""''1u," The "'".. normal hridg" was ''''''' ''''''1ed of w"oden pileo ram me,j m[o lhe ri ,'.,. bed in pai .. ah",,[ "m af>lrt , 'I1Ie-se ....... joined by' ,........._ heam>'" f""'" a ocnn of u n[leo " 'hich .ul'P,>ned ,he mad"...y, Caesar". hridlt< .......... [he Ithi".,. " 'h",h .... .. probahl,' a' Cohk nz "'he'" II>< Il.hine i' ~h"", half a kilm et, e wide and up [0 e, gh, mel"'. deep. ,,'. , of Ih" 1)'1' in (;er many, .nd by thc end of lhe cent ttry in Brit ain, they were being rebuilI in stone, Thi, rebu i ld in ~ in " one reHec" lheir accepted pe rm anen ce and nOl , orne new threat . T he,e com~" were like smail townII • __
,-
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ThO ;n..' ,"""". c-y have obviously th"""'n rhe:ir light.r pol" ""d an: us,ng ,he heavier onet a. ,pea., hold .he.... my at bay un,il ""nfurormen.. an be brought up. \I;'''''n , his hapP"n, ,he:y 'bro.... rheir po'l" and dooc in wi.h , hti . ",vord, in ,h. ,,"u al la,hi"" One ,hould "ssume that thi' .... ony· o,her "I th-c auivitit, of ('--,,n ~ is ,he 'btnk'hmugh' f""",,, ion k........ ' 0 ,he sold"," n ' M ' pic', htad'. Thi. _ fooncd wi,h one cohort at 'M fro n, (presumably ,he tim ) with ,he second and thltd in ,he """,nd line, ,he fou rth,lif'h and oixth in ,h-c ,hird line and ,lit four ""horts ,n .ht r....r line form ing a ....dgt. In IItne..1 one must a..ume lha. tht army .ontin....d ' 0 ligh. in 'implt furmalion" a, ' h. y had in the rcpuhlk The s ~ 'tt m (If comma nd pr.c'i ,od hy . he N"ma." durinll the eorly prin;I 1ed ,n ,'" v"u' d,.. " ..
.,"".._H.
_." 00.' ''''Q_
afte, a reign of onl y fuur mon,h, Om ing lhe repuhlic mihtar}' de"or at;ons had been wun tarad y on indh'idual merit regard Ie," uf rank . D uring , he empire ",,"aill r~ward, were r~"Ti"'ed 10 eo" .i" rook . and lhe tradi,ional reasoll for 'he award was often ignored , T hus Ihe e",," '" could onll" b< a..'arded to men of ron.ular rank and no Ion~r had any connection " i,h ,he>e:oOf .h,po. T he ,...."""<Jb"'.Ji<m4hs. a,.-.rd0\100
_
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T HE RO MAN EM PIRE
Abo••
A "li, 1 f,om tho> T","pioIlo So,.,""," Rom< , '>'i0"' of ,oe " o'b'" All to" , oldie" " e onar"""" ond we~' " 0"" W","",
T H E EM PIR E 140 tI(:-AD 200 TH E AR .\ l l · I~ THE H ELD
-
or di.honounbk di""bargc. Tho: grea'· bu. mi gh ' aloo ha"e heen "''Ofn for ",t di,honour .ha, could happen to a .ports, Since mOll Ieg>onal)' hel me" ...·bolc untl .... .. d..bandmcnt . "I1I.ishar- haJ cret. hlden. even though cres ts pencd ' 0 four of ,ho:: C>CIInU1 kgion. ~c. worn in hattie, i. ...'ho::n Vnpa..o.... 'est Je rusalem, He ", obviousl}' "e.y im - lin d of , hi, 'yre of e<jui pme nt eOm'" • pr...sed b)' it: ' A ,• • Ihei r custom , ,hc from a lrd'~entury . ite at Straubing in ,ho::ir ar m . f",m ,hc ca,e, in B;s" a.ia. Thio oite h.o. p. oo uecd 'everol whic h u p till nuw they haJ hr ",-....s. '""'", .... lrd oen'lU)' .u> ha,.., su,,"'I'"Cd . These arc binh of Rome. ,houj;h i, ",,"Cd much of ,, prubabJ)' from ",",...Iry parade arTnOU. its delail ' 0 , he Ernnam , AceoN.ing .'".~.:;,;;;~
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_10< procn...... and -"" ,I>< basic < m_ f'lw'fW, Tho< name it...lf .Ad for II>< ' l'pe of pmcr..~i< lri umph J ......,lopeJ in oompl~ xit)· and • pl,ndour. Ahhough d". il, m,ght ,'ar)' ...ith ditr,..,n, "i"mph"",,,. • ",gular f"nn.t " 'u follo....d. AI th~ h~ad of II>< pr"....,"ion w~re the magi,,,.te. anJ I he ",na'o"", They wer" f" llnwed hy h< chari< of R'>me, p...ing thro ugh tl>< t""O ,iTOU"" hd"r ~ coming ro unJ th" Pa1aline hin and up 'he Sa cTed '1lia;- to th" Forum, I ler. the ,·hief pri" mer ..... nor mally led ,,11' to "~ecuti on ......Ieon"
"red,
Abo... I ... "."mph 0+ T" u' .... CI_ '-'''''.....
while ,he! p"""",ion cli mbed rl>< Cap;toli "" hill and I>< priooner had bftn ex""uIN T hen ,I>< J"nenJ oacrificN ,I>< ...hll• 01" n ou..in,ion of ,he n-iumph ...... reOInctN 10 ","'nd' ,,'ho had '""'" a """'_ pin, \''''01)" "'.",. a r<Jre181' n>nny l>Urilt/l lhe empire only , he emperor and hi. family ....,,,, al.......,d Ihi. honour. T he re """""..,r, a Ieo""r f I...... calltd an ",.,., i " . " or this lhe! gton.-ral ....,.,_ lked on , he! Alban moun, ...,." ral md.. ."uth of Ihe ,iIY , and ent.red Rom e .ilhe r " n hor.. had or on f""t the f"lI"wing morning 1"'le.J of an "I iv, ",r• • lh he ",me a crown of my"le
The Later E m p ire
Th e Mobile Army
A ll
Dr Itoger Tomhn The Danubian .....ars of Mareu, Aurellu, exposed Ihe .....eaknesses of lhe defensive '~'slem he had inheriled . Ne ..... legion s had to be raised 10 defend haly's non h_ ern approaches. 'field armies' had 10 be ;mpr",'i,ed, officer; found and promot ed unc~mve nlionally. Valerius M,, _ imianus, "ne " flhefe..... senalo" 10 n d wa, "a'ione d in a fortress ncar Itome. T he "ld Praetmian G u.rd w.s disbanded fOI having procbimed one of Sevcrus' opponents; il was replaced by <en new cohort> of double (mini. r)') strength drawn from legionaries, most of them the Danubians who seemed ' 0 uncou' h lo ,hc Ruman sena'orial ari, _ '""racy The new O IJ" pJill~U '.,u"'I"'''JI .1 ~ ' PU" ,u",uw/ ~'1l '''"~ II~ " II~nl-H,' ~pOUl '3UllUO" - u'>:)J" u81;>.1 " '1 ' U! ~1 Jldill"" ' 0." ,'JU~ - pUOl '!1.]l J ' '''OUJ~,' oll' ICP U!AO' d ~I."" ·Plo U~'ll J~'11"' "'3)np ' <J >L PI'); l~ uo" -'~J01d JO PU"WW"" ''1' '.' pun o w~,
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u'ppn, puc '~l~ Plo '1.] j OJ ,olJ ."l n, OJ J." 'U"'~ JI l" WJ 'In'~S JOlft"'Tau ' "," JJ!(!';"., " 'I' ,1() >'11 PU" 'lU' W 'I~" I' P ~ "' L L ' ''' o,'"~ U"3'1 .''l l U ~," WLt l UO IS " W P ~ U" - OW0 l-! _., m' 1'1 p u ~ ,nu,'ll0!) .l0 .'W," ~ '11 U!OlJ punoJJn, 11'1' 'I" Lt,,, ' lIc,,, ~'11 Plm lj Ol U'''OJp .\ Ilu~,od d o (p.>s n ." ou " 0-"0/ U" ~"'l ',"T" ll J" U"!,"" Ul U" w-!.' !) "~u , - lE ' P I' '~lje ' u~'I"Jn Y mu ' (f Xn UO'ld _I'x,~ W 1~1 01.]1) ,'JI~""~ JO. "U~W 1.]~Ol·>P, -!' J lJ JO l " l1d~' U ""'~d .10." "nJl3J ,I lj p.1J" 1S3J , •." '~Il,.,d U" w0l-! W01.]1 JO ''''w ' U" !Pp Ol (j !l'l p~lqnop '''0:4 ~'Il uI 'pOlEU' WP' O-!IJW., , " II~D, .' 4 ' puc 'p"n,d"' m" ~"'.w l.d ~ InRD JO 1"101 " ' p. ,""l.ln, ' U(\!ll'JI uon,'os H OLIl JO , ,,'w 1~'I l " '1m..! ) ' 1.]1 :(,.n~ "JT 'JJpRAUI uow"D ~'1 1 p u~ ''110 ~ 0'1 1.10 - IOJ ~J-!'l l " 'I '" u"" n ll" us ) "'ill' " ' l~.JOP lfU!'1,nJO"'I ,( " un ',",dw > . '1l " '11 ,lf u ' ld nJp~ n b, JO U~ !I.' P()\(] , o,n' p" Ol'" ( z8- 9Lz) , nlj"Jd ,UO!J"llI . ·" "1 - I' J Jl0'll PU" ,1.'1.1. ' (SL- oLz) U~! PJnV -," ~'Jn(\S ~T]lW'l Y ' lfUl ~ U" !"' ''d J1]l p",S'PP . n ,,,o IS~) ". IJ" "lill~10I1R'Umdw' ~ UJ ,' 3 , nq ·" ."p,d ""eu o , ~ o l p u ~ , . un J" ., mw pu~ 0 > pOU,ln1 0'l." ,n ! uo~ · qlJl UC1J drawn f'om 'he ;a rne ,o ur c~, a, 'he wailia (Equius Con ",'; e'e .), .nd m. ny units wit h title, al'o found in lhe fro ntieT armie' (lla/", arae, S labl" ia" i etc,) which recall lh e c a " a l t ~, arm y of G. I_ lien u' Some of th e latter helong '0 numhered , equence" lih lhe well- paid trooper of VI S tabltsiani who di,_ " ppea,ed wil h his , p lendid helme' into a ' wamp in c, 320, or h. ve titles which «"Ca ll a tim e in g.rr ison (E qui ,,, Dt likely expla""tion is Ihal th..e are fron tier "nilS d,awn fro m C,allienU< ' ,, " al,y army, which were withd rawn once more 01' Con " .n line to s"'ell hi' mobile army. A hostile critic of Co",,.ntine ae,'U"" him of reversing 'he " T.r egy of [l iocletian , which had m. de lhe f"' nt ie" im pregnable : mo" of lh e army w", wil hd rawn from the fro ntie" .nd poste d in cilie' which did no' need . garri''''' , • ourden ti" the eilies concerned, and demoralisin g for the lroop' , Thi' crili_ cism misrepresen" the new ' tr ategy, which w", abo ..",nti. lly th at of Con"ant ine', , u,'ce'"',, . It was im possible to hold ' he front i., line a~ains l all attack , Si ll"" external enemit , retained the initialive and could alw.y, COncentrale ,upe , ior fotc,., l""a[[}'. !n"e. d , Ihe , ereen of g.rrisons ill the fro ntier zone woul d _ in lheo'" at le",t -eheck minor incu rsions, and hinder maior inva, ions
'"
THE ROMAl' EMPI RE
by bolding fOTtified 'own, .nd ,upplyb.,e" .nd 8IrQn~poi nts of . 11 kind' alon~ lhe lines of communication, Thi' would prot ect tbe civil popu lation, den)' h ld to tb, ~nemy, .nd g.in time to eo n_ cenlrate mobile forces for counter. ttack, T he in-'aders would eithe r be forced to di, p,,,, c ' W eT the countTyside to for~ge, where they could be hunted down piecemea l by ' mall mobi le delaehments; or if the y ma" ed togeIher, they could be bwught to ha llie, wben the Roman mobile army, bener armed .nd disciplined and regu larly provi' ioned, had a good chance of winning aga inst n u meTic~1 odd,. Once defeated in the ficld , inv.ders could be pur,ued into their homeland, and reprisal' would follow until lhey made peace, For the emperor himself, this "Tategy had an impo rt. nt ,ide_elf""t : he could retain persona l "on tTo l of the empire's bes t troops and lOsure himself a~a i nst usur pers, T he drawback. were the dangn ' hat ina"tive tn,o p' , whelh"T on the I;-,}Otie.. ,>r in reserv e, would deteriora te ;and the slowness of communications . No army , h"wevcr ' mohile' , could move faster t h ~n i" infanlr)' ""uld m.r" h (. pproximatel y t5~20 m;les a d.y). [n. vitably, mo bile arm ies multi plied durin.o; the 4th century : ' his , hon _ ened the empiTe', re.ction time, hut di"i ded its strengtb and ;n" reased lhe Ti,k " f . n usur p. t;on. Const. nt ine wos succeeded by his sons, Consta ntine II (337- 40) in th, We", Con st.n s (337- 50) in Iwly, ~nd Constam ius II (337-6 t) in lhe Ea't, Co"'ta'" SoOn elim inate d Conslantine II , only to succum b 10 one of his own generals , lhe commanding officer of the ! (JI);am and ll"culiani, whom Om_ >tantius Jdea ted aftc r • "cry blo ; 0.., H ,34. Aid q>o;~I" Praela.-'uro,.,. nwm.iw1d, T he 'official' ~iew i. ,,, p plem~nt ed by coin" a few bui l din~·in.cript iuns, and at>c em peror Julian (3S~-t>3 ) use. ~ yc· "i!ncu aero"n" of hi. wt cam. PIlgn, .nd S'ilicl>o·. publiciSl . ,he poe' Qaudian•• ~ in ~cnify;nl . he na..... of ""'"C'O mobtle ...-guncnl1 ,,'hich ,uJ'J""'$'Cd a re'"oI, In 398. lm porla nl detail, tu'n upi n unlikely 1'1"".. : a m m _ pkte list " I' n" n·mmmi"i"ned ranks in a c.o.~ al ry un il/" ,i" i. j(i.-en hy SainI Jerome in his i n~ce earlie r , h. n c. 31\8 The Jelle," ,".-cd by Abin"oeu, contain vivid glim p",. u( t hc dUlie. of . n office r of in the 340'" no, ,hal w·c can auume the ';n,cmal sceriei and u. urpation, commit_ ted in the luc aliti e, hy ' he lOU " inH u· enli. l men ' , ...rit c. a petit i' l()er, (Abinnaeu., a ooIdier of">mc 40 years' ellpc:ri. enee, " '•• al.... a man of propc:ny "i,h """"'" rcn" in Alexandria and farm stock of hi, .....-n•• nd ,"clearl)' .........fthe uhi,! uit"". 'palrun. of Ja,~·R(lIOan Tom"" "' ... ....... l uc.arus _ .... 00' "","", _ _ ,he .._ ...>< ubiquitous smail st rongpoin" (bu,· "f the nets ker l a, he.dq uartc.... , to calch ,.). garri'''ON fon, .nd fonified to"ms SauJIcs which hav'e heen eating the in!be frontier zone&. \l;'i, h a (~w cxcep- crops, O ffieial lct tcn ""luire Abinnacus lion" ,hey D... ~~d of new·.. yle u ni<s 1 provide esn tier armies , as seems 10 have been done earlier, when required, T he powerful Sp anish aemy is ab o p"zzling we bear no' hing of it when ' bere was fighting heee in 407 and late r, Worsl of all, we know litt le about unit strengths, The onl y certain ftgu'c i, thal a " th.cenlur)' Ic""l" n" mhered 500 men , Ru' lwo Danuhian c'.val,,. uni ls in ,\ te' opnt amia in 3 5~ totalled only 700 men ; and a mohile c,,'. lry "nit "f ' Unnigardat' in l. ibya in ' be early 5'b een'",y numhcr~d only 40. Th e, ~ figures ,hou ld he com pa,ed wit h , he D iodet ianic ones from E,o;ypt : E qui ,,, PrDffUJf i of abo ul ~o, Iiqw'res S,,~ i l1a,-ii and an al" of ahou ' ' zoo Infantry units "'ere e,'ideml,. larger , T he s. me s ~ u r c e suggests ',000 for a pro,'incial legion , 500 for. detachment. At ,' miJa in 359, Ammianu, (who was ' he' e) e" ima'e, the bc,ieged a' 20,000 in n"mbe r, indudi n ~ seven le~ions , The old legions , already weakened ill lhe coutse of (he
A~ MY
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3rd een(ur:'i_ h ;' ' ht ,i me of the ,\'orilla have bee n broken up into numero us det.chmen ts : Third j wlita , for ex. mple, g. rrisons four fort' as well a, i" old base al Rcge n,hurg, in addilion 10 pro" iding a ' legion' fo r the ne orest mbile a, my. Ammia" u, twice menti" ns J e· ta chment s of 300 me n from (um pe.: i_ fled ) m"hile " ni" , once 500 from 'leg ion,' T he emperor H~n~rius (395423) is said to have withdrawn f,,'e uni " fro m Dalm.tia whi ch lmalled ",000 men; ,ix " nit, of inl,m' ry, however, sen! to hi, aid Ii-om the Easlern empire shordy . fteTwaed" tNalied only 4'<XIO, The impression on e recei ve> i, that m~hi le infant ry un", may have been between 500 .n d t ,ooo men stmng, and cavalry "nits weI] bel~w 500, wi,h [he c,cep' ion perhaps of lhe " hoi",. T hi, im pression i, reinfor c" d by Julian', ""If· e"ngr atll l ati~n al t.king 1 .000 G crman prisone" ' in two han le, and a sie,o;e' ; in lhe , iegc 000 Frank, were painstakingl;' stan'ed oltt oftheir refuRe in lwodeed i," fons , and sent to Consl anli us for seevic" in lhe E,"em arm}'. Elile units were ,m.ll anJ peeciou,. J ulian ' s army at S lrasbourR (357) numbered only ' 3,000 men, in 363, wit h lhe whole empiee '0 dn.w upon, and no ot her commitments, hi, I wo aemic, foc (he invasion of Persia totalled on ly " 5,000, The~e fiRure, for fits t- ralc tTW p' a'-e of course onlv • frac, i,m of ' he empire' , paper strengt h e.low Un.! 'treng,",
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~ of.. 10 oIlic-cn "-c.... abo manufaclurcd , in_ "nbed .ilver pb"e. cold and . il.e, -mcd-alliono•, gold an d .i I'-c, be It-fin ifig> and hrooche.... ma,k. of 'ank-and special ,i l.e . co in. I'.ol>o.bl)· for
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Sain' Jerome u... all Ihe non-commi.. io...d . ank. a, • me,al'hor of ,h. di"anc-c he' wc.., n a demon and an angel: reuuil . rrwper (.~,,,,) , 'ir'ilo', hiar _ clrus, '""'mar'us. ""e",,,ri,,, , ,m alor, prio,ie",·" . , ""mm.nding ollieer (lri~ ,,~u. ). T h•••cruit "',e , lowly. by « niori,}' wilhin ' he " nil. A late _Roma n "emel c_.
i. lrue ',f higher command., Job ...;us .' Iemonu., ,he of ,he Tangiers ann}', had '''''ed 2S )-can in ,I\< /"""", lleforc he hccame apOIion of hi...... ,,;,hin , he local
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The . rmy in .Clio.. lbc ann}' " .. the uh,mate,th0u8-h "'" ,he only, " of pol" oarl """,-cr and puhtic "'y. Thi. "·...pnholiscd ill the aca-uion ...-c _-'unnuanu., Valenlinian. "·00 had bee;' "hoocn in condaee b}· oc..iot ottic:cr>; and ci.il ...,,'an... \I", pde hy him.. l!' in • gold.n carriag. !lhllering wi' h iewels, wi'h pUlpie .il k d roll'''' "a" dard' hissing in 'he h,cc"c' ,"....l"' ''d, Armoured infan_ try and dih,m",ii, yahy ; cavalry 'antiu.· t tll . y itllo R"me. Aurdian "".,- officers had . he i. hand. lopped off. ,ht awed a (;e.man deleg;ltion by r.,.. ivin~ . " rv iv" " of a lell:ion worr c1ultbcd [0 it on a pl'lll ."" .iege
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T H E MO BI LE ARM Y
, he putp",e , Instead he burnl hi, r..",,, (Iilerally), and tr ied 10 penetrale fu rthcr ea, t , The,e d.~isions were so extraord inary thaI le;:. nds were soon Invenl in En' and \l'"" un,il l he mid- sth cen tury .allow~d ,he Gnrh. to setl le in the Danubian provi""", under ' beir o wn chiefl ain. , Whcn T beod ,oe 0( ,he t"",,,er, but "'hen ""'t CIIStom lapoed the milita.y uni,s "'Cre abollshe "r
a rim reinf""",d "-ith hide .nd not the ~ustomary btonu-. Thi. " ..s sti lched on in lhe man...... of the Faru m shield. From the jrd ,~ntUf)' the use of bod y' annou. declined Thi. may lone been . ","ull of , he slad:ennta: oi. disripli"" ,l\al a.ccomparuee 'o:cn in . 5 t h ·.~m ur~· c"p~' o ( V",gi l', Am.rJ, C. taphr. ct, ,n scale , him . .. . 1.., , h" wn " n t he Arch of Gun.la tltit,. >1 H"m_ ...... ~. ","'-"". &no t 2"" · '" _ )od 'osnoury - .
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pM"''' or Oett (O. ,..,,"""" "m " 'le t>oanll< pteed '0 the lini llll. come down dit'C '0
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., 'n,,,,,,,". mass,ve inll UJl of bubulan mctnnann. hoch belt and _Ii ~,maruc belt. Dta.~'.ppcan ,n other a""", ; ,he inrant')" of v ~I"" day "tt,,-v are almo" e"'l ta inly , hm e "r ni. " wn day, the R,h cen tury J\C . These ,hil" or. offwo types : Ii ~ht. fa" ,h ip, "f zo """ and heavier ,,'a..hip, with 50 oa.. ( pntu lwn u "j. T h""" arc unq ",," ,ionabl ~ galley , anJ not canoes a. thole I"n. ,,~,h Iea,he:r Ioors for holding ,,, T hera. II"m,,', , hil" were .te..,n·d hy one or two .. ern oars and had. r.m at , he fronl. The . hips in .he OJ.,"uy arc moo, frequently d=ihed as hlad, but, on ,he OI.her hanJ , the po.>,,, ..."""'Iimes refen .o them a. red_ or hlue_f'IIinled. 1b< hl. d , probabl y refen ' o.he .arring or ..... ked, ,,·he.-cas ,he 01. ...., colou.. .....)' .ses...-.i be the pan. of the , hi p .1>0>." .he ,,'. ter ""·el. One mu" I"Icd the defo'."a'i"" of c·.n"al G rc«'e , an d ' he '''il c'''''ion ",hi,'h i. l h" perennial cu rs. of Ille mod e' n ( ;r ee k fa,me , "'"' no,i,·.'ahlc a, ". rly a. the t;m" " J 1'1' 10 . Alhen' ""nlrol of t ile "'. la""d f"r H ye'l> .n d the ...,nown of he, ..II"", ..... '0 Ce.n . , a .lInkl.n, b.ip,t above ,be wat.rlin. 10' hd" ",.-ing boa.. to .hp IIndc""""b tllcm Thi' is ,be lXtic the Syracuuns .mploy'" to an . cl: ,h. .~,benisn ,.,..... It tllcir be....... dulin g ,he lICIl" or Syracuse The ocrond binI: of ,o"'-'e" (ay,,,,, l ..... al,o 17 in numbe' Th. ' o p ban I: of Oa.. me" «"'''''''r/«) .....-cd ,hrou gh on out-rigge' Thi• ..-n . n ext.ndon beyond 'he ,i.l. of the 'h ip "'hleh g.ve ~tca,cr le""lage ' n ,h. 01", The.e '.-cTC 3 ' 'hani" ro""'''' on ....·h ,id., As in 'he previous cra. ' he .hlp • •, cr.......d by hlO,d b. .. at th. 'u' Each ~alk lY had tv.-o a"" h" ", ",hi"h hun~ rr" m the c'Iheads on eiIhe< bow, "nd '''"0 I.n ding ladders which c, n "n. n h,' 'cell . t the , ear of 'he , hlp
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,. ....00 each sh ,p h. d 10 m.rlnes and four ",chc" , The new also illdu ded • nauti ' t, who piped lime for lhe TOWeTO, and 15 deck ha nd" The ' hip ,,'.. commanded by a Irierach who wa, appointed by ,he . dmiral. O,'eT rca, o,u hk dista[] ce, a" d ur\der f",'ou" ble condi tio n, a tr irem e could ho pe 10 cove r 12 km per hou r. There are numcro us cx. m pk , of lo n ~ dlS l.n ce, bc ing covered a t hen er lh, ,, Rkm per hour . O" e r ,u c h dist.nce s th e th ree banks mus t ha ve taken il in lurn s 10 row, Acnc", Ihe T. pulled each o.o.r. Thi. i. fine for anythi ng up "'elgh' but become'lotallj' rid"",I""" a' figur... a, " r hej""d . 6 . The .........,r to the prohIcm hao 10 lie lIomev.-"""" bc't...".,n . he t..-o ooIutiom Sculpluln of Roman galle)" ."""" dearly ,tul••hey " ""e ""''Cd at """'"' than one ""..,1 bu' 'he)' ........,r .J>o,.. more ttuln ,Itrtt bankllofoa",. Here maj' lie ,Ite keJ' Thcoc ,h,l" are iu't larger ve.. ion. " f'he bireme and trireme, It is probable n" 'hi p ever ""d more ' han thr"" bania , The nu mbo.. refer til Ihe h >l al nu mber uf n'en rowing each "ertkal group of· ".n : fllr e.ample, a ', ix' could be rowed in the .a me fa.hion . , . trireme, " 'i' h 1\, Obv"",.lj' a f·..... Iteprcocnla.ion. from ,he Helkn'''ic period shvo' gallej" " 'ith t"'·o bank. of .,.,.., boxh ",.""ng from ,he .......ilQlC1' . The mus, fa.....,... of lhese i. .he hue of ,he Victory of Samothraec. Thi. "". an outrigge r wi'h oar I>le' grouped in staggere d pai.. _one up, ono d""'n , Th i' w"' prot>. hl;' Ihe ."anllemenl for heav ~ lO. ll" ys.
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:, Herodol... h.. '-.ry lill ie gu. p or ' ho principle. of naval warfare and hi••cCount of Ihe banl e of Salami' lac.s in,ight , However , 173 yea" laler a !>;onle wilh exactly th •••me namc wa, fought o lf the town of Salami, in Cyp rus. T hi' bail Ie, whkh w. , rC'COrded by H lemnym us "f C..ordi., . nd the bail ie " f Chi'" in 20 . for " 'hich ".., have Polybiu,' ...-.:oun" gi"e u. _ romiderable imighl ,n,o galley ,,'arlare , lJ nf '''0
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se, ",all "'ve C3n be ",,,n ,n 03" 1>o.:came Ihe com mercial harbour Can,haru. and "n ,he south . ide ,he.e o, e ,wo m""h , ,,,,,lIer inlets , Zea and M unichia, which t>«.me ,he mili'a. y har· boun . T he ...·hole arca was . "'......nlkd by ......11. or heavy' limesfone bloun. Tl..-.c: shed. ..ttc grouped in foun o. eights. Thoc)-
logical te. m under the kadersh ip of Dr Henry HUrSI was beginning excO".tions in lhe cent re of lhe hor.cshoe. Pierre Cint., dicd in July 1974 beforc ",cing ,,'en the ear lie, t res ults of the,c exc.v.tion, which esl.bli,hed lhat the mili ta ry harbour ".s indee d lhere and vindic.ted lhe des",iption of Appi.n, 1n the ~" ago , he French .rchaeologist Beuk fou nd , irn il.r row, of hlocks on lhe north ,ide of the p'>nd _ T he north edge ()f the I. rer lI." m. n har!>clonging to H an nibal, ,he ' Rhodi.n' 3rd century Be was the enormous .peed ,,'hich , o",tantly ran the R"man block"' which lhey could be con.trueted , In ade of L ilybaeum, was . qu inquereme , 26 1 Be Ihe Rom. n, buill their fir" neel We Can dedu,e thi, Irom the fact Iha' of 120 , hip' in two month, _Seven years the Roman, constru cted. Heel of quin_ I. t" Ihey huilt a .." ",d tleet of 2 00 in quereme, u.ing lhe 'Rhodian',' ,'""e1 three mont hs _ In 197' t he hu ll of a a, a model. Quite apart from this the C"rl hoginian galley was discovered in estimaled . i. e of lhe l.ilyhaeum ship th~ ,hallow water just nonh of lhe port approximately 3Sm I"ng and sm wide of Lilyhacum T hi, , hip, "n d a not h~r without the outrigger- is very large wh ich wa' di"~l\'e rcd nearby, have oce n The , hip sheds al Carthaxe which mu " carbon dated 10 the period of the firsl have held qui nqueremes were only 5_ 9m Punic war , T he matly , h ipwr i ~ h t' s wide , m..king, on lhe , imber, which are " ill The main interest of the L ilybaeum "i ,ihle impl}' that the pieces were rna" ship" of which only the keels ' u"i,'., i, produced , offering an explanation of th eir . lruelU re , Thi s has h ~"e n u.e d f{)r the speed with which fleet. could be lhe reconstruction ()f a 4uin4uererne assembled , shown below, T he superstructure i, S()me of lh e pieces of lhe lwo ,hips oo.ed on a Carth,ginian coin fro m Spain fro m l.il}'ooeum are , h()wn here T he and • carving from CaT t h . g~, hot h large piece (. ) i, the ste rn of the first , hown here , T he,e , how un mi,t akably .hip discow red, lhe other piece (z) i, an o u,rigg~r ju" ochind the eye with a pan of lhe rom of lhe sew nd . The ked dec k ahov~ it . T he coin . how, oval is of maple, t ha ib, of ookand th~ pl.nk _ shields, no doubt Cdliberian , Sl rapp~ d ing and tusk _li ke p ieces of th c ram are along lhe r.iling , The ram ,hown on of pine, The . hips were carvel built, i,e , bolh lhese repre'en tatio", i, the G reek lhe oulside planking was ""emhied lype whi ch wa, atlached to the bil~e fj"'t and th e rih. i m~tle d " ft",ward, " Tl ngers T he type u.cd on [h~ Lily_ T he planb were ioined ",geth" with haeu m wreck more do,e1y ,",emhlc , n. l weden tenons which were held in lhose shown on Tmian ', Co lumn, which place with wooden dowel s. All the probably aCCOunts for the assumption , hal t h~ ,hip is a M u rn ~_ Med i t~rro n co n ships so far foun d w~r~ asse mbled in this way. The planking Polybi us impli e, tha, CarthaginIan wa, nailed to lhe rihs fr om lhe outs ide ship , ea rried the ,arne numlx:r of n ew , nd the nail bent o\'er on the in.ide, T he me n as the Roman ship, of the ,arne joints were eoulked Wil h • pu ny- like period -300,earnon and 120 marinessuh"ance and lhen Ihe h ull wa' oovcred with Ie.d sheetin g and the r" m e n~·a ..d in bro nze, The excavator Honor Frost a . low be lieves lhat bol h the se galley, were Aol;c! o f a gal'O, ,,'nth 1M"" oook, of "''' h om liburna., the type ()ffast light , hip' used 0",• . c )() ~ C " coo ld "" . oomo,,",.me. '" hy the Illyri.ns . T his type ap pe.r, to D;q,,.,, ., all tn. 0'" COffiJ ,,;gge,
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APPE"'Dl X I
....hotn ht .. ~ ,,,,,-, t htir fItt' of 3S0 galle).. Md a d S4 in ,IIalic war th" Cart haginia n navy ( Ftt ju.) near Slarseilles t contro l tho tried avoid coming in'" eonHi", with ",,"at, "I' Gaul and Sp.in. anothet a' (. ...".. ) ;"'>ly combined. 11'>c l ru"'ed ()f ruhhle maoonr y 0' " 'e n mu'ill'ion ...~ .he inlrodUoClion of proie'ide wllert . he . pproach ..... e..iesl, 11'>c ,"".." were en'ertd from , he iMide of ,he fun by a d""" 1 ,t>u,1
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bI, , _t. T... dolo,.... . t the: Au yr.. n !ladn ion. w= continued by tho: Pe.,;Wu. Thei. mound. and m'ne> ate "",ntioned .....·era! """" by HerJol us . I n G'ee« the..., ·as DO.;gn of enho:r of these t...-til.::> bd e the >econd hai r of lho: ~Ih cenlury . b~n then the ~n soeg.o t...·lle of the Guri::....... tho: bIoda • • ••
a gom..,n " f .(llo mm, a" d ' 10 W('lmen ." p..,pa.., Ih~ f<Jort*'hed SynoctnC. Anlici "",nng an A,heni.n _ult .he S)ncusans a"",~ a ............. of ' heir ,rtIp$ in , he pWn """Ih of ,he Epipolac p1a'eau. Siciao heard of ,he .....;...- and ,he night before il " .... due ' o W e plaC\!: hecmb.art:ed hi$'roops . nd ...ikd .0•.I!h.....rds. Onc~ ..pin the Athenw.. made a br illian, Itarl . They land~d thei r arm}' jus. tlOrtl> of the plal"'U and while ttlou•. The Attl. gainst . n ack fro m ,h..... Now , h., , he A, h.nia n, "'.r. in rontrol of ,he ..,a aod had i",Ia,c.J Sy racuse fro m tit ' 0 the bitt~.cnd. I n '!'it. of t-.::eriving rei nf~nl> lhe Alhenian. failed to mries.e '''''' oicg~ ar~ excellenl ill...,,,,.ion. of . he OIa'~ of Grttk si~g~ " .. rfa~ in lhe la,~ S.h cccn.Ul)". By . he lx'glnni ng of l he . , h cccm ury lh~ ti .... ~.I im prov~m~nl' ""' ~ mad ~ in .iege lechniques , Th~ n~w advance. ",.>1< pla< made .0 ""en croortnouI po"..... Tfx;f only failIn, ..,," ,hat nn ~ W2S 1U'Onll ~ ......,h .0 d r.w them. In i.. euliel. torm . he calapull ....... intpl)· a croosb",.· ~"" r hltn.lly a I>nant de,·.IOl'ment in d i '''''~~>n 'he~' ,ow.d it OIl' . od ran ;, ,;,,~ ..,.,fare Wa' , ho: U. e of a niller~' fo. . gro und nn . he .nd of ' he mo.>Ie. T h e deren "f " . nt h.il of mi" i1o, fm m , h. 'I' y.i. n , ...i"ed , inew '" h"i •. T ho,e was . Im,,,' .... "'hips AIc~.nd,·, .. a, fo,"ed '0 withno lim it h> lhe , ixe " C ,he, e ' orsi" n draw and watch hi••k ge to....rs hurn. J m ' wlt" n hi, 11."1'« of t.king Tyre mach ine. " nd ,he ,.me r,ine'ipk c" uid
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see med a' ,heir k "'· 1'01'0, AI. ....nder tuod an .Imo.,,' unbell blc ...-oke of Iud . ~ P....... n flCfl oom]>OSCd m."tl~ of Phoenician .hips; " 'hen ,ho ........ heard 'ba' mo" of P hoenicia had sufTendor-ed. ,he flee. d,';n'egr.llled and ,he Phoenician and C}l'floI squadron. oIIetcd , ............ion 10 Alcunder. N ",,· 1>0 con,roIled the ..... Alexander ahotl' w>.knin" ,he mole so i, ld hold ....,... and enp ~ eng' ..... ......., oon"ruf" of t hc .hip' lba, .....re rotric>'ing rocI """.pull"
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19"' lfophol"..). II .. ""'" "'.. Orawn Oy p l;>" lim.e'.. (T he llc. ieger) laid , iege to S.lami, in C}'pru, he hlli lt a tow er 0 cubits (alk lU l 40m) high wi, h nine "ote)" , T he base of Ihe l"wer was 45 euhilS (c. 10m) "'l Uare and il rrw"ed on four ""lid wh""J. eig hl euhils (c. 3.5m ) hig h, Thi • .-a, l lowe r ,,'as nicknamed 1I,I,poIi. (lh. eilY de.lrO}'er ). The (o"'.r " 'a. lillN ,,'ich . aupuhs: hea,)' Slone· Ihro"'e.. ClIl"'hle of throwing ston.. "'Cighmg lhr"" lalenlS fe. llolg) "'ere
AN D SIE G E WAR FARE
pla«d un che k........ floors; he''',' boltshome.. in lhe middle ''''rej~ ;and light arrow·.hoo<e.. and $lone-th"",,'e.. al lhe: lop . The t"",,, required :lOO men juslloopenue che: madun... The t>ea,,' Slone---chruwe.. lore a""Oj' lhe banlemenu. \ea"log .he oenll)' " 'alk full~
uf'der OO"er of .IM> ballerl' on Ihe mole he broughl hi. oeahorne entrines inlo .he harhour. Frnm Ih.... he u..d hi.ligh. bolt·.hoolen. " 'hich had . he greatest range. 10 dri"e nlf .he "fkers ,,'ho ",'e re heillh lening lh. " ·aU. , Then. using hi. ''''''e·.h,,,wers. he de1;.royed the enem}' machine, and Ihe wall ,,,,,, . hey w~r~ huildi ng across lhe mnle . T he firs . allempt 10 ta ke the ha,bour proved lln,ucc'C" fll l . nd one of .he floa, ing ~nll i n~s was destroyed by fire, D.me'riu , wa' fore'Cd 10 wit hdraw 10
"''31
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I
APl'E l" D IX z
",pai. hio m..,h",,,,. \l:'~n I>c re' umed the a"lId< , and i, o«med ' hot he migh, take ,he ltarbour , , he Rhodian. Iauncltc:d a dnl'C1"'te ..... uh against hi. d ...t t ",mo"''''1 !loo'ing VIginn ",i ,h their tltrtt o « _t pllc:}~. Soo"''e",d ""th miooi!n they craohed 'Itrough the opiked boomo . and by "'l""'1c:dly rammini ,he lioo"n, enJinn managed tn oiM. ,,,,,,ol,hc:m. The 600.tingmaliJ cn pu.hing a, , he bad :, All"",· inlt ' 5em ca.:h for ,he . hi~k ...... of , he hot.. ..:n ... tbe hot..., ,,'hi ~h "" ere OflC c'uh i, "part , it ...o uld be poosihle squ ceze • littl e o,'e. 30 ." a,.
"w.,,","_Om
nig h , nd h. d , 21m squ'" dh'ideo onto no"" '",,''''' ct>mmed w it"
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D iade" Sle~e engines also included hme" which were u, ed '" kn'lCk holos throug h the wall, a, oppo""d to Tams which shwk the walls down, Diade' oore r was housed in a IOrIOise aooUl22m long. The horer i"elf, whi ch was a long beam pre,umably with an in m point, moved on rolkrs along a wooden tro ugh and was operated by a windlass and pulleys, \1;'h en lhe Rh"dian' ,aw which part of the wall w.. to <Xlme under anack, they immed iately be ~a n buildin g the cu', tomary internal wall. T he be' iege" ~"mmenc ed undcrmining lhe outeTwall and the Rhodia ns responded by d iJl;ging dO"'l1 on the insid e and br~aking into the mine' , prcvenli ng lhe ""ppe " fm m doing an ;' furrh eTdamage_ Hut the force of De metrius ' machine s was irresistible, and under remo"e1ess pressure fm m the engine, the walls began 10 crum ble The rna" of boll., hooli ng c'atapuh, in
•
FO RTIFICATIONS AND SI EGE \lI-'Alilc hc " .", prtp,oring 10 enlinu~ ,he a.." ,uII .he Rhodian. buih a lhird creseem wall 10 Nek up an ' hc PM'" of thc ou,cr ....all tN' ....c.. in a danll:erous wndi, ion and dug a d«p dilCh hehind Il>c p,orI of . he "'a ll tha' had coll apsed 10 SlOp ,he eng ines he ing hrought in to the town, Once a ~ ai n . when the lI0'On.d the «"ound so lha. , he rams could be ~ d fonnTd On .be floor abo»'O, in addition ,,, .... ".r ion . nd (l(he r fin. -fig ht;ng ' Quipmenl. there were e.ca pult., AI lhe lop, ....·d w;lh the " ",'n lOwers, IlOldi.... we", poo.ed 10 p. even. the <Jot. nd. rs int.rr.r ing with Ih. ram , T he whole ..r ue_ luro wo, de fende d by lhre\ around 600 IlC. \ll' hile .he Persians uneavy be erected in Ihe di.ch, I f , hi, lut ""nnol l>e done .he defenden .hould collect together ••upply of lop. and rubbi.h. \ll"hen . he m,......rrear in the ditch [he rubbi.h .hould l>e tJtrooa.n into , he lre nch. . .. .Iith. and then """ered <We"o smoke OUt the sapre"· These coun'ermeaoures had been g.eally reli ned by lhe bq(lnn,ng of . he 2nd ce ntury 'i\' be n in ' 1l9 IIC [he Roman. laid ,ieitS' '0 Amlmao:;ia in Epir u• • nd tried [0 "ndermine I he w.II" at li"t they romo,'ed the . ar th in secrot
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by an und'd and hghte", The highe, the art illety piee-n a' ,he ,uuloJ he: ta,,,,,oJ ,he Il"'>~ter " 'a' it' ,atilt,ing up """e e"ll'...... The outer dltc..... " 'e-re ,",ualll' fron,,,,J "'11'1 p.oli 0.- thom h were tokeu, Ear ly forti fication, in It a ly M ost ofthe vilbg.. of 8th -century Italy were ,ited on hilllop' just as lhey were in lhe resl of Europe. T hese villages co\lld usually rely on Sleep , jopes for lheir defence , and lh i, wa, often reinforced with pali,ades and ditches Hundred" of ' uch village s crowned lhe hills of Etruria. With the rise of lhe Etru,can ru ling class in the 71h century , gro up, of ,·i11.ges were united into formid.h!c 'own, and the ram part' of lhe earlier period were grad ually replaceJ by le..ace wall,. Exc.vat ions . 1 Veii, 12km north of Rome , have re\'ealc d 'e\'eral stretch"
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'd rampan, cunina tM town off ftom lht ' urrowtd.ina <XMlnuy and Pl~ntina anyone from ao:aping. I f tM"" "'... no e""m)" ann )' in 1M field lhi. would be, ,ufficienl, but if tbm: "'... any poosjbWty of "'lief from the ""•...x • sccond line of rampan. and dnchn Id be, e..-abli5hed facing outwardo. Bc1 «n """ lWO lines 1M'" ..... a br.-.l thoroughfare, often "",,-en! hur>d.-cd mel "" ..;de, facili t. ' ing rapid lroop rnow:menu '0 any pan of 1M fonitica'iom. Fort. and pidc. pool' """" placed at int ervaU aIon& the ...hole ~;rcuil 51> tlta l e~er)' point of . he Ii""" .........to;hcd . The Rom. n. "'",'e keenly a"'are tltat it ..'as a' imponam to bonle up the whole popul., ion wi' hin • be, . icged . ow n a. il was to pre~en' help fro m re""hina 'hem , The mo re peopl< there were within the lOwn the quicker the pang' of hunger ...ould begin to tell, T hi' pu," in t pers pective Caesar', 'e_ fusal to allo w the old men, women .nd chil dren to lea ~e Ale.ia , fot this could only 1cnllthcn Ihe , iege. Bicit . umvonation t>ecame ' he "an_ dard Roman lYlIem. lt admirably , uited ,he dogged Roman . n...."!« and ..... uoed a' the lI..at ,ieg.. of LilybacUln , c.pua, N untan'U1 and Ale,ia , U ,ually an .ttempt ..... made '" We Ihe 10000'n by storm ~rst .nd ... t>en Ih i. failed i' ..... OUI . U nle.. he ....nted. quid< ICSul• • Roman c1e ha"e Iefl l" " d« p .·alle}.. " 'h jeh .."...."e the IOwn from Ihe .urroundi na lUll•. To , I>< ...... , of , he ,,,,,'n Ihe Iwo valle)', merge into a brad p la.n, Cae1ar encamped hi. legion. around the to...'n and traced out the line of hi••icge wo.-h. T he inner line. ,,"'.. dra wn along the fno ' of the hill. ' 0 ,h . ""rth and the ,outh of the ,o...n and then ocro" th. plain at the west end a",' ut ] ,skm fto m the IOwn. T he outer lin e. e, tend",.l along the 'op of the hill> tu the north and 'ou, h and ao;:m" t he pl. in o"" ut 200m beyond the in ner line. , luving am pl. room f ot lroop mo.'emen" . Along lhese line, c.e, . r ~"I ron" ructod 23 for.. to cover hi. worke.. hefore li~i ng orders to begin digginlt l>< ttenches . T he legio n_ ar i.. first dua a vcoical-.idcd trench abou,';x met"" wide .... ..,..the plaina' the fooc of , he plateau, This "" U to p..hil" ven( any att... ~ on ,he ooIdi tMY W ClC ert'Cling ,he main ""k. in lhe plain , Four hundred me,,,,, behind 11U. t..nch , he lqionariCl d ua I"" ditches fi"" """"" ..." ide and itere _ible filled , he inner one with ter. "Ibew ,.... t"""'hoes wete c:x.. Ddcd all the W")' along II>e fOOl of .he hills that wrrourtoo:;kd , he , ow n un,illl>ey formed a The}' preferred methods ,,'hich oc · proIected at t he fronr .....J sides by 'IIrid~ r screen. ..it h room for four ploit~d the boondl.... ntCIf;Y of tt", fob ",.. 10 d ri"e away the lceio.,tu')'_undcnnini ng and the build · soldie.. defenoJen while the ladde' Wa. being in~ of ,am ps-. nd in thi' ar... they placed in ped fint Punic " 'a" Thel' urt. ou~h B Lil y~m and S)Tl>CUse of its . imib rit}- ' 0 the harp-like mueiT. r mlike bo.m, dropped huge " " ne, .nd lum !" of lea d on to the ' a",h" w " The bri m. were , wu ng Tou nd on • ri~'" and the ",el ~hrs Imvc,..,d by pu ller. at the end
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of tho< bnms, T hn.c c'OUld be manocunN ' 0 hit It..: "''--',d '" Iterec'er 'M Romans inN lO flU'" tho<m . OthN enlr'fIn hll rlo:d 01.-. large et>OUgh to dm~ tM told ,en boock from the pr.... of 'M . hi p and lhen lov.ercd gianl grappling ""'.. . a"""bed ro e h.:oins. Thc>c took a lirm IJflp on the . hil'". ..'hidl ..-e.-e then ul'"'dcd by counl",.t>.lanccs. l1'>e gnlrP!ing """"". were: lhen .-ekasN 00 'hltt lhe 'Jnl'" feU ~-'l'" eirher- copsizing or lillin g ..-j,h war",.. ." :oreellu. ..... com ple1cl~' otlleLo•..,d but made li~h, of ,he . i. ""lion .. ~'in~, ' Architnedc. ....,. my >hi p" to ladle ",a ,ut",. inro hi. ...i"", C"UI'", but my ... mbue legion _ aric. were forced Ii> captuTe each huilding a. l he~' wenl, T he "",Idien fough' from l>"uK ' 0 house u, ina: p13nks to ero.. from r<Jf . o roof high ahove lhe Rarro'" alley"·a)'• . On,:e 'hc~ reaehed the Byna they ",' tire 10 all ,he hou..,.
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aJon~ Ih~ .hr"" The fire sp"",d and the ooldlen pulled down ,he ho""'" whof 'he old people and children had 'aken rduge. Some " -ere burned and : I.:.. ; I -gil ~ ~·J f~~ ~~~ i~'fl ~t t f l r:~~ I §~ , ~ •i i]l: if. t~,~ "~ 3 ~ "' - ,"- - ::r ll .." " jf " - ! a il . , i1 ~ ..," ~~O~~ ,,~ 0i I ~ ~'::rov. ' ;aM A te,.",... (,.. ,vu. 4sol<m and like Hadrian' . Wall "'e~ ~ info,ced by a rOrt e"ery eigh' 10 len k il(\met ~' . In pla" e" a' il approached the llanuhc, lhe pali,"de "'", rq,laced by a ",. 11 ",it h lu reelS similar ' 0 .he Bri, i, h ",.11,
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T he ear ly p r in cip a l., R"",an . ieg< technique in ,h~ urly prin eip."., i. 00, illus,ral~d by ,he , ieges of Vnpa.ilI.n "nd T il u, d urinl1 .he J..... i.h ~·....It of .'D66--c.13 , Thr« of l hese , Ioui'll&. Jen=km . nd .\ la>ada• • re- described in .........,ooI ing m""hines to one-Iaknt (e . 4Oke) stone- Ih"",," . T he Roman. ref.....,d '0 boll-.hooti ng mxhin.. as and 10 "one-Ih"",,"," .. NIlis"",,, Ho",ever, during lhe empire- ,he ......n'''i of l hese names ,,-as I"e"cned, so for daril y , he}' "ill be: n::r.....,d 1o .. boIl-.ltoooi:e.. and Slonl'-Ih"",~n. \·~l eliu, "")" 1"'" io hi. e ram " ... proIea.-d by hurdle1 and would h.a'·e been app.neche A'". '_
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l. A b.eao:h "'OS finally opened in lhe 11 and p np" }" ~ ........-d up inlO lhe gap j.... . . Aleunder had done .. T )TC , V..pasian Ol'is force" with two legions to ana ck the old town and two the ,emple . A ' 'he point whe re the mid d l~ town " 'all ioined th ctemplc, Ha oJ the G 'eat had ereded • for tr e," which he had name d Antoni. in honour of his bend adOt M ock Antony. At Ii "t th~ Roman, tried to construct earthworks in order to get the siege machines up to the 10\·cJ of thc for tress but the dd enders undcrmi ocd t hem . nd the}' coil.p'cd. T itus now surrou nded th e city wi, h a rampart aod pali,ade ; once he ha d secu red the whole circuit, he beg. n to re-erect th e earth wo, k> .g. in" the An_ toni. fonre," T he defcnders failed in an o"e mpt to fi rc tl>c earthwor ks and ' he batteri ng rams were brought to bear on the walls, T hat night the w.1I Came down ., . rem it of the C',m 'aot b.tte, ing and the net work of tunnels th.t the defenders had dri,'en under [he ir own fortific.[ions in an attempt to m lla p ,~ t h~ earth wor k> . !'o" ceing that ,hc wall might be breached the defenders had t. ken the norma l precaution of e..cting an inner O" e. For two days th ~ legion_ aries 'truggled in '·ain to take thi s wall which defied direct assault and the bringing to bear of rams, On the ' econd night a small party of k gionaric., induding trumpeters , ,e.led the walls ; thcy disposed of the sent ries and so\tnded lheir t",mpets, giving the signal for T itus to le.d.n attad on the w. 11. T hc defendcrs, believing thot the w.11 had already been taken , left their posts and retreated to th e temple, Mo, t
of the fortress was now desttoyed l.. howling a,,,,,nd the Roman ~ mpire' , Ihodetian and hi. ce..on to V. lem ini. n I ( 36.( - 78) embalked On ..n en",mo" , p"'gra mme of bui ldi~ and reeon" " .elion . [)iocl.. i..n envi••geoJ powerful fro nt ier a, mi", of now e.."a iTy " nil_, Ie8ion" ..nd i n~",a""d numbors "r dlu( and e"h,)\l' , all of which needed f"rtif,ed l>a",•. Con"an tine weakened Ih.,," ar mi.. in o,der w < mobile anny' , ~'po n .., Late_ Roman fortifiCll ti.nn i, emrh.:olicall~· defrn.i'·e. Thi. i. not a ,rui.m, Mauoe ,he fortified I"""" of 'M rll' ~mr,re often made lhei, (ilte"';,~ .. p;>Uit>k:. and built ,..all tha' "-ere rublic monumenU, 10 ad,-eni", tMi, J""ooperity. 11>< fort. "'ere aloo . i, ed ~eni,'rly, ' 0 ",,",roI lTJO\..,men" ..i .h .""~ .. thaI p«>jec<ed abo\-e IMir ramra"' for ot>oe...•..'ion. no( be~"1>f\d ,hem for enfilading ti~ . The anny of the early empire "a,ned to mtt. i.. oppono:-n.. in tbe ticld, in the I..te empire . hi, role ..... r......-ed fo. the C'al .... Ie·. haile)". J u ", U 'M f"",n... ",,,,,et}" en,~".w a defence in dep """" _ _ "~OO4
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duIlOmN dilchel.. lIoo,k d if pot.Oihk. M:1 runher from ,he ,,·all.., ... '" < bs" of • medr.'al .;nile. In , he H)'ZlIlnune period one find. dooubk "'alls- ,I>< 5th cenlury L.nd '«".lls ,hat made Con,ul1Iinopl< ,mJ>h:, ...blt fuf .., man,· "",,,urin ..... , he n-. fan-.. _ and even. bn:as,.....,..t; Ofl , I>< inne-. faa: of ,t>c di'ch. An n rly imt.l>CC <XU" a' It>c sic,c of A'ludcia in 361 , " 'here the derenders defu,ed .n alternp' '0 c-roo.s the duch by makin,:. ""ni~ undcT ""'...' of 'a ,uri fc lis·. La,.._Roman """USa l"", rt:qUiTro a idct bcTm for ..ability : 'My ......... no' , t>c "" 'elled .. mbankm ~l1Is of 'he early' empire, bu' ,hick cu rta in ...alls of conerere rubb le fac"Cd ",i ,h ma.onry', agaIn like a medieval ea" le, T h..r.. is a ",ide >'ari..,y of huildi!\~ ' idc da~ .hey P''' up, regretting they had noI follo,,'C • ,,-en
garrison , hut rallied il against
Aloma"n anod:: ; afl" • mon,h ,he Ger· mans P'"C up, 'mullen", ,hey "''CfC fool s 10 havc ,"""'&h. of ~ng a .",,-n'. The Danubian ..pilOl of Sir· mium " .... ""1)· " eakly defended in 374. when ,''' Quadi .nd Sarma.ian. o·..c rtan Pannonia, b.lI . ... guvrtnr ck3n:d 0'1' .he ditc.... and rcpooircd ,he ,,-.l is, and . he invadcn. ' ,,·110 had Iinlc skill in these refinements of "'artare' , tur ned aside. Valent; n;an's pri nci"",1upronen" the Alaman n I:i n~ ,\ I",'i. n . was par · ,jcu larJ;- for midable because 'hc would even atte m pt walied t"wn' . )'e1when Ju lian wa" pl'"inf1s f"r ' ''"0 month, in mid",i n, ... 3S7 'S, bcflC "a"'·a.ion f",,,,,d , hem 10 OIl1t'Cndct.) \l'hen J ulian arri"cd in Gaul , some 4 S G.lliiege tnb ni'l ue, praUi,ed in tbe mid-4th century, T he detailed narr.tive of Ammi. nus, an im'olunta ry participant , bffomes even more vivid when <me see, ,he b",;a1t waHs whi ~ h still su rro und modern Di}'arhakir. This dusky enceinte has been enlarged and
repaired ,i n~e 359, but the im pre~ nable east face, ' beneath which yawned roch so prec ipitous that one could nol 1m . dow n without vertigo·, suh " antially remains th e wOTk of Con'lant ius , In 359 , he Pers ian, WeT< alt em pt in~ a new " rategy, su~~ested by a Roman def",,_ 'or , of by!",ssing the frontier fortTo", of N isibis and advan cing up the T igris '0 de scend on Syria from 'he north-east. The Roma ns were decei'·ed ; but unfort unately for lhe Pers ian strategy_ an d for Am ida- a Roman gunner aimed his bull"'a at ~ elient king and killed his son who rode h,. his side . The Pers ian arm}' was bou nd by its code of honour to ",'enge his death_ at the c,)';t of 30,(lOO dead an d 74 day, delay, which sa,'ed Syria, Amida was strongly held, by ;t, regula. garr ison of the Fifth Par1 hi,~, four othe r fro ntier legions, and a pair of auxiha which had heen drafted from Gaul f()T , upporting the usu rper Magnen tiu•. T he latter played no real P' r! in the siege (Ammi.n us' description of them as ' legion,' i, a literary archai sm): the i, sort ie, were as destr uctive to them, d ve' as to the Persian" T he five legions, howe"er, fought tenaciou.ly and skilfully, and migh, have saved Amida but for bad luck At first the Pe,..ians tricd to ,torm lhe waUs with the help of elep han ts, ' hidwu, with their wrinkled bod ies., m",t gruc.o me ohigh" '. They began to raise siege mounds . nd iron-plated 'owers wilh a balli,w on top , T hen a Roman deserter betra}'cd an under· ground passage which led down to tbe Tigris from one of 'he towers on the ea" side. . recon "ruetcd from frAgment. fou nd at l'ewstead . SeOllan.I$
at .... Zr, ,, 1964. Arms a nd Arm ou r of the Gree ks T ha"''' a" d }{,,,lsan 1967. E. Konz e Bcnc ht Olle r di e A\lSgrallu ngen in Oi ymp ;a. Deu isches Archiiologische' /m t ;t m . P. Ro u ss el, M. Feycl Le ' l{e~l emenl Miliwi rc Trcuve 3 Amph ipoils . Reve"ue Arch i"lofl ;q~ , 193 4, 19.15. I' . W. Walb ank A Hi'toric" l Co mmemary on Polybiu s Oxfo rd U" h 'ersi'y P r"" 1957, 1967, 1 979, Ph iiip V of Ma ce don , Cam bridge r ~4 0
M. M. Markl e T h e Mace donia n Sanssa, Spea r and Rel ared Armor: Am erican .1ounl al of Archaeology ( 8/) 1977. V. Bianc o l'eroni Die Schwen er in Halicn (P,iih isrori, che Bronzer und e) M u"ich 19 70 , H . Henken Th e Ea rliest Euro pean Heimel s, Peabody Museum, Harvard U"h'ersi,y / 971. V. Ci anfarani I\n tic he Civiita d'Ahru zzo. De L~ w. R o me 1969.
H . H. S~ u llatd Th ~ Erruscan Cmes and Rom~. TI,,,.... ""J HwJs.>" . SCipIO Afncanus' Sold ,~r a nd Pliri~ian. Til".... ""d IIwd, o" 19 70 , Th~ EI~phall1 In me Gr«l< and Roma n 'X'orid TII,,_ , ...,d H w4u>" 19?4E. T . Sal m on Samnium an d Ih~ Samnites, C....h..,'l" 1967. Roman ColonlSl,ion und~r Th~ Republic. TIl...... .. "d f( ..dJo" 19 69. 1.". !khaa lT Friilat~n~ullhch~ GrabfunM mil Helmen vom Typ Berru. and Kellischc Ei.~nh~lm~ au s vorromlscher Zei!. J"h tio..eh <Us R o", ;scll (, ,,,,,,,,,i,, h,,s
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197.l, 1974
II. G. 1I0r n . C. H. KUKe r Die Nu mlde r, 1/11';" ;" 'h" L ,,,,d,,,,,,,,.,,,,,. /l,,,, ,, 19110,
H. Sa n d ",. \li eapons of thl· Ibe rians, A rch .. , ol"iia (~ 4) /913 A. Sc hu l ln Num a ntta , M""ieh /914 -11, J. Krom a ye t a n d G . Veil h Schlachten-atlas zur an nken Krie g. gesch ichlC. Go,/r.. / 911. T. Fu n k P1ac~nria and rhe Bank of lh~ Trebbia, ]o>......t of R.-." SluJ~ / 91 9_ J. Harm an d L.·armt'e el Ie Soldar i Rome de 107 i alt, 19 7&. CII"p'''' j ....d 6 trill.
,
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1llc Roma n Soldier TI", ..e... IId H w ~ 1% 9. II. D..\1.. Parker The Roman Legrens. Orford 19111, G. L Ch« s m a .. The Aultilia of the Roman Imperial Army. Oxforo /9 14. H. ku.~11 Ko bi "'''n The Armou r or ImpcTlal Rome. A ...." .." d A..."o,,, /"Tt .. 1975.
.\t. I. Roston~~ lT The excavarion al Dura Eurnpa. 6,10 .... 'M. 1916.
J. Olde n s le in Zur Ausrii.ru ng rnmischcr Aulliliareinhei ltn . B~riell, d" R~ ..i.d-G"...".."iscll." K.>....i..w" ( 5 7) 19 76. H,
Klu mba ~h
Sp:uromische (ia rdh d me .\I"..icll 19 73. J. S. Morri so a a n d R. T. William. Gr«i:. oared Shl!'" 900-3U ':' C....hridt< 19611. L ea.son Ships and Seama nship in the An~iem 'X·orld./'n"ee'_" 1971. H. Fro.. The Puni c 'X'reck in Sicily. l",~ ,i,,~ 1J"" ,,,,,I of S a" ,ie..1 A " Il oI"IY I'"r ] "". I .."d 1'01. 3
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" " . I. G. ll~dli I.e N.v! o" . G'ee, 162 26 3 . Rom, n :172 " o" , "";c'" 69
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p>lh 20. 21. 2l AO" Q""" 67. 8 1 8 3 Ao ,;och u' III 68 . 8 1· 2. 200 Ao ,o oy. 21 1 Apo""" ;', "ogo 0' In Aw , n 144 ADU';' 105. 'eOOOo " "t 01 I 96 ot 301 , 30 3 .q,,">sp'df,,. "'" ; ,1"., ,Mid' Ar;m;"um I ~;m; " ;j 146 A" "'de' 26. 19. 32 Ar;"tOdem " ,1 4 An""",, 110. 111 a'milla. 24 5 146 An ',o 70 . now !lead' C'eto o 50 G,",,' SO Scyth,," 60 Arta',.,u' 36 Anem" lum. b""o at 18-10, 20 . 24 A,". p,,,,,,,,u, 7, _6
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