Electrochemical Dictionary

Electrochemical Dictionary

Allen J. Bard · György Inzelt · Fritz Scholz (Eds.)

Electrochemical Dictionary With  Figures and  Tables

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Prof. Dr. Allen J. Bard Hackerman/Welch Regents Chair Director, Center of Electrochemistry University of Texas at Austin Chemistry and Biochemistry  University Station A  Austin, TX, USA [email protected] Prof. Dr. György Inzelt Eötvös Loránd University Department of Physical Chemistry  Budapest, Pázmány Péter sétány /A, Hungary [email protected] Prof. Dr. Fritz Scholz University Greifswald Institute of Biochemistry Felix-Hausdorff-Straße   Greifswald, Germany [email protected]

ISBN ----

e-ISBN ----

DOI ./---- Library of Congress Control Number:  ©  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September , , in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Coverdesign: WMX Design GmbH, Heidelberg Production: le-tex publishing services oHG, Leipzig Printed on acid-free paper  springer.com

Preface Science needs language, not only for communication among people, but we all need language for thinking, for constructing models, for forming our ideas. Clear-cut terms that are accepted and understood by the scientific community are the basis of scientific language. The goal of this “Electrochemical Dictionary” is to provide a reference manual where the reader of electrochemical literature can quickly find short explanations of scientific terms. Fundamental definitions are very important, especially the recommendations of IUPAC, which were a primary source, where available. In many cases intensive discussion among the editors and expert authors resulted in the definitions that can be found in this book. It is our hope that the definitions of terms proposed herein will be accepted and used in the future by the scientific community. This dictionary includes not only the most frequently used terms, but also some that may be obsolete and even those whose use is discouraged. We intend the dictionary to be encyclopedic in coverage of terms, but relatively brief and clear in the individual entries. The goal to be encyclopedic in covering “all” terms is impossible to fulfill, partly because science is quickly developing with new terms arising almost daily, partly because it is practically impossible not to forget some. We hope that upcoming editions will close these gaps. The editors have decided to also include brief biographic entries of people who have contributed to the development of electrochemistry and have since passed away. Several of them were not electrochemists, and their contributions were mainly in the fields of physics, chemistry, and biology, but are also important in electrochemical research. Similarly, we include some entries about key techniques or materials that might be important in electrochemistry, although not directly in this field. The authors and editors will be pleased if the “Electrochemical Dictionary” stands on the shelf of all those who read electrochemical papers and books, and if these readers will find it useful as a quick and reliable information source. Almost all entries are carefully referenced to enable the user to quickly locate the best primary sources. Of course, the authors and editors would appreciate any comments and suggestions for improvement. We would like to thank Dr. Heike Kahlert and Dr. Birgit Meyer for their meticulous checking of literature references and the cross-referencing among the entries of the dictionary. We are equally thankful to Peter W. Enders (Springer, Heidelberg) for his continuous support and patience. Allen J. Bard, György Inzelt, and Fritz Scholz Austin, Budapest, and Greifswald March 

List of Contributors Prof. Dr. Luisa M. Abrantes Departamento de Química e Bioquímica FCUL Campo Grande - Lisboa Portugal [email protected] Nir Amir Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel niramir@yahoo.com Prof. Dr. Koichi Aoki Fukui University Department of Applied Physics -, Bunkyo -chome Fukui-shi  Japan d@icpc.icpc.fukui-u.ac.jp Prof. Dr. Doron Aurbach Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected] Dr. Maximiliano Bárcena Soto Departamento de Química CUCEI Universidad de Guadalajara  Guadalajara, Jalisco Mexiko [email protected] Prof. Dr. Allen J. Bard Hackerman/Welch Regents Chair Director, Center of Electrochemistry University of Texas at Austin Chemistry and Biochemistry  University Station A Austin, TX  USA [email protected]

LMA Dr. Friedrich G. K. Baucke Kaiserstr.  ()  Mainz Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr. Johan Bobacka Åbo Akademi University NA Process Chemistry Centre Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry Biskopsgatan  , Åbo-Turku Finland johan.bobacka@abo.fi KA Prof. Dr. Alan M. Bond Monash University Department of Chemistry Clayton VIC  Australia [email protected]

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AMB

PD Dr. Andreas Bund AB DA Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie Technische Universität Dresden  Dresden Germany [email protected] Dr. Orit Chasid MBS Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

AJB

Dr. Jorge Correia Departamento de Química e Bioquímica Faculdade de Ciências Universidade de Lisboa Bloco C, Campo Grande - Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

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Dr. Rudolf Dölling Bank Elektronik — Intelligent Controls GmbH Giessener Str.   Pohlheim Germany [email protected] Dr. habil. Mikołaj Donten University of Warsaw Department of Chemistry Pasteura  - Warsaw Poland [email protected] Dr. Lourdes E. Echegoyen Clemson University Chemistry Department  Hunter Laboratories Clemson, SC - USA [email protected] Prof. Dr. Luis Echegoyen Clemson University Chemistry Department  Hunter Laboratories Clemson, SC - USA [email protected] Hila Eshel Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected] Prof. Dr. Stephen W. Feldberg Brookhaven National Laboratory Chemistry Department P.O. Box  Upton, NY - USA [email protected]

RD Dr. Adrian Fisher Centre for Research in Electrochemical Science Technology Department of Chemical Engineering New Museums Site Pembroke Street Cambridge MD CB RA UK acf@cam.ac.uk

AF

Prof. Dr. Stephen Fletcher Department of Chemistry Loughborough University Ashby Road LEE Loughborough Leicestershire LE TU UK stephen.fl[email protected]

SF

Dr. Fernando Garay INFIQC, Departamento de Fisico Quimica Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas LE Universidad Nacional de Cordoba Cordoba Argentina [email protected]

FG

Prof. Dr. David Gavaghan Oxford University Computing Laboratory Wolfson Building HE Parks Road Oxford OX QD UK [email protected]

DG

Dr. Kathryn Gillow Oxford University Computing Laboratory Wolfson Building Parks Road Oxford OX QD UK [email protected]

KG

Prof. Dr. Peter Gründler Hallwachsstrasse   Dresden Germany [email protected]

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List of Contributors

Dr. Yosef Gofer Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel goff[email protected] Dr. Rubin Gulaboski Universität des Saarlandes Institut für Biophysik Medizinische Fakultät  Homburg Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr. Ulrich Guth Kurt-Schwabe-Institut für Mess- und Sensortechnik e.V. Meinsberg Kurt-Schwabe-Straße   Ziegra-Knobelsdorf Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr. Andrew Hamnett Principal’s Office University of Strathclyde GLASGOW G XQ UK [email protected] Prof. Dr. Jürgen Heinze Universität Freiburg Institut für Physikalische Chemie Albertstr.  a  Freiburg i. Br. Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr. Maria Hepel Chemistry Department SUNY Potsdam Potsdam, NY  USA [email protected] Dr. Michael Hermes Universität Greifswald Institut für Biochemie Felix-Hausdorff-Str.   Greifswald Germany [email protected]

YG Dr. Michael Heyrovský Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republik J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry Dolejškova    Praha Czech Republic [email protected] RG Prof. Dr. Rudolf Holze TU Chemnitz Institut für Chemie, AG Elektrochemie  Chemnitz Germany [email protected] UG Prof. Dr. György Horányi (†) Institute of Chemistry Chemical Research Center Hungarian Academy of Sciences  Budapest P.O. Box  Hungary [email protected] AH Prof. Dr. Ivo A. Hümmelgen Group of Organic Optoelectronic Devices Departamento de Física Universidade Federal do Paraná Caixa Postal  - Curitiba PR JH Brazil iah@fisica.ufpr.br Prof. Dr. György Inzelt Department of Physical Chemistry Eötvös Loránd University  Budapest Pázmány Péter sétány /A MHep Hungary [email protected] Dr. Heike Kahlert Universität Greifswald Institut für Biochemie Felix-Hausdorff-Str.  MHer  Greifswald Germany [email protected]

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Prof. Dr. Takashi Kakiuchi TK Department of Energy and Hydrocarbon Chemistry Graduate School of Engineering Kyoto University Kyoto, - Japan [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Alexander M. Kuznetsov A. N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry Leninskii prospect , building  Moscow Russia [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Evgeny Katz EK Milton Kerker Chair of Colloid Science Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science Clarkson University, Box   Clarkson Avenue Potsdam, NY - USA [email protected]

Doc. Dr. Carita Kvarnström Åbo Akademi University Process Chemistry Centre Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry Biskopsgatan   Åbo-Turku Finland ckvarnst@abo.fi

Dr. Vladislav V. Kharton Department of Ceramics and Glass Engineering University of Aveiro - Aveiro Portugal [email protected]

VK

Maxim Koltypin Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

MK

Dr. Šebojka Komorsky-Lovrić Ruđer Bošković Institute POB   Zagreb Croatia [email protected]

ŠKL

Prof. Dr. Paweł J. Kulesza University of Warsaw Department of Chemistry Pasteura  - Warsaw Poland [email protected] Prof. Dr. Włodzimierz Kutner Institute of Physical Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences Kasprzaka / - Warsaw Poland [email protected]

PK

WK

Prof. Dr. Gyözö G. Láng Eötvös Loránd University Institute of Chemistry Department of Physical Chemistry  Budapest, Pázmány P. s. /A Hungary [email protected]

AMK

CK

GGL

Liraz Larosh Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel ch@mail.biu.ac.il

LL

Prof. Dr. Elena Levi Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

EL

Prof. Dr. Michael Levi Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

ML

Naomi Levi Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel ch@mail.biu.ac.il

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List of Contributors

Dr. Adam Lewera University of Warsaw Department of Chemistry Pasteura  - Warsaw Poland [email protected] PD Dr. Manuel M. Lohrengel Institut für Physikalische Chemie Arbeitsgruppe Mikroelektrochemie Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf Universitätsstr. , Geb. ...  Düsseldorf Germany [email protected] Dr. Milivoj Lovrić Ruđer Bošković Institute POB   Zagreb Croatia [email protected] Prof. Dr. Jiří Ludvík J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry Dolejškova    Prague  Czech Republic [email protected] Dr. Frank Marken Department of Chemistry University of Bath Bath BA AY UK [email protected] Dr. Elena Markevich Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected] Dr. Boris Markovsky Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

AL

Dr. Sinéad Matthews Centre for Research in Electrochemical Science and Technology (CREST) Department of Chemical Engineering University of Cambridge New Museums Site Pembroke Street Cambridge MML CB RA UK acf@cam.ac.uk

MLo

JL

Dr. Birgit Meyer Schillerstr. B  Senzig Germany [email protected]

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Prof. Dr. Alexander A. Milchev AM Rostislaw Kaischew Institute of Physical Chemistry Bulgarian Academy of Science Acad. G. Bonchev Str., bl.   Sofia Bulgaria [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Valentin Mirčeski Sts. Cyril and Methodius University Arhimedova  PO Box   Skopje FM Republic of Macedonia [email protected]

VM

Prof. Dr. Roger J. Mortimer Department of Chemistry Loughborough University Loughborough EM Leicestershire LE TU UK [email protected]

RJM

Prof. Dr. Royce W. Murray RWM The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Department of Chemistry BMa Chapel Hill NC - USA [email protected]

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Dr. Jan Myland Chemistry Department Trent University Peterborough, Ontario, KJ B Canada [email protected] Prof. Dr. Keith B. Oldham Chemistry Department Trent University Peterborough, Ontario, KJ B Canada [email protected]

JM

Prof. Dr. Oleg A. Petrii Moscow State University Chemical Faculty Department of Electrochemistry Leninskie Gory, V- Moscow GSP-,  Russia KBO [email protected]

OP

Elad Pollak Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

EP

Dr. Genady Ragoisha Physico-Chemical Research Institute Belarusian State University  Minsk Belarus [email protected]

GR

Dr. Gregory Salitra Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected]

GS

Prof. Dr. Marcin Opałło MO Department of Electrode Processes (Department VII) Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences Kasprzaka / - Warsaw Poland [email protected] Prof. Dr. Toshiyuki Osakai Kobe University Nada Department of Chemistry Graduate School of Science Kobe - Japan [email protected]

TO

Dr. Tamás Pajkossy Research Laboratory of Materials and Environmental Chemistry Chemical Research Center Hungarian Academy of Sciences Pusztaszeri út -  Budapest Hungary [email protected]

TP

Prof. Dr. Ron Pethig University of Wales, Bangor School of Informatics Dean Street Bangor Gwynedd, LL UT UK [email protected]

RP

Prof. Dr. Zdenek Samec J. Heyrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry Dolejškova    Prague  Czech Republic [email protected]

ZSam

Prof. Dr. Frieder Scheller FSche Universität Potsdam Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät Institut für Biochemie und Biologie Karl-Liebknecht-Str. –, Haus   Golm Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Schmickler Department of Theoretical Chemistry University of Ulm  Ulm Germany [email protected]

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List of Contributors

Prof. Dr. Fritz Scholz Universität Greifswald Institut für Biochemie Felix-Hausdorff-Str.   Greifswald Germany [email protected] Dr. Uwe Schröder Universität Greifswald Institut für Biochemie Felix-Hausdorff-Str.   Greifswald Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Schuhmann Ruhr-Universität Bochum Universitätsstr. , Gebäude NC /  Bochum Germany [email protected] Dr. Abraham Soffer Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel soff[email protected] Prof. Dr. Zbigniew Stojek University of Warsaw Department of Chemistry Pasteura  - Warsaw Poland [email protected] Prof. Dr. Hans-Henning Strehblow Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf Universitätsstr.   Düsseldorf Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie  Germany [email protected] Prof. Dennis E. Tallman North Dakota State University Department of Chemistry Fargo, ND - USA [email protected]

FS Yossi Talyossef Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected] Prof. Dr. Xin-Cun Tang US Central South University College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering Changsha Hunan,  China tangxincun@.com Prof. Dr. Galina Tsirlina Moscow State University WSchu Chemical Faculty Department of Electrochemistry Leninskie Gory, V- Moscow GSP-,  Russia [email protected] AS Prof. Constantinos G. Vayenas Department of Chemical Engineering Caratheodory , St. University of Patras , Patras Greece [email protected] ZS Prof. Dr. Alexander G. Volkov Department of Chemistry Oakwood University  Adventist Blvd. Huntsville, AL  USA [email protected] HHS Prof. Dr. Mikhail A. Vorotyntsev Université de Bourgogne ICMUB-UMR  Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Bâtiment Mirande  avenue A. Sarary BP   Dijon Cedex DT France [email protected]

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Prof. Dr. Joseph Wang JW Department of Chemical & Materials Engineering Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering Arizona State University P. O. Box  Tempe, AZ - USA [email protected] Prof. Dr. Ulla Wollenberger Universität Potsdam Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät Institut für Biochemie und Biologie Karl-Liebknecht-Str. –, Haus   Golm Germany [email protected] Dr. B. Yosypchuk Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republik J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry Dolejškova    Praha Czech Republic [email protected]

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BY

Dr. Ella Zinigrad Bar-Ilan University Department of Chemistry  Ramat-Gan Israel [email protected] Prof. Dr. Cynthia G. Zoski Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry P.O. Box , MSC C  North Horseshoe Drive New Mexico State University Las Cruces, New Mexico - USA [email protected] Prof. Dr. Petr Zuman Clarkson University  Science Center Clarkson University PO Box  Potsdam NY - USA [email protected]

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CGZ

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Accumulation region

A

form) [ii]. DC and AC current components including fundamentals and higher order harmonics can be measured as a function of potential and/or frequency often invoking Fourier transform techniques. See also  AC polarography,  Fourier transform voltammetry.

Absolute potential  potential, and subentry  absolute

Refs.: [i] Smith DE () AC polarography and related techniques: The-

potential

ory and practice. In: Bard AJ (ed) Electroanalytical chemistry, vol. .

Absorbed electrolyte battery  sealed battery

Marcel Dekker, New York; [ii] Bond AM, Duffy NW, Guo S, Zhang J, Elton D () Anal Chem :A AMB

Abrasive stripping voltammetry — Technique where

traces of solid particles are abrasively transferred onto the surface of an  electrode, followed by an electrochemical dissolution (anodic or cathodic dissolution) that is recorded as a current–voltage curve [i]. It allows qualitative and quantitative analysis of metals, alloys, minerals, etc. The technique is a variant of  voltammetry of immobilized particles [ii].

Acceptor number (or acceptivity), AN — is an empiri-

cal quantity for characterizing the electrophilic properties ( Lewis acid–base theory) of a solvent A that expresses the solvent ability to accepting an electron pair of a donor atom from a solute molecule. AN is defined as the limiting value of the NMR shift, δ, of the  P atom in triethylphosphine oxide, Et P=O, at infinite dilution Refs.: [i] Scholz F, Nitschke L, Henrion G () Naturwiss :; in the solvent, relative to n-hexane, corrected for the dia[ii] Scholz F, Schröder U, Gulaboski R () Electrochemistry of im- magnetic susceptibility of the solvent, and normalized:  

mobilized particles and droplets. Springer, Berlin FS

AC  alternating current AC (alternating current) techniques — Electrochemi-

δ

δ

– O −A Et P=O  Et P−O + A  Et P .... δcorr (A) − δcorr (n-C H )   δcorr (Et PO−SbCl ) − δcorr (n-C H ) = Δδcorr  .ppm .

AN =

cal experiments (usually  potentiostatic ones) where the applied constant or linearly changed potential is superimposed by an alternating (sinusoidal) potential signal of small magnitude. As a response to this perturbation, intensity and a phase shift of the resulting alternating current at a steady state is followed and analyzed as a function of potential and applied frequency ( AC polarography,  AC voltammetry, measurements and interpretation of  faradaic impedance and  electrochemical impedance spectroscopy).

In a secondary measure, tributyl phosphate, Bu PO , is  used as the probe: AN = .δcorr P(Bu PO ) + .. The coefficient arises from arbitrary assignment of the value of AN =  to the interaction of Et P=O with antimony pentachloride (SbCl ) dissolved in ,-dichloroethane. AN includes a nonspecific polarity effect and, therefore, it does not vanish for aprotic, and nonprotogenic, solvents, i.e., AN <  for apolar and  < AN <  for dipolar aprotic solvents. However, AN values for protic solvents are much higher, i.e.,  < AN < . AN is linRef.: [i] Bard AJ, Faulkner LR () Electrochemical methods, nd edn. early correlated, among others, to the polarity parameter Wiley, New York, chap , pp  ET () for  solvents, AN = −.+.ET () and to JL the  donor number (DN), AN = . log ε−.DN − .. ACP — Acronym for alternating current polarography. Refs.: [i] Mayer U, Gutmann V, Gerger W () Monatsh Chem  polarography, and subentry  AC polarography. :; [ii] Schmid R () J Solution Chem :; [iii] Symons MCR, AC polarography  polarography, and subentry  AC

Pena-Nuñez AS () J Chem Soc Faraday Trans , :; [iv] Marcus Y () Chem Soc Rev :

polarography. AC voltammetry — Historically the analysis of the current response to a small amplitude sinusoidal voltage perturbation superimposed on a DC (ramp or constant) potential [i]. Recent applications invoke large amplitude perturbation (sinusoidal, square wave or arbitrary wave

WK

Accumulation potential  potential, subentry  accu-

mulation potential Accumulation region — An accumulation region is any

part of a  semiconductor device that has an increased

1

●A

2

A ●

Accumulator

concentration of majority carriers due to the presence of an electric field, so that it becomes nearly metallic in its  conductivity. The electric field may arise from an externally applied bias, the presence of a nearby interface composed of a differently doped semiconductor material (as in a p–n junction), or the presence of a nearby interface composed of a metal (as in a  Schottky barrier). Because an accumulation region contains majority carriers (which are mobile) it tends to be very thin (