Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States: Hydrology, Ecology, and Management

Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States Hydrology, Ecology, and Management Riparian Areas of the Southwester...

Author: Malchus B. Baker | Peter F. Ffolliott | Leonard F. DeBano | Daniel G. Neary

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Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States Hydrology, Ecology, and Management

Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States Hydrology, Ecology, and Management Edited by

Malchus B. Baker, Jr. Peter F. Ffolliott Leonard F. DeBano Daniel G. Neary

LEWIS PUBLISHERS A CRC Press Company Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Malchus B. Baker, Jr. … [et al.]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-56670-626-2 (alk. paper) 1. Riparian ecology--Southwestern States. 2. Ecosystem management--Southwestern States. I. Baker, Malchus B., Jr. QH104.5.S6R57 2003 577.68—dc21 2003047548

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 1-56670626-2/03/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2004 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-626-2 Library of Congress Card Number 2003047548 ISBN 0-203-49775-9

Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-59152-6 (Adobe eReader Format) Copyright protection does not apply to contributions by Malchus B. Baker, Jr., Thomas C. Brown, Warren P. Clary, William H. Kruse, Jonathan Long, Alvin L. Medina, Daniel G. Neary, John N. Rinne, Larry J. Schmidt, Michael L. Scott, Patrick B. Shafroth and James Steed, which were completed while they were employees of the U.S. Government. Cover: Upper Verde River. Photo by Alvin L. Medina, USDA Forest Service. Back cover: Parker Dam on the Colorado River. Photo by Patrick B. Shafroth, U.S. Geological Survey.

Dedication

Malchus B. Baker, Jr.

This book is dedicated to Malchus B. Baker Jr., who died suddenly on September 24, 2002. The contributions that Malchus made to enhancing knowledge of the hydrology, ecology and management of riparian areas in the Southwest will be long remembered. Those of us who worked with him over the years have countless memories — good times and rough times, too. Besides his invaluable professional contributions, we fondly remember Malchus’ quick smile, dry humor, gentle easy-going ways and complete devotion to his family and friends. Malchus is appropriately recognized as the senior technical editor of this book to ensure that this remembrance continues. This is truly the right thing to do.

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United States with the southwestern region highlighted.

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Editors Peter F. Ffolliott, Ph.D. is a professor on the faculties of the School of Renewable Natural Resources and Arid Lands Resource Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona. He holds a B.S. in forest management and an M.F. in forest-wildlife management from the University of Minnesota, and a Ph.D. in watershed management from the University of Arizona. Prior to coming to the University of Arizona in 1970, he was a Research Forester with the USDA Forest Service in Flagstaff, Arizona. Dr. Ffolliott currently teaches and conducts research programs in support of watershed and other natural resources management. He is a Fellow of the Society of American Foresters, the Indian Association of Hydrologists and the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science and a member of other professional and honorary societies. Dr. Ffolliott has authored, co-authored, or jointly authored 450 publications on the ecology, management and appraisal of natural resources programs and related supporting topics. Leonard F. DeBano, Ph.D. is a professor of Watershed Management in the School of Renewable Natural Resources at the University of Arizona, Tucson. Dr. DeBano received a B.S. in Range Management at Colorado State University, an M.S. in Range Management at Utah State University and a Ph.D. in Soil Physics from the University of California, Berkeley. He was with the USDA Forest Service for 35 years, working as a scientist and a project leader in watershed management for the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station at Glendora, California and at the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station in Tempe, Arizona. A major focus of his personal research was quantifying the effect of fire on physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. He is an internationally recognized authority on water repellency in soils and its relationship to fire. As project leader, he led a research team studying watershed problems in the southwestern United States, including the impact of brush and forest manipulations on runoff, erosion and stream channel processes. He has actively participated in research on Southwest riparian areas, focusing on the relationship between them and the management of the surrounding watersheds. Daniel G. Neary, Ph.D. is Project Leader and Research Soil Scientist, Watershed and Riparian Ecosystems Project, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Flagstaff, Arizona. Dr. Neary has B.S. (Forestry), M.S. (Forest Ecology) and Ph.D. (Forest Soils and Hydrology) degrees from Michigan State University. He is a certified Professional Soil Scientist through ARCPACS (American Registry of Certified Professional Agronomists, Crop Scientists and Soil Scientists) and the current Chair of the ARCPACS Soils Certification Board. He is a registered Emergency Medical Technician (Arizona and National) and has worked on fire incident teams as a Medical Unit Leader and EMT. He worked for the New Zealand Forest Service, Forest Research Institute at Rotorua, New Zealand, from 1974 to 1978 and, since then, has been with the USDA Forest Service Research in North Carolina (1978 to 1981),

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CHAPTER

1

Introduction Peter F. Ffolliott, Malchus B. Baker, Jr., Leonard F. DeBano and Daniel G. Neary

CONTENTS 1.1 Hydrologic Relationships.................................................................................2 1.2 Ecological Relationships..................................................................................3 1.3 Resource Use....................................................................................................4 1.4 Changing Emphasis of Riparian Management................................................6 1.5 Summary ..........................................................................................................7 References..................................................................................................................8

Riparian areas, situated in the interfaces between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, are located along the banks of rivers and perennial, intermittent and ephemeral streams and around the edges of lakes, ponds, springs, bogs and meadows. Riparian corridors are largely delineated by soil characteristics and by vegetative communities that require free or unbound water. The abruptness and extent of transitions between the terrestrial and aquatic interfaces that delineate the riparian areas are generally site specific. Transitions across terrestrial, riparian and aquatic ecosystems in the southwestern United States tend to be more abrupt than those in the more humid eastern United States (Figure 1.1). Riparian areas occupy less than 2% of the total land area in the Southwest. However, these ecosystems are often the most productive and valuable of all of these lands. They are found in a wide range of climatic, hydrologic and ecological environments, from high-elevation montane forests through intermediate-elevation woodlands to low-elevation shrublands and desert grasslands (see Plate 1 in color insert following page 174). Major river drainages and tributaries supporting riparian ecosystems include the lower Colorado River from Lee’s Ferry in northern Arizona

1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

1

2

Figure 1.1

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Transition profiles across terrestrial, riparian and aquatic ecosystems in (A) the southwestern United States (adapted from Johnson, R.R. and Lowe, C.H., On the development of riparian ecology, in Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conflicting Uses, Tech. Coords. Johnson, R.R. et al., USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins CO, 1985) and (B) the eastern United States (adapted from Clark, J.R. and Benforado, J., Introduction, in Wetlands of Bottom Hardwood Forests, Clark J.R. and Benforado, J., Eds., Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1981.)

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3

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INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2

5

Riparian trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants provide streambank stability. Headwaters of the Black River, Salt-Verde River Basin, Arizona. Photo by Malchus B. Baker, Jr., USDA Forest Service.

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INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3

7

In an attempt to provide more water for downstream users, land managers replaced salt cedar and other riparian vegetation with high transpiration rates with vegetative types that transpire less water. Photo: Peter F. Ffolliott, University of Arizona.

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9

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CHAPTER

2

Definitions and Classifications Leonard F. DeBano and Larry J. Schmidt

CONTENTS 2.1

Definitions ......................................................................................................12 2.1.1 Riparian ..............................................................................................12 2.1.1.1 Physical and Biological Criteria.........................................12 2.1.1.2 Administrative Definitions..................................................12 2.1.1.3 Other Definitions ................................................................13 2.1.2 Wetlands .............................................................................................14 2.2 Classifications.................................................................................................15 2.2.1 General Approaches ...........................................................................15 2.2.2 Information Needs and Analyses.......................................................16 2.2.3 Southwestern Riparian Ecosystems ...................................................16 2.2.4 Southwest Wetlands ...........................................................................18 2.2.4.1 Mountain Meadows and Montane Wetlands......................19 2.2.4.2 Coastline Wetlands..............................................................19 2.2.4.3 Marshlands..........................................................................20 2.2.4.4 Ciénegas ..............................................................................21 2.2.4.5 Constructed Wetlands .........................................................21 2.3 Summary ........................................................................................................21 References................................................................................................................23 Riparian and wetland ecosystems have been defined and classified in numerous ways over the past four decades. This chapter presents a general framework of terminology, provides examples that illustrate the evolution of terminology and summarizes various classification systems used by different disciplines or objectives. Wetlands are included because of their historical importance and their present-day status as part of the Southwest’s endangered ecosystems. 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

11

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Riparian

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DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

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Flow (1,000 ft3/s) Figure 14.3

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acceptable

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307

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marginal

3

Challenge is not important Low to intermediate skill

2

unacceptable

1 0

50

100

150

200

250

Flow (ft3 /s) Figure 14.4

Flow evaluation curves for two types of hikers, the Narrows, Zion National Park (Shelby, B., Whittaker, D. and Hansen, W.R., Streamflow effects on hiking in Zion National Park, Utah, Rivers, 6 (2), 1997. Reprinted with permission from S.E.L. and Associates.)

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Table 14.1

Flow Regime Necessary To Support Designated Recreational Resources in the Rio Chama in Northern New Mexico

Resource Fish habitat (brown trout)

Macroinvertebrates Scenic/aesthetic Whitewater boating Scenic boating Fishing Riparian (maintenance flow) Riparian (regeneration flow) Bald eagles

311

Flow Magnitude and Timing 3

150–700 ft /s, October 15 to March 31 (400 ft3/s optimum) 150–300 ft3/s, April 1 to August 31 (200 ft3/s optimum) 75–300 ft3/s, September 1 to October 14 (200 ft3/s optimum) 185 ft3/s minimum 40 ft3/s minimum 800–1,000 ft3/s 500–600 ft3/s 150–300 ft3/s 185 ft3/s, April 1 to September 30 5,000 ft3/s at least one day every 5–10 years, between May 15 and June 15 150–250 ft3/s, December 1 to March 1

Source: Fogg, J.L., Hanson, B.L., Mottl, H.T., Muller, D.P., Eaton, R.C. and Swanson, S., Rio Chama Instream Flow Assessment, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Denver, 1992.

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Alternative flow regimes for the Rio Chama emphasizing resource protection and recreation opportunities (from Fogg, J.L., Hanson, B.L., Mottl, H.T., Muller, D.P., Eaton, R.C. and Swanson, S., Rio Chama Instream Flow Assessment, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Denver, 1992).

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CHAPTER

15

Riparian Ecosystem Assessments Juliet Stromberg, Mark Briggs, Mike Scott and Patrick Shafroth

CONTENTS 15.1 Physical Indicators and Functions ...............................................................316 15.1.1 Physical Indicators of Biotic Changes ............................................316 15.1.2 Physical Functions ...........................................................................318 15.2 Biotic Maintenance and Biotic Indicators ...................................................318 15.2.1 Plant Species Diversity ....................................................................318 15.2.2 Plant Species Composition ..............................................................319 15.2.3 Vegetation Dynamics .......................................................................320 15.2.4 Plant Productivity and Trophic Support ..........................................320 15.2.5 Vegetation Biomass Structure and Wildlife Habitat........................321 15.2.6 Animal Species Composition...........................................................321 15.3 Landscape Factors........................................................................................322 15.4 Land- and Water-Use Indicators ..................................................................322 15.5 Functional Assessments ...............................................................................323 15.6 Particular Stressors.......................................................................................324 15.7 Self Sustainability ........................................................................................325 15.8 Caveats .........................................................................................................325 15.8.1 Temporal and Spatial Variability .....................................................325 15.8.2 Testing and Validation......................................................................326 References..............................................................................................................327

Effective management of riparian ecosystems hinges on knowing the purpose of management and developing assessments that quantify the extent to which desired ecological functions and conditions are maintained or restored. Our objectives in this chapter are to review methods used to assess the condition and functional capacity of riparian ecosystems in the southwestern United States and other arid 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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15.1 PHYSICAL INDICATORS AND FUNCTIONS 15.1.1

Physical Indicators of Biotic Changes

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RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENTS

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Fauna Secondary productivity, abundance Trophic complexity Species diversity Species/guild composition • Indicator species • Sensitive & rare species

Herbivory, Pollination, Seed dispersal

Water uptake, Slowing of floodwaters, Capture of pollutants

Provision of water, Nutrient transport, Seed dispersal, Physical disturbance

Hydrology Groundwater depth Surface water permanence Flood timing, magnitude, frequency Water quality

Figure 15.1

Secondary production, Cover/habitat provision, Microclimate moderation

Riparian Vegetation Biomass, productivity Structural complexity Species diversity Species composition Population age structure, reproduction Physiologic stress, vigor Resilience

OM production, nutrient inputs, Sediment capture

Formation of recruitment surfaces

Nutrients cycling Moisture retention

Floodplain Soils Texture Organic matter content Nutrient content Salinity, conductivity Moisture Microbial communities Mycorrhizal associates

Bank stabilization, Sediment trapping

Geomorphology Sediment texture Floodplain morphology Channel morphology

Functional relationships between key abiotic and biotic components of riparian ecosystems. Elements listed within boxes are variables that can be measured as indicators of functional change.

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CHAPTER

16

Restoration of Riparian Ecosystems Jonathan W. Long, Alvin L. Medina and James E. Steed

CONTENTS 16.1 Introduction and Setting...............................................................................334 16.1.1 History of Restoration Efforts .........................................................334 16.1.2 Shared History of Desert and Mountain Systems...........................334 16.1.3 Action, Reaction and Synthesis .......................................................335 16.1.4 Current Challenges of Restoration ..................................................336 16.1.5 Landscape Setting ............................................................................336 16.2 Conceptual Foundations for Restoration .....................................................337 16.2.1 Factors Controlling Riparian Development.....................................337 16.2.2 Establishing Reference Conditions..................................................339 16.3 Evaluating Condition and Restoration Capability.......................................340 16.3.1 Watershed-Level Factors..................................................................340 16.3.2 Site-Level Factors ............................................................................340 16.4 Restoring Functional Processes ...................................................................341 16.4.1 Passive and Active Restoration........................................................341 16.4.2 Managing Vegetative Processes at the Site Level ...........................342 16.4.2.1 Adding Vegetation ............................................................342 16.4.2.2 Removing Vegetation........................................................342 16.4.2.3 Managing Biotic Conditions with Disturbance................343 16.4.3 Managing Abiotic Processes at the Site Level ................................345 16.4.3.1 Using Riffle Formations To Restore Function in Degraded Wet Meadows...............................................344 16.4.4 Managing Processes at the Watershed Level...................................346 16.5 Addressing Community Concerns ...............................................................347 16.5.1 Perspectives on Recovery ................................................................348 16.5.2 Communicating with the Community .............................................348

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Figure 16.1

Hierarchical framework for evaluating riparian wetlands, showing major elements that influence their condition along gradients representing the scale of change and the relative degree of biotic influence. Long, J.W., Evaluating recovery of riparian wetlands on the White Mountain Apache Reservation, Ph.D. dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 2002.

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Figure 16.2

341

Reach on the Centerfire Creek, where thickets of alder promote a wide channel due to formation of debris jams. Photo by Alvin L. Medina, USDA Forest Service.

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343

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Habitat Preferences

Channel Characteristics

Rooting Characteristics Benefits for Restoration

Drawbacks for Restoration

Restoration Uses

Common Means of Artificial Establishment

16.4.2.1

Woody Species (e.g., Salix, Populus, Alnus)

Herbaceous Species (e.g., Carex, Juncus, Schoenoplectus)

Coarse substrates, deeper water tables and frequent disturbance Typically wider and shallower with point bars

Fine-textured, anaerobic soils with shallow groundwater tables Narrower, deeper channels with vegetated overhanging banks Shallower, with higher fine root densities. Sediment entrapment and retention, protection from streambank erosion, formation of undercut banks Less effective at dissipating streamflow energies; lower structural diversity

Deeper, with lower fine root densities Stream shading, providing structural diversity, dissipation of high streamflow energies Can induce turbulence and local erosion during high flows; can preclude understory plant establishment resulting in unprotected bare soils Most appropriate for sites dominated by coarse substrates, deeper groundwater tables, steeper channel gradients and steeper streambanks, or for sites that are not immediately adjacent to the stream channel Commonly established from cuttings and poles, containerized seedlings, bareroot transplants and seed

Most appropriate for sites dominated by fine-textured soils, shallow groundwater tables and shallow channel gradients. Herbaceous plants are preferred for locations immediately adjacent to the stream channel. Commonly established from plugs, sprigs, rhizome sections, sod and seed

Adding Vegetation

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344


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Removing Vegetation

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Combining passive restoration with sedimentation from a wildfire stimulated Carrizo Creek on the White Mountain Apache Reservation in Arizona to rapidly develop wetland vegetation and a narrower channel. Photos by Jonathan Long, courtesy of the White Mountain Apache Tribe.

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Fully functional system Basic processes intact; Higher order properties intact

At-risk system Basic processes threatened; Higher order properties still present

Recovering system Basic processes functioning; Higher order properties not yet recovered

Nonfunctional system Basic processes and higher order properties both compromised

Figure 16.4

Diagram representing cyclical process of degradation and recovery, illustrating that changes are not likely to follow a linear path and that recovery of basic functional processes may not coincide with higher order properties such as animal populations. Long, J.W., Evaluating recovery of riparian wetlands on the White Mountain Apache Reservation, Ph.D. dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 2002.

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White Springs (a) before (October 1996) and (b) after (June 2000) treatments by the local community to stabilize the channel and promote growth of aquatic plants. Photos by Alvin L. Medina and Jonathan W. Long, courtesy of White Mountain Apache Tribe.

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REFERENCES 6RFLHW\ IRU (FRORJLFDO 5HVWRUDWLRQ 6FLHQFH DQG 3ROLF\ :RUNLQJ *URXS 7KH 6(53ULPHURQ(FRORJLFDO5HVWRUDWLRQDYDLODEOHRQOLQHDWZZZVHURUJ 7HOOPDQ%([RWLFSHVWSODQWLQWURGXFWLRQLQWKH$PHULFDQ6RXWKZHVW'HVHUW3ODQWV ² /HRSROG$6&RQVHUYDWLRQLVWLQ0H[LFR$P)RUHVWV² 7HOOPDQ%

Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States: Hydrology, Ecology, and Management

Wetland and Riparian Areas of the Intermountain West: Ecology and Management

Climate and Hydrology of Mountain Areas

Biotic communities: southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico

The Ecology and Management of Prairies in the Central United States (Bur Oak Book)

Air Quality Management in the United States

The United States of Air

United States of the Dead

History of the United States

Riparian Landscapes (Cambridge Studies in Ecology)

The United States of Fear

United States of Atlantis

The United States and Iran

Datapedia Of The United States

The United States of America

United States of Atlantis

Cities of the United States

The United States of Air

History of the United States

United States of Atlantis

Hydrology Water Management

The United States Capitol

Bats of the United States and Canada

The United States Congress

United States Navy and United States Marine Corps Over Korea

The Untold History of the United States

The Last Days Of The United States

The Untold History of the United States

The Untold History of the United States

Evolution of United States Budgeting:

United States Declaration of Independence

Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States: Hydrology, Ecology, and Management

Wetland and Riparian Areas of the Intermountain West: Ecology and Management

Climate and Hydrology of Mountain Areas

Biotic communities: southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico

The Ecology and Management of Prairies in the Central United States (Bur Oak Book)

Air Quality Management in the United States

The United States of Air

United States of the Dead

History of the United States

Riparian Landscapes (Cambridge Studies in Ecology)

The United States of Fear

United States of Atlantis

The United States and Iran

Datapedia Of The United States

The United States of America

United States of Atlantis

Cities of the United States

The United States of Air

History of the United States

United States of Atlantis

Hydrology Water Management

The United States Capitol

Bats of the United States and Canada

The United States Congress

United States Navy and United States Marine Corps Over Korea

The Untold History of the United States

The Last Days Of The United States

The Untold History of the United States

The Untold History of the United States

Evolution of United States Budgeting:

United States Declaration of Independence

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