Monitoring Emergency Obstetric Care: A Handbook (2009)

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Author: Deborah Maine | Patsy Bailey | Samantha Lobis | Judith Fortney (AMDD)

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Monitoring emergency obstetric care a handbook

Monitoring emergency obstetric care a handbook

WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data : Monitoring emergency obstetric care: a handbook. 1.Obstetrics - standards. 2.Emergency services, Hospital - statistics and numerical data. 3.Data collection - methods. 4.Quality indicators, Health care. 5.Maternal health services - supply and distribution. 6.Maternal mortality - prevention and control. 7.Handbooks. I.World Health Organization. II.United Nations Population Fund. III.UNICEF. IV.Mailman School of Public Health. Averting Maternal Death and Disability. ISBN 978 92 4 154773 4

(NLM classification: WA 310)

© World Health Organization 2009 All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel.: +41 22 791 3264; fax: +41 22 791 4857; e-mail: [email protected]). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications – whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to WHO Press, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; e-mail: [email protected]). The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. All reasonable precautions have been taken by the World Health Organization to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World Health Organization be liable for damages arising from its use. Printed in France

Contents Abbreviations

iv

Acknowledgements

v

Preface

vi

Executive summary

vii

1. INTRODUCTION

1

1.1 Overview of indicators

4

1.2 Signal functions of EmOC

6

1.3 Use of the EmOC indicators

9

2. INDICATORS FOR EmOC

10

2.1 Indicator 1: Availability of EmOC services

10

2.2 Indicator 2: Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities

13

2.3 Indicator 3: Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities

16

2.4 Indicator 4: Met need for EmOC

19

2.5 Indicator 5: Caesarean sections as a proportion of all births

25

2.6 Indicator 6: Direct obstetric case fatality rate

31

2.7 Indicator 7: Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

34

2.8 Indicator 8: Proportion of deaths due to indirect causes in EmOC facilities

36

2.9 Summary and interpretation of indicators 1–8

38

3. COLLECTING DATA FOR THE INDICATORS

43

3.1 Types of data required

43

3.2 Preparation

43

3.3 Form 1: All potential EmOC facilities in selected areas

46

3.4 Form 2: Review of EmOC at facilities

48

3.5 Form 3: Summary of data on EmOC facilities in an area

50

3.6 Form 4: Calculation of indicators for each area

51

3.7 Form 5: Calculation of indicators for the country

51

3.8 Monitoring at the area level

51

REFERENCES

54

APPENDIX A: Forms and worksheets for data collection and calculation of EmOC indicators

61

Form 1. List of possible EmOC facilities

63

Form 2. Review of possible EmOC facilities

69

Form 3. Summary of data on EmOC facilities in the area

85

Form 4. Calculation of indicators for geographical area

107

Form 5. Calculation of indicators for a country

123

APPENDIX B: Information on registers and data collection

145

APPENDIX C: Random number table

151

iv

Monitoring emergency obstetric care: a handbook

Abbreviations AMDD

Averting Maternal Death and Disability Program

EmOC

Emergency Obstetric Care

HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus

UNFPA

United Nations Population Fund

UNICEF

United Nations Children’s Fund

WHO

World Health Organization


Acknowledgements Monitoring emergency obstetric care: a handbook

of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa),

was prepared by Deborah Maine (Boston University,

Samantha Lobis (AMDD), Deborah Maine (Boston

Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America,

University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States,

and the Averting Maternal Death and Disability

and AMDD), Saramma Mathai (UNFPA), Affette

Program (AMDD), Mailman School of Public Health,

McCaw-Binns (University of the West Indies), Isabelle

Columbia University, New York City, New York, United

Moreira (UNFPA), Luwei Pearson (UNICEF), Rosalind

States), Patsy Bailey (Family Health International,

Raine (University College London, London, England),

Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United

Geetha Rana (UNICEF), Judith Standley (UNICEF),

States, and AMDD), Samantha Lobis (AMDD) and

Nancy Terreri (UNICEF), Kanako Yamashita-Allen

Judith Fortney (AMDD).

(World Bank, Washington DC, United States), Jelka

The handbook is based on the publication Guidelines for monitoring the availability and use of obstet-

Zupan (WHO), Katherine Ba-Thike (WHO), Alexis Ntabona (WHO), Matthews Matthai (WHO).

prepared by Deborah Maine,

Lale Say (WHO) helped in revision of the handbook by

Tessa Wardlaw (UNICEF) and a team from Columbia

facilitating the technical consultation, reviewing draft

University (Victoria Ward, James McCarthy, Amanda

versions, and coordinating the publishing process.

Birnbaum, Murat Alkalin and Jennifer Brown), and on

Vincent Fauveau (UNFPA), Judith Standley (UNICEF)

recommendations made during a technical consul-

and Lynn Freedman (AMDD) reviewed many drafts

tation held in 2006 at WHO in Geneva, in which the

within their organizations. Jennifer Potts (AMDD)

following persons participated: Patsy Bailey (Family

and Vincent de Brouwere reviewed several versions

Health International and AMDD), Shelah Bloom

and made substantive contributions to the text. Yves

(University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North

Bergevin (UNFPA), Luc de Bernis (UNFPA), Juliana

Carolina, United States), David Braunholtz (Initiative

Bol (RAISE Initiative, Columbia University, New York

for Maternal Mortality Programme Assessment

City, New York, United States), Sara Casey (RAISE

(IMMPACT)

Aberdeen,

Initiative), France Donnay (UNFPA), Metin Gulmezoglu

Aberdeen, Scotland), Vincent de Brouwere (Prince

(WHO), Joan Healy (Ipas), Rita Kabra (WHO), Barbara

Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp,

Kwast (AMDD), Carine Ronsmans (London School of

Belgium), Marc Derveeuw (UNFPA), Hemant Dwivedi

Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, England) and

(UNFPA), Øystein Evjen Olsen (Institute for Health

Cynthia Stanton (Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of

Research and Development and Primary Health Care,

Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States) also

Iringa, United Republic of Tanzania), Vincent Fauveau

reviewed the handbook. Lucy Anderson, Alexandra

(UNFPA), Judith Fortney (AMDD), Lynn Freedman

DelValle, Gina Gambone, Laura Harris, and Christen

(AMDD), Joan Healy (Ipas, Chapel Hill, North

Mullen helped in compilation of the references. Paul

Carolina, United States) Justus Hofmeyr (University

Van Look reviewed the text.

ric services (1997)

Project,

University

of

Conflict of interest The participants of the technical consultation were

Columbia University who have been engaged in in-

primarily independent experts from academia. No

country application of the indicators reviewed at the

conflicts of interest were declared. Other partici-

consultation.

pants included staff from WHO, UNFPA, UNICEF, and

5v

vi


Preface Efforts to improve the lives of women and children

health care including family planning and delivery with

around the world have intensified since world leaders

the help of a skilled health professional also plays

adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration in

an important role in reducing maternal and neonatal

September 2000 and committed themselves to reach-

mortality, this handbook focuses on the critical role

ing Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5, on child

of EmOC in saving the lives of women with obstet-

mortality and maternal health. The original targets for

ric complications during pregnancy and childbirth and

these Goals were a two-thirds reduction in the mortal-

saving the lives of newborns intrapartum. The hand-

ity of children under 5 and a three-quarters reduction

book describes indicators that can be used to assess,

in the maternal mortality ratio between 1990 and 2015.

monitor and evaluate the availability, use and quality

There is worldwide consensus that, in order to reach

of EmOC.

these targets, good-quality essential services must be integrated into strong health systems. The addition in 2007 of a new target in Goal 5—universal access to reproductive health by 2015—reinforces this consensus: all people should have access to essential maternal, newborn, child and reproductive health services provided in a continuum of care. In order to reduce maternal mortality, Emergency Obstetric Care (EmOC) must be available and accessible to all women. While all aspects of reproductive

Whilst this handbook focuses on emergency care, a broader set of indicators should be used to monitor fundamental aspects of reproductive health programmes designed to reduce maternal mortality, ensure universal access to reproductive health care and reduce child mortality.

7

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Executive summary Reducing maternal mortality has arrived at the top

In June 2006, an international panel of experts partici-

of health and development agendas. To achieve the

pated in a technical consultation in Geneva to discuss

Millennium Development Goal of a 75% reduction in

modifications to the existing indicators for EmOC and

the maternal mortality ratio between 1990 and 2015,

revisions to the Guidelines, taking into account the

countries throughout the world are investing more

accumulated experience and increased knowledge in

energy and resources into providing equitable, ade-

the area of maternal health care. The present hand-

quate maternal health services. One way of reduc-

book contains the agreed changes, including two

ing maternal mortality is by improving the availability,

new indicators and an additional signal function, with

accessibility, quality and use of services for the treat-

updated evidence and new resources. In addition,

ment of complications that arise during pregnancy

the Guidelines were renamed as the Handbook, to

and childbirth. These services are collectively known

emphasize the practical purpose of this publication.

as Emergency Obstetric Care (EmOC).

The purpose of this handbook is to describe the

Sound programmes for reducing maternal mortality,

indicators and to give guidance on conducting stud-

like all public health programmes, should have clear

ies to people working in the field. It includes a list of

indicators in order to identify needs, monitor imple-

life-saving services, or ‘signal functions’, that define

mentation and measure progress. In order to fulfil

a health facility with regard to its capacity to treat

these functions, the data used to construct the indi-

obstetric and newborn emergencies. The emphasis is

cators should be either already available or relatively

on actual rather than theoretical functioning. On the

easy and economical to obtain. The indicators should

basis of the performance of life-saving services in the

be able to show progress over a relatively short time,

past 3 months, facilities are categorized as ‘basic’ or

in small as well as large areas. Most importantly, the

‘comprehensive’. The section on signal functions also

indicators should provide clear guidance for pro-

includes answers to frequently asked questions.

grammes—showing which components are working well, which need more input or need to be changed

The EmOC indicators described in this handbook can

and what additional research is needed.

be used to measure progress in a programmatic con-

For a variety of technical and financial reasons, the

to the use and quality of those services. The indica-

maternal mortality ratio does not meet these require-

tors address the following questions:

ments. Consequently, in 1991, UNICEF asked Columbia University (New York City, New York, United States of

tinuum: from the availability of and access to EmOC

• Are there enough facilities providing EmOC?

America) to design a new set of indicators for EmOC.

• Are the facilities well distributed?

The first version was tested in 1992. In 1997, the indi-

• Are enough women using the facilities?

cators were published as Guidelines for monitoring the availability and use of obstetric services, issued by UNICEF, WHO and UNFPA (1). These indicators have been used by ministries of health, international agencies and programme managers in over 50 countries around the world.

• Are the right women (i.e. women with obstetric complications) using the facilities? • Are enough critical services being provided? • Is the quality of the services adequate?

vii

viii


The handbook provides a description of each indicator and how it is constructed and how it can be used; the minimum and/or maximum acceptable level (if appropriate); the background of the indicator; data collection and analysis; interpretation and presentation of the indicator; and suggestions for supplementary studies. There is a further section on interpretation of the full set of indicators. Sample forms for data collection and analysis are provided. Use of these EmOC indicators to assess needs can help programme planners to identify priorities and interventions. Regular monitoring of the indicators alerts managers to areas in which advances have been made and those that need strengthening. Close attention to the functioning of key services and programmes can substantially and rapidly reduce maternal mortality in developing countries.


1. Introduction Over the past two decades, the international commu-

approach. Even this method, however, is known to

nity has repeatedly declared its commitment to reduce

give underestimates of the maternal mortality ratio

the high levels of maternal mortality in developing

(4, 5).

countries, starting with the 1987 Safe Motherhood Conference in Nairobi, Kenya, followed by the 1990 World Summit for Children at United Nations headquarters, the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt, the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, ‘Nairobi 10 Years On’ in Sri Lanka in 1997, and the Millennium Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2000. In 2007, a number of events marked the 20th anniversary of the launching of the Safe Motherhood Initiative, including the Women Deliver Conference in London, England, at which calls were made for renewed commitment, programmes and monitoring. Most importantly, over the past 20 years, consensus has been reached on the interventions that are priorities in reducing maternal mortality (2). Stakeholders agree that good-quality EmOC should be universally available and accessible, that all women should deliver their infants in the presence of a professional, skilled birth attendant, and that these key services should be integrated into health systems. It became clear early on, however, that it would not be simple to measure progress in this area. The conventional approach was to monitor the number of maternal deaths with ‘impact’ indicators such as the maternal mortality ratio. In theory, repeated measurements of this ratio over time can be used to monitor trends. This approach has a number of serious drawbacks, both technical and substantive. Maternal mortality is extremely difficult and costly to measure when vital registration systems are weak, and even when systems are strong (3). Even innovative methods present difficulties. For example, the direct ‘sisterhood’ method provides information for a reference period of 7 years before a survey; thus, the information gathered does not reflect the current situation or progress made recently. Recent advances in sampling procedures for the sisterhood method have, however, greatly increased its efficiency and

Another approach is use of ‘process,’ ‘output’ or ‘outcome’ indicators, to measure the actions that prevent deaths or illness. Widely used process indicators include rates of childhood immunization and contraceptive prevalence. This handbook presents a series of indicators designed to monitor interventions that reduce maternal mortality by improving the availability, accessibility, use and quality of services for the treatment of complications during pregnancy and childbirth. The indicators are based on information from health facilities with data on population and birth rates. There are several advantages to this approach. First, the indicators can be measured repeatedly at short intervals. Secondly, the indicators provide information that is directly useful for guiding policies and programmes and making programme adjustments. It is important to remember that although ‘process,’ ‘output’ and ‘outcome’ indicators are more useful, practical and feasible than impact indicators, for many reasons, these measures cannot substitute for maternal mortality ratios as a direct measure of the overall level of maternal mortality in a population. The Guidelines for monitoring the availability and use of obstetric services were initially developed by Columbia University’s School of Public Health, supported by and in collaboration with UNICEF and WHO. A draft version was issued in 1992, and the guidelines were formally published by UNICEF, WHO and UNFPA in 1997 (1). Since then, they have been used in many countries (Table 1). The present document is a revision of the 1997 version of the guidelines, incorporating changes based on monitoring and assessment conducted worldwide. The recommendations related to measuring the indicators were reviewed and updated on the basis of existing evidence, as well as experience in using the indicators within country programmes.

have decreased costs. These changes allow for larger

These recommendations will be updated regularly

samples and consequently a shorter reference period

using standard WHO procedures. It is expected that

and narrower confidence intervals than the traditional

the next update will be in 2014.

11

2


Table 1. Selected countries in which emergency obstetric care indicators were used in assessing needs or for monitoring and evaluation (2000–2007) Region and country

Use of indicators

References

Africa Angola

National needs assessment (report in progress)

Benin

National needs assessment

Burundi

Needs assessment planned with UNICEF

(6, 7)

Cameroon

Subnational needs assessment

(8-10)

Chad


(7, 11)

Côte d’Ivoire


(10, 13)

Eritrea

Needs assessment with partial coverage

(14)

Ethiopia

Programme monitoring and evaluation; needs assessment with partial coverage 1

(15)

Gabon


(16, 17)

Gambia


(17, 18)

Comoros

(12)

Ghana


(19)

Guinea


(20)

Guinea Bissau


Kenya

Subnational needs assessments

Lesotho


(17, 21) 2

(22-24) (25)

Madagascar

Subnational needs assessments

(26)

Malawi

National needs assessment; programme monitoring and evaluation

(27-30)

Mali


(31, 32)

Mauritania


(10, 33)

Mozambique

National needs assessment; programme monitoring and evaluation (data not yet analysed)

(34-37)

Namibia

Needs assessment

(38)

Niger

Needs assessment

(10, 39)

Rwanda

Subnational needs assessment; programme monitoring and evaluation

(15, 23, 39-42)

Senegal


(10, 37, 43)

Sierra Leone


(44)

Uganda


(23, 45, 46)

United Republic of Tanzania


(15, 39, 47-51)

Zambia


(52)

Zimbabwe


(53, 54)

Bolivia

National needs assessment 3

(55, 56)

Ecuador

National needs assessment with UNFPA, 2006

El Salvador


(56-58)

Guatemala

Needs assessment

(59)

Honduras


(56, 60)

Nicaragua

National and subnational needs assessments; programme monitoring and evaluation

(61, 62)

Peru

Needs assessments with partial coverage; programme monitoring and evaluation 4

(63-65)

United States


(66)

Americas


Region and country

Use of indicators

References

Eastern Mediterranean Afghanistan

Needs assessments with partial coverage

(67)

Djibouti


(68)

Iraq

Needs assessment planned

Morocco


(62, 69)

Pakistan

Needs assessments with partial coverage; programme monitoring and evaluation

(70-73)

Somalia


(74)

Sudan


(23, 75)

Syrian Arab Republic


Yemen

Needs assessments with partial coverage

Europe Kyrgyzstan


Tajikistan

National needs assessment; programme monitoring and evaluation 7

(76)

Bangladesh

National and subnational needs assessments; programme monitoring and evaluation

(77-79)

Bhutan

Needs assessment; programme monitoring and evaluation

(9, 80)

India

Needs assessments with partial coverage; programme monitoring and evaluation

(9, 81-85)

Nepal


(37, 86-88)

Sri Lanka


(62, 89)

Thailand

Needs assessment with partial coverage

(90)

South-East Asia

Western Pacific Cambodia

Planned

Mongolia

Planned

Viet Nam

Needs assessment with partial coverage; programme monitoring and evaluation

(91, 92)

CARE. Unpublished data. 2000. Doctors of the World. West Pokot facility needs assessment—maternal and newborn care. Unpublished data. Nairobi, 2007. 3 Engender Health Acquire Project. Unpublished data. 2007. 4 CARE. Unpublished data. 2004: Huancavelica region, Peru. 5 Ministry of Health and UNICEF, Unpublished data. 2004: Syria. 6 Ministry of Health of Kyrgyzstan and UNICEF, Status of Emergency Obstetric Care (EOC) in the Kyrgyz Republic. Unpublished. 2005. 7 Ministry of Health of Tajikistan and UNICEF, Unpublished data. Dushanbe, 2005. 1 2

3

4


In this new edition, the indicators have been revised to reflect 10 years’ wealth of experience. Other changes reflect the broadening of programmes; e.g. a signal function on treatment of complications in newborns and new indicators on perinatal mortality and on maternal deaths reported as due to indirect causes, such as HIV and malaria, have been added. These changes were discussed and agreed by an interna-

1.1 Overview of indicators In the sections below, we present a series of indicators for monitoring progress in the prevention of maternal and perinatal deaths. Their order is based on the logic that, for women to receive prompt, adequate treatment for complications of pregnancy and childbirth, facilities for providing EmOC must:

tional panel of experts at the technical consultation in

• exist and function,

June 2006 (93). During the review, it was also decided

• be geographically and equitably distributed,

to change the title. We use the term ‘handbook’ rather than ‘guidelines,’ because ‘handbook’ reflects more accurately the practical nature of this document. Another change made in this edition is replacement of ‘essential obstetric care’ by ‘EmOC’.1 Over the years, the terminology has been adjusted so that the indicators relate specifically to treatment of the emergency obstetric complications that cause most maternal

• be used by pregnant women, • be used by women with complications, • provide sufficient life-saving services, and • provide good-quality care. Thus, the indicators answer the following questions:

deaths.

• Are there enough facilities providing EmOC?

This handbook includes an explanation of the current

• Are the facilities well distributed?

indicators for EmOC and their implications, suggests

• Are enough women using the facilities?

supplementary studies that can improve understanding of the situation in a given area, and provides answers to common questions that arise when using the indicators. This is followed by worksheets and tables to illustrate study questions and calculations. The indicators described can be used at any stage of the design and implementation of EmOC programmes and

can

be

incorporated

into

routine

health

management information systems. In many countries, these indicators have provided the framework for more detailed assessments of national needs for EmOC, establishing the availability, use and quality of services and the specific information needed for detailed programme planning, such as equipment inventories.2 Modules for conducting needs assessments can be found at: www.amddprogram.org.

• Are the right women using the facilities? • Are enough critical services being provided? • Is the quality of services adequate? The first indicator therefore focuses on the availability of EmOC services. Adequate coverage means that all pregnant women have access to functioning facilities. Once availability is established, questions of use can be addressed. Even if services are functioning, if women with complications do not use them (for whatever reason), their lives are in danger. Finally, the indicators cover the performance of health services. After all, many women die in hospital: some of them die because they were not admitted until their condition was critical; many others, however, die because they did not receive timely treatment at a health facility or because the treatment they received was inadequate.

1

‘Emergency obstetric care’ or ‘EmOC’ is being used in this document rather than ‘emergency obstetric and newborn care’ or ‘EmONC’ because this set of indicators focus primarily on obstetric complications and procedures. While there is one new signal function on neonatal resuscitation and one new indicator on intrapartum care from the perspective of the newborn, the set of indicators do not represent the full range of emergency newborn procedures. 2 These assessments also include more information on emergency newborn care, and are often called EmONC needs assessments.

Table 2 shows the six EmOC indicators issued in 1997, with some minor modifications suggested by the 2006 technical consultation on the basis of the participants’ expertise and experience in various countries:


• The recommendation for the mixture of basic

• The minimum acceptable level for indicator 3 was

and comprehensive EmOC facilities per 500 000

removed, and countries are advised to use their

population has been changed from ‘at least one

own targets.

comprehensive and four basic EmOC facilities per 500 000 population’ to ‘at least five EmOC facilities including at least one comprehensive facility per 500 000 population’.

• The name of indicator 6 has been updated from: ‘case fatality rate’ to ‘direct obstetric case fatality rate’.

Table 2. The original six emergency obstetric care indicators, with modifications Indicator

Acceptable level

1. Availability of emergency obstetric care: basic and comprehensive care facilities

There are at least five emergency obstetric care facilities (including at least one comprehensive facility) for every 500 000 population

2. Geographical distribution of emergency obstetric care facilities

All subnational areas have at least five emergency obstetric care facilities (including at least one comprehensive facility) for every 500 000 population

3. Proportion of all births in emergency obstetric care facilitiesa

(Minimum acceptable level to be set locally)

4. Meeting the need for emergency obstetric care: proportion of women with major direct obstetric complications who are treated in such facilitiesa

100% of women estimated to have major direct obstetric complicationsb are treated in emergency obstetric care facilities

5. Caesarean sections as a proportion of all birthsa

The estimated proportion of births by caesarean section in the population is not less than 5% or more than 15% c

6. Direct obstetric case fatality ratea

The case fatality rate among women with direct obstetric complications in emergency obstetric care facilities is less than 1%

Adapted from reference (1). While these indicators focus on services provided in facilities that meet certain conditions (and therefore qualify as ‘emergency obstetric care facilities’), we strongly recommend that these indicators be calculated again with data from all maternity facilities in the area even if they do not qualify as emergency obstetric care facilities.

a

b The proportion of major direct obstetric complications throughout pregnancy, delivery and immediately postpartum is estimated to be 15% of expected births. c

See section 2.5 for a discussion of this range.

These indicators refer to the availability and use of

These indicators can be used to set priorities for pro-

facilities and the performance of health-care systems

grammes as well as to monitor them. Programme

in saving the lives of women with obstetric complica-

planners and managers responsible for reducing the

tions. The acceptable levels of most of the indicators

number of maternal deaths can start at the top of the

are specified as minimum and/or maximum and are

list and work down. When they reach an indicator for

necessarily approximate. They are based on the best

which the country does not meet the acceptable level,

data, estimates, and assumptions currently available.

appropriate interventions are needed. For example, if

The acceptable levels can be adapted according to

a country meets the acceptable levels for the num-

countries’ circumstances; however, if they are modi-

ber and distribution of EmOC facilities but not for

fied, it is important to report the findings in relation to

their use, interventions are needed to understand and

the standard levels suggested here, so that the results

improve use.

can be compared with those from other studies.

5

6


Table 3 sets out two new indicators that were adopted

obstetric care and the association between maternal

at the 2006 technical consultation on the guidelines.

and neonatal health, and indicator 8 reflects indirect

These reflect the evolution of the maternal health field:

causes of maternal deaths in some countries, such as

indicator 7 reflects the renewed focus on the quality of

malaria.

Table 3. New indicators for emergency obstetric care Indicator

Acceptable level

7. Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

Standards to be determined

8. Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes in emergency obstetric care facilities

No standard can be set

These indicators should also be calculated with data for all facilities in the area, if possible.

1.2 Signal functions of EmOC For the purposes of assessing and monitoring the level of care that a facility is actually providing, it is helpful to use a short list of clearly defined ‘signal functions’. These are key medical interventions that are used to treat the direct obstetric complications that cause the vast majority of maternal deaths around the globe. The list of signal functions does not include every service that ought to be provided to women with complicated pregnancies or to pregnant women and their newborns in general; that information is provided in other publications (94-96). The signal functions are indicators of the level of care being provided. Furthermore, some critical services are subsumed within these signal functions. For example, if caesarean sections are performed in a facility, this implies that anaesthesia is being provided. While the signal functions are used to classify facilities on the basis that these functions have been performed in the past 3 months, it is helpful to use a more inclusive list of functions and supplies when assessing need for EmOC in order to plan programmes.

The list of signal functions in this edition of the handbook has been updated with the addition of the new function: ‘perform neonatal resuscitation’ at basic and comprehensive levels. In addition, the name of the second signal function has been changed from ‘administer parenteral oxytocics’ to ‘administer uterotonic drugs’. The list of signal functions in Table 4 includes a few examples of drugs or equipment that could be used when performing the signal functions; however, the drugs and procedures mentioned are illustrative and not exhaustive. For a complete list of recommended procedures and drugs, please refer to WHO’s Managing complications in pregnancy and childbirth: a guide for midwives and doctors (95) and Managing newborn problems: a guide for doctors, nurses and midwives (96).


Table 4. Signal functions used to identify basic and comprehensive emergency obstetric care services Basic services

Comprehensive services

(1) Administer parenteral1 antibiotics

Perform signal functions 1–7, plus:

(2) Administer uterotonic drugs (i.e., parenteral oxytocin2 )

(8) Perform surgery (e.g., caesarean section)

(3) Administer parenteral anticonvulsants for preeclampsia and eclampsia (i.e., magnesium sulfate).

(9) Perform blood transfusion

(4) Manually remove the placenta (5) Remove retained products (e.g. manual vacuum extraction, dilation and curettage) 6) Perform assisted vaginal delivery (e.g. vacuum extraction, forceps delivery) (7) Perform basic neonatal resuscitation (e.g., with bag and mask)

A basic emergency obstetric care facility is one in which all functions 1–7 are performed. A comprehensive emergency obstetric care facility is one in which all functions 1–9 are performed. Please refer to the following websites for recommended procedures for each signal function listed above: - Managing complications in pregnancy and childbirth: a guide for midwives and doctors: http://www.who.int/making_pregnancy_safer/documents/9241545879/en/index.html - Cochrane reviews: http://www.cochrane.org/reviews Adapted from reference (1). 1

Injection or intravenous infusion.

2

A recent WHO technical consultation (November 2008) to develop guidelines for interventions for postpartum haemorrhage, reviewed all available evidence, and identified parenteral oxytocin as the recommended choice of drug for prevention of post-partum haemorrhage. Ergometrin (second line) and misoprostol (third line) as options that could only be used where oxytocin is not available. Oxytocin should therefore be available in facilities to be defined as an EmOC facility.

Table 5 shows which signal functions are used to treat the major direct obstetric complications that cause most maternal deaths. Box 1 lists a number of questions frequently asked about the signal functions, with their answers. Table 5. Signal functions and related complications Major obstetric complication

Signal function

Haemorrhage

Antepartum: Perform blood transfusion Perform surgery (e.g., caesarean section for placenta praevia) Postpartum: Administer uterotonic drugs Perform blood transfusion Perform manual removal of placenta Perform removal of retained products Perform surgery (hysterectomy) for uterine rupture

Prolonged or obstructed labour

Perform assisted vaginal delivery Perform surgery (caesarean section) Administer uterotonic drugs Perform neonatal resuscitation

Postpartum sepsis

Administer parenteral antibiotics Remove retained products Perform surgery for pelvic abscess

7

8


Major obstetric complication

Signal function

Complications of abortion

For haemorrhage: Perform blood transfusion Remove retained products For sepsis: Administer parenteral antibiotics Remove retained products For intra-abdominal injury: Administer parenteral antibiotics Perform blood transfusion Perform surgery

Pre-eclampsia or eclampsia

Administer parenteral anticonvulsants Perform neonatal resuscitation Perform surgery (caesarean section)

Ectopic pregnancy

Perform surgery Perform blood transfusion

Ruptured uterus

Perform surgery Perform blood transfusion Administer parenteral antibiotics

Newborn distress (intrapartum)

Perform newborn resuscitation Perform surgery (caesarean section)

Adapted from reference (97).

Box 1. Frequently asked questions about signal functions

• Why use parenteral administration, rather than oral? In an emergency, there must be a quick physiological response to antibiotics when needed. In addition, the key life-saving drugs for main complications can only be administered parenteral. Therefore, the definition specifies parenteral rather than oral administration.

• Why were these items selected as signal functions and not others? Other items have been discussed as signal functions, such as use of the partograph, active management of the third stage of labour, availability of services 24 h/day, 7 days/week, intravenous fluids, anaesthesia and plasma expanders. Use of the partograph and active management of the third stage of labour are both part of good obstetric practice and should be used for all women in labour to prevent prolonged, obstructed labour and its sequelae, such as obstetric fistula. Availability of services 24 h/day, 7 days/week is a function of management and planning rather than a life-saving skill. Intravenous fluids are implicit in the signal functions that require parenteral drugs. Anaesthesia and plasma expanders are also implicit in the availability of obstetric surgery, e.g. caesarean section. Although the eight original obstetric signal functions do not form an exhaustive list, they were chosen because of the role they play in the treatment of the five major causes of maternal death.

• Where can I obtain a more complete list of functions and equipment for maternal and newborn health? The websites of WHO (http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/pcpnc/) (98), the Johns Hopkins Program for International Education in Gynecology and Obstetrics (http://www.jhpiego.org/scripts/pubs / category_detail.asp?category_id =24) ( 99) and AMDD (http://www.amddprogram.org /resources / DesignEvalMM-EN.pdf) (100) provide links to manuals with more complete inventories of drugs, supplies and equipment for health centres and hospitals.


• Why don’t the signal functions include specific drugs or equipment? We hope that international standards of care will be used to determine in practice which drugs and types of equipment are used to perform the signal functions. These standards are dynamic and can change over long periods with technological progress. We encourage use of the WHO guidelines of care, the Reproductive Health Library (http://www.who. int/rhl), the Cochrane Collaboration systematic reviews and other international resources. The list of signal functions in Table 4 does include a few examples of drugs or equipment that could be used, but the list of options is not exhaustive.

• Why use the 3–month reference period as opposed to a longer time? The 3–month reference period was chosen because it provides a snapshot of the current functioning of a facility. It was also selected because recall is less accurate over longer periods and because skills (such as vaginal delivery with a vacuum extractor, caesarean section or manual removal of the placenta) are more likely to be maintained if they are used frequently. Monitoring the delivery of services and stock outs are considerations for health service planners

• What should we do when a facility that is being monitored provides basic or comprehensive emergency obstetric care irregularly because of one or two missing signal functions? This is not a problem in a facilitybased survey or a needs assessment, as the technical guideline is to assess the performance of the signal functions in the most recent 3–month period. It becomes an issue when monitoring emergency obstetric care status over time. It is not uncommon for a facility to change its status when it has a small caseload or frequent staff turnover. For pragmatic and programmatic reasons in regional or national monitoring, we recommend annual reclassification. District managers can monitor their own performance more frequently and should be encouraged to do so in order to assess their functioning and to provide data for decision-making to improve services.

• What do we do if a signal function is performed during the 3–month reference period but not in an obstetric context? Most of the signal functions are likely to be performed only in an obstetric context, but parenteral antibiotics or anticonvulsants and blood transfusions can be administered in other contexts. In an assessment of an institution’s capacity and performance for delivering emergency obstetric care, the signal functions should have been performed in an obstetric context.

1.3 Use of the EmOC indicators

yield data that can be used to monitor and evaluate

As shown in Table 1, the indicators for EmOC have

progress in reducing maternal mortality and provide

been used in more than 50 countries to plan pro-

valuable information for health ministries and health

grammes and to monitor and evaluate progress in

managers to shape strategies and activities to improve

reducing maternal mortality. Some countries have

maternal health outcomes.

conducted more detailed needs assessments that also include other indicators and information useful for planning safe motherhood programmes. (For sample data collection forms, refer to: http://www. amddprogram.org/). In other countries, more focused needs assessments have been conducted, data collection being limited to the indicators on forms similar to those in Appendix A. The more focused components of needs assessments described in this handbook can be integrated into needs assessments for other health issues, such as prevention of mother-tochild transmission of HIV infection, or for a health system overall. Regardless of whether the EmOC needs assessment is more detailed or more focused, it will

In more and more countries, the EmOC indicators have been integrated into routine health management information systems to track progress at district, regional and national levels. While periodic needs assessments and data collection systems set up outside health management information systems may play an important role, integration of the EmOC indicators into health management information systems is a more efficient way of monitoring the availability and use of such care over time. Countries that are intent on reducing maternal mortality should strive to include these indicators into their health management information systems.

9

10

2. Indicators for EmOC Below, the explanation of each EmOC indicator

mended minimum number of comprehensive facilities

includes a description, the recommended minimum

is available.

or maximum acceptable level (if appropriate), background information, advice on data collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation, and suggestions for supplementary studies related to the indicator. Worksheets are provided in Appendix A to facilitate the calculations.

2.1 Indicator 1: Availability of EmOC services Description The availability of EmOC services is measured by the number of facilities that perform the complete set of signal functions in relation to the size of the population. When staff has carried out the seven signal functions of basic EmOC in the 3-month period before the assessment, the facility is considered to be a fully functioning basic facility. The facility is classified as functioning at the comprehensive level when it offers the seven signal functions plus surgery (e.g. caesarean) and blood transfusion (Table 4). To determine the minimum acceptable number of basic and comprehensive EmOC facilities for a country or region (depending on the scope of the assessment), begin by dividing the total population by 500 000. This is the minimum acceptable number of comprehensive facilities. Then, multiply that number by 5 to calculate the overall minimum number of facilities, both basic and comprehensive. These numbers should be compared with the actual number of facilities found in order to classify the services as fully functioning basic or comprehensive. The results of this exercise can also be expressed as a percentage of the minimum acceptable number of basic or comprehensive care facilities. To calculate the percentage of the recommended minimum number of facilities that is actually available to the population, divide the number of existing facilities by the recommended number and multiply by 100. A similar exercise will determine what percentage of the recom-

Minimum acceptable level For every 500 000 population, the minimum acceptable level is five EmOC facilities, at least one of which provides comprehensive care.

Background and discussion To save women with obstetric complications, the health system must have facilities that are equipped, staffed and actually provide EmOC. The composite nature of this indicator tells us not only whether the signal functions were performed recently; it also indirectly tells us about the availability of equipment and drugs and the availability and skill of the staff. The number of EmOC facilities required to treat complications depends on where facilities are located, where people live and the size and capabilities of the facilities. One could count only facilities where all nine EmOC procedures are performed, but that would give the wrong message, implying that only hospitals with sophisticated equipment and specialist physicians can reduce maternal mortality. A promising intervention is the upgrading of health centres and other small facilities to enable them to provide basic EmOC (36, 65). The ‘health centre intrapartum care strategy’, proposed in the Lancet series on maternal health, suggests that all births take place in a facility; this is likely to be one of the more cost-efficient strategies for reducing maternal mortality, provided that the quality of care is adequate (101). A health centre that provides basic EmOC can prevent many maternal and perinatal deaths. For some conditions (e.g. some cases of postpartum haemorrhage), basic care will be sufficient. For other complications (e.g. obstructed labour), higher-level treatment is required. Even then, first aid can save lives, because a woman’s condition can be stabilized before she is referred. For example, a woman with obstructed labour cannot be treated in a health centre that provides only basic care: she needs a caesarean section.


The chances of the mother and her newborn of surviv-

wives, practitioners who can operate anaesthetists

ing a caesarean section are, however, greatly improved

and laboratory technicians). When facilities are not

if she does not arrive at the hospital dehydrated and

able to provide the signal functions 24 h/day, 7 days/

infected. To prevent this, intravenous fluids and antibi-

week, local and other management must search for

otics can be administered at the health centre, espe-

creative solutions. Some may involve simple rotation

cially when the trip to the hospital is long. The WHO

of personnel, but others may require a policy review

guidelines for primary health care, Pregnancy, child-

of what cadre of provider is authorized and trained to

birth, postpartum, newborn care: a guide to essential

provide EmOC, or additional budgetary allocations. In

practice (98) recommends that women with complica-

some situations, accommodation for health practitio-

tions be given the first dose of antibiotics, oxytocin, or

ners has been built on hospital grounds to allow con-

magnesium sulfate (as required) before referral.

tinuous service.

In the previous edition of this document, the recommended minimum ratio of EmOC facilities to

Data collection and analysis

500 000 population was one comprehensive and four

This indicator depends on the classification of a facili-

basic facilities. Since 1997, experience in more than

ty’s EmOC status after direct inspection. Often, a facil-

40 countries has shown that health systems often

ity is assumed to be functioning, but a visit shows that

have at least one comprehensive facility per 500 000

the reality is quite different. The important distinction

population and sometimes more. Fully functioning

between the way a facility is supposed to function and

basic facilities, however, are much less common. On

what it actually does is illustrated by a case study in

the basis of this experience, the group decided that

Uganda. In 2003, the need for EmOC was assessed,

the ratio of one comprehensive to four basic facili-

in order to provide the Government with background

ties might be less important than having at least one

for drawing up an operational strategy to reduce

comprehensive facility and emphasizing the number

maternal deaths. Within the health infrastructure plan

of facilities per 500 000 population.

in Uganda, district hospitals and health centres IV should be able to provide comprehensive EmOC. The

A recent analysis of 24 national or near-national needs

assessment showed, however, that only 21 of the 32

assessments showed that all but two countries met

hospitals assessed (65%) were comprehensive, while

the minimum acceptable level of one comprehensive

the other 11 functioned at the basic level. Of the 36

EmOC facility per 500 000 population. The countries

health centres IV visited, only two (6%) functioned at

included some with high maternal mortality ratios, but

the comprehensive level and another two at the basic

they had very few fully functioning basic facilities (102).

level. Health centres III theoretically provide basic

In the United States (the only country with a relatively

EmOC, but only 5 (4%) of the 129 assessed functioned

low maternal mortality ratio in which the EmOC indi-

at their intended level. The results—particularly which

cators have been measured), no basic facilities were

signal functions were missing—were used to prepare

identified, but there are many comprehensive facilities,

the annual plan for the sector-wide approach, which

with a ratio of one comprehensive facility for 100 000

called for a national effort to improve EmOC (46).

population (66). In calculating this indicator, the number of functioning Implicit in the definition of an EmOC facility is that the

facilities is compared with the size of the population.

signal functions be available to women at any hour

The most recent census should be used to determine

of the day, every day of the week. If a woman needs

the population size in a given area. If the last census

a caesarean section at midnight on a Saturday, she

is more than 5 years old, national institutes of statis-

should have the same quality of care as a woman

tics are likely to have projections that the government

requiring the same service at 10:00 on a Wednesday

(including the ministry of health) uses for planning.

morning. The primary obstacle to the provision of

Recent movement of many trained staff into or out of

EmOC 24 h/day, 7 days/week in many countries is a

a country might have to be taken into consideration.

lack of essential cadres of health workers (i.e. mid-

11

12


The minimum acceptable level for Indicator 1 has

mance of the signal functions be presented in terms

been defined in relation to the population rather than

of the proportion of facilities providing each of the sig-

births because most health planning is based on pop-

nal functions, as illustrated in Figure 1. Such data are

ulation size. If, however, it is judged more appropriate

extremely useful for planning and setting priorities for

to assess the adequacy of EmOC services in relation

interventions. Figure 1 shows that in Benin in 2003, not

to births, the comparable minimum acceptable level

all hospitals that provided obstetric surgery also had

would be five facilities for every 20 000 annual births

the capacity to transfuse blood. Furthermore, only 9%

(including at least one comprehensive facility).

of health centres but almost 90% of hospitals removed

If a country has a mix of public and private facilities, a decision must be made about whether to collect data from all of them or to focus on one sector (generally the public sector). Only by including the private sector, however, will there be a complete picture of how well the health system functions and the overall levels of

retained products. Today, manual vacuum aspiration is often used to treat complications of abortion by mid-level professionals at health centres and district hospitals (103). This procedure reduces the need for referral, which often entails considerable expense for the family, life-threatening delays and even deaths.

availability, use and quality of care. Because the indi-

In some countries certain signal functions are virtually

cators are based on population estimates (total popu-

missing because they are not included in pre-service

lation, for example), it makes sense that all health facil-

training of health personnel or national treatment pro-

ities (or a representative sample) be selected for the

tocols. If a signal function is systematically absent

assessment. The more a country relies on private facil-

in a country, it is possible to use the designation

ities for EmOC, the more important it is to include the

‘Comprehensive minus 1’ or ‘Basic minus 1’ as a tem-

private sector. As an illustration of this point, a needs

porary measure, while policies are reviewed and pro-

assessment conducted in Benin in 2003 showed that

grammatic interventions planned to remedy the lack.

one fourth of facilities providing comprehensive EmOC and almost all the facilities functioning at the basic level were privately operated (7).

Interpretation and presentation If, in the aggregate, a country or region does not have five EmOC facilities (including at least one comprehensive facility) per 500 000 population, the overall minimum acceptable level of EmOC services is not met. In this case, a high priority is to increase the number of functioning facilities until at least the minimum level is met. This may be done in different ways, e.g. by upgrading existing facilities or building new facilities, or some combination of the two. If the overall minimum acceptable level of EmOC services is met, it is reasonable to conclude that, in the aggregate, an acceptable minimum number of facilities currently exists. The next step would be to look at the geographical distribution of the facilities (Indicator 2). We strongly recommend that, in addition to looking at the ratio of facilities to population, data on perfor-

Supplementary studies Reasons for not performing signal functions There are a number of possible reasons that a health centre or small hospital does not qualify as a basic EmOC facility. Very often, it is the result of some management problem. When determining a facility’s EmOC status, consider the following for each signal function: • Is staff at the facility trained and confident in their skills to perform the service? • Are the cadres of staff working at the facility or the facility itself authorized to perform the signal function? • Are the requisite supplies and equipment in place and functioning? • Were there cases for which the use of a particular signal function was indicated?


Figure 1. Proportion of health facilities in which each signal function was performed during the past 3 months, Benin, 2003

Cesarean delivery 0%

88%

Blood transfusion 0% Assisted vaginal delivery

81%

2%

Removal of retained products

58% 9%

88% 59%

Manual removal of placenta

92% 86%

Parenteral anticonvulsants 78%

Parenteral oxytocics

0%

96% 86%

Parenteral antibiotics 10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Hospitals (N=48)

60%

70%

80%

98%

90%

100% 100%

Health Centres (N=234)

From Ministère de la Santé Publique du Bénin, 2003, cited in references (6, 104)

The last explanation refers to the fact that a facility may have a low caseload, with the result that there might have been no need for one of the signal functions dur-

2.2 Indicator 2: Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities

ing the 3-month period. The question of case load, in

Description

turn, could be investigated by determining whether the

The second indicator is calculated in the same way as

catchment population is too small given the incidence

the first, but it takes into consideration the geographi-

of the complication in question, if access is a serious

cal distribution and accessibility of facilities. It can

problem for reasons related to information, cost, dis-

help programme planners to gather information about

tance, transport or cultural practices, or if bypassing

equity in access to services at subnational level.

this facility for another, better-functioning facility is common practice.

To determine the minimum acceptable number of

When data on signal functions are presented as shown

ing the subnational (e.g. provinces, states or districts)

in Figure 1, it may be possible to see a pattern at the

population by 500 000. This will give you the mini-

country or district level, e.g. whether a particular signal

mum acceptable number of comprehensive EmOC

function is not being performed. It would be useful to

facilities for the subnational area. Then, multiply that

enquire further, for example by discussing the issue

number by 5 to calculate the overall minimum num-

with facility staff to learn what they perceive the prob-

ber of facilities, both basic and comprehensive, for the

lems to be. That will not elucidate why women use or

subnational area. To calculate the percentage of the

do not use a particular facility; that kind of information

recommended minimum number of facilities that is

can be derived only from women in the community.

actually available to the subnational population, divide

Focus groups are often used to collect this kind of

the number of functioning EmOC facilities by the rec-

information. Community surveys might also be infor-

ommended number and multiply by 100. A similar

mative, but they are more difficult and expensive to

exercise will determine what percentage of the recom-

conduct than focus groups.

mended minimum number of comprehensive EmOC

basic and comprehensive facilities, begin by divid-

facilities is available.

13

14


To determine the percentage of subnational areas

In view of the urgency of maternal complications,

that have the recommended number of EmOC facili-

EmOC services must be distributed throughout a

ties (including the minimum number of comprehensive

country. The distribution can be checked efficiently

facilities) for their population size, the number of sub-

by calculating the number of facilities available in

national areas with the recommended minimum num-

subnational areas. An analysis at regional, state, pro-

ber is divided by the number of subnational areas and

vincial, district or other level often reveals discrep-

multiplied by 100.

ancies in health services equity. The ratio of EmOC facilities to the total population is often higher than for smaller geographical areas. In Nicaragua in 2001, for

Minimum acceptable level To ensure equity and access, 100% of subnational areas should have the minimum acceptable numbers of EmOC facilities or at least five facilities (including at least one comprehensive facility) per 500 000 population.

instance, the coverage of the combined populations of nine administrative regions with comprehensive EmOC facilities more than met the required minimum (225%). When the regions were examined individually, however, only four had the minimum acceptable level of comprehensive care (102). A needs assessment in Mauritania in 2000 showed that the number and dis-

Background and discussion

tribution of facilities providing EmOC were both insuf-

Facilities that offer EmOC must be distributed so

ficient. Only eight of the 67 facilities surveyed pro-

that women can reach them. If facilities are clustered

vided such care (seven provided comprehensive care

around a capital city or only in large commercial cen-

and one provided basic care). More than half of all

tres, women in more remote regions will experience

the comprehensive EmOC facilities were in the capital

delay in getting treatment, which might threaten their

city, Nouakchott, and 9 of 13 regions had no facili-

survival and the survival of their newborns. Table 6

ties (105).

shows the estimated average time from onset of the major obstetric complications to death. It can be seen that the average time to death is 12 hours or more, although postpartum haemorrhage can kill faster. Therefore, lives could be saved at rural health facilities with injectable uterotonics and rehydration with intravenous fluids.

Haemorrhage • Postpartum • Antepartum

widely dispersed and travel is difficult, it may be advisable for governments to exceed the minimum acceptable level. In Bhutan, for example, an assessment of needs for EmOC revealed problems in the geographical distribution of facilities, and the Government promptly upgraded facilities to improve the availability

Table 6. Estimated average interval between onset of major obstetric complications and death, in the absence of medical interventions Complication

In some situations, especially where the population is

Hours

Days

2 12

Ruptured uterus

1

Eclampsia

2

Obstructed labour

3

Infection

6

From Maine, D. Prevention of Maternal Deaths in Developing Countries: Program Options and Practical Considerations, in International Safe Motherhood Conference. 1987. Unpublished data: Nairobi.

of care (Figure 2).


Figure 2. Emergency obstetric care facilities in Bhutan

Gasa

Lhuentse

Punakha Paro

Thimphu

Haa

Chukha Samtse Phuentsholing

Bumthang

Wangdue Phodrang

Dagana

Trashi Yangtse

Trongsa Trashigang

Mongar Zhemgang

Tsirang Sarpang

Resirboo Pemagatshel

Samdrup Jongkha

Comprehensive EmOC centres – 4 Basic EmOC centres – 4

From UNICEF, Department of Health Services, and Ministry of Health and Education. Semi-annual reports to AMDD, Jan–June 2002 & July–Dec 2002. Unpublished data. 2002: Bhutan, cited in reference (104).

15

16



geographical information systems make calculations

Many of the same issues in data collection that exist

of distance and travel time much easier, and measure-

for Indicator 1 are also relevant for Indicator 2. One issue is, however, more likely to arise in subnational than in national coverage: How many and what type of EmOC facilities are recommended for populations smaller than 500 000? No one answer fits all situations, but ‘prorating’ would be advised, e.g. if the population is close to 250 000, three facilities would be acceptable (rounding up is the more conservative response). Whether one of the three should be comprehensive depends on the location and proximity (distance in terms of time) of comprehensive facilities in neighbouring areas.

ment methods will become more consistent (106). Maps that show the EmOC status of facilities, the distance of communities from basic and comprehensive facilities (both in travel time and in relation to road networks), population dispersion and density and other features that show inequities in terms of access to care can be effective advocacy and planning tools.

2.3 Indicator 3: Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities Description

Emergency obstetric care facilities in subnational

Indicator 3 is the proportion of all births in an area that

areas can also be stratified by management, to deter-

take place in EmOC health facilities (basic or com-

mine the distribution of public and private facilities.

prehensive). The numerator is the number of women

This analysis can be particularly revealing in an area

registered as having given birth in facilities classified

with private but no government facilities, where gov-

as EmOC facilities. The denominator is an estimate of

ernment facilities offer free services and private facili-

all the live births expected in the area, regardless of

ties charge user fees, or where government facilities

where the birth takes place.

charge and mission hospitals are free. We strongly recommend a parallel indicator: the pro-

Interpretation and presentation If subnational geographical areas do not meet the minimum acceptable ratio, underserved areas should be targeted and resources devoted to improving the availability of services. The numbers of comprehensive and basic EmOC facilities per subnational population can be presented in either tables or maps on which subnational areas are shaded according to the level of coverage (100% or more and at increments of less than 100%).

Supplementary study Indicators of access to EmOC include distance and time. As digital mapping and geographical information systems become more widely available, use of this indicator is likely to increase. A reasonable standard for the availability of services can be established, such as having basic and comprehensive facilities available within 2–3 hours of travel for most women. In the past, determining the distance between facilities and where people live was cumbersome; however,

portion of births in all health facilities in the area, or ‘institutional births’ or ‘institutional deliveries’. We recommend this in order to give a more complete picture of the patterns of use of the health system (see Figure 3). The numerator is always service statistics for deliveries in the facilities, while the denominator— the expected number of live births—is usually calculated from the best available data and by multiplying the total population of the area by the crude birth rate of the same area. Other methods for calculating the expected number of live births can also be used.

Minimum acceptable level No minimum acceptable level is proposed. In the previous edition of this handbook, the minimum acceptable level was set at 15% of expected births. In the intervening years, many governments have committed themselves to increasing the proportion of women who give birth in health facilities, and some are aiming for 100%. Therefore, the minimum target for this indicator should be set by national or local governments.


Background

effort needed to count births rather than women giving

Indicator 3 was originally proposed to determine

birth might not be necessary, nor is it likely to change

whether women are using the EmOC facilities identified by indicators 1 (Availability of EmOC services) and 2 (Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities), and it serves as a crude indicator of the use of obstetric services by pregnant women. In situations where record systems are inadequate to collect data for Indicator 4 (Met need for EmOC), the number of women giving birth in health facilities is almost always available. Use of these data can give administrators a rough idea of the extent to which pregnant women are using the health system, especially when combined with information on which facilities provide EmOC. The optimal long-term objective is that all births take place in (or very near to) health facilities in which obstetric complications can be treated when they arise. Many countries have made having 100% of deliveries in institutions their main strategy for reducing maternal mortality. As they move closer to that objective, other problems arise. In many countries, health systems are unable to cope with the added patient load without major expansion in facilities and staff, and managers have limited information on how health facilities are functioning. Giving birth in a health facility does not necessarily equate with high-quality care or fewer maternal deaths. Smaller health facilities may not have adequately trained staff, or staff may not have the equipment or the authority to treat lifethreatening complications. Many facilities do not function well because of poor management, which should be remedied before the number of births in the facility is increased greatly (107, 108). For these reasons, the EmOC status of health facilities is included in Indicator 3 (Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities), and we recommend that this indicator be calculated and interpreted with the other indicators.

the conclusions drawn from the results. The numbers of women giving birth in facilities are obtained from health facility record systems and are often collected for monthly reports to the government. The EmOC status of the health facility in which the delivery takes place is available from the results of routine monitoring or needs assessments under Indicator 1. The total expected number of births in an area is based on information about the population and the crude birth rate. National statistics offices tend to base population projections on the results of their most recent census. They may also have regional crude birth rates. If not, the crude birth rate is often available from national population-based surveys, such as Demographic and Health Surveys. When possible, estimates for the specific geographical area should be used rather than applying the national crude birth rate to all regions. Regions are often selected for interventions or programmes because of special needs and therefore tend to have poorer indicators than at national level. Usually, the birth rate in poorer areas is higher than the national average, so that use of the national average would result in an underestimate of the expected number of births, and the proportion delivered in facilities would therefore be overestimated. Parallel analysis of the proportion of all births in all the facilities surveyed allows comparison of the proportion of births in EmOC facilities with the proportion of births in all facilities. This indicates the extent to which other facilities provide delivery services. Figure 3 shows that, for example in Chad all the births in facilities were in EmOC facilities, while in Bolivia, Mozambique and Senegal, the proportions of births in non-EmOC facilities added 9–22%. In contrast, in Benin, only a small proportion of institutional births occurred in facilities where most obstetric complications could be treated.

Data collection and analysis Although the name of the indicator is ‘Proportion of births in EmOC facilities,’ in practice the numerator is the number of women giving birth and not the number of infants born. We recognize that the number of births will be slightly higher than the number of women giving birth, because of multiple births; however, the extra

This indicator can also be analysed by level of facility (hospital and non-hospital), by ownership or management (public and private) and by subnational area, in order to determine where women are delivering. Are women more likely to deliver in private or government facilities? Are there more institutional deliveries

17


Figure 3. Proportions of all births in EmOC facilities and all surveyed facilities

80%

60%

Institutional birth

18

59%

40% 9% 20%

22%

19% 24% 9%

10%

Chad (2002)

Senegal (2001)

12%

13%

Mozambique (2000)

Benin (2002)

0% Bolivia (2003)

EmOC Facilities

Non-EmOC facilities

From references (7, 37, 56).

in certain subnational areas? Disaggregating data in

these questions have important implications for public

this way can provide more specific information about

health and human rights.

which interventions are most needed, and where.

Interpretation and presentation Overall, this indicator shows the volume of maternity services provided by facilities. If there appears to be under-use, the reasons should be explored. To increase use, emphasis should be placed on enabling women with complications to use EmOC facilities. The first goal of programmes to reduce maternal mortality should be to ensure that 100% of women with obstetric complications access to functioning emergency facilities.

Supplementary studies

Which women are not coming to the facilities? Even if the use of health facilities (including EmOC facilities) is fairly high, it is worthwhile investigating which women are not using them. Certain factors strongly affect use of services in a particular area, such as distance to the facility, prevalence of ethnic or religious minority groups, level of education (often an indication of social status), the reputation of the facility and poverty. Information on some of these factors, such as residence, may already be available in health facility records, and records can be reviewed to determine whether women come from all parts of the catchment area or only from the town in which the facility is located. For factors for which information is

At the local level, additional studies to understand the

not routinely recorded, a study can be conducted. For

use of services better are almost always useful. Which

example, students or staff members can be posted in

groups of women are using the services? Which

a maternity ward for a few weeks or a month to record

women are not, and why? Clearly, the answers to

relevant information. It would be important, however,


to train and supervise these data collectors to ensure

experienced or have heard about, those practices

that they follow confidentiality rules, treat patients and

can be discussed with staff at the facility to

their families respectfully and ask for information in an

determine how the facility norms can be adapted

unbiased manner.

to local customs or desires.

Ideally, the profile of the women who use the services can be compared with that of women in the population (national population-based surveys) in order to determine the characteristics of the women who are underrepresented as users of the facility (109).

• If the cost of services is an obstacle, medical emergency funds or insurance schemes have proven successful in some places (111). Who attends births in facilities? Deliveries in institutions are not necessarily attended

Why do some women not use the facility?

by skilled birth attendants (112). Therefore, a study

Once the groups of women who are underrepresented

could be carried out to see which cadres of workers

in the facility have been identified, it is important to find out why. One should not assume that they know the reason, even if they have grown up in the region. If the assumption is wrong, any ‘corrective action’ taken will probably not work (110). Women should be questioned, either through interviews or in focus groups; or studies to compare subpopulations could be con-

are involved in deliveries and their level of competence. Providers could be interviewed to determine their understanding; observational studies would allow on-site verification of practices; and retrospective chart reviews would allow an assessment of those aspects of care that should be documented on charts or patient records.

ducted, after adjustment for need or statistical control for confounding factors.

2.4 Indicator 4: Met need for EmOC

Various activities can be used to improve use, depend-

Description

ing on the factors that discourage it.

‘Met need’ is an estimate of the proportion of all

• If focus group discussions show that people lack

women with major direct obstetric complications who

basic information about obstetric complications,

are treated in a health facility providing EmOC (basic

a community education programme would be in

or comprehensive). The numerator is the number of

order. The precise form of the programme would

women treated for direct obstetric complications at

be determined by local circumstances, but it

emergency care facilities over a defined period, divided

should be aimed not only at pregnant women but

by the expected number of women who would have

also at the people who influence their decision to

major obstetric complications, or 15% of expected

seek care, such as other women of reproductive

births, during the same period in a specified area. The

age, partners, mothers-in-law and traditional birth

direct obstetric complications included in this indica-

attendants.

tor are: haemorrhage (antepartum and postpartum),

• If transport from a village to the EmOC facility is a problem, the community could be mobilized to coordinate the use of existing vehicles. • If poor roads are a barrier to care, the local government should be approached to improve

prolonged and obstructed labour, postpartum sepsis, complications of abortion, severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, ectopic pregnancy and ruptured uterus. (For the operational definitions of these direct obstetric complications, refer to Box 2.)

them. If shortages of supplies or poor overall

As we did for Indicator 3, we strongly recommend that

quality of care make people feel that going to the

met need be calculated at all health facilities as well as

hospital is not worth the trouble, solutions to the

at EmOC facilities, to provide a more complete picture

problems should be sought.

of the use of the health system and where women are

• If women are reluctant to use the services because of practices they have previously

being treated.

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Box 2. Operational definitions of major direct obstetric complications Haemorrhage Antepartum •• severe bleeding before and during labour: placenta praevia, placental abruption Postpartum (any of the following) •• bleeding that requires treatment (e.g. provision of intravenous fluids, uterotonic drugs or blood) •• retained placenta •• severe bleeding from lacerations (vaginal or cervical) •• vaginal bleeding in excess of 500 ml after childbirth •• more than one pad soaked in blood in 5 minutes Prolonged or obstructed labour (dystocia, abnormal labour) (any of the following) • prolonged established first stage of labour (> 12 h) • prolonged second stage of labour (> 1 h) • cephalo-pelvic disproportion, including scarred uterus • malpresentation: transverse, brow or face presentation Postpartum sepsis

• A temperature of 38 °C or higher more than 24 h after delivery (with at least two readings, as labour alone can cause some fever) and any one of the following signs and symptoms: lower abdominal pain, purulent, offensive vaginal discharge (lochia), tender uterus, uterus not well contracted, history of heavy vaginal bleeding (Rule out malaria.) Complications of abortion (spontaneous or induced)

• haemorrhage due to abortion which requires resuscitation with intravenous fluids, blood transfusion or uterotonics

• sepsis due to abortion (including perforation and pelvic abscess) Severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia

• Severe pre-eclampsia: Diastolic blood pressure ≥ 110 mm Hg or proteinuria ≥ 3 after 20 weeks’ gestation. Various signs and symptoms: headache, hyperflexia, blurred vision, oliguria, epigastric pain, pulmonary oedema • Eclampsia • Convulsions; diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mm Hg after 20 weeks’ gestation or proteinuria ≥ 2. Signs and symptoms of severe pre-eclampsia may be present Ectopic pregnancy

• Internal bleeding from a pregnancy outside the uterus; lower abdominal pain and shock possible from internal bleeding; delayed menses or positive pregnancy test Ruptured uterus

• Uterine rupture with a history of prolonged or obstructed labour when uterine contractions suddenly stopped. Painful abdomen (pain may decrease after rupture of uterus). Patient may be in shock from internal or vaginal bleeding

From references (95, 97, 98).


Minimum acceptable level

alence of 0.8–8.2% (113). Reviewed studies varied

As the goal is that all women who have obstetric com-

in terms of the range and severity of obstetric

plications will receive EmOC, the minimum acceptable

complications included and the timing of compli-

level is 100%. Governments may wish to set interim

cations (intrapartum and postpartum periods).

targets once they have a baseline and they have

• A prospective study of deliveries in India showed

embarked on interventions to improve the availability

a 17.7% incidence of direct obstetric complica-

and use of such care.

tions during labour. This study did not include complications occurring during pregnancy (such

Background Met need is a more refined measure of the use of EmOC than Indicator 3 (Proportion of all births in EmOC health facilities), as it addresses whether the women who really need life-saving obstetric care receive it.

as complications of abortion), so the actual percentage of women with direct complications was probably higher. The authors concluded that 15.3% of women needed EmOC, and 24% more needed non-emergency medical attention (115). A second study in India showed that 14.4% of deliveries were associated with serious complications,

In order to estimate met need for EmOC, one must

but this study too was restricted to complications

first estimate the total need, and then compare the

around the time of childbirth (116). A study of

number of women with serious obstetric complica-

national data for 1991–1992 in the United States, a

tions who receive emergency care in such facilities.

country with low maternal mortality, showed a total

The total need for EmOC is estimated to be 15% of

of 18 hospitalizations for obstetric and pregnancy

all births, although there has been considerable dis-

loss per 100 births (117). These findings were

cussion about the expected number of complications.

confirmed by more recent data (66). Although the

Studies have produced a range of results:

results vary, the technical consultation decided

• A review of studies in various geographical regions based on various definitions and methods have shown levels of met need as low as 1% (113). • One prospective population-based study in six West African countries showed that 6% of pregnant women had severe direct obstetric complications (114). The authors reported that their findings were likely to be underestimates because the definitions of the complications that they used were linked to medical interventions that might not have been available at all the participating facilities. In addition, they included only direct obstetric complications occurring in late stages of pregnancy and omitted complications of abortion and ectopic pregnancies. • A systematic review of the prevalence of severe acute maternal morbidity (‘near miss’ events) based on disease-specific criteria showed a prev-

to maintain 15% as an average estimate of the frequency of serious direct complications for the purposes of estimating the need for EmOC.

Data collection and analysis To calculate met need, information is needed on women in these facilities who are treated for the major obstetric complications listed in Box 2. The definitions were derived from WHO (Managing complications in pregnancy and childbirth and Pregnancy, childbirth, postpartum and newborn care) (95, 98) and the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics Save the Mothers Project. Standardization of definitions can be improved by training and supervision. These definitions are critical for training health workers, enumerators or interviewers who collect such data either routinely or as part of an EmOC needs assessment.

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Routine maternity record systems in many countries

Poor records usually bias findings, leading to under-

may not register the ‘reason for admission’ or ‘mater-

estimates of complications in facilities, and this must

nal complications’, although complications can lead

be taken into account in interpreting the data. In

to maternal deaths. Appendix B gives a list of the

many situations, the level of EmOC being provided is

information needed to calculate the indicators and the

so low that, allowing for substantial under-counting,

types of registers that should be consulted. It also lists

the results do not change very much. Figure 4 shows

items that good registers might include, such as the

actual measurements of met need over several years.

time of admission and the time of definitive interven-

If the records show that only 6% of the need for EmOC

tion, which are useful for studying the interval between

is being met in an area and the true proportion is

admission and emergency caesarean section as an

assumed to be twice as high, the met need is still only

indicator of hospital efficiency (118).

12%. This sort of change will not alter programming.

It is likely that incomplete or poor records will be found when data for calculating met need and some of the other indicators are collected, especially the first time. As periodic collection of such data becomes part of routine programme monitoring, record keeping should improve. The question is what to do when data collection problems are encountered?

As record keeping improves, however, met need will increase and the challenge will be to understand the attribution: Is the increase in met need a true increase or is it a function of better data collection? Improved data collection is a success in itself, and longer programme monitoring should help determine if the met need is really increasing.

Figure 4. Increases in met need for EmOC during AMDD-supported projects (2000–2004)

Countries in Latin America

Countries in North Africa

Countries in sub-Saharan Africa

Countries in Asia

From Bailey, P. Evaluating AMDD Phase 1: Policy and Service Improvements. In Delivering Safer Motherhood Symposium - Sharing the Evidence. 2007. London, UK: Unpublished data.


The most variable element in estimating met need

ble counting and its effect on met need, we recom-

for EmOC is likely to be complications of abortion.

mend that a study be designed to measure the effect.

While it is difficult to gather information on the inci-

The results of this special study can then be taken into

dence of unsafe abortions (because they are generally

account when interpreting the general findings.

clandestine), the WHO report Unsafe abortion: global and regional estimates of incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2003 showed that the frequency of unsafe abortions varies by geographical area, from three per 100 live births in Europe to 29 per

Many health facilities, of course, perform some but not all of the basic EmOC signal functions. As these facilities may well avert some maternal deaths, we recommend that met need in both EmOC facilities and in all

100 live births in Africa (119).

the facilities surveyed be calculated. Even when many

Moreover, recording of abortion complications is highly

important to find out how many obstetric complica-

variable, including inaccuracies in whether the abor-

tions they manage.

facilities do not perform a few signal functions, it is still

tion was merely incomplete (which could eventually lead to a complicated abortion) or truly complicated (with haemorrhage or sepsis) at the time of treatment or admission. In some settings, no attempt is made to distinguish between the two. Thus, complications of abortion might actually be over-reported. The definition given in Box 2 covers only those abortion complications that include haemorrhage or sepsis.

Interpretation and presentation If the minimum acceptable level for this indicator is not met, i.e. is less than 100%, some women with complications are not receiving the medical care they need. This is likely to be the norm where maternal mortality is high. If there are adequate numbers of EmOC facilities, women give birth in those facilities and the met

It would not be appropriate, however, to exclude abor-

need is less than 100%, the national priority must be to

tions from the calculation of met need, as complica-

improve use of the facilities by women with complica-

tions of abortion are a major cause of maternal death

tions. Depending on the situation, strategies for meet-

in some countries and regions. For example, in Latin

ing this objective could include improving the quality

America and the Caribbean, 12% of maternal deaths

of care at facilities, eliminating barriers to seeking care

are attributable to complications from abortion (120).

(e.g. transport or cost) and educating the community to

Given the reporting difficulties, analysts presenting

recognize complications and the importance of seek-

data on met need should state explicitly what types

ing care. Met need may also be low because obstet-

of abortion they have included and consider conduct-

ric complications are poorly recorded in registers. In

ing studies to examine the subject in greater detail. If

this case, it is advisable to study record keeping at

it is suspected that abortions without serious compli-

the facility (see discussion above and ‘supplementary

cations (i.e. without haemorrhage or sepsis) are being

studies’ below).

recorded as ‘obstetric complications’, it might be useful to calculate and report met need with and without abortions, for comparison (88).

If the met need is close to 100%, one might ask what definition of abortion is used, because it is not uncommon for met need to exceed 100% if all abor-

A frequently asked question is the possibility of over-

tions (incomplete, missed, spontaneous, induced) are

reporting due to ‘double-counting’ of women who are

included in the numerator. If that is not the case, it is

admitted to more than one facility, as in the case of a

reasonable to conclude that most women who need

referral, or who are admitted to the same facility more

EmOC services are receiving them. As discussed ear-

than once during a pregnancy. We recommend that

lier, since the true incidence of complications in the

referrals be counted at the facility at which the women

population might be greater than 15%, it is possible

receive definitive treatment. A study in Thailand

that even if met need is 100% there are still women

showed that met need was inflated by 16% because

who are not receiving the life-saving EmOC services

of double counting and dropped to 96% once it had

they need. For this reason alone, the level of met need

been adjusted for (90). If there is concern about dou-

might be greater than 100%. This should not be inter-

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preted as being due to faulty data, e.g. over-diagnosis

ers might consider counting them twice, and with a

of complications; it is possible that the geographical

study of referrals they can also document the effect

distribution of EmOC facilities is uneven, and met

of double counting on met need and make any neces-

need exceeds 100% because women from outside

sary adjustments.

the catchment area come to the facility. Like the question of double counting, a study of who uses the facility could help explain a met need higher than 100%. When interpreting the indicators, it is helpful to look at indicators 3 and 4 at the same time.

Several types of study could be used to explore the quality of record keeping at a facility: • Examine how records are kept. Does someone enter complications into the register 24 h/day, or does the senior nurse document them only once a day from verbal reports by other staff? This


practice could lead to serious underreporting.

While met need for EmOC is a gauge of the level of

Discussions with staff about recent cases can pro-

such care in an area, it does not show what is required,

vide insight into how records are kept.

and a low met need cannot indicate where the problem lies. It might be due to under-recording of complications or to one of many factors that affect the use of services, and further investigation is required. It is important to ensure that women from all the communities in the area are treated at the facility. (See the section on additional studies under Indicator 3 for more ways of exploring this topic.) Studies to address two questions would provide a deeper understanding of who is included in met need and how they affect this indicator: • How many women have complications after they are admitted to hospital, and which complications are they likely to have once admitted? • How many women are admitted with signs

• Compare the complications recorded in the maternity register with patient charts, operating theatre registers or emergency admissions logbooks. What proportion of serious complications is not reported in the register that is usually used for calculating met need? Which complications appear to be most underreported? How do your findings change when you correct for this underreporting? How often does a diagnosis of complication change between the admissions register and the operating theatre register? • Examine how abortion complications are recorded by discussing the records and case notes with staff. Are minor complications, or even all incomplete abortions, counted as ‘complications’? Remember, for calculating met need, only serious

and symptoms of complications, and which

complications, such as complications of abortion

complications are those?

with sepsis and haemorrhage, are counted.

When women with complications are stabilized at a

• For more detailed monitoring of abortion

lower-level facility before referral to a higher level of

complications, we recommend a set of ‘process

care, we suggest that they be counted only at the

indicators for safe abortion’, which include

facility where they receive definitive treatment. There

11 signal functions that define basic and

is no easy mechanism for finding out whether a

comprehensive care. Like the EmOC indicators,

referred woman reaches her destination. A study of

the safe abortion indicators measure the

the women referred, their treatment before referral,

availability, distribution, use and quality of safe

their compliance with referral and their definitive treat-

abortion services (121-123).

ment would elucidate the effect of double counting on met need and would also show how well the referral system functions. In the field, staff at lower levels has argued in favour of counting these women twice, as they claim that they too have treated them, usually by stabilization. To raise morale, programme manag-

• Knowing more about how well and how completely logbooks are kept up can identify problems. Investigate whether staff training or supervision of record keeping reduces underreporting over time, and then disseminate your results.


2.5 Indicator 5: Caesarean sections as a proportion of all births

research that shows a negative effect of high rates

Description

threshold not to be exceeded. Nevertheless, the rates

The proportion of all deliveries by caesarean section in a geographical area is a measure of access to and use of a common obstetric intervention for averting maternal and neonatal deaths and for preventing complications such as obstetric fistula. The numerator is the number of caesarean sections performed in EmOC facilities for any indication during a specific period, and the denominator is the expected number of live births (in the whole catchment area, not just in institutions) during the same period. Occasionally, hospitals in which caesarean sections are performed lack one of the basic signal functions of EmOC and do not qualify as such a facility. Therefore, as for indicators 3 and 4, we recommend that this indicator be calculated for both EmOC facilities and all facilities.

(126-128). It should be noted that the proposed upper limit of 15% is not a target to be achieved but rather a in most developed countries and in many urban areas of lesser-developed countries are above that threshold. Ultimately, what matters most is that all women who need caesarean sections actually receive them. The technical consultation for these guidelines noted the difficulty of establishing a lower or upper limit for the proportion of caesarean sections and suggested that a lower limit of 5% is reasonable for caesareans performed for both maternal and fetal reasons. If elective or planned caesarean sections and those performed for fetal indications were excluded, a lower range would be indicated; however, the record system may not always register the indication for the operation and such precision is usually not available. A detailed analysis of the reasons for caesarean section in a hospital would be worthwhile. Where maternal mortality is high, the rate of caesarean

Minimum and maximum acceptable levels

sections tends to be low, especially in rural areas. A

Both very low and very high rates of caesarean section

recent review of global, regional and national rates of

can be dangerous, but the optimum rate is unknown.

caesarean section showed that the lowest rate (3.5%)

Pending further research, users of this handbook

was in Africa; in the 49 least-developed countries, the

might want to continue to use a range of 5–15% or set

rates ranged from 0.4% in Chad to 6% in Cape Verde

their own standards.

(or an average of 2%) (129). Figure 5 shows how low rates of caesarean section in several countries of Asia

Background The proportion of births by caesarean section was

and in sub-Saharan Africa changed after several years of interventions to improve EmOC.

chosen as the indicator of provision of life-saving ser-

Despite the clear inverse relation between very high

vices for both mothers and newborns, although other

maternal mortality and low rates of caesarean sec-

surgical interventions (such as hysterectomy for a rup-

tion, this procedure (like any major surgery) carries a

tured uterus or laparotomy for an ectopic pregnancy)

risk for surgical or anaesthetic accident, postopera-

can also save maternal lives. Of all the procedures

tive infection, and even death for the patient (129). A

used to treat major obstetric complications, caesar-

uterine scar increases the risk for uterine rupture in

ean section is one of the commonest, and reporting is

future pregnancies. Where conditions in a facility are

relatively reliable (124).

particularly precarious, the case fatality rate among

Earlier editions of this handbook set a minimum (5%) and a maximum (15%) acceptable level for caesarean section. Although WHO has recommended since 1985 that the rate not exceed 10–15% (125), there is no empirical evidence for an optimum percentage or range of percentages, despite a growing body of

women who undergo caesarean sections can be unacceptably high, as found by the Network for Unmet Obstetric Need in Benin, Burkina Faso, Haiti, Mali and Niger in 1998 and 1999.1 The risks should be weighed against the potential benefits of the surgery. In the 1

de Brouwere V. Personal communication about case fertility rates for caesareans, 2006.

25

26


case of transverse fetal lie, when external version fails


or is not advisable, the benefits of surgery definitely

While data on the rate of caesarean sections can be

outweigh the risks. Without a caesarean section, most women with obstructed labour will either die or be severely maimed (130). A caesarean section is the key intervention for preventing obstetric fistula caused by prolonged or obstructed labour, making this indicator an important means for measuring progress in the prevention of this condition. Many observers consider that we are experiencing a worldwide epidemic of overuse of caesarean section (131) and that the rates will continue to rise, in view of practitioners’ and administrators’ fear of litigation, local hospital culture and practitioner style as well as increasing pressure from women in highly industrialized countries to undergo caesarean sections for nonmedical reasons (132, 133). At the same time, evidence

collected in population surveys, such as demographic and health surveys, data for this indicator are collected from hospital records (134), as rates based on service statistics are considered more precise than population-based rates, which tend to be marginally higher than those based on health facility records (124). Facility data are collected routinely from operating theatre logbooks, which are often the most complete records available. The numerator for this indicator covers caesarean sections performed for all indications, including those for maternal and neonatal reasons, as well as caesarean sections performed in emergencies and those that are planned or scheduled.

for the negative consequences of caesarean section is

Throughout the discussion of the indicators, we have

increasing: recent studies in countries with high rates

stressed the importance of including data from all

suggest that caesarean section carries increased risks

types of facilities. In countries or regions where the

for maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality

private sector plays a major role in delivering obstet-

(126-128). Figure 5. Caesarean sections as a proportion of births in AMDD-supported projects (2000–2005)

s

From Bailey, P. Evaluating AMDD Phase 1: Policy and Service Improvements in Delivering Safer Motherhood Symposium - Sharing the Evidence. 2007. London, UK: Unpublished data.


ric services, the rate of caesarean section will be par-

interpret, because it depends on the patients in the

ticularly sensitive to inclusion of such hospitals. For

hospital (Is the hospital a regional referral hospital that

instance, in Latin America and Asia, the proportion of

receives many complicated cases? Or is it a district

caesarean sections is higher in private than in public

hospital, where most complicated cases are referred

facilities. In El Salvador, roughly one-half of all caesar-

further?) as well as the skills, preferences and habits of

ean sections are performed outside the public sector,

the providers. The population-based indicator recom-

through the private sector and social security hospi-

mended here gives an overview of the level of provi-

tals (135). This raises the possibility that some of these

sion of this critical service in a geographical region.

operations are performed (or not) for financial, rather than medical, reasons.

To reduce the possibility that this indicator will mask

A common misunderstanding of this indicator is that it

we strongly encourage authorities to look closely at

refers to the proportion of deliveries in a hospital that

their data. For instance, in Morocco, Peru and Viet

are performed by caesarean section, i.e. the ‘insti-

Nam, the national rates of caesarean section are

tutional caesarean section rate’ or the proportion of

5–15%, but the national data mask the high rates in

deliveries in the facility that are done by caesarean

major cities and the very low rates in rural areas. The

section. The institutional caesarean rate is difficult to

range of patterns is shown in Table 7.

inequities in access to and use of caesarean section,

Table 7. Population rates of caesarean section from Demographic and Health Surveys among women who gave birth within three years of the survey. Region

Country

Rate of caesarean section

Year

Total

Urban

Rural

Latin America

Dominican Republic Peru

2002 2000

33.1 12.9

36.2 21.0

27.2 3.2

South-East Asia

Bangladesh Nepal Viet Nam

2004 2001 2002

4.5 1.0 9.9

13.7 5.0 22.9

2.2 0.7 7.2

Africa

Ethiopia Kenya Morocco Zambia

2000 2003 2003–2004 2001–2002

0.6 4.3 5.6 2.2

5.2 9.5 9.3 4.4

0.1 3.0 1.9 1.2

From reference (134)

Another example of inequitable access to caesarean

national rates of 2.0–4.9% (136). This analysis shows

section is presented in Figure 6. Ronsmans et al. used

that the poorest women have less access to this life-

demographic and health survey data to show the

saving procedure.

range of rates by wealth quintile in 13 countries with

27


Figure 6. Rates of caesarean section by wealth quintile in 13 countries with national rates between 2.0% and 4.9% 19 18 17 16

Côte d’lvoire 98

Uganda 00

Pakistan 90

Malawi 00

Ghana 03

Benin 01

Comoros 96

Rwanda 00

Bangladesh 04

Indonesia 02

Tanzania 99

Mozambique 02

Kenya 03

Key: Country and year data

15 14 13 Percent of deliveries by caesarean

28

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Poorest quintile

Poor quintile

Middle quintile

Richer quintile

Richest quintile

Reproduced, with permission, from reference (136).

Interpretation and presentation When less than 1–2% of births are by caesarean sec-

the uncertainty between these classifications also increases (137).

tion, there is little doubt that pregnant women have poor access to surgical facilities. Rates in this range


are common in rural sub-Saharan Africa and in some

Who has caesarean section and where?

countries of South Asia (Figure 6 and Table 7). Where caesarean section rates are very low, most are probably done for maternal emergencies; as the rates increase, a greater share may be for fetal emergencies. As the number of caesarean sections increases,

Studies on caesarean sections should include the proportions of births in urban and rural areas, as well as in smaller administrative or geographical units. Variables that are used to measure equity, such as economic


quintiles, ethnicity and education, can be used to

devised to address shortages of health professionals

reveal where access to services is limited. Another

in rural areas. One strategy that has been successfully

method for understanding data on caesarean sec-

used in Malawi, Mozambique and the United Republic

tions is investigating the type of hospital (e.g. public or

of Tanzania is to train mid-level providers (e.g. clinical

private) where caesarean sections are performed, as

officers, assistant medical officers) to perform cae-

this can indicate how the various components of the

sarean sections (141–144). Similarly, in India, a new

health system interact.

programme under the auspices of the Government

Indications for caesarean section The final responsibility for ensuring that caesarean section is performed only when necessary is with cli-

and the obstetrics society is training doctors with a Bachelor’s degree in medicine and surgery in comprehensive EmOC, including caesarean section (145).

nicians. The chief medical officer or the head of an

Quality of care

obstetrics and gynaecology department in a hospital

Training, supervision and leadership by senior physi-

should review the indications for the caesareans that

cians are important in maintaining standards. National

are performed. One approach is to look at the pro-

societies of obstetrics and gynaecology should

portion performed for absolute maternal indications,

encourage the use of evidence-based protocols. In

which would almost certainly lead to the woman’s

facilities at all levels, routine clinical audits can be used

death if untreated, including severe antepartum haem-

to monitor change, improve practice and maintain a

orrhage due to placenta praevia or placental abruption,

good quality of care; several tools exist to facilitate

major cephalo-pelvic disproportion, transverse lie and

this process (146–148). The infection rate in women

brow presentation (138). Another approach is to iden-

who have undergone obstetric surgery is another indi-

tify caesarean sections that are performed for mater-

cator of the quality of care.

nal and for fetal indications, and a third approach is to use the Robson classification system, which relies on

Unmet obstetric need

the characteristics of women who have had caesarean

The indicator ‘Unmet obstetric need’ is not the same

sections (139). The classification sorts women into 10

as Indicator 4 (Met need for EmOC) but describes the

mutually exclusive groups on the basis of parity, previ-

need for obstetric surgery for absolute maternal indica-

ous obstetric history, the course of labour and delivery

tions. Indicator 4 encompasses all the direct obstetric

and gestational age (140). It can be used to identify

complications treated with the EmOC signal functions,

women who have had caesarean sections for reasons

which are both surgical and nonsurgical (e.g. paren-

other than as a response to an imminent emergency.

teral anticonvulsants, uterotonic drugs). The indicator

Who performs caesarean sections?

for unmet obstetric need refers to the need for obstetric surgery, including hysterectomy or laparotomy,

When the level of Indicator 5 is under the recom-

in addition to caesarean section. Caesarean section

mended minimum, poorly functioning health facilities

constitutes most obstetric surgical procedures. This

may be a contributing factor. This often results from

indicator focuses strictly on maternal life-threatening

factors such as postings and transfers of key staff or

conditions for which major obstetric surgery is per-

a real shortage of health professionals trained to per-

formed. It is intended to help health personnel answer

form this life-saving service. Studies can be done to

the questions:

investigate whether this indicator is affected by lack of human resources. For example, an analysis of who is trained and authorized to provide caesarean sec-

• Are pregnant women receiving the major surgical obstetric interventions they need?

tions may be informative. In countries where a small

• How many women’s needs are unmet?

group of health professionals, primarily based at facili-

• Where are those women whose needs are unmet?

ties in large urban centres, are the only practitioners able to provide caesarean section, a strategy must be

Box 3 provides detailed information on this indicator.

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Box 3. Indicator of unmet obstetric need Unmet obstetric need is an estimate of the number of women needing a major obstetric intervention for life-threatening complications who did not have access to appropriate care. This indicator is particularly appropriate for identifying geographical or social inequity in access to hospital care. The concept The concept of unmet obstetric need is the difference between the number of women who need obstetric surgery and the number of women who are in fact covered by health services.

Estimated

Observed number

Estimated number

number of

of major obstetric

of women who

absolute maternal indications

–

interventions performed for

=

needed but did not

absolute maternal

receive life-saving care

indications

The indicator is restricted to absolute (life-threatening) obstetric indications that require obstetric surgery (caesarean section, hysterectomy, laparotomy) or internal version and craniotomy. A standard list of such indications was drawn up on the basis of the degree of severity of the indication, the relative stability of its incidence and relatively reproducible diagnosis. It comprises:

• antepartum haemorrhage due to placenta praevia or abruptio placenta; • abnormal presentation (transverse lie or shoulder presentation, face with persistent mentoposterior position or brow presentation); • major feto-pelvic disproportion (e.g. mechanical cephalo-pelvic disproportion, small pelvis including pre-rupture and rupture of uterus); and • uncontrollable postpartum haemorrhage. In most situations, the incidence of obstetric need is not known precisely. A benchmark can be used to estimate the number of women with absolute maternal indications, which is 1.4% (95% confidence interval, 1.27–1.52), the median for five sub-Saharan African countries, Haiti, Morocco and Pakistan (http://www.uonn.org/uonn/pdf/engintc00.pdf). Multiplied by the number of expected births in an area, this gives the estimated number of women with absolute maternal indications in the area. The second element of the equation—the number of major obstetric interventions actually performed for absolute maternal indications—is the sum of all such interventions performed in the population of women in the area, wherever the intervention took place (private or public sector, in or outside the defined area). The difference between the number of women with absolute maternal indications and the number of major obstetric interventions actually performed for those indications is the unmet need. Example: In the rural part of district X, 20 000 births are expected in 2007. The number of major obstetric interventions for absolute maternal indications is estimated to be 1.4% (benchmark) x 20 000 = 280 interventions. When all public and private comprehensive emergency obstetric care facilities had been visited, the total number of major obstetric interventions performed for absolute maternal indications was 84. The unmet need was thus 280 – 84 = 196, or an unmet need of 70%. This means that 196 women did not have access to necessary life-saving surgery. For additional information and forms used to construct this indicator, see the website of the unmet obstetric needs network, www.uonn.org.


2.6 Indicator 6: Direct obstetric case fatality rate

Background After determining the availability and use of services, the next concern is quality of care, which is the subject

Description

of a growing, complex literature. The set of EmOC indi-

The direct obstetric case fatality rate is the proportion

cators includes the direct obstetric case fatality rate as

of women admitted to an EmOC facility with major

a relatively crude indicator of quality. This should be

direct obstetric complications, or who develop such

supplemented with more detailed assessments.

complications after admission, and die before discharge. We include all seven major obstetric compli-

In the earlier editions of this publication, this indicator

cations listed in Box 2.

was simply called the ‘case fatality rate’. It has been renamed ‘Direct obstetric case fatality rate’ for the

The numerator is the number of women dying of direct

sake of clarity and because a new indicator has been

obstetric complications during a specific period at

added for indirect obstetric complications.

an EmOC facility. The denominator is the number of women who were treated for all direct obstetric com-

Researchers have gained substantial experience with

plications at the same facility during the same period.

this indicator in the past 10 years. Periodic monitor-

In general, the denominator for the direct obstetric

ing (every 6–12 months) has been the norm when the

case fatality rate is the numerator for met need.

EmOC indicators are used routinely (15, 36, 65). The available data, an example of which is presented in

Like indicators 3–5, the direct obstetric case fatal-

Table 8, indicates that substantial reductions are pos-

ity rate should be calculated for all facilities, not just

sible within 3–5 years, if not sooner, with improved

EmOC facilities. It is usually calculated at individual

quality of obstetric care. The direct obstetric case

facilities and across facilities, especially those of the

fatality rate in these studies ranged from almost 2%

same type, such as district hospitals.

to 10%, whereas an analysis of application of the EmOC indicators to data from the United States in 2000 showed a direct obstetric case fatality rate of

Maximum acceptable level The maximum acceptable level is less than 1%.

0.06%. (66)

Table 8. Direct obstetric case fatality rates before and after interventions to improve emergency obstetric care Setting

Before interventions

After interventions

Reduction

Ayacucho, Peru (2000–2004, five facilities)

1.7%

0.1%

94%

Gisarme, Rwanda (2001–2004, three facilities)

2.0%

0.9%

55%

Mwanza, United Republic of Tanzania (2000–2004, four facilities)

3.0%

1.9%

37%

Sofala, Mozambique (2000–2005, 12 facilities)

3.5%

1.7%

33%

Oromiya, Ethiopia (2000–2004, three facilities)

10.4%

5.2%

50%

From references (15, 36, 65)

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Given the range, 1% would appear to be a reasonable

of the health system, or for a subset of facilities in

maximum acceptable level, falling between the rates

that system (see Table 11 in section 2.9). Averaging

for less and more developed countries. The post-

the rates for all facilities is one crude monitoring mea-

intervention rates in Table 8 show that it is possible to

sure, but it does not show which facilities contribute

reduce a high rate to below 1%; however, countries

most heavily to the direct obstetric case fatality rate

that reach this benchmark should strive to reduce the

and therefore where interventions are most needed.

rate even further. Sometimes, circumstances beyond

To identify those facilities or regions that need greater

the control of hospital managers may make it difficult

attention, data from various types of facilities (or in

to achieve a rate below 1%. If few facilities provide

different areas) can be analysed separately and then

basic and comprehensive EmOC, women with com-

combined.

plications are likely to arrive at the hospital after a long journey, jeopardizing their survival. There are nevertheless low-cost ways to improve the quality of care and to reduce the direct obstetric case fatality rate progressively.


Interpretation and presentation Direct obstetric case fatality rates do not take into account deaths outside the health system. This does not affect the value of the indicator, because it is used only to measure the performance of the EmOC facility. If the indicators of the availability of facilities, the pro-

The direct obstetric case fatality rate can be calcu-

portion of births in facilities and met need (indicators

lated for any facility that treats complications, expe-

1–5) show that EmOC services are well distributed and

riences maternal deaths and has adequate records

well used and the direct obstetric case fatality rates

on both these events. The same issues in collect-

are low, it is safe to say that the maternal care sys-

ing data on major direct obstetric complications for

tem in the country is working fairly well. If, however,

met need apply, although new issues arise for the

the direct obstetric case fatality rate is acceptable but

collection of information on the number of maternal

EmOC coverage or met need is insufficient, the impli-

deaths. Maternal deaths are notoriously underesti-

cation is that women who deliver in EmOC facilities

mated because of misclassification or underreport-

are likely to survive but maternal deaths outside health

ing, sometimes out of fear of rebuke or reprisal (149).

facilities might still be common.

Both deaths and complications should be thoroughly sought in all wards where adult women are admitted,

Comparisons of direct obstetric case fatality rates

not only the obstetric ward.

among individual facilities can be difficult to interpret

We encourage calculation of separate cause-specific

may not be valid to compare the rate in a district hos-

fatality rates for each of the major causes of mater-

pital with that in a teaching hospital, as women with

nal death. Treatment of some complications, such as

the most serious complications may be referred to the

obstructed labour, may improve more rapidly than

teaching hospital at the last moment, where they die.

others, such as eclampsia. Cause-specific case fatal-

This difference would lower the direct obstetric case

ity rates indicate where progress has been made and

fatality rate at the district hospital and raise it at the

where it has not (36). The number of maternal deaths

teaching hospital.

in a given facility or aggregate of facilities is, however, often too small (e.g. fewer than 20) to calculate a stable rate for each complication. Therefore, in most facilities, only an aggregate direct obstetric case fatality rate will be calculated, and the number of maternal

when the facilities are not comparable. For example, it

The direct obstetric case fatality rate in a facility can exceed the maximum acceptable level for several reasons. In many cases, the quality of care is inadequate; however, there may be other explanations. For exam-

deaths can be small.

ple, long delays in reaching EmOC facilities can result

There are good reasons for using this indicator for

obstetric case fatality rate might be the end-point of

individual facilities, for all facilities to reflect the state

in a poor status on arrival; or a facility with a high direct


the local referral chain, so that women with the most

Case studies of women’s condition on admission

serious complications are sent there. It is also impor-

Information on the condition on admission of women

tant to consider the number of women counted in calculating the direct obstetric case fatality rate. If the rate is based on a small number of women, even a single death can create a deceptively large increase. Given the problems of interpreting small numbers, the direct obstetric case fatality rate is most useful at district level or at high-volume facilities where there are

with major complications on admission (e.g. pulse, blood pressure, and temperature) can be collected, for women who survive and those who do not. Better understanding of patients’ condition on admission would help differentiate the effect of condition on arrival from the quality of care after arrival.

many maternal deaths. Therefore, these rates tend to

Delays in diagnosis or treatment

be calculated only at comprehensive EmOC facilities.

There are many possible reasons for delayed diagno-

The occurrence of some maternal deaths in a facility can indicate that women go there for treatment of complications; conversely, the absence of maternal deaths might indicate that women with serious complications are not brought there or are routinely referred on, even when they should be treated on site. The absence of reported deaths could also suggest that deaths are not being reported. In addition, the numbers of deaths and direct obstetric case fatality rates may increase when efforts are made to improve hospital services and more women come for treatment, from further away. Thus, the direct obstetric case fatality rate must be interpreted in the context of the previous indicators, and studies should be conducted for deeper understanding. By no means should the direct obstetric case fatality rate be a cause for administrative sanctions. That would just increase the likelihood that women with serious complications are referred to another facility rather than treated, or that deaths that occur on site are not reported. Bar charts or scatter plots can effectively highlight variations in direct obstetric case fatality rates at different levels or in different types of health facility or geographical region. Each type of facility or region can be depicted as a separate graph, or different colours and shading can highlight differences in the same graph.

sis or treatment once a woman has reached a facility. For example, patients’ families may have to buy drugs and medical supplies from local pharmacies because the hospitals do not have enough. The causes of delays can vary from back-ups in the emergency room, to a gatekeeper who demands a tip, to electricity failures (150). Studies of ‘the third delay’ (once women have reached health facilities) and the ‘client flow analysis’ exercise in the Tool book for improving the quality of services (150) are useful models for this type of supplementary study; they systematize the observation and measurement of delays and allow researchers to identify at what stage they are most frequent. The exercises are based on evidence-based standards and expert opinion to determine what constitutes a delay. Another approach is to collect data on the interval between the time a woman with a complication is admitted and when she receives definitive treatment. Good-quality monitoring reveals which delays are the longest and most dangerous, and the direct obstetric case fatality rate can be lowered by reducing those delays. In the university hospital of Zaria, Nigeria, the interval between admission and treatment was reduced by 57% (from 3.7 to 1.6 hours) between 1990 and 1995. During this time, the case fatality rate (combining direct and indirect causes) decreased by 21%, from 14% to 11% (151).

Supplementary studies High direct obstetric case fatality rates indicate prob-

Reviewing maternal deaths

lems but do not, by themselves, identify corrective

When a direct obstetric case fatality rate is high or

actions. They are, however, a good beginning for fur-

fails to decrease, a study should be conducted.

ther studies.

Maternal deaths can be reviewed in health facilities and at district, regional or national level (sometimes

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referred to as ‘confidential enquiry’) to identify gaps in management or clinical service delivery. The WHO

2.7 Indicator 7: Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

publication Beyond the numbers—reviewing maternal deaths and complications to make pregnancy safer

Description

(148) describes two types of review:

Indicator 7 is the proportion of births that result in

• A facility-based review is a detailed study of the

a very early neonatal death or an intrapartum death

systemic causes of and circumstances surround-

(fresh stillbirth) in an EmOC facility. This new indica-

ing maternal deaths at the facility. The goal is to

tor has been proposed to shed light on the quality of

determine which of the factors that contributed to

intrapartum care for foetuses and newborns delivered

maternal deaths were avoidable and what could

at facilities (153). The numerator is the sum of intrapar-

be changed to improve the quality of EmOC at the

tum and very early neonatal deaths within the first 24

facility.

hours of life occurring in the facility during a specific

• A confidential enquiry into maternal deaths is an anonymous, systematic study of all or a random

period, and the denominator is all women who gave birth in the facility during the same period.

sample of maternal deaths occurring in a specified

Because the objective of this indicator is to measure

area (urban, district, region or national). The

the quality of intrapartum and newborn care, it is rec-

researchers look at issues such as substandard

ommended that newborns under 2.5 kg be excluded

care, women’s access to care and the availability

from the numerator and the denominator whenever

of medicines and drugs. By aggregating the

the data permit, as low birthweight infants have a high

causes and factors that contribute to maternal

fatality rate in most circumstances.

deaths in a wider area, evidence can be generated to help decision-makers design and implement

As for the previous indicators, the intrapartum and

systematic solutions for improving EmOC.

very early neonatal death rate should be calculated for all facilities, not just EmOC facilities.

Reviewing cases of women who survive lifethreatening complications (‘near misses’) An alternative, more positive and sometimes less threatening approach to improving quality is to study systematically the care given to women with lifethreatening obstetric complications who are saved by the health facility (‘near misses’). One benefit of this method is that near misses occur more frequently than

Maximum acceptable level No standard has been set; a maximum acceptable level may be determined after the indicator has been tested in various circumstances.

Background

maternal deaths and therefore provide more opportu-

Globally, nearly 2 million infants die each year around

nities for studying the quality of care. Another benefit

the time of delivery: 900 000 neonatal deaths, or 23%

is that such a review provides an occasion to look at

of all neonatal deaths, and 1.02 million intrapartum

what health professionals did correctly to save the

stillbirths, or 26% of all stillbirths (154). Good-quality

woman rather than focus on the problems. This helps

care during intrapartum is therefore crucial for both

to create a more supportive environment in which to

the mother and her infant. When appropriate, timely

discuss aspects of care that could be improved. The

care is provided, most maternal and neonatal deaths

WHO publication Beyond the numbers (148) gives

can be prevented.

more detailed information, including operational definitions of near misses and a standard set of criteria with which a near-miss case is identified is being developed by WHO (1, 52)

A major cause of fetal death intrapartum or immediately postpartum is birth asphyxia, which can result from poorly managed obstetric complications, such as obstructed or prolonged labour, ruptured uterus,


eclampsia or antepartum haemorrhage, and the

and very early neonatal deaths may be an aspect of

absence of neonatal resuscitation (155). Birth asphyxia

current information systems that also will require more

can also be a result of preterm birth or congenital mal-

attention.

formation, conditions that are not directly related to the quality of care given intrapartum. As we are concerned here primarily with the health system’s ability to provide good-quality intrapartum and immediate postpartum care, this indicator focuses on those stillbirths and very early neonatal deaths that could have been averted by the availability and use of good-quality obstetric care and neonatal resuscitation.

One way of determining whether an intrapartum death occurred during labour is to ascertain whether the fetal heartbeat is recorded on the admission log. In practice, in facilities with high turnover and where mothers stay less than 24 hours after delivery, it may be wise to restrict neonatal deaths to those occurring in their first 6–12 hours (rather than 24 hours), because deaths occurring after discharge will go undetected.

Data collection and quality

The denominator for this indicator is ‘all women giving

The operational definitions for this indicator include

birth in the EmOC facility’, which is the same numera-

the following components, as defined by Lawn and

tor as for Indicator 3 (Proportion of all births in EmOC

colleagues (154):

facilities). This denominator was chosen to facilitate

• Stillbirths occurring intrapartum or fresh stillbirths: infants born dead after more than 28 weeks of gestation without signs of skin disintegration or maceration; the death is assumed to have occurred less than 12 hours before delivery; excludes those born with severe, lethal congenital abnormalities. • Early neonatal deaths related to intrapartum events: neonates born at term who could not be resuscitated (or for whom resuscitation was not available) or who had a specific birth trauma. The death must have occurred within 24 hours of delivery.

data collection and is recommended for the sake of international comparability. As information systems improve, the denominator may become births, and the indicator will become a true rate.

Supplementary studies Testing the indicator This indicator should be tested, and the results with and without the birth weight restriction should be compared to determine whether 2.0 kg or 2.5 kg is the better threshold. If the birth weight restriction is too onerous in terms of data collection, studies are needed to determine whether no birth weight restriction would affect the death rate. Additionally, a maximum accept-

These two subgroups should not be equated with

able level for the indicator should be explored and set,

perinatal deaths. The universally accepted definition

if appropriate.

of perinatal death is death in the uterus after the 28th week of pregnancy plus deaths of all liveborn infants

Refining the data

up to 7 days of life. This new indicator excludes mac-

Other studies that would improve understanding of

erated stillbirths and newborns who die after the first

intrapartum and early neonatal care include investiga-

24 h, because mothers and their infants are often dis-

tions of whether the fetal heartbeat is recorded rou-

charged at 24 h, if not earlier.

tinely at admission and whether stillborns are routinely

At the technical consultation in 2006, it was suggested that this indicator include only stillbirths and neonates weighing ≥ 2.5 kg, which is the international standard;

weighed and documented. It could also be important to study the exact time of early neonatal death, which is rarely recorded with precision.

however, countries may prefer to use 2.0 kg as their

In facilities with high early neonatal and stillbirth rates,

threshold. Many small facilities in poor countries might

it might be useful to conduct perinatal death audits

not have data on birth weight, especially of stillbirths.

to gain a better understanding of how to improve the

Accurate recording of stillbirths (fresh and macerated)

quality of care (156).

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2.8 Indicator 8: Proportion of deaths due to indirect causes in EmOC facilities

social and medical context of a country or region and has implications for intervention strategies, especially in addition to EmOC, where indirect causes kill many

Description

women of reproductive age.

The numerator of this new indicator is all maternal deaths due to indirect causes in EmOC facilities during

Background

a specific period, and its denominator is all maternal

A substantial proportion of maternal deaths in most

deaths in the same facilities during the same period. Direct causes of death are those ‘resulting from obstetric complications of the pregnant state (pregnancy, labour, and puerperium), from interventions, omissions, incorrect treatment, or from a chain of events from any of the above’. Indirect causes of death result from ‘previous existing disease or disease that developed during pregnancy and which was not due to direct obstetric causes, but which was aggravated by the physiologic effects of pregnancy’ (157).

countries are due to indirect causes. This is particularly true where HIV and other endemic infections, such as malaria and hepatitis, are prevalent. Too often, where infectious and communicable disease rates are high, the number of maternal deaths due to direct causes is also high. The causes of maternal deaths are often misclassified in such cases; for example, the death of an HIV-positive woman might be classified as due to AIDS even if it was due to a direct cause such as haemorrhage or sepsis. Most maternal deaths fall into the categories listed in Table 9; we know even less about

Other categories of maternal death (death after 42

‘accidental or incidental’ causes of death for women

days postpartum, fortuitous, coincidental or incidental

in poor countries.

deaths) are generally not included in the calculation of maternal death rates or ratios, and they are excluded for the purposes of this indicator.

The most recent systematic study of the causes of maternal death was published in 2006 by researchers at WHO, who reviewed the literature since 1990 (120). Table 10 summarizes the proportions of direct

Acceptable level

and indirect causes of death by world region.

This indicator does not lend itself easily to a recommended or ideal level. Instead, it highlights the larger Table 9. Main conditions leading to maternal death Direct causes

Indirect causes

Haemorrhage

Infections (e.g. malaria, hepatitis)

Hypertensive diseases

Cardiovascular disease

Abortion

Psychiatric illnesses, including suicide and violence

Sepsis or infections

Tuberculosis

Obstructed labour

Epilepsy

Ectopic pregnancy

Diabetes

Embolism Anaesthesia-related


Table 10. Estimates of direct and indirect causes of maternal death by region Region

Maternal deaths (%) Due to indirect causes

Due to direct causes

Unclassified

Developed countries

14.4

80.8

4.8

Africa

26.6

68.0

5.4

Asia

25.3

68.6

6.1

Latin America and the Caribbean

3.9

84.4

11.7

From references (120).

Data collection and quality

Although official statistics in resource-poor countries

The reporting of maternal deaths and their causes var-

are likely to include underreporting of indirect causes

ies widely and is associated with a country’s statisti-

of death, industrialized countries also underreport.

cal development; nevertheless, all tend to follow some

In a review of WHO databases on maternal health in

version of the International Classification of Diseases

1991–1993, of the 60 countries reporting vital registra-

(157). In countries with well-developed statistical sys-

tion figures for causes of maternal deaths, 33 reported

tems, the source of this information is the vital regis-

no indirect deaths (158).

tration system, but, as stated above, misclassification results in serious under-recording in official statistics in virtually all countries. Where vital registration systems are weak, omission and misclassification lead to under-recording and problems of attribution of cause. Death certificates may never be filled out, or they may fail to indicate whether pregnancy was a recent occurrence; therefore, the fact that the death was a mater-

Collecting data for this new indicator will be difficult; however, the technical consultation considered that it would be useful for governments and international agencies. In a few years, we shall review experience with these new indicators to see whether they are useful and whether they should be modified.

nal death goes undetected. Multiple causes of death


may be listed, but an underlying cause may not be

A great deal of research remains to be done in the area

registered.

of indirect maternal deaths, including on the mecha-

This is likely to be the case with regard to HIV infection. In many countries with a high prevalence of HIV infection, the number of maternal deaths among HIV-positive women will be underreported, until there is universal HIV testing, serological status is reliably recorded and reported, and discrimination and stigma do not inhibit testing or reporting. On the one hand, HIV infection might be an underreported cause of maternal death. On the other, when the woman’s HIV status is known, the cause of death may be reported as AIDS even though the actual cause was a direct obstetric condition.

nisms by which indirect conditions cause maternal death and programmes that could reduce them. As with the recording of obstetric complications, training staff to comply with national standards of death certificate completion can result in more accurate and complete recording. Reviews of all deaths of women of reproductive age in facilities, especially those who do not die on the maternity ward, could lead to more complete recording. As discussed under Indicator 6, it might be useful to review maternal deaths and near misses to learn how to improve the quality of care.

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2.9 Summary and interpretation of indicators 1–8

Generalizability of results

Table 11 provides a summary of the indicators, how

study, the generalizability of the findings may be a con-

they are calculated, and acceptable levels, when

cern. Visiting all the facilities in an area, when possible,

appropriate. One of the benefits of using these indica-

can have strong programmatic implications, as health

tors is that, when used as a set, they give a full picture

managers will be able to design site-specific changes.

of a health system’s response to obstetric emergen-

In section 3.2, on preparation for data collection, the

cies. Below, we discuss issues that affect the interpre-

selection of facilities for study comprises two steps:

tation of most of the indicators, including distinguish-

selection of areas and, within these areas, selection of

ing between ‘minimum or maximum’ and ‘optimum’

facilities. If these steps are followed (i.e. the worksheet

levels, assessing the generalizability of results and

is used), bias is minimized.

working with incomplete or poor data. The section also provides examples of interpreting sets of indicators and ends with an exercise in interpreting the indicators together.

Minimum or maximum and optimum levels

When subnational areas or facilities are selected for

If it appears that, due to chance, random selection has produced a bias (for example, most of the facilities selected are concentrated in one area of a certain region), this should be noted, as even biased data are useful if the direction of the bias is known. For instance, suppose that the EmOC facilities in the

An important distinction that applies to most of the

study were not randomly selected and were therefore

indicators is the difference between minimum or

much more likely to be located on a major road than

maximum and optimum levels. By necessity, the mini-

a randomly selected group would have been. In this

mum or maximum acceptable levels proposed in this

case, it is possible to say with reasonable certainly

manual are approximations. Therefore, if the accept-

that hospitals far from major roads are less likely than

able level is met for a particular indicator, this does

hospitals on major roads to perform caesarean sec-

not imply that the optimum level has been reached.

tions. Therefore, the estimate derived from the biased

For instance, a key assumption in setting acceptable

sample probably presents an unrealistically favour-

levels is that approximately 15% of pregnant women

able picture of Indicator 5, and the situation is prob-

experience serious obstetric complications. If this

ably worse than the data indicate. If the information is

is an underestimate—as recent studies indicate it

still not useful for generalization, e.g. if it is not clear

may be—the maximum level for Indicator 5 (15% of

which way the bias works, the data may nevertheless

expected births are delivered by caesarean section in

be useful for managing or evaluating health services

EmOC facilities) may be low (159, 160). A number of

in the area. To use the example above, the data may

studies have shown, however, that it is difficult or even

show that some hospitals are not providing life-saving

impossible to measure morbidity accurately from sur-

services such as caesarean section, even though gov-

veys (161). Therefore, we assume (on the basis of the

ernment standards state that they should. This infor-

evidence used throughout this manual) that a country

mation, by itself, can be used to guide activities to

that achieves acceptable levels for each indicator has

reduce maternal deaths.

a strong programme for reducing maternal deaths. Even if the minimum acceptable level for an indica-

Incomplete or poor data

tor is met at the national level, however, there may be

Routine maternity record systems in many countries do

problems in specific areas. When the level falls below

not facilitate the collection of data on obstetric com-

the minimum acceptable, one can conclude that the

plications, maternal deaths, stillbirths and very early

need for EmOC is not being met in most areas of the

neonatal deaths. Often, staff has fallen out of the habit

country. The general principle is that favourable find-

of filling in some of the columns of the maternity regis-

ings, while reassuring, do not justify complacency;

ter or the admissions and discharge registers. This is a

unfavourable findings clearly indicate that action is

management problem that requires attention over time

needed.

to ensure complete, accurate record keeping.


Table 11. Emergency obstetric care indicators Indicator 1&2*

Availability of EmOC (national or subnational)

Description Ratio of EmOC facilities to population and geographical distribution of facilities

Numerator

Denominator

Acceptable level

No. of facilities in area providing basic or comprehensive EmOC

Population of area divided by 500 000

≥ 5 EmOC facilities per 500 000 population

No. of facilities in area providing comprehensive EmOC

Population of area divided by 500 000

≥ 1 comprehensive facility per 500 000 population

3

Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities

Proportion of all births in population in EmOC facilities

No. of women giving birth in EmOC facilities in specified period

Expected no. of births in area in same period

Recommended level to be set locally

4

Met need for EmOC

Proportion of women with major direct obstetric complications treated at EmOC facilities

No. of women with major direct obstetric complications treated in EmOC facilities in specified period

Expected no. of women with severe direct obstetric complications in area in same period**

100%

5

Caesarean section as a proportion of all births

Proportion of all births in population by caesarean section in EmOC facilities

No. of caesarean sections in EmOC facilities in specified period

Expected no. of births in area in same period

5–15%

6

Direct obstetric case fatality rate

Proportion of women with major direct obstetric complications who die in EmOC facilities

No. of maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes in EmOC facilities in specified period

No. of women treated for direct obstetric complications in EmOC facilities in same period

< 1%

7

Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

Proportion of births that result in an intrapartum or a very early neonatal death within the first 24 h in EmOC facilities

No. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) and very early neonatal deaths (≥ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in EmOC facilities in specified period

No. of women giving birth in EmOC facilities in same period

To be decided

8

Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes

Percentage of all maternal deaths in EmOC facilities due to indirect causes

No. of maternal deaths due to indirect causes in EmOC facilities in specified period

All maternal deaths (from direct and indirect causes) in EmOC facilities in same period

None set

* Indicators 1 and 2 involve the same calculations, with data on the corresponding regional population and facility instead of aggregated national data. ** Equal to 15% of expected births in the same area and period.

39

40


As stated earlier, in many countries maternity regis-

that some of the reported increase in complications is

ters do not have a column for ‘reason for admission’

due to better reporting (probably in the range of one

or ‘maternal complications’. When providers want to

half to two thirds). As the community’s confidence in

record maternal complications, therefore, they have to

the quality of care improves and women with compli-

make a note in another column, such as ‘remarks’, or

cations are more likely to be brought for treatment,

in the margin. While this may appear to be an adminis-

many of the women will require a caesarean section;

trative detail, it is a strong indication of commitment to

therefore, the numbers of complications and of cae-

improving maternal health. There is often room in reg-

sarean sections should rise together, unless there is

isters to add such a column, perhaps by replacing a

a problem that limits the availability of surgery. This

column used for uncommon events, such as multiple

example illustrates the kind of exploration of the data

births. Persuading ministries of health (and funders) to

that can be useful at local level.

add this column is an important step in making these indicators part of health management information systems. (Appendix B lists the items that should appear in facility registers.) As periodic collection of these data becomes part of routine programme monitoring, record keeping should improve.

Relation of EmOC indicators to maternal mortality As noted earlier in this handbook, met need for EmOC and caesarean section as a proportion of all births are closely correlated with maternal mortality ratios, and it is logical that as met need goes up and the

Data on maternal deaths, stillbirths and very early neo-

direct obstetric case fatality rate declines, the num-

natal deaths are often difficult to collect for some of

ber of deaths in the population due to direct obstetric

the same reasons stated above. In addition, because

complications will decline as well. Maternal mortality

of the sensitive nature of these events, health staff

ratios, however, are difficult to measure, especially in

may not record them for fear of reprisal. Interventions

a relatively small area (such as a project area) or over

geared to improve the working environment should,

a short period. Nevertheless, methods for capturing

over time, help health staff feel more comfortable

the effect of maternal health programmes are continu-

about accurately recording deaths.

ing to improve. For example, a method for estimating deaths averted, based on the EmOC indicators, has

As record keeping of complications, maternal deaths,

been proposed, although it must be tested (162). A set

stillbirths and very early neonatal deaths improves,

of tools is available at: http://www.immpact-interna-

the reported number of complications and deaths in

tional.org/index.php?id=67&top=60.

the facility will increase. It is critical to reassure staff that these temporary increases will be appropriately interpreted; that they will not be assumed to be the result of poor or deteriorating patient care. One way of identifying ‘recording bias’ is to use other indicators in the set as benchmarks, especially those indicators based on services that are reported often and are fairly reliable, such as the numbers of women giving birth and caesarean sections in the facility. Using the indicators as a set can help clarify whether the apparent increase in complications or deaths is due to better reporting or if it is a real increase. For example, if the reported number of women with major complications treated in the facility increases by 150% over 3 years, but the number of women giving birth in the facility increases by 75% and the number of caesarean sections performed increases by 50%, it can be assumed

An exercise in interpreting the indicators as a set Table 12 shows three very different scenarios for EmOC indicators. This exercise shows that such data are directly applicable for programming. Examine the sets of indicators in the three scenarios as if you were an official of the ministry of health in country X, looking at data from various districts of the country. On the basis of the hypothetical data and the acceptable levels, identify priorities for improving the situation for women with obstetric complications.


Table 12. Three scenarios for emergency obstetric care (EmOC) indicators and levels Indicator

Level

Scenario 1 Population

950 000

Number of functioning EmOC facilities: • •

basic comprehensive

2 1

Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities

Mostly in district capital

Proportion of all births in basic and comprehensive EmOC facilities

10%

Met need for EmOC

8%

Caesarean sections as a percentage of all births

0.7%


5%


950 000

Number of EmOC facilities: • •

basic comprehensive

7 2


Some urban, some rural


10%

Met need for EmOC

8%


2%


2%


950 000

Number of EmOC facilities • •

basic comprehensive

10 3


Some urban, some rural


25%

Met need for EmOC

65%


12%


15%

In Scenario 1, there are far too few functioning EmOC

high at 5%), but clearly the first priority is to see which

facilities. For a population of nearly 1 million, there

health facilities can be upgraded to provide appropri-

should be 10 such facilities, at least two of which

ate care, especially in rural areas.

are comprehensive, rather than the existing three. Furthermore, the functioning facilities are mostly in urban areas. The other indicators are not very good either (e.g. the direct obstetric case fatality rate is too

In Scenario 2, the number of functioning EmOC facilities is much higher: there are nine; two of these provide comprehensive care, and some are in rural areas.

41

42


The proportion of deliveries that take place in these

of all births) and met need (65%) are fairly high. The

facilities is, however, low (10%), as is the met need

proportion of deliveries by caesarean section (12%) is

(8%). The direct obstetric case fatality rate is not very

towards the high end of the acceptable range (5–15%),

high (at 2%), but this is not a reason for complacency,

and the direct obstetric case fatality rate is very high at

because so few women are cared for at these facili-

15% (with a maximum acceptable level of 1%). In this

ties. The highest priority here would be to find out why

situation, the quality of care in the EmOC facilities is

use is so low, by using a variety of methods: com-

the first concern. Clinical audits and direct observation

munity focus groups, discussions with staff, observa-

of services would be appropriate. As met need and the

tion of the services and a review of the record-keeping

direct obstetric case fatality rate are both high in this

system.

scenario, it is important to analyse why. For instance,

In Scenario 3, there is more than the minimum number of EmOC facilities (13); three of these are comprehensive (rather than the minimum of two), and they seem to be well distributed in terms of urban and rural areas. The proportion of births in the facilities (25%

women may present at the health facility very late, which is not related to the quality of the health facility. Maternal death audits and verbal autopsies present opportunities for health managers to understand the relevant issues.


3. Collecting data for the indicators 3.1 Types of data required

The steps described in this section and the next will

Constructing the EmOC indicators proposed in this

help in identifying a group of facilities that gives a rea-

document requires data on the population, birth rate, and health facility. Table 13 shows how the indicators

sonably accurate picture of the situation, while at the same time not requiring an unreasonable amount of

are composed of such data.

work. In countries where financial and human resources

Information on population and birth rates is avail-

suffice to yield informative data about the maternity

able in most countries at central level (e.g. the central

care system. Ensuring that the facilities selected for

statistical office). Gathering information on the signal

review give a fairly accurate picture of the situation

functions, mode of childbirth, obstetric complications

depends largely on avoiding two major pitfalls: sys-

and maternal deaths, however, means visiting health

tematic bias and the effects of chance variation.

facilities and reviewing facility registers. The emphasis is on the EmOC services that a facility actually provides rather than on what it is supposed to be able to

are constrained, the approach described below will

Systematic bias can occur when conscious or unconscious factors affect the selection of facilities for study.

provide.

For example, the people selecting the facilities might

This section lays out the steps for collecting the data

light possible, or they might select facilities that are

necessary for the indicators of EmOC. Table 14 gives a

easily accessible (e.g. on a paved road or near a large

summary of the steps, and each is discussed in detail

town). In either case, the data collected might give an

below. Sample data collection forms are to be found in

overly favourable impression. The effects of chance

Appendix A and are discussed here. In addition, sug-

are, of course, unpredictable, but they do tend to

gestions are given about additional data that can be of

diminish as the number of facilities studied increases.

use in area monitoring

3.2 Preparation

want to present the situation in the most favourable

Selection is done in two stages: selecting areas of a country for study and then selecting facilities within those areas. Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 present a guide

Most of the data necessary for calculating these indi-

for selecting areas for study at national level. Facilities

cators will be collected in facilities. In a relatively small

within those areas are selected at the area level, as

country, visiting every hospital should not be too dif-

described in sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.

ficult, but in a large country it might not be possible. Visiting every health centre that might provide EmOC, although ideal from a programme viewpoint would be difficult even in some small countries. Therefore, in most countries, a subset of potential EmOC facilities

3.2.1 Determine the number of areas to be studied Consider a level smaller than ‘national’. The term for

will have to be selected for review.

this administrative level will vary by country, e.g. state,

We hope that in a few years the kind of information

countries where the administrative units of ‘provinces’

required for these indicators will be reported routinely

or ‘states’ are exceptionally large, it may be prefer-

to ministries of health, in which case data for all facili-

able to define smaller areas, e.g. district or county,

ties would be compiled and available. If this informa-

for selection into the study. Alternatively, it may be

tion is available in a regular health management infor-

logistically better to select the original administrative

mation system, it is easier to assess the availability of

units even if they are large, but then select subareas

services and make changes and improvements in the

for study at a second stage. As a rough guide, if an

health system.

area has more than 100 hospitals (public and private),

province, but is referred to here as an ‘area’. In a few

subareas may be selected; the number of subareas

43

Intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5kg) and very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24h; ≥ 2.5kg) in facility

No. of maternal deaths due to indirect causes

No. of maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes

No. of caesarean sections

No. of women with obstetric complications

No. of women giving birth

EmOC signal functions

Health facility data:

Crude birth rate of area

Population size

Existing estimates:

Type of data

x

x

Indicator 1 Availability of EmOC (basic and comprehensive)

x

x

Indicator 2 Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Indicator 3 Indicator 4 Indicator 5 Proportion Met need for Caesarean of all births EmOC sections as in EmOC proportion of facilities all births

Table 13. Types of data used to construct emergency obstetric care indicators

x

x

x

Indicator 6 Direct obstetric case fatality rate

x

x

x

Indicator 7 Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

x

x

x

Indicator 8 Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes

44 Monitoring emergency obstetric care: a handbook


studied should represent at least 30% of the total. For

selected for study. Select as many subnational

the purposes of the forms, each subarea should be

areas as possible, but the number selected should

considered an ‘area’. Professional help from a statisti-

be at least 30% of the total number of subnational

cian should be sought in obtaining national estimates

areas in the country.

in countries where subareas are selected. In selecting a subset of areas, the aim should be to The following guidelines should be used to determine

study as many areas as possible, without compro-

whether to study all areas of a country:

mising the quality of the data collected. For example,

• If a country has 100 or fewer hospitals (public and

if there are 21 administrative areas in a country, 10

private), then study all areas. • If a country has more than 100 hospitals (public and private), then a subset of areas may be

might be selected for study. Fewer can be studied if resources are scarce, but the proportion selected should not be less than 30% or a minimum of seven administrative areas.

Table 14. Guide to data collection and forms Activity

Action

Refer to or use

1. Select areas for study, if not national. 2. Determine a single 12–month period to study and enter on form 2 (Facility case summary form). 3. List all possible facilities in the area that might provide EmOC. 4. If sampling is necessary, select facilities to be visited.

Sections 3.2.1, 3.2.2. Section 3.2.3.

Data collection

5. Conduct site visits to facilities.

Sections 3, 4 and form 2

Data preparation

6. If a sample of facilities was visited, separate them into health centres (or other lower-level facilities) and hospitals by area and then adjust the data for area estimates. 7. If all facilities in an area were surveyed, separate them into three groups by area: • actual comprehensive EmOC facilities • actual basic EmOC facilities • non-EmOC facilities 8. Summarize findings for all indicators disaggregated by classified level of facility (i.e. basic and comprehensive and all surveyed facilities).

Section 3.5, form 3 and worksheets 3a, 3b and 3c or worksheets 3d, 3e and 3f

Calculation and interpretation of indicators

9. Calculate indicators for (each) area (for EmOC facilities and for all facilities). 10. Interpret. 11. Consolidate forms 1–4 (with worksheets) for all study areas if national. 12. Calculate indicators for entire country. 13. Interpret.

Section 3.6 and form 4 Section 3.1 and text on each indicator (section 2) Section 3.7, form 5 and worksheet 5a Section 3.1 and text on each indicator (section 2)

Simple selection

Sections 3.3–3.3.2, form 1 and worksheets 1a and 1b

An area is the administrative level or geographic area in the country included in the facility survey; e.g., district, state, province.

45

46


3.2.2 Random selection of areas

interval, so we read from left to right, passing the digits 0, 7 and 0, until we come to 2. Thus, area 2 on the list

To avoid bias, described above, the selection of areas

will be the first area selected.

within each type must be random. The procedure for random selection is as follows:

Step 5: Identify all other areas to be included in the sample by adding the sampling interval to the number

Step 1: Make a list of all areas in the country. The list

of the first area and continue to select areas until the

should be in alphabetical order, to minimize the pos-

desired number has been reached. As the first selected

sibility of bias.

area is 2 on the list of areas, the next one would be 2

Step 2: Assign each area a consecutive number, starting with 1 for the first area on the list. Step 3: Calculate the ‘sampling interval’, which will tell you to select every nth area, once the first area has been selected at random. Use the following formula:

plus 2, or 4, and the next 6, and so on, until 10 areas have been selected.

3.2.3 Determine a nationally uniform 12–month period to be studied The data collected from facilities will be retrospec-

Sampling interval =

tive, but the 12-month period selected should be a

total number of areas in the country

able. For comparability of data, it is important that all

divided by

data collected throughout the country be for the same

number of areas selected

12–month period. A decision about which period to

Country W has a total of 21 areas, of which 10 are to be selected for study, giving a sampling interval of 2 (21/10 = 2.1). Sampling intervals should be rounded to the nearest whole number. If, for example, it had been decided that 15 of the 21 areas would be studied, the sampling interval would be 1.4, which would therefore round down to 1, an indication that either fewer areas should be selected for study or all areas should be included in the sample. Step 4: Identify the first area to be included in the sample by generating a random number that is less than or equal to the sampling interval but greater than zero. This can be done with a random number table

recent one, to ensure that the data will still be avail-

use should be made at national level, and it should then be entered on the top of the facility case summary form of form 2 before it is duplicated for use. This will ensure that data collected at all facilities refer to the same period. The 12–month period can be either a calendar year (e.g. 1 January 2010–31 December 2010) or any other 12-month period (e.g. 1 June 2012– 31 May 2013). Once areas have been selected for study, forms 1–4 and all the worksheets should be duplicated and a complete set given to the person coordinating the research in each area.

page and touch it with the point of a pencil. The digit

3.3 Form 1: All potential EmOC facilities in selected areas

closest to where the pencil touches the page is the

The first step in gathering the required data is to make

random number. If the digit is less than or equal to the

an exhaustive, up-to-date list of all the facilities in each

sampling interval and greater than zero, use it; if not,

selected areas that may be providing delivery and

read from left to right until a digit that satisfies this

EmOC services (basic or comprehensive), as defined

condition is reached. This number will be the first area

by the signal functions (Table 4). A facility that may be

selected.

providing EmOC services is one that is:

For country W, the sampling interval is 2. Using the

• on the ministry of health’s list of hospitals and

(Appendix C). To use the table, look away from the

random number table, our pencil point falls on the digit 7, at row 22, column 5. This is larger than our sampling

lower-level facilities that should be providing delivery services;


• on a list of private hospitals and lower level facili-

Lower-level facilities (e.g. health centres, health posts,

ties that might be providing at least some delivery

clinics):

services; or

• If there are 100 or fewer, study all of them.

• known by the area medical officer as possibly providing delivery services. The list should be as complete as possible so that no

• If there are more than 100, a subset can be selected. Select as many as possible, but the number should represent at least 30%.

EmOC facility is overlooked; however, care should be

Example: In area X, there are 48 hospitals of different

taken to avoid double counting. Worksheets 1a and 1b

levels and types. Although 48 is greater than 25, it is

can be used for this purpose and should be used to

decided that it is feasible to visit all of them. There are

list all of the various facilities—hospitals, maternities,

also 390 health centres and health posts, but it would

health centres, clinics and health posts—that may be

be too difficult and costly to visit all of them and a sub-

providing basic or comprehensive EmOC in the area.

set of these facilities must be selected for review.

As each worksheet has space to list only 10 facilities, it is likely that the lists of each type of facility will be several pages long. It is recommended that these lists be in alphabetical order to reduce any bias in the selection process (see 3.3.2 below). Form 1 summarizes the number of facilities listed on worksheets 1a and 1b.

3.3.1 Determine the number of facilities to be reviewed

If a subset of either type of facility is to be selected, the number to be visited must be decided. As described above, this number should be as large as possible in order to minimize the effects of chance variation, and should be at least 30% of all facilities of each type. In determining the number of facilities to visit, it is important to strike a good balance between the number of facilities and the quality of the data that will be collected from them. In other words, the number of facili-

In a relatively small area, it may be possible to visit

ties selected should be as large as possible while still

every hospital, while in larger areas it will not. Even

allowing for careful data collection at each facility.

in small areas, it will often be difficult to visit every lower-level facility that provides delivery services and might be providing basic EmOC. Thus, in most areas, a subset of facilities may be selected for review. To avoid bias, this second stage of selection should also be random. The criteria below can be used to decide whether to study all facilities or to select a subset for

Example: In area X, all 48 hospitals will be visited, and 40% of the health centres and posts will be selected for review. Thus, 156 (0.4 x 390) health centres and posts will be selected. The percentages of selected of hospitals and lower-level facilities in each area should be recorded, so that this can be taken into account

review.

when combining the information from all areas. This

It is important to include private sector facilities in this

in all areas.

step is not needed if the same percentage is selected

exercise. Therefore, countries may want to conduct the following exercise separately for public and private facilities.

3.3.2 Random selection of facilities Once the number of facilities to be visited has been

Hospitals (e.g. regional, district, rural, maternity):

decided, the next step is to select the actual facilities.

• If there are 25 or fewer, study all of them.

To minimize the chance of bias, this should be done

• If there are more than 25, a subset can be selected. Select as many as possible, but the number should represent at least 30% and there should not be fewer than 20 facilities.

randomly, in a procedure similar to that followed for selecting areas. If all facilities are to be visited, this step will not be necessary. If a subset of both hospitals and lower-level facilities is to be selected, random selection should be carried out separately for each level. The procedure is outlined below. Random selec-

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48


tion will be done with all the lists in worksheet 1a or

the list in the selection process, return to the begin-

1b that have been filled out for the geographical area

ning, but do not count those facilities that have already

in question.

been selected.

Step 1: Assign each facility a consecutive number.

Example: Since the first selected facility is 1 on the

In order to minimize the possibility of bias, facilities

list, the next one would be 1 plus 3, or 4, and the

should be listed in alphabetical order before being

next 7, and so on. Facility 388 will be the 129th facility

numbered.

selected, and facility 3 will be the 130th (since facility 1

Step 2: Calculate the sampling interval, which will tell you to select every nth facility once the first facility has been selected at random. Use the following formula: Sampling interval =

number of facilities in the area

divided by

number of facilities to be selected

Example: In area X, a total of 390 health centres, of which 156 are to be selected for review, produces a sampling interval of 3 (390/156 = 2.5). Sampling intervals are rounded to the nearest whole number.

has already been selected and should not be counted in the second pass through the list). Every third facility will continue to be selected in this way until all 156 have been selected. Once the facilities to be reviewed have been selected, site visits to collect data at each facility can begin.

3.4 Form 2: Review of EmOC at facilities A copy of form 2 should be used at each facility to record the type and amount of services provided. The information compiled on this form will enable research staff to determine whether a given facility is actually providing EmOC services and, if it is, whether it is func-

Step 3: Identify the first facility to be included in the

tioning at the basic or comprehensive level. Except for

sample by generating a random number that is less

data on population size and the crude birth rate, all

than or equal to the sampling interval but greater than

the information needed to construct the indicators is

zero. This can be done using a random number table

contained in form 2.

(Appendix C). To use the table, look away from the page and touch it with the point of a pencil. The digit closest to where the pencil touches the page is the random number. If the digit is less than or equal to the sampling interval and greater than zero, use it; if not, read from left to right until a digit that satisfies this condition is reached. This number will be the first facility selected.

EmOC signal functions To determine whether the EmOC signal functions were performed in the past 3 months, review facility registers, observe and if necessary interview health workers in the maternity ward and other departments. • Record whether the signal function has been performed in the past 3 months and, if not, why it has

Example: For lower-level facilities in area X, the sampling interval is 3. Using the random number table, our pencil point falls on the digit 4, in row 12, column 2. This is larger than our sampling interval, so we read

not been performed. • Consider all the following when determining whether a particular signal function was available:

from left to right, passing the digits 0, 9 and 6, until

–– Is staff at facility trained to provide the service?

we come to 1. Thus, facility 1 on the list of lower-level

–– Are the requisite supplies and equipment pres-

facilities will be the first area selected. Step 4: Identify all other facilities to be studied by adding the sampling interval to the number of the first facility. Continue to select facilities until the desired number has been reached. If you come to the end of

ent? Is the equipment functioning? –– Were there cases for which the use of a particular signal function was indicated? –– Are the cadres of staff working at the facility authorized to perform the service?


• If a signal function was not performed in the past 3 months, indicate why not, using the following

• Remember to count the number of women and not the number of births (i.e. infants).

definitions: –– Training issues: - Authorized cadre is available, but not trained; - Providers lack confidence in their skills. –– Supplies and equipment issues: - Supplies or equipment are not available, not

Number of caesarean sections • Remember to count all emergency caesarean sections and all planned or scheduled caesarean sections. • Count caesarean sections performed for neonatal as well as maternal reasons.

functional or broken; - Needed drugs are unavailable. –– Management issues: - Providers demand compensation to perform this function; - Providers are encouraged to perform alternative procedures; - Providers are uncomfortable or unwilling to perform the procedure for reasons unrelated to training. –– Policy issues: - The required level of staff is not posted to this facility in adequate numbers (or at all); - National or hospital policies do not allow the function to be performed. –– No indication: - No woman needing this procedure came to

Number of women with direct obstetric complications • In order to be considered a case and to be included in the data, a woman must be pregnant at the time of admission, recently delivered or aborted. • Include only events of sufficient severity that should be treated with a life-saving procedure or are stabilized and then referred to another facility. • The patient has a clear diagnosis of any one of the obstetric complications (see Box 2). • Treatment was started before referral to another facility (including stabilization). • When diagnosis of complications is not available, use the following criteria for inclusion: –– Records indicate clear signs or symptoms such

the facility during the period. (Before marking

as bleeding, high blood pressure, fever with

‘No indication’, consider the previous

discharge and convulsions.

options; for example, if a site does not have

–– Records indicate definite interventions such as

someone trained to provide a procedure or

caesarean section, vacuum or forceps delivery,

equipment and drugs, women will not come

blood transfusion, manual removal of placenta,

for the procedure.).

injection of anticonvulsant or injection of

Number of women giving birth • This is the number of women with normal vaginal

oxytocin. • Exclude women who were admitted without any

births + the number of women with assisted

diagnosis (or clues leading to a diagnosis as

vaginal deliveries + the number of caesarean

mentioned above) and who received no treatment

sections in the facility.

before being referred to another facility.

• If breech deliveries are recorded separately, add

• If one patient has two diagnoses, select the more

these as well, but remember to check that they

serious one. For example, if a pregnant woman

are not already included in normal deliveries or

was admitted for haemorrhage and ruptured

caesarean sections.

uterus, the main diagnosis is ruptured uterus. If the interviewer is unsure about the diagnosis, he or she should consult the staff working in the health

49

50


with obstetric complications and not the number

Number of fresh stillbirths and very early neonatal deaths ≥ 2.5 kg

of obstetric complications.

• Refer to the definitions of fresh stillbirths and very

facility. Remember to count the number of women

• Abortion complications include only those with infection or haemorrhage (see case definitions in Box 2). • Complications of abortion can result from either induced or spontaneous abortion. • When searching for complications of abortion, the team should look in female ward registers, emergency registers and maternity, labour, delivery, or ward registers.

early neonatal deaths above. • Omit very early neonatal deaths when mothers gave birth outside health facilities (i.e. in the community or at home). • When the birthweight is unavailable, record the death and state that the birthweight was unknown.

Collecting case summary data Depending on the size of each facility and the quality of its records, it may be too difficult to collect the

Number of maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes • The WHO definition of ‘maternal death’ should be used: “The death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration or site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management, but not from accidental causes.” • Count only maternal deaths that occurred in the facility being studied. • The definitions of obstetric causes listed in Box 2 should be referred to when filling in this section. • Maternal deaths can be difficult to find in some

necessary information for the entire year directly on form 2. Therefore, two plans are presented. Plan 1 should be followed whenever possible. This entails completing the grid on form 2 (i.e. recording the number of women giving birth, each type of complication, caesarean section, maternal deaths, intrapartum deaths and very early neonatal deaths) at the facility during each of the 12 months being studied. Plan 2 can be followed if the facility’s patient volume is so large that collecting this information for all 12 months would be too time-consuming (e.g. if there are more than 10 000 deliveries per year). In this plan, a sample of 4 months distributed throughout the year is used and then multiplied by three to estimate the total

facility registers. Therefore, it is very important to

number for the year. In countries where there are vast

look at as many sources as possible (e.g. mater-

seasonal differences in deliveries, it may be important

nity ward registers, morgue record books, emer-

to choose 4 months distributed throughout the year to

gency room records).

account for this variation.

• Maternal deaths can be a sensitive issue to discuss with health workers. Sometimes it might be helpful to explain that the review is not an audit. In order to make staff feel more at ease, one can point out something positive about their facility (for example, how many women they have been able to treat).

3.5 Form 3: Summary of data on EmOC facilities in an area If the analysis is to be conducted manually and not by computer, after all the sections of form 2 have been completed, the forms should be collected and sorted by geographical area. The next step is to summarize the findings for each area. Form 3 is used for this pur-

Number of indirect maternal deaths

pose and has two sections, A and B, only one of which

• Before filling in the form, list the major indirect

should be completed.

causes of maternal deaths that are relevant to the country under review, e.g. HIV infection, severe anaemia and malaria.


Section A which requests a straightforward summary of the data collected from facilities, should be used only if all facilities in the area were visited (that is, there was no selection of facilities). Facilities should be sorted into three groups on the basis of the entries in the box entitled ‘Determination of EmOC status’ on form 2. The three groups are facilities that provide comprehensive EmOC, facilities that provide basic EmOC and facilities that do not fully provide either basic or comprehensive services. Worksheets 3a, 3b and 3c are then used to prepare the summary. Section B should be used if a sample of facilities was chosen. It includes an intermediate step for adjusting the data collected into estimates for all facilities in the area. Worksheets 3d, 3e and 3f are needed to prepare this summary. Thus, one copy of form 3 will be filled out for each area included in the study, completing either section A or section B (delete the part you do not use).

3.7 Form 5: Calculation of indicators for the country In order to calculate the EmOC indicators for the country as a whole, researchers must collect copies of all forms 3 and 4 (including worksheets) from each study area. The information needed for this final step is summarized on form 5 and worksheet 5a. The latter summarizes information on the number of EmOC facilities, women giving birth, women with obstetric complications, caesarean sections, maternal deaths (direct and indirect) and intrapartum and very early neonatal deaths in all the areas selected. The indicators for the country as a whole are determined on form 5. Similarly to form 4 for the calculation of indicators at the area level, a summary checklist of acceptable levels for each indicator is provided. Once the indicators have been calculated, the last step is interpretation. General notes on the interpretation of EmOC indicators are included under the description of each indicator in the first section of this handbook.

3.6 Form 4: Calculation of indicators for each area Once the findings from site visits have been summarized, form 4 can be used to calculate the indicators for each area. This form lays out the steps for using the information summarized in form 3 and includes a summary checklist to determine whether each indicator meets an acceptable level. While, ultimately, the data on facilities will be aggregated in order to calculate the indicators for the whole country, the area-level indicators provide useful information for setting programme priorities at the area level, and an entire set of completed forms 1–4 should be maintained in the area for this purpose. Secondly, these indicators allow comparisons among study areas at the national level. Using the information obtained

3.8 Monitoring at the area level Area officials and planners may be interested in greater detail than is required for national monitoring. Therefore, further questions might be added during site visits to facilities. This can be done by attaching an extra sheet to form 2 (Review of EmOC facilities). Some questions that might be of interest are discussed below. It is important, however, that all the data required for the calculation of the indicators be collected uniformly for the whole country. While questions may be added to form 2, none of the existing questions should be modified or deleted. Additional modules useful for conducting a more extensive needs assessment are available at: http://www.amddprogram.org

for each selected area, researchers can examine differences in the availability of EmOC services, use and

3.8.1 Level of functioning of facilities

performance in different areas of the country. This can

For the purposes of monitoring, it is crucial that only

have important implications for policy and setting programme priorities.

facilities that provide full basic or comprehensive EmOC (i.e. facilities that performed all the designated signal functions in Table 4 in the past 3 months) be included in the first analysis. Area planners might also

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be interested in knowing what signal functions the

accessible, e.g. because of poor or nonexistent roads

other facilities in the area have performed, and which

and bridges.

of them could potentially function as basic or comprehensive EmOC facilities. Tables can be prepared to determine how many facilities did not perform one or more signal functions, and which signal functions facilities they did or did not provide in the past 3 months. Understanding why signal functions were not performed is important. These investigations would be particularly useful if the analysis of EmOC indicators reveals a shortage of facilities. In that case, information about which facilities are close to providing such care can be used in planning which facilities to upgrade. If a particular signal function, such as assisted vaginal delivery, is often not performed, a policy review might be called for in order to ascertain who is trained to do what, at what level of the health system.

3.8.4 Differences between public- and privatesector facilities Health planners may be interested in examining differences between facilities that are government-operated and those that are managed by religious institutions, nongovernmental organizations or for-profit organizations. Such differences can have important implications for programming. For example, one might want to know the proportions of women with complications who receiving EmOC in public and in private facilities, or which types of facilities perform more EmOC signal functions. One might also examine differences in case fatality rates in hospital by type of facility. In some situations, access to services and issues of equity can be related to facility ownership and cost of services.

3.8.2 Time availability of services Another factor that area officials might wish to examine is whether obstetric services are available 24 h/ day, 7 days/week at facilities that are already fully functioning. For example, a question on the hours per day and days per week that signal functions are actually available might be added to the facility review form (form 2). As obstetric complications are unpredictable, it is important that women have access to life-saving EmOC around the clock. Analyses of local patterns in the availability of signal functions might show that the EmOC coverage is actually lower than the number of facilities would imply. In such cases, expanding the

3.8.5 Quality of care at facilities As discussed earlier, case fatality rates are a crude indicator of the level of performance at EmOC facilities. Area researchers or administrators might therefore wish to collect additional information to gain more insight into the quality of care provided at selected local facilities. One approach is to collect data on the interval between the time a woman is admitted to an EmOC facility and the time she actually receives treatment, as discussed under ‘Supplementary studies’ in the section on direct obstetric case fatality rates.

hours when services are available is strongly recom-

Detailed case reviews or audits of both maternal

mended.

deaths and ‘near misses’ can also provide valuable information about the quality of care. Case reviews

3.8.3 Geographical distribution of services within areas

and audits have the advantage of identifying problem

The geographical distribution of EmOC facilities also

edies. Some resources that can be used for studies of

areas within facilities and suggesting possible rem-

affects the accessibility of services. Although the

the quality of care are:

number of facilities in an area might meet or exceed

• EngenderHealth and AMDD. Quality improvement

the minimum acceptable level, smaller geographical

for EmOC: leadership manual and tool book

regions may have too few or no facilities. At the area

(http://www.engenderhealth.org/res/offc/mac/

level, therefore, it may be desirable to locate facilities

EmOC/index.html) (163). This publication can help

on a map in order to identify local areas where women

health-care providers to identify and solve their

do not have access to EmOC, either because facilities

own problems. It outlines a continuous, four-step

do not exist or because the existing facilities are not

quality improvement process based on participa-


tory principles, with staff involvement and owner-

provided. They should be in a position and willing

ship and focusing on clients’ rights and needs. It

to take remedial action on the basis of the findings

also contains instruments for collecting informa-

of these reviews. The information can be used to

tion and instructions for their use.

improve maternal health outcomes by encouraging

• AMDD. Improving EmOC through criterionbased audit, 2002 (http://www.amddprogram. org/resources/CriterionBased%20AuditEN.pdf). This manual describes ‘criterion-based audit’ as a comparison of actual practice with evidence-

health professionals to evaluate current practices critically and to change them if necessary. As action is the ultimate goal of these reviews, it is important that people who can implement the recommended changes participate actively.

based standards of care. It is used to improve clinical and managerial practice, to make more ratio-

3.8.6 Quality of facility records

nal use of scarce resources and to improve staff

Area-level officials should examine the method by

morale. The audit cycle includes data collection,

which the number of women with complications is

analysis, and a plan of action to correct deficien-

derived in the facility review forms (form 2). The form

cies, implementation of that plan and repetition

offers two plans for arriving at this number (see dis-

of the cycle to measure change. Criterion-based

cussion in section 3.4.1). Some facilities are probably

audit can also be used to examine management or

treating more women with obstetric complications

the organization of services and human rights in a

than their records indicate, and the final questions on

clinical setting.

the form ask the reviewer to give an informed opinion

• WHO. Beyond the numbers. Reviewing maternal deaths and complications to make pregnancy safer, 2004 (http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/btn). This book is directed at health professionals, health-care planners and managers working on maternal and newborn health who wish to improve the quality of care

about the completeness of the facility’s records. Arealevel officials might be interested in examining the replies to this question for facilities in their area. If the records for a number of facilities appear to be incomplete, a workshop on facility record keeping could be conducted.

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107. Miller S et al. Quality of care in institutionalized deliveries: The paradox of the Dominican Republic. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2003, 82(1):89-103. 108. Koblinsky M et al. Going to scale with professional skilled care. Lancet, 2006, 368(9544):1377-1386. 109. Pitchforth E et al. Development of a proxy wealth index for women utilizing emergency obstetric care in Bangladesh. Health Policy and Planning, 2007, 22(5):311-319. 110. Wilson JB et al. The maternity waiting home concept: The Nsawam, Ghana experience. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1997, 59 (Suppl. 2):S 165-172. 111. Renaudin P et al. Ensuring financial access to emergency obstetric care: Three years of experience with obstetric risk insurance in Nouakchott, Mauritania. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2007, 99(2):183-190. 112. Harvey SA et al. Skilled birth attendant competence: An initial assessment in four countries, and implications for the safe motherhood movement. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2004, 87(2):203-210. 113. Say L, Pattinson R, Gulmezoglu AM. WHO systematic review of maternal morbidity and mortality: The prevalence of severe acute maternal morbidity. Reproductive Health, 2004, 1(3):1-5. 114. Prual A et al. Severe maternal morbidity from direct obstetric causes in West Africa: Incidence and case fatality rates. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000, 78(5):882-890. 115. Bang RA et al. Maternal morbidity during labour and the puerperium in rural homes and the need for medical attention: A prospective observational study in Gadchiroli, India. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2004, 111(3):231-238. 116. McCord C et al. Efficient and effective emergency obstetric care in a rural Indian community where most deliveries are at home. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2001, 75(3):297-307. 117. Bennett TA et al. Pregnancy-associated hospitalizations in the United States in 1991 and 1992: A comprehensive view of maternal morbidity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1998, 178(2):346-354. 118. The Prevention of Maternal Mortality Network. Situation analyses of emergency obstetric care: Examples from eleven operations research projects in West Africa Social Science and Medicine, 1995, 40(5):657-667. 119. Unsafe abortion: Global and regional estimates of incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2003. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2007. 120. Khan KS et al. WHO analysis of causes of maternal death: A systematic review. Lancet, 2006, 367(9516):1066-1074.

121. Healy J, Otsea K, Benson J. Counting abortions so that abortion counts: Indicators for monitoring the availability and use of abortion care services. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2006, 95:209-220. 122. Otsea K. Workbook for monitoring safe abortion care (SAC) service provision. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Ipas, 2007. 123. Otsea K, Tesfaye S. Monitoring safe abortion care service provision in Tigray, Ethiopia: Report of a baseline assessment in public-sector facilities. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Ipas, 2007. 124. Stanton CK et al. Reliability of data on caesarean sections in developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2005, 83(6):449-455. 125. WHO. Appropriate technology for birth. Lancet 1985, 2(8452 ):436-437. 126. Deneux-Tharaux C et al. Postpartum maternal mortality and caesarean delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2006, 108(3 Part 1):541-548. 127. MacDorman MF et al. Infant and neonatal mortality for primary caesarean and vaginal births to women with “No indicated risk,” United States, 1998-2001 birth cohorts. Birth, 2006, 33(3):175-182. 128. Villar J et al. Caesarean delivery rates and pregnancy outcomes: The 2005 WHO global survey on maternal and perinatal health in Latin America. Lancet, 2006, 367(9525):1819-1829. 129. Betrán AP et al. Rates of caesarean section: Analysis of global, regional and national estimates. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 2007, 21(2):98-113. 130. Essential elements of obstetric care at first referral level. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1991. 131. Flamm BL. Cesarean section: A worldwide epidemic? Birth 2000, 27(2):139-140. 132. What is the right number of caesarean sections? (Editorial) Lancet, March 22 1997, (349):815. 133. Lavender T et al. Caesarean section for non-medical reasons at term. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2006, 3:CD004660. 134. DHS Datasets and Macro International Inc. MEASURE DHS - Stat compiler created map.www.measuredhs.com. Accessed July 24, 2007. 135. Encuesta Nacional de Salud Familiar FESAL 2002/03. Informe final San Salvador, Asociación Demográfica Salvadoreña, USAID 2004. 136. Ronsmans C, Holtz S, Stanton C. Socioeconomic differentials in caesarean rates in developing countries: A retrospective analysis. Lancet, 2006, 368(9546):1516-1523.


137. Kalish RB, McCullough LB, Chervenak FA. Decision-making about caesarean delivery. Lancet, 2006, 367(9514):883885.

151. Ifenne D et al. Improving the quality of obstetric care at the teaching hospital, Zaria, Nigeria. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1997, 59 (Suppl 2):S.37-46.

138. Unmet Obstetric Need Network. Tackling unmet obstetric needs. Comparative study in Benin, Burkina Faso, Haiti, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Pakistan and Tanzania. Antwerp, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2002.

152. Say L, Souza J, Pattinson R. Severe acute maternal mortality or near miss - towards a standard tool for monitoring quality of maternal health care. Best Practice and Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology, in press.

139. Stanton C, Ronsmans C, the Baltimore Group on Caesarean. Recommendations for routine reporting on indication for cesarean delivery in developing countries. Birth, 2008, 35:201-211.

153. Fauveau V. New indicator of quality of emergency obstetric and newborn care. Lancet, 2007, 370(9595):1310-1310.

140. Robson MS. Classification of caesarean sections. Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review, 2001, 12:23-39. 141. Bergström S. Who will do the caesareans when there is no doctor? Finding creative solutions to the human resource crisis. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2005, 112(9):1168-1169. 142. Chilopora G et al. Postoperative outcome of caesarean sections and other major emergency obstetric surgery by clinical officers and medical officers in Malawi. Human Resources for Health, 2007, 5(1):17. 143. Mbaruku G, Bergström S. Reducing maternal mortality in Kigoma, Tanzania. Health Policy and Planning, 1995, 10(1):71-78. 144. Pereira C et al. Meeting the need for emergency obstetric care in Mozambique: Work performance and histories of medical doctors and assistant medical officers trained for surgery. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2007, 114(12):1530-1533. 145. Ministry of Family Health and Welfare. Annual report 20062007. New Delhi, Government of India, 2006. 146. A MDD. Improving emergency obstetric care through criterion-based audits. New York City, Mailman School of Public Health, 2002. 147. Wagaarachchi PT, et al. Conducting criterion-based clinical audit of obstetric care: A practical field guide. Aberdeen, Dugald Baird Centre for Research on Women’s Health, 2001. 148. Beyond the numbers: Reviewing maternal deaths and complications to make pregnancy safer. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2004. 149. Deneux-Tharaux C, Berg C. Underreporting of pregnancyrelated mortality in the United States and Europe. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2005, 106:684-692. 150. Edson W et al. Safe motherhood studies--timeliness of in-hospital care for treating obstetric emergencies: Results from Benin, Ecuador, Jamaica, and Rwanda. Operations research results. Washington, D.C., Quality Assurance Project, United States Agency for International Development, 2006.

154. Lawn J, Shibuya K, Stein C. No cry at birth: Global estimates of intrapartum stillbirths and intrapartum-related neonatal deaths Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2005, 83(6):409-417. 155. Lawn J. 4 million neonatal deaths: When? Where? Why? Lancet, 2005, 365:891-900. 156. Pattinson R, ed. Saving babies: A perinatal care survey of South Africa 2000. Pretoria: Medical Research Council; 2000. 157. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Tenth Revision (ICD-10). Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992. 158. AbouZahr C. Maternal mortality overview. In: Murray CJ, Lopez AD, eds. Health dimensions of sex and reproduction Geneva, WHO, 1998:111-164. 159. Bhatia JC, Cleland J. Obstetric morbidity in south India: Results from a community survey. Social Science and Medicine, 1996, 43(10):1507-1516. 160. Koblinsky MA. Beyond maternal mortality - magnitude, interrelationship and consequences of women’s health, pregnancy-related complications and nutritional status on pregnancy outcomes. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 1995, 48(Suppl 1):S21-S32. 161. Fortney J, Smith J. The base of the iceberg: Prevalence and perceptions of maternal morbidity in four developing countries. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, Family Health International, 1996. 162. Maine D et al. Research note: Estimating maternal deaths averted: A field-based methodology. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2005, 89(2):218-220. 163. EngenderHealth and AMDD. Quality improvement for emergency obstetric care: Leadership manual and toolbook. New York City, EngenderHealth, 2003.

59


Appendix A: Forms and worksheets for data collection and calculation of EmOC indicators Form 1

List of possible EmOC facilities

Worksheet 1a

List of health centres, health clinics and health posts

Worksheet 1b

List of hospitals

Form 2

Review of potential EmOC facilities

Form 3

Summary of data on EmOC facilities in area

Worksheet 3a

Summary of reviews of basic EmOC facilities

Worksheet 3b

Summary of reviews of comprehensive EmOC facilities

Worksheet 3c

Summary of reviews of non-EmOC facilities

Worksheet 3d

Summary of health centres, health clinics and health posts

Worksheet 3e

Summary of hospitals

Worksheet 3f

Area-wide estimates of EmOC

Form 4

Calculation of indicators for areas

Form 5

Calculation of indicators for a country

Worksheet 5a

Amount of EmOC services and number of women giving birth (births), women with complications, caesarean sections, maternal deaths, intrapartum deaths and very early neonatal death

These forms are useful for collecting information. The format can be adapted if necessary. It is important that all the data be collected in order to have a complete picture of the services available and services needed.

61

62



Form 1. Possible EmOC facilities

1. Name of area 2. Population of area 3. Crude birth rate of area 4. Form completed by (list name and title) 5. Form completed on (date)

Worksheets 1a–1b need to be completed before filling in the total below.

6. Total number of health centres, health clinics and health posts 7. Total number of hospitals

63

64


Location

Total number of facilities that are not hospitals but offer some maternity care

Facility name

Type of facility (health centre, clinic)

Ownership (government, private, mission)

This worksheet should be used to list all facilities that provide some maternity care but are not hospitals, including health centres, health clinics and health posts. The easiest way to organize this information is to create a table in Excel or another software package.

Area (province, region, district, etc.) _____________________________________________________________

Worksheet 1a. List of health centres, health clinics and health posts

Monitoring emergency obstetric care: a handbook 65

66


Total number of hospitals offering maternity care

Facility name

Location

Type of facility (district hospital, regional hospital)

Ownership (government, private, mission)

This worksheet should be used to list all hospitals that provide maternity care. The easiest way to organize this information is to create a table in Excel or another software package.

Area (province, region, district): _____________________________________________________________

Worksheet 1b. List of hospitals


68



Form 2. Review of possible EmOC facilities Identification Facility name

District name (or other subnational area)

Date of data collection

Interviewer

Day

Month

Year

Region name (or other subnational area)

Name

Adapt the following lists of options to the local situation. Type of facility: (circle one)

1. National hospital

5. Health centre

2. Regional hospital

6. Clinic

3. District hospital

4. Maternity

7. Other: specify__________________________

Type of operating agency: (circle one)

1. Government

2. Private

3. Nongovernmental organization

4. Religious mission

5. Other: specify__________________

EmOC signal functions Answer the following questions about EmOC signal functions by reviewing facility registers, through observation and if necessary interviewing health workers in the maternity ward and other departments. Record whether the function has been performed in the past 3 months, and if not, why it has not been performed. Consider all of the following when determining whether a particular signal function was performed:  Are staff at the facility trained to provide the service?  Are the requisite supplies and equipment present? Is the equipment functioning?  Were there no cases for which the use of a particular signal function was indicated?  Are the cadres of staff working at the facility authorized to perform the service?

69

70



Performance of signal functions Item (a) Administer parenteral antibiotics

Performed in past 3 months?  0. No  1. Yes

(b) Administer uterotonic drugs (e.g. parenteral oxytocin, ergometrin, misoprostol)

 0. No

(c) Administer parenteral anticonvulsants for pre-eclampsia and eclampsia (e.g. magnesium sulfate)

 0. No

(d) Perform manual removal of placenta

 0. No

 1. Yes

 1. Yes

 1. Yes

(e) Perform removal of retained products (e.g. manual vacuum aspiration, dilation and curettage)

 0. No

(f) Perform assisted vaginal delivery (e.g. vacuum extraction, forceps delivery)

 0. No

 1. Yes

 1. Yes

If not performed in past 3 months, why?

 1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication

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72



Item

Performed in past 3 months?

(g) Perform newborn resuscitation (e.g. with bag and mask)

 0. No

(h) Perform blood transfusion

 0. No

 1. Yes

 1. Yes

(i) Perform surgery (e.g. caesarean section)

 0. No  1. Yes

If not performed in past 3 months, why?

 1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication  1. Training issues  2. Supplies, equipment, drugs issue  3. Management issue  4. Policy issues  5. No indication

Training issues: Authorized cadre is available but not trained, or there is lack of confidence in providers’ skills. Supplies, equipment issue: Supplies or equipment are not available, not functional or broken, or needed drugs are unavailable. Management issues: Providers desire compensation to perform this function, providers are encouraged to perform alternative procedures, or providers uncomfortable or unwilling to perform procedure for reasons unrelated to training. Policy issues: Required level of staff is not posted to this facility in adequate numbers (or at all), or national or hospital policies do not allow function to be performed. No indication: No client needing this procedure came to the facility during this period. Determination of EmOC status Use the questions above on the performance of signal functions. Check only one category below. If all questions a–i = Yes, tick

_____ comprehensive EmOC

If all questions a–g = Yes, tick

_____ basic EmOC

If any questions a–g = No, tick

_____ non-EmOC

73

74


Facility name

Postpartum sepsis

Ruptured uterus

Obstructed or prolonged labour

Haemorrhage (ante- and postpartum)

Direct obstetric complications


No. of women giving birth (normal vaginal, assisted vaginal, breech and caesarean)

Year

Month (write the name of a month above each number)

EmOC indicator data

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Total1

Data collection plan 2: If more than 10 000 women give birth per year, select 4 months that provide a good distribution of data throughout the year (e.g. months 1, 4, 7 and 10). For more information on plan 2, refer to section 3.4.1 of the handbook.

Data collection plan 1: For facilities in which fewer than 10 000 women give birth per year, data for all 12 months are the most useful.

Complete the following chart by reviewing facility registers and counting the number of women giving birth, the number of caesarean sections, the number of women with obstetric complications, the number of maternal deaths and the number of intrapartum and very early neonatal deaths.

Facility case summary

Form 2 (continued)


76


Other obstetric complications not listed above or not specified; list some of the causes, if specified, in the space below:

Total no. of direct obstetric complications (add each column)

Ectopic pregnancy

Complications of abortion (with haemorrhage or sepsis)

Severe pre-eclampsia or eclampsia

Year

Month (write the name of a month above each number)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Total1


78


Other maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes, other than those listed above or not specified; list some of the causes, if specified, in the space below:

Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes (add each column)

Ectopic pregnancy

Complications of abortion (with haemorrhage or sepsis)

Severe pre-eclampsia or eclampsia

Postpartum sepsis

Ruptured uterus

Obstructed or prolonged labour

Haemorrhage (ante- and postpartum)

Maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes

Year

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12 Total1


80


1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

If plan 2 was selected (i.e. only 4 months of data were collected), multiply the total of 4 months by 3 to estimate the data for 12 months.

Very early neonatal deaths (≥ 24 h) ≥ 2.5 kg

Intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths) ≥ 2.5 kg

Stillbirths and neonatal deaths

All other indirect maternal deaths

Indirect maternal death (put relevant cause here)

Indirect maternal death (put relevant cause here)

Indirect maternal deaths: List causes of indirect obstetric complications and maternal deaths that are relevant for the local context (e.g. HIV, severe anaemia, malaria)

Year

Total1


82



Quality of information

Item In your informed opinion (e.g. from talking to staff, looking at the record system), what proportion of complications treated in the facility are recorded on this form? (tick one) In your informed opinion (from talking to staff, looking at the record system, etc.), what proportion of the maternal deaths that occurred in the facility are recorded on this form? (tick one)

Responses

 None  Some (less than half)  Most (more than half)  All  None  Some  Most  All

What sources of data were used to complete this form? (e.g. maternity ward register, delivery book, general admissions register, operating theatre register, female ward register, discharge register).

Type of register used Maternity ward register Delivery register or book General admissions register Operating theatre register Female ward register Discharge register Other: Other:

Yes

No

83

84



Form 3. Summary of data on EmOC facilities in the area

This form summarizes all the data on facilities within the geographical area that have been entered in all sections of form 2. One copy of form 3 should be completed for each area.

Name of area

Population size of area

Crude birth rate (no. of births per 1000 population) of area

Expected births in area [(crude birth rate of area ÷ 1000) x Population size of area]

Complete either section A or section B on the following page. The other section can then be deleted.

If all facilities in the area were visited, complete section A only (and delete section B). If a subset of facilities in the area were selected, complete section B only (and delete section A).

85

86



Section A:

Use worksheets 3a–c on the following pages to complete the table below. In a 12–month period

No. of facilities No. of women giving birth No. of women with complications No. of caesarean sections No. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes No. of maternal deaths from indirect causes No. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) + No. of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg)

Column 1

Column 2

Column 3

Column 4

Column 5

Basic EmOC facilities

Comprehensive EmOC facilities

Total no. of EmOC facilities (column 1+ column 2)

Non-EmOC facilities

Total no. of facilities surveyed (column 3 + column 4)

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88



Section B:

Use worksheets 3d–f to complete the table below. In 12–month period:

No. of facilities No. of women giving birth No. of women with complications No. of caesarean sections No. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes No. of maternal deaths from indirect causes No. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) + No. of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg)

Column 1

Column 2

Column 3

Column 4

Column 5

Basic EmOC facilities

Comprehensive EmOC facilities

Total no. of EmOC facilities (column 1+ column 2)

Non-EmOC facilities

Total no. of facilities surveyed (column 3 + column 4)

89

90



Facility

No. of women with complications

Column 3

Total number of basic EmOC facilities listed in column 1 =

*If more than one sheet was used, add sheet totals to obtain the overall total.

Column totals*

Column 2

Column 1 No. of caesarean sections

Column 4 No. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes

Column 5

Column 6 No. of maternal deaths from indirect causes

This worksheet summarizes the data collected on form 2 from all basic EmOC facilities. Use form 2 to identify all basic EmOC facilities. Attach additional sheets if necessary. Excel or another software package can be used for this summary.

Area: ______________________________________________

Worksheet 3a. Summary of reviews of basic EmOC facilities

No. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) + No. of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg)

Column 7


92



Facility


Column 3

Total number of comprehensive EmOC facilities listed in column 1 =


Column totals*

Column 2




Column 6

This worksheet summarizes the data collected on form 2 from all comprehensive EmOC facilities. Use form 2 to identify all comprehensive EmOC facilities. Attach additional sheets if necessary. Excel or another software package can be used for this summary.

Area: ______________________________________________

Worksheet 3b. Summary of reviews of comprehensive EmOC facilities

No. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; > 2.5 kg) + No. of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 hours; > 2.5 kg)

Column 7


94



Facility


Column 3

Total number of non-EmOC facilities listed in column 1 =

* If more than one sheet was used, add sheet totals to obtain the overall total.

Column totals*

Column 2



Column 5


This worksheet summarizes the data collected on form 2 from all non-EmOC facilities. Use form 2 to identify all non-EmOC facilities. Attach additional sheets if necessary. Excel or another software package can be used for this summary.

Area: ______________________________________________

Worksheet 3c. Summary of reviews of non-EmOC facilities


Column 7


96


EmOC status (basic, comprehensive or none)

Facility


Column 3 No. of women with complications

Column 4




* If more than one sheet was used, add sheet totals to obtain the overall total

Column totals*

Column 2




Column 7

No. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; (≥ 2.5 kg) + No. of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg)

Column 8

This worksheet summarizes data collected on form 2 from all health centres and other lower-level facilities in a geographical area. Use form 2 to identify the EmOC status of the health centres and other lower-level facilities visited. Attach additional sheets if necessary. Excel or another software package can be used for this summary.

Area: ______________________________________________

Worksheet 3d. Summary of health centres and other lower-level facilities


98


EmOC status (basic, comprehensive or none)

Facility


Column 3 No. of women with complications

Column 4





Column totals*

Column 2




Column 7

This worksheet summarizes data collected on form 2 from all hospitals in a geographical area. Use form 2 to identify the EmOC status of the hospitals visited. Attach additional sheets if necessary. Excel or another software package can be used for this summary.

Area: ______________________________________________

Worksheet 3e. Summary of hospitals


Column 8


100



Worksheet 3f. Area-wide estimates of EmOC

Area: ______________________________________________

This worksheet allows conversion of the data from the subset of facilities that were selected for site visits into estimates for the entire area. If a subset of health centres (and other lower-level facilities) were selected for study: No. of health centres (or other) visited in area Total no. of health centres (or other) in area Proportion of health centres (or other) for which data were collected (No. of health centres visited in area ÷ Total no. of health centres in area)

Use worksheet 3d for the health centres (and other lower-level facilities) studied. Totals from facilities visited

÷

Proportion of health centres visited

=

(see chart above) Estimated no. of basic EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of comprehensive EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of non-EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of women giving birth in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of women giving birth in facilities classified as non-EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of women with complications in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of women with complications in facilities classified as non-EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of caesarean sections in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of caesarean sections in facilities classified as non-EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimate for area

101

102



Totals from facilities visited

÷

Proportion of health centres visited

=

(see chart above) Estimated no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in facilities classified as providing nonEmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) and very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) and very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

If a sub-set of hospitals was selected for study:

No. of hospitals visited in area Total no. of hospitals in area Proportion of hospitals for which data were collected above (No. of hospitals visited in area ÷ Total no. of hospitals in area)

Estimate for area

103

104



Use worksheet 3e for the hospitals studied. Totals from facilities visited

÷

Proportion of hospitals visited (see chart above)

=

Estimated no. of basic EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of comprehensive EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of non-EmOC facilities

÷

=

Estimated no. of women giving birth in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of women giving birth in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of women with complications in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of women with complications in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of caesarean sections in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of caesarean sections in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in facilities classified as providing nonEmOC

÷

=

Estimated no. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) and of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in facilities classified as basic and comprehensive

÷

=

Estimated no. of intrapartum deaths (fresh stillbirths; ≥ 2.5 kg) and of very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in facilities classified as providing non-EmOC

÷

=

Estimate for area

105

106


(

(

Total no. of comprehensive EmOC facilities in area

Total no. of basic + comprehensive EmOC facilities in area

Indicator 1: Availability of EmOC

Area: ____________________

÷

÷

Population of area

Population of area

Use form 3, section A or B, to calculate the indicators below.

Form 4. Calculation of indicators for geographic area

)

)

X

X

500 000

500 000

=

=

No. of comprehensive EmOC facilities per 500 000 population

Indicator 1b

No. of EmOC facilities per 500 000 population

Indicator 1a

o Not met

o Met

Minimum acceptable level ≥ 1 per 500 000 population

o Not met

o Met


Is acceptable level met?


108



Indicator 2: Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities This indicator is generally intended for use at the national level. In large areas (e.g. with millions of inhabitants), it is reasonable to calculate the distribution of EmOC facilities for subareas. This can be done by repeating the steps above (in Indicator 1), and then calculating the percentage of subareas meeting the minimum acceptable levels. The minimum acceptable level for this indicator is 100%. Another option is to lay the facilities in the area on a map that shows roads and topographic areas, to identify problems of access and showing referral systems. This can be done with a geographical information system or another mapping method.

109

110


Total no. of women giving birth in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of women giving birth in EmOC facilities in area

÷

÷

Expected births in area


=

=

Indicator 3: Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities and all surveyed facilities

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of births in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 3b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of births in EmOC facilities

Indicator 3a

o Not met

o Met

Minimum acceptable level: targets to be set locally

o Not met

o Met



112


÷

÷

(

(



X

X

0.15*

0.15*

)

)

=

=

Indicator 4a

______ x 100 = ______ %

Proportion of women estimated to have obstetric complications who are treated in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 4b

______ x 100 = ______ %

Proportion of women estimated to have obstetric complications who are treated in EmOC facilities

* Expected births are multiplied by 0.15 to estimate the total obstetric complications in the population.

Total no. of women with complications in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of women with complications in EmOC facilities in area

Indicator 4: Met need for EmOC

oNot applicable

oNo target

oNot met

oMet

Acceptable level = 100%


114


Total no. of caesarean sections in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of caesarean sections in EmOC facilities in area

÷

÷


(Form 3)


Indicator 5: Caesarean sections as a proportion of all births

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Caesarean sections in all surveyed facilities as a proportion of all births

Indicator 5b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Caesarean sections in EmOC facilities as a proportion of all births

Indicator 5a

o Not met

o Met

5–15%

Acceptable level:

o Not met

o Met

5–15%

Acceptable level:


116


÷

÷

Total no. of women with obstetric complications in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of women with obstetric complications in EmOC facilities in area

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Direct obstetric case fatality rate in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 6b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Direct obstetric case fatality rate in EmOC facilities

Indicator 6a

o Not met

o Met

≤ 1%

Acceptable level:

o Not met

o Met

≤ 1%

Acceptable level:

In addition to the aggregated calculations, the direct obstetric case fatality rate should be calculated for each hospital. The results can be presented as a bar chart: the horizontal axis should be labelled with the facility names, and the vertical axis should be labelled “Direct obstetric case fatality rate (%)”. Another way of presenting facility-based results is to give the range of direct obstetric case fatality rates from different hospitals as well as the aggregate direct case fatality rate.

Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in EmOC facilities in area

Indicator 6: Direct obstetric case fatality rate


118


Total no. of intrapartum deaths (≥ 2.5 kg) + very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of intrapartum deaths (≥ 2.5 kg) + very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in EmOC facilities in area

÷

÷

Total no. of women giving birth in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of women giving birth in EmOC facilities in area

Indicator 7: Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 7b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate in EmOC facilities

Indicator 7a

oNot applicable

oNo standard has been set

Acceptable level:

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:


120


Total no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in EmOC facilities in area

÷

÷

Total no. of maternal deaths from all causes in all surveyed facilities in area

Total no. of maternal deaths from all causes in EmOC facilities in area

Indicator 8: Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 8b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes in EmOC facilities

Indicator 8a

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:


122


(

(

Total no. of comprehensive EmOC facilities

Total no. of basic + comprehensive EmOC facilities

÷

÷

Indicator 1: Availability of EmOC services

Total population

Total population (worksheet 5a; column 3 total)

Complete worksheet 5a before calculating the indicators below.

Form 5. Calculation of indicators for a country

)

)

X

X

500 000

500 000

=

=

No. of comprehensive EmOC facilities per 500 000 population

Indicator 1b

No. of EmOC facilities per 500 000 population

Indicator 1a

o Not met

o Met


o Not met

o Met


Is acceptable level met?


124


No. of areas in country meeting minimum levels (i.e. at least 5 facilities per 500 000 population including at least 1 comprehensive facility)

÷

No. of areas in country

Indicator 2: Geographical distribution of EmOC facilities

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of areas with the minimum acceptable number of EmOC facilities

Indicator 2

o Not met

o Met

Acceptable level: 100%


126


Total no. of women giving birth in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of women giving birth in all EmOC facilities

÷

÷

Total no. of expected births

Total expected births

Indicator 3: Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities and all surveyed facilities

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of all births in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 3b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of all births in EmOC facilities

Indicator 3a

o Not met

o Met


o Not met

o Met



128


÷

÷

(

(



x

x

0.15*

0.15*

)

)

=

=

* Expected births are multiplied by 0.15 to estimate the total obstetric complications in the population.

Total no. of women with complications in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of women with complications in all EmOC facilities

Indicator 4: Met need for EmOC

______ x 100 = ______ %

Proportion of women estimated to have obstetric complications who are treated in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 4b

______ x 100 = ______ %

Proportion of women estimated to have obstetric complications who are treated in EmOC facilities

Indicator 4a

oNot applicable

oNo target

oNot met

oMet

Acceptable level = 100%


130


Total no. of caesarean sections in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of caesarean sections in all EmOC facilities

÷

÷



Indicator 5: Caesarean sections as a proportion of all births

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Caesarean sections in all surveyed facilities as a proportion of all births

Indicator 5b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Caesarean sections in EmOC facilities as a proportion of all births

Indicator 5a

o Not met

o Met

5–15%

Acceptable level:

o Not met

o Met

5–15%

Acceptable level:


132


÷

÷

Total no. of women with obstetric complications in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of women with obstetric complications in all EmOC facilities

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Direct obstetric case fatality rate in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 6b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Direct obstetric case fatality rate in EmOC facilities

Indicator 6a

o Not met

o Met

≤ 1%

Acceptable level:

o Not met

o Met

≤ 1%

Acceptable level:

In addition to the aggregated calculations, the direct obstetric case fatality rate should be calculated for each hospital. The results can be presented as a bar chart: the horizontal axis should be labelled with the facility names, and the vertical axis should be labelled “Direct obstetric case fatality rate (%)”. Another way of presenting the facility-based results is to give the range of case fatality rates from direct obstetric causes and the mean case fatality rate.

Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in all EmOC facilities

Indicator 6: Direct obstetric case fatality rate


134


Total no. of intrapartum deaths (≥ 2.5 kg) + very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of intrapartum deaths (≥ 2.5 kg) + very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in all EmOC facilities

÷

÷



Indicator 7: Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate in all surveyed facilities

Indicator 7b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Intrapartum and very early neonatal death rate in EmOC facilities

Indicator 7a

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:


136


Total no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in all EmOC facilities

÷

÷

Total no. of maternal deaths from all causes in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of maternal deaths from all causes in all EmOC facilities

Indicator 8: Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes

=

=

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes in all facilities

Indicator 8b

_________ x 100 = ________ %

Proportion of maternal deaths due to indirect causes in EmOC facilities

Indicator 8a

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:

oNot applicable


Acceptable level:


138



Worksheet 5a. Amount of EmOC services

Use forms 3 and 4 to fill in the information below.

Name of area

No. of basic EmOC facilities in area

No. of comprehensive EmOC facilities in area

Population of area

Column totals* * If more than one sheet is used, add sheet totals to obtain the overall column total.

Has the minimum level of EmOC been met? If yes, please tick in column.

139

140





*If more than one sheet is used, add sheet totals to obtain the overall column total.

Column totals*

Name of area

Worksheet 5a (continued)

Total no. of women with complications in all EmOC facilities

Total no. of women with complications in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of caesarean sections in all EmOC facilities

Total no. of caesarean sections in all surveyed facilities


142


Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in all EmOC facilities

Total no. of maternal deaths from direct obstetric causes in all surveyed facilities

*If more than one sheet is used, add sheet totals to obtain the overall column total.

Column totals*

Name of area

Total no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in all EmOC facilities

Total no. of maternal deaths from indirect causes in all surveyed facilities

Total no. of intrapartum deaths (≥ 2.5 kg) and very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in all EmOC facilities

Total no. of intrapartum deaths (≥ 2.5 kg) and very early neonatal deaths (≤ 24 h; ≥ 2.5 kg) in all surveyed facilities


144



Appendix B: Information on registers and data collection

Signal functions: To determine whether a facility offers each of the signal functions, data collectors should: •

observe the availability of requisite drugs, supplies, and equipment;

•

interview health workers in the maternity ward and other departments; and

•

review facility registers (see below).

It is important to consider all the following when determining whether a particular signal function was provided: •

Is staff at the facility trained to perform the service?

•

Do the requisite supplies and equipment exist? Are they functioning?

•

Were there any cases for which a particular signal function was indicated?

•

Are the cadres of staff working at the facility authorized to perform the service?

Other variables: To collect the data necessary to calculate the EmOC indicators, data from registers in many different rooms or departments at the facility must be reviewed and abstracted. The table below provides an overview of where to look for different variables.

145

146


X

X

X

X

X

X

X


No. of women with obstetric complications


No. of maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes

No. of maternal deaths due to indirect obstetric causes

No. of fresh stillbirths and intrapartum deaths ≥ 2.5 kg

No. of very early neonatal deaths (1st 24 h) ≥ 2.5 kg

Information

Registers in maternity ward (including those found in: labour, delivery, pre- and postpartum and neonatal rooms)

X

X

X

X

X

Registers in operating theatre (including those for major and minor surgery)

Registers and other sources to be used to collect data for the EmOC indicators

X

X

X

Registers in the female or gynaecological wards (including post-abortion care registers)

X

Registers in the outpatient department

X

X

X

Registers for inpatients and admissions

X

X

X

X

X

Overall administration (including records and registers in the morgue, records office, head health workers’ office)


148



As can be seen from the table above, the registers in maternity departments should, in theory, contain a lot of the data necessary to calculate the EmOC indicators; however, it is likely that they will not have all of the data needed. Monitoring should help facility managers to perceive the need for maintaining good quality, complete records and will help them to improve record-keeping systems. Some of the most important columns that should be included in maternity registers are: •

admission time and date;

•

mode of delivery (normal vaginal, assisted vaginal, caesarean section);

•

obstetric complications (e.g. antepartum haemorrhage, postpartum haemorrhage, obstructed labour, prolonged labour, pre-eclampsia, eclampsia, ruptured uterus, postpartum sepsis, complications of abortion, ectopic pregnancies) (Cases of complications of abortion and ectopic pregnancies will usually be found in other departments in the facility, such as the female or gynaecology ward, operating theatres or outpatient registers.);

•

treatment or intervention provided to woman, including time of intervention (e.g. magnesium sulfate administered, oxytocin provided, manual removal of the placenta);

•

treatment or intervention provided to newborn, including time of intervention (e.g. resuscitated);

•

outcome of mother (e.g. discharged, with time and date, referred to X facility, death); and

•

outcome of infant (e.g. discharged, referred to X facility, fresh stillbirth, macerated stillbirth, very early neonatal death).

Note: Cases of complications of abortion and ectopic pregnancies are often found in other departments of the hospital than the maternity, such as the female or gynaecology ward, operating theatres or outpatient or emergency departments.

149

150


29334 02488

24 25

88231 48235 52636 87529 71048

51821 52404 33362 46369 33787

85828 22421 05597

69578 40961 93969 61129 97336

12765 21382 54092 53916 97628

91245 58492 32363

87637 28834

11008 56420 05463 63661 53342

06907 72905 91977 14342 36857

27001 33062

01536 25595 22527 06243 81837

3

15011 46573 48360 93093 33975

2

87308 07351

14346 74103 24200

51259 60268 94904 58586 09998

33276 03427 92737 85689 08178

42751 69994 07972 10281 53988

02011 85393 97265 61680 16656

4

58731 19731

09172 47070 13363

77452 89368 31273 23216 42698

70997 49626 88974 48237 77233

27756 98872 18876 17453 53060

81647 30995 76393 07856 06121

5

00256 92420

30168 25306 38005

16308 19885 04146 14513 6691

79936 69445 33488 52267 13916

53498 31016 20922 18103 59533

91646 89198 64809 16376 91782

6

45834 60952

90229 76468 94342

60756 55322 18594 83149 76988

56865 18663 36320 67689 47564

18602 71194 94595 57740 38867

69179 27982 15179 39440 60468

7

15398 61280

04734 26384 28728

92144 44819 29852 98736 13602

05859 72695 17617 93394 81056

70659 18738 56869 84378 62300

14194 53402 24830 53537 81305

8

46557 50001

59193 58151 35806

49442 01188 71585 23495 51851

90106 52180 30015 01511 97735

90655 44013 69014 25331 08158

62590 93965 49340 71341 49684

9

41135 67658

22178 06646 06912

53900 65255 85030 64350 46104

31595 20847 08272 26358 85977

15053 48840 60045 12566 17983

36207 34095 32081 57004 60672

10

10367 32586

30421 21524 17012

70960 64835 51132 94738 88916

01547 12234 84115 85104 29372

21916 63213 18425 58678 16439

20969 52666 30680 849 14110

11

07684 86679

61666 15227 64161

63990 44919 01915 17752 19509

85590 90511 27156 20285 74461

81825 21069 84903 44947 11458

99570 19174 19655 74917 06927

12

36188 50720

99904 96909 18296

75601 05944 92747 35156 25625

91610 33703 30613 29975 28551

44394 10634 42508 5585 18593

91291 39615 63348 97758 01263

13

18510 94953

32812 44592 22851

40719 55157 64951 35749 58104

78188 90322 74952 89868 90707

42880 12952 32307 56941 64952

90700 99505 58629 16379 54613

14

Abridged from Beyer WH, ed. Handbook of tables for probability and statistics, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, Florida, The Chemical Rubber Co., 1968. Used with the permission of CRC Press, Inc.

10480 22368 24130 42167 37570 77921 99562 96301 89579 85475 28918 63553 09429 10365 07119 51085 02368 01011 52162 07056 48663 54164 32639

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

1

Appendix C. Random number table


152


This handbook is an update of an earlier publication on monitoring the availability and use of obstetric services, issued by UNICEF, WHO and UNFPA in 1997. The indicators defined within the publication have been used by ministries of health, international agencies and programme managers in over 50 countries around the world. This revision incorporates changes based on monitoring and assessment conducted worldwide and the emerging evidence on the topic over the years, and has been agreed by an international panel of experts. It includes two new indicators and an additional signal function, with updated evidence and new resources. This handbook aims to describe the indicators and to give guidance on conducting studies to people working in the field. It includes a list of life-saving services, or ‘signal functions’, that define a health facility with regard to its capacity to treat obstetric emergencies. The emphasis is on actual rather than theoretical functioning. The emergency obstetric care indicators described in this handbook can be used to measure progress in a programmatic continuum: from the availability of and access to emergency obstetric care to the use and quality of those services.

ISBN 978 92 4 154773 4

Monitoring Emergency Obstetric Care: A Handbook (2009)

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Emergency Management: A Reference Handbook

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Environmental Monitoring Handbook

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Delphi 2009 Handbook

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Ultrasound in Emergency Care

Emergency Management: A Reference Handbook

Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine 2009

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Emergency Care in Athletic Training

The Foundations of Emergency Care

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Environmental Monitoring Handbook

Obstetric Intensive Care Manual, Third Edition

Handbook of Emergency Psychiatry

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Obstetric Dermatology: A Practical Guide

Handbook of Pediatric Emergency Medicine

Monitoring in Anesthesia and Perioperative Care

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Emergency Care of Children and Young People

Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Procedures

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