Emergency Management: A Reference Handbook

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EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

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Selected Titles in ABC-CLIO’s CONTEMPORARY

WORLD ISSUES Series

Abortion in the United States, Dorothy E. McBride Adoption, Barbara A. Moe Capital Punishment, Michael Kronenwetter Chemical and Biological Warfare, Al Mauroni Childhood Sexual Abuse, Karen L. Kinnear Conflicts over Natural Resources, Jacqueline Vaughn Domestic Violence, Margi Laird McCue Energy Use Worldwide, Jaina L. Moan and Zachary A. Smith Euthanasia, Martha L. Gorman and Jennifer Fecio McDougall Food Safety, Nina E. Redman Genetic Engineering, Harry LeVine, III Gun Control in the United States, Gregg Lee Carter Human Rights Worldwide, Zehra F. Kabasakal Arat Illegal Immigration, Michael C. LeMay Intellectual Property, Aaron Schwabach Internet and Society, Bernadette H. Schell Mainline Christians and U.S. Public Policy, Glenn H. Utter Mental Health in America, Donna R. Kemp Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation, Sarah J. Diehl and James Clay Moltz Policing in America, Leonard A. Steverson Sentencing, Dean John Champion U.S. Military Service, Cynthia A. Watson World Population, Geoffrey Gilbert For a complete list of titles in this series, please visit www.abc-clio.com.

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Books in the Contemporary World Issues series address vital issues in today’s society, such as genetic engineering, pollution, and biodiversity. Written by professional writers, scholars, and nonacademic experts, these books are authoritative, clearly written, up-to-date, and objective. They provide a good starting point for research by high school and college students, scholars, and general readers as well as by legislators, businesspeople, activists, and others. Each book, carefully organized and easy to use, contains an overview of the subject, a detailed chronology, biographical sketches, facts and data and/or documents and other primarysource material, a directory of organizations and agencies, annotated lists of print and nonprint resources, and an index. Readers of books in the Contemporary World Issues series will find the information they need in order to have a better understanding of the social, political, environmental, and economic issues facing the world today.

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EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT A Reference Handbook

Jeffrey B. Bumgarner

CONTEMPORARY

WORLD ISSUES

Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England

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Copyright © 2008 by ABC-CLIO, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bumgarner, Jeffrey B. Emergency management : a reference handbook / Jeffrey B. Bumgarner. p. cm. — (Contemporary world issues) Includes bibliographical references and index. 978-1-59884-110-7 (hard copy : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-59884-111-4 (ebook) 1. Emergency management—United States. 2. Crisis management— United States. I. Title. HV551.3.B85 2008 363.340973—dc22 2007005642 12

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ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116–1911 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an ebook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America.

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This book is dedicated to my wife Kathy. As always, thank you very much for your patience. And also to my boys: Jack, Alex, and Carl. My homework is done. I can come out and play now.

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Contents

Preface, xiii 1

Background and History, 1 History of Emergency Management and Disaster Response, 1 Disaster Response and the Birth of the United States, 2 The U.S. Constitution, 2 The 1920s and 1930s, 5 The 1950s, 5 The 1960s and 1970s, 6 The Federal Emergency Management Agency, 7 The Department of Homeland Security, 8 FEMA’s Reorganization, 10 Defining Disasters, 11 FEMA’s Definition of Disaster, 12 Types of Disasters and Catastrophes, 13 Fundamentals of Emergency Management, 17 Mitigation, 17 Preparedness, 18 Response, 28 Recovery, 29 References, 32

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Problems, Controversies, and Solutions, 33 Sociology of Disasters, 34 Disaster Victimology, 34 Types of Victims, 35

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Victims’ Responses, 37 Providing Psychological First Aid, 39 Impact on First Responders, 42 The Question of Federalism: Who Should Be Responsible?, 45 The Public Policy Process, 45 Making Policy Changes, 48 Federal Emergency Management Efforts, 50 State Emergency Management Efforts, 55 Emergency Management by Private Organizations, 59 Debates over Emergency Management Resources, 61 Natural Disasters or Terrorism?, 61 Warning Systems, 66 Key City and Nationwide Efforts, 68 References, 70 3

Worldwide Perspective, 73 Emergency Management: A Global Responsibility, 74 The Role of the United Nations, 75 The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), 76 Disaster Vulnerabilities by Region, 78 Asia, 78 Africa, 80 Latin America, 82 Europe, 86 Comparative Emergency Management Activities and Readiness, 88 China, 89 Australia, 91 India, 92 Trinidad and Tobago, 94 Argentina, 96 Nigeria, 98 Civil Unrest, Ethnic Conflict, and Terrorism, 100 References, 102

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Chronology, 105

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Biographical Sketches, 129 Joe Allbaugh, 129 Clara Barton, 131 Julius W. Becton, Jr., 132 B. Wayne Blanchard, 133 Mabel Boardman, 134 William Booth, 135 Michael D. Brown, 135 James E. Carter, 137 Isaac M. Cline, 138 Michael Chertoff, 139 Rudolph W. L. Giuliani III, 140 Louis O. Giuffrida, 141 James Loy, 142 John W. Macy, Jr., 143 John W. Magaw, 144 Robert Mueller, 145 Clarence Ray Nagin, Jr., 146 Robert D. Paulison, 148 Tom Ridge, 149 Robert T. Stafford, 150 Wallace E. Stickney, 150 William Howard Taft, 151 Gordon F. Vickery, 152 James Lee Witt, 153

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Data and Documents, 155 Key Executive Orders and Legislation, 155 Creation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, 156 Robert T. Stafford Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of 1988, 157 Title I—Findings, Declarations and Definitions, 157 Title II—Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation Assistance, 159 Homeland Security Act of 2002, 166 Title V—Emergency Preparedness and Response, 166 Key Testimony before Congress, 169 Opening Statement of R. David Paulison, 170 The FY2008 FEMA Budget: Building a New FEMA, 170

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xii Contents

Reforming FEMA: Are We Making Progress?, 190 Statement of George W. Foresman, 190 NPPD Mission and Overview, 192 Preparedness Progress to Date, 195 Closing, 197 7

Directory of Organizations, 199 Private Organizations, 200 Associations and Resource Centers, 207 Government Agencies, 211 United States Government Agencies, 211 State Emergency Management Agencies, 223 International Agencies/Organizations, 233

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Resources, 237 Summary of Selected Scholarship Relating to Emergency Management, 237 Books, Government Reports, and Videos, 246 Books, 247 Government Publications, 255 Videos, 260

Glossary, 267 Index, 277 About the Author, 293

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Preface

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ike all titles in ABC-CLIO’s Contemporary World Issues series, Emergency Management: A Reference Handbook offers an introductory and exploratory examination of an important issue in our time. Emergency management is a vitally essential activity, discipline, and profession. The premise of the discipline is that there is a better way to deal with expected and unexpected natural and human-caused disasters than simply “winging it” and muddling through until the crisis abates. Emergency management offers a better approach—a rational approach—for handling the calamitous natural events, unfortunate large-scale accidents, and murderous acts of terror and political violence that come our way. Through sound principles of mitigation and preparedness, communities and governments in this country and in others increase their chances severalfold that when potentially disastrous events do strike, the communities will endure less damage and suffering than would have been the case had no predisaster emergency management activities taken place. Through sound and rational response procedures and activities, emergency managers can ensure that the rescue of disaster victims unfolds in an expeditious and well-equipped manner and that those with acute physical needs following a disaster will receive immediate and helpful attention. Further, the field of emergency management offers tried-and-true methods for the recovery of communities which, despite all preparations, may have been struck particularly harshly by natural or man-made ravages. Through emergency management recovery best practices and established policies, communities might quickly recover to a predisaster status or better, with the restoration of

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public services, utilities, and commerce occurring at the earliest possible outset after being struck. This book introduces the principles, practices, policies, agencies, and problems associated with the blossoming professional discipline of emergency management. The book also provides access to a wealth of resources for exploring emergency management further. It is my hope that readers will find this primer helpful and informative—and even perhaps inspiring for some who may envision some element of emergency management and disaster planning in their own present or future professional lives. Jeffrey B. Bumgarner Texas Christian University Fort Worth, Texas

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1 Background and History

History of Emergency Management and Disaster Response When speaking of emergency management and disaster response, it is necessary to distinguish between the activity and the professional discipline. The discipline of emergency management is relatively new. For many years, it had been considered a subdiscipline of public administration and public safety. More recently, the field of emergency management has begun to assume an identity of its own—still related to public administration (just as criminal justice administration is), but nonetheless demonstrating its own distinct professional skill set. The activity of emergency management and disaster response, by contrast, has been around since the beginning of recorded history. Although many definitions exist in the disaster literature, emergency management can be defined simply as man’s attempt to identify and deal with potential and actual large-scale hazards, threats, and disasters. The qualifier “large scale” is included here because we are speaking of events that could and do impact many people. A house fire is an emergency—certainly for the occupants involved. It is a crisis, and public safety personnel must manage the situation. But it is not necessarily an emergency management event unless perhaps the fire threatens to spread to the whole block. This is consistent with David Alexander’s (2002, 1) definition of an “emergency” in this context, which he defined as “an exceptional event that exceeds the capacity of normal resources and organization to cope with

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it.” Emergency management events pose their own unique challenges over other types of threats and emergencies—as this book attempts to demonstrate. Mankind has always faced nature’s obstacles of disease, famine, flooding, earthquakes, volcanoes, and other avenues to calamity. In facing these challenges, man has not generally been inclined to stand still and absorb the blows. For example, Egyptian Pharaoh Amenemhet III of Egypt developed what is thought to be among the first major river control programs. Amenemhet III, who ruled Egypt from 1817 to 1722 BCE, developed a water diversion system along the Nile River to redirect flood water into Lake Moeris, thereby salvaging more than 150,000 acres of land for agricultural use (Coppola 2007). Similarly, advanced civilizations such as the Greeks, Romans, Incas, and others applied the latest technologies and innovations of their day toward avoiding disasters where possible and reducing their impact when they occurred.

Disaster Response and the Birth of the United States The United States, although not an ancient civilization, has a history of its own when it comes to emergency management and disaster response. As far back as 1803, the United States Congress passed the Fire Disaster Relief Act. This legislation provided financial assistance to the town of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, which had been decimated by a fire the year before. In fact, Portsmouth’s Great Fire of 1802 saw 132 buildings destroyed (City of Portsmouth 2006). This federal assistance, which included a waiver of tariffs and taxes, is generally thought to be the federal government’s first foray into the practice of providing emergency management assistance.

The U.S. Constitution The federal government’s involvement in such matters was not (and is not) without some controversy. The turn of the nineteenth century came just a few short years after America’s founding. The United States had won its independence from Great Britain in 1781. From 1781 until 1789, the United States

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Disaster Response and the Birth of the United States 3

operated under the Articles of Confederation. This gave the national government virtually no authority as compared to those sovereign powers possessed by the individual states. A system with a hopelessly weak national government proved to be untenable, however. Consequently, after much political wrangling and compromise, the United States Constitution was ratified in 1789 and provided for a federal system of government, where power is shared between the national government and the states. The Constitution was written in such a way as to lay to rest the concerns of those who feared a strong national government— particularly in the wake of the United States having just freed itself from one. In so doing, the Constitution articulated with some specificity the responsibilities and powers of the national government, and the particular responsibilities and powers of each branch of the national government. Further, the 10th Amendment, which was ratified in 1791, stated: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. So what were (and are) the powers of the federal government regarding what is now termed emergency management? Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution states that Congress has the power: To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into the Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or any Department or Officer thereof. The above sentence from the Constitution is known as the “necessary and proper clause.” Much hangs on the interpretation of that one sentence. The “foregoing Powers” mentioned here references those specific powers granted to Congress in Section 8, including but not limited to the power: to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations and among the several States and Indian Tribes; to establish an uniform Rule of naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

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to provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; to define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas and Offenses against the Law of nations; to provide for calling for the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, and suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions . . . Many critics of federal emergency management activities, then and now, point to the fact that the Constitution says nothing about providing financial or organizational assistance to state or local governments, nor to individual citizens to deal with disasters. According to this perspective on government, when Portsmouth, New Hampshire, suffered a calamitous fire, it was the responsibility of the people of New Hampshire to provide assistance to their fellow citizens, if they so chose. Defenders of a federal response to local disasters noted that the Preamble of the Constitution envisions an active federal government where the safety and welfare of its people are concerned. The Preamble states that the people of the United States, in ordaining the Constitution, seek to “. . . establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty . . .” for present and future generations of Americans. If the preamble does in fact represent the purpose of the U.S. Constitution and the federal government it creates, then the “necessary and proper clause” seems to suggest Congress has considerable leeway to pass laws and create agencies that do the very things the Preamble articulates—namely, establish justice, keep the peace, and protect the welfare of Americans (Bumgarner 2006). Although critics of this reasoning contended that the Preamble merely stated the purpose of the Constitution—that it introduced the document and did not serve as a clause of it—the reasoning supporting a broad interpretation prevailed, thereby enabling the United States government to provide disaster assistance. Indeed, more than one hundred pieces of legislation were passed during the nineteenth century that provided aid to local communities for fires, floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, and other natural disasters (FEMA 2006a).

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The 1920s and 1930s In June 1928, the Flood Control Act of 1928 was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge. The legislation was a direct result of the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, still regarded as the most destructive river flood in American history. The swollen Mississippi River that year caused flooding in parts of Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Tennessee. In total, 27,000 square miles were flooded after the Mississippi River broke through levees in more than a hundred places. The flooding killed more than 250 people and caused $400 million (in 1927 dollars) in property damage. The 1928 legislation was the nation’s first comprehensive flood control act. Prior to this legislation, flood control efforts along the Mississippi had been primarily the responsibility of state and local governments, which erected levees to contain the river. This legislation authorized the federal government to perform comprehensive flood control up and down the Mississippi River by using a system of levees in conjunction with floodways, outlet channels, and improved tributary basins. This comprehensive approach also ensured that the Mississippi River was more reliable for navigation and for the transportation of goods. The federal government’s role in disaster preparedness and relief grew bigger still during the New Deal era of the 1930s. President Franklin Roosevelt worked aggressively to expand the reach and activity of the federal government in a variety of ways in the face of the Great Depression. A number of public works projects on a grand scale were launched, including projects designed to avert or reduce the impact of natural disasters. The Flood Control Act of 1936 and subsequent amending legislation authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to design and construct flood control projects around the country (Arnold 1988).

The 1950s The 1950s ushered in a new era of emergency preparedness and management in the United States. With World War II over and the Cold War with the Soviet Union well under way, the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950 was passed. This legislation created the Federal Civil Defense Agency. It was through this agency that the federal government provided funding to the states for

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preparedness activities. Civil defense efforts were primarily concerned with the threat of nuclear war. However, strategies were also developed to deal with other man-made and natural disasters (Light 2004). In 1950, the U.S. Congress also passed the Federal Disaster Relief Act into law. The purpose of the act was to enable the federal government to share financially in the responsibility for repairing damaged public facilities after a disaster and help the states draft their own disaster plans. This legislation reaffirmed that state and local governments were the first line of defense against disasters. But it also required the federal government to become involved in disaster response and created a mechanism for the federal agencies to work with state and local governments in coordinated relief efforts (Light 2004).

The 1960s and 1970s The limited organizational infrastructure at the federal level for dealing with disasters was tested and strained in the 1960s. Hurricanes proved to be particularly menacing. In 1960, Hurricane Donna hit the Atlantic coast of Florida and then worked its way up the eastern seaboard. More than 360 people were killed. In 1961, Hurricane Carla hit the Gulf Coast of Texas, killing 46. Hurricane Betsy hit Louisiana in 1965 killing 76 people. In 1969, Hurricane Camille struck Mississippi, killing more than 250 initially and killing dozens more from flooding once the storm moved inland. All of these hurricanes resulted in billions of dollars in damage and thousands of injuries. Hurricanes were not the only calamities taking place in the 1960s that required federal intervention. In 1964, an earthquake measuring 9.2 on the Richter scale struck Prince William Sound in Alaska, affecting several nearby communities, including Anchorage. One hundred thirty-one people were killed as result of this earthquake and subsequent tsunamis in Alaska and along the western coast of North America—particularly in California. These disasters and others prompted further federal legislation. Homeowners were able to access low-cost flood insurance as result of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968. Additionally, the procedure for federal disaster declarations was established with the Disaster Relief Act of 1974. However, the whole federal disaster preparedness and response program remained disjointed. There was no agency “on point” for the federal

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government when it came to disasters. Rather, more than a hundred federal agencies were involved in disaster preparedness and emergency management (FEMA 2006a). By the late 1970s, the call for reform directed at the federal disaster response community was loud—particularly from state governments that had grown tired of navigating through the maze of multiple federal agencies for help whenever disaster struck. President Jimmy Carter responded by establishing the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) with issuance of Executive Order 12127 on March 31, 1979. FEMA was not created out of whole cloth. Rather, several offices and agencies were reorganized to become part of FEMA. Most of FEMA’s organizational structure and human resources came from the federal government’s three primary disaster agencies of the time: the Federal Preparedness Agency (a part of the General Services Administration), the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (a part of the Department of Defense), and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration (a part of the Department of Housing and Urban Development).

The Federal Emergency Management Agency President Carter appointed Office of Personnel Management chief John Macy as the new head of FEMA—a position that reported directly to the president. Macy’s challenge was to create an organization with its own culture, bureaucratic processes, and identity. This was no small task given that parts of the new agency were located in eight different buildings around Washington DC, and its responsibilities had previously been so compartmentalized (Lindell, Prater, and Perry 2006). The coordination challenges facing FEMA at the onset of its creation continued into the 1980s, 1990s, and beyond. With the attack against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, it was clear that emergency management efforts at the federal level could be called upon to respond to man-made disasters of the likes and scale not previously seen in the United States. The unique challenges facing the emergency management community in scenarios involving terrorism shifted the emphasis from preparing for natural disasters to a broader conception of “homeland security.” Thus, FEMA was a logical inclusion

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among the twenty-two agencies that were transferred to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) when it was created. FEMA was then regarded as having an “all hazards” approach (FEMA 2006a).

The Department of Homeland Security Just as FEMA was created by a realignment of government agencies, so was DHS. The twenty-two federal agencies that collectively possessed thousands of statutory responsibilities were transferred to DHS with the passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The legislation gave the new cabinet-level department until March 2003 to implement the reorganization plan. The agencies transferring to DHS were organized under four major directorates within the department. The directorates corresponded broadly to the new statutory responsibilities of DHS. The twenty-two federal agencies transferred to DHS under their respective directorates were (U.S. DHS 2006): Border and Transportation Security Directorate U.S. Customs Service (Treasury) Immigration and Naturalization Service (part) (Justice) Federal Protective Service (General Services Administration [GSA]) Transportation Security Administration (Transportation) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (Treasury) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (part) (Agriculture) Office for Domestic Preparedness (Justice) Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate Federal Emergency Management Agency (DHS) Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Medical System (Health and Human Services) Nuclear Incident Response Team (Energy) Domestic Emergency Support Teams (Justice)

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National Domestic Preparedness Office (Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI]) Science and Technology Directorate CBRN [chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear] Countermeasures Programs (Energy) Environmental Measurements Laboratory (Energy) National BW [biological warfare] Defense Analysis Center (Defense) Plum Island Animal Disease Center (Agriculture) Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate Federal Computer Incident Response Center (GSA) National Communications System (Defense) National Infrastructure Protection Center (FBI) Energy Security and Assurance Program (Energy) Independent agencies not falling under a directorate U.S. Secret Service U.S. Coast Guard Many believed the inclusion of FEMA within DHS signaled a new regard for FEMA’s importance. Emergency management professionals and academicians had high hopes for FEMA’s stature and operational resources to grow commensurate with alignment under this new, important department. After all, what can possibly deserve more attention and garner more respect than a department of government (and by extension its component agencies) created for the sole purpose of securing the nation’s homeland in the aftermath of the most devastating terrorist attack in American history? However, by most accounts, FEMA has not always performed admirably as an organization since joining DHS. FEMA’s performance during and after Hurricane Katrina, which struck New Orleans, Louisiana; Biloxi, Mississippi; and everywhere in between in late August 2005, has been held up as

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10

Background and History

an instant classic example of FEMA losing sight of its mission. Many have criticized FEMA for departing from its disaster preparedness roots for the allure of antiterrorism planning and preparation. FEMA’s actions during the Hurricane Katrina crisis have been characterized as evidence of this misplacement of purpose. As a result, a number of politicians began to reconsider FEMA’s proper placement within the larger federal bureaucratic environment.

FEMA’s Reorganization During the 109th Congress, several bills were introduced in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate that targeted FEMA for mandatory reorganization and reform. Some of the bills, had they become law, would have removed FEMA from the Department of Homeland Security and reestablished it as an independent, cabinet-level agency. However, Congress ultimately settled for less drastic organization reform. On April 1, 2007, the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 took effect. Among other results, this legislation established FEMA as an independent agency within DHS with the FEMA director reporting directly to the secretary of Homeland Security. Further, several organizations and functions were transferred out of the Preparedness Directorate and placed under FEMA. These include: U.S. Fire Administration Office of Grants and Training (renamed Office of Grant Programs) Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Division Radiological Emergency Preparedness Division Office of National Capital Region Coordination The Preparedness Directorate was not eliminated altogether. However, it was renamed the National Protection and Programs Directorate (NPPD). As a result of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, the NPPD houses: Office of Infrastructure Protection

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Defining Disasters 11

Office of Cyber Security and Communications Office of Risk Management and Analysis Office of Intergovernmental Programs US-VISIT program It is unclear whether these organizational changes at the Department of Homeland Security will create a more efficient and effective emergency management apparatus within the federal government, or whether politicians will be satisfied in the long run that enough has been done to bolster this federal responsibility. FEMA’s role, as well as that of other federal agencies, will be explored later in this book. However, to appreciate the seemingly never-ending debate over FEMA’s role, one must minimally understand the fundamentals of modern emergency management and the variety of event types facing the discipline.

Defining Disasters Although a working definition of “disaster” may seem fairly easy to arrive at, much has actually been written in an ongoing debate over just what a disaster is. Some who study emergency management or practice it professionally define or classify disasters according to the disaster’s origin or cause. For example, one disaster can be classified as natural in origin (such as a tornado). Another disaster might be technological in its origin (a commercial airliner crashing into a residential neighborhood). While these classifications are helpful, the problem with thinking about disasters strictly along these lines is that it fails to account for mixed origins. If an earthquake causes a dam to break, is the ensuing flood a naturally or technologically inspired calamity? Of course, it would be both. Others in the emergency management community choose to define disasters according to their characteristics. The characteristics of disasters may include: Length of forewarning Magnitude of impact

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Scope of impact Duration of impact Predictability of the associated hazard While relying upon disaster characteristics does help distinguish some major catastrophic events from other types of events, characteristic classification schemes alone do not encompass every event that most people would consider to be a disaster. A full airliner that crashes not into a neighborhood but into a remote jungle of an underdeveloped country is a disaster according to common sense even if the broader impact is arguably negligible. Sociologist Thomas Drabek (1986) identified six characteristics that differentiate disasters from other emergencies: Degree of uncertainty Urgency Development of an emergency consensus Expansion of the citizenship role De-emphasis on contractual and personal relationships Sudden convergence of people and material at a scene The last point speaks to the capacity and willingness of local governments to marshal resources to an emergency. The more agencies and personnel required, the greater disaster the event is.

FEMA’s Definition of Disaster The Federal Emergency Management Agency offers the following as a comprehensive, workable definition of a disaster (FEMA 2006b): A disaster is a non-routine event that exceeds the capacity of the affected area to respond to it in such a way as to save lives; to preserve property; and to maintain the social, ecological, economic, and political stability of the affected region.

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This definition accomplishes at least three goals. First, it eliminates from consideration routine kinds of emergencies, such as automobile accidents and residential fires. Disasters are unusual, complex, and difficult to respond to. Standard operating procedures for routine emergencies would not suffice (FEMA 2006b). Second, the definition takes into consideration a key element from Thomas Drabek (1986)—it recognizes the strain on local government’s capacity to respond to an event if it is to be considered a disaster. Finally, the definition pays homage to the importance of maintaining the stability of an effected area. Disasters may adversely impact social, ecological, economic, and political environments. A common house fire most likely will not. True disasters, whether natural, technological, or social in their origin, have the ability to wreak great havoc on the societal or ecological order.

Types of Disasters and Catastrophes Emergency management practitioners and policymakers must contend with a broad spectrum of disasters and catastrophes. If one were to consider the calamities of a few hundred years ago or more, there was little chance of an event happening on a catastrophic scale that was anything other than natural in origin (with the exception of warfare). As technology marched forward through history, greater and greater opportunities presented themselves for mankind to have a hand in catastrophic events— even accidental ones. David Alexander (2002) created a typology of hazards, subject to three broad categories: natural hazards, technological hazards, and social hazards. The natural, technological, and social hazards can be broken down into the following subclasses (Alexander 2002):

Natural Hazards 1. Geological—includes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mud slides, rock avalanches, and accelerated erosion. 2. Meteorological—includes hurricanes, tornados, ice storms, blizzards, lightening storms, hailstorms, fog, drought, and snow avalanches. 3. Hydrological—includes floods and flash floods. 4. Biological—includes forest and range fires, crop blight, insect infestation, and disease outbreaks and epidemics.

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Technological Hazards 1. Hazardous materials (HAZMAT)—includes carcinogens, mutagens, heavy metals, and other toxins. 2. Dangerous processes—includes structural failure, radiation emissions, refining accidents, and transportation accidents involving HAZMAT. 3. Devices and machines—includes explosives; unexploded ordnance; and accidents involving vehicles, trains, and aircraft. 4. Installations and plants—includes bridges, dams, mines, refineries, power plants, oil and gas terminals and storage plants, power lines, pipelines, and skyscrapers.

Social Hazards 1. Terrorist incidents—includes bombings, shootings, hostage taking, hijacking, and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) attacks. 2. Crowd incidents—includes riots, demonstrations, crowd crushes, and stampedes. 3. Warfare—includes unintended civilian casualties (i.e., “collateral damage”). All of the above hazards are the rightful province of the discipline of emergency management. However, not all are given equal attention by emergency managers. This fact stands to reason because the hazards listed above are neither equally likely nor equally costly. Determining which hazards to pay attention to, and preparing for the consequences that could follow, are matters associated with risk assessment. Stated simply, “risk” is the intersection between probability and consequences. If an emergency manager assesses the risk of mud slides in his or her community, that assessment will include gauging the probability of mud slides occurring and the potential consequences if they do occur. For a community set in hill country, the possibility of a mud slide might be quite high. Of course, that is only half of the equation when assessing risk. Although mud slides might be quite likely in one’s town, geological experts may have confirmed that only a particular area of the town would be threatened by such slides—an area of the town that is sparsely populated. The consequences of such mud slides might be considered low relative to other

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types of threats. Therefore, the overall risk associated with doing little or nothing about mud slides may be relatively low as well. A more absurd example would be to consider the risk of an alien invasion. The consequences of not being prepared for an aggressive invasion from Mars would be catastrophic. However, the probability of such an invasion happening is so low as to make the overall risk of such an attack low—much too low to expend significant resources preparing for it. The degree to which a community is exposed to an undesirable amount of risk (i.e., a high probability of something happening that brings with it high negative consequences) amounts to the community’s “vulnerability.” Vulnerability is closely related to risk, and many people use the two terms interchangeably. There is a shade of difference, however. “Vulnerability” is “the measure of the propensity of an object, area, individual, group, community, country, or other entity to incur consequences of a hazard” (Coppola 2007, 25). As you will note progressing through this book, emergency management is all about the systematic understanding and reduction of vulnerabilities. Emergency managers and other public officials must constantly be mindful of where the vulnerabilities lie. As tragic as it would be were a tornado to level a residential subdivision, it might be more problematic for the community if the downtown were leveled, along with the local hospital, main fire station and 911 call center, and city hall. This is because the second scenario involves damage to critical infrastructure. A community’s infrastructure consists of systems for the delivery of water and power, fuel, telecommunications, transportation, and other key elements for a community to operate. The International City/County Management Association (ICMA), in its effort to promote national awareness of the need for protecting critical infrastructure, developed the following comprehensive list of key areas that must be considered and targeted by emergency managers and public administrators when undertaking emergency preparedness efforts (ICMA 2003): 1. Information and Communication • Computer networks • Line-based phone systems • Cell towers

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2. Electricity • Power plants (nuclear and other) • Step-up and step-down stations • Transformers 3. Transportation • Airports • Highways and bridges • Ports 4. Petroleum/Chemical • Oil wells • Refineries • Delivery and storage facilities 5. Economic • Banks • Financial institutions • Major corporations 6. Water • Dams • Sewage treatment facilities • Storage and distribution systems 7. Emergency Services • Fire and police stations • Emergency operations centers (EOCs) • Hospitals 8. Critical Government Services • Mayor’s office • City hall • Courthouses While the criticality of the above systems and facilities may be obvious, less obvious are the answers concerning how they are to be protected. Further, should resources be expended to protect or prepare critical infrastructure prior to a disaster so as to possibly avoid calamity? Or are time and money best spent learning how to respond to disasters in the most efficient and effective manner possible (i.e., preparing for the inevitable calamity)? The plain answer is that emergency managers must do both, and more. While there are many facets to the discipline of emergency management, all emergency management activities fall under one of four core phases.

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Fundamentals of Emergency Management 17

Fundamentals of Emergency Management Fundamentally, emergency management activities can be divided into four core phases: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Mitigation Preparedness Response Recovery

Any time a concept is neatly categorized, a temptation develops to think that the concept is simple and neat. Although couching emergency management efforts in terms of these four phases is extremely helpful for understanding emergency management broadly, it should be noted that the distinctions between phases are not always clear. In some cases, these phases overlap with some emergency management activities incapable of being compartmentalized into one phase or another. With that caveat in mind, let us examine the four phases of emergency management.

Mitigation Two of the phases of emergency management are undertaken in advance of a disaster or large-scale emergency taking place. “Mitigation” relates to those activities directed at eliminating or reducing the degree of long-term risk to human life and property from natural and technological hazards. Haddow and Bullock (2006) note that mitigation differs from the other emergency management functions in that it is concerned with long-term solutions for minimizing risk, as opposed to the more short-term activities of preparing for emerging hazards, responding to events, and then recovering from them. Many activities can be undertaken by emergency management officials and their parent governments to reduce the risk of hazards in the long term. Mitigation activities might include establishing building codes that improve the chances of structures remaining standing after an earthquake. Zoning and land management might be used to ensure that residences are not located in flood-prone areas. Relocation funds, tax incentives,

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and low-interest loans might be provided to homeowners or businesses to encourage their moving from areas prone to floods or wildfires. Publicly subsidized insurance might be offered to (or even required for) the public so that if disaster strikes, the financial burden to the victims and the taxpayers is more manageable. Public education campaigns could help citizens be more informed and equipped (and therefore less needy) should a disaster ever come. There are many benefits to mitigation. The chief benefit is that mitigation can indeed save lives and reduce the number of injuries. Naturally, this is the number one goal of emergency management and public safety. But a number of other benefits offer compelling arguments for engaging in mitigation. Through mitigation, property damage can be reduced or prevented; economic losses, social dislocation, and stress can be minimized; the damage to critical infrastructure and disruptions to key services can be minimized; the liability of government officials (and by extension, the taxpayer) can be reduced; and a positive political climate may develop due to the perception that government exercised wise forethought. Despite the advantages of mitigation, there are real obstacles that make serious mitigation efforts difficult to achieve. The very nature of mitigation involves taking action before a crisis is even on the horizon. It is difficult, therefore, to sell mitigation to policymakers, elected officials, and the taxpayers when no immediate benefit is realized. This is especially true given the fact that mitigation tends to be cost intensive. Those costs are not only incurred by government, which may irk taxpayers, but also by business and industry, which customarily pass on those costs to consumers. It can cost quite a bit of money to bring an existing building into compliance with enhanced safety codes. Likewise, the building of new structures for either residential or commercial use that are subject to new and costly codes and zoning regulations may be impeded. Mitigation, frankly, can have a stunting impact on economic development and growth that would otherwise have taken place.

Preparedness The emergency management phase of preparedness refers to activities undertaken in advance of an emergency or disaster to develop operational and logistical capabilities and to facilitate an

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effective response should an emergency management event occur. Effective preparedness efforts require proper planning, the allocation of sufficient resources, making the training of emergency responders a priority, and engaging in disaster simulation exercises in order to practice large-scale responses and to identify vulnerabilities in the response process. Rightly or wrongly, the preparedness piece of emergency management has really come to be associated with professional emergency managers as their primary job duty—especially the coordination of disaster simulation exercises. The ICMA (2003) identified several primary steps for communities to follow in pursuit of their emergency management preparedness efforts. 1. Adopt emergency management–related ordinances. Such ordinances give the necessary authority and power to emergency management officials and help delineate the responsibilities of these officials from the responsibilities and powers of other public officials, such as the police chief or the fire chief. Through the passage of clarifying and authorizing emergency management ordinances, which includes the emergency management plan for a community, some of the inevitable interdepartmental turf battles that arise might be settled before a crisis strikes. Emergency management ordinances also articulate the community’s commitment and protocol of mutual aid with other jurisdictions. 2. Risk assessment. Communities must engage in risk assessment as a part of the preparedness effort. That is, communities need to identify the realistic hazards and vulnerabilities present in the community. Certainly, the risks affecting New York City are not exactly the same as those affecting Amarillo, Texas. Therefore, risk assessment is unique to the community undertaking it. 3. Emergency operations plan (EOP). The development of the EOP is a result of the risk assessment. Every EOP must provide basic information about the disaster response mechanisms in the community. Beyond that, the plan provides detailed information, specific to that jurisdiction’s risks and needs, about how particular types of disasters and emergencies will be handled. The plan, for example, might devote one section to articulate how a HAZMAT situation will be dealt with, another section dealing with a

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potential terrorist strike, still another dealing with a crisis at any of the local schools, and so forth. The plan will spell out the roles of law enforcement, the fire department, the emergency medical services (EMS), the hospitals, the Red Cross, and other emergency management players—before, during, and after a disaster strikes. 4. Warning systems. Emergency management preparedness includes ensuring the existence of warning systems. Ideally, the warning systems must have some redundancy built into them. In other words, more than one warning mechanism must be in place. If television or radio service is interrupted in a tornado, the tornado siren is still there to signal the alarm. If that siren is inoperable, there might also be in place a reverse-911 system in which automatic warnings will be telephoned to everyone in the threatened community. It is the responsibility of the emergency manager to evaluate the available options, in light of technology and resources, to put together a viable and redundant system of warning mechanisms and then see to it that the system is in place and operational. 5. Resource identification. To some extent, resource identification has already been discussed in that it is an embedded part of all emergency management functions and, certainly, preparedness functions. Resources are finite, including money. In a time of crisis, they can be particularly scarce. But in the midst of a disaster, monetary considerations generally take a back seat. The resources that must be employed at the time of a disaster include personnel, equipment, and supplies. These resources must be identified prior to a disaster—during the preparedness phase—because the chaotic environment during a disaster may not permit the marshaling of the manpower or equipment needed in the moment. Emergency managers must assess internal resources in their possession, external resources that could be accessed, and what contingencies might arise in an emergency that would require the various resources available. When Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans, hundreds of school buses that were designated for use to evacuate city residents sat idle because they had no drivers to operate them. During a hurricane is the wrong time to identify bus drivers. Needed human resources must be identified, alerted, and relied upon prior to the crisis. Resource identification, including the development of

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resource backup plans, is a major obligation of emergency managers in their preparedness efforts. 6. Grant acquisition. Local emergency managers must conduct their jobs within the context of limited budgets, few personnel, and often insufficient equipment or technology. This clearly poses a challenge. As a result, the federal government has established a number of grant programs, administered by FEMA, to help alleviate the resource strain on communities. FEMA offers a number of grants for communities to secure specialized equipment and training in the areas of search and rescue, terrorism response (including WMD), public health and epidemiology, communications systems improvement, and others. Many of the grant programs have come under some criticism because they are, for the most part, available for all communities to participate in. Some communities, such as New York City, believe the FEMA grants should be more directed toward those communities most likely to be affected by the type of disaster relating to the grant. For example, antiterrorism grant funding is better spent primarily in communities such as New York City, rather than spreading the funding across the country to include low probability targets such as Omaha, Nebraska—or at least so the argument goes. Obviously, a “low-probability target” community such as Oklahoma City, after suffering through the Murrah Federal Building bombing on April 19, 1995, would disagree. FEMA grants available for emergency management purposes, along with their intended recipients (in parentheses), appear below (FEMA 2006c): • Assistance to Firefighters Grant (through U.S. Fire Administration) provides assistance to local fire departments to protect citizens and firefighters against the effects of fire and fire-related incidents. (Fire departments and other first responders) • Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program improves preparedness to protect the people of certain communities in the unlikely event of an accident involving this country’s stockpiles of obsolete chemical munitions. (States, localities, and tribal governments) • Community Assistance Program, State Support Services Element provides funding to states to provide technical assistance to communities in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) and to evaluate community

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performance in implementing NFIP floodplain management activities. (States) Community Disaster Loan Program provides funds to any eligible jurisdiction in a designated disaster area that has suffered a substantial loss of tax and other revenue. (Localities) Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act supports programs designed to improve capabilities associated with oil and hazardous materials emergency planning and exercising. (States, localities, and tribal governments; U.S. territories; state emergency response committees) Cooperating Technical Partners provides technical assistance, training, and/or data to support flood hazard data development activities. (States, localities, and tribal governments) Crisis Counseling provides supplemental funding to states for short-term crisis counseling services to people affected in presidentially declared disasters. (Individuals via states) Disaster Legal Services provides free legal assistance to disaster victims. (Individuals via states) Disaster Unemployment Assistance Program provides unemployment benefits and reemployment services to individuals who have become unemployed because of major disasters. (Individuals) Emergency Food and Shelter Program supplements the work of local social service organizations within the United States, both private and governmental, to help people in need of emergency assistance. (Private-nonprofit community and government organizations) Emergency Management Institute provides training and education to the fire service, its allied professions, emergency management officials, and the general public. (Fire departments, other first responders, emergency management officials, and individuals) Fire Management Assistance Grant Program assistance for the mitigation, management, and control of fires on publicly or privately owned forests or grasslands, which threaten such destruction as would constitute a major disaster. (States, localities, and tribal governments)

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• Flood Mitigation Assistance Program provides funding to assist states and communities in implementing measures to reduce or eliminate the long-term risk of flood damage to buildings, manufactured homes, and other structures insurable under the NFIP. (States and localities) • Hazard Mitigation Grant Program provides grants to states and local governments to implement long-term hazard mitigation measures after a major disaster declaration. (States, localities, and tribal governments; certain private/nonprofit organizations or institutions; authorized tribal organizations; and Alaska native villages or organizations via states) • Individuals and Households Grant Program (disaster assistance) provides money or direct assistance to individuals, families, and businesses in an area whose property has been damaged or destroyed and whose losses are not covered by insurance. (Individuals) • Map Modernization Management Support provides funding to supplement, not supplant, ongoing flood hazard mapping management efforts by the local, regional, or state agencies. (States and localities) • National Dam Safety Program provides financial assistance to the states for strengthening their dam safety programs. (States) • National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program provides financial assistance to the states for strengthening their dam safety programs. (States) • National Fire Academy Education and Training provides training to increase the professional level of the fire service and others responsible for fire prevention and control. (Fire departments and firefighting personnel) • National Flood Insurance Program enables property owners in participating communities to purchase insurance as a protection against flood losses in exchange for state and community floodplain management regulations that reduce future flood damages. (States, localities, and individuals) • National Urban Search and Rescue (US&R) Response System provides funding for the acquisition, maintenance, and storage of equipment, training, exercises, and training facilities to meet task force position criteria and conduct

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and participate in meetings within the National US&R Response System. (US&R task forces) Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program provides funds for hazard mitigation planning and the implementation of mitigation projects prior to a disaster event. (States, localities, and tribal governments) Public Assistance Grant Program provides assistance to alleviate suffering and hardship resulting from major disasters or emergencies declared by the president. (States, localities, tribal governments, and private/nonprofit organizations via states) Reimbursement for Firefighting on Federal Property provides reimbursement only for direct costs and losses over and above normal operating costs. (States, localities, tribal governments, and fire departments) Repetitive Flood Claims Program provides funding to states and communities to reduce or eliminate the long-term risk of flood damage to structures insured under the NFIP that have had one or more claims for flood damages, and that cannot meet the requirements of the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) program for either cost share or capacity to manage the activities. (States and localities) State Fire Training System Grants provide financial assistance to state fire training systems for the delivery of a variety of National Fire Academy courses/programs. (State fire training systems) Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act provides funding for training in emergency planning, preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery capabilities associated with hazardous chemicals. (Public officials, fire and police personnel, medical personnel, first responders, and other tribal response and planning personnel)

7. Mutual aid agreements. This is yet another piece of preparedness that is directly connected to the scarcity of resources. Local communities can be overwhelmed by large-scale disasters and emergencies. However, such events are too infrequent to warrant permanent staffing and equipment levels sufficient to meet needs in those times of crisis. This is probably true not only of Community A, but also Community B, Community C, and every other community in the region. Consequently, local governments frequently enter into mutual aid agreements, which obligate one

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community to provide assistance to another community when needed. Mutual aid agreements are legally binding contracts between jurisdictions. Therefore, the wording for such agreements must be carefully considered and the circumstances that would obligate one community to expend resources in helping another must be thoroughly thought out. Mutual aid agreements can be a community’s salvation in a time of real emergency. They can overcome resource scarcity, personnel shortages, and lack of specific expertise. However, emergency managers, in concert with their community’s elected officials, must iron out key details in such agreements before a disaster occurs. These details, which can be controversial at times, include: • Are the communications systems interoperable, and if not, what must be done to make them so? • Who pays the salaries, fuel, and expenses associated with a mutual aid response? • Who is in charge of mutual aid responders? • Who pays line-of-duty benefits if death or injury were to occur? • Under what circumstance can a community determine not to respond to mutual aid request? The idea of communities—especially mid-size and smaller ones—helping each other to offset resource scarcity makes a lot of sense. However, the devil is in the details. It is the job of the emergency manager, in cooperation with other public safety and elected officials, to work out the specifics in a way that protects his or her own community without extending unnecessary liability or resource strain to his or her own emergency services. 8. Training and exercises. A key element of preparedness is training. First responders as well as public safety administrators and emergency managers must know what to do when a disastrous event occurs. Training of emergency personnel must include topic areas such as interdepartmental operations, logistics, and the use of the incident command system. Training must also be designed to include functional topics such as how to clean up hazardous materials, how to establish a triage system for assessing injuries in the field and how to preserve evidence of an enormous crime scene while performing other first responder duties. In addition to training, emergency managers

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engaged in preparedness must also design and implement disaster exercises. This gives the emergency manager and other decision makers an opportunity to see the fruits of the training at work. Exercises also afford the chance to identify weaknesses, knowledge gaps, and vulnerabilities in the emergency operation plan and among emergency personnel. Exercises can be conducted on a large or small scale. Full-scale exercises are very costly and time consuming, but also very telling. These exercises are scenario driven and require all personnel and equipment that would be employed in a similar actual emergency to take part. Functional exercises, by contrast, only require the involvement and personnel and equipment relating to the function being assessed (for example, patrol officers or a HAZMAT unit within the fire department). Emergency managers also design and implement “table top” exercises. These exercises are the least costly and are generally conducted in the classroom or office. They involve simply the conception of a disaster scenario narrated on paper and are primarily geared toward public safety leadership. Through discussion and written exercises, public safety leaders can work through a hypothetical scenario to its conclusion. 9. Public education. The process of educating the public about what to do in large-scale emergencies is also an element of emergency management preparedness. Through education programs, public apathy toward the possibility of disasters can be diminished without causing people to become excessively alarmist. Education can also impact people’s behavior in a positive way— hopefully resulting in the reduction of risky behavior (such as continuing to live in a floodplain). Further, education will equip citizens to respond to disasters in a safer, more responsible, and more helpful manner. Disaster education programs for the public cover topics such as the causes and consequences of disasters, how to protect one’s home, where to seek shelter, self-preservation skills, how disaster warning systems operate, and the role of government and private agencies when different types of disasters or emergencies arise. As a part of the education plank of emergency management preparedness, there has been a concerted effort at the federal level to disseminate disaster preparedness information to the general public. FEMA’s public education Web site devoted specifically

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to this purpose, www.ready.gov, serves as a clearinghouse of information on personal, family, and business preparedness replete with practical tips. There has been a growing chorus from all levels of government that emergency preparedness is a personal responsibility (Rainey 2006). Among the steps that individuals and families can take to enhance their own ability to cope with disasters are: Assemble an emergency kit. The emergency kit should include items that may be needed in the event that one’s home must be quickly evacuated. The kit should include food with a long shelf life and bottled water, medical supplies (including prescription medicine), a flashlight with extra batteries, blankets, extra clothing, sanitation and hygiene supplies, and communications equipment (particularly a radio for receiving updated information amidst a crisis). Compile vital personal information. Copies of important documents should be included in one’s emergency kit. Alternatively, backup copies could be sent to family members in other locations. Key personal documents include medical records, insurance policies, financial account information, an inventory of household goods, deeds, telephone numbers, extra keys, and cash. Create a family communications plan. A plan should be developed for how to contact immediate family members in the event that a disaster or an emergency occurs when family members are not all together. Typically, out-of-town relatives can serve as the linking pin between dislocated family members. Be disaster aware. Citizens are encouraged to be familiar with the very types of calamities that are most likely to befall one’s community. Coastal residents obviously must be prepared to deal with certain types of emergencies that Midwesterners will never see (such as hurricanes). Midwesterners, on the other hand, would do well to understand the conditions in which tornados thrive and the procedures to follow, whereas those living in Southern California are less likely to need that information.

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Response The third phase of emergency management is response. Response refers to what the government and other organizations do immediately before, during, and after a disaster or terror event occurs. The response phase involves acute activity intended to save lives and property and to pave the way for effective recovery. Damon Coppola (2007) notes that emergencies occur in three stages. Response activities are tailored according to the stage of emergency government officials find themselves in: 1. Prehazard 2. Emergency: Hazard effects are ongoing 3. Emergency: Hazard effects have ceased During the prehazard stage, an emergency is recognized by emergency management and public safety officials as imminent, but not yet present. For example, rotation may have been spotted in a wall cloud, but a tornado has not yet touched down. Or intelligence may have been gathered confirming a terror attack is imminent against a city’s landmark, but it has not yet taken place. At this stage of an emergency management event, officials have some opportunity to respond in a way that can still save lives and property. Warnings or evacuation orders could be given. Law enforcement and fire/rescue units could be alerted and prepositioned. Hospital emergency rooms could be notified so that preparation might be made to treat potential casualties. Depending on the nature of the impending emergency, there may even be time to engage in last-minute, ad hoc mitigation and preparedness measures. This might include sandbagging vulnerable areas before an expected river breach hours away (Coppola 2007). The response phase of emergency management might also be employed at some level during the emergency while the hazard is ongoing. Depending on the nature of the event, the ongoing phase of an emergency could last seconds, or it could last hours and even days. When the World Trade Center towers were struck by hijacked airliners in 2001, emergency management efforts were employed immediately. An EOC was established, mutual aid agreements kicked in, off-duty public safety officials came in to work, and hospitals geared up. These and other activities took place while the emergency event was still unfolding

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and the danger still loomed. Indeed, hundreds of first responders (police officers, firefighters, and EMS personnel) lost their lives responding to the Twin Towers while the fires still burned and continued to weaken the structures—eventually bringing them down and killing almost everyone who was still in them. Once the towers came down and the fires were under control, the hazard effects ceased. This is not to say that no danger remained. The environment at ground zero remained dangerous for days—particularly in light of the hazardous materials in the air. But during this posthazard stage of an emergency, responders are no longer focusing on the hazard effects, but rather concern themselves with tending to victim needs, rescuing the trapped and injured, recovering and managing human remains, and keeping the situation stable (i.e., ensuring that an ongoing hazardous state does not return). In some cases, the most appropriate response choice may simply be to wait for a successive stage of emergency to follow. In the midst of a tornado, an ambulance crew can do no one any good if they rush out from shelter to attend to victims and become victims themselves. By leaving shelter, they jeopardize their own safety, which ultimately affects the ability of the system to respond immediately after the threat has passed. In fact, not only might the ambulance crew be unavailable to rescue others but they also may siphon rescue resources that could be used on other victims at the time of their own rescue.

Recovery The final phase of emergency management is recovery. “Recovery” refers to what the government does in the mid and long term after an emergency management event. Recovery activities are intended to restore the community to its condition prior to the disaster, or even better, improve the condition over what it was predisaster. Commonly, the federal government plays a leading role in recovery efforts of large-scale, local disasters. Recovery efforts focus on the restoration of services and the reconstruction of buildings and transportation networks. Long-term recovery efforts may blend into mitigation efforts as measures are explored and taken to ensure similar disasters are averted or at least diminished in impact in the future. Recovery efforts are directed toward different elements of society as the circumstances dictate. In a major natural disaster,

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such as Hurricane Katrina, considerable public assistance is frequently relied upon by large segments of the citizenry. People may need housing assistance in the near term, food assistance, and may need relatively routine but necessary medical attention or treatment. Emergency management efforts must anticipate these needs and act upon them during recovery. The recovery phase also involves efforts to revitalize the local economy and business sector of a community after a disaster. In the United States, the federal government plays a significant role in the recovery process—for individuals and for businesses. Historically, in the wake of major disasters, FEMA has worked closely with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development to provide food and housing aid to disaster victims. FEMA also works closely with the U.S. Department of Commerce, the U.S. Department of Labor, and the U.S. Small Business Administration to get businesses up and running again and to get people in an affected community back to work. Low-interest and no-interest loans, along with outright cash grants, are the federal government’s primary means for jump-starting a disaster-stricken community’s economic engine. Some critics decry the use of federal taxpayer money for the purpose of benefiting private business and industry even while accepting the rationale for assisting individual citizens in need. Proponents of such programs, however, point out that real people—that is, victims—benefit from economic redevelopment and that no quicker way is available to remove the need for government assistance than to prop up the private business sector. Lindell, Prater, and Perry (2006) note that different disaster researchers have attempted over time to identify the phases or stages of disaster recovery. Among the earliest classifications of recovery phases was the four-pronged scheme advanced by Kates and Pijawka (1977). The first prong is the “emergency” period, which can span from a couple of days to a few weeks. This is the period immediately following the response phase of emergency management and constitutes the portion of recovery that is guided by the EOP which had been activated due to the emergency. The “restoration” period follows, which is the time when repairs to the utility services are made, debris is removed, evacuees are returned to the community and to their homes (if available for rehabitation), and the various damaged homes and

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buildings are repaired. This period of recovery can take from weeks to months, depending upon the reparative resources available. The third prong of recovery, according to Kates and Pijawka, is the “reconstruction-replace” period. This period of time, which can run from months to years, is concerned with the rebuilding or replacement of destroyed structures and other capital possessions. During this period, the focus of recovery efforts is to return the community’s economy to its predisaster state. Finally, the “development” prong of recovery is the period of time, long after the disaster, when the community sees fit to place the calamity in its proper historical perspective. By this point in time, efforts have moved away from returning to equal footing with the predisaster economy. Rather, the community seeks to improve itself. The losses related to the disaster are commemorated through monuments and memorial dates are remembered (Kates and Pijawka 1977). But recovery, for the community, is complete. While a typology of recovery activities is useful for digesting the magnitude of the recovery process, the fact is that stages of recovery, like the stages of emergency management, are not in actuality so neatly set apart from one another. Phases of emergency management and the subphases inherent to them bleed together. The phases of emergency management are interwoven, overlapping, related, and in continuous motion. David Alexander (2002) describes disasters and the human response to them as a “disaster wheel” rather than a continuum or other linear depiction. The wheel is suggestive of a cycle, and emergency management is indeed a cyclical process. Emergency management does not exist in a vacuum. Rather, it exists in a living and changing system. Calamities, natural and man-made, continue to occur. And even when a disaster fails to strike a community for an extended period of time, the environment continues to change (through community growth and development, changing macroeconomic conditions, political and ideological transitions among public officials, etc.), and therefore emergency management requires cyclical recalibration. Ultimately, emergency management’s malleability is its saving grace. By virtue of its flexibility and agility, emergency management as a discipline is designed not only to allow communities to roll with the punches that disasters throw but also to dodge and weave, and perhaps not get into the ring at all.

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References Alexander, D. 2002. Principles of Emergency Planning and Management. New York: Oxford University Press. Arnold, J. 1988. The Evolution of the 1936 Flood Control Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Bumgarner, J. 2006. Federal Agents: The Growth of Federal Law Enforcement in America. Westport, CT: Praeger. City of Portsmouth. 2006. “Portsmouth Fire History.” www.cityofports mouth.com/fires/history.htm. Coleman, R. J., and J. A. Granito (eds.). 1988. Managing Fire Services. Washington, DC: International City Management Association. Coppola, D. 2007. Introduction to International Disaster Management. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Drabek, T. E. 1986. Human System Responses to Disaster: An Inventory of Sociological Findings. New York: Springer-Verlag. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2006a. “FEMA History.” www.fema.gov/about/history.shtm. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2006b. “Defining Disaster.” www.training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/edu/hram. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2006c. “FEMA Grant and Assistance Programs.” www.fema.gov/government/grant/ index.shtm. Haddow, G. D. and J. A. Bullock. 2006. Introduction to Emergency Management. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. International City Management Association (ICMA). 2003. “Disaster Preparedness.” IQ Report 30 (November): 1–19. Kates, R. and D. Pijawka. 1977. “From Rubble to Monument: The Pace of Reconstruction.” In Reconstruction Following Disaster, ed. J. E. Haas, R. W. Kates, and M. J. Bowden. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Light, P. 2004. Government’s Greatest Achievements. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Lindell, M. K., C. S. Prater, and R. W. Perry. 2006. Fundamentals of Emergency Management. Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency. Rainey, T. 2006. “Emergency Preparedness: A Personal Responsibility— Your Responsibility.” www.disaster-resource.com. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). 2006. “History: Who Became Part of the Department?” www.dhs.gov/dhspublic.

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2 Problems, Controversies, and Solutions

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ny activity of government is prone to be shrouded in problems and controversies. The functions and practices of government—particularly in democratic countries—are unendingly up for debate. Why? Because government actions and inactions have the potential to affect many people (in both positive and negative ways). As we have seen, emergency management is generally concerned with events—natural and manmade—that themselves affect many people. We know that disasters kill and injure people. This facet of disasters is devastating enough. But in fact, disasters affect society in additional ways as well. Disasters have a tremendous mental and emotional effect on survivors. Disasters are horrendously expensive and can cost taxpayers billions of dollars that could have been spent on other public goods and services. And disasters tax the human and capital resources of governments. In this chapter, readers will have an opportunity to consider some of the problems associated with disaster victimization. Further, the chapter explores the merits of different government approaches and responses to disasters. Indeed, whenever governments make choices about how to deal with the public crises of the past, present, and future, controversy necessarily ensues. Bureaucratic and political bickering can certainly be very unpleasant—especially when the real lives and property of victims and survivors are involved. However, such bickering might alternatively be viewed in its most favorable light—namely, as a symptom of a free and dynamic society that cares enough to

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Problems, Controversies, and Solutions

grapple with the various competing issues and constituents associated with emergency management.

Sociology of Disasters Disaster Victimology Many people see the term “victimology” as a made-up word. The term has come to be associated negatively with the perceived trend in modern society of “everyone being made a victim.” But victimology is an actual discipline of study. In particular, the field of victimology asks the question, Who becomes a victim, why, and what can be done about it? Generally, most who study victimology are criminologists. As a result, much of what has been written about victimization has been done so within the context of criminal victimization and criminal justice. The issue of victim precipitation figures prominently in victimology. “Victim precipitation” is the degree to which a victim’s actions or inactions contribute to his or her victimization. In criminal justice, a prostitute or a drug dealer who is robbed by one posing to be a prospective customer might find little sympathy among the general public, despite the very real victimization that took place. To most, the prostitute or drug dealer in this scenario contributed significantly to his or her victimization by the career choices. An elderly woman walking to the corner grocery store and mugged in broad daylight would be much more deserving of sympathy. Although this victim’s actions may have contributed to conditions making victimization more likely (such as walking alone or walking at all), the victim is clearly a more sympathetic figure in the minds of most people. Perhaps the victim’s contribution (the decision to walk to the store alone) was unavoidable given the victim’s lack of personal transportation, lack of convenient public transportation, and lack of immediate family living nearby. Despite the victim’s innocence, real measures might be taken from the lesson of her victimization. Transit routes that lead to the grocery store might be established in the area. Government vouchers for taxi service might be provided to the poor and/or elderly, given their vulnerability to criminal victimization. More police officers might be deployed in the area.

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The implications for government action in the light of people’s vulnerability to criminal victimization are akin to the implications for government action in light of vulnerabilities that exist for large-scale types of victimization. Whereas the criminal justice system is responsible for intervening before and after a criminal victimization episode, the emergency management apparatus bears responsibility for intervention before and after disaster-related victimization. While most of the victimology literature focuses on victims of criminals, with these victims possessing greater or lesser degrees of responsibility, the whole of the discipline of victimology has considerable relevance to emergency management.

Types of Victims The “father” of victimology is widely thought to be Beniamin Mendelsohn. Most of his scholarly efforts in the area of victimology were concerned with delineating the relationships between victims of crime and the criminals who committed those crimes. He also developed a classification scheme aimed at assigning levels of “blame” to victims for their criminal victimization, that is, levels of victim precipitation. However, his later work in victimology attempted to broaden the discussion of victimization dynamics. Mendelsohn came to believe that the discipline of victimology had been overly embraced—even commandeered— by criminology and criminal justice. He believed the alignment of victimology with criminal justice stunted the otherwise growing understanding of the dynamics of victimhood—whatever the causes of victimization may be. Mendelsohn proposed to rectify this trend by developing a victim typology that accounts for all types of victims, not just victims at the hands of criminals. This concept was labeled “general victimology.” Mendelsohn’s general victimology classification scheme included five types of victims (Doerner and Lab 2005): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Victim of a criminal Victim of one’s self Victim of the social environment Victim of technology Victim of the natural environment

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The first category of victims refers to the victims that victimology had largely concerned itself with for most of the discipline’s history, those who suffer at the hands of criminals. The second category, victim of one’s self, focuses on those who commit or attempt to commit suicide or who engage in other types of behavior that result in the victim’s own suffering. These victims may have a mental illness, such as depression or Munchausen syndrome (hurting oneself to gain sympathetic attention) that propels them to engage in self-destructive behavior. The third, fourth, and fifth categories may come under the purview of emergency management, depending upon the scale of the event and the number of potential or actual victims affected. Victims of the social environment include victims of racial or sexual discrimination. To be denied a promotion because of one’s race is tragic for the individual, but it is not a disaster (which is an emergency management event)—even if repeated for many individuals many times over across the country on a daily basis. On the other hand, a race riot in the heart of Los Angeles or an act of genocide in a country plagued by civil war may be rightfully characterized as a disaster. Victims of these catastrophes (which are victims of the social environment) could benefit from a proper emergency management response. Victims of technology are those who are victimized in some way as a result of society’s reliance upon technology. At an individual level, this can include a woman killed in a car accident or a man electrocuted when attempting to fix an outlet in the house. But technological victimization can also happen on a catastrophic scale such that would require an emergency management effort. A HAZMAT or nuclear accident might endanger an entire community, or an airliner may crash into a densely populated area. These are examples of catastrophic technological victimizations under Mendelsohn’s general victim typology. Finally, Mendelsohn’s victims of the natural environment are more often than not victims of emergency management events. Even when the victim count is low in an earthquake, flood, or tornado, the potential for high numbers of victims necessitates that the episode be treated as a potential catastrophe. And of course, some natural environment victimizations are by definition large-scale disasters. Starvation is not a famine if one family goes hungry. A disease is not an epidemic if only a couple of school children are afflicted. Rather, these are natural disasters if thousands or more are affected by them.

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Victims’ Responses What Mendelsohn and victimology scholars realized is that there are many similar dynamics to serious and perilous victimization, whether caused by a criminal, an accident, social dislocation, or nature. Victims across all of these categories experience much of the same trauma. Those who physically survive these various events often go through similar healing processes. And public officials must be prepared to be both proactive and reactive in the face of potential and actual victimization episodes across Mendelsohn’s typology. Victimization triggers responses by the victim and by societal agents. The responses (before and after) are in proportion to the event—but the dynamics are constant (much like a 1-pound ball and a 10-pound ball fall to the earth at the same rate, both being subject to the law of gravity). Victims confronted with a sudden calamity in their lives experience a wide range of emotions. First responders during an emergency management event play an early and important role in the victim’s recovery process, or lack of recovery, as the case may be. Later, during the emergency management stage of recovery, additional services and mental health resources may be needed for deployment so that victims have the best opportunity to achieve a lasting healthy state of mind, despite the acute trauma they suffered. Social scientists often think of victims’ reactions in a time of crisis as existing in phases. Police psychologist Morton Bard (1990) developed the Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle to conceptualize the emotional experiences of victims over time, starting with the victimization incident. Although his model was first introduced to explain the relations of victims to serious crimes committed against them, the principles can be easily applied to victims of disasters or other emergency management events. Bard’s Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle consists of three phases (Bard 1990): 1. Impact phase 2. Recoil phase 3. Reorganization phase During and immediately following a disaster, victims will experience the impact phase. It is during this phase that first responders will most likely come into contact with victims. Victims

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commonly experience a state of “frozenness” and may find themselves completely overwhelmed by the events taking place around them. Victims during the impact phase might be characterized as confused, disoriented, numb, or in shock. Victims may describe themselves as helpless or in disbelief at what has transpired. First responders often will find victims unable to communicate clearly or coherently—which can be very frustrating for victims and emergency personnel who are trying to get a handle on just what assistance is needed (for example, whether other family members may be trapped in the rubble of a home or where family members were last seen). After the immediate crisis of the disaster is over, victims enter the recoil phase. During this phase, victims of calamity begin to adjust to what has happened to them. The recoil phase is generally associated with a wide range of alternating emotions. Victims tend to relive what happened to them and their loved ones during the recoil phase, which can bring about fluctuations between states of anger and resentment (at God or others), fear, guilt (for not doing enough to protect loved ones), self-pity, and other vivid but temporary moods. Social scientists and counselors note that, during the recoil phase, the reparative process for a victim will depend upon the degree to which that victim experienced a violation of self. In instances involving serious injury or the loss of loved ones, the recoil phase can last a year or more. The reorganization phase is the final stage of crisis reaction. During this phase, victims become more organized; their lives are largely reassembled. What the victim experienced during the disaster is assimilated into who they are and takes on proper perspective. The victim is no longer defined by the disaster he or she survived. Rather, the disaster is one more event—significant as it may have been—in the multifaceted life of the victim. Fortunately, during the reorganization phase, victims start to see the intensity of their phobias and anger recede. This is important for the mental health of victims as it allows them to invest emotional energy in other aspects of their lives. Thus, they truly do “move on.” This is not to say that victims will forget what has happened to them. Those who live through catastrophic events, and those who witness the suffering of others firsthand during those events, are generally never without the memory of what took place. But the perspective that comes with the reorganization phase permits victims and survivors to recognize that the disaster is part of their history, not their future. Their future needs

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attending to, and victims who recover healthily from the emotional harm caused by a calamity understand this and live it. The Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle resembles other models concerning trauma-induced psychosis. Kubler-Ross (1969) articulated a widely used four-stage model for explaining grief experienced when victims lose loved ones or other sentimental valuables (e.g., one’s lifelong home is destroyed by a tornado). The first stage is shock and denial. During this stage, survivors tend to deny that the information they have received, or even witnessed, is true. To keep the denial in place, all other inputs are closed off or ignored by the minds of grief-stricken survivors. The second stage in the grief process is anger. During this stage, according Kubler-Ross, survivors express their frustration and rage over what has happened. Often, it is the bearer of bad news, such as the police officer or doctor delivering a death notification, who receives the brunt of the anger. In fact, victims experiencing this stage of grief have been known to physically lash out at others. It takes considerable compassion and empathy to absorb verbal or physical assaults from others experiencing grief. The third stage in the grief process is isolation. During this stage, victims tend to isolate themselves from others, including loved ones. They may also refuse to cooperate with authorities or demonstrate no interest in receiving assistance from emergency management officials. Emergency managers, when establishing deadlines for participating in disaster assistance programs, must take the practical effects of this stage of the grief process into account. Acceptance and recovery is the final stage of the grief process. During this stage, victims realize that life for themselves and other surviving loved ones must go on. The resemblance of Kubler-Ross’ stages of grief to the Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle is not coincidental. These kinds of progressive emotional reactions have been consistently observed in victims of all types of misfortune for as long as social science has been paying attention. The labels for emotional stages have been modified over time, but the emotions themselves are fairly constant and recurring among human beings stricken by emergency management events.

Providing Psychological First Aid First responders, and by extension emergency managers through the assistance programs and policies put in place, can significantly

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contribute to the emotional and mental recovery of victims during and after crises. Conversely, these same first responders and emergency management professionals can impede the recovery of victims by failing to understand the emotional dynamics of trauma and treating victims accordingly. Different victims react to trauma differently. Some are physically and emotionally overcome by the events that envelop them; others face tragedy and loss with stoicism. Clearly, emergency management efforts to tend to the needs of victims must account for the fact that the needs of victims will vary. But as a general rule, first responders and other disaster recovery personnel can take some steps to help usher in the greatest potential for victims to return to or maintain a healthy emotional state. The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC 1990) has dubbed these principles “psychological first aid.” Like the Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle, there are three elements or steps to psychological first aid. While they are not necessarily administered in a particular chronological pattern, the three steps do tend to build upon one another and, to some extent, correspond to the phases of emotional experience articulated in the Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle. The three steps of psychological first aid are: 1. Safety and security 2. Ventilation and validation 3. Prediction, preparation, and participation These steps are to be applied situationally as needed, depending on the evident needs of the victim or victims in question. “Safety and security” refers to eliminating the immediate threat or threats perceived by victims. Prior to the disaster striking, the victim had been safe and secure. Now, amidst or in the wake of the disaster, that sense of security is gone. Restoring a sense of safety and security corresponds to the actual deliverance of safety and security. First responders will go a long way toward returning a sense of safety to flood victims, for example, by first plucking them off the roofs of their flooded houses and getting them to dry land. Of course, in addition to changing the threatening environment a victim finds himself or herself in, the actual physical injuries of victims must also be treated. This too goes a long way toward replacing a sense of safety that had been obviously lost when a condition of real peril and untreated injuries

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existed. As it turns out, safety and security can often be reestablished in the minds of victims by the mere presence of rescue workers. At a community level, victims are reassured by a massive turnout of rescue and law enforcement personnel in the aftermath of a disaster. The mere sight of squad cars and rescue trucks in the vicinity after the disaster’s immediate impact will likely buoy hearts of the residents. When first responders come into contact with victims, they should express comforting statements to victims, such as “You are safe now,” “Everything is going to be all right,” or “Help has arrived.” It is very important that first responders express these statements with sincerity. The second step of psychological first aid is ventilation and validation. “Ventilation” occurs when victims are allowed to talk about how they feel while they talk about what has happened to them. Often, first responders are only concerned with the facts of the event. After all, it is the “what happened” part that responders can do something about (whether an injury, the need to be immediately relocated, etc.). But permitting victims to vent, that is, to express their feelings—at least insofar as doing so is practicable—will help victims progress toward emotional recovery. Validation is an extension of the logic behind ventilation. “Validation,” on the part of rescue workers and other emergency management personnel who have contact with victims, is simply the act of informing victims that what they feel is understandable and normal under the circumstances. Victims of disasters experienced abnormal circumstances. Consequently, the otherwise abnormal feelings and expressions of victims become normal during chaos. Victims may be aware that the fear, insecurity, or anger being expressed by them at the time is unreasonable or irrational. They may feel guilty or embarrassed for having such reactions. They should be told that their reactions and feelings are normal for circumstances that lack normalcy. During the ventilation and validation step of providing psychological first aid, disaster responders must remain nonjudgmental. Emergency personnel must understand that what they are telling the victims—that the victims’ reactions are understandable and normal—is true. The victims’ reactions are understandable and normal given the circumstances. The fact that the emergency management responder or official has “seen it all” and therefore is not affected by the calamity in the same way victims are does not detract from the validity of what victims feel.

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Mental health professionals caution emergency workers from telling victims such things as “I know how you feel.” Even if that statement is true, victims may view it as an insincere, pacifying, and even patronizing comment that exposes the emergency worker’s lack of interest in the victim’s situation. Given that victims are susceptible to suggestion during a traumatic experience, emergency workers should use that susceptibility to start moving victims in the right direction mentally. They should suggest to victims that they are going to be okay, help is available, the crisis will pass, and that things are going to work out. The final step in providing psychological first aid to victims during or after a disaster is prediction, preparation, and participation. These three “Ps” fundamentally boil down to providing the victim with an opportunity to regain some control in his or her life. “Prediction” refers to letting victims know what is going to happen to them next. “Preparation” refers to the readying of victims for what emergency workers have just told them is going to happen next. Finally, “participation” is permitting victims to be a part of the emergency response and recovery process as much as possible. Many victims find great benefit in participating in the recovery effort. This might mean joining an ad hoc search and rescue team made up of civilians in the near term. Or it might mean campaigning for more community assistance or for better mitigation and preparedness measures to avoid future calamity in the long term. These types of activities help victims to act constructively in the aftermath of an otherwise negative and debilitating experience. Again, while victims may respond to disasters’ misfortune in different ways, there is a consensus among mental health professionals that emergency management and public safety personnel can either help or harm a victim’s overall mental well-being by the words, actions, and mannerisms they employ. The four phases of emergency management notwithstanding, for many victims, recovery begins during the response.

Impact on First Responders Sometimes lost in the discussion concerning disaster victims is the fact that emergency personnel are often themselves victims. When a disaster strikes a community, it affects the families of police officers, firefighters, paramedics, doctors, and nurses as

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much as it does anyone else living in that community. First responders, utility repair crews, and other disaster response workers suffer through unique challenges as they are obligated to show up for work during a crisis and must perform for the benefit of others while no doubt worried about the plight of their own loved ones. Some emergency management leaders and academicians have suggested the need for a specialized plan to deal with the families of emergency workers when a disaster strikes. Within the context of such a plan, if an evacuation order is given to a local community, family members of emergency workers might be evacuated first—not because they deserve special treatment, but to provide peace of mind to the emergency workers themselves so that they may remain focused on their responsibilities. Some studies have shown that the concern about emergency workers not performing their duties during an emergency is unfounded. Indeed, most first responders in a time of crisis perform their duties heroically and selflessly. While the towers were still burning in New York City after the September 11, 2001, World Trade Center attack in 2001, off-duty police officers, firefighters, and emergency medical services personnel rushed to the scene to help out any way they could. Many of these emergency workers ultimately lost their lives when the towers collapsed. But the experience during and immediately after Hurricane Katrina in August and September 2005 does suggest that this issue be explored and accounted for in emergency management planning. Before Hurricane Katrina struck, New Orleans had a police force of approximately 1,600 sworn personnel. As Katrina’s devastation unfolded, nearly 300 of these officers quit their positions or are believed to simply have failed to show up for work (Roig-Franzia 2005). Presumably, they instead tended to themselves and their families. Those officers who did not quit but were absent without leave (AWOL) during the Katrina crisis were terminated. Some of these officers were eventually reinstated to the force when it was demonstrated that they were not AWOL but simply unable to show up for work due to the disaster’s impact on them. As historian Douglas Brinkley (2006) notes, approximately 890 police officers lost their homes during the Katrina disaster and 400 police officers had themselves been trapped with their families by the flooding. Many police officers were eventually rescued from the roofs of their homes and returned to duty upon their rescue and the assurance of safety for their families.

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In addition to the common stressors associated with coping with a disaster that affects everyone in the community, rescue workers and their supervisors must also manage the stress that emerges from the trauma of working a disaster and confronting the misery and suffering of large numbers of victims. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, stresses that major disasters represent a serious challenge for emergency managers in their effort to protect public safety workers engaged in response and recovery activities. The CDC encourages emergency managers to be aware of the fact that traumatic stress will affect emergency workers and, for the sake of the health of emergency workers, must be planned for. Common symptoms that indicate an emergency worker is experiencing stress associated with his or her disaster responsibilities manifest themselves physically, cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally (CDC 2006). Physical symptoms can include chest pains, difficulty breathing, dizziness, and headaches. Nonphysical symptoms that emergency workers may find themselves experiencing include bouts of disorientation, memory problems, poor concentration, anxiety, guilt, grief, depression, anger, withdrawal, and restlessness. Emergency management leaders must educate rescue personnel that these types of symptoms are common for those engaged in protracted rescue and recovery operations. Further, the families of rescue workers must also be so educated. The CDC recommends that emergency workers and others on the front line of disaster operations take a number of action steps to preserve their own physical, mental, and emotional health during a time of crisis response and recovery. These include the use of frequent breaks, maintaining as normal a sleep schedule as possible, eating and drinking properly, and essentially rolling with the emotional punches that will undoubtedly come (CDC 2006). Many health professionals and emergency management planners note that by adhering to the CDC recommendations at the line level and enforcing them at the management level, the vital human resource that is the first responder can be preserved for continued, effective rescue operations, thereby benefiting not just the first responder and his or her family but also the community as a whole. Of course, the challenge as always is that preserving the total health of rescue workers in these ways may not always be

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The Question of Federalism: Who Should Be Responsible? 45

possible given the circumstances of an actual disaster. Whether advisable or not, rescuers often permit themselves to work around the clock when confronted with a large-scale emergency. And frankly their willingness to do so, without a lot of contemplation on their part or by their leadership, has often saved countless lives when nothing mattered more than time and the availability of manpower. This dilemma of balancing the health interests of emergency workers against the immediate needs of a crisis will likely always involve erring on the side of the latter.

The Question of Federalism: Who Should Be Responsible? In chapter 1, the issue of the federal government’s responsibility during a disaster was raised. Many different opinions are held concerning what the federal government’s role should be, as well as the roles of state and local government, within the context of each of the four phases of emergency management. The role of the federal government in disaster preparedness and response is a public policy question. Like any public-policy issue, many interests must be accounted for when deciding what courses government will take.

The Public Policy Process Political scientist Thomas Dye (1998) defines public policy as whatever governments choose to do or not to do. Governments can choose to pass particular laws; governments can appropriate more or less funds for whichever programs they see fit; and, through their funding, implementation, and enforcement actions, governments may determine which policies are genuine public priorities and which policies are in place essentially for show. So how do some issues command the attention of government policy makers and others do not? To answer that question, one must first understand how government’s agenda is set. The “agenda” for government is the collective of issues on the government’s radar screen that it has determined needs attention (Bumgarner 2006). Agendas are set through a variety of processes. Some of the processes are more gradual; others are more immediate, instantaneous, and acute. Political scientist

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John Kingdon (1984) identified three processes that shape the government’s agenda: policy concept development, politics, and problems. “Policy concept development” is the gradual accumulation of knowledge gained by experts in a particular policy area. Through this process, government policy makers are educated about a potential policy issue through experience, education, and exposure to the issue, as well as advocacy and lobbying efforts (often by professional associations, interest groups, and academicians). Over time, recurring policy proposals eventually gain traction and become issues government chooses to address. Kingdon’s second process refers to how political dynamics affect the agenda. Swings in the national mood, ambiguity in public opinion, changes in the presidency, and turnover in Congress all affect the policy agenda (Kingdon 1984; Bumgarner 2006). Finally, actual and felt problems have some sway on the agenda. This is particularly true with sudden and serious problems. In 2004, an earthquake in the Indian Ocean created several tsunamis that struck coastal communities throughout the Asian subcontinent. Hundreds of thousands of people lost their lives. Boosting tsunami research and improving upon tsunami warning systems suddenly became a critical endeavor for the governments of several countries and the international community. No further education of policymakers concerning the peril that potentially accompanies tsunamis was needed. The horrific effects of poor planning and preparedness regarding tsunamis were evident to anyone with a television or other media outlet access. Governments needed to step up and act. Another emergency management example of an acute problem affecting public policy is that of the terror attacks on September 11, 2001. Government policymakers immediately reacted to the critical agenda item of the nation’s vulnerability to terror attacks. “The vulnerabilities that policymakers identified had long existed, as had terrorism. But now, with the World Trade Center demolished on national television and thousands of Americans dead, all of the agenda setters and policy makers busied about to deal with America’s latest and genuine security crisis” (Bumgarner 2006, 139–140). Many players are involved in setting the political agenda. Certainly, elected officials are among them, including the president of the United States, members of Congress, governors, members of state legislatures, and other elected officeholders.

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Others involved in the agenda-setting process include government workers (i.e., the bureaucracy), interest groups, researchers and scholars, the court systems at the federal and state levels, and the media (which include television and radio network news, print journalism, Internet news outlets and blogs, and even the entertainment industry). Elected officials rely on the media in significant ways. In the United States, government officials commonly receive an indication from the media concerning what is on the minds of the American people. News media outlets also act as a mechanism for communication among those in the public policy community. Further, the media help “educate” policy makers, government workers, and the general population about what is important and what is not, as reflected by the amount of time devoted to, and the perspectives used to describe, potential policy issues (Kingdon 1984). Once the policy agenda is set—which is to say that the government has determined what policy issues it intends to address—the process moves through the remaining public policy stages: policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, and policy evaluation. In the policy formulation stage the decision of what to do about a particular issue is made. Thanks to the agenda, government officials know that something must be done about devastating tsunamis, for example. Policy formation then tackles what must be done. After the “what” has been determined, the policy must be implemented. The importance of the bureaucracy is particularly evident at this stage of the public policy process. Elected officials can pass laws and set policy, but government workers enforce laws and implement policies. Implementation necessarily requires an understanding of a policy. Government bureaucrats exercise tremendous power simply through its responsibility to interpret the set policies handed to them from elected officials. The final stage of the public policy process is evaluation. During this stage, the effectiveness of a policy, as implemented, is measured. This involves both procedural and substantive evaluation. Procedural evaluation simply explores whether or not the policy is being properly administered. Officials may learn through this type of evaluation that more efficient ways of doing things exist, such as reducing the number of forms one must fill out to receive aid or eliminating some of the layers of bureaucracy between emergency managers setting response strategy

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and first responders at the line level. Substantive evaluation, however, is also important. This type of evaluation gauges not how a policy is implemented but whether it should continue to be implemented at all. A policy may be operating exactly as the crafters of that policy intended, but its effects due to unforeseen circumstances are more detrimental than helpful. In recent months and years, some have criticized the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), its organization, and its mission as a support agency to state and local governments as a failure procedurally. For these critics, FEMA is burdened by too much bureaucracy and procedural impediments for it to do its job effectively. Others, however, have been more critical of FEMA substantively. For them, FEMA may be doing its job in a defensible manner, but its job is ill defined to begin with. As noted in chapter 1, this criticism became especially loud after Hurricane Katrina. Many blamed FEMA for the humanitarian crisis that occurred in New Orleans after the hurricane, levee breaks, and flooding. FEMA officials reminded the public and politicians that it was not a first-responder organization. But critics, arguing substance, maintained that it should be. The debate over the appropriate role for FEMA continues to be argued today. Later in this chapter, FEMA’s current role and authority will be explained further.

Making Policy Changes When it comes to emergency management efforts, change is never easy. Even when policy makers determine that a change in direction is appropriate, the philosophical, ideological, political, and professional loyalties of the various actors in the emergency management process can generate considerable resistance. Actually many obstacles prevent public policy changes, whether speaking of emergency management public policy or not. Commonly, obstacles to public policy change come from within the organization or organizations to be affected by the change. Obstacles to organizational change include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Inertia Misunderstandings Group norms Balance of power

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Inertia relates to the thinking that “this is how things have always been done” and therefore no change is warranted. Related to inertia is a focus on “sunk costs,” or resources already expended. Due to the sunk costs to prop up and maintain the status quo, many see investing in new ways of doing things as a waste of what has already been spent. Misunderstandings and group norms serve as impediments to policy change through peer dynamics. Misunderstandings about change occur when an organization’s members fail to understand the actual purpose of change and so they fill in the blanks with their own explanations. This is reinforced through the passing on of false information via the organization’s informal communication network. Group norms also rely on peer dynamics—particularly the dynamic of peer pressure. A sense may exist within the organization, or within a power group inside of an organization, that the group knows what is best for the organization and for the clientele served by the organization, and that policymakers are exceeding the realm of their knowledge and understanding by proposing changes. “They haven’t been here working in rubble during a disaster,” so the thinking might go. Considerable pressure may then be exerted by the group on peers within the organization to tow that line of thinking. Finally, the obstacle of balance of power relates to those within an organization who resist change because their own power, prestige, or sphere of influence would be adversely affected by the change. This is very common in government agencies. A good example (and common occurrence) of this is when a city council creates a position for an emergency management coordinator, who is then met with considerable resistance and noncooperation from the police chief and fire chief attempting to protect their respective turf. Organization theorist Kurt Lewin’s (1951) “force field analysis” notes that change, including policy change, is bound to be met with resistance from within and outside an organization. Therefore, for change in policy to actually take place in an emergency management context, one must either increase the forces favoring change (such as growing public opinion behind the idea of a viable emergency management coordinator) or reduce the forces of resistance (such as getting the fire chief or the police chief to become less hostile to the idea of an emergency management coordinator).

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FIGURE 2.1 Force-Field Analysis

{planned change} ==

| CHANGE |

=== {resistance}

(A)

(B)

For change . . . . increase Force A, or decrease Force B, or increase Force A and decrease Force B

Source: Adapted from K. Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science, New York: Harper and Row, 1951.

Many in the professional emergency management community resent the need for politicking. They would rather focus all of their non-emergency time on mitigation and preparedness. But the reality of the American public-policy process at all levels of government obligates emergency management proponents and practitioners to jump in the ring and work the system—not for their own aggrandizement, but for the benefit of those served by the discipline of emergency management, namely the community.

Federal Emergency Management Efforts The primary federal agency involved in the full range of emergency management activities is FEMA. On March 1, 2003, FEMA officially became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). With its move to DHS, mandated by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, there has been a growing association of emergency management with the term “homeland security.” As a result of that association, emergency management is no longer thought to be just about natural disasters, and homeland security is no longer thought to be just about counterterrorism. Indeed, both terms have taken on broader meaning since FEMA’s reorganization under DHS and are often used interchangeably. FEMA’s

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move to DHS has significantly contributed to the growing “all hazards” mind-set in the emergency management community. Many federal agencies may be involved when a disaster strikes, but FEMA is the point of contact when it comes to the federal government’s disaster management functions. Although it is often noted that FEMA is not a first-responder agency, it does have responsibilities across all four phases of emergency management—usually in a support capacity to state and local governments. The primary source of FEMA’s authority to operate as the federal government’s emergency management agency is the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (PL 100-707). The statute has been codified into Title 42, chapter 68 of the United States Code. In expressing its rationale for major federal involvement in emergency management events, Congress declared in that statute (42 USC 5121): a. The Congress hereby finds and declares that— 1. because disasters often cause loss of life, human suffering, loss of income, and property loss and damage; and 2. because disasters often disrupt the normal functioning of governments and communities, and adversely affect individuals and families with great severity; special measures, designed to assist the efforts of the affected States in expediting the rendering of aid, assistance, and emergency services, and the reconstruction and rehabilitation of devastated areas, are necessary. b. It is the intent of the Congress, by this Act, to provide an orderly and continuing means of assistance by the Federal Government to State and local governments in carrying out their responsibilities to alleviate the suffering and damage which result from such disasters by— 1. revising and broadening the scope of existing disaster relief programs; 2. encouraging the development of comprehensive disaster preparedness and assistance plans, programs, capabilities, and organizations by the States and by local governments; 3. achieving greater coordination and responsiveness of disaster preparedness and relief programs;

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4. encouraging individuals, States, and local governments to protect themselves by obtaining insurance coverage to supplement or replace governmental assistance; 5. encouraging hazard mitigation measures to reduce losses from disasters, including development of land use and construction regulations; and 6. providing Federal assistance programs for both public and private losses sustained in disasters. From the language in the statute, Congress appeared sensitive to the argument that state and local governments must do much of their own heavy lifting in emergency management efforts. But the statute also expresses Congress’ emphatic intent that state and local governments not have to do the emergency management job alone. The Stafford Act goes on to establish many different specific authorities for the president of the United States, FEMA, and other agencies as the president may determine to marshal, for disaster preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery. When a disaster does strike in the United States, certain actions must be taken to trigger a federal response. Chiefly, the governor of the affected state must request that the president declare that a major disaster warranting federal assistance has occurred. According to the Stafford Act, the procedure is as follows (42 USC 5170): All requests for a declaration by the President that a major disaster exists shall be made by the Governor of the affected State. Such a request shall be based on a finding that the disaster is of such severity and magnitude that effective response is beyond the capabilities of the State and the affected local governments and that Federal assistance is necessary. As part of such request, and as a prerequisite to major disaster assistance under this Act, the Governor shall take appropriate response action under State law and direct execution of the State’s emergency plan. The Governor shall furnish information on the nature and amount of State and local resources which have been or will be committed to alleviating the results of the disaster, and shall certify that, for the current disaster, State and local government obligations and expenditures (of which State commitments must be a significant proportion) will comply

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with all applicable cost-sharing requirements of this Act. Based on the request of a Governor under this section, the President may declare under this Act that a major disaster or emergency exists. When such a federal disaster declaration is made, the federal government can then step in and provide a wide spectrum of assistance, including (42 USC 5170a): 1. [federal] personnel, equipment, supplies, facilities, and managerial, technical, and advisory services in support of state and local assistance efforts; 2. [coordination of] all disaster relief assistance (including voluntary assistance) provided by Federal agencies, private organizations, and State and local governments; 3. [providing] technical and advisory assistance to affected State and local governments for— . . . the performance of essential community services; . . . issuance of warnings of risks and hazards; . . . public health and safety information, including dissemination of such information; . . . provision of health and safety measures; and . . . management, control, and reduction of immediate threats to public health and safety; 4. [assisting] State and local governments in the distribution of medicine, food, and other consumable supplies, and emergency assistance. FEMA’s organizational structure includes three major divisions: Mitigation, Response, and Recovery. The Mitigation Division manages several programs related to mitigation, including the effort to reduce future losses in residential, commercial, and public properties, as well as losses of life or injuries, as a result of natural disasters. As FEMA notes, the goal of the division is to break the cycle common to disaster-prone areas, which is to suffer damage, reconstruct, and then suffer damage again (FEMA 2006). The Response Division of FEMA is responsible for providing the “core coordinated federal operational and logistical disaster response capability needed to save and sustain lives, minimize suffering, and protect property in a timely and effective manner in communities that become overwhelmed by natural disasters, acts of terrorism, or other emergencies” (FEMA

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2006). Although federal response efforts are secondary to and in support of state and local response efforts, this division tends to attract the most public attention given its visibility during a time of crisis. In an actual disaster situation that is unfolding (or has just unfolded), the Response Division will coordinate federal response efforts. This is not to say that FEMA is the only federal agency to be deployed during a disaster. On the contrary, many federal agencies play a part in disaster response as well as recovery. In most cases, the nature of the disaster itself will determine which other federal agencies will be corralled under the umbrella of FEMA to provide response (and recovery) assistance. In addition to FEMA, regular contributors to the response and recovery cause include agencies and bureaus within the departments of Homeland Security (particularly the U.S. Coast Guard and the Federal Protective Service), Agriculture, Housing and Urban Development, Health and Human Services, Defense (DOD), Justice, Commerce, and Energy, as well as the Social Security Administration, the Small Business Administration, the General Services Administration, and others. The departments of Defense and Justice commonly play a key role in response, rescue, and civil order maintenance operations given the personnel and equipment that they can deploy. FEMA’s Recovery Division is responsible for ensuring that individuals and communities that are affected by disasters and other large-scale emergencies are able to return to a level of normalcy with as minimal a level of suffering and service disruption as possible (FEMA 2006). Several recovery programs are managed through FEMA’s Recovery Division, including (FEMA 2006): 1. Individual assistance programs—provide or coordinate emergency housing, financial assistance, and unemployment assistance for individuals, families, farmers, and businesses; 2. Public assistance programs—help states, local communities, and certain nonprofit groups restore and rebuild public systems and facilities, as well as with debris removal and emergency protective measures; 3. Other specified programs and functions geared toward recovery efforts, including the Federal Coordinating Officer Program, Emergency and Disaster Declaration

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Processing, and National Response Plan Emergency Support Functions. As a result of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, FEMA added the National Preparedness Division on March 31, 2007. This division rounds out FEMA’s commitment to participating in all four phases of emergency management. The National Preparedness Division focuses on emergency management policy formulation, contingency planning, exercise coordination and evaluation, and emergency management training. The National Preparedness Division has been tasked with overseeing the subdivision of Readiness, Prevention, and Planning (RPP) as well as the National Integration Center. FEMA’s National Integration Center (NIC) maintains the Nation Incident Management System (NIMS) and the National Response Plan. The NIC acts as a coordinating organization for bringing resources from multiple jurisdictions and multiple disciplines to bear on a major crisis or disaster. In effect, the NIC is the federal incident command organization. For large-scale disasters, the NIC can be an invaluable resource to local jurisdictions that cannot coordinate the level of organization and mutual aid needed in the response due to the magnitude of the disaster. The NIMS process involves the collection of key information when a disaster does strike so that the appropriate type and amount of resources can be marshaled. This information includes the nature of the incident, the scale of the incident, the location (including characteristics and surroundings), the dangers present, the need for evacuation, the presence of unusual circumstances (such as the continued threat of explosives), the need for traffic control, the need for perimeter establishment, the equipment currently available and the equipment needed to meet the crisis, the type of supplies needed, information about casualties (injured and killed), and any other information relevant to orchestrate a coordinated response (Peak 2007).

State Emergency Management Efforts Every state in the United States has an agency responsible for carrying out emergency management functions before, during, and after a disaster. Some states maintain independent emergency management or homeland security agencies. Some states house the emergency management function within the governor’s

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office. Still others have created an emergency management bureau within the state’s department of public safety. Like FEMA, most state emergency management agencies exist primarily to provide assistance to local governments and other state agencies in planning and implementing emergency management programs and in responding to emergency management events. State emergency management agencies also act as the primary liaison to the federal government and FEMA on all disaster-related matters occurring within their state. Organizationally, most state emergency management agencies and FEMA are very similar. Usually, the state agencies have directorates or divisions devoted to mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Similar to the Stafford Act, the various states have adopted enabling legislation to empower their emergency management agency to perform their disaster relief coordination efforts without the additional burden of navigating through turf battles (although turf battles tend to materialize anyway). Additional authorities are conveyed through executive orders by the governor. The state of Texas, for example, has empowered the Governor’s Division of Emergency Management (GDEM) through chapter 418 of the Texas state code. The legislature declared through this statute the purpose for the existence of this agency is to (Texas Code, chapter 418.002): 1. Reduce vulnerability of people and communities of this state to damage, injury, and loss of life and property resulting from natural or man-made catastrophes, riots, or hostile military or paramilitary action; 2. Prepare for prompt and efficient rescue, care, and treatment of persons victimized or threatened by disaster; 3. Provide a setting conducive to the rapid and orderly restoration and rehabilitation of persons and property affected by disasters; 4. Clarify and strengthen the roles of the governor, state agencies, and local governments in prevention of, preparation for, response to, and recovery from disasters; 5. Authorize and provide for cooperation in disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery; 6. Authorize and provide for coordination of activities relating to disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery by agencies and officers of this state, and

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similar state-local, interstate, federal-state, and foreign activities in which the state and its political subdivisions may participate; 7. Provide an emergency management system embodying all aspects of predisaster preparedness and postdisaster response; 8. Assist in mitigation of disasters caused or aggravated by inadequate planning for and regulation of public and private facilities and land use; and 9. Provide the authority and mechanism to respond to an energy emergency. The Texas statute goes on further to articulate specific authorities of GDEM for each of the phases of emergency management. The statute also mandates the maintenance of a statewide emergency management plan, to be administered by GDEM, that no local emergency management plan can contradict. Given that local governments, as a general rule, receive their authority from the state to act autonomously (through home-rule authority), legislation such as this is necessary to ensure that all government jurisdictions involved in emergency management operations understand that the state emergency management agency is not a toothless tiger. In addition to state emergency management agencies, other key emergency management organizations at the state level include public safety organizations (such as the state police or highway patrol), the state department of public health, the state fire marshal’s office, and of course the National Guard (Army and Air). The National Guard is a reserve military organization that primarily belongs to the states. Each state maintains its own state guard organization. The National Guard falls under a dual command structure: it answers to both the state and federal governments. The National Guard can be called up to federal service in a time of war or national crisis and receives most of its funding from the DOD. However, National Guard units, when not federally activated, are subject to call-up by the governor of their state. Consequently, the National Guard is regularly called upon to assist in response and recovery operations when a disaster strikes. It provides construction equipment, water treatment capabilities, and rescue and security services and performs other functions as needed (sandbagging, operating evacuation vehicles, etc).

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Another disaster-related responsibility of the National Guard is the maintenance and deployment of Weapons of Mass Destruction Civil Support Teams (WMD-CSTs). In 1996, the Congress passed the Defense against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act, which required the DOD to become a major player in domestic antiterrorism activities. In particular, the DOD was charged with the responsibility of sharing its expertise concerning the detection and neutralization of weapons of mass destruction with civilian governments at the federal, state, and local level. This legislation, coupled with Presidential Decision Directive #62 (PDD-62) issued by President Bill Clinton on May 22, 1998, prompted the establishment of WMD-CSTs in ten different locations around the country. Organizing the WMD-CSTs under the National Guard seemed appropriate to the DOD given the National Guard’s dual status as a state and federal organization. The National Guard already possessed the kind of channels of communication with state and local government agencies that the Congress and the president intended would exist with WMD-CSTs. By 2006, thirty-six WMD-CSTs existed throughout the United States. The National Guard and the DOD intend to have no less than one WMD-CST located in each state and American territory. The WMD-CSTs are staffed with active duty National Guard enlisted and officer personnel. These servicemen and servicewomen are highly trained and equipped for the purpose of deploying on a moment’s notice to an incident anywhere in the nation involving the suspected use of a WMD—whether chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological, or other device. In particular, the job of the WMD-CSTs is to advise and assist state and local civil authorities with the detection, monitoring, and assessment of hazardous materials—particularly those that have been weaponized. Individual National Guard members assigned to WMD-CSTs each possess specialties and are located within sections of their WMD-CST. Team sections include command, administration/logistics, operations, medical, survey (for monitoring the environment), decontamination, and communications. Generally when called upon during a disaster, the National Guard, like other state agencies, will come under the purview of the state emergency management agency and the emergency management plan. If a state’s WMD-CST is called upon, the command and control of the operation could shift to the federal government and the Department of Defense, depending on the true nature of the emergency.

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Emergency Management by Private Organizations Many private organizations function as considerable resources to the emergency management and disaster response effort in the United States. Chief among these is the American Red Cross. The American Red Cross was founded by Clara Barton in 1881. Although a private organization, it has a special relationship with the federal government. In 1905, Congress authorized the Red Cross to “carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same” (American Red Cross 2006). The disaster-related duties of the American Red Cross are many. The organization’s relief efforts specifically target the immediate needs of disaster victims. This includes providing people with shelter, clothing, blankets, medical attention, medicine, and even cash. The Red Cross also helps victims to keep or establish contact with family members outside the disaster area and provide blood and blood products for victims. Further, the Red Cross also provides services to other disaster response workers. The Red Cross regularly deploys mobile food pantries for the benefit of first responders unable to leave a disaster scene (American Red Cross 2006). The Red Cross is a key member of the emergency management community, whose mission of disaster relief has long been endorsed by federal law. It also is an organizational member on several key emergency management councils at the federal and state levels. Further, the Red Cross maintains a public policy arm dedicated to advancing sound emergency management principles and practices through the adoption of laws and government policies. According to the Red Cross, its policy mission is to “create, through effective legislative and regulatory initiatives, a public policy environment at all levels of government that will forward the mission and strategic objectives of the American Red Cross” (American Red Cross 2006). In pursuing this mission, the Red Cross attempts to fulfill the following responsibilities: 1. Representation before Congress and state legislatures for the coordination and development of policy statements and testimony;

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2. Coordination of any requests and responses to the executive and legislative branches; 3. Coordination and development of position statements before federal advisory committees and other forums; 4. Articulation of Red Cross policy positions before representatives of executive branch agencies; 5. Coordination and development of policy positions articulated by Red Cross staff serving on external task forces and committees; 6. Advance notice of policy statements made by Red Cross employees in articles submitted for publication to scientific journals. Clearly, more than any other private organization, the American Red Cross carries considerable clout in the emergency management community—particularly at the federal level—and works diligently to use that clout to the benefit of disaster response and recovery efforts. Although the largest, the Red Cross is not the only private organization to provide disaster relief services. The United States is blessed with dozens of national charitable organizations, and thousands of local ones, that devote time, money, and effort toward alleviating suffering during catastrophes. The Citizen’s Guide to Disaster Assistance, published by FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute (EMI 2003), lists many private organizations that figure prominently in disasterrelief. Many of these are religious organizations—some are independent, while others are connected to particular denominations. However, the services and relief they provide are not contingent upon the faith or religious affiliation of victims. Descriptions of several of these organizations appear in chapter 7 of this book. The federal government recognizes the benefit of these and other organizations and significantly relies upon their assistance. FEMA, as the primary coordination agency for disaster relief efforts, regularly refers victims to these organizations and contracts with them to distribute various types of assistance. Collaboration between FEMA and relief organizations with religious affiliations and mission statements has been criticized by some as a breakdown in the principle of separation between church and state. Advocates for this type of collaboration

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counter that these organizations do not discriminate in who benefits from their relief efforts and that FEMA would be foolish not to co-opt the services of committed men, women, and organizations that are passionate about helping others.

Debates over Emergency Management Resources Natural Disasters or Terrorism? One of the great debates taking place in emergency management circles today is whether the focus of preparedness and response efforts should favor terrorism or natural disasters. While it is true that most emergency management agencies claim to have an “all hazards” approach to catastrophes (meaning they are prepared to deal with any type of disaster), the fact is that training and equipment resources are often event specific. Responding to a terrorist attack requires many different types of skill sets for emergency management crews. Some of those skills are similar to those needed to respond to a natural disaster, but other skills are very different. Generally, when emergency management officials address the threat of terrorism, WMDs are in the forefront of consideration. For many people, the mushroom cloud of a nuclear bomb comes to mind when first imagining the concept of WMD. But many types of weapons and hazards fall under the rubric of WMDs. The federal criminal code, Title 18, outlaws the possession or use of WMDs. Three key sections of Title 18 are used by the federal government to distinguish WMDs from other types of weapons. Title 18 of the United State Code, section 2332, defines a WMD as: a. any destructive device as defined in section 921 of this title; b. any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors; c. any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector (as those terms are defined in section 178 of this title); or

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d. any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life. Title 18, United States Code, section 921 defines a destructive device in this way: The term “destructive device” means— a. any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas— (i) bomb, (ii) grenade, (iii) rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, (iv) missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, (v) mine, or (vi) device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses. Finally, Title 18, United States Code, section 178 defines biological agent, toxin, and vector. That statute reads: 1. the term “biological agent” means any microorganism (including, but not limited to, bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsiae or protozoa), or infectious substance, or any naturally occurring, bioengineered or synthesized component of any such microorganism or infectious substance, capable of causing— a. death, disease, or other biological malfunction in a human, an animal, a plant, or another living organism b. deterioration of food, water, equipment, supplies, or material of any kind; or c. deleterious alteration of the environment; 2. the term “toxin” means the toxic material or product of plants, animals, microorganisms (including, but not limited to, bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsiae or protozoa), or infectious substances, or a recombinant or synthesized molecule, whatever their origin and method of production, and includes— a. any poisonous substance or biological product that may be engineered as a result of biotechnology produced by a living organism; or b. any poisonous isomer or biological product, homolog, or derivative of such a substance;

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3. the term “delivery system” means— a. any apparatus, equipment, device, or means of delivery specifically designed to deliver or disseminate a biological agent, toxin, or vector; or b. any vector; 4. the term “vector” means a living organism, or molecule, including a recombinant or synthesized molecule, capable of carrying a biological agent or toxin to a host. A WMD event is uniquely challenging for emergency management and first-responder officials as compared with other types of disasters. Unlike a natural disaster, a WMD event requires attention to certain law enforcement interests. When the World Trade Center towers were struck and collapsed, the result for emergency services was a human tragedy of epic proportions; the result for law enforcement was the largest crime scene in American history. In fact, when a natural disaster strikes, FEMA is the lead federal agency. But when an act of terrorism takes place, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) becomes the lead federal agency, and all response and recovery operations are coordinated through it (with FEMA still representing the traditional emergency management community to the FBI). Another unique characteristic of WMD events is that they possibly (but not always) could involve substances with which first responders are not familiar. Lacking a familiarity with lessthan-common hazardous materials can pose a significant safety risk to public safety personnel. As Senator Richard Lugar said in support of the Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996, “. . . first responders cannot become the second round of casualties if we are to have any hope of saving the victims and containing results of an attack” (Paratus Associates 2003). Such a compounded tragedy can only be averted if first responders receive WMD response training, which is precisely what the statute tasked the federal government to deliver. Given that emergency management response efforts take place from the bottom up, not top down, it is insufficient to train only decision makers and supervisors in the emergency management process. All line personnel must receive proper training for managing the crises that they are asked to confront. Unfortunately, time and resources that are spent training for WMD events are time and resources taken away from training for other types of catastrophes (such as search and rescue or swift-water rescue).

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Although there are very real differences between a “typical” disaster and a WMD event, there are also some commonalities. These include (Paratus Associates 2003): • • • • • •

Mass casualties Damage to buildings Evacuation Need for mass sheltering Effect on the economy Public reaction to trauma

Terror groups such as Al Qaeda, which is responsible for the 9/11 attacks against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, have clearly stated their intention to secure weapons of mass destruction and to use them against Americans on American soil. Generally, WMDs will fall into one of five categories, as reflected in Title 18: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Biological agents Chemical agents Nuclear devices Radiological dispersion devices (RDDs) Conventional devices

Biological agents include natural poisons (such as ricin), viruses (such as smallpox), bacteria (such as anthrax), and plagues. Weaponized biological agents are not new. Ricin, which comes from the caster bean, has been used for decades by covert governmental and extragovernmental organizations as a tool of assassination. In 1984, followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh in Oregon intentionally contaminated restaurant salad bars with salmonella. More than 700 people became ill from that attack (White 2006). In October 2001, less than a month after the 9/11 attacks, several people in the New York and Washington DC areas and Florida were exposed to anthrax that had been sent to public officials and media personalities through the mail. Hundreds of people were exposed to the anthrax, dozens were infected, and three people died. Chemical weapons are not new to terrorists either. They include nerve agents (such as sarin gas), blood agents (such as hydrogen cyanide—which was used in Nazi gas chambers), choking agents (including chlorine gas), and vesicant or

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blistering agents, (such as mustard gas—which was used by both sides during World War I). Perhaps the most famous modern act of terrorism involving chemical weapons was the sarin gas attack of the Tokyo, Japan, subway system by the Japanese religious sect Aum Shinrikyo. On March 20, 1995, members of this group brought inconspicuous-looking containers onto subway trains in the system and placed them under their seats. Around 8:00 a.m., they punctured their containers to allow the gas to seep out. As sarin is odorless and colorless, there was considerable confusion as to what was causing people to become violently ill on the trains. In all 12, commuters died and 5,500 people were injured from this attack (White 2006). Despite their capacity for destruction, nuclear devices (i.e., nuclear bombs) are seen by most experts as less of a threat than other WMDs. Working nuclear bombs are very difficult to fabricate. Most terrorism experts believe nuclear material, and even nuclear weapons, that originated in the former Soviet Union could potentially be acquired on the black market. Others are concerned about rogue nations with nuclear capabilities, such as North Korea or Iran, transferring nuclear weapons or technology to terrorists. This was the very concern that served as the primary impetus for America’s most recent war with Iraq. However, the technological savvy required for constructing, smuggling, deploying, and detonating a nuclear device is thought by many terrorism experts to be beyond the reach of most terrorist groups. The more likely scenario is that a terrorist organization may acquire radioactive material and disperse it through a conventional explosive device. This is known as a RDD, otherwise known as a “dirty bomb.” RDDs are not nuclear bombs. Rather, they are conventional bombs with contaminated radioactive material. When a dirty bomb explodes, the initial level of death, injury, and physical destruction will only be as extensive as the conventional explosives are powerful. However, the dispersion of the radiological material will cause a widespread area—perhaps a city block or more—to be deemed uninhabitable due to high levels of radiation in the environment. Clean-up costs would be exorbitant and it could take years before people could safely return to occupy that space. There is little doubt that the public’s fear of terrorism— especially after 9/11—is a driving force behind the shift of emergency management as a discipline toward emphasizing terrorism prevention and response. Approximately 3,000 people

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lost their lives in the United States on September 11, and that was through the use of conventional WMDs (airliners filled with jet fuel). Public contemplation of a chemical or biological attack that could kill thousands more, or of a nuclear attack that could kill hundreds of thousands, creates an understandable outcry for readiness in these areas. But to date, natural disasters have killed far more Americans than have acts of terrorism, or even large-scale accidents. Tornados have killed thousands, and hurricanes and floods have killed tens of thousands in the United States. Property damage from these types of events register in the billions of dollars. Many emergency management professionals believe that state and federal resources should primarily be targeted toward the threats that actually have a history of recurring with damaging and deadly results.

Warning Systems For many years, various government agencies have developed mechanisms for issuing advisories and warnings relating to natural hazards. For example, the National Weather Service has developed a system—in conjunction with state and local officials— to issue watches and warnings relating to tornados, hurricanes, thunderstorms, and blizzards. The U.S. Geological Survey has been known to issue warnings concerning active volcanoes (as it did prior to the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980) and earthquake advisories. Along the same lines, after the 9/11 terror attacks, the federal government created a Homeland Security Advisory System. Today, the Department of Homeland Security is responsible for monitoring terror-related threats and other intelligence information from around the world and then warning the public of the level of risk associated with those threats and pieces of intelligence. The Homeland Security Advisory System presents five threat condition levels. Each level is color coded and represents the assessed level of risk of a terror attack given the information known to the Department of Homeland Security at the time. The threat conditions are: Green: “low”—low risk of terrorist attacks Blue: “guarded”—general risk of terrorist attacks Yellow: “elevated”—significant risk of terrorist attacks

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Orange: “high”—high risk of terrorist attacks Red: “severe”—severe risk of terrorist attacks The assignment of threat conditions depends on several particular variables. When the Department of Homeland Security receives threat information, it is assessed according to several questions, including (DHS 2002): • • • • •

To what degree is the threat information credible? To what degree is the threat information corroborated? To what degree is the threat specific? To what degree is the threat imminent? How grave are the potential consequences of the threat?

There have been times when particular segments of the United States—such as the commercial aviation industry, companies in New York City’s financial district, and federal installations—have been assigned threat condition levels of greater severity than the general population because of specific intelligence relating to possible terrorist threats. However, there has not been any time since the establishment of the Homeland Security Advisory System shortly after the 9/11 attacks that any segment of the country, nor the United States as a whole, has seen a lower threat condition than yellow, or elevated. Many Homeland Security and emergency management officials suspect that it could be many years (if ever) before the United States lowers the threat level to blue or green. The Homeland Security Advisory System has fallen under some criticism since its inception. As the designation for the United States as a whole has generally remained at the yellow/elevated condition for months and years on end, even during a time of war, the utility of the system has been called into question. Even without the system in place, most Americans are aware of a general threat of terror attacks. Further, all acknowledge the government’s ability to notify particular industries or facilities of specific threats based on specific intelligence as it sees fit. Consequently, critics and cynics argue that the only thing the advisory system accomplishes is the opportunity for the federal government to deflect blame for lack of warning by being able to say “I told you so” when another terror attack actually comes to U.S. soil.

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Key City and Nationwide Efforts A debate that can easily be considered a close cousin of the contrasting interests discussed above is whether federal emergency management resources should be directed to the disaster and terrorism preparedness efforts of America’s large cities or should be spread and shared with jurisdictions throughout the country, including those in rural areas. Cosmopolitan locales such as New York City, which is an international city that plays host to the United Nations and is considered highly representative of the United States to the rest of the world, believe that homeland security monies spent in Middle America could be better spent addressing their needs. New York City does have a case to be made. It has suffered multiple terrorist attacks over the years, including the two attacks against the World Trade Center in 1993 and 2001. It has also experienced at times major levels of civil unrest. Further, New York has experienced natural disasters, such as deadly heat waves and related blackouts, blizzards, and bitter cold snaps. On the other hand, the middle of America has a case to be made as well. The Oklahoma City metropolitan area, which was the site of a major terror attack of its own in 1995, has experienced deadly blizzards and ice storms and has absorbed an untold number of tornados and violent thunderstorms over the years, including a powerful group of tornados from a single storm that struck the metro area in 1999, killing 40 people and injuring 675 others. Those tornados also caused more than $1.2 billion in property damage. The fact is that every corner of the United States is vulnerable to some threat. As briefly discussed in chapter 1, some places are more vulnerable to a particular hazard than others. And of course, not all hazards are equally devastating. These facts highlight the importance of risk assessment. When determining as a matter of public policy whether finite federal and state resources will be expended in particular hazard-prone areas or expended evenly across the landscape in proportion to population or other criteria, emergency planners who advise and recommend policies to decision makers must consider prevailing trends. Specifically, changes in disaster frequency and changes in disaster consequences must be evaluated (Coppola 2007).

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The changes in disaster frequency simply refer to the trend over time regarding how often particular types of disaster occur. Oklahoma City, in analyzing the number of tornados it has experienced over the past decade, may find that climatic trends have contributed to a steady or increasing number of them. Through modeling, the city’s emergency planners may determine that more effort, rather than less, must be expended for preparing the city for tornados given that, in their estimation, the threat is not diminishing. In fact, this is precisely why the state of Oklahoma, after the 1999 tornados, passed legislation requiring tornado shelters for new residential construction and provided funding to those with existing homes to install such shelters. The other trends to be mindful of when assessing risk are the changes in the consequences of various potential disasters. As Coppola (2007) indicated, the primary factor that can affect consequences of hazardous phenomena is human activity. A tornado or wildfire in a remote, unpopulated part of the state is no threat. But as new residents move into areas previously uninhabited, natural phenomena now become hazards to those areas. If a part of a town becomes increasingly dense in population due to zoning changes that permit or encourage multihousing units, then a disaster in that area will have greater consequences than before the apartments and townhomes were constructed. If one person were responsible for conducting risk assessment for all regions of the country and then distributed funds accordingly, there would clearly be winners and losers. But the fact is that disaster preparedness, mitigation, response, and even recovery generally take place at the local and state levels. When risks are assessed, they are done so within the context of a community’s own past experiences. Local emergency managers are not concerned with the hazards faced by jurisdictions in other states, nor are they expected to be in our system of federalism. They have a local constituency that they are paid to plan for and to protect. Consequently, New York City; Oklahoma City; New Orleans; San Francisco; Minot, North Dakota; Parsons, Kansas; and every other community across the country will continue to lobby their elected officials and federal and state bureaucrats for a share of the emergency management resources pie—and they will all have compelling arguments on their side. No one ever said distributing finite emergency management resources among

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a seemingly unlimited number of worthy investment options would be easy—especially when as much as life and death is at stake.

References American Red Cross. 2006. “Disaster Services.” www.redcross.org/ services. Bard, M. 1990. The Three Stages of Crisis Reaction. Glynco, GA: Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. Brinkley, D. 2006. The Great Deluge: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast. New York, NY: William Morrow/Harper Collins. Bumgarner, J. 2006. Federal Agents: The Growth of Federal Law Enforcement in America. Westport, CT: Praeger. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2006. “Traumatic Incident Stress: Information for Emergency Response Workers.” www.cdc.gov/niosh/unp-trinstrs.html. Coppola, D. 2007. Introduction to International Disaster Management. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Doerner, W. G. and S. P. Lab. 2005. Victimology. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing. Dye, T. 1998. Understanding Public Policy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Emergency Management Institute (EMI). 2003. Citizen’s Guide to Disaster Assistance. Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency. Federal Emergency Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). 1990. Psychological First Aid for Victims. Glynco, GA: Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2006. “Organization Structure.” www.fema.gov/about/structure.shtm. Kingdon, J. 1984. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. Boston: Little, Brown. Kübler-Ross, E. 1969. On Death and Dying. New York: Macmillan. Lewin, K. 1951. Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper and Row. Lindell, M. K., C. S. Prater, and R. W. Perry. 2006. Fundamentals of Emergency Management. Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency.

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Paratus Associates. 2003. Weapons of Mass Destruction: Federal Terrorism Response. Buckhannon, WV: Paratus Associates, LLC. Peak, K. 2007. Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Roig-Franzia, M. 2005. “New Orleans Fires 51 Police Workers.” Washington Post, October 29, A6. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). 2002. Homeland Security Presidential Directive 3: Homeland Security Advisory System. Washington, DC: White House Office of Homeland Security. White, J. R. 2006. Terrorism and Homeland Security. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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3 Worldwide Perspective

O

n December 26, 2004, a large earthquake struck off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The earthquake itself caused significant damage to nearby villages and towns and killed hundreds. However, the far greater disaster was yet to come. The earthquake had triggered a series of tsunamis that struck the coasts of more than a dozen countries along the Indian Ocean. Astonishingly, more than 280,000 people lost their lives as a result of the tsunamis. More than 1.6 million people were left homeless. Indonesia was hardest hit, with more than 160,000 dead and a half-million left homeless. However, other countries also suffered astronomical casualty levels. Sri Lanka lost more than 35,000 people to the tsunamis, and India and Thailand lost more than 18,000 and 8,000, respectively. This was the most costly tsunami, in lives and property, in recorded world history. The United States and other developed countries immediately pledged support to help the stricken countries to recover. President George W. Bush quickly offered more than $350 million in aid. He then went to Congress to secure $600 million more. Americans followed the story closely and were horrified at the level of destruction. Further, many in the West were amazed to learn that a large number of North American and European citizens were victims of the tsunamis as well. Some of the hardest-hit areas in Indonesia were popular tourist attractions prior to the disaster. Among Western countries, Sweden was probably affected the most—losing nearly 500 of its citizens on that day. Few disasters in recent history have served as such an object lesson regarding the need for global cooperation and coordination of emergency management efforts, that is, mitigation,

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Worldwide Perspective

preparedness, response, and recovery. This chapter offers readers an opportunity to develop a rudimentary global perspective and understanding of disastrous hazards that exist around the world and explores the actual emergency management efforts taking place in many different regions of the world.

Emergency Management: A Global Responsibility In the United States, it can be tempting to think of emergency management only from a local perspective. After all, disasters are local problems. They affect our neighbors, our families, ourselves. The American system of government, federalism, fixes responsibility for most government services, including initial disaster response, at the state and local level. Further, when a disaster of significance occurs in the United States, the American news media will devote considerable attention to it—often over several days of coverage. Disasters that happen elsewhere in the world may also receive media attention in the United States. However, the coverage is often in passing and frequently fails to be commensurate with destruction of lives and property that has occurred. As the table below reflects, the world’s most calamitous disasters tend to happen in parts of the world outside the United States. In fact, of the top 100 disasters of the twentieth century, not one of them occurred in North America (excluding epidemics that affected the whole world). Fifty-seven of the top 100 occurred on the continent of Asia; 23 occurred in Africa. Only six occurred in the Western Hemisphere (Disaster Center 2007). Another factor contributing to a lack of understanding in the United States of the disaster posture of the various regions around the world is the inability to relate to many of the disasters that afflict other nations and other continents. Contributing to the disaster-proneness of many corners of the globe is the fact that these regions consist of many developing countries—often referred to somewhat derisively as the “Third World.” The lack of technology, medicine, safety standards, and other features taken for granted in the West can contribute to a nation’s or region’s susceptibility to epidemics, famine, and damage from natural and man-made catastrophic events.

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Emergency Management: A Global Responsibility 75

TABLE 3.1 Share of Twentieth Century’s Top One Hundred Disasters by Region (Excluding Multiregion Disasters) Number of Top 100 Disasters

Number of Dead

Average Number Killed

Asia

57

25,304,000

443,930

Africa

23

2,190,000

95,217

Europe

9

11,964,000

1,329,333

Latin America

6

222,000

37,000

Global Region

Source: Disaster Center. “The Most Deadly 100 Natural Disasters of the 20th Century.” www.disastercenter.com.

The Role of the United Nations While the hazards, risks, and even consequences of disasters go unnoticed by many citizens in the United States, Canada, the nations of western Europe, and other developed nations, many organizations make it their mission to address disasters around the globe in a constructive and comprehensive way. The United Nations (UN) is one such organization. On December 11, 1987, the UN General Assembly declared that the 1990s would be the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The purpose of this program was to encourage countries to take steps to mitigate the effects of natural disasters through the use of technology and sound disaster planning and preparation practices. In a 1989 resolution, the United Nations further determined that its agencies should work with member countries to improve warning systems; design and build disaster-resilient structures and infrastructure; and disseminate technologies used to measure, predict, and deal with natural disasters. In the years that followed the proclamation of the IDNDR, the United Nations has held several international conferences to promote disaster mitigation and preparedness—especially among developing countries. For example, in May 1994, it conducted the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in Yokohama, Japan. During that conference, the United Nations adopted the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a more disaster-resilient world. Importantly, the plan included the recognition of each nation’s sovereignty and expressed a commitment to honoring that sovereignty. Sovereignty has often proven to be a stumbling-block issue for many developing

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countries juggling their own internal and regional politics with the international community’s desire to help (which can be very intrusive, depending on the aid program in question). The Yokohama Strategy called for member nations, through their respective legislative bodies, to improve their preparedness postures in the face of natural disasters. However, the strategy also recognized the growing interdependence (i.e., globalization) that has come to characterize the world’s countries. Consequently, the United Nations set out to promote regional and global cooperation to reduce and mitigate the impact of natural disasters. The Yokohama Strategy affirmed the importance and preference of predisaster activities—namely, mitigation and preparedness— over a reactive approach to disaster management.

The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) In 2001, the United Nations began to advance a successor campaign to the IDNDR, the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). According to the United Nations, the mission of the ISDR is to “[build] disaster resilient communities by promoting increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as an integral component of sustainable development, with the goal of reducing human, social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters” (ISDR 2001a). The United Nations ISDR operates under the presumption that disasters can and do threaten every member nation and therefore partnerships between nations must be established in the disaster-reduction effort (i.e., efforts to reduce losses of life, socioeconomic losses, and environmental damage caused by natural disasters). To fulfill its mission, the ISDR (2001a) identifies four primary objectives that embody the present-day efforts of the United Nations regarding disaster mitigation and preparedness: 1. Increase public awareness to understand risk, vulnerability, and disaster reduction globally. The more people, regional organizations, governments, nongovernmental organizations, United Nations entities, representatives of civil society, and others know about risk, vulnerability,

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Emergency Management: A Global Responsibility 77

and how to manage the impacts of natural hazards, the more disaster reduction measures will be implemented in all sectors of society. Prevention begins with information. 2. Obtain commitment from public authorities to implement disaster-reduction policies and actions. The more decision makers at all levels commit themselves to disaster-reduction policies and actions, the sooner communities vulnerable to natural disasters will benefit from applied disasterreduction policies and actions. This requires, in part, a grassroots approach whereby communities at risk are fully informed and participate in risk management initiatives. 3. Stimulate interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including the expansion of risk reduction networks. The more entities active in disaster reduction share information on their research and practices, the more the global body of knowledge and experience will progress. By sharing a common purpose and through collaborative efforts we can ensure a world that is more resilient to the impact of natural hazards. 4. Improve scientific knowledge about disaster reduction. The more we know about the causes and consequences of natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters on societies, the better prepared we will be to reduce risks. Bringing the scientific community and policy makers together allows them to contribute to and complement each other’s work. Additionally, the United Nations General Assembly mandated the ISDR to strengthen the disaster reduction capabilities of member nations by working to develop and deploy earlywarning systems, as well as to continue to foster international cooperation for investigating the impact of global climate change and variability (e.g., El Niño) on the probability and consequences of major natural disasters. At the United Nations, the implementation of the ISDR is the joint responsibility of the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction (IATF/DR) and the Inter-Agency Secretariat of the ISDR (UN/ISDR). Each of these organizations carries out important functions within the United Nations’ disaster mitigation program. In particular, the IATF/DR is responsible for developing disaster policy for the United Nations. The unit comes under

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the supervision of the United Nations’ under-secretary general for Humanitarian Affairs. Currently, the task force is made up of twenty-five distinct UN, international, regional, and governmental organizations. The task force meets semiannually and enlists the aid of experts in the fields of management, technology, social sciences, and natural sciences to craft proposed policies relating to climate variability, natural phenomena (e.g., drought, floods), risk and vulnerability, and early-warning capabilities (ISDR 2001b). While the IATF/DR spends considerable time generating information for the international community relating to disaster preparedness and mitigation, the UN/ISDR expends its own effort to disseminate information. It serves the United Nations and the international community as a clearinghouse of information relating to disaster reduction and disaster awareness. In that effort, the organization produces articles, promotional materials, and other publications that integrate relevant research from the social sciences (including public policy and economics), technology, and the natural sciences that inform humanitarian, development, and relief practices. As noted in the ISDR’s (2001b) Framework for Action report, the UN/ISDR serves to promote a worldwide culture of disaster reduction, which is a tall order in a world with limited resources and often narrow national interests.

Disaster Vulnerabilities by Region Asia For as long as records have been kept, the continent of Asia, along with the Pacific Rim, has been known to be among the most disaster-prone regions of the world. Asia, which includes the world’s two most populous countries—China and India, with more than a billion citizens each—is beset with all types of natural and industrial hazards. According to the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC 2006), the average number of people killed by natural disasters in Asia per year from 1993 to 1997 was 19,078. As startling a number as that is, it is considerably less than the average of 63,435 disaster deaths per year in Asia from 1988 to 1992. The average number of homeless generated from disasters each year also declined. From 1988 to 1992,

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Disaster Vulnerabilities by Region 79

the average was 16,861,685 left homeless; from 1993 to 1997 the average was 4,250,166. Many point to increased disaster awareness and disaster mitigation programs as at least partially responsible for the encouraging decline in the annual average of disaster-related deaths and homelessness. The most common types of disasters are hydrometeorological, according to the ADPC. In other words, water and weather are key components to Asia’s most common disastrous events. In particular, windstorms and devastating floods tend to pose the greatest and most assured threats to the Asian continent and the Pacific Rim (ADPC 2006). Generally, destructive windstorms in Asia are the result of cyclones and typhoons. Cyclones and typhoons are violent, massive, rotating tropical storms that originate over the ocean. In the United States, these storms are referred to as hurricanes, as they originate in the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico. “Cyclones” are hurricanes that occur in the Indian Ocean, and “typhoons” are hurricanes that occur in the Pacific Ocean. Throughout the 1990s, well more than 2,200 disasters were reported in Asia. Of those, approximately 400 were windstorms. During that decade, 186,000 people were killed from windstorms in Asia. Particularly vulnerable to cyclones are the countries of India and Bangladesh, with 15 percent of the world’s cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal and striking those two nations (ADPC 2006). Flooding is the other major natural hazard affecting Asia. In fact, 83 percent of all disasters striking Asia in the 1990s were major floods (IFRC 2000). The annual average damage caused by flooding in Asia during the 1990s was approximately $240 million. In recent years, large-scale flooding has occurred in Bangladesh, China, Thailand, Vietnam, and Pakistan (IFRC 2000). In addition to deaths, injuries, and the destruction of homes, flooding seriously jeopardizes many nations’ food supplies by destroying large areas of agricultural land. For example, in China, when the Yangtze River overflowed in 1998, 25 million hectares of cropland were destroyed (ADPC 2006). Although predominant in Asia, windstorms and floods are not the only types of natural disasters that regularly strike the Asian continent. Earthquakes, droughts, and volcanoes have also posed serious threats and have a history of destruction in Asia. Two-thirds of all large earthquakes occur in the Pacific Rim. Additionally, the Himalayan Mountains are located in a seismically

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active region. Countries in Asia that have suffered through largescale, devastating earthquakes in recent years include India, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines, China, Turkey, and Afghanistan. In 2005, one of the most deadly earthquakes in recent history occurred in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir. On October 8, 2005, a quake measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale struck Kashmir, killing 73,000. An additional 1,400 died in the India-controlled portion of Kashmir (ADPC 2006). According to the World Disasters Report (IFRC 2000), the decade of the 1990s saw more than twenty major volcanic eruptions in Asia. The countries of Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia are particularly vulnerable. The Philippines alone has more than 200 volcanoes in the country, including Mount Pinatubo on the island of Luzon. This volcano famously erupted in April 1991, killing 500 people. Although the death toll was relatively small (due to evacuation efforts by the Philippine and United States governments), the eruption was ten times as powerful as the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington in 1980. Droughts also regularly threaten portions of Asia. While it is true that some regions within Asia regularly face the problem of too much water, other parts of Asia have chronically suffered under drought conditions, including portions of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, and North and South Korea. Recent droughts in parts of India and Afghanistan have threatened the water supply for tens of millions of people and have destroyed countless livestock and crops.

Africa The continent of Africa is home to 933 million people spread across fifty-four countries. Many different types of natural and technological hazards threaten Africa’s inhabitants. Historically, the primary natural threats are epidemics, drought, floods, agricultural pests, and bush fires. Some regions in Africa exist under the additional persistent threats of earthquakes, cyclones, and volcanic eruptions (Loretti and Tegegn 1996). In fact, in West Africa, more than 75 percent of the population lives in areas affected at least once every two years by a serious cyclone, flood, drought, or earthquake (ECOWAS 2006).

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Other threats common to Africa include technological disasters, such as chemical accidents, mining accidents, and other types of industrial hazards (Loretti and Tegegn 1996). However, the chief man-made threat in Africa is the widespread conflict. Many countries in Africa are susceptible to extreme political upheaval. Civil unrest and revolution frequently interact with troubling natural conditions (such as drought) and compound the problems. Feeding people without food or medicine in remote villages is difficult under any circumstance; doing so amidst violent and genocidal warring factions inside and outside the government is almost impossible. In fact, from 1980 through the mid-1990s, civil unrest and war caused an estimated 3.7 million deaths in Africa and billions of dollars per year in damage (Loretti and Tegegn 1996). In 2000–2001, approximately 13 percent of the total population of Africa was adversely affected by disasters (ISDR 2004a). However, in addition to a geographic and climatic proneness to natural disasters, Africa is especially plagued by poverty. Unfortunately for many places within Africa, pervasive poverty and disasters act as force multipliers for each other. In other words, when disasters do strike, impoverished conditions are often perpetuated. Further, the existence of poverty in particular regions tend to compound the effects of disasters when they strike those regions. According to the United Nations’ 2004 report on Africa entitled Africa Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction, poverty is on the rise in Africa (especially in sub-Saharan Africa) while it is declining everywhere else in the world (ISDR 2004a). While poverty exists in all corners of the globe, international emergency management experts believe that disaster reduction efforts in Africa, perhaps more than anywhere else, must consider the impoverished conditions there. A nation’s degree of wealth is often measured in terms of its gross domestic product (GDP). The annual GDP is the total market value of all goods and services produced in a particular country over the course of a year. GDP is a comprehensive figure that includes a nation’s total consumption, investment, government spending, imports, and exports. A nation’s per-capita GDP simply requires dividing the GDP by the nation’s population. In 2004, Africa’s per capita GDP was $749, whereas the global average GDP was $5,403. In 2006, the per-capita GDP in the United

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States was approximately $43,500. Further, approximately half of all Africans lived in extreme poverty, defined by the United Nations as a per-capita income of less than $1.00 per day. In Africa’s poorest countries, more than 80 percent of the population live below the poverty line. In 2003, 40 million Africans faced starvation and 200 million lived in hunger (ISDR 2004a). When disasters hit countries as poverty stricken as many are in Africa, the impact can be severe. In addition to the physical and medical needs that might be acutely required on a large scale for a particular population, disasters pose a serious resource problem for the poorer countries in Africa. Scarce resources such as medicine, food, and money for economic development to be used for general welfare purposes are often used up prematurely in the wake of a disaster. Economic losses, in the form of destroyed businesses and destroyed or damaged infrastructure and communications, further deplete the capacity of Africa’s poorer countries to generate money needed for disaster relief—much less disaster mitigation and preparedness. In the 1970s and 1980s, the most notable natural hazard in Africa was drought (and famine that accompanied it). In 1984–1985, the country of Ethiopia was hit by a major drought and famine that affected 8 million people. In total, 1 million Ethiopians died and 600,000 were moved out of the drought areas with the help of international relief efforts. In more recent years, droughts have affected southern parts of Africa particularly hard. In 2004, South Africa suffered its worst drought in nearly ninety years with 14 million people effected. In the past few years, droughts have also created major food emergencies in Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Niger, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda (ISDR 2004b). Flooding has also been a hallmark of African coastal disasters in recent years. Mozambique in 2001 was pounded by Cyclone Dera, which flooded 79,000 hectares of planted agricultural land, leaving nearly 120,000 farm families without food. Additionally, flooding in 2003 in Namibia displaced 25,000 rural residents of Caprivi.

Latin America Latin America is generally defined as those countries in the Americas where Spanish or Portuguese is spoken. This includes Mexico and the countries of Central America, South America,

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and the Caribbean. Twenty Latin American countries have a combined population of approximately 550 million. Natural disasters in Latin America have played a major role in the history and development of the Western Hemisphere. Historians generally believe that a severe and protracted drought caused the demise of the Mayan civilization (Hodell, Curtis, and Brenner 1995). From 1970 to 1999, Latin America suffered through many significant disasters. During that period of time, Latin America averaged more than thirty major disasters per year, resulting in an average annual death toll of 7,500 people (Charveriat 2000). Disasters during that period also had a direct impact on the GDP. In many major disasters, the losses suffered in Latin American countries—in terms of damage to private and public property and to countries’ infrastructure—had tremendous adverse effects on GDPs. For example, when Jamaica was struck by a hurricane in 1988, that country’s total losses amounted to a full 28 percent of its GDP. Also that year, Nicaragua was struck by a hurricane and suffered losses totaling nearly 33 percent of its GDP. Dealing with humanitarian crises is always a challenge, but disaster planners in developing countries, including in Latin America, must be mindful of the horrific toll that major disasters can place on a nation’s economy. In fact, one study of thirty-five disasters in Latin America showed that the GDP growth rates in the affected countries declined as a result of twenty-eight of the thirty-five disaster events. Of those twenty-eight, the actual GDP declined (not just the growth rate) as a result of thirteen of those disasters (Charveriat 2000). Latin America is very diverse topographically. As a region of the world, Latin America has it all: oceans, mountains, tropical climates, harsh winter climates, rain forests, wetlands, plains, volcanoes, and fault lines. In 1970, an earthquake hit Peru and killed 67,000 people. Another earthquake hit Guatemala in 1976, killing 23,000. In 1985, the Columbian volcano Nevado del Ruiz erupted and killed 22,000. In 1999, a major flood occurred in Venezuela, killing approximately 30,000 people (CRED 2000). Indeed, the capacity of nature to cause serious calamities in Latin America is great, and the means at nature’s disposal to do so are many. From a global perspective, Latin America can properly be construed collectively as a region of the world in the Western Hemisphere. However, the disaster experiences of Central

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America, South America, and the Caribbean do differ. From 1970 to 1999, 50 percent of Latin American disasters occurred in South America. Central America accounted for 28 percent of the disasters, and the Caribbean accounted for 22 percent. The disasters in South America appear to have been more costly in lives than in other parts of Latin America. Among those killed in Latin American disasters, 65 percent died in South America— well beyond the continent’s proportional share of 50 percent. Similarly, Central American disasters claimed more lives than their countries’ percentage of total Latin American disasters would predict—33 percent of Latin American disaster fatalities. The Caribbean fared the best with only 2 percent of all Latin American disaster fatalities occurring there (CRED 2000). Clearly, these figures are in part a reflection of where the people are. South America constitutes an entire continent and is home to more than 370 million people. Mexico has about 100 million residents; Central America has about 41 million. The Caribbean is home to a little under 40 million people. In light of the distribution of the Latin American population, the low number of deaths in the Caribbean as a percentage of total Latin American disaster-related deaths is not too surprising. However, an additional factor to be mindful of is the type of disasters that the different regions within Latin America are subject to. Large-scale earthquakes and floods in South and Central America have potential to impact a broader geographic area and draw in a farther-flung group of people through a single cataclysmic event. The impact of disasters on human lives in each of Latin America’s regions can be considered in ways other than as percentages of the whole. For example, the number of people killed and affected by disasters can be considered as a percentage of that region’s population. The table below summarizes the numbers of deaths and affected people as percentages of the South American, Central American, and Caribbean populations, respectively, from 1970 to 1999. Additionally, the percentage of the land mass affected by disasters in each of the three regions is also considered, along with the damage from disasters as a percentage of GDP. In each of these measures, excluding deaths, the Caribbean fares far worse than the other two regions of Latin America (Charveriat 2000).

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TABLE 3.2 Disaster Exposure Indicators in Latin America, 1970–1999

Occurrence (per 2 Thousand km )

Share of Population Killed (per Million Habitants)

Share of Population Affected (per Thousand Habitants)

Cumulative Damages as Share of 1998 Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

0.3%

431.1

322.9

3.9%

Central America

1.2%

555.1

147.7

7.1%

Caribbean

10.1%

3.8

486.4

43.3%

Region South America

Source: C. Charveriat, Natural Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview of the Risk, Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 2000.

As suggested previously, Latin America possesses considerable breadth in the types of disasters that befall it. From 1970 to 1999 in South America, nearly 50 percent of all disasters were flooding related. Earthquakes and landslides have also figured prominently in South American disaster history. Wind-related disasters account for only 7 percent of South America’s total disaster experience. By contrast, more than half of the Caribbean’s disasters are wind related—that is, hurricanes. Central America’s (and Mexico’s) disaster experience is more varied than the other parts of Latin America. In Central America, 31 percent of its disasters were floods, 26 percent were hurricanes, 19 percent were earthquakes, and 8 percent were volcanoes (Charveriat 2000). The distribution of disaster types across Latin America from 1970 to 1999 is presented in table 3.3 below (CRED 2000). From 1970 to 1999, earthquakes were responsible for 53 percent of the total fatalities despite the fact that they represented only 13 percent of the disasters. This was due to the fact that earthquakes have a high death-to-occurrence ratio (950 deaths per earthquake). Flooding caused 21 percent of Latin American disaster-related deaths. Windstorms, such as hurricanes, caused 11 percent of the deaths. Volcanic eruptions caused 10 percent of disaster-related deaths. Again, although infrequent in occurrence, volcanoes proved to be deadly overall due to a high deathto-occurrence ratio—approximately 500 deaths per eruption (Charveriat 2000).

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TABLE 3.3 Disasters by Type as a Percentage of All Disasters in Latin America Disaster Type

Percentage of Total Disasters

Flood

38

Windstorm

22

Earthquake

13

Landslide

10

Drought

6

Volcanic Eruption

5

Wildfire

3

Other

3

Source: Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Database 1900–1999. Louvain, Belgium: Universite Catholique de Louvain, 2000.

Europe The global regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America all have significant populations living in developing countries. Europe, by contrast, is a continent full of countries that collectively and individually are already developed socioeconomically and technologically. Europe today has 810 million people living in its fifty-two countries. As a whole, Europe is one of the wealthier regions of the world, with a collective GDP of nearly $16 trillion. As a result, the impacts that disasters have on Europe tend to be similar in degree as those that afflict the United States. Disasters tend to create acute problems in Europe—but problems that are quickly and adequately handled with whatever resources are determined necessary to meet a disaster’s challenges. However, while poverty can be a force multiplier for the adverse effects of disasters, no corner of the world—wealthy or poor—is immune from disastrous events altogether. Europe, for all its wealth, is no exception. Between 1998 and 2002, natural and technological disasters affected more than 7 million Europeans and caused an estimated 60 billion euros worth of damage to insured properties (and billions more to uninsured property). Natural disasters and technologically calamitous events that have hit Europe in recent years are varied and include floods, windstorms, wildfires, droughts, heat waves, blizzards, landslides, snow avalanches, earthquakes, oil spills,

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mining accidents, and other large-scale industrial accidents (EEA 2003). The breadth of disaster types is reflective of the breadth of topography and climate that characterizes Europe. For many Americans, thinking about the continent of Europe conjures up images of particular European countries with which the United States has had frequent or noteworthy dealings over the span of American history, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. But of course, there are dozens more countries in Europe besides these. Europe stretches from Spain and Portugal in the west to as far east as Russia’s Ural mountain range. Europe also includes the Scandinavian and Baltic countries in the north and a number of Mediterranean and Balkan countries in the south. During the twenty-five-year period of 1975 to 2000, Europe experienced 840 natural disasters. Like many parts of the world, Europe is particularly vulnerable to flooding and windstorms. Also in that period, more than 50 percent of Europe’s major disasters fell into one of these two categories. Specifically, windstorms accounted for 27 percent of the continent’s disasters; flooding accounted for 26 percent. Earthquakes also played a significant role in the total disaster figure, representing 16 percent of disasters in Europe during that time. Europe’s earthquakes were concentrated in the Mediterranean Sea region of the continent, particularly affecting Italy, Turkey, and Greece. In total, an estimated 18,000 people were killed as a result of Europe’s disasters from 1975 to 2000. An additional 27 million Europeans were affected by disasters. As mentioned in the discussion about Latin America, earthquakes tend to have a high casualty ratio associated with each incident. In Europe, earthquakes caused 46 percent of disaster-related fatalities. The percentage breakdown of all disaster-related deaths in Europe during this time frame, as well as the respective shares of disaster-related damage by disaster type, is presented in the table below (ADRC 2002). In addition to accounting for more than half of all disasters in Europe from 1975 to 2000, flooding and windstorms caused more than 70 percent of disaster-related property damage. The fact that the death toll for these two disaster types is relatively low (24 percent of all deaths) is indicative of two factors: (1) the lower death-to-occurrence ratios generally associated with meteorological disasters and (2) the advanced level of mitigation and emergency preparedness, including the employment of early

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TABLE 3.4 European Disaster Deaths and Property Damage, 1975–2000 Disaster Type Windstorm

Percentage of All Disasters

Percentage of Disaster Deaths

Percentage of Disaster Damage

27

10

15

Drought

3

0

7

Earthquake

16

46

19

Wildfire

8

1

1

Flood

26

14

56

Extreme Temperature

10

20

1

Landslide

5

6

1

Volcanic Eruption

2

0

0

Epidemic

3

3

0

Source: Asian Disaster Reduction Center. “Number of Disasters in Europe by Type, 1975–2000.” www.adrc.or.jp.

warning systems, that typifies disaster readiness in developed regions of the world. Europe, as one of the world’s leading industrial regions, is also vulnerable to technological or man-made disasters. From 1998 to 2002, Europe experienced several technological disasters, including oil spills, chemical spills, large-scale explosions, largescale building collapses, and large fires. During that four-year period, Germany alone experienced three major industrial explosions and a large chemical spill. France experienced two major building collapses, a large industrial fire, and a large explosion. The single explosion in France during that period was one of Europe’s worst industrial accidents in recent memory. A fertilizer plant in the southern part of the city of Toulouse, France, ignited and caused an explosion that killed 30 people and wounded 2,000 others. More than 3,000 buildings and homes in the surrounding area were destroyed or severely damaged (EEA 2003).

Comparative Emergency Management Activities and Readiness Earlier chapters have provided a basic explanation of the formal emergency management apparatus in the United States. This

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apparatus includes the Federal Emergency Management Agency, other federal agencies, state and local governments, and nonprofit organizations such as the American Red Cross and the Salvation Army. In the United States, which operates under the federalism model of government and has many emergency management participant agencies and organizations, a constant tension exists relating to the assignment of emergency management responsibilities and the contradictory expectations regarding response and recovery that government officials and the public tend to have and revisit after each major disaster. Interestingly, most other countries of the world experience some of the same tensions. Although federalism in the United States is unique in that great emphasis is placed on the tradition and legality of states rights (and therefore state responsibilities), most countries around the world similarly place the primary function of emergency management—especially response—on the state/provincial and local governments. This preserves the role of the federal emergency management apparatus in most countries as merely supportive and augmentative by nature. It also preserves some measure of political cover if state and local officials err in some way during the disaster response effort. What follow in this section of the book are snapshots of the emergency management apparatus and processes in place in selected countries around the world. While the list of countries, and the information provided about them, is by no means exhaustive, the following section does provide a springboard for comparative evaluations of the emergency management and disaster response communities in various countries and regions of the globe.

China The People’s Republic of China is inhabited by more than 1.3 billion people. Each year, disasters affect more than 200 million Chinese citizens. Consequently, emergency management efforts figure prominently in the scope of government activities in China. Of course, all aspects of life in China figure prominently with the government as China remains a totalitarian, Communist Party–controlled country with a highly centralized national government. While China has relaxed its control over some entrepreneurial and business activities within its borders, the nation remains politically and institutionally monolithic. Hence,

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there is no controversy over who is responsible for emergency management in China—it is the national government. Despite the limited political or legal recourse Chinese citizens have were their government to do little or nothing about disaster preparedness and relief, the Chinese government has actually been very proactive in advancing the discipline of emergency management within its own borders, as well as around the world. In fact, since the 1980s, China has been a world leader in exploring and developing best practices in emergency management. The emergency management function in China rests with the Ministry of Civil Affairs. This agency is responsible for organizing and coordinating disaster relief efforts, disseminating disaster preparedness information, and prioritizing and distributing disaster relief funds to those in need when disaster strikes. In May 2003, China hosted a conference on emergency planning and disaster relief. As a result of the conference, the Ministry of Civil Affairs developed a new emergency plan. The plan serves as a template for provincial and municipal government officials to follow in drafting their own emergency plans for more localized disastrous events (ADRC 2006). Of course, all local plans must be approved by the central government. The Chinese Ministry of Water Resources also is involved in disaster planning. As floods are one of the primary natural hazards in China, the Ministry of Water Resources, in concert with the Ministry of Civil Affairs, has developed a manpower program that can be tapped in a time of crisis. When needed, the Water Resources ministry can draw from 370 different groups who can respond to a flood emergency and hopefully minimize the losses in lives and property. Additionally, China has passed several laws that articulate land-use provisions that mitigate damage from floods and earthquakes—particularly in key urban centers. China has also passed regulations that specify just who will respond to any given disaster, as well as what will be done in the wake of a destructive earthquake (ADRC 2006). In recent years, China has passed some controversial laws relating to emergency management. After the severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak in 2003 and the bird flu in 2005, China toughened its penalties for local government officials who fail to act in a way that brings an emergency under control. In essence, China in the eyes of some has criminalized incompetence (PDO 2006). Other controversial legislation that has been proposed in

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China includes a law that levies significant financial penalties on any media outlets that falsely report on disaster response activities or in some other way violates disaster regulations (CMP 2006). As it is up the to government to decide what is a false report, many critics from outside of China see this type of legislation as stifling even constructive criticism, which could be used to inform better practices in the future.

Australia In Australia, the Attorney General’s Department is responsible for coordinating emergency management efforts throughout the country. The published mission statement of the Australian attorney general is to “[achieve] a just and secure society” by pursuing two specific and somewhat interrelated outcomes: (1) an equitable and accessible system of federal civil justice and (2) coordinated federal criminal justice, security, and emergency management activity for a safer Australia (EMA 2006). Some professional emergency managers would be a little dismayed at Australia’s placement of the emergency management function in such close proximity to the criminal justice system and under the supervision of the nation’s chief law enforcement officer—the attorney general. However, to the extent that emergency management is seen as a piece of homeland security, the location of the emergency management function within Australia’s government structure makes sense. Within the Attorney General’s Department, the emergency management agency—known as Emergency Management Australia—falls under the National Security and Criminal Justice Group. Emergency Management Australia is one of several divisions in the National Security and Criminal Justice Group; other divisions include the Criminal Justice Division, the Security and Critical Infrastructure Division, the Protective Security Coordination Centre, AusCheck (which performs government-sponsored background checks), and the International Crime Cooperation Division. In Australia, similar to the United States, the prime responsibility for the protection of life, property, and the environment within the nation’s borders belongs to the states and territories. Even so, the Australian national government declares a strong commitment to fulfilling a key supporting role in helping the states and territories develop greater capacity for handling

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disasters and other emergency management events, as well as providing assistance in the form of critical resources (manpower, equipment, leadership) when the states or territories are unable to manage a situation because of the event’s scope and reach. Also similar to the United States and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Australian government through Emergency Management Australia maintains an “all hazards” approach to disasters and homeland security. A large premium, therefore, is placed on activities that foster multiagency and multijurisdictional coordination and cooperation. Some of the other federal government agencies that play a role in the comprehensive all-hazards emergency management effort include the Australian Maritime Safety Authority; the Bureau of Meteorology; Geoscience Australia; the Department of Transport and Regional Services; the Department of Health and Ageing; and Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry—Australia. All of these federal agencies have a seat at the emergency management table in Australia and are actively involved in mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts with Emergency Management Australia.

India By any measure, India’s 1.2 billion residents live in one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. As such, the government of India has pursued an aggressive emergency management program featuring all four key elements of the discipline: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. At the national level, India’s Ministry of Home Affairs, Disaster Management Division, is responsible for emergency management and disaster planning. Like many other countries with strong state or provincial governments, India’s national policy on emergency management and disaster relief is to generally defer to India’s state governments. However, the central government of India has also staked out a strong role when major disasters strike—a role that involves supporting the state and local relief efforts after a disaster by providing physical and financial resources. The degree of assistance provided by the central government is contingent upon the nature and magnitude of the disaster in question and the amount of resources deemed necessary to alleviate acute suffering.

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When a disaster occurs and is of such significance that the Indian central government becomes involved, the government responds at two levels: primary relief efforts and secondary efforts. The primary relief efforts by the national government in India include (NDMI 2007): Forecasting and operation of warning system Maintaining uninterrupted communication Publicizing warnings of impending calamity and disasterpreparedness and relief measures through television, radio, and newspapers Providing transportation assistance to facilitate evacuation and movement of essential commodities and petroleum products Ensuring availability of essential commodities at reasonable prices, particularly the commodities through the Public Distribution System Ensuring availability of medicines, vaccines, and drugs Preserving and restoring physical communication links Investing in infrastructure Mobilizing financial resources Secondary functions of India’s central government just prior to, during, and after a disaster include: Flood/inflow forecasts from the Central Water Commission Relief, rehabilitation, and restoration through military aid to civil authorities Contingency planning for crops, cattle preservation nutrition, and health measures Technical and technological inputs for provision of drinking water Technical assistance in water budgeting and water management for various uses Coordination of the activities of the state agencies and voluntary agencies

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As food supplies are commonly affected by the myriad disasters that affect India, the Agricultural Ministry also plays a key role in the relief effort after disaster strikes. Specifically, the Agriculture Ministry’s Department of Agriculture and Cooperation is the “point” agency within the Indian government responsible for ensuring safe and adequate food supplies to those suffering or in need after a disaster. Recognizing the multifaceted nature of most disasters, the government of India has established the Nation Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), the purpose of which is to plan for the implementation of effective relief efforts in the wake of major disasters. The members of the committee include the secretaries of the ministries of Home Affairs, Health, Power, Petroleum & Natural Gas, Water Resources, and Defense. Also among the NCMC’s membership are the secretaries from the departments of Agriculture & Cooperation, Urban Employment & Poverty Alleviation, Roads Transports & Highways, Telecom Services, Rural Development, Shipping, Drinking Water Supply, and Food & Public Distribution. The NCMC operates organizationally under the auspices of the Ministry of Home Affairs and is served by professional and administrative staff from that ministry. India’s Home Affairs Ministry has worked extensively with state, district, and municipal/village governments throughout the country. In the past few years, India has pushed state governments to develop their own emergency management agencies in order to facilitate greater involvement by the states in disaster planning and relief. The government of India also works with India’s business community. Key partners for the Ministry of Home Affairs include India’s professional associations for construction contractors, engineers, and architects—all for the purpose of promoting the construction of disaster-resilient buildings and infrastructure inside of India. Although India consistently suffers significantly at the hands of nature every year in the form of earthquakes, windstorms, floods, and other calamities, the numbers of people and properties lost to disaster would be far greater each year but for the efforts of India’s Ministry of Home Affairs.

Trinidad and Tobago The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a small, multi-island country in the Caribbean with about 1.3 million residents. Like much of the Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago have been

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pummeled throughout history with tropical storms and hurricanes. Damage from the wind, storm surges, and flooding have the potential to be overwhelming for the small country. In 1988, Trinidad and Tobago established the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA). This organization was preceded by the National Emergency Relief Organization (NERO). NEMA represented a paradigm shift in emergency management efforts for Trinidad and Tobago. While NERO had been primarily a disaster relief organization, NEMA was established to serve as a comprehensive emergency management agency. As such, NEMA added the elements of the mitigation and preparedness to the preexisting response and recovery mission for the national government. That having been said, the nation of Trinidad and Tobago places the primary responsibility for first-responder activities during and after a disaster in the lap of the police, fire, and emergency medical services. NEMA’s mission is (NEMA 2002) “To coordinate a network of agencies and individuals within the country to direct their efforts to the maximum preservation of life and the protection of property in times of disaster.” The national government does not consider NEMA to be a “line” agency; further, NEMA cannot accomplish its mission without the assistance of the traditional first-responder agencies. Trinidad and Tobago is not the only small country in the Caribbean. In 1991, the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, along with fifteen other Caribbean nations, entered into a consortium in order to pool resources, provide mutual aid, and generally realize an economy of scale in their collective emergency management efforts. This consortium is called the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA). The CDERA is governed by a board of directors and a council, the latter of which is the supreme policymaking body of CDERA. Trinidad and Tobago’s minister of National Security and director of NEMA serve as members of the council and board, respectively. In addition to coordinating disaster relief activities generally inside Trinidad and Tobago, NEMA also is tasked with performing the following functions (NEMA 2002): 1. Monitoring hazard mitigation programs and evaluating the effectiveness with which hazard mitigation activities are being implemented by the appropriate governmental and nongovernmental organizations

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2. Reviewing internal agency plans for responding to natural and technological hazards 3. Preparing inventories of personnel, equipment, and supplies that would be needed in emergencies 4. Undertaking training and simulation exercises 5. Compiling, reviewing, and providing support for the completion and/or updating of the component plans for oil spills, hazardous materials spills, industrial disasters, aircraft disasters, and maritime disasters 6. Establishing an emergency operations center (EOC), which would house dedicated telephone lines and equipment to be used in emergency situations (the EOC is a facility for providing centralized operation, coordination, and control of emergency/disaster response and relief operations) 7. Developing/conducting public information, education, and training programs for emergency management 8. Producing (directly through its own staff or by using the technical expertise ofother agencies) data, maps, and other technical material that establish the nature of risk and vulnerability on an area basis. These tasks are consistent with the obligations of all CDERA member nations. CDERA hopes to achieve some level of standardization and professionalization within each member country so that emergency management efforts are uniform, effective, and as comprehensive as possible. This ensures that no member country is a greater risk, and therefore the recipient of greater assistance (save for the hand of God), than any other in the consortium.

Argentina The country of Argentina, located in South America, is large in land mass—spanning more than a million square miles. It is home to 40 million people and a broad spectrum of topography, including the Andes Mountains in the west, part of Antarctica in the south, a lengthy coastline on the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and both lush and arid lands in its interior. Argentina is generally considered to be one of the most developed countries in South America. Even so, as many as half of all Argentineans live in poverty. Most of the nation’s population lives in urban areas.

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Estimates indicate that 75 percent of Argentineans live in the country’s eight major cities, including 40 percent in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area alone. The breadth of Argentina’s geography contributes to the fact that Argentina is vulnerable to numerable geological and meteorological hazards. Additionally, Argentina has a history of occasionally experiencing high-profile terrorist attacks. In 1992, Islamic terrorists detonated a bomb at the Israeli Embassy in Buenos Aires, killing twenty-nine. In 1994, the Argentine Israeli Mutual Association building in Buenos Aires was targeted by a terrorist bomb. That explosion killed 86 and wounded 300. The response to these bombings and other disasters in the 1990s demonstrated Argentina’s need for a comprehensive emergency management strategy (which previously had been lacking). In 1996, the government of Argentina passed legislation establishing the Federal Emergency System (Sistema Federal de Emergencias, or SIFEM). SIFEM was placed under the leadership of the president of Argentina. One of SIFEM’s first actions as an agency was to bring together professionals from the police and fire services, the military, the Health Ministry, and National Civil Protection. These officials met regularly and began to lay the groundwork for a national emergency response plan. Additionally, Argentina’s major cities began to follow suit by developing emergency management protocols of their own. Cities that developed local emergency management plans and were trained to those plans included Buenos Aires, La Plata, Cordoba, Rosario, Mendoza, Trelew, Comodoro Rivadavia, Rio Grande, and Bahia Blanca (Marcelo et al. 2003). In the past few years, Argentina has moved quickly to upgrade its emergency medical services capacity to deal with largescale disasters and terrorist attacks. For example, SIFEM has worked with the emergency medical community to develop training for personnel who may deal with large-scale mass casualty events. Additionally, emergency medical facilities in Argentina’s large cities have been undergoing upgrades and systems of emergency response and triage have been developed. Further, much like that which occurs in the United States and other developed countries, Argentina has moved to a training and assessment model that involves large-scale disaster drills. These drills involve multiple agencies and personnel, including emergency medical services (EMS), police, and fire personnel. Private EMS organizations have also been invited to participate

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in the drills and to develop coordinated responses and relief efforts with those undertaken by the government (Marcelo et al. 2003). In addition to the partnerships involving first-responder agencies, pieces of the public health system in Argentina have also collaborated with one another in preparation for possible epidemic outbreaks or the use by terrorists of weapons of mass destruction. Private hospitals have entered into cooperative agreements with the government to provide hospital beds in the event that public hospital beds become full. Further, since the attacks of September 11, 2001, in the United States, the Ministry of Health and SIFEM have combined their efforts to provide training on the use and effects of weapons of mass destruction for hospital and public health personnel. In many respects, Argentina is a stalwart example of success and modernity in Latin America. However, the sometime tumultuous political climate in Argentina, as well as the formerly missing sense of urgency or realization of a gap in the country’s emergency management response capacity, has contributed to a stunted growth of the discipline of emergency management in Argentina and the development of institutions to promulgate the discipline—at least until recently. However, through the efforts of SIFEM and the successes that have emerged from the collaborative and planning-oriented approach to disasters and terror attacks, the country has truly moved in a direction that will foster a greater appreciation for, and use of, emergency management techniques and principles in the future.

Nigeria The Federal Republic of Nigeria is a country of more than 130 million people located on the west coast of Africa. Nigeria’s system of government operates under a federal governmental structure. There are thirty-six states, and the institutions of government are modeled after those present in the United States. The population in Nigeria is extremely diverse, consisting of 250 distinct ethnic groups and several religious traditions. However, Islam and Christianity dominate the country, with 50 percent of the population being Muslim and 40 percent being Christian. Nigeria, like the rest of Africa, is susceptible to natural disasters. In 1976, the Nigerian government created the National Emergency Management Relief Agency, primarily to respond to

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large-scale disasters and to coordinate the relief efforts during and after those events occurred. In 1999, the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) was created by NEMA Act 12 of 1999. This legislation established NEMA as Nigeria’s federal disaster management agency. Under the law, NEMA is responsible for research, forecasting, disaster planning, search and rescue, and providing relief and rehabilitation to areas affected by serious disasters. NEMA operates out of six regions, or zones, in Nigeria. From these six zonal offices, NEMA coordinates emergency management activities with the state emergency management agencies, which exist in each of the thirty-six Nigerian states. NEMA also collaborates with more than 700 local disaster planning committees. NEMA’s specific responsibilities are detailed in the 1999 enabling legislation. These responsibilities include (Audu-Bida 2006): 1. Disaster preparedness and mitigation 2. Notifying, activating, mobilizing, and deploying staff and setting up the necessary facilities for response 3. Evaluating and assessing disaster damage and requests 4. Managing disaster management funds 5. Providing public information and enlightenment 6. Formulating policies/guidelines for Disaster Management in Nigeria 7. Liaising with state emergency management committees, regional and international bodies and nongovernmental organizations to assess, monitor, and where necessary distribute relief materials to disaster victims. NEMA is organized into operational and administrative units. The operational units include the Department of Planning, Research, & Forecasting; the Department of Search and Rescue; and the Department of Relief and Rehabilitation. Additionally, NEMA houses department of training and finance/administration. In recent years, NEMA has pursued its missions of mitigation and preparedness through several activities and innovations. These include the development of a national disaster response plan, greater collaboration with security agencies, conducting and assessing simulation exercises, the development of a national disaster mission control center (an EOC), the use of geographic information systems to map hazards and plan for

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disasters, strategic stockpiling of key supplies, the development of a helicopter search and rescue program, the fielding of mobile clinics, the development of a water treatment facility to be employed for disaster relief, and the development of an interoperable communications system that can be used throughout the country (Audu-Bida 2006). NEMA has also developed plans for the use of Nigeria’s Armed Forces during major disasters. Nigeria’s constitution permits the military forces of the country to be used to aid the civil authorities in restoring order and services after a disaster with the approval of the National Assembly. In addition to the Armed Forces, NEMA partners with several other federal agencies to ensure an effective emergency management response before, during, and after a time of crisis. These agencies include the ministries of Transport, Works, Environment, Internal Affairs, Defense, Water Resources, Housing and Urban Development, Health, and Police (Audu-Bida 2006). Nigeria’s NEMA is commonly exalted as an example of a professional and proactive emergency management organization, located in the heart of the developing world, which is making a genuine difference in protecting the lives and property of its constituents. NEMA’s labors to pursue hazard reduction and disaster mitigation in Nigeria, Africa, and the world at large will ensure that Nigeria continues to play a leading role in international emergency management policy formation.

Civil Unrest, Ethnic Conflict, and Terrorism The focus of this chapter has up to now been on the natural hazards that exist around the globe. As is evident, such hazards are many and are severe in many of the developing nations and regions of the world. Indeed, the severity and frequency of largescale natural disasters impede the very political, economic, and technological development that might actually mitigate these threats if the developments were permitted to progress unimpeded without the weight of calamity on its shoulders. The cycle is certainly vicious. However, there are other hazards that, although not unique to non-Western parts of the world, nonetheless seem to prevail

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Civil Unrest, Ethnic Conflict, and Terrorism 101

there with greater frequency and consequence than in the West. These hazards include those associated with civil unrest, ethnic conflict, and terrorism. One of the starkest of examples of civil unrest and conflict causing disastrous levels of suffering is the genocide which has occurred in Darfur, Sudan. Since 2003, ongoing conflict between the Sudanese government–backed Janjaweed militia and two antigovernment rebel groups has resulted in the deaths of 400,000 noncombatant Sudanese villagers and nomads. More than 2.5 million Sudanese have been displaced from their homes. Although the conflict exists within the context of what could be called a civil war, the suffering of innocent civilians in the Sudan certainly rivals and even exceeds the level of suffering common to the world’s most deadly natural disasters. In the case of Darfur, most people on all sides of the conflict are Muslim. However, they differ in the tribal heritage and ethnicity. In other parts of the world, conflicts with catastrophic consequences are rooted in religious and territorial differences. For example, Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs have been battling over the religious and political affiliation of Kashmir in the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent for 500 years. In fact, the conflict goes back even prior to the founding of Sikhism when Muslims from Afghanistan began to arrive and conquer Hindu villages in India around 1000 CE. The countries of India (predominantly Hindu) and Pakistan (predominantly Muslim) have remained in a near-perpetual state of war over the territory of Kashmir. Indeed, the two countries have fought two conventional all-out wars because the Kashmir question, including one in 1947 immediately upon the securing their respective independence from Great Britain (White 2006). In recent years, Hindu populations in Kashmir and in India proper have been targets of large-scale acts of violence by Kashmiri insurgents politically aligned with Pakistan. Bombings and massacres against government officials and civilians have created unique challenges for those involved in emergency management. In particular, establishing an emergency management infrastructure and response capability in an area so prone to regular violent attacks is extremely difficult as Indian emergency management officials and agencies are themselves viewed as viable targets for the insurgency. Although the attacks of September 11, 2001, in the United States collectively accounts for the single largest terrorist attack

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in the history of the Western world, the unfortunate fact is that the entire globe is chronically plagued with conflicts resulting in catastrophic civilian casualties. The massacre of more than 344 people (including more than 180 children) at an elementary school in Beslan, North Ossetia, Russia, by Chechen rebels in September 2004 was an act of political violence. But more immediately at the time, it was a catastrophic emergency management event. So many children killed. So many families in that community suffered the loss of loved ones. The aftermath of that ordeal was characterized by chaos and a strain on local first-responder, military, and medical resources. This was Russia’s 9/11. In fact—sadly—in country after country (developed and developing), people and their governments are experiencing their own 9/11. The March 2004 bombings of Madrid’s commuter trains, killing 191 and wounding more than 2,000, is said by many to be Spain’s 9/11. The July 2005 bombings of underground trains and a bus in London, killing 52 and injuring approximately 700 is said to be the United Kingdom’s 9/11. While the adoption of an all-hazards approach to emergency management may be criticized by some in the United States as an overreaction to the relatively minor and generally infrequent threat of terrorism and political violence, a global perspective of emergency management suggests that public officials would be remiss were they to fail to give due diligence to the hazard of political violence and its immense potential (and track record) for destruction.

References Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC). 2006. “Disasters in Asia and the Pacific: An Overview.” www.adpc.net. Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC). 2002. “Number of Disasters in Europe by Type 1975–2000.” www.adrc.or.jp. Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC). 2006. “Disaster Emergency Management in China.” www.adrc.or.jp. Audu-Bida, A. V. M. 2006. “Briefing on Implementation of the Hyogo Framework of Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters.” Presentation to the UN/ISDR in Geneva, Switzerland, July 19, 2006.

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Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). 2000. EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database 1900–1999. Louvain, Belgium: Universite Catholique de Louvain. Charveriat, C. 2000. Natural Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview of the Risk. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. China Media Project (CMP). 2006. “Media Clause of Proposed Emergency Management Law Raises Hackles at Southern Metropolis Daily.” cmp.hku.hk. Disaster Center. 2007. “The Most Deadly 100 Natural Disasters of the 20th Century.” www.disastercenter.com. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). 2006. Policy for Disaster Risk Reduction. Abuja, Nigeria: ECOWAS. Emergency Management Australia (EMA). 2006. “Australian Government Role in Emergency Management.” www.ema.gov.au. European Environment Agency (EEA). 2003. Mapping the Impacts of Recent Natural Disasters and Technological Accidents in Europe. Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment Agency. Hodell, D. A., J. H. Curtis, and M. Brenner. 1995. “Possible Role of Climate in the Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization.” Nature 375 (6530): 391–393. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC). 2000. World Disasters Report. Geneva, Switzerland: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 2001a. “Mission and Objectives.” www.unisdr.org. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 2001b. “Framework for Action.” www.unisdr.org. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 2004a. Africa Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva, Switzerland: InterAgency Secretariat of the ISDR. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 2004b. Environmental Protection and Disaster Risk Reduction: A School Guide. Geneva, Switzerland: Inter-Agency Secretariat of the ISDR. Loretti, A., and Y. Tegegn. 1996. “Disasters in Africa: Old and New Hazards and Growing Vulnerability.” World Health Statistics Quarterly 49 (3–4): 179–184.

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Marcelo, M., R. Cohen, D. Mafei, M. Ballesteros, and L. Espinosa. 2003. “Terrorism in Argentina.” Journal of Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 18 (2): 53–56. National Disaster Management India (NDMI). 2007. “National Policy.” www.ndmindia.nic.in. National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA). 2002. “About NEMA.” nema.gov.tt. People’s Daily Online (PDO). 2006. “China Mulls Emergency Management Law.” June 24, english.people.com.cn. White, J. 2006. Terrorism and Homeland Security. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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n the history of the United States, many significant events contributed to the development of emergency management and disaster response and recovery. The following timeline makes no claim to represent all important developments in emergency management, nor all significant disasters that touched large numbers of American lives. Rather, what follows merely represents selected events in chronological order that contributed to the discipline of emergency management, including several key natural and man-made disasters that helped shaped the laws, policies, and practices of emergency management. 1803

What is generally thought to be the first piece of federal legislation directed toward disaster relief is passed. The Congressional Act of 1803, passed by the 7th Congress of the United States, provides tax relief for merchants and citizens affected by the Great Fire of 1802 in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The fire destroyed 132 buildings in the city of Portsmouth.

1871

From October 8 to October 10, the city of Chicago suffers a calamitous fire that begins on the city’s West Side and consumes a swath of Chicago three miles long and a third of a mile wide. Approximately 300 people are killed and 100,000 are left homeless as a result of the fire. The property damage totals nearly $200,000,000 in 1871 dollars. In an example of a Herculean effort geared toward disaster recovery, the city begins to rebuild immediately. By 1875, little

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evidence of the fire remains. It is generally believed that the fire began in a shed behind the home of Chicago residents Patrick and Catherine O’Leary, who lived at 137 De Kovan Street. However, the story that the fire was started by the O’Learys’ cow, alleged to have kicked a lantern over, is just legend. Ironically, the O’Leary home is spared the ravages of the fire. Also on October 8, a fire starts just outside the small town of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, which is located to the north of Green Bay. It is very dry that year in the upper Great Lakes region and the forest floors are dense with dried pine needles and other natural debris. No one knows how the fire starts. Lightening is not thought to have played a role. Some speculate it might have been a spark from a passing train. The Peshtigo fire consumes 1,875 square miles of forest and destroys twelve towns. Most sobering, between 1,200 and 2.400 lives are lost, making it the deadliest fire in U.S. history. Despite the huge death toll in Wisconsin, the simultaneous fire in Chicago grabs more attention in the media and the culture. As a result, the Great Peshtigo Fire is sometimes dubbed “the Forgotten Fire.”

1881

In the summer of 1881, the Association of the American Red Cross was founded by Clara Barton; it would later come to be known simply as the American Red Cross. The American Red Cross was preceded by the International Red Cross, founded by Henry Dunant in 1863 in Geneva, Switzerland. The mission of the International Red Cross had been to provide battlefield relief to combatants and civilians during war. Barton, who had participated in providing aid to U.S. Civil War combatants, sought to establish the Red Cross movement in the United States. In 1881, she and twenty-two of her friends and associates founded the association in Washington DC. The American Red Cross was not limited to war-time relief efforts as the International Red Cross was. Rather,

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Barton successfully sought for her organization to provide aid to those in need both during war and peace time. 1889

On May 31, the community of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, is destroyed after heavy rainfall contributes to the breach of the decades-old South Fork Dam. The dam is located 14 miles upstream and held back the reservoir Lake Conemaugh. The lake is 450 feet higher in elevation than the town of Johnstown. After torrential rains on May 31, the streets of Johnstown begin to flood from the overflowing Conemaugh River, which runs through the town. Then, during the afternoon, the South Fork Dam breaks and 20 million gallons of water rush downstream into Johnstown. The wall of water is as high as 70 feet. More than 2,200 people die in the flood, which also causes $21 million in property damage. Clara Barton and the American Red Cross spend five months in Johnstown after the flood providing relief to victims. The Johnstown flood is the first major disaster to which the American Red Cross responds.

1896

On May 27, a tornado known as the St. Louis Cyclone of 1896 strikes the city in the most deadly and destructive natural disaster in the history of the St. Louis area. Both the cities of St. Louis, Missouri, and East St. Louis, Illinois, are seriously damaged and suffer hundreds of casualties. Approximately 8,800 buildings are destroyed or damaged. The confirmed dead total 255, with hundreds more injured or missing. The tornado causes $10,000,000 of property damage in 1896 dollars.

1900

On September 8, a hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico unexpectedly hits the city of Galveston, Texas. Galveston is located on a small island about two miles off the Texas mainland and 50 miles southeast of Houston. In 1900, Galveston has 37,000 residents. The storm hits the city with heavy rains, surging tides, and 140 mile-per-hour (mph) winds. The hurricane

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kills more than 6,000 residents and destroys approximately 3,600 buildings. The property damage totals $20,000,000 in 1900 dollars. One of the more tragic subplots amidst the larger tragedy is the story of the Sisters of Charity Orphanage. When the storm begins to strike the island, ten nuns and ninety young children tie themselves together in what is thought to be the safest and strongest of the orphanage’s dormitory buildings. The storm eventually lifts the dormitory off its foundation, which then collapses on the nuns and the children, thus trapping them in the rising tide. All ten nuns and eighty-seven of the children die. Only three boys survive at the orphanage.

1905

The United States Congress issues a charter to the American Red Cross, replacing a more limited charter issued in 1900. The 1905 charter, which is still in effect today, officially declares that the American Red Cross is recognized by the federal government as the primary organization for providing relief and comfort to members of the American armed forces and for serving as a means of communication between military personnel and their families. Further, the charter identifies the American Red Cross as the “federal instrumentality” for providing national and international disaster relief.

1906

On April 18, an earthquake strikes San Francisco and surrounding areas. The quake shakes for 45–60 seconds, tumbling buildings and starting a citywide fire. More than 3,000 people die as a result of the earthquake, and 225,000 of the area’s 400,000 residents are made homeless. More than 28,000 buildings are destroyed. The property loss is estimated to be about $80,000,000 from the earthquake and $320,000,000 from the subsequent fire, both in 1906 dollars. The United States Army plays a major response and recovery role after the disaster. The Army sets up several refugee camps, or tent cities, around the area, including at the Presidio Army installation.

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1918

In 1917, the United States joins World War I taking place in Europe. Consequently, hundreds of thousands of American soldiers and sailors are sent overseas. By 1918, the war is winding down. Returning servicemen apparently bring back from Europe an illness that plagued soldiers of every country fighting in the European theater—the Spanish flu. Americans first begin to get sick in the port city of Boston. The disease quickly spreads into the Midwest and then throughout the country. The American Red Cross had become adept at tending to American soldiers in Europe who had been stricken by the flu. In the United States, Red Cross workers put those same skills to work in large cities all across the country. In many cases, their job is simply to make rounds throughout urban neighborhoods and remove the dead bodies. Well over 500,000 Americans die from the Spanish flu by 1919. Worldwide, 25–50 million people die and more than 500 million are infected.

1925

On March 18, a single, large tornado tracks over 200 miles through parts of Missouri, southern Illinois, and southern Indiana. It is known as the Great TriState Tornado. The tornado is on the ground for three-and-a-half hours straight. The width of the funnel ranges intermittingly from a quarter mile to a full mile. The tornado completely destroys or severely damages ten towns among the three states. A total of 15,000 homes are destroyed and 695 people are killed. Another 2,000 people are injured by the storm. The Great Tri-State Tornado is considered the most destructive tornado, by several measures, in American history.

1928

The Flood Control Act of 1928 is passed by Congress in June and signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge. The legislation authorizes the federal government to play a lead role in flood control efforts along the Mississippi River. This law emerges after the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, which is regarded as the most destructive river flood in Ameri-

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can history. That flood inundates parts of Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Tennessee and kills more than 250 people. The Flood Control Act of 1928 is the nation’s first comprehensive flood control act. Prior to this legislation, flood control efforts along the Mississippi were the responsibility of state and local governments, which erected levees to contain the river.

1932

On January 22, legislation is passed by Congress to establish the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). President Herbert Hoover proceeds to sign the legislation into law. The primary purpose of this independent federal agency is to lend money to banks, which would then in turn lend money to the public at favorable rates to stimulate the economy. However, the RFC also is made responsible for distributing federal dollars after a disaster. In this sense, the RFC is one of the first disaster response agencies at the federal level.

1934

The U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, which had existed since 1918, is given authority to provide funding for highways and bridges damaged by disasters. This is one of the early examples of a federal agency being delegated permanent statutory authority to respond to disasters.

1936

On April 5–6, an outbreak of seventeen tornados wreaks havoc across parts of Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, including the cities of Tupelo, Mississippi, and Gainesville, Georgia. An F5 tornado (261–318 mph winds) strikes Tupelo during the evening of April 5. The next morning, an F4 tornado (207–260 mph winds) from the same storm system strikes Gainesville. More than 430 people die as a result of the tornado outbreak, with most of the deaths occurring in Tupelo and Gainesville (more than 200 deaths in each city). On June 20, Congress passes the Flood Control Act of 1936. This legislation expands the federal government’s

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authority from earlier flood control acts and establishes that the Army Corps of Engineers will be responsible for building reservoirs to mitigate flooding. This legislation also requires that a significant analysis be done before any project is undertaken to ensure that the costs do not outweigh the benefits. 1947

On April 16, a fire starts in the cargo hold of the French cargo ship SS Grandcamp, which is docked and being loaded in the port city of Texas City, Texas. The vessel holds more than 2,000 tons of ammonium nitrate. The fire cannot be contained, and eventually the Grandcamp explodes. The explosion and subsequent fires kill nearly 600 people. Approximately 3,500 people are injured. The property damage in 1947 dollars totals at least $100 million. The explosion rocks the entire community of Texas City. A full third of the city’s homes are destroyed or so damaged that they must be condemned.

1950

In December, President Harry Truman creates the Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) by Executive Order 10186. Congress quickly codifies Truman’s executive order by passing into law the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950. This legislation addresses the real possibility of conventional or nuclear war taking place on United States soil. The FCDA is given responsibility to coordinate preparation efforts with newly established state and local civil defense agencies (especially by stockpiling key materials and developing community warning systems). The history of the Emergency Broadcast System can be traced to this legislation and the federal and state/local civil defense organizations that sprout as a result of it.

1960

On September 9, Hurricane Donna strikes the Florida Keys after pummeling Puerto Rico and the Bahamas. The hurricane continues to track north up the coast of Florida and the Carolinas. It remains a category 3 hurricane all the way to Long Island, New York. Then the storm continues into New England as a

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category 2 storm, dumping several inches of rain everywhere in the storm’s path. Hurricane Donna kills 50 in the United States and 107 in Puerto Rico. An additional 114 are killed elsewhere in the Caribbean. The storm causes nearly $400 million in property damage in the United States.

1961

On September 11, Hurricane Carla strikes the Texas cities of Port O’Connor and Port Lavaca as a category 5 storm. Several damaging tornados also spawn as a result of the storm. All told, the Texas coast sustains $300 million in property damage and the deaths of forty-three people.

1964

In the early evening of March 27, which is Good Friday, an earthquake lasting three to five minutes strikes Alaska’s Prince William Sound between the cities of Anchorage and Valdez. The earthquake’s magnitude is 9.2. Anchorage and other towns on Alaska’s southern coast are severely damaged. Seventy-five homes, several schools, the airport control tower, and many other buildings in Anchorage are destroyed as a result of the earthquake and the resulting liquefaction of the ground. However, most of the 131 people who are killed in Anchorage and elsewhere die as a result of the tsunami caused by the earthquake. In fact, the tsunami reaches as far away as Hawaii and the California coastline. Sixteen people die in California and Oregon as a result of the tsunami, including ten deaths in Crescent City, California. The earthquake and tsunami cause $311 million in damage.

1965

On September 9, Hurricane Betsy hits the city of New Orleans after crossing over the Florida Keys into the Gulf of Mexico two days earlier. The hurricane causes more than $1 billion in damage in 1965 dollars (making it the first hurricane to damage $1 billion worth of property in U.S. history). The hurricane is also to blame for the deaths of seventy-five people. Much of the damage results from storm surge pushing the waters of Lake Pontchartrain over the levees

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that were in place at the time. After the storm, Congress authorizes the Army Corps of Engineers to build a ring of higher levees (16 feet) around New Orleans. The height of the levees proves later to be inconsequential with Hurricane Katrina in 2005, as the levees were not topped, but breached. 1967

The U.S. Coast Guard transfers from the Treasury Department to the newly created Transportation Department. This is, in part, a recognition that the Coast Guard’s primary mission has long before shifted from a revenue cutter service to a maritime safety and disaster service agency. In 2003, the recognition of the Coast Guard’s role in securing the homeland of the United States becomes the agency’s point of emphasis as it moved to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.

1968

The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, and amendments, is passed in the devastating wake of hurricanes Carla and Betsy, which struck in recent past years. The act leads to the creation of the National Flood Insurance Program. The purpose of the legislation is to reduce federal expenditures for floodrelated disasters and for flood control. This is accomplished by providing a source of flood insurance for individual homeowners and businesses and by encouraging state and local governments to adopt sound floodplain management practices. The legislation bars the federal government from providing flood insurance in communities that have not adopted or are not enforcing floodplain management regulations that minimize the exposure of residents and businesses to flood risks.

1969

On August 17, Hurricane Camille strikes the Mississippi Gulf coast. The sustained winds of the hurricane are estimated to be nearly 200 mph. An estimate of sustained winds is all that meteorologists are able to offer because all wind-measuring equipment is destroyed. As with most hurricanes, the damage results from many factors: storm surges, heavy rains, and

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winds. Much of Camille’s damage comes from heavy rains as it moves inland. In some parts of Virginia, the storm produces 20-inch downfalls of rain. In total, 256 people die as a result of Hurricane Camille, including 143 on the Mississippi coast and 113 in Virginia from flooding. Camille causes $1.4 billion in property damage.

1971

On February 9, around 6:00 a.m., the San Fernando Valley in Southern California is struck by an earthquake measuring 6.6 on the Richter scale. Such an earthquake is considered moderate to large in magnitude; however, this particular earthquake caused so much damage that it is considered one of California’s most calamitous earthquakes. In total, sixty-five people die and more than $500 million of property damage results from the quake. Three hospitals are severely damaged. The Veterans Administration hospital in the city of San Fernando collapses entirely, resulting in forty-nine of the sixty-five deaths.

1972

On June 19, Hurricane Agnes hits the Florida panhandle from the Gulf of Mexico as a category 1 hurricane. The storm then moves inland, through Georgia and over the Carolinas as a tropical storm. The storm continues up the American coastline, moving over New York and then New England from June 22 to June 25. The hurricane and tropical storm Agnes does little damage in the way of winds. However, it produces large amounts of rainfall along its path, causing significant flooding. In total, 122 die in the United States as a result of the storm. Agnes causes $2.1 billion in property damage.

1973

The U.S. Congress passes the Flood Disaster Protection Act. President Richard Nixon signs the bill into law on December 31. This legislation extends the logic of the National Flood Insurance Program to all federal agencies that provide development funds. In particular, this legislation bars federal agencies from providing financial assistance for purchasing or constructing buildings in the floodplains of communities

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not enrolled in the National Flood Insurance Program. The law also compels federally insured lenders to require flood insurance on all structural properties found in special flood hazard areas (SFHAs) if those properties are being purchased with the lender grant or loan monies. An SFHA is any land that has at least a 1 percent chance of flooding (i.e., located in a 100year floodplain). 1974

Only a year after the passage of flood insurance reform, the U.S. Congress passes the Disaster Relief Act of 1974. On May 22, President Richard Nixon signs the legislation into law. This legislation establishes the protocols for presidential disaster declarations. In signing the bill, President Nixon notes that he has declared more than 180 major disasters in forty-two states during his time thus far in office. He views this legislation, in tandem with the Flood Disaster Protection Act, as the dawning of a “New Federalism” (i.e., federal, state, and local government partnerships) in disaster preparedness and response.

1975

The National Fire Academy (NFA) is established as a training mechanism of the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA). The USFA and the NFA are a part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and are located in Emmitsburg, Maryland.

1977

Due to a growing concern about earthquakes, Congress passes the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977. This legislation creates the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP). The goals of the NEHRP are to develop and implement effective practices and policies for earthquake loss reduction; to develop and improve techniques for reducing seismic vulnerability of facilities and systems; to develop and improve seismic hazards identification methods and their use; and generally to improve the understanding of earthquakes and their effects.

1979

On March 28, the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Middletown, Pennsylvania, experiences

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mechanical failure that results in a partial meltdown of the nuclear core in reactor number 2 at the plant. The reactor is destroyed. For a period of time during the crisis, many are concerned that the core will breach the containment facility and that large amounts of radiation and a fire or explosion (such as later occurred at the nuclear power plant north of Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986) will threaten the nearby communities, including the state capitol of Harrisburg. To the relief of everyone, the melted core remains contained at the facility. However, some radiation is released into the air a couple of days after the accident. The health effects of this release remain in dispute today. Most scientists believe that the amount of radiation is too small to cause anyone harm. However, some claim that the radiation release caused increases in cancer and other ailments for residents in the area. The averted disaster of Three Mile Island puts the dangers (real and perceived) of nuclear reactors front and center in the minds of the public. The NIMBY effect (“not in my backyard”) after this accident makes it difficult for the nuclear power industry to find communities willing to have nuclear reaction facilities nearby. The accident also results in safety changes for nuclear power plants and a more intrusive regulatory approach by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. President Jimmy Carter issues Executive Order 12127 on March 31, thereby creating the Federal Emergency Management Agency. This order comes as a response to complaints from state and local governments that the disaster assistance provided by the federal government is too fragmented. At the time, more than a hundred federal agencies possess disaster relief responsibilities (depending on the type of disaster). The creation of FEMA by President Carter is an attempt to centralize the federal government’s disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.

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1980

On May 18, at 8:32 a.m. the volcano Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington erupts. Mount St. Helens is located in the Cascade Mountain Range approximately 100 miles south of Seattle and 50 miles north of Portland, Oregon. The mountain was showing signs of life as an active volcano in the months leading up to the eruption. The U.S. Geological Survey establishes a restricted area for miles around the mountain to ensure the safety of those living, working, or recreating nearby. In the weeks just before the eruption, the seismic activity of Mount St. Helens diminishes considerably. Many in the surrounding rural community believe the danger has passed and some choose to ignore the prohibition against camping or working in the restricted zones. The eruption of Mount St. Helens kills fifty-seven people and destroys 250 homes, dozens of bridges, and nearly 200 miles of highway. More than 250 square miles of forest is destroyed or severely damaged. In total, the eruption causes more than $1 billion in property and timber damage. As a result of the blast and debris avalanche, the mountain’s elevation is reduced to 8,364 feet from 9,677 feet. The Mount St. Helens disaster is the deadliest and most expensive volcanic eruption in United States history. It also represents one of the first major disasters for FEMA to manage after being created by executive order only one year earlier.

1988

Congress passes the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act. This legislation establishes the current system for introducing federal assistance to state and local governments during a natural disaster. The law empowers the president to establish the domestic disaster assistance program and gives FEMA tasking authority over 28 other federal and nongovernmental agencies officially involved in disaster relief. It also codifies the current procedures for presidential declarations of disaster or emergency.

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In September, Hurricane Hugo pounds several U.S. territories before finally hitting the coast of South Carolina. On September 15, as a category 4 hurricane, Hugo travels over the Leeward Islands. It strikes St. Croix and the U.S. Virgin Islands on September 18. Hugo hits Puerto Rico on September 19 and then finally strikes just north of Charleston, South Carolina, on September 22. Twenty-one people die in the United States and five others die in the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Hurricane Hugo causes a total of $7 billion in damage on the U.S. mainland and $1 billion in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.

1989

On October 17, just after 5:00 p.m., an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter scale strikes Loma Prieta Peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains about 10 miles northeast of the city of Santa Cruz, California. The earthquake, which lasts 15 seconds, seriously damages Santa Cruz and other nearby communities. But the quake is also felt more than 50 miles away in San Francisco and Oakland. In fact, most of the damage and injuries from this earthquake occur in the Bay Area and are a result of the liquefaction of soil used to fill in Bay Area waterfront property over the years and upon which buildings and roads were built. The earthquake kills sixty-three people and injures nearly 3,800. Forty of the deaths occur on the double-decked Nimitz Freeway when segments of the upper level collapse on the lower level. The relatively low loss of life is often credited to the fact that few people in the Bay Area were out and about at the time of the quake, despite occurring during rush hour, due to the World Series game that was about to begin between the San Francisco Giants and the Oakland A’s at Candlestick Park. The quake causes an estimated $6 billion in property damage.

1992

On August 24, Hurricane Andrew (a category 4 hurricane) strikes the Atlantic coast of south Florida and continues across the peninsula into the Gulf of Mexico. Andrew continues from there as a category 3 hurricane and strikes the coast of Louisiana on

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August 26. Notably, Homestead Air Force Base and the town of Homestead, Florida, are severely damaged in the wake of this storm. Hurricane Andrew causes twenty-three deaths in the United States and $26.5 billion in property damage—mostly in Florida. 1993

On February 26, a little after noon, a car bomb is denoted in the parking garage below Tower One (the north tower) of the World Trade Center. Islamic terrorists had filled the back of a rental van with a bomb fabricated by using urea nitrate and fuel oil. The terrorists’ intentions are to destroy Tower One’s foundation, causing it to topple into Tower Two, thus knocking them both down in the process. This does not happen. However, 6 people die in the blast and more than 1,000 are injured—primarily from smoke inhalation. Multiple departments work the rescue scene, including the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey; New York’s fire, emergency management services, and police departments; the New York State Police; the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms; FEMA; and other state and federal agencies. The event is the nation’s first act of Middle East terrorism committed on American soil. It is also the largest crime scene in U.S. history to date. This is one the first incidents requiring federal law enforcement and the federal emergency management community to iron out their respective agendas at the scene. The delineations of responsibility between these two interests would later be more clearly articulated through executive orders and legislation. In June a series of river floods in the Midwest result in 534 counties across nine states being declared major disasters. The flooding kills fifty people and damages or destroys 55,000 homes. Property losses total $15 billion. The states directly affected by the Great Floods of 1993 are North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois.

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1994

On January 17, at 4:30 a.m., an earthquake strikes the Los Angeles area with a magnitude of 6.7. Although considered to be only a moderate earthquake in magnitude, it is among the most costly earthquakes in United States history. The quake kills 57 people and injures 9,000. It causes $44 billion in damage (more than $800 billion in replacement value on taxable property). The quake renders 25,000 homes uninhabitable and moderately damages 22,000 more. Many freeways, parking garages, and buildings collapse during the quake. The death toll likely would be significantly higher if the earthquake occurred just an hour or two later.

1995

On April 19, a rental truck filled with explosives is parked in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in downtown Oklahoma City. Moments later, the truck explodes, collapsing a full third of the building into rubble. Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols— men involved with the antigovernment militia movement—are eventually captured and convicted for the plot. McVeigh is determined to be the actual bomber and is sentenced to death. The bomb blast and subsequent collapse of part of the building results in 168 deaths and 800 injuries. Many of the deaths and injuries are small children present in a day care center inside the building. In the minutes and hours after the bombing, multiple agencies at all levels of government arrive on scene to render aid. Hospitals are mobilized to take in the wounded. FEMA activates several of its Urban Search and Rescue units (665 members total) to assist in the rescue and recovery effort. All told, 12,000 people participate in the rescue and recovery operations. The massive coordination effort associated with the response to this event, as with the World Trade Center attack in 1993, confirms the appropriateness of an all-hazards approach for FEMA and the emergency management community. On June 21, President Bill Clinton issues Presidential Decision Directive #39 (PDD-39). This PDD relates to U.S. policy on counterterrorism and articulates the

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respective roles of certain federal agencies when confronting terror-related incidents. PDD-39 designates the U.S. State Department as the lead federal agency on matters relating to international terrorism. The Federal Bureau of Investigation is designated the lead federal agency for domestic terrorism and for crisis management of terror incidents occurring in the United States. The Federal Emergency Management Agency is designated as the lead federal agency for consequence management in the aftermath of a terror incident inside the U.S. In particular, FEMA’s role is to protect public health and safety, restore essential government services, and provide emergency relief to government, businesses, and individuals affected by the consequences of terrorism. 1996

In June, the Defense against Weapons of Mass Destruction [WMDs] Act of 1996 (also known as “NunnLugar-Domenici II”) is passed. The legislation covers a wide range of issues concerning WMDs, including interdiction issues, policies, control and disposition of WMD material, and other issues. The legislation also speaks to domestic preparedness for WMDs. In that vein, the law directs the president of the United States to enhance federal capabilities to prevent and respond to WMD events. It also directs the president to provide greater support to state and local emergency agencies. The secretary of Defense is specifically tasked with training and advising federal, state, and local agencies on WMDs. The Department of Defense (DOD) is also to be responsible for providing applied assistance in detecting, monitoring, protecting, and decontaminating WMD material inside the United States. To this end, the DOD is authorized to establish a WMD hotline and create emergency response teams—generally within the National Guard. On October 12, the National Dam Safety Program Act of 1996 is signed into law by President Bill Clinton as part of the larger Water Resources Development Act of 1996. The purpose of the law is to make improvements to safety and security around America’s dams

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by providing grants to state agencies responsible for dam safety, funding research to enhance technologies that contribute to safety as dams are constructed and rehabilitated, to establish training programs for dam safety inspectors, and to create a national inventory of dams. The program is geared toward the prevention of dam failure and minimizing the risk of dams as targets of terror.

1997

In April and May, the Red River Valley experiences significant flooding from a swollen Red River due to ground saturation and heavy snow melt. The Red River Valley stretches from Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, down through the upper Midwest of the United States—particularly along the border between North Dakota and Minnesota. Located along the Red River are the cities of Grand Forks and Fargo, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks and Moorhead, Minnesota. It is the most severe flooding in the region since 1826. The cities of Grand Forks and East Grand Forks are the most affected. The two cities are separated by the Red River and the flood reaches more than three miles inland in both directions. Damage to these communities totals $2 billion. Remarkable news footage emerges from Grand Forks showing the entire downtown as flooded while the Grand Forks Herald newspaper building is on fire at the same time. Happily, no deaths are attributed directly to the Red River Flood of 1997.

1999

On September 16, Hurricane Floyd strikes the North Carolina coast near Cape Fear. Floyd, which was a category 4 hurricane when it pounded the Bahamas three days earlier, is only a category 2 when it hits the United States. Floyd becomes a tropical storm upon landfall and works its way north into the Mid-Atlantic states. Most of Floyd’s damage comes from flooding due to heavy rains and large storm surges. Estimates are that Hurricane Floyd causes $3–6 billion in damage. Fifty-six people lose their lives, primarily due to flooding.

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2000

On October 30, President Bill Clinton signs into law the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, which amends the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief Act of 1988. The law creates a predisaster mitigation program and reinforces the desirability of investing resources into mitigation efforts rather than enduring more significant costs after disasters strike. Some of the act’s provisions include funding for predisaster mitigation activities, development of multihazard maps for mapping risk, establishment of mitigation planning requirements for state and local governments participating in federal programs, and assignment of more responsibility in the management of the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program to the states.

2001

The Fire Prevention and Assistance Act is passed as a result of a long-standing concern by lawmakers that the nation’s first responders—especially those in rural and volunteer fire departments—are undertrained and underequipped. The legislation establishes a competitive grant program for fire departments around the country to tap into so that gaps in training and equipment can be filled. The problems besetting the nation’s fire departments and EMS first responders are deemed especially critical by lawmakers after the 9/11 terror attacks take place. Funding for the program in 2002 was triple the funding levels of 2001. During the morning of September 11, terrorists do what others were unable to accomplish in 1993—they bring down both World Trade Center towers. Four major airliners are hijacked during flights out of Boston; Washington DC; and Newark, New Jersey; by nineteen terrorists (four or five per plane). Among each of the hijacking crews are conspirators with flight training who take control of their respective airliners. Each of the two World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon in Washington DC are struck with a single airliner apiece. The fourth jet, apparently heading for a target in Washington DC, crashes in

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rural Pennsylvania when passengers try to take back control of the airliner. The most devastating damage occurs in New York City at the World Trade Center. Both towers collapse within about an hour and a half of being struck by the airliners. Building 7 of the World Trade Center also collapses. This building, although small by comparison to the Twin Towers, is itself a forty-seven-story structure. In fact, all seven buildings of the World Trade Center complex are destroyed that day—primarily due to the collapse of the Twin Towers. Approximately 3,000 people die from the attacks on September 11, 2001, including hundreds of first responders who are in the two World Trade Center towers when they collapse. The attacks cause $95 billion worth of property damage in New York City alone. The 9/11 attacks constitute the most devastating and costly terror attack in world history.

2002

On March 11, President George W. Bush signs Homeland Security Presidential Directive #3, which creates the Homeland Security Advisory System. The system uses color coding to indicate threat conditions (relating to the likelihood of terrorist attacks) facing the United States or some community or industry within the country. Protocols are also established for protective agencies to follow as the threat condition changes. The lowest threat level is green, followed by “guarded” (blue), “elevated” (yellow), “high” (orange), and “severe” (red). On November 25, President George W. Bush signs into law the Homeland Security Act of 2002. This legislation, which is passed as a direct result of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, is the largest reorganization of the federal government since the creation of the Department of Defense fifty years earlier. The law creates the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), which is composed of twenty-two disparate federal agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Through this legislation and the placement of FEMA within DHS, the

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connection between the discipline of emergency management and the broader notion of homeland security is shored up. 2003

On January 24, Tom Ridge is sworn in as the first secretary of Homeland Security. Ridge was serving as the head of the White House Office of Homeland Security—the predecessor to the Department of Homeland Security—where he was responsible for developing and coordinating a comprehensive national strategy for guarding against terror attacks in the United States. Members of Congress believe this responsibility cannot be met through an office of the White House, as Ridge had no budgetary authority nor any other means to compel unaligned agencies to work together. Consequently, DHS is created and given actual statutory authority to accomplish the mission. On February 28, President George W. Bush issues Homeland Security Presidential Directive #5. In this directive, the president reiterates that the attorney general (and the Justice Department’s Federal Bureau of Investigation under him or her), continue to be the lead government official responsible for the criminal investigation of terrorist acts and threats. However, the directive also equates “crisis management” with “consequence management.” Both responsibilities are now designated to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (of which FEMA was now a part under the Homeland Security Act of 2002). DHS and FEMA are declared responsible for coordinating all federal operations within the United States relating to the preparation for, response to, and recovery from terrorist acts and other major disasters. On March 1, the Department of Homeland Security begins to exercise operational control over the agencies transferred into the new cabinet-level organization. DHS, for continuity’s sake, enters into several memoranda of understanding with the legacy departments from which their new agencies came. In

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doing so, DHS ensures that the personnel and finance functions relating to the component parts of DHS will continue by the former parent organizations of those component parts until DHS can build up its own infrastructure and support services.

2005

On August 23, Hurricane Katrina forms over the Bahamas and moves toward Florida. It crosses the southern Florida peninsula as a category 1 hurricane. Once in the Gulf of Mexico, Katrina gains strength and momentum. On August 29, Hurricane Katrina strikes the Louisiana and Mississippi coastline as a category 3 hurricane. Storm surges cause tremendous damage in coastal cities such as Bay St. Louis, Mississippi; Biloxi, Mississippi; Gulfport, Mississippi; and Mobile, Alabama. However, the most notable damage occurs in New Orleans and neighboring parishes when the levees protecting the city from Lake Pontchartrain break. Water pours into the city, flooding 80 percent of New Orleans. More than 1,800 people lose their lives during the hurricane or from the flooding that follows shortly after. The scale of the damage is something emergency managers in the United States had not seen before. Further, a humanitarian crisis quickly materializes after the storm passes. Hundreds of thousands of people are without shelter, food, and water until relief workers can get those commodities into the damaged areas. FEMA is sharply criticized, as are state and local officials, for failing to provide relief in a timely manner. FEMA director Michael Brown, who was initially praised by President Bush for doing a good job, comes under considerable criticism by members of Congress and the media. He is eventually forced to resign. Hurricane Katrina’s property damage totals more than $81 billion, making it the most expensive natural disaster in American history. On August 30, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff initiates the National Response Plan (NRP)

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as a result of Hurricane Katrina. The NRP is designed to permit the Department of Homeland Security to assume primary responsibility for relief efforts after a natural disaster, terrorist attack, or other large-scale emergency. The NRP recognizes that state and local governments have the primary responsibility for disaster preparedness and response. However, when it is clear that state and local agencies are unable to adequately meet the challenges of a particular emergency, the NRP permits the federal government to take the lead. Pursuant to the NRP, the Department of Homeland Security coordinates and provides assistance to individuals, families, and businesses to meet basic needs, as well as provides infrastructure and recovery support to communities as a whole, including the provision and coordination of emergency and protective services. 2006

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On October 4, President George W. Bush signs into law the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act. The act becomes effective March 31, 2007. This legislation is initiated in Congress as a direct result of perceived ineptness and bungling of the Hurricane Katrina disaster by the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Department of Homeland Security. The act removes FEMA from the Preparedness Directorate and elevates it to an independent agency within the Department of Homeland Security. The FEMA director is made to report directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security. Additionally, several functions and agencies are transferred to FEMA, including the U.S. Fire Administration and the new Office of Grant Programs (formerly the Office of Grants and Training). Further, a division of National Preparedness is created and located within the FEMA organizational structure. What is left of the Preparedness Directorate after FEMA’s removal is renamed the National Protection and Programs Directorate and is assigned the task of infrastructure, cyberspace, and communications protection, as well as managing the US-VISIT program.

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2007

Chronology

On July 18, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security announces homeland security grant totals of $1.7 billion for the 2007 fiscal year. These awards are intended to help states, territories, and urban areas enhance their abilities to prevent, respond to, and recover from terrorist acts and other large-scale disasters. Nearly $411 million of the total is awarded to the nation’s six metropolitan areas deemed to be at highest risk for terrorist attacks: New York City, Washington DC, Los Angeles, San Francisco/Oakland, Houston, and Chicago.

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5 Biographical Sketches

I

n this chapter, brief biographical sketches are provided for persons who directly contributed to the profession, practice, or understanding of emergency management and disaster planning. Some of those listed are professional emergency managers and political appointees who directly affected the field of emergency management in their work lives. Some are politicians who played a major role in shaping emergency management policies and laws in the United States. Still others include individuals who played roles in particular disasters as they unfolded. The list of personalities in this chapter should not be construed as a complete list of all individuals who have affected the profession and practice of emergency management in significant ways. There are too many disasters in America’s history, too many disaster-related organizations, too many stories of heroism, and too many examples of political leadership related to emergency management to recount all who played a part in the discipline’s development. However, this chapter offers a starting point in understanding the type of individuals who have shaped emergency management during America’s relatively short—and the discipline’s even shorter—history.

Joe Allbaugh (b. 1952) Joe Allbaugh was born in Blackwell, Oklahoma, in 1952. He has long been active in Republican Party politics. At the age of twelve, he volunteered for the presidential campaign of Barry


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Goldwater. He served as a paid staffer for Oklahoma senator Henry Bellmon. Allbaugh received a bachelor’s degree in political science from Oklahoma State University and worked on several political campaigns during his career. He worked for the Reagan-Bush campaign in 1984 as well as the gubernatorial campaign of Henry Bellmon in 1986. In 1994, Allbaugh worked for George W. Bush in his quest for the Texas governorship. When Bush defeated Ann Richards for governor, Allbaugh was hired as Governor Bush’s chief of staff. In 1999, Allbaugh became campaign manager for Bush’s presidential bid. When President Bush entered the White House in 2001, Allbaugh was nominated for the position of director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The Senate confirmed him in February 2001. Allbaugh served as FEMA director from 2001 to 2003. Although he served only two years, he was a high-profile director during a period in which FEMA garnered a lot of attention. Allbaugh at times was controversial. He came under some criticism (and praise) from others for suggesting that taxpayers should not necessarily be required to bail out disaster victims who suffer repeated flood damage and are unwilling to relocate to less risk-prone areas. However, he also championed the emergency management cause. He took issue with proposed budget cuts to the National Flood Insurance Program advanced by the Bush administration, noting that the cuts would adversely affect FEMA’s ability to respond to disasters. In May 2001, FEMA’s mission was officially expanded to include “homeland defense.” This expanded mission meant that FEMA would clearly take the lead in dealing with effects of terror attacks inside the United States. Under the rubric of the expanded mission, FEMA played a critical and highly visible role in the response effort after the attacks of 9/11. Allbaugh resigned from the position of FEMA director in 2003. After leaving government service, he and his wife started a consulting firm, much like his predecessor, James Lee Witt, had. After Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast in 2005, Allbaugh’s company helped coordinate private-sector reconstruction efforts. In particular, he consulted with private companies on how to navigate through the myriad government-sponsored relief and reconstruction programs.

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Clara Barton (1821–1912) Clara Barton was born in Oxford, Massachusetts, on Christmas Day in 1821. She began her long career as a pioneer in relief work in 1861. At that time she was working for the U.S. Patent Office in Washington DC. On April 19, 1861, only one week into the Civil War, Union soldiers clashed with pro-South citizens in the city of Baltimore during a riot motivated by anti-Union sentiments. Four soldiers and nine civilians were killed, and many more were injured on both sides. Barton organized a relief effort for the wounded soldiers, and from this time forward, she continued working on relief efforts until her retirement in 1904. Barton spent the entire Civil War providing aid and comfort to wounded soldiers. She was given a general pass by the Union Army to travel with Army ambulances. In addition to meeting physical needs of soldiers, Barton was instrumental in helping the families of soldiers. In particular, she began a program to locate soldiers (or their remains) who were missing in action. She also served as the superintendent of nurses under the command of Union General Benjamin Butler. After the Civil War, Barton traveled to Europe. In 1870, while traveling for what was intended to be an extended vacation, she became involved with the International Red Cross and helped provide aid to soldiers during the Franco-Prussian War. The International Red Cross operated under a flag of neutrality and provided aid to wounded soldiers on both sides of the conflict. The war in Europe ended in 1871, and eventually Barton returned to the United States. In 1881, Barton and several close friends and associates founded the American Red Cross. Unlike the International Red Cross at the time, the American Red Cross was not to be limited to providing relief to wounded combatants in war. Rather, Barton envisioned a Red Cross in the United States that would minister to the physical and emotional needs of all sorts of victims, including regular citizens caught up in the way of a disaster. Despite the broader mission of the American Red Cross, Barton still had a heart for wounded soldiers. In that capacity, she successfully lobbied the United States Senate to ratify the Geneva Convention in 1882. This treaty obligated the signatory countries to protect and care for captive and wounded enemy soldiers in wartime.

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As head of the American Red Cross, Barton personally and actively participated in the relief efforts for many major American disasters, including the Johnstown Flood of 1889 and the Galveston hurricane of 1900. Under Barton’s leadership, the American Red Cross received a charter from the U.S. Congress in 1900 officially designating the organization as responsible for carrying out the provisions of the Geneva Convention in the United States. Given the American Red Cross’ official relationship to the United States government, many people expressed misgivings about Barton serving as the organization’s “president for life.” Others took issue with her management style and viewed her handling of the American Red Cross finances to be sloppy. In 1904, Barton gave in to pressure and resigned as president of the American Red Cross. She lived out her retirement in Glen Echo, Maryland, just outside Washington DC. She died in 1912 at the age of 90.

Julius W. Becton, Jr. (b. 1926) Julius Becton was born in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, in 1926. In 1944, he joined the U.S. Army Air Corps and attended Officer Candidate School (OCS). He graduated OCS in 1945 and began his lengthy military career as an Army officer. As a soldier, he received many honors and decorations during his rise to the rank of lieutenant general, including the Distinguished Service Medal, two Silver Stars, two Legion of Merit medals, and two Purple Hearts. By the time he had retired from the Army, General Becton had served in three wars: World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. During his service in the Army, Becton completed his college education. He received a bachelor’s degree in mathematics from Prairie View A & M University in Texas. He also received a master’s degree in economics from the University of Maryland. Upon his retirement from the Army, Becton served as the director of the Office of Foreign Assistance, which was part of the U.S. Agency for International Development. Then in 1985, Becton was appointed by President Ronald Reagan to serve as the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Becton served in that capacity from 1985 to 1989 and was FEMA’s first AfricanAmerican director. Becton’s honorable and distinguished career,

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along with his impeccable character, enabled him to repair FEMA’s damaged credibility within the federal political community in the wake of a scandal involving the former FEMA director, Louis Giuffrida. After FEMA, Becton continued his public service career. From 1989 to 1994, he served as president of Prairie View A & M University. In 1996, he became the superintendent of the Washington, DC public schools, where he earned high marks during his short tenure for reforming the management structure of the school system. Becton retired from that position in 1998.

B. Wayne Blanchard (unknown) Few individuals can claim as much credit for the development of a profession as Wayne Blanchard can for the development of professional emergency management. Blanchard, a career public servant, is the director of the Higher Education Project within the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Emergency Management Institute in Emmitsburg, Maryland. Blanchard received a bachelor’s degree in political science from the University of North Carolina in Charlotte in 1974. From there, he went to the University of Virginia and was awarded a master’s degree in international affairs in 1976 and a Ph.D. in government and foreign affairs in 1980. He began working at FEMA in May 1980. Blanchard has been at FEMA throughout most of the agency’s existence. He has served across several organizational units at FEMA, including the National Preparedness Directorate; the State and Local Programs Support Directorate; and the Office of Emergency and Public Information, the Preparedness, Training and Exercises Directorate. Blanchard has been assigned to FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute since 1994. In recent years, Blanchard has taken the lead role within FEMA to promote a professional model of emergency management. As a part of this process, Blanchard and the Emergency Management Institute have promoted the startup of dozens of college undergraduate and graduate programs in emergency management and homeland security. Further, they have developed model emergency management curricula and have shaped the core educational and training requirements for professionals in the field. Blanchard has also been instrumental in encouraging academic research

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through grant money so that a core body of knowledge for the profession of emergency management is developed—a process well under way today. Blanchard has actively promoted the certified emergency manager (CEM) program and has contributed to the development of emergency management’s primary professional association—the International Association of Emergency Managers. Blanchard himself received CEM certification in 1993. Blanchard has received several awards and much recognition for his federal service and service to the profession, including the FEMA Director’s Meritorious Service Award. He has participated in the relief efforts of several disasters, including Hurricane Andrew in 1992, the Midwest Floods of 1993, and the Northridge earthquake in 1994.

Mabel Boardman (1860–1946) Mabel Boardman was born in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1860. Although born into a socialite family, Boardman spent much of her adolescent years providing welfare services for underprivileged children. During the Spanish-American War, she became a recruiter for nurses. Boardman was an early admirer of Clara Barton, president of the American Red Cross, and in 1903, Boardman was appointed to the executive committee of the Red Cross. Her influence in the organization was considerable. In her capacity as a member of the executive committee, Boardman became unhappy with the leadership of Clara Barton. In 1903, she began to push for Barton’s ouster, which occurred in 1904. To many in the organization, Boardman was the obvious choice to replace Barton as chair of the Red Cross, but she refused the position. Rather, retired Rear Admiral William Van Reypen became chair, and Boardman held onto the title of “leading volunteer.” Although she remained active with American Red Cross until 1944, the period when she exercised the most leadership of and influence on the organization was from 1905 to 1917. Under her leadership, informal as it was, the Red Cross developed programs in public health nursing, first aid training, the Christmas Seals fight against tuberculosis, and expanded disaster relief efforts. Boardman resigned from the American Red Cross governing committee in 1944 after more than forty years of dedicated service to the organization. She died in 1946.

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William Booth (1829–1912) Although the Salvation Army is one of most visible charitable organizations in the United States and plays a significant role in providing disaster relief, the organization is British at its roots, as was its founder. William Booth was born in Nottingham, England, in 1829. During his early teenage years, he began to publicly express his Christian faith—even boldly preaching on street corners. As a young adult, Booth joined the Methodist Church in England and sought to become an ordained minister. In 1855, he married his wife, Catherine Mumford. Booth and Catherine traveled around England during his ministry as a Methodist minister. Booth was particularly interested in preaching gospel to London’s poor. He began a ministry on London’s East Side called the Christian Mission. In 1878, the ministry changed its name to the Salvation Army. Booth was an inspiring and firebrand preacher. More and more people began to join Booth’s movement as “soldiers” in the Salvation Army, waging war against sin and poverty. The Salvation Army resembled a military organization in more ways than just its name. Ordained ministers in the Salvation Army wore uniforms and were “commissioned officers,” with Booth as the general. Despite initial opposition by the Church of England, the Salvation Army grew. Its welcoming arms to the poor and suffering helped the organization to flourish in England and in other countries, including the United States. In fact, at the time of Booth’s death in 1912, the Salvation Army had a presence in fifty-eight countries. Based on its belief in a biblical mandate to minister especially to the needy, the Salvation Army has long been a partner to other organizations in providing disaster relief. For the Salvation Army, relief includes the meeting of acute physical, material, emotional and spiritual needs. While some have criticized the Salvation Army for adhering to its blatantly Evangelical identity, the organization has never discriminated among the people to whom it ministers.

Michael D. Brown (b. 1954) Michael Brown was born in Guymon, Oklahoma, in 1954. He received a bachelor of arts degree in public administration from

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Central State University in 1978. Brown went on to obtain a law degree from Oklahoma City University in 1981. During his time in college, he served as an administrative assistant to the city manager of Edmond, Oklahoma. In that capacity, he worked essentially as the city manager’s emergency services coordinator. He worked for the City of Edmond from 1975 to 1978. From 1980 to 1982, while in law school, Brown worked as staff director for the Senate Finance Committee in the Oklahoma state legislature. From 1982 to 1988, he served as chairman of the board of the Oklahoma Municipal Power Authority. He also practiced law privately. From 1989 to 2001, Brown was the Judges and Stewards Commissioner for the International Arabian Horse Association. In January 2001, Brown joined FEMA as the agency’s general counsel. He was a long-time friend of FEMA director Joe Allbaugh, who hired Brown. In September 2001, Brown was named acting deputy director of FEMA. President George W. Bush nominated him to this post in March 2002 and the Senate confirmed him months later. In August 2002, President Bush appointed Brown to the Transition Planning Office for the new Department of Homeland Security. His responsibility was to lead the transition for the Emergency Planning and Response Division of FEMA. Brown also directed the National Incident Management System Integration Center, the National Disaster Medical System, and the Nuclear Incident Response Team. In January 2003, Brown was nominated by President Bush to be director of FEMA. He was sworn into that position the following April. Brown served as the FEMA director until he resigned on September 12, 2005, amidst public displeasure at his handling of the Hurricane Katrina crisis. Brown has been criticized on many fronts. The most serious criticism relates to alleged incompetence and mismanagement in handling the relief efforts following Hurricane Katrina. Many have said that FEMA, with Brown at the head, was slow to respond to the disaster. Brown’s comments to some news reporters suggested he knew less about the state of the posthurricane crisis than did the general public who was watching the situation unfold on television. FEMA was also criticized for failing to corral resources at its disposal, including the offer of equipment and manpower from state and local governments around the country, for the relief effort. Further, Brown was personally criticized for padding his resume. News reports suggested that many of the positions and accomplishments listed on

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his resume were exaggerated or untrue. Even in resignation, Brown defended the content of his resume as accurate and characterized the media reports about his background and his performance at FEMA as slanted and inaccurate.

James E. Carter (b. 1924) Although American presidents have played a role in developing the profession and practice of emergency management since Thomas Jefferson supported legislation to provide relief to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, after a citywide fire in 1803, a few presidents stand out for their specific contributions to the discipline. President Jimmy Carter is chief among them. James “Jimmy” Carter was born in Plains, Georgia, in 1924. Carter attended the United States Naval Academy and graduated in 1946. He served as an active duty submarine officer for seven years before returning to Plains and the family peanut farming business. In 1962, Carter began his political career. He was elected to the Georgia State Senate as a Democrat, where he served until 1966. He then returned once again to the family’s agricultural business. In 1970, Carter ran for Georgia’s governorship, relying on populist themes. He emphasized his farming background and the fact that he was a churchgoer like other Georgians. Carter was even a Sunday School teacher. He was elected governor in 1971 and served in that office until 1976 when he ran for and was elected president of the United States. In January 1977, Carter took office as the 39th American president and served until January 1981. Many events of significance happened during the Carter presidency, one of which was the creation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. On March 31, 1979, Carter issued Executive Order 12127, bringing FEMA into existence. Carter had been sensitive to complaints from state and local government officials that federal disaster aid efforts were too fragmented. As a former governor, he personally knew this to be true. Before the executive order, more than a hundred federal agencies had disaster relief responsibilities. By creating FEMA, Carter tried to centralize and consolidate the federal government’s emergency management efforts. Clearly, FEMA is one of President Carter’s lasting legacies. When President Reagan assumed office in 1981, several agencies were on the potential chopping block because of

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Reagan’s desire to cut government. However, FEMA thrived and even received enhanced statutory authority in 1988. Carter is credited with having the vision to pull disparate disaster agencies and resources together in what had become a fairly regular function of the federal government—emergency management.

Isaac M. Cline (1864–1955) Isaac Cline was born in 1864 in Monroe County, Tennessee. He attended Hiwassee College at the age of sixteen and studied mathematics, the sciences, and classical languages. In 1882, Cline joined the U.S. Army Signal Corps to become a meteorologist. (At the time, the U.S. Weather Bureau was organizationally a part of the Army Signal Corps. The Weather Bureau was transferred to the Department of Agriculture in 1892.) Cline’s first assignment in the Weather Bureau was at the weather station in Little Rock, Arkansas. While there, he attended and completed medical school part time, earning a medical doctor degree from the University of Arkansas. In 1885, Cline was promoted to head the weather station in Fort Concho, Texas. Shortly after, he was transferred to the Abilene, Texas, weather station. In Abilene, Cline met and married his wife, Cora May Bellew. In 1889, he was transferred to Galveston, Texas, to head the weather station there. Cline’s younger brother, Joseph, joined him in Galveston as a junior meteorologist. Ever the student, Cline continued his higher education and received a Ph.D. in philosophy and sociology from AddRan University (now Texas Christian University) in 1896. By all accounts, Isaac Cline was a very good meteorologist. He is credited with being the first meteorologist to develop a reliable method for forecasting freezing weather when he was in northern Texas. He also developed a flood warning system for the Brazos and Colorado Rivers. However, he was publicly skeptical of the possibility of a hurricane ever doing any significant damage to the city of Galveston. In fact, because Cline was so respected as a weather forecaster, city leaders determined it was unnecessary to build a protective seawall. On September 8, 1900, Galveston was hit by a hurricane that destroyed the city. More than 6,000 people died, including Cline’s wife. Many have blamed Cline for the city’s lack of preparedness for the hurricane. However, Cline did issue a hurricane warning

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in the hours before the hurricane struck. In fact, as Cline told the story, he ran up and down the beaches of Galveston before the storm to warn people to get to high ground. Some historians dispute that claim. After the hurricane, Cline moved his three children to New Orleans, where he served as the chief meteorologist. There Cline remained with the Weather Bureau until 1935. Cline became an art collector in retirement and even opened a gallery in the French Quarter of New Orleans in 1936. He remained active in the art community until his death on August 3, 1955.

Michael Chertoff (b. 1953) Michael Chertoff was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, in 1953. As a young adult, he attended Harvard University and graduated with a bachelor’s degree in 1975. Chertoff went on to study law at Harvard Law School, from which he graduated magna cum laude in 1978. Chertoff served as a law clerk for U.S. Supreme Court Justice William Brennan from 1979 to 1980. After that, he worked in private practice for three years. In 1983, Chertoff became a federal prosecutor first in New York City and then in New Jersey. In 1990, Chertoff was appointed by President George H. W. Bush to be the United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey. He served in that position until 1994. Chertoff worked in private practice from 1994 to 2001. However, he was not a stranger to the political scene, as one of his clients was the U.S. Senate’s Whitewater Committee, which was investigating President Bill Clinton. In 2001, Chertoff returned to full-time government service as the Department of Justice assistant attorney general in President George W. Bush’s administration. In 2003, President Bush nominated Chertoff to be an appellate judge for the Third Circuit Court of Appeals. Chertoff was confirmed by the Senate in June 2003. In 2005, Chertoff left the bench to become the Department of Homeland Security’s second secretary. He was confirmed and sworn in as secretary of Homeland Security on February 15, 2005, following Tom Ridge’s resignation on February 1, 2005. Chertoff came under criticism from the emergency management community after Hurricane Katrina. Many critics claimed that Chertoff was too focused on efforts to guard against terrorism and that he viewed traditional disaster preparedness and response as a mundane and less important element to homeland

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security. Like his FEMA director at the time of Hurricane Katrina, Michael Brown, Chertoff appeared to many to be uninformed about the disaster. Chertoff was quoted in the media as saying that no one had predicted a disaster of the magnitude that was Katrina. However, FEMA itself had previously identified the destruction of New Orleans by a hurricane as one of the three most likely catastrophes to strike the United States. Because of the perceived poor performance of FEMA as a part of the Department of Homeland Security, and because of FEMA’s struggle for resources within this department, which is headed by a former law enforcement official and is thought to be more focused on law enforcement and counterterrorism efforts than its other responsibilities, many in Congress and in the emergency management and public administration communities have called for FEMA’s removal from the Department of Homeland Security. They would prefer that FEMA return to its former status as an independent, stand-alone agency.

Rudolph W. L. Giuliani III (b. 1944) Rudolph Giuliani was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1944. He grew up in a working-class family, which included police officers, firefighters, and even criminals. In fact, Giuliani’s father, Harold, had been convicted of robbery once and spent time in prison. Giuliani attended Manhattan College in the Bronx and graduated with a bachelor’s degree in 1965. He then attended New York University School of Law and received his law degree in 1968. After clerking for a federal judge, Giuliani joined the U.S. Attorney’s Office in 1970 as a prosecutor. He rose through the ranks and became chief of the narcotics unit in 1973. By 1975, Giuliani had garnered attention from politicians in Washington. He was named associate deputy attorney general. From 1977 to 1981, Giuliani worked in private practice as an attorney. He resumed his government career in 1981 when he became associate attorney general in President Ronald Reagan’s administration. In 1983, President Reagan appointed him to be the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. In that position, he led the prosecutions of several high-profile criminals, including Wall Street insiders and members of organized crime. He earned a reputation as a tough, no-nonsense, law-and-order prosecutor. In 1989, Giuliani returned to private practice. He also ran for

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mayor of New York City as a Republican against Democrat David Dinkins. Giuliani lost this race, but ran again in 1993. He won that election and served as mayor of New York City until January 2002. By all accounts, Giuliani was a successful mayor. The city prospered under his leadership. Crime went down significantly—largely due to Giuliani’s sometimes controversial strategy of having the police aggressively address petty offenses and offenders (known as “broken windows” policing). But his most significant challenge in office as mayor came toward the end of his final term—managing the crisis on September 11, 2001. Giuliani has been given credit for exercising remarkable leadership, resolve, and calm that day and the days that followed. He was even popularly dubbed “America’s Mayor” because of his role in reassuring the nation, which became closely identified with New Yorkers after the terror attacks. Giuliani also exercised hands-on leadership during the rescue and recover efforts after 9/11, spending considerable time in the emergency operations command center on scene. First responders, who had lost many comrades at the World Trade Center, expressed great appreciation for Giuliani’s empathy, concern, and hard work on their behalf.

Louis O. Giuffrida (unknown) Louis Giuffrida was the first permanent director of FEMA under President Ronald Reagan. When President Reagan entered office in 1981, he appointed Bernard Gallagher as acting FEMA director from January to April. From April to May 1981, John McConnell served as acting FEMA director. Then finally, in May 1981, President Reagan’s nominee for the post was installed—Louis Giuffrida. Giuffrida was confirmed by the Senate and served as FEMA director from 1981 to 1985. Giuffrida graduated with a bachelor of arts degree from the University of Connecticut in 1947. He went on to receive a master of arts degree from Boston University. Prior to his federal civil service career, Giuffrida had served a full career in the United States Army. He retired from active duty as a colonel in 1971 but maintained his commission as an officer in the California National Guard. From the Army, Giuffrida was tapped by then Governor Ronald Reagan of California to organize the California Specialized Training Institute. This training school was

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established to train state employees in emergency management practices and police tactical procedures—especially for counterterrorism activities. Giuffrida also served Governor Reagan as an advisor on terrorism and emergency management. During this time, Giuffrida was also promoted to the rank of general in the National Guard. Giuffrida was confirmed as FEMA’s director on May 18, 1981. He was responsible for many FEMA initiatives and developed many FEMA civil defense programs—not surprising given his military background and expertise. Giuffrida is also credited with developing FEMA’s Continuity of Government program, which ensures that the essential functions of government would continue to operate in the event of a nuclear war or other major calamity. Despite his effective leadership at FEMA, Giuffrida was forced to resign as FEMA director in 1985 due to scandal. In particular, it was learned that Giuffrida had improperly spent public money to build a private residence on the campus of FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute in Emmitsburg, Maryland.

James Loy (b. 1942) James Loy was born in Altoona, Pennsylvania, in 1942. He entered the United States Coast Guard Academy in 1960, graduating in 1964. Eventually, he also earned two master’s degrees—one from Wesleyan University and another from the University of Rhode Island. Loy served as a career, active duty officer in the Coast Guard. During the Vietnam War, Loy served in command of a Coast Guard patrol boat in Vietnam’s waterways. His service in Vietnam resulted in several medals and commendations, including the Bronze Star. After the Vietnam War, Loy rose through the ranks of the Coast Guard; he served on several cutters in both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and was awarded the command of major cutters during his career. In May 1998, Loy, now an admiral, was appointed to be the commandant of the Coast Guard. He served in this capacity until May 2002. Thus, Loy was commandant of the Coast Guard when the terror attacks of September 11, 2001, occurred. He was widely praised after 9/11 for quickly dispatching personnel and materiel to the city of New York and other ports of entry

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immediately after the terror attacks. He was seen as one of the best examples of a calm and collected emergency management or public safety official. Loy retired from the Coast Guard in 2002 to become the under-secretary of Transportation Security. This appointment made Loy the head of the newly created Transportation Security Administration, which was part of the Department of Transportation (as the Coast Guard had been prior to the Homeland Security Act of 2002 and its implementation in 2003). On December 4, 2003, Loy was sworn in as the deputy secretary of the Department of Homeland Security. Loy’s entire career was devoted to homeland security—and particularly transportation safety and security. During his career, Loy managed the Coast Guard’s participation in countless disaster response and recovery missions. He also refined the Coast Guard’s port security mission after 9/11. Further, he helped shepherd the fledgling Transportation Security Administration during its formative years and while in search of clarity of mission amidst major governmental restructuring under the Homeland Security Act of 2002. Loy retired from government service in March 2005.

John W. Macy, Jr. (1917–1986) John Macy was born in Chicago in 1917. He attended Wesleyan University and received a B.A. in 1938. Macy then moved to Washington, DC, and began studies at American University. He also began his long career in public service, first as an intern with the National Institute of Public Affairs and then as an administrative aid for the Social Security Board. From 1940 to 1943, he served as a personnel specialist and then assistant director of civilian personnel for the War Department in Chicago and Washington, DC. In 1943, Macy enlisted in the United States Army and served during World War II in the Pacific. In 1946, he left the Army at the rank of captain and returned to the War Department as a civilian employee—this time as director of civilian personnel. From 1947 to 1951, Macy served as the organization and personnel director for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission in Los Alamos, New Mexico. From 1951 to 1953, Macy was the special assistant to the under-secretary of the U.S. Army. From 1953 to 1958, Macy served as the presidential-appointed executive

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director of the U.S. Civil Service Commission. In 1958, he left government service to become the executive vice-president of Wesleyan University but returned in 1961 as director of the Civil Service Commission upon the request of President John F. Kennedy. In 1969, Macy became head of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. From 1972 to 1979, Macy ran the Council of the Better Business Bureau. His long track record as a public servant and administrator prompted President Jimmy Carter to nominate him as the first Senate-confirmed director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Macy had worked for the Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations; he knew government civil service rules and regulations inside and out. President Carter saw him as an ideal individual who could bring various federal agencies and subagencies together to build a cohesive emergency management agency in FEMA. Although he had no emergency services experience, his government experience and ability to navigate political and bureaucratic pitfalls made him an enticing choice for FEMA. Macy served as FEMA director from 1979 to 1981.

John W. Magaw (unknown) John Magaw is a career public servant who spent most of his government service in federal law enforcement. He was born in Columbus, Ohio. He received a bachelor’s degree in education from Otterbein College in Westerville, Ohio. In 1959, Magaw began his law enforcement career as a state trooper with the Ohio Highway Patrol. In 1967, Magaw joined the United States Secret Service as a special agent. He rose through the ranks of the Secret Service and became the deputy special agent in charge of the vice-presidential protective division in Washington DC. He also served as special agent in charge of the Washington DC field office. By 1992, Magaw was placed in charge of all protective operations for the president and his family. Magaw served as director of the Secret Service from 1992 to 1993. In 1993, President Clinton appointed Magaw to be director of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. He served in that position from 1993 to 1999. In 1999, Magaw moved over to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, where he served as the senior advisor for terrorism preparedness to the FEMA director. Magaw was

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responsible for planning and coordinating FEMA’s domestic terrorism preparedness programs. When President George W. Bush entered office in January 2001, Magaw was appointed as acting director of FEMA. He served as FEMA director for one month until President Bush’s nominee—Joe Allbaugh—was confirmed by the U.S. Senate. In January 2002, Magaw was appointed and confirmed as the under-secretary of the Department of Transportation in charge of the newly created Transportation Security Administration (TSA). TSA was created shortly after the 9/11 terror attacks for the purpose of improving safety and security within the transportation industry—especially the airline industry. Magaw left government service in June 2002.

Robert Mueller (b. 1944) Robert Mueller was born in New York City in 1944 and grew up near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He attended Princeton University as an undergraduate student. He graduated from Princeton in 1966. Only a year later, he earned his master’s degree in international relations from New York University. After college, Mueller joined the United States Marine Corps as an officer. He served in Vietnam and was the recipient of the Bronze Star, a Purple Heart, two Navy Commendation Medals, and the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry. After serving on active duty for three years, Mueller returned to higher education. He earned a law degree from the University of Virginia in 1973. Mueller then proceeded to practice law in San Francisco. Mueller started as an attorney in private practice, but in 1976 he became a prosecutor with the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Northern District of California. Mueller eventually was promoted to chief of the criminal division. In 1982, he transferred to the U.S. Attorney’s Office in Boston. Once in Boston, he left government service for a partnership in a local law firm. However, in 1989, Mueller reentered federal service as an assistant to the attorney general, who was Richard Thornburgh at the time. In 1990, Mueller became head of the Criminal Division of the U.S. Justice Department. In that capacity, he oversaw the prosecutions of Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega and organized crime figure John Gotti, and led most of the investigation of the Pan Am 103 terrorist bombing over Lockerbie, Scotland.

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In 1993, Mueller again left government for a partnership in a Boston law firm. However, in 1998, Mueller was appointed the United States Attorney for the Northern District of California in San Francisco. During the first part of 2001, Mueller served as acting deputy attorney general of the United States. Finally, in July 2001, Mueller was nominated by President George W. Bush to become the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). His nomination was confirmed by the U.S. Senate in early August 2001. Mueller was on the job as FBI director for approximately one month when the terror attacks of 9/11 occurred. Even before 9/11, Mueller had publicly campaigned for his desire to modernize the FBI—particularly its computer system. The technological deficiencies and organizational inefficiencies at the FBI, which Mueller inherited, would later prove to have played a role in the FBI’s inability to detect or prevent the terror attacks that took place on September 11, 2001—resulting in the largest crime scene and largest criminal investigation in world history. Mueller continued to preside over the FBI during the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. He successfully preserved the FBI’s responsibility as the lead agency for counterterrorism and counterespionage investigations, despite the call from some in Congress to remove those functions from the FBI.

Clarence Ray Nagin, Jr. (b. 1956) Although a number of mayors have played key roles in disaster response around the country, Mayor Ray Nagin of New Orleans has become one of the most visible and recognizable local government officials to the emergency management community. Nagin was born on June 11, 1956, in New Orleans and grew up there. He attended Tuskegee University in Tuskegee, Alabama, and received a bachelor’s degree in accounting in 1978. Later, he attended Tulane University and received a master of business administration degree in 1994. In 2002, Nagin was elected mayor of New Orleans. Prior to holding public office, he had been an executive for Cox Communications. Nagin first appeared on the national scene when Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans. On August 26, 2005, the National Hurricane Center predicted that Katrina, which was tracking toward New Orleans from the Gulf of Mexico, would likely

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become a category 4 hurricane. In the wake of this prediction, Nagin encouraged residents of the city of New Orleans to evacuate. However, he did not issue a mandatory evacuation order at that time. On August 28, 2005, the hurricane reached category 4 strength. At this strength level, it was believed that a direct hit on New Orleans could result in the topping or breaching of the levees. Nagin then issued a mandatory evacuation order, which was the first in the city’s history. The Superdome in downtown New Orleans was declared to be a haven of last resort for those unable to leave the city. When Katrina made landfall, it did so about 15 miles east of New Orleans. Consequently, the city was spared more serious wind damage than might have occurred had it been a direct hit. However, within a couple of hours after landfall, the levees around New Orleans were breeched and waters from swollen Lake Pontchartrain rushed into the city’s neighborhoods. Before it was over, 80 percent of the city was flooded. Soon after the storm, a humanitarian crisis emerged. Many people were trapped in their homes without food, water, or a way to escape the flooded city. Thousands of others were trapped downtown at the Superdome and convention center. Food and water were scarce there as well, as was security. News reports sometimes referred to stranded residents as “refugees.” The crisis persisted for days until National Guard troops, Coast Guard reinforcements, and mutual aid providers from other states arrived to assist in the posthurricane evacuation. Nagin complained on September 1, 2005, that the federal response to the disaster was too slow. He compared it to the response for New York City on 9/11 and wondered out loud if there was a racial component to the apparent lack of urgency. Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff responded by noting the federal government’s purpose in disasters is to assist state and local governments. Chertoff reiterated that the primary responsibility, power, and authority to evacuate citizens from a city belong to city and state officials. By the time the crisis abated, the hurricane and flooding had caused the deaths of nearly 2,000 people and caused more than $80 billion in property damage. Despite his quickness to point out the flaws in the federal government’s response, Nagin himself came under criticism for his part in the disaster. In particular, many blame Nagin for not properly evacuating the city and for failing to follow the evacuation plan that was in place. In the runup to the storm, Nagin permitted hundreds of buses to sit idle

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when the city’s emergency plan called for their use to move residents out. Nagin was also later criticized for referring to New Orleans as a “chocolate” city that should be chocolate again—referring to the need to keep New Orleans a majority African American city. Despite his critics, Nagin was reelected as mayor in 2006. Controversy still shrouded Nagin one year after the hurricane. In responding to criticism that suggested clean-up operations were taking too long one year later, Nagin said, “You guys in New York can’t get a hole in the ground fixed, and its five years later. So let’s be fair.”

Robert D. Paulison (b. 1947) Robert Paulison was born in Miami, Florida, in 1947. He earned a bachelor’s degree from Florida Atlantic University and later attended graduate school at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. Paulison became a career public servant. He entered public service as a firefighter for the MiamiDade Fire Department. Paulison advanced through the ranks of the fire service and became the Miami-Dade fire chief in 1992. Paulison’s department had considerable experience with largescale emergencies. The Miami-Dade Fire Department was tasked with the clean-up after Hurricane Andrew in 1992. The department also handled the tragic crash of ValuJet 592 over the Everglades in 1996. After more than thirty years of service as a firefighter, Paulison was appointed the head of the U.S. Fire Administration in late September 2001. Interestingly, Paulison was a Democrat appointed during a Republican administration, but his professional credentials made him a compelling choice for the position. In early 2003, Paulison released an advisory encouraging American households to prepare themselves for disasters by stocking up on certain supplies, including water, food, first–aid items, plastic sheeting, and duct tape (for sealing doors and windows in the event of a chemical terror attack). The Bush administration became the brunt of many jokes—particularly, that the government’s plan to protect America’s homeland hinged on duct tape. Later in 2003, Paulison was appointed by President Bush to be director of the National Preparedness Division of the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate within the newly created Department of Homeland Security. In September

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2005, Paulison was appointed as the acting director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. He was finally confirmed by the Senate in May 2006.

Tom Ridge (b. 1945) Tom Ridge was born in Munhall, Pennsylvania, in 1945. He earned a bachelor’s degree from Harvard University in 1967. He began law school at Dickinson School of Law (now part of Pennsylvania State University). However, during his first year in law school he was drafted into the United States Army. He served in the Vietnam War as a staff sergeant and was highly decorated. After his tour of duty, he returned to Pennsylvania in 1970 and resumed his legal studies. Ridge received his law degree from Dickinson School of Law in 1972. In 1982, Ridge began his political career. After serving as an assistant district attorney in Erie, Pennsylvania, he ran for Congress. Ridge served six consecutive terms as a Republican member of the House of Representatives. In 1994, Ridge successfully ran for the governorship of Pennsylvania, and he was elected governor in 1998. After the terror attacks on September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush created within the White House the Office of Homeland Security. President Bush asked Tom Ridge to serve as director. Ridge was often referred to as the Homeland Security Czar. His job was to develop and coordinate a national strategy to protect the United States against terrorist attacks. Ridge accepted the president’s call to service and resigned from the governorship in October 2001. In 2003, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security came into existence as a result of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. Ridge was nominated and confirmed as the first secretary of Homeland Security. Instead of managing a small staff of White House employees, Ridge now managed one of the largest cabinet agencies—created by combining twenty-two agencies and 180,000 employees under the department organizational umbrella—in the U.S. government. Although not without glitches, Ridge led the new department in its time of considerable transition. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security was the largest reorganization of the federal government since the creation of the Department of Defense a half-century before. Among other initiatives, Ridge oversaw the creation of a comprehensive

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response and recovery division within the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Ridge served as the secretary of Homeland Security until February 1, 2005.

Robert T. Stafford (1913–2006) Robert Stafford was born in Rutland, Vermont, in 1913. He graduated from Middlebury College in 1935 and from Boston University’s law school in 1938. Stafford became a local prosecutor in Rutland County, serving in that capacity from 1938 to 1942. Stafford served as a commissioned officer in the United States Navy and Naval Reserve during World War II and the Korean War, respectively. During the 1950s, he became active in Vermont politics as a Republican. He served as the state’s attorney general from 1955 to 1957 and as lieutenant governor from 1957 to 1959. Stafford became the governor of Vermont in 1959 and served that office until his election to the U.S. Congress in 1961. He served as a member of the House of Representatives from 1961 to 1971, at which time he was appointed to fill a Senate vacancy after the death of Vermont Senator Winston Prouty. Stafford served as a United States senator from Vermont from 1971 until his retirement from elected service in 1989. While in the Senate, he served as chairman of the Committee on Environmental and Public Works. Stafford died in his hometown of Rutland in 2006. Stafford is known in emergency management circles as the sponsor of key legislation that propelled the federal emergency management apparatus. As chair of the Senate Committee on Environmental and Public Works, the business of federal emergency management efforts, disaster relief, and infrastructure protection was squarely within his purview of authority. To emergency managers, Stafford is most known for the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Assistance and Emergency Relief Act of 1988. This legislation provided the Federal Emergency Management Agency with its statutory authority to engage in federal disaster response activities.

Wallace E. Stickney (b. 1934) Wallace Stickney was a career civil servant who eventually served as the director of the Federal Emergency Management

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Agency under President George H. W. Bush. Stickney was born in Salem, New Hampshire, in 1934. He attended New England College and was awarded a bachelor’s degree in 1959. He also completed graduate education at Northwestern University and Harvard University, receiving master’s degrees from both of those institutions. Early in Stickney’s public service career, he worked in local government. In fact, he served as the town engineer for the City of Salem. From there, he became the commissioner of the Southern Rockingham Regional Planning Commission. He also conducted environment impact studies for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In 1983, Stickney was appointed as special assistant for environmental affairs for Governor John Sununu of New Hampshire. He served in that capacity until 1985, at which time Stickney became the commissioner of the New Hampshire Department of Transportation. Stickney’s connection to John Sununu would eventually lead to a federal appointment. Sununu served as President Bush’s White House chief of staff. Stickney was nominated and confirmed as the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency in 1990. He assumed control of FEMA at a time when the Cold War was thawing. Until that time, FEMA maintained a significant civil defense posture. However, with the threat of nuclear or total war diminished, FEMA’s emphases would need to adjust. Stickney, as an engineer and bureaucrat, rather than a militarist or an ideologue, shepherded FEMA into this new era and new way of thinking about the emergency management threats to the United States. Stickney served as the director of FEMA until January 1993.

William Howard Taft (1857–1930) William Howard Taft was a remarkable American public servant. He is the only individual to ever serve as both president of the United States and chief justice of the United States Supreme Court. Taft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1857. He was a lawyer by profession. Taft attended Cincinnati Law School and received his bachelor of law in 1880. Taft went on to become a prosecutor and judge in Hamilton County, Ohio. Taft was a Republican and was the beneficiary of several political appointments. In 1890, Taft was appointed the solicitor general of the United States by President Benjamin Harrison. In

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1892, President Harrison appointed Taft to the federal 6th Circuit Court of Appeals. In 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft as the first civilian governor for the newly acquired U.S. territory, the Philippines. In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt selected Taft to be the secretary of War. In 1909, Taft became the 27th president of the United States. He was not reelected however. In 1921, Taft was appointed the chief justice of the United States Supreme Court by President Warren Harding. Taft remained the chief justice until his retirement in February 1930. He died a month later. In addition to his broad political career, Taft maintained a close connection to the American Red Cross. In fact, Taft was a close friend of Mabel Boardman, who was a stalwart member of the Red Cross leadership. He was also a board member of the American Red Cross at the time the organization secured its official charter from Congress in 1905. Taft served as president of the American Red Cross from 1906 to 1913 and as its chairman from 1915 to 1919. In 1913, Taft resigned as president of the American Red Cross so that Woodrow Wilson, who had been elected to the United States presidency, could assume role of honorary president of the Red Cross. This began the practice of designating the U.S. president in office as the honorary head of the American Red Cross—a practice that still continues today.

Gordon F. Vickery (1920–1996) Gordon Vickery was born in Ruthton, Minnesota, in 1920. During his childhood, his family moved to Snohomish, Washington. While still in high school, he volunteered for the Snohomish Fire Department. In 1941, Vickery moved to Seattle with his new wife, Frances. In 1946, Vickery joined the Seattle Fire Department. Vickery excelled as a firefighter and leader in the department. He quickly rose through the ranks. In 1963, Vickery became the chief of the Seattle Fire Department. He stayed in that position until his retirement from the department in 1972. During his tenure as chief of the department, he implemented many reforms and initiatives that served as models for the firefighting profession nationwide. Vickery was well known for his efforts to bring into the department women and racial minorities. When he became chief, the Seattle Fire Department had one African American firefighter. By 1972, the department had 100

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minorities in firefighting positions. Vickery also is known in the profession for his establishment of the Medic One program, among the first paramedic programs in the United States. It primarily targeted heart attack patients by providing physician-assisted care from highly trained paramedic firefighters. Initially, the program involved a physician riding with two paramedics. Eventually, the model evolved into having a physician communicate with paramedics via mobile radio. In 1972, after Vickery retired, he was appointed to be the head of Seattle City Light, the city’s publicly owned power company. He served in that capacity until 1979, when he was appointed by President Jimmy Carter to head the U.S. Fire Administration. He served in that capacity for five years. During his tenure, he established the U.S. Fire Academy, developed an advanced fire prevention education program, developed a national fire incident reporting system, and lobbied Congress for mandatory smoke detectors and sprinklers in public buildings. Importantly, Vickery also was appointed by President Carter as the acting head of the newly created Federal Emergency Management Agency. He served as acting FEMA director from April to July, 1979.

James Lee Witt (b. 1944) James Lee Witt was born in Paris, Arkansas, in 1944. Witt grew up in Arkansas and began his own construction business in 1968. Witt entered public service at the county level. At the age of thirty-four, he was elected as a county judge in Yell County, Arkansas. He was reelected to that post six times. In 1988, Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas designated Witt to head the state’s Office of Emergency Services. This agency was responsible for coordinating emergency management activities within the State of Arkansas. When Bill Clinton became president of the United States in January 1993, Witt was nominated to be the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Witt was confirmed by the Senate in January 1993 and served as the FEMA director during the entirety of President Clinton’s two terms in office (1993–2001). Witt served as FEMA director during an important and active period of time for the agency. President Clinton elevated FEMA to a cabinet-level agency. Additionally, prior to Witt’s

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arrival, FEMA had come to be viewed in Washington, DC as one of the federal agencies serving as political dumping grounds. In other words, the FEMA leadership cadre had long and consistently been replete with political appointees who received their appointments as political favors. During Witt’s service as director, this reputation for FEMA was dramatically altered. Instead, FEMA came to be known under Witt as a professional emergency management agency that effectively provided and coordinated disaster assistance and relief. Many factors contributed to Witt’s success as a FEMA director. He served for eight years in that capacity, giving him the opportunity to make organizational and cultural changes within the FEMA bureaucracy. In that time, he was able to flatten the organizational structure of FEMA. Witt was also the first FEMA director to have experience as an emergency management director (in his case, in the state of Arkansas). Witt put an end to the practice of patronage appointments. Instead, FEMA senior executives under Witt, like Witt himself, were required to possess experience and training in emergency management or related areas. After leaving the FEMA directorship, Witt established the consulting firm James Lee Witt Associates, LLC. This organization provides consulting services to state and local governments on emergency management and disaster preparedness issues. In 2005, the firm was hired by the State of Louisiana to oversee reconstruction efforts after Hurricane Katrina.

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6 Data and Documents

T

he purpose of this chapter is to permit readers to gather key facts and data about the function of emergency management in the United States by providing excerpts from government authorizations and other published statements that articulate the federal government’s emergency management role. In particular, portions of key executive orders, legislation, and Congressional testimony are provided, which speak to the responsibilities, corresponding authorities, and challenges facing federal emergency management officials and organizations in the United States today.

Key Executive Orders and Legislation In this section, readers will have the opportunity to review the text of key executive orders and legislation that have authorized and guided the delivery of federal emergency management activities in the United States in the past three decades. Specifically, the 1979 Executive Order 12127 (which created FEMA), portions of the Stafford Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of 1988 (which granted FEMA statutory authority), and portions of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 are reprinted below. The Stafford Act is an especially lengthy piece of legislation. Many important elements of the law have been left out of the excerpt below due to length constraints. Elements covered by the act but not provided below include various criteria defining federal mitigation efforts, as well as provisions of the law that permit


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Data and Documents

the federal government to grant individual and household aid (food, shelter, unemployment assistance, funeral assistance) to those impacted by disasters.

Creation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency Executive Order 12127, issued March 31, 1979. By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and laws of the United States of America, including Section 304 of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978, and in order to provide for the orderly activation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, it is hereby ordered as follows: 1–101. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 (43 FR 41943), which establishes the Federal Emergency Management Agency, provides for the transfer of functions, and the transfer and abolition of agencies and offices, is hereby effective. 1–102. The Director of the Office of Management and Budget shall, in accord with Section 302 of the Reorganization Plan, provide for all the appropriate transfers, including those transfers related to all the functions transferred from the Department of Commerce, the Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the President. 1–103. (a) The functions transferred from the Department of Commerce are those vested in the Secretary of Commerce, the Administrator and Deputy Administrator of the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration (now the United States Fire Administration (Sec. 2(a) of Public Law 95–422)), and the Superintendent of the National Academy for Fire Prevention and Control pursuant to the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974, as amended (15 U.S.C. 2201 et seq.), but not including any functions vested by the amendments made to other acts by Sections 18 and 23 of that Act (15 U.S.C. 278f and 1511). The functions vested in the Administrator by Sections 24 and 25 of that Act, as added by Sections 3 and 4 of Public Law 95–422 (15 U.S.C. 2220 and 2221), are not transferred to the Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Those functions are transferred with the Administrator and remain vested in him. (Section 201 of the Plan.) (b) There was also transferred from the Department of Commerce any function concerning the Emergency Broadcast System which was transferred to the Secretary of Commerce by Section 5B of Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1977 (42 FR 56101; implemented by Executive Order No. 12046 of March 27, 1978). (Section 203 of the Plan.)

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Robert T. Stafford Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of 1988 157

1–104. The functions transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development are those vested in the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development pursuant to Section 15(e) of the Federal Flood Insurance Act of 1956, as amended (42 U.S.C. 2414(e)), and the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as amended, and the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, as amended (42 U.S.C. 4001 et seq.), and Section 520(b) of the National Housing Act, as amended (12 U.S.C. 1735d(b)), to the extent necessary to borrow from the Treasury to make payments for reinsured and directly insured losses, and Title XII of the National Housing Act, as amended (12 U.S.C. 1749bbb et seq., and as explained in Section 1 of the National Insurance Development Act of 1975 (Section 1 of Public Law 94–13 at 12 U.S.C. 1749bbb note)). (Section 202 of the Plan.) 1–105. The functions transferred from the President are those concerning the Emergency Broadcast System which were transferred to the President by Section 5 of Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1977 (42 FR 56101; implemented by Executive Order No. 12046 of March 27, 1978). (Section 203 of the Plan.) 1–106. This Order shall be effective Sunday, April 1, 1979.

Robert T. Stafford Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of 1988 As codified into Title 42, United States Code, chapter 68 (selected excerpts)

Title I—Findings, Declarations and Definitions 5121. Congressional Findings and Declarations A. The Congress hereby finds and declares that— 1. Because disasters often cause loss of life, human suffering, loss of income, and property loss and damage; and 2. Because disasters often disrupt the normal functioning of governments and communities, and adversely affect individuals and families with great severity; special measures, designed to assist the efforts of the affected States in expediting the rendering of aid, assistance, and emergency services, and the reconstruction and rehabilitation of devastated areas, are necessary. B. It is the intent of the Congress, by this Act, to provide an orderly and continuing means of assistance by the Federal Government to State and local governments in carrying out their responsibilities to alleviate the suffering and damage which result from such disasters by—

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1. Revising and broadening the scope of existing disaster relief programs; 2. Encouraging the development of comprehensive disaster preparedness and assistance plans, programs, capabilities, and organizations by the States and by local governments; 3. Achieving greater coordination and responsiveness of disaster preparedness and relief programs; 4. Encouraging individuals, States, and local governments to protect themselves by obtaining insurance coverage to supplement or replace governmental assistance; 5. Encouraging hazard mitigation measures to reduce losses from disasters, including development of land use and construction regulations; and 6. Providing Federal assistance programs for both public and private losses sustained in disasters.

5122. Definitions As used in this Act— 1. “Emergency” means any occasion or instance for which, in the determination of the President, Federal assistance is needed to supplement State and local efforts and capabilities to save lives and to protect property and public health and safety, or to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in any part of the United States. 2. “Major disaster” means any natural catastrophe (including any hurricane, tornado, storm, high water, winddriven water, tidal wave, tsunami, earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, mudslide, snowstorm, or drought), or, regardless of cause, any fire, flood, or explosion, in any part of the United States, which in the determination of the President causes damage of sufficient severity and magnitude to warrant major disaster assistance under this Act to supplement the efforts and available resources of States, local governments, and disaster relief organizations in alleviating the damage, loss, hardship, or suffering caused thereby. 3. “United States” means the fifty States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. 4. “State” means any State of the United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. 5. “Governor” means the chief executive of any State. 6. The term “local government” means— A. A county, municipality, city, town, township, local public authority, school district, special district, intrastate district, council of governments (regardless of whether the council of governments is incorporated as a nonprofit corporation under State law), regional or

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interstate government entity, or agency or instrumentality of a local government; B. An Indian tribe or authorized tribal organization, or Alaska Native village or organization; and C. A rural community, unincorporated town or village, or other public entity, for which an application for assistance is made by a State or political subdivision of a State. 7. “Federal agency” means any department, independent establishment, Government corporation, or other agency of the executive branch of the Federal Government, including the United States Postal Service, but shall not include the American National Red Cross. 8. “Public facility” means the following facilities owned by a State or local government: A. Any flood control, navigation, irrigation, reclamation, public power, sewage treatment and collection, water supply and distribution, watershed development, or airport facility. B. Any non-Federal-aid street, road, or highway. C. Any other public building, structure, or system, including those used for educational, recreational, or cultural purposes. D. Any park. 9. “Private nonprofit facility” means private nonprofit educational, utility, irrigation, emergency, medical, rehabilitational, and temporary or permanent custodial care facilities (including those for the aged and disabled), other private nonprofit facilities which provide essential services of a governmental nature to the general public, and facilities on Indian reservations as defined by the President.

Title II—Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation Assistance 5131. Federal and State Disaster Preparedness Programs A. Utilization of services of other agencies. The President is authorized to establish a program of disaster preparedness that utilizes services of all appropriate agencies and includes— 1. Preparation of disaster preparedness plans for mitigation, warning, emergency operations, rehabilitation, and recovery; 2. Training and exercises; 3. Postdisaster critiques and evaluations; 4. Annual review of programs; 5. Coordination of Federal, State, and local preparedness programs; 6. Application of science and technology; 7. Research. B. Technical assistance for the development of plans and programs. The President shall provide technical assistance to the States in

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developing comprehensive plans and practicable programs for preparation against disasters, including hazard reduction, avoidance, and mitigation; for assistance to individuals, businesses, and State and local governments following such disasters; and for recovery of damages or destroyed public and private facilities. C. Grants to States for development of plans and programs. Upon application by a State, the President is authorized to make grants, not to exceed in the aggregate to such State $250,000, for the development of plans, programs, and capabilities for disaster preparedness and prevention. Such grants shall be applied for within one year from the date of enactment of this Act [enacted May 22, 1974]. Any State desiring financial assistance under this section shall designate or create an agency to plan and administer such a disaster preparedness program, and shall, through such agency, submit a State plan to the President, which shall— 1. Set forth a comprehensive and detailed State program for preparation against and assistance following, emergencies and major disasters, including provisions for assistance to individuals, businesses, and local governments; and 2. Include provisions for appointment and training of appropriate staffs, formulation of necessary regulations and procedures and conduct of required exercises. D. Grants for improvement, maintenance, and updating of State plans. The President is authorized to make grants not to exceed 50 per centum of the cost of improving, maintaining and updating State disaster assistance plans, including evaluations of natural hazards and development of the programs and actions required to mitigate such hazards; except that no such grant shall exceed $ 50,000 per annum to any State.

5148. Nonliability of Federal Government The Federal Government shall not be liable for any claim based upon the exercise or performance of or the failure to exercise or perform a discretionary function or duty on the part of a Federal agency or an employee of the Federal Government in carrying out the provisions of this Act.

5150. Use of Local Firms and Individuals In the expenditure of Federal funds for debris clearance, distribution of supplies, reconstruction, and other major disaster or emergency assistance activities which may be carried out by contract or agreement with private organizations, firms, or individuals, preference shall be given, to the extent feasible and practicable, to those organizations, firms, and individuals residing or doing business primarily in the area affected by such major disaster or emergency. This section shall not be considered

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to restrict the use of Department of Defense resources in the provision of major disaster assistance under this Act. In carrying out this section, a contract or agreement may be set aside for award based on a specific geographic area.

5151. Nondiscrimination in Disaster Assistance A. Regulations for equitable and impartial relief operations. The President shall issue, and may alter and amend, such regulations as may be necessary for the guidance of personnel carrying out Federal assistance functions at the site of a major disaster or emergency. Such regulations shall include provisions for ensuring that the distribution of supplies, the processing of applications, and other relief and assistance activities shall be accomplished in an equitable and impartial manner, without discrimination on the grounds of race, color, religion, nationality, sex, age, or economic status. B. Compliance with regulations as prerequisite to participation by other bodies in relief operations. As a condition of participation in the distribution of assistance or supplies under this Act or of receiving assistance under this Act, governmental bodies and other organizations shall be required to comply with regulations relating to nondiscrimination promulgated by the President, and such other regulations applicable to activities within an area affected by a major disaster or emergency as he deems necessary for the effective coordination of relief efforts.

5152. Use and Coordination of Relief Organizations A. In providing relief and assistance under this Act, the President may utilize, with their consent, the personnel and facilities of the American National Red Cross, the Salvation Army, the Mennonite Disaster Service, and other relief or disaster assistance organizations, in the distribution of medicine, food, supplies, or other items, and in the restoration, rehabilitation, or reconstruction of community services housing and essential facilities, whenever the President finds that such utilization is necessary. B. The President is authorized to enter into agreements with the American National Red Cross, the Salvation Army, the Mennonite Disaster Service, and other relief or disaster assistance organizations under which the disaster relief activities of such organizations may be coordinated by the Federal coordinating officer whenever such organizations are engaged in providing relief during and after a major disaster or emergency. Any such agreement shall include provisions ensuring that use of Federal facilities, supplies, and services will be in compliance with regulations prohibiting duplication of benefits and guaranteeing nondiscrimination promulgated by the President under this Act, and such other regulation as the President may require.

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5170. Procedure for Declaration All requests for a declaration by the President that a major disaster exists shall be made by the Governor of the affected State. Such a request shall be based on a finding that the disaster is of such severity and magnitude that effective response is beyond the capabilities of the State and the affected local governments and that Federal assistance is necessary. As part of such request, and as a prerequisite to major disaster assistance under this Act, the Governor shall take appropriate response action under State law and direct execution of the State’s emergency plan. The Governor shall furnish information on the nature and amount of State and local resources which have been or will be committed to alleviating the results of the disaster, and shall certify that, for the current disaster, State and local government obligations and expenditures (of which State commitments must be a significant proportion) will comply with all applicable cost-sharing requirements of this Act. Based on the request of a Governor under this section, the President may declare under this Act that a major disaster or emergency exists.

5170a. General Federal Assistance In any major disaster, the President may— 1. Direct any Federal agency, with or without reimbursement, to utilize its authorities and the resources granted to it under Federal law (including personnel, equipment, supplies, facilities, and managerial, technical, and advisory services) in support of State and local assistance efforts; 2. Coordinate all disaster relief assistance (including voluntary assistance) provided by Federal agencies, private organizations, and State and local governments; 3. Provide technical and advisory assistance to affected State and local governments for— A. The performance of essential community services; B. Issuance of warnings of risks and hazards; C. Public health and safety information, including dissemination of such information; D. Provision of health and safety measures; and E. Management, control, and reduction of immediate threats to public health and safety; and 4. Assist State and local governments in the distribution of medicine, food, and other consumable supplies, and emergency assistance.

5173. Debris Removal A. Authorization for use of Federal assistance and grants to State or local government. The President, whenever he determines it to be in the public interest, is authorized—

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1. Through the use of Federal departments, agencies, and instrumentalities, to clear debris and wreckage resulting from a major disaster from publicly and privately owned lands and waters; and 2. To make grants to any State or local government or owner or operator of a private non-profit facility for the purpose of removing debris or wreckage resulting from a major disaster from publicly or privately owned lands and waters. B. State or local government authorization; indemnification of Federal government. No authority under this section shall be exercised unless the affected State or local government shall first arrange an unconditional authorization for removal of such debris or wreckage from public and private property, and, in the case of removal of debris or wreckage from private property, shall first agree to indemnify the Federal Government against any claim arising from such removal. C. Rules relating to large lots. The President shall issue rules which provide for recognition of differences existing among urban, suburban, and rural lands in implementation of this section so as to facilitate adequate removal of debris and wreckage from large lots. D. Federal share. The Federal share of assistance under this section shall be not less than 75 percent of the eligible cost of debris and wreckage removal carried out under this section.

5184. Community Disaster Loans A. In General. The President is authorized to make loans to any local government which may suffer a substantial loss of tax and other revenues as a result of a major disaster, and has demonstrated a need for financial assistance in order to perform its governmental functions. B. Amount. The amount of any such loan shall be based on need, shall not exceed 25 per centum of the annual operating budget of that local government for the fiscal year in which the major disaster occurs, and shall not exceed $5,000,000. C. Repayment. 1. Cancellation. Repayment of all or any part of such loan to the extent that revenues of the local government during the three full fiscal year period following the major disaster are insufficient to meet the operating budget of the local government, including additional disasterrelated expenses of a municipal operation character shall be cancelled. 2. Condition on continuing eligibility. A local government shall not be eligible for further assistance under this section during any period in which the local government is in arrears with respect to a required repayment of a loan under this section. D. Effect on other assistance. Any loans made under this section shall not reduce or otherwise affect any grants or other assistance under this Act.

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5185. Emergency Communications The President is authorized during, or in anticipation of an emergency or major disaster to establish temporary communications systems and to make such communications available to State and local government officials and other persons as he deems appropriate.

5186. Emergency Public Transportation The President is authorized to provide temporary public transportation service in an area affected by a major disaster to meet emergency needs and to provide transportation to governmental offices, supply centers, stores, post offices, schools, major employment centers, and such other places as may be necessary in order to enable the community to resume its normal pattern of life as soon as possible.

5191. Procedure for Declaration A. Request and declaration. All requests for a declaration by the President that an emergency exists shall be made by the Governor of the affected State. Such a request shall be based on a finding that the situation is of such severity and magnitude that effective response is beyond the capabilities of the State and the affected local governments and that Federal assistance is necessary. As a part of such request, and as a prerequisite to emergency assistance under this Act, the Governor shall take appropriate action under State law and direct execution of the State’s emergency plan. The Governor shall furnish information describing the State and local efforts and resources which have been or will be used to alleviate the emergency, and will define the type and extent of Federal aid required. Based upon such Governor’s request, the President may declare that an emergency exists. B. Certain emergencies involving Federal primary responsibility. The President may exercise any authority vested in him by section 502 or section 503 [42 U.S.C. section 5192 or section 5193] with respect to an emergency when he determines that an emergency exists for which the primary responsibility for response rests with the United States because the emergency involves a subject area for which, under the Constitution or laws of the United States, the United States exercises exclusive or preeminent responsibility and authority. In determining whether or not such an emergency exists, the President shall consult the Governor of any affected State, if practicable. The President’s determination may be made without regard to subsection (a).

5192. Federal Emergency Assistance A. Specified in any emergency, the President may— 1. Direct any Federal agency, with or without reimbursement, to utilize its authorities and the resources granted to it under Federal law

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(including personnel, equipment, supplies, facilities, and managerial, technical and advisory services) in support of State and local emergency assistance efforts to save lives, protect property and public health and safety, and lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe; 2. Coordinate all disaster relief assistance (including voluntary assistance) provided by Federal agencies, private organizations, and State and local governments; 3. Provide technical and advisory assistance to affected State and local governments for— A. The performance of essential community services; B. Issuance of warnings of risks or hazards; C. Public health and safety information, including dissemination of such information; D. Provision of health and safety measures; and E. Management, control, and reduction of immediate threats to public health and safety; 4. Provide emergency assistance through Federal agencies; 5. Remove debris in accordance with the terms and conditions of section 407 [42 U.S.C. section 5173]; 6. Provide assistance in accordance with section 408 [42 U.S.C. section 5174]; and [(Pub.L. 106–390, section 206(b), October 30, 2000)] 7. Assist State and local governments in the distribution of medicine, food, and other consumable supplies, and emergency assistance. B. General. Whenever the Federal assistance provided under subsection (a) with respect to an emergency is inadequate, the President may also provide assistance with respect to efforts to save lives, protect property and public health and safety, and lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe.

5193. Amount of Assistance A. Federal share. The Federal share for assistance provided under this title [42 U.S.C. sections 5191 et seq.] shall be equal to not less than 75 percent of the eligible costs; B. Limit on amount of assistance; 1. In general, except as provided in paragraph (2), total assistance provided under this title [42 U.S.C. sections 5191 et seq.] for a single emergency shall not exceed $5,000,000. 2. Additional assistance. The limitation described in paragraph (1) may be exceeded when the President determines that— A. Continued emergency assistance is immediately required; B. There is a continuing and immediate risk to lives, property, public health or safety; and C. Necessary assistance will not otherwise be provided on a timely basis.

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3. Report. Whenever the limitation described in paragraph (1) is exceeded, the President shall report to the Congress on the nature and extent of emergency assistance requirements and shall propose additional legislation if necessary.

Homeland Security Act of 2002 As codified in Title 6 United States Code, Chapter 1 (selected excerpts)

Title V—Emergency Preparedness and Response Sec. 501. Under Secretary for Emergency Preparedness and Response There shall be in the Department a Directorate of Emergency Preparedness and Response headed by an Under Secretary for Emergency Preparedness and Response.

Sec. 502. Responsibilities The Secretary, acting through the Under Secretary for Emergency Preparedness and Response, shall include— (1) Helping to ensure the effectiveness of emergency response providers to terrorist attacks, major disasters, and other emergencies; (2) With respect to the Nuclear Incident Response Team (regardless of whether it is operating as an organizational unit of the Department pursuant to this title)— (A) Establishing standards and certifying when those standards have been met; (B) Conducting joint and other exercises and training and evaluating performance; and (C) Providing funds to the Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency, as appropriate, for homeland security planning, exercises and training, and equipment; (3) Providing the Federal Government’s response to terrorist attacks and major disasters, including— (A) Managing such response; (B) Directing the Domestic Emergency Support Team, the Strategic National Stockpile, the National Disaster Medical System, and (when operating as an organizational unit of the Department pursuant to this title) the Nuclear Incident Response Team; (C) Overseeing the Metropolitan Medical Response System; and (D) Coordinating other Federal response resources in the event of a terrorist attack or major disaster;

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(4) Aiding the recovery from terrorist attacks and major disasters; (5) Building a comprehensive national incident management system with Federal, State, and local government personnel, agencies, and authorities, to respond to such attacks and disasters; (6) Consolidating existing Federal Government emergency response plans into a single, coordinated national response plan; and (7) Developing comprehensive programs for developing interoperative communications technology, and helping to ensure that emergency response providers acquire such technology.

Sec. 503. Functions Transferred In accordance with title XV, there shall be transferred to the Secretary the functions, personnel, assets, and liabilities of the following entities: (1) The Federal Emergency Management Agency, including the functions of the Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency relating thereto; (2) The Integrated Hazard Information System of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which shall be renamed ‘FIRESAT’; (3) The National Domestic Preparedness Office of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, including the functions of the Attorney General relating thereto; (4) The Domestic Emergency Support Teams of the Department of Justice, including the functions of the Attorney General relating thereto; (5) The Office of Emergency Preparedness, the National Disaster Medical System, and the Metropolitan Medical Response System of the Department of Health and Human Services, including the functions of the Secretary of Health and Human Services and the Assistant Secretary for Public Health Emergency Preparedness relating thereto; (6) The Strategic National Stockpile of the Department of Health and Human Services, including the functions of the Secretary of Health and Human Services relating thereto.

Sec. 504. Nuclear Incident Response (a) IN GENERAL—At the direction of the Secretary (in connection with an actual or threatened terrorist attack, major disaster, or other emergency in the United States), the Nuclear Incident Response Team shall operate as an organizational unit of the Department. While so operating, the Nuclear Incident Response Team shall be subject to the direction, authority, and control of the Secretary. (b) RULE OF CONSTRUCTION—Nothing in this title shall be construed to limit the ordinary responsibility of the Secretary of Energy and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency for organizing, training, equipping, and utilizing their respective entities in the Nuclear Incident Response Team, or (subject to the provisions of

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this title) from exercising direction, authority, and control over them when they are not operating as a unit of the Department.

Sec. 505. Conduct of Certain Public Health-Related Activities (a) IN GENERAL—With respect to all public health-related activities to improve State, local, and hospital preparedness and response to chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear and other emerging terrorist threats carried out by the Department of Health and Human Services (including the Public Health Service), the Secretary of Health and Human Services shall set priorities and preparedness goals and further develop a coordinated strategy for such activities in collaboration with the Secretary. (b) EVALUATION OF PROGRESS—In carrying out subsection (a), the Secretary of Health and Human Services shall collaborate with the Secretary in developing specific benchmarks and outcome measurements for evaluating progress toward achieving the priorities and goals described in such subsection.

Sec. 506. Definition In this title, the term ‘Nuclear Incident Response Team’ means a resource that includes— (1) Those entities of the Department of Energy that perform nuclear or radiological emergency support functions (including accident response, search response, advisory, and technical operations functions), radiation exposure functions at the medical assistance facility known as the Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site (REAC/TS), radiological assistance functions, and related functions; and (2) Those entities of the Environmental Protection Agency that perform such support functions (including radiological emergency response functions) and related functions.

Sec. 507. Role of Federal Emergency Management Agency (a) IN GENERAL—The functions of the Federal Emergency Management Agency include the following: (1) All functions and authorities prescribed by the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.). (2) Carrying out its mission to reduce the loss of life and property and protect the Nation from all hazards by leading and supporting the Nation in a comprehensive, risk-based emergency management program— (A) of mitigation, by taking sustained actions to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their effects;

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(B) of planning for building the emergency management profession to prepare effectively for, mitigate against, respond to, and recover from any hazard; (C) of response, by conducting emergency operations to save lives and property through positioning emergency equipment and supplies, through evacuating potential victims, through providing food, water, shelter, and medical care to those in need, and through restoring critical public services; (D) of recovery, by rebuilding communities so individuals, businesses, and governments can function on their own, return to normal life, and protect against future hazards; and (E) of increased efficiencies, by coordinating efforts relating to mitigation, planning, response, and recovery. (b) FEDERAL RESPONSE PLAN— (1) ROLE OF FEMA—Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the Federal Emergency Management Agency shall remain the lead agency for the Federal Response Plan established under Executive Order No. 12148 (44 Fed. Reg. 43239) and Executive Order No. 12656 (53 Fed. Reg. 47491). (2) REVISION OF RESPONSE PLAN—Not later than 60 days after the date of enactment of this Act, the Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency shall revise the Federal Response Plan to reflect the establishment of and incorporate the Department.

Sec. 508. Use of National Private Sector Networks in Emergency Response To the maximum extent practicable, the Secretary shall use national private sector networks and infrastructure for emergency response to chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive disasters, and other major disasters.

Key Testimony before Congress After the perceived ineffective and even bumbling response of the federal government following the disaster that was Hurricane Katrina, many state and local government officials around the country, as well as members of Congress, have called for significant overhaul and reform at the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Persistent attempts through the Congressional hearing process have been made to fix blame for FEMA’s mishaps on the George W. Bush presidency and to lay the groundwork for organizational restructuring. Presented below are excerpts of testimonies before Congress presented by R. David Paulison,

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FEMA director, and George W. Foresman, under-secretary for Preparedness, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Both testimonies were presented to Congress in early 2007. In their own ways, each speaks to the FEMA reform movement that has gathered considerable steam since Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and respond, in some instances, to criticisms FEMA and the Department of Homeland Security perceived to be unjust. They also address what FEMA is doing organizationally to comply with the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006. Finally, they address the major budget priorities of the federal government insofar as emergency management and disaster planning are concerned.

Opening Statement of R. David Paulison Director, Federal Emergency Management Agency Under Secretary for Federal Emergency Management U.S. Department of Homeland Security Testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Homeland Security Friday, March 9, 2007 [Author’s Note: Words appearing in bold so appear in the published statements]

The FY2008 FEMA Budget: Building a New FEMA . . . Before I get into the details of the proposed budget, I want to make clear FEMA’s role and responsibilities when disaster strikes because there is a misconception among Americans as to what we can and are statutorily authorized to do. After last month’s Florida tornados, one local paper opined that FEMA should be on the ground within hours, not days. This is simply not practical. FEMA will be there quickly, but it is local and State first responders who are—by definition—the “first responders” and who will lead the immediate response efforts; not a Federal agency that does not and cannot have an office in every city. This is just one example of unrealistic or uninformed expectations encountered in emergency management at the national level.

So what does FEMA do?

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I. FEMA’s Mission FEMA’s mission is to help protect the nation from disasters. We help America mitigate against, prepare for, respond to, and recover from allhazards disasters. FEMA cannot and does not do this alone. The National Response Plan (NRP) is the map to Federal, tribal, State and local activities before, during and after a disaster. It is developed with the assistance of and implemented in coordination with 26 Federal departments and agencies as well as our tribal, State and local partners. On the ground, our tribal, State and local partners are the first responders in any disaster. To paraphrase former Speaker Tip O’Neil, “All Disasters Are Local.” FEMA will bring in or arrange for additional resources and staff to respond as appropriate and requested to assist in the recovery. But we do not act alone. Individuals and our partners at all levels of government must be part of the effort. Indeed, the National Response Plan is built on the assumption that incidents should be managed at the lowest possible geographic, organizational, and jurisdictional level possible. Each individual citizen and family has a role to play in their own response. In the past, senior DHS and FEMA leaders have, essentially, been mocked for the regular emphasis we placed on telling people to prepare themselves and their homes. We have repeatedly stressed the need to have water, rations, battery powered radios and other emergency goods on hand and to develop a family plan for evacuation. FEMA needs to get back to this basic message. When roads are flooded, bridges destroyed and the environment is, frankly, dangerous, people need to remember the old Boy Scout motto: “Be Prepared.” I will give you a personal example. I am from Florida and, not to anyone’s surprise, hurricanes often hit near my home. So each year, before the season starts, my family and I put in a supply of water, canned and packaged food, flashlights, a radio, batteries and other essential supplies so that if our area is again hit, we are prepared to survive until services are restored. Except in extreme circumstances, such as when a victim’s home has been completely destroyed, why do we often see people get in line for food and drinking water? Like in the story of the grasshopper and the ant, those who do not prepare for the hardship find themselves hoping the government or someone else will step up to the plate and provide them with what they need when a little preparation could have left them better equipped to handle such a predictable situation. There will always be some who are physically or financially unable to make these preparations—and this is where government must move quickly to fill the gap. However, most Americans need to be educated on the steps they can take to avoid relying on the government for short term essentials.

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Ladies and gentlemen, too many Americans still do not plan for disaster. According to a poll conducted for a major news magazine last summer, only 16% of Americans say they are “personally ‘very well’ prepared should a natural disaster or public emergency strike their community.” More than half said they had taken no preparations such as those recommended by former Secretary Ridge and which my family makes every year. Even those who lived through Katrina personally are not learning all they could from their experience, with 24% saying they are not prepared for another disaster. [Author’s note: This statistic comes from a Time Magazine poll conducted by telephone between August 9–10, 2006 among a national random sample of 1,003 adults, age 18 and older throughout America]. FEMA’s next responsibility is to provide support to first responders, tribal, State and local officials and individuals when a disaster hits—not to replace them or to take on all responsibilities. I am often amazed at the expectations some Americans have of FEMA. When I was in Florida on February 3 after the tornados struck, a reporter asked me when FEMA would have staff on site to help rebuild homes. This is not what Congress and the American people have tasked us to do. FEMA staff does not travel the country rebuilding homes. We are not in the construction business. We can sometimes supplement an individual financially when insurance, personal or State resources are not sufficient. It is critical to understand that FEMA’s role is to provide a starting point for recovery. In another example, a reporter asked when checks would arrive to those in need. I noted, to her surprise, that only about 400 residents had applied for help as of the third day after the disaster. We can only help people that we know need help. Individuals must ask FEMA for financial assistance. We saw what happened when this policy was ignored and funds were handed out during Katrina without demanding adequate accountability—waste, fraud and abuse. As an aside, during the response in Florida it took, on average, less than four days from the time of the application before individuals received financial support. FEMA’s primary mission is to serve as the lead federal coordinator for federal response efforts. The NRP serves as the planning mechanism by which this occurs. FEMA’s coordination mission acknowledges through the NRP that various Emergency Support Functions rely on the leadership, collaboration and expertise of many federal partners. Rather than operationally control federal responses, FEMA works to manage the system by which this occurs. FEMA has our work cut out for us in accomplishing our mission. This budget is a big step in providing us with the tools needed to accomplish our mission and meet this challenge.

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As we consider the President’s budget in the light of FEMA’s mission, I would like to discuss with you the past, present and future of FEMA and how this budget will help make us an agency that is better, stronger, faster than before.

II. FEMA’s Past—Lessons Learned, Changes Made It has often been said that “those who do not learn from the past are doomed to repeat it.” FEMA has learned from the past and is prepared to move forward. Before Katrina and Rita, FEMA focused on preparing our own resources to respond to a disaster. We did not focus on preparing communities to make plans and preparations before disasters strike nor on the role of tribal, State and local governments afterwards. This was a mistake that will not be repeated. The 2005 hurricane season was a wake-up call to FEMA and emergency managers across the country. As President Bush said that September, “This government will learn the lessons of Hurricane Katrina. We are going to review every action and make necessary changes so that we are better prepared for any challenge of nature, or act of evil men, that could threaten our people.”

Before Disaster Strikes To begin with, FEMA is better focused on improving our training and preparation before an event. In recent years we have developed and expanded our cadre of policy experts who are an integral part of planning and preparedness before a disaster strikes. We will discuss this greater focus on preparedness when we look at FEMA’s present and future. But in addition to bringing in new people in recent years to improve our policies, we have already implemented changes in certain programs that highlight this new awareness. One example of recent activity that will leave us better prepared for the next disaster is the Pre-Disaster Mitigation Grant Program. In FY 2006 we distributed more than $108 million in FY 2003 through FY 2006 funds through this program to tribal, State, territorial and local governments for implementing cost-effective mitigation planning and projects before disasters occur. These nationally competitive grants support a range of activities that will reduce the overall risk to people and property while also reducing reliance on future Federal funding. We have also made significant reforms that respond to specific challenges that arose during Katrina.

Communications The first area needing immediate attention was the breakdown in communications that occurred in 2005, both between the Federal

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government and our partners at the State and local levels, as well as between Federal agencies. Information sharing was probably the single largest point of failure during Katrina. But over the past two years we have taken major steps to make sure this breakdown does not happen again. In 2006, we completed the upgrades and renovations needed to create a state-of-the-art National Response Coordination Center. This gives us a central location where all Federal agencies meet during a disaster to coordinate our response under the NRP. During Katrina, we not only had a failure in our communications with people in the field—a contact that was needed for us to have situational awareness of what was happening on the ground—but we also failed to coordinate with our partners across the Federal government. This center has a seat at the table for each of the 26 agencies that are part of the NRP as well as secure links to key offices around the country and the capability to bring State and local officials into the conversation. I invite you to visit the center, which is here in the Capitol area, and see first-hand the priority we have placed on cooperation and communication. In 2006, FEMA’s Office of National Security focused on the multiyear task of building an Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS). Last year we successfully completed the Digital Emergency Alert System pilot and worked with the Association of Public Television Stations deploying the system to all PBS affiliates around the country. In addition, FEMA helped stand up two new Emergency Alert System Primary Entry Point radio stations—located in Mississippi and Alabama—and 15 hurricane region stations were provided with satellite links to improve their communications during disasters. When this project is completed over the next five years, it will greatly enhance our nation’s emergency communications capabilities. We have made our communications and outreach to tribal, State and local officials a high priority of our new leadership. Our expanded regions will build strong ties on the ground. I am committed to reaching out when an event appears imminent or as soon as it strikes. Let me highlight two examples of how this focus on better communications is already paying off. During the 2006 hurricane season, we were fortunate to have a dry run of our improved system when Hurricane Ernesto threatened our coast. I was in touch with each governor and emergency manager in atrisk States as it progressed, the National Hurricane Center was included in these discussions, and we were in constant contact and ready to act had Ernesto made landfall. Every State and local official I have spoken with since then has expressed their gratitude for this line of communication. In addition we had officials from the United States Northern Command, known as NORTHCOM, from the Department of

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the Defense involved in this process—the first time such officers have been part of such calls. More recently, following the Florida tornados that struck in February, I was frequently on the phone with Governor Crist and other Florida officials—addressing their concerns and advising them of our plans. The day after the tornados hit, I was personally on the scene to make sure we were responding to local needs and to ensure there were no miscommunications with our State and local partners.

Logistics A second area of weakness identified in 2005 that we have focused on in recent years is logistics. We need to have our logistics ready to go. Local distribution is a State and local responsibility. But we need to know where supplies are and be able to deliver them to the right place, at the right time, and in the right quantity when our assistance is requested. In 2006, FEMA dramatically increased the nation’s stockpiles of relief supplies. Today we have four times the emergency meals and ice, and two and a half times the amount of water that were available in 2005. We can supply 1 million people for at least one week. But this stockpile is of little use if we cannot deliver it when and where it is needed. We have improved communications with our drivers and invested in greater technology for tracking their location. In 2006, FEMA implemented the first phase of the Total Asset Visibility program in two regions to provide enhanced visibility, awareness and accountability over disaster relief supplies and resources. This program assists in both resource flow and supply chain management. Technology could not have done this by itself, of course. We have focused on improved supply chain management and improved preparations. Today we have better management systems involving shorter supply lines and a deeper ability to use the supplies we have prepositioned. We have a better understanding of what will be needed in different types of emergencies and are prepared to make better use of the supplies in our regional depots. We have pre-established contracts to supplement our needs, so that paperwork does not delay aid from arriving when needed. In short, we have taken a page from the book of our nation’s best business practices and are truly working smarter and harder. This new system works. Under the program we placed approximately 20,000 GPS units in our trucks and with our supplies. With improved communications and management we were able to locate needed supplies and get them moving quicker. When I was in Florida following the tornados, I was able to log on to a lap-top in my car and see in real time the supplies moving into the State and see when they would arrive. This was information that could then be immediately

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shared with State and local officials who were determining their own needs and resources and could then plan for the arrival and distribution of these supplies.

Continuity of Operations (COOP) Another key lesson learned from Katrina, Rita and Wilma was that the Federal, State, local, and tribal governments must be ready to provide essential functions and services to the citizens during times of crisis. FEMA plays a central role in the Federal government’s planning and preparation for ensuring the continuity of government operations during a national disaster. In 2006, FEMA’s Office of National Security Coordination conducted “Forward Challenge 06,” the largest full-scale interagency COOP exercise in history. “Forward Challenge 06” involved over 50 departments and agencies deploying to alternate sites for a 30-hour period. In addition, 32 COOP tabletop exercises were conducted, seven of which were designed to assist Federal COOP program managers with preparing for a pandemic influenza environment. FEMA delivered over 80 COOP manager’s train-the-trainers courses, resulting in over 2,403 individuals trained and certified and reaching all 30 major departments and agencies as well as 551 smaller Federal, State, local and tribal organizations.

Reducing Waste, Fraud and Abuse FEMA recognized that in the past we sometimes focused on getting the aid out quickly and sometimes did not include sufficient accountability to the distribution of funds. This has changed. Allowing a Government Accounting Office report and our own internal review of the problems encountered post-Katrina and Rita, FEMA has worked to proactively implement more stringent controls concerning fraud and abuse. These reforms include: –Deployment in October 2005 of a new Internet registration application that disallows any duplicate registrations; –Adding identity proofing to the call center registration application in February 2006 so that all Individual and Households Program (IHP) registrations are subjected to the same stringent criteria that includes verification of social security numbers; –Amending automated scripts to ensure no scripted payments are sent to applicants who fail identity proofing; –Sending all applications taken on the call center application from August 2005 until February 2006 to FEMA’s data contractor for identity proofing to identify any potentially fraudulent applications; –Data-marking any applications in FEMA’s database that fail identity proofing so they may be flagged for review and denied automated payment;

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–Real-time interaction between the FEMA Service Representative and the applicant during registration to ensure that the data entered that resulted in a failed identity check is correct before accepting the application; –Adding verification of Occupancy and Ownership with a data contractor to the registration process for every disaster victim starting in June 2006. This will allow FEMA to ensure that an applicant lives at the address that they claimed before automating any payments to that address; –Working with FEMA’s data contractor to flag any addresses that are not residential addresses in order to prevent automated payments without an on-site inspection verification of address and residency; –Flagging at risk social security numbers to identify potential fraud; –Engaging with the Social Security Administration to determine whether or not they can add value to FEMA’s existing identity verification process; and –Developing state of the art software that may maintain data on applicants in mobile homes and communicate real-time data to caseworkers and the auto-determination system in order to prevent potential overpayment. In addition to the above, FEMA is continuing to identify and process recoupment of improper payments and has improved our system to make it much more resistant to future fraud by the unscrupulous few, while being careful not to create an undue burden on the deserving victims of disasters. Through the challenges presented from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, FEMA has learned how to better respond to such catastrophic disasters. Should such an event occur again, the lessons learned will enable us to say with more confidence that we are doing all we can under our authorities to serve disaster victims in their greatest time of need, while ensuring the confidence of the American taxpayers of FEMA’s fiscal integrity. Improved planning and preparations, stronger communications, better management of logistics, revised COOP plans and a renewed focus on reducing fraud and abuse are just some of the key accomplishments and adjustments that we have made in response to the lessons learned from Katrina.

III. Today and Tomorrow: A “New FEMA” In the military, they often say you should not prepare to fight the last war. You need to look at new ideas before a situation arises. Similarly, we cannot allow our preparations to only focus on events in the past. Our actions must lean forward and we must be on the cutting edge of emergency preparedness.

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Today In recent months we have concentrated on improvements in a few key areas: First, we have improved our disaster operations, including operational planning, hazard mitigation, and logistics. As I have already mentioned, we saw these work in 2006 and earlier this year. Next, we have improved disaster assistance, including case management and customer service to disaster victims. Again, our response in Florida shows our improvements in this area as we had mobile units that could register victims on the scene within days. In fact, it took less than 48 hours to make funds available to our first applicant for aid. Finally, we have put renewed emphasis on our business processes, including how we execute basic operations such as financial management, procurement, acquisition, IT, and human resources. As we discuss the budget, you will see that the President has also recognized the importance of a strong organizational base that the rest of the agency can rely on when they are busy responding to external events. In conjunction with these reforms, we have also taken larger, organizational steps to prepare this organization for the future. Earlier this year DHS and FEMA announced a reorganization that reflects the mandate established by Congress in last fall’s Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006. I am pleased to say that we did not attempt to simply meet the requirements you set forth, but instead took this opportunity to reevaluate the offices under FEMA and DHS, and in particular the Preparedness Directorate. Together we developed a comprehensive reorganization that will both provide FEMA with a stronger structure and better align our functions with other Federal agencies. The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 transfers, with the exception of certain offices listed in the Act, functions of the Preparedness Directorate to the new FEMA. This transfer includes: –The United States Fire Administration (USFA) –The Office of Grants and Training (G&T) –The Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEPP) –The Radiological Emergency Preparedness Program (REPP) –The Office of National Capital Region Coordination (NCRC) As part of the reorganization we will create a new Directorate of National Preparedness within FEMA. This division will include existing FEMA programs and several legacy Preparedness Directorate programs. It will focus on policy, contingency planning, exercise coordination and evaluation, emergency management training and hazard mitigation with respect to the CSEPP and REPP. National Preparedness will oversee two divisions: Readiness, Prevention and Planning

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(RPP), and the National Integration Center (NIC). Readiness, Prevention and Planning will be the central office within FEMA handling preparedness policy and planning functions. The National Integration Center will maintain the National Incident Management System (NIMS), the NRP, and will coordinate activities with the USFA. Also under this new organization, the Office of Grants and Training will be moved to the new FEMA and become part of the new Preparedness Directorate. The Training and Systems Support Divisions of the Office of Grants and Training will be transferred to the NIC. The Office of the Citizen Corps within the Office of Grants and Training will be transferred into the FEMA Office of Readiness, Prevention and Planning. Additional headquarters positions created at FEMA by the PostKatrina Act include a Disability Coordinator, residing in the FEMA Office of Equal Rights, a Small State and Rural Advocate, a Law Enforcement Advisor to the Administrator and a National Advisory Council.

Tomorrow This new organization, when combined with the changes made in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, will result in a “New FEMA” that is better, stronger, faster and more nimble. With these immediate reforms and the reorganization already under way, my senior team and I have developed a vision for this “New FEMA” that will set us on the path to becoming the agency that America expects and deserves. To regain the trust and confidence of the American people, we will transform FEMA into the nation’s preeminent emergency management agency. To do this, we must: Strengthen core capabilities, competencies and capacities. Fostering a national emergency management system and implementing a cohesive national preparedness system must begin by strengthening the foundational building blocks of a weakened but venerable agency. The Nation needs a strong FEMA; but that cannot be achieved without purposeful new investments. Build strong Regions. The Region is the essential field echelon of FEMA that engages most directly with State partners and disaster victims to deliver frontline services. It is the Region that can build and nurture State and local capabilities across the spectrum of preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation. And it is the Region that will lead the Federal response to incidents across the spectrum of all-hazards events. The New FEMA will rely on strong Regions to regain the trust and confidence of Governors, mayors, leaders in the private sector and the citizens of our homeland. Strengthen our partnership with States. Response to disasters and emergencies is primarily a State and local effort. To build and support

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an effective National system of emergency management, FEMA must have effective partnerships with State and local governments. Professionalize the national emergency management system. The Nation’s ability to marshal an effective response to disasters requires the right people with the right skills. We will work with our partners to build a nationwide system of trained and certified experts skilled in all hazards emergency management—starting right here in FEMA. Focusing on core capabilities and the partnerships and people that comprise the Nation’s preparedness and emergency management system will enable us to: Marshal an effective national response. We will respond more quickly and effectively, bringing the right people and resources from across Federal departments and agencies to bear when and where they are needed. Deliver service of value to the public. We will provide timely, compassionate and less bureaucratic disaster assistance to hasten the recovery of individuals and communities while minimizing the opportunity for waste, fraud and abuse. Reduce vulnerability to life and property. We will work with our partners to prepare, plan, and mitigate before disaster strikes, and leverage those opportunities to reduce risk and the actual loss of life and property. After a disaster, we will work with our state and local partners to rebuild stronger based on proven mitigation measures. Instill public confidence. FEMA will demonstrate mission effectiveness and efficiency, in proper balance, to regain the trust, faith and confidence of the American public. Organizationally, no asset should be more prized, or more dear when lost, than the confidence of the public we serve. We will work with our many partners to build an Agency the Nation can once again look to with pride. Therefore, with keen focus and discipline, we will build FEMA’s operational core competencies: 1. Incident Management 2. Operational Planning 3. Disaster Logistics 4. Emergency Communications 5. Service to Disaster Victims 6. Continuity Programs 7. Public Disaster Communications 8. Integrated Preparedness 9. Hazard Mitigation These core competencies must be grounded in an ethos that employs a business approach to achieving desired results. This approach will enable wise decisions backed by finance, budget, human resource and information systems support capabilities designed and scaled to

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enhance FEMA’s mission success. We recognize how far we have to go to truly achieve this Business Approach to Achieving Desired Results, but we will not shrink from the work it will require. To attain an analytical and requirements based approach to managing the business of the Agency, we will: Develop integrated data systems that leverage proven hardware, software and middle ware to meet the needs of FEMA’s important mission and help give the Agency’s management and line staff the tools they need to get the job done and do it well. Establish program analysis and project management capabilities at decision points of the Agency, and institutionalize a results oriented, return-on-investment management culture. Build an efficient acquisition process that adheres to policies, proven standards, systems and procedures, supported by a balanced workload distribution, and instills proficient contract management as a key skill-set within the Agency. This is crucial to our ability to accomplish as much pre-event procurement as possible, ensuring that when an event occurs all that remains is the order to activate the assets and resources we need. Reform FEMA’s major management and administrative activities, including human capital, finance and budget, space management, personal property management, planning, recruitment and hiring. Lastly, to achieve enduring success as the Nation’s Preeminent Emergency Management Agency, we must Shape the Workforce that will take FEMA to a new level of competency and professionalism. To do this we must assess and transform the Agency’s over reliance on contractors and reserve workforce in order to strengthen the Agency’s force structure, achieve the right mix of skills and know-how, and strike the right balance of permanent, reservist and temporary personnel.

Incorporating Preparedness into the New FEMA FEMA is focused on incorporating the concept of preparedness into all its programs and making the protection and preparedness missions an integral part of a new, coherent Agency organization in support of a National Preparedness System. We do not intend to simply attach the preparedness assets to the existing FEMA structure and conduct business as usual plus some additional preparedness activities. Given the desire to take advantage of this opportunity to develop a whole new organizational approach, we have established an interagency Senior Leadership Team to provide vision and direction to the incorporation of FEMA and preparedness assets and functions into the “New FEMA,” and have set up a number of interagency functional teams to address the major transition management issues. We are also reaching out for consultation and collaboration to other DHS components; the Federal interagency community; Congress; the White House; key emergency

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management, law enforcement and preparedness organizations; the policy community; and State, local and private sector leaders. We anticipate completing the administrative actions needed to integrate FEMA and preparedness organizationally by March 31, 2007, while full integration of FEMA and preparedness functions will be an ongoing effort over the months following. Our approach to the creation of the “New FEMA” is designed to: –Incorporate lessons learned and best practices into the new organization with a focus on core competencies to build a strong foundation for maximum effectiveness from the start; –Ensure a unified approach to the incorporation of protection, preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation principles in foundational doctrines and documents such as the NRP, NIMS, the National Preparedness Goal, and the Target Capabilities List. –Develop strong partnerships with other DHS components, the Federal interagency community, and State, local and private sector leaders in support of a comprehensive approach to protection, preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation efforts incorporating performance-based operating principles. –Emphasize increased ability to address terrorist and other manmade acts as well as natural disasters—a risk-based all-hazards approach. –Strengthen the culture of customer service, reinforced by best in class business practices for internal and external delivery of service. –Support development of a more robust national emergency management system and an expanded and coordinated “Culture of Preparedness” building on the efforts of U/S Foresman and helping the Nation address the multitude of challenges we face. –Build strong regions as the essential field component that engages most directly with State and local partners and disaster victims to both increase State and local capabilities and respond to incidents when they occur. The President is dedicated to providing FEMA with the resources to make this vision a reality.

IV. A New and Improved Budget for a New and Improved FEMA An Overview This is truly a historic budget proposal that will make it possible to fulfill the mission that the President, Congress and the American people have called upon FEMA to perform. It is an unprecedented budget. FEMA has never had this level of support, authority or funding to truly expand and professionalize FEMA’s workforce. With the resources in this budget we will build a

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world class organization that can respond to disasters without day-today operations suffering as a result. To start, the Operations, Planning and Support budget for FEMA will increase by nearly $141.6 million to $667.6 million. This is nearly a 27% increase in FEMA’s base operating budget over FY07 levels. This is the funding that makes New FEMA possible. The reorganization, which this budget does account for, transfers the National Disaster Medical System out of FEMA and into the Department of Health and Human Services, while bringing new offices into the FEMA organization. FEMA’s budget also includes flood insurance and other programs. Considering these changes, the overall budget for operations and programs will increase $579 million to over $5.8 billion—an increase of 11%. This amount does not include the various grant programs administered, co-administered or coordinated by the Office of Grants and Training in conjunction with other Federal agencies. Some of these grants are reduced while others are increased. When all such programs are included, and increases and decreases put together, FEMA will have budget authority over more than $9 billion—an increase of $329 million or nearly 4%.

Specific Programs Benefit From Increased Funding The budget includes an increase of $100 million for FEMA’s Vision Initiatives, including staffing increases, new technologies, and targeted investment in equipment and supplies that will support emergency management efforts across preparedness, mitigation, protection, response, and recovery. As part of the $100 million increase for the Vision Initiative, over $21 million in additional funding will be allocated for Incident Management. FEMA’s ability to marshal an effective response to disasters must be based on a professional, national network of emergency managers skilled in incident management. FEMA will work with our State and association partners to establish common standards for training and certification of the nation’s emergency management personnel and provide better support to State and local emergency management organizations. In addition to being a facilitator and standard-bearer for the profession of emergency management, FEMA will become a leader and model of effective implementation of incident management skills and practices. The requested funding will be used to expand and strengthen professional emergency management certification, education, training, and career development; actively administer national response doctrine; strengthen FEMA’s incident management capability to ensure 24/7 operational awareness and strengthen FEMA’s regional operations and partnerships; and establish National Rapid Support and Response

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Team and Regional Rapid Support and Response Teams comprised of full-time support and response experts on 24/7 alert status. Also under the Vision Initiative is nearly $6 million in new funding for Operational Planning. When I became Director of FEMA I was shocked to learn that we had only one full-time and one-part time employee working on operational plans at FEMA. To rectify this immediate deficiency, FEMA asked for and received help from DHS and other partners who temporarily assisted us in this area. Today we propose to take up this responsibility ourselves. FEMA Operational Planners will assist State and local jurisdictions in developing specific operational plans that will guide their response activities. The funding requested will support FEMA’s ability to work with States through its ten regional offices to ensure the development of coordinated and integrated StateFederal operational plans and operational planning capabilities. These planning efforts will include response and recovery elements that will be integrated with State hazard mitigation plans. These jointly developed plans will form the basis for conducting joint Federal-State training and exercises, thus promoting a more robust, multi-level capability to quickly respond to notice or no-notice events. As part of this effort, FEMA will work at all levels to promote training in and the development of operational planning capability at State and local levels. FEMA will also engage with Federal, regional, and State partners to build incident specific catastrophic plans. I have discussed the lessons learned from Katrina about logistics and our initial corrections to address this issue. The Vision Initiative plan includes over $6 million in new funding for Disaster Logistics. To fully meet its dual responsibilities as both national coordinator and direct provider of assets, teams, commodities, and other Federal capabilities, FEMA must adopt new approaches to disaster logistics management that will require an innovative balance of manpower, processes, strategic partnerships, and technology. The funding requested will build this Disaster Logistics competency, enabling FEMA to establish a Logistics Directorate, led by a senior team of experienced logisticians with the ability to access and coordinate strategic partnerships with both the Department of Defense and the private sector. These partnerships will provide integrated logistics solutions that focus on the full, end-to-end supply chain to ensure efficient and effective management of the flow of assets, teams, equipment, and supplies to meet disaster requirements. FEMA will continue implementation and enhancements of a 21st century system to plan, identify, and track assets—from mobilization, to arrival, demobilization, and departure. As previously noted, Communications was a major problem during Katrina that we have worked to correct. The Vision Initiative includes $12.4 million for Emergency Communications. FEMA will serve as the integrated operational link and a major advocate for disaster

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emergency communications at the national level, working closely with the DHS Office of Emergency Communications and the State and local first responder community. The requested funding will enhance FEMA’s ability to engage across the Federal level and with States and other partners to establish and facilitate consistent disaster emergency communications standards including establishing a template of essential emergency communications capabilities. FEMA will also build its capability to provide emergency communications services before, during, and immediately after an event, including supporting State offices of emergency communications and ensuring the integrity of the first responder network. On top of this, nearly $1 million will be set aside for Public Disaster Communications. FEMA will assume a leadership position as coordinator of all hazards messaging to the American public during peacetime and disasters, leading the national campaign for greater personal and community preparedness. Specifically, the funding requested will support FEMA’s efforts to strengthen interagency incident communications systems and capabilities to ensure coordinated public information efforts across all hazards. By working one-on-one with State, local, and major urban area jurisdictions to build knowledge and capability for public information efforts and conducting planning, training, and exercises to ensure integrated crisis communication strategies and messaging FEMA will facilitate public discourse, outreach, and adoption of a national culture of personal preparedness and mitigation that will have a direct impact on reducing the loss of life and property. Through effective public communications and outreach programs, FEMA will ensure the general public is provided with and has access to vital disaster preparedness and planning information including those with special needs and multilingual and multicultural populations. To improve communications directly with the States as they improve their preparedness with Federal assistance, we will allocate more than $1.26 million to create Regional Grant Advocates. The Region is the essential field echelon of FEMA that engages most directly with State partners for all FEMA services to include grants guidance and technical assistance. The requested funding will support regional grant advocates for each State who will provide direct day-to-day interaction and support to the States on grant issues. Grant Advocates will facilitate the provision of technical assistance closer to the client, strengthen our partnership with States and Urban Area Security Initiative (UASI)—designated cities, and provide greater grant accountability. By placing dedicated grant advocates within each regional office, FEMA will build and nurture State and local capabilities across the spectrum of preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation utilizing the preparedness grant programs. Improved customer service to the public is also a critical part of New FEMA. An additional $4.4 million will be allocated to service

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disaster victims. Every disaster victim and affected community should expect FEMA to provide rapid, compassionate, and readily accessible disaster assistance that is easily understandable and consistently applied for individuals and across States and regions from one disaster to another. Through the requested funding, FEMA will improve the Individual Assistance (IA) and Public Assistance (PA) programs through the application of simplified and transparent processes, advanced technologies, and stronger and more interactive relationships with States, other government agencies, the private sector, and other providers of assistance. FEMA will dramatically improve its ability to deliver speedy, situation-appropriate, and accurately targeted disaster assistance to individuals, including those with disabilities or limited English proficiency, and communities through its IA and PA programs. Specific efforts will include making FEMA assistance programs easier to understand, improving the oversight of IA and PA programs to reduce waste, fraud, and abuse, maintaining a national debris removal registry, and improving national and international donations management. While we have made great strides in improving our COOP program, the initiative includes more than $25.6 million for additional Continuity Programs. As the lead agency for the nation’s continuity programs, FEMA must direct, guide, and assist all Executive Branch Departments and Agencies and their 300,000+ offices nationwide; provide guidance to the Legislative and Judicial Branches of Government, all 50 States, the territories, tribes, and local jurisdictions; and coordinate continuity program response and recovery assistance to all Federal Executive Branch and other government jurisdictions during major emergencies and disasters. The funding requested will allow FEMA to carry out these authorities, and enable FEMA to maintain an operational readiness posture and program capability that can respond to any national security event, and execute robust test, training, and exercise programs. FEMA will assess Executive Branch continuity programs to ensure enduring Constitutional government and continuity of essential Federal Executive Branch operations, and will fulfill requirements of Executive Order 13407 in establishing an Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS) that incorporates new and emerging technologies and maintaining a dependable and effective means of communicating with the public through the Emergency Alert System (EAS). The Vision Initiative also recognizes that while we can’t always avoid disasters, we can reduce the cost and impact they have through more effective mitigation. We will use $1.2 million of these funds for Hazard Mitigation, the most proactive and successful method for reducing the physical, financial, and emotional losses caused by disasters. FEMA’s hazard mitigation efforts consist of three objectives: risk analysis, risk reduction, and flood insurance. These objectives work in

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tandem in enabling the Nation’s at-risk population to reap the rewards of good hazard mitigation practices: –Creation of safer communities—reducing loss of life and property; –Recovering more rapidly from floods and other disasters; and –Reducing the financial impact on States, local and tribal communities, and the national treasury. Specifically, the requested funding will allow FEMA to continue its coastal mapping activity to improve the accuracy of flood hazard maps; provide data to State and local officials for evacuation planning; support efforts to address vulnerabilities associated with the Nation’s atrisk dams; and provide technical assistance for conducting risk assessments to evaluate all hazards impacts on communities. In addition, FEMA will work to create safer communities by supporting and proactively enhancing the capability of States and local communities to reduce their risk from natural hazards by supporting the implementation of cost-effective, long-term hazard mitigation measures through the Agency’s five Hazard Mitigation Assistance grant programs. Finally, as I’ve already noted, we need a firm base on which to build this organization. More than $20.8 million will be spent under this initiative to create a Business Approach to Achieving Desired Results. As FEMA strives to build the above core competencies, we must enable wise business decisions backed by finance, budget, human resource, and information systems support capabilities designed and scaled to enhance FEMA’s mission success. The requested funding will allow FEMA to develop integrated data systems that leverage proven hardware, software, and middle ware; establish program analysis and project management capabilities at decision points within the agency; build an efficient acquisition process that adheres to policies, proven standards, systems, and procedures; and reform FEMA’s major management and administrative activities, including human capital, finance and budget, space management, personal property management, planning, recruitment, and hiring. As part of the professionalization of staff, the budget proposal includes the transfer of $48 million from the Disaster Relief Fund to the Operations, Planning and Support account to convert more of FEMA’s Cadre of On-Call Response Employee (CORE) positions with 4-year terms into permanent full-time employees. The transfer allows the continued move to bring key CORE employees on-board so that we do not have to take key personnel from their regular duties during a crisis— thus leaving other jobs undone. While we will continue to hire CORE employees for specific recovery efforts, we will now have an expanded pool of talented and experienced individuals that can be put on-site during a disaster immediately and for as long as it takes. This funding

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transfer is in addition to the funds allocated under the Vision Initiative for improved operations and procedures. The proposed FY08 Budget includes increases for other programs, too. For the Disaster Relief Fund, there is a $213.5 million increase within FEMA over last year’s base level to $1.7 billion. In addition, the Budget proposes a transfer of $200 million in excess disaster funds from the Small Business Administration, for a total of $1.9 billion for the Disaster Relief Fund. This base level is set using historical models for disaster funding needs. Should a major event occur, the President, the Secretary and I will not abandon disaster victims but will either find additional funds or seek supplemental appropriations from Congress. Under the budget, the National Flood Insurance Fund expects to collect premium and fee revenues of more than $2.8 billion, which is $215 million over the FY07 projections, due to significant increases in the number of policyholders. In a normal year, flood insurance is selfsustaining. However, the National Flood Insurance Program suffered significant losses during the 2005 hurricane season and FEMA estimates the total payouts will exceed $21 billion when all claims are settled. To pay off claims from 2005, FEMA had to borrow funds from the U.S. Treasury which it must pay back with interest. The flood insurance program will continue to be challenged to pay both expected future claims and the interest that is approaching $800 million per year. FEMA and the Administration are committed to working with the Congress in identifying and implementing reforms to the National Flood Insurance Act that will strengthen its ability to meet financial obligations and other program objectives.

Some Programs Will See Reductions While FEMA, on the whole, is receiving a major influx of new funds, there are some programs that are budgeted below the FY 2007 Appropriated Level. Consistent with prior Administration requests, the budget includes $300 million for Assistance to Firefighter Grants. The FY 2008 request will fund hundreds of grants, focusing on those applications that enhance the most critical capabilities of local response in the event of a terrorist attack or major disasters. Since the AFG program began in FY 2001, Congress has appropriated over $3.6 billion to fund these grants to fire departments and other first responders, with FY 2006 funding still being distributed and the FY 2007 grant application process just beginning. As such, the Administration believes this is an appropriate level for the FY 2008 grants given the availability of significant amounts of funding for first responder preparedness missions from other DHS grant programs such as the Urban Areas Security Initiative and the State Homeland Security Grant Program.

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Finally, the FY 2008 request includes several decreases in funding for programs that transferred out of FEMA or changes in grant allocations that reflect a move towards placing more funding in programs that are better coordinated with State and local homeland security strategies and are allocated on the basis of risk.

What This Means for Other Grants Since 2001, the Federal government has allocated more than $16 billion in State and local homeland security preparedness funding, but over $5 billion in grant funds from prior fiscal years remain unexpended by State and local partners. The FY 2008 budget request includes $2.2 billion to support State and local grant programs, provide technical assistance funding, provide Assistance to Firefighters grants, and support training programs to Federal, tribal, State and local partners under FEMA. This clearly shows this Administration’s commitment to helping tribal, State and local governments cope with the initial costs associated with a higher state of readiness. In addition, FEMA will be co-administering the $1.0 billion Public Safety Interoperable Communications (PSIC) grant program with the Department of Commerce. When one combines the $5.8 billion in operations, the $2.2 billion in non-disaster FEMA grant programs and the $1.0 billion for interoperability grants, you will see the $9 billion that is proposed for FEMA’s mission—$329 million more than was appropriated in FY 2007 when new grants and reduced grants are all considered. The PSIC funding is not captured as part of the FY08 request as it was appropriated per the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 from anticipated spectrum auction. However, the funding will add to the total level of grant funding that will be made available to State and local governments.

V. What It All Means At the end of the day, what does a New FEMA with a larger budget, a reorganized structure and improved capabilities mean for the American Public? The FY 2008 Budget will result in a FEMA that is in touch with America, ready to respond and user friendly. Should a disaster appear imminent or even strike without warning, we will be prepared to alert State and local officials. Numerous lines of communication will be open through ground lines and satellite hook-ups, both directly to our partners and through the media to a greater audience. FEMA senior and regional staff will be in constant contact with our partners in State and local government as well as our colleagues here at FEMA and throughout the Federal government. We will pre-position equipment and supplies and we will know what we have and where it is. Items will be moved to disaster scenes even before

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a request or a declaration is made, so that if they are needed, they are at hand. If they are not there when a disaster is designated, we will know where they are in real-time and how long help will take to arrive. When the immediate threat has passed, FEMA will be on the ground almost immediately to help with recovery. Mobile facilities will arrive to register victims so that an assessment can be made quickly and resources allocated where needed. We will be able to help more people more quickly and with greater protection against waste, fraud and abuse. With help and encouragement from the New FEMA, the American people will be better prepared. Fewer individuals will be in dire need as the public learns to make preparations at home as well as evacuation plans to avoid foreseen dangers. Planning and preparation for disasters will also improve as State and local officials and first responders receive hands-on assistance from FEMA staff. The public will have greater confidence in the abilities of their tribal, State and local officials as they see more and more of their leaders trained and certified in emergency management, and more and more of their first responders receiving similar and expanded training that meets their own needs. In short, the New FEMA will be better, stronger, faster than before. And FEMA will be ready to take a leadership role where needed, provide support where appropriate and be on-hand across the country before and after any major event. Thank you for your time today and I look forward to answering your questions.

Reforming FEMA: Are We Making Progress? Statement of George W. Foresman Under Secretary for Preparedness U.S. Department of Homeland Security February 28, 2007 [Author’s Note: Words appearing in bold so appear in the published statements] Written testimony presented to the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Emergency Communications, Preparedness and Response & Subcommittee on Management, Investigations, and Oversight

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. . . Secretary Chertoff and the Department continue to progress in many areas to manage our full environment of 21st century risk. Our mission is straightforward and guided by five goals: Goal 1. Protect our Nation from Dangerous People Goal 2. Protect our Nation from Dangerous Goods Goal 3. Protect Critical Infrastructure Goal 4. Build a Nimble, Effective Emergency Response System and a Culture of Preparedness Goal 5. Strengthen and Unify DHS Operations and Management . . . The risks that we face come in many forms. Recent attention to the lessons of the August ‘06 British Air plot and Hurricane Katrina remind us of the wide range of hazards we face. These were headline grabbing events. Equally important but maybe lesser known are situations where vulnerabilities of infrastructure and information technology systems have manifested themselves. In an interconnected and interdependent global economy, managing risk requires adaptability to a wide range of individual scenarios. These scenarios unite to create a very complex risk environment when it comes to protecting America. The risk environment is dynamic and DHS’s approach to managing this risk environment must be equally dynamic. This approach is focused on the most significant risks, we apply resources in the most practical way possible to prevent, protect against, and respond to manmade and natural hazards. That means making tough-minded assessments, and recognizing that it is simply not possible to eliminate every threat to every individual in every place at every moment. The Department manages risk across a broad spectrum transcending borders and multiple hazards. Discipline is required to assess threats, review vulnerabilities, and weigh consequences; we then have to balance and prioritize our resources against those risks so that we can ensure that our Nation is protected. Throughout our Nation’s history, natural disasters have served as lessons for how to prepare for and respond to the next earthquake, tornado, flood, or hurricane. Decades of experience in dealing with a sheer number of natural disasters globally, has provided sufficient data to understand their risk. By contrast, there have been far fewer terrorist events globally making our comprehension of risk less substantial. DHS is focused on those possible terrorist events that pose the greatest potential consequences to human life and to the continuity of our society. At the top of that list is the threat of weapons of mass destruction. Weapons of mass destruction are weapons that, if used, could have a devastating effect on this country. Preventing the introduction and use of those weapons has to be the number one focus in the years to come.

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We also must continue to guard against infiltration of this country by international terrorists who have the capability and intent to cause damage to the functioning of this country by engaging in multiple deadly attacks on people and our economy. And the illustration of this kind of a scenario is the plot in London that was uncovered last summer. Had it been successful, it would have cost the lives of thousands of people and had the potential to have raised a significant blow against the functioning of our entire system of international trade and travel. But even as we look at these dangerous threats, we have to be mindful of something else: the potential for home-grown acts of terrorism. We have to recognize that there are individuals who sympathize with terrorist organizations or embrace their ideology, and are prepared to use violence as a means to promote a radical, violent agenda. To minimize this potential emerging threat, we have to work across Federal, State and local jurisdictions to prevent domestic radicalization and terrorism. Risk is interdependent and interconnected—across communities to nations and must be managed accordingly. For example, a port closure or multiple port closures will not only have an impact on that port area, but also impact manufacturing facilities thousands of miles away that depend on the timely delivery of materials. One of the best examples of this interdependency is petroleum refinery capacity along the Gulf Coast following Hurricane Katrina. The day before Hurricane Katrina, Houston, Texas produced 25 percent of the Nation’s petroleum. The day after Hurricane Katrina, with the facilities closed along the Gulf Coast, Houston was forced to produce 47 percent of the nation’s petroleum. These examples demonstrate how significant supply chain interdependencies are in managing a full range of risk. So we understand that managing risk requires us to look at a broad continuum across a wide geographical area. The National Protection and Programs Directorate must be prepared to meet these challenges.

NPPD Mission and Overview The NPPD will comprise the Office of Infrastructure Protection (IP), the Office of Cyber Security and Communications (CS&C), the United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) program, the Office of Intergovernmental Programs, and the Office of Risk Management and Analysis. This new Directorate will allow the Department to serve as a focal point in enhancing the protection of America by interlacing key programs based on risk. Currently, there are multiple components within DHS working independently to reduce our comprehensive risk. Three of these components will be located in NPPD—IP, which addresses physical risks;

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CS&C, which addresses cyber risks; and US-VISIT, which addresses human risks. All three of these offices use the same approach in reducing risk by utilizing data gathering, data analysis, and dissemination of information to operators. The overarching responsibilities of NPPD are to enhance the protection of national assets, key resources, and people by countering threats whether they are physical, cyber or human. This will be accomplished by advancing the Department’s risk-reduction mission and through identification of threats and vulnerabilities to infrastructure and people. In addition, NPPD will synchronize risk-mitigation strategies and Departmental doctrine for protecting America. The NPPD responsibilities include: –Promoting an integrated national approach to homeland security protection activities and verifying the approach and strategy via program metrics to assess performance and outcomes against mission goals; –Protecting people and the Nation’s critical infrastructure; –Ensuring operable and interoperable systems and networks to support emergency communications through a full spectrum of conditions; –Promoting cyber security; –Standardizing risk management approaches applied across the Department to ensure polices, programs, and resources are driven by a consistent methodology; and –Enhancing the security of citizens and people traveling to the United States through the use of biometric capabilities. NPPD will serve the public through these major program activities: Infrastructure Protection (IP): IP is focused on securing the nation’s critical infrastructure through the identification of threats, consequences, and vulnerabilities and through the development of mitigation strategies. Additionally, this activity provides the primary defense against attacks on our nation’s critical infrastructure and key resources through robust real-time monitoring and incident response. Cyber Security and Communications (CS&C): CS&C defends the Nation against virtual or cyber attacks, and incorporates cyber security, promotes operable and interoperable communications for emergency communications. CS&C identifies cyber-based threats, vulnerabilities, and the consequences of successful attacks. It also ensures the availability and interoperability of information technology (IT) and Communications through the National Communications System (NCS) and the Office of Emergency Communications (OEC). As part of CS&C, the OEC will work closely with NCS, FEMA, other DHS components, and our Federal, State, local, and tribal partners to improve emergency interoperable communications nationwide.

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The OEC consolidates the Interoperable Communications Technical Assistance Program and the Integrated Wireless Network program to better integrate the Department’s emergency communications planning, preparedness, protection, crisis management, and recovery capabilities across the Nation. United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT): Through its deployment of biometric capture and watch list matching capabilities to State Department visa-issuing posts worldwide, U.S. air, land, and sea ports of entry, and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) immigration benefit offices within the U.S., US-VISIT supports safe and legitimate travel to the United States. It helps prevent document fraud and identity theft that threaten the integrity of the immigration process and the safety of foreign visitors. US-VISIT also provides key information to law enforcement, border officials, and other decision makers about persons they may encounter in the line of duty, thus protecting their safety and that of U.S. citizens. Risk Management and Analysis Office: The Risk Management and Analysis Office will lead the Department’s efforts to establish a common framework to address the overall management and analysis of homeland security risk. This program will develop a coordinated, collaborative approach to risk management that will allow the Department to leverage and integrate risk expertise across components and external stakeholders. The Office of Intergovernmental Affairs: Handles communications and coordination activities among State, local, and tribal disciplines across the spectrum of issues confronting all 22 agencies and components of DHS. Daily activities regularly involve contact with, for example, the Coast Guard, Transportation Security Administration, Secret Service, Customs and Border Protection/Border Patrol, USCIS, FEMA—the entire gamut of service providers at DHS—on a host of issues that impact our State and local partners. The Office of Intergovernmental Affairs will liaise with the Secretary, senior DHS leadership and their counterparts across the Nation at the State, local, tribal and territorial levels. National Protection Planning Office (NPPO): The NPPO will develop doctrine for synchronization of national and regional-level protection plans and actions across Federal, State, local, and private sectors regarding the assessment of both physical and cyber critical infrastructure and key resources. It will develop and coordinate performance metrics to measure progress in reducing the risk to critical infrastructure and key resources. The NPPO will work with other DHS components to synchronize approaches to methodology and develop doctrine for DHS-wide operational planning. This office will perform cross-sector analysis, such as understanding the potential cascading effects from

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one sector to another, and recommending approaches to reduce impacts. In addition the NPPO will work across jurisdictions and across borders.

Preparedness Progress to Date Mr. Chairman, I understand the importance of this Subcommittee having the most current, up-to-date information and I would like to highlight for you some important progress made by the Preparedness Directorate as we transition into the NPPD. Risk Analysis for Grants Process: The Department has made refinements to the data inputs for the risk methodology, taking into account expert judgment, and feedback from Federal, State, and local partners—all with the goal of better understanding risk associated with populations and critical infrastructure. For example, for critical infrastructure, we looked at nine different variables for each of 260,000 assets in 48 asset classes in FY 2006; and in FY 2007 drew upon a comprehensive national process involving States and sector-specific agencies to arrive at a much more concise list of 2,100 nationally critical assets, streamlining the risk analysis used in the grants determination process. The National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP): The NIPP is a comprehensive risk management framework that clearly defines critical infrastructure protection roles and responsibilities for all levels of government, private industry, nongovernmental agencies and tribal partners. Seventeen Sector Specific Plans have been completed and are currently being reviewed by the Department as part of the NIPP progress. Chemical Regulation Authority: DHS was given the authority by Congress to implement risk-based security standards for chemical facilities that present high levels of security risk. This new authority will allow the Department to recognize the significant investments that responsible facilities have made in security, and the ability to ensure that high-risk facilities have adequate safeguards in place. Buffer Zone Protection Plans: In 2006, 58 percent of identified critical infrastructure had implemented Buffer Zone Protection (BZP) Plans, up significantly from our FY 2005 percentage of 18 percent. The Department worked in collaboration with State, local, and tribal entities by providing training workshops, seminars, technical assistance and a common template to standardize the BZP plan development process. Cyber Security and Communications (CS&C): DHS’ CS&C is aligning to form a cohesive organization to ensure the security, resiliency, and reliability of the Nation’s cyber and communications infrastructure in collaboration with multiple public and private sectors, including international partners. Under CS&C the Department has

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expanded its focus on critical cyber exercising, grants, and management activities. Interoperability: In December, DHS released the findings of the national baseline survey, which was the first-ever nationwide assessment of interoperability across our country. We engaged more than 22,000 State and local law enforcement, fire response, and emergency medical service agencies in developing the baseline. The results of the survey show that two-thirds of first responder agencies report using communications interoperability to some degree in their operations. While this is promising, the results also demonstrate that while the necessary technology is largely available, much work needs to be done in the areas of governance, standard operating procedures, training and exercises, and usage. In addition, this baseline survey: –Determined the capacity for interoperable communications among law enforcement, fire, and EMS agencies across the Nation; –Established a process and mechanism to facilitate regular measures of communications interoperability; –Generated data to help emergency response agencies make better-informed decisions about how to most effectively allocate resources for improving communications interoperability; and –Gathered information to inform future efforts for education, incentives, and planning needed to continue improving interoperability capabilities across the country. Tactical Interoperable Communication Scorecards: DHS issued scorecards for the 75 largest Urban/Metropolitan Areas. These scorecards measured the ability of Urban/Metropolitan Areas to provide tactical (within one hour) communications capabilities to first responders. This process included the creation of a Tactical Interoperable Communications Plan peer evaluation, full-scale exercise, and after action reports. Key findings include: –Policies for interoperable communications are now in place in all 75 urban and metropolitan areas; –Regular testing and exercises are needed to link disparate systems effectively to allow communications between multi-jurisdictional responders (including State and Federal); and –Cooperation among first responders in the field is strong, but formalized governance (leadership and strategic planning) across regions has lagged. The Nationwide Plan Review: DHS completed visits to 131 sites (50 States, 6 territories, and 75 major urban areas) and reviewed the disaster and evacuation plans for each. These reviews will allow DHS, States and urban areas to identify deficiencies and improve catastrophic planning. Collaboration with the Private Sector: DHS has engaged the private sector on a number of preparedness and risk mitigation strategies:

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International Cooperation: Partnerships with the World Bank, World Economic Forum, and United Nations on forums focused on public-private partnerships in disaster risk reduction. DHS also engaged with key allies on cyber security information sharing, as well as other multilateral and international standards organizations such as the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, and International Telecommunication Union, to raise awareness about cyber security and telecommunications standards. Ready.gov Business: DHS collaborated with the business community on Emergency and Business continuity planning, and on private sector preparedness. Chief Information Office: Last year the Preparedness Directorate was faced with the department-wide challenge of bringing all of the IT systems within the Directorate into compliance with Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA) requirements. The effort to reach FISMA compliance required a full-scale remediation effort to achieve security certification and accreditation for the complete inventory of Preparedness systems. The Preparedness FISMA grade went from being just 8 percent compliant in June 2006, to 99 percent compliant in October 2006. This type of progress is significant, but I think we all agree that there is more to do—as we all desire a safer, more secure America. Organizational changes within the Department withstanding, this mission remains unchanged. Change is never easy and one thing that we intuitively know about this environment that we find ourselves in today is it is anything but static. We are building on the significant momentum realized and progress achieved, to promote the ideals of what the Department was established to do—provide for the protection of America and those who live within its borders.

Closing Mr. Chairman, events such as Hurricane Andrew, the Midwest Floods, the bombings of the World Trade Center and Murrah Federal Building, and more recently September 11th and Hurricane Katrina have granted professionals across the Federal interagency community, as well as at State, and local levels an immense amount of experience in managing response and recovery efforts. Traditionally, response and recovery involves dealing with defined aspects of an emergency, such as location, size and scale of damage, number of people involved, facilities and infrastructure affected. Prevention and protection present a much more nebulous and imprecise environment.

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Therefore, it necessitates an approach to securing our nation that includes the broadest range possible for the full 21st century continuum of risk. NPPD’s strategic risk management responsibility encompasses a large spectrum of risk, which includes both economic ramifications and risk to human life. It is not confined to physical borders or corporeal infrastructure. And at the end of the day—whether our threat comes from our enemies abroad or at home, or from nature, the American people expect that local, State, and Federal government and the private sector are going to cooperate to deal with the challenges that confront them. These early stages of coordinating the expansive spectrum of risk for protecting the Nation will help to catalyze a national transformation for how we prepare America for the risks of the 21st century.

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7 Directory of Organizations

E

mergency management is a relatively new profession. With the transition of any discipline from an activity or function into a profession in its own right, the creation of a literature base must necessarily occur. In the previous chapter, a very small sample of contributions to the growing literature and theory base was highlighted. However, another feature of emerging professions is the growth of associations and other organizations associated with the profession. In this chapter, readers are provided a glimpse of some of the many organizations, associations, and government agencies that have come to be significantly involved in emergency management and disaster response activities. The list of organizations presented in this chapter serves two purposes. The first purpose is to allow the reader to come away convinced that the discipline of emergency management exists on a broad playing field. Indeed, many organizations spend considerable time thinking about emergency management practices and responding to emergency management events. Further, not all organizations concerned with emergency management and disaster response are government entities. This chapter, by virtue of presenting emergency management organizations, likewise presents the wide range of approaches to managing the consequences of disasters in the United States (and elsewhere in the world). The second purpose of this chapter is to provide readers with a large number of potential sources of information. Each of the organizations, associations, and agencies presented in the following pages are introduced with their contact information, including Web pages. By exploring the Web sites of these organizations, or by contacting them directly, one can glean almost overwhelming


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amounts of information about emergency management, homeland security, and disaster relief. This chapter is intended to serve as a useful springboard for conducting further research into the discipline’s practices, principles, and players.

Private Organizations The Citizen’s Guide to Disaster Assistance, published by FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute (EMI 2003), lists many private organizations that figure prominently in disaster relief. Many of these organizations are religious organizations—some are independent, while others are connected to particular denominations. However, the services and relief they provide are not contingent upon the faith or religious affiliation of victims. A selected sample of these organizations, along with contact information and brief descriptions (per FEMA’s Citizen’s Guide) about their respective disaster relief activities, are provided below. Adventist Community Services (ACS) 12501 Old Columbia Pike Silver Spring, MD 20904 Phone: (301) 680-6438 www.communityservices.org The ACS receives, processes, and distributes clothing, bedding, and food products during major disasters to victims in need. It utilizes mobile distribution units filled with bedding and packaged clothing that are presorted according to size, age, and gender. The ACS also provides emergency food and counseling and participates in the cooperative disaster child care program. American Radio Relay League, Inc. (ARRL) 225 Main Street Newington, CT 06111-1494 Phone: (860) 594-0200 www.arrl.org/ The ARRL is a national volunteer organization of licensed radio amateurs in the United States. The ARRL-sponsored Amateur

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Radio Emergency Services provides volunteer radio communications services to federal, state, county, and local governments, as well as to voluntary agencies. ARRL members volunteer not only their services but also their privately owned radio communications equipment. American Red Cross 2025 E Street NW Washington, DC 20006 Phone: (202) 303-8635 www.redcross.org/ The American Red Cross is a relief organization that relies primarily on volunteers. The mission of the American Red Cross is to aid victims of disaster and help people and communities “prevent, prepare, and respond to emergencies.” The American Red Cross operates under a Congressional Charter, which grants the organization the lead role in America’s humanitarian responses to disasters at home and internationally. Further, the American Red Cross also provides assistance to members of the United States Armed Forces stationed abroad and monitors America’s compliance with the Geneva Convention regarding the humane treatment of prisoners of war. Catholic Charities USA Disaster Response Office of Disaster Response Catholic Charities USA 1731 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Phone: (703) 236-6253 www.catholiccharitiesusa.org Catholic Charities USA is an organization that coordinates the social service agencies operated locally by the 175 Catholic dioceses in the United States. The Disaster Response section of Catholic Charities USA provides assistance to communities in order to address the crisis and recovery needs of disaster victims and affected families. Catholic Charities agencies emphasize ongoing and long-term recovery services for individuals and families, including temporary housing assistance for low-income families, counseling programs for children and the elderly, and special counseling for disaster relief workers.

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Christian Disaster Response (CDR) P.O. Box 3339 Winter Haven, FL 33885-3339 Phone: (863) 967-4357 www.cdresponse.org The CDR cooperates with other disaster relief organizations, including the American Red Cross and the Salvation Army, to enable participating local Christian church members to become effective volunteers for assignment on national disasters. The CDR provides disaster assessments, fixed/mobile feeding facilities, and in-kind disaster relief supplies. It also collects and stockpiles donated goods, including food, clothing, and medicine. To this end, the CDR maintains regional centers located throughout the United States. Church of the Brethren Emergency Response 601 Main Street P.O. Box 188 New Windsor, MD 21776 Phone: (410) 635-8737 www.brethrendisasterresponse.org/ The Church of the Brethren Emergency Response ministry provides cleanup and debris removal from damaged or destroyed homes and personal property. Volunteers are trained through the Cooperative Disaster Child Care Program to establish child care centers following major disasters. Child-care providers guide children through activities that help them to act out their fears, anger, and confusion following a disaster. Several religious denominations support this program. Church World Service (CWS) Disaster Response 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 700 New York, NY 10115 Phone: (212) 870-3151 www.churchworldservice.org The CWS assists disaster survivors through inter-religious partner organizations in the United States and worldwide on behalf of its 32 member communions plus affiliated agencies. CWS Disaster Response is composed of consultants who help convene

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local churches and religious organizations to coordinate responses to various needs during the recovery phase of a disaster. Episcopal Relief and Development Office of Disaster Response and Preparedness 815 Second Avenue New York, NY 10017 Ph: (800) 334-7626, ext. 6360 www.er-d.org Episcopal Relief and Development responds to domestic disasters principally through its network of nearly a hundred U.S. dioceses and more than 8,200 parishes. It also sends immediate relief grants for basic needs such as food, water, medical assistance, and financial aid within the first ninety days following a disaster. Extended recovery activities are implemented through rehabilitation grants, which offer the means to rebuild structures, replant ruined crops, and counsel traumatized calamity victims. The Episcopal Church works primarily through Church World Service in providing its disaster-related services. International Relief Friendship Foundation (IRFF) 30 Seminary Drive, Room 228 Barrytown, NY 12507 Phone: (845) 758-4509 www.irff.org/ The IRFF has the goal of assisting agencies involved in responding to the needs of a community after disaster strikes. When a disaster occurs, the IRFF mobilizes a volunteer group from universities, businesses, youth groups, women’s organizations, and religious groups. The IRFF also provides direct support and emergency services immediately following a disaster such as blankets, food, clothing, and relief kits. Lutheran Disaster Response (LDR) 8765 W. Higgins Road Chicago, Illinois 60631 Phone: (800) 638-3522, ext. 2719 www.ldr.org The LDR provides for immediate disaster response (to both natural and technological disasters), long-term rebuilding efforts,

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and preparedness planning through synods, districts, and social ministry organizations. The disasters to which the LDR responds are those in which the needs outstrip available local resources. The LDR provides for the coordination of 6,000 volunteers annually. In addition, it supplies crisis counseling services, support groups, mental health assistance, and pastoral care through its accredited social service agencies. Medical Teams International (MTI) 14150 SW Milton Court Tigard, OR 97224 Phone: (503) 624-1000 www.medicalteams.org/ The MTI (formerly Northwest Medical Teams International) proclaims a mission of reflecting the love of Christ to people affected by disaster, conflict, and poverty. To this end, the organization responds to disaster situations by enlisting volunteers as needed to the stricken areas and sending money and supplies for cleaning and reconstruction. Mennonite Disaster Services 1018 Main Street Akron, PA 17501 Phone: (717) 859-2210 www.mds.mennonite.net The MDR assists disaster victims by providing volunteer personnel to clean up and remove debris from damaged and destroyed homes and personal property and to repair or rebuild homes. A particular emphasis is placed on assisting those who are less able to help themselves, such as the elderly and handicapped. National Emergency Response Team (NERT) 1058 Albion Road Unity, ME 04988 Phone: (866) NERTUSA www.nert-usa.org/ The NERT exists to meet basic human needs, such as shelter, food, and clothing, during times of crisis and disaster. It provides emergency mobile trailer units (EMTUs), which are self-contained, modest living units for up to eight to ten people, to places

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where disasters occur. When EMTUs are not in use, they serve as mobile teaching units in community emergency preparedness programs. Nazarene Disaster Response (NDR) 756 NC Hwy 45 South Plymouth, NC 27962 Phone: (252) 793-6400 www.ncm.org/min_ndr.aspx The NDR provides clean-up and rebuilding assistance, especially to the elderly, disabled, widowed, and others who may not be able to help themselves. In addition, a national crisis counseling coordinator works through the recovery phase by assisting with the emotional needs of disaster victims. The Points of Light Foundation 1400 I Street NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20005 Phone: (202) 729-8169 helpindisaster.org The Points of Light Foundation (and its Volunteer Center National Network) coordinates spontaneous, unaffiliated volunteers so that needs of the local community and other disaster response agencies can be met with an organized response. The Points of Light Foundation maintains a network of affiliated local volunteer centers, which can be used for the coordination effort. REACT International 5210 Auth Road, Suite 403 Suitland, MD 20746 (301) 316-2900 www.reactintl.org/ REACT International provides emergency communication facilities for other disaster relief agencies through its national network of Citizens Band radio operators and volunteer teams. REACT International teams are encouraged to become part of their local disaster preparedness plan. Furthermore, they are encouraged to take first-aid training and to become proficient in emergency communications in times of disaster.

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The Salvation Army USA 615 Slaters Lane Alexandria, VA 22313 Phone: (703) 684-5526 www.salvationarmyusa.org/ The Salvation Army USA provides emergency assistance, including mass mobile feeding, temporary shelter, counseling, missing person services, medical assistance, and distribution of donated goods including food, clothing, and household items. It also provides referrals to government and private agencies for special services. The Salvation Army USA is the American affiliate of the worldwide Salvation Army, which is an evangelical Christian relief organization headquartered in the United Kingdom. Southern Baptist Disaster Relief North American Mission Board 4200 North Point Parkway Alpharetta, GA 30022-4176 Phone: (800) 462-8657, ext. 6432 The Southern Baptist Disaster Relief program provides more than 200 mobile feeding units staffed by volunteers who are able to prepare and distribute thousands of meals each day. Southern Baptist Disaster Relief commonly provides disaster childcare by deploying one or more mobile child care units. The program also assists with clean-up activities, temporary repairs, reconstruction, counseling, and bilingual services. UJC Federations of North America United Jewish Communities P.O. Box 30 Old Chelsea Station New York, NY 10113 Phone: (212) 284-6671 www.ujc.org/ The UJC organizes direct assistance, such as financial and social services, to Jewish and general communities in the United States following disaster. It also provides rebuilding services to neighborhoods and enters into long-term recovery partnerships with residents.

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Volunteers of America 1660 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3421 Phone: (800) 899-0089 www.voa.org/ Volunteers of America provides initial disaster-response services aimed at meeting the critical needs of disaster victims. This includes such efforts as making trucks available for transporting victims and supplies to designated shelters. Volunteers of America also collects and distributes donated goods and provides mental health care for survivors of disasters. World Vision P.O. Box 9716, MS 316 Federal Way, WA 98063-9716 Phone: (253) 815-2229 www.worldvision.org/ World Vision trains and mobilizes community-based volunteers in major response and recovery activities. It also provides consulting services to local, unaffiliated churches and Christian charities involved in locally designed recovery projects. Finally, World Vision collects, manages, and organizes community-based distribution for donated goods in the wake of disasters occurring in the United States or elsewhere in the world.

Associations and Resource Centers American Civil Defense Association (ACDA) 11576 S. State Street, Suite 502 Draper, UT 84020 Phone: (800) 425-5397 www.tacda.org/ The mission of the ACDA is to provide information, tools, and resources to American citizens in order to further a comprehensive understanding of preparedness strategies and techniques and to promote self-reliant and proactive approaches to protecting themselves and their families from man-made or natural disasters. This is done by providing members with education and training

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about coping with disasters, providing products and services to equip members for preparedness, and serving as a conduit for connecting to other disaster preparedness organizations. Association of State Floodplain Managers 2809 Fish Hatchery Road Madison, WI 53713 Phone: (608) 274-0123 www.floods.org The Association of State Floodplain Managers is a professional association made of those who are involved in floodplain management, flood hazard mitigation, preparedness and warning efforts relating to flooding, and flood recovery. The association seeks to assist government entities as well as the general populations of communities facing the hazard of flooding to reduce their risks associated with floods by adopting sound floodplain use and development policies. According to the association, its specific goals are to reduce the loss of life and property damage that results from flooding; preserve the natural and cultural characteristics of the nation’s floodplains; promote flood mitigation efforts; and help governments and people generally to avoid taking actions that exacerbate flooding. The association’s Web site provides a wealth of information to floodplain managers, other government officials, academicians, and others about sound floodplain uses, flood insurance, flood mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and state and national flood programs. Center for Homeland Security and Defense Naval Postgraduate School Public Affairs Office–Code 004 1 University Circle Monterey, CA 93943 Phone: (831) 656-2356 www.chds.us/ The Center for Homeland Security and Defense is an academic and applied research and information center sponsored jointly by the Naval Postgraduate School and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Its purpose is to be the premier provider of graduate- and executive-level education in homeland security studies. The center seeks to train military leaders, high-level local and state government officials, and academicians and

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executive-level practitioners involved in homeland security efforts. The center also produces a peer-reviewed journal, Homeland Security Affairs, to disseminate information on the latest studies and findings concerning the provision of homeland security in the United States. Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association (DERA) P.O. Box 797 Longmont, CO 80502 www.disasters.org/index.htm The DERA was founded in 1962 as a nonprofit organization that brought together professionals, volunteers, and organizations active in all aspects of emergency management and disaster response. The organization provides professional support, resource sharing, and networking opportunities. The DERA also becomes active in disaster response by coordinating members with a variety of talents to be deployed for disaster response and recovery efforts and by acting as a clearinghouse for information, personnel, equipment, and other resources when disasters strike. Disaster-Resource.com P.O. Box 15243 Santa Ana, CA 92735 Phone: (714) 558-8940 www.disaster-resource.com/ The Disaster Resource Guide is a web-based clearinghouse of information for emergency managers and disaster planners in government and private industry. The site includes links to emergency management publications (articles, newsletters, and journals), products and services, and agencies and organizations affiliated with the mission of emergency management. International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM) 201 Park Washington Court Falls Church, VA 22046-4527 Phone: (703) 538-1795 www.iaem.com/ The IAEM is a nonprofit organization committed to promoting the goals of saving lives and protecting property during

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emergencies and disasters. The IAEM fulfills its goals by providing education and training, as well as networking opportunities for emergency management professionals. As a leading professional association for emergency managers and disaster planners, it has developed a code of ethics for emergency managers who are members. This code includes the exhortation that members act in such a way that builds public confidence in the profession of emergency management. Like other professional associations, the IAEM also produces emergency management– related publications and maintains a job database for professional positions in the discipline. Natural Hazards Center University of Colorado 1243 Grandview Avenue Boulder, CO 80309 Phone: (303) 492-6818 www.colorado.edu/hazards/ The Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado–Boulder was established to communicate the growing base of knowledge concerning hazards mitigation and disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. The center adopts an all-hazards and interdisciplinary framework for emergency management practices. The Natural Hazards Center provides funding, equipment, and personnel for researching hazard mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. National Emergency Management Association P.O. Box 11910 Lexington, KY 40578 Phone: (859) 244-8000 www.nemaweb.org/ The National Emergency Management Association (NEMA) is a professional association for state emergency management directors. The NEMA professes a three-part mission: to provide leadership and expertise to the nation in comprehensive emergency management, to serve as a vital resource for emergency management information and assistance, and to advance the quality notion of continuous improvement in emergency management through partnerships, innovations, and collaborative policy formulation.

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Ready.gov Ready Campaign U.S. Department of Homeland Security Washington, DC 20528 Phone: (202) 282-8000 www.ready.gov/ Ready.gov is a readiness campaign developed and implemented by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The campaign educates individuals, families, and businesses about how to be prepared for natural disasters and man-made calamities, such as acts of terrorism. The Web page also includes a link to a children’s section (ReadyKids), where interactive games and animation deliver messages of safety and preparedness.

Government Agencies What follows is a brief introduction and contact information for selected national and international government and quasi-government agencies possessing emergency management and disaster planning responsibilities. This is by no means an all-inclusive list of agencies with emergency management functions. Indeed, such a list could by itself occupy most of the content of this book. Rather, the agencies selected are intended to be a starting point for readers to collect information about some of the primary official emergency management public agencies.

United States Government Agencies Emergency Management Institute (EMI) 16825 S. Seton Ave. Emmitsburg, MD 21727 training.fema.gov/ The EMI, which is a part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, is one the nation’s leading providers of emergency management training for federal, state, and local officials, as well as members of the public who have some emergency management responsibilities within their organizations. The EMI delivers training through distance education formats (online, video, and correspondence) as well as through traditional

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in-residence training at the EMI training facility in Emmitsburg, Maryland. Course topics include all facets of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery, as well as train-the-trainer programs so that graduates will return to their regions and continue to provide high-quality and professional emergency management training to their colleagues who may be unable to attend EMI courses. The EMI also serves as a clearinghouse for information available through other sources. For example, from the EMI Web page, one can link to literally dozens of college and university programs that deliver emergency management and homeland security degrees. The EMI’s Higher Education Project also hosts an annual conference relating to higher education and emergency management. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 500 C Street SW Washington, DC 20472 Phone: (800) 621-FEMA www.fema.gov The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is the lead federal agency in the United States for emergency and disaster management matters. FEMA was created by an executive issued from President Jimmy Carter in 1979. Through that order, elements from dozens of disparate federal agencies that had something to do with emergency management and disaster response were combined into the new FEMA organization. FEMA’s statutory authority was ultimately granted by the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of 1988. FEMA was an independent federal agency until it became a part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security on March 1, 2003. FEMA has more than 2,600 full-time permanent employees located in Washington, DC and throughout the United States. FEMA also maintains a roster of 4,000 additional personnel who are available for call-up and deployment when a disaster strikes. FEMA is organized into four main divisions: Mitigation, Recovery and Response, and National Preparedness. FEMA’s Mitigation Division was established in 1993. This division manages the National Flood Insurance Program as well as several other programs intended to eliminate or reduce future

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losses for families, businesses, and governments from natural and man-made disasters. The Mitigation Division is divided into three branches: Risk Analysis Branch, Risk Reduction Branch, and Risk Insurance Branch. The function of identifying and dealing with the risks associated with various hazards is the collective responsibility of these three branches. The Recovery Division is responsible for helping individuals and communities impacted by disasters to return to normal operations with as little disruption in service as possible. Several division programs have been established to fulfill this mission. The programs include: Individual Assistance (providing or coordinating the delivery of emergency housing, financial assistance, and unemployment assistance for individuals, families, farmers and businesses); Public Assistance (helping states, local communities and nonprofit organizations restore and rebuild public infrastructure, as well as aid with debris removal and emergency protective measures); the Federal Coordinating Officer Program; emergency and disaster declaration processing; and the LongTerm Community Recovery responsibilities found in the National Response Plan. The Response Division is responsible for coordinating operational and logistical activities of the federal government after an emergency management event occurs. The division establishes and follows procedures for augmenting overwhelmed state and local community resources after disasters for the purpose of saving lives, protecting property, and minimizing the overall suffering which takes place as a result of disasters. FEMA’s National Preparedness Division was created by the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006. This division oversees the Readiness, Prevention, and Planning subdivision and the National Integration Center (NIC), which maintains the National Incident Management System (NIMS) and the National Response Plan. Additionally, it will coordinate the activities of the U.S. Fire Administration. Additionally, some units within the organization exist primarily for the benefit of external audiences. This includes FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute which plays a very significant role in training state and local emergency managers and first responders in the best practices for dealing with largescale disastrous events.

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Federal Protective Service (FPS) National Capital Region Building 74 E., Room 110 Southeast Federal Center Third and M Streets, SE Washington, DC 20407 Phone: (202) 690-9632 www.ice.gov/about/fps/contact.htm The Federal Protective Service is a part of the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) within the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Prior to its relocation to DHS under the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the FPS was part of the U.S. General Services Administration. The FPS has a primary role of protecting the nation’s 8,800 federal buildings, courthouses, and other civilian installations. Under the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the jurisdiction of FPS has statutorily expanded to potentially include protection of the nation’s critical infrastructure as FPS resources permit. The FPS employs several hundred law enforcement officers and contacts with several thousand security officers to provide the security function at FPS-protected facilities. Security planning efforts include accounting for both natural and man-made hazards. Hazards affecting federal facilities include civil unrest and riots, as was seen in Los Angeles in 1992 after the first trial of police officers involved in the Rodney King incident, and the wide range of natural disasters that affect all facilities in a given community equally, as well as incidents such as the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995. The FPS works closely with the Federal Emergency Management Agency and other emergency management– and security-related agencies to ensure disaster and terrorism resilience in federal facilities. An additional emergency management function of the FPS is to provide police protection for FEMA officials and resources deployed to disaster scenes. In this regard, the FPS commonly plays the role of a reassuring police presence after disasters where local law enforcement otherwise may still be struggling to fulfill its order-maintenance responsibilities. National Guard Bureau 1411 Jefferson Davis Highway Arlington, VA 22202-3231

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Phone: (703) 607-2584 www.ngb.army.mil/ The National Guard Bureau, or the National Guard, is the nation’s oldest military organization. The National Guard’s heritage is rooted in the colonial militias prior to America’s independence, and the state militias after America achieved nationhood. The National Guard has always maintained a dual posture as both a state agency and a federal agency. Federally, members of the National Guard are subject to call up to federal service, just as others in the military reserves are. In recent years, members of National Guard were called to active duty in support of domestic security operations after the terror attacks of September 11, 2001, as well as to fight in various foreign wars, including the first Gulf War, Kosovo, Bosnia, Afghanistan, and then second war against Iraq. The National Guard is comprised of two major elements: the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. When called up federally, the Army and Air National Guard serve under the control of the United States Army and United States Air Force, respectively. The Army National Guard consists primarily of ground forces. Units within the Army National Guard resemble those found in the U.S. Army and include infantry, military police, logistics, intelligence, engineers, etc. Like the United States Army, the Army National Guard also maintains a fleet of attack and support helicopters, including rescue and medivac helicopters. Army National Guard troops are commonly deployed during and after natural disasters to provide ground and air rescue personnel, military police for security, logistics personnel with water treatment and other necessary equipment, and medical personnel. The Air National Guard provides air support to their host states and for the federal government during a time of disaster. Additionally, the Air National Guard’s fighter wings provide 100 percent of the interceptor force protecting the continental United States. The operation tempo of Air National Guard units dedicated to fighter wings has increased significantly since the attacks of 9/11. The largest deployment ever of National Guard troops to a natural disaster occurred in 2005 after Hurricane Katrina, followed quickly by Hurricane Rita. In total, 50,000 Army and Air National Guard members were deployed to the Gulf Coast and collectively rescued more than 17,000 civilians who were facing imminent danger at the time of their rescues.

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 14th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW Room 6217 Washington, DC 20230 Phone: (202) 482-6090 www.noaa.gov/ The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a federal agency located with the U.S. Department of Commerce. The purpose of the agency is to study and monitor the Earth’s oceans and atmosphere and to share that information with various constituencies, including the American public. NOAA engages in applied research and reporting in four key areas: ecosystems, climate, weather and water, and commerce and transportation. With regard to ecosystems, NOAA monitors the use of natural resources—particularly coastal and marine—to ensure the sustainability of those resources within human and natural contexts. NOAA also is a lead agency in the United States for studying the Earth’s climate. Phenomena such as El Niño are closely monitored so that governments and other constituents can plan accordingly for the impact such phenomena may bring. Most notably, NOAA is responsible for studying and forecasting the weather. The National Weather Service is an agency within NOAA and is responsible for assessing current and future threats posed by severe weather conditions. Various units within the National Weather Service monitor thunderstorms and tornado activity, hurricanes, winter storms, and other acute weather phenomena that present threats to life and property. Finally, NOAA specifically serves those engaged in commerce and transportation by providing timely weather, climate, and ecosystem information to ensure that individual and commercial transportation are safe and efficient and that transportation activities comport with environmentally sound principles and practices. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Disaster Assistance Information Center Ronald Reagan Building Washington, DC 20523-1000 Phone: (202) 712-4320 www.usaid.gov/

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The United States Agency of International Development (USAID) was created by executive order in 1961. At that time, USAID was tapped to be the lead American agency for distributing humanitarian and development assistance under the Foreign Assistance Act. The precedent for using federal funds to support other nations in need can be traced back to the Marshall Plan after World War II. Under that plan, instead of punitively penalizing the Axis powers after defeat, the United States provided funds and other support to quickly rebuild the infrastructure of its former enemies. In doing so, the United States created considerable goodwill and formed lasting alliances with countries with which it had just been at war. Similarly today, the United States distributes aid to developing countries with two purposes in mind. First, the United States government hopes to further America’s national interests by spreading the “good news” of democracy and free markets around the globe. Second, the United States sees itself, as a wealthy nation, as having a responsibility to help improve the lives of unfortunate peoples in other parts of the world. The broad goals intended through the use of USAID funds include developmental activities relating to economic growth, agriculture, and trade; initiatives and efforts to support global health; and humanitarian assistance directed toward preventing or mitigating conflict and alleviating suffering that occurs as a result of man-made or natural disasters. Specific types of assistance include food aid, medicine, technological assistance, capacity building assistance, construction of infrastructure, and other activities. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 441 G Street Washington, DC 20314-1000 Phone: (202) 761-0010 www.usace.army.mil/ The United States Army Corps of Engineers, an agency located within the United States Army, is made up primarily of civilian employees. Today, about 34,600 civilians work for the Corps of Engineers, while only 650 active duty military personnel are assigned to it. The Army Corps of Engineers employees engineers, biologists, geologists, hydrologists, natural resource managers, and various other professionals with technical and technological expertise.

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The mission of the Army Corps of Engineers is to serve as the nation’s leading engineering agency of the federal government. As such, it is responsible for overseeing and managing proposed and ongoing engineering and public works projects orchestrated at the federal level. Components of the agency’s mission are many, including planning, designing, building, and operating water resources and other civil works projects (including flood control, environmental protection, and disaster response); designing and managing the construction of military facilities for the United States Army and United States Air Force; and providing design and construction management support for other Department of Defense and federal agencies. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 1600 Clifton Rd Atlanta, GA 30333 Phone: (404) 639-3311 www.cdc.gov/ The CDC is an agency within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. In the United States, the CDC serves as the primary federal public health organization; its primary mission is to prevent and control various infectious diseases, injuries, workplace hazards, and environmental health threats. The CDC has a significant emergency management–related responsibility when the disaster or potential disaster is a naturally occurring epidemic or the use of a biological, chemical, or radiological weapon of mass destruction. The CDC provides considerable training and information for state and local emergency medical services with regard to mass casualty scenarios common to natural disasters or terror attacks. The CDC also works to reduce or prevent physical and emotional injuries to first responders who frequently experience considerable trauma as a result of their response to devastating disasters and their confrontation with human carnage. The CDC maintains innumerable resources on its Web site that address the medical and public health side to largescale emergencies. U.S. Civil Air Patrol (CAP) 105 South Hansell Street, Building 714

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Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6332 Phone: (888) 211-1812 www.cap.gov/ The United States Civil Air Patrol is the civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force. Currently, the Civil Air Patrol has approximately 57,000 volunteer members across the United States and its territories. The Civil Air Patrol serves as a search-andrescue and disaster response organization when called upon for assistance. The organization has a fleet of more than 500 singleengine, piston aircraft and 1,000 emergency services vehicles. The organization is also known for having the nation’s most extensive civilian communications network. The Civil Air Patrol has a three-pronged mission: aerospace education, cadet programs, and operations. The first two missions are education related. Through workshops and conferences, as well as through cadet programs that provide flight training to secondary education students, the Civil Air Patrol attempts to advance interest in aviation and promote a safe aeronautical system in the United States. The Operations mission of the Civil Air Patrol is most associated with emergency and disaster response. The Civil Air Patrol is responsible for performing 95 percent of the nation’s interior search-and-rescue missions. These missions include the search for missing aircraft presumed to have crashed, as well as the search for survivors who may be stranded after a disaster, such as a flood or blizzard. Each year, an estimated 100 lives are saved by the efforts of the Civil Air Patrol. Additionally, the Civil Air Patrol regularly flies reconnaissance missions for the Department of Homeland Security and the Drug Enforcement Administration. These missions are intended to identify drug smugglers and human traffickers who cross over America’s border from Mexico or Canada. Finally, the Civil Air Patrol also assists with damage assessment after disasters strike and is regularly called upon to transport time-sensitive medical supplies. U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Coast Guard Headquarters Commandant 2100 Second Street, SW Washington, DC 20593

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Phone: (202) 372-4620 www.uscg.mil/ The United States Coast Guard is the smallest of five branches of America’s armed forces. During a time of war, or at other times when directed by the president of the United States, the Coast Guard in part or whole serves under the organizational command of the United States Navy. At all other times, however, the Coast Guard operates as an independent agency within the Department of Homeland Security. The Coast Guard has a multifaceted mission. It is responsible for enforcing maritime law in American and international waters, providing maritime assistance and navigation aids, engaging in searchand-rescue missions in open water and along coastal areas of the United States, securing the nation’s maritime ports of entry, engaging in countersmuggling operations, and performing various regulatory, safety, and administrative functions relating to the maritime industry. The Coast Guard is one of nation’s oldest law enforcement agencies, tracing its roots back to the Revenue Cutter Service, which was established after America secured its independence from Great Britain. The Coast Guard maintains an active duty force of more than 40,000 men and women. Many more thousands serve as members of the Coast Guard Reserve and can be called up to active duty in a time of war or crisis. Each year, the Coast Guard responds to tens of thousands of calls for help. From 1994 to 2003, the Coast Guard was directly responsible for saving the lives of 59,720 people. It played a visible rescue role in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Coast Guard helicopters and patrol boats rescued thousands of people stranded on rooftops and in trees after the storm’s intensity subsided. The Coast Guard demonstrated during the Katrina crisis, as it had during so many previous disasters, that it is one of the chief indispensable disaster-response federal agencies and must be accounted for as an asset in emergency management planning efforts. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Washington, DC 20528 Phone: (202) 282-8000 www.dhs.gov

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The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is the cabinet-level federal department responsible for protecting the interior of the United States. The DHS was created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. On March 1, 2003, 22 agencies from across the landscape of the federal government were reorganized under four major directorates, including Border and Transportation Security; Emergency Preparedness and Response; Science and Technology; and Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection. Additionally, the U.S. Secret Service and the U.S. Coast Guard were designated as independent agencies within DHS and not under any particular directorate. The functions of DHS are aptly described by the names of the directorate. Most of DHS’ law enforcement apparatus can be found in the Border and Transportation Security Directorate. The Secret Service and the Coast Guard are the two primary exceptions to this. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, which was an independent agency prior to the Homeland Security Act’s implementation in 2003, was placed under the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate, along with the Nuclear Incident Response Team (formerly of the Department of Energy), the Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Medical System (formerly of the Department of Health and Human Services), the Domestic Emergency Support Teams (formerly of the Department of Justice), and the National Domestic Preparedness Office (formerly a unit within the Justice Department’s Federal Bureau of Investigation). In March 2007, DHS announced a reorganization of its emergency management components, including the establishment of FEMA as an independent agency within DHS (with broader responsibilities) and the creation of a new directorate: National Protection and Programs. The responsibility of this new directorate is to advance DHS’ risk-reduction efforts—particularly where critical infrastructure is concerned. To this end, the National Protection and Programs Directorate will identify and assess threats and vulnerabilities involving the nation’s physical infrastructure (including power grids, water treatment facilities, transportation networks, etc.), the cyber-environment, and the US-VISIT program (monitoring potential human risks entering and leaving the country). This directorate will coordinate closely with other DHS elements sharing common purposes, such as FEMA, the Transportation Security Administration, and Customs and Border Protection.

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U.S. Fire Administration 16825 South Seton Avenue Emmitsburg, MD 21727 Phone: (301) 447-1000 www.usfa.dhs.gov The United State Fire Administration is an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Effective March 31, 2007, it became organizationally a part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency as a result of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006. The agency was first created by the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974. In the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the U.S. Fire Administration was identified among the agencies to be transferred to the new Department of Homeland Security, which it did in 2003. The U.S. Fire Administration serves as the chief federal agency for establishing fire management and prevention guidelines. The stated mission of the U.S. Fire Administration is to reduce life and economic losses resulting from fires and other emergencies through the provision of trained leadership, data collection and reporting, advocacy, coordination, and support. Pursuant to its mission, the U.S. Fire Administration maintains the National Fire Academy. Through the academy’s training and education programs, which rely on both residential and distance-learning platforms, scores of firefighters and emergency medical service personnel have been taught current technologies and doctrines for fire and emergency management, as well as principles of leadership in emergency and disaster contexts. In fact, since its inception in 1975, the National Fire Academy has delivered training to more than 1.4 million students working in the fire services, emergency medical services, and related areas.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20192 Phone: (703) 648-4000 www.usgs.gov/ The United States Geological Survey is an agency of the United States Department of Interior. The USGS exists to provide

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the government and people of the United States with scientifically sound information concerning the Earth and geological processes. These processes include potentially disastrous incidents such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, and tsunamis. In fact, the USGS maintains agency units and personnel devoted to the study and response to each of these types of natural hazards. The services that the USGS provides the United States are extended to other countries as well— particularly within the context of disaster warning systems. The USGS also serves as the primary mapping agency of land and natural resources in the United States. The USGS plays a significant role in emergency management through its natural hazards monitoring programs, which exist for the purpose of minimizing the loss of life and property before these hazards actually become disasters.

State Emergency Management Agencies Below is a list of each state’s emergency management agency, along with contact information and Internet address. The Web pages of each of these agencies are filled with pertinent information and links concerning emergency management, disaster planning, and homeland security—for their own states, for their regions, and nationally. State of Alabama Emergency Management Agency 5898 County Road 41 P.O. Drawer 2160 Clanton, Alabama 35046-2160 Phone: (205) 280-2200 ema.alabama.gov/ State of Alaska Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management Office of Homeland Security P.O. Box 5750 Fort Richardson, AK 99505-5750 Phone: (907) 428-7000 www.ak-prepared.com/homelandsecurity/

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State of Arizona Department of Homeland Security 1700 W. Washington Phoenix, AZ 85007 Phone: (602) 542-7030 www.azdohs.gov/index.htm State of Arkansas Department of Emergency Management P. O. Box 758 Conway, AR 72033-0758 Phone: (501) 730-9750 www.adem.state.ar.us/ State of California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services 3650 Schriever Avenue Mather, CA 95655 Phone: (916) 845-8510 www.oes.ca.gov State of Colorado Office of Preparedness, Security and Fire Safety Department of Public Safety 9195 East Mineral Avenue, Suite 234 Centennial, CO 80112 Phone: (720) 852-6705 csp.state.co.us/ops.cfm State of Connecticut Department of Emergency Management and Homeland Security 25 Sigourney Street, 6th Floor Hartford, CT 06106-5042 Phone: (860) 256-0800 www.ct.gov/demhs State of Delaware Delaware Emergency Management Agency Department of Safety and Homeland Security 165 Brick Store Landing Road Smyrna, DE 19977

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Phone: (302) 659-DEMA dema.delaware.gov/ District of Columbia Emergency Management Agency 2720 Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue, SE Washington, DC 20032 Phone: (202) 727-6161 dcema.dc.gov State of Florida Florida Division of Emergency Management 2555 Shumard Oak Boulevard Tallahassee, Florida 32399-2100 Phone: (850) 413-9969 FloridaDisaster.org State of Georgia Georgia Emergency Management Agency Georgia Office of Homeland Security P.O. Box 18055 935 East Confederate Avenue, SE Atlanta, GA 30316 Phone: (404) 635-7000 www.gema.state.ga.us/ State of Hawaii Hawaii State Civil Defense 3949 Diamond Head Road Honolulu, Hawaii 96816-4495 Phone: (808) 733-4300 www.scd.state.hi.us/ State of Idaho Bureau of Homeland Security 4040 Guard Street, Building 600 Boise, ID 83705 Phone: (208) 422-3040 www.bhs.idaho.gov/

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State of Illinois Illinois Emergency Management Agency 2200 South Dirksen Parkway Springfield, Illinois 62703 Phone: (217) 782-2700 www.state.il.us/iema/ State of Indiana Emergency Response Division Department of Homeland Security Indiana Government Center South 302 W. Washington St., Room E208 Indianapolis, IN 46204-2739 Phone: (317) 232-3980 or (800) 669-7362 www.in.gov/dhs/response/ State of Iowa Iowa Homeland Security and Emergency Management Division Department of Public Defense 7105 N.W. 70th Avenue Camp Dodge, Building W-4 Johnston, IA 50131 Phone: (515) 725-3231 www.iowahomelandsecurity.org/ State of Kansas Division of Emergency Management 2800 SW Topeka Boulevard Topeka, KS 66611-1287 Phone: (785) 274-1409 www.kansas.gov/kdem/ State of Kentucky Division of Emergency Management 100 Minuteman Parkway Frankfort, KY 40601 Phone: (502) 607-1611 or (800) 255-2587 kyem.ky.gov/

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State of Louisiana Louisiana Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness 7667 Independence Boulevard Baton Rouge, LA 70806 Phone: (225) 925-7500 www.ohsep.louisiana.gov/ State of Maine Maine Emergency Management Agency 72 State House Station 45 Commerce Drive Augusta, ME 04333 Phone: (207) 624-4400 www.maine.gov/mema/ State of Maryland Maryland Emergency Management Agency 5401 Rue Saint Lo Drive Reisterstown, MD 21136 Phone: (877) MEMA-USA www.mema.state.md.us/ State of Massachusetts Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency 400 Worcester Road Framingham, MA 01702-5399 Phone: (508) 820-2000 www.mass.gov/mema State of Michigan Emergency Management and Homeland Security Division Michigan State Police 714 S. Harrison Road East Lansing, MI 48823 Phone: (517) 332-2521 www.michigan.gov/homeland

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State of Minnesota Homeland Security and Emergency Management Department of Public Safety 444 Cedar Street, Suite 223 St. Paul, MN 55101-6223 Phone: (651) 201-7400 www.hsem.state.mn.us/ State of Mississippi Mississippi Emergency Management Agency P.O. Box 5644 Pearl, MS 39288 Phone: (601) 933-MEMA www.msema.org/ State of Missouri State Emergency Management Agency 2302 Militia Drive Jefferson City, MO 65101 Phone: (573) 526-9100 www.sema.dps.mo.gov/ State of Montana Disaster and Emergency Services P.O. Box 4789 1900 Williams Street Helena, MT 59604-4789 Phone: (406) 841-3911 dma.mt.gov/des/ State of Nebraska Nebraska Emergency Management Agency 1300 Military Road Lincoln, NE 68508-1090 Phone: 402-471-7410 www.nema.ne.gov State of Nevada Division of Emergency Management 2525 S. Carson Street Carson City, NV 89711 Phone: (775) 687-4240 dem.state.nv.us/

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State of New Hampshire Governor’s Office of Emergency Management State Office Park South 107 Pleasant Street Concord, NH 03301 Phone: (603) 271-2231 www.nhoem.state.nh.us/ State of New Jersey New Jersey Office of Emergency Management Emergency Management Bureau P.O. Box 7068 West Trenton, NJ 08628-0068 Phone: (609) 538-6050 www.state.nj.us/njoem/ State of New Mexico Emergency Management Bureau Department of Public Safety P.O. Box 1628 13 Bataan Boulevard Santa Fe, NM 87505 Phone: (505) 476-9606 or (505) 476-9650 www.dps.nm.org/emc.htm State of New York State Emergency Management Office 1220 Washington Avenue Building 22, Suite 101 Albany, NY 12226-2251 Phone: (518) 292-2275 www.nysemo.state.ny.us State of North Carolina Division of Emergency Management Department of Crime Control and Public Safety 4713 Mail Service Center Raleigh, NC 27699-4713 Phone: (919) 733-3867 www.ncem.org/

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State of North Dakota North Dakota Department of Emergency Services P.O. Box 5511 Bismarck, ND 58506-5511 Phone: (701) 328-8100 www.nd.gov/des State of Ohio Ohio Emergency Management Agency Department of Public Safety 2855 W. Dublin-Granville Road Columbus, OH 43235-2206 Phone: (614) 889-7150 ema.ohio.gov/ema.asp State of Oklahoma Office of Civil Emergency Management Will Rogers Sequoia Tunnel 2401 N. Lincoln Oklahoma City, OK 73152 Phone: (405) 521-2481 www.odcem.state.ok.us/ State of Oregon Oregon Emergency Management Department of State Police P.O. Box 14370 Salem, OR 97309-5062 Phone: (503) 378-2911 egov.oregon.gov/OOHS/OEM State of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency 2605 Interstate Drive Harrisburg PA 17110-9463 Phone: (717) 651-2001 www.pema.state.pa.us/ State of Rhode Island Rhode Island Emergency Management Agency 645 New London Avenue Cranston, RI 02920-3003

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Phone: (401) 946-9996 www.riema.ri.gov State of South Carolina South Carolina Emergency Management Division 2779 Fish Hatchery Road West Columbia, SC 29172 Phone: (803) 737-8500 www.scemd.org/ State of South Dakota Division of Emergency Management Department of Public Safety 118 West Capitol Pierre, SD 57501 Phone: (605) 773-3231 www.oem.sd.gov/ State of Tennessee Tennessee Emergency Management Agency 3041 Sidco Drive Nashville, TN 37204-1502 Phone: (615) 741-4332 www.tnema.org State of Texas Texas Division of Emergency Management 5805 N. Lamar Austin, TX 78752 Phone: (512) 424-2138 www.txdps.state.tx.us/dem State of Utah Utah Division of Emergency Services and Homeland Security 1110 State Office Building P.O. Box 141710 Salt Lake City, UT 84114-1710 Phone: (801) 538-3400 www.des.utah.gov

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State of Vermont Vermont Emergency Management Agency Department of Public Safety Waterbury State Complex 103 S. Main Street Waterbury, VT 05671-2101 Phone: (802) 244-8721 www.dps.state.vt.us/vem/ State of Virginia Virginia Department of Emergency Management 10501 Trade Court Richmond, VA 23236-3713 Phone: (804) 897-6502 www.vdem.state.va.us State of Washington Washington Emergency Management Division Building 20, M/S TA-20 Camp Murray, WA 98430-5122 Phone: (253) 512-7000 www.emd.wa.gov/ State of West Virginia West Virginia Office of Emergency Services Building 1, Room EB-80 1900 Kanawha Boulevard East Charleston, WV 25305-0360 Phone: (304) 558-5380 www.wvdhsem.gov State of Wisconsin Wisconsin Emergency Management 2400 Wright Street P.O. Box 7865 Madison, WI 53707-7865 Phone: (608) 242-3232 emergencymanagement.wi.gov/

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State of Wyoming Wyoming Office of Homeland Security 122 W. 25th Street Cheyenne, WY 82002 Phone: (307) 777-4900 wyohomelandsecurity.state.wy.us

International Agencies/Organizations International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 19 Avenue de la Paix CH 1202 Geneva, Switzerland Phone: + 41 (22) 734 60 01 www.icrc.org/eng The International Committee of the Red Cross is a neutral humanitarian organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. The organization takes an impartial stance with regard to merits of the arguments between groups or countries embroiled in conflict with one another. The ICRC, which is the umbrella organization over the International Red Cross and the International Red Crescent, monitors the compliance of nations with the Geneva Convention—which specifically requires humane treatment for captured prisoners of war and for minimizing casualties against noncombative civilian populations. The activities of the Red Cross and Red Crescent include visiting prisoners of war and security detainees; searching for missing persons; facilitating communications between separated family members as a result of civil unrest and conflict and reuniting family members where possible; providing water, food, and medical care to those in need; promoting respect for international humanitarian law; monitoring humanitarian law compliance and issuing compliance reports; and contributing to the development and strengthening of international humanitarianism among international policy and judicial bodies. Organization of American States (OAS) Natural Hazards Project Office for Sustainable Development and Environment 1889 F Street, NW

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Washington, DC 20006 Phone: (202) 458-6295 www.oas.org/nhp/ The OAS is an international associative body made up of thirtyfive independent Western Hemisphere nations, including those in North, Central, and South America. The purpose of the OAS is to strengthen the cooperative efforts between member nations on matters concerning the development of democratic values, the defense of common interests, and the deliberation of the major issues facing the hemisphere and the world. Specific problems addressed cooperatively through the OAS include terrorism, drug trafficking, poverty, and the impact of natural disasters. The OAS Natural Hazards Project is located in the Office for Sustainable Development and Environment. The goal of the Natural Hazards Project is to help OAS member nations to assess their own vulnerabilities to natural hazards and to engage in mitigation efforts to reduce the impact of those hazards should they materialize. The OAS, through the Natural Hazards Project, provides technical assistance, technology transfers, training, and assistance with mitigation project formulation. Current emphases of the Natural Hazards Project include floods, the resilience of school buildings, and the protection of transportation corridors. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR) International Environment House II 7–9 Chemin de Balexert CH 1219 Chatelaine, Geneva 10, Switzerland Phone: +41 22 917 8908/8907 www.unisdr.org/isdrindex.htm The UN/ISDR is an agency within the United Nations devoted to fostering disaster-resilient communities around the world by promoting increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction efforts as a necessary element of progress for developing countries. The practical goal of the UN/ISDR is to reduce losses (human, social, economic, and environmental) that tend to follow from natural, technological, and environmental disasters. Pursuant to its mission, the UN/ISDR promotes four primary objectives for the purpose of reducing the devastating impact of disasters: to increase public awareness and understanding of

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risk, vulnerability, and disaster reduction globally; to obtain commitments from the public authorities in vulnerable countries to implement disaster reduction policies and action steps; to stimulate interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including the expansion of risk networks; and to improve scientific knowledge about disaster reduction. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) First Avenue at 46th Street New York, NY 10017 Phone: (212) 963-1234 ochaonline.un.org/ www.reliefweb.int/ The OCHA was created in 1998 as the UN agency responsible for coordinating and delivering humanitarian relief to nations in a time of crisis. Prior to 1998, the responsibility belonged to the UN’s Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA) and to the Emergency Relief Coordinator located within the DHA. The mission of the United Nations to provide relief in the face of largescale emergencies and natural disasters was articulated and strengthened by UN Resolution 46/182, which was adopted in December 1991. In addition to the applied function of coordinating actual humanitarian missions for the United Nations, the OCHA also is responsible for developing policies relating to humanitarian assistance and for engaging in advocacy, on behalf of the UN, for humanitarian causes. The OCHA also maintains the ReliefWeb Internet site, described below. United Nations Relief Web First Avenue at 46th Street New York, NY 10017 Phone: (212) 963-1234 www.reliefweb.int/ ReliefWeb touts itself as the leading Web-based information portal concerning humanitarian crises and disasters. The site is maintained by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. The purpose of ReliefWeb is to provide members of the international humanitarian community (which includes government agencies, private relief organizations, and

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academic and research institutions, and the media) in providing emergency assistance to disaster-stricken peoples and information about said relief efforts. ReliefWeb became operational in 1996. Since then, it has become an invaluable resource for exchanging information about humanitarian needs, practices, and policies between governments, agencies, and nongovernment organizations. Hundreds of thousands of documents can be accessed through ReliefWeb, which has organized and classified each of these documents. The usage of ReliefWeb as a resource has steadily grown since its creation. In 2002, the Web site received 1.5 million hits per week. By 2004, it was receiving nearly a million hits each day. After major disasters, the usage climbs rapidly. Shortly after the tsunamis struck South Asia in December 2004, ReliefWeb was receiving 3 million hits each day.

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8 Resources

T

his chapter is intended to provide readers with an indication of the growing pool of literature and other resources available regarding the discipline and practice of emergency management, disaster planning, and homeland security. Specifically, this chapter acquaints readers with a number of published articles, books, government reports, and video productions that may be of interest to anyone exploring or researching the broad field of emergency management and its cognate activities.

Summary of Selected Scholarship Relating to Emergency Management As emergency management continues to develop as a profession, the literature base relating to the profession grows. Prior to the emergence of professional emergency management, the knowledge base for disaster planning and emergency management was reflected as a subset in sociological, scientific, and public safety literature venues. Further, the studies and materials that were produced concerning emergency management were scant. Today, however, due to the expanding academic and professional disaster planning and homeland security communities, considerably more scholarship is being done in emergency management. Indeed, the numbers of applied and scholarly researchers publishing in the field for the purpose of advancing the discipline have increased dramatically in the past decade.


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The first section of this chapter offers readers a summary of some of the applied scholarship done in very recent years. Obviously, the sample of articles selected for summary here should in no way be construed as an exhaustive representation of the emergency management literature. Rather, these articles and studies provide a flavor for the state of the discipline and the kinds of questions that emergency management researchers are asking and answering. Balaban, Victor. 2006. “Psychological Assessments of Children in Disasters and Emergencies.” Disasters 30 (2): 178–198. In this article, the author addresses the concern of the mental health of children after a disaster or other major crisis. Historically, the traumatic impact of disasters on children who lived through them was thought to be temporary. It was believed that children’s memories of disastrous events would fade and the personal effects of those disasters would abate over time as the children grow older. However, the author and others assert today that children are not impervious to mental and emotional trauma resulting from disasters, but rather are among the most vulnerable and susceptible to it. The author notes that children and adolescents experience four possible types of posttraumatic responses: posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety disorders, and behavioral disorders. Given this range of possible disorders, depending on the child and depending on the event, the author argues for a rational approach to assessing the mental health condition of affected children after disasters strike. Through this study, the author determined to evaluate psychological assessment instruments and their appropriateness for the specific trauma-related mental disorders listed above by examining studies from 1974 to 2004 that relied on various validated psychological instruments. The author, using criteria tailored for disaster-related contexts, identified two to four instruments for each of the mental disorders listed above. The author notes that instruments to be used for assessing children in postdisaster environments should be cost effective and brief (to avoid burdening the children, families, relief workers, and health care professionals at a time when human capacities are already strained). The instruments should also measure symptoms of multiple disorders. The author provides examples

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of how elements of different instruments might be combined to measure different constructs and to evaluate children and parents simultaneously. Banipal, Kulwinder. 2006. “Strategic Approach to Disaster Management: Lessons Learned from Hurricane Katrina.” Disaster Prevention and Management 15 (3): 484–494. In the study, the author explores the state of communications and information systems in the Gulf region following Hurricane Katrina. The author notes that functional postdisaster communications and information systems are essential for search and rescue operations, maintaining law and order, and estimating losses. In assessing the Gulf region’s communications and information management systems, the author identifies several problems that existed after Hurricane Katrina made landfall and that had existed well in advance of the disaster. These problems included: • Lack of direct coordination between first responders • Dependence on the central dispatch center • Lack of interoperability Further, the author found that cellular communication was defeated because of the interconnection between the local electrical supply and the communications system, as well as the wind and rain damage to the antennas atop cellular towers. As a result of the author’s evaluation, the article advances several suggestions for designing more resilient communications and information systems. The author’s recommendations for improved emergency communications include the use of softwaredefined radio systems, the use of microwave backhaul for carrying cellular traffic after a disaster, and the use of Wi-Max networks within city administration buildings. Fernandez, Lauren, Joseph Barbera, and Johan van Dorp. 2006. “Spontaneous Volunteer Response to Disasters: The Benefits and Consequences of Good Intentions.” Journal of Emergency Management 4 (5): 57–66. This article adds to the understanding of the effective use of volunteers during a natural disaster or other large-scale emergency.

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The authors explore, through an analysis of the existing literature, just who in the public are inclined to volunteer their assistance in response to disasters and under what circumstances they tend to do so. The authors identify many reasons for disaster volunteerism, including a heightened sense of civic duty, and the experience (for some) of having themselves been victimized by the current or a prior disaster. The authors identify several benefits associated with disaster volunteers. They can amount to a significant and timely workforce for tackling the monumental task of rescue and disaster clean-up. In fact, the article draws attention to stories of volunteers saving lives. When an earthquake struck southern Italy in 1980, 90 percent of the survivors were rescued by other untrained and uninjured survivors who simply used their hands and everyday tools to extricate people from the rubble. In 1985, after an earthquake struck Mexico City, nearly 500 survivors were pulled from the rubble by untrained, spontaneous volunteers. The authors also identify risks and challenges to the effective use of volunteers after a disaster. Chief among these risks is the possibility that untrained and uncoordinated volunteers might cause more harm than good. Further, the unorganized and ineffective use of volunteers may cast a discouraging light on the rescue and relief operations as a whole, thereby reducing the morale of the community and increasing a sense of pessimism. Volunteers also can tax important resources such as food, shelter, and time. The resource of time is one that many professional rescue and relief workers simply would prefer to not have to expend in an effort to find something useful for volunteers to do. The authors argue that emergency managers must do several things to effectively utilize disaster volunteerism. These include matching volunteers to needs, fostering a common view of the incident among the disparate volunteers, recognizing the dynamic nature of disaster response needs, accounting for volunteer safety and health concerns, and understanding that volunteers are going to participate at a disaster scene whether their help is requested or not. The authors found that emergency managers and published emergency management plans must consider these issues and develop processes for mobilizing, utilizing, and demobilizing volunteer response and relief efforts.

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Fischer, Henry. 2004. FEMA Higher Education Project Survey Results. Research report presented to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Management Institute, Emmitsburg, MD. In this study, the author measured the state of emergency management as an academic discipline. Through survey research, the author found that the average emergency management college program coordinator was in his or her early 50s and had been teaching emergency management for not less than eight years. Two-thirds of emergency management faculty taught at public institutions. Programs tended to be small in faculty numbers. The average emergency management program had only three fulltime tenure-track faculty. The rest of the teaching load tended to rely on adjuncts or courses from other disciplines. Males accounted for 68 percent of the coordinators in the survey. Caucasians were 97 percent. A little more than half—54 percent— possessed a doctorate. The remaining 46 percent possessed master’s or bachelor’s degrees. The students in emergency management programs tended to be male—68 percent. Caucasian students totaled 85 percent. Of the programs surveyed, 65 percent offered at least some of the curriculum through distance education platforms. Most of the programs—65 percent—reflected a traditional emergency management orientation, namely to foster disaster resilience in communities. The remaining third of the programs proclaimed other emphases, such as homeland security. Program coordinators identified several challenges, including the shortage of faculty, lack of textbooks in needed subject areas, large class sizes, and too great an emphasis (and interest among the students) on homeland security. Freeman, Lynn. 2007. “Warning Response.” Journal of Emergency Management 5 (1): 53–57. In this article, the author addresses the problem of disaster warnings being ignored by members of the public. The author identifies seven parts to the warning process: 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Perceiving the warning (usually by hearing or seeing) Understanding the warning Believing that the warning is real and accurate Confirming the warning through other sources

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5. Personalizing the warning 6. Deciding on a course of action 7. Acting on that decision Warnings go unheeded when one or more parts of the above process breaks down. The author acknowledges that disbelief is a common initial response to disaster warning messages. Another common reason for warnings being ignored is when a decision to act on that warning is not made. In such cases, everything about the warning may ring true with a particular person, but he or she decides nonetheless to remain static. The author provides the emergency management community with suggestions for bolstering the effectiveness of disaster warning systems. First, the perception of local government’s credibility and trustworthiness must be enhanced for warnings to be heeded. If the government agency issuing a warning has a history of “crying wolf” or in some other way misleading the public, then the likelihood that the agency’s future warnings will be well regarded is diminished. Additionally, warnings must be issued through various means. No single method, such as a television broadcast or a city siren, should be relied upon exclusively. Instead, the warning system must be multimethodological. Grigg, Eliot, Joseph Rosen, and C. Everett Koop. 2006. “The Biological Disaster Challenge: Why We Are Least Prepared for the Most Devastating Threat and What We Need to Do About It.” Journal of Emergency Management 4 (1): 23–35. The authors of this article present a compelling case for increasing the nation’s capacity to deal with biological disasters. Biological disasters can befall the United States either due to acts of terrorism or war or because of naturally occurring epidemics. The article goes on to address the possibilities that exist with both of these types of disasters. A significant portion of the article is devoted to recounting the 1918 flu epidemic that afflicted the United States and the rest of the world. Upwards of 25 million people died worldwide during the epidemic’s first six months. The authors then proceed to dispel the myths about the flu today, including among other things that we have a plan for a flu epidemic, that we understand the flu today, that epidemics

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and pandemics cannot happen in the modern age, and that we are better off than in 1918 because our antiviral medicines will certainly work. The authors recommend several practical emergency mitigation and preparedness measures with regard to biological disasters. The most significant recommendation is to increase stockpiles of various types of medicines. The article states that it takes six to eight months to manufacture a new vaccine. Waiting for a disease to afflict us and then contracting with drug manufacturers is a recipe for massive casualties, according to the authors. Additionally, masks can be distributed throughout society so that they could be used if needed. Further, plans for reducing social interaction (such as closing schools and other gathering places) should be refined and available in the event a large-scale biological emergency strikes the United States. Still another proactive method is to provide greater assistance to other countries of the world—regardless of political friendliness—with their disease-control efforts. David McEntire. 2005. “Emergency Management Theory: Issues, Barriers, and Recommendations for Improvement.” Journal of Emergency Management 3 (3): 44–54. In this article, the author discusses the state of emergency management theory today. Like any emerging professional discipline, emergency management has seen a growth in its knowledge and literature base over the past several years. However, the theory of emergency management is not so well established. Theory and theoretical models in any discipline require that the observed realities in the field be coupled together in a synthesized and organized way so that they have explanative and relatively constant properties. As the author notes, firm definitions, classifications, and principles of operation, including causal relationships, tend to flow from theory. The author states in the article that emergency management is lacking of a unified theory or set of theories. In order to bolster emergency management theory, the author offers several recommendations to the academic community. First, emergency management scholars should revisit and reinforce the discipline’s findings from earlier research relating to hazards,

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convergence, and emergence. Additionally, common definitions should be sought for key concepts such as just what a disaster is, or what emergency management is. In fact, the author suggests that the discipline’s name—“emergency management”—should possibly be rescinded in favor of some other, more explanative name, such as disaster management, risk management, or disaster vulnerability management. Still another action step for scholars is to truly become critical thinkers regarding the discipline. This requires that academicians continually examine new ways of doing emergency management while remaining realistic in light of limited resources and technology. Lioy, Paul, Fred Roberts, Brendan McCluskey, Mary Lioy, Audrey Cross, Lee Clarke, Lee Stanton, William Tepfenhart, and Mary Ferrara. 2006. “TOPOFF 3: Comments and Recommendations from Members of the New Jersey Universities Consortium for Homeland Security Research.” Journal of Emergency Management 4 (6): 41–51. This article provides readers with the evaluation of firsthand observers of the large-scale disaster training scenario known as TOPOFF 3. The TOPOFF 3 exercise, orchestrated by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, was held April 4–8, 2005. The exercise took place simultaneously in Connecticut, New Jersey, the United Kingdom, and Canada. It involved a complex terror attack scenario in which the participating jurisdictions were each hit with a weapon of mass destruction. In the scenario, New Jersey suffered through an attack involving pneumonic plague, while Connecticut was hit with a chemical attack. In the article, the authors identified one of the exercise’s primary weaknesses: its total scripted-ness. As the authors noted, TOPOFF 3 followed a playbook that completely lacked the random elements of surprise or contradictory information, which would realistically be present in an actual event of this magnitude. Because of this, the true decision-making capabilities of participants and the adequacy of processes in place could not be accurately judged. There was no sense of chaos among the officials and the press. In the article, beyond their recommendations that address specific observations of the processes witnessed

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during the exercise, the authors offer their leading recommendation: the Department of Homeland Security should adopt a more “war game” style approach to simulation exercises. This would allow for acute, unexpected, “stochastic” events to occur that would require decisions and actions without the benefit of significant contemplation. Reich, John. 2006. “Three Psychological Principles of Resilience in Natural Disasters.” Disaster Prevention and Management 15 (5): 793–798. The author in this article sets out to identify those psychological principles that are deemed indispensable for people to remain steadfast and resilient in the face of natural or man-made disasters. Through the identification and exploration of these principles, the author hopes to add to our understanding of the human condition with the goal of improving disaster intervention strategies and effectiveness. The author identifies three psychological principles of resilience, which he describes as the “3 Cs”: • Control • Coherence • Connectedness The author cites disaster literature that reinforces the value of all three principles for the recovery of those affected by disasters. “Control” relates to one’s personal ability (or the sense of that ability) to aid in their own recovery. For control to exist, victims must have personal resources at their command, which can be employed to achieve their goals. “Coherence” relates to the knowledge and understanding of the victim. Receiving accurate answers to questions such as, “Where’s my family?” and “Is help coming?” go a long way toward fostering coherence. Responders can aid in this area by providing victims with direction and information. Finally, “connectedness” relates to the notion of people banding together in the face of a common calamity. After disaster strikes, every effort should be made to facilitate the reestablishment of social bonds among victims so that they can heal together.

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Shaw, Greg, and John Harrald. 2006. “Core Competencies of Executive Level Business Crisis and Continuity Managers— The Results.” Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 3 (1): 1–34. In this study, the authors address the competencies of privatesector business executives for dealing with large-scale crises and ensuring the continuity of the business operations. Particularly, the authors offer a framework for ensuring the continued fulfillment of organizational strategic goals during and after a natural or man-made disaster. The framework is called the Business Crisis and Continuity Management (BCCM) model. The authors then examine the BCCM model and, through survey research, they prioritize 137 competencies and thirteen functional areas. The authors found that there is some overlap of competencies commonly associated with effective emergency managers and those working under the rubric of the BCCM. However, there were significant differences as well—so many that the authors concluded the two disciplines of emergency management and business continuity management to be very much distinct from one another. Crisis management was given as the greatest functional priority for BCCM executives.

Books, Government Reports, and Videos According to past surveys of practitioners and academicians in the field of emergency management, a common complaint has been the numerical lack of published reference materials in the field. Indeed, less than a decade ago, the number of monographs and textbooks with emergency management titles was small. This was one of the driving motivations behind the establishment of the Higher Education Project at the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). This initiative sought to foster a growth in the authorship and publication of emergency management titles. In this section of the chapter, readers are presented with a select list of published emergency management books. It should be understood that this list represents only a sample of available publications relating to emergency management. Bibliographical information about the books is provided for easy reference, as

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well as a brief description of the contents of each book. Some of the books below were written and published as a direct result of FEMA’s Higher Education Project. Others were researched and produced independent of any organized FEMA effort to boost emergency management’s literature base. But all the books listed are believed to be useful contributions to the overall understanding of emergency management and disaster planning. In addition to the books, a list of government reports and videos related to emergency management and available to the public is also presented. As with the books, the cited reports and videos are accompanied by complete bibliographical information and brief summaries as an aid to the reader seeking to conduct further research about emergency management and disaster planning.

Books Alexander, David. Principles of Emergency Planning and Management. New York: Oxford University Press. 2002. 340 pp. ISBN: 978-0-19521-838-1. David Alexander’s book is one of the most cited in the field of emergency management. This book was one of the very first texts to present a comprehensive introduction to and overview of the field of disaster planning and emergency management. It was also among the first to present a theoretical framework and typologies for understanding and responding to various types of natural and man-made disasters. The book provides several case studies of how major disasters were handled or mishandled, along with accompanying analysis. Bell, Howard. Homeland Security: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2005. 235 pp. ISBN: 978-1-85109-803-3. This book serves as an excellent primer for understanding the development and the role of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and its component parts (which includes the Federal Emergency Management Agency). Howard Bell presents the history of the department within the context of the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terror attacks. Bell also discusses the nation’s pre-9/11 history and track record with regard to homeland security threats. Bell explores important legislation,

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such as the USA PATRIOT Act, and the impact new laws have had on federal law enforcement efforts to protect the country from terrorism. Borodzics, Edward. Risk, Crisis & Security Management. West Sussex, UK: Wiley & Sons. 2005. 244 pp. ISBN: 0-470-86704-3. This book introduces readers to the process of assessing risk in public- and private-sector organizational contexts. The emphasis of the book relates to risks associated with major hazards and disasters. As the author notes in the book, the management of risk has ramifications for public health services, public transportation, public safety, and corporate activities. It explores the principles of risk identification and measurement, risk’s organization elements, and the role of simulation exercises in the determination of risk and the proper response to its existence. Brinkley, Douglas. Great Deluge: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast. New York: William Morrow. 2006. 716 pp. ISBN: 978-0-06-112423-0. This book offers a highly documented account of the destruction caused by Hurricane Katrina, along with the successes and failures of government at all levels with regard to preparation and response. Douglas Brinkley has become one of America’s most popular contemporary historians. He has been featured regularly on television news panels to discuss issues such as American presidents in history, the civil rights movement, and the United States during wartime. However, as a history professor at Tulane University and a resident of New Orleans who lived through Hurricane Katrina, Brinkley brings an elevated authenticity to this particular historical account among the many he is credited with producing. The book spends considerable time addressing the shortcomings of leadership at the municipal, state, and federal levels of government. It chronicles the considerable suffering that was endured by so many. It also reports on many successes and individual acts of heroism. The Great Deluge is a story about the intersection of human foibles and nobility with nature’s ravages. It depicts this intersection about as thoroughly as any Katrina book on the market.

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Bullock, Jane, and George Haddow. Introduction to Homeland Security. Boston: Elsevier. 2006. 672 pp. ISBN: 978-0-7506-7992-3. This book serves as a useful introduction to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, as well as an objective to be achieved by the United States and other countries. The text examines developments and trends in the United States concerning homeland security activities, including those engaged in by both law enforcement and emergency management communities at all levels of government. The text also provides a number of case studies that inform the study of emergency management. It explains the role of several different federal and state agencies in the overall homeland security mission. Clarke, Lee. Worst Cases: Terror and Catastrophe in the Popular Imagination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2006. 200 pp. ISBN: 978-0-226-10859-9. In this text, Lee Clarke does what many said the government of the United States failed to do prior to the 9/11 attacks: imagine the unimaginable. Clarke offers detailed worst-case scenarios for catastrophic terror attacks and natural disasters. The text then affords readers the opportunity to think through the difficult issues associated with the mitigation and response to those events. Throughout the book, a dialogue takes place between the author and the reader, which prompts the reader to confront the real possibility of materialized threats of massive scale. The dramatic, even unimaginable, destruction in these different scenarios results in a sharpened sense of the need for proper emergency management preparedness and mitigation efforts. Committee on Disaster Research in the Social Sciences: Future Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Council. Facing Hazards and Disasters: Understanding Human Dimensions. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. 2006. 408 pp. ISBN: 978-0-309-10178-3. This book revisits the social science research that has been done since the 1970s concerning society’s ability to adapt to natural, technological, and terrorism-related disasters. The authors of the book then proceed to make several recommendations for the

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expansion of knowledge within the discipline of emergency management through additional social science research. In particular, the predictability, forewarning, magnitude, and duration of disasters and their effect on society’s capacity to avoid and respond to disasters are the suggested topics of further research. Coppola, Damon. Introduction to International Disaster Management. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. 2007. 547 pp. ISBN: 978-0-7506-7982-4. In this text, Damon Coppola, a well-known emergency management scholar and practitioner, presents an introduction to emergency management and disaster planning from an international perspective. As a result, many of the illustrations and case studies found in the book are from places other than the United States or even the West. This permits the author to take advantage of the lessons and experiences of nations that have suffered far more devastating natural and man-made disastrous events than are typical in the United States and the rest of the developed world. The book also addresses international efforts to confront natural and man-made hazards and introduces a multitude of agencies and organizations that affect the emergency management process globally. D’Arcy, Michael, Michael O’Hanlon, Peter Orszag, Jeremy Shapiro, and James Steinburg. Protecting the Homeland 2006/2007. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 2006. 212 pp. ISBN: 978-0-8157-6459-5. As with other books related to homeland security presented in this chapter, the publication by d’Arcy et al. provides readers with a useful overview of homeland security measures and efforts in the United States. However, the book is a product of the Brookings Institution, which is one the nation’s leading think tanks. As such, the book is a policy document as much as it is a running account of the status of American homeland security. In particular, the authors offer several policy recommendations for reforming America’s intelligence efforts, increasing the protection levels of the nation’s infrastructure and borders (which go to the emergency management themes of preparedness and

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mitigation), developing new technologies for the improvement of homeland security, and developing strategies to counter various types of terrorism and acts of war. Fitzpatrick, Patrick. Natural Disasters: Hurricanes. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 1999. 286 pp. ISBN: 978-1-57607-260-8. Although slightly dated, this book on hurricanes by Patrick Fitzpatrick possesses a level of usefulness as a disaster reference. As with other ABC-CLIO books, Natural Disasters: Hurricanes provides a wealth of introductory information and a multitude of references for further research—in this case, about hurricanes. The book explains the cycles of hurricanes and provides an assessment of the economic and environmental damage that severe hurricanes typically cause. Fitzpatrick also provides readers with an overview of the findings of modern scientific hurricane research. Gustin, Joseph. Disaster and Recovery Planning: A Guide for Facility Managers. Lilburn, GA: Fairmont Press. 2007. 423 pp. ISBN: 0-88173-557-4 In this book, Joseph Gustin focuses on emergency management efforts for business and industry. In particular, he explores prevention and mitigation activities for the purpose of business and facilities continuity. The book considers these issues in the context of a variety of different hazards, including natural hazards, large-scale accidents, and acts of terrorism. Measures such as computer and data protection activities, the installation of backup power supplies, self-inspection, and contingency planning are addressed. Ample examples, including examples from Hurricane Katrina, are provided to enhance the understanding of the reader. Hampton, Wilborn. Meltdown: The Race against Nuclear Disaster at Three Mile Island. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. 2001. 112 pp. ISBN: 978-0-76360-715-9 This book explores, from a journalist’s perspective, one of the most significant industrial accidents in American history: the 1979 nuclear power plant accident at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania.

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In this book, the events leading up to the meltdown of one of the power plant’s nuclear reactors is chronicled in detail. A positive feature of the book is Hampton’s heavy reliance on eyewitness accounts and photographs associated with the event. The potential danger associated with the nuclear power industry is discussed, as is the preparedness of government safety and emergency management officials for dealing with nuclear accidents. Hooke, William, and Paul Rogers (eds.). Public Health Risks of Disasters: Communication, Infrastructure, and Preparedness. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. 2005. 88 pp. ISBN: 978-0-309-09542-6. This book represents a synthesis of ideas from the emergency management and public-health professional communities. The publication is the culmination of cooperative workshops involving the two disciplines that were sponsored by the National Research Council. The book addresses problems and solutions to various health risks associated with disasters, particularly in the United States. It also identifies the need for training and collaborative problem solving to confront challenges relating to public health as a result of disasters in the future. Kemp, Roger (ed.). Homeland Security Handbook for Citizens and Public Officials. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. 2006. 269 pp. ISBN: 978-0-7864-2432-0 This book is a compilation of articles and chapters written by various public administration professionals and academicians. Roger Kemp, who is a city manager in California, is the editor of the book as well as a contributor to its content. Despite the phrase “homeland security” appearing in the title, the book is truly an emergency management text for local government officials and presents an all-hazards approach to the discipline— which includes both natural and man-made disasters. The book, which in previous editions had been published by the International City/County Managers Association before becoming a McFarland Press listing, offers a description of best practices in local government where emergency management and homeland security are concerned. The text concludes with several useful appendices.

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Miller, Willard, and Ruby Miller. Natural Disasters: Floods. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2000. 286 pp. ISBN: 978-157607-289-9. As with the Patrick Fitzpatrick book on hurricanes listed above, this book is among the more dated publications offered in this chapter. But also like the Fitzpatrick book, the content is useful to the discussion and research of emergency management. Willard and Ruby Miller provide readers with a very helpful overview of flooding. This overview includes a discussion on the frequency of major floods in the United States, the level of damage that floods tend to cause, and information about organizations (such as FEMA and the American Red Cross) that are in place to assist victims and communities in their recovery from floods. Additionally, a thorough explanation of modern United States flood control doctrine and policy is provided in the book. Molino, Louis, Sr. Emergency Incident Management Systems: Fundamentals and Applications. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. 2006. 518 pp. ISBN: 0-471-45564-4. In this book, Louis Molino examines the major forms of incident management systems (IMS), also called incident command systems. Molino explains the military heritage that is embedded in IMS, and reveals the critical elements of effective command during a disaster or other large-scale emergency management event. Readers of this book will come away from it with a relatively thorough understanding of the leadership capacity and the administrative responsibilities required of those in charge during the unfolding and aftermath of critical incidents. Nicholson, William. Emergency Response and Emergency Management Law: Cases and Materials. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 2003. 366 pp. ISBN: 978-0-398-07406-7. William Nicholson has published extensively on emergency management law and liability. Most of his publications on this topic have been articles or contributed chapters to other texts. However, this particular book, authored entirely by Nicholson, is the first and primary book-length publication that considers legal issues for the emergency management community. The book

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examines the development of public safety law through statutes and court decisions. Liability issues concerning training, the operation of emergency vehicles, the provision of first aid, and “Good Samaritan” acts are explored. The book also offers suggestions for the professional emergency management community to consider with regard to forming relationships with the professional legal community. The book is seen as a bridge of useful information for both professions involved voluntarily or by happenstance with one another. Syzerhans, Douglas (ed.). Federal Disaster Programs and Hurricane Katrina. New York: Nova Science Publishers. 2006. ISBN: 1-59454-889-7. Various contributors to this book examine the federal response to Hurricane Katrina. The book looks first at the programs that were initially in place and their application to the disaster that occurred in the Gulf region as a result of Hurricane Katrina. It then examines the federal supplemental disaster programs that came along in the wake of the inadequacy of the initial response. Finally, the book explores new programs that have been established since Katrina with the hope that future disasters might be managed more effectively than in the past. The performance of specific agencies, such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Social Security Administration, the Army Corps of Engineers, and others is addressed. Willis, Henry, Andrew Morral, Terrence Kelly, and Jamison Jo Medby. Estimating Terrorism Risk. Arlington, VA: RAND Corporation. 2005. 90 pp. ISBN: 0-8330-3834-6. In this short book, the authors present a discussion about the assessment of risk regarding terrorism in America’s cities. The authors propose new formulas for allocating antiterrorism homeland security resources (including preparedness and mitigation funds) to states and local communities. In particular, the authors explain and call for the use of density-weighted population figures, rather than simple population figures. Readers of this book will be introduced to ways in which shares of risk can be assessed among multiple cities. These risk assessments can account for a wide range of threat scenarios.

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Government Publications Government Accountability Office An invaluable resource for researching federal emergency management and homeland security efforts is the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). The GAO is the investigative and assessment arm of the United States Congress. As such, it helps Congress perform its executive oversight function by assessing the performance of federal employees and agencies and evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of federal programs and expenditures. The GAO has performed hundreds of reviews of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and its component agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Below is a sample of GAO reports and published testimony before Congress that address performance and funding issues relating to emergency management. The title of each report or published testimony, the GAO identification number for the report or testimony, and a brief summary of each report are provided. Additionally, the Internet address for accessing the full reports and testimony is provided to aid those desiring to research the details of the GAO publication further. “Disaster Assistance: Better Planning Needed for Housing Victims of Catastrophic Disasters (GAO-07-88)” www.gao.gov/new.items/d0788.pdf This report by the Government Accountability Office was presented to the U.S. Congress on February 28, 2007. The study examines the federal government’s responsibility and capacity to offer housing assistance to victims made temporarily or permanently homeless as a result of a disaster. In particular, this GAO report explores the extent to which the National Response Plan clearly describes the responsibilities of federal agencies (e.g., Federal Emergency Management Agency, Housing and Urban Development) and the American Red Cross with regard to housing assistance. It also examines the degree to which these organizations and agencies had plans for providing shelter and assistance after hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005. Finally, the GAO report recounts the firsthand experiences of victims who took advantage of housing assistance programs and also the observations of government and Red Cross workers involved with the implementation of the housing assistance programs.

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“Emergency Preparedness: Current Emergency Alert System Has Limitations and Development of a New Integrated System Will Be Challenging (GAO-07-411)” www.gao.gov/new.items/d07411.pdf In this report, dated March 30, 2007, the Government Accountability Office assessed the current Emergency Alert System (EAS) for disseminating to the public information during serious emergencies. The GAO reviewed in this report the media’s ability to meet federal requirements for participating in the EAS; the views of various stakeholders regarding the challenges endured by the EAS; the progress made toward the development of a new, integrated alert system; and the Federal Communications Commission’s rulemaking responsibilities regarding the EAS. Multiple problems and concerns are identified in the report and recommendations for improving the EAS are provided. “Federal Emergency Management Agency: Factors for Future Success and Issue to Consider for Organizational Placement (GAO-06-746T)” www.gao.gov/new.items/d06746t.pdf The Government Accountability Office presented this testimony to Congress on May 9, 2006. The GAO noted that the Federal Emergency Management Agency is dependent on several factors for its future success as an emergency and disaster management organization. These factors may not necessarily include FEMA’s organizational placement, as some in Congress had postulated. Rather, according to the GAO, the clarity of FEMA’s mission, responsibilities, and authorities; the adequacy of FEMA’s human, financial, and technological resources; and the effectiveness of planning, simulation exercises, and partnerships affect FEMA’s success in the future. The GAO noted that even if Congress were to decide to relocate FEMA elsewhere within the federal government or return it to independent agency status, these other factors must still be addressed. “First Responders: Much Work Remains to Improve Communications Interoperability (GAO-07-301)” www.gao.gov/new.items/d07301.pdf In this report of the Government Accountability Office, dated April 2, 2007, the issue of communication interoperability was

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examined. Since the terror attacks of 9/11, considerable funding has been made available to state and local governments to improve the ability of different agencies and jurisdictions to communicate with each other during a disaster. In fact, from 2003 to 2005, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security awarded $2.15 billion in grants to improve communications interoperability. In studying the issue, the GAO found that some improvements have been made across the nation. However, most states and locales that have received funding have not developed strategic plans for implementing interoperability of communications. Consequently, the GAO found that the nation as a whole, and even those states and communities that have benefited from communications grants, remain vulnerable in this area. The report goes on to discuss what benchmarks toward interoperability the DHS requires state and local governments receiving grant funds to meet, as well as provides recommendations for speeding up the movement toward interoperability. “Homeland Security: Preparing for and Responding to Disasters (GAO-07-395T)” www.gao.gov/new.items/d07395t.pdf In this published testimony to Congress, dated March 9, 2007, the Government Accountability Office examined the role of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency after reforms implemented in the wake of the Hurricane Katrina debacle. In 2006, Congress passed the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act. This legislation required significant changes to FEMA’s structure and mission. This GAO report summarizes many of the earlier shortcomings of FEMA and DHS. It goes on to provide recommendations for Congress to consider to ensure that DHS properly supports the FEMA mission, and to further ensure that state and local governments are effective players and partners in the preparedness, response, and recovery processes.

Department of Homeland Security, Office of Inspector General The United States Department of Homeland Security, Office of Inspector General (OIG) is responsible for detecting and defeating fraud, waste, and abuse within DHS programs. The DHS-OIG performs its responsibilities by conducting management and financial audits, performance reviews, and criminal investigations.

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Given that the Federal Emergency Management Agency is a part of the DHS, the DHS-OIG possesses audit and investigatory authority over FEMA. Throughout the year, but no less than semiannually, the DHS-OIG presents reports to Congress about its activities and findings vis-à-vis DHS programs. Referenced below is a DHS-OIG performance review of FEMA after Hurricane Katrina, as well as published testimony by the deputy inspector general for Disaster Assistance Oversight. Summaries for each are provided, as is the Internet address for accessing the full report and testimony. “A Performance Review of FEMA’s Disaster Management Activities in Response to Hurricane Katrina (OIG-06-32)” www.dhs.gov/xoig/assets/mgmtrpts/OIG_06-32_Mar06.pdf This report, produced by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Inspector General, is dated March 31, 2006. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the DHS and its emergency management arm, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, came under considerable criticism for mismanaging the disaster relief effort following the hurricane’s landfall. With the public criticism as a backdrop, the DHS Office of Inspector General set out to examine “whether the laws, regulations, policies, procedures, plans, guidelines, and resources were adequate and operational, and whether FEMA’s organizational structure enhanced or hindered its emergency management capabilities.” The performance review found that much of the criticism was warranted. The Office of Inspector General found that FEMA had difficulty deploying sufficient personnel, that the FEMA communications system was unreliable, and that management controls were insufficient for some of the assistance programs. Further, FEMA was found to be lacking when it came to providing support to state government officials in preparing them for the federal response and recovery efforts. Finally, the Office of Inspector General found that the Department of Homeland Security must give more attention to FEMA and its stated mission of an all-hazards approach to disasters. The report suggests that the federal government’s shift toward emphasizing counterterrorism activities may be contributing to reduced attention being given to FEMA’s responsibilities across all four phases of emergency management—preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation.

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“Statement of Matt Jadacki, Deputy Inspector General for Disaster Assistance Oversight, U.S. Department of Homeland Security” www.dhs.gov/xoig/assets/testimony/OIGtm_MJ_031407.pdf This statement was delivered to the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee of Appropriations, Subcommittee of Homeland Security, on March 14, 2007. In this statement, Jadacki reports on the mission and activities of the Federal Emergency Management Agency in the two years since Hurricane Katrina. He also reports on the actions taken by the Department of Homeland Security’s Office of Inspector General to monitor FEMA and the disaster relief programs administered by the federal government. Jadacki addresses a wide range of issues, including the various types of assistance provided to disaster victims, the National Flood Insurance Program, the acquisition policies of FEMA, and the propensity for fraud committed against the United States by unlawful participation in any number of federal disaster assistance programs. On this last point, Jadacki touts the success of the Katrina Fraud Task Force, which has been set up and includes federal law enforcement officers from several agencies, as well as state and local officers.

9/11 Commission “Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission Report)” www.9-11commission.gov/ One of the most significant publications to emerge from the United States government in recent years is the Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, or the 9/11 Commission Report for short. The 9/11 Commission was established in late 2002 as a bipartisan commission, authorized by legislation passed by Congress and signed by the president, to explore the causes behind the success of the 9/11 terrorist attacks by Al Qaeda. The 9/11 Commission examined a wide range of issues, including shortcomings in America’s intelligence capabilities, the failure to “connect the dots” by intelligence and law enforcement officials (primarily due to a failure to communicate with one another), the actions of first responders in Washington, DC and New York City after the hijacked airliners struck the Pentagon and both towers of the World Trade Center, and the disaster

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management efforts at all levels of government in the days, weeks, and months after the attacks. Among other points of interest to the emergency management community, the 9/11 Commission called for the major overhaul and reorganization of departments and agencies within the U.S. government, including those agencies having a counterterrorism, homeland security, or emergency management role. The 9/11 Commission released its report on August 21, 2004. By this time, the Department of Homeland Security was already a year-and-a-half into its existence. Nevertheless, the 9/11 Commission’s recommendations concerning greater cooperation and communication between federal agencies involved with the mission of homeland security, as well as with state and local agencies involved in the same, amount to timely and sound advice to this day. The full report of the 9/11 Commission, although for sale in print, can be accessed in its entirety for free at the 9/11 Commission’s Web site provided above.

Videos This chapter provides below a summary of a selection of videos that relate in some way to emergency management and disaster planning. The release years of the videos, the mode, the length, the cost, and the distributors are listed under the video titles. Additionally, the Web address for purchasing the video is provided, along with a brief summary of each video’s content. Many of the distributors below offer multiple videos relating to disasters and emergency management. Readers of this chapter are encouraged to explore the distributor Web sites further for videos that may be of interest. Generally, only the most recent and relevant videos from these distributors appear below. Civil Defense: The War at Home Date: unknown Type: VHS or DVD Length: 50 minutes Cost: $24.95 Source: Distributed by Arts and Entertainment Networks www.aetv.com This Bill Kurtis Investigative Reports documentary examines the history and development of civil defense efforts in the United

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States. The film explains how the civil defense was largely organized around the aim of the United States surviving a nuclear war during the Cold War with the Soviet Union. However, the mission of civil defense eventually grew broader and the Civil Defense Department was replaced by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Past and present government officials involved with the civil defense mission are interviewed. Disasters of the Century (multiple episodes) Date: 2006 Type: DVD Length: 50 minutes Cost: $29.95 Source: Distributed by Partners In Motion www.partnersinmotion.com/store.htm This series, produced in Canada, includes thirty-nine different episodes. Each episode focuses on a different set of famous disasters in Canada and around the world. The events covered range from natural disasters (such as a deadly tornado that struck Edmonton) to technological accidents (such as the Hindenburg crash). The emergency response to each disaster is discussed, as well as the disasters’ toll on lives and property. Engineering Disasters (multiple episodes) Date: 2005 Type: DVD Length: 50 minutes Cost: $24.95 Source: Distributed by the History Channel www.history.com/media The History Channel’s popular series Modern Marvels has produced more than a dozen episodes of “Engineering Disasters.” The focus of these videos is on disasters directly affected by the quality of engineering. Examples include bridge collapses, building fires, plane and train crashes, and coal mine disasters. FEMA: In the Face of Disaster Date: unknown Type: VHS or DVD Length: 50 minutes Cost: $24.95

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Source: Distributed by Arts and Entertainment Networks www.aetv.com Bill Kurtis hosts this documentary as a production of A&E’s Investigative Reports series. This particular program looks at the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Kurtis explores FEMA’s history as a government agency. He also delves into a classified government report that suggests that the United States, and FEMA in particular, is entirely unprepared for major natural disasters. The false sense of security that many communities and individuals possess because of a feeling that FEMA will take care of everything should a disaster strike is also addressed. Great Disasters Date: 2000 Type: VHS or DVD Length: 50 minutes Cost: $79.95 (VHS) 69.95 (DVD) Source: Distributed by Films for the Humanities and Sciences www.films.com This documentary highlights the role that both man-made and natural disasters has played in the history of the twentieth century. The film is full of archival footage of age-old disasters, including the Hindenburg crash in 1937 and the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse in 1940. Other disasters covered in the film, and responses to them, include the explosion of Pan Am flight 103 in 1988; a 1998 high-speed train crash in Eschede, Germany; and major floods, hurricanes, avalanches, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions that occurred around the world. Hurricane Katrina: The Storm That Drowned a City Date: 2006 Type: VHS and DVD Length: 56 minutes Cost: $19.95 Source: Distributed by Boston’s public broadcasting affiliate WGBH Shop.wgbh.org This is one of many videos available covering the Hurricane Katrina disaster, which made landfall on August 29, 2005. This video explores the vulnerability of New Orleans and other Gulf Coast municipalities to devastating hurricanes. The filmmakers also

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explore critical failures regarding the engineering and maintenance of the levees in New Orleans. Further, the film considers the question of whether and how the city of New Orleans should be rebuilt given the likelihood of future hurricanes posing just as much risk as Katrina did in 2005. Mock Disasters: Best Practices in Business Continuity Planning Date: 2005 Type: DVD Length: 38 minutes Cost: $49.00 Source: Distributed by BCP Media www.bcpmedia.com/ This excellent training video presents accepted best practices for businesses when confronted with a natural or man-made disaster. Businesses can be ruined by disasters, despite government help, because of the loss of customers until such time as the business recovers. The video provides practices that should be incorporated into business continuity and disaster recovery plans. The video also contains footage of a mock disaster and follows the recovery efforts of leading companies attempting to manage this disaster. Moment of Crisis: Hurricane Katrina Date: 2006 Type: VHS or DVD Length: approximately 50 minutes Cost: $29.99 Source: Distributed by ABC News www.abcnewsstore.com/ ABC News, in this Primetime special, closely examines the Hurricane Katrina disaster. This video, like so many others on the marketplace, examines Katrina because it is such a significant case study in what can go wrong when ineffective leadership and emergency management procedures are in place during and after a major calamity. Through this video, Ted Koppel examines the Katrina crisis moment by moment and dissects where the system failed. As the video states, Hurricane Katrina was the first major test of America’s emergency response capacity since 9/11, and virtually every agency involved received failing grades.

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Natural Disasters Date: 2005 Type: DVD Length: 89 minutes Cost: $9.98 Source: Distributed by Shami Productions www.shamiproductions.com/ This video documentary examines the world’s vulnerability to natural disasters. With the devastating and deadly Indian Ocean tsunami of 2005 as the backdrop for discussion, the film looks at a wide variety of hazards. These include fires, mud slides, floods, earthquakes, and volcanoes. The film demonstrates the fragility of human beings on a planet where so many catastrophic events can and do occur. The film takes a pessimistic view concerning mankind’s ability to predict many natural disasters. Planning for Disasters Date: unknown Type: VHS or DVD Length: 15 minutes Cost: $159.95 (VHS) 149.95 (DVD) Source: Distributed by Films for the Humanities and Sciences www.films.com This program, designed for training, shows a full-scale disaster exercise. The hypothetical disaster includes a building fire and partial building collapse. The film captures discussions with planners and participants, providing insight into preparing and implementing disaster simulation exercises. Ready or Not? Is America Prepared for Catastrophic Events? Date: 2006 Type: VHS or DVD Length: approximately 50 minutes Cost: $29.99 Source: Distributed by ABC News www.abcnewsstore.com/ In this video, Ted Koppel hosts a town hall meeting with a panel of emergency management state and local officials. The panel discusses Houston’s experience with Hurricane Rita in 2005 where seventy-two hours’ notice proved to be too little time to

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evacuate a city of 2,000,000 people. The evacuation stalled due to the gridlock that ensued. Solutions for better and more efficient evacuation plans are discussed. Ready or Not? The Next Big One Date: 2005 Type: VHS or DVD Length: approximately 50 minutes Cost: $29.99 Source: Distributed by ABC News www.abcnewsstore.com/ In this ABC News Primetime special, the question of the United States government’s readiness for catastrophic disasters is probed. In particular, three disaster scenarios are considered: a pandemic outbreak of avian flu, a terrorist detonation of a nuclear weapon in a large American city, and a major earthquake in the San Francisco Bay area. The shortcomings regarding America’s preparedness and the role of emergency management officials to ensure readiness are examined.

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Glossary

advisory A statement issued from a government agency alerting citizens and other government agencies of the potential for a disaster or other large-scale emergency. aftershock A small earthquake that follows a larger earthquake within the first few hours and days of the larger quake. all-hazards An approach to emergency management that attempts to plan for all types of hazards potentially affecting a region, rather than planning for individual hazards in isolation from one another (as if the principles and resources to be employed for each hazard were intrinsically different). biological, nuclear, incendiary, and chemical explosive.

B-NICE

casualty A death or injury resulting from a disaster. catastrophe gency.

An exceptionally large or cataclysmic disaster or emer-

CDC U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The primary federal agency responsible for preventing or containing diseases, epidemics, or other public health emergencies. The CDC is a part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. CEM Certified emergency manager. A professional credential awarded by the International Association of Emergency Managers to professional emergency managers who meet certain education and experience criteria and who have completed 200 hours of in-service training in certain subject areas. CERT CFR

Certified emergency response team. Code of Federal Regulations.

civil defense Primarily known as a campaign and associated activities geared toward reducing civilian casualties during a nuclear attack


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amidst the Cold War. The function of preparing civilians and communities for such a disaster were eventually absorbed into modern emergency management. community Local political subdivision, such as a town, village, township, or city, that typically has the authority to adopt and enforce ordinances for the geographic area under its jurisdiction. contamination The undesirable contact of chemical, biological, or radiological material to the surface of skin, clothing, buildings, objects, and areas. continuity The ability of government agencies and businesses to continue to function, provide services, and produce during and after a disaster strikes. convergence The tendency of people, for various reasons, to converge to a disaster area after one strikes. The inundation of victims, family members, sightseers, academicians, politicians, and others can create serious complications for the rescue efforts. cost-benefit analysis The process of weighing the benefits associated with inhabiting or utilizing a hazard-prone area against the costs in lives and property should a disaster actually occur. damage assessment The process used to determine the number of injuries and deaths, as well as the level of property damage and service disruption, associated with a disastrous event. debriefing The process whereby emergency management officials collectively review their activities and individual actions taken after a disaster or simulation exercise to assess what went well and what went wrong, all for the purpose of garnering lessons to be learned. decontamination The process of reducing or removing chemical, biological, or radiological material that has come in contact with skin, clothing, buildings, objects, and areas. DHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The cabinet-level federal department created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 as a result of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States. Among other agencies, DHS is home to the Federal Emergency Management Agency. disaster A natural catastrophe, large-scale technological accident, or other man-made event that results in a greater scale of deaths, injuries, property damage, and service disruption than can be met with a routine level of emergency response. disaster field office An office established in or near a presidentially declared disaster area in support of federal and state response and recovery operations.

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DOD U.S. Department of Defense. The cabinet-level department of the United States government that is responsible for all military affairs. dose (radiation) The total or accumulated level of ionizing radiation absorbed by a person or animal. dosimeter An instrument distributed to first responders for measuring and registering total accumulated exposure to ionizing radiation. DOT U.S. Department of Transportation. The cabinet-level department of the United States government responsible for ensuring the existence of safe and efficient transportation networks and infrastructure to, from, and within the United States. earthquake The sudden motion or trembling of the ground due to movement or displacement of massive underground rock formations, or plates, typically located within 10 to 20 miles of the Earth’s surface. Emergency Alert System A government-established communications system that co-opts local television and radio stations for the broadcast of emergency information from federal, state, or local officials to the public before, during, and after disasters strike. emergency management event Any natural or man-made calamitous event of such a scale that emergency management principles, practices, and resources are called upon and employed. EMI Emergency Management Institute. The training and education arm of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, located on the campus of the National Fire Academy in Emmitsburg, MD. EMS Emergency medical services. Personnel, facilities, and equipment used to provide emergency medical care to the sick and injured, including first-aid and ambulance crews consisting of emergency medical technicians and paramedics, as well as hospital emergency rooms and staff, including doctors and nurses. EOC Emergency operations center. A protected site near or within a disaster area from which government officials (federal, state, and local) coordinate disaster emergency response efforts while the emergency is still unfolding. EOP Emergency operation plan. A document describing how government agencies will utilize resources, including personnel, equipment, and facilities to protect lives and property in the event of one type of disaster or another. EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Lead federal agency responsible for enforcing environmental regulations and ensuring the proper clean-up and disposal of environmental hazards.

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evacuation The planned and organized removal and dispersal of people from an area deemed too dangerous for them to remain. Evacuations can be spontaneous decisions of the people themselves, recommended by government officials, or mandated by government officials. evacuees All individuals who have left or were removed from areas threatened or affected by a disaster. exercise A field or tabletop disaster simulation scenario intended to train participating personnel and assess capabilities and vulnerabilities concerning government’s ability to manage a particular type of disaster. federal coordinating officer The federal official appointed by the president to coordinate federal assistance with state and local officials during a presidentially declared disaster. FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency. The lead federal agency responsible for emergency management activities. It is organizationally a directorate within the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. FEMA trailers Temporary housing units provided by FEMA for residents displaced as a result of a disaster. field assessment team A small group of technical experts designated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency to conduct an assessment of response needs immediately following a disaster. flash flood Flooding that occurs very rapidly and with swift-moving water following severe rainstorms. FLETC Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. Operated by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, this multicampus agency serves as the primary training academy for virtually all federal law enforcement agencies, excluding the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Drug Enforcement Administration, and the Postal Inspection Service. Located in Glynco, Georgia; Artesia, New Mexico; and Washington, DC. flood A temporary condition characterized by the partial or complete covering of water over areas normally considered to be dry land. floodplain An area of land prone to becoming inundated with water when rivers overflow their banks. Land areas are considered floodplains if they have a 1 percent chance or greater of flooding in any given year. GAO Government Accountability Office (formerly General Accounting Office). This federal agency is the investigative arm of the United States Congress and is responsible for assisting members of Congress in the exercise of their oversight responsibilities vis à vis the executive branch of government. hazard A natural, technological, or social phenomenon that threatens lives and property.

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hazardous material A substance determined to pose a risk to the health and safety of the public were they to come in contact with the material. Such hazards typically are classified according to the nature of their threat—namely, biological, chemical, or radiological. HAZMAT team A response team established by a local, state, or federal agency whose members are specially trained and equipped to contain and remove hazardous materials from areas threatening public safety. HHS U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The cabinetlevel department of the United States government responsible for ensuring the health of American citizens. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is located within HHS. HSA

Homeland Security Act of 2002.

HSPD

Homeland Security Presidential Directive.

hurricane A large, tropical, cyclonic storm formed over warm ocean waters in which winds of at least 74 miles per hour blow in a large spiral around a calm center (the eye). ICS Incident command system. An established organizational structure used to command, control, and coordinate federal, state, and local resources and activities during a disaster or other large-scale emergency. joint information center A central point of contact established by emergency management officials for all news media inquiries during and immediately following a disaster. LEMA Local emergency management agency. levee A linear barrier set up along riverfronts and other bodies of water to protect the adjacent land from flooding. MAA Mutual aid agreement. A compact between neighboring governmental jurisdictions to provide each other with personnel and equipment during disasters and other emergencies when the needs exceed the resources and capabilities of the affected community. mass care Efforts taken to tend to the acute needs of a large volume of people affected by a disaster. Needs often include medical care, food, water, clothing, and shelter. mitigation Activities undertaken by government agencies, businesses, and individuals over the long term for the purpose of reducing or eliminating the risk of various hazards. MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet. Information sheets that provide first responders and others with key information about the properties of individual hazardous materials.

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NFA National Fire Academy. Primary training center of the U.S. Fire Administration, which is organizationally a part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Located in Emmitsburg, MD. NFIP National Flood Insurance Program. Federal program designed to provide individuals and businesses with access to affordable flood insurance, provided that certain criteria are met. NGO Nongovernmental organization. NIC National Integration Center. Organization located within the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s National Preparedness Division responsible for overseeing the National Incident Management System. NIMS National Incident Management System. Federally established system for coordinating federal, state, and local resources in response to a natural or man-made disaster. NOAA U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The primary federal agency responsible for the scientific study of oceanic and atmospheric conditions and monitoring those conditions for hazards that may threaten America’s communities. The National Weather Service and the Hurricane Information Center are organized under NOAA. NPO

Nonprofit organization.

NRC U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The federal agency responsible for regulating the nuclear power industry and for responding to emergencies involving nuclear materials. NRP National Response Plan. A plan established by FEMA for responding to various types of emergencies that may occur around the country. The plan is also a model for state and local governments to use in adopting their own emergency response plans. NWS National Weather Service. The primary federal agency responsible for forecasting weather conditions throughout the United States and issuing watches and warnings for severe weather. OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The lead federal agency, located within the U.S. Department of Labor, for ensuring that workplaces utilize safe practices, procedures, and working conditions. OSHA monitors the equipment issued to and used by first responders to make sure that rescuers are not incurring any unnecessary dangers beyond those that are expected as a part of their job. PDD Presidential Disaster Declaration. A declaration made by the president of the United States that an area affected by a disaster meets certain federal criteria and is eligible for federal disaster assistance and relief.

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PIO Public information officer. The government official responsible for preparing and disseminating emergency public information during a disaster or large-scale emergency. PPE Personal protective equipment. Special clothing and breathing apparatus used by emergency personnel to protect them from hazards at a disaster or emergency scene while engaged in response and recovery operations. preliminary damage assessment An initial assessment by trained experts dispatched by government emergency management agencies to determine the immediate needs of disaster victims and the extent of damage and disruption to infrastructure and key services. preparedness The activities of government and other organizations directed toward maintaining a state of readiness to respond to disasters and other large-scale emergencies. PTSD Posttraumatic stress disorder. A psychological malady with a wide range of emotional and physical symptoms that result from prolonged contact with disturbing, graphic, and tragic human conditions. recovery The activities of government and other organizations extending long after a disaster strikes to restore an affected community to its predisaster condition or better. response The activities of government and other organizations intended to meet the immediate needs of victims during and immediately after a disaster strikes. risk A calculation involving the probability of an event and the consequences of that event to determine the degree to which the potential event should be planned for and otherwise attended to by emergency management officials. SAR Search and rescue. The process of searching for lost or trapped victims in a disaster, retrieving them, and providing them with sustaining first aid. SAR also refers to units engaged in search and rescue. secondary hazard A hazard that ensues after a first hazard’s impact has been felt. For example, a tsunami striking a coastal village could be considered a secondary hazard if occurring as a result of an earthquake that has already affected that village. SEMA State emergency management agency. SOP Standard operating procedure. Procedures that follow established step-by-step instructions previously determined as the proper course of action for accomplishing some goal. storm surge A wall of sea water that strikes land as a result of a hurricane’s winds and low barometric pressure, often causing severe coastal flooding.

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tabletop exercise A disaster simulation exercise primarily conducted through group discussion and strategy formulation while considering a written disaster scenario. No actual field resources are deployed or tested in these exercises. terrorism An act or threatened act of violence against civilians or civilian infrastructure to achieve political, social, or religious goals through fear and intimidation, rather than direct, conventional military confrontation. tornado A weather event characterized by a rotating column or funnel of winds reaching a velocity as high as 300 miles per hour. The width of a tornado’s vortex can range from dozens or hundreds of yards to a mile. Tornados are often associated with other violent weather, such as thunderstorms and hurricanes. triage The process of emergency medical care providers assessing the immediate needs of victims and the benefit likely to accrue to a victim who receives medical treatment. The highest priority is given to those most seriously injured and most likely to survive if treated. tsunami Fast-moving sea waves created by an undersea earthquake. The waves can reach heights of well over 100 feet and can devastate unsuspecting coastal communities. UNDRO United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. UN/ISDR tion. USC

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduc-

United States Code.

USCG U.S. Coast Guard. The agency within the Department of Homeland Security with primary responsibility for marine safety, security, and rescue operations. USGS U.S. Geological Survey. The lead federal agency for studying geological phenomena in the United States, including earthquakes, volcanoes, avalanches, and floods. vulnerability The degree of susceptibility to damage, casualties, and destruction from future disasters. weather warning A statement issued by the National Weather Service that dangerous weather (e.g., thunderstorm, tornado, blizzard) is imminent or highly likely. Generally, the statement encourages people in the affected areas to seek shelter or take other appropriate precautions immediately. weather watch A statement issued by the National Weather Service that the conditions are in place for dangerous or severe weather to occur. Generally, the statement encourages people in the affected areas to be

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observant and vigilant for the possibility of emergent dangerous weather and to plan for the possibility accordingly. WMD Weapon of mass destruction. Generally considered to be any device intended to cause widespread damage and to kill or injure large numbers of people by using conventional explosives; dispersing biological, chemical, or radiological material; or emitting nuclear reactive yields.

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Index ACDA. See American Civil Defense Association ACS. See Adventist Community Services Adventist Community Services (ACS), 200 Africa, 82, 101 emergency management in Nigeria, 98–100 Al Qaeda, 64 Alabama, state emergency management agency, 223 Alaska earthquake and tsunami of 1964, 6, 112 state emergency management agency, 223 Alexander, David, 1, 31 Allbaugh, Joe, 129–130 Amenemhet III, Pharaoh of Egypt, 2 American Civil Defense Association (ACDA), 207–208 American Radio Relay League, Inc. (ARRL), 200–201 American Red Cross, 59–60, 106–108, 201. See also Barton, Clara; Boardman, Mabel; Taft, William Howard Anchorage, AK, 112 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 8 Anthrax, 64 Argentina, 96–98 Arizona, state emergency management agency, 224

Arkansas Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5, 109–110 state emergency management agency, 224 ARRL. See American Radio Relay League, Inc. Assistance to Firefighters Grant, 21 Association of State Floodplain Managers, 208 Australia, 91–92 Bard, Morton, 37–39 Barton, Clara, 106–107, 131–132 Becton, Julius W., Jr., 132–133 Beslan, Russia, massacre (2004), 102 Biological Emergency Preparedness Division, 10 Biological weapons, 61–66 Bird flu, 90 Blanchard, B. Wayne, 133–134 Boardman, Mabel, 134 Booth, William, 135 Brinkley, Douglas, 43 Brown, Michael D., 126, 135–137 Buffer Zone Protection Plans, 195 Bullock, J. A., 17 Burkina Faso, 82 Bush, George H. W., 151 Bush, George W. and FBI director, 146 and FEMA directors, 130, 136, 145 and flood insurance, 130 Homeland Security Act of 2002, 124


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Homeland Security Presidential Directive #3, 124 Homeland Security Presidential Directive #5, 125 and Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, 127 and tsunami of 2004, 73 See also Department of Homeland Security; Office of Homeland Security California Los Angeles earthquake of 1994, 120 San Fernando Valley earthquake of 1971, 114 San Francisco earthquake of 1906, 108 Santa Cruz earthquake of 1989, 118 state emergency management agency, 224 tsunami of 1964, 6, 112 CAP. See U.S. Civil Air Patrol Caribbean, 84, 85 emergency management in Trinidad and Tobago, 94–96 See also Hurricanes Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA), 95–96 Carter, Jimmy, 7, 116, 137–138, 153 Catholic Charities USA Disaster Response, 201 CBRN Countermeasures Programs, 9 CDC. See U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) CDERA. See Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency CDR. See Christian Disaster Response

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CEM. See Certified emergency manager (CEM) program Center for Homeland Security and Defense, 208–209 Certified emergency manager (CEM) program, 134 Chad, 82 Chechens, 102 Chemical Regulation Authority, 195 Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Division, 10, 21 Chemical weapons, 61–66 Chertoff, Michael, 126, 139–140 Chicago fire of 1871, 105–106 China, 89–91 Chlorine gas, 64 Christian Disaster Response (CDR), 202 Chronology of events, 105–128 Church of the Brethren Emergency Response, 202 Church World Service (CWS) Disaster Response, 202–203 Citizens, as victims. See Sociology of disasters Citizens, preparation for disasters, 26–27, 171–172 Citizen’s Guide to Disaster Assistance (FEMA publication), 60 Civil Air Patrol. See U.S. Civil Air Patrol Civil unrest, 100–102 Cline, Isaac M., 138–139 Clinton, Bill, 120–123, 153 Coast Guard. See U.S. Coast Guard Colombia, 83 Color code security advisory system, 66–67 Colorado, state emergency management agency, 224 Communications, post-Katrina reforms, 173–175, 185

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Community Assistance Program, State Support Services Element, 21 Community Disaster Loan Program, 22 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 22 Congressional Act of 1803, 105 Connecticut, state emergency management agency, 224 Constitution, U.S., 2–4 Continuity of Operations (COOP), 176 Conventional warfare devices, 64 Coolidge, Calvin, 5, 109 COOP. See Continuity of Operations Cooperating Technical Partners, 22 Coppola, Damon, 28, 69 Crisis Counseling (grant program), 22 Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle, 37–40 CS&C. See Cyber Security and Communications CWS. See Church World Service (CWS) Disaster Response Cyber Security and Communications (CS&C), 193–196 Cyclone Dera (2001), 82 Dams grant programs, 23 Johnstown flood of 1889, 107 National Dam Safety Program Act of 1996, 121–122 Darfur, Sudan, 101 Defense against Weapons of Mass Destruction act of 1996, 121 Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, 7

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Delaware, state emergency management agency, 224 Department of Defense (DOD), 58 Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 8–10, 220–221 agencies transferred to, 8–9 creation of, 125–126 and FEMA, 50, 127 and Hurricane Katrina, 126–127 See also Chertoff, Michael; Paulison, Robert D.; Ridge, Tom DERA. See Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association DHS. See Department of Homeland Security “Dirty bomb.” See Radiological dispersion devices Disaster Legal Services, 22 Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, 123 Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association (DERA), 209 Disaster Relief Act of 1974, 6, 115 Disaster Unemployment Assistance Program, 22 Disaster-Resource.com. See Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association Disasters definitions, 11–13 global distribution of, 74–75. See also Global perspective on emergency management policy debates over focus on natural disasters vs. terrorism, 61–66 risk assessment, 14–15, 19, 69 types of disasters and catastrophes, 13–16 See also Sociology of disasters

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Disease epidemics. See Epidemics District of Columbia September 11, 2001, 7, 123–124 state emergency management agency, 225 DOD. See Department of Defense Domestic Emergency Support Teams, 8 Drabek, Thomas, 12, 13 Drought, 82, 83, 86, 88 Duct tape, 148 Dye, Thomas, 45 Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977, 115 Earthquakes Alaskan earthquake of 1964, 112 in Europe, 87–88 in Latin America, 83, 84, 85–86 Los Angeles earthquake of 1994, 120 mitigation activities, 17 Peru earthquake of 1970, 83 San Fernando Valley earthquake of 1971, 114 San Francisco earthquake of 1906, 108 Santa Cruz earthquake of 1989, 118 East Grand Forks, MN, 122 Economic development, 18, 83 Egypt, 2 Emergency Food and Shelter Program, 22 Emergency management associations and resource centers, 207–211 government agencies, 211–223 history, 1–11, 105–128 international agencies/organizations, 233–237 list of critical infrastructure, 15–16

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mitigation phase, 17–18 Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, 10, 55, 127, 178–179 preparedness phase, 18–27 private organizations, 59–61, 200–207 recovery phase, 29–31 response phase, 28–29 risk assessment, 14–15, 19, 69 state emergency management efforts, 55–58, 223–233 See also Disasters; Global perspective on emergency management; History of emergency management; Public policy; Sociology of disasters Emergency Management Institute (EMI), 22, 60, 211–212 Emergency operations plan (EOP), 19–20 Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate, 8 Energy Security and Assurance Program, 9 Environmental Measurements Laboratory, 9 EOP. See Emergency operations plan Epidemics, 88, 90, 109 Episcopal Relief and Development, 203 Ethiopia, 82 Ethnic conflict, 100–102 Europe, 86–88 Famine, 82 Fargo, ND, 122 FBI. See Mueller, Robert FCDA. See Federal Civil Defense Administration Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950, 5, 111

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Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA), 5–6, 111 Federal Computer Incident Response Center, 9 Federal Disaster Assistance Administration, 7 Federal Disaster Relief Act of 1950, 6 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 7–8, 10–11 budget, 182–190 and Clinton, 153–154 creation of, 116, 137–138, 156–157 current role and authority, 50–55 definition of disasters, 12–13 divisions, 212–213 grants, 21–24 and Homeland Security Act of 2002, 124–125 and Hurricane Katrina, 9–10 mission of, 171–173 National Integration Center (NIC), 55 organization of, 53–55 overview, 212–213 Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, 10, 55, 127, 178–179 post-Katrina testimony before Congress on reforms, organization, and budgets, 169–198 and preparedness, 181–182, 195–197 and public policy debates, 48 and recovery phase of emergency management, 30 reducing waste, fraud, and abuse, 176–177 text of executive order, 156–157 See also Allbaugh, Joe; Becton, Julius W., Jr.; Blanchard, B.

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Wayne; Brown, Michael D.; Giuffrida, Louis O.; Loy, James; Magaw, John W.; Paulison, Robert D.; Stickney, Wallace E.; Vickery, Gordon F.; Witt, James Lee Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC), 8, 40 Federal Preparedness Agency, 7 Federal Protective Service (FPS), 8, 214 Federalism, and debates over responsibility for emergency management, 45–60 FEMA. See Federal Emergency Management Agency Fire Management Assistance Grant Program, 22 Fire Prevention and Assistance Act of 2001, 123 Fires Chicago fire of 1871, 105–106 Grandcamp cargo ship explosion of 1947 (TX), 111 grant programs, 21–24 Great Fire of 1802 (Portsmouth, NH), 105 in Latin America, 83 Peshtigo fire of 1871 (WI), 106 First responders, 39–42, 63 FLETC. See Federal Law Enforcement Training Center Flood Control Act of 1928, 5, 109–110 Flood Control Act of 1936, 5, 110–111 Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, 114–115 Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, 23 Floods in Africa, 82 in China, 90 in Europe, 87–88

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grant programs, 23–24 Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5, 109–110 Johnstown flood of 1889 (PA), 107 in Latin America, 83–86 Midwest floods of 1993, 119 mitigation activities, 17 and Nile River, 2 Red River Valley floods of 1997, 122 See also Hurricanes; National Flood Insurance Program Florida Hurricane Agnes (1972), 114 Hurricane Andrew (1992), 118–119 state emergency management agency, 225 Flu epidemic of 1918, 109 Foresman, George W., 190–198 FPS. See Federal Protective Service France, 88 Funding for emergency management. See Grant acquisition

Argentina, 96–98 Australia, 91–92 China, 89–91 civil unrest, ethnic conflict, and terrorism, 100–102 Europe, 86–88, 102 global distribution of disasters, 74–75 India, 92–94, 101 International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), 76–77 Latin America, 82–86 Nigeria, 98–100 role of the UN, 75–76 Trinidad and Tobago, 94–96 Government agencies, 211–223 Grandcamp explosion, 111 Grands Forks, ND, 122 Grant acquisition, 21–24, 128 Great Depression, 5 Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5, 109–110 Great Peshtigo Fire of 1871, 106 Great Tri-State Tornado of 1925, 109 Greece, 87 Guatemala, 83

Gainesville, GA, 110 Galveston, TX, 107–108, 138–139 Genocide, 101 Georgia Gainesville tornado of 1936, 110 Hurricane Agnes (1972), 114 state emergency management agency, 225 Germany, 88 Giuffrida, Louis O., 133, 141–142 Giuliani, Rudolph W. L., III, 140–141 Global perspective on emergency management Africa, 82, 98–101

Haddow, G. D., 17 Hawaii, state emergency management agency, 225 Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, 23 Heat waves. See Temperatures, extreme History of emergency management, 1–11 1920s and 1930s, 5 1950s, 5–6 1960s and 1970s, 6–7 chronology of events, 105–128 Department of Homeland Security, 8–10

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FEMA origins, 7–8 FEMA reorganization, 10–11 and U.S. Constitution, 2–4 Homeland Security Act of 2002, 124 text of, 166–169 Homeland Security Advisory System, 66–67, 124 Hoover, Herbert, 110 Hurricane Katrina (2005), 126 and criticism of FEMA, 48 failure to identify resources, 20 and FEMA directors, 9–10 first responders as victims, 43 Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, 10, 55, 127, 178–179 post-Katrina testimony before Congress on reforms, organization, and budgets, 169–198 See also Allbaugh, Joe; Brown, Michael D.; Chertoff, Michael; Nagin, Clarence Ray, Jr. Hurricanes Cyclone Dera (2001), 82 Hurricane Agnes (1972), 114 Hurricane Andrew (1992), 118–119 Hurricane Betsy (1965), 6, 112–113 Hurricane Camille (1969), 6, 113–114 Hurricane Carla (1961), 6, 112 Hurricane Donna (1960), 6, 111–112 Hurricane Floyd (1999), 122 Hurricane Hugo (1988), 118 hurricane of 1900 (Galveston, TX), 107–108, 138–139 and Latin America, 83 See also Hurricane Katrina Hydrogen cyanide, 64

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IAEM. See International Association of Emergency Managers ICRC. See International Committee of the Red Cross Idaho, state emergency management agency, 225 Illinois Chicago fire of 1871, 105–106 floods of 1993, 119 Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5, 109–110 Great Tri-State Tornado of 1925, 109 St. Louis Cyclone of 1896, 107 state emergency management agency, 226 Immigration and Naturalization Service, 8 India, 92–94, 101 Indiana Great Tri-State Tornado of 1925, 109 state emergency management agency, 226 Individuals and Households Grant Program, 23 INDNDR. See International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate, 9 Infrastructure, 15–16 Infrastructure Protection (IP), 193 Insurance, subsidized, 18. See also National Flood Insurance Program Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS), 174 International agencies/organizations, 233–236

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International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM), 209–210 International City/County Management Association (ICMA), 15, 19 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 233 International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (INDNDR), 75 International Relief Friendship Foundation (IRFF), 203 International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), 76–77 Iowa floods of 1993, 119 state emergency management agency, 226 IP. See Infrastructure Protection IPAWS. See Integrated Public Alert and Warning System ISDR. See International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Italy, 87

Landslides, 85–86, 88 Latin America, 82–86 emergency management in Argentina, 96–98 See also Hurricanes LDR. See Lutheran Disaster Response Lewin, Kurt, 49 Lindell, M. K., 30 Logistics, post-Katrina reforms, 175–176 Los Angeles earthquake of 1994, 120 Louisiana Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5 Hurricane Betsy (1965), 6, 112–113 state emergency management agency, 227 See also Hurricane Katrina Loy, James, 142–143 Lugar, Richard, 63 Lutheran Disaster Response (LDR), 203–204

Jamaica, 83 James Lee Witt Associates, LLC, 154 Japan, 65

Macy, John W., Jr., 7, 143–144 Magaw, John W., 144–145 Maine, state emergency management agency, 227 Map Modernization Management Support, 23 Maryland, state emergency management agency, 227 Mass media, 47, 74 Massachusetts, state emergency management agency, 227 McVeigh, Timothy, 120 Medical Teams International (MTI), 204 Mediterranean, 87 Mendelsohn, Beniamin, 35–37 Mennonite Disaster Services, 204 Miami-Dade Fire Department, 148

Kansas floods of 1993, 119 state emergency management agency, 226 Kashmir, 101 Kates, R., 30–31 Kentucky Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5, 109–110 state emergency management agency, 226 Kenya, 82 Kingdon, John, 46 Kubler-Ross, E., 39

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Michigan, state emergency management agency, 227 Minnesota floods of 1993, 119 Red River Valley floods of 1997, 122 state emergency management agency, 228 Mississippi Hurricane Camille (1969), 6, 113–114 state emergency management agency, 228 Tupelo tornado of 1936, 110 Missouri floods of 1993, 119 Great Tri-State Tornado of 1925, 109 St. Louis Cyclone of 1896, 107 state emergency management agency, 228 Mitigation phase of emergency management, 17–18 global perspective, 88–100 and post-Katrina FEMA reforms, 186–187 Montana, state emergency management agency, 228 Moorhead, MN, 122 Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption (1980), 66, 117 Mozambique, 82 MTI. See Medical Teams International Mueller, Robert, 145–146 Mutual-aid agreements between communities, 24–25 Nagin, Clarence Ray, Jr., 146–148 Namibia, 82 National BW Defense Analysis Center, 9 National Communications System, 9

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National Dam Safety Program Act of 1996, 23, 121–122 National Domestic Preparedness Office, 9 National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP), 23, 115 National Emergency Management Association, 210 National Emergency Response Team (NERT), 204–205 National Fire Academy (NFA), 23, 115 National Flood Insurance Program, 6, 23, 113, 130 National Guard, 57–58, 214–215 National Hazards Center, 210 National Infrastructure Protection Center, 9 National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP), 195 National Integration Center (NIC), 55 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 216 National Protection and Programs Directorate (NPPD), 10–11, 192–197 National Protection Planning Office (NPPO), 10–11, 194–195 National Response Plan (NRP), 126–127 National Urban Search and Rescue (US&R) Response System, 23–24 Natural hazards, listed, 13–14 Nazarene Disaster Response (NDR), 205 NDR. See Nazarene Disaster Response Nebraska floods of 1993, 119

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state emergency management agency, 228 NEHRP. See National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program NERT. See National Emergency Response Team Nevada, state emergency management agency, 228 New Hampshire Great Fire of 1802, 105 state emergency management agency, 229 New Jersey, state emergency management agency, 229 New Mexico, state emergency management agency, 229 New Orleans, LA, 112–113. See also Hurricane Katrina New York City and debates over allocation of resources, 68 September 11, 2001, 7, 28–29, 123–124 World Trade Center bombing of 1993, 119 See also Giuliani, Rudolph W. L., III New York (state) Hurricane Agnes (1972), 114 state emergency management agency, 229 NFA. See National Fire Academy NIC. See National Integration Center Nicaragua, 83 Nichols, Terry, 120 Niger, 82 Nigeria, 98–100 Nile River, 2 NIPP. See National Infrastructure Protection Plan Nixon, Richard, 114–115 NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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North Carolina Hurricane Agnes (1972), 114 Hurricane Floyd (1999), 122 state emergency management agency, 229 North Dakota floods of 1993, 119 Red River Valley floods of 1997, 122 state emergency management agency, 230 NPPD. See National Protection and Programs Directorate NPPO. See National Protection Planning Office NRP. See National Response Plan Nuclear devices, 64, 65 Nuclear Incident Response Team, 8 Nuclear power, 115–116 Nunn-Lugar-Domenici II Act of 1996, 121 OAS. See Organization of American States OCHA. See United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Office for Domestic Preparedness, 8 Office of Cyber Security and Communications, 11 Office of Grants and Training (Office of Grant Programs), 10 Office of Homeland Security, 125, 149 Office of Intergovernmental Affairs, 194 Office of Intergovernmental Programs, 11 Office of National Capital Region Coordination, 10 Office of Risk Management and Analysis, 11

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Ohio, state emergency management agency, 230 Oklahoma and debates over allocation of resources, 68–69 Oklahoma City bombing (1995), 68, 120 state emergency management agency, 230 Oregon salad bar salmonella incident (1984), 64 state emergency management agency, 230 tsunami of 1964, 112 Organization of American States (OAS), 233–234 Pakistan, 101 Paulison, Robert D., 148–149 testimony before Congress, 170–190 Pennsylvania Johnstown flood of 1889, 107 state emergency management agency, 230 Three Mile Island nuclear accident (1979), 115–116 Perry, R. W., 30 Peru, 83 Peshtigo, Wisconsin, fire of 1871, 106 Pijawka, D., 30–31 Plum Island Animal Disease Center, 9 The Points of Light Foundation, 205 Policy. See Public policy Political agendas, 45–48 Port Lavaca, TX, 112 Port O’Connor, TX, 112 Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006, 10, 55, 127, 178–179 PPD-39, 120–121

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Prater, C. S., 30 Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program, 24 Preparedness phase of emergency management, 18–27 emergency management–related ordinances, 19 emergency operations plan (EOP), 19–20 global perspective, 88–100 grant acquisition, 21–24 mutual-aid agreements, 24–25 public education, 26–27 resource identification, 20–21 risk assessment, 14–15, 19, 69 training and exercises, 25–26 warning systems, 20 Presidential Decision Directive #39, 120–121 Prince William Sound earthquake (1964), 6, 112 Private organizations, 59–61, 200–207 Psychological impact of disasters, 37–39 impact on first responders, 42–45 providing psychological first aid, 39–42 Public Assistance Grant Program, 24 Public Disaster Communications, 185 Public education campaigns, 18, 26–27 Public policy debates over focus on natural disasters vs. terrorism, 61–66 debates over geographical allocation of resources, 68–70 and media, 47 obstacles to policy changes, 48–50

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public policy process and political agendas, 45–48 warning systems, 66–68 Puerto Rico Hurricane Donna (1960), 111–112 Hurricane Hugo (1988), 118 Radiological dispersion devices (RDDs), 64, 65 RDDs. See Radiological dispersion devices REACT International, 205 Ready.gov, 211 Reagan, Ronald, 141 Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), 110 Recovery phase of emergency management, 29–31 global perspective, 88–100 Red Cross, American, 59–60, 106–108, 201. See also Barton, Clara; Boardman, Mabel; Taft, William Howard Red Cross, International, 233 Red River Valley floods of 1997, 122 Reimbursement for Firefighting on Federal Property, 24 Relief/mitigation organizations and agencies associations and resource centers, 207–211 government agencies, 211–223 international agencies/organizations, 233–237 private organizations, 200–207 state agencies, 223–233 Repetitive Flood Claims Program, 24 Response phase of emergency management, 28–29 global perspective, 88–100 Reypen, William Van, 134

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RFC. See Reconstruction Finance Corporation Rhode Island, state emergency management agency, 230 Ridge, Tom, 125, 149–150 Risk assessment, 14–15, 19, 69 Risk Management and Analysis Office, 194 Robert T. Stafford Disaster Assistance and Emergency Relief Act of 1988. See Stafford Act Roosevelt, Franklin D., 5 Russia, 102 Rwanda, 82 Salmonella incident (OR, 1984), 64 Salvation Army, 135 The Salvation Army USA, 206 San Fernando Valley earthquake of 1971, 114 San Francisco San Francisco earthquake of 1906, 108 Santa Cruz earthquake of 1989, 118 Santa Cruz earthquake of 1989, 118 Sarin gas, 64–65 SARS, 90 Science and Technology Directorate, 9 Secret Service. See U.S. Secret Service September 11, 2001, 7, 123–124 emergency management response, 28–29 first responders as victims, 43–44 See also Giuliani, Rudolph W. L., III; Loy, James Social hazards, listed, 14 Sociology of disasters, 34–45 first responders, 39–45

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providing psychological first aid, 39–42 types of victims, 35–36 victimology and victim precipitation, 34 victims’ responses, 37–39 Somalia, 82 South Carolina Hurricane Agnes (1972), 114 Hurricane Hugo (1988), 118 state emergency management agency, 231 South Dakota floods of 1993, 119 state emergency management agency, 231 Southern Baptist Disaster Relief, 206 Spain, 102 Spanish flu epidemic of 1918, 109 St. Louis Cyclone of 1896, 107 Stafford, Robert T., 150 Stafford Act (1988), 51–53, 117, 150 amendments, 123 text of, 157–166 State emergency management agencies, 55–58, 223–233 State Fire Training System Grants, 24 Stickney, Wallace E., 150–151 Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Medical System, 8 Sudan, 82, 101 Sumatra tsunami of 2004, 46, 73 Sununu, John, 151 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act, 24 Taft, William Howard, 151–152 Tanzania, 82 Technological disasters, 88 Technological hazards, listed, 14 Temperatures, extreme, 88

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289

Tennessee Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, 5, 109–110 state emergency management agency, 231 Terrorism antiterrorism grant funding, 21 in Argentina, 97 Beslan, Russia, massacre (2004), 102 and DOD, 58 global perspective, 100–102 London bombings (2005), 102 Madrid train bombing (2004), 102 and National Guard, 58 Oklahoma City bombing of 1995, 68, 120 policy debates over focus on natural disasters vs. terrorism, 61–66 and Presidential Decision Directive #39, 120–121 and public policy debates, 46 salad bar salmonella incident (1984), 64 September 11, 2001, 7, 28–29, 43–44, 123–124 Tokyo, Japan, subway gas attack (1995), 65 World Trade Center bombing of 1993, 119 Texas Grandcamp cargo ship explosion of 1947, 111 Hurricane Carla (1961), 6, 112 hurricane of 1900 (Galveston), 107–108, 138–139 state emergency management agency, 56–57, 231 Texas City, TX, 111 Threat level codes, 124 Three Mile Island nuclear accident (1979), 115–116

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290

Index

Tokyo, Japan, subway gas attack (1995), 65 Tornados and debates over allocation of resources, 68–69 Great Tri-State Tornado of 1925, 109 St. Louis Cyclone of 1896, 107 Tupelo/Gainesville tornados of 1936, 110 Training in emergency management, 25–26 Transportation Security Administration, 8 Trinidad and Tobago, 94–96 Truman, Harry, 111 Tsunamis and Alaskan earthquake of 1964, 6, 112 Sumatra tsunami of 2004, 46, 73 Tupelo, MS, 110 Turkey, 87 Uganda, 82 UJC Federations of North America, 206 UN/ISDR. See United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction United Kingdom, 102 United Nations, 75–77 United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), 234–235 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 235 United Nations Relief Web, 235–236 United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator

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Technology (US-VISIT), 11, 194 U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 216–217 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 5, 217–218 U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, 110 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 44, 218 U.S. Civil Air Patrol (CAP), 218–219 U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), 9, 113, 219–220. See also Loy, James U.S. Customs Service, 8 U.S. Department of Homeland Security. See Department of Homeland Security U.S. Fire Administration, 10, 115, 127, 153, 222 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 66, 222–223 U.S. Secret Service, 9 USAID. See U.S. Agency for International Development USCG. See U.S. Coast Guard USGS. See U.S. Geological Survey US-VISIT. See United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology Utah, state emergency management agency, 231 Venezuela, 83 Vermont, state emergency management agency, 232 Vickery, Gordon F., 152–153 Victims of disasters. See Sociology of disasters Virgin Islands, 118 Virginia Hurricane Camille (1969), 113–114

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state emergency management agency, 232 Vision Initiative, 183–184 Volcanic eruptions in Europe, 88 in Latin America, 83, 85–86 Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption (1980), 66, 117 Nevado del Ruiz eruption (Colombia, 1985), 83 warning systems, 66 Volunteers of American, 207 Vulnerability of communities, 15 Warning systems, 20, 66–68 Washington (state) Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption (1980), 117 state emergency management agency, 232 Washington, D.C. See District of Columbia Weapons of Mass Destruction Civil Support Teams (WMD-CSTs), 58 Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)

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291

Defense against Weapons of Mass Destruction act of 1996, 121 policy debates over focus on natural disasters vs. terrorism, 61–66 West Virginia, state emergency management agency, 232 Windstorms, 85–88. See also Hurricanes Wisconsin floods of 1993, 119 Peshtigo fire of 1871, 106 state emergency management agency, 232 Witt, James Lee, 153–154 WMD-CSTs. See Weapons of Mass Destruction Civil Support Teams World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction (Yokohama, 1994), 75 World Vision, 207 Wyoming, state emergency management agency, 233 Yokohama Strategy and Plan for Action, 75–76

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About the Author

Jeffrey B. Bumgarner, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Sociology, Criminal Justice, and Anthropology at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. He earned a B.A. in political science from the University of Illinois (Champaign–Urbana), an MAPA in public administration from Northern Illinois University, and a Ph.D. in training and organization development from the University of Minnesota. Dr. Bumgarner has several years of experience in federal and local law enforcement, as well as in academe. He is the author of Profiling and Criminal Justice in America (2004), Federal Agents: The Growth of Federal Law Enforcement in America (2006), and several articles and book chapters relating to public safety and homeland security.


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