Introduction to Ancient History

INTRODUCTIO N TO

Ancient History HERMANN BENGTSON Trllnr/ated trom tbcSixth Edition by R. I. Fnnk imd Fnnk D. Gilliard

University ofCalifornia Press BERKELEY, LOS ANGELES, AND LONDON

Translators' Preface

For

two decades Professor Hennann Bengtson's Einführung in die

alte Geschichte (Munich

1949; cd. 6,

st:lndard imroduction fot GerlO an

Munich 1969) has been rhe nive rsity students of :lIldenr

u

history. No comparable manual has bcen a\'ailable in English. Dur translation is made especially for srudents who have not yer acquired facility in German. Ir depans from Profcssor Bengtson's text mainly in that rhe general bibliographical appendix has bcen rcorganized

ro conform with ehe plan of rhe Comlnidge Ancif'1lt

History and also has bcen rc\'ised with in mind.

Funher,

the English-rcading

student

the system of abbrcviations has bcen changed

throughout to follow the usage of rhe Oxfo-rd Classica/ Dictiotlary and L'annee phi/ojogique. The most common abbteviations uscd in andent srudies, as weil as [hose uscd in this book, havc been listed in rhe appendix.

We wou!d like

to

thank Mr. Ernst-Peter \;Yicckcnbcrg of the

C. H. Deck Verlag fot making available Profcssor Bengrson's manu­ script of rhe sixth edition, and to acknowledge the invaluable help of Mr. Herben J. Exhnger of New Votk. It. I. FItANK FltANK D. GILLI"aD

September 1969 LIlg1l1JlIllellch, ClllifMnill

Conrenrs

I. The Scope of Ancient History

Bibliography,5

11. The Historyof the Study of Antiquity from rhe Renaissan� to the Present Bibliography, zo

III. The Fundamentals of the Study of Anelent History !.

Chronology, z 3 ßibliography,p

7

13

1. Geography, 36 BibliographY,41 3. Anrhropologyd8

Bibliography,60 65

IV. The Sourees

I. Literature :lnd Doeuments, 65 Bibliography, ,6 2.

l-listoriography,87 Bibliography, 101

3· My th,Saga,Folktales, 117 Bibliography,lll 115

V. The Monuments

Bibliography, 130 VI. Basic Disciplines: Epigraphy, Papyrology, Numismatics

Bibliography, 147 Epigraphy, 147 Papyrology,l$4 Numismatics, I56 vii

1J6

COlltelltr

tJiii

VII. Allied Disciplines

,6,

Bibliography, 164

VIII. Refercnce Works andJournals

,6B

Bibliography,l]2

IX. Seleer Bibliography Abbreviations

192

Index of Names

Z05

Index of Topics

11)

_

1

_

The Scopeof Ancient History

"Ancient history is never anything mher than and never should b e anything mhet chan a pan: of onc, uni\Ocrsal historyj and both an­ cient :lnd modem historians ought ncver to forget that." These words of Eduard Meyer properly stand ar [he beginning oi [he study of ancicnt history, in spitc of the fact that ie has built for il5elf a special niche in the frame of universal history. Gnly reasans of expedicncy have been decisi\'C: for chis fact. First, human in­ capaciry to CJ[amine thoroughly and critically in thc course: of a single lifccime thc immense field of human history. Sccond, thc exception:!! narure of andene souree material. Of course, thc bound_ ary hctwecn ancient :lnd modem history is only convcntional; that is, ie has been fonned by taek agreement among those con­ ccmed wirh invescigating it. Ultimately the tasks of historians of Anciquity are none other than those of historians of the Middlc Ages and of Modern Timest to use historieal analysis and to rethink ehe past in hisrorical tenns must in the same way inspirc all sru� dems of history, regardless of the provinee of universal hisrory with which [hey are coneemed. Thus ancicnt history is not to be considercd detachcd frorn other historic:u developrncnt. A thousand rhreads stretch from Antiquity to the Middlc Ages, and [rom there to the presenf. Onlr he who is al horne in medievaI and modern history will have 01 regard for historie:u continuity and for evaluating past e\·ents based on those of the presenr. Of course, the feelings, thoughts, and aspirations of anciem as opposed TO modern men frequemly were based on other assumptions. Ancicnr man grew up in an imcllcctual environment different from outs, an environment aceessible onlr to one who can visualize that long�lost world in its imellecrual. cconomic, md polit�

The Scope of Ancient History

,

kai aspects. Thc "visualization," thc immersion of ane's scH in an­ other time so that ie awakcns to life. remains the essential task of historical research, whieh is itsdf a perpetual struggle tO formulate ehe truest pictnee possible of the past. Nevenheless, the study of history (like mac of all the humani­ ries) is bound up wich implicit assumptions whieh underlie every kind of research, as weil as every kind of cognidon. As a pan of the intellectual life of a people, as weil as of the curire civilizc:d warld, the srudy of the hnmanitics is indissolubly connected with the in­ tellcctual comtut, wich the political, religious, :md economic trends of its respective time, from whieh the ideas of the observant student are dcveloped. Historical undcrscanding is funhce bound up wirh the intellecrual breadth and the intcUcctual marurity of thc inquirer. The o\'er-all view of the historiea! canvas is derived from a philos-­ ophy of life that is subjeeted to changes by externa! and internal experienees. An "objeetive scienee," therefore, does not exist in the humanitics; and it cannot exist-least of a11 in the pereeption and explanation of historical evenrs. This insight inta the depcndence of imeUectual cognition obligates the historian to reconsider con­ stantly the assumptions of bis own research, so that he may rcach a better.founded Imowledge of historica! rclationship:,;. In the finaJ analysis, therefore, caeh view of an hiswrieal event assurnes a standard derived from the knowledgc and judgmcnt of other hiswrica! events, sing!y or in sumo Wbar is the casc. then, for justifying bistorical analogy? Ir was used witb gre2t suceess by B. G. Niebuhr in his Römische Geschichte, although modern resc;lreh is cautious ahout ir. Tbat eaeh epocb-and especially Antiquity-be explained only on its own terms is a basic historical demand. An bistoriea! problem, however, can often be clarified, even if not solved, by rcfercnce to a similar situation in anotber time or con· nection. Tbus analogy, often misused, is not bistotical evidence, but a means of iIIustrating bistoncal events. V/hat is meant by "ancient history" or the "histOlY of An­ riquiry"? Geographically, the answer is c1ear: ir is tbe history of tbe Mediterranean Sea and of the contiguous territories whicb have becn connected TO i r by historically effective polirical and culrural relations. Tbc underlying uniry of this area is produced not by the national characteristics of its inhabitants, but by an intensive cul­ rura! exchange, n whieh the Mediternnean itsClf played the role of thc grear mediator. Characterutic of the arca is its enormous i

Tbr Scopr of AlIcirnt History

,

ea5t-west elongation, from the Straits of Gibnltar (the "Pillus of Hcrcules") to the banks of the lndus. The Mediterranean, the grcat travel axis of the ancicnt world, couplcs its northem borderlands ro the north coast of Africa, ineluding Egypt. This cultural sphere also is compriscd of the Near Eastcm regions of the Hcllcspont (Dardanelles) and of the Syro-Phoenieian coaSt tO beyond the Persian descrr-in other words, all Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and thc Iranian areas. In the more than three-thousand-year stretch of andent hisrory, this enonnOU5 territory never grew rogether into a single, lil'ing organism. Even so, its underlying uniry frequcntly was cxpresscd politically in the concept of universal empire. Alexander and Caesar strove to rcalize it; and in thc words imputcd to Tmjan on his Parthian campaign-"If I were young, I would adl'ance el'en to India" (Cass. Dio 68.19)-the vitaliry of rhe nation of one empire embracing all the ancient civilized world shows itself. The idea of the uniry of the ancient world was at least partly rea!ized, not on the political, bur on the culturltl plane. Hdlenism, f05rered by AJexander's vicrorious campaign, decisivdy promoted the unificauon of the ancient world; and Hellenism was the spiritual forcrunner of Christianiry, whieh ar the elose of Antiquity embraet:d a communiry extending from Iet:land ro India. The spiritual uniry of rhe ancient world laid rhe foundarions of Western civilization, which means the coments of life in rhe mod­ em world. Modern man is indehted tO rhe ancicm world, espedal­ Iy rhe Greeks, for the eonception and fonn of \Vestern science; and he is indebted to the Roman Empire fOT the creation of Roman law. The idea of a European dvilization first bccame reality in Greece: one ean think of the creations of representational art, of the appear­ ance oE tragedy and historiography, or of the beginnings of ""est­ ern philosophy in lon;a. Ir was rcservcd for the impcrialisoc power oE Rome to amalgamate a gre3[ part of modem Europe under its mle and so to Jay the foundatlon of the political conftguration of the West, in whose historical development rhe very idea of Rome represents an important policieal and culrural faeror. The chronological ddimitaoon of Anriquity is a problem de­ baced ohen and with diverse interpretations. There is no differenee of opinion that the history of Amiquiry reaches hack to the ear1iest eivilization in rhe Neu East and Egypt. The special task of his­ torical inquiry i s ro determine evcr more exaetly the tower bound-

,

Tht SCOpt 0/ Ancimt HislOry

ary, the "heavy !ine" between history and prehistory, whose field is the investigation oe preliterate societies. llUs delimitation acrually has corne about in recent decades through the successful alliance of Neu Eastem wirh Egyprian atchaeology. For the early history of Greecc: and haly we are also on surer ground than even half a ceurury ago, although many questions, espccially conceming early haUan history, are still strOngly comested. Greek history ar least can be traced in broad oudincs to the start of the second millennium m:fore Christ. Thc point ar issue is the demarcation between Antiquity and the Middlc Agcs. In the face of this much-treatcd controversy, it should be srresse d that historical research does require periodizacion. Tem­ poral divisions are an indispensable principle of order; in a way of spcaking they are a coordination system in which historical de­ velopmem allows icself tO he displayed and classified. Thc common earlier divisions which ended Antiquity wich ehe Council of Nicaea (A.D. PS), wich che invasion of the Goths into the 'West (c. A.D. 375), or even with ehe deposition of the last West Rorrum emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by the German 1II1lgirter militll11l Odoaccr (A.D. 476), are hardly satisfactory. All three dates fasten on an irnpornnt eveut of seeular or ecclesi',lStieal h�1:ory and brand it as the ruming point from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. \Vhoever accepts this view fails to see that ehe term "Middle Ages" means, in all aspects, a new beginning. Tbe Middle Ages mean the end of aneient civilization. the end of the andene state, and the end of anciem mought. From the ruins of the anciem world there rise with che Middle Ages new groupings of polirical powers, a new way of thought, a new world outlook, !lnd a new economic system. Such a revolution cannor have raken place in !I single yeae oe even a few years. Thereforc, research has switehed ro elastically demar_ cating the boundaries between Antiquity and the Middle Ages. By this method the end of the sixth and rhe beginning of the sevenrh ccmury after Christ has becn rea.ched. In that period evems took plaee whieh were decisive for ehe development of the medieval world: che conqucst of lraly by the Lombards (the capture of Pavia, A.D. 571) and che invasion of the Arabs into the Western world. The Arab Storm, whieh hroke over the fast two years after Mo­ hammed's death (d. A.D. 631), is a phenomcnaI event in world history: the appearance of ehe Arabs is the last great rcaction of East against West; it is the response co the advancc of Western,

Tbt SCOpt of Ancit1lt Hirtory

,

Helleniscic culture into the wide spaces of the East. In the con� frontation with the Arnbs on the battldields, a new Europe was bom at the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century. Their invasion began a new er.t; and the grandson of that Charles Mand who vanquished ehern ae Toun; and Poieien; (A.D. 73Z), Charlemagne, founded a new empire in the \Vest, which together wieh the papacy and By;r;antium decided the political history of the Middle Ages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY THE COSCE(>TIOS OF THE UNJ\'ERSAL HISTORY OF

ANTIQUlTY:

\Vhoever holds it impossible to comprehend the world and especial� Iy the men of the ancient East on episternological, anthropological, or orher basts (so H. Berve, "Zur Kulturgf:SChichte des Alten Orients," AKG zs [19341.216 ff.), will not accept the idea of Antiquity within universal history which undcrlies this work. Def­ inite obstades do stand in the way of penetrating the mind of men of the ancient East, but they are hardly grcater than the dif� ficulties which, for example, exist for Europcans who want [Q understaod the mentaliry of modem fast Asians. The problem is set {onh by B. Landsberger, "Die EigenbegrifHichkeit der babylo� nischen Wdt," lsl1111lica 2 (1926).355 ff., and by W. Wolf, JlI� dividllu1II Imd Gemeinschaft in der ägyptischen KII/tm

( Leipziger

I, 1935), with whieh cf. A. Scharff, DLZ (1935),985 ff. EspcciaJly rccommended is \V. Andrae, Alte Fest� strarsen im N"hnl Qstlm (Snldscbr. d. Dl.'utsch. Orjemges. 10, Leip_ zig 1941); it attempts to approach thc thought of the ancient East

Agyptolog. Studien

[hrough [he meaning of ancienr Oriental archirccrure. In any case, the adherent w the universal hiswry of Antiquity who includes the ancient EaSt in the sphere of his observations may rcfer to Herodorus, who described the great conAict between Gre who first taekled rhe great task of writing a comprehensive history of the ancienr world, based on uniform, crincal scrutiny of all saurce materials. The self-evident demand for linguistic mastery of the written sources for dassical antiquity, Greek and Roman hisrory. was carried o\'cr by Eduard Mcyer to the wide fic1d of the ancient East. He thus became the I Hroznj' 3chieved 3ß cpoch-making discovcry by thc later famous sen­ tence; 1Ju·NINDA-.m ("'..AI""; ",,,d,,rmtJ dmll!71;. All th�t was known was NINOA, [he Su,,,erian.Akkadian idoogr:ltll fOT "br TUE WORLD: H. Ber"c, GesMltel/de Kriifte der Antike (cd. z. cds. E. Buchner and P. Franke; Munich 1966), 333 ff., and V. Burr, lViir:.b. Jahrbiicher 1 (1947),91 ff. IlISTORY or Al'CIEST EXPI.ORAT[OS: R. Hcnnig, Terrae /lIcog­ nitae I (The ancicnt world tu Ptulcmy: cd. 2, Leiden 1944) �nd 11 (A.D. ZOO--1100: 1937) contain translations of ancienr SOllfeL'S with refcrenees tu m i poretm litcramre, to be llscd critically for particll­ lars bot on thc wholc a usdul aeeomplishmcnt; "I. Gary lind E. H. Warmington, Tbc Anciem Explorers (Loodon 1932; rev. with ad­ ditional bibliography, Baltimore 1963, Penguin Books}.-For thc gcography of ancicnt !taly: E. \VikCn. Die KU'lIde der He/h"/lC1/ '1-'011 dem Lmde Imd den Völkern der Apellninenhalbi mel (Lund 1937), on whieh see R. Güngerieh, Gn01ll0Tl (1941), 1 I 7 ff. ST�Ano ASV ANCIEST GEOGRAP'''·: R. Honismann. RE IV A (193 1 ) . 7 6 ff.: cdition of Strabo by A. Meincke (LeIpzig 1 851-1 8 n ) . A modern, thorough eomment:uy on Srrabo (wirh maps) is one of rhe most urgent t:lSks of ancient hlstory. For thc ancicnr geography of Greecc, the geographie deseriprion of Pausanias (rr�p'�'}'11(n� Tii� 'Ena.So�. eomposcd e. AD. 150) is n i dispensable; cf. the edi­ tion wirh eommcntary and rnaps of H. Hittig and H. Blümncr () vols.. Leipzig 1896-1910), and the En�sh il translation and commen­ rary of J. G. Fr:azer ( 1 9 1 3 ) ; furchcr mfonnarion by E. Pemiee in Miiller 1 (1939), 244 0.3; in addition see Ernst Mcycr, Pawallias:

Tbe FunJlI71Irntals Beschreibung Griechenlands, ntu iJbtTset2t mit Einleitung u. An­ mtTkungen (Zurich '9H} .-The editions of minot Grcek and Latin geogt'llphers :Ire imporunt: C. Müller, Geograph; Graec; Mmores (l vots., Paris ,881), of which :l new edition is needed; A. Riese, Geographi LaNn; Minores (Heilbronn 1878; repr. Hildes­ heim 1964). On the periploi see R. Güngerich, Die Küstenbeschrei­ bung in der griech. Literatur (Orbis Antiq= 4, Münster i. W. 1950).-Ptolcmy of Alexandri:l :lnd his rfClf)'pctq,tlM) VtfnfrIJ(n-;: a modem complere edition is Iacking. A panial ttt3nnem by O. Cuntz, Die Geographie des Ptokmaios (Galliae, Germania, R1:teti4, Noricum, Pannonia, lIlyriCU11l, Italia) (Berlin 1913). Funker litet'll­ eure in J:lmes O. Thomson, History of Ancient Geography (1948), 230 n. I.-Kosmas Indikopleustes: E. O. Winstedr, The Cbristill1l Topography of COmtlJS Indicopl. (Cambridge 19(9) .-Tbe so_calied Cosmo�pher of Ravenna: edicion in the ItinerllTia Rumana 1I (Leipzig 1940) by J. Schnetz; in addition, ibid., Untersuch. über die Quellen der Kos11l0graphie des 1t11000ymen Geographen von Rnvrona (SB Murnch 1941) and RtWt1l7lilS Anonymus (Uppsala 1951; Gennan tt'lll1s1ation).-The Tabula Peutingerilt11a: Editio princeps b l\hrcus Weiser (Venice 159[; complete, Amsterdam l r imponant is K. Miller, Die Weltkarte der Cartor;U/ 1 598); sti (Ravensburg ,887-1888) and Die Peutingersche Tafel (ed. 2. Srurt­ gan: 1919), although reservacion is necessary about his hypoth� of the history of the origin of the Tabula Peutingeri .ma. See also James O. Thomson, Hirtory of AlIcient Geography ( [ 948), 379 ff. SPECLU. GEOGRAPHIe STUDIES: Comprehensive works which correspond ro thc prescm state of knowledge are lacking fot Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ir:m, and Asia Minot; the modem literarure is dis­ cussed in H. Hassinger, Geogr. Gnmdlagen der Ge!chichte (ed. !, Freiburg i. Er. 1953). For Egypt, K. Baedeker, Ägypten und Sudll1l ig 1 91 8) , olfcrs a survey with (ed. 8, rev. by G. Steindorlf, Leipz constant rderence to the conditions ofAntiquity. Syria: R. Dussaud, Topographie Histor;que de lJl Syrie anNque et medievale (Bibi. arcbeol. et hift. 4> Paris 1927), whick today narurally is somewhat out-of-date; more recent is Emma Brunner-Traut and Vern Hell, Ägypten. Studienreisefiibrer mit LtJ1/derkunde (Sruttgan '961); F. M. Abe\, GEographie de la Palirline (1 vols.• Paris 1933-1938). GREECE: A significant ach ievemenr fot its time was Conrad Bursian, Geographie von GriechenltJ1/d (z vols., Leiprig 1862-1872); see also: C. Neumann and J. Partseh, Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland (Breslau 1885); A. Philippson, Das Mittelmeergehiet (ed. 4, Berlin and Leipzig 192%); O. Maull, Griechirches Mittel1IIcergehiet (Breslau 1912); J. Bequignon. Grece (Guides BleII!, Paris

The Ftmdamtntals

47

1935); E. Kirseen and W. Kraiker, Griechtnltmdkunde: Ein Führer zu HaIfischen Stärttn (cd. S' HcideJberg 1967). For particular Greek disrrie[S: F. Srählin, DM hellenische ThtSSalien (Stungart 1914); W. Judeich, Topographie von Athen (ed. 1, in Müller, Munich 1931), of willeh a revised edition is planned; W. Wrcdc, Attika (Athcns '934); H. Lehmann, Ll11Ideskunde der Ebene von Argos lind ihrer RJmdgebiete (Athens 1937); Ernst Meyer, Peloprnmerircbe WI11I­ drrungen (Zurich 1939), on Arcadia and Aehaea; ibid., Neue pelop07l1lesircbe Wl11Iderungen (Bern '957). H. Schaal, Die Insel det Pelopr (Bremen 1943). Wonh reading also is the book of ehe archeologise Ernst Reisin�er, Griechenland: Schildenmgen deut­ scher Reisender (cd. 2, Lelpr.ig 1913), wich a survey of the modem rr:J.veJ literarurc from Ciriaco of Ancona on; cf. also M. ,"Vegner,

Land der Griechen: Reimchildmmgen allt 7 Jahrhunderten (cd.

3. Berlin 1955); a dist:inguished work is A. Philippson (d. 1953).

Die griechischen Landrcbüften (4 vols. in 8 parts, Frankfun a. M.

1950-1959), wieh addidons by E. Kirsten in the firn: volumcs.-A rieh source for the hisrorical geogr.aphy of the Greek (and also Roman) world are the volumcs of inscriptions, the lnscriptiones GTaecae (JG) and the COTPUS lnrcript;onum LatinllT11111 (CIL) ; also the relevant articlcs in the RE and the areheologieal exeavation repons, whieh formerly appeared e.g. annual1y in ehe "Arehäol. Anzeiger" of [he JDAI and In the AOF. ITALY: H. Nissen, Italische Landerktmde (1 vok, Bcrlin ,883-1901); O. Richter, Topographie von Rom (in Müller, Munieh 1913); H. Jordan and C. Hülsen, Topographie der Stadt Rom m i Altertum (3 vols., Berlin 1878-1907) ; S. B. Plarner and T. Ashby, A Top0f{Taphical Dictionary of AnaiN1t Rome (Oxford 1919); E. Nash, Bildlrrico11 Zllr Topographie du tl7Itiken Rom (1 vols., Tüb­ ingen 1961-196:). Modem litcrarure on particular regions of haly is provided by H. Hassinger, Grogr. Gntndlagt!11 (cd. 1, 1953). Especially ou[S[anding is T. Ashby, Tbe Roman Cl1mp3g;na in Clll!tical Times (London 1917). The Istituto di Studi Romani pub­ lishes the series "Forrna lulia" and "lralia Romana." DIBLIOCIl.APIIiC ...I. Cf. also K. Schefold, Griechische Dichterbildllisse (Zurich 1965). On the herrn of Themistocles from OSti:! see t.g. H. Sichrennann, GY11l11tumm 7 ' ( 1 964), 348-38 1 , "VOLK" ANO "NATION"; Fot the concept of Vclk, see E. Mey­ er, Gesch. d. Altert. l.I (cd. 3. 1910) , 77 ff.; opposed H. E. Stier, Gnmdlagrn und Si1l1l der griecb. Geschichte (Stuttgart 1945), 7]. 107, 110, 1 1 3 . tte. Stier's view, that there was generally no Greek peop1c (Volk), but only separate Grcek nations (Natirmro), under­ cstimates the unifying forces of Creek history in fayor of the divisive ones. Stier (op. cit. p. /00) slights the Hcrodotean passage (8. 144) which spcaks emphaticaUy for a Pan-Greek consciousness at the time of the Persian Wars. Cf. also Herodorus' orinion (8.3) which designates rhe quarrels berween Greeks as (TTae,.... tp..pv"Ao" ano the collection of Iaws issued subsegllcnr to .he latter by Empcror jusrinian, the NO'lJellae,= These works, together with the lnstimtioner of jusrini3n, 3 "be­ ginner's texthook," and the Digerta, a coJlection oi extraC!5 {rom the older juriStS, form a monumental snucture of law unique in history." Administrative documcnts abound; only a few can be memioned here. At the courts of the ancient Near East official record was kepr of the more importanr e\'encs in pahee and empire. These "coUrt journals" (calIed ßa(TI),II((Z� ö"p8ipal by the Greeks) wen: docu* rnents whieh were uscd primarily for eontrol of the bun:aucrncy. We find rhem ar the court of (he Persian king as weil :IS rhe king of Isrnel,2i later at the court of Alexander the Great (rhe so-called Ephemerides). This material is lost, buc we can fonn an idea of whar the "court joumllls" were like from surviving ex[I':!.CCS on papyrus from bureaucratic "administrative journals."'" Roman ad,. i\I. N. Tod. G�uk Historie../ /nlcriptiom I (cd. •• '9..6), no. ,. ,. J. Kahler ..nd E. Zieburh. Difl St..dtTceht wn Gonyn (Gottingen '911); E. F�bridus, "Eine Forschungsreise in Kreta \'Or 60 Jahren." ,vIA ('94'), ,6, ff. :>0 Ercke-Norden I (cd. 3, 1917), 66 ff.; cd. Schwyzer, Griechische Grannllatik I (1939), 45 ff.; on Lalin see G. Dcvoto, Storia del/a lillgull di Roma (Bologna 1940) and V. Pis3ni, Mlltmille storico lidlll /in!{l111 latiua (\'ok �-4, Turin 1950-1953). An imporr-anr work is E. Norden, Die antike KUlIu­ prosa (I vols" cd. I, Lcip7.ig and Berlin 1909); ir Slll"\'eys the dc­ \'clopmenr of literaty langu3ge in Grccce :md Rome {rom ehe be­ ginning down ro ehe Renaissance. CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGF.: W. von Soden, Zwcisprachigkrit ill der geistigen Kulntr Rllbylolliens (SA IVfV 135, no. I , 1960); L. I'bhn, Rom und d(!1' R011l.Jnimms im griecbisch­ rii'l1lischcn Orten (1906): L. Hahn, Zlim SprllchNlk.lmpf i1ll röm­ ische/I Reic!; bis lIuf die Zeit /1I1Iilli311S (rhilologur, Supplement 10, [90]), 675' ff.; H. Zi11i�eus, ZlIm Kllmpf der TVclupr.JCh"., ;'111 ostrii1!liscbcn Reich (Diss. Hclsinki 1935).

Al'CIENT TREATIES; Besidcs rhe works mentioned in the text, see F. Hampl, Die grit-clJische Sfllam'eTtTii}l.e der �. !lIb,bl/1l1f"Tfs 'iJ. Cbr. Grb. (Leipzig 1938), witil review by F. WÜST, Gnomon 1938. 367 ff. An example of a )urisric smdy is A. Hcuss, "Abschluss und Beurkundung des griechischen lind römischen Srnatsvcnragcs," Klio z7 (1934), 14 ff., 118 ff. On Grcek documenrs see A. \.Vilhelm, Beiträge �lIr griechischl!1l 1nschriftenkunde (Vienna 1909), lZ7 ff.,

80

Tbe SOUTen

and G. Klaffenbach, Bemerkungen zum griecbiscben Urkunden­ wesen (SDAW 1960, 00.6). LAW; For the ancient Neu East these works are particularly important: A. Scharff and E. Seidl, Einführung i11 die ägyptische Rechtsgeschichte bis 2U1II Ende des Nemm Reicher I (Ägyptolog­ ische Forschungen 10, 1929); E. Seidl, Ägyptische RechtSgeschichte der Saite71- und Perrerzeit (ibid. zo, 1956); E. Seid!, Ptolemäische Rechstgeschicbte (cd. 2, Glückstadt [962); M. San Nicolo, Recbts­ geschichtliche Beitriige im Bereich der keilscbriftlicben Recbtsquel­ len (Osla 1931); P. Koschaker. "Kc:ilschriftrtcht," ZDMG, series 2, val. '4 (1935), I ff. Collc:c(ions of legal documents from the ancieot Near East include: A. Falkenstein, Die neusumerischen Gerichtsurkunden (Abh. MImich, phil-bist. KI., sero 1, nos. 39. 40, 44; 1956-1957); G. Driver and J. !\files, Tbe BabylO1lian LrrJJs (1 vols., 1955-19S6), and Assyrill1l Ltr.;.'s (Odord 1915). For Hellenie law see H. v. Prott and L Ziehen, Leges Graecorutll sacrae (1 vols., 1896---1 901); P. Meyer, Juristische Papyri (Berlin 1910), excellent ri in general. \Ve do not yet also as an imroducrion to legal papy have a general survey of Greek law, buc important monographs in­ clude: K. Lme, Heiliges Recht (Tubingen 1910); E. \Neiss, Grie­ chircbes Privatrecht I (Leipzig 1923); J. Pansch, Griecb. BiiTg­ tcbaftsrecbt 1 (Leipzig 19(9); F. Pringsheim, Tbe Greek Law of Sale (Weimar 1950); H. Lipsius, Das attische Recbt lind Rechts_ verfahre1J (3 vok., Leipzig I90S-1915); H. 'Vleber, Attischer i de1J attischen Seebundstaaten (Paderhorn 1908). For ProzesSTecht n the relations berween Greek and Roman law the fundamental work remains L Mineis, ReichSTecbt und VolkSTecht in den östlichen Provinzen des römischen Kaiserreichs (Leipzig 1891); an interesting work is \V. Kunkel, Herkunft ,md soziale Stellllng der römischen Juristen (Weimar 1951). Roman I� sources are available n i severa1 collccrions. C. Brom and O. Gradenwitz, Fontes luris R011ltm; (I vok, cd. 7, Tübingen 19(9) with Additll11lenta (1 vok, 1911); P. Girard, Textes de droi! rOl1um (cd. 6, Paris 1937); G. Baviera, C. Ferrini, G. Furlani, and V. Arangio-Ruiz, F01Ites luris R011lmi Anteiustinia1/i (3 vol5., Flor­ ence 1940-1943), outsrnnding for bibliography. On the codes of the later Empire (Theodosius 11 and Juscinian) tht best historical account is hy E. Komemann, "Die römische Kaiscrzeir," in Gercke_ Norden m.l (cd. 3, 1933), 166-167. Roman legal sources are surveyed by Th. Kipp, Geschichte der Quellen des rÖlllirchen Rechts (cd. 4- Leipzig 1919), a good intro­ duerion; L. Wenger, Die Quellen des rÖlIIilchen Rechts (Vienna 19SJ). A useful survey is B. Kühler, Geschichte des römischen

Tbe Sourcet

"

Rechtes (Leipzig 1915). The characteristics oi Roman IIlW are dis­ cussed by F. Schulz, f'rinciplcs of RQman UW, rr. M. Wolff (0,,­ ford 1936), reviewed by M. Gelzer, Gnomon ( 193 5), 1 ff.; also by W. Otto, Amike Kfllrtlrgerchichte (SB Mllnich 1 940, 00. 6), 35 H.; P. Koschaker, Ellrop.1 und das rÖI/tische Recht (Munich 1947)' For Roman private law sec Jors, Kunkel, and "Veogcr, Römischcs Prr.Jatrecht, based on the work of P. Jors (cd. 3. Beflin 1949); M. Kasee, Römisches Privatrecht (1 vols., Munich 1955-1959), with extensive rcferences to sources and srudics. Historians will find use­ ful H. Berger, Encyclopedic Victionary of Roman Law (Tram. Am. Philosophieal Soeiety, n.S., vol. 43, 00. 1; Philadelphia [953>. ADMINlSTRIr.nVE OOCUME�'TS: Court joumals of the Achae­ menids are cited in E-:,ra 4.15, 6.2; Errher 2.23, 6.1; Diodorus 2.33.4 (Ctesias). Alcxander's Ephemeridcs 3fC discusscd by H. Berve, Das Alexallderreieb auf proropograpbiseher GT/mdlage I (Munich 1916), 50; F. Altheim, TVrltgeschichte Asims im griecbische1l Zeit­ alter 1 (1947), 1 1 1 5 tf.; L. Pcarson, Hiswria 3 ( 1 954-1955),429 if. The Notitia Diglliratu1ll has been edited by O. Ste ek ( [ B76), dis­ cussed by A. Piganiol, Histoire de Rome (ed. 5, 1961), 476 aod 590, also by H. Nessclhauf, Die tpäträmisehe VcT'lJ,.'altullg der gll/lisch-geT1Jumisehen Lander (Abh. Berlin, phil-hist. Kl., 193B, No. 2). 37 tf. For the general history of late Antiquiry, not juSt for Church history, the documems of the General Councils are of great importance, lind they should be srudied in the editions of Eduard Schwal1Z. whieh are discussed by A. Rehm, E. Schwanz' wissen­ sebttft!ich('s Lebros-.:;crk (Sn MlInieh 194:, 110. 4), 74 and 41 if. :rtcm;on ;s directcd TO the undcrlying forccs which share the dellelopment oE peoplcs and states. His distinction between the im­ mediate occasion and fhe fundamental causes of the war, his descrip­ rion of the interrclation between military and diplomatie dellelop­ ment.�, his e,nphasis on the role of chance in history, his rcfusal to rely on supernarural explanations, and his deseript;on oi historical development in fenns of the logical eonditions-all these wen new and eontributcd to thc decpening of historieal interpretation. Be­ c,mse hc sh�ped his subject so eompletely, Thucydides aehicvcd what he had set OUt [0 da, to leave for posterit)' "an evcdasting posscssion" (KTTjp.a d� ti�O ; ;t is addresscd to every person desir­ ing to undersr:and the basic direction of historical developmcnt whieh lies bchind individual hiswrical cvents. From this point of view we are justified in rcgarding Thucydidcs as fhe man who raised history from a suhjectille study and made it a schobrly disci­ pline. Thucydides' "disco\·cries" concern military hiswr)" arranged by winters and summers; the international politics of the period are diseussed onl}' whcre they are essential for undeTSfanding the course of events. Nevcnhele�'S Thucydidcs was influeneed by the inteIleenlai devdopmcnrs of the age, especially [he Sophistic mOlle-

Tb/! SOUTCe!

9'

menT. This is panicularly evident in the speechcs; fomlal analysis re"eals that they are neicher historien! nor authentie, but are r;!.ther mcans uy which the historian cxamincs situations from different points of view :lnd on the basis of different values. Thucydides' history cnded abrupdy at .:p [ RC, and was con­ tinued by three suceessors: Xenophon, 1lleopompus, and Cratip­ pus, Of These Xcnophon of Athens (e, 430----4 l ) , wirh review hy M. Gelzer, Gnomon (1941), HO ff., �nd his mide, "Livius," RE XIII (19:7), 816 ff. Li")' a.� artist and scholar: E. Burck, Die Erz.iblungrku1ISt des T. Lr.;ill! (Problelll.1f1/ 1 1 , Berlin 1934), and "Livius als augusteischer Historiker," WG 1 ([935). 446 ff.; W. Hoffmann. Antike um! Abrndland 4 (1954). 170 ff.; H. Bruckmann, Die römischl!1l Niedcrl,rgl:lI im Gercbichw !crk des T. Livitlr (Diss. i\-1iinster 1936); .. . W. Wiehemeyer. Probe-n bistor. Kritik aur Li-viur XXI-XLV (Diss. Münster 1938). Very suggesrive, alehough at rimes hi� conclusions have beeil disputed. is K. Pet'wld, Die EröIJmmg der zweiteIl RÖm.­ Makedrmirchm Krieger (Bcrlin 1940). D10:-''YSIUS OF HALlC.�RNASSUS: Editcd by C. Jacoby, (4 vols., 1885-19°5); recent studics by E. Gabba, Athm:U!1tm, n.s. 38 (1960), 115 ff.• 39 (1961 ), 98 ff.; H. Hili, JRS (1961), 88 ff., on Dionysius and the origins of Rome. NICHOLAS OF DA.\IASCUS: Fragmems in FÜTH 90. HlSTORIQGRAPllY OF PRI:-:CIPATE: Suevey with bibliography of sourccs in Rorenbcrg, 74: ff.; Scham·Horius 11 (ed. 4. 1935), 644 ff.; F. Klingner, "Tacitus . . . ," AU/ 15 (1958), 194 ff. l'OMPEIUS Tf!OClUS: Of his Hirtoriae Philippicae in 44 0001.5 only {he Prologi (tables of contcnts) are extant. hut we da have selcclions from the remaindcr made by M. Junianus (or Junianius) n )' A.D.). A good edition of Justin was Justinus (c. third cenn ipzig 1935), who also published the frag· puhlished by O. Scd (le ments of Trogus (19SS). Thc basic work on ehe sourccs is by A. v. Gutschmid, reprinted in his KleiT/e SchrifteT/ V ( 1 894) , 1 1 8 ff.• hut a new study is needcd. hlare rccent work is re\'iewed by J. Pendarf, Bllrritms JahrerbeT. 173 (1941). 104 {f.

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The SOUTf;U

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS: Edition of the Historia R01Ita1IiJ by C. Stegmann von Pritzwald (Leipzig 1935). Tbc wdl-known pas­ sag e on Arminius ( l.IS.: ) has betn newly interpreted by E. Hohl, " Zur Lebensgeschichte des Siegers im Tc u toburger ',Valdc," HZ 167 ([943), 457 ff.; Hohl argues for Armenius as thc: couect form, hut see W. Ensslin, GYl1masium ( 1 943/44), 64 ff.-A general smdy is I. Laua, Velltio PateTcofo 0 ddla 'PTopaganda (Turin 1952). Q. CURTIUS RUFUS: Of his Historia Alexandri Magni n i ten books we havc lost books I aud 1 entirely and S, 6, and 10 in pan:. New manuscript collations c:mich thc: edition of K. Müller and H Schönfeld, (J. Curtills lUtfm: Geschichte Alerallders des Gromm (Munich 19H), wirh Geman translation. Other editions are those of H. Bardon (Paris 1947-[948), and J. Rolfe (LCL: 1947). Stin valuable is che otd commentary by J. Müt7.ell (Berlin 1841 ).-When the work was written is still an unsolved problem, though one can say that it was sometime between the time of Augusrus (fot which W. Tarn argues, Alt.'xlf11dl!r tbe Grt.'tlt II [Cambridge, 1948), 91 ff.) and that 01 Vespasian (for which sec J. Stroux, Philologur 84 [1919], 133 «.); the lalter is more probable, as indicated in an artide by G. Scheda, Historia 1 8 (1969). Whether Curnus is to be idemified with the Currius Rufus menrioned by Tacirus, Alm. 1 1 . : ' , is an unsotved problem. AUFIDIUS BASSUS: He began his history with the death of Caesar, but the point at which he stopped is unknown; cf. F. Marx, Klio 19 ( 1 936),94 ff. PLiNY THE EWER (AD. 13-79) : His historical work, A fine Bani, continued the history of Bassus; cf. A. Alomigliano, "Osserva� zioni sul1e fonti per la storia di Caligola, Oaudio, Nerone," RAL ser, 6, vol. 8 (1931), 193 ff. Pliny also wrote an accoum of [he Gcrman wars, besides of course hlS Historia naturalir. Ct.UVlUS RUFUS: His history CQ\'ered the reign of Nero and the re\'olutions of A.D. 69, but as a whole it remains unknown to uso Cluvius has, however, gained a somcwhat uneamed prominence be� cause Mommsen believed his work W3S the common source behind Tacirus' Historier and Plutarch's Liver of Galba and Orho; cf. Th. Mommsen, "Comclius Tacitus und CluvillS Rufus," Hermes 4 ( 1870), 195 !f., reprinted in Gerammelte Schriften VTI, H4 ff. Neverthelcss the verbal paral1els must be otherwise explained, for TacituS undoubtedly consulted a number of sourcts, and evidently one of them was used by Plurareh, mo; cf. G. Townsend, AlP 85 (1964) , 3 3 7-3 77. FABIUS RUSTlCUS: Sec: Tacirus, Ami. 1 3 .10; 14.2; 15.6(. CORNE:UUS TACITUS: Editions: Historiae and Allnl11er by

Tb!! SOUTUI

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Halm, Andrcscn, Koestermann (Leipzig .934-1936; ed. 8, .957'960); Allnalu by H. Fuchs (Frauenfeld 10),,"6-'949), Klei/Je S�brifun by E. Koestermann (cd. 8, Leipzig 1957); edition with notes of Hinoriae by Woltr, Andrcscn (cd. 2, /914-1926; com­ mentary on books 1-2 by H. Heubner, ( 3 vols., 196}-.967); edition with notes of A'/1101es by Nipperdcy, Andrcsen, books 1-6 (ed. 1 [, 1 9 1 5 ) and books 1 1 - 1 6 (cd. 6, 19°8); commcntary on Amiales by E. KoesTermann (4 \'015., Hcidclbcrg 1963-1968); Ger1llania wirh commentary by Reeb ( 1 930), Much ( 1 937), Anderson (Oxford 1938), Fehde (cd. 4, 1944). Agricoln has been edired by H. Fur­ neaux and J. G. Anderson (ed. 1, Oxford 19u)-Full bibliogl':lphy in Schallz-Hosills 11, 603 ff.; see also CAH X (1934), 96} tr., and a later rc\·iew by E. Kocstermann, Bursians !abresber. 282 (1943), 78 tr. For a general synrhcsis important articlcs are R. Reinen.�tein, "Taeirus und sein \Verk," Neue Wege zur Antike 4 (1926); F. Klingncr, "Taeirus," Amike 8 (1931), 1 5 1 ff., and also his "Die Geschichte des Kaisers Otho bei Tacitus," SB Leipzig 1940, no. I, lmd "Tacitus über Augustll5 und Tiberius," SBA lV 1953, no. 7 (published [954); H. Drexler. Tacitlls, Grundzüge einer politischen Pathologie (Frankfurt/llhin 1939), but this requin:s crincal judg­ ment; E. Howald, Vom Geilt amiker Geschichmchreilnmg (Mu­ nieh 1944) . [93 tr.; E. Koesrermann, Tacims (Wiesbaden 1946), vith good bib!iography of reeent srudies. A srudy based on in­ .. tensive originnl research, es�cially in prosopography, is R. Syme, Tacims (2 vols., O:dord 1958).-On E. Paratore, Tacito (cd. 2, Rome 1962) see review of R. Güngerich. GlI01l/01l ( 1 954). 85 If. and ([965),421 If. Uscful studics are in lViirz/mrger Studien Zlif Alterrll1/tS1JJimmschllft 9 (1936) (Festsc!;rift Hosius), including [he important srudy by J. Vogt, "Tacitus und die Unparteilichkeit des Hiswrike�," reprinred in Orbis ( 1 960), 1 [0 tr., which also eontains his "Die GeschichtsSchreibung des Tacirus," 128 tr.-On Ann. 15.44 see H. Fuchs, "Tacitll5 u. die Christen," VChr 4 ( 195°), 65 If.; on Tacitll5' psychology see H. Nesselhauf, "Tacitus u. Domitian," Hermes 80 (1952), 2U tr. Numcrous studies by E. Kocstermnnn are i? eorpor:lted in his comf""mary on A.nlutf �

!..l.$. .nd Römi � .utobiogr:lphy of,

Weber, W., ') Wcidncr, E. F', !1! WeHes, C. B., !.l9. Wcllhauscn, Julius, !..!1 Wiegand. T., !!.t � Wilamowitl.-Modlcndorff, utrkh von, !l f•• !.!L u§, !.1!': Wilbour Pa yru s, Z! Wilckcn, Urich, � !..!!..t !.l5! Wilhdm,Adolf, l� Wi!!, Eduard, !1! Wimpfeling, Jacob, Z Winde1mann, 1. j., '1 Winckler, uS \Vissowa, Grorg. L6lI Wolf, F. A., LQ Wolf, Julius, i!. Wölfllin, E., L6lI

Thro.d�l1$, 51

S,

Tillemont. Lenain de, I! Tim.c"" of Tauromenium, 2!. LO!I Timpd, uJI Tiryns. lli Tocharians. s! Tours. barne of, S Trojan, l.t 2:b 2§.. !..!§ .nd Plioy'. lcncrs, Z! f.; column of, � Tri..st.. (Tcrgc:;tc). l'. Troy, uS Turks, 2.� Tunn papyr us of the kings, !2 Twdvc Tables, � V.kntini.n IJI, � Volenan, !.!2 v.n., Lllreruo. 1 Vdnqucz, u.6 Vclleius Patuculus, !lL " Vcrgil, i.5. uiz Verriu. Flac