How to Write Correct English

HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

R.K.Singh

ABHISHEK PUBLICATIONS CHANDIGARH

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ISBN : 978-81-9031-784-9

Copyright :Publisher First Edition:20 10 Published by: ABIDSHEK PUBLICATION S.C.O. 57-59 Sector 17-C Basement CHANDIGARH-17 Ph.Ol72-,5003768 FAX: 2707562 Email: [email protected] Printed at : Shiva Offset Press Delhi

Contents

I. Introduction

1

2. Essentials of English Language

7

3. The Sentence

103

4. Figurative Language

116

5. Punctuation

123

6. Letter Writing

189

7. Errors

206

8. Pitfalls to Avoid

218

9. Style

233

10. Suggestions

243

1I. Slang

252

12. Writing for Newspapers

260

13. Choice of Words

269

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Chapter 1

Introduction APPROPRIATE ENGLISH Most people believe that there is a very definite set of English rules which, when followed, will produce correct English. In reality, this is not true. A better question to ask is, "What is appropriate English?" The answer to that question depends on many things: • The relationship of the spsakers (e.g., good friends speak to each other different than an employer speaks to employees). • The situation in which the communication takes place (e.g., people have to provide different kinds of information when talking over the telephone than when talking face-to-face). • The topic of the communication (e.g., you may speak differently in telling a joke than you would in discussing a math principle), etc. You should aim at teaching students language that will help them achieve their goals appropriately. For example, they may want to be able to request help in a store. You would teach them to do it in such a way that they would get the help and that the people helping them would not think that they were rude, stupid, nor snobbish. Overall, teachers have a tendency to try to teach styles of English that are too formal for most of the situations their students will encounter. Try to avoid this fault. Contractions (I'm,

2'

Introduction ~ I~----------------------------------he's, they'll) are always used except in very formal situations. We can assure you that you do not know what correct English is. If you are a native speaker of English and pick up any of the weighty books on English usage, it will probably be an illuminating and humiliating experience. It always is for me, at any rate. Our grasp of unusual vocabulary is dubious, our grammar is not complete, and we make many of the mistakes the authorities mock: If you are an British English speaker, you will be just horrified by the number of Americanisms you use (like the one I inserted just now); if you are an American, I think you'll be horrified by how corporate and tech speak have changed your language (it is disgusting, American authorities railed not too long ago, to say "authored", but now it is something every time it click the button on Movable Type; "donut" was until fairly recently spelt "doughnut"). There are huge sections of "The King's English" which it simply cannot understand - and since we have studied Latin and went to a posh English private school - and through that book, it's obvious that the authors had a sense, pretentious or not, of "beauty" and how it applied to English words, a sense which we know that at least it should lack completely.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE A NUTSHEll

All the words in the English language are divided into nine great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it. A Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact, anything of which we can have either thought or idea. There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are names which belong in common to a

Introduction

r3

race or class, as man, city. Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as John, Philadelphia. In the former case man is a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and city is also a name which is common to all large centres of population, but John signifies a particular individual of the race, while Philadelphia denotes a particular one from among the cities of the world. Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is that relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the subject under consideration, whether by discourse or correspondence. The Persons are First, Second and Third and they represent respect,ively the speaker, the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under consideration. Number is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of s or es. Gender has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, feminine, neuter and common. Sometimes things which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, as, for instance, we say of the sun, He is rising; of the moon, She is setting. Case is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a preposition. There are three cases, the Nominative, the Possessive and the Objective. The nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb. An Article is a word placed before a noun to show

Introduction ~ I~---------------------------------

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whether the latter is used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, a or an and the. An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun. IMPROVING YOUR ENGLISH

So you're looking to improve your writing skills, are you? Are you finding out that all of the lessons from your book weren't as thorough as you once thought? Even if you've got the basics of English punctuation under your belt, it's always a good idea to brush up on your English punctuation skills. Especially if you're trying to impress a potential boss with a stellar resume, you need to make sure that you are using English punctuation correctly. For writing correct english follow these pointers: Periods: Use a period at the end of a sentence that isn't a question or an exciting point. Anytime you've used a short form of a word or an abbreviation, you'll also need to use a period where you've cut the word short (for example, instead of "et cetera", you would write "etc."). In this case, you need to know that it's okay to have the period there and at the end of the sentence, since they are being used for different reasons. Commas: This is perhaps the most confusing punctuation mark in the English language. It's very versatile, almost too much so. You can use a comma to separate a list of words, to separate two phrases in the same sentence, or even to separate the parts of a date. You need a comma when you are using more than one adjective to describe something (like a big, fat, expensive mortgage). And you also need to use a comma if you're inserting something into a sentence that breaks up the natural flow of it (I thought, as I was sitting here, that I should mention this one as well). We see that the section within the commas breaks up the flow of an otherwise normal sentence, so it needs to be

Introduction

\5

separated by commas. Each place is followed by a comma. And if you can handle one more, you'll need to use a comma before you quote something (for example, she said, "I really enjoyed meeting you"). Believe it or not, this is not an exhaustive list, but it covers most of the key uses for a comma. Exclamation marks: Use an exclamation mark to end a sentence that is exciting. If someone is yelling, use an exclamation mark at the end of their words. Or, if you've included sound effects that are loud or dramatic, use an exclamation mark Question marks: Okay, this is a no-brainer, but just in case, let's review. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence that asks a question. Moving on .... Quotation marks: If someone is speaking, you need to separate their words with quotation marks. Or, if you have borrowed words that someone else has written, you need to separate their words from your own with quotation marks. Apostrophes: Apostrophes have two uses in correct English punctuation. Use an apostrophe when using contractions (didn't, couldn't, isn't). In this case, the apostrophe replaces the missing letters - "did not" loses the 0, and the 0 is replaced with an apostrophe to look like "didn't". Also, an apostrophe is used when talking about someone's possessions, or things that belong to them. For example, that is Santa's sleigh, and Rudolph's nose. Leaving out the apostrophe here would simply make the words look plural, and that's not the correct use of English punctuation here. Colons: Use a colon before you insert a list of words or phrases after an otherwise complete sentence. (I'm a great writer for four reasons: my passion, dedication, education and qualifications.) You should also use a colon when you're linking two clos,ely-related sentences, or if you're wanted to separate a really important word or phrase from the rest of a sentence (for example, She made my favorite meal:

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__________________________________ _ In~oduction

spaghetti). And you also need a colon when you're introducing a long quote (instead of using quotation marks) or when you're beginning a letter. Semi-colon: Use a semi-colon when separating independent clauses (smaller sentences that make sense on their own in part of a bigger sentence). Use a semi-colon if before the word however or therefore if it falls in the middle of a sentence. You'll also need to use a semi-colon if you've got a long and complicated list (instead of using a comma).

Chapter 2

Essentials of English Language DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR, DEFINITIONS, ETYMOLOGY

In order t9 speak and write the English language correctly, it is imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy. DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR

There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words.

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Etymology treats of the various classes of words and the changes they undergo. Syntax treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different kinds of verse. The three first mentioned concern us most. LETTERS

A letter is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. Letters are divided into vowels and . consonants. A vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, and sometimes wand y when they do not begin a word or syllable. SYLLABLES AND WORDS

A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of [Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel. A word consists of one syllable or a combinati'on of syllables. Many t'u.les; are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions mad~ by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them. THE PARTS OF SPEECH ARTICLE

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a particular or general sense. There are two articles, a or an and the. A or an is called the indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, a man means any man whatsoever of the species or race.

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The is called the definite article because it points out some particular person or thing; thus, the man means some particular individual. Using Articles

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article. the = definite article a/an = indefinite article For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. "A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind. Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely. Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example: • liMy daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet. • "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.

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•

"When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here. Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So ... • a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog • an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan • a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like Iyoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant y ' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle • In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an: An historical event is worth recording. Remember that this rule also applies when you use acronyms: Introductory Composition at Purdue (lCaP) handles firstyear writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors. Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds: An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst. If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article: • a broken egg • an unusual problem • a European country (sounds like Iyer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound) Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group: I

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• • •

III

I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.) Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.) Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: the The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example: "The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me. "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat. "I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo. Count and Noncount Nouns The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely. • "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water). • "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk). "A/an" can be used only with count nouns. • "I need a bottle of water." • "I need a new glass of milk." Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

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Geographical Use of the There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns. Do not use the before: • names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States • names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba,

Miami names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes • names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn • names of continents (Asia, Europe) • names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands Do use the before: • names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific • points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole • geographical areas: the Middle East, the West • deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula • •

OMISSION OF ARTICLES

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian • Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball • Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biologtJ, history, computer science •

A versus An

How do you know when to use the indefinite articles?

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"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants. • a cat • a dog • a purple onion • a buffalo • a big apple With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h. • an honorable peace • an honest error "An" goes before all words that be{In with vowels: • an apricot • an egg • an Indian • an orbit • an uprising With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or 0 makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used. • a union • a united front • a unicorn • a used napkin • a U.S. ship • a one-legged man Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would make a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.

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NOUN

A noun is the name of any person, place or thing as John, London, book. Nouns are proper and common. Proper nouns are names applied to particular persons or places. Common nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species. Nouns are inflected by number, gender and case. , Number is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it represents one or more than one. Gender is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has no distinction of sex. Case is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of an action or of a relation. , Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the distinction between book which represents only one object and leaves which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called Number; the distinction of sex between John, a male, and Sarah, a female, and book and leaves, things which are inanimate and neither male nor female, is called Gender; and the distinction of state between John, the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, Mary, the owner of the book, leaves the objects torn, and book the object related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called Case. Count and Non Count Nouns

Definition of Count and Noncount nouns The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not. Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

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Examples: finger bottle table remark award chair candidate word girl Example sentences: I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.) I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted) I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted) Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture). Examples: progress courage anger furniture education weather warmth leisure precision Example Sentences: I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.) I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.) I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.) Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it l)ecomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule

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is absolute, there will be exceptions to these definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is counti'lble in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa. Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns Pluralizing The Rule

From fIe definitions of mass and count given you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them: • Most count nouns pluralize with ~S • Noncount nouns don't pluralize at all This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further. An Exception to

the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a non count and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare: Count

• • •

I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems) The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures) The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)

Noncount

•

She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being difficult)

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• •

I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general) Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general) Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples: • There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine) • ~ prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee) • }Ve use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter) A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its non count use. (For example, "You're missing three of ,the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing. A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not. The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

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To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this: Pluralizes with -s Count Noun

XX

Count Use

XX

Doesn't Pluralize

Noncount Noun

XX

Noncount Use

XX

Nouns and Articles

Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles. Combinations of Nouns and Articles

The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of ~ouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing. Count singular Count plural Noncount

a,an

the

XX

XX

Examples

Count Singular

I ate an apple.

this, that

no article

XX

XX XX

these, those

XX XX

XX XX

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I rode the bus. Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there. Count Plural

I like to feed the birds. Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there. Cats are interesting pets. Noncount

The water is cold. This milk is going sour. Music helps me relax. Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms. much, less, little, a little, very little

many, both, several, few/fewer/fewest , a few, one of the, a couple of

each, every, anY,one

XX

Count singular Count plural Noncount

some, any, most,more, all, a lot of, no, none of the

XX XX

XX

Examples

Count Singular

I practice every day. I'd like one donut, please.

XX

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Count Plural

Can I have some chips? She has a lot of books, and many are autographed. I have fewer pencils than you. Noncount

Can I have some water? She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing. I have less courage than you. Countable Nouns

Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural form. Concrete nouns may be countable. There are a dozen flowers in the vase. He ate an apple for a snack. Collective nouns are countable. She attended three classes today. London is home to several orchestras. Some proper nouns are countable. There are many Greeks living in New York. The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer mansion. Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form. Abstract nouns are uncountable. The price of freedom is constant vigilance. Her writing shows maturity and intelligence. Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense). The price of oil has stabilized recently. May I borrow some rice?

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While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart: Uncountable Sense Art is often called an imitation of life. Life is precious. He likes to eat pizza. Religion has been a powerful force in history. She has beautiful skin. Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture. We use only recycled paper in our office.

Countable Sense I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden. A cat has nine lives. How many pizzas should we order? Many religions are practiced in the United States. The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins. We have several sculptures in our home. Where are those important papers?

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense. The guest of honour arrived late. You are welcome as a guest in our home. The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise. Guests are welcome here anytime. Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea. Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world. The information in your files is correct. Sugar has become more expensive recently. Please pass me the sugar.

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Categories of Uncountable Nouns Abstract

Material

Generic

advice help information knowledge trouble work enjoyment fun recreation relaxation

meat rice bread cake coffee ice cream water oil grass hair

fruit wildlife equipment machinery furniture mail luggage jewelry clothing money

Non-Plurals with - s mathematics economics physics civics ethics mumps measles news tennis (otper games)

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns Some, Any

Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns. There are some cookies in the jar. (countable) There is some water on the floor. (uncountable) Did you eat any food? (uncountable) Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable) Much, Many

Much modifies only uncountable nouns. How much money will we need? They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick. Much effort will be required to solve this problem. Many modifies only countable nouns. How many children do you have? They had so many books that they had to stack them in the hall. Many Americans travel to Europe each year.

Essentials of English Language

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A lot of, lots of These words are informal substitutes for much and many. Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem. (uncountable) A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable) Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few Little and quite a little modify cnly uncountable nouns. We had a little ice cream after dinner. They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only a small amount") They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning "a large amount") (See quite a bit of below.) Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns. A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team. Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "only a small number") Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "a large number")

A little bit of, Quite a bit of These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used more commonly. There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount") There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount") Enough This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup. We have enough money to buy a car. Plenty of This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

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There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland. She has plenty of money in the bank. No This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. There were no squirrels in the park today. We have no time left to finish the project. PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to James and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with it." Without the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,-"John gave John's pen to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen." There are three kinds of pronouns-Personal, Relative and Adjective Pronouns. Personal Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are I, Thou, He, She, and It, with their plurals, We, Ye or You and They. I is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person speaking. Thou is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the person spoken to. He, She, It are the pronouns of the third person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking. Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined: First Person. M.orF. Sinf 2. with the following exception <was inaccessible except by boat> 3. only (often followed by that)