Heidegger's Concept of Truth

HEIDEGGER' S CONCEPT OF TRUTH

DANIEL 0. DAHLSTROM Boston University

. ...�� CAMBRIDGE :::

UNIVERSITY PRESS

PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITI OF CAMBRIDGE

T h e Pitt B u i l d in g , Trumpington Stree t, Cambridge, Uni ted K i n gdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSilY PRESS

T h e E d i n bu rg h Bu il ding, Cambridge CB2 2 RU, UK

40 Wes t 2 oth Street, New York, NY 10011-42 1 1, USA 1 o Stamford Ro ad , O a kl e i gh , VIC 316 6, A us tral i a Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 2 8 0 1 4 Madrid, Spain Dock H o us e, T h e Wa te r fr o nt, C a pe Town 8oo1, South Mrica

http:/ / www. cambridge.org © 19 9 4 Pass ag en V er l a g , Ges . m . b . H ., Wi e n En glish translation© 2001 Cambridge Un iversity Press

This book is in copyrigh t. S u bj ec t to s tatutory ex c e pt io n and to the p rovis i o n s of relevant c oll ec tive l icens in g agreemen ts , n o r ep r od u c tio n o f any part may take p l ac e without t h e w r itte n p erm issi o n of C a mb rid ge U n ive rs ity P ress . First published 200 1 Prin ted in the United States of America Typeface New Baskerville 10.2 5/1 3 p t.

SystemQuarkXPress [AG]

A catalog record far this book is available from the British Library. Library of C o n g res s C a talog i ng in P u b lic atio n Data

Dahlstrom, Daniel 0. [Logische Vorurteil. English] Heidegger's c on c e p t of tru th I D an ie l 0. D ahls trom

p.

em . - ( Mode r n E uro p ean philosophy)

I ncludes bib li ogra ph ic a l refe rences and index. JSBN

o-52 1-643 1 7-1

1. Heidegger, Marti n, 188g-1g76 - Con tri bu tions in l o g ic . 2 . Ethics, Modern- 2o th c en tu ry. 3· Truth . 1. T i tl e. 11. Se r ies .

B3279.H4 9 4 0 3 413 2 00 I 1 2 1 '.og2 - d c2 1 oo-og6297 ISBN

0 52 1 6 43 I 7 1 hard b ac k

For Eugenie

H EIDEGGER'S CONCEPT OF TRUTH

This major new study of Heidegger is the first to examine in detail the con­ cept of existential truth that he developed in the 1 9 20s. Daniel 0. Dahl­ strom critically examines the genesis, nature, and validity of Heidegger's radical attempt to rethink truth as the disclosure of time, a disclosure al­ legedly more basic than truths formulated in scientific judgments. The book has several distinctive and innovative features. First, it is the only study that attempts to understand the logical dimension of Hei­ degger's thought in i ts historical context. Second, no other book-length treatmen t explores the breadth and depth of Heidegger's confronta­ tion with Husserl , his erstwhile mentor. Third , the book demonstrates that Heidegger's deconstruction of Western thinking occurs on three interconnected fron ts: truth , bein g, and time . Dealing with a crucial aspect o f the philosophy o f o n e o f the great thinkers of the twen tieth century, this book will be important to all scholars and students of Heidegger, whether in philosophy, theology, or literary studies. Daniel 0. Dahlstrom is Professor of Philosophy at Boston University.

CONTENTS

page

Acknowledgments Introduction

XV

List of Abbreviations 1

2

Xll1

XXV11

The Logical Conception of Truth : The Logical Prejudice and Lotze's Concept of Validity 1. 1 The Question of Truth and the Idea of a Philosophical Logic 1 . 2 The Logical Prejudice 1.2 1 Sense, Justification, a n d Traditional Scope of th e Logical Prejudice 1. 2 2 The Logical Prejudice and the Question of Truth in the Post-Fregean Tradition of Philosophy of Logic 1 . 2 2 1 The Debate about Truth-Bearers 1.2 2 2 Redundancy, Semantic, and Pragmatic Theories of Truth 1.3 Truth as Validity and the Forms of Actuality 1.31 The Criticism of Psychologism and Heidegger's Ambivalence 1.3 2 The Roots of the Criticism of Psychologism : Lotze 's Concept of Validity The Phenomenological Conception of Truth : The Cri tical Confrontation with Husserl 2. 1 The Three Discoveries of Phenomenology 2.1 1 I n ten tionality and the Repudiation of a Cartesian Cognitive Model IX

1 10 17 17 23

24 25 29 30 35

48 54 54

X

CONTENTS

2 . 1 1 1 The Entelechy of Inten tionality and the Stages of Fulfillment 2 . 1 1 2 Evidence, Being-True, and the Meanings of 'Being' 2 . 1 2 Categorial Intuition 2 . 1 2 1 "Acts of Syn thesis" and Saturated Perceptions 2. 1 2 2 "Acts of Ideation " and Grasp of the Universal 2 . 1 2 3 Ontological Implications of the Doctri ne of Categorial Intuition 2 . 1 3 The Original Se nse of the A Priori : "Indiffere nce to Subjectivity" and the Character of an Entity's Being 2 . 1 4 Summary: Field, Aspect, an d Manner of Treatment 2 . 2 The Critique of Husserl 's Phenomenology 2 . 2 1 Being, State of Mfairs, and State of Truth 2 . 2 2 The Forgotten Being of Intentionality 2.2 2 1 The Phenomenological Reduction and Its Questionable Presupposition 2 . 2 2 2 The Absolute Being of Pure Consciousness 2 . 2 2 3 Essence and Manner of Being: The Neglected Reduction 2 . 2 3 A Summary of the Objections and Some Qualifications 2 . 3 What Husser} Cares About: Knowledge Known and the Fear of Being-Here 2 ·4 The Distorted Pic ture of a Maturing Phenomenology 2 .4 1 Altered Meanings, Neglected Matters, and the Question of Sensations 2 .42 Ge netic Phenomenology and Embodiment 2 .42 1 Temporalizing Sensations: TimeConsciousness and the "Transcendental Aesthetic" of Husserlian Logic 2 .42 2 Localizing Sensations: Kinesthesia, the Lived Body, and Transcendence 2.43 Heidegger's Silence and Its Sense ·

59 65 74 78 93 95 97

101 1 03 1 04 to8 11 1 1 16 1 20

1 25 131 1 38 1 43 1 49 1 49

1 60 1 64

CONTENTS

xi

2 ·5 Summary: Transforming the Phenomenological Conception ofTruth 3

4

The Hermeneutic Understanding of Truth : The Critical Appropriation o f Aristotle 's Analysis of Truth and Assertions 3 .1 The World of Original Meaning and the H ermeneutic 'As'-Structure of Primary Understanding 3 . 2 Apophan tic Determining: Asserting, Thematizing, and Obscuring 3·3 Being-True and the Truth of an Assertion : Aristotle 's Metaphysics, Theta 1o

17 5

The Timeliness of Existential Tr�th: Disclosing the Sense of Being 4.0 Preconsiderations: Metacategorial Distinction and the Paradox ofThematization, Formal Indications and the Task of Philosophy, and the Concrete Universality of Being-Here 4.1 Concern , the Work-World, and Handiness 4. 2 Solicitude , Being-with-Others, and Palaver 4·3 Care, Genuineness, and "the Most Original Ph enomenon of Truth" 4.31 Disposedness and the Thrownn ess of BeingHere 4. 3 2 U nderstanding and the Proj ect of Being-Here 4·33 Fallenness and th e Palaver of Being-Here 4·34 Anxiety as a Fundamental Disposition and the Unity of Care 4·4 The Logos of Conscience, Resoluteness, and "th e Most Original Truth" 4·5 The Timeliness of Truth 4. 51 Genuine Timeliness: Five Aspects 4.52 Exemplar and D egeneration : The Strategy and Structure of the Argument in Being and Time 4.5 21 Original Timeliness and Timeliness in General: Fleischer's Obj ection 4.5 2 2 Modes of Presen ting ( Gegenwiirtigen) : Curiosity, Theory, Transcendence 4·53 Clocking Ti me

223

181 200 21 o

2 31

255 2 70 2 88 292 301 307 311 315 325 327 338 34 1 348 360

xii

CO NTE N T S

4·53 1 Clock Time and th e Use of a Clock: Dimensional Time and World-Time 4·5 3 2 Ecstatic-Horizonal Timeliness and the Time of Concern : Havi ng Time and Buying Time 4 · 5 3 3 The Measurement of World-Time and the Common Conception of Time 5

Disclosedness, Transcendental Ph ilosophy, and Methodological Deliberations 5· 1 Does Heidegger Obscure the Problem of Truth and Forfeit the Difference be tween Truth and Falsity? Tuge ndhat's Obj ections 5 . 2 Disclosedness and the Sense of Being, as It Is in I tself 5 . 2 1 The Lesser Charge: Heidegger's Non Sequitur and the Senses of 'Sense ' 5 . 2 2 The Main Charge : Heidegger's Careless and Dangerous Obliviousness to the Specific Sense of Truth 5·3 Skepticism, Transcendental Philosophy, and Heidegge r's Analysis of Truth as Disclosedness 5 .3 1 Transcendental Truth and Transcendental Philosophy in the Critique of Pure Reason 5 . 3 2 The Transcendental Character of Truth as Disclosedness 5·33 Transcendental Truth and Propositional Truth 5 ·4 Heidegger's Pragmatism 5 ·5 Thematization, Mediation , and the Formal Indication: Between Poetry and Theology

Index

3 70

3 74 385 394

397 398 4 03

419 4 23

43 3

4 57

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book could not have been completed without the help of many friends. For the original German edition , I am especially grateful to Pro­ fessor Klaus Dusing's criticisms and encouragement over the years and to AI and Maria Miller for their intellectual exube rance and indefati­ gable will to think things through . For the English version , I am par­ ticularly indebted to Jeremy Ryan for his discerning cri ticisms and atten tive reading of two versions of the entire manuscript and to Mary Troxell , who read the enti re penultimate version of the manuscript with characteristic care . For their many helpful suggestions and c riticisms of various chapters or passages, thanks are also due to Bernard Prusak, Troy Catterson , Nicolas de Warren , Jam es Dodd , Juliet Floyd, Judd Webb, David Roochnik, Aaron Garrett, Victor Kestenbaum , Justin Good, and joe Waterman. I would like to express my gratitude to former teachers and past as well as prese nt colleagues for inspiration and insight: Henry Allison, Dominic Balestra, Michael Baur, Richard Blackwell, Klaus Brinkmann , William Charron ,]ames Collins, An tonio S. Cua, Bonnie Damron,Jude Dougherty, Charles]. Ermatinger, Manuel Espinosa, Alfredo Ferrarin, Hans Furth , Jaakko Hintikka, Patrick Murray, Stephen Pasos, Thomas Prufer, Luis Manuel Rodriguez, Stanley Rosen, Robert Sokolowski , Claudius Strube , Ronald Talmage , William Wallace , Paul Weiss, Samuel West, Carol V\Thite , Kevin V\Thite , and john Wippel. It would also be re­ miss of me not to acknowledge my deep debt to a number of contem­ porary scholars of Heidegger's work, especially Steven Crowell , Hubert Dreyfus, Charles Guignon , Ted Kisiel, John McCumber, Otto Poggele r, William Richardson , Robert Scharff, Reiner Schurmann , Thomas Sheehan , Claudius Strube , an dJohn van Buren. I am grateful to Wal-

Xlll

xiv

ACKN O W L E D G MENTS

ter Havighurst and janis Bolster for their expert h elp in transforming the manuscript into a printable text. Thanks are also due to Robert Pip­ pin for proposing the translation , to Terence Moore for his patience, and to Charles Griswold for his hearty encouragement.

INTRODUCTION

Without certain stock beliefs and practices that are simply taken for gran ted, there would be neither scientific research nor political col­ laboration, neither confidences nor humor. We experience our first prejudices on our mothers' laps, and we grow up with and into the everyday assumptions of all those who in one way or another command our attention , affection, or respect. Prejudices and the habits informed by them thus become the bonds of culture and daily life as well as the stuff of dreams, wishes, and despair. As deep-seated sources of iden ti ty, such seemingly self-eviden t beliefs and practices are seldom articulated and even more rarely subj ected to critical investigation . This neglect is , to be sure, not unfounded, since it is far from obvious what would qual­ ify as an adequate examination of prejudices. Would such an examina­ tion, for example , have to be unprejudiced? If so, how is that possible and how would it be determined? "The notion of having no prejudice" may not be "the greatest prej udice," as Heidegger contends, but it is dif­ ficult to gainsay the conclusion that the notion is a prejudice and a self­ defeating one at that. Perhaps it is not possible to examine our prejudices in a completely unprejudiced or adequate manner, one is tempted to reply, but this fact does not rule out the possibility of a degree of adequacy, the minimal condi tion of which would be logical consistency. Of all our basic as­ sumptions, probably none occupies a higher rank. Indeed, if prej udices are unavoidable , then the least that one can hope for is that they are logical and, indeed, that the principles of logic are among them. Ock­ ham 's old saw still holds: log;ica est scientia scientiarum et ars artium. The prejudices and principles of logic are seemingly so self-eviden t and fun­ damen tal that we stumble over our own logical feet, as it were, with every attempt to ground or eve n clarify them . XV

XVI

I N T R O DUC TIO N

Yet self-eviden t beliefs or principles could hardly be called "preju­ dices," according to some prevailing uses of the term . Nor could the as­ sumption that all prej udices are unj ustified be considered an unj usti­ fied p rejudice , if prominent pej orative senses of the term are invoked. A person 's theory or viewpoint is said to be "prejudiced" if certain un­ examined beliefs or practices prevent her from considering evidence to the contrary. Even more typically, ' prejudice' is a label today not merely for prejudging some subject matter but for main taining quite deleterious beliefs and practi ces. A prejudice in the latter sense is not simply an unstated premise of an argument or part of the background knowledge needed for a particular inquiry. Such a prejudice is, instead , an inauspicious habit of thinking and behaving that need not be ex­ plicit and can be detected and dismantled only with great difficulty, if at all. In fact, despi te one obvious reading of its etymology (from 'prae­ judicare' ) , a prejudice such as racism is not, properly speaking, a judgment at all but rather a fateful pattern of response . If the term "prejudice" is understood in this standard way, the ex­ pression ' logical prejudice ' seems an oxymoron. The term 'logical ' is principally employed to designate specific connections and inferences, either because certain assertions (assumptions or considerations) do not contradict one another or because a conclusion may be validly drawn from one or more of them. There is arguably no more justified presupposition , no more legitimate prejudice than that of abiding by the principle of noncon tradiction and the rules of inference , a practice that enables us to speak and think about things further and to do so to­ ge the r. Far from leading us down some shadowy and potentially per­ ilous path , logic steers us clear of what is unthinkable, what is nonsense. Nevertheless, it would make good sense to speak of a "logical preju­ dice" - a prejudice of logic (genitivus subjectivus) - if logic itself were to presuppose a belief or practice that can have the effect of disabling rather than enabling genuine discourse and thinking. The expression 'logical prejudice ' is employed in the following study in this sense . The specific logical prejudice in question is a certain way of speaking and thinking about truth or, equivalently, a theory of sui table uses of ' truth ' and its cognates that is traditionally construed as a cornerstone of logic . Logic typically begins with analysis of assertions (propositions, state­ ments, judgments, or the like ) and their possible combinations as the elements of any scientific theory that is open to verification or falsifica­ tion . In other words, logic assumes th a t assertions and their kin are th e �ile uf truth, indeed, in the sense that they mu�t he- in place for the re

I N T RO D U C TION

xvii

to be anything that might be termed the " truth ." This assumption can take different shapes. Truth has been characterized as itself ajudgment, as a property of an assertion or judgment, as a relation obtaining be­ tween a judgment and a reality, or even as the confirmation or con­ firmability of such a relation . Truth has also been conceived as the com­ ple te agreement (identity) be tween something meant by a judgment and some state of affairs that is gi ven or presents itself as such . The com­ mon bond of these diverse ways of construing truth is the assumption that truth is to be understood primarily in terms of assertions and in view of the presence of what is asserted. There may be more than one logical prejudice , but in the following study the expression 'logical prej­ udice ' refers to the thesis, as Heidegger puts it, "that the genuine 'lo­ cus' of truth is the judgment" (SZ 226 ) . During the years prior to the completion of Being and Time, Heideg­ ger was preoccupied with the task of exposing and undermining the logical prejudice. This preoccupation is particularly evident in the Mar­ burg lectures, especially those of the summer semester of 1 9 2 5, pub­ lished as Prolegomena to the History of the Concept of Time, and the follow­ ing winter semester of 1925/26, published as Logic: The Question of Truth. His reasons for undertaking a critique of the logical prej udice are not difficult to discern. Heidegger can agree with proponents of the logical prejudice that truth is, if anything, itself a way of speaking and thinking and, indeed, the very way of speaking and thinking that pre­ sumably speaks and thinks what is. A conception of truth is, in other words, a way of speaking and thinking about speaking and thinking, about what they are, including both what it means for them to be "about" something and what they are about. In short, a conception of truth is essen tially reflexive and ontological . In order to mount any­ thing approaching an adequate analysis of truth , the analysis must gi ve an account of itself and the sense of being that it presupposes. In the case of the logical prej udice , however, the reflexivity remains largely unreflected and the significance of 'being' is, if not preon to­ logical , then typically the offspring of an on to logy that is insufficiently fundamental . As a result, presumptive restric tions on the proper uses of ' true ' have counterparts in similar strictures placed on the proper uses of ' exists' and its cognates. ' True ' is restricted to use as a predicate of certain propositions, and truth is equated with propositional truth , on the assumption ( or, equi valen tly, as an indication ) of the presence or onhandness (Anwesenheit or Vorhandenheit) of the states of affairs cor­ res po n d in g to those propositions. In this way the logical prejurlire is tra-

XVlll

IN T R O D U C T I O N

ditionally linked to the iden tification of the significance of 'being' with presence . This iden tification takes a variety of forms, from the crass equation of 'being' with 'what is now on hand and available ' to the more imaginative supposi tion that ' being' is an abbreviation for being presently present (a slice of space-time or merely a logically idealized equivalent of it) and thus potentially, if not actually, present to someone. In Heidegger's view, the obtuseness of this identification is symptomatic of the ontological obliviousness ( Seinsvergessenheit) at the heart of West­ ern philosophy, its loss of itself, its true poten tial and its vocation. De monstrating that the logical prejudice is not the last word on truth is necessary in order to recover the question and the sense of being. The main objective of the following study is to elaborate Heidegger's early conception of truth (formulated in the Marburg lectures and in Being and Time) as it proceeds from his critique of a particular history of the logical prejudice. Heidegger argues that the disclosedness of be­ ing-here (Da-sein) or, more precisely, the disclosure of the timelin ess of being-here , is a truth more fundamental than any propositional truth . In this way he aims to outflank what he sees as the hallmarks of tradi­ tional alethiology and ontology, the companion conceptions of truth as a proposi tion 's property and being as an entity's presence or onhand­ ness. While the maneuver meets with some success, I argue that the de­ gree of success depends upon a tacit but unexplained complementar­ ity between truth as disclosedness and propositional truth (between ontological and on tic determin ations of truth ) . In other words, even in the exposure of the logical prejudice, the latter remains in some sense a prejuge legitime. Following a sketch of the sense and scope of the logical prejudice, Chapter 1 begi ns wi th Heidegger's assessment of i ts place in the debate ove r psychologism around the turn of the cen tury. While many philoso­ phers of logic were confident that psychologism had been refuted, Hei­ degger has his doubts, not least because the purported refutation is, in his eyes, largely an expression of the logical prej udice . In order to ex­ pose the roots of this confidence, he directs his students ' attention to the writings of He rmann Lotze . In particular, Heidegger sketches how Lotze 's characterization of "true judgments" as the on tological sense of truth 's "actuality" cemented the logical prejudice in the minds of an en­ tire generation. In Heidegger's view, however, the re is a pivotal exception to this gen­ eral trend among Lotze's successors: Edmun d Husser!. "It hardly needs to be admitted," Heidegger not�s in the summer of 1925. " that, oppo-

I N T R O D UCT I O N

XIX

site Husserl , even today I still consider myself a novice.'' Chapter 2 takes up the question of the significance ofHusserl 's logical investigations for Heidegger's critical engagement with the logical prejudice. Together, the lectures given by Heidegger in the summer semesters of 19 2 3 and 1 9 2 5 contain his most comprehensive treatment of Husserlian phe­ nomenology. Largely on the basis of these lectures , the chapter details Heidegger's account of "the three decisive discoveries of Husserlian phenomenology" and the breakthrough that they represent toward a sense of truth presupposed by propositional truth and a sense of being ( Sein) presupposed by but not reducible to an entity, entities , or even the general character of enti ties as such ( Seiendes, Seiendheit) . Heideg­ ger nonetheless faults Husser} for not appreciating the full import of his discoveries, as evidenced by his failure to elaborate what it means for intentionality to "exist. " Heidegger traces this failure, at least in part, to the fact that Husserl supposedly remains caught up in the logical prej udice. But Heidegger also shows his hand by suggesting that the ul­ timate reason for Husserl 's continued commitment to the logical prej­ udice 's ontological presuppositions is a fear or anxiety in the face of be­ ing-here itself. The force of some of Heidegger's criticisms is substantially mitigated, as Chapter 2 also recounts, by the fact that they are directed at a stage of intentional analysis that Husser} had long since gone beyond by the summer of 19 25 when Heidegger is reci ting those cri ticisms to his stu­ dents. Heidegger's silence on this development is significant, since he w as plainly aware of it and since i t anticipates his existential analysis in certain essential respects. For example, in Husserl 's investigations of the temporal constitution of intentionality, he breaks with the act-object schema of his earlier analyses and, in the process, with the senses of being and truth implied by that schema, senses that Heidegger lin ks to the logical prejudice and makes the object of criticism . By way of con­ clusion , Chapter 2 attempts to give some reasons both for Heidegger's silence on Husserl 's later development and for the divergence in the paths that they chart for pheno1nenology. Long before and long after Lotze and Husserl, defenders as well as critics of psychologism cite the authority of Aristotle as the thinker who originally recognized that truth must take the form ofjudgments or as­ sertions. One of Heidegger's aims i n the winter semester of 19 25/ 2 6 was to show how mistaken this in terpetation of Aristotle is. According to Heidegger, Aristotle's complex views on the subj ect of truth , even more so than those of Husserl, point to th e phenomenon of disclosedness as

XX

I N TRO D U CTION

a truth that is more basic than any propositional tru th . As a means of making this point, Heidegger makes a startling connection be tween what he calls "hermeneutic and apophantic 'as '-structures of under­ stan ding" and Aristotle 's treatment of truth in Metaphysics, Theta 1 o. Chapter 3 attempts to demonstrate that connection , as provocative as it is precarious. In Metaphysics, Theta 1 o, Aristotle gives an account of how utterly simple, uncombined en tities ( asyntheta) are grasped in a way that, as Heidegger puts it, never conceals but only uncovers. The way in which asyntheta are uncovered is, in Heidegger's mind, instruc­ tively analogous to the manner in which the senses of being disclose themselves in the existen tial-hermeneutic '"as' -structure" of a "pri­ mary" understanding, that is, in being-here itself. In his early lec tures Heidegger provides detailed co1nmen taries on Lotze 's, Husserl's, and Aristotle 's analyses of truth . The commen taries are part of a strategy of exposing th e roots of th e logical prejudice as well as the ways in which those analyses poin t past the logical prejudice in the direction of his own accottn t of truth. The aim of the first th ree chapters of the following work is accordingly to examine Heidegger's h istorical reading of these eminent predecessors. By con trast, Chapter 4 reconstructs the argument for the so-called existential truth : th e orig­ inal disclosure of the senses of being in being-here . This truth , as it is presented in th e course of the existen tial analysis of Being and Time, is the disclosure of time as the sense of being-here. The argument here is broken down into five steps. Th e first three steps correspond to the three structures that constitute the specific way in which we exist an d disclose ourselves as being-in-the-world, namely, at work procuring th ings (Besorgen) , worrying about each other ( Fiir­ sorge) , and taking care of ourselves ( Sorge) . Since the crowd and public opinion - the anonymous world to which we are prone to relinquish re­ sponsibility for our way of being-here, that is, caring - regards these structures as sotnething handy or on hand, a fourth step is required to recover what it means to be-here genuinely. The fourth step demon­ strates that a certain timeliness constitutes the sense of being-here pre­ cisely as the si te of the disclosure of the senses of be ing. Sin ce , however, time can also be viewed as merely on hand, a final step becomes im­ perative: a determination of the original mean ing of ' timeli ness, ' namely, insofar as it constitutes th e sense of existence . In addition to the analysis of timeliness in Being and Time, Heidegger's lectures in 1927 at M a r b u rg , publish e d as Fundamental Problems of Phenomenology, are an important sourc� of this part of the investigation .

I N T R O DUCTI ON

XXI

Among the more influential criticisms of Heidegger's arguments against the logical prejudice and for h is account of truth as a primitive disclosedness is that advanced by Ernst Tugendhat. According to Tu­ gendhat, the primary significance of ' truth ' consists in indicating that something is being uncovered or asserted precisely as it is. This signifi­ cance , he charges , is lost when the term is expanded, as it is by Hei­ degger, to encompass the mere display of things and not, more restric­ tively, the display of th em as they are . Using Tuge ndhat's influential cri ticisms as a springboard, Chap ter 5 focuses on proble1ns besetting Heidegger's account of truth . Tugendhat's specific criticisms miss the mark, I contend, but they poin t to a dilemma in Heidegger's concep­ tion of fundamental ontology. His investigation of the senses of truth , being, and timeliness, styling itself as a scie nce, proves incompatible with the senses that he manages to re trieve . One migh t well contend that this difficulty is reason enough for Hei­ degger to abandon, as he does, a conception of philosophy as "tran­ scendental phenomenology. " As contended in the final chapter, how­ ever, the problems that beset his philosophical quest ( i. e . , the problem of objectifying the themes of truth, being, and time) survive his aban­ donment of the scien tific approach of Being and Time. Fully cognizant of these problems, Heidegger contends , both before and after this turn in his thinki n g, that the way to meet them ''at least in a relative way" is to understand philosophical concepts as "formal i ndications." The fi­ nal chapter addresses how, in this connection, Heidegger's method, while ending up quite self-consciously in the neighborhood of poe try and theology, remains dependent upon the presence of its theme . One patent indication of this dependency is the fact that Heidegger invokes propositional truths as part of the self-conscious, philosophical retrieval of truth as disclosedness. As a result, the problem of mediating these two senses of ' truth ' takes center stage (much as does the problem of mediating on tic and ontological considerations or, al ternatively, what it means to be "within-tiine" and what it means to be "timely" ) . In con­ clusion I argue that the problems of thematization and mediation need not have the effect of negating Heidegger's analyses, but that these problems do demonstrate just how urgently and in what sense his analy­ ses need to be supplemen ted. Heidegger, following Husserl , does not reserve the term 'sense ' ( Sinn) for linguistic usage. Unlike H usserl ( in 1 9 1 3 ) , he also em ploys the te rm 'meaning' in a way that is broader than any linguistic sense or expression . These uses of 'sense ' and 'meaning' p r e sen t a stumhling

xxii

I N T RODU C T I O N

block for anyone who insists on restricting the application o f these terms to signs, words, and complexes of them. As discussed in Chapters 3 and 5, Heidegger is willing to indulge and even exploit ordinary uses of these terms (particularly insofar as they nominalize corresponding verbs with sometimes foreboding or purposive connotations, as in the Wallace Stevens line "Crispin . . . sensed an elemental fate" or "they were meant for each other" ) . Yet, however the terms are used, it is necessary to respect the distinction between use and mention. To this end refer­ ence to a word or expression is always indicated by single quotation marks in the present study; double quotation marks are reserved chiefly for directly quoted words or sentences, as exemplified in this para­ graph . Accordingly, the sense of being is one thing, the significance of 'being' quite another. For years my students have heard me preach the necessity of writing and rewriting, with the plea that we generally do not know what we mean until we hear what we say. A fi rst version of this book appeared in German in 1 994 under the title Das logische Vorurteil: Untersuchungen zur Wahrheitstheorie des frilhen Heidegger. People often asked: "Why did you write the book in German , given the wider audience in English? " My standard answer was that it was easier to write in German, give n Hei­ degger's nomenclature. Being presented with the opportunity to trans­ late what I wrote in German into English has been a truly humbl ing ex­ perience, revealing to me how little I understood in either language. The supposed greater ease of writing on Heidegger in German was, more often than not, a way of avoiding hard interpretive decisions. But Heidegger's jargon can be a trap in translation no less than in German. For this reason, no German term, whether Heidegger's or my own , is left un translated . When a te rm that serves a systematic function is in­ troduced, the Ge rman original is cited along with the translated term and an explanation for the translation . In keeping with this attempt to avoid substituting terminological consistency or orthodoxy for critical examination and understanding, all quotations from Heidegger are also translated, even in the footn otes . Pursuit of this policy is obviously treacherous for reasons familiar to studen ts of Heidegger's though t. In the 192 0s he insisted on distin­ guishing entities from their manners of being ( though he would later acknowledge certain pitfalls associated with that insistence) . Few would dispute the difference between considering what sort of thing an entity is or what relations it has to other entities and co nsidering whethe r it exist�. Heidegger's insistence on the distinction bet\veen entities and

INTRODUCTION

XX Ill

their manners of being is intended not to reassert this obvious distinc­ tion but to raise the question of what it means for something to exist. According to Heidegger, failure to maintain the distinction in such a way that this question is raised is symptomatic of Western thinking or, more precisely, what he calls "being's forgotten ness" ( Seinsvergessenheit) in the West. This obliviousness to being is supposedly evidenced by the way in which Western thinkers repeatedly collapse a consideration of being itself, that is , ontology, into metaphysics, that is, an ontic science of entities and the relations, typically causal relations, among them. In large measure as a means of avoiding the collapse of this distinction and re trieving the question of the sense of being from oblivion, Heidegger develops a distinctive te rminology in his pursuit of a "fundamental on­ tology. " This terminology contains some neologisms rooted in the or­ dinary uses of certain terms, for example , ' al readiness ' (Gewesenheit) or ' prese nting' (Gegenwiirtigen). More often, however, Heidegger takes or­ dinary expressions - for example , 'palaver' (Gerede) or ' on hand' and twists and turns them until their generally over­ ( vorhanden) looked. ontological significance cries out in pain. Such is Heidegger's way with words. The challenge facing any translation of Heidegger's terminology is to convey the ontological significance that he assigns his terms, without losing sight of the roots in ordinary (ontic) usage on which he also re­ lies. There is no more formidable instance of this challenge than the term that Heidegger employs to designate the manner of being that is the object of his investigation in Being and Time and his Marburg le c­ tures: 'Da-sein, ' 'Existenz. 'In the first half of the eighteenth century, 'Da­ sein ' was in troduced by Wolff and Gottsched in to Ge rman philosophi­ cal nomenclature as a replacement for the Latin derivative , 'Existenz. ' Heidegger i n fact employs ' existence ' and 'being-in-the-world' as equivalents to 'Dasein, ' though not synonyms for it. In other words, 'Da­ sein, ' 'Existenz, and 'In-der-Welt-sein ' each say some thing different, but they all say it of the same entities. Further complicating matters is the fact that 'Dasein 'strategically does double duty in Heidegger's analysis, standing not only for a distinctive , inde ed, exemplary manner of being, but also for the sort of entity that enjoys that manner of being. For German as well as English readers, however, what creates special problems for understanding Heidegger's use of the term is his ex­ ploitation of its compound character, that is, the combination of 'da ' and 'sein. ' 'Da 'has a wide array of uses in German , ranging from uses as an arlverh of place or time to uses as an adverbial and even causal con-

'

XXIV

INTRODUCTION

junction. Heidegger also cites Humboldt's observation of pronomial uses of the term ( SZ 1 I f; P 3 4 2 ff; these and other abbreviations are ex­ plained below) . Given the two ways in which 'da ' is used adverbially, 'Da­ sein ' might be construed as the original manner of being of time-space. The most protninent adverbial use of 'da, ' however, is to indicate a place, a sense exploited by Heidegger as he attempts to demonstrate that the very sense of this manner of being is to be "outside itself" or "ecstatic. " But in this respect, too, matters are complicated by the fact that 'da ' can signify equivalents of both ' here ' and ' there. ' Thus, ' here and there ' can be a translation of both 'hier und da ' and 'da und dort' in Ge rman . Heidegger makes it clear, however, that, while 'da ' poin ts to what is signified by ' here ' and ' there , ' th e proper synonytn for 'da'in the term 'Dasein' is ' disclosedness. ' Moreove r, on at least rnro occasions he ob­ serves that a here and a there are only possible on the basis of this dis­ closedness ( SZ 1 3 2 ; P 3 42ff) . But since ' disclosedness' is a translation of another systematic term in Heidegger's nomenclature , namely, 'Er­ schlossenheit, ' it is necessary to find some other term. One possibility is ' openness ' ( the suggestion comes from Thomas Sheehan , via William Richardson ) . This translation has the advantages of being similar to ' disclosedness' and retaining some sense of spatiality conveyed by some uses of 'da. 'Yet it also has the disadvantage of forfeiting the direct, or­ dinary significance of 'da, ' even as it ambiguously straddles the signifi­ cance of ' here ' and ' there. ' In o ther words , use of 'openness' runs the risk of overcorrecting Heidegger's own choice of terms. Two other possibilities presen t themselves: 'being-there ' and ' being­ here . ' Both expressions have the disadvan tage of suggesting senses of ' there ' and 'here ' that are supposed to be derivative of the disclosed­ ness of 'Dasein.' Yet they also have the virtue of preserving the con tinu­ ity ( between on tological and antic senses) that makes that derivative­ ness possible . That is to say, with the proper qualifications, each translation migh t convey the fundamen tally ecstatic sense of 'Dasein ' as being 'always already outside-itself' or being-in-the-world. Of these two possibilities, howe�ver, "being-there" has the distinct disadvan tage of in­ troducing a distance where there is none or, at least, at such a remove frotn us that we might be impartial or even indifferent toward it. In other words, ' there ' in English (like 'yonder' or the German 'dort') fre­ quently denotes the very opposite of what is o �ten signified by 'da. ' "Here is your book,'' for example, b es t translates the remark "Da ist dein Buch," made wh il e handing son1eone her book. In many parts of Ger-

INTRODUCTION

XXV

many, not least in parts where Aleman nic, Swabian , and Bavarian di­ alects are spoken, it is common to announce one 's arrival by saying, HDa bin ich ," signifying "Here I am ." These colloquial uses of 'da ' and 'sein ' suggest a nearness that is lost if 'Da-sein' is translated ' there-being' or 'being-there . ' More importantly, translating 'Dasein ' as ' being-there ' runs the risk of rendering the theme something that need not be a mat­ ter of intimate , pressing concern , or in other words something that we do not necessarily care about. While there is clearly no perfectly adequate English translation for 'Dasein, 'as Heidegger uses the term , bo th 'openness ' and 'being-here ' appear to be suitable translations. Because 'being-here' is a more straightforward translation and conveys senses of the German expres­ sion that are not re tained by ' being-open ' or ' openness, ' I have opted to em ploy it as the translation for 'Dasein ' in the following study. Nonetheless, i t deserves iterating that disclosedness remains the pri­ mary significance of the term for Heidegger. To be-here is to disclose and to disclose is to be-here . Various manners of bei ng disclose them­ selves prereflectively to us in theory and practice and in all the myriad behaviors that make a mockery of the distinction , from looking in a m i­ croscope to driving a car, from arguing to praying. According to Hei­ degger, this disclosure "defines" human existence more basically than does any set of se nsory, ki nesthetic, and imaginative capaci ties, any combination of motor skills and powers of concentration , com puta­ tion, or inference , as well as any sublim inal urges to survive, propagate , or dominate . By ' define' here, I do not mean the sortal process of lo­ cating a specific difference wi thin sotne genus. Such a process presup­ poses the givenness of things ( the manners of being of entities) and the issue for Heidegger is precisely not to take the meaning of that ' given­ ness' for gran ted. By 'define' I mean an articulation of what is equiva­ lent to existence itself. In other words, whatever else might be said of a human being ( including the animality that traditionally constitutes the 1

1 The following two quotations p rovide fa mous examples of uses o f 'da' in which the most likely Engl ish equivalent is 'here, ' not 'there .' Goethe, Fau.\t, ninth edition ( Munich: Bec k , 1 9 7 � ) , 20: '"Da stehe i ch n u n. ich anner Thor I U nd bin so klug wie zuvor." Betti ne von Arnitn, vVi>rke und Briefe, ed. Gusta\' Konrad (Darmstadt: Wissensch aftliche Buchge­ sellsch aft, 1959) , vol . 2, p. 131: .. U n d wenn ich [Goethe] jetzt i ns Theate r kon1me und schaue nac h seinem [ Schi llers] Plat! und muB es glaube n , daB er in dieser Wel t nicht m ehr da ist, daB d iese Augen rnich nicht mehr �uchen, dann verd rieBt rnich das Lebe n , und i c h nH)chte Iie ber nicht 1nehr d a sein ."Accordi ng t o Tr ii bne r, 'Dasfin 'o riginally sig­ nifit:"d concretely, physi cally 'bPing-hn-e, j>rP.�enrP, prP!>Pnt' ( l-Iiersein, Anwesenheit, Gegcn­ wart); cf. Triibnn-\ J)putschPs �Vortprhurh, vul. �(Berlin: de (�ru yter. 1910). �H.

xxvi

I N T R O D UCTION

genus for humans) , it must be said of this disclosed ness. "To be-here" is to disclose pre reflectively to oneself what i t means - for oneself and others, for things handy and on hand - to be. This disclosure is not "on e 's doing" in any ordinary sense of the word and, though our vari­ ous projects and projections play a role in the disclosure , it is also not something that we direct. Moreover, contrary to the logical prejudice, it is also not a matter of human j udgment. A list of abbreviations for the principal texts used follows this intro­ duction. References are given parenthetically in the text and by means of footnotes. Occasionally a phrase or word may be quoted but not di­ rectly followed by a reference. In such cases, the source of the quota­ tion is given in the very next parenthetical reference or foo tnote in the same paragraph in which the quoted phrase or word occurs. Unless oth­ erwise indicated, all numerals following works cited in the text and the footnotes refer to page numbers. If a text is quoted, followed by more than one page number, the first number cited is always the source of the text, followed by other page numbers (in order of appearance ) that refer to pages containing similar or relevant information . If no text is quoted but a list of numbers is cited, the order of numbers corresponds to the relevant pages in order of importance.

ABBREV IAT IONS

A ApS

AT B BZ BzP CM DR EpF

F

FS FTL

Immanuel Kant. Kritik der reinen Vernunft. First Edition ( 1 7 8 1 ) . Edited by Raymund Schmidt. Hamburg: Meiner, 1 97 1 . Edmund Husserl. Analysen zur passiven Synthesis aus Vorlesungs­ und Forschungsmanuskripten (1918-1926). Edited by Margot Fleischer. Hague: Nijhoff, 1 966. Rene Descartes. O Euvres de Descartes. Edited by C. Adam and P. Tannery. Revised edition . Paris: Vrin/C. N. R. S., 1 964-76. Immanuel Kant. Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Second edition ( 1 7 87) . Edited by Raymund Schmidt. Hamburg: Meiner, 1 97 1 . Martin Heidegger. Begriff der Zeit. Edited by Hartmut Tiegen. Tubingen : Niemeyer, 1 989. Martin Heidegger. Beitriige zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis). Edited by Friedrich-Wilhehn von Herrmann . GA 65 ( 1 g8g) . Edmund Husserl. Cartesianische Meditationen und Pariser Vortriige. Edi ted by Stephen Strasser. Hague : Nijhoff, 1 950. Edmund Husserl. Ding und Raum. Edited by Karl-Heinz Hah­ nengress and Smail Rapic. Hamburg: Meiner, 1 99 1 . Martin Heidegger. Einfiihrung in die phiinomenologische For­ schung. Edited by Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrman n . GA 1 7 ( 1 994) . Margot Fleischer. Die Zeitanalysen in Heideggers 'Sein und Zeit ': Aporien, Probleme und ein Ausblick. Wiirzburg: Konigshausen & Neumann , 1 99 1 . Friih e Schriften. Edited by Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann . GA 1 ( 1 978) . Edmund Husser]. Formate und transzendentale Logik. Edited by Pauljanssen. Hague: Nijhoff, 1 97 4 .

XXVII

XXVlll

GA

GM GP HP Id I

Id II

KPM

L Lotze LU I

LU II/ 1

LU ll/ 2

MAL

N 0

ABBREVIATIONS

Martin Heidegger. Gesamtausgabe. Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, 1 9 75-. All references to this complete edition are followed by a number indicating the volume . Martin Heidegger. Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik. Edited by Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann . GA 2 9/30 ( 1 98 3 ) . Martin Heidegger. Grundprobleme der Phiinomenologie. Edited by Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann . GA 24 ( 1 975) . Mark Okrent. Heidegger's Pragmatism. I thaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1 98 8 . Edmund Husser!. Ideen z u einer reinen Phiinomenologie und phiinomenologischen Philosophie. Fourth edition. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1 980. Edmund Husserl . Ideen zu einer reinen Phiinomenologie und phiinomenologischen Philosophie. Zweites Buch: Phanome­ nologische Un tersuchungen zur Konstitution. Edited by Marly Biemel. Hague : Nijhoff, 1 952 . Martin Heidegge r. Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik. Fourth , expanded edition. Frankfurt am Main: Kloster­ mann , 1 973. Marti n Heidegger. Logik. Die Frage nach der Wahrheit. Edited by Walter Biemel. GA 2 1 ( 1 976 ) . Hermann Lotze . Logik. Edi ted by Georg Misch . Leipzig: Meiner, 1 9 1 2 . Edmund Husserl . Logische Untersuchungen, Erster Band.· Prolegomena zur reinen Logik. Fifth edition. Tiibingen: Niemeyer, 1 968. Edmund Husserl. Logische Untersuchungen, Zweiter Band, I. Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phiinomenologie und Theorie der Er­ kenntnis. Fifth edition. Tiibingen: Niemeyer, 1 968. Edmund Husserl . Logische Untersuchungen, Zweiter Band, II. Teil: Elemente einer phiinomenologischen Aufklarung der Er­ kenntnis. Fourth edition. Tiibingen : Niemeyer, 1 968. Martin Heidegger. Metaphysische A nfangsgriinde der Logik. Edi ted by Klaus Held. GA 2 6 ( 1990) . Martin Heidegger. Nietzsche. Two volumes. Fourth edition . Neske: Pfullingen, 1961. Martin H ei de gg er. Ontologie (Hermeneutik der Faktizitiit). Edited by Kate Brocker-Oltmanns. GA. 6 3 ( 1988 ) .

A BBREVI AT I O N S

p

PAA PasW PI

PIA

PIK

PRL

PS PTP

sz

T us vs vww w

Zb

XXIX

Martin Heidegger. Prolegomena zur Geschichte des Zeitbegriffs. Edited by Petra jaeger. GA 2 0 ( 1 979) . Martin Heidegger. Phiinomenologie der Anschauung und des Ausdrucks. Edited by Claudius Strube. GA 59 ( 1 99 3 ) . Edmund Husser!. "Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft. " Logos I ( 1 9 1 o-1 1 ) : 2 8 g-3 4 1 . Ludwig Wittgenstein. Philosophical Investigations. Trans­ lated by G. E . M. Anscombe. Third edition. New York: Macmillan, 1 968. Martin Heidegger. Phiinomeno logische lnte:rpretationen zu Aristoteles. Edited by Walter Brocker and Kate Brocker-Olt­ manns. GA6 1 ( 1 985) . Martin Heidegger. Phiinomenologische Interpretationen von Kants Kritik de:rreinen Ve:rnunft. Edited by Ingtraud Garland. Second edition. GA 2 5 ( 1 98 7 ) . Martin Heidegger. Phiinomenologie des religiosen Lebens. Edited by Matthias Jung, Thomas Regehly, and Claudius Strube . GA 6o ( 1 995) . Martin Heidegger. Platon: Sophist. Edited by Ingeborg SchiiBler. GA 1 9 ( 1 99 2 ) . Edmund Husser!. Psychological and Transcendental Phenome­ nology and the Confrontation with Heidegger ( 192 7- I 93 I). Edited and translated by Thomas Sheehan and Richard Palmer. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1 997. Martin Heidegger. Sein und Zeit. Twelfth edition . Tiibin­ gen: Niemeyer, 1 97 2 . Ernst Tugendhat. Der Wahrheitsbegriff bei Husser! und Hei­ degger. Second edition. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1 970. Marti n Heidegger. Unterwegs zur Sprache. Pfullingen: Neske , 1 959. Martin Heidegger. Vier Seminare. Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, 1 97 7 . Martin Heidegger. Vom Wesen der Wahrheit. Fourth edition . Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann , 1 96 1 . Martin Heidegger. Wegmarken. Second , expanded edition. Frankfurt am Main : Klostermann, 1 978 . Edmund Husserl . Zur Phiinomenologie des inne:ren Zeitbe­ wu]Jtseins. Edited by Rudolf Boehm. Hague: Nijhoff, t g66.

XXX

ZBP ZSD

ABB R EVIAT I O N S

Martin Heidegger. Zur Bestimmung der Philosophie. Edited by Bernd Heimbiichel. GA 56/ 57 ( 1 98 7 ) . Martin Heidegger. Zur Sache des Denkens. Second edi tion. Tiibingen: Niemeyer, 1 976.

References to Plato and Aristotle follow the standard convention of Stephanus and Bekker numbers respectively.

l

TH E LO G IC A L C ON C E P TION O F T R U T H : TH E L O G I C A L P R EJ U DIC E AND L O T Z E ' S C O N C E P T O F VA LIDITY

Logic is the only science that, strictly speaking, treats of truth . Heidegger, 1 9 2 5 1

Heidegger's philosophy is not at odds with logic , at least what is tradi­ tionally understood as formal logic . Though he has serious reservations regarding the discipline 's place in a university curriculum and ulti­ mately questions the range of its principles' validity, his inquiry into the meanings of 'being' does not violate logical principles that sustain any genuine communication . Nor would he concede that the truth al­ legedly revealed by his early phenomenological analyses is extralogical or even prelogical , so long as the logical domai n is understood broadly enough to include the original uses of 'logos ' and their contemporary equivalents. In certain respects, to be sure, this last observation may seem like little more than a clumsy sleight of hand. For if l ogic is any­ thing today, it is " the science of deduction" and "its most conspicuous purpose . . . th e justification and criticism of inference." 2 To study logic is to study implication , th e validity of a conditional relationship be­ tween two or more statements, and develop techniques for showing that such a relation obtains. Yet with this aspect of logic , too, Heidegger has no basic quarrel . But if the assumption is made that logic can be ade1 L 7 : "Streng ge nommen hande l t kei n e einzige Wi ssen sch aft auBer Lo g i k von der Wahrheit." See Gottlob F reg e , " Der Gedanke" ( 1 9 1 8 ) , in LogischP Un tersuchungen, ed. Gunther Patzi g, th i rd edition ( Gottinge n : Van den hoeck & Rup recht, 1 98 6 ) , 30. 2 Ri c h ard jeffrey, Formal /Jogir: Its Scope and L imits, s econ d editi on ( New Yo rk: M cG raw-H ill, 1 98 1 ) , 1 ; W. V . 0 . Qu i n e, Methods of l.ogir, fo u r t h edition (Cambridge , M ass . : H a rva rd l J n i v. Pn��l\, 1 !) H 2 ) , 1 5 ·

H F. I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

2

quately pursued in relative isolation from the ordinary or scientific con­ texts in which statements are made ( "irrespective of their subject mat­ ter" ) and, even more fundamen tally, from the question of the sense of the truth of such statemen ts, then Heidegger can fully agree with the spirit - though not the letter - of Emil Lask's claim that "it is necessary, of course, to come to a halt at something ultimate; but the logical is pre­ cisely not that ul timate something." � VVhile theories of truth and questions of the suitable uses of the pred­ icate ' true ' are not generally considered part of courses in "logic proper," they are often addressed under the rubric of ' tnetalogic' or ' philosophy of logic. ' However, as an extension of formal logic, meta­ logic is generally liinited to a consideration of the consistency, com­ pleteness, or decidability of systems of formal logic. As a result, these formal concerns dominate metalogical treatmen ts of truth . 4 By con­ trast, philosophy of logic does examine theories of truth and th e ques­ tion of truth-bearers as part of its focus on questions of the scope and aim of logic , the differences among formal systems, and their relations to informal arguments. 5 Philosophy of logic, so conceived, has affinities with what Heidegger in 1 92 5 understands by logic, though with the important difference that formal logic continues to set the stage for philosophy of logic much as science does for the philosophy of science . Thus, the philosopher of logic critically examines the meaning, parameters, and competi ng par­ adigms of a tnore or less established discipline. Within this con text the­ ories of truth also come up for consideration , but they are theories that generally take their bearings from the application of the predicate ' true ' to assertions, propositions, statements, sentences, or beliefs. By contrast, Heidegger's "logic" is a "philosophical logic, " the chief con­ cern of which is the meaning and possibility of truth , a forward-looking discipline that is " the prolegon1enon for all logic'' ( L 20) . As this last re­ mark indicates, Heidegger's use of the term ' logic' is somewhat elastic; like many of his contemporaries, he employs it at times to signify tradi3 Emil Lask, Die Logik dn- Philosaph if' und die KateKorien lehre: einP Studie iiher den Hrrn rhafts­ berPil h der logi!lchf'n Formen ( Tiibi nge n : Mohr, l �) l 1 ) , 2 5 ; M . Sch lick, "Das V\'e�en rler \tVah rheit nach der modernen L o gi k ( 19 1 0- 1 1 ) , Philosophische l�ogik ( Fran kfurt am Mai n : Suh rkamp, 1 g86) , 3 � r D a he r kan n auch eine Li n te rsuc hung tib e r das \1\ e s e n der vVahrh eit n i c h t auf re i n Iogischen1 Felde geftihrt werdcn . ., See also FS 405ff. 4 Bas C. van Fraassen , Formal Sema ntio a nd Logic ( � ew York: M.ac mi llan, 1 97 1 ) , 2 , 1 63-7 2 . 5 Sec Susan Haac k, Philosoph)' ol Lo!(its ( Cam bridge : C a m b r id ge u n iv. Press , 1 9R5) , I - I o , "

"

7 9- 1 34 .

'

THE

LOG ICA L

C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

3

tional logic ( including formal logic and mathematical logic) or tran­ scendental logic, and at other times he uses it as a synonym for his own self-styled "philosophical logic." In spite of this occasional ambiguity, his philosophical logic distinguishes itself in not taking formal logic and the possibility of the truth or falsity of premises and conclusions for granted. 6 Far from canceling the propriety of formal logic or even merely considering deviations from it, Heidegger's philosophical logic investigates what makes it possible and, for that very reason, is not fully circumscribed by i t. Heidegger's interest in logic, it bears noting, is neither superficial nor passing. His second academic publication, "Recent Research on Logic ," is a critical , albeit cursory survey of an array of studies by logi­ cians from Hey1nans and Meinong to Geyser and Russell. Though the 1 9 1 2 review is prefaced with an acknowledgmen t of "the persisting lack of an unequivocal , unanimous defini tion of logic," the young Heideg­ ger endorses the Fregean repudiation of psychologism. He also notes that the specific question of whether psychologism or transcendental­ ism is essentially grounded in Kant's philosophy has probably been de­ cided for the present in favor of the "transcendental-logic view repre­ sented by Hermann Cohen and his school as well as by Windelband and Rickert. " The importance of this development, Heidegger adds, is the fact that through i t "the distinctive value of the logical" was emphasized (FS 1 9 ) . More significantly, in this essay Heidegger gives some indica­ tion of his own early understanding of logic by defending the Husser­ Han conception of i t as a �'theory of theories, a doctri ne of science ," con­ cerned with "fundamen tal concepts ( categories) and the connections among them" but also with the logical structure of individual sciences and their place in a system of sciences. 7 Thirteen years later, remnants of this view of logic continue to be discernible in Heidegger's charac­ terization of phenomenology as "productive logic," an extension of " the process of the original logic" developed by Plato and Aristotle, the task of which is to disclose the manner of being of a particular domain be­ fore it is worked over by science ( P 2 £) . 6 FS 1 66f:

"Precisely because we wan t to find th e

access

to the judgmen t of lo gic, we cannot

take it as the point of departure." 7 FS 1 8 , 2 3 . In this c o n n n e c t i o n ( FS 2 3 n . g) He idegge r makes explicit m e n ti o n of the "valuable" works by Wundt, S igvv a r t and Lotze . I t is n o te wo r th y that, wh ile unwilling to count Ka n t am on� the psycholugi�ts, Hei degger also is not ready to joi n "the side of the ex treme Neo-Kan tians" ( FS � 2 ) ; see , too , the references to the "natural ization of con­ s c i ou�n e �s i n1 p l i c i t in psycho logi stic t h e o r i es ( FS 1 � ) . See abo FS 6�f. ,

"

4

H E I D EG G E R ' S C O N C EPT

OF TRUTH

In Heidegger's 1 9 1 4 dissertation ( "The Doctrine ofjudgment in Psy­ chologism") he makes what he calls "a critical-positive contribution to logic" by exatnining four theories of judgment in order to show that, while each is representative of a different sort of psychologism , all are inapplicable to logic, not simply because they m isrepresent this "prim­ itive element of logic,'' but because they uniformly fail to recogn ize "the distinctive reality of the logical object" ( FS 64f, 1 6of) . For Heidegger that distinctive reality can be gathered from the identity of an iterated judgment or, equivalen tly, the sense of a sentence that is true or false of some object. What makes logic more th an "a merely technical disci­ pl ine" and distinguishes judgments, logically considered, from any psy­ chological activity of judging is a judgment's capacity to be true or ob­ tain (gelten) for some object. 8 "A psychological activi ty can never be true or false; it exists or not like the 'flowing' of electrical current, that lies outside the either/ or of ' true and false "' ( FS 1 7 5 ) . Pervading the dis­ sertation is accordingly a con ception of "pure logic," a discipline that must take care of itself, establishing the objectivity of its subj ect matter both for itself and for every other science. 9 While holding fast to the distinction between the psychological re­ ality and the validating content of a judgment, Heidegger acknowl­ edges in the dissertation that he is shelving the question of how to char­ acterize the relation between these spheres and, indeed, "whether in this question a profounder solution can be aimed for." 1 0 Yet logical is­ sues con tinue to dominate his thinking, so much so that, in his Cur­ riculum Vitae of 1 9 1 5 , he declares logic "the philosophical discipline that still in terests me most. " 1 1 From his lecture "The Concept of Time in the Science of History" of the same year, it is clear that he con tinues to consider logic "a doctrine of science" and categories i ts "ultimate ba­ sic elements" ( FS 4 1 6£) . H eidegger does not himself use the term ' tran8 FS 1 7 2 ff; the cotn plexity of the p h e n o m e no n of the oqject ive refere n tiality ofj udg1nen b

wo u l d be the place , H e i de g ge r adds i n a fo o t n o t e to criticiLe the d o c t ri n e o tj u d g rn e n t ,

of mathemati cal l o gi c , n o tably, th e "lo gisti c'' of B . Russe l l ; see FS 1 7 4

9 As h e attest') hin1seJf

( FS 20 5 n . 1 o) ,

ers ( e.g. , Lot7e , Hu sse rl ) wh o

co n tr

n.

8.

H e idegge r's use o f ' p u r e l o g i c ' m i Jn i cs �e,·e ral wri t­

a s t it \vith ' appl ied logic . ' Heidegger add� th a t he is

not engagi n g " the i n te re � t i n g and profound i n\·es tiga t i o n s that h ave arisen o n th e bas i�

of tran�cendental ph ilosophy, ''

n

a m e l y , those by Ri c kert and Lask ( FS 1 7() n. g ) . In t h i �

self-i rn posed l i m i ta ti o n l i e s pe rh a p s part of t h e reaso n why he refrai ns fro m ta lk i n g

plici tly of transce n d e n tal logic i n h i s d i �se rtati on .

ex­

FS 1 7 6 ; see , to o , the r e fe r e n c e to "the true preli rn inal}' wo.rk fo r logic" at FS 1 H6. 1 1 Th o ma� S h ee h an , " H ei d egger\ Leh tjahrt> , " ThP Collegium Phaenommologicum: ThP Fint Ynn.s , ed . J. �al i i � , G. �I o u e ta , d. l l d J. Ta rn i n i a u x ( Do ni rer h t : Kl u w� r, 1 nHH ) , 1 J f)f. 1o

THE

L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I ON OF

TRUTH

5

scendental logic' to designate what he means by 'logic, ' but the issues subsumed by him under 'logic' - specifying the distinctive "reality" and "value" of logic, determining the categories, and elaborating the rela­ tion of an obj ectively logical sphere to a j udging subj ect - make it clear that his understanding of logic is closer to what h is contemporaries were dubbing "transcendental logic'' than to anything else on the hori­ zon of academic philosophy at the time. 1 2 That Heidegger has the issues of transcendental logic in his sights, even if not by natne , is partictllarly evident in h is habilitation on Duns Scotus the following year, which he h imself describes as an attetnpt "to bring about a deeper understanding of medieval-scholastic thinking with respect to the problem of categories and logic in general'' (FS 41 2 ) . A theory of categories, the most general ways in which obj ects are de­ termined, is described by Heidegger as a ''particularly intensive preoc­ cupation of modern logic," spawned by the work of Windelband and von Hartmann . 1 3 Sorting out possible domains of what can be though t or experienced, according each domain its specific "logical place'' and value, is a basic requiretnent of such a theory (FS 2 1 off, 400) . Among the paramount categorial differences, for example, is the difference be­ tween a true j udgment's manner of being and that of what it is true of (or the difference between it and the words in which it is expressed ) . A theory of categories thus serves a purpose loosely akin to those of Aris-

1 2 H . Rickert, "Zwei Wege der Erkenn tn istheorie," Kant-Studien 1 4 ( 1 gog) : 2 0 1 : ·'u n sere Frage nach dem vom Denkakte U n ab h a n gi ge n hat also zu Iauten: Was ist das Si nn i n seiner Einheit, d e n wir an e i n e m wahren Satze verste hen? Weil wir dabei von d e m psy­ chischen Akte vol lig absehen u nd uns auf den logischen Wahrheitsgehalt beschranken miissen , n e n n en wir diese Fragestellung im Gegensatz zur transscenden talpsychologi­

schen die transscendentallogisrhe . Sie fii h rt in eine ' reine' Logi k hinein, die es dan n nur mit dem transsce ndente n u nd nicht m i t dem im man e n ten Sinn zu tun hat, wie die Transscende ntalpsyc hologie . '' On H usse rl 's early use of the term ' transcendental logic , '

see Einleitung i n die l.,ogik und })rkenntnistheoriR, Husse rl ian a � 4 , ed . U . Melle (Dordrecht:

Nijhoff, 1 984) , 1 1 1 f; see also Las k , Die Logik der Philosophie, 2 8 , 30, 42 ; Die Lehre vom Urteil (T ii bin gen : Mohr, 1 9 1 2 ) , 1 3 6 , 1 4of; see Steve n Gal t Crowell , "Emil Las k: Alethiology as

Ontology," Kant-Studien 87 ( 1 996) : 7off; Crowell, "H usse r} , Lask, an d the Idea of a Tran­ sce ndental Logic," in

llusserl and thP Phenomenologiral Tradition, e d . R. Sokolowski (Wash­

ington , D . C. : Catholic U n iv. of America Press , t g8 8 ) , 69; Crowel l , "Lask, Heidegger, and

Journal of the British Society of Phenomenology 23 ( 1 99 2 ) : 2 2 2-2 39· 1 3 FS 2 o 2 , 403 ; cf. E . von Hartm a n n , KatPgorimlehre ( Leip z i g : Haacke , 1 896) and W. Wi nde l b a n d , Vom S)'.� tem der Ka tpgo rien (Tiibinge n : M o h r, 1 goo) . For a val u able exami­ the H ome lessness of Logi c,"

nation of He idegge r's a d o p t i o n of Las k 's c o nc e pt i o n of fo rm , see Steven Gal t Crowell,

" M aking Logic P h i l oso ph ical Ag ai n , " i n

RPad1ng Heideggprjrom the Start, ed. T. Kisiel and

J . va n Bure n ( A l ha ny: SUNY Prc�s . 1 99 4 ) . 5 ,� -7 2 . ��r- G � .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

6

totelian and Kan tian categories inasmuch as the former are supposed to determine what kinds of things there are and the latter what can be expe rienced. Yet these traditional lists of categories draw on a specific domain of beings or objects for their determinacy and validity and, be­ cause of that, they are insufficiently formal ( FS 2 1 1 , 263 , 2 8 7£) . In ad­ dition to its clear recognition of the irreducibility of logical reality to psychological facts ( FS 2 7 1 -2 7 9 , 2 84-2 8 8 ) , Scotus 's logical theory is said to have the virtue of appreciating the utte r universality of logical categories, their applicability to sensory, supersensory, and nonsensory realms ( the reahns of natural sciences, tnetaphysics, and mathematics) 1 4 Paradigmatic among logical categories are as well as to themselves. the transcendentals, beginning with "being," the "category of cate­ gories" that indicates a "logically-theoretical value," namely, that of objectivity, and thus signifies "the condition of the possibility of knowledge of an object at all . '' 1 5 I n Scotus 's appreciation of the universality of certain logical cate­ gories, particularly in his account of truth as a transcendental, Heideg­ ger also finds a clear anticipation of the subjective and reflexive turn on which transcendental logicians insist. For example, Scotus 's c haracteri­ zation of "being'' as the maximally knowable ( "maxime sci bile") and his claim that "the true'' is not something prior to the act of understanding mee t in advance the demand to take the 'judging subject" into account without confounding the con tent of what is judged truthfully with the passing reality of the subject ( FS 2 7 of, 2 7 5 , 2 8 5 , 402 ) . His rejection of an infinite regress of knowingjudgments is interpreted by Heidegger as having its basis in an act remarkably akin to what Husserl describes as a 1 4 In the habilitation, Heidegger i n ve s t iga te s Scotus's theory of categori es only t o the ex­

tent necessary to be able to determ i ne the pa rticu lar dom ain of m ean i ngs in his doc­ tri ne. But He i de gge r al so 1 nak e s a mo re fundamental qualification, based upon his rejection of attempts to determine categories in abs trac tion from ex p e r ie n ce of the mate ria l formed by th e m . Ado p ting Lask's co n ce p tion of categories as form s in t ri n s i cally oriented to particular mate rial ordered by them , H e i d e gge r e m p h a 5iLes the n ec­ essarily nondeductive, ostensive, and open-ended character of suc h an undertaking. From t his st a nd p oi n t , the very generality of Scotus's theory ( elaborated without the ben­ efit of the v a ri o u s newly de ve l o p ed sc iences) is at odds wi th the demand., of a m o d e r n theory of categories. Nevertheless, Heidegger defends ta k i n g S cotu s ' s gene ra l refl ec­ ti o n s as his poi n t of d e p arture with the observation that ge n e ral refl ectio n s are n eces­ sary if j ustice is to be d o n e to one's own way of p roce e d i ng M o reove r, despi te th e ad­ vances of transcendental p h i l o s o p h y con tempo rary theory of science h as n o t m oved beyond p ro b l e n1s at s u ch a gen�ral level ( FS 2 oof, 2 1 2 ff, 2 7 4f) . FS 2 1 5 ; nor doe� th e a na l ys is sto p at this po int, s i n ce the m e a n i n g of ' being' can be u n­ pac ked i n tenns o f other transce n d e n tals ( t he p redicates unu m, verum, and bonu m, wh ic h are convt> rtiblt> wi th it) . St>e PS 1 � � rr fo r I -I c i dcgge r's ren1 arks on agathon. "

"

­

"

"

.

,

1 .�

TH E L O G I C A L C O N C E PTI ON O F T R U T H

7

categorial intui tion (FS 2 7 3 ; see 2 . I 2 below) . Finally, for Scotus, as for most scholastic logicians, logical theory is essentially reflexive since its subject matter is composed of "second intentions." According to Scotus, anything that is entertained can be made an object of logical consider­ ation insofar as consideration shifts from what is initially entertained ( ''first intentions" ) to the way i t is entertained and the entertaining it­ self ( "second intentions") . Heidegger construes Scotus as introducing in th is way "the absolute hegemony of logical sense," anticipating in the process Lask's demand that logic be truly universal by determining not only constitutive categories for various regions of being but also reflex­ ive categories for the determination itself. 1 6 Echoing Lask 's demand for a "logic of philosophy," Heidegger declares: ''Logic itself requires its own categories. There must be a logic of logic" ( FS 2 88 ) . Though most of the habilitation pursues the problem of categories principally in the spirit of the transcendental logic of Lask and others, its concluding chapter, written after the habilitation was completed and added as a supplement, provides the problem with a new, translogical orientation. "One is unable to see logic and its problems in their true ligh t if the context out of which they are interpreted is not a translogi­ cal one . " 1 7 "Translogical" in this connection stands for a consideration that transcends not simply any formal or symbolic logic but especially any transcenden tal logic. An adequate theory of categories has not only to differentiate distinct regions and relate the categories to a judging subj ect (as Scotus begins to do, anticipating transcendental logicians i n the process ) , but also t o interpret the historical meaning that underlies the positing of values, including the logical value of the categories (FS 408£) . Philosophy must aim for a "breakthrough into the true actuality and actual truth "; orienting itself to the concept of a living, historical 16 FS 404ff; see FS 2 7 9 : "Everyth ing existing in the world of metaphysical, physical and mental obj ects , n1athe1natical, eve n logical objects is taken up into the realm of the 'se­ cunda inte n t io "' Lask's constitutive categories are conceived as forms for the material of sensory, supersensory, and nonsensory domains (or, equivalently, natural science, metaphysics, and mathematics) , whereas reflexive categories work, not with a form-ma­ terial matrix , but rathe r with a su�ject-o�ject one. The expanded l o gic is supposed to be a logic of philosophy; hence , the two parts of his Logi.k der Philosophie, "the logic of the categ o ri es of being" and " th e logic of the philosophical categories." For a discussion of Lask 's i nfluence on th e habilitation , see T. Kisiel, The Geneszs oj 'Being and TimR' ( Berkel ey: U niv. o f Cal i forni a Pres� . 1 993 ) , 2 5-3 7 . 1 7 FS 40 5 ; see Lask, Die Logik der Phi[o!;ofJhif, � 1 1 , for a similar view. O n the import of the supplement, see Claudius Strube, Zur VorgP�chichte der hermenrotisrhen Philo!;ophie (Wu rzburg: Konighausen & Neun1 an n , 1 99 3 ) , 7Hf; J . van B u ren , The Young Heideg,_f4er ( Bloom i ngt o n : Indian a l l n iv. P ress. 1 991 ) . H7- 1 1 2 . .

8

H E I D F. G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

spirit and guarding against exclusively restricting i tself to the study of structures, "epistemological logic" must make "logical sense a problem in its ontic meaning as well.'' Only in this way, Heidegger concludes, will a satisfactory answer be possible as to how an unreal, transcendent "sense" secures us the "true reality and objectivity" ( FS 4o6ff) . Though Heidegger offers a course on "Basic Questions of Logic" in the win ter semester of 1 9 1 6/ 1 7 , the new " translogical" orientation dominates his ensuing lec tures before he explici tly returns to the subject in the Marburg lectures of 1 92 5 / 2 6 (here dubbed the "logic lec­ tures" ) . Not that logic is ignored in those intervening years. In the spring of 1 9 1 9 , for example, after making a plea for replacing logic as a " theory of theories'' with a "non theore tical science , a genuinely orig­ inal science [Ur-wissenschaft] ," Heidegger takes Natorp (and Husserl) to task for "absolutizing logic" and sharply cri ticizes Rickert's attempt to construe logic as a "doctrine of value." 1 R Two years later, in the course of elaborating the task of defining philosophy, Heidegger challenges formal logi c 's idea of definition for not being sufficien tly formal, in other words, for being uncri tically oriented toward a specific material region of objects and way of grasping them. Mter charging that this ten­ dency is facili tated by the lack of the basic experience in which philos­ ophizing comes to be spoken ( '"zur Sprache ' kommt'' ) , Heidegger maintai ns that the want of that experience also prevents a radical prob­ lematizing of logic , with the resul t that "since the time of Aristotle phi­ losophy has not understood the problem of the authenti c logic.'' 1 9 This last remark, made in the winter semester o f 1 9 2 1 I 2 2 , is partic­ ularly prescient for Heidegger's subsequent development. His mention of an "authentic logic" signals a willingness , once again, to construe his own project as a kind of logic, albeit one that problematizes logic (for­ mal and transcendental ) . It is a willingness that he continues to display in his Marburg lectures. This willi ngness is j oined, moreove r, by a con­ viction that Aristo tle 's writings provide important lessons for under­ standing this authentic logic. Study of those wri ti ngs largely shapes Hei1 8 ZBP g6f, 1 07ff, 1 9 2-2 00. Heidegger makes si milar c ri ticisms of N a to rp 's conception of logic a year later in the lectures of th e summer semes ter of 1 9 2 0 ; see PM 1 o 2 f, 1 1 9 . On H eidegge r's t g t 6/ 1 7 offeri ng, see Kisiel , Geneszs, 5 5 3 · 1 9 PIA 2 of, t 6 2ff, 1 7 8 ; in these lec tures of 1 9 2 1 I 2 2 Hei degge r main tains t h a t even th e pri nciple of non c o n tradiction is said to be conditi o n e d by a "specific l ogic o f o rderi n g" ( PIA 1 6 3 f) , a poi n t he i te rates two years late r, claim ing that H usserl h as com e to the

same co n c l usion ( see EpF 2 5 5f, 3 1 6 ) ! I n lec tures of 1 9 2 0/ 2 1 Heidegge r fram es hb ac­ grat n m i ng.

T H E L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

11

Heidegger sketches an initial answer to these questions by turning to the Stoic differen tiation of logic, the science of the logos, from physics and ethics. Whereas physics is the science of the world ( the entire realm of what is on hand) and ethics the science of hutnan beings (insofar as they act) , logic 's theme is what announces and reveals the connection be tween the world and human beings as well as between one human being and another. ' Discoursing' or ' talking' ( Rede) , as ' logos' might be translated, accordingly designates something that is not simply juxta­ posed with physis or ethos, nor is it to be found among natural things and events and/ or among human dispositions and behaviors. By means of discourse ht1man beings exist precisely as human beings, both in the sense that discourse renders unthinkable an existence without one an­ other, and in the sense that it opens the world up to them. In th is way Heidegger anticipates his interpretation of discourse in Being and Time, where h e charac terizes it as an "existential constitution of the dis­ closedness of being-here . " "Discourse is thus a distinctive, universal fun­ damental stance of the human being towards his world and towards h imself" (SZ 1 6 1 ; L 1 -5 ) . Herein lies, Heidegger suggests , the original sense of ' logos, ' the proper subject matter for logic as a science of logos. In his Logic Lectures, as in Being and Time, Heidegger draws atten­ tion to the difference between discourse and language. ' Language ' ( Sprache) can stand for the conceptual content of linguistic science, the complete system of linguistic phenomena ( sounds, word-formations, and forms of possible word-combinations) . U tterances and the forma­ tion of language are thereby detach ed from th eir (intersubjectively) ex­ perienced, h istorical meanings. So understood, language falls among the objects properly investigated by the natural sciences. 22 ' Discourse ' ( Rede) , by contrast, always refers to a matter of talking with someone about something. Thinking as discoursing with oneself ­ Pl ato's formulation in the Theaetetus ( 1 8ge- 1 goa) - is, it should be noted , not excluded by this construal of discourse. Nevertheless, in ter­ subj ectivity ( " talking with one anoth er" : Miteinanderreden) is, in Hei­ degger's view, an essen tial determination of logos as the theme of a p hilosophical logic . In Being and Time this theme resurfaces with a spe­ c ia l accent in the discussion of "the everyday in terpretedness" to which 2 2 L 1 5 1 f; S Z t 6of; cf. FT L 3 5 8-36 1 . On a cognate disti n ction between 'fJarole ' and 'lan!(Ue, ' cf. Ferdinand rle Sa u��ure , Course de lin{fUistiquP g,Jnhale, secon d edi tion ( Paris: Payot, 1 9 2 2 ) , 3 0 - 3 2 , 3 R , 2 2 7 . H eid egg-e r ale rts hili stude n ts i n th i s con tex t that there is no spe­ c i fic a n cie n t G reek n atn e fo r l a n gu age ah� t retcted fro m rl i"cnn r�f· .

12

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

Dasein is "constan tly handed over" and from which it can "never extract itself. " 23 Yet, without denying the essen tially in tersubj ective character of the logos, Heidegger accords the "aboutn ess" of the logos, its revelatory char­ acter, a certain pri macy over the communicating community. The basic point seems to be that there would be no reason for people to speak to one another if they did not have something to say. The cen tral, over­ riding feature of discourse is the fact that what is talked about is un­ covered and dete rmined. 2 4 There are , to be sure , many other functions of discourse or talking (e.g. , one migh t talk in the sense of addressing, accusing, persuadin g, encouraging, protesting, excusing, and so on ) . One can certain ly talk in order to lie, conceal, or mislead. Yet these sorts of dissembling discourse (and presumably even those other forms of discourse as well ) presuppose that at bottom talking uncovers some­ thing, that the world opens itself up to us in and by means of discours e . Wi th these considerations, at the outset of the Logic Lectures, Heideg­ ger provides his students with an initial characterization of what he u n­ derstands by ' truth ' : "This un coveredness, that is to say, unconcealed­ ness of the entity we designate as truth ." 25 Soliloquy and confidential conversations, n o l ess than public utterances, take place because som e­ thing is uncovered and because further talking promises to reveal i t even more. 26 2 3 SZ 1 67 , t 6g. In th is connection H eidegger again iterates a theme from Husserl 's logic lectures in Freiburg; cf. ITL 359-36 1 . See Karl-Otto Apel, "Sinnkonstitution und Gel­ tungsfertigung: Heidegger und das Problem der Transzendentalphilosophie,n in Mar­ tin Heitkgger: lnnen- und Auj3ensirhten, ed. S. Blasche , W. Kohler, W. Kuhlmann , and P. Rohs (Frankfurt am M ain: Suhrkamp, 1 g8g ) , 1 40, t 68f. 24 I t is not that the revelatory character is something present in advance of the intersub­ jective character of discourse; rather the revelatory character is a condition for the in­ tersubjective , i n the sense of being both it� presupposition and it(\ telos. The intersubjective character is in a sense the proprium, the revelatory character the differentia specifica. That is to say, there is no revelatory charac ter without the intersu�jective char­ acter but only bec ause the revelatory character, in addi tio n to being the essen tial fea­ ture of discou rse , always en ables communication . This sort of account is not uncommon for Heidegger. A similar relation obtains, for example, between the ecstases of time. The future is the esse n tial feature of temporality, a lways enab1ing the alreadiness and p re­ senting (sources of past and present) . 2 5 L 7; cf. also 1 34; ApS 2 0 1 : 'Jede Bewahrheitung ist ein zutage, zur Klarheit der Selbst­ gebung Bringen eines Verborgenen." 26 There is more than a superficial resemblance between th is view of discourse and the Augustinian picture of a language primarily of names and descriptions, which Wittgen­ stein and Austin so effectively criticize ; PI 1 1 - 1 8 ; andJ. Austin , Philosophical Papers, sec­ ond edition (Oxfo rd: Oxford U niv. Press, 1 979 ) , oof 1 3 1 . While there is a fundam e n­ , tal affinity between discourse as a t u n danu� n tal exi�te n t i al and language a� a fonn of

T H E LO G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N O F T R U T H

From this initial in terpretation of discourse ( logos) , Heidegger con­ cludes that the "fu ndamental theme" of a philosophical logic ( science of discourse ) is the determination of what ' truth ' means. While each science concerns itself in its own way with truth , a philosophical logic has to explain how something opens itself up to "speakers and listen­ ers" in talking and communicating. The "basic task" of philosophical logic is the question of truth ( the inquiry into truth ) in this sense . As Heidegger puts it in the quotati on cited at the beginning of this chap­ ter: "Stric tly speaking, no other science than logic treats of truth as its theine." It hardly needs to be noted that Heidegger's determination of logic and its chief task, at least in the con nection just sketched , finds little res­ onance today. In an age when symbolic logic has become a fixture in the curriculum as part of a general education and the idea of an ideal­ istic or transcendental logic ( in contrast to a purely symbolic or con­ structivistic one) a historical curiosity, the claim that logic 's basic task is the question of truth appears preposterous, if not simply false . For some logicians it is not merely that the question of truth is not part of l ogic but rather that logic has no need of the concept of truth at all: "One can erect logic in its entirety without speaking of truth . " 27 Others con­ cede that logic presupposes some sort of use of ' truth' or, be tter, ' true ' and that investigations of this presupposition are meaningful. Yet it is not considered advisable to carry out these investigations under the rubric 'logic. ' Thus, the author of a typical introduction into logic writes: "Still, what ' true ' ultimately means, is n ot a problem of logic, but of epistemology. For logic ' true ' is ultimately an undefined basic con­ cept. " 28 An author of a text on the philosophy of logic acknowledges that it is crucial for logic "whe ther there is an objective concept of truth and, to be sure , primarily for singular sentences," but then adds that the question of its presuppositions is "a second-order, epistemological question . " 29 Nevertheless, at the dawn of the twentieth cen tury the question of life, Heidegger does hold out fo r the normativity, not of the ordinary use of language, but of disclosedness - not unlike certain aspects of Augustinian illum ination. 2 7 B. B. von Freytag-Loringhoff, Logik. Ihr System und ihr Verhiiltnis zur Logistik, second edi­ tion (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1 957 ) , 8g; also 70, 7 5 , 85-go, 1 7 5f. 8 A . Menne, E1njiihrung in die Logik, second edition ( Mu nich: Francke, 1 973 ) , 3 2f; G. 2 Frege, Schiftm zur Logik und Sprachphilosophie, ed. G. Gabriel (Hamburg: Meiner, 1 97 1 ) , 2 3 : "Was wah r sei , halte ich fur nicht erklarbar.'' 29 Thomas M. Seehohm, Phzlowphie der 1.-ogik (Freiburg: Alber, 1 984 ) , �}l ; cf. also 2 6-2 R , 112.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

truth was commonly construed as the cen tral question of a philosoph­ ical treatment of logic. The reason for this construal is not difficult to find. It emerges from the attempt to locate logic wi thin psychology or to set it off from empirical psychology. According to Heidegger, the ad­ van cements made by logicians in clarifying logical principles, despite the lack of a clear definition of logic, coincide wi th an "energetic shun­ ning" of psychologistn . 10 But efforts to give an adequate account of what ' truth ' means can be found on both sides of this issue. Thus, Christoph Sigwart, one of the chief exponents of psychologism , takes up th e question of truth in his logic text. 3 1 Both Gottlob Frege and Moritz Schlick justify their investigations of th e crite rion and nature of truth by noting that logic in general is possible only by virtue of the con­ cept of truth . 32 Even Alexander Pfander (who complains about the fre­ quen t confusion of logic and epistemology and puts great stock in be­ ing able to distingtiish logic, epistemology, and phenomenology) elucidates a "positive determination of truth" in the fifth chapter ( "The Judgment and Its Claim to Truth" ) of his logic text. 33 The question of truth also takes center stage in the conceptions of logic advanced at the outset of th e twentieth century by a diverse group of thinkers, broadly characterized as Neo-Kan tians, who adamantly rej ect the notion that either psychologism or a logical formalism should have the last word on logic. Instead they pursue a "transcendental ( pure , objective ) logic," as Wilhelm Windelband and Heinrich Rickert put i t, or a "logic of the origin" as Hermann Cohen dubs his Logic ofPu-re Knowledge. 34 As noted at the outset of this chapter, the Neo-Kantian idea 30 FS 1 8 . The struggle with psychologism is, Heidegger adds, no "crackpo t notion of philosophers" ( Srhrulle der Philosophen) , but in this "age of psychology" extends to ethics

and aesthetics, pedagoh'Y and jurisprudence, li terature and art. 3 1 C. Sigwart, Logik, first book, fifth edition , e d . H. Meier ( Ttibinge n : Mohr, 1 9 24) , 32

3 1 9-34 1 . S chl i c k , "Das Wesen der vVahrheit," 3 3 ; G . Frege ,

M.

" D e r Gedan ke , ''

3 3 A. Pfander, Logzk (first edi tion, 1 9 2 0; Halle: N iemeyer, 1 9 2 9 ) ,

3of.

2 2 0 , 2 09-2 2 3 ;

Heideg­ up phenomenologi­

characterizes Pfander's work as "a traditional logic , cl e a n ed cally'' (L 2 8 ) . 34 W. Windelband, " D i e PrinLipien der Logik," Enzyklopiidie der phzlosophischen H-'i!isensrhaft, e d . W. vVindelband and A. Ruge (Tubingen : Mohr, 1 9 1 2 ) ; H . Ric kert, Der GeKenstand der f_:rkenntnis (Fre iburg: \Vagner, 1 892 ) and "Zwei vVege der E rke n n tn istheori e " ; Her­ m ann Coh e n , Logik dn- reinPn Erken ntni!i, third edition ( Berlin : Cassirer, 1 9 2 2 ) , 36. I n i­ tial ly heeding Otto Li ebm a n n 's call "back to Kan t ! " i n t he second half of the n ineteen th ce n tu ry - see his Kan t und seznP J·.:pigonen ( St u tt gart: Schober, 1 8 65) - were the likes of Friedrich Albert Lange and Alois Riehl. \tVh e n H eidegger begins his �tudies in Freiburg, h owever, !\: e o-Kan tian i s m is ch i e tly re p re s e n te d hy two schools: the Southwest School , com p osed ot \t\'indel ban d a l I I c i d d b c rg a n d R i c k e r t at Freiburg, and t h e M a rh n rg ge r

T H E LOGI C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 !J....

of a transcendental logic forms an important dimension of Heidegger's early thinking. It provides the focus of the body of his habilitation , and remnants of his initial endorsement of this idea can be detected in the Marburg lectures as well as his early lectures at Freiburg. More impor­ tantly, for present purposes, Neo-Kantians were perhaps even more em­ phatic than the thinkers so far mentioned in demanding that a gen­ uinely philosophical logic address the theme of truth or, what they took to be its equivalent, validity (Geltung) . What this means is perhaps best seen in the case of Emil Lask, for whose work Heidegger seems to have retained a high regard. Accord­ ing to Lask, "Kant's revolution izing achievement" is to have conceived logic, not merely in view of acts of thinking, but also in view of their con­ tent. As Kant hilnself explai ns, "general logic" is concerned with "merely the logical form . . . i . e . , the form of thinking in general"; by contrast, a "transcendental logic" is so named because it transcends this purely formal consideration and focuses on the laws of the under­ standing and reason "insofar - and only insofar - as they are related to obj ects a priori" ( B 79-8 2 ) . The import of Kant's Copernican revolu­ tion , as Lask construes it, is that the objectivity of objects, the being of beings, is oriented toward what is logically valid or, simply, the "truth " ( rather than vice versa) . Not objects or entities ( Seiendes) th emselves, it bears emphasizing, but their obj ectivity or being ( Sein) is, on Lask's view, a matter of logical value or validi ty. As a result, the age-old belief that reality or being is somehow independen t of or transcends though t and logic is undermined ( and with it any mimetic or correspondence theory of truth ) . The determination of this truth - of truth as being is the proper task of a philosophic logic (a Geltungslehre) ; indeed, this truth or Geltung is the very subject matter of philosophy insofar as it dis­ tinguishes itself - as it purportedly should - from natural science and metaphysics. "In the age of Kantianism ," Lask submits, it is accordingly necessary to speak of an "expansion of logic , " that is to say, of "a logic that gathers together the ' transcendental ' and the 'formal-logical ' problems into an overarching unity." 35 Yet the most powerful influence on Heidegger's conception of a School, made up of Cohen and Paul Natorp. See Hans-Lu dwig Ollig, Der 1Veukantianis­ mus (Stuttgart: Me tzler, 1 9 7 9 ) .

35 Emil Lask, J)if' /.,ehre vom Urteil, 1 -3 ; D i e

Logik der Philosophie, 1 5f, 2 3 , 29, 1 2 6- 1 34 ; Lask conceives h i� work as oppo�ed to " Ka n tianism ," but as a continuation of Kant's "revo­ lu tio n " ; see B 1 2 4f and S. Crowel l , " E m i l Lask: Alethi ology as O n tology, " Kant-Studien 87 ( 1 4g6) : 6q-8 8 .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

philosophical logic and, indeed, i n many respects the model for it is to be found in Husserl 's logical investigations, not only the book by that name published in I goo/ o 1 , but also in logic lectures repeatedly given by Husser} since 1 9 1 7 in Freiburg - including the time when Heideg­ ger was his assistant. Heidegger's complicated relationship to Husserl is discussed in more detail in the next chapter. In the presen t context, however, it deserves mention that the question of truth is also a recur­ ren t theme of those lectures by Husser!, lectures that he characterizes as introductions to "transcenden tal logic," "phenomenological logic," "genetic logic ," and even "transcendental aesthetic": "the universal and pure science of logos as logos , thus . . . of truth as truth ," that exclude s "all judgmen tal kn owing" (ApS 2 _56, 2 9 5 ; FTL 3 5 1 ) . Underlying this sci­ ence is the notion that those accomplishments of thinking that come to the fore in traditional logic ( for example,judgments and inferences ) rest upon even more basic accomplishments and experiences. [ Consider] th e specific thinking that is an accomplishm ent erected at such a level

as

to be expressible th rough language and general words and

to deliver a science, a theory. It cannot possibly be understood by us un­ less we go back before this thinking, back to those very acts and accom­ plishmen ts that constitute the broadest part of our life. For, in its breadth , it is not only a pretheoretical , but also a pre linguistic part of our life and one such that, with each ass ertion [A ussage] , ceases to be in its original primitive unity. (FTL 3 73 )

Husserl thus sees the task o f a phenomenological logic as the clarifi­ cation of the very experiences in which the senses of th ings are fi rst consti tuted, thereby making possible th e accomplishments of logic al thinking. Heidegger's logic lectures stand in close agreement with this gene ral conception of the task of a philosophical logic . His aim is to expose the logical prejudice ( the notion that truth is exclusively the property of a proposi tion ) and to do so as a means of in troducing a prejudgmental conception of trc.th as the disclosedn ess of bei ng. At the same time , a considerable difference between Husser) and Heidegger also etnerges . While Husserl directs his atten tion primarily to the q u e sti o n of the way sense is provided or constituted , for Heidegger the primary question for a philosophical logic is the question of truth . Yet, however this dif­ fe re n ce is further determined , t h e similari ty in thei r conceptions of the task of a philosophical logi c , re l a tive to t h e i r con tem poraries , is u n -

T H F. LO G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N

O F TR UTH

mistakable. In the mid- 1 g2os both Husserl and Heidegger regard it as the task of a phenomenological logic to unearth the pretheoretical, to thematize the prethematic, yet in such a way that the prethematic is not lost in the process and yet the possibility of thematizing and theory in general (its own possibility included) is explained. Heidegger accord­ ingly takes it upon himself to work out the sort of understanding of truth that is presen t in advance of the truth of theoretical , scientific knowledge as well as practical or religious truth. "In other words, it is by no means settled at all which version of the ' true ' - the theoretical or the practical - is the original and genuine one" (L 1 1 ) . 1 . 2 Th e Logical Prejudice

From the outset Heidegger runs up against the logical prejudice of con­ ceiving truth primarily as a property of a proposition. This prejudice abets and is abetted by the notion that theory and scientific knowledge, as so many systematic sets of true assertions, form the endgame of phi­ losophy. Yet there are considerable variations in the sense and scope of the logical prejudice within the history of philosophy. Because Hei­ degger links the prej udice up with a definite conception of being, his strategy in the Marburg lectures of 1 9 2 5 and 1 9 25/ 2 6 is to unpack crit­ ically the views of three thinkers - Lotze, Husserl , and Aristotle - who expressly address this linkage. The way in which Heidegger comes to terms critically with these thinkers makes up the theme of the first three chapters of this study. But before Lotze 's contributions are examined, it may be useful to outline the general sense and persuasiveness of the logical prej udice.

I. 2 I Sense, justification, and Traditional Scope of the Log;ical Prejudice. The logical prejudice' stands for the tendency to conceive truth in terms of a specific sort of discourse, namely, in terms of claims, assertions, and j udgments, that are formed as indicative, declarative sentences. Loosely speaking, thoughts and opinions may be said to be true, but only inso­ far as they can be expressed as assertions and judgments. For those who cling to this "model of propositional truth ," "the predicates ' true , ' 'fals e , ' are paradigmatically attributes of sen tences, statements, claims, judgm ents, assertions, propositions, and the like." 36 36 Carl Friedri c h Ge thn1an n , "Heidegge rs Wahrheitskon zeption in seiner Marburger Vor­ lesungen ." in Marlin HeuieK,[;!e?·: Innen- und A ufJensichten, 1 1 r=:) ; see Wittgenstein . Trar:tatus

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N CEPT OF TRUTH

18

Etymology aside, a prej udice is not a j udgment in the normal sense of the term and thus also not the result of an inference. Nevertheless, there are at least th ree reasons why the logical prejudice appears not merely innocuous and plattsible , but self-evident. The first reason is provided by the apparent symmetry or bipolari ty of truth and falsity. If someone can take something to be true , then it can presumably also be taken to be false - and vice versa. Accordingly, the structure of what es­ tablishes itself as true must be i n herently such that it could also have turned out to be false . A second reason for the logical prej udice can be traced to the ap­ parent fact that truth and falsehood alike require, as Aristotle puts it, both "grasping togeth er and holdi ng apart'' two things ( or two aspects of a thing) , ac tions corresponding to the synth etic and analytic dimen­ sions of propositions. "It takes two to make a truth ," as Austin puts it with characteristic pithiness. 37 The sheer presentation or idea of an in­ dividual and simple thing is nei ther true nor false because it offers noth­ ing that can be simultaneously h eld together and apart. In a certain sense such a presentation is p resupposed not only by representation, but also by a differentiation of the act of presenting ( entertaining, imag­ ining, perceiving, etc . ) and what is correspondingly presented ( enter­ tained, imagined, perceived, etc . ) . The mere utteranc e of an individual word is accordingly neither true nor false unless, of course, it occurs in the framework of a lan­ guage game in which the word takes the place of a sentence. An indi­ vidual expression (a m o rpheme ) can be used to convey a judgment but, in order for it to be understood, th e con text or other indications must make clear that the expression implicates some plurality and thereby the requisite syn thetic and analytic dimensions ( the "holding together and apart" ) . Especially in the case of such single-word utter­ ances, the context must also be relied upon to determine that a judg­ ment (otherwise exp ressed in a declarative sentence in th e indicative Th e terms listed ( to wh ich 'belief' migh t be added ) are not any 1nore than the c o rr e s p o n ding German ter ms (Aunage, Behauptung, Satz, Urteil, Glaube) . But even when the re is considerable argu m e n t abou t t h e p ro p er .. truth­ bearer" (see, e.g. , Austin and Straw�on ) the other terms are typically understood rela­ tive to the p rivileged te rm , fo r wh ich truth is o n e pos�ibi li t:y, falsi ty another. For a sam­ pling, see A. J. Ayer, La nguage, Truth a nd /,ogir ( N ew York: Dover, 1 952 ) , 8 8 ; J . L. Austin , Philofiophiral Papers, 1 2 0 ; D. Davidson , In quirie.� in to Truth and Interpretation (Oxford: Clarendon, 1 99 1 ) , 34· The expression ' logical prejudice' accordingly exte n ds to all �uch theories of tru th . � 7 .J . L. Austi n , Philo50fJhzral J..�apr n, 1 � 1- 1 1 . 1 ; At·i�to tl c , 1\1Ptaphysics 1 0 2 7 b 1 gf. Logico-Philosophirus 4 . 06 3 .

synonyms

T H F. L O G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N O F T R U T H

mood) and not a n exhortation ( "Slab ! " ) , question ( "Slab? " ) , or excla­ mation ("Slab ! ! " ) is mean t. This last consideration leads to the third reason for the seeming plausibility of the logical prejudice . judgments are typically affirmed or said to be true in order to underscore a conviction about the state of af­ fairs specified by the judgment. In other words, saying that a judgment is true is very often a way of indicating that it has been confirmed and/ or can be confirmed . Thus researchers typically formulate their re­ sults , not in the form of a question or a demand , not in senten ces in the subjunctive or imperative mood, but in utterances and sen tences in th e indicative mood. In this way, Heidegger suggests, the sentence or proposition became "the simple, most universal , and at the same time the most original form of discourse" and the traditional determination of truth affixed itself to this form: "The truth of theoretically scientific knowing became the basic and original form of truth in general. " 38 So, too , in the traditional threefold division of logic into theories of con­ cepts, judgments, and inferences (syllogisms) , truth is principally treated within the doctrine of judgments. Likewise in the wri tings of modern philosophers, for example, Hobbes and Locke , Leibniz and Kant, truth is repeatedly identified as a true claim (propositio) . 39 Thus there is widespread agreement that the judgment ( assertion or propo­ sition ) is the site of truth , such that truth in the sense of an articulable sentence is the end of any possible analysis of truth . From the customary usage o f ' true ' and ' truth , ' it i s possible to fathom the depth of the logical prejudice or, if Heidegger is mistaken, its legitimacy and the absurdity of his attempt to contend with it. ' Truth ' is used to designate certain sentences ( "eternal truths" ) , knowledge of a true sentence ( "you can 't handle the truth " ) , or an entire set of true sen tences about some theme ( " tell us the truth about what happened that night" ) . The term ' true ' is also often employed to characterize 38 L 1 1 ; Sc h l i ck, " Das Wesen der Wahrheit," 9 5 f, 1 0 2 ; Frege, " Der Gedanke , " 3 5 ·

Hobbes, Opera philosophica I ( Lon d o n : Boh n , 1 8 g g ) , 3 1 : "Voces a u tern h ae veru m , Essa)' Concerning Human Understa nd­ ing, fo urth ed i ti o n , ed. P. H. N iddi tch ( Lo n d o n : Oxfo rd L1 n iv. P ress , 1 9 R7 ) , 5 74 : "Truth properly be l o ngs o n ly to P ropos i tions"; G. W. Leibn i L , Die philosophischen Schriften V, ed. C. J . Ge rh ard t ( H i ldesh e i m : Olms, t g6o) , 3 7 8 : " 1 1 es v ray que j ' ay attri bue aussi Ia ve r­ i te aux idee� en disan t q u e les idees so n t vrayes ou fausses; m ais al o rs j e I ' en te nds en ef­ fe t de Ia verite des propo c;; i tion s , qui affi rm e n t Ia poss i bili te de I ' obj e t de l ' i d e e " ; ibid . VI I , 1 go ; I . Ka n t, Kant '5 gr-sammelte Schrijtfn : Kant 5 ha ndschriftirher NarhlajJ, vol . �r Lo g i k ( Be rl i n : de G ruy t e r 1 �p 4 ) , 2 1 2 4 : "vVa h rh e i t u n d Fa l � c h e i t ist n u r in d e n U rth eil e n " ; ibid. 2 1 1 2 .

3 9 Se e T.

ve ritas, Ye ra p ropos itio, idem val e n t" ; ] . Loc k e , A n

,

20

H E I D EG G ER ' S

C O N C EPT O F T R U T H

some thing or state of affairs ( ' true heir, ' ' true love ' ) ; but this usage can be readily e xplained as remaining within the ambit of the logical prej­ udice. The assertion that a thing or state of affairs is true can be con­ strued as confirmation that it corresponds to what can be thought or asserted in a sentence (e.g. , "their true love" may be construed as an ab­ breviated way of saying " ' that they love one anoth er' is true" ) . Thus, the form of a declarative sentence in the indicative tnood ( or, in older ter­ mi nology, the form of a categorical j udgment) remains decisive. Given this usage , it is only natural to assume that truth takes the shape of a th eoretical assertion. It becomes self-evident - and that is the point of the logical prej udice - that truth , in the final analysis, is to be under­ stood in the sense of aj udgment that obtains or is valid ( L gf, 2 5 ) . Not surprisingly, several of Heidegger's contemporaries and imme­ diate predecessors are in complete accord on this point. Sigwart, for ex­ ample, m ai n tains: "Every practical deliberation about purposes and means comes to an end in judging, every instance of knowledge con­ sists in judging, every conviction comes to closure in jttdging. . . . Fur­ thermore , the j udgment can be an object of scientific investigation only insofar as it is articulated in a sentence ." 4° For Schlick the concepts of truth and judgin g are "indissolubly bound. " 41 The Marburg Neo-Kan­ tians, Coh e n and Natorp, regard judging as "the fundamental accom­ plishmen t of thinking. " Cohen not only characterizes his logic of pure knowledge as a "logic ofjudgment'' but even declares the basic form of the judgment to be "the basic form of being. " 42 In the course of repu­ diating the attempt to construe logic in the sense of the "mental activ­ ity" of thi n king rather than in the sense of "what is though t, purely as such," Natorp observes: "The title of logic i tself leads to this since logos is the thought-content of the assertion, or the assertion itself in regard to i ts thinkable content. '' 43 Even Bruno Bauch decries "the erroneous view of 'judgment-free knowing"' and insists that, outside the logical judgmen t, "there is no truth . " 44 Heidegger's predecessors and contemporaries agreed overwhelm­ ingly that truth is to be understood as a judgment, assertion , or the like , 40 S i gwa rt Logik, g, see also 1 7 . 4 1 Sc hlick, "Das Wesen der vVahrh e i t , " 3 1 ; �ee Frege , '' Der Gedanke , '' 3 3 ff and ,

Logik, 40. 4 2 Cohen , J)ie l.ogik

der

rrinen t'rken ntni�,

Schriften zur

47.

43 Nato rp , Dzf logischen Grundlagen dn f?Xaktfn 1Yatunvissmschajten, th i rd e d i tion ( Leip7ig: Te ubner, 1 9 2 3 ) , :� 6 .

44 B. Bauc h , Wahrhnl, Wert und H 'i, klit hkeil

( Leipzig: Mein er,

1

923) , 1 76

a n rl

1 5 3f

T H E L OG I C A L C O N C E PTI O N O F TR U T H

21

with some placing the emphasis on the act of j udging, others on what is j udged. The preponderance of this view helps explain why "the ques­ tion of truth" is apposite for lectures like Heidegger's with the simple title "logic," rather than "epistemology" or "transcendental logic. " Not only in the traditional formal logic ( conveyed in Heidegger's view, as noted earlier, in an utterly unphilosophical fashion ) , but even in works of philosophical logic among his contemporaries, regardless of whe ther they construe logic "empirically'' or "transcendentally" ( "epis­ temologically" ) , the logical prejudice is presupposed . To say that it is presupposed is not, of course, to say that it is not argued for. Neverthe­ less, in the last analysis those who pursue a "philosophical logic" and thus seriously address the question of truth find themselves in agree­ ment with traditional logic's assumption that the truth is to be equated with the obtaining, validity, or correctness of a theoretical sentence. By contrast, Heidegger demands of a philosophical logic that it subject this presupposi tion i tself to scrutiny. Precisely because formal logic takes truth to be a property of a theoretical proposition, a philosophical logic is faced with the task of putting this sense of truth in question . In the process, as Heidegger puts it in a way particularly pregnant not only for his fundamental on tology but also for the subsequent turn in this think­ ing, "the question of the originally and genuinely truing [Wahren] , that is to say, the primary being of truth " becomes "the most fundamen tal matter for logic" ( L 1 2 ) . But what exactly does it mean to inquire into that so-called truing or, as Heidegger also puts it, "the primary being of truth"? Although he finds the beginning of an answer to this question in Husserl 's phe­ nomenological approach to logic, his own questioning also develops by way of a critical confron tation with Husserl 's phenomenology. This con­ frontation is never more prominent or explicit than in the two Marburg lectures ( 1 9 2 5 and 1 9 2 5/ 2 6 ) that, together with Being and Time, pro­ vide the principal backdrop for the present study. Indeed, because Hei­ degger's analysis of the concept of truth in both lectures takes the form of a critical interpretation of his predecessors, these two lectures pro­ vide a perfect complement to the discussion of truth in Being and Time. In the lectures in the summer of 1 9 2 5 Heidegger treats Husserl 's phe­ nom enology at length as a means of making the case for the necessi ty of radicalizing phenomenology in the direction of fundamental ontol­ ogy. The lectures on "Logic" o f the following semester take up what Hei­ degger considers the hi sto rical l y most importan t conceptions of truth , thos e found i n th e writi ngs of Lotze , Husse r) , and .A ristotle . The ai m of ..

22

H E I DEGGE R ' S

C O N C E PT

OF

TRUTH

the exercise is to dismantle these concepts and, in the process, demon­ strate how the question of truth leads back to the question of time ( hence, the earlier reference to " truing" ) . That particular sequence of conceptions of truth ( to which, as noted in the I ntroduc tion, the first three chapters of the present study correspond) is by no tneans acci­ den tal . With each criticism of each successive concepti o n , Heidegger attempt� to strip away one more layer of the logical prej ttdice and the "forgottenness of being" invariably bound up with it. The aim is to ex­ pose the prejudice ( the notion that truth is exclusively the property of a propositio n) and thereby open up the possibility of an inquiry into the above-mentioned "primary being of the truth ," a p rej udgmental conception of truth as the disclosedness of being. This path begins with an overview of "the present state of philo­ sophical logic, " as it emerged from the confrontation with psycholo­ gism. One might well ask what texts, other than Husserl 's Logical Inves­ tigations, Heidegger has in mind when he speaks of a phi losophical logic among his contemporaries. In the course of the logic l e c tures he men­ tions Balzano's Doctrine of Science as well as the psychologistically ori­ ented works by Lipps and Erdmann . 45 He also draws attention to a few works written after the turn of the century that largely d epend upon Husserl 's investigations: Rickert's "Two Paths of Epistemology" ( 1 909) , Lask's Logic ofPhilosophy ( 1 9 1 1 ) and Doctrine ofjudgment ( 1 9 1 2 ) , Driesch 's Doctrine of Order ( 1 9 2 3 ) , and PHinder's Logic ( 1 920) . 46 How­ ever, Heidegger particularly recommends four works from the nine­ teenth century that, in his opinion, are among "the most important" : Mill 's System of Deductive and Inductive Logic ( 1 8 4 3 ) and Sigwart's Logic ( 1 87 3 ) , two works that together created the fottndati o n for psycholo­ gism; Hertnann Lotze 's 1 874 Logic, and Wilhelm Sch uppe 's "mostly forgotten" Epistemological I_Jogic ( 1 87 8 ) . 4 7 45 L 38-4 3 ; sec T. Lipps, "Die Aufgabe der Erkenntnistheorie,'' Ph ilosophische Monatshejie 1 6 ( 1 88o) : _r:) 2 9-5 39, and Grundziige der /Jogik ( Hanlburg/ LeipLig: \toss , 1 89 3 ) ; B. Erd­ mann, !Jogik (Halle: Niemeyer, 1 8 9 2 ) ; while conceding that Bolzano 's influence upon Husser} is as great as that of Lotze, Heidegger claims that H usse r} overestin-.ated Balzano's con tribution ; see L 86f, 1 30 n. 5; FS 2 7 Rf; and Bolzan o, Wi.H enschaft!;/ehre, vol . 1 ( Sul7bach: Sei del, 1 8�3 7 ) , 8 3 . 46 The onJy one of these texts not already mentioned in th e notes is H. Driesch 's Ord­ nung!;/Rhre. f:in Sy!;tem des nirh lmetaphyszsrhm Teile� dPT Phi[o!;jJhie (Je na: Diederichs, 1 92 3 ) ; see, too, h is Die Logik al\ A ufgabe. F:in f? Studie iiber die Beziehu ng zwi!;rhen Phanomrn ologie und Logik (Tiibingen : Moh r, 1 9 1 3 ) . 47 W. Schuppe, l:!.,rken ntnistheoretische Logik ( Bonn: Weber, d �7 8 ) , and Grundrijl drr F.rkennt­ n istheorie und /Jogik, second edition ( Berlin: \Viedman n , 1 9.1 o) ; see L 2 8 , 5 1 .

23

T H E LOG I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F TRUTH

In the logic lectures themselves Heidegger focuses only on Lotze 's Logic. 48 This work above all, in his view, has put its stamp on ''the pres­ ent state of philosophical logic" by articulating the ontological presup­ position of the logical prejudice and, indeed, doing so hand in hand with an interpretation of the Platonic doctrine of ideas. However, be­ fore turni ng to Heidegger's critical interpretation of Lotze 's concept of truth, we would be remiss if we were to pass over without comment an obvious lacuna in the account he gives his students of "the present state of philosophical logic . " I. 2 2

The Logical Prejudice and the Question of Truth in the Post-}regean 1ra­ dition of Philosophy of Logic. If current historians of the philosophy of logic were as�ed to identify the most important works during the half century from 1 87 5 to 1 92 5 , most would unhesitatingly cite Frege 's Be­ griffsschrift ( 1 8 79) and oth er essays, th e Principia Mathematica ( 1 9 1 o- 1 9 1 3 ) by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead, and Wittgenstein 's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus ( 1 92 1 ) . Indeed, as n oted earlier, Frege and Russell are among the authors reviewed by Heideg­ ger in his second published article, "Recent Research in Logic. " 49 Yet in Heidegger's logic lectures in the fall of 1 9 2 5 he does not recotnmend a single one of these path breaking works to his students. This fact alone suffices to give notice of certain limitations in his grasp of the state of logic and the philosophy of logic at the time. Indeed, Heidegger can be justly faulted for not adequately appreciating, not only the way in which formalization or symbolization can be required by a certain sort of philosophical thinking, but also the way in which they can in turn de­ mand and evoke th inking with a radicality that rivals that of Heidegger's own deliberations. Moreover, in his effort to dismantle the logical prej­ udice, Heidegger takes no account of analyses of th e use of the predi­ cate ' true ' in writings of Frege and Russell , despite his acquaintance with th em . 48 Wh i l e Heidegger uses M isch 's e d i t i o n of LotLe 's Logik, the work first came out i n 1 R 7 4 ,

49

wi th a second edi tion i n t 88o, p u b li s h ed by H i rzel i n Leipzig each time. Ne u ere Fo rschunge n uber Logi k," in FS 1 7-44; H e id egger p r a ises Frege 's and Rus­ "

sell 's works ( 2 0, 4 2 ) but also charges t h a t a " ' l o g istic ' o r sym bo lic l ogic has inherent limit� prec isely "where the cond itions of th eir possibility l i e" and that the app l ica ti on of math ematical s y m b ols and c o ncepts "obsc ures the m e a n i n gs and shifts of m e a n i n g of j u dgm e nts ( 4 1 ff) . Si mil arly, in hi� dissertation , he notes that th e "form al charac ter" of m athem atical logic keeps it fron1 t he vi tal problems of the sen�e of th e j udgm e n t, i ts str uctu re and epistemic mea n i ng"; cf. F S 1 7 4 n . 8 . '

"

"

'"

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

24

Yet from the fact that Heidegger ignores the Fregean tradition, it cannot be inferred - at least not without furth e r ado - that his criticisms of the conception of truth , represen ted by the logical prej udice, do not apply to this tradition ( indeed, particularly if members of this tradition also consider truth indefinable or inexplicable) . On the contrary, a brief review of various prominent theories of truth , each heralded in Frege 's writings, provides ample prima facie evidence of the hold of the l ogical prejudice on this tradition . 5° 1 . 2 2 1 T H E D E B A T E A B O U T T R U T H - B E A R E R S . Consider the de­ bate about the so-called truth-bearers. The debate is roote d in attempts to determine what corresponds to the subj ec t (p) of the sentence 'P is true . ' Pioneeri ng in this connection is Frege's essay "The Thought. " Frege attributes truth or falsity to the thought, which h e construes as the sense of a sentence. He thereby distinguishes the thought not only from the sen tence but also from both the rec ognition ( " the judging" ) and the announcement of a j udgment ( " th e claiming" ) . Kneale and others argue in a similar way that the "proposition " is the bearer of

so G. Frege, D er Gedanke," 3 3ff; Nachgelassene Schriften, ed. G. Gabrie l et al. ( Hamburg: "

Meiner, 1 g6g) , 1 39 . In this brief overview of the post-Fregean tradition , Frege's own nu­ anced view of the truth should not be overlooked, especially since i t m ay seem a t odd� with typical formulations of the l ogi c a l p rej u di c e After all, as noted e a r l i e r ( n . 2 8 ) , he considers truth fu n d a m e n ta l ly i nexplicable. Furthermore , in Frege ' s view, it is not strictly speakin g a pro pos i t i o n but " thought" that is true or false. This th o u g ht is to be distinguished from thinking it, re c o gn izin g its truth ( i .e.,judging) , a n d announcing the j udgment ( maintaining it) . See Frege , "Der Ged an k e so: "Beim Den ken erzeugen wir nicht die Gedanken , sondern fassen wir sie. Denn das, was ich Gedanken gen an n t habe, steht ja i m e ngsten Z us am m e n ha ng mit der Wahrheit. Was ich a ls wahr anerkenne, von dem urteile ich, daB es wahr sei gan z un abh a ngi g vo n me i n e r An e rke nn u ng der Wa h rhe i t , auc h unabha n gi g davon, ob ich d a ran denke." Moreover, the truth of a thought c ann o t be exp re ss ed in the form of a sem a n tic pre d i c a te or, more prec ise ly, through as cri p ti o n of a pr e d i c a te to a though t or p r opo s i ti o n Acc o rdi ngly he distin­ guishes the j udgtnent-stroke, i ndicative of the t ru t h of a th o ugh t, fro1n a predicate or concept, insisting that it cannot be used to express a fu n c ti o n ( as they can ) . \Vhereas fu nc tio n s designate objects or, more precisely, m a p them onto truth-values, the judg­ men t-stroke d esig na te s n o t h i n g , b u t i n s te ad m a in ta i ns s o m e thi ng See Frege, "Fu n k­ tio n und Begriff," in Fu nktion, Begriff, Bedeutung, fou rth e ditio n , ed. Gi"tn ther Patzig ( Gottingen: Va n de n h o e c k & Ru p rech t , 1 975 ) , 32 n . 7· Howeve r, while bel o ng ing to nei­ ther the i n n e r nor th e "ou ter" world , though ts have the c h ara c te r of a p ro pos i ti o n e.g. , the Py t h agorean theorem ( Lehrsatz) . Frege, "Der Gedanke," 5 2 : "Erst der durch die Zeitbestimmung e rga n z te und in j e d er Hi n s i ch t vollstandige Satz drii ck t einen Gedanken aus . '' Hence , fo r all t h e n u an ces attach i n g to Fr�ge's c o n c e pt i on of t ru t h the proposition re mains , in the fi n al analysi s, i ts si te . .

,"

.

"

"

,

."

"

.

,

T H F. LOG I C A L C O N C E PT I ON OF

TRUTH

truth . 5 1 In a cognate way in his habilitation, Heidegger himself refers to the copula as "the authentic bearer of truth" (FS 2 70) . The conception of a "thought" or "proposition" (cf. Balzano's "proposition in itself" ) as the truth-bearer is very controversial . Austin and Strawson agree with Frege that the truth-bearer is to be distin­ guished from the sentence. But both regard "statements" and "asser­ tions'' that refer to the historica l event of the use of a sentence as the genuine truth-bearers. 52 Quine argues, to the con trary, that the sen­ tence or, better, the "eternal sentence" should be regarded as the sole truth-bearer. 53 As far as the present investigation is concerned, the details of this de­ bate are less importan t than the fact that such a "bearer" or "carrier" of truth is sought at all. The concern about the correct determination of the truth-bearer indicates that, despite all the differences among the parties to this debate, the truth continues to be understood primarily in terms of an assertion or something said precisely by means of an as­ sertion or judgment. The question of truth necessarily becomes a ques­ tion of the employment of ' true , ' functioning as a predicate. However the subject of this predicate - the reference of p in 'p is true ' - is to be further specified, it is first determined as or in concert with an assertion or a judgment. 1 . 2 2 2 R E D U N D A N C Y , S E M A N T I C , A N D P R A G M A T I C T H E O R I E S OF T R U T H . Not only the question of the truth-bearer, but also the diverse theories of truth within the Fregean tradition testify that it is deeply rooted in the logical prejudice. The redundancy theory of truth, also called ( in the shadows of Tarski's work) the "disquotational account of truth , " can be traced back to Frege 's insight that the predicate ' true ' is in a certain sense superfluous. That is to say, it adds nothing to the thought or proposi tional sense of a claim ( Behauptungssatz) : "The form of the claim is thus actually that with which we assert the truth and for that we do not need the word ' true . ' Indeed, we can say that even where Kneale, "Proposi tions and Truth in Natural Languages," Mind 8 1 ( 1 97 2 ) : 2 38f; see, too , W. Becker, Wahrheit und sprachliche Handlung (Freiburg: Alber, 1 988) , 1 2 5f. Austin , Philosophical Papers, 1 1 9ff; P. F. Strawson, Logico-lingu istic Papers (London: Methuen, 1 97 1 ) , 1 70-249; see , too,J. Searle, Speech Acts (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1 969) , 2 9 . W. V. 0. Quine, Word and Object ( Cambridge, Mass. : M IT Press, 1 g6o) , 1 9 1 - 1 95; The Pur­ suit of Truth, se c o n d edition (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1 992 ) , 77ff; fo r a review of these debates, see Haack, Phzlosophy of Logics, 7 9-8 3 .

5 1 W. 52

53

HEI DEGGER ' s

C O N C E PT

O F T R U TH

we employ the following manner of expression, 'it is true that . . . , ' it is actually the form of the claim that is the essential thing. " 54 A cleare r ex­ ample of the logical prejudice than the redundancy theory of truth is scarcely imaginable ( though Heidegger would agree with its propo­ nents that any attempt to regard truth as a property is misguided ) . The truth is so intimately and narrowly identified wi th an assertion (propo­ sition,judgment) that the truth of the assertion says nothing more than the assertion itself. Even seman tic theories of truth take their beari ngs from the logical prejudice. 55 While adding nothing to the sense (or meaning) of a sen­ tence , the predicate ' true ' has a semantic function in that it points not to the sense but to the reference of a sentence. The sentence 'p is true' says that p has a determinate relation to some existing state of affairs or, equivalently, that p has a defini te truth-value. Heralding this conception of truth , Frege explains the relation of the though t to the truth as that of sense to referen ce: "It can never be a matter for us of the reference of the sentence alone; yet the mere thought also does not yield any knowledge; rather it is first yielded by the thought together with its ref­ erence, that is to say, its truth-value. Judging can be construed as pro­ gressing from a thought to its truth-value." 56 Understanding the sense of a sentence thus does not mean being acquainted wi th its truth but rather knowing what must be the case if the sentence is true and if it is .f:J 4 Go ttlob Frege , Nar:hgelassene Srhriften, second edition, e d . H . Hermes , F. Kambartel, and

F. Kaulbac h ( Hamburg: Meiner, 1 g83 ) , 1 40; see ibid . , 2 1 1 : "Im Grun d e besagt . . . der Satz 'Es ist wahr, daB 2 eine Primzahl ist' nicht mehr als der Satz '2 ist eine Primzahl, "' and 2 7 2 : "Das Wort ' wahr' hat einen Sinn , d er zum Si n n d es gan1en Satzes , indem es als Pradikat vorkommt, nicht� bei tragt." See, too, Frege, Schriften zur Logik, 1 3 9. For elab­ oration of the redun d ance the ory, see F. Ramsey, "Facts an d Pro p ositions ( 1 92 7 ) , " in Fo u ndations of Mathematio (New York: H arcourt, Brace & Co . , 1 93 1 ) , 1 3 8- 1 5 5 . See also

Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 88; Austi n , Philosophical PafJers, 1 2 6- 1 2 9 ; P. F. Strawson ,

"Truth ," ProrePdings of thf Arislotelzan Soriet)' 24 ( 1 950) : 1 2 9- 1 5 6; Quine, Pursuit of Truth, 8ofT. 55 Becker, "'ahrheit und sprachliche 1-landlung, 3 8-45 ; see \Vi ttgenstei n , Tractatus logiro-philo­ sophirus 4 .0 2 4 , 4 .06 3 ; R. Carn a p , Introdur tion to Semant ics and Formalization ofLogic (Cam­ bridge , Mass . : Harvard Un iv. Press , t g6 8 ) , 2 2 ; Davidson, In quiries in to Trut h a nd ln ter­ prp/ation, 3 7 -5 4 ; Pal1l Horwich , Truth ( Oxford: Blackwel l , 1 990) ; R. L. Kirkh am, Theories of Tru th : A Critical Introduction ( Cam bridge , Mass . : MIT, 1 992 ) . 56 Frege , '' C ber Si n n und Be d eutung," i n Fun k ti on , Begriff, Bedeutu ng, 5o; Frege , "Die Vernein ung," in /,of!:ir;rhe Un tersuchungen, 63 : 'Jahre mfthevoller C n tersuchungen ki>n­ nen 1wisc hen dem Fassen des Gedan kens und d er Ancrke n n u n g seiner Wah rheit liege n . " Frege, Srh rifiPn zur Logik, 88: "Wenn ein Satz ttbe rhaupt eine Bedeu tung hat, so ist diese en twcder d as Wahre oder das Fabche." See Becker, Wahrheit u nd sprachlidzf 1-la ndlung. 5 �>,f: a1 1d M . D u m m ett, Truth and Othn- En igmas ( Cam bridge , M ass . : Harvard { 1 n iv. Pre�s, 1 9 7 H ) , • f. 1 1 7 f.

T H E L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N

OF

T R U T II

false. The truth itself is accordingly identified with the sen tence 's ref­ erence. One thereby moves, in j udging, from the sense to the reference ( truth ) of a sentence. Those bent on working out the semantics of truth characteristically attempt to distinguish rigorously between truth and verification ( in other words , between semantic and epistem ological or psychological questions regarding the employment of the predicate ' true ' ) :rJ7 Yet this very distin ction can obviously be questioned, leading to a third conception of truth , the so-calle d pragmatic theory. 58 Once again Frege 's essays are an important source , though this approach already surface s in Peirce 's writings. Thus, just as the concept of reality for Peirce "essentially involves the notion of a community, " the conception of truth involves " the whole communion of minds." 59 So, too, Frege explains that "by objectivi ty" he does "not unders tand an indepen­ dence from reason"; "to answer the question what things are inde­ penden t of reason means to j udge wi thout judging, to wash the fur wi thout ge tting it we t." 60 This reflexive or pragmatic aspect helps Frege to round out his insight into the redundancy of employing of the predicate ' true ' : "In order to set forth something as true , we need no particular predicate , but only the assertive force with which we an­ nounce the sen tence. " 6 1 This insigh t into the way in which the concept of truth is bound, if not to reason, at least to the speaker ( "the assertive force" ) of the sen­ tence leads to the performative and pragmatic theories of truth. Ac­ cording to these theories, the meaning of the sen tence ' It is true that p' (or 'p is true ' ) can be broken down into a propositional conten t ( ' that p' ) and a performative part that is to be understood in illocutionary fashion. The 'It is true ' part of the sentence is not supe rfluous even if it adds nothing to the propositional content itself but instead merely gives notice of the relation between the speaker and this content. In other words, the assertion p by itself is merely a claim; 'p is true ' is , on the other hand, the warranting or guaranteei ng of this claim . Thus, 57 Rudolf Carna p , " \Vah rh e i t u nd Bewahrung, " Wahrheitsthemien, ed. G. Ski rbekk ( F ra nk­ fu rt am M a i n : S uh rka n1 p , 1 9 7 7 ) , 94· 58 Becker, 1-'�/ahrhPit und spra ch liche Han dlung, 2 2-26. 5 9 Charle� S. Pe irc e , Collected Papers uf Ch arles Sandn-s Peirre, ed. C . Hartshorne and P. Weiss ( Can1bridge , � ass . : H a n·a rd U n i v. Press , 1 9 6 5 ) , vol . 5: 3 1 1 , and Selected Writing5, ed. Philip P. Wiener ( New Yo rk : D over, t gfi6 ) , � 3 · 6o Freg e , Die Gru ndlnge der A rithmPtik. t..'in P lu[:;isrh-mathematis( hf UntPnuchung iiher d.en Begriff der Zah l ( D a r n 1 st a dt : V\'i .;,sen�ch aftl i c h e Buc hge �ellsc h aft, 1 g6 1 ) , 3 6 . 61 Frcge, s( hrijlfn z u r I.. o.�ik, I � 9 ·

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

Becker explains: "While the understanding of the assertion entails a knowledge that a claim as to the truth of what is asse rted has been made, the predicate ' true ' indicates explicitly that this claim can be justified, that is to say, it can be shown to be intersubjectively warranted.'' 62 In certain respects these performative and pragmatic theories of truth come much closer to Heidegger's approach to the question of truth than do redundancy and semantic conceptions. 63 For th e most part, however, the pragmatic turn is no less oriented than those other theories of truth toward the asse rtion orjudgmen t as the terminus a quo et ad quem for the determination of truth . For the pragmatic concern is wi th the stance take n toward a proposition . Moreover, even if a prag­ matic theory of truth renounces the idea of timeless truths ( veritates aeternae) and deems any criteria for determining what is true a matter of perspective , historical context, interests, and so forth , this pragmatic construal of the truth remains derivative of something more basic in Heidegger's eyes; what he variously calls "the primary being of truth" (as noted in the previous sec tion ) or "disclosedness." This last remark can be nothing more than a promissory note at this point. Indeed, it is highly precipitous, usheri ng in central considera­ tions of the following investigation, requiring extensive argumen t. Nor has justice been done in the preceding paragraphs to pragmatic theo­ ries of truth or any of the more traditional , Fregean approaches to the question of truth briefly enumerated. The aim of this exercise , however, has been merely to indicate that, despite Heidegger's ignorance of and even disdain for the nuances of this tradition, there remains reason to think that its representatives betray commitments to some version of the logical prej udice. 64 For that reason, too , Heidegger's atti tude to­ ward this tradition should not be chalked up merely to obtuseness. Whether the predicate ' true ' is regarded as something superfluous or as something that refers to the reference of a sentence and/ or to the relation of the speaker of the sentence to the sentence, Heidegger's for­ mulation of the logical prejudice remains on target: for this tradition, too, "the genuine 'site ' of truth is the judgme nt" (SZ 2 2 6 ) . 6 2 Becker, Wa h rhfil u n d sprrl(hlirhe 1-la ndlu ng, 2 9.

63 Cf. HP 1 oo- 1 07 ; Ge th m an n , H ei d e gg e rs Wah rheitskon zeption ," 1 1 5 f; Ape I , "Sinn kon­ "

stitution und (;eltung�fe rtigung," J 3 2- 1 �� 5 · G4 Here i n , too, likely l i e� part of the answer - at least from l-leidegger's van tage poi nt - to Kusc h 's query "why Freg e was i g n o re d i n the an tipsyc hologistic crusade in Gennany'' ; cf. \1arti n Kusc h , P�ychologis m: A CnsP Study in the Soriology of Philosophical KnowlPdge ( New

Yo rk: Ro u d� d�t" ,

1

�J Y:} ) ,

1

� f.

T H E L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 .3 Truth

as

29

Validity a n d the Forms of Actuality

The influence exercised by Husser! 's Logical Investigations on certain cir­ cles at the outse t of the twen tieth century can be attributed principally to the criticism of psychologism in the "Prolegomena" to this work. Yet the success of th ese arguments was somewhat dubious since the deci­ sive discoveries of the subsequent logical investigations were barely ap­ preciated or even viewed as a lapse back into psychologism . Thus, some thinkers applauded the arguments of the "Prolegomena" but did not regard them as particularly novel. Such was, for example, the view of the Marburg School, which considered itself completely clear about the difference between the objective character of the logos and any sort of "psychologism": I f Kant and th en also Cohen in his initial writings did not anxiously avoid the language of psychology, the chasm separating the transcendental from the psychological viewpoin t was nevertheless c onstantly empha­ sized. Thus, in this connection we could only gladly applaud Husser} 's nice elaborations (in the first volume of the Logical Investigations) but there was not much at all that we could learn from them. 65

This attitude toward Husserl 's investigations is strenously contested by Heidegger, not si mply because it fundamentally mistakes their import, but above all because it just as mistakenly presumes to have settled the problem of the relation between psychology and logic. Heidegger ac­ cordingly attempts to unearth the historical reasons for this attitude and its kneejerk approval of Husserl 's arguments against psychologism . One important root of the attitude is to be found, he contends, in the concept of validity ( Geltung) that emerged from Lotze 's interpretation of Plato and discussion of the forms of actuality. As has already been noted, the influence of Lotze 's Logic and, in par­ ticular, the concept of validity that is its legacy can scarcely be overesti­ mated in Heidegger's view. 66 Even in his early essay "Recent Research 65 Natorp, "Kant und die Marburger Schule," Kant-Studien 1 7 ( 1 9 1 3 ) : 1 g8 ; see Cohen , Die Logik der reznen Erkenntnis, 56; Sigwart, Logik, 2 3 n . Heidegger cites Natorp 's claim re­ peatedly; cf. FS 1 9 , 63f; L 5 1 ; P 3 1 . 66 Hermann Lotze ( 1 8 1 7- 1 88 1 ) received his higher degrees in medicine and philosophy at the University of Leipzig before beginn i ng an influential career as Herbart 's succes­ sor at the U n iversity of Gt>ttingen , where he lectured and publ ished on the philosophy of nature , aesthetics, logic, psychology, and metaphysics from 1 844 to 1 8� 1 . Cf. Carl Stumpf, "Ztun Gedachtnis Lotzes ," Kant-Studi.en 2 2 ( 1 g 1 H ) : 1 -26; and George San­ tayana, Lotze '!1 System of Philosophy, e d . P. G. Kuntz ( Bloomington : L'niversi ty of Indiana Press, 1 97 1 ) .

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT O F TR U T H

on Logic," Heidegger notes that Lotze 's Logic, while overtaken in cer­ tain respects, "can still be regarded as the fundamental book of mod­ ern logic" ( GA 1 : 2 3 n. g ) . In his logic lectures he explains why. Hei­ degger attributes Lotze 's influence to the fact that Lotze's account of the concept of validity cemen t'i the logical prejudice in the minds of a generation of thinkers by providing i t with an on tological framework . In this connection it is significant that Heidegger discusses the Lotzean concept of validi ty with his students bifore confronting Husserl 's concep t of truth . This sequence does not mean that Heidegger takes Husserl 's phenomenological determination of truth to be merely another ver­ sion of the traditional concept of trttth . As is explained in greater de­ tail in the next chapter, H usserl 's explanation of truth in terms of a ful­ filling or realizing in tui tion is regarded by Heidegger as a genuin e breakthrough i n the determination of truth. Nevertheless, Heidegger insists that the logical prej udice , precisely as i t is refined and reinforced by Lotze 's ontological account of the concept of validi ty, preven ts Husser! from appreciating the depth of his own discoveries.

I. 3 I The Criticism of Psycholog;ism and Heidegger's Ambivalence. "If we are honest, none of us today can say what psychology is" ( L 35 ) . With this sentence at the outset of his discussi on of psychologism, Heidegger points to the ambiguous character of the concept of psychology. The ambiguity, he suggests, can be traced bac k to the fact that ancients con­ ducted their study of psychology, not as a separate philosophical disci­ pline, but in terms of two different disciplines, ethics and zoology: "As science of bios, psychology belongs to ethics; as the science of zoe, it be­ longs to physics" (L 34£) . This quandary over the content and nature of psychology led to attempts to unify the sciences or give one priority over the other. Nor is there any less c onfusion, Heidegger submits, i n the present, a s evidenced by the fact that people talk o f 'psychology' i n two senses. Some construe psychology as the explanation o f mental phenomena on the basis of causal laws; others as the way of under­ standing what i t means to be alive i n the sense of existing. 67 In the Pro67 Wilheln1 vVundt, " Uber die Defin i tion der Psychologi e , " PhilosophischP Studim 1 2 : 1 -6 6 ,

t>sp.

1 2 : " Psych ologie ist eine en1pi rische Wissenschaft . . . . "; and "Logisch e Streitfra­ gen , '' Viertfljahrssrhrift fiir wis!;m5rhajllichf Philosophie 6 ( 1 H H 2 ) : 34 5 : "Di e Natu rgese tt­ lichkeit fii h rt von selbst 1u bel) t i m m ten Normen , die nun als Regeln des ric h t ige n Denke ns al1 gemei n en psychologisch e n Sto rungen, die das Dcnken einem u n richtige n machen , gege n (tbertreten " ; cf. F S 89 n . 2 7 . Wilhelm Dilth ey, " ldeen iiber hesc h rc i b e n d e und zergli edernde Psychologie" ( 1 894) , in GesammRltP Srhriften, vol . f> , ed. (;eorg M i sc h ( Stu ttgart: Tt> u b l l l l t' t , 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 3 0- �40; c f. 1 ,l.j : " � a t u r c rklaren w i r, d a "i

T H E LO G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N OF T R U T H

legomena Lectures Heidegger cites Wilhelm Wundt's (;rundrij3 der phy­ siologischen Psychologie ( Basic Outline of Physiological Psychology) as a prime example of the first conception and Wilhelm Dilthey's "Ein­ leitung in die Geisteswissenschaften " ( Introduction to the Humanities) as a main source of the latter. 58 This ambiguity, which Heidegger re­ gards as a "sign of contemporary existence 's disintegration from within,'' will be a key to his confrontation with HusserI (L 3 6 ) . At the outset of his logic lectures, however, Heidegge r merely introduces this ambiguity without further comment. Nonetheless, he thereby signals his objection to both sides of the debate over psychologism , those who speak in favor of and those who speak against psychology's role in logic . 69 The meaning of the contention is by no means obvious if nei­ ther side of the debate is clear about its point of departure. Of course , not knowing what psychology is did not prevent some from propounding and others from challenging the thesis that logic is a part or branch of psychology. For the justification of the thesis there is a familiar argument readily available: Logic is concerned with the cor­ rectness of thinking and thus the laws proper to thinking. Where are the laws of thinking to be procured? Obviously from thinking itself! From the fact that thinking is "a mental occurrence " or "mental phe­ nome na" and the latter are part of the subject matter of psychology, i t follows that logic is " a psychological disciplin e" (FS 2 of; L 37£) . Versions of this inference can be found, Heidegger notes (following Husse rl ) , in John Stuart Mill 's An Examination ofSir William Hamilton s Philosophy and Theodor Lipps 's Grundzuge der Logik. 70 What the inference more pre­ cisely means depends upon the respective conception of psychology. Heidegger notes how, for example , the rules for correct thinking ( in­ cluding the principle of noncontradiction ) are understood by Mill as Psychische verstehen wir.'' For Heidegger's initial engagement with psychologism , see his second publication , noted above, and his dissertation DiP LP-hre vom Urteil im Psycho­ logismus: Ezn kritisrh-p(nitiver BP.itrag zur Logik, which exam ines the theories of Wilhelm Wundt, Hei n rich Maier, Franz Brentano, Anton M arty, and Theodor Lipps ( FS 59- 1 8 8) . For a review of the sociology behind th e psych ologism controversy, see Kusc h 's useful P!Jychologi�m. 68 P 1 5 , 1 gf. While conceding that both "psycho physics" and "empirical psychology" are part of psychology, Wundt argues that it should be unde rstood p rimarily as "experi­ mental psyc hol ogy." 6g Heidegger may h ave hims�lf in mind ( recall his disse rtation and endorsement of Frege 's a n tipsychologism) . Hus'ierl 's own suggestions of a rapprochement between logic and psychology sh ould also n o t be overlooked ; c f. LU I !)8. 7o Heidegger c i te s L U I 7 �H and 5 2 , hu t th e passages from M i l l and Lipps that he mentions a n=- to hP fo n n rl n n T . l r I 5 1 .

' H E I D EG G E R S C O N C E PT O F TRUTH

"generalizations from facts," both mental and physical, and by Lipps, Christoph Sigwart, and Benno Erdmann as "the natural laws of think­ ing" that can be traced back to the nature of the mind, in the sense not of an absolute , but of a hypothetical "uniformity of the constitution of our nature and species. "7 1 As th is last remark m akes clear, psychologism amounts to a kind of anth ropologism, an observation that, once again, is made by Husser! and merely iterated in the logic l ectures by Heideg­ ger. As might be expected from the lectures, Heidegger's exposition of Husse rl 's critique of psychologism is somewhat truncated but nonethe­ less effective for his thematic and pedagogical purposes. 72 He boils the critique down to two basic and, in the end, interdependen t objections. The effort to construe logic as a branch of psychology is faulted for its underlying inconsistency and fundamental oversights. Psychologistic theories, Heidegger contends, are self-defeati ng because they are the­ ories that undermine the very possibility of theory. The operative as­ sumption of this first criticism, as Heidegger observes, is that a theory is supposed to present a necessary, that is, justified combination of true sentences and that one and the same sentence can not be both true and false - for example, true for one person or group and false for another. ( This presumption is related to Husserl 's very conception of the nature and purpose of logical investigations, a conception initially accepted in good measure by Heidegger himself, as noted earlier. ) If the rules of correct thinking are traced back to some mental condi tion or predis­ position , be it that of an individual or the species, these rules are valid only for that mental state and only as long as their validity is identifiable in instances of that men tal state. So construed, the rules of thinking enj oy merely a relative validity that excludes any necessary justification or theoretical conception (L 43ff; LU I 1 1 2 £) . 7 1 L 39-43 ; cf. Th eodor Lipps, " D i e Aufgabe de r Erke n ntnisth eorie und die Wun d t 'sc h e Logik," Philosophiscllf Monatsh�fte I t) ( 1 �8o ) : 5 3of: " [ D ] ie Rege l n , n a c h d e n e n 1nan ,·e r­ fah ren muH ,

urn

verfa h ren tn u B ,

ri ch tig tun

so

lU

7\l

den ke n , s i n d nichts ande res a)s Rege l n , nach de nen man

den ke n , wi e es die Eige nart des Denken�, �ei ne be�iondt>rt'

(�esetzm aBigkei t , ve rlangt, ktt rzer ausgedriiCkt, sie si n d iden tisch m i t den Naturgese tl­ en des Denke n s . " '-"''hile acknowl edging that Li pps n1 oved beyond th is early " n aturali�­

by H uss e r! , H e i degge r c h a rges i n h i s d i �­ to gro u nd l o gica l theory i n psyc hology by c o n s t r u i n g th e 1o g ical j udg-ment to l i e i n a mental ac t ( recogn i tion ) ; cf. FS 1 2 5 f , 1 4 8f,

tic-real ist i c '' co n c e p tion

'iO

sharply c ritic it.ed

sert.ation th at Li pps co n ti n ued essence of th e

1 5 7[, and L U I 5 2 f, 1 3 7 f.

7 2 For an ove rvi ew of l-J usserl 's argum e n ts and th e i r ro ots in Frege , �ee Kusc h , Ps),rhologism, 4 1 - 6� L

T H E LOGI C A L C O N C E PT I O N OF TRUTH

33

This objection to psychologism is hardly convincing, sin ce it pro­ ceeds from a specific theory of theories that, in effect, begs the ques­ tion. It bears recalling that Heidegger claims, as early as his dissertation , that no positive proof can be mounted against psychologism ; it can be refuted only by indicating its "relativistic consequences" (FS 1 65 ) . It is by no means obvious that only a combination of true sentences, estab­ lished with rigorous necessity, qualifies as a theory. Ordinary usage and, indeed , some established usage of the term provide ample warrant for dubbing a "theory" any systetn of generalizations capable of explaining a factual connection with some degree of probability. At the same time, for all its prima facie plausibility, this riposte can itself be regarded as question-begging. If it does not presume that the conditions of a theory can be determined wi thout regard for the object of the theory, then it supposes that the subject matter of logical th eory is as much a matter of factual expe rience as the uses of the te rm ' the­ ory' are. Husserl 's second obj ection to psychologism takes it to task pre­ cisely for misconstruing or overlooking the subject matter of logic ( the very obj ection applied by Heidegge r to psychologistic theories of the judgment in h is dissertation ) . The import of Husse rl 's second objection is, in other words, that the object of logic (including the establishme nt of the laws of inference) does, indeed, demand the theoretical rigor­ ousness supposed by the initial objection. The first objection is, as Hei­ degger puts it, the one "based most on prin ciple," but the second pos­ sesses "a definite trenchancy" (L 45 ) . Heidegger sums up the arguments making up Husserl 's second, sub­ stantive objection as follows. In its attempt to establish logical principles on the basis of men tal facts, psychologism confuses: 1 what is thought ( the states of affairs meant in the judgmen ts) with

thinking (judgments as mental occurren ces) ; 2 logical n ecessi ty with real , causal dependency; 3 ideal validi ty with inductive hypothesis; and 4 apodictic with factual certain ty. In sum , the essence of psychologism is a confusion of "real mental be­ ing wi th the ideal being of laws" ( L 53 ) . The "basic mistake" underly­ ing this confusion on the part of psychologism is its obliviousness to an o ntological difference: "Th e fu n damental failing of psychologism lies ultim ately in overlooking the difference of a basic diversity in the being o f the en tity, ( L s o) .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

34

What is overlooked by psychologism is the fundamental difference between being real and being ideal. 'Truth ' stands not for something real in the sense of some mental happening or positing, but rathe r something ideal : "the said a s such - the proposition" ( L 54) . The rea­ son that this on to logical difference is overlooked is "a naturalistic atti­ tude" or "the dominance of naturalism ," according to which everythi n g i s experienced and interpreted as a reality of nature (L 49f; FS t g ) . The appreciation , by contrast, of the fundamental difference between a truth and an eve n t, the ideal being of a proposition and the real bei n g o f judging, goes back to a distinction worked out by Plato between a persisting idea and transient variations of its concrete realization in s e n­ sory objects. Thus, an identical propositional content is meant in a po­ ten tially endless series of instances and despite changing and even ar­ bitrary judgings of it. Fully in accord with this Platonic sense , Husser} writes: "Truth is an idea, the individual instance of which in an evident judgment is an ac­ tual experience" ( LU I 1 90 ) . This formulation is ambiguous since ' i n­ dividual instance ' can be understood in the sense of what is judged o r the judging act. Overlooking this ambiguity, Husser! construed the idea as the genus for the judging acts or, in other words, "the truth as th e ideal correlate of the fleeting subjective cogni tive act. " While the judg­ ing act is "a fleeting experience ," the meaning of the assertion is "a valid unity in itself" ( Geltungseinheit in sick) (LU I 2 2 9; LU II/ 1 43£) . Sho rtly after the publication of the Logical Investigations, however, Husserl gave up this conception of the i ndividual instance in terms of the judging act. 7 3 Neverth eless, this reference to Plato 's doctrine of ideas, toge ther with the confusion of what is judged with the ac t ofj udging, points to a more immediate source of the conception of truth as an ideal bei ng. Not only for Husserl, but for many of his con temporaries, this concep­ tion was simply self-evident and, indeed, so patently obvious that, H ei­ degger suggests, it helps explain why H usserl 's critic ism of psych olo7 �-3 L 5 8-6 2 ; cf. Gethn1an n , " Hei degge rs \NahrheitskonLe p tion,"

1 o8f. Geth man n does n ot

take into acco u n t tha t H e id egge r twice etnphasizes that H uss e r] gaYe up this basi c nl is­

take . Hei degge r's cri tical confron tation with H u s s e r ] accordi ng}} is n o t centered on this poin t. Geth m an n

also

i� o f the \'i e\v th at H eidegge r trace� H usserl 's rnistak e , not to a

confu�ion of co n t e nt and act, bu t ra th e r to an a ttempt to con s t r ue the ( p ragm a t i c ) re­ la t ion of th e j udgmen t'� conte n t to the j udgi ng act as a ( sen1anti c ) rel ation of a ge nus t o a spe c i es . B u t Heid egger's d iscussion of the c on ten t and act ofj u dgi ng d o e � n o t i rn­

a whol esale ren u n ciation of t h e ge nus-spec i es d i s t i ncqon . H e rn erely mainta i ns that "the ' u ni versal ' as conte n t of th e judgm e n t - the sense - specifies i tself only to t h i s a n d t h a t se nse, u evt> r ro a( b " ( L G 1 ) . ply

TH E LOGI CA L CONC EPTI ON OF TRUTH

35

gism was so roundly - and uncritically - applauded. But, then , what ac­ counts for the apparent obviousness of this conception of truth? If one looks for the historical roots of this self-certain ty, one "chief root" is un­ mistakable: Lotze 's interpre tation of Plato 's doc trine of ideas and a con­ cept sketched in line wi th this interpretation: the concept of validity ( Geltung) . I.3 2

The Roots of the Criticism of Psychologism: Lotze s Concept of Validity. Lotze 's concept of validity cements the logical prejudice in the out­ look of a generation of philosophically minded logicians. Th e longtime Gottingen professor's far-reaching influence, proceeding hand in hand wi th his interpretation of Plato 's doctrine of ideas, had been appreci­ ated long before Heidegger's discussion of it. 74 Bridging the two halves of nineteenth-century academic philosophy in Germany, Lotze coun ted among his studen ts Frege , Carl Stumpf ( Husserl 's Doktorvater) , Josiah Royce, Georg Muller (an early experimental psychologist) , and the founders of the two major schools of Neo-Kantianism: Wilhelm Windelband and Herman n Cohen . 75 In the Logical Investigations Husser! speaks of Lotze 's "decisive influence" upon him; in 1 9 1 1 Lask observes that "Lotze 's development of the sphere of validity has shown the way for contemporary philosophical researc h. " 76 Three years later Heinrich Rickert's essay ''On Logical and Ethical Validity" appears, as does The Problem of Validity by his studen t Arthur Liebert, to mention only two of the many studies devoted at that time to the theme of va­ lidity (Geltung) . Via the philosophical projects ofWindelband and Rick­ ert, Lotze 's doc trine of validity becomes a philosophy of value in gen­ eral , as the concept of validity is joined toge ther with the three basic values - the true, the good , and the beautiful - that are supposed to cor­ respond to Kan t's three Critiques. In the essay mentioned above, Rick­ ert argues that value is the object of knowledge in the sense that, by judging ("the genuine , basic form of knowing" ) , one "recognizes some­ thing that obtains [gilt] timelessly. " This argument is also to be found zu den P roblen1en der Gegenwart," 7.-eitsrhriftfur Philosophie und philosophische Kritik 1 50 ( 1 9 1 3 ) : 1 7f; A. Liebert, Das Problem d�r Geltung, second edition ( Leipzig: Meiner, 1 9 20) , 4 · 75 See Richard Falkenberg, Hermann Lotze, Enter Teil: Das Leben und die En tsteh u ng der Schriften nach den Brzefen ( Stu t tgart: From m a n n , t go 1 ) , 1 o6ff; Fri tL Bamberger, Unter­ s u ch u ngm zur Entstehung df'J �Vertproblem \ in der Phi los op h ie des 1 9 . ja h rh u n der ts (Halle: N ieme yer, 1 9 2 4 ) , 40-9 1 . 76 LU I 2 2 7 ; Lask, LoK�k dn- Philosophie, 1 2 .

74 Richard Falken berg, "Hermann Lotze: sein Verhaltnis z u Ka n t und Hegel und

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

in "Two Paths o f Epistemology" ( I gog) , where h e distinguishes the "science of being" from the "pure science of valtte , " the problem of wh ich is "only th e validi ty [Geltung] of theoretical values." 77 "The prob­ lem of philosophy is th e validity of axioms," Windelband declares. 78 In conformity wi th the tack taken in Windelband 's Introduction to Philoso­ phy, Liebert in The Problem of Validity distinguishes psychological and logical series of validity, "two self-enclosed, self-grounded formation s o f validity, that can b e derived neither from one ano ther nor from any h igher principle superordinate to them . " In deliberate opposition to Dilthey (as well as pragmatism, Vaih inger, and Bergson ) , Liebert em­ phasizes the theoretical viewpoin t of logical validity and "its superior­ ity even to everything that is designated as life." Th us, Liebert declares his program: " The Logos of validity and validity of the Logos, the Logos as validity and validity as the Logos - that is what must b e proven, must be shown . " 79 In connection with this legacy of the Lotzean conception of validity, Bruno Bauch writes (a few years before Heidegger's logic lectures) : "Through Lotze the concept of validity has been c o nceived as the fun­ damental concept not only of philosophy but of all science and all knowledge . " 80 Nor should Heidegger's own endorsement of this use of the term i n his dissertation and habilitation be overlooked. Comment­ ing upon Scotus's understanding of the copula insofar as it establishe s a unity between the elements o f ajudgment, Heidegger observes: "And, of course, ' est ' does not mean ' existing, ' being actual after the manner of sensory and supersensory objects. What is meant instead is the manner of actuality ('esse verum ') , for which we have available to us today thefortunate 7 7 Rickert, Der Gegenstand der Erken ntnis, 5 7 , and "Zwei Wege der Erkenntnistheorie," 2 0 7 ,

esp . 2 I o: "Nur der Wert, der vollkom men in sich ruht, der als solcher ganz unabhan gig ist von j eder Bezi ehung auf ein Sei n und vollends auf ein Subjekt, an das er sich we n­ det, ist der transcendente Gege nstand: das Wese n des Transcendenten geht ganz auf i n seiner unbedingter Geltung. '' For m o re o n Rickert's importance to Heidegger's early developmen t, see Strube, Zur Vorgesrhiclzte, 1 5-24. 7 8 W. Windelban d, "Kritische oder gene tische Methode?" ( I 8 8 3 ) , Praludien, fifth , e x­ panded edition (Tubinge n : Mohr, I 9 1 5 ) , vol . 1 , p. 30; vol . 2 , p. 1 o8 ; Einleitung in dzr> Philosophie ( Tubi nge n : Mohr, 1 9 1 4 ) , 2 I 1 f; cf. ZBP 3 1 ff. 7 9 Liebert, J)as Problem der Geltung, 1 6f. On the wide-ranging significance of the concept o f validity, see also Leo Ssalagoff, "Vom Begriff des Geltens i n der modernen Logi k," Zeitsrhrift fiir Phii-Dsophie und philosophische Kritik 1 43 ( 1 9 1 1 ) : 1 4 3 , 1 47f; and F. Miinch , Erlebnzs und Geltu ng, eine sy!> tematisrhe Untersuchung zur Transzr>ndnztalphilosophie als Weltan­ srhauung ( B erli n : Reu ther & Re ichard , 1 9 1 3 ) . Ho Bauch, Wahrheit, Wn-t und Wirklirhkeit, 36; see also I , I I , 4 : G e l tu n g und Gii l ti gkeit" a n d I , III, 1 : "Wah rheit, Sac hve rhal t u n c.l Ge l tu n g . " Sec , too , LV II/ 1 43f. "

T H E L O G I C A L C O N C E P TIO N O F T R U T H

37

expression 'to be valid ' [Gelten]."RI It is accordingly not surprising to read Heidegge r a decade later remarking to his students that "validity . . . has become as it were the magic word for logic today. " But it must also be made clear why this magic word also is at bottom, he adds, "a ball of confusion , helplessness, and dogmatism" ( L 7 9 ) . But first, an explanation is in orde r for translating the magic word here as 'validity. ' Along wi th the corresponding verb ' gelten ' and adjec­ tive 'gii ltig, ' ' Geltung has a rich history of uses in German, rangi ng from expressions of commercial exchange and religious atonement to ex­ pressions of acceptance, righ tness, and even decisiveness, for example , "my dollar is worth (gilt) twenty-six cents"; "what you don 't min t, you think does not count (gelte) "; "no prophet is accepted (gilt) in his own land"; "a law is in force (in Geltung) ." 82 This wide range of uses perhaps explains the magic of the term for transcendental logicians. In any case , Kluge 's etymological dic tionary (which Heidegger used) indicates that the verb initially meant ' to be of value ' (ist wert) but now signifies ' to be valid' ( ist gii ltig) . R3 In logic texts and studies of logic by Heidegge r's predecessors, the verb and adjective are predicated of concepts, j udg­ ments, inductive inferences, tnodes of syllogisms, and so-called laws of thinking. This usage is plainly wider than that of 'valid' and 'validity' in FS 2 6 g ; 1 70: "Lotze has found the decisive designation for it in our Germ an language: next to a ' that is ' there is a ' that is valid. " ' See the opening section of the concluding chapter of Heidegger's dissertation, "§ 1 Logischer Gegenstand und Geltung," wh ich he relates back to Lotze (FS 1 66- 1 70) . Heidegger later admits that his habilitation em­ ployed Lotze 's distinctions; cf. L 64. For Heidegger's remarks on "the philosophy of value," see L 8 2-8 5 . 8 2 Etymologically linked t o the term fo r money ( Geld) , ' Geltung' and its cognates are often used in a commercial sense to indicate an equivalence or value (Goethe 2 : 267 : "sechs und zwanzig groschen gilt mein Thaler") or a figurative use that borrows from the com­ merical use (Goethe: "Was ihr nich t miinzt, das, mei n t ihr, gelte nicht") . Currency and things like currency that are recognized or accepted everywhere are said to be valid, to be worth something, to have a value (gelten) . Th ere are related, religious uses (com­ pe nsation , atonement, sacrifice, or penance) and an important j uridical use ( ein Gesetz ist in Geltung) ; cf. Matthew 1 3 :57: "Ein Prophet gilt n i rgend we niger als in seinem Vater­ lande und im eigenen Hause"; Luther: "da sie horete n, es giilde nich t anbetens oder opferns. " ' f:S gilt' can also signify 'it's right' in the sense of a quotidian as well as a fate­ ful, decisive moment; cf. Sch iller, Kabale und Liebe, I I , 5: "Es ist n i cht wah nsinn, was aus m i r redt>t . . . entschlusz in dem geltenden augenblick." For these and many other exam­ ples, see Jacob and Wi lhelm Grim m , Deutjches Worterbuch, vol . 5, revised by R. Hilde­ brand and H. Wunderlich ( M u n i c h : Deutsch er Taschenbuch Verlag, 1 9 84 ) , 3°66-3 099· 83 Kl u g e , r:t_vnologi�rhes Wortrrh uch dn- deutsrhen ,,prachf', twe n ty-th i rd, expanded edition , ed . El mar Se e b o l d ( Be rl i n : de Gruyter, I 99F) ) , 3 I o: "Die h e u t i ge Bedeutung [von 'gel ten ' ] fu h r t i"• ber ' i "t wer t ' 1 u ' ist �i' d tig. "' 81

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT

0 1-' T R U T H

con temporary Anglo-American discussions of formal logic, where these terms are generally reserved for designati ng a relation be tween two or more statements that is supposed to form an argument or inference . 8 4 For this reason , translating ' Geltung as 'validity' can be misleading. However, the terms 'valid ' and "validity' in English are oth e rwise used as broadly as 'giiltig and ' Geltung' in German, often signifyi ng a sense of value (with which the English terms are etymologically linked) . 85 Nor does there appear to be a more suitable translatio n . O ther possi­ bilities would be certain uses of the terms ' hold, ' 'count, ' and 'obtain ' i n the sense of 'prevail ' or ' matter. ' While these terms are adequate translations of the verb ' gelten, ' one of them - 'obtain ' - is perfectly suited as a translation for another term (bestehen) that is central to Lotze 's ontology. While the verbs ' hold' and 'count' in this connection are unobjectionable, the corresponding nouns, if they are usable in this manner at all , retain little of the valence that is supposed to be conveyed by ' Geltung. ' 86 In short, 'validity ' is not perfect but seems to be the most sui table translation of ' Geltung. ' For Heidegger the decisive p assages in Lotze 's Log;ic are the first two chapters of the third and last book ("On Knowing ( Me thodology) " ) . The i nterpretation of Plato, so i mportan t for an entire generation of philosophers, is to be found i n the second chapter, enti tled "The World of ldeas." 87 However, the first chapter ( " O n Skepticism " ) should not be C. Sa l m o n , Logic (Englewood Cliffs, N J . : Prentice-Hall, 1 963 ) , 1 8 : " Validity i s a p rop­ erty of arguments, wh ic h are groups of s tatements, not of in dividual s ta tem ents. Truth, on the other h a n d , is a p ro per ty of individual sta tements, not of argu1n e n ts . " W. V. 0 . Quine, Methods of Logic, 46: "In a wo rd, i m p l i c a t i o n is val i d i ty o f th e c o n d i ti o n al . " See , however, Aye r, Language, Truth, and Logic, 8 7 : "For i t is easy to see that t h e purp ose of a ' theory of truth ' is s i m pl y to describe the c riteria by which the val i dity of various kinds o f pro po s i ti on s is de termi ned." 85 S h a ke s p e a re , Hamlet, III, i i , 1 98- t gg: "Purpose is but th e sl ave to mem orie;/ Of vi o l e n t Bi rth , but poor validitie. " 86 Roderick Chisholm. Theory of Knowledge, se c o nd edition (Engl ewood Cliffs , 1\: :J . : P re n ­ tice-Hall, 1 97 7 ) , 88: "A p ro p o s i ti on , we 1nay say, is trW' if and o n ly if it obtains . '' \t\'hi k i t may b e ap p rop ri a te to s pe a k o f a p ro p os i t i o n "obtaini ng" o r t o say that a n axiom "holds , " tal k of the " ob tai n i n g " o r " h o ldin g" it�e lf is awkward . The d i ffi c u l ty, of course . is fi nding s u i ta bl y i l l uminati n g co;ynonytns fo r ' true' and ' truth , ' syno nyn1 s that w o u l d tran slate "gelten" and " Gel t u n g . '' 8 7 Ac c o rdi n g to Liebert, Lotze 's i n te rp r e ta ti on of the P la ton ic doctri n e of i deas i n fl ue n c ed Hennan n Cohen , Paul Natorp , Nicolai Hartm an n , Bruno Bau c h , Karl VorHinder, and Wilhe l m Windelband; c-f. Liebe rt, Da fi Problem dn- Geltung, 205 n. 1 . In certain respect�. even H ei d e gg e r 's own late r, crit i c a l i n terpre tati ons of Pl a�o 's d o c t r i n e of t r u t h reflect a

84

LotLean readin g of Plato.

T H F. L O G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N O F T R U T H

39

overlooked, since the essen tial elemen ts of Lotze 's epistemology be­ come evident there in the course of his attempt to mount a method­ ological refutation of skepticism . In that first chapter Lotze undertakes "to uncover the intrinsic un­ tenability of th at wondrous worry about whether, in the end, everything may be in itself different from what it must seem to us in accord with the necessity of thinki ng." He argues that the question itself is fraudu­ lent si nce any decision regarding it "presupposes the recognition of the competence of th inki ng." Moreover, the question dubiously presup­ poses as well "that our knowledge is determined to mirror a world of things." In order to deconstruct this presupposition , Lotze attempts to show "that nothing else but the connection of our representations with one another can constitute the object of our investigations" (Lotze

48gff) . Heidegger's exposition of Lotze 's treatment of skepticism is not com­ pletely fai thful . AS Yet the inexactness of the exposition on some counts does not affect its central aim, namely, to call attention to th e funda­ men tally Cartesian stance of Lotze 's reflections. On this point, more­ over, Heidegge r is certainly right. Lotze 's argument against the skeptics (such as Sextus Empiricus) rests upon the basic thesis that represen ta­ tions form "the only thing that is immediately given, from which our knowledge can begin" (Lotze 493 , 498; L 64 £) . This basic thesis has pre­ dictable consequences for Lotze 's conception of truth. Thus, the truth is not to be discovered by means of a comparison of representations with reality "which , as long as it is not known, is not on hand for us but, as soon as it is represented, is subj ect to the same doubts that obtain for all other representations as such." Instead, the truth consists "solely i n universal laws o f combination . . . that find themselves confirmed in a definite majority of representations without exceptions as ofte n as these representations repeatedly surface in our consciousness" ( Lotze 4 97£) . Lotze concludes with th e obse rvation that he regards the representa­ tions themselves - not their alleged relation to a world of things - as the as attempting to ')how that the conception of truth underlyi ng skep­ ticism is a prej udice. But that is l i te rally not the case : in th e first place, Lotze does not directly speak of "truth ," but of "knowledge"; in the second place, talk of knowledge as "mirroring" is deemed by him a "presupposition ," not a "prej udice ." The independence of th e world is also a "presupposition" that, n1oreover, can be righ t or wrong. Lotze does asc ribe to skeptics l i ke Sextus Empiricus th e prej udice "of the on-handness [Vorhanden­ sein] of that world in itse lf, opposite w h i c h kn owing is placed"; cf. Lotze 502 , 490.

88 H e pre�ents Lotze

HEI DEGGER' S

C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

"material" of his work. The work itself, including his n ext chapter on "The World of Ideas, " is supposed to ascertain where, wi thin the repre­ sen tations, "the original, fixed points of certainty lie" ( Lotze 503£) . According to Lotze , those "fixed points of certainty" wi thin our world of representations are precisely what Plato sets his sights on with his doctrine of ideas. He stresses once again that this sort of certain ty has nothing to do with the question of an agreement with some presup­ posed essence of things (Lotze 5o6f) . Decisive in Lotze 's eyes is Plato 's claim that mental stirrings, for example the sensation or the impression of red, a sensation or impression that we receive, can be distinguished in a fundamen tal way from the content that we en tertain or represent to ourselves. At the outset of his Logic, Lotze describes the transform ation of an impression into a representation , a transformation tha t takes place by means of naming. "We now place before ourselves that which can be sensed, placing it before ourselves no longer as a condi tion of our suffering, but rather as a world of ideas that is in i tself what it is and means what it means and con tinues to be and mean this, regardless of whether our consciousness is directed at it or not" (Lotze 1 5 ; see also 507 ) . Despite the constant alteration of both the inner and oute r world, one thereby obtains ideas that are "not fleeting, but rath er etern ally self­ same and indepe ndent. " As grounds for "eternally val i d , true claims" ("Sweetness itself does not become sourness" ) and th ereby "an unal­ terable system of thought," those ideas form "the first worthy an d fixed obj ect of an immutable knowledge" ( Lotze 508£) . Lotze 's assumpti on that consciousn ess and representations consti­ tute Plato 's point of departure much as they do Descartes 's is, He ideg­ ger rightly notes, as erroneous as it is anachronistic. Moreove r, wi th its close kinship to the already mentioned ambiguity of the term ' psy­ chology, ' this assumption abets the general approval accorded the log­ ical prejudice . However, what especially roots the logical prej udice in the minds of many is the con cept of truth that Lotze works out on the basis of his in terpre tation of Plato . On th is in terpretation , ' true ' desig­ nates the ideas, for example , the color as such and th e sotlnd as such , in other words, the constan t and self-same con tents th at are always at hand in con trast to their instan tiations, whether cogn i zan ce is taken of them or not. To his credi t, Lotze does not shy away from the key question that emerges from this interpretation , namely, what sort of thing is an idea? Is there "still some predicate, difficult to determine" appropriate to it? I s i t "sotn e sort of being o r ac tuality''? Lotze observes that an idea i s

T H E L O G I C A L CON CEPT I O N OF T RUTH

"something" and "not nothing" since one idea is distinguished from another; but that at the same time th is "some thing" is not the actuality of a thing that is purely of itself even when it is not an object for any­ one. Ideas are characterized, he maintains, by "a certain element of af­ firmation" or "affirmedness" (Bejahtheit) that remains even when any sense of being-a-thing is denied them . 89 "Mfirmedness" here is not sup­ posed to designate something produced or posi ted. That something is "affirmed" says instead that in some sense it is already there and is rec­ ognized by means of the affirmation . As these qualifications make clear, the expression ' affirmedness' is obviously misleading, in addition to bei ng contrived. For this reason Lotze proposes a corresponding word in common currency. For the designation of this in German , the word ' actuality' serves here . We label "actual" a thing th at is, also an event that happens, a re­ .

.

.

.

.

.

lation that obtains ; finally, we label "actually true" a sentence that is valid, in contrast to one the validity of which is still questionable yo .

.

.

Every actuality takes one of these four forms, "none of which 1s re­ ducible to the other" (Lotze 5 1 1 £) . Lotze thus distinguishes four irreducible forms of actuality: ( 1 ) the being of things, ( 2 ) the happening of events, ( 3 ) the obtaining of rela­ tions, and (4) th e validity of sentences ( truths) . The distinction is, to be sure, questionable in several respects . Neither what distinguishes the forms from one another nor what renders them similar ( "actuality" or, equivalently, ''affirmedness" ) is clarified. Is not a sentence in a certain respect a relation? How is a th ing to be distinguished from an event? Can 't a relation happen? In these and other ways, as Heidegger re­ marks, the distinctions overlap (L 7 4f; ZBP 1 99 ) . Particularly striking as well is the restriction of 'being' (and ' real ' ) to things in the sense of 'sensory or material th ings. ' Lotze declares that the actuality of being "could only be ascribed to an enduring thing'' and that it is proper to "the individual thing alone" ( Lotze 5 1 6ff) . In this way, Heidegger ob-

8g Heidegger sup poses in his logic lectures that this use of 'Bejahung ' can be traced back

to Lotze ' s co nfro n tati on with Herbart; cf. L 68 . B u t see also Heid egger's re mark on Rick­

en's ':J asinn" i n FS 1 76 n . g as we ll as his discussion of a related sense of affi rm ation fo r Kan t in GP 5 2-5 7 . g o Lo tze 5 1 1 : "Fur d i e deutsche Bezeich n u n g d ien t h i e rt.:u das Wort Wirklichkeit. Den n wi rkl ich nennen wir e i n Di ng, wel ches ist, . . . auch ein Ereign i B , wel ches geschieht, . . . ein Verhaltn is, welches bestf'ht . ; e nd lich wi rklich w a h r n e n nen wi r einen Satz, welcher gilt, im Gegensatz zu d e n1 , dessen Ge l tu n g n oc h fragl i c h ist. " .

.

' HEIDEGGER S

C O N C EPT O F TRUTH

serves, Lotze makes a silen t but decisive concession to the prevailing naturalism of the nineteenth century, which he otherwise so energeti­ cally con tests . This naturalistic orientation of the uses of ' being' and 'actuality' is fatally shared, in Heidegger's view, by the subsequent gen­ eration of critics of psychologism, including Husser!. That concession has a direct and major bearing on Lotze's influen­ tial interpre tation of Plato's doctrine of ideas. Lotze is of the opinion that, when Plato speaks of the eternity of the ideas and their inde­ pendence from things and minds, he is not thinking of the actuality of a thing that also continues to exist in the absence of human conscious­ n ess. "Plato wanted to teach nothing else but . . . the validity of truths," Lotze insists. Plato 's talk of the being of ideas is to be attributed, ac­ cording to Lotze, to the lack of a corresponding term (for 'validity' : Gel­ tung) in the Greek vocabulary and not to the view that ideas are like thi ngs (Lotze 5 1 3ff; FS 1 1 1 f) . This way of excusing Plato 's talk of the being of ideas proceeds from the premise that 'being' for Plato otherwise designates the actuality of things, that is to say, the fi rst of the four forms of actuality distinguished by Lotze . But in this way, Heidegger protests, Lotze ascribes to Plato an anachronistic use of 'being, ' a use weighed down by the naturalistic prejudices of Lotze 's age. In fact, Heidegger main tains, 'being' (ousia) designates for Plato not tl1e being of a thing, but rather ''presence , the always on hand; thus the term is i n the highest degree adequate to what Plato meant. " 91 This last objection to Lotze 's interpre tation of the doctrine of ideas i n troduces Heidegger's m ost telling criticism of the conception of truth that emerges from Lotze 's Logic and prevails i n the critique of psychol­ ogism . However, the scope as well as the strength of Heidegger's cri ti­ cism first becomes evide n t only when the consequences of Lotze 's dif­ ferentiation of the for1ns of actuality are elaborated. Essential components of the logical prej udice unfold from Lotze 's outline of th e four forms of actuality. First, a sentence or proposition is regarded as the site of the truth. Second, th e truth of a sen tence is equated wi th its validity, its "obtain ing" or "holding. " Third, this "validity" ( "truth " ) of the sentence means th e constancy and independence of its content. Fourth , in view of this constan cy and independence, the actuality of the true sentence is fundamentally different fro1n the actuali ty of a thin g ( an actuality that may be an instance of that truth ) and the ac tuality of =

91

L 7 1 ; n n t n i s , " xi-x i i :

( "Das I deale gil t, da" Reale ist" ) ; cf. Rickert, "Der "Da'i Logi "ch e e x i " t i t- rt n i c h t , �" gilt. "

44

' H E I D E G G E R s C O N C £PT OF TRUTH

sumption. As a result, from Heidegg er "s vantage point it provides a kind of ontological fortification of the logic al preju dice. Heidegger maintains fu rther - and this is his second objection - that the equivalence of truth and validity is traceable to an ambiguity in the expression 'Wahrsein, ' an equivocati o i1 that might be conveyed in En­ glish by the diffe rence between 'being true ' and ' true being. ' 'Wahrsein ' in the sense of 'being tru e ' can be us ed to indicate that a sentence is valid and in that sense actual. Thus, fo r example , the predicate ' is true ' i n the proposition 'p is true ' signifies that p is true o f ( or obtains for) some state of affairs, and so obtainin g is precisely its "actuality. " But in the second sense , it would be used to understand what the truth itself is, thus, 'true being' in the sense of ' the truth 's being. ' In Lotze 's for­ mulation, Heidegger charges, these two usages are confused or even fused into a single mean in g. " Wahrseirl in th e sense of the being-actual of true sentences and Wahrsein in the sense of the essence of truth [We­ sen der Wahrheit] are iden t ifie d here and, because the first is identified as validity, one says at th e s ame time that the essence of truth is validity" ( L 74) . Herein lies, Heidegger adds, "a seductive ambiguity to which modern logic, the logic of validity, has thoroughly fallen prey'' (L 7 4) . Al though Lotze does appear to equate the actuality of truth with the validity of a sentence , th is talk o f ' Wahrsein' - ambiguous or not - does not, to my knowledge, ste m literally from Lotze 's Logic. This second ob­ jection seems to be directed as much at specific authors who appeal to Lotze as it is at Lotze himself. Yet Hei d e gger does not provide any clues on who they might be . Nevertheless, for Heidegger's attempt to expose the presuppositi ons underlying the criti que of psychologis m and, indeed, their feebleness, it is important to show th at the distin ction between the real (actuality of a thing or event) and the ideal (ac tuali ty of the true sentence ) goes hand in hand with the logical preju dice (equati on of a sentence 's va­ lidity with the esse nce of truth ) . Confusion of the empirical act of think­ ing with the ideal content o f thought is avoided by Lotze and his fol­ lowers at the cost of any fu rth er inqui ry into the essence or, if preferred, the ontological status of truth . Given Lotze 's ontological differentiation of the true sentence from th ings, events, and relations, attempts to in­ quire further into the se n se or actual ity of the truth are a clear indica­ tion that the differentiation has been misunderstood. Like actuality (af­ firmedness) and the other forms of actuality ( thing, event, relation) in general, the elaboration of truth as validity repre sents the end of the

T H E LO G I C A L C O N C E PTI O N O F TRU T H

45

analysis or, in Lotze 's own words, "a fundamental concept resting thor­ oughly on itself alone" ( Lotze 5 1 3 ) . In his third and final obj ection to Lotze 's conception of truth and differentiation of the forms of actuality, Heidegger takes particular ex­ ception to Lotze 's claim that those forms are indefinable. Heidegger is ready to concede that it would be senseless to want to define truth or validity in the same way as one might define specific things, for exam­ ple, by indicating their components. But, he charges , it does not follow frotn this consideration that no philosophical reflection on the sense of ' truth ' is possible. Yet Lotze 's failure to explain the genesis and possibility of the forms of actuality or what they have in common ( "affirmedness") is not the genuine core of Heidegger's final objection . His main concern is to show that, contrary to what Lotze himself maintains, a specific understanding of being underlies Lotze 's conception of the forms of actuality. The ac­ tuality is a "presence," be it something that is affirmed or recognized in the case of a thing, an event, a relation , or a true sentence. The actual­ ity is the "onhandness" ( Vorhandensein) of what does not in fact depend upon this affirmation . This understanding, moreover, did not fall from heaven. It corresponds to the Greek conception of being, a conception that is very much oriented to the world and to what one can say about the world and nature (L 75, 7 7 ) . In a certain respect (as Gethmann ob­ serves ) , Heidegger's later interpretation of this understanding of being (namely, "as a fate weighing upon the West" ) is in the end "a criticism of Lotze, highly stylized into a generality about the history of philosophy." 93 In the framework of his sketch of Lotze 's conception of truth , Hei­ degger neither documen ts nor further elaborates these familiar reflec­ tions . But he brings them to a head when he emphasizes that in Lotze 's 93 Gethmann, uHeidegge rs Wahrheitskonzeption ,'' 1 1 0. But Lotze also anticipates Hei­ degge r's battle wi th the logical tradition and, in deed, i ts Greek roots , as the followi ng passage am ply demonstrates; Lotze , Mikrokosmos, vol . 3 (Leipzi g : Hirzel , 1 8 64) , 24 3f: "Das Wesen der Dinge besteht nich t in Gedan ke n , und dac; Denken ist nicht imstan d e , e s z u fasse n; aber der ganze Geist erlebt dennoch vielleicht i n anderen Fonnen seiner Tatigke i t und sei nes Ergriffenseins den wese n tlichen Sin n alles Seins und Wirken s ; dan n dient ihm das D e nk e n als e i n Mittel , das Erlebte in j enen Zusammenh ang zu brin­ ge n , den sei ne Natur fordert, und es in tensive r zu erleben in dem MaBe, als er dieses Zusammenhanges machtig wird. Es sin d seh r al te I rrtumer, die diese Einsicht entge­ ge nstehen . . . der Schatten des Alte rtu ms, seine unheilvolle U berschatzung des Logos, liegt noch breit tiber uns und hUh uns weder im Realen noch im Idealen das bemerken, wodurch beide�i mehr ist a b aile Ve rnunft. "

H EI D E GGER' S

C O N C E PT O F

TRUTH

differentiation of the fo rms of actuality (including the true sentence, as one such form) the leading sense of 'being' is nothing other than the universal correlate (presence) of what the Greeks asserted about the world and what they understood as " the sole and genuine being. " As­ sertions about natural things in general are first possible thanks to the presence ( onhandness) of them. This insight, H eidegger adds, exposes "the genuine roots" of the psychologism debate ; from these roots comes " th e driving force of the inquiry and the answer surrounding the cri­ tique of psychologis m " (L 78 ) . The discoveries made by Husserl's phe nomenology - the subject of th e next chapter - shed further light on the m eaning of those "genuine roots" which lie deeper than Lotze 's Logic, namely, the Greek under­ standing of being. However, before attention shifts to Heidegger's pre­ sentation of the accom plishments and failures of Husserlian phenome­ nology, i t may be useful to sum up Heidegger's assessment of Lo tze 's meaning for the critique of psychologism . Lotze 's determination of the truth as validity (Geltung) enthrones the logical prejudice in an ideal , unassailable sphere all its own , far from the ever-changing reality of thit1gs; yet nothin g is gained by this determi nation, nothing beyond the "positi ng of an empty problem. " In the "seemingly so illuminating sep­ aration of the real and the ideal" lies, Heidegger claims, " the core of the problem" (L 9 1 ) . Such a claim might be construed as a vindication of the psychologistic point of view, and there is a sense in which Hei­ degger is , indeed, trying - once again like Husser! - to rehabilitate a genuine insigh t u nderlying psychologism . Btlt th e claim is mean t to un­ derscore, on the one hand, the hopeless yet artificial problem that arises when Lotze 's ontological differentiation is taken seriously and , on the other hand, the questionableness of that differentiation itself. In view of this questionableness , Heidegge r comments that it is not for nothing that reaso nable defenders of psychologism have never ac­ knowledged having been refuted (L 9 2 ) . As far as that artificial problem spawned by Lotze 's differentiation is concerned, Heidegger shows nothing but disdain for it. "The appar­ ently profound question of bridging the gap between the real and th e ideal" is, in his eyes, a " narrow-minded, bou rgeois undertaking. " 94 The 9 4 L 9 2 ; Heidegger's use of "Sch7 ldbiirgerunternehmfn ' p robably plays on th e more com mon 'Srh zldburge-rstrezrh, ' a tri c k orjoke played by an d/ or, perhaps i n this case, on th e 'Srhild­

burgn: ' Traceable to a 1 5 9S wo rk by 1-Ians Kre mer, 'Srh ildhiirger ' is presumably of earlier

origi n th ough with a m e a n i n g "im iJar to 'SpiejJhurger, ' mean i n g ' pri gg ish , u l tracon�� rva­ tiH � , narrow-n1 i n ded bourgeois ' ; c f. Kl uge 7 2 1 .

T H E LO G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N

OF

TRUTH

47

act of thinking as a real event is so severed from what is though t as some­ thing ideal that the question of their relation ( "Is the relation of the ideal to the real a real relation?") could not be answered, even if the question were at all meaningful. Th e relation can be construed neither as real nor as ideal , even though concrete thinking and what is con­ cretely th ough t about are in the end 'just as actual as the real thinking on the one side and then , separated [from it] , the ideal as what is though t = what is validating is on the other side" (L go) . If there is no "thoughtless thinking" in the literal sense of the expression , then this relation is, in Lotze 's words if not in his sense , "the most livi ng reality" (die lebendigste Wirklichkeit) , sin ce both thinking and what is thought are simultaneously real in it ( L go) . It is, in Heidegger's view, Husserl 's great service to have taken the decisive step toward clarifying this "actuality," by virtue of his account of intentionality. What this step accomplishes, above all , is to expose the questionableness of the widely accepted Lotze an way of posing the problem (L g 2 : "the core of the problem" ) . However, it would be wrong to regard Lotze 's philosophy as merely a stop on the way to Husserl 's phenomenology. Precisely by prefacing his interpre tation of the phenomenological analysis of intentionality with a critical review of Lotze 's ontological reflections on the notion of truth , Heidegger provides an initial clue to what, in the end, he finds objectionable i n Husserl 's phenomenology. To be sure, as is elaborated in the following chapter, Husserl 's accoun t of intentionality represents for Heidegger a breakthrough in understanding the relation obtaining between thinking and what is though t, an understanding that does not merely elude the gap projected by Lotze between real thinking and th e ideal character of what is thought, but also establishes the artificiali ty and ttntenability of such a gap. Nevertheless , for all the implausibility of Lotze's claim that the concept of ac tuality is indeterminate and de­ spi te the dearth of substantiation for his differentiation of the forms of actuality, Lotze does not lose sight of the question of being ( or, as he would likely say, the question of "actuality" ) and its inner connection wi th the question of truth . The same, Heidegger maintains, cannot be said of Husserl.

2

T H E P H ENOMEN O LO G ICA L CO NCE PT IO N OF TRUTH : T H E CRIT ICA L CONF RONTATION W ITH H USS ERL

It hardly needs to be acknowledged that even today, opposite Husserl, I consider myself a novice. Heidegger, 1 9 2 5 1

" . . . and Husserl gave me my eyes." 2 The words are Heidegger's to his students in the spri ng of 1 9 2 3 . From the fall of 1 9 2 1 to the spring of 1 9 24, not a single semester goes by when Heidegger is not holding a seminar or study session on either HusserI 's Logical Investigations or Ideas I. In the summer of 1 9 2 5 he confesses to his students that, opposite the founder of phenomenology, he still considers himself a novice; the fol­ lowing semester he extols the author of the Logical Investigations for bringing the great tradition of Western philosophical though t to com­ pletion. Mter stating that the investigations in Being and Timewere "only possible on the foundation laid by Husser} ," especially in the Logical In­ vestigations, Heidegger publicly expresses his gratitude to Husserl for helping him in his early teaching stint at Freiburg to become adep t "in the most diverse regions of phenomenological research ," help that, in Heidegger's own words, took the form of '' intense personal direction" and " the freest access to unpublished manuscripts." Not surprisingly, i t would seem , Being and Time i s dedicated to Edmund Husserl "in rever­ ence and friendship." 3 I p 1 68 . 2 The ful l quotation deserve� citi ng; cf. 0 ;; : "Accom panyi n g m e i n searching was the young Lu ther and th e parago n Aristotle , whom he hated . Kie rkegaard provided i m pulses and

�

H usse rl gave me my eyes. "

For texts q uoted i n th is and the p rece d i n g sen ten c-e(), see S Z V, 3 R n . 1 , a n d L 8 8 . See al'jo

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E P T I () N O F T R U T H

49

Yet in those same lectures during th e summer of 1 9 2 5 Heidegger completes an extensive review and criticism of H usserl 's thought and his analysis of truth in particular, leaving no mistake that he is ben t on giving phenomenology a quite different meaning and direction. These lectures con tain an "immanent critique of th e progression of phenom­ enological research ," as a means of raising questions allegedly never posed - at least expressis verbis - by Husser! himself, not even, Heidegger tells his students , in those unpublished manuscripts to which Husser! had so generously given him access ( P 1 24) . In his lectures in Freiburg right after the war, if not to Husserl 's face, Heidegger makes no secret of his misgivings with the primacy that Husser! accords theoretical con­ cerns, exemplified by an identification of intuition with a theory-laden description. 4 Heidegger's first lectures in Marburg (winter semester, 1 9 2 3/ 24) are devoted to exposing the historical roots of the "fatal" direction that Husser} gives to phenomenological research (EpF 2 70 ) . In 1 9 2 6 Heidegger confides to Jaspers that if Being and Time is written against anyone, then it is Husse rl. 5 In Heidegger's eyes, Husserl 's Logical Investigations and the analysis of truth i t contains are not merely the high point of philosophical reZSD 8 2- 8 7 . The dedication to Husser} was deleted from the 1 94 1 edi tio n, due, Heideg­ ger claims , to the publisher's fear that its retention would endanger publication. Hei­ degger says that he agreed to its omission only on the condition that the note on p. 3 8 , which explai ns the reason for the dedication , be retained; cf. US 26g. Fo r a review of H ei­ degger's study sessions on Husserl's work, see Th eodore Kisiel , "On the Way to Being and

Time: Introduction to the Translation of Heidegger's Prolegomena zur Geschichte des Zeitbegriffs," Research in Phenomenology 1 5 ( 1 98 5 ) : 1 96. 4 Husserl apparently did not realize just how much Heidegger differed with him u n til the publication of SZ. In a letter to Ingarden in late 1 92 7 , after noting that "there is still no bridge" between him and Heidegger that their common s tudents might cross, he adds: "Unfortunately, I did not de termine his philosophical upbringing. H e was obviously al­ ready into his own way of doing thi ngs when he began studying my writings . " Edmund Husserl , Briefwerhsel, ed . Karl Schuhmann ( Dordrech t: Kluwe r, 1 9 94 ) , vo l . 3, 2 34, also

2 36 and 457ff. See , too , H usserl 's poignant, rueful, and even pathetic letter to Alexan­ der PHinder, Jan uary 6, 1 93 1 , looking back on his relationshi p to Heidegger, in Briefwech­ sel, vol . 2 , 1 8 o- 1 84 , esp. 1 8 2 : " I h ad been warned often enough : Heidegger's phenome­

nology is something completely different from my own . I ns tead of furthering the developmen t of my scien tific works, his university lectures and book are open or veiled assaults on my works, aimed at discrediting th em on the most esse ntial points . When I

would bring such thi ngs to Heidegger's attention in a friendly way, he would just laugh and say: Non sense! " For an informed review of Heidegger's early o�jections to Husserl 's theoretical orientation as well as their relationsh ip, see the General Introduc tion to PTP,

2-3 2 , esp. d � n . 66 . Burt C. Hopkin s's translation of the January 6, 1 93 1 letter to P!an­ der is incl uded a.., Appe ndix Two of PTP, 479-483 . 5 Marti n H e i d e g ge r an d Karl .J aspers, BriefwechJel I 9 2 0- I 9 6J, ed. Walter Biem el and Hans San e r (Frankfu rt am Mai n : Klosterman n, 1 990 ) . 7 1 , 64 , 42 .

so

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

flection on logic in the early twen tieth century. They represent a gen­ uine "breakthrough ," even if with few exceptions (Dilthey, Lask) they barely found anything like the proper resonance among his con tem­ poraries. Mention has already been made of Heidegger's view that, wi th the Logical Investigations, Husserl has "thought the grand tradition of Western philosophy to an end. " 6 This claim is a two-edged sword, to be sure , exposing not so much a conflicted attitude toward Husserl 's work as a join t appreciation of its accomplishments and fundamental limita­ tions. The no tion that the Western philosophical tradition has been "thought . . . to an end" means that the insights underlying and guid­ ing it have allegedly matured and attained a certain comple teness in the /Jogical Investigations. Insofar as these insights have been articulated more lucidly there than anywhere else , this work provides the ideal means of investigating and grasping the significance of the roots of the tradi tion. Husserl 's breakthrough is precisely the recognition that west­ ern philosophical conceptions of truth and being are ultimately mat­ ters of intuition or perception , and not ofjudgment. 7 At the same tim e, the Western philosophical tradition achieves a cer­ tain closure in Husserl 's Logical Investigations and subsequent work, ac­ cording to Heidegger, precisely because Husser} remains true to this tradition and its preconceptions. Husserl 's pathbreaking research in the Logical Investigations and later efforts fall prey to the same on tolog­ ical commitments that underlie the logical prejudice and dominate the tradition, sealing its obliviousness to being (Seinsvergessenheit) and pre­ venting phenomenology from realizing its genuine potential. Husser! is accordingly portrayed as the "Moses" of traditional philosophy, its lib­ erator but also its captive, who th rough his analysis of intentionality shows the way out of the wilderness , without himself being able to en­ ter the promised land of existential analysis. Lotze 's conception of truth , as the preceding chapter showed, ex­ emplifies how the logical prejudice goes hand in hand in Heidegger's eyes wi th a certain ontological naivete, obliviousness, or amnesia ( the "forgo ttenness of being") . Heidegger finds a similar scenario unfolding 6 P 30; L 1 1 4 , 8 8 . The te rm ' breakth rough ' s te m s from H usserl ; cf. LU I vi i i : " D i e ' Logj­ s c h e U n tersuchungen ' waren

fur mich e i n Werk des D u rc h b ruchs und somi t n i c h t i n ,

E n de, sondern ei n Anfang." H u sserlian p h e n om en o l ogy re p resen ts a breakth ro ugh for

H ei d e gge r

pre ci s ely because it rea l i zes and thus

"

b ri ngs

to

a

close" the origin al project

an d pote n tial of p h i l oso p h izing i n t h e Wes tern tradition . 7 VS 1 1 5 ; Jean Beaufret , Dialogue avec Heideggn; vo l . 3 ( Paris: Ed itions de Minui t , 1 9 7 4 ) , l � 6.

T H E P H E N O M E N O LO G I C A L C O N C E PT I ON O F T R U T H

51

in Husserl 's case . In Heidegger's Marburg lectures he advances two al­ legedly immanent criticisms of Husserl 's phenomenology, as it had de­ veloped up to that point (c. 1 92 5 ) . He charges, fi rst, that Husserl 's phe­ nomenological analysis of truth remains enmeshed in a version of the logical prejudice and, second , that Husser!, contrary to his principles, fails to inquire into the manner of being of intentionality or, for that matter, into the sense of being at all. Instead, according to Heidegge r's critique, Husser] takes over the conception of being as "presence," a conception that is not only anchored in ancient metaphysics and still held fast to in the natural sciences, but also calls for a particular con­ strual of in tentionality. Husserl 's reaffirmation of the primacy of intu­ i tion , especially his doctrine of categorial intuition , unveils a dynamic, prereflective notion of truth that underlies the truth and falsity of propositions and j udgments; to this extent, he points the way to un rav­ eling the logical prejudice . Yet, Heidegger submits, that notion of truth is suppressed or left undeveloped ( at least in Husserl's early writings) precisely because Husserl appreciates the tradition-defining intuition only too well, construing it as the vehicle to an absolute science where all verities are presences, e ternally on hand and potentially available as such to the appropriate intuition or perception. Heidegger's critique of Husserl 's philosopical investigations in gen­ eral and his analysis of truth in particular plays a pivotal but little-un­ derstood role in Heidegger's development of his own distinctive con­ ception of truth in the 1 92 0s. The aim of the presen t chapter is to shed some light on that role by examining Heidegger's critique of Husser­ lian phenomenology - at least with respect to the sta te of it available to Heidegger prior to 1 92 5 . To this end, the examination begins with a consideration of the reasons why Heidegger pays Husser} the tribute of having "thought the grand tradition of Western philosophy to an end. " Heidegger's reasons are to be found pri ncipally in the first half of his le ctures in the summer semester of 1 92 5 , the clearest and most exten­ sive document of his considerable understanding and appreciation of Husserl 's phenomenology. In the Prolegomena Lectures Heidegger p resents what he considers the three "decisive " discoveries of phenom­ en ology: intentionality, categorial intuition , and the original sense of th e a priori. Heidegger's exposi tion of Husserl 's decisive discoveries aims at " procuring an understanding of phenomenology as research, " whereby Husserl 's ph enomenol ogy is presented only as a beginning and his dis­ c ove ri es are fundam t=> n tal l y rethough t . I t bears em phasi zing that H e i-

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

degger i n an important sense holds fast to the fundamen tal phenome­ nological proj ect of returning, not to Kant, but to the things themselves and that means ide n tifying and adequately interpreting the basic given­ ness of thi ngs. Husserl himself repeatedly characterizes phenomenol­ ogy as a form of research in just this sense . 8 In these respects phenom­ enology is for Heidegger, as it is for Husserl , differen t from any ontic science . Such a project is very much a work in progress, even when - or, indeed, precisely because - that basic givenness is finally deemed "be­ ing" and its sense or horizon "time.'' Nevertheless, H eidegger's strategy in his lectures is to introduce his students to phenomenology as re­ search into the givenness of th ings ( the being of beings, the way that they fade in and out of presence ) , research that, wh ile very much in the spirit of Husserl 's conception of phenomenology and drawing on its de­ cisive discoveries, moves beyond its theoretical framework. For it is pre­ cisely that framework, Heidegger argues, that remains en tangled in the logical prejudice and preempts research into the sense of the underly­ ing givenness ("being" ) of things. 9 By presenting phenomenology as a research proj ect in his Marburg lectures, Heidegger makes unmistakably clearjust h ow deeply and thor­ oughly his own thinking draws on Husserl 's insights. However, because Heidegger singlemindedly pursues his own hermeneuti cal strategies and goals, it is also possible to identify important deletions, contortions, and even distortions in the presentation , all of whi c h make the evalua­ tion of his critical confrontation with Husserl 's p henomenology ex­ tremely difficult. As soon as one asks about the tren chancy of Heideg­ ger's criticisms of Husserl 's conclusions, one is faced with the question of whether or to what extent these criticisms rest upon a shift in subject matter and the use of certain terms together with a less than generous neglect of relevan t and mitigating passages. 8 See Id I 2 0 1 : "Our way of proceeding is that of someone on a research trip in an unknown part of the world, carefully describing what presents it�elf to him on his uncharted paths, which will not always be the shortest." See, too, ld I 1 07, 1 2 2 ; D R 8f; LL' I viii-ix; LC I I / 2 iii-v; and Husser! , Idee der Phiinomn wlogie, ed . Pau1 Janssen ( Ham burg: Mei ner, 1 986) , 1 4 , 4 5 , s6-s8, 6 2 . 9 E pF 93 ; cf. Jean-Luc Marion , Reduction et donation: Rerherrhes s ur Husser!, Heidegger PI La phhwmenologie (Paris: Presses universi tai res de France , t g8 g ) , 7 3-7 9 . Ci ting the 1 9 2 5 lec­ tures, Marion notes a shift frcnn concern for entities to a concern for being (P 1 o z f) , made possible by Heidegger\ emphasis on phenome no1ogy's proper object: not th e ph e­ the way in which the�' nomena as such but the manner of their identifi cation or, better, .

avail them5e1ves (A rt

dn- A ufweintng) ( P 1 1 8 ) .

T H E P H E N O M E N O LO G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N O F T R U T H

53

One of the ancillary objectives of this chapter is to identify ways in which Heidegger's basic criticisms of Husserl 's phenomenology, while not unfounded or without merit, nevertheless remain seriously and , in­ deed, suspiciously wanting. In this connection two lines of research un­ dertake n by Husser} prior to 1 9 2 5 are particularly important: his in­ vestigations of inner time-consciousness and the lectures on logic regularly given by him in Freiburg after 1 9 1 7 . In Heidegger's exposi­ tion , he strangely leaves these latest lines of HusserI 's research out of consideration, even though he was well aware of them and in fact men­ tions some of them to his students. In addition to weakening the force of some of Heidegger's criticisms, Husserl 's investigations of time-con­ sciousness and prereflective experiences underlying logic also antici­ pate in significant ways Heidegger's own efforts to develop a funda­ men tal ontology. Fundame ntal ontology is supposed to show, from the paradigmatic case of the pre thematic sense of "being-in-th e-world," that the sense of being is time. From Husserl 's account of an absolute, time­ constituting consciousness and from his efforts to give an analysis of the pre the oretical, sense-constituting experiences underlying logical acts , it can also b e inferred that time in some manner constitutes the sense of being and, indeed, that that sense is not equivalent to "presence . " The chapter is divided into four sec tions. The first sec tion ( 2 . 1 ) re­ views at length Heidegger's presen tation of the decisive discoveries of Husserl 's phenomenology. This presentation is considered with an eye to determini ng the extent to which it departs from and corresponds to Husserl 's own conception. In the second section ( 2 . 2 ) Heidegger's cen­ tral objections to Husserl 's phenomenology are elaborated in detail. In addi tion to the purported internal or immanent criticisms already men­ tioned, Heidegger also mounts an external criticism by way of elabo­ rating what motivates Husserl 's phenomenology. While the immanent obj ections are meant to demonstrate how Husserl 's thinking is victim­ ized by an ontological commitment underlying the logical prejudice, the motivation for making that commitment is , Heidegger maintains, a fear or anxiety of being-here . This explanation of Husserl 's motivation is the subjec t of the third section ( 2 . 3 ) . The final section of the chap­ ter ( 2 .4 ) confronts the question of the legitimacy of Heidegger's cri­ tique , especially in view of what he ignores in his prese ntation of Husserl 's phenomenology, circa 1 9 2 5 . In conclusion , an attempt is made to weigh the validity of Heidegger's criticism and its import for h is own developing conception of truth .

' H F. I D E G G E R S C O N C E P T

54

OF

TRUTH

2 . 1 The Three Discoveries o f Phenomenology

The second half of Heidegger's lectures from the summer semester of 1 92 5 , as their edi tor Petra Jaeger remarks (P 444f) , contains "an early draft" of Being and Time, a draft that accordingly has the advantage of being presented as th e n e cessary outcome of a critical confron tation with Husserl's phenomeno logy, a confrontation presented in the first half of the lectures. Heidegger apparen tly thought that, in order to es­ tablish the need for a more radical conception of phenomenology, it was necessary to explain why Husse rl was essentially held back from the consequences of his own discoveries. Heidegger's presentatio n of Husserl 's three discoveries is oriented thematically to the First a n d Fifth, but especially the Sixth of his Logical Investigations. Heidegger n o neth eless freely intersperses his accoun t with termi n ology and the1nes stemming from th e Ideas for a Pure Phe­ nomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy as well. Of the three ''deci­ sive" discoveries, intentionality is not only the first, but also the most im­ portant since it makes the subsequent discoveries possible. As Husserl himself remarks: "The titl e of the problem that encompasses all of phe­ nomenology is in te ntionali ty ( ld I 303 ) . '

'"

2. II

Intentionality and the Repudiation of a Cartesian Cognitive Model. ' Intentionality' signifies the way i n which every act of a human being is directed at something directly corresponding to that act. In the expe­ rience of any such act - be it opining, thinking, perceiving, loving, ex­ pecting, regretting - there is the experience of sotnething to which it is directed. This intentional structure is characteristic of experience in general. Someone who dreams dreams someth ing; the dream has a sense ( though the sense an d what is drea1ned are not identical) . If someone deceives herself in the course of perceivi ng, such that the obj ect does not in fact stand opposi te her, it is nevertheless "mean t. " Inten tionality is not, however, to be construed as an occasional prop­ erty of consciousness. Echoing Husserl's own attempt to ward off mis­ i nterpretations of i nten ti o nality occasioned by som e of Bren tano's ways of depicting it, Heidegge r observes: "Intentionality is not a relation to something not-experien ce-like, accruing to experiences, now and agai n occurring to them; rath e r the experiences themselves as such are in­ tentional." 1 0 Thus, if inte n tionality is the structure of experiences in 1o

PS

4o ;

d . also P �1 7 ;

LL: II/

1

:1 7 2 :

".

. . cs bt n i c h t d c r Gege n s ta n d e rleht

u n rl d t-i n e ht> n

THE

P H E N O MENOLO G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N OF

TRUTH

55

general, then experience (Erlebnis) o r consciousness i s not some men­ tal event that might in certain cases happen to be intentional. Moreover, given the intentional structure of experiences, anything like the famil­ iar picture of a mental complex composed of an ego and ideas con­ strued as repraesentationes - righ tly or wrongly labeled "Cartesian" - is un­ tenable. Even if one remembers or imagines something, that "something" is th e subj ect matter itself ( die Sache selbst) and by no means a picture, representation, or concept of it. If one starts, by contrast, from the assumption that the experience from the outset is preoccupied with the contents of its own consciousness or mental state, the result is a pair of familiar dilemmas that are as unsolvable as they are false: the dilemma of coordinating the actuality "within" consciousness and the actuality "outside" it - or, equivalen tly, a men tal event ( res cogitans) and a real object ( res extensa) - and the dilemma of relating mental contents to a mind that "possesses" them. In Heidegger's view, the elimination of this pic­ ture, wi th its fatal consequences for epistemology as well as for psychol­ ogy, is one of the most important results of the discovery that inten­ tionality is the basic structure of experiences in general. 1 1 As noted i n the last chapter, Lotze 's epistemology (in his answer to skepticism as well as his interpretation of Plato's doctrine of ideas) pre­ sents a paradigm of the represen tationalist model of cognition , ac­ cording to which something ( e.g. , a represen tation or idea) is erected between consciousness and the reality of which one is conscious. Husserl 's analysis of intentionality demonstrates that this appeal to some intermediary realm of representations is completely contrived and , indeed, utterly inadequate when it comes to understanding m en­ tal phenomena. Heidegger accordingly repeats Husserl 's own insight that the critique of psychologism , emerging from th e determination of intentionality, must also take the form of a critique of psychology, a cri­ tique that consists not in rej ecting the legitimate investigations of ex­ perimental psychology but in ''fundamentally clarifying the field" of mental phenotnena. 1 2 auf ihn rich te t; es sind auch n ic h t zwei Sachen i n dem Si n n e, wie Teil und u m fasse nderes Ganzes, sondern nur Eines ist pdisent, das i n ten­ tionale Erlebnis, desse n wesentlicher de�kriptiver Charakter eben die bezuglic he I n­ te ntion ist." P 40, 5 5 f; L U I I / 2 2 04f; Id I 7Hf, 97f, 1 8 6 . Wi th h i s conc eption of the " transcendence

das int�ntionale Erlebnis, das sich

1 1

12

of Dasein" as b e i n g-i n -the-worl d , H e i d egger explicitly fas te ns on to th is "disc overy" of i n­

see GP 4 2 H , Ho-g 1 . L H �-99 ; EpF 65f. \\ i th o u t denyi ng the val ue of modern psychol ogy, Husserl claims that h e m e re l y "�x ro��� c e rt Cl i n rl t' fi c i t�ncie� . rlefi c i en cie"i th a t a rc , in a li teral se nse , rad ical " ;

te n t i o n al i ty ;

'

' H E I D EGGER S CONC EPT

OF

TRUTH

The structure that corresponds to intentionality encompasses an act, an object ( that at which it is directed) , and the matter ( the way in which the act is directed at the obj ect) as well as the indissoluble and recip­ rocal bond among them. Husserl 's "breakthrough , " in Heidegge r's eyes, is his articulation of the fact that, corresponding to the various sorts of intentional experiences or acts directed at objects (for exam­ ple, thinking x, imagining x, perceiving x, and so on ) , allowance must be tnade for the various ways in which those obj ects are intended ( for example, x as it is thought, the imagined x, the perceived x, and so on) , ways which , like the intentional acts to which they essentially and re­ spectively correspond, are to be distinguished from the objects th em­ selves. There is, accordingly, a basic unity to the concrete intentional experience, a unity such that, to every inten tional act, there is a specif­ ically corresponding inten tional tnatter. In the terminology of Ideas I (which Heidegger freely uses to gloss the doctrine of the Logical Inves­ tigations without indicating that he is doing so) , the full intentional makeup of an intentional act (noesis) is composed not simply of its obj ect, but also, and indeed primarily, of its "sense" (noema) , the way in which the obj ect is "intended" ( en tertained, in1agined, perceived, etc . ) . Moreover, as already emphasized, that sense is not a mental image of the object. In perceiving a tree or even registering the fact that the tree is an oak, I do not typically form an image of the oak tree. Rather the tree itself or that fact about the tree is perceived through a ''sense" of it. Indeed, even imagining a tree requires a sense of the tree. In the Logical Investigations Husserl distinguishes the "quality" of th e act ( e.g. , wishing, asking, doubting, judging, etc . ) from the manner in which the object is intended ( the "matter" or "sense of the objec tive ap­ pre hension" ) and the sensations experienced therein ( the "appre­ hended" or "represen ting" content) . In his Marburg lectures Heideg­ ger does not mention these specifics of intentionality, as presented i n the Logical Investigations, or HusserI ' s extensive revision o f the same in Ideas I ( in terms of noetic, noematic, and hyletic moments together with the notions of the thetic character of consciousness, the noematic core, and the noematic sense) . 1 3 Not tin related to this revision , Ideas I also phe nomenology i� supposed to consti tute "the essen ti al eidetic foundation of psychol­ ogy"; see I d I 2 , 34 , 1 t 6; LU II/ 1 7, 1 7 f; PasW 3 0 2 ff. 1 3 LU I I / 1 4 1 5 : "Die Qualitat b e s ti m m t n ur, ob das i n besti m m ter We i s e bereitl) 'vo rstel­ lig Gemach te ' als Erwu nschte�, Erfragtes, urte i lsmaBig Gese tl.tes u. dg. in te n tional gegenwartig �ei . Darnach JnuB u ns d ie .1\llateriP als dasjen ige im Akte gelten , was i h m all ers t die BeLieh un g auf Gcgenstandlic hes verlcih t, und zwar diese Be1ieh u ng in so

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

57

in troduces a conception of a transcendental ego and a transcending obj ect for reasons that are also largely ignored by Heidegger. 1 4 The sig­ nificance of the fact that these nuances and changes in Husserl 's ear­ lier determinations of the intentional "essence" are not considered by Heidegger is addressed in the final part of this chapter. However, these nuances aside , what is decisive for Heidegger is Husse rl 's insight into the possibility and the necessity of a thoroughgoing analysis of inten­ tionality, understood as encompassing a relation between the act of in­ te nding and the sense of what is thereby intended (or, alternatively, the manner in which something is i ntended by that act) . Heidegger's ques­ tion of the sense of being and truth takes its start from this intentional relating or comportment ( Verhalten) , reconfigured as the sight of the ontological difference ( of which more will be said later) . Credi t for establishing or, bette r, rediscovering that intentionality is the basic character of experiences and for determining diverse types of intentional relations must go to Husserl 's teacher, Franz Brentano. In the published portions of his Psychology From an Empirical Point of View intentionality is iden tified as the mark of the mental (in contrast to the physical) , in terms of which the allegedly basic types of mental phe­ nomena ( representation, j udgment, interest) can be classified. 15 With his claim that inten tional relations are not strict relations, that is, rela­ tions where both relata must exist, Brentano focuses attention on the "intentional inexistence" of the object of consciousness. However, i t is precisely uncertainty about this "intentional in existence" that is symp­ tomatic of the limitations of his accoun t of intentionality, according to Heidegger. Essentially repeating the misgivings expressed by Husserl in the Fifth Logical Investigation , Heidegger claims that Brentano wavers between characterizing the entity itself and its manner of being grasped voll kommener Besti m m theit, daB durch d ie M a te rie nicht n u r das Gegenstandlic he uberha upt, welches der Akt m e i n t, sondern auch die Weise, i n wel ch er er es m e i n t , fes t besti m m t i s t . " A l s o LU I I / I 46, 4 1 6 , 445 ; LU Il/2 86-g4; I d I 2 0 1 ff, 267, 2 7 4. Acco rd­ ing to LU , a se nsory representative , despite be ing i n tim ately u n ited with the " matte r" ( "se nse" ) in straigh tfo rwa rd perceptions, can re m ai n constant while the "matte r" varies and vice ve rsa, th us confirm i n g the distinction between them . Fo r exam ple, I can see the same sen sory represen tative as a rabbit, then as a d uck, or I can appre h e n d the same d uc k-rabbi t i m age in two diffe re n t d rawi ngs of it ( LLT II/ 2 1 6 8£) .

1 4 Brush i ng aside the debate over t h e c o r rectness of a " realistic" or "idealist" transcen­ den tal concep ti o n , H e i degge r cou nte rs th a t the real problem is wh ether i t is righ t to se t up pheno menology as the basic scie nce fo r philosophy "without havi n g a radi cal c o n­

15

cept of phil oso phy''

( PAA

�1).

Franz Bre n ta n o , Ps_)·rhologie vom empirischPn Standpunkt, 2 vo ls. , ed. Oskar Kraus ( Ham­

burg: �1 ein er, 1 9 2 4 - 1 9 2 5 ) ,

I:

1 2 4f; l l : 3 3 ff. See

also P 2 3- 2 8 , 34f.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

as the intentional object (P 6 1 ; L U ll/ 1 370-37 3 ) . For the most part, Heidegger avers, Brentano overlooked what is ultimately decisive and significan t for the phenomenological conception of intentionality, namely, that th e noema or in tentum is not some thing simply given but rather something that is to be determined in terms of the respective way in which it is intended or meant: "We can accordingly distinguish: the entity itself . . . and the entity in the manner of its being-intended" ( P 5 3 ) . In th is way Heidegger is obviously transcribing and thereby reinterpreting with an ontological accent Husserl 's explanation : "In relation to the in­ ten tional content understood as the object of the act, the following is to be distinguished: the object as it is intended, and simply the object that is intended" ( LU II/ 1 4oo; ld I 2 7 0-2 73) . The actual intentional structures depend upon the specific types of experience involved, a fact well appreciated by Brentano, as exempli­ fied by his classification of men tal phenomena. Thinking of some thing in the course of a conversation about it, without seeing or even imag­ ining it, is different from th e intentionality of perceiving wh at is given "in person" or "in the flesh" ( leibhaftig, to use one of Husserl's favorite expressions ) . At th e same time, however, one and the same object - by virtue of a coinciding sense (or matter) - can be mean t as well as given (intuited) and can be identified as such (LU II/ 2 1 2 2f, 3 5 , 64, 86£) . The clarification of this dynamic process, dependent as it is upon the determination of the noema or in tentum, is Husserl 's singular ach ieve­ ment, according to Heidegger, and the reason why he speaks, somewhat defiantly, of Husserl 's "discovery of intentionality" and stridently con­ tests the view that Husserl merely takes over Brentano's account of the intentional structure of mental phenomena. 1 6 Brentano 's enterprise in Psychology From an Empirical Point of View, it bears recalling, is to distin­ guish mental from nonmental phenomena and to classify the types of mental phenomena. Heidegger's point here is not merely that Brentano's psychological enterprise fails to elaborate the significance of inten tionality for questions of knowledge and truth , but far more im­ portantly that th e embedding of the account of intentionality in such 1 ()

Heidegger disputes t h i s wi dely h e l d dew, s pread by H ein r i ch Ric kert, Oskar Kraus , and the Marburg s c h oo l ; P 3 5-46 , 6 1 ff, 6 7 . As Hei degge r notes (L 95 ) , H usser} de al s hinl­ se l f w i th the i nsuffi c ien 6 : "Gegenii ber der Imag­ i nation ist die Wahrnfhmung, wie wi r es auszudriicken pflege n , dadurch charakte risiert, daB i n ihr der Gegenstand 'selbst' und n i c h t bloB ' im Bi lde ' ersc hei n t. " Zb 404 : "Nic h t selbst z u geben ist j a gerade das Wese n d e r Phan tasie . " 24 T 6 7 ; ld I 1 26. Perhaps what underlies Tuge ndhat's conte n tion is t h e fac t that what i s given i n t h e inlagination does not direc tly stein from the given itself, b u t also fro m the one in1agining or fronl sotne unknown source. HoweYe r, the talk of se lf-give n ness ( by Husserl and Heidegger) refers not to the source of the give nn ess but simply to what is give n in con trast to what is mean t. H usse rl speaks of the self-givenness i n the imagi n a­ tion , as Tuge ndhat righ tly no tes, in order to distinguish the re-prese n tation from the c onsciousn ess of an image or ropy. In the " re-presen tative" imagi nation , what is mean t itself i� given , albe i t not " i n the flesh ," and not merely meant. �5 T g o; see also T 49 and Sokolowski , Husserlian Meditation�, 2 2 : . "0nly when we are abl e to expe rience the obj ect i n its prese nce and in i ts abse nce do we encoun ter i t"i iden ti ty. "

( �f. LlT I l / 2

���� ,

3 7 f: l �)D- 1 o 7

TH E

P H E N O M E N OLO G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F TRUTH

63

filling-intention is not to be equated with the mere perception ; but it is also not something that is simply added on or adjoined to the act of meaning something. In the identifying fulfillment (for example , in the straightforward grasping of the Eiffel Tower as it presents itself "in per­ son" ) , what is mean t in i ts absence and what is in tui ted "coincide , " which i s t o say that they are identified. The same obj ect that i s at first mean t or signified ( mean t throttgh the use of a sign ) is now intuited and thus at the same titne identified. That coinciding, namely, the iden­ tification of what is meant and what is intuited, is not something that simply happens to occur; instead, in keeping with the general entelechy of intentionality, it is a way of fully executing what begins as the act of entertaining something in its absence. As Heidegger puts it in an in­ sightful sutnmation of the dynamic: "This very act of entertaining some­ thing in its absence lives in the identification, is the iden tification itself as self-identifying" (L 1 07 ) . Though drafted after the analysis of truth in the Logical Investigations, the noesis-noema structure of intentionality brings to relief the differ­ entiation yet iden tity presupposed by that analysis. Thus, the affirma­ tion of the truth of an assertion - the acknowledgment that what is as­ serted about something obtains or is present in some manner - is only meaningful becattse what is asserted can be entertained as possibly true or false, that is to say, in the absence of evidence of it. On this account, truth consists in the coincidence of two different ways or, as explained above, two different "senses" in which something, indeed, the same thing, is "intended" (or, what is the same , two different ways in which the same thing presen ts itself or is given relative to different conscious acts ) . Truth is thus initially defined by Husser! as the correlate of an identification, the identity of two senses: "th e complete agreement be­ tween the meant and the given as such" (LU II/ 2 1 2 2 ) In the case of a perception of a physical obj ect, the fact that the per­ ceived entity is "there in the flesh '' in the perception does not mean , of course , that all sides and aspects of what is perceived are present. If I look at the cabinet in my room, then "I invariably see - speaking of 'see­ ing' in a specific way - only one specific side and one aspect" (P 5 7 ) . The back side is obviously not seen and even the front is only seen from a particular perspective and thus along the lines of a partictdar profile (Abschattung) . Yet these sides, too , are meant ( "co-meant," as Husserl puts it) ( LU II/ 2 8o) ; the perceived thing is meant "in its entirety as a thing' (Dingganzheit) . The perception of the objec t is accordingly "a per­ .

c � pti on con �ttln tl y i n the process of al t�ri n g i tse lf� i t is

a

co n ti n u i ty of

HEIDEGGER' S

C O N C E PT O F

TRUTH

changing perceptions. " 2 6 So , too, "the thing profiles itself in its aspects" and, indeed, such that one does not mean those profiles but rather the thing itself perceived in them. 27 HusserI himself describes how, in see­ ing an incomplete pattern of a rug, the piece seen is bese t with inten­ tions that "point to" its complements . 2R Sufficient mention has already been made of the fact that H eideg­ ger's presen tation of Husserl 's theory of the stages of intentional ful­ fillment leaves out many of the nuances and developments in Husserl 's account. What alone appears to matter to Heidegger is conveying to his students the breakth rough that Husserl 's conception of the fulfilling in­ tention represents for the analysis of knowledge . For that purpose it suf­ fices to emphasize that the identifYing fulfillmen t is in a certain respect ''palpably" consummated in a perception or intuition , even if in other respects it remains quite incomplete. "What is striking, " Heidegger stresses, ''is that in such identification or fulfillment, a connection ob­ tains" (P 66; L 1 07 ) . Nor is the fulfillmen t something established after the fact by a second act that would itself need to be iden tified and thus require a justification , engendering a regress. In the iden tifYing fulfill­ ment, what is mean t in its absence and what is intuited "coincide , " and this "coinciding" is itself ''an inten tional affai r, " which Husserl also calls "evidence" or "act of identification" (LU II/ 2 34f, 6o) . As Husserl puts it: "What we characterize phenomenologically, with respect to the acts, 2 6 l d I 7 3-7 � ; LU I I / :.! 40, 1 1 6f, 1 4 �Hf; P 5 7 f, 65f; So ko l ow � k i , flusserlian Meditation.\, 86- 93 · 2 7 P 5 R , 6 s f. Heidegge r does not clea rly d raw the difference between sides and aspec ts ( o r profiles, ad u m b rat i o ns ) . I n this respect h e appears to fo llow Ideas /, wh e re sides are con­

Id I 8o, 2 � 6 ; T 7 1 f, 8 3 ; and Kevi n M ull igan , Pe rc e pt i on , particular is fo r a p ro fi l e to ap­ pear but this is n o t to be un d e rs t o o d as t h o s e the m issi ng p rofiles we re expe c ted or i m ag­ i n ed o r that aj udgm e n t i s rnad e th at it is a part ; rat her the e n tire o�j e c t is p e rc e i ved but t h is involves two partial acts; cf. D R 49-60, 8ofl . 28 LLT I I / 2 40; also LU I I / 1 3 7 8f. This po i n t i n g beyo n d i t�elf' i n trod uces t h e d iffic ul t q u e s ti o n of the re lation between so-called a u t h e n ti c a n d i n auth e n tic appeara n c es , that is to say, the question of h ow the nonperceived profiles a n d , i ndeed, the o�ject as a w h o l e fo rm part of the percepti o n . In t he LU Husse rl 's answe r is to construe the per­ c e p ti o n as a s u m of di ver s e so rts of re p resen tati o n s , s o that the same c o n t e n t� a re IT­ garded both in tuitively and signi tive ly ( i n the Jatter case, p o i n ti n g to the n o n i n tu i t ively represen ted s i d e "i of t h e th ing) . In Ding und Raum H u r.;�erl takes th i li a n swer to task fo r i ts m is t ake n suppo�i i t io n that se n �ations a re s i gns and it'i a p peal to the n a t u ra l , i . e . , ex­ traph enomen ologi caJ , consti tution of th e object ( al tho ugh , as Be rnet p oi n t s o u t, the la tter difficul ty pJagues th ose lectures as a whol e ) . See DR 49-60, t go- 1 9 7 ; Ru dolf Ber­ n e t, " Percepti o n , Th i n g, a n d Spac e , " i n An lntrodudion to Hu.�.�n-lian Phnwmenology, ed. Rud olf Berne t, l so Kern, an d Eduard Marbach ( Evan s to n , I l l . : N o r t h w e s t e r n U n iv. P re')s, 1 9�)� ) . 1 2 0 - 1 2 � : and M u l l i ga n , " Pe rce p ti o n , " 1 R � f. s trued as oth e r profiles; see

"

ThP CambridgP Companion to llusserl, 1 g 2 f. To perceive a

"

"

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

6s

as fulfillment, is to be expressed as experience of identity, conscious­ ness of identi ty, act of identification, with respect to the objects on both sides, the object intuited on the one side and the object though t on the other side" (LU II/ 2 3 5 ) . But this experience, this "act of identifica­ tion , " can only be adequately described when it is clearly distinguished from acts of meaning or mere sensation. In Heidegger's eyes, Husser} succeeds, like no modern thinker before hitn , in firmly grasping that distinction and thus providing a suitable analysis of human knowledge . In the process Husserl breaks through the Cartesian cognitive model , shattering the image of the "glassy essence" invoked over centuries to portray the human mind. 29 2 . 1 1 2 EVI DENCE, B E IN G- TR U E , A N D THE MEAN I NGS O.F ' BEI N G . ' In complete accord with Husserl, Heidegger draws from this phenome­ nological conception of evidence the conclusion that all attempts to trace the phenomenon of evidence back to a feeling or mental datum are fundamentally absurd. Evidence is a specific intentional act, but pre­ cisely the act the object of which is the identity of what is meant and what is intuited. Evidence is no act that the identification accompanies; it is rather "the very execution of the identification ," in other words, "the act of identification, that precisely understands itself as such" (L 1 o8 ) . This view of evidence is, of course, only intelligible on the supposition of the intentional character of evidence. Rickert's talk of a "feeling of evi­ dence" aptly illustrates the implications of failing to appreciate that in­ tentional character. The construal of evidence as a matter of feeling goes hand in hand, Heidegger submits, with Rickert's insistence that the con­ cept of intentionality is "dark, metaphysical , dogmatic." 30 Since evidence is a way of identifying some thing or state of affairs on the basis of its original presence ("to the things themselves ! '' ) , the sense , the manner, and the rigorousness of the evidence depends upon the respective field of things ( Sachfelcl) . Heidegger sees in HusserI 's ac­ count of evidence a corroboration of Aristotle's ancien t stricture against assuming that the sort of evidence accessible in a definite man­ ner in one region is transferabl e to that of another region. To be sure , the function of evidence is universal ; it can be found in all manners of inten tionality ( there is the evidence of asserting, but also that of lov2 9 Cf. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of 1Vature ( Prin ceton : Princeton U niv. Press , 1 97 9 ) , 4 1 -4.� , esp. 42 n . 1 o. 30 P 35f, 6 7 , 4 1 -46; T I 0 1 - 1 04. On the absu rd ity of tra c i n g evidence to a feelin g, s e e LU I I / 2 1 2 fif.

66

H E I D EG GER ' s C O N C EPT O F TRUTH

ing) . Along wi th this un iversali ty, however, the evidence i s always at­ tached to a corresponding region . 3 1 For the region of material things, the limitations are patent: even if we perceive such a thing lying right in fron t of us with utter clarity, i t still shows only one side of itself. At the same ti me, this partial and perspectival sort of evidence suggests the idea of "a fina l and thoroughgoingfulfilbnent, " a phrase employed by Hei­ degger probably to co nvey what Husserl in the Logical Investigations calls "evide nce " in the strict sense of the term : the act of "the most complete a n d perfect synthesis offulfillment, an act which provides the intention , for example, the i n tention of j udgmen t, with the absolute fullness of con­ tent, th at of th e object itself' (LU II/ 2 1 2 1 f) . The operative distinction i n this connection, duly noted by Heidegger, is the distinction that Husserl makes between a rigorous and a loose sense of 'evidence ' or, correspondingly, adequate and inadequate sorts of evidence. While a real object within the world can appear only "inadequately" to us, "ad­ equate " evidence can be found in two realms, that of inner perception ( about which Heidegger has nothing to say) and that of categorial in­ tui tion ( Husserl 's second major "discovery," of which , as discussed in the next se c tion , Heidegger has a great deal to say) . 32 Husser I 's account of evidence is particularly important for the pres­ et1t study, because it leads to a thematization of meanings of ' truth ' ( and its synonym in some cases: ' being' ) . Heidegger himself explicitly focuses o n thi s thematization in his Marburg lectures. According to H usser! in the Logical Investigations, to have evidence is to exp � rience the trt1th i tself or what is also dubbed "being" : the perfect identity of the meant and given object. 'The evidence itself is, we said, the act of that most complete synthesis of fulfilhnent. Like every identification , it 31 P

68 ; l d

I 2 88f, 309-3 2 3 . Surprisi ngly, i n Heidegge r's p resen tation, the disti nction

made by Husse r) betwe e n fo rm a l an d r e g i o n al o n tol ogi es is not address e d , th o ugh it i� occasion ally i nvoke d ; see , e. g . , EpF 2 7of; ld I 3 07-3 1 o. 32 P 6sf; L t o sf; I d I 2 � 5- 2 R 8 ; LU Il/ 2 2 3 9-24 2 . It be a rs n o t i n g that H u sser) takes ex­ c e p t i o n to the

Brentan ian notion of " i n n e r p erce p t i o n ( LU I I / 2 240) . On the rol e of in the an a lys i s of both the l.ogical lnvf!Jligations and Ideas I, see LL I I / 1 3 5 4ff; LU II/ 2 2 3 9 ; Id I Ro-R 7 ; a n d T 7 2 , 85ff, 1 0 5 . 1-leidegger al l u des (P 65-tiR ) to t h e difference betwe e n apodi ctic e vi den c e ( "see i n g [Einsehen] i n t o an esse n tial rel a­ ti o n " ) a n d asse rtoric evidenc-e ( " i nsigh t [Einsicht] i n to th e indivi dual r e l a tio n of th ings [ o r s tate of affa i rs: Sachverhalt] ) , as \Ve il as th e i r con nection with one a n o th e r He th e reby revi �es th e d o c t r in e in ldea5 I, where H u s serl d i s ti nguishec.; " th e �o to speak ' as­ serto ri c ' see i n g of an i n d i vi d u a l . . . fro m an 'apodictic ' see i ng, fro n1 see i n g i n to an essence or esse n tial re la tion ," an d declare� that h e i n te n d �i to u�e th e term ' i nsigh t ' o n l y fo r a po d i c ti c e"idence; c f. Id I 2 8 !) . " i n ner p e rc e p tio n

"

"

"

.

T H E P H E N OMENOLOG I C A L C O N C E PT I O N OF TRUTH

67

is an objectifying act and its objective correlate is called 'being' in the sense of truth or also ' truth' " (LU II/ 2 1 2 2 , 1 2 6) . The truth is "experienced" in the evidence and it is experienced as a fulfillmen t (or equivalen tly an identity) that, as noted above, is distinct from the " mere" perception of something. At the same time Husser} also distinguishes evidence as th e experi­ ence of the truth from an explicit perception of the truth - ''and in the case of rigorous evidence: from the adequate perception of the truth" (LU II/ 2 1 2 2 ) . In order to explain this distinction, Husserl points to the fact that "carrying out the identifying coincidence is still not an actual per­ ception of the objective agreement; rather it first comes to this through a separate act of obj ectifying conception , through a separate look at the truth on hand" (LU II/ 2 1 2 2£) . In this connection Husserl refers in the second edition of the I_Jogical Investigations to the addition to section eigh t of the work, in which the "identifying coincidence," precisely as evidence, is explained as something that is "experienced" without the intentional consciousness of iden tity, "in which the identity as the unity 1neant first becomes objective for us" ( LU II/ 2 36 ) . Thus, evidence does not consist in the fact that two objective things (features, aspects, states of affairs, etc . ) are distinguished and then their agreement established; rather this identity - or at least and more typically a partial identity - is experienced before it is itself explicitly identified and made an object of reflection . Thus, in anticipation of the discussion of the prethematic life-world in Husserl 's later writings, he in troduces a prethematic con­ ception of truth or, what is the same, the experience of a prereflective iden tification (synthesis) . In Heidegger's presen tation of th is doc trine of evidence, he corre­ spondingly e1nphasizes that the truth is experienced in the evidence even where the iden tity itself is not thematically grasped. " Hence, we have the peculiar connection , that something is experienced but not grasped, and that this is experienced precisely in the grasping of the obj ect alone as such , that is to say, in not grasping the identity" ( P 70) . Heidegger stresses this conception of the originally un thematic expe­ rience of the truth not least because his own account of truth essentially builds upon it. As discussed in greater detail in the next chapter of the presen t study, what Heidegger construes as the original truth is the dis­ closure of the sense of being, a truth that is "understood" prethemati­ cally both in the (unth emati c ) use of entities and in the (explicitly the­ mati c ) attempt to comprehend th em .

68

H E I D EGGER ' s C O N C EPT OF T R U T H

Husserl 's own view of evidence as the experience of the truth i s elab­ orated in the context of his explanation of the first of four concepts of truth. Since Heidegger addresses three of these four concepts, all four are reviewed here briefly. The first concept of truth , one of the basic in­ spirations of Heidegger's own view of truth yet also a principal target of his criticisms (see 2 . 2 1 below) , is formulated by Husserl in two ways. "As correlate of an identifying ac t," the truth is "a state of affairs" ( Sachver­ halt) and, as a correlate to a coinciding identification, it is an "identi ty [Identitiit] : the complete agreement between the m ean t and the given as such" ( LU ll/ 2 1 2 2 ) The first formulation ( namely, as a state of af­ fairs) is likely meant to indicate that "truth" or, equivalently, "being'' is the obj ect of an act of identification, that is to say, the same obj ect or state of affai rs intuited and mean t. Truth may, h owever, just as well be defined as the identi ty that is the correlate of " th e most complete syn­ thesis of fulfillment" (evidence) , in other words, the concurrence of the matter meant and intuited, where there is nothing in what is meant that is not perceived in what is given and vice versa. Tru th is accordingly a "state of affairs" that is at the same time "an identi ty: the full agreement between the meant and the given as such" (LU ll/ 2 1 1 8f, 9 1 ; P 66-7 2 ) . Husserl 's observation that represen tative content and represented con­ ten t are iden tical in this representation suggests that he has inner per­ ception in mind when he articulates this ideal of a final fulfillmen t. Nevertheless, Heidegger repeatedly stresses that Husserl 's analysis of knowledge in the sense of a fulfilling perception ( " evidence" ) arrives at a level that is presupposed by the determination of truth as correctness or as the property of a judgment or assertion. The second concept of truth , construed by Husserl as a complement to the first, refers to the acts themselves. "Truth , " i n this second deter­ mination, is "the ideal relation, which prevails in the coinciding unity, de­ fined as evidence, between the epistemic essences of the coinciding acts them­ selves" (LU II/ 2 1 2 2 ) . Whereas the first definition presents truth as something obj ective corresponding to the coinciding unity of acts of meaning and perceiving, the second definition presents truth precisely as the relation ideally obtaining between those acts, as far as their epis­ temic natures are concerned. H eidegger stresses that this second con­ cept of truth is to be understood in connection with the first. If one takes the two conceptions togeth er, one gains a genuinely phenome­ nological and trenchant interpretation of the old scholastic definition of truth : veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus. In oth e r words, the original .

T H E PH E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N

OF

TRUTH

6g

sense of the truth entails both a state of affairs (Husserl 's first concept of truth ) and a knowing act ( his second concept of truth ) . 33 HusserI 's third concept of truth refers to the obj ect that is given in the fulfilling ac t. Talk of an object itself as "true" (for exam ple , ' a true friend' ) corresponds to this sense of truth . Heidegger comm ents that ' truth ' means here ''as much as rendering knowledge true" and , in that sense, it even means "being, actual-being" (P 7 1 ) . Husserl 's fourth concept of truth reflects the fact that one can speak of truth "as correctness of the intention (especially, for example, correctness of a judgment) , as its being adequate to the true obj ect" ( LU II/ 2 1 2 2 ) . This way of speaking of truth is as old as Aristotle : a sentence is true if it says what is actually the case, false if not ( Metaphysics 1 o 1 1 b2 7f) . In this way, however, Husserl adds, the logician merely articulates the "ideal" and, hence, "general " possibility that the meaning of a sentence can be fulfilled. This construal of truth as correctness thus depends upon truth in the sense of the first concept: "the full agreemen t be­ tween the meant and the given as such.'' Thus, Husser} makes a clear distinction between the mere correctness of a j udgment ( 'p is true ' ) and truth i n the primary sense of the term : the agreemen t experienced between what is mean t and what is given. This fourth way of conceiving truth is not mentioned by Heidegger, probably because Husserl himself declares it a subordinate conception of truth . In any case one should not inf� r from Heidegger's failure to cite what Husserl formally calls the fourth determination of truth that Heidegger overlooks or fails to appreciate the difference between these determinations . If Heidegger's criticism that HusserI 's analysis of truth falls victim to the logical prejudice in some sense ( th e identification of truth with propositional truth ) can be sustained, then the reason must lie elsewhere . Since Heidegger ultimately charges Husserl with the ontological naivete that makes the logical prejudice possible, it is also instructive that Heidegger takes due note of the similarity and difference between Husserl 's first and third concepts of truth. Their common feature is to be found in the fact that, in contrast to the two other definitions, they refer to "the obj ective correlate'' and are thereby understood as ''being 33 P 6gff. T h i s in terp retati on is dubious insofar a s t h e ideal relation, n o t t h e ac t� them­ selves, is the defining feature of this second conception . Tugendhat accordingly claims that the second concept of tru th is the "properly gen uine" o n e (T g6 ) .

H E I DEGGER ' S C O N C EPT

OF

T RUTH

i n the sense o f tru th ." Heidegger distinguishes the "true-bei ng" o r "be­ ing-true" that corresponds to the first concept from the "actual-being" or "being-actual" that corresponds to the third concept. While this ''ac­ tual-being" corresponds to the usual use of 'being, ' Heidegger empha­ sizes here that "a definite sense of being in the sense of 'being-true ' " is yielded by the fi rst concept of truth , a concept that, according to Husserl himself, i s m ore properly understood as a concept of being (P 7of; L 1 og) . This last observation deserves further comment. If Husserl 's third concept of truth refers to ' being' in the sense of the actuality of an en­ tity, the first and primary concept of truth demonstrates yet another sense of being. Husserl 's association of the primary sense of being with his first concept of truth as a relation between the meant and the given points to an understanding of being that goes beyond the Lotzean equation of ' being' with 'actuality' (in the sense of the 'presence ' ) of an entity. "Being-trtte is experienced as a special relation [Verhalt] , a re­ lation between the m eant and the intuited and, of course , in the sense of identity" (P 70) . The sense of being that proceeds from ' being-true ' is, in Heidegger's - not Husser I 's - terms, the disclosure of this special relation. Even this way of putting things is not quite right, however, if it suggests that the disclosure and the relation are distinct or that the re­ lation is something already consti tuted. Heidegger interprets Husserl 's conception of the primary sense of being and truth as, more precisely, the disclosing in which the "terms" of that relation and the relation it­ self are first defin ed. Corresponding to what is meant and given in Husserl 's first con c ept of truth are , respectively, the manners in which an enti ty or state of affairs is absent and makes itself present. The iden­ tity of what is mean t and given is, from the standpoin t of the en tity or state of affairs, its e mergence from absence into presence. In this fash­ ion , as Heidegge r sees it, Husserl 's conception of the primary sense of truth - a conception that, by his own accoun t, is tantamount to the sense of being - " breaks th rough" not only a Cartesian model of know­ ing, but also a conception of being as presence that allegedly haunts the en tire tradition of Western philosophy, beginning with Plato and Aris­ totle. The fact that Husserl himself does not grasp the full ontological import of his first concept of tru th lies at the heart of Heidegger's crit­ icisms of Husserl 's phenomenology (see 2 . 2 1 below. ) Heidegger makes one of these criticisms by exploiting Husserl 's use of th e expression ' state of affairs' in the first concept of truth, but the usage also i n trod u ces yet an o t h e r dimen �i on of Hu sserl 's a n c:� 1ysi s th at

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

71

Heidegger considers part of the breakthrough that it represents. Be­ cause of this complication , a word about that usage is in order. The use of the expression 'state of affairs' in the context of the first definition of truth is, Husserl acknowledges, potentially misleading. Mter the chapter entitled "The Ideal of Adequation . Evidence and Truth ," in which truth is defined (LU II/ 2 1 1 5- 1 2 7 ) , HusserI declares that states of affairs are only given to categorial intuitions and, indeed, categorial in tuitions of the sort that correspond to acts ofjudging and fulfill such acts. Yet he also insists that the concepts of truth worked out in that chapter are valid for bo th "nonrelational" and "relational " acts (such as "naming" and 'judging" respectively) . "The nature of the matter itself, " H usser! avers, "demands that the concepts o f truth and falsi ty, a t least at first, are so broadly fixed that they encompass the entire sphere of obj ectifying acts" (LU II/ 2 1 2 5 ) . In this way he makes clear that truth is not only a question ofjudgment ( namely, an assertion-fulfillment, the corresponding state of affairs) , but also a question of "nominal acts" that find their fulfillment through the perception of "absolute" obj ects ( that are explicitly "not states of affairs" ) . H usser I thus makes it clear that the term ' state of affairs' in the first concept of truth is not etnployed to exclude other sorts of obj ects. His aim is to grasp the concept of truth presupposed by logic and he does so in such a way that the primary sense of ' truth ' is not equated with that of the truth of a judgment. There is accordingly no need, accord­ ing to Husserl , to concentrate expressly on j udgments. As he puts it in the same context, "nominal acts" will do j ust as well ( though it remains to be seen what it might mean to speak of the truth of "nominal acts'' or "nonrelational acts" ) . Th ese remarks make it even clearer, if it is not already, that H usser} is far from embracing any crude form of the logi­ cal prejudice . According to Husserl, "nonrelational , that is to say, one­ dimensional , monothetic acts" can be true. Moreover, Heidegger is more than simply aware of this aspect of Husserl 's analysis; he lauds it. Referring to Husserl 's doctrine of nonrelational acts, Heidegger claims: "Phen o menology accordingly breaks with the restriction of the concept of truth to relational judgments, acts." 34 While Heidegger does not elaborate this claim any furth er, it is sig34

P 7 3 · Heidegger obse rves that such relational acts are o nly one type of "being-true" of obj ec ti fyi ng acts of knowing i n gen eral ; however, he also rai s e s the stakes furth er by question i ng " whe th e r truth is to be conceived in an o riginal way in te rms of asserti ng or. b e t te r in tht> hroa der sense of obj ectifving ac tr.; " (P 7 � ) . .

H E I D EG G E R ' S C O N C EPT OF T R U T H

nificant for a t least two reasons. First, if there is anything to Heidegger's charge that Husserl 's phenomenological account of truth suffers from something akin to the logical prejudice of the tradition , the basis for the charge must lie in some oth er direction. Second, this talk of the truth of "nonrelational acts" ( that is to say, acts that are not judgments) also suggests a side to the phenomenological conception of truth that, while highly problematic from the poi nt of view of traditional logic, is exploited by Heidegger and adapted to his existen tial conception of truth . Unfortunately, the mean ing of truth in the case of those so-called nonrelational acts remains as obscure in Heidegger's presentation of Husserl 's analysis as it does in that analysis itself. The traditional objection to talk of the truth of names or "nonrela­ tional acts" rests on the commonplace that also underlies the logical prejudice, namely, the notion that truth cannot meaningfully be claimed for a single word or name ( 'Is the apple true? ' or 'Is it true that a red? ' ) but rather only for an explicit or implicit combination of words in a judgment ( ' Is "the apple is red" true? ' ' Is it true that the apple is red? ' ) (De interpretatione 1 6a 1 1 - 1 4 ) . Since nonrelational acts of naming and attributing are apparen tly by definition nonsyn thetic, it is not im­ mediately evident how they could deceive or be false, and hence what the alleged truth of such acts could mean (LU II/ 2 1 25 ; T 6off, 97 ) . What renders Husserl 's account of nominal acts obscure - at least prima facie - is that, while insisting on their difference from judgments, he nonetheless accords them a syntheticity that implies ajudgment. It is im­ portant to note in this connection that by ' names' Husserl does not have in mind merely proper names or even nouns but rather any words or word complexes that can perform a function akin to that of the gram­ matical subj ect of an assertion. A mere noun , devoid of an article, ac­ cordingly does not constitute a complete name. Husserl maintains that the article indicates a name or, better, nominal act in which the existence of what is named is posited and not merely entertained. In this way, while insisting that representing by way of naming or attributing remains es­ sentially distinct from judging, Husserl speaks of the derivativeness of "the nominal object" from the "state of affairs to which it belongs" ( LLT II/ 1 4 7 0) . According to Husserl, nonrelational acts of naming or at­ tributing "emerge " from the perception of a state of affairs that can it­ self be elaborated in the form of a judgment. As Tugendhat puts it, for Husser} "a nominal act is a positing only insofar as it implies a synthesis. " 35 3S See T

97=

"l T nd

wf"r

�i n en Na m � n

' i n normalen Si n n gebrauc h t . ' insb�sondere

als Sub-

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

73

Nevertheless, Husser} con tinues to maintain the difference between non relational and relational (predicative ) acts , a fact that Heidegger announces with considerable fanfare. According to Heidegger, as al­ ready noted, Husserl 's success in breaking with the tradition and un­ derstanding truth n ot only in the sense of th e truth of an assertion or judgment ( relational, predicative acts) is supposedly evidenced at least in some measure by the distinction between nonrelational and rela­ tional acts . Yet Heidegger offers scant rationale for his approval of this aspect of Husserl 's analysis of truth or, for that matter, for its supposed trenchancy. Heidegger apparen tly approves of the distinction because it anticipates his own conception of the originary truth of a "primary" understanding. Much as the truth is experienced ( ach ieved ) unthe­ matically, not in naming, but in the use of a name (LU II/ 1 464; II/ 2 1 2 5 ) , so being discloses itself - or makes sense - originally, according to Heidegger, in practical dealings with things that lie in advance of any explicitly relational (and - nota bene - objectifying) act. Heidegger thus makes a plea, very much in the spirit of Husserl, for expanding the concept of truth beyond its traditi onally conceived boundaries, namely, relational acts like assertions and judgments . At the same time the differences between the two thinkers remain enormous. Husserl ascribes to non relational as well as relational acts the possibility of truth and falsity, concepts that "encompass the entire sphere of objectifying acts" ( LU II/ 2 1 2 5 ) . By contrast, the truth that is original in Heidegger's view cannot be identified with any obj ectify­ ing act or any positing. The n on relational act is reinterpreted by Hei­ degger as a way of behaving ( Verhalten) , a so-called primary under­ standing that in a decisive respect - like sensations - cannot be false. This last remark is precipitous, introducing themes that can only be addressed with any clarity in the wake of a consideration of Heidegger's cri tical examin ation of the logical prejudice, with respect to both its on­ going influence on Husserl 's phenomenology and its alleged roots in Aristotle. Nonetheless , Heidegger's observation , cited earlier, about phen omenology "breaking with the restriction of the concept of truth to relational ju dgments" makes clear once again that his conception of j ekt einer Aussa ge , der meint das Genann te als seiend, er ' setzt' es also ( I I 463£) . Auch j ede schlichte, noch vorpdidikative Wah rnehm ung ist setzend und meint ihren Gegen­ stand als seie nden ( I I 465 ) , sonst konnte sie nicht durc h den wei teren Wahr­ n ehmungsve rlauf en ttauscht werde n (vgl . Ideen § 1 03 , EU § 2 1 ) . Tugendhat is refer­ ring to LU II/ 1 463-7 1 . In this con nec tion, see, too, H ei d e gge r s talk of a "surfeit of inten tions" even with respect to .. a sheer naming" ( P 7 7 ) . "

'

H E I D EG G E R ' S C O N C EPT O F T R U T H

74

an original truth self-consciously builds upon Husserl 's notion of in­ tentionality. 2. 12

Categorial Intuition. Prior to his discussion of the concept of truth Husserl notes that, when he refers to intuitions or perceptions, he is not thinking merely or even principally of sensory perceptions or intu­ itions . The other sort of intuition countenanced in the Logical Investi­ gations is a categorial intuition, and Husserl 's account of it is the second major discovery of phenomenology, according to Heidegger. Indeed , not only in the Prolegomena Lectures of 1 92 5 , but much later, in his 1 963 retrospective , Heidegger iterates this doctrine 's singular impor­ tance to hitn: "The significance of the distinction between sensory and categorial intuition worked out here [in the Sixth Logical Investiga­ tion] for the de termination of the 'manifold tneaning of being' [Be­ deutung des Seienden] became evident to me. " 36 A decade later, in the Zahringen Seminar, Heidegger is reported as saying that Husserl can1e close to the genuine question of being in the Logical Investigations, es­ pecially the Sixth Logical Investigation where "with the concept of cat­ egorial intuition he touches or brushes against the question" ( ZSD 4 7 ; VS 1 1 ) . If Husserl i s supposed to have thought th e grand tradi tion of Western philosophy to an end by recovering its genuine foundation and origin, namely, in tuition and not judgment, then it is above all his doc­ trine of categorial intttition that enables him to accomplish this feat. In the Logical Investigations Husserl presents his account of categor­ ial intuition after he has dealt with the concept of intentionality and, on the basis of the latter, the concepts of evidence and truth . Heideg­ ger follows th is same sequence in his exposition of Husserl 's discover­ ies. But Husserl must already presuppose a categorial intuition in his characterization of truth . As was noted above, HusserI employs the term 'state of affairs' ( Sachverhalt) in the first concept of truth , as a tneans of characterizing truth as the correlate of an identifying act ( i . e . , som e­ th ing experienced as agreeing with what is meant to such an extent that they are identified with each other) . However, the expression 'state of affairs' signals not a mere "nominal represen tation" ( ' the Eiffel To\ver' ) but the "meaning of an assertion as a whole " (Aussagebedeutung i1n Ganzen) ( 'The Eiffel Tower is huge ' ) ( LLT ll/ 2 1 2 8 ) . "In the broadest sense even general states of affairs are perceived ( ' observed, ' 'looked at' among th e evidence) . In th e narrower sense, perception applies :� 6

ZSD

Xf) ; I t l J l I 2 1 1

!)f.

1 3 � ( 1 1 �- 1 5 n : P 63-99·

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

75

only to individual, temporal being" (LU II/ 2 1 44) . While "se nsory or real objects" are defined by Husserl as potential objects of sensory per­ ception and sensory i magination, categorial intuition is directed at the sorts of objects that, like states of affairs, cannot be constituted in a sim­ ple , sensory act of perception . The truth of the entire assertion ' the Eif­ fel Tower is a radio station and an observation tower' is by no means the object or content of a simple, sensory perception. Its truth is instead an ac tual state of affairs that includes or, better, yields the sense of terms indicative of its categorial or logical form, namely ' the, ' 'is,' 'a, ' and 'and ' ; in other words, the copula, definite and indefinite articles, and conj unction (LU II/ 2 1 45f, 1 5 1 ) . In an assertion about a perception , there is "a surplus of intentions'' that cannot be identified by means of a "simple, straightforward perception of the matter" ( P 7 7 ) . The set of problems at issue here obviously does not first emerge in the context of phenomenology. The accoun t of categorial intuition is supposed to resolve a time-honored philosophical dilemma ( cf. Theaete­ tus 1 8sa- 1 86e ) . We avail ourselves of an array of parts of an assertion, to which nothing in a sensory perception direc tly corresponds. One need only consider (a) such terms as ' all , ' ' this, ' 'some, ' ' no t, ' ' or, ' and ' if, then, ' each of which - like the copula, definite and i ndefinite arti­ cles, and conjunction mentioned at the end of the last paragraph - is traditionally associated wi th the concept of logical form, (b) terms of comparison ( 'similar, ' 'greater' ) and position ( ' next to,' 'after' ) and, not least, (c) terms that designate classes, species, types, or universals as such ( 'water, ' ' protoplasm , ' 'humanity' ) ( LU ll/ 2 1 2 9, 1 3 7ff) . Since the meanings or functions of these expressions find no "fulfillment'' in a sensory intuition, the question presents itself as to whether and, if so , how they can be determined at all. The answer to this question is often sought in the thinking or know­ ing subject, apart from the se nsible world or at least in abstraction from any input from it. Subjectivity, so construed, is said to have a privileged access to categorial forms or simply to manufacture them. The sense of logical forms and thereby the truth of logical propositions are accord­ ingly ascribed either to a transcendent sphere accessible only via some sort of purely nonsensory intuition or to the immanent sphere of men­ tal ac tivities, the association or manipulation of sensory items that is in turn available solely through memory, introspection , or reflection. By con trast, the great vi rtue of Husserl 's doctrine of categorial intuition i n Heidegger's estimation lies precisely in provi ding a n explanation o f the oqjectivi ty of J ogi c� 1 fo rm s . an explanation t h a t does not confuse that

HEIDEGGER'S

C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

objectivity with the mind's workings and yet has nothing to do wi th a so­ called intellectual intuition . 37 Heidegger's exposition of Husserl 's doc trine of categorial intuition is considered in more detail below. But first it may be useful to pause and consider the distinctiveness o f that doctrine, given the sorts of philosophical claims that must be rejected if the doctrine can be sus­ tained. Some of the mist surrounding the notion of categorial in tuition can be traced to the translation. In German, the ordinary use of 'An­ schauung' is by no means equivalen t to Kant's use of 'Anschauung, ' nor does it convey some putative insigh t of the sort so trenchantly criticized by Peirce ( namely, cognition determined by consciousness alone and mediated neither by signs nor by any previous knowledge ) . 38 Instead, 'Anschauung'is simply a substan tive of 'a nschauen, ' meaning ' to look at, ' ' observe,' or ' examine. ' The range of the term 's normal usage is ex­ tensive, encompassing idle registeri ngs of what happens to cross one 's sensory field as well as con trolled, methodical attempts to detec t spe­ cific features or symptoms. Husserl 's use of 'Anschauung' and 'Wahr­ nehmung' (perception ) in equivalent ways underscores the importance of not investing the former term with any extraordinary men tal power (LU II/ 2 1 3 8 , 1 42 ) . His doc trine of categorial intuition draws instead on ordinary usage of these terms in the context of observation or ex­ amination. A few typical examples may help . Sometimes verbs like ' observe ' or ' examine ' are used in connection with reporting or with investigating some level of complexity, as i n ' Did you observe what happened? ' or 'I examined the patient. ' In such cases , observing or examining entails re­ lating things or parts of a thing to each other or relating one or more of them to the entire set of them G ust as examination of one thing is typically a matter of relating one or more features of it to other features or to all of its features as a whole ) . Merely attending to a Sach-verhalt, the relation (difference and unity ) making up a th ing or fact is a "cat­ egorial inten tion," the object of which is, as Sokolowski deftly puts it, "not a simple perceptual obj ect, but an obj ec t infected wi th syn tax, " 3 7 Descartes, AT 1 0 : 3 6 8ff; G . v\'. F. Leibniz, Discours de metaphysique ( Paris: Vri n , 1 98 3 ) , 6gf; Baruch Spi noza, Ethica, Part I I , Propositi o n 4 0 , Scholium 2 in opera, ed . C. Gebh ardt ( H eidelberg: Wi n ters, 1 97 2 ) , 1 2 2 ;

J. G.

Fichte, Werke I, ed. I. H. Fic h te ( Be rl i n : de

Gru y te r, 1 9 7 1 ) , 463 . B y n o means s h o u l d one conclude from this list that the term ' i n­ tuitio n ' is used i n the same way b y these t h i nkers. Peirce, " Questions Co n c e rn i n g Ce rtai n Fac ul ties Claimed fo r Man , "

3 8 C h a r l e s Sau n de rs

journal ofSpeculativf Philosoph)' � ( 1 8 fiH ) :

1

o��- I

1

1·

T H E P H E N O M E N O LOG I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F

TRUTH

77

while actually perceiving or observing that Sachverhalt is equivalent to "registering" a fact. 3 9 While the capaci ty for "categorial observa­ tion," the ability to register facts , is commonplace, it is hardly uniform , attesting at the very least to a degree of expert knowledge in some arenas. However, even for the least expert or most humdrum sort of knowl­ edge , there is another and equally significant use of these evidentiary verbs, as they might be dubbed. Consider the uses of such verbs in the following two sentences: ' I ' d heard that he's a fabulous raconteur, but until last night I hadn 't had the pleasure of observing him in action ' ; 'The guy says that his brakes failed but I have to examine them for my­ self. ' Observation of a gifted raconteur working a room obviously is not the same as hearsay to that effect or a mere sighting of the event. So, too, it is one thing to believe someone's testimony and quite another to look for independent corroboration of it. Moreover, like the difference just noted between an observation and mere sightin g of the raconteur in action , examination of a car's brakes can involve a lot more than look­ ing at each wheel 's mechanism and checking the brake lines for leaks. In fact, even whe n this look is enough to tell whether the brakes are faulty, seeing that they are faulty is worlds apart, not only from thinking or conjec turi ng that they are, but from merely seeing the brakes. In each of these cases, thanks to the observation or examination, what is otherwise simply given changes in stature, becoming something much more, as it is revealed to be the case. While the observation does not make the racon­ teur hold his audience captive any more than the examination makes the brakes faulty or not, the reality of the respective situation only pre­ sents itself to categorial intuitions of this sort. The categorial intuitions corresponding to the two uses of ' observ­ ing' and 'examining' exemplified in the last two paragraphs both fall unde r one of two kinds of categorial intuition identified by Husser!. Heidegger presents the doctrine of categorial intuition by exposing each kind separately. The details of that exposition are elaborated in the next two sections, but it should already be clear that Htisserl 's ac­ count of categorial intuitions works against competing theories on three fronts: positivist, Platonist, and Kantian. The possibility of a cate­ gorial in tuition clearly con tradicts an empiricist or positivist program of reducing all meanings and all truths to sensory intuitions and stipu­ lated systems of particular types of such perceptions ( signs ) , in other 39

Sokolowski , llus.\erlian Meditatzon�.

� t f.

' HEIDEGGER s

C O N C E P T OF T R U T H

words, the "two dogmas" of reductionism and analyticity. At the same time, H usserl 's doctrine dispenses with the disputed claim to an intu­ ition , in dependent of sensory intuitions, that affords a human being im­ mediate access to th e "really real" ( ontos on) . O n both these fronts, Husserl is a loyal Kantian . He shares with Kant the view that human beings can think much more than they can know or observe (LU II/ 2 1 9 2 ) , that they have no intellectual intuition at their disposal, and that there are , nevertheless, "a priori laws" of their thinking, that is to say, laws that cannot be given in any sensory per­ cepti o n and yet lie ( transcenden tally, not metaphysically) at the bottom of a11y determination of experience and any conventionally regulated system of signs . Despi te these agreements, however, Husser] 's doctrine of categorial intuition is incompatible with the epistemological princi­ ples of Kant's transcendental philosophy. In the first place, Kant con­ siders all intuitions sensory, whether they be, in his sense, empirical or pure . While there is a certain similarity between what Husserl and Kant respectively include under "sensory" perception , the conception of a categorial intuition remains utterly alien to Kant. In the second place, Kant undertakes to derive the categories as pure structures of thinking ("pure concepts of the understanding" ) solely from a presupposed list of logi cal forms ofjudgment, independent of any possible intuition (as he unde rstands the notion ) . By contrast, HusserI assumes neither the indep endence of th e understandi ng from se nsoriness nor the basic comple teness of logic. Thanks to the categorial intui tions ' analogous­ ness to sensory intui tions, he is able to regard categories , their contents, and obj ects as something give n just as much as the obj ects of sensory perc e p ti ons are. Moreover, far from being spontaneous but fixed and presu p p osed produc ts of thought, categories are open to examination with res p ect to precisely how they are given . 40 Husserl's doctrine of categorial intuition thus stands critically at odds wi th these three traditional positions.

2. I 2

1

"

AC T S

() F

SYNTHES I S "

AN D

S AT U RAT E D

PE R C E PT I O N S .

Husserl 's doctrine of categorial in tuition aims at solving the question of logical truth, that is to say, the truth of claims about logical form and the formal parts of an assertion , as well as the question of the truth cor­ respo nd ing to entire assertions, indeed, even th e seemingly most ele40 Cf.

VS

1 1 4; see, too , L U I I / � 203 for H usserl 's c ri tical remark� about Ka n t ' s critique of

reas o n .

T H E P H E N O M EN O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

79

mentary empirical assertions. 4 1 The discovery of intentionality and the stages of fulfillment lends such questions a particular urgency. When the Eiffel Tower is mentioned, what is typically meant is something that can be given in a more or less straightforward way in a sensory percep­ tion. According to Husserl , the meaning of the Eiffel Tower, en ter­ tained or meant in its absence, can be fulfilled in the perception of the Eiffel Tower. But how do matters stand in the case of words like ' is' and 'and ' ? Is there a respective fulfillment for each term , corresponding to what each is intended to say? Can one speak of the evidence or truth of what is mean t by these expression s? In contrast to nominal terms, the so-called material of an assertion , such nonnom inal terms are charac­ terized as "form words" and "categorial forms ." Husser} accordingly uses the label ' categorial ' for the sort of intuition in which the mean­ ings of these categorial forms are fulfilled (LU II/ 2 1 4 2f) . As indicated above , however, in addition to explaining the formal or logical terms that indicate a synthesis of material within an assertion , categorial in­ tuitions also help explain how the very state of affairs expressed by an as­ sertion is given in a perception. What is en tertained in its absence, not only in the case of a nominal expression ( ' the Eiffel Tower' ) but also in the case of an entire assertion ( 'The Eiffel Tower is huge ' ) , can be pres­ ent and thus be found (fulfilled, realized) in a corresponding intuition or observation. Still, it is by no means clear in what sense the meaning of an asser­ tion as a whole and thereby that of its non nominal or formal tertns can be fulfilled. If one compares the simple sensory perception of some­ thing and an assertion about it, one finds, as Husserl famously puts it, a "surplus of in tentions" that are not iden ti � able in that sort of per­ ception . Indeed, following Husserl, Heidegger notes that such a surplus is presen t even in the case of "a simple naming, a nominal positing of the sort [of thing it is, for example, as] the yellow, upholste red chair," since the attribute 'yellow' means not only the visible color but also the invisible being-yellow. 42 4 1 LU I I / 2 1 2 8f: " [ S] o stellen wi r die Frage , wie di e Erfiillung der

ganzen Aussage ,

zumal

nach dem, was iiber ihre ' Materi e , ' d . h . hier iiber die no1n i nalen Term i n i h i nausreicht, zu verstehen ist? Was soli und kan n den Bedeutungsn1om e n ten , welche die Satzform als sole he ausmach te n , und wozu be ispielswe ise die Kopula gehort - den Momente n der 42

' kategorialen Form' - Erfiillung versc haffen?" P 7 7 ; LU II/ 1 4 7of; Ll! , I I / 2 1 3 1 . For a clear rej e c tion of the so-called surplus, see H u 1ne s Treatise of Hu man lVature, second edi tion , ed. P. H . Nidditch (Oxford: Clare n'

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C F: PT OF T R U T H

8o

Heidegger's exposition of the categorial intuition follows, in broad strokes, the presentation given by Husserl in the sixth chapter of the Sixth Logical I nvestigation. Yet Heidegger links the question of the cat­ egorial intuition to the question of truth much more emphatically than Husser} does. The reason for this greater emphasis is undoubtedly Hei­ degger's strategy; his exposition of Husserl's discoveries is designed to demonstrate how Husserl uncovers the basis and the limitations of the logical prej udice . But the link is by no means artificial. For, as Heideg­ ger was quick to see , the question of categorial intuition is precisely the question of the sustainability of the idea of truth , elaborated in the pre­ ceding chapter of the Sixth Logical Investigation , that is to say, i ts sus­ tainability with respect to assertions themselves. "The assertion ex­ presses what cannot at all be found by way of a [ sensory] perception. Must not the idea of an adequate fulfillment of assertions in general be given up and with it the idea of truth?" (P 7 8 ) . It has probably been iterated sufficiently that one looks in vain to a senso ry percep tion in order to find the presence of what is inte nded or meant by terms for categorial forms. In the case of categorial forms , there is nothing comparable to the presumed isomorphism between names ( ' the Eiffel Tower' ) and their fulfillments, " objects of possible sensory perception" (the observed Eiffel Tower) (LU II/ 2 1 3 9 ) . A pic­ torial parallelism is also not to be found in a perception of so-called in­ ner sense. Corroboration of the meaning of a categorial form ex­ pressed by words like 'is' or 'a' is, in con trast to concepts like "pe rception ," 'judgment," "inference," not yielded by reflection on certain mental acts. In other words, terms like 'a' and 'is' do not by any means stand exclusively for men tal acts or states. Objects of the inner sense do not fulfill or realize their meani ngs. As Husser} trenchantly puts the case against Locke : "The thought judgment is fulfilled in the inner intuition of an actual judgment; but the thought of ' is ' is not ful­ filled therein . " 43 What is meant by the use of terms for logical form is given , without doubt, only by virtue of certain mental acts, such as judg­ ing, but that is not to say that what is so given is the act ofjudging i tself don, 1 97 8 ) , 66f: "The idea of existe n c e , the n , is the very same with th e idea of vv·hat \Ve co n ce ive to be exi s te n t . To re flect on any th ing sim ply, and to reflec t on i t as existe n t , a re n o t h in g d i fferen t from eac h oth e r. That ide a , w h e n co�join ' d \\i th t h e idea o f any

o �j e c t , m a kes no ad dition to i t. 'Wh atever we conceive , we con ceive to be existe n t. Any idea we pl e as e to form is the idea of a bei ng; and the idea of a being is any idea we p l e a � e to form . ''

4� Lu

II/�

· � 9 ; P 7 8 f; LoLkt , .A n E�MIJ Conrerning l/u man

L'ndcr� tan ding,

I OJ .

THE P H EN O M E N OLOG I C A L C ON C EPT I O N

OF

TRUTH

81

or even its product. In other words, the meanings of ' and, ' 'a,' 'is, ' and other such expressions of categorial forms do not designate immanent mental events of asserting, but rather part of what is asserted, a specific state of affairs. In this way Husser I overturns the "ancient prejudice " of trying to interpre t what is not directly perceivable in a sensory way as something immanent within the subject. Heidegger rightly adds that th is accomplishment of Husserl is based upon his discovery of inten­ tionality (P 8o, 97 ) . Husserl thus excludes any "pictorial" parallel between the meanings of categorial forms and what "fulfills" them. Nevertheless, a parallelism of sorts is retained, even if Husserl rejects any recourse to an intellec­ tual intuition. ( Like Kant and the mature Hegel, Husserl does not coun­ tenance any sort of intellectual intuition , that is to say, any immediate apprehension or cognition independent of any sensations or, for that matter, any sensory intuitions. ) "It is the nature of the matter that ulti­ mately everything categorial rests upon sensory intuition, indeed, that a categorial intuition, an insigh t of the understanding, a thinking in the highest sense of the term, is an absurdity without a sensory foundation " ( LU I I / 2 1 83 ) . What i s meant in the form o f a n assertion i s identified in a categorial intuition that is itself grounded in a straightforward, sen­ sory perception . Thus, between "the meaning-in tentions and those acts founded on perceptions," there is a limited parallelism in the sense that "purely signitive acts can correspond to all acts of categorial intui tion with their categorially formed objects " - but not vice versa. 44 Or, to put the matter more broadly, every categorial intuition, every "sigh ting" of a categorial form , every "registering" of a state of affairs, presupposes an act of thinking, meaning, or sign ifying that same form or state of af­ fairs. But we can think and mean a great deal more than we can "cate­ gorially" perceive. The essential difference between categorial percep­ tion and categorial thinking lies precisely in the fact that the former builds upon or includes sensory perception . In other words, while Husserl supposes that a possible categorial intuition corresponds re­ spectively to every true assertion , every categorial in tuition must itself be founded upon sensory intuitions. Accordingly, his first step towards a positive explanation of categorial intuitions is to se t them off sharply from the founding perceptions. The act of a "sensory," " straightforward" perception is "a homage44 LU

I I / 2 1 3 2 , 1 9 1 ; P 64 , 7 7 ; Heidegger claims (P 94 ) that talk of th e fou ndedness of the

catego rial o n th e sen sorily in tuitive

is a

reformula ti o n of De

anima 4 3 1 a 1 6f.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R UTH

neous unity" that immediately ("in one stroke") presents (gegenwiirtigt) the obj ect with a specific con ten t (LU II/ 2 1 47£) . What is perceived in this "simple, straightforward" ( schlicht) fashion is thus neither held apart nor held together in this act; in other words, no relation is deter­ mined within it nor is it related to anything else. The possibility that what is so experienced may itself be divisible or structured is not thereby excluded. Yet however complex the content of what is immediately per­ ceived may turn out to be, the manner in which it is perceived is simple and straigh tforward . Furthermore , the obj ect of the sensory perception is given as a whole , but always only from one side th at is turned toward us. That an object is straightforwardly perceived, means only that it is " not constituted in acts of relating, con necting, and otherwise dividing it" (LU ll/ 2 1 45- 1 48 ) . The immediacy of the way an object is presented ("at a single stroke'') does not mean that the sensory perception happens at a single instant. As noted earlier, one and the same object is perceived "in the con tinuous course of individual perceptions," that is to say, "in the give and take of various profiles" (LU II/ 2 1 49; P 8 1 f) . The perception , in other words, is itself a progression with a phenomenological unity: the individual perceptions are directed at the same object and, indeed, such that they "fuse " into a simple, straightforward perception . If, for example, one perceives the Eiffel Tower by continuously looking at it, th is perception is not a sum or explici t synthesis of m any partial per­ ceptions, each of which means its own object, different from the oth­ ers. Husserl concedes, to be sure , that in this fusion the unity of an iden­ tification comes about. Yet in this fusion "identification is carried out, but no identity is meant" (LU II/ 2 1 50) . In other words, if Husser! 's analysis is correct, then no second act, separate from the continuous perception, is required. In the course of summarizing the sense of these simple, founding acts, Heidegger succinctly captures Husserl 's reflec­ tions. "This aspect, that the phases of perception are carried out in one act and that each phase of the sequence of perceptio n is a comple te perception, this is the character that we designate by the tertn 'straight­ forwardness' [Schlichtheit] or 'single-layeredness' of the perception. Straightforwardness means lacking the layered acts that only establish unity sub­ sequently" (P 8 2 ; see also LU II/ 2 1 4 8 ) . For the doctrine of categorial intuition it is crucial that this "straigh t­ forwardness" be understood wi th respect merely to the manner of givenness and n o t the makeup of t h e given object itself. While the en­ ti re object ( "in the sense of th e th ing's ve ry self in th e fl esh " ) i s given

TH E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C EPT I O N O F T R U T H

83

"explicitly" in a simple perception, the various parts, aspects, and pro­ files of that object are at the same time "implicitly" present. If, by means of a further perception , one aspect and its relation to the whole are sin­ gled out, then that simple, straightforward perception of the object "continues to work" in this separate act of perceiving and "coincides" with it (LU II/ 2 1 54 ) . 'Separative perceiving' (Sonderwahrnehmen) is Husserl 's term fo r the act of perceiving a part of something and thereby in some way its relation to the whole. This separative perceiving is founded upon a simple, straigh tforward, holistic perceiving ( Gesamt­ wahrnehmen) in the sense that the separative perception is directed at what is given merely implicitly in the latter. Herein lies the basic insigh t underlying the foundedness of a categorial intui tion . As Heidegger puts it, "the foun ded acts newly disclose the objects straightforwardly given," such that they are explicitly grasped for what they are (P 84) . If, for example, one sees that the Eiffel Tower curves gen tly outward to the ground, it is the same tower that one perceives "simply, straigh t­ forwardly" without directing one 's attention to this specific aspect. With the subsequent observation of this aspect, the perception of the tower as a whole does not fade from view. Rather the observation of an aspect or a part is founded upon the undifferentiated perception of the whole , a perception that, as it were , unfolds in and even complements that ob­ servation. At the same time, the fact that the object of the simple, straightforward act is a whole ( containing parts) only emerges from this founded fact. The perception of a whole (A) and the perception of a part ( a) can be distinguished, of course . "However," as Husser} empha­ sizes, "these two acts are not carried out merely at th e same time or suc­ cessively in the man ner of 'unconnected' experiences; instead they combine together into one single act, in the synthesis of which the A is first given as having in itself the a. " 45 There is, therefore , no third, subsequent conception that brings th e holistic and separative perceptions together or that implies their con­ nection (whole-part) . This separative perceiving is also not th e result of an analysis of the matter in its entirety, as if the state of affai rs as such ( "Th e Eiffel Tower extends outward to the ground in soft curves" ) were already grasped in the simple, straightforward perception . "The part is, of course , contai ned in the whole prior to all division and is grasped in the whole along with the perceptual grasp of the whole; but this fact, 45

LU I I / 2 1 5 3 ; P 8 5 ff; as th is exposi tion i n d i c a te s , the acc o u n t of cate gorial i n tuition pre­ su pposes a (· e rtai n mereologv, e laborated in th e T h i rd Logi cal l n\·estigation .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF

TRUTH

that i t is contained the rein , i s at first merely the ideal possibili ty o f bring­ ing i t and i ts being-a-part into the corresponding, divided and founded acts of perception" ( LU II/ 2 1 5 5 ; P 8 2 ff) . Thus, i t would seem that the categorially perceived s tate of affairs is experienced but n o t grasped, not " th ematized" in the simple, founding perception . "The founded act of rel ating yields something th at will never be able to be grasped through simple, straightforward perceiving as such" (P 8 7 ) . Questions remain regarding what is given in this so-called founded act ( the categorial i n tuition ) and h ow it is given . In what sense is the state of affairs corresponding to an assertion given? To what extent is it meaningful to spe ak of the "intuition" or "fulfillmen t" of a logical form? These two questions are directed at the very make-up of empirical and logical truths, respec tively. The ove rarching question of the sense of the intuitedness of a categorial i n tuition in general and these "synthetic" forms of it in particular is addressed below. However, first an important alteration or even distortion that Husserl 's doctrine undergoes in Hei­ degger's exposition must be noted. Heidegger places so much weight on the role of categorial in tuition that the difference between i t and sensory intuition is obscured or even effaced.46 This slant is appare n t in Heidegger's claim that " the simple, straigh t­ forward perception , that one likes to designate as ' sensory perception , ' i s saturated i n itself with categorial intuition" (P 8 1 ) . For the basis of this claim Heidegger hearke ns back to the discussion of ' expression ' in the First Logical Investigation. ' Expressing' can signify, on the one hand, making some act or sta te of mind known , for example, a per­ ception or a wish , by way of manifesting it (LU II/ 1 3 3 ff) . But i t can also "communicate'' what is perceived. In the latter sense , an assertion ex­ presses not the occurrence of the speaker's percep tion but the enti ty en countered in the p e rception. More importantly, this expressibility ex­ tends, Heidegger claims, to every act that directly entertains or presen ts an obj ect, from thi n king to pe rception . "All our ways of behaving are 46 Long before the ti me that Heidegger is lecturing on these matters, Husserl had moved beyond the somewhat wooden account of the founding relation in LU. H is maturer, ge­ netic phenomenology focuses explici tly on the structure and genesis of the founding experience (e.g. , passive synth eses) . Here again, Heidegger has his fi n ger on an issue that Husser} recogni zes but develops along a quite different traj ectory. A� noted below, categorial in tui tions satura te th e perceptual f1eld for Husserl himself, even at the sup­ posedly ground-level relation of sensation (or sensory data) to sensory in tuition. Thu"i, in LU perception is said to take place thro u gh a certain apprehe nsion or grasp (A uf Jassung) of sensa tions, n ot to be confused with either an inference or an interpreta tion ( though

it i�

analogou� to the latter) ;

cf.

LLT I I / I

75f.

T H E PH ENOMEN OLO G I C AL CONC E PT I O N

OF

TRUTH

85

in fact saturated by assertions," a s h e puts i t, and that means that those actions are performed within the framework of a "specific expressibil­ ity" (P 7 5 ) . Mter i terating that ' expression ' here signifies not th e man­ ifestation of the act of perceiving but rather th e communication of what is perceived, he adds: "This sense of expressions transposes itself on to all straightforward acts that yiel d an obj ect" (P 7 6 ) . The implications of this remark are patent. If perceptions are "saturated" in some sense by the ability to express , that is, communi cate then1, then th e distinction between sensory and categori al intuition becomes little more than a distinction between tacit and explicit perception. For the "surplus of in­ ten ti ons" contained in expressi ons extends to the straightforward per­ ception , waiting to be made expl icit. Not surprisi ngly, then, al though the doctri ne of categorial intuition as a founded act depends upon the in tegrity of the sensory intuition (s) founding it and is so exposited by Heidegger, he makes no secret of the fac t that he regards the sensory intuition as an abstractum. "The con­ crete intuition that explicitly yields an obj ect is never an isol ated sen­ sory perception wi th a single layer, bu t rather is always a layered, that is to say, categorially determinate intuition" (P 9 3 ) . Heidegger accord­ ingly rej ects the notion that obj ects are somehow fi rst intuited and then subsequently discussed (named or classified ) . I nstead , in keeping with the idea that all perceptions are saturated by expressibility and thus cat­ egorial intuitions, he declares: "We see not so much primarily and orig­ inally the objects and things, but rather we fi rst speak about them; more precisely, we do not say what we see but rather, vice versa, we see what one says about the matter" (P 7 5 ) . Heidegger's rem ark suggests that the distinction drawn by Husser} between naming and judging (as discussed above) has its counterpart in an equally questionable distinction between sensory and categorial intuitions . In other words, just as the distinction between naming and judging turns out to be a distinction between impl icit and expl icit judg­ ing, so the distin ction between sensory and categorial intuitions turns out to be one beween tacit, prethen1atic, and explicit, thematic catego­ rial observations. I n any case , the claim that "the concrete intuition" is never the simpl e , straightforward intuition moves for the most part be­ yond the parame ters of Husser] 's own stated views of thi ngs in the Log­ ical Investigations (and arguably eve n Ideas I) . Heidegger's interpreta­ tion is not straigh tforwardly compatible wi th the doctrine of categorial intuition or at least not without much further ado . If "the simpl e , strai gh tforward percepti on . . . is saturated wi th categorial intui tion ,"

86

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C EPT OF TRUTH

how can the founding (sensory) a n d founded ( categorial ) intui tions be distinguished? Heidegger himself observes at one point (P 84) that an expression is a " new" way of obtaining access to " the straightforwardly pre-given object"; but th e sense in which it might be construed as "new'' must at least be qualified if the straigh tforwardly pre-given obj ect is al­ ready categorially "saturated" or mediated.47 (The founding relation , it bears adding, is not disestabl ish ed by Heidegger's interpretation but revised. That is to say, given his interpretation of the way sensory in tu­ itions are saturated by categorial ones, the difference be tween straigh t­ forward and complex intuitions does not coi ncide wi th that between sensory and categorial ones. ) Raising this query is not to say that the relation be tween foundi n g and founded acts is unproblematic in Husser!. What probably occa­ sioned Heidegger's interpretation was Husserl 's own explanation of the relation, men tioned above, betwee n a simple grasp of a whole and a sec­ ond act of perception, directed at a part; they are , Husser} stresses, not '" unconnected' experiences; instead they combi ne together into one 4 7 A dog has sensati ons and perceptions, i.e . , it i n terprets various sensations so as to relate

in one way to one object in its environment and in a different way to a differen t object. Whatever the m echanisms for th is interpretive capacity (e.g., instinctual , acquired) , they obviously do not include a natural language of the human variety. These animal perceptions, moreover, are not merely straightfon-vard, sensory perceptions but also cat­ egorial perceptions, e.g. , perceptions of states of affairs. So, too, for humans there are nonlinguistically mediated processes of synth esis and discrimination of sensations in havi ng perceptions. If there is anything to these ruminations, then it would appear that Heidegger conflates two issues in his exposition: ( 1 ) the saturatedness of sen sory intu­ itions with categorial intuitions and ( 2 ) the saturatedness of intuitions with expressions. I n defense of conflating these two forms of saturation , one might argue that most non­ li nguistically mediated processes are at an extremely margi nal thresh h old relative to our normal , conscious experience of the world, or more pointedly, that our perceptions are measurably predetermined by linguistic symbols. But this case must be 1nade and Hei­ degger simply does not address it. On the issue of the relation between perception and assertion ( expression ) , it s hould be born e in mind that Hu�serl ascribes to them an "in­ ner relation" without, however, suggesting that the perception requires the assertion or \ice versa. An assertion "expresses" a perception or, n1ore p recisely, what is "given " i n a perception ( LU II/ 2 1 6 ) . See LU II/ 2 2 1 : ''Die Wahrnehmung, welche den Gegenstand gibt und die Aussage , die ihn m ittelst des U rteils . . . denkt und au�driickt, sind vollig zu sondern . . . . " H usser!, i t desen,es noti ng, dismisses theories of perception in terms of signs ( LU II/ 1 70-7 5� Id I 7 8ff, 97- 1 0 2 ) . At the same time, if perceptual acts are to be distinguish ed from semi otic acts or structures, they are also linked to them - not through meaning or perceiving - but th rough knowing, and it is in terms of knowing as the "experience of transition" that the two act� "belong together" ( LU II/ 2 2 5 ) . "The i n ten tional es�ence of the act of intuition," Husserl declares, perhaps too cavalierly, ''ac­ commodates i tself ( more or less completely) to the meani ngful essence of the express­ i ng aL L" ( LlJ I I / � :j � ) .

THE P H E N O M EN O LO G I C A L C O N C E PTI O N O F T R U T H

87

single act" (LU II/ 2 1 5 3 ) . Mo reover, given the problematic ch aracter, noted earlier, of Husse rl 's accoun t of the integri ty of nominal acts, and, further, given th e link he makes between nominal ac ts and sensory in­ tuition , it is not surprising to find a parallel problem besetting the ac­ count of sensory i n tui tion .48 In th e first edition of the Logical Investiga­ tions, Husser! relates that "it is part of percepti on th at something appears in it, bu t the interpretation makes out what we call appearan ce , be i t righ t or not. " The term ' in terpretation ' is replaced by ' appercep­ tion ' in the second edi tion (LU II/ 2 2 3 3 ) . Franc;oise Das tur ci tes the original wording of this sentence as evidence th at the Sixth Logical In­ vestigation provides Heidegger with " the idea of a prepredicative ex­ pressibility of percepti on , " thereby indicating "that there is n o simple seeing, that the structure of perceiving is already in itself hermen euti­ cal because it demands a surplus of meani ng, a surplus of categorial forms. "49 The text in question does, indeed , provide further textual support for questioning not only the firmness of Husserl 's own hold on the distinction between sensory and categorial intuitions, but, more sig­ nifican tly, its tenability. Thus, probably on the basis of suc h claims by Husserl as "I hear a barrel-organ - th e sounds that I hear are interpreted by me precisely as sounds of a barrel-organ, " 50 Heidegger concludes: "In 48 LU I I / 1 465: "In der Sphare der hierher gehorigen ansc haulichen Vorstellungen, die

nicht selbst nominal fungieren, aber den logischen Beruf haben, nominale Bedeu­ tungsin tentionen zu e rfullen, sind setzende Akte: die sinnliche, sich das Gegen­ standliche in Einem Strahl setzender Mein ung zueignende Wahrnehmung, Erinnerung und Erwartung." 49 Dastur, "Heidegger und die ' Logischen Untersuchungen , "' Heidegger Studies 7 ( 1 99 1 ) : 50. Dastur also notes Heidegger's departure from H usserl's account of "einstufige sinnliche Wahrneh m ung"; cf. ibid. , 49· In the Zah ringen Seminar Heidegger also ap­ pears to obscure if n ot obliterate the distinction between sensory and categorial intu­ ition. Heidegger is reported as claiming that what is "sensorily perceived" are "the sen­ sory givennesses themselves" and that with them "the o�j ect's becoming-visible is carried out in the pe rc e ptio n . " He goes on to emphasize Husserl 's departure from Kant in rec­ ognizing that the c ategorial is given over and above the "sensory affections" ( cf. VS 1 1 2 ft) . However, th is manner of presenting Husserl 's doctrine omits th e way in which s traigh tforward , senso ry perceptions intend an objec t and are not to be confused with sensations or, as Husserl puts it in LU , s e n s o ry representations. Dastu r claims that Hei­ degger's e1nph asis on the a n al o gy between sen")ory and categorial in tuitions is matched by a n e glect of the founding rel ation , o p en in g the door to a free-floatin g thinking and an un restrained excess of meaning "like the Platonic dove , of wh ich Kant speaks"; cf. Dastur, "Heidegger and die 'Logischen U n te rsuchungen ,"' 45 ; also jacques Taminiaux, Le Regard et Cexredent ( H ague : Nijhoff, 1 97 7 ) ; and M ulligan , "Perception ,'' 1 8 3- 1 9 1 . 50 LU I l / 2 2 3 3 : "Das Hau.� ersch eint mir - wodurch anders, als daB ich die wirklich er­ lebten Sin nesi nhalte in gewi s s er Weise apperzi piere . . . . Ich hore ein en Leierkasten - die ('m pfu n ct e n e Ton e rl e l l t f> i c h

�h�n

fllt�nsion of extend i ng t h t" a l-

1 20 2.223

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

ES SENCE

AND MANNER OF

BEING:

THE

NEGLECTED

R E­

From the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology ( the point of departure for any immanent critique ) , the obj ection , raised in the last section , to Husserl 's dete rmination of pure con­ sciousness is unpersuasive. Within the framework of transcendental phenomenology, the question of being could only be adequately raised and addressed through the elaboration of pure consciousness as the domain of an absolute science. Access to this domain requires, to be sure, a bracketing of empirical realities ( including the empirical reality of consciousness) , but for the sake of then determining the same real­ ities in terms of wh at they are essentially, as they present themselves in pure consciousness. The aim is to provide, in this way, the scientific ba­ sis for the investigation of them . According to Husserl himself, "the en­ tire spatial-temporal world (to which the human being and the human ego attribute themselves as subordinate individual realities) is, as far as its sense is concerned, merely intentional being, thus, the sort of being that has the merely secondary, relative sense of a being for a consciousness" (ld I 93) . This sort of methodological determination appears expres­ sis verbis - to betray anything else but a "forgotten ness of being." Nevertheless, Heidegger con tinues to press the charge, doing so with respect to the bracke ting of the reality of consciousness in particular, construed by him as the factually existing human being. As Husserl might put it, this reality is to be bracke ted but pre cisely in order to be able to consider it, without preconception and prej udice , as it presents itself in pure consciousness. Although Heidegger in the Prolegomena Lectures, as already noted, initially regards the epoche in a positive ligh t, he later declares that the reduction is "fundamentally unsuited to determining the being of consciousness positively" (P 1 50) . It should now be clear, however, that much more needs to be said to jttstify this remark, given the fact that it is precisely the sense of the reduction "to look initially away from the reality, in order to be able to regard it then precisely as a reality, just as it manifests itself in pure conscious­ ness" (P 1 50) . Heidegger atterr1pt'i to demonstrate, in two steps, that the reduction, D UCTI O N .

-

leged certitude o f the cogito to a n absolute , all-encompassing region o f being, ( 3 ) its "up­ roo ting" of the cogtto from its underlyi ng on tological framework, and ( 4 ) its transfor­ Jnation of Cartesian care about certai nty into care abou t developing "the fun damen tal science of the phenomenology of c o n sc i ou s ne s s (EpF 266-269) . For more discussion of what H usserl cares about, see section 2 · 3 below. "

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

121

as it is construed and elaborated by Husser[, in fact neither does nor can do justice to the question of the manner of being of intentionality. His first step is to show what the reduction proposed by Husser} persisten tly neg­ lects. His second step is to argue that the point of departure of that re­ duction is a theoretical contrivance that testifies to a fundamentally nat­ uralistic conception of being. Both steps serve one and the same goal: to demonstrate that Husserl 's conception of the epoche blocks and must block the way to questioning the manner of being of intenti onality. Heidegger undertakes the first step by pointing to the fact that the reduction , as it is used by Husserl, looks away "not only from the real­ ity, but also from the respective individualization of the experiences" (P 1 5 1 f) . The method guarantees that merely the essential structure of the acts , not the being of the act (Aktsein) as such , is thematized. The theme, in other words, is the essence, but precisely in the sense of the structural con tent of intentionality. Heidegger distinguishes this sort of inquiry from the question of the manner of being of consciousness. ( It bears notin g, in view of the ensuing existential analysis, that in the course of his Prolegomena Lectures Heidegger increasingly substitutes ' intentional behavi ors' - or, alternatively, ' stances' or ' comportments' or 'ways of relating' [intentionale Verhaltungen] for 'consciottsness. ' ) The essence in the sense of whatness is precisely "the grasped, given , consti tuted, " that, while well suited to the determinations o f pure con­ sciousness as a scientific object, reveals precious little of its way of be­ ing. The operative difference here is that between what something is and that it is. "From the 'what' I n ever learn something abou t the sense and the manner of the ' that' - or in any case only that an entity of this whatness ( extensio, for example ) possibly has to be in a definite way. What this manner of being its elf is, is thereby not explained." 80 Heidegger is obviously thinking of the old distinction , formulated by -

8o P 1 5 2 ; see GP 1 5 1 for Heidegger's inte rpretation of the meanings of 'essence ' (eidos, to ti en einai) in terms of the model of production. In light of these criticisms, it should be noted that, while Heidegger is clearly on the way to a transfo rmed conc eption of esse nce ( cf. VWW 26 ) , the no tion is a wo rkh orse in SZ. Being-here is the en tity whose "essence" consists in h aving to be its own being ( SZ 1 2) or, alternatively, whose "essence" is its ex­ istence (SZ 4 2 , 1 3 3 , 2 3 1 , 2 9 8 ) . H eidegger also maintai ns that it is the very "essence" of being-here to h ave an u n derstanding of being ( SZ 2 3 1 ) , to be possible (SZ 2 3 3 ) , to have death as as the defi ning possibility ( SZ 2 4 8 , 2 6 2 ) , to h ave a conscience (SZ 2 78) , to be capable of being auth e n tic or not ( SZ 4 2 f, 3 2 3 ) , and to be constantly unresolved ( SZ 2 36 ) . He also speaks of the esse nces of the respective exi ste n tials ( SZ 1 go, 2 g6 , ; p 4 ) , truth ( SZ 2 1 4 , 2 2 2 ) , care ( SZ 2 8 5 ) , nega tion ( SZ 2 8 5 ) , resoluteness ( SZ 2 98 ) , timeli­ ness (SZ 3 2 9, 3 1 R ) , a n rl history ( SZ 3 7 R) .

1 22

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

Aegidius Rom anus around 1 2 76 in this Theoremata de essentia and exis­ tentia (GP 1 45£) . Colors can be essentially distinguished, for example, from sounds withou t having to ask about the manner of being of either color itself or a particular instance of color. In other words, in the in­ terest of defining some essen tial character, it is quite possible to ignore questions about th e way in wh ich an entity (entitas) has that character and, at the same time, a manner of being that is distinguishable from that essence. In a corresponding way, as a consequence of the eidetic reduc tion , the existence of consciousness is left out of consideration in order to ascertain the alleged "whatness" of pure consciousness. "Thus, i n the consideration and formation of pure consciousness, the whatness is singled out alone, wi thout inquiring into the being of the ac ts in the sense of their existence" (P 1 5 1 ) . In the final analysis, however, the de­ termination of the essence does not succeed without a specific con­ ception of th e manner of being. As long as the manner of being of con­ sciousness is not its elf questioned, a particular concept of being - and, indeed, one that is possibly quite unsuitable - con tinues nolens volens to affect the determination of th e essence. From this perspective Husserl's version of th e epoche does not do justice to the question of being, be­ cause it does not carry out the reduction radically enough ; that is to say, it neglects to put out of play a traditional concept of essence (T 2 66) . A similar obj ec tion holds for the determination of the manner of be­ ing of any en tity. All empirical unities are , for Husserl , "indices of ab­ solute experiential-connections with a distinctive essential formation" (ld I 1 05 ) . The sense of being of each reality, so viewed, becomes noth­ ing else but the way that reality is grasped as an instance of some es­ sential content (some whatness) in the pure eidetic intuition of the thematizing consciousness. In this way, Heidegger explains h ow the n eglect of the question of intentionality's manner of being goes hand in hand wi th the neglect of the question of being as such. "If there were an entity, whose what is precisely to be and nothing else than to be, then this ideative consideration would be the most fundamental misunder­ standing in relation to such an entity" (P 1 5 2 ; SZ 4 2 ; T 2 65£) . Something like the existence of consciousness is undoubtedly rec­ ognized at least at the starting point of the phenomenological method. In the natural attitude the intentional is already experienced, even if it is not thematically grasped. The poin t of the reduction is to look away from this actuality initially, for the purpose , howe_ver, of being able to d e te rm i n e h ow i t consti tutes an d m a n i fests i tself in consciousness. What is attributed to th i s c o n sc io u s n e ss i s th e very tnan ner of be i n g of a nat-

TH E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 23

ural occurrence that is "built into the being of a material thing" (P 1 53 ) . According to this conception of the natural attitude, consciousness is presumably something that accrues to human beings as animate beings, appearing in the world as natural obj ects. But by this means, Heidegger complains, the point of departure of the Husserlian epoche in no way designates a natural mode of experi­ ence, but rather "a quite determinate theoretical stance . . . for \Vhich every entity is construed a priori in terms of a regulated procession of even ts in the spatial-temporal disjunction of th e world" (P 1 5 5 f; EpF 2 7 1 f) . In this connection Heidegger also makes the intriguing obser­ vation that n o attitude is original, but must first be obtain ed from a nat­ ural way of behaving. He submits , moreover, that it is not at all clear whether the "primary and genuine" character of the reality of human beings is to be understood as a "proto-theoretical" stance or a "natural" experience at all (P 1 56) . In view of the absence of a discussion of l ove in Being and Time, an absence that Scheler found debilitating for an ex­ isten tial analysis, it is noteworthy that Heidegger appeals to the phe­ n omenon of love to contest the suitability of the theoretical orientation for investigating human existence. "In the act of love I live ' in ' th e beloved, whereby i n this ac t the beloved is not an obj ect in the sense of a grasped obj ect; for that a n ew tnodification of the attitude is first re­ quired" (P 1 3 5 ) . In earlier lectures he is more blun t. Commenting on the privileged status acquired by consciousness , he remarks: "In itself it is, i ndeed, monstrous to design ate love as consciousness-of-something" (EpF 5g) . The gist of these considerations is that the conception of the reality of consciousness in the so-called natural attitude appears to be a the o­ retical contrivance. Indeed, in Heidegger's eyes, the conception of the natural attitude or, more precisely, the con tinuity between conscious­ ness in a natural and a philosophical attitude is decisive and fatal for HusserI 's phenomenology. For it shows unmistakably to what extent the task of that phenomenology, the determination of its thematic field, namely, the intentional sphere itself, is determined in advance by the aim of conceiving it as the domain of and for an absolute science. The condition of a human being in the so-called natural attitude is some­ thing that Husser} assumes , though i t is in fact, Heidegger submits, something that must first be gathered from a human being's manner of experiencing and, indeed , existing. This task is obscured, even blocked by the characterization of the prephilosophi cal attitude as "nat­ ural ." Heidegger s u m s up th is critical reservation in a rh etorical q u es-

1 24

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

tion: "Is this attitude really a natural attitude or is i t rather a ' naturalistic attitude' ?" (P 1 55 ) . Criticism of Husserl 's closet naturalism is voiced by Heidegger, it bears noting, in his first lectures at Marburg, given in the winte r se­ mester of 1 92 3 / 2 4 . For all of Husserl 's attempts to distinguish con­ sciousness from anything natural , his account of consciousness is "still naturalism" (EpF 8 1 ) . In view of phenomenology's brief history up to this point, no charge could be more damn ing or sound more outra­ geous . For years Husser! had been waging a campaign against the "nat­ uralization of consciousness" (PasW 295 ) . Yet while Heidegger does not charge Husserlian phenomenology with "naturalism" solely for sensa­ tional effect, it should be noted that Heidegger is not employing the term exactly in the senses criticized by his mentor. There is, for exam­ ple, a metaphysical sense of naturalism that Husser! deems self-refut­ ing: the theoretical pretense that everything - including, preeminently, ideas and consciousness - is a part of "nature," conceived as the en­ semble of empirical facts governed by laws uncovered by natural sci­ ence. 8 1 Husser! also rejects a specifically psychological version of natu­ ralism, a basic confusion of mental and physical phenomena, usually betrayed by the assumption that the success of experimental methods in natural sciences can be duplicated in psychology ( PasW 3 06-:-3 1 2 ) . These garden varieties of naturalism are not what Heidegger means by Husserl 's "naturalism ." In fact, his use of the term 'naturalism' is dif­ ferent from common contemporary construals of i t as a program of in­ terpreting all phenomena according to the methods and findings of natural sciences . Heidegger is referring instead to what he regards as HusserI 's effort to bring to a radical conclusion " the scientific tendency of naturalism," inherent in natural science, to absolutize itself by se­ curing unimpeachable evidence and certainty in the form of princi­ ples. 82 Heidegger thus faults Husserl for orienting phenomenology toward the idea of an absolutely certain science and construing con8 1 The claim is self-refuting and a p retense because it cannot j ustify itself; cf. PasW 294f, 2 g8f, 308. 8 2 EpF 7 2 f. Charging Husserl wi th naturalism because he shares "the scientific tendency of naturalism" n1ay seem a stretch. Mter all , differen t diseases can share the same sym p­ toms, in this case, th e sci en tific tendency (I am grateful to Jeremy Ryan fo r offering this reminder) . However, the maladies are ontologically the same inasmuch as t h ey share an ontological commitmen t that fo recloses consideration of the sense of individual , his­ torical existence. I n H e idegge r s view, Husserl 's e ffo rts to determ in� the s truc tures of consciousness and modes o f give n ness that are constantly on hand mi rror the natural sciences · pursu i t of p1 iHLipks that invariably go\'ern even ts in n a t u rP . For �v i d e n c e that '

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 25

sciousness, its basic theme, too much in conformity wi th epistemologi­ cal and psychological approaches to it ( EpF 5 2 f, 58£) . The entire con­ text of Husserl 's inquiry is theoretical , Heidegger charges; it is sup­ posed to establish a new discipline "in place of natural science, " without asking "whether such a discipline makes any sense at all" ( EpF 8 1 f) . 2 . 23

A Summary of the Objections and Some Qualifications. Each of the two main objections reviewed in this section con tains a charge of a specific in consistency. Heidegger locates the first inconsistency ( 2 . 2 1 ) in Husserl 's otherwise pathbreaking elucidation of the concept of truth. In Heidegger's eyes, Husserl 's great accomplishment is to have recog­ nized the dynamic character of truth as the identity of the meant and the given, an identity initially experienced in an unthematic way as the correlate to an act of identification . On this account (which at a certain level Heidegger never relinquishes ) , truth is not itself a state of affairs or even the presence of a state of affairs, but instead - as Heidegger freely in terprets it - the unfolding of an enti ty's presence. 83 However, Husserl also construes truth as a state of affairs, the correlate of an objectifying act of judgment, as if the truth were, indeed, something on hand or, more advisedly but still quite questionably, the sheer presence or onhandness of something on hand. 8 4 Whether this second way of characterizing truth renders it identical to or merely a property of some state of affairs, it is inconsistent with the initial characterization. More­ over, since a state of affairs is always the possible correlate of an asser-

Husserl regards h is p roject in this li g ht, see PasW 293f, 2 g6, 308, as well as his remark about "true positivism" ( PasW 340) . 8 3 The interp retation is free but it should not be ove rlooked that Husserl h i mself con sid­ e rs 'b{'in g ' a synonym for 'truth ' in the p rimary sense of the term ( his firs t definition of truth ) . The te rm 'unfolding' here is a feeble a ttem p t to convey what Heide gger - also quite clun1sily - construes subseque ntly as the verbal sense of ' Wesen'; cf. VWW 2 6 : "Th e question of the tru th of essence understands essence in a verbal way and , still remain­ ing wi thin m eta p hysic-s' man ner of re p resenting, wi th this word [ ' essence ' ] th inks be­ ing [Seyn] as the p revailing distinction of ' to be ' and an entity [Sein und Seiendem] . Tru th sign ifies the illutninati ng concealing as the basic featu re/m ove of being [Grundzug des Seyns] . The question of the essence of truth fi nds its an swer in the sentence: the essmcf

of truth is the truth of ejsenre. "

8 4 The latte r se nse of truth is exem pl ified by th e medieval doc trine of truth as a transce n­ dental or d ivine attribute, always obtaining and th us ever- p resent, or by the noti on of " necessary truth" as it applies, on some interpre tati ons, to p ro p ositional descri p tions of known past and prese nt situations in con trast to future on es; cf. G. E. M. Anscombe , "Aristotle and the Sea Battle," i n A ristotle: A Collection of Critical Enayj, e d J M . E. Morav­ csi k ( Garde n City, N .Y. : Doubleday, 1 96 7 ) , � 4 , � of. .

.

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

tion or judgment, th e logical prej udice or, at least, some version of it is the source of th e inconsistency. 8 5 Th e second inconsistency ( 2 . 2 2 ) springs from the plan of phenom­ enology, in terms of which th e point of departure, the path , and goal of i ts tnethod are determined. Measured against this plan , Husser! has allegedly left out of consideration th e "theme or matter [Sache] most proper to it," namely, the manner of being of in tentionality and, wi th it ( thanks to the absoluteness ascribed to pure consciousness ) , the ques­ tion of what it means "to be" at all. Husserl lays claitn to "the most rad­ ical of all differentiations of being - being as consciousness and being as th e ' transcendent' being, ' manifesting' itself in consciousness." Phe­ n omenology is supposed to proceed from this differentiation and , via the method of phenomenological reduction , th is ontological differ­ ence is supposed to be "attained in its purity and evaluated" (ld I 1 4 1 ) . But if one asks further what ' being' means in this connection, "we look in vain for an answer and even more for an explicit posing of this ques­ tion itself' ( P 1 58 ) . Thus, while th e first obj ection may be said to turn more directly on an inconsistency in Husserl 's conception of truth , th e second turns on an inconsistency in his conception of being, th ough, ultimately, an on tological biconditionality obtains between uses of ' truth ' and 'being' ( ' (3x) Fx' is true H (3x ) Fx) . Heidegger contends that, as far as the questions of truth and being are concerned, Husser} remains in a certain sense Lotze 's disciple. By distinguishing clearly between th e act ofjudging and the ideal or valid content of what is at once intuited and j udged , Husser} succeeds more than any of his contemporaries in exposing the problems besetting psy­ chologism . But th e project of psychologism is by no means disestab­ lish ed. Husser! reproduces in much more sophisticated fashion Lotze 's differentiation between reality and ideality ( the actuality of a thing and th at of a true sen tence) , without getting out from under th e grave prob­ lem of th e differentiation itself. Being and validity (Geltung) continue to be regarded as completely distinct "actualities" and "irreducibly ba85 I say "a version of the logical prej udice" to co\'er certain permutations. For example,

while an idealist or pragmati�t typically construes truth as a property of asse rtion �,judg­ men ts, or beliefs and the like, and thus gives a straightforward example of the logical prej udice, a realist accoun t of tru th mi gh t em phasize that the tru th i s a property of states of affai rs, on the assum ption that they constan tly obtain wh ether or not they are at­ tended to . Howeve r, so long as what consti tutes a possible state of affai rs corresponds to a judgment, a ve rsion of the logical prej udke or, more precisely, the ontological corn nn trnent tradi tioHdlly i u funuing the p rej u d i c e i� still a t wo rk .

TH E

P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 27

sic concepts." But as long as the question of the sense of being is not asked, the difference and the relation between these "actualities" (in Husserl 's own formulation: between being as reality and being as con­ sciousness) remain obscure . 8 6 Referring to this obscurity, Heidegger observes "that the distinction , to be sure , is made between the real and the ideal being of the judgment, but that precisely the reality of this real [character] of the acts remains indeterminate. " As long as the being of the in­ ten tional is not determined, the possibility still remains of ''construing it in the sense of a mental, but natural occurrence'' (P 1 6o ) . Heidegger is demanding of phenomenology that it determine "the matter most proper to it" : the manner of being of the intentional sphere. He is requiring that consciousness be understood as it presents itself originally, not in the "theoretical" construction of the so-called natural attitude . Heidegger ackn owledges that Husser! addresses the is­ sue of intentionality's reality as, under the influence of Dilthey, he elab­ orates a conception of person and spirit, distinguishing the human be­ ing in the process from nature ( as its "subsoil" [ Untergrund] so to speak) . 87 This tendency toward a "personalistic psychology" (in con­ trast to a "naturalistic" one ) is already apparen t in Husser} 's Logos essay of 1 9 1 1 , "Philosophy as Rigorous Science, '' but becomes particularly pronounced after 1 9 1 4 , as evidenced, Heidegger notes in his 1 9 2 5 lec­ tures, by the course that Husser} is giving in Freiburg during the same semester under the title "Phenomenological Psychology" (P 1 6 1 - 1 64 ) . Heidegger claims that Husserl is taking his criticisms into account on the basis of acquaintance with Heidegger's Freiburg lectures as well as the Prolegomena Lectures and their conversations with one another. For this reason , Heidegger observes that the sharpness of his criticisms may have been blunted somewhat. So intensive and "yet so fully in flux" was Husserl 's preoccupation with the themes of consciousness and person at this time that Heideg­ ger h ad to confess: "I am not sufficiently apprised of the charac ter of 86 Geth mann, " Heidegge rs "''ah rheit�konzeption ," I 05 : H uss erl h abe - so laBt sich Hei­ deggers Kritik zusammenfassen - unbemerkt und darum ungerech tfertigt unterstellt, daj1 der A nti-Ps)'chologismus (die Un tersch eidu ng von Vollzug/GPhalt) nur als Idealism us (durch die Unterscheidung von real/ideal) zu hahPn .\ei." 87 ld I I 2 8o: " Gpist ist nirh t ein a bstraktes l c h d e r �tellungnehmenden Akte, so n dern er ist die vollR Personlichkeit, lch-Mmsch, der ich Stellung nehme, der ich den ke, werte , han­ dle, Werke vo l l b ringe etc . Zu mir ge h ()rt dan n mit ein Untergrund von Erlebnzs.5en u n d ein Untergrund von 1Vatu r C nt e i n e Nauu' ) , die sich in dem Getriebe der Erlebnisse bekun­ det. " For H usse rl 's acknowledgtn e n t of D i l tl1ey's inceptive i nsigh t i n to the insufli c i e ncy of a n a t u ra l i s t i c psvc h ol ogv, see l d I I I 7 � f. "

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

the content o f his [ Husserl 's] present investigations" ( P 1 67 ) . But this did not stop him from holding forth about the investigations that were known to him . To the extent that he is familar with Husserl 's elabora­ tion of a personalistic attitude, Heidegger finds no reason to withdraw or revise his criticis1n . In each of Husserl 's new drafts, his "division of being" resurfaces ''under another title . " In the Logos essay personhood is attributed to human beings, thus a kind of being different in princi­ ple from the thingliness of nature , while the positive sense of this per­ sonal being remains "the immanent unity of life of the respective stream of consciousness" (PasW 3 1 9f) . Later Husserl explicitly strives to conceive the complex of experiences as much more than an annex to physical things and even to subordinate the naturalistic attitude to the personalistic one. But even in this approach the being of con­ sciousness (Sein des BewujJtseins) is construed as something that is ac­ cessible to human beings in an immanent way and independent of nature, while the full personality is said to proceed from the in terpen­ etration and differentiation of the personalistic and naturalistic atti­ tude (in short, soul and body) . R 8 In this connec tion Heidegger also mentions Ideas II, confiding that Husser}, in a letter accompanying the manuscript, speaks of "a com­ pletely new elaboration with - in part - comple tely changed con tents," leading Heidegger to caution his students once again that, as a result, his characterization of Husserl 's phe nomenology "in a certain sense is already somewhat antiquated" (P 1 68 ) . Mter reciting titles of the three sections of the book, Heidegger recounts HusserI 's clear assertion that the naturalistic atti tude is subordinate to the personalistic (but nonetheless "natural") one , despite the fact that we glide so easily from the one attitude to the other. Heidegger's very brief exposition - often a mere paraph rase if not a lite ral transcription - comme nces with the opening pages of the third section 's first chapter ("Con trast Between the Naturalistic and Personalistic World" ) . R9 He refers specifically to Husserl 's accoun t of the soul ( "in the widest sense of the te rm" ) as the localization of the mental, an accoun t that Heidegger deems 'justified," based as it is on the inner connection of the aesthesiological with the 88 Heidegger's brief re fe re nc e i n the Prolegom ena Lectures to H usse rl 's d raft� of the pos­ i tive sense of th e human being as a per�on (in Ideas II as well as in Phenomenological P5y­ rhology) corroborate Husser} '� development, tho u g h he does not succeed in moving, Heidegger c laiin s , beyond a psychophysical model. H9 vVith his re fe re n c e to the run n i n g cat and "the inner connection of the aesthesiologi­ cal wit h the physical;· He idtggt:• 1 n ost likely has I d II 1 7 :Jf in mind.

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E P T I O N OF T R U T H

1 29

physical dimension . At the same time, he acknowledges Husserl 's ef­ forts to introduce a personalistic attitude that is not naturalistic but nat­ ural in the sense of being "a mirror of nature so to speak" (P t 6g; Id II 1 80, 1 8 3f) . Yet Heidegger is not dissuaded from his basic criticism, though he rests his case essentially on just two sections of the third part of Ideas II: section 54, "The I i n the Inspectio Sui " ; and the final section of the book, section 64, "Relativity of Nature , Absoluteness of Spirit." As the title of section 54 plainly suggests, the so-called personalistic attitude and ex­ perience continue to be defined, he submits, in Cartesian terms . Any doubt about the basically Cartesian character of Husserl 's conception of the person is removed by the concluding section 's insistence on the individual spirit's immanent given ness to itself as well as the primacy of that givenness over all appearances, the world, and even nature . For all the insights presented by Ideas II, Heidegger suggests, it remains ul ti­ mately an iteration of Husserl 's fundamental ontological distinction , based as i t i s upon privileging what is allegedly given i n an immanent way and isolating th e same pure consciousness that is the residue of the world 's annihilation . Once that distinction is countenanced, the delib­ erations take the characteristic course of elaborating the relations be­ tween body and soul , spiritual and physical nature ( P 1 6gff; Id II 2 1 1 -2 1 5 , 297-302 ) . Heidegger is n o t denying that Husserl 's attempt to provide a phe­ nomen ological foundation for a personalistic psychology is, as Heideg­ ger himself puts it, a "positive" development in certain respects. How­ ever, as far as the issue of intentionality's manner of being is concerned , the attempt does far more than simply leave the question unaddressed; it obstructs the question . Using Husserl 's termi nology, Heidegger main­ tains that one reason why the question of the "person 's manner of be­ ing" does not come into play is the very con text in which the personal or spiritual dimensions are considered. That context is predetermined by the overriding concern of Ideas I, namely, establishing how an entity presents itself as a real object within the stream of experiences. Against this background, the personal or spiritual dimension is then examined insofar as it can be constructed or even superimposed on such a natu­ ral reality as the "fundamental level." As a result, despite Husserl 's em­ phasis on the naturalness of the personalistic attitude, "the being of the person is not experienced as such primarily" ( P 1 7 2 ) . Moreover, even if ontological considerations shaped this analysis of the person , the question remai ns whether what it means for a person or concrete h u-

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

man being " to be" can b e constructed from these various levels as though it were the product of them. The problem is that this very ap­ proach , by construing the person as "a multilevel thing within the world," can neve r arrive at the person 's being. What remains is the sort of being of some real object, given in advance. ''In the last analysis," Hei­ degger submits, Husserl 's on tological horizon is "being as objectivity in the sense of being-an-object for an observation. "90 Heidegger's two objections to Husserl 's phen omenology form a tan­ dem: the logical prejudice goes hand in hand with a tendency to neg­ lect or even forget to address the theme of being. In other words, as long as the assertion (sen tence, proposition , etc . ) is regarded as th e site of truth and thus the end of the analysis of truth , being is conceived nolens volens as the presence of something making itself present ( being in the sense of the onhandness or potential onhandness of a thing, an obj ect, a state of affairs) . Something similar holds in reverse as well: as long as an objec t's "being" and its "on-hand givenness'' are equated, truth is understood as the truth of an assertion or as that which, when present and pointed out, realizes what is otherwise merely thought, that is to say, entertained in its absence. Because Husser I conceives truth primarily as a realizing (or fulfill­ ing) intuition , he distinguishes truth in this primary sense from the mere correctness of a sentence . Yet precisely because his analysis of in­ tentionality - particularly in the Logical Investigations - aims at differen­ tiating logic and epistemology from psychology, he is primarily con­ cerned with objectifying and positi ng intentions , the signitive and relational form of which is a declarative sen tence or assertion . The con­ ception of intentionality is teleological , that is to say, it is oriented to­ ward its realization or, more precisely, the realizing or fulfilling inten­ tion ( tru th ) . But the realizing in tention, in Husserl 's scheme, is itself the intui tive iden tification of something on hand as that upon which the truth of an assertion typically depends. 9 1 Herein lies the irony of Heidegger's encomium that Husserl has "thought the grand tradition ofWestern philosophy to an end'' ( L 1 1 4 ) . Thanks to HusserJ 's analysis of the intentionality of the intuitive truth that underlies the correctness of an assertion or judgment, it is clear go P 1 7 3 . H eidegge r also c ritic iz{'s H usserl for re ga r d i n g the ego as the pole of act�, " th e subject t h a t pe rsist� , " but Heidegg er also ackn owledges t h a t H u�se rl \ analysis o f tin1e attai ns a deeper leve l ; rf. P 1 7 2 . 9 1 I t could also real i�:e or fu lfill a n ame and n aming; see T 2 7 7f and B e rn e t "H usserl and ,

H e idegg e r

uu

I u L� n liunal i ty a n d Bei n�,"

1

:J O .

T H E. P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

131

that the latter is not the "si te" of truth , at least not in the primary sense of the term. But that same analysis also demonstrates just how intri­ cately the two concepts of truth are interwoven with one another and with a "flattened-out" conception of being ( "onhandness") . Husserl 's analysis of truth exposes the basis of the logical prejudice , namely, the reason why i t is traditionally taken for gran ted that truth is preemi­ nently propositional or at least equivalent to the truth of an assertion or judgment. Yet HusserI himself remains enmeshed in a version of the same prejudice in that he grasps th e truth ( "state of affai rs") as an ideal presence correlative to an assertion or judgmen t. 2 .3 What Husserl Cares About: Knowledge Known

and the Fear of Being-Here The criticisms reviewed in the previous section ( 2 . 2 ) are quasi-imma­ nent. They can not be considered strictly immanen t in the sense of es tablishing inconsistencies based solely on Husser I 's understanding of his own terminology. It should be obvious by now that, in presenting and criticizing Husserl 's treatments of the themes of truth and being, Hei­ degger is constantly invoking his own unde rstanding of these the1nes. Yet characterizing his objections as "quasi-immanent" is not mean t to suggest that only the semblance of an immanent criticism is observed. Heidegger formulates his main objections on the basis of claims that Husserl makes for phenomenology, its method and task, and even though Heidegger appeals to connotations that are not explicit in Husserl 's texts , it would be foolish to reject those connotations out of hand or suppose that there is no common ground between the two philosophers. People typically say more than they mean and what they say may have meanings that con tradict what they meant to say. To the extent that Husserl 's use of the term ' state of affairs ' to characterize truth suggests a standing presence, it conflicts with the dynamic in ter­ p lay of presence and absence otherwise implied - at least on certain readings - by his account of truth. So , too, the scientific horizon for con­ struing consciousness as absolute and privileging perception seems to p reclude certain considerations of phenomenology's theme, conside r­ ations called for by its project of returning to the original given ness of things. Yet if Heidegger's criticistns, for all their tenden tiousness i n various respects, cannot be dismissed as purely external , two mitigating features of th e cri ti ci s m s rl �s� rv� to h� n n tF"rl Fi r�t , t h e (' ri ti t:- i " m " poin t to a neg-

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

l e c t or insufficiency, a t most a confusion of regional and fundamental ontological considerations, but not the speciousness of Husserl's phe­ nomenological analyses. 92 Nor is it clear, especially given Heidegger's touting of phenomenology's decisive discoveries, that the supposed neglect or confusion is terminal or endemic. In other words, Heideg­ ger's critique of what Husserl has made of phenomenology suggests strongly that there is another trajectory for phenomenology, but h ardly one incompatible with Husserl 's undertaking. Second, it is also appar­ ent that Heidegger's principal reason for drafting these criticisms is not to demonstrate that Husserl's conception of phenomenology is self-re­ futing. His main objective is to persuade his students that phenome­ nology, as a philosophical method, has a different destiny. 93 This objective is particularly evident in Heidegger's most irreverent treatment of his mentor's thottght. It is probably not a coincidence that this treatment is to be found in Heidegger's first Marburg lectures ( i . e. , no longer under Husserl's shadow at Freiburg) , aptly entitled "Intro­ duction to Phenomenological Research. " In these lectures Heidegger supplements his other objections to Husserl 's conception of phenom­ enology with an explanation of its motivation. The largest segment of these lectures, it bears noting, is devoted to Descartes as the begi nning of a transformation (Umschlag) , prefigured by the Greeks and brough t to completion by Husser!, in which scientific method takes precedence over content and consciousness replaces being as the basic theme of a science with foundationalist pre tensions (EpF 44, 4 7 , 49 , 5 2 ) . Heideg­ ger's explanation of Husserl 's motivation is thus part of a much longer story. 9 4 According to Heidegger, Husserl's climactic role in this drama can be gathered fro m his objections to naturalism and historicism in the es­ say "Philosophy as Rigorous Science . " Husserl 's criticism of attempts to 92

93

94

Heidegger takes exception to the completeness of H usserl 's phenomenology of reason, bu t apparen tly not to the adequacy of its analyses for specific regions. If anything, Hei­ degger is challenging the distinction between formal and regional ontol ogy, since the claims to the universality of th e former are tied to an a l l eged ly aU-too-regional concep­ tion of intentionality. Cf. Id I 3 0 7-3 1 3 . It must also be borne i n mind that H eidegger's critici45ms of his mentor were not pub­ lished at the tim e , but i nstead were prese nted with in the presumably nonhostile , less in­ hibited confines of a semi nar. EpF 4 4 , 4 7 , 49 , 5 2 . Heidegger's account of H usserl 's relationship to Descartes is re­ viewed in n. 79 above . On the necessity of th e historical tun?-, undoubtedly a preview of the plan for th e second part of SZ, see EpF 1 o6f, 2 7 1 .

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 33

naturalize consciousness takes the form o f clarifYing the phenomenon and the manner of treating it. Heidegger describes this clarification as a matter of "cleaning up" or "sanitizing" (Reinigung) the concept, purg­ ing or purifying it from confusion with the sort of facts and phe nom­ e na investigated by natural science (EpF 79f; PasW 2 96f, 30 2 , 3 1 8 ) . For Heidegger's purposes , the image of a Reinigung - which can also stand for ' laundry' or ' cleaners ' - aptly suggests that consciousness , the theme of Husserlian phenomenology, is already established and merely needs a "good clean ing" in order to secure the foundation of philosophy as rigorous science (EpF 7 1 f, 79£) . Husserl 's transcendental laundry pur­ portedly remai ns very much in the business of naturalism since it rids consciousness of eve ry factuality in order to secure the sort of lawlike , universally binding character that is paradigmatic in a mathematical sci­ ence of nature (EpF 64f, 7off, 8of, 82£) . Moreover, just as the cleaning, culminating in the transcendental reduction , involves "turning off' (Ausschaltung) any supposition of natural features, so, too, it requires bracketing historical facts. Holding fast to a rigid Lotzean differentia­ tion of factuality and validity, Husser! cancels (ausschaltet) history and historical sciences as "unimportant'' (EpF 94ff, 300) . A "superstitiousness about facts ," as Husse rl puts it, is common to the naturalism and h istoricism that he criticizes ( PasW 3 2 3 , 33 6; EpF 7 2 , 94 ) . Seizi ng on this poi nt, Heidegger observes that Husserl 's criti­ cisms are made in the interest of a normative science, grounded in the Lotzean idea of validi ty ( EpF 8 1 f, 86f, 96; PasW 3 2 5ff) . Husserl is ac­ cordingly committed to the Lotzean version of the logical prejudice , or at least its presupposition of an ac tuality all its own , in con trast to th ings that are , events that happen , and relations that obtain (see 1 . 3 2 above ) . Yet Husserl does not have any In ore justification for the oper­ ative distinction between being and validity, real and ideal, than Lo tze does (EpF 94f, g g , 30 2 ) . Since Husser! appeals prec isely to an eidetic intuition to establish the distinction ( Id I 9; PasW 3 1 4£) , Heidegger is, in effect, rejecting the force of such an intuition - at least wi th regard to somethi ng as fundamental as an ontological difference. But if Husserl 's appeal to eidetic intuition goes, so, too , does his idea of a rig­ orous science wi th some sort of ultimate foundation. Even apart from questionable appeals to intuition, the lack of an ultimate foundation can be gath ered , in Heidegger's view, from the would-be normative dis­ cipline 's disregard of what is supposed to be determined by its norms and , as a result, i ts failure to consider the ve ry sense and possibility of

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R lT T H

1 34

normativity ( EpF 86f; PasW 3 1 6) . Correspondingly, in the wake of its critique of historicism , it is committed to neglecting, indeed, foreclos­ i ng any consideration of historical existen ce , the very being of con­ sciousness . 95 What, then , motivates Husserl to assume the Lotzean distinction , to construe consciousness in a primarily epistemic, nonworldly manner, and, in the process, to neglect the h istorical reality of individual h uman existence i tself? Heidegger explains Husserl 's motivation as a form of care . By ' care , ' Heidegger has in mind something presubjective and preconceptual, the Arch imedean point of philosophical analysis ( though these fea­ tures are not sufficient to consider his use of the term in this context equivalent to his use of it three years later in Being and Time) . "Care is nothing subjective and does not dissimulate what concerns it; instead it lets it come to its authenti c being." 96 Heidegger employs this notion of care, it bears emphasizing, in order to determine what ' consciousness' means for Husserl or why he even regards it as a theme for philosophy. What makes consciousness philosophically interesting, Heidegger is proposing, is the interest that speaks through consciousness. In other words, he supposes that what consciousness means for Husserl depends upon and thus reveals itself i n what Husserl cares about. But care can also be deficient in the sense that it does not attain what is i ts genuine concern ( EpF 8gf) . Indeed, Heidegger goes so far as to declare that every care is a form of neglect ( EpF 8 5 ) . "Among other things, care takes care to leave something out" ( EpF go) . There is accordingly a care underlying Husserl 's neglect, discussed above , of the individual histor­ ical existence that is allegedly subject to the normative science. This dual use of ' care ' is similar to Hegel 's disti nction between what is "for consciousness" i tself and what is "for us" who study th e emergence of 9 1 ff; PasW 334· EpF 93: "Care about kn owledge k n own has excluded h uman exis­ tence as such from th e poss ibility of bei ng encountered." A similar po i n t is u rged by Heidegge r a few years late r i n notes to Hus�erl 's En cyclopedia Britan n i ca article: "Does not a pure ego have a world?" Cf. Edmund Husserl , PhiinomPnolo,IJ;l 5rhe P5)1thologie, ed. Walter Biemel ( Hague: NU hoff, 1 96 2 ) , 2 74 n . 1 . g6 EpF 5 7 . Th is tex t suppo rt� the vit>w that the discl osed ness of bei ng-here , like the tru th discussed by Aristo tle in 1\1etaphysirs, Theta 1 o, con�ti tutes the limit of bival enC"e. I n other words , a co rresponding fa l s i ty cannot be meani ngfully conc;; i dered. See, too, Hei­ degger's discussion of the seeing, proper to care, that "has noth ing to do with theoret­ ical knowl edge" ( EpF 1 o4f) . On Heidegge r's version of "phenomenological seein g , " s e e Friedrich-Wilhelnl von H e rnn an n , J)Pr Begriff der PhiinornPnologie bn HPidPggn- und Hus!,n-/

95 EpF

( Fra n kfu rt

an1

IV1a i n :

Kl o�te 1

n1a n n ,

1 9H

1 ) , 1 4.

T H F.

P H E N O M EN OLOG I C A L

C O N C E PT I O N

OF

T R UTH

1 35

that consciousness. 97 Care is originally disclosive but can also lose itself in a certain sense in what it cares about, and it is precisely this dynamic, according to Heidegger, that takes place in Husserl 's case . What does Husserl care about? What motivates h im to develop an e pistemic consciousness as the theme of phenomenol ogy? According to Heidegger, what Husserl cares about is "knowledge known ," that is to say, "knowledge justified by knowledge" or "scientific knowledge" that is absolutely binding ( EpF 1 oof) . Indeed, so powerful is this con­ cern that fashioning knowledge of this sort is more important than what is known. "Care about obtaining an absolute securing of knowledge is what determines the entire critique in the ch oice of themes and treat­ ment" ( EpF 8g) . What matters to Husserl is, to be sure, "the highest in­ te rests of human culture," but these interests require, he submi ts, " the development of a rigorously scientific philosophy" (PasW 2 93 , 340) . This concern for scientific knowledge as a means of "securing existence [Dasein] and culture" is, in Heidegger's view, a "deficient" or "lapsed" sort of care ( EpF 6o, 6 2 , 7 1 f, 84, 1 05 ) . For, in its pursuit of absolutely binding and justified norms for "an ideal cultural formation as the au­ thentic comple tion of the idea of humanity, " Husserlian phenomenol­ ogy neglects to consider its auth entic concern: human existence itself ( EpF go) . "What is neglected is what is genuinely of concern : human existence. Inquiry is not made into what it is, but instead the idea of hu­ manity and the concept of the human being are left in an average con­ tingency" ( EpF 9 1 ) . This deficiency is poignan tly revealed, in Heidegger's estimation, by the way in which Husserl contests h istoricism . While Husser! h imself ex­ plicitly acknowledges the necessity of challenging not merely the con­ seque nces, but also the method and principles of naturalism, his re­ buttal of historicism is largely directed at its consequences. As Husse rl puts it: "Historicism , if consistently carried out, carries over into ex­ treme skeptical subjectivism . The ideas of truth , theory, and science would then, like all ideas, lose their absolute validity. . . . There would be no unqualified validity" ( PasW 3 2 5 ) . The genuine force of the ar­ gument lies, Heidegger maintains, in the counterfactual ("what human exi stence would be , if there were no absolute validity" ) , in effect, an ap­ p eal to what is otherwise neglected: a historical and concrete, not merely theoretical and detached , existen ce ( EpF g 6 ) . The key, however, 97 G. W. burg:

F.

Hege l , Phiinomnwlogu' drs Gri'ltes, ed . W. Bo nsie p en and Rei nhard Heede ( H am­ 1 DHo ) . flfiff.

M e i n e r,

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

is the nature of the appeal . The possibility of an uncertain , insecure hu­ man existence is raised but only as something to be rejected. The gen­ uine sense of the argument - indeed, any argumen t - against skepti­ cism is clear: "Care about knowledge known is nothing else but A ngst in the face of being-here. " 9� This ad hominem criticism deserves commen t, but first i t should be noted that Heidegger repeatedly links Husserl 's "care about knowledge known" to the logical prejudice . "Everything that one characterizes as the concrete instan tiation of a j udgment is tuned out as merely a form of appearance of the valid. On this small basis the distinction between the valid idea etc . is obtained and . . . transposed on to every conscious be havior" (EpF 8 7 ; see also 75f, 94£) . The idea of truth is equated with the idea of valdi ty to the extent that nothing is coun tenanced as scien ce "if the idea of validity is not secured absolutely" - even though, Hei­ degger adds, the idea might be senseless and "science possible in spite of this or rather precisely because of it" ( EpF g6) . According to Hei­ degger (in what is essen tially a reprise of his cri tique of Lotze) , the in­ terpretation of truth as validity is not self-evident, but even more im­ portantly, it forecloses "the decisive problems of existence" ( EpF g6; see also ggf, 302 ) . However, if some version of the logical prejudice goes hand in hand with an overriding care about knowledge known , Heidegger is rooting it in a more basic, albeit lapsed or deficient sort of care . The equation of truth with validity (an ideal proposition or its corresponding state of affairs) remains in Heidegger's opinion a prej udice , which is to say that it is assumed wi thout adequate justification , but it is not unfounded if he is right about the care underlying it. Motivating the view that a true proposition or a set of true propositions forms the end of the analysis is a certain Angst. The two quasi-immanent objections to Husserl 's thought reviewed in the last section ( 2 . 2 ) are of one cloth with the so­ called care abottt knowledge known , a care that Heidegger alleges is motivated in tttrn by fear and dread of existence. This claim need not be interpreted only as a pe rsonal, ad hominem assaul t on Husserl. Indeed, generosity toward both Husserl and Hei­ degger would seem to warran t that efforts be made to construe it in g8 EpF 9 7 ; 99f. The term 'A ngs t' is en1ployed here because I am not sure of the extent to which Hei degge r is al ready differen tiating dread or an xiety (A ng.�t) from fear (Furrht) . For the same reaso n , I am unsure of th e force of h i s argu me)1t. I t is one th i n g to expl ain th e r�j ection of skepticisn1 on the b as i s of fear of its conseq uences, and quite another to explai n it on tht ba�i� of e:xi�tc..> n tial anxiety.

T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

1 37

other ways. But if i t is wrong to take it merely as a form of character as­ sassination , it is also off base to construe it simply as an indictment of a culture i n decay (ringing of Nietzsche or even Spengler) or, more straightforwardly, as nothing more than a sober plea for paying atten­ tion to the motivation for leaving certain complicating presuppositions unexamined. Heidegger is lampooning Husserl 's embrace of th e logi­ cal prej udice and pursuit of an overriding scientific ideal as sympto­ matic of a failure of nerve. 99 This claim obviously is not limited to Husserl or even Husserlian phenomenology. However, in h is criticism of Husserl, Heidegger takes no pains to j ustifY the claim either gener­ ally or as it applies specifically to Husserl. But then how is the claim to be assessed? The claim in question is Heidegger's explanation for the direction that Husserl gives phenomenology, a direction that Heidegger attrib­ utes to a lapse. The suitability of this explanation , like any other, de­ pends upon th e adequacy of the characterization of the explanandum ( the direction of Husserlian phenomenology) as well as the accuracy of the connection drawn between it and the explanans (its supposed mo­ tivation) . There are , accordingly, two levels on which Heidegger's claim is to be assessed. On the one level , if the account given of Husserl 's phe­ nomenology and its alleged shortcomings does not stand up, then the question of an underlying anxiety is moot. The tendentiousness of Hei­ degger's presentation of Husserl 's published views circa 1 9 2 5 has al­ ready been amply noted (see 2 . 2 ) , and the next section ( 2 .4 ) attempts to sort out several additional ways in which Heidegger gives a distorted picture of Husserl 's phenomenology. At the same time, as suggested at the outset of the present section, Heidegger's objections are not purely external. In oth er words, there is a genuine sense in which the scien­ tific trajectory that Husserl gives phenomenology appears to hinder it from adequately attending to certain phenomena in all their raw given­ ness (e .g. , the worldly and historical givenness of intentionality's timely manner of being) . Ye t even if there is some warrant for this objection, Heidegger has not made the case for h is explanation of these shortcomings or the di­ rection that Husser! gives to phenomenology. His charge that a refusal to accept the uncertainty of existence underlies Husserl 's rejection of 9 9 Again , as noted in the preced i ng foo tnote , th is "nerve" can be un de rstood existentielly or existentially, though i t is n o t clear that Heidegger h as worked out th is difference, at least not in so m any words. at the ti me of the cri ticism ( late 1 9 2 3 ) .

HEI DEGGE R ' S

C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

skepticism and his "care for kn owledge known" is based upon a h ighly exaggerated reading of Husserl 's brief remarks about the consequences of countenancing historicism. While Husserl recoun ts the conse­ quences of collapsing various ideas and principles into the contingent validities of an historical period, his focus is on the consequences for those ideas. No reference is made to the fearfulness or anxiousness of such a scenario. Heidegger's observation that Husserl 's care for knowl­ edge known is nothing else than anxiety in the face of being-here un­ doubtedly tnade for great theater in the seminar, but it is little more than speculation . Heidegger has a stronger, less speculative case to make , though it is made at a more general level, that is, without being directed explicitly at Husserl 's phenomenology. In order to show that care for knowledge known, at least insofar as it becomes overriding, is an expression of "de­ ficient care," it is necessary for him to demonstrate what it means to care in an authentic, nondeficient manner and what difference this au­ thentic care makes to philosophy ( phenomenology) . If authentic care presents a theme and manner of realization, consideration of which is precluded by concerns for a certain ideal of scientific knowledge , then a case for the deficiency of those concerns can be made. This strategy is pursued by Heidegger himself in Being and Ti,me and its trenchancy is considered in Chapter 4 below. 2 .4 The Distorted Picture of a Maturing Phenomenology

Are Heidegger's cri ticisms of Husserl 's phenomenology trenchant? As has been shown , Heidegger provides extensive corroboration for his objections with references to Husserl 's published and even unpub­ lished writings . Indeed, a great deal in both the Logical Investigations and Ideas I speaks for his basic criticism . The phenomenological analy­ sis in these works is stamped by certain structural assum ptions that hamper if not block the way to a further determination of the manner of being of in ten tionality. Principal among such assumptions are those expressed by the so-called act-object and apprehension-content schemata. At least in the early period of his work, Husse rl employs these schemata to explain intentional relations to objects generally, but above all the objective accomplishments of ac ts of knowing. In the process, he isolates the notion of truth that underlies log i c, setting it o ff frotn psychology. According to the doctrine o f the Logical Investiga­ tions, consciousness of ol�j ec tivity comes about through an objectifyi n g

TH E P H E N O M E N O L O G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F TRU TH

1 39

act of a specific quality (e .g. , perceiving, judging) that apprehends and "animates" certain sensory contents ( that are themselves nonin ten­ tional ) in view of a specific matter or sense. In accordance with the quality as well as the sense of the in tentional ac t, the object presents i t­ self in the inte n tional ac t. In this way Husserl 's analysis presupposes acts and senses, contents-of-apprehe nsion, and objects that presen t thetn­ selves, and it presupposes them without inquiring in to their possibility or genesis. 1 00 As long as such schemata and elements are taken to constitute the end of any analysis of intentionality, it would be absurd to ask for fur­ ther clarification regarding their origi n and sense . Yet precisely at this juncture, according to Heidegger, a serious oversigh t is committed, since a specific conception of being is implicated in these sch emata or, more precisely, in Husserl 's uses of them for the purposes of inten tional analysis. On account of these schemata, i t is taken for granted that the given ness ( the being of the given: Gegebensein) corresponding to the act, namely, an object's onhandness ( being-on-hand: Vorhandensein) , ex­ hausts the sense of being. Herein lies the basis of Heidegger's charge that Husser I fails to raise the question of the manner of being of the in­ tentional sphere . Insofar as Husser! analyzes intentionality as an act that is directed in one way or another at the onhandness of an object, this conception of being prevails and Heidegger's criticism is not unjusti­ fied. Furthermore , Husserl 's determinations of the absolute being of pure consciousness reveal the same operative conception of being, thtts demonstrating its force even when the act of consciousness is directed at itself (T 2 68 ) . The characterization of truth as a "state of affairs'' or, more precisely, the givenness of a state of affairs corresponding to an assertion or judgment, testifies further to the dominance of this con­ ception of being. At the same time, however, Heidegger downplays the decisive role that H usserl assigns to merely entertaining something (and thus to the absence of what is entertai ned) in the consti tution of the primary se nse of ' truth ' and 'being. ' Th rough his interpretation of the entelechy of in ten tionality and the interplay of empty and filled intentions, Husse rl anticipates a good deal of the ontological dynamics that Heidegger ac­ cords to the primary sense of truth as disclosure. Indeed, Husser} can be said with reason to have shown Heidegger the way for the determiI

The Forma tion of Hu. Hn-l '\ Con cept ofCon5titution ( Hague: N ij h off, t 6 2- d )6.

o o See Robert Sokolowsk i , J g6 6 ) . 5 9f. 7 2 f.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

nation of the respective interacting structures of absence and presence that enter into the manners of being (being-handy, bei ng-worldly, be­ ing-here ) primarily i nvestigated in Being and Time. These observations considerably weaken the force of the objections that Husserl under­ stands being simply as presence and that he confuses intentionality's manner of being with the way in which a thing is on hand. It is certainly true that Husserl does not raise expressis verbis the question of being, at least as Heidegger sketches it. But if one takes Husserl 's comple te doc­ trine of intentionality into accoun t, it seems unfair and even forced to conclude from Husserl 's characterization of truth as a "state of affairs" that he construes truth (and thereby being as truth ) only in the sense of the presence correlative to a true assertion or judgment. Moreover, in the case of perception of " transcendent objects," Husserl recogn izes that they can not be perfectly given, that part of them always eludes us, and, hen ce, that the complete transparency of them can only be a regulative idea (ld I 2 97£) . It is important to add that this ontological elusiveness of things, in the first place, is not the excess availed in a categorial intuition 1 0 1 and , in the second place, ex­ tends to the entire range of possible experiences of them , "an indeter­ minate, but determinable horizon ," "changing but always co-posited . . . [ and] by means of which th e thesis of the world acquires its sense" (ld I 8gf) . These claims, too, would seem to vitiate at least some charges that Husser I is unmindful of the distinctive question of what it means for things "to be," or that he simply equates their m anner of being with their presence. There are several reasons why i t is difficult to give a precise assess­ ment of Heidegger's objections. Though the Prolegomena Lectures present Husserl's discoveries roughly in accordance with th e sequence in the Log;ical Investigations, Heidegger regularly employs terminology and conceptions that stem from Husserl 's subsequent treatments of the same them es, especially the treatments found in Ideas I and the revised portion of the second volume of the Log;ical Investigations. This liberal use of Husserl 's changing terminology reveals Heidegger's acquain1 0 1 Taminiaux righ tly criticizes Heidegger's later alignment of the excess in H usserl 's no­

tion of being with the excess articulated as a category of substance; cf. Ziihringen Semi­ n ar, 1 1 3 , and Le Regard et l 'excedent, 1 7 5- 1 78. See, too, Taminiaux 's account of how the question of be i n g far from bei ng bracketed, takes center stage wi th Husserl 's intro­ duction of the reduc tion in Fiinf Vorlesungen in "Immanence, Transcendence , and Be­ ing in H usserl 's Idea of Ph enomenology," in The Collegium Phaenomenologicum, ed.John Sal lis c t al. (Arn�le r da1u : Kl uwe r, t g88 ) , 44-7 5· ,

T H E P H E N O M E N O LO G I C A L C O N C E PT I O N O F T R U T H

141

tance with many of the turns that led to those changes. But it also shows that he is making no attempt to give an exposition of Husserl 's phe­ nomenology that would be terminologically or chronologically faithful to its development. Especially in the Prolegomena Lectures, he pres­ ents a streamlined and, in some respects, even generous account of Husserl 's accomplishments. When he skirts or even deletes considera­ tion of certain complications, they are often issues that Husserl has him­ self subjected to considerable revision by the 1 9 2 0s. At the same time, his sketch of Husserl 's work after 1 goo ignores several crucial turns even in Husserl's early works. l 0 2 Within the framework of lectures designed to introduce students to phenomenology, Heidegger's trun cated presentation is understand­ able. He provides a general, systematic, and highly critical overview of Husserl 's doctrine only as a tneans to the main business at hand: intro­ ducing phenomenology as an ongoing research program . His aim is to convey that phenomen ology is a form of research (predominantly on­ tological research) and not to trace its genesis and development. In this respect Heidegger is faithful to the spirit of his mentor's endeavors. Husserl 's phenomenology is the work of an indefatigable thinker, some­ one who by no means stood pat and whose doctrines i n fact never at­ tained systematic closure or definitive expression. Heidegger's remark in the summer semester of 1 9 2 5 to the effect that Husserl's thinking is "still fully in flux" is certainly accurate. Nor can a reader of the Marburg lectures forget that Heidegger's understanding of Husserlian phenom­ enology was based at the time upon Husserl 's published and unpub­ lished writings as well as conversations with him. His critical posture to­ ward Husserl 's phenomenology in th ese lectures is obviously limited to the shape of it before 1 92 5 . Wh e n all these qualifications are taken into accoun t, it becomes cle ar that Heidegger's treatmen t of H usserl's phenomenology works on at least two levels. On the one hand, many significan t details of Husserl 's ph enomenology, significan t at least for a stage of its development, are 1 0 2 Heidegger i s mum , for example, on H usserl 's p i votal distinction between the positing and the neutral character of some acts (LU II/ 2 1 2 of) , on Husserl 's changing attitude

toward the ego, and, indeed, on the import of the transcenden tal turn . The way in which Heidegger ignores H usserl 's studies of time-consciou sness, passive synthesis, and embodiment is discussed below (section 2 .4 ) . H eidegger indicates a doctri nal dif­ ference between LU and the later works only in regard to th e reworking of the con­ cept of sensoriness ( P 95£) . For H usserrs se)f-criticism , see Janssen 's introductio n to Husserl 's Die Idee der Phiinomenologie, ix-x; and Berne t, " Husserl and Heidegger on In­ t�n tion a l i ty a n rl BPi n g, " 1 4 2 .

HEI DEGGER ' S

CON C E PT OF

TRUTH

passed over or construed from another perspective and with different terminology, though it is clear that Husserl in 1 9 2 5 would h ave con­ curred with many of the liberties taken by Heidegger in presen ting phe­ nomenology as a research project. On the other hand, various c oncep­ tions are also reinterpreted for th e purpose of, if not rejecting, then at least radically transforming phenomenology into something that in crucial respects is quite alien to what Husser} envisioned. Within the framework of the present study, it is not possible to give an adequate answer to the daunting question: what mean ing did Husserl 's development of phenomenology have for Heidegger 's fun­ damental ontology? 1 03 As has been pointed out, in Heidegger's pre­ sentation as well as in his critique of Husserl 's phenomenology, he ig­ nores various themes, accents, and turns central to it. Any genuine investigation of tl1e relation between the two developing phenomenolo­ gies would have to explain the extent to which Husserl 's phenomeno­ logical investigations become a victim of benign neglect. Hanging in the balance are not only the accuracy and trenchancy of Heidegger's critique and explanation of Husserl 's motivation, but also the legiti­ macy and novelty of the new direction that Heidegger charts for phe­ nomenology. The aim of the following section is limited to noting some key ways in which Heidegger presents a distorted picture of Husser! 's phenom1 03 Giving a complete answer to this question would require examination of several other Husserlian texts from this period, presumably available to Heidegger in manuscript form , as well as the corpus of Heidegger's lectures and wri tings as of 1 92 5· Although the work of Berne t, Prufer, and Marion contribute much in this regard, they merely provide points of departure for an explanation of the relation between the two phe­ nomenologists . See Bernet, " Hu sserl and Heidegger on Intentionality and Being," 1 36- 1 5 2 ; Bernet, "Die ungegenwartige Gegenwart. Anwesenheit und Abwesenheit in H usserls Analyse des Zei tbewuBt�eins," i n bit und bitlirhkeit bei Husser! und Heideggn; ed. E . W. Orth ( Freibu rg: Alber, 1 9 83 ) , 1 6-5 7 ; Bernet, "Die Frage nach dem U rsprung der Zeit bei H usserl und Heidegger," lleidegger Studies ( 1 98 7- 1 C)R8 ) : 8g- 1 o4; Bernet, Introduction to Edtn und Husserl , 1rxte zur Phiinommologie dP.\ in neren 7--eitbeu.JujJt.�Pi n!J (I 8yJ - I 9 I 7) ( Hamburg: Meiner, 1 9R5 ) , xi-lxx\ii ; Thomas Prufer, "Heidegger, Early and Late , and Aqui nas," in Edmund Hu.Ht:rl and the Phenomenolof.,rical Tradition, ed. R. Sokolowski (Washington, D. C.: Catholic Cniv. of America Press, t g8g) , 1 9 7-2 1 5 ; 1\tar­ ion, Reduction et donation; and ]. C. Morrison, , 'ecstatic' captures the telos of H usserlian i n tentional i ty, its tendency to the tru th o r un covering of thi ngs, and rnore . See ld I 2 9 5 f: M i t d�n1 allge r nc i u e n \Ve�ens\cr�tandub de r Vc r n u n ft muB co ipso ..

.

.

.

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 77

presupposed by the act of intuiting it, nor the absence of it implicit in the act of meaning it are produced by those acts. Heidegger's own con­ ception of truth as dis-closure is an attempt to appropriate Husserl 's conception but by desubj ectifying it, namely, by focusing on its onto­ logical - or even realist - presupposition : the "obj ect's" passage from being absen t to being present. 4 In a certain respect, this criticism and appropriation of Husser} are purely phenomenological. Inspired by Husserl 's own attentiveness to unwarran ted appeals to what is allegedly self-eviden t (selbstverstiindlich) , Heidegger is challenging the assumption of the sense of given ness that Husserl takes for granted as self-evident: the onhandness of the iden­ tity that he himself specifies as the primary meaning of ' truth ' and 'be­ ing. ' In other words, does the assumed given ness of the presence or on­ handness of that iden tity represen t the end of the analysis? From Heidegger's van tage point, Husserl 's analysis of truth as the object of an in tuition unravels the crucial presupposition of the logical prej u­ dice, thereby explaining the air of self-evidentness accompanying it. However, by clinging to the unexamined assumption that the truth is the presence of a state of affairs, a presence corresponding to a poten­ tial intuition or observation , Husserl 's analysis conti nues to fall prey, if not to the prej udice per se, then at least to a version of its ontological presuppositions. 5 die allgemeine Aufklarung der die Idee des wahrhafl Seins mit den ldeen Wahrheit, Ver­ nunft, BewuBtsein verbindenden Wesenskorrelationen gewonnen sein." As this text makes clear, H usserl in Ideas I clearly moves beyond the act-oriented framework of th e Logi cal Investigations. Yet the correlation of subject and object, based on a "phenomenol­ ogy of reason ,'' continues to dominate his concept of tru th . In the transparency of being­ here, by contrast, the distinction between the way an entity presen ts itself (its emergence into presence out of absence) and its presence to the entity that is here is a distinctio ra­ tionis. SZ 1 3 3 : "Being-here is i ts disclosedness." 4 Heidegger's first publication is devoted to the problem of reality in philosophy as elabo­ rated by Oswald Kiilpe ("Das Realitatsproblem in der m odernen Philosophie , " in FS 1 - 1 5 ) . More importantly, he takes up Kiilpe 's realistic doctrine of categories in the con­ clusion to his habilitation on Duns Scotus, where he proposes a unity of critical realism and transcendental idealism ( FS 403 n. 3 ) . See Strube, Zur Vorgeschichte, 7 3-7 8: ''Die Kon­ gruenz von transzendentalem Idealismus und kri tischem Realismus." Heidegger's ac­ coun t of tru th in the mid- 1 g 2os preserves th is realist dimension . Heidegger focuses not on a true proposition or perception but on what is presupposed by both of them, i.e., the timely emergence of an entity's presence from its absence. 5 Neither the logical prejudice 's unfoundedness nor its perniciousness nor its necessary con nection with the on tological presupposition of being as presence has be�n estab­ lished , it bears noting. Not everyone wh o restricts ' true ' to judgments, propositions, or assertions, etc., explici tly fonn ulates the presupposi tion in question. Moreover, even if it is assumed th at theories of tru th endo rsi ng th is restriction are gui ded by a conception of

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O NC E PT O F TR U T H

Heidegger's interpretation of the accomplishments and failures of Husserlian phenomenology accordingly leads to the question "whether this undiscussed predetermination of the truth is or is not in fact some­ thing ultimate and grounded in itself." 6 This question dete rmines the next step required in critically confronting the logical prej udice. Hei­ degger must show that Husserl 's account of truth in terms of intuition no more has the final word on the matter than does Lotze 's character­ ization of truth as a valid sentence . At the same time Heidegger takes it upon himself to explain why the overlapping truths of judgment and intuition or, better, the perceived identity of the asserted and the per­ ceived are considered the last word. "Why is truth the truth of an intu­ itio n , why is intuition the basic type of knowing, and why mus t truth , so understood , be construed as sameness ( identity) ? \'Vby is this tru th the truth of a sen tence, and why does the actuality of this tru th of a sen­ tence have the character of being, which Plato has ascribed to ideas?" ( L 1 24) . Heidegger thus obliges himself not only to lay out a notion of truth distinct from and presupposed by th e truth of intuitions and judg­ ments, but also to explain why the notion is nevertheless forgotten or ignored. The reasons for the obliviousn ess to the notion are addressed in the next chapter. The present chapter undertakes, among other things, to demonstrate how Aristotle 's various discussions of truth em­ bolden Heidegger to posit a truth that is n o t only prepredicative but also preintuitive (preperceptual ) . just as H usserl 's analysis of the truth of intuition brings to light what underlies the Lotze an concept of truth as judgtnent and, indeed , the entire tradi tion of the logical p rejudice, so the analysis of the Aristotelian doctrine of truth reveals a dimension presupposed but not adequately taken in to account by Husserlian phe­ nomenology, namely, an entity's presence o r display of itself. Aristotle, as Heidegger reads him , consistently makes the particular fo rm of truth ( perceptual, propositional , noetic) dependent upon the way in which what it means " to be" (or c o ns i de ra ti on of the uses of the term ) , Heidegger has not demonstrated that the o pe ra t ive c o n c ep ti o n for suc h theories m us t be a c o n c e p t i o n of prese nce. He has o n ly 'ihown that such a con c e p t i o n underlies Lotze 's o n t ol o g i c al de­ m a rc atio n of tru t h as v al i di ty ( Geltung) and the th e o re tical o ri en tat i o n of H u ss e rl s ph e­ n ome n o l og i c a l conception of truth . D e sp i te the bombast and i m mo d es t rhetoric of Hei­ degger's prese n ta t i o n ( e g talk o f "the grand t ra d it ion of We�tern ph i l oso p hy ) h e i" m e rely trac ing a particular historical line of conce p tions o f truth� and t h e i r correspon­ ding ( i m p li c i t or e x pl i c i t ) o n t o l o gi c a l p resu pp os i ti o n s 6 L 1 2 4. By raisi ng th is question , H ei d e gge r is making good on. his criticism of Lot7e for construin g t ru t h l i ke the other three forms of ac tu a li ty, as "self-grou nded." See I i n r�opl e 's m i n rl 'l .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U TH

out of absence and into presence, though an adequate description of this emergence must encompass what it is absent from and prese nt to. 1 2 Th is view of truth i s not exactly Aristotle 's, to be sure, but his discussion of truth helps Heidegger arrive at this view. Though Aristotle 's definition of assertions presupposes a conception of truth , his definition also makes it clear that they enjoy a special rela­ tionship to truth. Exactly what the relationship between assertions and truth might be is by no means obvious. One solution is, of course , some version of the logical prejudice itself, for example , th e presumption of thei r identity or equivalence . On this view, truth is always bound to an assertion (whereby every falsehood is also bound to an assertion that, on the basis of the law of excluded middle, implies the possibility of the corresponding truth , i . e . , the corresponding true assertion) . However, if the relation between assertions and the truth is interpreted in this manner, then the Aristotelian definition of an assertion is circular. Aris­ totle would, in effect, have defined assertions by means of concepts ("being true," "being false" ) that can themselves be determined only by or even as assertions. The question ' how can an assertion be true or false ? ' could not only not be answered, it could not be meaningfully posed. Heidegger's interpretation of the Aristotelian definition of an asser­ tion does not proceed from the premise that i t is circular. Instead he at­ tempts to do j ustice to the particular relation of assertions to some se nse of truth , without losing sigh t of Aristotle's insight that the definition of an assertion presupposes a concept of truth . "It itself [ the assertion ] is on ly understandable as a manner of letting some thing be see n by way of pointing it out," and it is only understandable as such "on the basis of ' truth ' as uncovering" (L 1 34 ) . As this text suggests, on Heidegger's reading, Aristotle recogn izes the intentional or ecstatic character of as­ sertions. Though not to be confused with seeing, an assertion is a way of allowing something - and not a representation or mental replication of it - to be seen, to present itself. At the same time, this interpre tation invites the question of how assertions can be false . 1 3 1 2 PS 1 7 : "The aletheia is a peculiar ch arac ter of an en titfs manner of bei ng, in sofar as the en tity stands in a relatio n to some man ner of looking upon i t, to a disclosing by way of looking arou n d on eself in th e midst of en ti ties, to a knowi ng.'' For a discussion of the mean i ng of ' aletheia, ' parti cularly with respect to th e privative ch aracter of the prefix ' {/;- , and to th e notion that truth is s o m e t h i n g that is not in1 mediate.ly available but m ust be "u nearth (>d" and "un covered , " cf. PS I !) ff. 1 � I-I e i degg c t \ 1 e nd c r i n g of Ari s to tl e 's defi n i tion o f assertio ns can be read as th e c l a i m

T H E H E R M E N E UT I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 83

One of the curiosities of assertions is that, whatever the structure of a true assertion , it is the same structure that would underlie its falsi ty. But where should one begin to clarify and explain the structure of the assertion that renders it capable of truth as well as falsity, revealing as well as concealing? Such a structure is seemingly ready at hand: the structure of the articulated or written assertion, namely, the sentence 's word order. In fact, Heidegger maintains, "the en tire Greek logic and thereby our logic up to the presen t is primarily oriented to the spoken sen tence." 1 4 Taking his bearings from the spoken o r articulated assertion ( the sentence ) , Aristotle establishes that every assertion , whether it affirms or denies, illuminates or obscures, has the unified structure of both put­ ting together (synthesis) and taking apart ( diairesis) at once . 1 .� The asthat, while the assertion allows something to be seen, the seeing - or in Heidegger's pre­ ferred jargon , the hermeneutic understanding - makes the assertion possible. Indeed, the insistence on truth as the site of the assertion may suggest as much. However, it should be clear in what follows th at assertions are not something merely on the site but in some important sense help co-constitute i t. This co-constitutive character is implied, it bears noti ng, by the way in which , according to Heidegger, all perceptions are cate­ gorially and discursively "saturated'' (as reviewed in the last chapter) . 1 4 L 1 3 4 n ; cf. L 1 40, 1 4 2; SZ 1 58f; PS 2 5f, 20 1 , 2 5 2 f. As these texts indicate, Heidegger does not by any means excuse Aristotle from any complicity in establishing th e logi cal prejudice. Aristotle con tributes to the prejudice in two ways. The less interesting way, indicated by th ese texts, is his orien tation toward the spoken or articulated sen tence. Th is orien tation is ultimately tied to the fallen condition of bei ng-here; and this orien­ tation is, accordingly, of cen tral im portance to Heidegger's historical argument. But Aris totle also identifies truths that are matters not of assertions and judgments but of sensation and thought (aisthesis and nous) . Yet, in these and other ways in which things present themselves, the overriding principle is the thing's ousia, which Heidegger sees as its abiding presence , accounting for its properties and profiles ( as well as the subject­ predicate or function-argument s tructure of propositions) . As a result, Heidegger ar­ gues, the logical prejudice of equating truth in the primary sense of the term with pres­ ence is given an on tological foundation . 1 5 De anima 6 , 430b3 , and De interpretatione 1 , 1 6a 1 2 ; PS 1 8 4 ff; L 1 35- 1 42 . In the predi­ cate calculus pains are taken to render these two sides of the structure of assertions per­ spic uous on two levels. On one level , variables and predicates are differen tiated and combined in form ing asse rtions. For exam ple, if ' x' characterizes an individual variable and 'F ' functions as a predicate ( name of a property) , the form of the assertion may be expressed as ' F'x. ' However, it is not the form of the assertion , but the a�sertion itself that is about something and therefore true or false. A second level of differentiation and com­ bination is accordingly expressed thanks to similarities and dissimi larities between the form of the assertion (an "open" sen tence) and the assertion itself (a "closed" sen­ tence ) . The assertion form can be transformed into an assertion by substituting the name of an individual (e.g. , ' a' ) fo r the free variable ' x' or by quan tifying over the vari­ able. Cf. Qu i n e , MP.thods oj lJogic, 1 45 ; Quine, Pursu zt of Truth, 2 66f, 3 1 . Th e aim of the pr�rl i c� tt · r�ku l n � i" t h � establish men t of t h t• possi hi li ti�s of val i d i nft- rence" t h a t can

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T RU T H

sertion 'An na h as become Vronsky's lover' brings Anna and Vronsky to­ gether, allowing a new state of affairs (in this case, an affair) to be seen, but also holds them apart, in a state (and as it turns out, an ominous state ) of paten tial separation . 1 6 This very determination m akes it clear that the linguistic form of the sentence alone is not the key to its truth or falsity. An assertion is not true by virtue of the fact that it contains a synthesis of words or meanings of words ( nor is it false by virtue of the fac t that it contains a diairesis of the same ) . If an assertion is defined as a manner of allowing something to show itself, then the key to its syn­ thetic character and possibility of being true or false must lie i n the man ner in which the object of the assertion displays i tself. 1 7 Men tion has already been made of the fact that, for Aristotle, there are ways in which things presen t themselves that do not allow for any error (e . g. , the presence of a proper sensible i n aisthesis, the presence of essences or what is utterly simple to nous) . Assertions and judgments, by contrast, are bivalent because what they are about can present i tself in a faulty or partial manner or c hange the way in which it presents itself (De anima 430b 2 7-29) . The synthetic character of assertions, expressed by way of affirmation or negation , presupposes a plurality, two or more things or aspects already on hand i n combination with one another (Metaphysics be drawn from definite (well-formed ) asse rtions, possibilities that can be determined purely formally or symbolically - thus, apart from what the assertions are about. Never­ theless, as the basic difference between an assertion and its form make clear, the second level of the unified struc ture (synthesis/ diairesis) cannot be ignored in the predicate cal­ culus, at the very leas t as a structural dimension. ( I n a similar fashion , proposi tional logic is dependen t upon truth in the sense of so-called truth-values and corresponding truth functions. )

1 6 I a m grateful t o Be rnard Prusak for the example. I n the rest o f th is chapter, t h e terms 'syn thesis ' and 'synth etic ' are often employed without their counterparts merely for the sake of econo my, on the assumption that every syn thesis is also a diairesis. 1 7 It might be objected that on this definition, not assertions but only their objects could be false, inasm uch as they fail to show themselves in th e proper way. (This objection is related to the problem of interpreting the sense in which truth is the site of assertions, discussed in n . 1 3 above . ) In defi ning assertions as ways of allowing something (' x' ) to be seen (Sehenlassen) , Heidegger does suppose that x is on hand to be seen , poin ted out, and poi n ted ou t in a certain way. But th is supposition does not entail that the asse rtion is the only way fo r x to show i tself or that if x is seen on the basis of an asserti on, the as­ serti on cann ot be false. An assertion retai ns the intentional character of uncovering something or, more precisely, prqjecting it� uncovering, eve n when the way in wh ich it poin t� to x or would have x be seen ( e.g. , as Vro nsky 's lover) is not or is n o longer fo rth­ com in g. Hence, the assertion can co-consti tu te t he site for th ings to disclose themselves, in one res pect, while no t sacrifi cing their bival ence , in another respe c t I am g rateful to Jeremy Ryan for fo t-cing me to clarify this ma t t er .

.

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 85

1 0 2 7b 1 7-2 2 ; L 1 64f, 1 6gf) . The synthesis is indicative of a mereologi­ cal relation ( part-part or part-whole) . For example, what a predicate stands for often specifies a part of what the subject does , while (on a nominalist reading of Aristotle 's theory) what the subject stands for is frequently an instance or subdivision of what the predicate stands for. This mereol ogical structure corresponds not only to the fact that the entity or state-of-affairs (Sach-verhalt) is composite and presents itself as such, but also that it only presen ts part of itself ( in the form of the pred­ icate ) or is only partially realized. In Aristotelian terms, objec ts of as­ sertions are c omposites of energeia and dunamis, which Heidegger trans­ lates, not simply as actuality and possibility, but as being and not being ( i .e . , not yet being) "on hand" (L 1 7 4 ) . Assertions accordingly have a synthetic structure and thus are true or false , more or less revealing or dissembling, because they are about something, something that is in the process of showing itself. This par­ tial, ongoing self-display on the part of the entity itself is responsible for the synthetic and bivalent character of assertions. The structure of pred­ ication, including its specification and classification by way of attribu­ tion or denial of a property, presupposes this basic structure . 1 8 There is a close connection between the structure of e ntities as com­ posites of potentiality and actuality and the process of their display of themselves . Heidegger is more interested in the latter and even accuses Aristotle of confusing the two (which amoun ts to confusing on tic and ontological dimensions in Heidegger's scheme of things) . In this process, things present themselves, not in isolation, but to someone in the context of his or her concerned understanding. Correspondingly, assertions are not anonymous and they are not made in a vacuum about something. Instead they are made about something to which one al­ ready has some access and which is already present to some degree. The assertion requires "having in advance something that is in some way dis­ closed , that it points to in the manner of determining" ( SZ 1 5 7 ) . One says somethin g about something that is already more or less familiar; and, hence, the assertion is only possible "on the basis of already-being­ involved-with what is to be pointed out, in such a way, to be sure, that it h as been disclosed in a certain way" (L 1 5 3 ) . By way of refe rring to something and determining it through predication , hitherto unfamil­ iar characteristics may be uncovered , so that it is made more accessible. 1 8 'An na has become Vronsky 's lover' i s true o r fa l se revea l i n g o r disse mbl i ng, de p e n d ing ,

upon the evidence th at can be p roduced an d what beco m es of the affair.

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R UT H

t 86

Yet, however novel and revealing the predication , it remains meaning­ ful only insofar as that about which it is asserted is already familiar and, thus, already presen t. "In order for something like the predicative sin­ gling out and determining to be possible, what it is about must itself have already become accessible . " 1 9 This familiarity, acquaintance, or accessibility is thus in a certain sense the foundation of assertions and normal use of them. Asserting ( as well as knowing in a theoretical sense ) only comes about because what an assertion or j udgment is about has already been disclosed in some way ( perhaps by anoth er assertion ) . 20 Heidegger thus interprets Aristotle 's definition of assertion intentionally, as one manner among tnany of relating to things, distinguished by the fact that it is a way of enabling things to be seen or pointing thetn out. The foregoing famil­ iarity stems from a non thematic context of care and concern , a manner of dealing wi th things that is more original than any assertions making up a theory about them . Whether and how something about which one speaks is familiar depend essentially on this specific con text; that is to say, that about which an assertion is made, is already "accessible, for ex­ ample, in the purpose i t serves, in what it is used as" ( L 1 43 ) . The things that one deals with are always already uncovered on the basis of their utility, in other words, on the basis of "what they are for" or "where they are supposed to help us get to" (das Wozu ihrer Dienlichkeit) . Something is used and understood as something (for example, as a door or a win­ dow) from the outset; this manner of "opening" things up stems from In both the l ogic lectures and i n SZ th ree meanings are assigned to asse rtions: pointing up, predication, communication; cf. L 1 3 3 f a nd SZ 1 5 4- 1 5 8 . In SZ, where the assertion is construed as subo rdinate to interpretation and thus understanding, those three meanings line up approximately with the detern1inations o f discourse (Rede) : the about-which , what is said as such , the communication, and th e manifestation (das Woriiber, das Geredete als solchfs, die Mitteilu ng, die Beku ndung) ; see SZ 2 2 3f, 1 6 1 f. In the logic lectures H ei degger refers to the "about which of the asserti o n (L 1 43 ) . It should not be overl oo ke d that asserting is only one form o f discourse an d that theoretical as­ sertions presuppose both non theoretical assertions and other forms of discourse . L 1 4 5 . The fu nction of this foregoing familiari ty resembles that accorded to in nate ideas within a rati onal ist epistem ology or sense impressions wi thi n its empiricist counterpart or even Russell 's "knowledge by ac quainta n c e " S i m i larl y, while kn ow l e d g e (Erken n t n i., ) " in the strict sense" for Ka n t is a synthesis of concept and intui tion ( u n derstan ding and sensibili ty) , he someti mes e m p l oys the term as a synonym for whatever seems to be c l e a rl y ( i e , c o nsc i o u s l y ) entertained or represented, including the ingredie n t� of the synthesis that is kn owledge "in the s tri c t sense" (com pare , e.g. , B 3 3 , g 2 f, 1 03 ) . Ye t, re­ gardle�� of how such cognate n o ti on s of a foregoing or fun dan� e n tal fam i l i ari ty migh t be elaborated i n other epi�tem ological systeins, wh a t Heidegger has in m i n d by i t i s by no n 1 c a n � t h c o r( ti c a l o r p roto theoretical .

1 9 L 1 43 .

"

20

.

.

.

'

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E RSTA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 87

"a primary way of meaning them on the basis of what they are for" (einem primiiren Bedeuten aus dem Wozu) (L 1 44 ) . We are familiar with the very things that, to put it in the most gen­ eral way, we "simply have to deal with " ( schlicht zu tun hat and umgeht) , in other words, what we use, th e things to wh ich we are as accustomed as we are with our own skins. This familiarity is often silent. When things are taken as such and such in the context of ordinary dealings with them , there is typically no need for any aspect or part of this process to be expressed. One is so acquainted, for example, wi th the door to one 's room that it would be quite strange to give explicit expression to that acquaintance. It would normally also be odd for someone to assert " the door to my room opens and closes ," even though the door is familiar to that person precisely because it opens and closes for her to enter and exit. One opens th e door as the way into and out of the room, closes the door as the means of securing the rootn. This opening and closing defines the respective access to the door. The term 'as ' shows that in the course of using the door one al ready takes hold of it as something, for example, as a means of entry or exit. "This 'as-someth ing' is thus un­ derstood from the outset; what is encountered, that which I have to deal with , first becomes accessible as such on the basis of it" (L 1 46 ) . The door, originally accessible in the manner just discussed, is thus not "initially something meaning-free" that exhibits itself indepen­ den tly of its "handiness" (Zuhandenheit) as a means of entry and exi t. A particular, perchance perfectly normal change in attitude is required to construe the door as something else (for example , as wood, as two meters high , as French , etc. ) . By con trast, a far more enormous change in attitude is needed to grasp it "as-free" (for example, in an allegedly pure "sensation") - "if it is possible at all ," Heidegger adds (L 1 45 ; SZ 1 49 ) . The door is taken precisely as the way of passing through one room into another and, as al ready men tioned, "what" it is "fo r" or, even more literally, "where" it is supposed to help us get "to" ( Wozu ihrer Di­ enlichkeit) determines what and how th e door is. Thanks to this same utili ty, it follows furthermore that the original meaning of the door is not uncovered piece by piece , so to speak, but only in an en tire con text. In Being and Time Heidegger accordingly char­ acterizes the manner of being of what is handy as an "involvement" or "relevance" (Bewandtnis) th at goes back to some "what for" or "\\'hereto" (Wozu) . 2 1 (While ' Wozu' is more typically used in colloquial German to 21

SZ R -t .

Once

aga i n , I

(l�k

i " t-i n i m po rta n t

� o u rn- ·

nf t h i � H P i rl t.. ggP ri tl n f P nn i n o1 ogy.

t-i �

1 88

' H E I D EGGER S C O N C EPT OF TRUTH

signify a n interrogative that is best translated 'What's the purpose? ' or 'What's it for? , ' the term originally also signifies a place toward which one is going, as an American cabbie might say to his passenger, "Where to?" ) A "world of meaning" obtains on the basis of this context directed at sotne purpose ("What for?" ) or destination ( "Where to?") . More pre­ cisely: the world is the "meaningfulness" that is constituted by a "refer­ ential con text" (SZ 87f, 364) . Ontologically speaking, given this un­ derlying, relevance-determining context, there is no such thing as a single tool, that is to say, a tool by itself without reference to other im­ plements (a point that Dewey was also making at approximately the same time ) . "Shaped by a certain understanding, we mean such and such and this act of meaning is not primarily oriented toward individ­ ual things or general concepts but instead lives in the enviro ns nearest to it and in the world as a whole." 22 The original meaning of things thus comes about holistically in the ac­ cess to them afforded by use of them. In more traditional epistemo­ logical terms, entities present themselves so partially and immediately that they escape our direct attention, even as we use them as means to some end. Hence, their original meaning is simultaneously and indi­ visibly the way that they present themselves and are taken - used as such­ and-such - in a prereflective manner and context. In a certain sense, Heidegger is merely giving a worldly interpretation of Aristotle 's ex­ planation for the bivalence of assertions, namely, the not fully realized process of entities' presenting themselves to human understanding. The originality of a world of meaning accordingly does not refer to something that somehow obtains independently of the fundamental understandabili ty of that access. This original meaning takes place ini­ tially and for the most part in the concrete manner in which one lives and deals with thi ngs. A specific context of concern provides a place and a degree of order for that acquaintance through use. Although worlds of meaning open themselves up within the framework of human beh avior, the way in which they do so should in no way be equated with "subjectively shaping and comprehending what is on hand" (L 1 46, 1 50 ) . Instead , human beings move and live from the outset in and through a basic understanding, a complex of prereflective habits and know-how. In Being and Time Heidegger refers to this phenomenon as Crowell point� ou t. See Lask, Die /,ogik dfr Philosophie, 66; and Crowel l , ''Lask, H e i deg­ ger, and the Homelessn ess of Logic :' 2 2 Rff. 2 2 L 1 5 0 , 1 44; SZ ti R , 353 ;john Dewey, Expnienu � and 1Val ute ( New Yu 1 k: D ove r, 1 95 8 ) , 1 2 � .

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E RS TA N D I N G

OF

T RUTH

1 89

the "primary understanding of the relevance as a whole, within which factual concern respectively takes its start, " an understanding that is "a more or less explicit overview" and �'the 'overview-like ' circumspec tion of concern . "23 Heidegger describes this "primary" but unthematic understanding as a "manner of behaving by way of meaning something" (bedeutendes Verhalten) . He characterizes th is behavior as a manner of coming back to what is encountered, but coming back to it by virtue of where one is "coming frotn. " Or, as he also puts it, this primary way of behaving is "a manner of coming-back that in each case already holds up in the wh ere­ from of meaning and understanding" (or, alternatively, i ts vantage point is that from which one means and understands: Woher des Be­ deutens und Verstehens) (L 1 48) . Heidegger's use of ' Woher' in this con­ text has cognates in colloquial American uses of 'where . . . from . ' Just as one might ask "Where is she from?" or "Where does that come from? ," so too the question might be raised regarding a person 's pro­ posal or suggestion: "Where is she coming from?'' But what is c rucial for Heidegger is not only the fac t that what she encounters is shaped by "where she is coming from" but also by the fact that "where she is com­ ing from" is determined by "where she is going" or, more prosaically, "what she is getting at. " In Heidegger's analysis of this phenomenon, th e term ' as' ( to understand or project something as such and such ) ex­ presses the structure of this primary understanding or, equivalen tly, way of relating ( behaving, comporting ourselves) . Precisely in the process of "coming back'' from some implicit "wherefrom" that is in turn al­ ready shaped by a "where-to," a perso11 uncovers what she encounters, uncovering it for some purpose and thus as such and such. (Some very m undane examples: coming from the kitchen in order to avoid the neighbors, she uses the back door as her way out; in order to beat the traffic, she comes from work by taking the old highway as a shortcut; to protect herself, she joined the union and, knowing where she comes from, she regards the hiring of non-union temps as a provocation . ) The unthematic "whence or from-where" proceeds from an equally un the­ matic "what-for or where-to. " "Thus, precisely the coming back from the wherefrom, where I already am, has the peculiar function of opening 2 3 S Z 359· While "prac tical" conce rn is guided b y circumspection , li terally a look-around ( Umc;icht) , this look itself is gu ided by an ove rview ( Ubersicht) "of the ensemble of im­ pleme n ts of the respective world of implements and the surroun ding public world [ UmwPlt] proper to it" ( SZ 3 .� B f) . See also SZ 1 48 : "The look-around un covers; tha t means, the 'worl d ' that is already u n de r")tood i s i n terp re ted . "

1 90

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

u p . That is the first step of interpretation o f this behavior in accordan ce with the 'as'" (L 1 48 ) . Insofar as we first encounter something in view of that "where . . . from" and "where . . . to," these two directions to­ gether form , so to speak, th e horizon that determines what something is understood as. 24 This structure of u nderstanding provides the answer to the question of what qualifies an assertion to be able to be true or false. "The answer is: i t is the ' as' - the structure that is part of understanding as such ; the understanding that must be understood in this case as a fundamen tal type of being of our being-here" ( L 1 5on . ) . Heidegger calls this strttc­ ture " the basic hermeneutic strttcture" of human life, also the '" as'­ structure of understanding in a primary way," and "the hermeneutic 'as "' (L 1 43 ) . Recall the examples mentioned in the last paragraph ( "the highway as shortcut," "hiring non-union workers as a provoca­ tion " ) . Heidegger writes that "each instance of having something in fron t of oneself and taking something up is in i tself a 'having' of some­ thi ng as something" ( L 1 44 ) . A person is originally acquainted with the door by opening and closing it, by having to deal with it. That is to say, the door as passageway or as locked is the original access to it. This ac­ cess is no thematic grasping, but instead a "matter of having-to-deal­ with-it on a daily basis ," "a mode of understandability that is necessarily a part of each i nstance of being-here that is being in the world , a mode that can vary, of course, to a wide extent. " 25 The 'as' -structure of this original manner of understanding explains why an assertion contains both a composition (synthesis) and a division (diairesis) , something that Aristotle correctly establishes but does not fully explain (see SZ 1 59; L 1 4 2 , 1 4 9 ; PS 1 84ff) . Taking x as Fcombines them (synthesis) without collapsing them (diairesis) . This ' as'-structure itself is for the most part "prepredicative." As has already been stressed, 2 4 In German as in English, these in terrogatives of place (wohPT, '\vhence,' and wozu, ' w h e re to ' ) can be cons trued temporally. Such usage may have con tributed to Heidegger's be­

� .fJ

lief that he could artic ulate spatiality in terms of timel in e ss . In any case , those inter­ rogative� serve as hori1ons for what H eid egger calls the ''ecstases ," prethematic processes of bei ng "outside oneself' that rnake up the ti1neli ness of being-i n-th e-world ; cf. section 4 · 5 bel ow. L 1 44n , 1 49f; SZ 1 4 7 . Gestures provi de anoth e r example of how our underlitan di ng pre­ supposes a world of origi nal m ean i n g that can only be learned. In a foreign coun try it is not always easy to know whether the way in which someone moves her body is a ges­ tu re , intended to ex press �omething. O n e migh t con strue a silent gesture as an insu l t or a� a fl i rt and reac t acc ordingly. But fi rst one has to understand it as a gestu re and not son1eth i ng else , e . g . , a Ill er e 1 el1 t> x .

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

191

the hermeneutic ' as'-structure of understanding in the primary sense of the term consists in the fact that one understands something on the basis of the purpose it serves; for example, something is used, that is to say, originally understood , as a door. In order to "take" something as or for a door, it is thus not initially a matter of predication but instead more fundamentally - of a way of encountering it: "In having-to-deal with something, I make no thematically predicative assertions about it" (L 1 44f; SZ 1 49, 359) . Yet the key to the structure of assertions and predication lies in the fact that the structure of our primary understanding is a matter of tak­ ing th ings as such and such. The apophantic ' as'-structure , established by Aristotle in terms of synthesis and diairesis, is grounded in the hermeneutic ' as '-structure. "Predication has the ' as'-structure, but in a de­ rivative manner," as Heidegger puts it (L 1 45 ) . The fact, for example, that a door is used as an exit is generally the basis for asserting and in­ fortning someone: "The door is an exit. " Without an original access to something, an access acquired through use, that is to say, without the foregoing acquaintance with something within a context of concern , there would be no assertion about it. "If from the outset I had not al­ ready encountered something, then there would be no basis for pass­ ing it on as such-and-such" (L 1 8 7 ) . Predication, which consists in de­ termining something more precisely, presupposes and "lays out'' this original meaning. Insofar as predication aims at thematizing some subj ect matter, it lives, so to speak, from this original meaning. The relation between the hermeneutic ' as' and the apophantic ' as' can be illustrated by means of the following schema. The Stages of the 'As' -Structure apophantic (de rivative ) , e.g. , 'This door is an exit. '

I

existentiel ( ontic/preontological ) , e.g. , the door is used as an exit. hermeneutic ( primary) 'as'

I

The two 'as'-structures represented in this chart belong unthematically to a manner of understanding. (Why one sort of understanding is la­ beled "existentiel" is discussed below. ) Using the door as an exit is an expression and enactmen t of a hermeneutic understanding. There is a temptation , H e i d e gge r obse rves , to construe the hermeneutic 'as' as if " the wh ere . from of in terpreting and what is to be i n terp re t e d itself' .

.

H E I D EGGER ' S

CONC EPT

OF TRUTH

would have to be formally combined and distinguished in the course of carrying out the interpretation ( L 1 48£) . The sense of the hermeneu­ tic ' as'-structure would then be conflated wi th a theoretical recon­ struction of assertions, what they are about (as combinations of distinct features that are already on hand) , and/ or the way in which assertions themselves are combined with and distinguished from states of affairs ( e .g. , "A proposi tion is a picture of reality") . 26 But such interpre tations, Heidegger i nsists, fail to convey the primary tneaning of the hermeneu­ tic ' as'-structure . Syn thesis and diairesis, as formal conditions of the apophantic ' as '-structure, originate in the hermeneutic ' as'-structure and not vice versa. "From the mere structure of placing things together that is at the same titne a way of taking them apart, it is not already in i tself understandable that the way of behaving of what has this struc ture is anything like meaning and understanding. " 27 In other words, while the hermeneutic ' as' ( taking x as a door) involves both combining and separating, these features by themselves do not capture its dynamics of straightforwardly, nonthematically having something, dynamics in which from the outset both the horizon ( the unity of a concrete "from . . . where and where . . . to?" ) and what is encountered belong together. H � idegger is clumsily making an importan t poin t. There is, he main­ tains, a primary level of understanding implicit in using things and deal­ ing with them . Between this understanding and what things are taken for or, better, between what the ttnde rstanding proj ects and the way in which en tities present themselves, there is a vital and prethematic ( ha­ bitual ) unity. Trying to recover the dynamics of this primary under­ standing by means of the logical structure of assertions or the parts of a sentence structure would be equivalent to trying to put Humpty­ Dumpty back together again . There is a truth to this primary under­ standing that it is impossible to establish once assertions and proposi­ tions are taken as "freestandi ng," detached from a primary con text of understanding (PS 2 5£) . At the same time, Heidegger argues, the way things disclose themselves in and to that primary understanding (wh ere they are taken "as'' such and such ) is precisely the source of the syn­ thetic and thus bivalent character of assertions. In Being and Time Heidegger accordingly characterizes this primary 26 vVi ttgc nste i n , 'lrartatus Logico-Philo�ophicus , 4 .0 1 .

27

L

1

49� SZ 1 49 .

H e idegge r

( L 1 49 ) stre�ses t h e in appl icabi l i ty

of syn thesis a n d diai resis

to the o ri g in a l m ean i ng (Bedfulen) and the n proceeds to (ien1ons t rate t h a t " the ht>nn �ncu t i c ' a � '-struc tu r�" is i n fact th e i r origi n ; see L t .r:; o n. 6 , 1 60.

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 93

understanding as an existential , one of the ways that constitute the dis­ closiveness of being-here, the very site in which things display them­ selves. "The original ' as' of the interpretation shaped by a circumspec­ tive understanding" is called "the existential-hermeneutic ' as' " ( SZ 1 58 ) . By this means Heidegger alludes to a distinction in regard to the hermeneutic ' as, ' a distinction that should not be overlooked. ( Since the elaboration of this distinction necessarily anticipates then1es treated in greater detail in subsequent sections and above all in the next chapter, the disti nction is merely sketched here . ) The hermeneutic ' as' is both existe ntiel and existential, or, correlatively, both ontic/preon­ tblogical and ontological. The adjective ' on tic' in Heidegger's jargon designates relations among entities or features that distinguish one sort of entity from another ( not unlike the situation presented in what Husserl labels "the natural attitude " ) . What disti nguishes the entity that is-here - the fundamentally dis-closive manner of being that is peculiar to humans - is the fact that its being is at stake for it. The fact that its being is at stake implies that to be here , to be the place where entities make themselves present and absent themselves, is to have some un­ derstanding of being. The adjective ' preontological ' refers to this pre thematic understanding of its being. But the fact that this being is at stake also i mplies a possibility of being or not being oneself, an un­ resolved tension that can only be decided by one's manner of existing. Heidegger accordingly reserves the term 'existence ' for this distinctive , self-referential way of being, peculiar to being-here . ' Existentiel ' refers to the decisive self-understanding involved in being-here, something that always transpires on an antic as well as an ontological level, that is to say, in the context of relations between oneself and o ther entities. 'Existential , ' by con trast, refers to the theoretical understanding of the structures making up existence, an understanding that obviously need not be presen t in order for someone to exist. These distinctions apply directly to the 'as'-structures of under­ standing. In the first place, it is plai nly an existentiel and ontic/preon­ tological affair whether one uses and thereby hermeneutically under­ stands the door as an entrance or exit and some thing handy. It is obvious that a particular use can be errant or go wrong and thus righ tly be designated a failure or mistake ( e . g. , " Going out by that door is wrong since it is only to be used in an emergency" ; ''You are doing the wrong thing," or ''You are doing it wrongly" ) - though it is obviously only a failure against the backdrop of successes or accomplishments. In this lvay, the hermeneu tic 'as '-structure is the origin of the apophantic

H E I D EG G E R ' s C O N C E PT

1 94

OF

TRUTH

'as'-structure and, wi th it, the synthetic and bivalent charac ter of asser­ tions. In the second place , however, it is the very nature of being-here , o f existing, to project oneself, one 's possibilities of being, and, indeed, to do so in view of a horizon against which things display themselves and their manners of being ( SZ 365 ) . Things are first understood hermeneutically against th is horizon and, indeed, "as" also being-here or being "handy" or "on hand ," though the understanding is for the most part preon tological. The h ermeneutic ' as' is existential because it co-constitutes existence, "the being itself to which being-here can relate in this or that way and always does relate in some sort of way" (SZ 1 2 ) . But precisely a theore tical determination of existence, designated by the term 'existential ' and coinciding with an authentic way of relating to it, requires the on tological differentiation of being-here from simply being-handy or being-on-hand. 2R 'Existentiel' and 'existential ' refer, respectively, to unthematic and thematic understandings of being-here, bringing with them corre­ sponding on tic and ontological understandings of entities encoun­ tered wi thin the world. Yet the existential-hermeneutic 'as' is much more than a purely formal and constantly obtaining structure that can be read off each case of the existentiel-hermeneutic 'as. ' Inasmuch as th e hermeneutic ' as '-structure reflects a projection of a poten tial-to-be, that structure depends upon and existentially discloses a sense of the future. Heidegger resolves this futural projection into an ''ecstasis" ( his te rm for the projecting itself) and its "horizon ." As elaborated in the n ext chapter, he contends that this ecstatic-horizonal structure constitutes the most basic sense of the future and other modes of time or what he calls �'the timeliness of being-here," including the primary understand­ ing wi th its hermeneutic ' as ' -structure. He accordingly declares that " the 'as ' is grounded, like understanding and interpreting in general, in the ecstatic­ horizonal unity of timeliness" (SZ 360) . In oth er words, what is encoun­ tered is not understood merely ( on tically) as an exi t or a door, but also (preontologically) in its manner of being, as "being-handy" or "being­ on-hand," and this understandin g is based on the timely horizon in terms of which a homan being at some level understands herself or, what is the same , concretely projects her existence . What is encoun­ tered is uncovered, for example , as something handy by virtue of the 2 H I n th e fi n al an alysis, gi\'e n H e i degger's way

of circ u rnscri bi n� th eo ry, h e is

unahle t o

m ai n t a i n the equival�nce, suggeste d h t> re , be twee n an a u t hen ti c way of re lating to i s tt' I tce and

a

theo 1 � t i c a. I dt..: t e rrn i u a ti o n

ex­

of it. Se e th e conclusion below ( section :> < > ) .

T H E H E R M E N E U T I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 95

fact that, "expecting some possibility, here a 'what for, "' we retain what is encountered and, as a consequence, "render it present" ( SZ 3 5 9£) . From the fact that, in order to grasp something encountered, it is nec­ essary to come back from anticipating to what is encountered, there emerges "an immanent structure of straightforward grasping, of be­ having in accordance with the 'as, ' that then, on closer analysis, estab­ lishes i tself as time" (L 1 4 7 ) . Heidegger's systematic elaboration of this insigh t and its implications for the logical prej udice will be taken up in the next chapter. The schema of the stages of the ' as' -s tructure , in troduced earlier, can now be filled out with the existential-h ermeneutic 'as'-structure , there­ by illustrating its difference from the other, parallel structure . The Stages of the 'As' -Structure apophantic (derivative ) , e.g. , 'This door is an exit. '

j

existen tiel ( ontic/preon tological) , / e.g., the door is used as an exit. hermeneutic ( primary) 'as'

""

existential (ontological ) , e.g. , the door is understood as handy. In so-called objective time, the existentiel-hermeneutic ' as ' or, for that matter, the derivative , apophantic 'as' can be simultaneous with the ex­ istential-hermeneutic 'as' (and obviously without detracting from the fact that the use of the door as an exit or the assertion that it is one pre­ supposes a disclosure of the manner of its being) . In the logic lectures, on which the foregoing exposition largely re­ lies, Heidegger has all too little to say about the role of language or dis­ course in the hermeneutic 'as'-structure, whether in its existen tiel or existen tial form . Predication, assertion , and thematization are thrown together with the intention of showing how they are merely a derivative of, if not an antipode to, hermeneutic understanding. In some respects the re lative lack of attention paid to discourse in this connection is sur­ prising, since Heidegger argues th e previous semeste r (as reviewed in the foregoing chapter) th at seeing is dependent upon saying rather than vice versa (P 7 5 ) . In the logic lec tures, for example, he warns against supposing that "the ' as' -structure is initially and authen tically given in the simple asserti on-sentence: ' this board is black' ; thus in the thematic di scussion of this board as black" ( L 1 44fl . Such warn ings

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

migh t leave the impression that the original meaning occurs or must occur at first wi thout assertions, in an experience devoid of spoken or written language , like the silent experience of a soli tary worker. As elab­ orated in the next chapter (4.4) , Heidegger in fact discusses a form of silent discourse that testifies to the "most original truth. " However, it must be borne i n mind that Heidegger does emphasize the intentional character of assertions. While assertions and judgments do not have an exclusive hold on the truth, they are defined precisely as ways in which things come to uncover themselves. By locating the syn­ thetic and thus bivalent character of assertions - the apophantic as struc­ ture - in the hermeneutic 'as'-structure , Heidegger has in effect made room for conceiving assertions as very much part of the primary under­ standing. Assertions, in other words, can be existentiel and existential, ways of uncovering things and ways in which their manners of being are pre thematically and thematically disclosed , respectively. Heidegger em­ phasizes, to be sure, the "prepredicative character of the 'as'-structure" in the con text of his in terpretation of a "concerned understanding" or "one driven by concern" (L 1 44) . But he immediately proceeds in this context to equate what he means by a predicative structure with a "the­ matic" discussion . His emphasis on the prepredicative dimension is thus mean t to underscore the fact that meaning in the original sense of the term comes about without having to be spoken or thematically asserted at all. The wordless opening of a door shows as much. In this connecti on it should be noted that in his logic lectures Hei­ degger does no t always avail himse lf of the more precise terminology of Being and Time. For example , in the lecture s 'discourse ' (Rede) is dis­ tinguished from 'language ' ( Sprache) , but is not explicitly construed as an existential and thus as equally fundamental to being-here as under­ standing is. What someone says can be regarded in a purely linguistic way, namely, as some thing merely "on hand" (vorhanden) and a poten­ tial theoretical object of linguistics. Ye t it can also be understood as the speaker's tool, as something not only handy (zuhanden) for some pur­ pose, but also thereby as an existentiel clue to the speaker's self-under­ standing. Finally, what someone says can be understood existentially, that is to say, with a view to understanding theoretically what it means for the speaker - and not just this speaker - to exist. In this last respect, what someone says is a form of discourse (Rede) , an existential as basic as understandi ng. Again, these specifics are missing in the logic lec­ tures, but H eidegger makes n o secret of his commitment to the foun­ dational character of discourse (see L 1 34, 1 4 1 , 1 5 ! f, 1 6 1 ) . "Th e k n ow-

T H E H E RM E N E U T I C U N D E R S TA N D I N G O F T R U T H

1 97

ing and observing is always a speaking, whether verbalized or not. All disclosive behavior, not only the everyday self-orientation , but also sci­ en tific knowing is accomplished in speaking" ( PS 2 7 ) . In the logic lec­ tures, following his explanation of how the ' as' -struc ture initially is not grasped in a thematic assertion but rather experienced, Heidegger adds: "More precisely: I am - qua being-here: speaking - going - tln­ derstanding - dealing or going about by way of understanding. "29 Th us, speaking and asserting are by no means excluded from the primary manner of understanding. In other words, the prethematic , indeed, even prepredicative character of the world of original mean ing "finds words." 3 0 The meaningfulness of things and persons lies in the context of con­ cern that underlies everyday dealings with them. The normal case is not that we are somehow acquainted with things before we have dealings with them . Nor does a thing, event, use , or even a person have a mean­ ing in isolation . Instead meaning is originally that of a world (a specific sort of inertia, habitus,juncture , and "what for" of prac tices and usages ) that cannot be disengaged from the common life of human beings. From the outset, a human being moves about in this world, and it is on the basis of this world of original meaning that she is always already tak­ ing a thing as something that she can use or that can be of service to her. People use and consume things and are , for that reason, well ac­ quain ted with those things long before they directly conceive the m . D u e to the primary manner o f understanding, moreover, people are in a certain sense "always already ahead of themselves." One of Hei­ degger's grandest achievements is to have respected the full weight of the simple insight that a human bei ng is always ahead of herself, as much in regard to her own existence as in regard to the reality of things and matters in the world. For the most part, one understands in ad­ vance, even if usually quite vaguely, what she takes some thing "for" or interprets something "as. " By anticipating something as a door, one takes (understands) and opens it as such; in the same moment, while 2 9 L 1 46. See PS 1 7 gf: The pure noein is ca rri ed out [or pefonned: sich vollzieht] as thigein. The noein, how ever, that is carried out preci se ly with in an en tity that has logos is a dia­ noein. Thus, a diaphora ob t ai n s between t he pure nous and the nous .\ynthetos (vgl . 1 I 7 7 b 2 8sq) : th e nous of a human being is al ways carried ou t in the manner of speak­ "

ing." See

,

to o ,

PS 1 7 1 .

30 SZ 1 6 1 . Another way to put this observation : for Heidegger, bei ng-he re is thoroughly discu rsive, bu t n ot thoroug h ly bivalent. Th at is not to say that all ways of bei ng-here ex­ em plify themselves i n word� or tal k but that th ey can ; moreover, some forms of tru th a re not "true or fa l se but ratht>r s i m p ly reveal i n g a nd in th a t se n se "sim p ly true." "

t g8

H E I D EG G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

opening the door, something else i s anticipated. As noted above , Hei­ degger unpacks the ' as '-struc ture of this typical sort of encoun ter as a matter of "coming back" to it from a particular expec tation. Thus , the simple grasping of th ings in the environment that are given in the most natu ral way is a matter of constantly coming back to something encountered and n ecessarily a coming back . . . precisely because my au­ thentic being as a concerned "having-to-do-with-things-in-the-world" is characterized as "being-always-already-ahead-alongside-something. '' Be­ cause my manner of being is constan tly such that I am ahead of myself, I must, in order to grasp something encoun tered , come back from this man ner of "being-ahead" to what is encountered. (L 1 4 7 )

In his logic lec tures Heidegger charac terizes the hermeneutic ' as'­ struc ture as ''an originally unified, basic way of behaving," " the struc­ ture of understanding," and " the hermeneutical ground-level struc ture of being of the en tity that we call ' being-here ' (human l ife ) .'' 31 These characterizations h ighlight how Heidegger's existential analysis both builds upon and moves beyond Husserl 's analysis of intentionality. The phenomenon of intentionality, th e interpretation of which enabled Husser! to overturn the illusory problem of a gap between the real and the ideal, is grounded - on Heidegger's account - in an original un­ derstanding or use of things, that is to say, in a phenomenon, motivated by care and concern , that underlies theoretical behavior or comport­ men t. The intentional character of un thematic, categorial intuition and perception, elaborated by H usserl, is not denied, but instead em­ bedded in the basic stance of being-here and thus in a world of origi­ nal meaning. 32 In being-here, as Heidegger conceives it, the distinction between the way an entity displays or presents itself and that to which it does so is a mere distinctio rationis (see Metaphysics 1 074b35ff) . At this level, Heidegger's analysis may appear to point in a pragmatic 3 1 L 1 50 n. 6: "This sort of always-already-holdi ng-up in the aim ( Wozu) of concern in thnon of the truth is fi rst attai ned with th e disrlosnlnf{jS of bei ng-h ere . '' See , too, SZ 2 2 1 : "Equ ipri mordial wi th the being of being-here and i t� d isclosed ness is uncoveredn ess of entities withi n-th e-world." 3 See Ric hard Ro rty, Conseq uent e.\ ofPragmati.\ m (Essa)'!J : 1 9 7 2 - 1 9 8o) ( Minn eapoJis: Un iver­ sity of Minnesota Pres�, 1 98 2 ) , 4 6 , and t.ssa)'S on HPidPgger and. Othen ( Cambridge : Cam­ bridge University Press , 1 99 1 ) , 1 5 ; Robert Pippin , ModernHm as a Philomphiral ProbiRm (Oxford: Oxford Li l l i veu � i t y P t e:-,� , 1 99 1 ) , 1 40.

T H E TI M E L I N E S S

OF

EX I S T E N T I A L T R U T H

225

terminology for this consideration in the mid- 1 g2 os. 4 Despi te the ter­ minological shifts, however, there can be no mistaking Heidegger's in­ ten tion of distinguishing his analyses from any argument for histori­ cism. Heidegger's understanding of truth , like Aristotle 's, is oriented to time, without being historicist. At the same time, as reviewed in the last chapter, it is precisely the temporal orien tation of Aristotelian on tology that helps entrench th e logical prejudice in traditional th inking, according to Heidegger. A spe­ cific temporal understanding of being informs the traditional presup­ position that truth - be it th e truth of a perception or of an assertion is itself some thing on han d, some thing presen tly present. Nor does it matte r if truth ( or being) is conceived as the presence of an en tity per­ ceived or as the iden tity of a perceived entity with what is mean t (as­ serted) . Once this hegemony of being as presence is in place, the rela­ tion of a true proposition to the state of affairs designated by it is itself viewed as something on hand or presen t. On the basis of this same con­ ception of being, time itself- insofar as it is - is construed as consisting of something on hand. More precisely, time is defined as a one-dimen­ sional, seque n tial series, itself always on hand, of equally on-hand now­ points. According to this composite picture of being, truth , and time , propositions such as 'Two squared is four' or 'Water contains twice as much hydrogen as oxygen ' are considered true because the condi tions or states of affairs expressed by them obtain at any and every poin t in 4 Thus , people speak of the ice age , the age of Enlighte nment, and the capi talist epoc h , o n the o n e hand, and mathematical truths that unfaili ngly obtain, a divine eternity, a nd imperishable beauties, on the other. With a view to this distinction Heidegger indicates his i n te n tion , in the logic lectures, to disti nguish between ' timely' (zeitlich) and ' tem po­ ral ' (temporal) : "Thus, ' timely, ' tran spiring in tim e , is not ide n tical to ' temporal , ' which says only so much as ' characterized by m eans of tim e ' " ( L t gg; P 442 ) . Heidegger does not, howeve r, consistently use the same te rm s to maintain this distinctio n . In Being and Time he employs the noun ' timeliness ' (Zeitlichkeit) precisely to designate the sense of be­ ing-h ere in con trast to what is 'wi thin time ' ( inn eneitig) (SZ 1 8f, 4 2 0 ) , and in Fundamen­ tal Problems of Phenomenology ' timeli ness' is fu rther distinguished from ' te mporality' as the co ndition of the possibi lity of understanding be ing at all and its formation i n to on tology (GP 3 2 4, 3 8 8f, 4 2 9£) . The term ' timeliness' captures the concrete ye t no nsubjec tive char­ acte r of the se nse of bei n g better than the term 'te m po rality' does . Fo r example, the defi n i ng "moment" (AugPnblick) of authen ti c ti meliness, the paradigtn in terms of which other senses of timeliness are to be determ i n ed, is ti me ly, but this se nse is barely conveyed by calling it " tem poral . '' 'Timeli ness' suggests a right time or, at leas t, an issue of whether the time is righ t, th ough not in relation to anything other than itself; thus it re tai ns the sen se of ' ripe ning' and ' u nfol ding' contai ned i n the German verb ' zeitzgen' upon which Heidegge r plays (" Ze i t ze itigt" ) . In the last an alysis, timeliness is the sense and measu re of hPi n g-h PrP .

' H F. I D F. G G E R s C O N C E P T O F T R U T H

time or, in other words, are always on hand. So, too, the truth of propo­ sitions th at portray historical events or details such as 'The Romans camped on th e Rhin e ' or ' Germany attacked the Soviet Union ' migh t be explained as consisting in the fact that such events and details were once on hand and now occupy a permanent (ever-present) position in the series of presences that reaches into the present. The logical prejudice, while primarily a presumption about the sig­ nificance of ' truth , ' is thus in fact formed by the triangulation of no­ tions of being, truth , and time, described in the preceding paragraph . The author of Being and 1zme is, of course, deeply aware of this fact and its implications for his effort to disestablish the logical prejudice . The import for that effort is patent: it must be demonstrated not only that neither being nor truth is adequately conceived when equated with presence, but also th at time itself does not consist ultimately in on-hand presences "running-off' in an ever-present series. Reasons why being and truth are construed as presence have been documented in the opening chapters. While Lotze accords truth a sep­ arate ontological status as a valid judgment, Husser I breaks through this fixation on judgments by identifying the sort of truth , availed by a cat­ egorial perception , that underlies talk of true judgments. Yet Husserl continues, no less than Lotze , to construe truth as a permanent if ideal presence because his philosophical investigations are orien ted to the idea of science, the paradigm of which is a mathematical science of na­ ture, the results of which take the form of universally binding proposi­ tions (EpF 64£) . Not surprisingly, from Heidegger's vantage point, Husserl 's analysis of consciousness, indeed, his ve ry decision to focus on consciousn ess or inten tionality as the theme of his investigations, is of a piece with an assumption of a naturalist ontology. Even more im­ portant and revealing, in Heidegge r's eyes, is the motivation for this de­ cision to orient the conception of truth to the idea of science . What Husser! cares about, the interests guiding his concern for knowledge known, for knowl edge that has been secured, is an A ng5t over existence . By con trast, instead of orienting the analysis of truth toward the idea of science and thus presuming the equivalence of 'being' and 'pres­ ence, ' Heidegger undertakes an inquiry into the significance of ' being. ' He proposes being as a question. What he ostensibly cares about is not knowledge that either is or need be justified, that is truths about what is on hand, but instead th e very sense of being itself and th e original pheno m en o n of truth as the disclosure of th at sen s e. Just as care proved t o b e th e m o tiva t i o n fo r H u��e rl 's a n a l ys is of intentional i ty, so Heideg-

TH E T I M E L I N E S S O F E X I STE N T I A L T R U T H

ger takes th e caring manner of being-here as the site of this disclosure . Not inte n tionality, but being-here (existence, being-in-th e-world ) th us becomes the basic platform for the inquiry into what it means "to be . " Heidegger labels the inquiry "existen tial analysis" or, with a more sys­ tematic accent, "fundamental ontology" (as a necessary con dition for any further ontological forays) . The conclusion of the exerci se is that being-here discloses timeliness as the sense of being, thereby accoun t­ ing for the traditional ontological and alethiological presupposition s of the logical prejudice as well as their limitations. The expressions ' being-here, ' 'being-in-the-world, ' and ' existence ' are Heidegger's ways of indicating, with differen t emphases, a manner of being that i s peculiar to human beings, in an d to which other enti­ ties ( including other human beings) make themselves present. In ligh t of the traditional distinction among categories, differen tiation of this manner of being from others amounts to a kind of "metacategorial dis­ tinction . " Moreover, by undertaking this existen tial analysis ( analysis of what it means "to be here'' ) , Heidegger is attempting to do what, in his view, Husserl 's phenomenology fatally neglects, namely, to give an ac­ count of the manner of being of in tentionality - though the term 'in­ tentionality' itself is jettisoned in the process. The self-disclosiveness of existence must be considered, at bottom, not something immanen tly in ten tional or explicitly conscious, not some mental self-awareness and, indeed, not any con sciousn ess at all, but in stead something Heidegger characterizes as a manner of being that, in caring, is "always already out­ side itself." 5 The phenomenon that in Husserlian phenomenology is viewed so to speak "from the outside" as intentionality is presented by Heidegger as 5 At th is j uncture, a com ment is in order rega rd ing Heidegger 's phrase 'being-i n-the­ wo rld , ' especial ly his use of th e preposition ' i n ' in that phrase, since he intends to dis­ tinguish it from th e se nse in which one entity is enc losed or located in anoth er or, fo r that matter, the sense in wh ich an entity might be "within" the world. As he puts i t, the 'in' in the expression ' bei ng-in-th e-wo rld ' is not categori al , but existential . What ' being­ i n ' designates is supposed to be pre spatial . Being in a family, for exam ple , by no means excl udes bei n g at a specific plac e , and someth i ng simi lar might wel l be said for being in poor or good health , in debt or in doubt, in control or in a state of confusion, in hope of someth i ng or i n love wi th someone. Each of th ese uses of ' i n ' suggest� not Russian dolls i nside one another but an in-volven1 e n t or absorption in a world that H eidegge r sub­ sumes u nder the ge neral rubric of concern ( Bn-sorgen) . Heidegge r does not deny the pos­ sibility of cons truing bei n g-here or being-in-th e-world as th ough i t were merely on hand , namely, by setti ng aside i ts existe n tial constitution . But if this is done, bei ng-here's fac­ ticity (Faktizitiit) is not to be confused wi th the matter-of-factness ( Tatsiichlichkeit) of an oc­ c u rr� n cP wi t h i n t h � w n rkl : cf. SZ � .� ff.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

"care," encompassing structures of being-in-the-world that are equally original ( equiprimordial ) . Constitutive of the uni ty of care are a work-world, a world of concern , of worrying and procuring; 2 a shared world, made up of concern for one another, in the interest of dominating or liberating one another; and 3 the care that each being that is here takes, respectively, to be itself, in both the work-world and the shared world. 1

In giving interpretations of the work-world, the shared world, and their dependence upon care, Heidegger takes his fi rst th ree steps - there are five in all - in confronting the conception of being underlying the log­ ical prejudice. For the elaboration of these aspects of human existence is mean t to demonstrate how being-here is different from the way things are present within the world. This difference is summed up in the con­ cept of care, the essential structure of being-here. What care discloses is neither the hidden presence of something handy in the immediate environmen t nor the uncovered presence of a simple, ultimate entity (what Aristotle might have construed as "simply on hand and never not on hand" ) , but instead the quite distinctive manner of being-here as the site of the disclosure of those other manners of being. What ul timately underlies unthematic as well as thematic, practical as well as theoreti­ cal truth , is not something on hand, but rather a peculiar "presence" (Priisenz) constituti ng the worldliness of the world, the self-disclosive place in which things within the environment present and absen t them­ selves, and in which others are with us here (Mitdaseienden) . 6 The worldliness of the world is part of the structure of care as the defining manner of being-in-the-world, wh ere what finally matters is, in eac h case, one's own being or, equivalen tly, being oneself. 7 That care 6 As discussed in sec tion 4. 1 below, th e term ' Priisenz' is employed precisely to capture what Heidegger calls th e "a priori perfect, " the "always al ready" presen t that is not the pres­ ence of som eth i ng on hand wi th in the world or wi thin ti m e . I nstead the world of con­ cern "abides , " precisely in the ligh t of a projection or, be tter, an expec tati on of what wi ll come of it. 7 The equivale nce stated by this last disj unction in trod uces two frustrating ambigui ties in H eidegge r's talk abo ut what matte rs in being-here. The first ambiguity con cerns the lack of a disti nction between on e's bei ng and one's self. Heidegge r does not take the trouble to differentiate be tween 'o ne's own being' and 'being oneself, ' though i t is clear that the phenomena design ated by these expressions are not supposed to coincide completely in th e fin al analy�i s (cf. SZ 3 2 3 ) . Fran · .'> hel nw.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

sis i s supposed to b e justified. By introducing criteria of completeness and fundamentalness, Heidegger does forestall this issue to a certain extent ( e .g., SZ 2 3 1 -234, 30 1 -304) . Yet the issue does not go away, since, in the first place , the canons of completeness and fundamental­ ness to which he appeals are never spelled out adequately. What assur­ ance do we have that the analysis has been sufficiently comprehensive or that in fact the interpretation of disclosedness constitutes the end of the analysis? ( In this respect one comparison with Husserlian eidetic in­ tuition is apt: has the variation bee n free enough to let the essence of being-here present itself? ) I n the second place, eve n if the analysis is in some sense or to some degree justified by those appeals, the j ustifica­ tion or, in Heidegge r's preferred terminology, the "grounding" remains in certain crucial respects deliberately nonepistemic. Yet a nonepis­ temic justification or grounding ( e .g. , the authenticity of bei ng-res­ olute ) - as opposed to nonepistemic explanation or causation - is plainly oxymoronic. A similiar sort of questionableness carri es over, furthermore, to the relation of the existential analysis in Being and Time to modes of know­ ing. In other words, what is the relation of antic as well as ontological modes of knowing (knowing en tities and their manners of being, re­ spectively) to the disclosed ness of being-here? Heidegger sharpens this line of questioning himself with the observation that "all knowing is only appropriation and a kind of implementation of what has already been uncovered by means of other primary ways of behavi ng" (P 2 2 2 ) . The lack of a comma between the words ' other' and ' primary' in this sentence should not deceive one into thinking that knowing is under­ stood by Heidegger as a primary way of behaving along with others on which it in some sense happens to be founded. For in the same context Heidegger explicitly declares that knowing is "in no sense at all primary, but rather a founded mode of being of being-in-the-world" ( P 2 2 2 ) . Thus, the founded character with all the epistemological difficulties at­ tending it (e.g., how can a nonknowing disclosure be said to ground a knowing? ) remains in full force in the Marburg lectures as it does in Be­ ing and Time ( SZ 6off) . Given this strategy, it bears noting, Heidegger's fundamental position is not without reason construed as nolens volens pragmatic. 2 1 A third and final way in which the probl ems of thematization exhibit themselves concerns the status of theory for Heidegger, especially in 2 1

H P 1 2 8 ; Ro rty, 1·� \!J(l)' fi on Hf'ideggn- a n d Othn-fi, �� �� ·

T H E T I M E L I N E S S O F E X I S TE N T I A L T RUTH

view of the criticism that he frequently levels against his predecessors of passing over "the primary phenomenon of the world" ( P 2 5of; SZ 65£) . As will be elaborated in greater detail below, this primary phe­ nomenon, for which Heidegger reserves the term 'worldliness, ' en­ compasses "structures of encountering" in everyday life that form the basis of any theory or practice ( P 2 5of) . Yet, despi te the obvious im­ portance of this phenomenon , ontologically minded philosophers generally fail to i nquire into i ts meaning, as they frame the question of the structure of the world in terms of the question of the structure of nature. What Heidegger has in mind is, above all, the proj ection of a world in strictly theoretical terms and, indeed, theoretical terms of a specific sort, as allegedly exemplified in Descartes 's writings. Such a world would be equivalent to what can be proj ected and thus construed math­ ematically. According to Heidegger, the world is for Descartes nothing else than the "objectivity of the grasp of nature by way of calculation and measurement'' ( P 2 45 ) . Descartes's discussion of the properties of a piece of wax in the Second Meditation provides a perfect example of "passing over" the phenomenon as something that surfaces in a specific envi ronment (Umwelt) (P 2 45f; SZ 95- I o i ) . In this connection it bears noting that Husserl 's phenomenological way of determining things in one 's immediate surroundings is, according to Heidegger, "in its start­ ing poin t not essentially different from the Cartesian. "22 This long-standing assumption about the world amounts to "ren­ dering it something unworldly" (Entweltlichung) , a "fatal narrowing" of the question of the world 's reality ( P 2 2 7 , 2 50) . In other words, Hei­ degger charges , the world is traditionally interpreted solely with a view to a theoretical objectification of nature, even though the "worldliness of the world" is not the same as nature. Yet this very differentiation leads to the following inevitable question : "How is something supposed to be said about the structure of the world in such a way that we above all fi rst look away from all theory and precisely from this extreme objectifica­ tion?" ( P 2 5 I ) . It is apparen t that the Prolegomena Lectures of I 9 2 5 , the source of this question , are neither the first nor the last time that Heidegger con­ cerns himself wi th this problem - for good reason , since the question , as he himself stresses , is crucial. Mter all , in Being and Time and other works before 1 9 2 9 , Heidegger plainly characterizes phenomenology as 22 P 2 4 7 : F.pF 2hfi-26g;

see

C h ap te r

2.

n . 79·

H E I D E G C� E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

"the science of being of entities" ( SZ 3 7 ; GP 398£) . If theoretical sci­ ence - at least as Heidegger characte rizes it - consists in making the­ matic assertions about something more or less available ( on hand or potentially on hand) , then it is hard to understand how Heidegger's analysis of being-here does not fall victim to his own critique of scien­ tific thematizing. To put it another way: insofar as his analysis of being­ here avails i tself of a theoretical form ( the form of thematic assertions) in order to indicate, specify, and communicate this manner of being, is it not itself a theory? Is not the significance of 'to be ' systematically objectified and rendered something on hand through the very use - and presumption of the truth - of thematic assertions made in the course of this analysis? Is not the analysis in this way self-refuting? Or, to for­ mulate the obj ection in the framework of the logical prejudice, should one not assume that Heidegger's in terpretation of ' being-here ' is true and, indeed, true because what is interpreted is also in fact on hand? Is it not necessary for him in a certain sense to give the logical prej udice its due, countenancing a conception of truth as an on-hand relation be­ tween an assertion and what it is about? Heidegger finds himself confronted with the challenge of explain­ ing how a nonobjectifying saying and thinking is possible, how one can "address'' and determine man ners of being, other than being-on-hand, without thereby reducing them to something on hand. In various ways between 1 9 1 9 and 1 930 he attempts to solve the problems of themati­ zation, at least to some degree, by stressing what he calls the "formally indicative" character of philosophy an d philosophical concepts . � 3 Throughout Heidegger's early lectures in the 1 9 2 0s, he irons out his conception of the task of philosophy in terms of formal indications . He concedes, to be sure, that the discursive character of philosophizing ex­ poses it to an "essential misinterpretation of its content" whereby what is articulated in philosophy is automatically taken for something on hand. Yet, in an attempt " to avoid this, at least to some extent," Hei-

2 3 PIA 1 g f, 6 1 f; W 6sf; PAA 29, 6 2 , 74, R4f, 9 7 , 1 gof; PRL, c hapte r 4: "Formalizati on and Formal Indicatio n , " 54-65 . Heidegger employs the concept several ti mes in SZ wi thout explai ning it: SZ 5 2 f, 1 1 4, 1 1 6f, 1 7 9 , 2 3 1 , 3 1 3-3 1 5 . See , too , his use of the term ' A nzezge' in e laborating " the basic sense of the Platonic dialec tic" ( PS 1 9 7 ) . See Otto Poggeler,

"H eideggers logisc he U n tersuchungen , " in A1artin Heidegger: lnnm- und A ujJenansichtPn, 7 5- 1 oo; Th. C. \\'. Oudemanns, " Hei deggers logische U n tersuchungen , " Heidegger Stud­ ies 6 ( 1 g g o ) : 8 s- 1 o5 ; Ki s iel , The Genesi5 of 'Being and Time ', 592 ; joh n van Bure n , "Th e Ethics of Formale Anzfif{e, " A merican Catholic Philo�ophi( al Quartn-(v 64 (spri ng 1 99 5 ) : 1 :) 7 - 1 7 < > .

T H E T I MELI N ES S

OF

EXI STENT IA L TRUTH

243

degger declares in 1 9 30 (summing up his practice for a decade ) : "it is necessary to reflect on the characte r that pervades all philosophical concepts , namely, that they are all formally indicative" ( GM 4 2 2 , 430) . The formal indication is for Heidegger "a specific step in the method of phenomenological expli cation"; in it "one sees a methodic . . . fun­ damen tal sense of all philosophical concepts and combinations of con­ cepts" (W 1 of, 2 9 ; PIA 1 4 1 ) . That "fundamental sense" of philosophi­ cal concepts insofar as they are "formal indications" is based upon the phenomenological insight that the object of an interpretation must be so articulated that the determination of the object ( in what sense it is) must em erge from the manner in which one originally "has" it, that is to say, in which it origi nally becomes accessible (wie der Gegenstand ur­ spriinglich zugiinglich wird) ( PIA 2 0, 1 8f, 2 3; SZ 2 7 ) . The "obj ect" of phi­ losophy itself is "what ' to be ' means" in the case of such "having"; in other words, philosophizing is nothing but a way of comporting oneself toward an original , unreflected or unthematic (unabgehobenen) com­ portmen t, an attempt to "have" or "understand" the latter ge nuinely. 24 "The basic question dominati ng everything that follows," Heidegger observes in the summer semester of 1 9 20, "is the question of the man­ ner and sense of having experience (whereby having -:t theoretically grasping - conceiving) " (PAA g6) . Heidegger chooses locutions such as ' having' (haben) , ' comporting' (verhalten) , or ' understanding' (verstehen) in order to emphasize that that original , un thematic having or comporting is not to be identified with a deliberate, meditative act of knowing something. Instead those locutions signify any way - theoretical , practical, playful, devotional , tender, and s o on - i n which a human being might relate to something, whether himself, another, a natural obj ect, an artifact, an artwork, a mathematical formula, a scientific hypothesis, a dream , and so on. The task of philosophy is to determine these different manners of being, and this de te rmination is possible only by understanding and retriev­ ing what it precisely means to be-here and to relate to each of these sorts of entities (where this 'being-here ' and ' relating' are in an importan t sense logically equivalent, but not identical) . 2 5 In this sense , Heidegger concludes, philosophy's way of relating to its object is "utte rly original 24 In SZ, the existen tials sen.'e as fo rmal ind ications. See , too , the description of ph iloso­ phy as "always an ele m e n t of the fartua l PxperiPnce of life" ( PAA 3 6 , 3 8 ) . On the connec­ tion between "havi ng" and "hi story," see , too , PAA 5 ��-6 1 . 2 5 Logical equ ival ence is, fo llowi n g Qui n e , val id ity of t h e bicon ditional ( i. e . , p H q what­ eve r the \·alue of f' or q ) , not to be confused with ide n ti tv ( I' =- q ) .

H E I D E G G E. R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

2 44

and radical ," indeed, such "that even and precisely through the grasp­ ing it is what it grasps and grasps what it is" ( PIA 6of; see also 4 1 f, 5 1 , 53£) . Since philosophy's "obj ect" is what "to be" means in th e context of that original comportment, it cannot "have" ( understand, retrieve ) its object as it were from the outside. Instead philosophy must itself carry out or enact ( or tnore exactly, reenact, renew) that original, un­ thematic "having," so as to appropriate it explicitly ( PIA 6of, 8o, 1 6gff) . Precisely for this reason philosophical concepts are characterized by Heidegger as formal indicators or signals, pointing respectively toward some original comportment, yet as "a concrete task to be completed or performed by it [ philosophizing] alone" (eine eigene konkrete Voll­ zugsaufgabe) (PIA 34, 6of) . What is thereby indicated is not given "in any complete and actual sense ," to be sure , but it is given "in principle." Philosophy is "no th eme or thing" (heine Sache) but rather a "principled manner of having" (prinzipielles Haben) and for that reason "'formally' indicating, a 'way, ' ' setting out"' ( PIA 2 0 , 5 8 ) . A philosophical concept is accordingly "empty" in a certain sense and, hence, purely a "formal indicator'' because it poin ts to a way of being - factual life - that must be realized by the philosopher in a specific way, springing from this philosophical obj ect or theme itself (PIA 3 2ff, 5 1 , 58; PAA 2 9 ) . In this se nse, Being and Time is not the depiction of some fact (Sachverhalt) , but rather an indication of a way of reenacting what ' to be ' means. Ac­ cording to Heidegger, philosophizing (grasping by means of formal in­ dications) is "nothing else than the explicit, factually genuine execution of a tendency that is faithful to a situation , a tendency that, while devel­ oped and acquired (in scientific research , knowledge) , is implicitly the re in the obj ect at issue itself (factual life) " (PIA 1 7 1 ) . Heidegger also characterizes a formal indication as "the methodical use of a sense that guides a phenomenological explication," yet without importing any preconceived opinions into the problem (PRL 55; PAA 8 5 , 1 7 2 ) . As such , formal indications are central to Heidegger's con­ ception of phenomenological method, precisely as it con trasts with the sort of generalization and formalization that have been traditionally considered the business of philosophy. 26 Generalizations are made about specific domains of objects and the order obtaining among them 2 6 Co rresponding

to th i s differe n ce between ge neraliLation and form al izatio n , el abo rated

by Husserl , is the d i sti n c tion tha t he makes betwee n regional and fo rmal o n tology. See

PAA 5 7 ; LU I

2 3 1 f, 2 4 3 f; and ld I 26f, 3 07-3 1 6 .

THE TIM ELI N E S S O F E X I STENTIA L TRUTH

245

(e.g. , reds are colors and colors are sensory qualities) . By contrast, for­ malizations are about objects in general , in other words, not in terms of what they are, but in te rms of how they are theoretically or epistem­ ically conceived (e .g. , the concept of red is a part of the concept of color) . While not tied to the order of a specific domai n , formalizations can themselves be made the objects of a theory and accordingly set in order (formal logic and formal ontology) . Unlike a ge neralization or formalization , "a formal indication has nothing to do with universality" nor with any theoretical order ( PRL 59f, 6 4 ) . It is noteworthy that Heidegger, in this context, portrays the formal indication precisely in terms of the problem of prej udice and, in the process, appears clearly to con tradict himself. By way of introduction of formal indications, he notes that methodological considerations are supposed to render intelligible how a formal indication can guide phe­ nomenological research without importing any preconceptions ( PRL 54 ) . Later, after noting that formalizations (formal-logical and formal­ ontological considerations) are neutral with respect to the subject mat­ ter, he refers to this indifference as the very prejudice that formal indi­ cations are meant to guard against (PRL 62£) . In the same context Heidegger acknowledges that the sort of stance he is presupposi ng rep­ resents the most extreme counterpoi nt to a theore tical science , claims that are not easy to square with some formulations of his own project in Being and Time (PRL 6 2 , 64 ; PAA 1 70) . In the winter semester of 1 92 3/ 24, while criticizing the Cartesian patrimony of Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger provides addi­ tional clues to what he means by ' formal indication . ' By construing the cogito in a formal-on to logical sense as a sentence that is certain and thus in need of no further investigation , Descartes effectively diverts atten­ tion from the question of the manner of being of the cogito or con­ sciousness. In this connection Heidegger suggests that "this sentence [' cogito ergo sum' or ' cogito me cogitare' ] be taken as a formal indication so that it is not taken directly (where it says nothing) but is related to the respective con cretion which it precisely means" (EpF 2 so) . Elaborating that "respective concretion ," Heidegge r adds that the being of the cog­ itatio is characterized by its "respectiveness" (jeweiligkeit) and thus i ts "timelin ess" (Zeitlichkeit) as well as "the specific type o f being o f this ego sum in what it has" (EpF 2 5 0) . From this brief review of Heidegger's use and scattered elaboration of "formal indications," two central , overlapping functions emerge : (a)

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C F. P T O F T R U T H

a referential-constraining function and (b) a reversing-transforma­ tional function . 27 ( a) The first function of a philosophical concept as a formal indica­ tion is to refer to a phenomenon in such a way that it enjoins against any preemptive or external characterization of it. "The formal indica­ tion prevents any drifting off into blindly dogmatic fixations of the cat­ ego rial meaning for the intrinsic determinacies of a kind of object, while what ' to be ' means in its case has not been discussed; fixations, in other words, that are independent and detached from the presupposi­ tion, the preconception, the context, and the time of th e interpreta­ tion." 28 Herein lies what Heidegger explicitly labels the "referential" and at the same time "prohibitive ( restraining, defensive ) character" of formal indications ( PIA 1 4 1 ) . Similarly, in his lectures on the phe­ nomenology of religious life, he calls the formal indication a "warning" and a "defense" against a preemptively theoretical attitude (PRL 63£) . These characterizations are obviously mean t to capture features of the phenotnenological reduction and, hence, it is not surprising to see Hei­ degger refer to this "referential-constraining" function as the "basic sense of the methodical point of depature for phenomenological in­ terpretation" ( PIA 1 4 1 ; PAA 8 5 ) . Yet, while deeming that philosophical thinking be constrained in the ways suggested, Heidegger also enjoins that it be adequately "formal." What this means can be gathered, at least in part, from the way he dis­ tinguishes what is formally indicative from what is "formally logical" or "formally thematic." Formal logic is not sufficien tly formal because it allegedly springs from an already specified region of obj ects and a cor­ responding tendency of grasping them ("classificatory assembling" : ord­ nendes Sammeln) (PIA 2 0, 1 64, 1 7 8 ) . Even the pri nciple of noncontra­ diction, he remarks at one point, is a rule regarding the possibility of sentences obtaining together and, as a result, is of limited validity. 2 9 An interpretation is "formally th ematic '' insofar as it avails itself of "proxi­ mate" schemata and "deep-seated" views instead of itself retrieving the 2 7 In an attempt to illum inate the relation between th e o l o gy a n d philosophy, H e i d e gge r

a lso ass i gn s form al in d i c at io ns a "co rrec tive" function insofar as theol ogy, d e s p i te tak­

ing it.;; bearings from belief, can only u n c over it.;; o bj ect on the basis of a pr e c on c e p tual that it is p hi lo so ph y \ task to elabora te . Wi thou t usu rp i n g a theological ex p li ca tio n of belief, p h il oso p hy all egedly l ends t he o l og i c al concepts a c on cr e te n e s s ( i .e . , codirectio n ) . " See W 6 2 -6 5 . 2 H PIA 1 4 2 ; cf. S Z 3 4 f. H e ideggcr also c o n n e c ts t h e fu n c t ion of fo�m al i n d i c a t i o n w i th what he c a ll s "phenomcnologi ca] destru c tion . " See PIA 1 4 1 , 1 1 3 ; PM 2 9-40 , 1 90f. 2�) F.pF 2 5 5 f; PTA 1 () � f: PAA 1 �)o . St>t> Ch apt�r 1 . n . 1 9 ahovt> . "

u n de rstand i n g"

"

T H E T I M E L I N E S S O F E X I ST E N T I A L TRUTH

24 7

original access to the matter at hand (PIA 1 74, 1 45 ) . These remarks about the hidden prejudices of allegedly formal disciplines, especially formal logic, obviously raise serious questions, not only about Heideg­ ger's use of formal indications in particular, but also about his inter­ pretation of being and truth in general . Does he think or does he have grounds to t:P ink that his criticism of formal logic ( especially his ac­ count of the limited validity of the principle of noncontradiction ) per­ mits him or even requires him to give an account of being and truth that is not restricted by canons of consisten cy, traditional insurers of in­ telligibility and communicability? These questions are addressed in the next chapter but they are clearly apposite to the issue of thematization that gives rise to Heidegger's doctrine of formal indications. Though Heidegge r's con trast of the use of the term ' formal ' in 'for­ mal indications' with its use in 'fortnal disciplines' is enormously sig­ nifican t, the con trast itself provides little more than a negative deter­ mination of what he understands by 'formal indications. ' More helpful than these distinctions are the examples given by Heidegger of "formal indications," such as the ' am ' in ' I am ' and ' death . ' In the first case, at­ tention is deflected away from the ' I ' ( th e cogito) while at the same time insuri ng that its tnanner of being not be taken as j ust another instance of existential instantiation ( PIA 1 7 2 ff; SZ 1 1 6 ) . D eath is being-here 's abiding possibility, not of anything on hand, but of its own impossibil­ ity. In this sense, as the consummate possibility in terms of which a hu­ man being may be-here ( proj ect and understand herself) , death is for­ mally indicated as a means of precluding a conception of being-here as one presence among others to which a human being might relate ( GM 4 2 5-4 2 9; SZ 240) . The '" as '-structure" of hermeneutic understanding also allegedly presents a clear example of the "referential-constraining" function of a philosophical concept, construed as a formal indication . Thus, the " ' as ' -structure" - taking or using something as a chair or us­ ing a chair as something to sit on , and so on - points to a relation that has to be grasped on its own terms, before its preemptive assimilation to the derivative relation of two things on hand and the indication of this relation in a theoretical judgmen t (GM 42 4f) . As can be gathered frotn these examples, Heidegger's emphasis on the formali ty of philosophical concepts is something of a ruse. As noted earlier, he cri ticizes formal disciplines (formal logic and formal ontol­ ogy) for being both too formal and not sufficiently formal (in each case by vi rtue of a theoretical prejudice ) . Yet Heidegger's philosophical con­ c�pts , fa r from h�i n g a gen rla-free or n e u t r al are sufficien tly rich i n con,

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT

OF

TRUTH

tent to yield criteria for further determination of thei r meaning (as well as discriminating errant determinations) . The way in which a philo­ soph ical concept, as a formal indication, refers is, as he puts it, a "bind­ ing" and "principled" one. "Presuppositionlessness" is reviled by him as "utopian": "the opinion of having no prejudice is itself th e greatest prejudice" (EpF 2 ) . Moreover, as his remarks about formal l ogic and formal themes reveal , philosophical concepts as formal indications ex­ clude concepts of objects presupposed by specific sciences - insofar, at least, as the inquiry into what ' to be ' means in the case of these objects ( and, thereby, the original access to them) has been put off or ignored. (b) Heidegger's understanding of philosophy's task also dictates a second set of methodological functions for formal indications. Just as formal indications ''have nothing to do with universality," by way of ge n­ eralizations or formalizations, so, too, they should not be confused with descriptions. Taking a page from Natorp 's criticism of Husserl, Hei­ degger bemoans any quick identification of "phenomenological see­ ing" with description, a propaedeutic to th eory insofar as the given is set off against explanation and thus objectified. 30 The aim of formal in­ dications is to lead us back to th e genuine sense of life, not for th e sake of comprehending or contemplating it, but as part of actually ren ewing that sense or, what is the same, living life in an original and authentic way (PAA 2 9, 38, 74£) . To pursue this aim is, at one and the same titne , "to penetrate anew to the idea of philosophy," Heidegger adds, leaving no doubt that, in his view, a genuin e life and philosophy are mutually self-reflective (PAA 2 8 ) . I n contrast to the theore tical attitude toward actual existence, an attitude th at, even in historical sciences, distances i tself from it, formal indications are conceived as an integral part of con­ cretely being-here, providing direction, a preconception ( Vorgri!J) , and criteria for what it means to exist authentically ( PAA 34f, 7 5 , 87 ) . That preconception , Heidegger observes, presupposes "fundamental philo­ sophical experiences" (philosophische Grunderfahrungen) (PAA 3 5 ) . The formal indication of leading life in an original way (der Vollzug als urspriinglich) also en tails the "destruc tion" of i nauthentic ways of living and philosophizing, for example , the illusion that philosophy can dis­ tance itself, like science, from the concrete expe rience of life (PAA 38 1 70) or that its task is to provide a culture with the assurance of being "on the right path" ( PAA 1 7 3 ) . According to Heidegger, the rigor of phi,

30 ZBP 1 1 3f; PAA 1 o 2 f, 1 7 1 , 1 94. See Paul Natorp, thudt: (Tubinge n : l\1 oh r, 1 9 1 2 ) , 1 8gff.

A llgemeine Psychologie nach kritisthPT Nle­

T H E T I M E L I N E S S OF EX I STENTIAL TRUTH

24 9

losophy exceeds all scientific rigor and consists in a constan t ren ewal , "elevating concernedness to the facticity of existence and ultimately making actual existence uncertain [ or insecure: unsicher] " (PAA 1 7 4) . As can be gathered from these remarks, the role played by formal i n­ dications in Heidegger's early philosophy is highly ambivalent, and de­ libe rately so. They are not, by themselves, supposed to be construed as pro totheoretical descriptions of anything ultimately original or deci­ sive , and yet they are allegedly based upon fundamental philosophical expe riences (PAA 3 5 ) . While supposedly motivated by the concrete and factual , they are nonetheless destructive of en trenched views of life ( PAA 8 5 ) . Formal indications are mean t to disrupt life and philosophy i n o rder to renew them. This immanent, reformative character of formal indications is re­ flec te d in a deliberately counterintuitive or, better, nonstandard use of language. Bent on preserving "the power of the most elementary lvords, in which being-here articulates itself' ( SZ 2 20) , philosophy questions what it means ' to be, ' an expression in common and disposable cur­ ren cy. This questioning has - and is design ed to have - the effect of un­ dermining confidence in the customary usage of words. For the most part, Heidegger's formal indications (his philosophical concepts) are not neologisms or technical concepts. Instead they are drawn from the normal use of language as it informs a way of life. Yet, precisely because of this origin, he shapes these concepts into "formal i ndications" as a warning that genuine access to what they point to is not at all commo n. Such access requires a certain indirection, reversal, and even transfor­ mation of usage, one that runs counter to the customary "plunge" (Sturz) into the usual ways of considering things, where the talk is less than explicit and the interpretation remains implicit. Part of this "plunge" or (in the terminology of Being and Time) "fallenness" of hu­ man existence is a propensity to yield to the anonymous discourse shaped solely by public opinion, for which no one in particular takes or can take responsibility. In this inevitable fallenness, Heidegger mai n­ tains, lie the very "possibility and factual necessity . . . of the formal in­ dication as th e method from which one must begin" ( PIA 1 34 ) . The philosopher's task is to invert the normal perspective and way of posing questions, that is, to turn attention away from particular beings and to­ ward the generally unspoken and unexamined horizon within which they are respectively encountered and have the manner of being that they do. Thus, while ' life ' and ' existence' are eminently useful terms with seemingly self-evident meanings . as philosophical concepts they

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

formally indicate a specific but unthematized and implicit meaning, the understanding of which , because it is unthematized, requires a certain reversal. � 1 For the same reason , Heidegger deliberately uses the terms that serve as formal indications ( i. e . , philosophical concepts ) in a "metaphorically promiscuous" way. He relies upon traditional and everyday uses of th e terms, but for the purpose of introducing initially figurative, but ultimately more fundamental ( existential) meani ngs of them. Everyday, factual uses of terms reflect the head-first plunge into the world that typifies human existence. The aim of using those terms as fortnal indications is to establish the genuine "liaison" toward wh ich those everyday meanings are allegedly groping. 32 In the process what began as an ordinary, "lite ral" use of a term is exposed as a poor sub­ stitute, a coarse metaphor, for an existen tial use that it presumably pre­ supposed all along. From Heidegger's vantage point, the ordinary distinction between literal and metaphorical uses of terms is just that: ordinary, trifling; a sure symptom of an unreflective , cowardly embrace of the world 's stan­ dards. Very early in his career, he describes the "plunge" into th e world as a ''movement" characteristic of the way we in fact typically live, namely, bent on taking care of ourselves, but on the world 's terms, that is to say, in terms of what that means in the eyes of the world . The net effect of this movement is an unfamiliarity with ourselves. By contrast, philosophy is "a movement running counter to this plunge into the world" (eine gegenruinante Bewegtheit) that renders it questionable, albeit not unqualifiably, as Heidegger puts it in a passage remarkable for the self-conscious way in which it deploys Husserlian terminology: Precisely in questioning, factual life comes to a givenness-of-itself that can be ge nuinely developed [ genuin ausbildbare Selbstgegebenheit] , wh ereby givenness-of-i tself may not be ide n tified wi th the manner of given ness of something immediate of the world, and eve n less wi th the manner of the specifically theoretical , atti tudi nal giving-i tself [Selbstgebung] . [The latte r] forms itself as fulfill ing i n tuition in the diverse domains of obj ects that 3 1 PIA t gf, 8o, 88. A� directions n ot desc riptions, formal in dications are suited to a pro­

ductive logic, not th e logic concerned with gathering and c lassifyi ng wh at is already known . See H e idegge r's com ment about overcoming th e phi losophy of a standpoin t" by locating a necessary position, the n eces s i ty of which is not qased upon th e necessi ty of avoid i n g c o n tradiction . Cf. PAA 1 90 . 3 2 For fu rther di �rus�ion of thi� �tra t egy a n rl i t� p i tfaJl c;; , c;; � � '\f>c tion 5 · 5 hf>l ow. ''

THE T I M EL I N E S S OF E X I STEN TIAL TRUTH

can b e affected by the tendency to become acquain ted-and-explained and has, co rrespondingly, i ts own theoretical relations of evidence, legit­ i macy, and claims to validity. ( PIA 1 5 3 )

While philosophy supposedly remains focused o n the significance of ' being' within the concrete situations of everyday life , it can only suc­ ceed in making this significance clear by articulating "the most funda­ mentally appropriate sense of what it means ' to be "' (das Ureigene des Seinssinns) and bringing that meaning and its "binding character" to life (PIA 1 69) . Living the philosoph ical life means nothing less, in Hei­ degger's eyes, than carrying out this task. "Philosophy is a fundamental man ner of living itself, such that philosophy in each case genuinely re­ trieves life , taking it back from its downfall [Abfall] , a taking back that, as a radical searching, is itself life" (PIA So, 88) . As already noted, the reversal (Umstellung) required by the philosophical viewpoint also en­ tails a transformation (Verwandlung) of the individual who philoso­ phizes. A person cannot thematize what is initially unthematic without putting herself in question and, equivalently, her comportment and world. As Heidegger puts it in the winter semester of 1 929/30, "what philosophy deals with generally discloses itself only in and on the basis of a transformation of human existence" ( GM 4 2 3 ) . Four years earlier, at the end of Heidegger's logic lectures, he em­ ploys the notion of an "indication" in order to distinguish "specifically phenomenological , categorial" assertions from "worldly" assertions. While the worldly assertions point out something on hand, phenome­ nologically categorial asse rtions refer to being-here , a manner of being that is not simply on hand and thus can only be understood by revers­ ing and transforming a certain customary usage of the term . (The ex­ pression ' phenomenologically categorial ' in the logic lectures corre­ sponds to what Heidegger in Being and Time dubs "existential" in contrast to "categorial. " ) As Heidegger is quick to concede, the "phe­ nomenologically categorial assertion" shares the structure of a worldly ( apophantic ) assertion and thereby initially means something on hand. However, he adds: "A worldly assertion about something on hand, even if it is made in the context of a mere naming, can di rectly mean what has been said , wh ile an assertion about being-here and furthermore each assertion about being, each [phenomenological ] categorial as­ sertion re q uires , in order to be understood, th e reve rsal of the under­ standing, a reversal i n the direction of what has been indicated, wh ich essen tially is n eve r "ometh i ng on hand" ( L. 4 1 o n. 1 ) . The uphill task

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

that Heidegger sets for himself is obvious. He must be able to kick away the very ladder ("worldly" or "th eoretical" assertions, "objectifying" concepts, and so on ) on which h e is forced to make his climb. The fundamental , methodological sense of philosophical concepts as formal indications is merely sketched here since the specific refer­ ences and constraints, reversals and transformations entailed by them can only adequately emerge from the analysis itself. The question, of course , remains whether Heidegger succeeds in interpreting "being­ here" and "indicating" its truth in a way that is not overtaken by the objectifying character of thematic assertions. But this question , too, can only be answered by turning to the actual analysis of being-here and truth . A critical reconstruction ( retrieval ) of the cen tral theses of this analysis is the task of the present chapter; with the reconstruction in hand, the concluding chapter re turns to the question of thematization. H owever, before the cri tical presen tation of Heidegge r's analysis is un­ dertaken , it may be appropriate to make one final, preliminary remark. Heidegger's efforts at a nonobj ectifying thinking and a concrete, self-reflexive comportment toward being bear a certain resemblan ce to Hegel 's attempt to conceive universali ty concretely. Their two "phe­ nomenologies ," namely, of spirit and being-here respectively, com­ monly strive to articulate a nonintuitive self-disclosiveness that under­ lies theory as well as practice, subj ect as well as object, at least as the latter are conceived by a certain sort of representational thi nking. The dialectical identity of iden tity and difference in Hegel's though t has its counterpart in Heidegger's characterization of being-here as the very disclosedness of a manner of being, defined by its absence as much as its presence . The reconciliation of being and nothingness in becoming ( the opening move of Hegel's Science of Logic) is echoed in the way that genuinely being-here is the proj ection of (or, literally, "comes to") its nothingness. Such comparisons of Hegel 's and Heidegger's thinking, to be sure, are as problematic as they are intriguing, especially since, according to Heidegger in the 1 9 20s, Hegel would have utterly no appreciation of his project at all (while Kant, by con trast, allegedly stumbled onto a sem­ blance of it) . H eidegger's early picture of Hegel is not very flattering, to say the least (PIA 1 50; L 2 o 1 f, 1 2 3, 2 5 1 -2 6 2 ; PS 2 2 3 ) . Hegel 's di­ alectic, Heidegger maintains , lives from "a fundamental sophistry" (L 2 5 2 ) and its principle is "to confuse us with God" (L 2 67 ) . In contrast to Kant's wrestling with things, for Hegel , "everythi n g is clear, he him­ self i n possession of absolute truth" ( L 2 6g ) . Nevertheless, there is an

253

T H E T I M E L I N ES S O F EX I STEN T I A L T R U TH

unmistakable similarity between Hegel and Heidegger precisely in re­ gard to the paradox of thematization . They share the proj ect of think­ ing and thematizing what putatively lies beyond the limits of traditional logic and science. 33 As Heidegger labors to conceive "being-here" as respectively mine or yours, so Hegel labors to conceive "spirit" in its individuality. Moreover, far from being alone or worldless, both being-here and the spi rit are ways of being that are defined as intentional or, better, self-disclosively worldly through and through , effectively canceling any attempt to bi­ furcate knowing and being. Thus, "the universality that is in itself con­ crete and thus existing for itself' is for Hegel "th e concept of the free will as the universal , reaching beyond its object and penetrating through its determination , that is identical with itself in that determi­ nation." 34 There are resonances of this characterization i n Heidegger's in terpretation of humans' fundamental comportment as a "stepping over to . . . " ( transcendence, being-in-the-world) , that is supposed to overtake the epistemological conception of intentionality (GP 4 2 5 ; cf. 4 2 3-4 2 9) . Both thinkers presen t the ladder to the truth of existence in the form of a progression from less to more genuine forms of existence. To be sure, Hegel emphasizes how the "moving purpose" of the indi­ vidual is overtaken by the concrete universality of "life" 35 at one level and the "eth ical substance" of the family, civil society, and state at an­ other, 36 whereas authentically being-here, according to Heidegger, means "taking over solely from its own standpoin t the potential-to-be in which what is at stake is simply the being that is most properly its own" 3 3 Fo r reviews of their kinship, see H . G. Gadamer, Hegels Dialektik second edition ( Tubin­ ge n: Moh r, t g Ho) , gg- 1 1 2; Gadam er, Heidfggers Wege 1 3 7, 1 5 3 ; O tto P o gge l e r, Re z e n ­ s i o n vo n Tuge n d h a ts Der Wahrheitsbegriff hfi Husserl und Heidegger, " in Philosophisches Jahrbuch 76 ( 1 g6 g ) : 3 R3f; Po gg e l e r, Der Denkweg Martin Heideggers, second, e xpa n d e d edition ( Pfullinge n : N e s ke, 1 983 ) , 305 , 3 2 8 ; P oggele r, H e i d e g ge rs Lo gi sc h e Un ters u c h u nge n " 7 7 - 8 1 ; P ogge l e r " H egel u n d H ei d egge r, Hegel-Studien 25 ( 1 990 ) : 1 3 9- 1 6o; a n d Pierre M a u bo u ss i n , Logos and Logik: Heidfgger 's Later Seinslehrf and Hegel ( dissertation , Cath olic U ni ve rs ity of Ame rica, 1 997 ) . 3 4 G. W. F. H eg e l Grundlinien der Philosophie di!s Rechts ( 1 8 2 1 ) , ed. J. Hoffmeister ( H am­ burg: M e i n e r, 1 967 ) , § 2 4, pp. 4 2 f; Hege l , Enzyklopiidie der phi losoph isrhen Wissenschaftm im Grundrissf ( 1 R 3o) , ed. W. B o n s i e pen and H .-C. Lucas w i th h e l p of U . Ram eil ( Ham­ burg: Meiner, 1 9 9 2 ) , � I fig. See, too, He ge l s critique of models of knowing as a "medium" or a "means" in the Phiinomenologie des Geistfs, 5 3 f 3 5 Hegel, Wissenschaft der Logik, vol . 2 ( 1 8 1 6 ) , ed. F. Hogeman n and W. Jaesch ke ( H am­ burg: Meiner, 1 98 1 ) , t 83- 1 9 1 . 36 At t h e level of oqjec tive spiri t, h owev e r, talk of the i n d iv i d u al bei n g overtake n would seem to n egl e c t ( 1 ) th e role of (individual ) moral i ty i n e th ical life and ( 2) the way th at abso lute s pi r i t reconciles subjective ( individual ) and o bj e c t ive (social ) s pi r i t ,

,

"

"

,

,

"

,

'

.

.

H E I D EG G E R ' s C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

2 54

( SZ 263 ) . Yet even i f these differences are countenanced, the determi­ nation of what is at stake in being-in-the-world, namely, to be oneself, might well be characterized as Heidegger's "concrete universal . " In this connection three further parallels between the two thinkers deserve mention . First, Heidegger's objection to th e critique of psy­ chologism ( namely, that it must come to naugh t since it remains as ori­ ented to an "ontology of nature" as psychologism is) cannot be ex­ ten ded, at least not without considerable qualification , to Hegel's ontology. Hegel maintains that nature is itself to be understood as "bringing i tself to the existence of spirit, that is the truth and final pur­ pose of nature ." 37 Furthermore , thanks to his theory of the "speculative sen tence" as well as his speculative th eory of inference, it is difficult to fault him for th e logical prej udice. "In the case of judgmen t," he de­ clares, "it has been shown that its general form and especially the im­ mediate form of the positive judgment is incapable of grasping the spec­ ulative and the truth in itself.'' 38 Finally, history is as essen tial to the human spirit for Hegel as it is to being-here for Heidegger. These parallels should not blur the substantial differences that sep­ arate the two thinkers. A systematic dialectic of the absolute spirit can hardly be confused with the "formally indicative" analysis of finitely be­ ing-here. In Heidegger's own view, Hegel's characterization of time, ori­ ented as it is toward a "one-dimensional" view of time, manages to give "the vulgar experience of time and interpretation of time its most rad­ ical formulation'' ( SZ 43 1 ) . Nor is there perhaps a starker contrast be­ tween two conceptions of philosophy than that between Hegel 's seem­ ingly tragic view of philosophy as a dusky retrospec tive and Heidegger's insistence that philosophy, like time, must resolutely take its bearings from the future. 39 There is a great deal more to be said about the similarities and dis­ similarities between Hegel 's and Heidegger's thinking, especially in the context of Heidegger's immediate turn from th e transcendental phe­ nomenological - and, yes, Kantian - horizons of Being and Time to the work of Hegel and Schelling. 40 Pursuit of this th eme is out of place 3 7 Hegel , Enzyklopiidie, � 2 5 1 .

� R H e ge l Wi5srnsrhafl der

2 : 245;

H egel , Phiinomenologir des Gristrs, 4 5 f. 39 Cf. Ot to Poggeler, "Herm eneutische und man tische Phanomen ologie," in Hridegger: Per­ sprktivm zur Deutung .srinPs "Verk �, ed. O tto Pggel er, second edition ( Cologn e : Kiepen­ ,

ljogik,

he ue r & W i ts c h 1 970) , ; p n -3 5 7 . the l ectures i n t h e sunl m e r semester o f 1 9 29: Der deut.�rhP ldnilismu5 (Fichtr, I Jegf/l, Srhelling) u nd du- jJhilo5ophi.\clu Probwmlage df'r (;egmwart, ed . Clau dius Strube, GA ,

4 0 See, e . g. ,

THE

TI MELI N ESS

OF

E X I STENTIAL TRUTH

2 55

within the framework of the present study, focused as it on Heidegger's attempt i n the mid- 1 g 2os to expose the logical prej udice and deter­ mine an original sense of truth . The foregoing preliminary remarks have served a purpose if they have managed to h ighlight the nature and considerable difficulties besetting Heidegger's undertaking in view of his acc ount of theoretical assertions, a11d to outline h is strategy ( insist­ i ng on the metacategorial disti nction and taking philosophical con­ cepts as formal indications) for contending with those difficulties. It is time, however, to turn directly to Heidegger's systematic argument against the logical prejudice and for his conception of a more original truth . 4. 1 Concern , the Work-World, and Handin ess

The structure of being-here is that of being-in-the-world, a worldly and shared existence in which each of us becomes himself or herself. While there are three aspects to that struc ture ( the work-world, being-with­ others, and being oneself) , Heidegger stresses its basic unity. The elab­ oration of any of these three aspects involves th e others as well as the structure as a whole (P 2 1 1 , 33 2 ) . Yet each is also a distinct existential , a self-disclosive manner of being that constitutes existence from th e ground up. In oth er words, there is no entity (subj ect or substance) un­ derlying and unifying them . Together they make up the structure of be­ ing-in-the-world. Nevertheless, Heidegger's treatm ent of being-with-others is notice­ ably more meager th an his treatment of the other aspects. Indeed, th e analysis is chiefly propelled by consideration of oppositions between the work-world and bei ng oneself. Nor is this tendency of th e analysis unproblematic, a point that will hopefully become clearer in the course of this and the next chapter. Heidegger has reason to emphasize the worldliness of human exis­ tence , even if what he calls the "work-world" or "world of concern" dom­ inates his analysis of it. From the very outset of life, each human being is dependent upon and orien ted to a world, "always already" involved 28 ( 1 997 ) ; a n d the lecture� i n the wi n ter se1nester of 1 9 30/ 3 1 : Hegels Phiinomenologie ed. I n gtraud Garland , GA 3 2 , th i rd edi tion ( 1 99 7 ) . He idegger's affi n ity to Schelling is often n o ted ; cf. Walter Sch u l z , " U ber den philosophi egeschichtlichen Ort Marti n Heidegge rs,'' in Philo.\ ophische Rund.�rhau ( 1 9.rJ 3 / 54 ) : 65--9 3 , 2 1 1 -2 3 2 ; joseph Lawrence, Sclulling� Phzlosophie des ervigen A nfangs (Wi.irt.burg: K6nigshausen & Neu­ man n . 1 q8 g ) . ��o , qH , 1 2 2 n . 86, 1 � 8 , 1 87 . des Geistfs,

H E I DEGGER ' S

C O N C E PT O F

TRUTH

wi th things and persons on account of it. The belabored expressions 'from the very outset' and 'always already' underscore the fact that hu­ man beings do not exist somehow before or apart from being in the world. In this respect, the worldliness of human existence is as funda­ mental for Heidegger as intentionality is for Husserl . 4 1 To speak of a person 's relationship to the world as though she existed for herself apart from the world is "a basically absurd starting point" ( ein von Grund aus verkehrter Ansatz) for understanding her as a human being (L 2 1 2 , 2 2 2 ; P 346£) . Insofar as someone exist�, she belongs to a world, not as something toward which she could be indifferent or to which she might reconcile herself more or less (indulging or resisting it) . She lives in­ stead in the world of her concerns and is dependent upon, indeed, more or less identified with it. So familiar is it to her, so at h ome in her world is she that the world is something self-evident, as self-evident as she is to herself. Her manner of bei ng is, in short, that of being-in-the­ world. 42 In this fashion Heidegger drafts his first picture of being-in-the-world as a fundamen tal feature of existence, that is, the human way of relat­ ing or comporting itself. If Heidegger's correspondence wi th jaspers is to believed, then Being and Time is, as noted earlier, principally written against Husserl. Acccordingly, one of the central purposes of the ac­ count of being-in-the-wo rld is to sublate ( in the utopian sense of the Hegelian term , namely, to reform without loss) the structure of in ten­ tionality, oriented as Husserl 's initial account of intentionality is toward an epistemic intuition. Elaboration of the phenomenon of being-in­ the-world, in other words, is supposed to yield the manner of being of intentionality, its manner of being-by-way-of-transcending, and thus 4 1 Th e paral lel ob tai n s precisely in view of Heidegge r's ques tion , ac tually more of a com­ plai n t , to H usser! : "Does n ' t a pure ego have a wo rld?" ( see Ch apter 2 , n . 95 above) . Th ere is something to reading the firs t half of SZ as Heidegge r's redoing of i n tention­ ality, and th e seco n d half as his redoing of perc eption ( a n d i ts consti tu tion by i n n e r time-co n scio us n ess ) .

42 P 2 6 3 ; cf. SZ 64ff. The term ' wo rl d ' i n the foregoi ng pa ragraph refers to the th ird and most common of the fou r uses of the term distin gu ished by H eidegger i n SZ. Those fou r uses are: ( 1 ) t h e on t i c conception o f the set of everyth ing o n h and "wi th i n " the world; ( 2 ) the on to logical conce ption of the man ner of bei ng of e n ti ties wi th i n the wo rld o r a region of it; ( 3 ) the on tic and existen tiel-preo n tological conception of wh e re bei ng­ here fac tually lives (from the pu blic world to the household , but preem i nen tly the s u r­ rounding wo rld or environment) ; and ( 4 ) the on to logical-exis ten tial concepti o n of

a

man n e r of be ing--here . In SZ he rese rves the term ' wo rl d ' for t�e t h i rd se nse and wo rld­ line"s fo r the fou rth sense . O ccasio nal i ns tances of the first se n se are s uppos ed to be i n­

dicated by qu otation In a rk",

a

pract ice fol l owed in t h e prese nt s tudy.

TH E TI M EL I N E S S OF E X I STENTI AL TRUTH

257

render transparent what is neglected in the Husserlian as well as the Aristotelian determinations of truth ( P 2 64) . In the wake of Heidegger's radical reinterpretation of the Aris­ totelian concepts of truth , th e first condition of bivalence (proposi­ tional truth or falsity) is the truth of disclosedness, something that is presupposed in a person 's prethematic, worldly dealings with things. What ' being a thing' (Dingsein) means is equival ent to the manner in which a thing makes itself present in those dealings or concerns. What is characteristic of everyday concerns is the fact that things present themselves within a more or less familiar, dynamic , and purposeful con­ text of references, designated the "work-world" or the "world of con­ cern." Directly challenging attempts to construe the world as a product of immediately given data or even things "always already" on hand in nature, Heidegger declares: "The worldliness of the world is grounded instead in the specific work-world" (P 2 6 3 ) . Heidegger employs the term 'concern ' (besorgen) to characterize the fact that to be-here is, from the outset, to be involved with things in the immediate surroundings or environmen t, referring and being referred to th em (and in that sense dependent upon them ) ( SZ 67£) . Human beings are always already among things, not initially in order to know them , but rather to utilize them , to make use of them for some specific, worldly purpose. The wide range of uses of the verb ' besorgen' makes it a particularly well-suited term for this existential. The term is used as a synonym for ' obtain ' or 'get' ( in th e sense of 'procure ' or 'acquire ' ) as in 'obtain tic kets' or ' get a taxi. ' ' Besorgen' can also be used with the ac­ cent on ' carrying out' or 'finishing' (as in the proverb Was du heute kannst besorgen, das verschiebe nicht auf morgen: don 't put off till tomorrow what you can do today) . The term is also used to designate concerning oneself about something or even caring for it, for example the house , plant, or pet o f someone while they are away o r unable to do so ( as i n the request 'Will you take care o f the dog? ' ) . The past participle o f the verb (besorgt) is also employed as an adj ective to express worry or anx­ iousness, as in 'her concerned look' (ihr besorgter Blick) . For Heidegger the term designates not only decidedly active ways of behaving, but also "allowing someone to act, leaving something unused, se tting something aside or giving it up, and all the phenomena that we might character­ ize as ' letting something go or get lost"' (L 2 1 8 , 2 5 5 ) . In making use of things, employing, handling, buying and selling, coun ting, eve n know i n g things and numerous other ways of relating to th em , h u m a n c o n c e r n is al wavs worldlv. Th is c o ncern does not move '

/

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R UTH

con tingently or aimlessly about, but wi thin a definite referential con­ text and thus with a view to some outcome . The work-world, the world of everyday concern , is, in short, a network. The sense of this network can be gathered from Heidegger's observation that "strictly speaking, th ere is no such thing as a single implement." 43 Each implement "points" or "refers" to (hinweist auf) another as, for example , a screw­ driver refers to a screw, the screwdriver and the screw together to a pair of boards or, more precisely, to fastening them, the fastening to a shelf, and so on . A network of this sort with a familiar dynamic all its own comprises the immediate environment or surroundings (Umwelt) of be­ ing-here. 44 In these work-world surroundings, th ings first make them­ selves present in terms of what they are for ( the '�existentiel-hermeneu­ tic ' as"' discussed in the last chapter) . Yet this environment is so familiar and reliable that the specific th ings encountered within it as well as the various relationships and ref­ e ren ces that bear its dynamic are inconspicuous and unobtrusive. The work-world is accordingly not itself a theme, but present in some sense prior to the things that reveal themselves in those references. 45 As Hei­ degger puts it in Being and Tirne, " the work bears the referential whole within which the implement is encountered" (SZ 70) , but "in every("Ein Zeug ' ist' strenggenom­ men nie'' ) . Dispensing with the pseudo-problems of realism and idealism engendered by talk of in tentionality and/ o r th e thing itself, Heidegger describes handiness as "the ontological-categorial determination of the entity as it is ' in itself" (SZ 7 1 : "die onto­ logisch-kategoriale Bestimmung von Seiende m , wie es 'an sic h ' ist") . On the relation of the in-i tself-n ess of the handy to the on hand, see SZ 6g and 7 s f; J o hn Dewey, �xperience and Naturf, 1 2 2 ; and, i n a related sense, PI 8 of: ''Is what we call ' obeying a rule ' some­ th i ng that it would be possible for only one man to do, and to do only onre in his life? . . . It is no t possible that there should have been only one occasion on which som eone obeyed a rule. It is n o t possible that the re should h ave been only one occasion on which a report was m ade, an order given or understood; and so on. - To obey a rule, to make a report, to give an order, to play a game of chess , are custom 5 (u se s , institutions) ." 44 SZ 8 4 : "An entity is u ncovered i n vi ew o f the fact that, as th is entity that it i s , it is referred to somet h i ng �'\lith it the en t i ty has its in\'olvement wi th or relevance to something. The character of being of the h a ndy is the involvPment or relevance" [Bewa n dtnis] . See P 2 5 1 ff; SZ 66: "The 1nos t im1nediate world of everyday being-here is the environmen t or sur­ rounding world [ Umwrlt] . " \Vork-w o r l d and su rr ou n d in g world are not clearly disti n­ guished in P 2 5 2-2 7 1 . 45 See S Z 8 5 : "The m a n n e r of havi ng al re ady i n each case allowed for the involveme nt, set­ ting [ t h i ng s ] free i n the process with a view to the involvement, is an a priori perfect that charac te rizes the type of being of be i ng-h e r e itself. " SZ H6: T h a t wi thi n-which [ characteristic ] of t h e self-referri ng understanding as t h e in-yiew-of-which of a llo wi n g for the encoun ter of e n tities in the [con text of t h e ] so rt of bein g of in vo lv e n 1 e n t is t h e phc notnenon of the world. " 43 SZ 6R: "Stric tly s pe a kin g there never ' is' U ust] one tool" ,

.

-

"

T H E TI MEL I N ES S O F E X I STENTIAL TRUTH

2 59

thing handy, the world is always already ' here. ' The world is already un­ covered in advance, albeit unthematically, with everything encoun­ tered" ( SZ 8 3 ; P 2 7 1 ) . In the context of concern , things merely on hand are ignored, as is the onhandn ess of the things that are used. Things constan tly retreat into the network; indeed, "in the immediacy of every­ day dealings they do not even emerge from it" (P 2 5 3 ) . In other words, things are not of concern and are "not even here in any primary sense," but rather "applied'' as tools (P 2 5 gf, 2 7 2 ) . Formulating one of the cru­ cial insigh ts of his thinking, Heidegger observes: "What is peculiar about the things immediately handy is the fac t that, in their handiness, they pull back as it were, precisely in order to be genuinely handy" ( SZ 6g; cf. P 2 56 ) . When something handy (zuhanden) no longer retreats into the back­ ground but instead makes itself man ifest by not working right, the pe­ culiar, prethematic "presence" (Prasenz) of the world loses its low pro­ file and comes into relief. Attention is then drawn not only to something missing, defective, or disruptive within the work-world but also to the work-world itself. It takes a breakdown for people actually to attend to the implements themselves and thus to the "inconspicuous­ ness, the unobtrusiveness, and undisturbedness" of the work-world that is "always already here" (P 2 56) . Consider the commonplace experi­ ence of driving to work. As long as the engine of the car is running smoothly and the road is clear, both remain as unobtrusive as the act of driving itself, or for that matter, as the trees and buildings passed along the way. But if the engine suddenly grinds to a hal t or the road is blocked for resurfacing, they are no longer "handy" and yet, for that very reason, we become acutely aware of what they are for. The "ab­ sence" of something that otherwise normally fulfills a function in th e work-world draws attention to the "pallid and inconspicuous presence of the world'' (P 2 56 ) . So, too, in reverse, " the world's not announcing itself' is a condition for the inconspicuousness of what is handy. Heidegger ac­ cordingly observes that the world is neither handy nor on hand even though it is somehow "here" or, literally "in the ' here ' prior to all de­ termination and observation" (SZ 7 5 ) . Nor are matters different in the case of circumspection , the manner of "seeing" things in the work­ world: ''It [the entire context of tools] is itself inaccessible to circum­ spection insofar as this is always directed at some entity, but in each case it is already disclosed for the circumspection. " 46 46 SZ

75:

'circunlspection ' is the

tran slation for

·

Umsicht, ' the purposeful way of loo k i n g

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E P T OF T R U T H

In this way Heidegger establishes the primacy of the "peculiar presence of the environment" and, more precisely, that of the "specific presence of the world as a fixed, reliable referential totality" over the things used in the work-world, being handy as they are only on the basis of this world. 47 Neither this world nor the things encountered within it are on hand in the sense of what might be given "in person" in an observa­ tion or as an "object perceived in a theoretically thematic fashion" (P 2 53f, SZ 7 1 ) . If a tool is defective, requiring the person using it to inter­ rupt the work, this delay remains within the network of concern; the pres­ ence of the tool is not yet on hand as an object studied apart from those concerns. With Aristotle no less than Husser! in mind, Heidegger charges that "the basic phenomenological deception" lies precisely in passing over these phenomena of worldly encounters and regarding the way objects present themselves in an isolated perception or ol:r servation as the manner of their being. Neither the work-world nor the things in the environment of the work-world are present ( on hand) in this way. To the contrary, it is precisely the absence that is "constitutive for the encounter of the otherwise quite inconspicuous world" (P 2 57 ) . In other words, whatever else things are, they are generally encountered first as tools; and whatever tools they are, their manner of being (i.e., of presenting themselves) is to absent themselves from thematic or explicit consideration (a feature that they share with the world itself) . The defec tiveness of some normally working part of the work-world 's referential context points to this world, which , for all its inconspicu­ ousness, is in every case "always already here" (P 2 5 7f, 2 67 ) . Things ini­ tially present themselves ( to us) - with the distinctive absence of what around that guides one's handling (Hantieren) of things and lends it its specific th ingly charac ter (Dinghaftigkeit) . Ums ich t is a lite ral translation of ' circumspicere' ; cf. Gerhard Wahri g, Deu tsches Worterbuch ( Gutersloh : Bertelsmann, 1 997 ) , 1 2 66. Regrettably, 'cir­ cumspection ' barely co nveys that practically oriented sense of lookin g around. The fol­ lowing are some homely examples of circumspec tion as a way of looking around or see­ ing in the con text of concern ( taking care of something) : a carpenter " seeing" the right nail for the job at hand; an electrician "seeing" a cable's con nections; a quarterback "looki ng over" the defense at the line and then "seeing'' that the defenders are over­ playing to the righ t as the play unfolds; a violi nist's knack of "seeing" her bow and vio­ lin, the score , and the conduc tor's direc tion "altogether''; a pedestrian or driver "see­ ing" that traffic is speeding. 4 7 P 2 5 2f. Heidegger highlight� the peculiarity of this presence by usi ng the Lati n deriva­ tive 'Priisenz' instead of 'A nwesenheit, ' si nce the world is self-eviden t yet tacit and unob­ trusive, in contrast to the explicit "presence" (A nwPsenheit) of an object within-the-world th at, for whateve r reason, has been si ngled out for conside(ation . The etymology of ' p resence' and ' Prasenz' is also illuminati ng inasmuch as the 'pre' indi cates something before at u..l , i u thal !')e n�c , necessary for ' scntzrc' (sensation ) . •

'

TH E T I M E L I N ES S OF E X I STE N T I A L TRUTH

i s handy - thanks to this in conspicuous, familiar network of references. That is, of course, not to say that the things, as they reveal themselves in the context of concerns, do not allow for further differentiation . "The work-world presents what is always already on hand as well as what is initially handy for the respective concern'' (P 2 7 1 ) . Yet handi ness is the specific manner of being of things as they are encountered in the context of concerns in wh ich "every meditative [or observational : be­ trachtendJ obj ectification remains in abeyance" ( P 2 59) . What is "im­ mediately accessible" and not what is perceived is what is "authen tically given first," even if it is also at the same time "a founded presence {Priisenzf' ( P 2 63f, 2 68 ) . A thing within the wo rk-world is handy inasmuch as it pertains to something else and is thus founded on a concern (use , ac­ quisition, ease, etc. ) . Give n the way in which what is handy figures as part of the work­ world, its handiness is different from the onhandness characteristic of an obj ect of scientific observation , description , or theory. The presence (Priisenz) of the handy is inconspicuous, grounded as it is in an equally inconspicuous world that is always already in place. This handiness of the handy, founded in the work-world, clarifies "a fundamental feature of the phenomena" of worldliness: "a presence {A nwesenheit] in the man­ ner of inconspicuousness, a presence [Anwesenheit] precisely on the basis of not-yet-being grasped and yet precisely the primary way of havi ng un­ covered - of enabling the encounter" ( P 2 68 ) . Something else, however, issues from the network of concern , some­ thing that is perhaps more readily evident in a concern for production than in the use of a tool or th e implementation of a proj ect. The con­ cern to produce things inevitably bumps up agai nst something that is always already on hand, for example , the iron of the screw, the wood of the door, the winter cold. Things of this sort constitute nature in th e work-world, dubbed by Heidegger the '' the environment-nature" ( Umwelt-natur) (SZ 7 1 ) . Nature is thus not exclusively an obj ect of natural science but rather something that is used in the work-world ( " the world of what is available , nature as the specific world of natural prod­ ucts'' ) or something that one dare not leave out of consideration . "All of this is taken , not in any sort of sense of the obj ectivi ty of nature, but rather always as encountered in the co ntext of concern for the sur­ roundi ngs or environ ment. " 48 As he puts it in Being and Time: "Th e ' na48 P 2 70. Even t h e Roman tic con c e p t of nature , rootf'rl i n thF conce p t of the wo rld ( SZ fi 5 ) .

H e i degger main tai n s , is o n tological ly

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

tttre ' that ' encompasses ' us is, to be sure, an entity within-the-world, but it displays the type of being neither of the handy nor of the on hand in the manner of the ' thingliness of nature "' ( SZ 2 1 1 ) . These claims, if sustainable, obviously suggest a substantial challenge to any attempt to acquire a purely theoretical picture of nature, anch ored by the logical prejudice (a point addressed in more detail below) . Heidegger discusses different sorts and grades of presence in his Pro­ legomena Lectures . Al though he insists on the privileged position of the sort of presence (Priisenz) that coincides wi th being-here, he also emphasizes that these stages are not to be construed as domains lying next to one anoth er. Instead they result from "a peculiar change of pres­ ence" (Priisenzwechsel) (P 264£) . Th ere is: 1

the inconspicuous presence (Prasenz) of the work-world that already prevails in each case, also dubbed "the presence of concernedness" (Besorgtheitprasenz) ; 2 a the "inconspicuous presence [Anwesenheit] of what is imm ediately available, " 49 namely, the handiness of what is handy; and 2 b the presence (Anwesenheit) of a nature that from th e outset is always on hand as ( i ) a useful natural product or (ii ) a threat, hindrance, or resistance. The ordinals are justified here but they can be misleading. The world of concern is always "here" already, in contrast to the presence of some­ thing that is handy or on hand within it. Nor can the way in which the world is always already "here" be equated with something ever-present i n the sense of being always on hand. The handiness of something handy is consequently "a founded presence" (Prasenz) and something similar holds for the onhandness of what is on hand. Presences of the former sort ( handiness) provide the framework for the "unthematic as­ sertions" and "circumspectively thematic assertions" discussed in the last chapter (see 3 . 2 ) . "The natural assertions that \Ve make in a casual way proceed within this type of asserting about worldly things encoun­ tered, a kind of asserting on the basis of concern , on the basis of deal­ ings with the world" (L 2 30) . At the same time, there is no work-\vorld or world of concern wi th­ out implements that are handy or potentially "come in handy" and, in 49 As noted i n

th� fore goin g paragraphs, H e idegg e r also us�s the term ' Priisenz' t o char­ acterize th e man ner of being of what is handy. Li ke be ing-h e re i t�elf, bei n g-h andy �up­ poses an absence of �o n t e �o t l , l ld.Hltl�, ib inconspi cuousness and u nobtrusive ness.

TH E T I M E LI N E S S OF EXI STENT I A L TR UTH

that sense , are simply "on hand.'' This dependency o f the work-world on things that are and/ or can be used is what is misleading about the primacy attributed to it. Still , that primacy is appropriate in an on to­ logical sense since the manner of being of what is handy or on hand ( that is to say, the way that they make themselves present) depends upon the presence of the work-world and not vice versa. In other words , while the work-world is ontically dependent upon what is handy and on hand (techne and phusis respectively) , the handiness of tools and the on­ handness of nature are ontologically dependent upon the presence of the work-world ( the world of concern that is in tegral to being-here ) . There is, however, yet another wrin kle to this ordering of presen ces. As already emphasized, the presen ces of bo th the work-world and hand­ iness are distinguished by the fact that the respec tive absence plays a constitutive role in th e way in which they afford themselves. The work­ world is always here already, but inconspicuously; that is to say, it is not present in the sense of something that is handy or on hand, and it an­ nounces itself only if something han dy is missing or miscarries. At the same time, for something to be handy neither the world nor the im­ plement itself can be conspicuous. "The world's not-announcing-itself is the condition for the possibility of th e handy not emerging from its inconspicuousness" (SZ 75 ) . Thus, the manners of being of both the world and the handy are in a crucial sense not on hand and so must be distinguished from the presence ( the onhandness ) of the object of a purely theoretical perception. Heidegger accordi ngly employs the term 'Priisenz' at times for the manners of being of both the world and what is handy, but not for that of what is on hand. However contrived , this usage is meant to underscore that violence is done to these manners of being if they are construed as conforming to the ontological presup­ positions of the logical prejudice, that is to say, to the presumption that the significance of 'being' is exhausted by the actual or potential pres­ ence (onhandness) of the counterparts of true theoretical judgments. Particularly in view of this last remark, however, the following ques­ tion becomes particularly pressing. Is it possible within Heidegger's scheme to find a place for nature as the object of theoretical science? What is the relation between theore tically thematic assertions and the stages of presence? In view of the world of concern and the manners of being that are encountered within it, how is that presence "in person" to be understood, by means of which Husserl, for example , character­ izes what underlies the tru th of theoretical assertions, na1nely, what is c o r re s p o n d i n gly perceivect ( i n tu i ted , o b s e rve d ) ? .A.s far as the latter

H E I D E G (� E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

question i s concerned, Heidegger declares quite unequivocally that a presence of this sort is "not something original." "If what is immediately handy in the context of concern is already a founded presence [Priisenz] , he observes, "then that is all the more true of the character of reality, . . . which Husserl claims is the genuine manner of being pres­ ent of the world: the so-called being in person" ( P 264 ) . In this way Hei­ degger by no means disputes the possibility of investigati ng natural things and gaining access to them ''in person ." But worldly things are investigated and encountered "in person" only "i nsofar as dealings with the encountered world deny the full possibility of an encounter" ( P 265 ) . Theoretical consideration o f the nature always already on hand is conceived as a concern founded on a world of concern. However, the­ oretical consideration is the sort of concern that is carried out only by "emptying'' the world (Entweltlichung) or, more precisely, emptying things of the world, which amounts to concealing the handiness and suppressing concern itself. (So much , it would seetn , for the theoreti­ cal investigation called "fundamental on to logy" ! ) Of course , science's theoretical consideration is itself a concern, al­ beit one that itself modifies concerns informing the work-world or, in yet broader terms, the instrumental world. This modification is, as Hei­ degger puts it, an attempt "no longer to be in one 's immediate sur­ roundings" ( P 2 66 ) . Thus, while thematization is construed as one con­ cern among others, founded on a world of concern , human beings also take leave of the work-world to some degree as soon as they begin to thematize; they distance themselves from it. In this sense Heidegger notes how "de-limiting the environment" (Entschriinkung der Umwelt) and "circumscribing the ' region ' of the on hand" figure in the genesis of the theoretical way of relating to things (SZ 36 1 £) . This explanation of theoretical behavior and, with it, the ontological presuppositions of the logical prej udice leaves many questions open and unanswered . It is difficult to see how or to what extent the so-called modification of concern - "taking care only to look at" or conte mplate things - has anything more to do with concern. 5° Just as a "theoretical "

so P 2 6 5 ; SZ 6o, 3 56-3 6 3 . For disc ussions of He idegger's accoun t of the trans i tion to re­ ga rd i n g t hi n g s as on hand , cf. Charles Guign o n , Heidfgger and the Prob!Rm of Knnw!Rdgf

( Indianapolis: Hackett, 1 983 ) ; Joseph Rouse, "Science and the Th e o retical ' Discovery' of the Prese n t-at-Hand , " in Description.st und sie gan � auf sich nimm t, n i cht ei n e r ,

"

'

.

"

,

Srhwi e ri gk t=>i t

(t i l �

dem

Weg gt=>h t u n rl aile Vera n twort u n g fC1 r alles

auf (\ i c h h irl t . "

THE TI M E LI N ESS OF EX I STENTI A L

TRUTH

279

degger's interpre tation of a lapsed existence as precisely one that has fallen away from itself and thus fallen, not to being-with-others, but to the world of concern , the work-world. Herein lies, too, the reason for the brevity of the elaboration of bein g-with-others authentically. The world of concern initially determines the manner of being-wi th-others and that means precisely that one deals wi th others as one deals wi th things that are handy or on hand ( tools or natural products) in doing the business (Betrieb) of this work-world. The common or shared world that is coextensive with the world of concern is elaborated by Heideg­ ger in terms of "the crowd ," the downfall of being-here or, as it migh t be put more colloquially today, a kind of "free fall, " falling in with the crowd and falling prey to the work-world (all plays on the inevitable lapsing or fallen ness in being-here ) . In this way Heidegger sketches a less-than-genuine manner of being-with-others, that is, solicitude in the interests of competition and domi nation. Ye t he makes no attempt to justify the apparen t supposi tion underlying his interpretation , namely, that worldly concern plays a more important role than being-with-oth­ ers in defining the basic structure of quotidian human existence . 66 Heidegger insists , nonetheless, that genuinely caring for others in­ verts th e relation of the world of concern to bein g-with-others. "The primary solidari ty in being-with-one-another consists, not in the matte r regarding which and for which one is h ired, but primarily in one 's own being-here itself that is with others" ( L 2 2 4 ) . Heidegger thus plays the concepts of concern (Besorgen) and solicitude (Fursorge) off one another to a certain extent. If the work-world (a world of concern ) sets the stan­ dard (and this is the way that the world is initially experienced, on Hei­ degger's interpretation ) , then the solicitude, the manner of cari n g for others , is not genuine . Being-with-one-another is then shaped by pub­ lic opinion, by what the crowd says and regards as true. By con trast, if concern arises primarily out of the con text in which what matters is re­ spectively being-with-one-another (and thereby being respectively one­ self) , then the solicitude is genuine and the concern itself is instead "a c aring with one another for the same world" (L 2 24) . The difficulty that emerges from this account of bein g-with-others is 66 N eve rthel ess, in view of th e privi l eged role that Heid egge r assigns th e wo rk-wo rld , his an alysis co n tai ns e l e m e n ts of a "c ri ti cism of the tim es" - 0 tempora, o mores - wi th ch ar­ ac te ri s tic l i m i tatio n s , e .g. , the dated n e ss of certai n phenomena. See W. Sch i rmac h e r, Technik und Gela��rnhfil: Zeitkritik narh Heidegger ( Fre i b urg: Al ber, 1 98 3 ) ; 0. Pogge l e r, Philosophie und Po li t i k bfi Heirlegger, seco n d , exp anded ed i tion ( Fre ib urg: Alber, 1 97 4 ) , 1 .s ff: K. Kos i k , Dia lektzk des Konkrften ( Fra n kfu rt a1n Mai n : Suh rkan1 p , 1 967 ) , 7 9 n . g .

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

patent: Heidegger seems to make too much o f the common world 's hold on us. He makes no attempt to j ustify the primacy of the "world" over being-with-others in his analysis because he considers it indis­ putable: "Phenomenally considered, the finding cannot be disputed that the world shapes the encoun ter between . . . others' manner of be­ ing-here and one 's own manner of being-he re" ( P 33 3 ) . It is, of course, true that the public work-world - the "marketplace" - "shapes," even regulates the everyday manner of being-here such that a person in­ evitably comes of age in this common world of "distance, averageness, and one-dimensionality." But Heidegger so emphasizes its hold on in­ tersubjectively being-here that it is not apparent how a person can grow into a world of her own at all ( P 3 39f) . What it n1ight meant to be-here genuinely (i.e . , to be genuinely oneself, with others, and in the world ) becomes extremely perplexing. Heidegger's account of the way the crowd colors the various shades of daily encounters is masterful, but, in the wake of that account, being in the work-world and the public arena appears hardly realizable by - if not patently inconsistent with - being who one authentically is. One might argue that this difficulty is insignificant since it appears to rest on issues largely tangential to Heidegger's project. Despite his grumblings about education, public policy is obviously not Heidegger's forte, but it is also not the explicit aim of his analysis of being-in-the­ world. The purpose of the analysis is to establish the sense of being-here or, equivalently, to establish that being-here is the disclosure of man­ ners of being and , in that sense , a truth presupposed by any proposi­ tional or perceptual truths . At the same ti me he is under no illusions that a genuine existence can only be "a modified way of taking hold" of everydayness ( SZ 1 79) . Within the confines of fundamental ontology, considerations of the on tic conditions and relationships among people , for example, " the interpretation of a generation from a specific era" and "on tic assertions about the degeneracy of human nature , " have no place ( SZ 1 76, 1 79f; P 37 2 , 3 76£) . Yet precisely this delimitation of the analysis raises a series of ques­ tions. How (on what grounds, according to what c ri teria) are such on­ tic considerations deemed irrelevant to ontological ones? Heidegger repeatedly reminds his readers that he has no pretensions of providing a philosophical an thropology, a theory of the existen tiel (on tic ) status and condition of h uman nature. But, then, on what grounds are some considerations of this sort excluded from the existential analysis ( the on tol ogi cal an alysis of be i n g-h ere ) � wh i l e others are ci ted as corrobo-

T H E T I M E L I N ES S O F E X I S T E N T I A L T R U T H

ration o f the outcome o f that analysis or, indeed, even its basis? These questions become all the more pressing given Heidegger's own insis­ tence that the possibility as well as the necessity of an existential analy­ sis "ultimately has existentiel, that is to say, ontic roots" ( SZ 1 2f, 1 5 0- 1 5 3 , 3 1 o) . The ontological truth of the existential analysis takes form "on the basis of the ori ginally existentiel truth" ( SZ 3 1 6 ) . Heidegger does not adequately address the questions raised in the last paragraph . 67 On a more formal level, he leaves undetermined the relation of on tic and ontological dimensions, namely, the different ways in which each dimension grounds the other and, indeed, the meaning ' of the on tological difference itself. 68 N or, more concretely, does he in­ dicate how the work-world ( the world of concern ) would be different if it took its bearings from being-with-others rather than vice versa. The fact that he leaves these questions somewhat in limbo need not vitiate his analyses in every respect, but it does demand, as discussed in the next chapter, a more humble reading of their results than his rhetoric often suggests. Still, it might be asked: what does any of this have to do with Heidegger's project of exposing the logical p rt:judice ( should it prove in the end to be such ) ? Is not the discussion of being-with-others­ genuinely and its see ming irreconcilability with worldly concerns irrel­ evant to the question of truth? Heidegger's answer to such questions is remarkably unequivocal. The issue of genuineness or authenticity - and, indeed, au thentically being-wi th-others - is central to the question of truth precisely because the crowd effectively cancels all regard for differences in being and truth (ontological and alethiological differences) . By the same token, it assumes and thus takes away all responsibility of being oneself and in­ terpre ting one 's being. The tntth about being-here , about one's own existence, quite lite rally does not come into question . The crowd con­ ceives a human being on the basis of his or her posi tion in the work­ world and thereby fi nds him or her as an innerworldly entity, handy like 67 The issue raised here can also be unde rstood as the problem of the formality of Hei­ degge r's analysis. Si nce the analysis is subject to a proj ection of being-here , its formal­ i ty is tenuous. As Heidegger h imself and others have argued, the distinction between form and matter - with itfii impl ic i t instrumentality - deserves to be treated with suspi­ cion; cf. Marti n H eidegger, "Ursprung des Kunstwerkes," Holzwege ( Frankfu rt am Main : Klostermann , 1 994) , 1 6-20. 68 Heidegger appe ars to have bee n c ogn i z an t of these difficulties , judging by his later crit­ icism of the on to l o gical difference between ' to be' (Sein) and e n tities (Seiendem) and h is attempt to understand being (Seyn) historically as th e appropriating event of that dif­ feren tiation.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT

OF

TRUTH

any tool o r on hand like any natural object. This everyday manner of being fails to discriminate or, more precisely, it obscures diverse man­ ners of being ( being-in-the-world, being-handy, and being-with-others) . In keeping with the everyday manner of being-here, "the preontologi­ cal interpretation of one 's being [is taken ] from the manner of being of the crowd, closest at hand," leading to the tendency to pass over or neglect any diversity in the manners of being. Taking its bearings from this quotidian way of bei ng-here is the ontology "that lies closest at hand," for which ' to be ' signifies 'what is on hand wi thin the world' and truth is a property of the assertion that points out or allows one to see what is on hand . According to Heidegger, it is in this ontology that ''tra­ ditional logic,'' despite all the improvements made in i t, continues to have "its foundation" (SZ 1 2 9£) . The phenomenon of the crowd has a direct bearing on Heidegger's gestures toward elaborating his philosophical method in terms of for­ mal indications. The possibility as well as the necessity of such a method rests ultimately upon the fact that things are for the most part already in terpreted by the crowd or, as Heidegger pttts it in an early lecture, that "everything in factual life . . . ' is ' in a tacit, factually ruinous inter­ pretation" ( PIA 1 34 ) . Precisely because the self-evident everyday con­ cepts of being and truth constitute the limits and framework for "mean­ ingful" talk, philosophical concepts must take the form of formal indications. That is to say, they must refer to "a concrete task that must be carried out on its own terms," one that demands reversing (upturn­ ing and transforming) what seems so self-evident, including the logical prej udice. Heidegger's interpretation of being-with-othe rs is thus intimately linked to his method of construing philosophical concepts as formal in­ dications. That interpretation supposes: (a) that the possibility of being wi th one another authentically and that of authen tically being who one is are equivalent; (b) that being-here presupposes an understanding of the sense ofbeing; and (c) that precisely this understanding is obscured by the downfall of being-here - i ts "ruination - factual life 's character as a plunge all its own" (PIA 1 2 1 ) . "The manner of being that con tin­ ues to fall prey to what the 'world ' is most immediately concerned about guides everyday interpretation of being-here and ontically obscures the genuine manner of being-here so that, by this means, the ontology di­ rected at this entity is denied any adequate basis" ( SZ 3 1 1 ) . Heidegger elaborates this argument further by calling atte n tion to th e sort of tal k o r d i sc o u rse th a t p revai ls in this m an n e r of being-with-

T H E TI M ELI N ESS O F E X I STENT I A L TR UTH

others. The connection between the logical prejudice and an inau­ thentic manner of being-wi th-others is especially evident in such phe­ nomena as palaver and public opinion. ' Palaver' in this connection does not stand merely for idle talk and insignificant chatter. Instead it designates ':a constitutive phenomenon , given with discourse as a man­ ner of being-here," but distinguished from other forms of discourse ( e. g. , listening, keeping silent) by virtue of the fact that it is publicly ar­ ticulated and constitutes the average sort of understanding and dispo­ sitions characteristic of everyday life . 6 9 Palaver is, in short, the idiom of the marketplace, the vernacular of the work-world. As such, it has its le­ gitimate, even necessary purposes , and Heidegger introduces it with the sheepish warning that he is not using the term pejoratively. Never­ theless, precisely by virtue of the fact that palaver is publicly articulated in a work-world 's in terest, it has a tendency to slip from more innocu­ ous to progressively more perverse forms of communication , so that it is defined by the latter. In other words, palaver is defined by i ts natural resting place in the downward spiral from obituaries and eyewitness re­ porting to headlines, commercials, and false advertising, from negotia­ tion to exaggeration , from publicly disseminating to dissembling i n­ formation, from publicizing to prevaricating, from rote recitation of ritual formulas to gossip, calumny, and slander. Heidegger provides an important clue to the significance of palaver when he characterizes the 6g P 3 7 1 , 376; SZ 1 6 7 . Though the term can be found in Shakespeare , 'palaver' appea rs to have come into common usage in English rath e r late (eighteenth ce nt ury ) from the Po r tug u e se But i t seems an ideal transl a tio n of ' Gerede' since i t can stand for extensive gabbin g" in th e sense of what might be c o l l oqui a ll y deem e d maki n g small ta lk , " sc h m oo zin g or eve n "shooting the breeze," all o f which are e n gage d i n more or less sp o n taneo usly, even if at times also by design, e.g. , for reasons of c o urtesy, chumminess, .

"

"

"

"

or gaining some advantage. Indeed, his to ri c al di ct i o naries p o i n t to the use of the root term b y Po rtu guese " traders" to indicate p a r leying (palavering, palavra) with Africans. The Scots use the term n o t o n ly for sp eec h , as do the English , but also for o s tentati o u s actions. In the late nineteenth cen tury Mark Twain uses the term to indicate the way th ings are done in a b u s in ess His panning of Harte and Sh a kes p e a re suggests, too, that palaver is so tied to a kn ow h ow, i.e . , to mastery of a c o m p l ex of implements , that it can­ not be le a r n ed apart from experience of its own handiness in that c o m p l ex Cf. Mark Twa in , Is Shake�peare DPad ? From My A utobwgraphy ( New York: Harpe r & B ro s , 1 9 0 9 ) , 7 3 f: "I have been a quartz mi ner in the silver regio ns - a pretty hard life ; I kn ow alJ the palaver of that bu s i ness : I k n ow all ab ou t d i sc o very cl aims and the s ub o rdi na te claims ; I know all about lodes , ledges, o u t c ro ppings, d i ps spurs, [etc. ] . . and so whenever Bret Harte i n troduces that i ndust ry in to a story, the fi rst time one of his mi ners opens his mouth I rec og n i ze from his phras i n g that Harte go t the phrasing by l i s ten i ng - like Shakespeare - I mean the Stratford one - n o t by expe rie n c e . No one can tal k the quartz dialect cor­ rec tly wi th out learn i n g- i t wi th pick and shove l and dri J I and fuse . " "

"

.

-

.

.

,

.

H E IDEGGER ' S CONC EPT OF TRUTH

original sense of Plato 's dialectic and philosophy as attempts, in the face of sophistry, to "break through and control palaver" in the interest of seeing things for what they are ( PS 1 97, 1 95f, 2 30£) . Yet what precisely is it about the public character of an articulation that makes palaver pos­ sible? ' Talk' or 'discourse ' ( translations for Rede used interchangeably in the present study) signifies in general the way in which the intelligibil­ ity of being-in-the-world "articulates itself' and is communicated. Talk includes what is talked about ( the subj ect matter) , what is said about it ( an attribution ) , what is literally said, that is, articulated or uttered as such (typically, a combination of words) , the communication, and the manifestation of this process itself. 7° For example , Ed might say to Marty, "The car is blue, " in which case Ed asserts something (blueness) about something (the car) in such a way that it can be shared with Marty, thanks to what is said (the utterance/sentence 'The car is blue ' ) . By virtue of the fact, however, that something is communicated literally or by means of an assertion, it is "preserved" (bewahrt) as something gen­ erally intelligible. What is asserted acquires an existence of its own in the sentence, thereby becoming available to others in a "' literal , ' i.e., worldly" sense ( P 3 70; SZ 1 67f; PS 2 5 ) . Thanks to this articulation, the understanding of what is said becomes public but in such a way that one acquires a certain access to the subj ect matter of the talk (what the talk is about) without the subject matter itself having to be handy or on h and. The possibility then also arises, however, that the person who merely hears what is said does not understand what it is about (either the subject matter or the attribution ) or only understands it in a pecu­ liar, "faded" or "washed out" sense (eigentiimliche Verwaschenheit) ( PS 2 5 ) . "Absorption, immersion in what is said [ the utterance] is characteristic of the crowd 's manner of being. What is articulated as such overtakes the manner of being of the enti ty uncovered in the assertion" (SZ 2 2 4 , 1 68 ) . Merely talking or writing further in this vein is taken for genuine 70 P 36 1 -365 � SZ I 6o- 1 6 6 . Talk, s o desc ribed, need n o t take the form o f a natu ral language ( e . g . , French, Ge rman , e tc . ) , but does presuppose a wo rld of concern , co-constituted by it, in terms of which what is talked about and what is said about it are already significan tly divi ded u p . Talk or discourse, it bears recalling, is an existe n tial. See SZ 1 6 1 : "Tal king is the ' meaningfu l ' dividi ng of th e i n telligibility of be ing-in-the-wo rld , to which bei ng-with­ others belongs , and wh ich holds itse l f, respec tively, in a specific mann e r of be ing-with­ one-another in concern . " Whe n talk has been articulated, it is language . Various ges tu res

and sym bolic systems, sh ort of a natural language, can obvi ous �y suffice for th i s arti cu­ lation . But talk, as an existe n tial , is not sim ply o r, be tter, not p ri m arily the u m brella te rm

for nonlingu i st i c and l i nguistic exp ressi o n and commun ication .

THE TIMELINESS

OF

E X I STE NT I A L T R U T H

interpretation , and mere "hearsay" replaces hearing and understand­ ing what is origi nally articulated. If assertions of this sort become es­ tablished opinions, then there is no possibility of getting past the aver­ age understanding of the crowd and, with it, the "hegemony of the public, official state of interpretation" ( SZ 1 6g) . "With the absence of the righ t understanding, talk is, of course, uprooted, but still retains an intelligibility, and, to the extent that such talk, while no longer resting on any solid ground, still remains talk, it can be mimicked and passed on . . . . This talk [Rede] that develops in such uprooting by way of mim­ icking is palaver [Gerede] " (P 3 7 0£) . Heidegger employs the expressions 'uprooted, ' ' not resting on any solid ground, ' and ' everywhere and nowhere ' in an attempt to capture that self-eviden tial character of so much palavering that at once un­ derstands everything and nothing. Such drivel makes common cause with a certain sort of curiosity and ambiguity in constituting the decline and downfall of human existence. The curiosity characteristic of this downfall assumes that nothing is hidden or closed off, while ambiguity undermines any possibility of saying what is disclosed in genuine un­ derstanding ( P 378-388; SZ 1 7o- 1 7 5 ) . This downfall and the phe­ nomenon of palaver in particular have important consequences, as far as the logical prejudice is concerned. For it is the very nature of palaver to mask things and hi nder the process of speaking with one another genui nely. Talk is an original manner of disclosing things but palaver perverts it into a manner of concealing them ( SZ 1 6g; P 3 7 7 ) . Extend­ ing Plato 's warnings about the written word (Phaedrus 2 75c) to this de­ generate way with words, Heidegger declares: "Once articulated, the word belongs to everyone and without any guarantee that the origi nal understanding is also reenacted in the restating [Nachreden] " (P 3 7 5 ) . Truth becomes a question of public opinion , secondhand judgments and assertions that relieve the person caught up in palaver of the re­ sponsibility of understanding, not merely what is said, but what is spo­ ken of. The logical prejudice is the presumption that truth is to be under­ stood as an assertion Uudgment) or as a state of affairs corresponding to the assertion and its structure . Such a prej udice is by no means equiv­ alent to palaver. In both unthematic and thematic asse rtions, what is as­ serted can be handy or on hand and accordingly understood. Yet, it is also possible and, indeed, typical for th e assertio n to become detached from what it is about. Once this detach ment occurs and truth is identi­ fied wi th a true assert i o n , th e n i t is a s m al l step to the sort of pal ave r

H F. I D E G G E R ' S

C O N C E PT

O F TR U T H

that "releases" or "excuses" itself from any responsibility for genuinely understanding (P 3 7off) . If palaver is in ascendance, the logical prej u­ dice becomes almost irresistible. In lectures on Plato 's Sophist, Heideg­ ger explicitly links palaver to the logical prej udice . After reviewing re­ cent Neo-Kan tian solutions to th e dilemmas about truth generated by the logical prejudice ( e.g. , What makes a true assertion true? How can a mental or subj ective phenomenon like judging be said to "agree" with a n on mental or obj ec tive phenomenon? ) , he observes: "This history of the concept of truth is not by chance but instead is grounded in being-here itself insofar as it moves about in the everyday sort of kn owing that is closest at hand , in the logos [Rede] , and in falling-prey to the world, falls prey to the legomenon [das Geredete als solches] '' ( PS 2 7 ) . Does Heidegger provide any positive clues to a manner of talking that would be characteristic of being together, that is, caring about one another, in an authen tic way? Would it be the sort of talk that, in con­ trast to an assertion, does not also obscure or conceal but only reveals? In the framework of the lectures given shortly before the publication of Being and Time, Heidegger alludes to two types or modes of talking that suggest a possible answer to the first question . It must be poin ted out, however, that Heidegger does not himself discuss how these two man­ ners of speaking might relate to one another, something that, while not unthinkable, would be no easy matter. Moreover, the import of both manners of talking for the problem of truth and the logical prejudice is not directly addressed by Heidegger. The first of these ways of "truly talking'' is communication (Kommu­ nikation) , understood as a manner of caring about others genuinely, or, in other words, a way of being concerned for someone else 's possibility of being genuinely who he or she is, precisely in the context of the work­ world. A crucial text in this regard has already been cited, namely, Hei­ degger's flee ting remark about how the primary bond or solidarity, inasmuch as it is based upon one 's own being-here , consists, not in what matters in the work-world, but in being-here-with-others . "An d what righ tly matters, that is to say, the right way of being con cerned about the same matter," Heidegger adds, "can genuinely spring only from this manner of being bound to one another, and what we today designate as communication grows only out of this" (L 2 2 4 ; SZ 1 63 ) . H e is thus thinking of a world of concern, bu t o n e that first emerges from a way of genuinely being together ( being-with-one-another) . In the context of this way of "cari n g toge th er for the satne world,". communication is carried ou t.

T H E TI M E LI NESS OF E X I STENTIAL T R U TH

Heidegger pays, to be sure , scant attention to this particular type of talk since, as already emphasized, on his analysis people first find them­ selves caught up in a world of concern , to which being with one another is subordinated. Moreover, the world of public opinion ("the crowd" and "palaver" ) thoroughly dominates the initial experience of being­ with-others. From this supposition Heidegger infers that the sort of talk that genuinely discloses must withdraw from the context of conversa­ tion. "Because talking is initially always a way of revealing by way of talk­ ing with one another in the public domain - in communication , the call of being-here to itself and to the original and genuine way it finds itself must ultimately have the mode of talk and in terpretation characteristic of being silent" (P 369 ) . Far from being a flight from speaking wi th one another, being silent is both based upon and preparatory for speaking to one another genuinely. "The ability genuinely to hear and be with one another transparently" as it is pu t in Being and Time, stems from a discreet silence (Verschwiegenheit) . "In order to be able to be silent, be­ ing-here must have something to say, that is to say, it must have a gen­ uine and rich disclosedness of itself' ( SZ 1 65 ) . Being silent is part of the second and decisive mode of genuine talk (authentic discourse ) : the voice of conscience . The interpretation of the phenomenon of conscience occupies a leading place in the argu­ ment mounted by Heidegger against the logical prej udice. The possi­ bility of an alternative to less-than-genuine modes of talking and, with it, the detnonstration of the difference between being-here and being-on­ hand rise and fall with the interpretation of conscience. Since the in­ terpretation of this phenomenon con tributes so essentially to the criti­ cal engagement with the logical prejudice, it is investigated below ( Section 4.4) as a separate premise of Heidegger's argument. Heidegger 's interpretation of the crowd helps explain how the logi­ cal prejudice comes to be entrenched . Talk is a basic existential , a self­ disclosive way of being-here that uncovers other entities and discloses th eir manners of being. While the palaver that is c onstitu tive of th e crowd presupposes th is disclosure , it reduces talk to something handy, referring, like any oth er tool in the service of worldly concerns, to other things that are handy or potentially handy (i.e . , on hand ) . Palaver is em­ inen tly useful , but especially as a way of conveying what others have said about something and , in the process, relieving oneself of the responsi­ bility of understandi ng-and-articulating it for oneself. The predomi­ nance of palaver reinforces the notion that truth consists merely in it­ erahle asse rt i o n s as the accessible repositories of what is said�

HEI DEGGER'S

C O N C E PT O F

TRUTH

indistinguishable from a n exus o f public opinion and the availability of things. 7 1 4 · 3 Care , Genuineness, and "th e Most Original

Phenomenon of Truth" 'Care,' as Heidegger employs the term in his analysis of being-here, does not stand for either a collection of various human cares and trou­ bles or even an exemplary form of them. When he speaks of care , he is supposing, to be sure , that his readers hear an echo, but only an echo of a particular worry or oppressive mood, as migh t be conveyed in such familiar colloquial utterances as "Who cares?" or "Be careful ." What Heidegger understands by 'care ' is more akin , as he himself indicates, to the care that Goethe deems "the ever-anxious companion" of human life. 72 ' Care ' is a formal indication of a manner of being, in which what is at stake is the respective manner of being itself, an individual 's own dis­ tinctive being-in-the-world (L 2 2 0, 2 2 5 f; P 4o6f; SZ 1 9 1 f; PIA 8gf) . Be­ ing who one respectively is matters for each individual who "is-here," distinguishing it from what is simply handy or on hand, that is, the man­ ners of being of implements and more or less potential implements in the environment. Providing an important clue to his understanding of care , Heidegger notes that Husserl 's description of inten tionality is the 7 1 I t is possible, of course , to consider truth, like palaver itself, in abstraction from this nexus. Th us, from a theoretical point of view, truth migh t be deemed not an iterable as­ sertion or even its perceivable coun terpart, but instead "a relation, on hand, obtaining between things on hand ( intellectus and res ) " ( SZ 2 2 5 ) . But this abstraction, depend­ ent as it is (qua abstraction ) u pon palaver, should not be confused with the disclosure that makes palaver's dissembling possible. 7 2 Goethe, �Faust, Act V: "Wiirde mich kei n Ohr verneh men, I Mi.i Bt' es doch i m Herzen drohnen I In verwandelter Gestalt I U b'ich grimmige Gewal t. I Auf den Pfaden, auf der Welle, I Ewig angstlicher c;eselle , I Ste ts gefunden, nie gesucht, I So geschmeichelt wie verflucht." As a means of indicating that the on tological in terpretatio n of being­ here as care is "no invention ," Heidegger refers to earlier treatme nts of the theme by Seneca and in the New Testatmen t and to the fact that he stun1bled upon the phe­ nomenon in the course of trying to get at the ontological foundations of Augusti nian an thropol ogy. He discove red Hygin us's fable with the ti tle "Cura" and the fact that Herder and Goethe used i t. One source of these discoveries is Konrad Burdach 's essay "Faust und die So rge , " Deutsche Vierteljahnchrift fiir Literaturwissenschaft und Geistes­ geschichte I ( 1 9 2 3 ) : 4ofl. See SZ 1 96-200, esp. 1 97 n. 1 ; P 4 1 7-4 2 0. Note, by con trast, the subordinate posi tion of "care an d fear'' in Sc hiller's l.Ptters. on the Aesthetir Education o(Man; cf. Friedrich Schiller, t.s.fiays, ed. Walte r Hindere r and Dan iel 0. Dahlstro m ( New York: Con ti n u um, 1 99 � ) . 1 5 q .

THE TI MELI NESS

OF

E X I STENT I A L TRU T H

basic phenomenon of care - "only seen from the outside" ( P 42 0; PRL 2 48 ) . Concerns in the context of the work-world and the ways we take care of one another are all modes of care . "Care is always, even if only priv­ atively, [worldly] concern [Besorgen] and solicitude [ or care for others: Fursorge] . "73 Concern and solicitude are constitutive of care, such that, if we use the term ' care ' for short, we ac tually always mean i t (and in the explication must concretely understand it) as care that is concerned and solicitous. What is thereby mean t by ' care ' is the n , i n the sense emphasized , the fact that what is at stake in this concern and solicitude qua care is the caring being itself. (L

2 2 sf)

As this quotation indicates, care is anything but a simple phenomenon ( see SZ 1 g6, 2 oo) . The exact interpretation of the unity of its complex struc ture holds the key for Heidegger to the clarification of the sense of being-here. Bei ng-here is not something that "comes" into a world . Instead it is the manner of being of an entity who, precisely in cari ng about her work and others, is "at the same time and always already" worldly. 74 As already mentioned, the characterization of being-here as funda­ mentally 'care ' is intended above all to signify that being-here is the en­ tity for which what matters is its being i tself or, equivalently, being one­ self. In anthropological terms judiciously avoided by Heidegger, a human being exists as a human being by virtue of caring about her own being, precisely as her own. She is this care or, better, anything else that she is or does is predicated upon her caring. Like any other existential, care is a distinctive kind of reflexive performative , a self-constituting and self-disclosing disclosure of manners of being. But unlike other ex­ isten tials, care is said to be the basic unifying structure for every man73 SZ 1 94; see 1 Corin thians 1 2 : 2 5 ; Psalm 40 : dt For the 1 5 2 9 Vulgate see Martin Luther, Werke, vol. 5 (Weimar: Bohlaus, 1 9 1 4) , 66o; for Luther's translations, see ibid . , vol. 7 ( 1 93 1 ) , 1 2 1 , and vol . 1 o ( 1 956) , 2 3 3 . As early as the winter semester of 1 9 2 1 I 2 2 , Hei­ degger stresses that caring is ''the basic relational sense of life in i tself: caring about on e 's daily bread," though he adds that the latter expression is to be understood "quite broadly, form ally-indicati ng" ( PIA go) . 74 Cf. Friedrich Gogarten , Illusionen Qena: Diederichs, 1 9 2 4 ) , 1 39: "What is most striking and most characteristic of the way a Protestant conducts his or her life is its radical wo rld­ liness [ Weltlichkeit] Cf. also Max Weber, "Die protestantisc he Ethik und der Geist des Kapi talismus" ( 1 904- 1 905 ) , in Gesammelte A ujsiitze zur Religionssoziologie, vol. 1 , fifth edi­ tio n (T\'lbin gen : Mohr, 1 96 :-\ ) , 1 08f. ."

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

ner of being-in-the-world as the site for things, others, and oneself to disclose their manners of being. In this self-reflexively constitutive man­ ner, care accordingly expresses the fundamental sense of being-in-the­ world, relative to which a person cannot be indifferen t. In this sense , care is the existen tial-on tological presupposition for relating to things, others, and oneself on an existentiel-ontic level. The entire structure of being-in-the-world ( being worldly, being-with-others, and being one­ self) is constituted by and disclosed in this care , the care about one 's own being, precisely as one 's own . 7 5 Though Heidegger occasionally lets his guard down (e.g. , L 1 50 n . 6; P 4 1 7 ; PS 2 3 ) , he i s generally leery about employing expressions like ' human being' (Mensch) , ' human nature, ' or even ' human existence ' to designate the en tity with this structure of being-in-the-world, consti­ tuted and disclosed by care. Instead he systematically employs the terms 'being-here ' (Dasein) or ' existence ' (Existenz) . These terms are often synonyms, each with a spatial componen t: the ' da' of 'Dasein' stands for 'here ' or ' there,' and the Latin preposition ' ex' of 'Existenz' designates ' from' or 'out' while the whole word apparently stems from ' ex-sistere' signifying ' to stand out. ' 76 Though Heidegger wants to deflect a certain naturalistic understanding of the spatiality intimated by these terms, he does intend for them to retain a sense of place or dwelling or - more precisely, underlying even that sense of dwelling - the sense of being­ in-the-world as a clearing. 77 The expressions 'being-here ' and 'exis­ ten ce ' seem to him less likely than ' human nature ' to be construed as designating a particular kind of en tity at hand in nature that is properly an object for an investigation conducted along the lines of natural sci­ ence. 'Being-here ' is thus a formal indication of its subject matte r, de­ signed to forestall ways in which various traditional senses of ' human nature ' might preempt consideration of it. The further determination of bei ng-here as care is mean t to indicate that to be-here is to be-in-theHerein lies undoubtedly the inspiration that Heidegger took from Goethe's depiction of care as life 's "ever-anxious companion ." There is a sense in which care or concern for one's existence never loses its grip on an individual. 76 Kluge, Etymologisches Worler buch, 23 9 . The English tern1 'exist, ' according to the Oxford English Doctionar)', is in fact remarkably late, not an entry in mid�sixteenth centu ry di c­ tionaries, though ' existence ' can be found in Chaucer; see Geoffrey Chaucer, The Com­ plete Works, intro. Thomas R. Lounsbury ( New York: Crowell, 1 900) , 265f. 77 SZ 54: "The expression ' am ' is con nected with 'at' ; ' I am ' says in turn: I dwel l , I hold up at/ in . . . the world as something reliable in this an d th at way. � To be , ' u n de r sto o d as the in finitive of the ' I am , ' that is to say, as an existential , signifies 'to dwell at/ by/ in . (wohnen bP'i ) . " See P :306-� 2 .� an d Chapter 2 . n. 1 36 above .

75

.

.

.

.

.

THE

T I M E L I N ES S OF E X I STENTI A L T R U T H

world, n o t merely i n the (existentiel ) sense of using and uncove ring things, but in the ( existential) sense of being the clearing in which they disclose their manners of being. "The ' here ' stands for this essen tial dis­ closedness. Through i t, this en tity ( the being-here ) is one with the world's being-here ' here' for i t itself' ( SZ 1 3 2 ) . Heidegger attetnpts to drive home th is point about th e disclosedness of being-here by invoking a pair of me taphors that converge in a single term in German : 'Lichtung. ' Being-here is "illuminated," he explains, not in the sense that it is "lit up" by another, but in the sense that it is the ligh ting or cleari ng itself (SZ 1 3 3 : . . . so, daB es selbst die Lich tung ist" ) . Things on hand in th e light, he continues, are only accessible to - an d things i n the dark are only hidden from - an entity that is illu­ minated or cleared (gelichtet) in this existential sense . Bringing toge ther the metaphors of a lumen naturale and a clearing in the midst of things, Heidegger concludes: "The being-h ere brings its here with it from the outse t [von Hause aus] ; if i ts here is dispensed with , not only is it not sim­ ply factual, it is not an en tity of th is essence at all. The being-here is its dis­ closedness. " 78 These observations provide part of the answer to th e question why Heidegger systematically reserves the terms ' care,' ' existence , ' and 'be­ ing-here ' for the particular manner of bei ng in question. "To exist" or "to be-here" - in con trast to merely being "at hand" or " available " - i s to care and thus to disclose or, more precisely, to b e the site o f the dis­ closure of its manner of being and that of other entities. This disclosure makes con cern and solicitude possible , though not, of course, as thotigh that disclosure occurs apart from the way things are used or even uncovered and others are cared for. "The uncoveredness of en ti­ ties wi thin-the-world is grounded in the disclosedness of the world" (SZ 2 20) . With the disclosedness of being-here , Heidegger alleges, "the most original phenomenon of the truth is reached" ( SZ 2 2 of) . This last claim is of decisive importance for th e presen t investigation . Th e most original phenomenon of truth , Heidegger is maintaining, is not a judgment, an assertion , or even a perception , but i nstead the "clearing" or "here" of being-here, which he understands as the disclo"

7 8 SZ 1 3 3 ; P 4 1 1 f. Thotn as Prufer fi rst called tny attention to H eidegge r's ambi g uous and

changi n g u�es of Lirh t u ng. ' H e su rveys son1 e of Heide gger 's l ater uses, especially h i s adam ant wa rn i n g not to take i t i n the se n se of l i g h t , but rat h e r in th e sense of "gra n t­ i n g . . . the " pace tree and open tor the i n te rpl ay of prese n c i n g /absencing an d th e pres­ e n n.-.. rl / ah� P n cPd . " See Pruter. " H e i d egge-r. E a rl � i-i n rl l .fl t f' . " 7 7 · 7 7 n . f1 . :-l n rl R 7 . ·

H E I DEGG ER ' S C O N C EPT O F TRUTH

sure of being i n all its senses: being-handy and being-on-hand, being­ with-others and being oneself. In a way roughly analogous to Aris­ totelian a isthesis and nous, being-here is the timely site ( later, the "event" or "time-space" ) of the coincidence of the manner in which something comes to presen t itself (comes to be present) and that to which it pre­ sents itself. This disclosure makes possible the discovery of entities and, wi th it, the truths of intuitions and assertions. The disclosure takes place precisely as a manner of being-here or existing and, hence, different ex­ istentials or modes of disclosing can be distinguished. Following Hei­ degger's lead, the foregoing exposi tions (4. 1 and 4. 2 ) have accentu­ ated the existential characte rs of concern and solicitude. Heidegger characterizes the disclosedness of care as "the most original phenome­ non of truth " because it informs these ways of disclosing/being-here. There is, however, a great deal more to be said about how care under­ lies and integrates these and other existentials. To this end, Heidegger singles out three "fundamental existentials" that are united in the struc­ ture of care : disposedness, understanding, and fallen ness. 79 4 · 3 I Disposedness and the Thrownness of Being-Here. For as long as we can

remember, we find ourselves delivered up to a world, a world that mat­ ters to us. Explicitly or not, to be-here is always to find ourselves already thrown into the world , burdened and threatened by it yet submi tti ng to i t, attuned to it, sometimes eve n embracing it, and in any event relying upon it, indeed, clinging to it for dear life. RO Not surprisingly, our lives are charged wi th a range of ever-changing moods from exaltation to sadness, rapture to boredom . The fact that each of us is always i n one mood or another testifies to a basic manner of being-here , namely, the disposedness or disposition of being-in-the-world. In one respect, Hei­ degger's accoun t of disposi tion and moods is simply one more exam79

8o

SZ I g t f, 2 2 1 f, 3 5 0. These passages refer to th ree basi c existen tials: di sposedness , un­ derstanding, and fallenness. However, Heidegger also gives ano ther list, replacing fall­ en ness with talk; cf. SZ 1 3 3 , 1 6 1 . At ye t another point he lists all four; cf. SZ 3 3 5 · Wh ile talk an d fallen ness are not iden tical, talk is typically engulfed in fallenness inasm uch as it is "fac tually" articulated for the most part in language and initially in the con text of addressi ng thi ngs, out of concern , in the environment. Re nderi ng-present thus usually provides the timely se nse of tal k as it does of fallen ness, though Heidegger states ex­ pl ici tly that talk is not restric ted to a specific ecstasis (SZ 349 ) . See Thomas Sheehan , "Heidegger's New A�pect: On ln-Sein, Zeitlichkeit, and The Genesis of Being and Tzme, " RP­ searrh in Phenomenology 2 5 ( 1 9 9 :J ) : 2 1 1 fT. The relation of th � existen tials to ecstases is addressed in s ecti on 4·5 below. O nce agai n , the difference between world and worldliness (see n . 4 2 ) is crucial .

T H E T I M E L I N E S S O F EX I S TEN T I A L T R U T H

29 3

pie of his consistent extension of the basic phenomenological insigh t into intentionality's ecstatic character, defying at a certain level any sort of distinction between inner and outer. Moods, he accordingly declares, "come neither from 'without' nor from 'within, ' but emerge from be­ ing-in-th e-world itself' (SZ 1 36 ) . At the same time that basic phenomenological insight is interpre ted existentially; that is to say, the phe nomenon is elaborated insofar as it constitutes and discloses existence. Moods are thus construed as the ways we "find ourselves" in being-in-the-world, the ontic counterparts to the underlying disposedness that "discloses in a primary way," that is to say, preontologically ( SZ 1 3 8 ) . More simply, dispositions and ways of being disposed, as the term 'Befindlichkeit' is translated here, are among the basic ways in which someone is "here" and her being-in-the-world is always already disclosed to her. Heidegger does not leave matters at this general level but proceeds to determine more precisely what this disposedness as a "fundamental existe ntial" allegedly discloses. It is said to disclose first, being-here 's thrownness into the world, the burden of being and having to be ; second, the holistic character of being-in-the-world , that is to say, disclosing equi­ primordially the world, being-here-wi th-others, and one 's own exis­ tence; and third, bei ng-here 's openness to the world, an exposure that makes it possible for the surrounding world and the things in it to mat­ ter to us , to be alluring and disappointi ng, useful and recalcitran t, and so forth. With Heidegger's account of this third feature , it becomes ev­ ident that disposedness is a way of being-here or in-the-world, a tran­ scendence prior to any talk - some legitimate, some not - of tran­ scending boundaries or a veil of consciousness. (Hence, too, the translation 'state of mind' for 'Befindlichkeit' would seem to be ill-ad­ vised . ) Just as importan tly, according to Heidegger, disposedness also discloses, along with the thrownness and ope nness of being-here , the propensity to self-evasion ("the flight from oneself' ) discussed in the last section ( 4 . 2 ) : "The disposedness discloses being-he re in its thrown­ ness, and it does so initially and for the most part in th e manner of turn­ ing away from it, evading it." R 1 8 t SZ 1 3 6, 1 39; these texts suggest that the account of disposedness i n general i s ove rde­ tennined by fear and the basic dispo�edness of A ngst. Once this accoun t of disposed­

ness is coun tenanced , then its close connection with fallenness is secured. But it is not clear, as Scheler notes, that taking oth er m oods as paradigmatic, e.g. , eros and love , would h ave fi t as wel l into the economy - if Scheler is righ t, the forced economy - of the relation between disposedness ( th rownne�s) and fallenness put forward by Hei-

2 94

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

These themes deserve some discussion , but first a word about the translation . ' Befindlichkeit' is one of the more difficult terms i n Hei­ degger'sjargon to translate. The German word is used in medical con­ texts to designate some thing like a person 's symptoms. 82 Not unre­ lated to this usage is the now outmoded query "Wie befinden Sie sich ?" which migh t be translated "How are you?" or "How are you feeling?" or "What is your disposition?" or even "How are you disposed?" In keeping with just these senses, there is reason to translate ' Befind­ lichkeit' as ' disposedness,' since we always find ourselves already placed or put "here" and , indeed , with specific inclinations. We are always al­ ready disposed ( predisposed ) in one way or another, ways that reveal to us the situation that we find ourselves in , as well as how we feel about it. 83 Translating ' Befindlichkeit' as ' disposedness' or 'disposi tion ' is not un­ problematic, however. The translation runs the risk of conflating the al­ legedly ontological meaning, that is , the preontological disclosiveness of this manner of being, with various on tic correlates such as moods, emotions , feelings, and the like. Ontology, it bears recalling, probes the senses of being and fundamental ontology the "existential" sense of bedegger. Obviously, eros and love can be fallen as well , but it is not clear that they need be described as indications fundamentally (existen tially) of fleeing bein g-here. If not, then the fact does not necessarily debilitate Heidegger's existenti al an alysis ( as Scheler seems to think) but wou ld re q u i re qual ifications a n d eve n revisions of it. Cf. Max Scheler, Spate Schriften, in Gesammelte Werke, vol. g , ed. Manfred Fri ngs ( Bern : F rancke, 1 9 7 6 ) ' 2 7 0- 2 7 9 ·

8 2 F orme rl y, "Wie ist lhr Befinden?," in some contexts, was best translated "How are yo u r

R�

symptoms?" Given Heidegger's basic claim that all moods poin t to the basic disposi ti on of the burden of being-here, the medical sense of ' Befindlichkeit' may have special im­ portance for h i m . In any case , he in dicates the aptness of 'dispositi on' as a translation for ' Stimmung' i n Wr1.\ ist daJ - die Philosophie ? ( Pfu l l i n gen : Neske, 1 95 6 ) , 2 6 . Ac cording to th e Oxford .t:nglish Dictionary, th e pri mary original significance o f 'dis' a n d i ts an tecedent cognates is ' two ways, in twain. ' I t is also often used as a prefix, rooted in a con trast with ' com-' (e.g., d i scord , concord ; dispari ty, comparison) . E a c h of these mean ings ( duality and divi "' i o n ) contribu tes to the aptness o f 'disposedness ' as a trans­ lation fo r ' Befindlichkeit. ' For the bei in ' Refindlichkeit' a l so alerts the reader or l istener to a duality, both in the se nse of fi n di ng oneself relative to s o m e th i n g else and i n the sense of having been thrown , not merely in to the world, but from somewhere else , a"i th o ugh o n e is co n s ta n tly d is-posed - i n th e sen s e of be i ng deposed, displaced, out of place - in the wo rld. At the same time, the division ( 'di s' in con trast to ' co m ' ) is re­ flected in finding oneself wi th ( bei' ) thi ngs and others an d , indeed, fi ndi ng oneself al­ ways m oved in re l a tion to them ( rep ul sed o r a t t r a c te d ) If a further metaphorical play on metaphors m igh t be in du lge d , being-here is a clearin g., but th at c lea r i n g in re n­ d e r i ng t h reat e n i n g or e n de a ri n g things v i s i b l e o r, bette r, palpable to s o me o n e wh o is ' here, also disc1uses that pe rson s vu l n e rability. '

'

'

.

,

T H E TI M E L I NESS OF E X I STENT I A L T R U T H

295

i ng-here, while ontic disciplines set their sigh ts on determining the makeup and relations of particular beings or entities. Here as elsewhere Heidegger's analysis demands that pains be taken to distinguish an on­ tological from an on tic level of consideration and his use of the some­ what artificial term ' Befindlichkeit, ' however con trived , is meant to insure that the distinction is maintained ( SZ 1 3 5 , 1 39) . He himself notes that the term is used ontologically to designate the same phenomenon that, from an on tic point of view, is sin1ply a mood or attunement (Stimmung) . ' Befindlichkeit' and ' Stimmung' are thus different designations of the same phenomenon, signifying differe nt ways of regarding it. As an ex­ istential, ' Befindlichkeit' signifies a basic mode of being-here , of disclos­ ing various manners of being, and, as such, it is presupposed by the ways in which, in its specific moods and attunements (Stimmungen, feelings, emotions) , an entity that "is-here" relates to and reveals its relation to other en tities. However, despite the difficulty of translating ' Befindlichkeit, ' there is conside rably more risk to comprehension - more risk of hiding behind jargon - in leaving it untranslated. For this reason and others cited be­ low, ' Befindlichkeit' is translated as ' disposedness' and, less frequen tly, ' disposition ' in what follows, with the caveat that these terms are to be understood existentially, that is to say, as indicating the ontologically significant way in which being-here is constituted and discloses ( i ts and other manners of being) in any specific ( ontically significan t) mood. 84 Thus, even "being indisposed" is to be taken as an instance of dis­ posedness, where the former is ontically, the latter ontologically in­ formative . In addi tion to being a normal English word, ' disposedness' has the virtue (as a translation of ' Befindlichkeit' ) of retaining the im­ plicit senses of place and predetermination ( "finding oneself' ) that Heidegger plays upon. We find ourselves always disposed not only in a certain way, but also toward the world into which we have already been thrown (SZ 1 36f) . Disposi tions disclose the sheer fact of our being-here

84 ' Disposedness' seems preferable to 'disposition , ' according to my Sprachgefiihl, since the latter term , as Dreyfus righ tly points out, ''because of its use by behaviorists as disposi­ tion to behave , can be heard as too outer" ( Dreyfus, Being-in-the- World, 1 68 ) . With some trepidation I balk at Dreyfus\ translation of 'Bifzndlirhknt ' as ' affectedness' precisely be­ cause it can be heard as too inner and because it too strongly suggests the existentiel­ ontic dimension at the expense of the existen tial-on tological dimension . I must adm it, h owever, that 'disposed ' and 'disposed ness ' have the distinct disadvantage of �oundi ng too weak for the force and range of what Heidegger means to include under the exis­ ten tial BPfindlirhknt. , ·

2 96

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

and, indeed, already being-here , though this disclosure is by no means to be confused with an individual 's ( ontic) knowledge of where she comes from or is headed ( SZ 1 34 , 1 3 8 ) . In this connection there is a further reason why 'disposedness ' and ' disposition ' seem suitable trans­ lations, namely, their use in conj unction with prepositional phrases or infinitives that designate emotions an d/ or actions. We speak, for ex­ ample , of a disposition to jealousy or ge nerosity or of someone being disposed to be fearful, to cry, to overeat. This usage captures not only the fact that the disposition is al ready in place ( thrown ) , but also its insep­ arability from ways of existing, understanding, and proj ecting ( the last two terms, metonyms for the first, i ndicate another basic existential ) . �5 Another virtue of the term ' disposedness ' as a translation for ' Befind­ lichkeit' is its ordinary scope . While philosophers might speak of dispo­ sitional properties ( e .g. , the fragility of some glass) , the terms ' disposi­ tion ' and 'disposed ' have been regularly used sin ce the fourteenth century to designate an inclination or propensity of sentient creatures. "Seemes he a dove? His feathers are but borrow' d, I For hee 's disposed as the hatefull rave n" (Henry VI, Part 2, III, 7 5-76 ) . In this respect, ' dis­ posedness ' is an apt translation of ' Be.findlichkeit' sin ce its scope is not limited to human beings, but is also not so broad as to include any sort of potential of any entity. "A stone," Heidegger notes, "never finds itself in any state , but instead is simply on hand." By contrast, a disposition can be ascribed to "an utterly primitive one-celled living entity" (P 3 5 2 ) . These last two claims indicate how, at least in a superficial way, Hei­ degger departs from a phenomenology that toes the line of pure de­ scription of human intentionality (and seemingly departs, too , from the strictures of fundamental on tology) . But for the same reason it is diffi­ cult to assess not only whether such claims are legitimate but what, if anything, is being asse rted by them. Moreove r, even if they are coun te­ nanced, they provide yet another obstacle to understanding disposed­ ness as an existential , namely, as one of the ways of being that is consti­ tutive and self-disclosive of being-here. For there is cl early a use of "disposi tion ," endorsed by Heidegger himself, that supposedly refers to what is constitutive and self-disclosive of, if not being-here, then at least something akin to being-here (li ke being a bat) . It is possible, of course , it is n ec e ss a ry to keep the existentiel and e x i ste n t i al c h a r­ d i s p o se dn e ss and understanding, are i n sep a r a ble d i sclosing toge th e r, b u t w h a t is t h e re b y disclosed is n o t as such kn own ( SZ 1 3 4 : " ' Dis­ closed ' does n o t say ' known ' [erkannt] as such " ) , and ye t the manner of d e t e rm i n i n g be­ ing-i n-th e-world by way of knowi n g is g r o u n d e d in a d ispos i t i on

85 I n this last

respect, howeve r,

ac te r� di sti n c t. The two existe n tials,

,

.

THE TI M E LINESS OF E X I STENTIAL TRUTH

2 97

to put a posi tive spin on such stateme n ts. Just as Hume underscored his analysis of causality by "analogical observations" of such experimental reasoning in animals other than humans , so Heidegger invokes an an al­ ogy with other animals as a means of clarifying what he calls "disposed­ ness." Even though we only understand the ways other animals are dis­ posed through analogies with our own disposedness, it is precisely our ease in doing so - something that can not be said about the other basic ex isten tials: understanding, talking, lapsing - that is distinctive of this existential. However Heidegger's talk of the disposedness of �'one-celled organ­ isms" is to be understood, his main concern is "disposedness" as a "ba­ sic existen tial ," that is to say, what and how it allegedly discloses and con­ stitutes being-here . Given the sui generis ( or, better, sui existentialis) character of the phenomenon , 86 Heidegger is compelled to clarify this existen tial by taking the usual route ( "via negativa" ) of bracketing pre­ cipitous and misleading interpretations. "Prior to all knowing and will­ ing," it is neither an acquaintance nor a belief ( SZ 1 3 5£) . Disposedness does not disclose in th e form of a perception ; it is not "the establish­ men t or observation ( intuition ) of a fact" (SZ 1 38 ) . Nor is it itself per­ ceived, for example via reflection or introspection , since we find our­ selves in this or that mood prior to any introspection or reflection. "In the disposition being-here is always al ready brought before itself, it has always found itself already, not in the sense of happening to find itself to be perceiving, but in the sense of finding itself attuned" (SZ 1 3 5 ) . The fact that we always find ourselves already disposed (prior to what are traditionally conceived as doxic, e pistemic , volitional, or even re­ flexive acts) provides the essen tial clue to Heidegge r's determination of disposition as an existential (how in a disposition being-here dis­ closes its and others ' manners of being) . Being-here finds itself con­ stan tly in "this or that mood" (Stimmung) , that is, "attuned" (gestimmt) from the outset ( P 35 1 ; SZ 1 34 ) . One mood can only be dispelled or disabled by another mood; even indifference is a mood; all of which points, Heidegge r observes, to the basic disposedness of human exis­ tence . In its mood, be it poised , indifferent, undisturbed, disgrun tled, restless, anxious, or raving, bei ng-he re has always already constituted86 SZ 1 40 : "Th e p h e n o m e n ological i n te rp re tation must p rovide bei n g-h ere i tself th e pos­ sib ili ty of th e o rigi n al d isclosi ng and allow it, as it were , to l ay i tself out [auslegen] . It [ th e in te rp re tatio n ] go es alon g i n th i s d isclosi n g, o n ly i n ord e r to e re c t i n to a c o n c e p t th e phenom e n al con te n t of what has been d i sc l osed . "

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

and-disclosed itself and, indeed , a s being-in-the-world. In this case the "here" is by no means an object, a "possible thetne to be grasped" ; be­ ing-in-the-world is instead disclosed "unthematically, but, precisely for that reason, genuinely, " whereby this disclosedness "constitutes noth­ ing else but a man ner of being" ( P 354) . This way in wh ich disposedness discloses to someone her being-here also holds the key to what it discloses about being-here ( the jiTst of the determinations of disposed ness listed earlier) . What is disclosed by be­ ing-here's "attuned manner of finding i tself disposed" (gestimmtes Sich­ befinden) is not something fearful or threatening, alluri ng or despica­ ble, indeed, not any object or thing within the world, but instead simply '' the thrownness of this entity into its here." 87 I nasmuch as we are always in one mood or another, moved by this or that, we are already disposed to the fact that we are, and this disposedness discloses precisely that we are "here, " that we have been thrown into the world as such and have to take over the responsibility for existing. Heidegger characterizes th is "thrownness" as "the facticity of being handed over, " handed over, i n­ deed , to oneself in one 's entirety ( one's worldliness, being-with-others, and own poten tial-to-be ) and , thereby, in one 's dependency upon and orientation to the world. As already noted, such factici ty is not to be identified wi th the char­ ac ter of some brute fact ascertainable by perception , observation , and the like. Instead , what being-here 's disposition discloses is simply "that it is and has to be , " that precisely as a being-in-th e-world it is delive red up to itself as a "burden" that it would just as soon escape. Heidegger claims that the moods an d emotions in which a person (q ua being­ here) finds herself are the very ones that "at first and for the most part" sh e would generally rather flee from than "yield to . " As he puts it, �'be­ ing has become apparent as a burden ," even though we remain clueless why (SZ 1 34 ) . Even uplifting moods, those capabl e of lifting the ap­ parent burden away, disclose the basic burdensomeness of being-h ere. The fact that for the n1ost part we do our best "on an ontic and exis­ ten tiel level" to avoid the burden of bei ng-here supposedly confirms it "on an on tological and existen tial level" (SZ 1 35 ) . Being-here 's thrownness - its factici ty, the fact that it is and has to be - is disclosed to it in the very disposition to turn a\vay fro1n it, to try to elude an d es­ cape i t. In short, being-here 's disposition discloses to it th e fact that it �7

SZ

1 3 !) ;

P � 5 4 : "D isposcd n es" i ts e l f i s t h e n t h e g e n u i n e m a n n e r o f b e i n g-h ere,

i n g i t�e l f

a�

u n co\Tred, t h e 1n a n n c r i n wh i c h be ing-here is i t�elf i t'> h e re . "

o f h aY­

T H E T I M ELI N ESS OF EX I S TENTIA L TRU T H

2 99

has been th rown here and handed ove r to itself ( to its "here") and that in the process it has already found itsel f, albeit initially not by seeking but by fleeing itself. It would be a mistake , however, to think that th is fi nding is automatic or explicit. In fact, it is largely suppressed or even repressed (abge­ driingt) . Though the facticity of being-he re can break in upon "the most innocuous everydayness," a distinctive disposition - anxiety - is re­ quired to bring being-here back to itself (SZ 1 34 , t 8 8 ; see 4·34 below) . As Heidegger puts it, "the 'mere mood ' discloses the here more origi­ nally [than any immanent reflection] but also correspondingly closes it off more stubbornly than any not-perceiving" ( SZ 1 3 6 ) . Mention has already been made of the fact that disposition is prior to a reflection on some interior mental state. Moods ove rcome us; they do not come from wi th in or without, but emerge instead as ways of be­ ing-in-th e-world, disclosing it as a whole . Fear, for example, can hardly be described adequately without taking into accoun t the fearful object and its threatening character, the fearing of it and exposure to it, and the basis of the fear ( being-here i tself) . As exemplified by fear, itself "a mode of disposedness," being-in-the-world is disclosed in all its basic, related dimensions in moods. Therein lies "the second essential charac­ ter of disposedness," namely, the way it discloses "world, being-with-oth­ ers, and existence" as equally original constituents of being-in-the-world as a whole. Finally, not only the holistic character of being-in-the-world but also the worldly dependence and orientation of being-here is disclosed to it by its disposition . The possibility of encountering things in our circum­ spective concerns involves the possibility of being affected by them, and this possibility is grounded in a foregoing disclosure of the world, a dis­ closure co-constituted by one's disposition, indeed, even more basically than by one's senses or intuitions. In this way Heidegger introduces the third essential character of disposition : "The attunedness of the disposi­ tion existentially constitutes the openness of being-here to the world." RR In orde r for an encounter with things within the world to take place , it is not enough that some entity have the powers of sensation. It is nee88 SZ 1 3 7: ''Resistance would remain essen tially undiscovered if the disposed manner of

being-i n-the-world had not already referred it to the fact, prefigu red by [its] emo tions, th at it is affected by enti ties within-th e-world." Heidegger is alludi ng here to his account of real i ty, its grounding i n re s is ta n c e , and resistance's grounding in disclosedness; at stake is h is de b a te with Dilth ey and Scheler and, by e x te n s ion , Helmholtz ( i n tuition as implicit i nfere n c e ) ; cf. S Z 2 0o-2 1 2 ; P 2 93-:�o6.

300

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

essary for the entity with those powers to b e suitably disposed; in other words, it is necessary for the innerworldly things encountered to "mat­ ter" to being-here ( il faut les aimer pour les connaitre) . "This mattering is grounded in the disposition" (SZ 1 3 7 ) . Thus disposition and moods, more than sensation or intuition or the interplay of pressure and re­ sistance, form the basis of our encounter with the world. "In fac t, in an ontologieally fundamental way, we must leave the primary discovery of the world over to the ' mere mood "' ( SZ 1 38 ) . As Heidegger puts it in the Prolegomena Lectures: "It is necessary to represent phenomenally the original way in which being-disposed and the disclosure of the world be­ long toge ther. Being-here does not somehow first find itself [befindet sich nicht zunachst] by i tself in order then to look from here and itself to a world, but rather being-disposed is itself a character of being-in , that is to say, of always-already-being in a world'' (P 355 ) . Being disposed means, howeve r, more than mere being open to and dependent upon the world. It also indicates a way of being-here that al­ lows itself to be so taken - literally, "taken away'' or "ben umbed" 89 - by the world that it evades and even loses itself. This evasion is the phe­ nomenon of lapsin g or falling away from itself and, though this lapsing is itself an existential (see 4· 3 3 ) , Heidegger makes clear that it also de­ velops in a direction already given by the disposedness of being-here ( SZ 1 39, 1 79 ) . This direction is explicitly indicated in his formulations of the fi rst and third essential characters ( the thrownness and open­ ness) of this basic existential. For the theme of the present study, the analysis of "disposedness" as an existential is particularly importan t. For the analysis provides Hei­ degger with a means of elaborating in what way being-he re is disclosive ( or in what way the ' here ' of ' being-here ' is synonymous with ' dis­ closedness' or ' openness' ) . In this way he presents a side of the dis­ closedness ( truth ) that is primarily neither an intuition nor a judgment (assertion ) . Finding oneself always already attuned in some way is a manner of disclosing various manners of being. In a preeminent way, being disposed discloses our being-in-the-world and, indeed, the thrownness and openness of our being as a whole to the world - even if this attuneme nt "initially and for the most part" takes the form of a 1 1 3 : "Being-here is initially and for the most part taken by its world"; also SZ 6 1 , 7 6 . The term translated ' taken ' here , ' benommen, ' signals more precisely both being taken away and being benumbed by one's world. In just these senses, the earlier English te rm is a favorite of Chaucer; cf. C haucer, Complete Works, 75 2 : "Alias ! I t [ Ire] bynymeth fro n1an h i s witte"; also 7 4 8 , 7 5 2 f.

8g SZ

TH E T I M ELI N ES S OF EX I STEN T I A L TRUTH

30 1

"fligh t" from the facticity ( thrownness) of being-in-the-world. The dis­ posedness of being-here thus co-constitutes the worldliness of the world of concern, and it is this worldliness that makes possible the encounter with innerworldly things and thereby with the truths of intuitions and assertions. Seen from this perspective , the disclosedness of the disposi­ tion of being-here can be deemed " the more original truth." 4 . 3 2 Understanding and the Project of Being-Here. That being-he re as a

whole is " thrown" signifies by no means that the "throw" has been com­ pleted or even that its trajectory is automatic. "As long as it is, what it is," bein g-here remain "in that throw, " and where and how it lands remains, if the pun can be pardoned , "up in the air" ( SZ 1 7 9) . At the same time, if the manner of being-here is not a completed fac t or foregone con­ clusion , it is also not simply the fading ripple of previous events. Being­ here is a manner of "being-possible," but precisely that manner of "be­ ing-possible which is handed over to itself. " "Being-here is respectively what it can be and how it is this possibility" ( SZ 1 43 ) . Because this existential possibility is part of the original makeup of being-here, Heidegger takes pains to distinguish it from other, deriva­ tive or subordinate, senses of possibili ty. As being-here 's self-defining proj ection, this existential possibili ty cannot be equated with a logical possibility or with some contingency that appears to accrue to things on hand. Being-here is a project and thus in a fundamental sense a possi­ bility, a possibility more basic than actuality or necessity (PRL 2 48£) . For this reason, it does not fall under a modal category of possibility that is defined as not yet actual and not ever necessary, in effect, a negation and thus a derivative of what it means to be on hand. At the same time , anything but a "freetloating potential ," the existential possibility of be­ ing-here and its proj ec tion are by no means � ut off from the thrown­ ness of being-here . As Heidegge r puts it, somewhat clumsily: "And as thrown , being-here is thrown into the sort of being of projecting" ( SZ 1 45 ) . In other words, the proj ect of being-here in tersects with its th rownness. Yet the fact that we respe ctively proj ect our existence or, more precisely, that we exist as possibilities by way of proj ecting our­ selves onto certain possibilities, is not itself something we have projected. Instead, it is our "lot" to be-here, a lot that we have not ourselves "cast." Thus, despite the inseparability of the way that being-here is thrown into the world from the way in which it proj ects itself, they re­ main distinct. As Heidegger puts it: "Being-here is the possibility of be­ ing-free for the poten tial-to-be that is al l its own " (SZ 1 44) . In this way,

H E I DEGGER ' s C O N C EPT

OF

TRUTH

Heidegger's talk o f the possibility o f being-h ere as something "handed ove r to it'' (or as "the thrown ground" of itself) is meant to elucidate the claim made in the opening pages of Being and Time that the essence of being-here lies in "having to be its being on its own . " To be-here is pre­ cisely to project oneself as one 's own potential-to-be . Relating to being by way of projecting this "potential-to-be" - or, as Heidegger also puts it with characteristically effective awkwardness, "to be-projecting" (Ent­ werfend-sein) - is designated "existence" ( SZ 1 2 , 2 84) . ' Understanding' (Verstehen) , in the existential sense of the term , stands for the way in which being-here discloses by projecting itself- its being-here - as a possibility (Seinkonnen) . To understand (existen tially) is to project oneself and, in the process, to disclose and constitute one's manner of being-here as a possibility. This understanding is thus es­ sentially related to its potential; being-here understands that what is at stake is itself as a possibility or potential proj ected by it and that it only exists as this project ( P 35 7 ) . In Being and Time Heidegger relates this accoun t of u nderstanding as an existential to h is earlier analyses of the work-world's meaningfulness (Bedeutsamkeit) and its grounding in some aim (or, literally, some for-the-sake-of-which : Worumwillen) . The way be­ i ng-here understands, that is, projects, itself as a possibility defines the "here" in bei ng-here as the final meaning of the world ( see 4. 1 above ) . I n other words, existential understanding is the projection that consti­ tutes being-here , disclosing its manner of being to it by way of disclos­ ing wh at it is here for. In addition to th e sense in wh ich existence is itself thrown , th at is to say, in which we are thrown into the world but precisely to be on our own, there is another sense in which the possibility projec ted by being­ here is inseparable from i ts th rownness. To be-here is to project oneself as a possibility onto possibilities presen ted to one by the world. "Being­ here always understands itself from th e outset and con tinues to under­ stand itself, as long as it is , on the basis of possibilities," possibilities that it can only take from a world in wh ich it fac tually always already dwells ( SZ 1 45 ) . To exist, in other words, is to project possibilities into which one has been th rown, bringing them into play precisely as possibilities of being-in-the-world. 90 This projection is not to be confused with car90 SZ 1 45 : "The proj e c tion is the existen tial con sti tution of the be i ng of the pl ay-space [or ro o m to rnane uver: Spielraum] of the factual poten ti al-to-be . ·� See Dre yfus , Bring-in-thf­ World, 1 86: "Thus what H e idegge r cal ls r oo m fo r m aneuver' (SpiPlraum) perm i ts par­ ticular coping activi ti es to show up as possible i n th e c u rren t world . " '

T H E T I M ELI N ES S OF EXI STENT I A L TRUTH

ryi n g out some preconceived plan , n o r are the possibilities proj ected grasped thematically. "Instead, as being-here it has in each respec tive case already projected itself and is projecting, as long as it is" (SZ 1 45 ; see also 2 70 , 2 84) . To grasp these possibilities thematically, that is, as something poten tially on hand, is to rob them of their character as pos­ sibilities and reduce them - literally "pull them down" (herabziehen) - to some already "given , intended elemen t'' (SZ 1 45 ) . Yet, while always sit­ uated , th e projec t of being-here is unable, as it were, to "cover its tracks," no more able to locate or time its origin than i ts end. In Chapter 3 reference was already made to the primary (hermeneu­ tic , un thematic) understanding as a way of "having to do and deal with something" (in Heidegger's jargon : Mit-etwas-zu-tun-haben) . This pri­ mary understanding, it was noted, reveals the "presence" (Priisenz) of the work-world as well as things handy and on hand in this world; i t ac­ cordingly also underlies the apophan tic structure of assertions about those things. In Being and Time this interpretation of understanding, al­ ready elaborated in the logic lectures, is iterated in terms of a certain "view" (Sicht) .9 1 As in the logic lectures, Heidegger emphasizes that un­ derstanding underlies intuiting and thinking, eve n "the phenomeno­ logical eidetic intuition" ( Wesenschau) . What is now being added to the interpre tation of hermeneutic understanding (outlined in 3 . 1 above ) is Heidegger's existential interpretation of the understandin g as a way of projecting that co-constitutes the disclosedness of being-here . To be­ here is to understand that one is "here" and, i ndeed, as that "for the sake of which" its bein g-in-the-world exists (projects itself) as a whole. Thanks to understanding/projecting in this existen tial sense and not sim­ ply in the sense of pre thematic prac tices of using things, to be-here is to be originally familiar with and relian t upon the world. As already noted, in the understanding of that "for-the-sake-of-which," the mean­ ing of the world is grounded and codisclosed. 9 2 Heidegger gives a further clue to the existen tial significance of ' un91 SZ 1 46: "The sight [or view: Siehl] that existen tially resides with the disclosedness of the here is equiprimordially being-here accordi ng to the characterized basic manners of its being as circumspection [or look arou nd: Umsicht] of con cern , considerateness [Ruck­ sichi] of solicitude, as a sight on [or view to : SiehL] being as such, for the sake of which the being-here respectively is, as it is." See, too, SZ 3 36. 92 The vague notion of the ''concernedness-presence" (Besorgtheit�priisenz) of the work­ world surfaced in sec tion 4. 1 above as so mething that is always already here wi thout be­ ing always on han d . Th e meaning of th at ' presence ' is related to worldliness as an exis­

tential, a way

of

being-h ere. See

SZ

334: "The structure of worldliness, the meaning, up with what the und erst anding esse n ti ally be-

� h owed i tsel f , h owever, to he bou nd

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

derstanding' by elaborating it as being-here's own potential to be "such that this being of itself discloses what its being is about" (das Woran des mit ihm selbst Seins) ( SZ 1 44) . Heidegger's equation of 'understanding' (Verstehen) and 'being-possible ' or 'potential-to-be' (Seinkonnen) in this connection also plays on familiar cognate uses of these words in Ger­ man, where understanding how to do something and being able to do it are construed as equivalent, if not the same. Thus, for example, ' Kann er Deutsch ?, ' which might be rendered ' Can he (speak) German?, ' is equivalent to ' Versteht er Deutsch ?' or ' Does he understand German?' So, too, there are scenarios where the English expressions 'being able to play chess' and 'understanding chess' might be regarded as equivalent. As exemplified by these examples, 'understanding' and 'being able ' signifY a kind o f know-how or level of mastery o f certain skills, the struc­ ture of which he elaborates under the rubric of the "hermeneutic ' as "' of a primary or original understanding. That "hermeneutic 'as' -structure," it bears recalling, is Heidegger's way of formally indicating the process of taking x as F in prethematic practices ("having to do and deal with things" ) , which is itself rooted in the fac t that we are always ahead of ourselves. As noted in the last chap­ ter, this structure works simultaneously on both existentiel-ontic and ex­ istential-on tological levels. In proj ec ting and thus disclosing itself as a possibility, being-here is also the si te for the proj ection and disclosure of other manners of being as well as for the proj ection and discovery of entities, itself and others. At both levels, the understanding - as a projection - preconceives what is understood. In this manner Heidegger links a basic phenomenon of being-here, namely, being ahead of one­ self, with the fac t that understanding, by projecting and thus disclosing i tself in terms of possipilities, is inherently interpretive. In other words, the re is always a forestructure to understanding and the difference be­ tween understanding and interpretation is nothing more than the dif­ ference between proj ecting certain possibilities and explicitly carrying them out (P 4 1 4 ) . As Heidegger sums up this point: "In the interpre­ tation, the understanding does not become something else, but instead becomes itself' (SZ 1 48 ) . Heidegger's account of the relation between understanding and in­ terpretation is brief but clear. While claiming, on the one hand, that in­ terpretation is grounded in understanding and not vice versa, he also longing to the disclosedness projects itself upo n , wi th the potential-to-be of being-here , of which it exis ts . "

for the sake

T H E T I M E LI N E S S O F E X I S T E N T I A L T R U T H

argues that the ' as '-structure constituting interpretation is implicit in understanding. "All prepredicative straightforward seeing of some­ thing handy is in itself already interpretively-understanding [verstehend­ auslegenaj " (SZ 1 4 9 ) The understanding, it bears ite rating, is the basic existential in which being-here constitutes and discloses itself by projecting itself as a possibility. Any more explicit understanding, that is, interpretation, presupposes understanding in this sense. 93 As also noted in th e last chapter, there is a temptation to give a prag­ matic reading to Heidegger's concept of "understanding. " Heidegger himself notes that the meaning of the referential whole that the work­ world comprises ( see 4. 1 above) is being-here itself, the potential for the sake of which it exists, proj ects, understands. The emphasis on the interpretive character of understanding suggests, moreover, the sort of fallibilism endorsed by some pragmatists . Yet Heidegger also makes it c lear that understanding is an existential, disclosing what it means to be and, preeminently, what it means to be-here. As such it is not to be confused with the sort of understanding that contrasts with explana­ tion. The understanding pursued by historical studies and humanities no less than the explanations proffered by the natural sciences sup­ poses an existential understanding of being. More importantly, not only historical understanding, theoretical knowledge, and practical-techni­ cal knowledge , but practical behavior itself presupposes understanding as an existential (GP 3 8 9-392 ; SZ 1 43 , 3 36; P 4 1 3 ) While prac tical be­ havior, like the various forms of cognition mentioned, is generally di­ rected at entities and what they are , "what the understanding as an ex­ isten tial is able to understand is not a what, but rather being as existing" (SZ 1 43 ) . Insofar as the difference that some thing (a theory, a belief, an activity, a policy) makes in practice is the hallmark criterion for the pragmatist tradition, i t is difficult to see how a pragmatic reading can be given of Heidegger's interpretation of the existential sense of un­ derstanding, without doing serious violence to i t. This is not to deny the .

.

93 One way of elaborating Heidegger's understanding of the difference between under­ standing and interpretation might be as follows. An explici t i n terpretation can be faulty

or false , depending upon wh ether it be practical ( existe n tiel ) or theoretical (strictly apophan tic ) . But it� faul tiness or falsi ty is m eani ngful only on the basis of some under­ standing - indeed, an e n tire context of im plicit in terpretations. In sofar as the under­ stan ding ( im plict in te rpretation ) has not bee n made expl icit, i t makes no sense to speak of faulti ness or falsity. Nor is every understan ding th at is supposed in this way on a par, at least not if phil osophy has any say in the matter. For fundam e n tal on tology is the ex­ plicit i n te rp retation , the falsity of whic h , while a formal possibi lity (given i ts apophan­ tic

form ) ,

ca n n o t

he mean i n gfu l ly �m�ta i n ed .

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C EPT OF TRUTH

pragmatic accents of Heidegger's analysis; in addition to those already mentioned, his insistence on a prethematic absorption in the world and on the unfinished proj ect of being-in-the-world migh t be added. 9 4 Nev­ ertheless, though there is in fact no understanding without practice ( practices that, in Heidegger's sense, are proj ected and set in a world of concern ) , 'understanding' in the existential sense of the term does not signifY a prac tice. In other words, the way in which the under­ standing discloses cannot be adequately mapped out onto the struc ture of a practice or set of practices , nor does the manner of being disclosed by it satisfY cri teria of making an ontic difference (theoretical , prac ti­ cal, political, e tc. ) . 9s In understanding, being-here discloses the manner of being of enti­ ties within-the-world. In the process, it also discloses itself and, indeed, precisely by finding itself disposed in the world; being so disposed, be­ ing-here understands what is at stake in being-in-the-world. As para­ doxical as it might sound, being-here is the "thrown proj ection," the un­ derstanding that is always already disposed and attuned. In the Prolegomena Lectures Heidegger goes so far as to declare that the "un­ derstanding," as a way of disclosing the world by finding ourselves dis­ posed in it (Sichbefinden) , is precisely the way of being disposed th at dis­ closes. 96 At the same time, he distinguishes understanding from disposedness. In understanding, being-here disc loses itself, not prima­ rily as an entity that in each case has already been thrown into the world, but instead as the entity that projects its potential-to-be onto possibilities. From the fact that being-here constitutes and discloses itself as th e po­ tential-to-be in this sense , it follows that being-here is not simply on hand but exists. "Being toward one 's ownmost potential-to-be says on­ tologically: being-here is respectively already ahead of itself in its being" (SZ 1 9 1 ) . 94 Hei degge r's i n te rpre tation ( that i s to say, his existe n tial an alysis ) e c h oes Dewey 's as­ saul ts on bifurcati n g su q j ec t and o bj e c t on suqjec tivism a n d in tellectual i s m , and o n th e ,

fa l l acy of �elective e m ph a�is. 9 5 Th ere is eve ry re ason , n o n e th el ess, to be ske ptical of th e privi l e ge d and insular s ta t us

that Heidegger a s sign s the ontological domai n . An atte m p t is made in the fi n al c h ap­ te r to weigh in on wh ether th i s on tological i n s u la ri ty is ge n u i n e or not, whethe r it i�

a

rh e torical ploy, a m ark of bad faith , i m po te n c e , or fai lure of n e rve , and , most i m p o r­ ta n t ly, w h e th e r it is d e b i l itating for h i s existe n tial an alys is or n o t .

g6

P 356; SZ 1 5 2: " I n e a c h un derstanding o f t h e wo rld , existe n c e is co-u n de rstood a n d vice ve rs a . " See P 34 8-3 5 9 , 4 1 1 -4 1 7 ; SZ 1 �� 4- 1 48 ; th e " decisive p o i n ts of orie nta tion fo r all the problems of h e rm e n e u tics" an d , i n dee d , fo r th e so-called c i rcle i n u n de rsta n d i n g e m e rge frorn the fac t that u n d e rs ta ndi n g t o g e t h er with d i s p o s i ti on disclose the e ntire bei n g-in-the-wo rld eq u i prin1 orrl i a l ly (P :� s fif) .

THE

T I M E LI N E S S O F

E X I STEN TIAL TRU TH

4 · 3 3 Fallen ness and the Palaver of Being-Here. Being-here is initially and,

indeed, for the most part involved with things that are handy within­ the-world. Mention has already been made of th e fac t that, in addition to being thrown into the world and projecting the world's possibilities as part of being-in-th e-world, being-h ere is so taken up with the world and the things within it that it can be said to "fall prey" to the world. Heidegger characterizes this phenomenon , the third basic existential , as a ki nd of "fallen ness" or "lapse" ( Verfallensein) . Since it has been nec­ essary to broach th e topic of this existential in earlier sections, it can be treated more briefly than were th e other two (disposedness and un­ de rstanding) . Our tendency to get wrapped up in a world of concern typically - but not i nevitably - defines our ways of being-with-another and, along the way, both what and who each of us is. In the process, individual possi­ bilities of being-in-the-world are largely handed over to the crowd. The work-world in sures that each individual can respectively be herself, but it is a lost self, "sucked up into the crowd 's lack of genuineness" (P 3 8 8 ) . Differences are smoothed out or even eliminated as being-here disap­ pears into the crowd , a vanishing ac t obscured by conformity to public opinion and standards of normalcy (P 390) . As Heidegger puts it, this sort of lapse is seduc tive , sedating, and alienating all at once (P 3 89 ; SZ 1 7 7£) . It is, in effect, an existential "free fall" in more than one sense of the term. On the one hand, we are already disposed to fall, that is, to evade the thrown ness of our existence by taking refuge in the world and worldly things (see 4· 3 1 above) . On th e other hand, we abet the fall our­ selves. Being-here thus "falls freely" in the sense that i t falls easily and spontaneously, with little resistance , and ultimately more or less delib­ erately (see 4. 2 above) . Yet falling in this way is, as Heidegger puts i t,"falling apart" (Zerfall) , a "fall from" being-here genuinely (Abfall also signifies 'waste ' or 'garbage ' ) . "Fallenness to th e 'world ' means immersion in being-with-on e-an­ other insofar as this is guided by palaver, curiosity, and ambiguity" ( SZ 1 7 5 ; cf. P 3 76-39 1 ) . Palaver, as also noted earlier (4. 2 ) , is the lapsed lo­ gos or articulation of everyday disposi tions and understanding. Wi th the aid of palaver, what is said becomes itself a matter of concern and some­ thing handy within the world. In an extreme form of palaver, what lit­ erally is said an d reproduced ( inc luding actual verbalizations and word combinations) takes precedence over the significance of what is said, over its b e i ng said, over what i t is said about, or even over the fact that this o r th a t pe rs o n is sayi ng it. Wh i l e so m � pal ave r is, � s n o terl e� r1 i e r,

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT O F T R UT H

308

eminently useful, necessary, and even inevitable , i t provides "the possi­ bili ty of understanding everything without a foregoing appropriation of the matter'' ( SZ t 6g) . What is said and passed on becomes overrid­ ing, as an average, all-too-obvious sort of interpretation holds sway. As long as a person "holds up" in this house of babble , she suspen ds her­ self, as it were , in midair. On the one hand, she is always alongside the "world," but on th e other hand she is "cut off' from the "primary and originally-genuine" manners of being related to the world, others, and herself - or, more precisely, the manner of being-here that is her own ( SZ 1 70 ) . More importantly for the purposes of the present study, palaver is as i t were the birthplace of the logical prej udice. The reduc­ tion of truth to perceptual (or intuitive) or propositional truths and the conception of being in the sense of onhandness ( presence) corre­ sponding to that reduction are symptoms of the fallenness typifi ed by palaver. Symptoms, it bears iterating, are not necessarily criteria or direct ef­ fects. In other words, the ontological commitments that Heidegger as­ cribes to the logical prejudice do not automatically follow from the fact that people palaver. Moreover, he does not provide much elaboration on ways of talking publicly ( the kinds of public discourse) that migh t promise some measure of escape from palaver. The lack of such an elab­ oration is clearly a weakness in his investigations in the 1 9 2 0s, especially since it bears on the status of the published (ver-offentlicht) text, Being and Time. It is worth noting that this lack dovetails with the confusing way in which , as noted earlier, Heidegger some times cites " talk," at other times "fallenness, " as the third basic existential. 97 The reason in both cases ( that is to say, for that lack of elaboration of genuine public discourse and for the confusing presentation of the basic existentials ) is the same. Fallenness and the public demands of discourse conspire to shape the way we "for the tnost part" find ourselves disposed and proj ect ( understand) our possibilities. 98 Yet there is no authentic way of be­ ing-here that might dispense with th ese existentials. Authen ticity is pos­ sible, and, indeed, as discttssed below (4.4 ) , even authentic discourse is

97 S e e n . 79 above.

however, if it suggests s o meth in g external to be in g prey to the world in the course of i m m ersi ng ourselves in it, flee­ ing from ourselves in th e process, the crowd, pal aver th ese are all existen tial s , that is · to say, they consti tute and disclose our ex i s te n c e inasm uch as we enact them.

g8 The term

'conspire '

is misleading,

­

in-th e-wo rld . Falling

-

THE TI M ELINESS O F EXI STENTIAL TRUTH

309

possible, according to Heidegger; yet it cannot eliminate, and can only modify, existentially fallen and palavering manners of being-here. 99 The "here" or "openness" of being-here is constituted by fallenness as much as it is by disposedness and understanding. These basic exis­ tentials - manners in which being-here is fundamentally constituted and disclosing as well as disclosed - are said to be "equally original . " 1 00 What characterizes a fallen or lapsed manner of disclosing is precisely the way in which it closes off (verschlieflen) the fundamental openness of being-here - in effe ct, concealing and masking the very disclosure that defines being-here . The phenomenon of fallen ness accordingly points to a tendency already suggested earlier, namely, the "urge and propen­ sity" (Drang und Hang) to flee from oneself. Heidegger's elaboration of his use of these terms in this context i n­ volves wordplays that deserve comment. An urge is a compulsion to move away from some state or way of being and toward something. In some circumstances, a compulsion can be blinding ( "love is blind") , overrunning dispositions and understanding. Seizing upon this phe­ nomenon , Heidegger characterizes urge as a way in which care re­ presses itself. Heidegger accordingly exploits l inks between the terms 'Drang and ' verdriingen' (repress) ( P 409 ) . While Freud employs the lat99 From a certain religious perspective , one that Heidegge r likely shared at so me point, this position is not only plausible, but compelling. See the quotations from Gogarten and Barth cited in these notes. D reyfus main tains that Heidegger's acco unt of fallen­ ness conflates "falling" and "fleei ng." In keepi ng with his econ omical diffe rentiation of Divisions I and II of SZ as structural and motivational accounts respectively, he suggests that, in place of "the psychological acco u n t of falling based on motivated flight," so­ cialization is sufficient to explain why being-here yields to the pull of the world; cf. D rey­

fus , Being-in-the-World, 2 2 5-2 2 9 , 2 3 3-2 3 7 , 3 1 3 , 33 3ff. But Heidegger's onto discendi et exhibitendi seems to have gotten the better of Dreyfus in this respect. There is n o more

a neutral struc tural account in Division I than there is in D ivision II - though, to be sure , th is fact only becomes fully perspicuous in the wake of Division II. In other words, to fall prey to the world is always more or less to flee and not simply to fall from one­ self, but it is a flight that can be more or less " taken back" or "retrieved. " The i nau­ thentic "thrown proj e c tion" that existe n tially defi n es being-here is a "fallen flight." Yet its "in e\itability" does not rule out authenticity any more or less than German citizen­ ship in 1 9 3 8 prevented some German c i tize ns from hidingjews; nor does authenticity render the fall back i n to the crowd any m o re or less "incomprehensible" than the fact that Kasparov, at the top of h is chess gam e , can s till occasionally make the wrong move. I oo Relative to th e other existentials , there is even a sense in which fallen ness e nj oys a cer­ tai n primacy as far as the determi nation of care is concerned, since th e fundamental care ( " the basic relati onal se nse of life in i tself') , namely, care about one 's daily bread , is dependent upon the world ( PIA 8gf) . See , too, the discussion of Augustine on Cu­ rare in PRL 2 04-2 1 o.

310

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E P T O F T R lT T H

ter term in a psychoanalytic sense , 1 01 Heidegger gives it an existential interpretation . Caught up in an urge, care expresses itself only as con­ cern , concern for what satisfies its urges "and nothing else" (P 4 1 o) . In this "care th at has not become free," as Heidegger puts it, care represses and obscures itself as the sense of being-here in its en tirety (P 4 1 o ) . De­ spite the fact that the urge presupposes the entire structure of care and its significance as the manner of being-here that, in its caring, fun da­ men tally discloses, the urge also conceals th at structure and signifi­ can ce, including the fact that being-here is already with things and ahead of itself. In Being and Time Heidegger introduces the existe n tial phenomenon of propensity with the German expression ' nachhiingen, ' the signifi­ can ce of which is perhaps best conveyed in English by the colloquial ex­ pression ' hanging on someone's every word or movemen t. ' 1 °2 ' Propen­ sity' stan ds for this hankering for the world that one is already involved with , the predilection to cling to it. Though the term ' Hang in some contexts stands for an addiction or obsession ( thus, a fallen state that is no longer a motivated flight) , it has been indelibly stamped in German philosophical nomenclature by Kan t's discussion of "the propensity to evil in human nature . " 1 03 In the Prolegomena Lectures Heidegger puts his own spin on this term by relating it to 'destiny' (Verhiingnis) , a term for a basic existen tial structure of being-here. "This propensity, to which the analysis of falling away returns phenomenally, constitutes the basic structure of being-here that we designate as 'destiny ' " (P 3 90) . This des­ tiny is nothing else than the flight of being-here , when faced with her­ self, in to the world disclosed by her. Fallen ness is the propensity " to be 'lived' by the world in which one respectively is" as well as the urge to "live" at others ' cost. In the Prole­ gomena Lectures, Hei degger presen ts "urge" as a necessary con diti on of "propensi ty," in contrast to Being and Time where they are merely 1 o 1 Sigm und Freud, �'or!Rsun!{en zur Einfi"ihrung in die Psychoanalyse, in Gesammelte �Verke, vo l . 1 1 , seve n th edi tion ( Fran kfurt am Mai n : Fisc h e r, 1 97 8 ) , 2 96-3 1 2 : "\Viderstan d u n d u s e o f this Fre u d i an t e r m poi n ts t o another i m portan t h is­ torical dimension of his brief accou n t o f the rootedness of th e urge in care : the ap­ propriation by Lebensphilosophen of the tho ugh t of the Sturm und )>rang and Schopen­ hauer's m etaphysics of the wi l l . 1 0 2 Or even 'b�ing h u ng up on som eone' or simply a ' h anger-on . ' 1 03 See Kan t, Religion innerhalb der Grenzen rler bloj3en Vernunft, Kants Werke, vo l . 6 ( Be rl i n : ci e Gruyte r, t g 68) , 2 8 . I n th is discussion , ' Hang' - trans l ate d a s ' p ropen sity' h e re - i� Kant's own tran slation of the Lat i n ' propen!l io, ' conceived as "the subjec tive basis of the po�� i b i l ity of a n i n cli n atio n . "

Ve rddingung." Hei degger's

THE TI MELINESS

OF

E X I STENT IAL TRUTH

31

l

con trasted ( the pure urge is a care that has not yet become free; in the prope nsity, care is always already bound) . 1 04 Ye t, however the relation between urge and propensity is to be understood, they are both grounded in care as ways in which care comes to modify itself. Urges and propensi ties are not the results of external compulsions, but ways that care manifests itself. "The urge ' to live ' is not to be destroyed, the prope nsi ty to be ' lived' by the world is not to be e radicated. Ye t be­ cause , and only because , they are on tologically groun ded in care , both are to be modified by authenti c care in an ontic and existentiel fash­ ion" ( SZ 1 96 ) . This last remark ite rates a point made earlier about the modifiabil­ ity, but ineradicability of being-here 's lapsing. Its "free fall" is, so to speak, as natural as weight. Yet there is also something about being-here that, while not able to defy gravity, can make suitable use of it. This talk of falling suggests images of balance and grace, familiar to athletes, tumblers, and dancers. The Kierkegaardian leap comes immediately to mind. Neither taking fligh t nor th e extent of th e bound is the final measure of the success of a leap. True success is measured by the grace with which one meets the ground. 1 0 5 Heidegger, it bears noting, does not shy away from quoting Kierkegaard, though always with qualifica­ tions. Mention has al ready been made of Heidegger's explicit warning that fallenness, as he conceives it, has nothing to do with morality. He is equally adaman t in disavowing any implicit th eology in his portrayal of the phenomena making up fallen ness. While acknowledging the pos­ sibility, perhaps even necessity that these struc tures reemerge in a " the­ ological anthropology," Heidegger mischievously adds ( palavers) that he cannotj udge how they would "since I [Heidegger] understand no th­ ing of such things" (P 39 1 ) . 4 · 3 4 Anxiety as a fundamental Disposition and the Unity of Care. Anxiety,

not about anything handy or on hand within the world, but rather about oneself as being-in-the-world, surfaces as a sudden , uncan ny feel­ ing, even in the midst of one 's most familiar and trusted surroundings, 1 04 P 3 90 , 4 o g ff; SZ 1 95 f.

1 0 5 S0ren Ki e rke gaard , Fear and Trembling, tr. Alastair Han nay ( London : Pengui n , 1 98 5 ) , 70 ( sl igh tly modified ) : "But to be a bl e to land in th at way, to look in the same second as th o ug h on e were up and wal k i n g, to transform the leap in life into a gai t, to expre ss the sublime in th e pedestrian - only the knigh t [ of faith ] can do that, - and that is th e one and only m a r v el Frygt og Bcrven, i n Samlede VcPrkPr, vo l . 5 ( Copenh age n: Gylden­ ."

rli ng-h«:>re 's man n er of coin i n g back to i ts C\'eryday­ Il t' �s . . . .

T H E T I M E L I N E S S O F E X I STENTI A L T R U TH

33 1

from timeliness but that they are only possible on the basis of i t (SZ 34°-346 ) . In the anticipating resoluten ess, being-here is ahead of itself in an authentic way and genuinely comes back to its th rownness, its abiding mortality, in such a way that it first finds itself in its genuine si tuation . Resolttteness discloses the respective, genuine potential-to-be of being­ in-the-world in a moment (Augenbick) that springs from genuinely com­ ing-to-oneself and thus to who one is already. The moment is the au­ thentic present as the authentic en counter with things, a way of being presen t to them such that they can present themselves. This moment is thus not so muc h a way of rendering something present (Gegenwiirtigen) as it is a matter of givi ng full attention to what is encountered in being­ here, "genuinely attending to it" (eigentliche Gegen-wart) . "In resolute­ n ess, the present is not only fetch ed back from the dispersal into con­ cerns n earest at hand, but instead is held in the future and alreadiness" (SZ 3 3 8 ) . In this moment, a human being is first genuinely i nvolved in (bei) h is world. 1 1 9 Genui ne timeliness as this "retrieving-momentous anticipating" is the existential-ontological sense of genuine care (genuinely bein g­ here ) , that is, the way in which i t discloses. Five different aspects of this sense of timeliness deserve mention. First, timeliness cannot be broken down into separate parts, as if genuinely being who one already is, be­ ing-involved-in-the-world, or coming to oneself could be on hand somehow without one another. The genuine way of being-already ( the " retrieval" or "repeti tion" ) and th e genui ne way of being in the moment ("attending to" the world and letting it present itself) are connected with the genuine fttture ( the "an ticipating" ) without being fully dependent upon it. Each "dimension" of time is dependent upon the oth­ ers in an integrated whole that makes up timeliness. I I g Fo r a valuable readi ng of 'Augenblick, ' wi th an emph asis on its con nection with "o rigi­ n ary praxis in its full e thical and political charac ter, " see Wi lliam McNeill , The Glanre of the Eye: Heidegger, Aristotle, and the Ends �( Theory (Albany: SUNY Press , 1 999) , esp. 1 1 6 : "These remarks on conscience also indicate that the A ugenblick or ' glance of the eye , ' as we have preferred to translate it, is not to be understood as a ' moment of tim e ' in t h e sense o f a n ' i nstan t. · Rather, it refers t o t h e unfolding disclosure o f t h e pres­ e ncing of a situation in the duration apfrropriatP to it. " Elaborati ng the con nection be­ tween Hei degger's con cept of A ugenblick and i n terpretation of the doc tri ne of ph ro n e­ sis in the Nicomarhean Ethics, McNeill relates how the ac tual end of an action , th e means pursued by deliberation , the time of the delib eration , and the righ t mome n t to act, " all d e pe n d upon what is called for h)· the ronrrete rirrumstanre� of the moment, as d i s c lose d i n t h � pra r tiral o i , tlll� fi ifi or A ugPn hfirk" ( i hirl 1 l R) ,

332

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R LT T H

This in tegrated character with i ts reciprocal complementarity does not, however, mean that some sort of equilibrium reigns within gen uine timeliness akin, for example, to that achieved when forward and reverse chemical reactions occur at the same rate . The "re trieval" or "repeti­ tion" characteristic of authen tically being who one already is springs from the manner in which being-here is authentically ahead of i tself, and authentically being-here in the situation of the moment reveals i t­ self only on the basis of this retrieval . These considerations poi n t to a second feature of genuine timeliness : the primacy enjoyed by the fu­ ture (''becoming" ) . " The basic phenomenon of time is the future" ( BZ 1 9) . From the primacy of the future, the third aspec t of genuine timeli­ ness follows: i ts finitude. In order to forestall misunderstandings that accompany this aspect, it is necessary to point out that this ' finitude ' does not refer to an end or punctuated interval in a series of elapsing nows. The genuine future (that "coming-to-oneself' described above ) is not a possibili ty simply not yet on hand, that " springs forth" at some undetermined point of time withi n a now-sequence or occupies its place in the like . Death, it bears recalling, is the inevitable possibility, not of anything on hand, but of the impossibility of being-here (SZ 2 6 2 ) . "The original and genuine future" is being-here 's manner of al­ lowing this possibili ty to come to i t, "existing as the possibili ty of noth­ i ngness, a possibility that cannot be overtaken'' (SZ 330) . The fourth aspect of genuine timeliness concerns the relation of timeliness to being-here. Genuine care is a phenomenal expression of genuine timeliness or, in more inflated terms, timeliness is the ( tran­ scendental ) condition of the possibility of care. That is to say, genuine timeliness provides the "sense" of genuine care ; it constitutes in a con­ crete way the transcendence signified by ' care ' and ' being-in-the­ world. ' "Sense" for Heidegger is that "upon" or "over against which" something is projected; without this " horizon" what is projected would not be visible or sensible (ambiguity intended) , even if in the process the horizon i tself i n a certain se nse is not regarded (see SZ 1 5 1 , 3 24, and section 5 . 2 below) . Seen in this light, genuinely being-here only makes sense (sinnvnll) in view of timeliness as the sort of "an ticipating" ( Vorlaufen) that "re trieves" or brings me back to myself (wiederholend) and in the process makes my situation present to me in th e decisive " moment" or ''momentously" (augenblicklich) . As far as talk of "sense" as a horizon is concerned, it is only natural to th i n k of th e fol l owing p a i rs : fo re gro u n d / ba ck gr ou n d figure / groun d , or m e l ody / ac c o m pan i m e n t These examples are in struc tive ,

.

THE TIM ELINESS O F EXI STENTI A L TRUTH

3 33

but also misleading ( and no less instructive because they are mislead­ ing) . In certain respec ts it hardly seems possible for us to direct our at­ tention only at the foreground of a picture; without a ground against which a figure cuts a profile , the figure would neve r be apparent. So, too, some musical accompaniments seem to fade out, thereby allowing the melody to stand out all the more. In corresponding fashion , gen­ uine timeliness does not merely constitute respective ways in which to be-here is to stand out or ex-ist and thus disclose ( namely, "running­ ahead" or "anticipating," "retrieving" or "repeating," and "involvement in the moment'' ) . Genuine timeliness also includes the horizon for these timely constitutions of existence , though the horizon is different in each case. 1 20 In order to appreciate Heidegger's interpre tation of timeliness as the horizon or sense of being-here, it may be helpful to recall that be­ ing-here is intentionality or, be tter, the paradigm of intentionality, a cat­ egorial perception , viewed "from the inside ," to use Heidegger's own trope . As a means of capturing the originally timely character of being­ here , of being-in-th e-world as the ground level of intentionality, Hei­ degger construes the modes of timeliness - anticipating, retrieving, and the moment - as "ecstases" (Ekstasen) . This use of 'ecstasis' (from ek: out, and istemi: to place ) plays on original uses of the Greek term in the sense of displacement, literally and figuratively, as well as on modern conno­ tations of those figurative senses. We say, for example , that someone is e cstatic when she is "beside herself" with joy or pleasure and so given up to the experience that she gives little or no thought to herself or even to what she is doing. Being ecstatic, one is on the verge of being un­ conscious, but precisely because one is so focused, so intently engaged in and, in that active sense , given up to the moment. Heidegger's ap­ peal to these associated meanings is meant to convey how those modes of timelines - those e cstases - jointly constitute the most basic level of being-here or, in other words, the pre thematic process of being-here in the sense of being outside oneself Again , as in the case of ' being-here, ' Heidegger exploits a term with an unmistakably spatial root, while at the same time insisting on the fundamentally temporal significance of

l

2 o Heidegger describes th ese horizons formally, i .e . , i rrespe c tive of whether the man ner of being-in-the-world is authentic or n ot. The horizon for comi ng-to-oneself ( the fu­

ture ) is "the ' for-th e-sake-of-oneself' " (das 'Umwillen seiner ' ) ; the horizonal sc hema for a] readi ness is t h e "for-what" or "in-the-face-of-what" (das Wovor, as in "wh at do you fear for ? ) ; and that for ren dering presen t is the " in-order-to" ( Um-z.u) ; SZ 365; GP 3 7 7f. "

334

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

the phenomenon s o designated. The term ' ecstasis' i s used to translate '.t.:nstase' because it is an English word, roughly synonym ous with 'ectasy, ' albeit far less common, and because Heidegger himself uses a tertn sim­ ilar i n meaning to ' ecstasy' - ' Entriickung' ( ' rapture ' ) - as a means of elaborating the meaning of 'Ekstatse. ' ' Ecstasis' seems an apt transla­ tion since i t brings to mind the normal con notations of ' ecstasy' , but, thanks to its uncommonness, also deflec ts any quick identification of the usual senses with the sense introduced by Heidegger to convey how timeliness constitutes being-here . With this notion of ' ecstasy' in mind, the horizonal character of time­ liness must be unde rstood in two respects ( SZ 3 24ff, 365 ) . In one re­ spect, genuine timeliness provides the horizon for genuine care as a whole, and thereby the "sense" of genuine hutnan existence. In an­ other, closely related respect, each mode of genuine timeliness - what Heidegger dubs the "ecstases" or, literally, ways of "standing out" from itself in "anticipating," "retrieving," and the "mon1ent" - has its own re­ spective horizon. Gen uine timeliness comprises the horizon of care and thereby the sense of existence by in tegrating the horizons for the "ec­ stases" of anticipating, retrieving, and moment that respectively consti­ tute the genuine future, past, and present. Yet in either of these respects, the horizonal metaphor can be mis­ leading. For example, the horizon for "anticipating" - the "for-the-sake­ of-oneself' - does not merely accompany it like some neutral back­ ground. Instead the horizon struc tures the genuine projection, pulling and guiding i t. Ye t this does not mean that the horizon somehow ob­ tains independently of the prqj ection. " The move-away [E:ntrii ckung, that is of the essence of each "ecstasis" ] opens this horizon and holds it open" ( GP 3 78 ) . Genuine timeliness is a projecting ( i . e . , an anticipating) from which (as al ready discussed) a genuine way of "already being" ( re­ trieving) and a genuine way of "attending to things" (in the moment) spring. But it is always a projecting "toward something" ( "for the sake of oneself, one 's being-here") and this directionality is decisive . Mention has already been made of the integral character of titneli­ ness. Each "ecstasis" of genuine ti n1eliness "reaches" or "stands out" to the other two , which form part of that aspect's horizon ( not unlike Husserl 's longitudinal and transversal time-consciousness ) . Thus, for example, the nexus of anticipating and retrieving forms part of the hori­ zon of the momen t, namely, the genuine possibilities that being-here at­ tends to in its si tuation. The anticipating or forerunning, the retrieving o r repeating, and presenting in the moment are , in Heidegger 's for-

THE

T I I\-1 E L I N E S S O F E X I S T E N T I A L

TRUTH

335

mulation , "ecstases of timeliness"; he labels the respective direction or horizon of the ecstasis its "horizonal schema" ( SZ 3 65 , 3 2 9 ) . In view of the fact, first, that genuine timeliness consti tutes the horizon of care and th us the sense of human existence and, second, that each ecstasis of gen­ uine timeliness has a respective, leading horizon , Heidegger speaks of the "ecstatic-horizonal" character of timeliness. The purpose of th is accoun t of timeliness , it bears recalling, is to ar­ ticulate the sense of "being-here" and "being-in-the-world," Heideg­ ger's terms for wh at Husser! allegedly describes "from the outside" as intentionality. Heidegger's accoun t of ecstatic-horizonal timeliness is thus supposed to capture the concrete transcendence that receives , in h is view, only muted and inadequate elaboration in the sort of theoret­ ical and perceptual orientation that Husser} gives to the doctrine of in­ ten tionality. In pursuit of this obj ective , Heidegger uses typically spatial adverbial expressions to designate the horizons ( e.g. , Wohin) and nom­ inalizations of active verbs typically ascribed to a human agen t for the respective ecstases ( e .g. , Vorlaufen) . Though they appear to the reade r as "mixed me taphors," the combinations of these two sorts of locutions are designed to indicate a presubj ective yet ecstatic unfolding (later dubbed "time-space" ) as the original significan ce of "being. " "There is, as part of the ecstasis, a peculiar openness, which is given with the 'out­ side-i tself. ' That toward which each ecs tasis is, in a specific way, in i tself open , we designate as the ' horizon of the ecstasis '" ( GP 378) . The hori­ zons are thus related to the ecstases as the world is related to the exis­ ten tials making up "being-in-the-world. " More precisely, the horizonal­ ity of ecstatic timeliness is the original significan ce of the "world. " "The world is neither on hand nor handy bu t instead unfolds (zeitigt sich) in timeliness. It 'is here ' with the outside-itself of the ecstases. If no being­ here exists, no world is also ' here "' ( SZ 365 ) . In this way Heidegger introduces the transcenden tal dimension of the analysis of timeliness. "Resting on the horizonal unity of ecstatic timeliness, the world is transcenden t" ( SZ 366) . For example , precisely in the "moment" that springs from genuinely coming-to-ourselves , we bring ourselves, being-here, face-to-face with our respective situations. On the basis of genuine timeliness, we encoun ter others, what is handy, and what is on hand. Regarded in this way, genuine timeliness is the con dition of the possibility of genuinely being-in-the-world, en com­ passin g the worldin ess of the work-world, being-with-others, and being­ oneself and thereby allowi ng for an authentic encoun ter with in tra­ worldly entities.

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

Given that (a) the disclosedness o f the sense o f being-here i s the orig­ inal truth , (b) the ecstatic-horizonal timeliness is the sense that is thereby disclosed, and ( c ) timeliness in the manner elucidated thus constitutes the care ( existence ) of being-in-the-world , timeliness might be labeled "the transcendental truth . " The word 'ecstatic ' accordingly indicates that timeliness is "the original ' outside-itself in and of itself' and precisely in this sense , as the "woof and warp" of being-in-the-world, it can be said to be the condi tion of the possibility of being-in-the­ world. 1 2 1 Being-here (bein g-in-the-world, concerned, caring about oth­ ers and about oneself) is "outside-itself." The original "outside-itself' is th e timeliness by means of which it is "here" (da) . It scarcely needs to be added that Heidegger's explanation of how genuine timeliness (wiederholend-augenblickliches Vorlaufen) constitutes the sense of genuine care would be misunderstood from the ground up if it were conceived as a property or determination that happens to accrue to some care that is otherwise on hand. To be here is to care, and caring is timely through and th rough , that is, ecstatically unfolding against an horizon . 1 22 The fifth and final point to be made about timeliness springs from its ecstatic-horizonal character. A thing that is handy or on hand is an enti ty that surfaces in time; being-here is that enti ty the sense of which , namely, care, is grounded in timeliness. Since timeli ness constitutes the sense of being-here and thereby underlies any sense of being handy or on hand, it would be a category mistake to define timeliness itself as an entity or to maintain that timeliness itself "is." As a means of avoiding such category mistakes and emphasizing the dynamic, unified phe­ nomenon of timeliness as the original "outside-itself," Heidegger speaks of the Zeitig;ung of timeliness, a term that might be translated ' ripening, ' 'unfolding, ' or even ' timing. ' 1 23 While H eidegger, perhaps 1 2 1 SZ 3 2 9; GP 3 7 7f. As these passages demonstrate, the expression 'ecstatic-horizonal' is fraught with spatial metaphors, again raising the questionableness, later conceded by H eidegger, of his efforts to ground the spatiality of being-here in timeliness. The ec­ static feature, it bears noting, is similar to H usserI 's view of the transcendence in ti me­ consciousness itself; that is to say, by vi rtue of the retentional-pri mal impression unity of abiding, every now transcends or "has a fringe." A different but relate d ecstatic fea­ ture can be found in the bodiliness and motivated perception disc ussed in Ideas II. See 2 . 4 2 above . 1 2 2 P 3 1 2 : "In the flight from [or in the face of: vor] it�elf, tim e rem ains time." 1 2 3 SZ 3 2 8-33 1 . As a translation of ' zeitigm, ' u n fo l d has the advantage of bei ng transi­ tive , intransitive, and reflexive, like the German word; it also captures the sense of movement and the dually ecstatic-horizonal character of timeliness (see below) . The term has some m isl e ad i n g connotations as well , e . g. , it m i gh t be taken i n an u n d uly n e utral s e n s e (as opposed to ' ripen ' ) or in literally s pat i al se nses. '

'

TH E T I M EL I N ES S O F EX I STENTIA L TRUTH

337

ill-advisedly, construes timeliness transcenden tally, as a condition of the possibility of being-here, he does not understand it as something that somehow obtains apart from being-here. Instead, timeliness is the sense of being-here . Every existential is, in th e last analysis, a complex kind of timing or a matter of timing. For example, "coming-to-oneself' - the original and genuine sense of th e future - is the timeliness that consti­ tutes and is disclosed by the basic existential of understanding/ projecting; the way we are always already disposed in the thrown ness of our existence is also a matter of timing, a certain kind of abiding or "at­ readiness." The chart below summarizes th e foregoing sketch of five aspects of genuine timeli ness. On the basis of that sketch , it becomes clear how they are connected with one another. The original timeliness has that ecstatic-horizonal character (das ursprii ngliche Auj3er-sich an und fur sich selbst) , above all because the ecstases constantly complement one an­ other, but in such a way that the future is primus inter pares. The finitude of genuine and original timeliness is also connected to the fundamen­ tal futurity - the "coming-to-oneself' - of timeliness's ecstatic-h orizonal character. Timeliness "is" not, but i nstead "unfolds" (zeitigt) and its "ti m­ ing" lies ontologically in advance of every sense of being (being-here , being-wi th , being a world, being-handy, being-on-hand) . In the timing that constitutes the sense of being-h ere , of caring, what i t means "to be" is originally disclosed. Five Aspects of Genuine Timeliness 1 The integrated character of its modes ( the retrieval , the moment, 2

3 4

5

and the anticipation are unified and inseparable - like the Trinity) . The primacy of the future : the original past ( the retrieval) and pres­ ent ( the momen t) spring from the original future (coming-to-one­ self, becoming who one genuinely is by anti cipating the possibility most one's own ) . The finitude: the genuine future is the anticipation of death . The ecstasis and horizon: genuine timeliness comprises ecstases, that is to say, ways in which to be-here is to be "outside" or even "beside oneself' and horizons ( that on which the projection is projected) , in view of which being-here is "ecstatic" ; this ecstatic-horizonal charac­ ter of timeliness is the sense of th e manner of being defined as 'be­ ing-here' ( care , existence) and the transcendental condition of be­ ing-in-the-world (lo n gi tu di n al and transversal , respectively) . The unfoldi ng: gen ui ne ti me is n ot, but instead "unfolds'' a n d that is

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

precisely what it means to be "the original 'outside-i tself in and for itself." 4 . 5 2 Exemplar and Degeneration: The Strategy and Structure of the Argument

in Being and Time. Futurally coming back to i tself a n d [ all the while] making prese n t, res­ oluteness brings itself into the situation. The characte r of being-already springs from the futu re , in such a way, to be sure, that the abided (bet­ ter: abidi ng) fu ture releases from i tself the present. This phenomenon, unified as already-presen ting future i n that way, we cal l timeliness. Only in­ sofar as being-here is determined as timeliness, does i t enable being-h ere itself to be able to be the [earlier] characterized authentic potential-to­ be-whole of anticipating resolute ness . Timeliness reveals itself to be the sense of authentic care. ( SZ 3 2 6 )

This passage sums u p the account o f genuine timeliness ske tched in the last section . In addition, it announces the last, decisive step of Heideg­ ger's argume nt. The argument supposes a series of possible gradations to the phenomenon in question , namely, being-here. On the assump­ tion that "all ' springing forth ' in the ontological field [amounts to a] degeneration," Heidegger begins with the determination of the exem­ plar of the investigated phenomenon . 1 24 What underlies this way of proceeding can be exemplified in ter1ns of what, by some accounts ( Pliny, Coleridge ) , must be presumed in or­ der to understand art. Art is in a se nse something only an artist or, be t­ ter, a master, understands and, indeed, "understands" in Heidegger's sense of the term, involving a know-how and capability that is itself dis­ closive . The master knows that, i n order to understand an art, one must be able to throw ( project) oneself into it so that, in this projection , what it means for artwo rk and artist to be or, better, come into being discloses itself prethematically. The novice who wants to learn to be a genuine painter or dancer makes a serious mistake in assuming that any rea­ sonably skilled prac titioner will do. For only a master, someone with the capacity to create a specific form of art, can provide the standard and measure of an artist. Bo tanists and zoologists follow a roughly analogous principle in their efforts to identify distinct species. In order to determine the species that 1 24 SZ 3 3 4 ; 3 1

1 .

Appeal of this sort to an exemplar

is n o t u n precedented ; bei ng-h e re is i t­

self the "exemplary e n ti ty" for an on tological investigation

( SZ 7 ) .

THE TI MELINESS

OF

E X I S TE N T I A L T R U T H

33 9

contain all those individuals wh o form a certai n reproductive comrnu­ nity, th e researcher must look for similari ties in appearances and func­ tions and for standard forms of behavior. The researcher attempts to es­ tablish first what transpires i n nature "for the most part" (Physics 1 g6b 1 1 ) and , to this end, she provisionally sets aside anomalous fea­ tures and questionable cases, including possible "degenerations. " In the process, criteria for a "healthy" condition and a " thriving" develop­ ment of a member of the species c rystallize . The testing of such a stan­ dard remains, to be sure, an ongoing task of research . Insofar, however, as th e exemplar can be established , it can also be ascribed to each mem­ ber of the species as an original , even defining potential (in the sense of an indwelling capability) . But that original potential only shows itself in the exemplar that genuinely realizes it. 1 �5 In a similar way, Heidegger in Being and Time presumes that exis­ tence, the basic phenomenon of human life , can be genuine or not and that the sense of th is phenomenon should be sought in the determi­ nation of genuine existence. The first section of Being and Time is de­ voted to an in terpre tation of an inauthentic way of being-here, which comes to a close in the explication of care. According to this interpre­ tation, being-here is defined by care as "being-ah ead-of-oneself in the course of already-being-in (a world ) and being-involved-with ( entities encountered within-the-world ) . " But Heidegger then presses on to an analysis of the sense of this manner of being in its genuineness. In the ordo essendi (what is first in itself) the interpretation of the sense of gen­ uinely being-here has priority. By con trast, in the rhetorical ordo discendi et exhibitendi ( a con trived ordo cognoscendi) , the point of departure is what we first encounter "for the most part" (what is first for us) . In this man­ ner the analysis in Being and Time leads from the inauthen tic care of lapsed existence to authentic care ( "the an ticipatory resoluteness" ) in order to arrive at the sense of authentic existence ( "the original timeli­ ness" ) (see SZ 3 1 1 ) . This timeliness (" retrieving-momentous anticipat­ ing" ) un derlies being-here-authentically or, what is equivalent to it, au­ then tic care . Heidegger draws from this insigh t the conclusion that timeliness in general makes care possible as such ( SZ 3 2 7 ) . In contrast to authentic timeliness, timeliness in general is charac­ terize d as "abiding-presenting future" (gewesend-gegenwiirtigende Zukunft) . 1 25

I t bears noting t h a t , i n Kan t's doc tri n e of aesth etic ide a s and Sc hopen hauer's view of

art's c a p ac i ty to rep rese n t the ideas ( obj e c ti fi catio ns of the wi l l ) , the i d ea in art trum p s the biologist's c o n c e p t .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

The senses of the terms translated as 'abiding' and 'future ' have already been addressed i n regard to Heidegger's account of authentic timeliness (4.5 1 ) . But the translation of 'gegenwiirtigend ' by the term ' presen ting' deserves some explanation as well. ' Gegenwiirtigen, ' the root term for the gerund translated as 'presenting' in this phrase, is a play on the ordinary term for the temporal present, ' Gegenwart, ' as well as the term for re-pre­ senting, ' Vergegenwiirtigen. ' As a combination of these two terms, 'gegen­ wiirtigend' signals a timely unfolding that can give rise, by way of ab­ straction , to the now as an isolated "presen t" as well as to the act of presenting oneself with something or even holding it - spatially - before oneself for consideration. While 'gegenwiirtigend ' is contrived, i ts syn­ thetic sense would not be foreign to German ears, especially in view of a construction involving the adj ective/adverb 'gegenwiirtig : ' sich etwas gegenwiirtig halten' signifying ' to keep something in view. ' The expression 'gegenwiirtigend' is the only term that does double duty in Heidegger's taxonomy of ecstases. He employs it to describe ecstases of inauth entic timeliness as well as of timeliness in general. At the same time, as noted in the last section , Heidegger characterizes the moment not as a "pre­ senting" (Gegenwiirtigen) , but as a way of "authentically attending-to" (eigentliches Gegen-wart) something ( SZ 338) . Timeliness in general appears to be nothing more than a "place­ holder'' concept for Heidegger, wielded by him in his effort to show how timeliness also constitutes the sense of care ( being-here ) that is not gen­ uine . The five features discussed earlier that emerge from the exem­ plary ( "original and genuine") timeliness have their coun terparts in in­ authentic timeliness as the sense of inauthen tic existence. From the fact that genuine timeliness constitutes the sense of care and so makes it possible, Heidegger infers that timeliness in general forms the sense of care. This inference is valid only if genuine care is not some arbitrary instance but the existen tial paradigm. In this connection Heidegger's strategy of drawing a profile of exemplary existence before turning to the question of its sense is patent. He assumes that everything on tolog­ ically derivative is a "degeneration ." In other, more prosaic terms, noth­ ing realizes all the potential that is proper to it by virtue of what i t is. In keeping with this principle, the account of timeliness in general follows from the interpre tation of genuine timeliness. Heidegger begins wi th genuine timeliness, viewing it as the on to­ logically original sort of timeliness. In the process , the determinations of g enuin e timeliness and timeliness in ge ne ral appear to overlap, es­ pecially in §65 of Being and Time. In the manner in which " re trievi n g-

T H E T I M ELINESS

OF

EXI STENTI A L TRUTH

momentous anticipating" exhibits the sense of genuine care ( "the antic­ ipatory resoluteness") , the "abidi ng-presenting future" of care in general first yields the ge neral sense of care ( "bei ng-ahead-of-oneself-in-al­ ready-being-in [a world] as being-involved-wi th [entities encountered wi thin-the-world] " ) . Insofar as it constitutes the sense of care generally, Heidegger ske tches timeliness i n such a way that it contains the same ecstatic, future-oriented character, albeit in a modified, neutral man­ ner. Being-here can be ahead-of-itself, Heidegger argues, because in its very being it "comes-to-itself' (aufsich-zukom'lnt) and is thereby able to come back to itself and encounter something. 4·5 2 l ORIGINAL

TI MELI NESS

AND

TIMELINESS

IN

GE NE RA L :

F L E I S C H E R ' s O BJ E C T I O N .

Heidegger's way of beginning with genuine timeliness in order to demonstrate the ontological originality of time­ liness is closely connected with what Margot Fleischer dubs the "am­ bivalence" in his analysis of time (F 1 9-2 6 ) . Her challenging investiga­ tion is one of a h andful of studies that carefully and critically contend with Heidegger's analysis of time. 1 2 6 She con tests the validi ty of Hei­ degger's systematic attempt to construe timeliness as the foundation of all the ontological modes of being-here (see F 6 7 ) . In particular, she ar­ gues that Heidegge r's attempt to anchor each fundamental existential in a respective ecstasis, while i nsisting on both the integrated character of the ecstases and the primacy of the future , leads "to insurmountable difficulties" that substantiate her thesis that Heidegger's very poin t of departure , namely, his effort "to think the being of being-here as time­ liness," is unnecessary (F 1 o, 39) . Her interpretation thus presents a radical challenge to the central argument of Being and Time. If Flei­ scher's interpretation is on the mark, then a thematization of timeliness (which she considers i n any case aporetic) would not be required to de­ termine the "totality" of care and thus the sense of being-here as a 1 2 6 Klaus Dusi ng, "Obje ktive und subjektive Zeit. U n tersuchung zu Kants Zeittheorie

zu ihrer mode rnen Rezeption ," Kant-Studien 7 1 ( 1 g8o) : 1 -34; Ma rion Heinz, Zeitlichkf'it und Temporalitiit. Die Konstitution der Existenz und die Grundlegung einer tempo­ ral-en Ontologie im Friihwerk Martin Heideggers (Wiirzburg-Amsterdam : Rodopi , 1 98 2 ) ; Fran preccrl i ng note. SZ 42 1 ;

TH E TI MELI NESS

OF

EXI STEN T I A L T RUTH

Everything handy or on hand that is encountered within-the-world is said to be "within-time'' (innerzeitig) ( SZ 4 1 2 ) . Nature itself is said to in­ corporate everything within time, everything that time encompasses. According to Heidegger, this "encompassing character" of time is yet another aspect of the common conception of time. 1 45 The constan t, uniform movement of the second hand of a traditional clock poin ts to a further property of the common conception of time. It is difficult, if not i mpossible, to imagine that this time would stop , that is to say, that there would be a now upon which another, practically in­ distinguishable now would not follow. In contrast to the "digital" char­ acterization of hours and minutes, the movement of the second hand is an "analog" presentation of the seconds. However one migh t divide time , the boundaries of th e division always appear to be more or less blurred. The units of time reach over into one another in such a way that time appears as a steady, continuous stream. "Each now is essen­ tially not-yet and no-more" (GP 3 8 6 ) , and "each now is also already just now [Soeben] or right away [Sofort] " (SZ 4 24) . Thus, each now has a tran­ sitional character, such that a time consisting of nows is "infinite" in three senses. The succession of nows appears to extend "backward'' as well as ''forward'' withou t end, and there seems to be no limit to the extent to which each now can be made more precise. The notion that each now is a (digital) "part" of a sequence and yet possesses the (analog) char­ acter of a transition and thereby a potential infinity within it is, to be sure , the source of frequently noted paradoxes attending to the com­ mon , dimensional concept of time. Time in this sense appears, for ex­ ample, to consist of being and not-being (being now what is and is not on hand, namely, what is no more on hand and what is not yet on hand) (GP 38 5ff; SZ 4 2 3 ) . The image of "backward" and "forward" lends credence to Kant's ob­ servation that it is necessary to have recourse to spatial metaphors to determine time ( though musical rhythm and beat - not the notation ­ suggest otherwise ) . Kant maintains furthermore that "we cannot imag­ ine time (which is not at all an obj ect of ou ter experience ) otherwise than by the image of a line that we draw" (B 1 56 ) . In this way time can . be visualized as a steady, uniform flow. Of course , one might legiti1 45 GP 367, 3 R R ; SZ 4 2 � ; see also Timaeu� 3 7d . See , too , Newton's Principia o n ti m e as a s e nsorium . A se nsori u m may be a leftove r of Newto n ian theology, bu t the encom p ass­

a pp r o a c h to nature. Th us, j u dging from the ways h galaxies s te a di l y move apart from o n e another, ph y s i c i s ts infer that the uni­

i n g c harac te r s u rvi,·es in physicist�i '

in

wh i c

ver�F

h a � hc-- t> n

�xpa n d i n g

fo r app rox i m a t�1y tw� n ty hi l l i o n y�� r� .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T RU T H

mately ask t o what extent Heidegger's account of the "ecstatic" and "horizonal" character of timeliness merely replaces one spatial metaphor with another. In any case, however, the metaphorical ex­ pression of "backward" and "forward" signals yet another aspect of the traditional concept of time that can also be read off a clock: the asym­ me try ( irreversibility, anisotropy) of time . The fact that the second hand constantly moves in the same direction suggests time's irre­ versibility. Each now of the endless succession of nows "passes away" (SZ 426, 4 1 0 ) . In Wahrig's dictionary, the following definition of a clock is given: "instrument for measuring elapses [or, more literally, runoffs: Abliiufe] of time and movement. " 1 46 This definition clearly supposes a difference between clocks and time , while indicating a kinship between time and motion. According to the dictionary definition , time as well as motion consist of "runs" that can be counted and measured. A windmill's rev­ olutions, for example, might be measured by comparing them with the movement of the second hand of a stopwatch. 1 47 The numerability or countability of time is exemplified by the everyday queries "How much time do you have?" and "What time is it?" If the comparison with movements supposed by these definitions of clocks stands , then time is something numerable and measurable . But what are the "runs" or "processes" that, according to the defini tion, are counted and measured? As already noted, the most plausible and com­ prehensible answer would seem to be given by the clock itself: namely, the hours, minutes, and seconds of a day. Yet this answer is obviously in­ adequate since the hours and minutes, the seconds and milliseconds are themselves only measurements of time. Similarly, a year ( the length of time it takes the earth to complete one revolution around the sun) ,

1 46 Wah rig, Deutsches Wiirterbuch, 1 26 1 . 1 4 7 On this poi n t and others made i n the presen t c on text, see Adolf Grun baum , The Phz­

losophy of Space

& Time, tr. Maria Reichenbac h and John Freu nd ( New York: Dover,

1 958) , 1 1 5f: "To summarize our ideas, we may say that the measureme n t of equal time i n tervals is obtain ed th rough mechan isms whi c h we assume to run through their pe­ riod in equal times. Actually, we never measure a ' pure time , ' but always a process, wh ich may be periodic as in the case of the clock, or nonperiodic as in the case of the freely moving mass poin t. Every lapse of time is connec ted with some process , fo r otherwise it cou ld not be pe rceived at al l. Th e measurement of tim e is therefore based upon an assumption about the behavi or of certai n physical mec hanisms. How can we test th is

assumption? The re is only one answer: we can not tes t it. at all. Th e re is ba�ically n o means t o com pare two successive periods of a clock, just as there is no mean s t o com­ pare two measuri ng rods when o n e- l i e-� heh i n rl t h e o t h e r. "

T H E T I M E L I N E S S O F E X I STE N T I A L T R U T H

a month ( the approximate span of tim e of one lunar cycle ) , and a day ( the period of tim e covered by one diurnal cycle ) are all as it were "nat­ ural" clocks, not to be confused with time itself. 1 48 What both artificial and natural clocks appear to count and measure are nows that can be determ ined more precisely, depending upon the respective unit of time (millennium , year, month , second, nanosec­ ond ) . In this form the definition of the clock corresponds to a concep­ tion of time as a potentially infinite succession of overreaching, denu­ merable nows that can be made m ore or less precise, a succession encompassing all natural things or events and equally available or on display to everyone. In this way the definition of the clock entails four features that, in Heidegger's view, stamp the so-called common or di­ mensional conception of time : the numerable, exposed, encompassing, and transitional character of a sequence of notus (GP 3 6 2 £) . "The common un­ derstanding of time comprehends only the time revealing itself in coun ting as a succession of nows. Growing out of this understanding is the concept of time as a sequence of nows that can be determined more precisely as a one-directional, irreversible sequence of the after-one-an­ oth er" (GP 3 63 ) . Traditional interpre tations of time since Aristotle presuppose the clock as the natural means of access to tim e but repeatedly leave the phenomenon of using the clock out of consideration. Traditional the­ ories of time, in other words, "read" time's features "off' clocks, that is to say, they determine those features that seem "apparent" (offenbar) from the use of clocks or from time measurement generally - without probing what actually is measured and how such measurement is pos­ sible. According to Heidegger, this neglect, far from being acciden tal, is not only symptomatic, but decisive for those traditional i n terpreta­ tions ( SZ 42 1 ; GP 3 2 6f, 362£) . Regrettably, Heidegger does not back up this claim by doing the pick-and-shovel work necessary to locate in more than a few cases a recurrence of the features in question . In keeping 1 4 8 SZ 4 1 2-4 2 5 . One o f th e pa ra d o xe s of th e laws o f mechanics is i ts assumption that ti me is an independent variable (e.g., F= ma, a = v/ t, v

=

s/ t) and yet only measurable by

way of c l oc ks or th e equivalent, the determi nation of wh ich supposes th e laws that con­ tain ti me as an independent variable. On this point, see again Grunbaum , Philosophy

of Space & Time, 1 1 6 : "Do n o t the laws of p hysi c s, for instance th ose of the m o ti o n of th e p endul u m c o m p e l us to believe in th e e qual ity of p erio d s ? It is true th at the laws as desc ribed in tex tbooks suggest this belief; but if we ask ourselves wh ere these laws come from , we shall find th at they are o bt a i n e d th rough observations of clocks cali­ brated according to the p rin c i pl e of th e equal i ty of their pe riods. Th e proof is th ere­ ,

fore circular. "

H F. I D F. G G E R ' S

C O N C E PT O F

TRUTH

with his proj ect o f establishing that ecstatic-horizonal tim eliness i s more fundamental than the dimensi onal view of time, he concen trates in­ stead on the roots of these dimensional views of time in the time of the work-world. The latter sort of time or "world-time," as he also calls it, comes, not from examining clocks but from using them , not from ana­ lyzing but from "telling time. " In telling time, "I make n ei ther the clock nor the time the theme of the consideration" ( GP 364) . As a means of elucidating Heidegger's analysis of "world-time" ( time we are concerned with , especially as evidenced in use of a clock) , the following scenario may prove helpful . It's a hot summer afternoon in a factory with no air condi tioning. A pair of tired workers look repeatedly at the clock on the wall, waiting anxiously for the four o 'clock break. As they suddenly see the cart with food and drinks make i ts way i n to the hall, as it does every day shortly before the break, one worker turns to the other and says: "I started to work this morning wi th a hangover and thought the day would n ever end; but n ow i t's already break time, time to get something to drink and then, before you know it, we' ll be home to kic k back." The foreman has a different perspective when he looks at the clock or sees the food cart, and remarks to his assistant: "Now that we' re in such close range of our target, we can finally breathe a little easier; earlier in the day when the shift started and the shipments just arrived I was worried; I doubted that the workers would be able to h old up in this heat; but now they are produci ng about twenty pieces an hour. Back when I was first hired and we had only those old machines, this sort of output would have been unthinkable. But if they keep working the way they are now, I ' ll be able to call the boss and inform him that we've reached the quota." When the worker and foreman look at the clock in their work-world, they are reckoning with time. In this sort of reckoning via the use of a clock, time is meaningful (=worldly) . That is to say, without directing his view to time as such , the worker looks at the clock in order to " take the time" to do someth ing, for example, "to get something to drink. " In this way he "uses" and "passes" the tim e . As Heidegger puts i t, "Looking-at­ the-clock is grounded in and carried ou t by a taki ng-time" ( SZ 4 1 6 ) . When the foreman looks at the clock, he "sees" the ti me that it will take to reach a certain goal ("our quota") ; the "en tire" time, as far as he is r o n r � rn �d , was di rected at that g oal . Part of th e meaningfulness of time that surfac es i n the use of a clock i s

TH E T I M E L I N E S S

OF

EXI STENT IAL TRUTH

its "suitability" ( Geeignetheit) . Four o 'clock is the time to take a break and to think about going home; or it is time to take stock of what's been ac­ complished so far; six o'clock is the "right" time to stop working and "kick back" or "report to the boss. " In view of this suitability or aptness, time is "structured." This structuring and ordering of time, with respect to a clock or calendar, is made tangible by certain expressions, typically ad­ verbs and adverbial conjunctions such as 'now, ' 'finally, ' and 'back when . ' The Kan tian image of a time-line outfitted wi th time-points ( nows ) is woefully inadequate when it comes to this structuring o f the suitabil­ ity of (worldly, meaningful ) time . For this structuring of time depends upon its meaning. In light of the worker's and the foreman 's respective p lans and views of what each has ahead of him, they look at the clock differen tly. To be sure, they understand the past and the imminent in view of a present; but th is present is not a now-point occupying a place in a succession of nows. If the worker or the foreman looks at the clock and says "now, " each expresses something that is meaningful only in combination wi th the senses of such expressions as ' this morning' or 'earlier' and ' already' or ' finally. ' Far from indicating any obj ects or things baldly on hand, these various expressions are made in view of the significance of time as "time to . . . ," for example , now it's time to take a break, to breathe easier, time to kick back, to call the boss, and so on . As Heidegger puts it, "When we say ' now, ' we are never oriented to the now as to something on hand . . . . we are not thereby addressing any­ thing on hand" (GP 365£) . The factory scenario also exemplifies how time can be structured or punctuated without paying any atten tion to the clock as such . "We are always reckoning wi th time already, before we look on the cloc k, meas­ uring time" (GP 365 ; SZ 407 ) . The workers did not need to look at the clock to know whether the break was imminen t; the appearance of the food cart does the j ob just as well. So, too, it is not so much eigh t o'­ clock as it is a han gover and the arrival of the shipments that mark the same time ("morning" ) for worker and foreman respectively. Nor is a calendar needed to mark the structuring (dating) that takes account of longer intervals; the foreman 's recollection of the level of output when he was first hired in contrast to current productivity suffices to "date" him , his past and present. When the worke r looks at the clock and says "now, " h e is not speak­ ing of four o ' clock b u t of th e time to take a break; in a similar fashion , the foreman 's "now" an nounces a qua l ifi e d s ig h of relief ("now that . . . we can finally bre a th e a l ittle easier" ) . Th e now of th e worker ( h is break time) and th e now of the foreman ( th e period of h is calmed condition )

H E I D E G G E R ' s C O N C E P T O F T R U TH

thereby coincide only approximately. Yet each "now" tarries or whiles away (weilt, das Wiihren der Zeit) in the meaningfu lness and structuring of the respective time ( GP 3 7 2 ) . The beginning of the foreman 's work­ day is determined by the arrival of the shipments and a concern for the progress that would be made in the course of the rest of the day. If the worker is forced to do certain tedious and monotonous tasks over which he has little say or opportunity for variation or creativity, his day is a se­ ries of stretches between breaks. Such examples make clear that the time with which worker and foreman reckon is respectively and appre­ hensively tensed (gespannt) , that is, there is a specific "tension" or "stretch" (Erstrecktheit) to it. 1 49 In other words , there are varying and in­ termittent intensities to world-time, the time that we "concern" our­ selves with . These intensities are the source of "tenses � " 1 50 Insofar as the worker and foreman look at the clock or use the same events to mark time ("the appearance of the food cart" ) , they share the time with one another. Since they avail themselves of a common struc­ turing of time, one shared wi th many others as well, time is also public (offentlich) . "The articulated now is intelligible to everyone in being­ wi th-one-another. Alth ough each says his now respectively, it is still the now for everyone" (GP 37 3 ) . They thus reckon the time of being-with­ one-another according to a generally accessible, public measure of time, even if the precise manner of dating or measuring is different. "The measurement of time accomplishes a pronounced publicizing of time so that in th is way acquaintance is first made with what we com­ monly call ' time . "' � 5 1 Heidegger calls the time with which people deal and reckon , the time they count on , "the time of concern" - more pre1 49 Th e expression 'gespannt' can be used not only in the sense of "a rope is s tre tched" (ein

Seil ist gespannt) but also in the sense of "I am apprehensive of th is" or even "I am look· ing forward to what will happen" (ich bin darauf gespannt) ; the term ' tensed ' as a trans­ lation captures th e latter quite wel l , wh ile the term 'span ned ' does not captu re either sense particularly well. Th e te rm ' te n sed' has the additional advantage of having gram matical uses, the temporal significance of wh ich is presently under attack, pre· cisely on the basis of a commitment to a dimensional view of time; see the following footnote.

1 50 The rejection of te nses in favor of dates , p roposed by H ugh Mellor, co rrespo nds to a rejection of world·time in favor of the common , dimensional view of time. Mellor's

dates obvi ously correspond, not to the dates o f world-time in H eidegger's scenario, but to the numerable transiti ons in th e common conception of ti me; cf. H ugh M ellor, RPal

Time ( Carnbridge : Cambridge Un iv. Press, 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 2 ff. 1 5 1 SZ 4 1 g. Th is text makes clear, as noted earlier and discu�sed at greater length below, that th e publicization of world-time m easurement plays a c rucial role in "the genesis

of thf' co m m on cnn n'· pt of t i mf-'"

( SZ

1 20) .

T H E T I M E L I N E S S O J< E X I S T E N T I A L T R U T H

cisely, "the time [ they are] concerned with" (die besorgte Zeit) - as well as "world-time" (Weltzeit) . 1 52 "World-time" is the umbrella concept for the sort of tim e that we reckon with . Though traditionally overlooked, the features of this time emerge from the use of a clock (the clock as something handy) rather than from a thematization of the clock ( the clock as on hand) . As was elucidated in terms of the factory scenario, the time of concern is mean­ ingful (worldly), datable, tensed (stretched), and public ( SZ 406-4 1 1 ; GP 369-3 7 4; see F 5 7-60) . Among these characteristics, the meaningful­ ness of this time enjoys a certain primacy. Thanks to its meaningfulness, the time that we concern ourselves with is struc tured in commonly ac­ cessible ways and has a certain stretch or varying intensities. The datability of world-time coincides wi th what was charac terized above (wi th the help of temporal adverbs and adverbial expressions) as the "structuring" of time . Just as that structuring is by no means de­ pendent upon clock measurements, so the datability of the time of con­ cern need not depend on the dates of a calendar ( though it does de­ pend upon "presenting" some events in the surroundings or environment) . "Bac k when I began my studies, three of my grandpar­ ents still lived; now they are all dead . " It is possible to structure ( date, punctuate) the time of concern in this way, without thinking of a spe­ cific year, day, hour ( SZ 407 , 4 1 1 ) . By con trast, "the common concep­ tion of time as a now-sequence is as little acquainted with the factor of precalendric datability as with that of meaningfulness" (GP 3 7 1 ) . "Public time" and "world-time" are actually synecdoches, by means of which the same phenomenon is regarded in its entirety from the per­ spective of one of its determining aspects. Thus the determinations of ''public time" and those of "world-time" partially coincide. ''Public time'' designates the time " ' in which ' what is handy and on hand within-the­ world are encoun tered" (SZ 4 1 2 , 4 1 9 ) . "Public time" points to the pub­ licizing of the time of concern as world-time, a publicizing by means of which the dating becomes available to everyone . Since everyone lives " under the same sky," the most natural m easure of time is '' the wan­ dering sun," the route of which is accessible to everyone. With sunrise we first have "time to . . . , " namely, time to do this or that ( SZ 4 1 2£) . 1 5 2 Heidegger calls i t wo rl d time precisely because of its su i tabi l i ty or mean ingfulness, ch aracteristic of th e wo rld as such. He also d ubs it "public time" for reason s discussed below. Heidegger cautions hi s students not to confuse "world-time" with anyth i n g like the time of nature or a natural time , since, as he puts it, " there is no tim e of n ature in­ sofar as all tim e esse n tially belongs to bei n g-here'' ( GP 3 70 ) "

-

"

.

3 70

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

World-time is precisely this "time to . . . , " that is to say, the meaning of time, that underlies the publicized dating. For this reason Heideg­ ger maintains: "The articulated time has in itself a worldly character . " ( GP 383 ) . The characterization of the en tire structure of the world-time is Hei­ degger's "clue'' or "guiding th read" (Leitfaden) to explaining the gene­ sis of the "common," dimensional concept of time on the basis of time­ liness (see SZ 4 2 6 ) . Just as concern itself can be authentic or not, so the time of concern occupies a "porous" (durchliissig) position between au­ thentic and inauthentic timeliness (see F 3 1 , 5 5 , 5 7 ) . From a purely for­ mal point of view, world-time is the point of intersection of ecstatic time­ liness and the dimensional view of time. For this very reason, the introduction of world-time sets the stage for the two remaining ele­ ments of Heidegger's argument ( and two remaining tasks of the pres­ ent chapter) . H e must show, first, how the timing that makes up world­ time is a form of ecstatic timeliness and, second, how the dimensional view of time (as a sequence of on-hand nows) emerges from world-time (see GP 3 79f, 367£) . It should be obvious by now how much is riding on the demonstration of these two points. The force of Heidegger's en­ tire argument depends on establishing the dependency of the common conception of time on world-time and the latter on ecstatic timeliness. If he makes the case for these dependencies, he establishes the funda­ mentalness of ecstatic timeliness and with it the derivativeness of the onhandness in terms of which ' time, ' 'being, ' and ' truth ' are tradi tion­ ally construed. 4 · 5 3 2 E C S TA T I C - H O R I Z O N A L T I M E L I N E S S A N D T H E T I M E O F C O N C E R N : H AV I N G T I M E A N D B U Y I N G T I M E . Heidegger mounts his argument for the ecstatic-horizonal basis of the time of concern with the help of its four structural aspects and some ordinary language analy­ sis. He focuses, in particular, on the use of adverbs like ' earlier, ' ' now, ' and ' then ' i n combination with conjunctions i n such typical construc­ tions as "earlier when . . . ," "now that . . . ," and "if . . . , then . . . . " Not unexpectedly, analysis of these uses in the con text of a time of concern reveals it to be something other than a monotone succession of nows. The analysis reveals instead a time that is constituted, Heidegger main­ tains, by a context of expecting (gewiirtigend) something, holding onto or retaining ( behiiltenrf) that expectation, and thereby presenting (gegen­ wiirtigend) things ( SZ 406 ; see GP 367 ) . The use of the adverb ' now, ' for example , typically expresses a sense of t h e present that in h i s view has noth ing to do with a now-sequence .

.

TH E T I M E L I N E S S O F EX I S T EN T I A L TRU T H

37 1

but everything to do with presenti ng things in the context of a world of concern. "Saying ' now, ' we also always already understand 'since that and that . . . ' Why? because the ' now' lays out [auslegt] a manner of pre­ senting an entity" ( SZ 408) . In their respec tive uses of ' now that . . . , " the worker and the foreman articulate a manner of presenting some­ thing (e .g., the food cart) and, indeed, in terms of its meaningfulness (its utility wi thin that world) . Thanks to that meaningfulness, moreover, the uses of 'now that . . . ' indicate an available stretch of time as well as a way of structuring it with a view to what worker and foreman respec­ tively expect and hold onto ( e.g. , "fulfilling the quota," "kicking back" and "being hung over," "the arrival of the shipments" ) . Similar analyses can be made of the uses of ' earlier' and ' then, ' in each case revealing an originally overreaching (i.e. , ' ecstatic ' ) and contextual (i.e. , ' hori­ zonal ' ) character that lends th ose uses a meani ng, tense , and structure that are generally accessible. Heidegger has something like this in mind when he observes: "The fact that the now is respectively a ' now, that such and such, ' each earlier is an 'earlier, when ' and each then a ' then , when' betrays simply that time as timeliness, as presenting, retaining, and expecting allows something to be encoun te red as uncovered al­ ready. " 1 53 The meaningfulness of this time of concern points to the decisive character of futurity (being ahead of oneself, coming-to-oneself) in ec­ static timeliness. The connection of 'earlier, ' ' now, ' and ' then ' in the foreman 's remarks can only be understood in view of his plans (Vorhabe) . Time is, accordingly, "always the right time or an inopportune time'' (GP 3 83 ) . The foreman recaps whether the work done under his supervision in the course of the day was sufficien t to mee t the day's quota. Retaining evet1'thing, he presents things on the basis of what he expects and continues to expect from the entire day. The meaningful1 53 GP 3 8 1 . Th is reference to a thing's being "uncovered already" is mean t to capture the prethematic , ecstatic character of th is process. The term 'ecstatic ' indicates bo th that presenting things is a way in which being-here is outside itself and that the presenting itself is "out�ide itself' by overlapping with or, better, springing from its cornbination wi th the other ecstases ( the alreadiness and the future ) . In the concern expressed in the factory scenario , the clock, the food cart, and other things are handy, wh ich is to say that they are unthematically present or, better, presen ted. Like any handy (zuhan­ dene�) thing, they are used and, in that sense, presented precisely by being transcended or, in other words, referred to somethi ng else beyond them by virtue of what they are for. The prese n ti ng ( an ecstasis of the present) is inseparable from a ce rtain expecta­ tion ( an ecstasis of the fu ture ) and what is re tai ned ( an ecstasis of the abid ingness ) in view of that expectati on .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

ness of this time that he concerns himself with comprises a manner of being ahead of himself that is the hallmark of the timeliness of being­ in-the-world ( care ) generally. In one respect the entire workday is directed at a preeminent way of rendering something present by way of expecting it and sustaining that expectation : a form of production . Nor should it be overlooked that this worldly time is typically for sale. The workers' time as well as the foreman 's have been bough t, and their labor is, in a sense , their way of buying time for themselves. There is, of course, another sense of 'buy­ ing time ' that is related in an i nteresting way to th is purchase of labor time as well as to authentic time. The expression to 'buy time' is often employed to indicate delaying something. I n this sense , world-time can be bought and, indeed, bough t as a means - albeit hopeless - of delay­ ing authentic time. Only in terms of world-time does it make sense to say, "I have no time" (or, for that matter, "I 'm losing, killing, spending, saving, keeping, managing, making, doing time" ) . In remarks that pro­ vide a key to Heidegger's entire analysis of time and timeliness , he ob­ serves: "By the fact that I can take time, I must have it from somewhere. In a certain sense, we always have time. The fact that we often or mostly have no time, is merely a privative mode of the original way of having time' ( GP 364) . The fact that we all really do have the time is what makes the public character of the time of concern , that is, its accessibility to everyone, pos­ sible. As already mentioned, this accessibility does not mean that an iden tical dating must be ·s hared with others, but that the time of con­ cern is familiar to everyone already and, indeed , familiar on th e basis of that "for-the-sake-of-wh ich" each is-here . "The interpreted, articu­ lated time of the respective m anner of being-here is thus as such re­ spectively also already publicized on the basis of i ts ecstatic being-in-the­ world" ( SZ 4 1 1 ) . The determinations of the time of concern can be articulated and made public in one way or the other ( e.g. , the time shared by workers and foreman , however differently marked in some particulars) because timeliness is "the original ' outside-itself' in and of itself' (SZ 3 29; GP 3 8 2 ) . Timeliness, it bears recalling, is the sense of being-here that, in being-here , that is, in the existential unity of caring, we disclose to ourselves. Disclosure of other entities ' senses of being and discovery of what they are presuppose this self-disclosure . So, too, the disclosure of this timeliness is the source of the common accessi­ bility to time and even of th e shared or public forms of its measurement. As th e on tological sense of be i ng- h e r e that is always already being-with-

THE

TI MELI N ES S

OF

EX I STENT I A L TRUTH

373

others, timeliness ( "the retaining-expecting manner o f rendering-pres­ ent" ) is already disclosed, such that - insofar as i t is articulated - it is im­ m ediately familiar to everyone . Emphasizing the connection between disclosedness and this public charac ter, Heidegger observes that "the unity of timeliness itself as a timeliness open for itself' lies in the man­ ner of being-with-one-another proper to being-here itself ( GP 38 2 ) . The variously tensed and inte rmittent stretches of the time that people are concerned wi th in the work-world are obviously inexplicable in terms of a "sum of individttal nows as dimensionless points" (GP 38 1 ) . Each adverbial conjttnction in the worker's and foreman 's remarks re­ fer, as noted earlier, to a tensing or stre tching of time. World-time is "tensed" (in both senses of the term ) because the manner of present­ ing (expressed by the 'now that . . . ' clauses) depends on a manner of being-here that "at the same time" retains and expects something. "Whenever now is said, the tensed charac ter is also said since, along with the now and the re1nai ning determinati ons of time , a presenting articulates itself that times itself i n ecstatic unity with the expecting and retaining" ( GP 3 8 2 ; SZ 409 ) . There is fi nally the question of the struc turing or dating of the time that we are concerned with . In the factory scenario, worker and fore­ man structure the time in terms of what are "always already future" con­ cerns, punctuating or, better, "punctualizing" the way they present things in terms of certain expectations (GP 3 7 3 : "No now and no in­ stant of time can be punctualized" ) . The reflection "earlier when the shift started and the shipments just arrived I was worried" refers merely to what he retains, not from something past, but from expectations of the entire tim e of concern. In corresponding fashion the sense of the foreman 's expression "then I ' ll be able to call" is based upon the fact that he is waiting for, perhaps even expecting (gewiirtig) a certain out­ come. Accordingly, as Heidegger puts it: "The datability of ' now, ' ' then,' and 'earlier' is the reflection [ Wiederschein] of the ecstatic constitu­ tion of timeliness and therefore essential for the articulated time itself' (SZ 408, 4 1 1 ; GP 3 8of) On the preceding pages, the use of a clock and the employment of temporal adverbs and constructions in an imaginary factory scene have been elaborated as a means of illustrating Heidegger's conception of the ecstatic foundation of "world-time." The portrayal of that scenario was meant to illustrate not merely that time itself is not thematized in the world of the factory, but also how timeli ness, construed "ecstati­ cally. " th at is to say. as t h e u n th em at i c m an n e r of presen ti n g wh a t i � .

37 4

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

handy ( the clock, the building, the machinery, co-workers, th e food cart, etc . ) consti tutes the sense of a particular manner of being-here (caring) . This "world-time," that is, the time that we are concerned \\ri th in the work-world, is meaningful and thus public, tensed (or stretched) , and dated on the basis of a manner of presen ting things that itself springs from what is expected and, as such , retained ( e .g. , productivity) . The constructions 'earlier when, ' ' now that, ' and ' then ' in the worke r's and foreman 's remarks are meaningful , albei t un thematically, in view of the horizon of the entire ecstatic timeliness, the timeliness, it bears recall­ ing, of otlr being-here (SZ 365 ) . "Where do we get the now when we say ' now' ? We obviously do not mean any object, anythi ng on hand, but in­ stead the now is the articulation of what we call the 'prese nting of some­ thing, ' the ' presen t"' (GP 368 ) . So, too, the 'earlier' and the ' then' ar­ ticulate a retaining and an expecting respectively. Each of th ese formulations is based upon the unity of "presenting - expecting - re­ taining" (GP 368 ) . In sum, world-tim e exhibits neither the discontintlous continuum nor the endlessness nor the tlniformity in measurement that are staples of the dimensional view of time. Nor can there be any mistaking the meaningfulness of world-time, the time of "concern ," for the prima fa­ cie innocuousness of the dimensional view of time (SZ 42 5 ) . The time of which the worker "avails" himself is, to be sure, no more to be iden­ tified with ecstatic-horizonal timeliness than it is with time in the sense of a succession of nows. Yet the ti me that concerns the worker is only intelligible, Heidegger con tends, in view of such an ecstatic-horizonal timeliness and not in view of a succession of nows. In other words, while the characteristics of world-time cannot be understood in terms of di­ mensional time, the unity of the ecstases that make tlp the original time­ liness of being-here does provide a basis for understanding the time that we care about. 4 · 5 3 3 T H E M E A S U R E M E N T OF W O R L D - T I M E A N D T H E C O M M O N C O N C E P T I O N o :F T I M E . In explaining the genesis of the common , di­ mensional view of time as a succession of nows, Heidegger begins with the publicizing of the time of concern (world-time ) . As noted more than once already, he does not ide ntify the public character of time wi th the common conception of it. Public time refers to the "world-time" that we l ive out in being-with-one-an other chiefly in the work-world. If one of two co-workers says "now, " they are both able to understand it as "the time to take the next step," eve n if one of them determines this from th � sta g� of th � prorl u c tion process and th e o t h �r from th e app�ara n ce

THE

TIM ELIN ES S OF

E X I STENTI A L TR UTH

375

of a third worker. "By no means do we need to agree on the dating of the articulated now in order to understand it as now. The now articu­ lated in being-with-one-another is intelligible to everyone" ( GP 3 7 3 ; SZ 4 1 of) . The articulated now functions as it were as a placeholder for dif­ ferent datings or as a generally accessible sign of diverse but overlap­ ping structurings of the time of concern . But this way of functioning tes­ tifies, not to som e on hand now, but to an ambiguity (for the most part innocuous if not necessary) in our manner of being-with-one-another in the context of everyday con ce rns. 1 5 4 This ambiguous accessibility to time supposes, however, that time has already been disclosed and th is disclosure , Heidegge r submits, is pre­ cisely what it means to "be-here." Being-here is essentially timely in an ecstatic-horizonal sense; that is to say, it is impossible to be-here and not be presenting something, indeed, something within-the-world, in view of some proj ection of one 's possibilities . Insofar as being-here makes that proj ection in view of being thrown into the world and falling prey to the world, "it interprets its time in the manner of a time-calculation" (or reckoning with time: Zeitrechnung) (SZ 4 1 1 ) . We calculate or reckon with time precisely by "presenting" a clock (for example, the so-called "natural clock" of the rising and setting sun ) as a means of "dating" (structuring) the time that concerns us . "Wi th the timeliness of being­ here ( thrown , left ove r to the 'world, ' giving itself time) something like a 'clock' is also already uncovered, that is to say, something handy that has become accessible in its regular recurrence in the expectant pre­ sen ting" (SZ 4 1 3 ) . The manner of "presenting" som ething as a clock is distinctive , how­ ever, inasmuch as it is presented as something on hand for the purpose of measuring. Not simply the handin ess of the sun or its rising and set­ ting but its presence and, indeed, unchanging presence ove r a present stretch must be "presented" (SZ 4 1 7 ) . In other \Vords, it must have the sort of constancy to be on hand for everyone and presented as such. Heidegger argues - rather feebly - that, because of the priority attached to "presenting something that is present" (Gegenwiirtigen von Answesen­ dem) , this way of reading and measuring time from a clock is expressed with particular emphasis by the ' now. ' Whether in fact the term enjoys this emphasis, it does articulate the way in which something must be 1 54 SZ

4 1 1 : " I nsofar as e ve ryd ay concern u n d e rstan ds i tse l f o n th e ba� i s of the ' worl d ' i t is ac q uai n ted wi th th e ' ti m e ' that it take s , not a.� it5 [ tirn e ] , but i n­ stead , in i t� con c e r n , it uses the t i m e that ' t h e re is' and with wh i c h Lhe rrowd re c ko n s . " concern e d w i t h , it is

H E I D F: G G E R ' S C O N C E P T O F T R U T H

present and retained as presen t for the measurement. Heidegger ac­ cordingly concludes: "Hence , in the measurement of time, a publicizing of time is achieved, in accordance wi th which eve ryone respectively and each time encounters it as 'now and now and now. ' This time that is ' universally' accessible in clocks is thus , as it we re , happened upon as an on-hand manifold of nows, without the measurement of time being directed thematically at it" (SZ 4 1 7 ) . Measured in this way, the time of concern can become a subject of "com mon concern," belonging to everyone and no one. Moreover, "a peculiar objectivity" is ascribed to this time of concern on the basis of the public, ge nerally accessible char­ acter of measurement of it ( GP 3 73 ) . This objec tivity, however, is noth­ ing else but the expression or articulation of the average way of being-with­ one-another or the common structuring of the time that people are concerned wi th, that is, world-time. The conception of time as a succession of nows is, in Heidegger's view, the culmination of public time in the form of time measurement. � Insofar as the ' objectivity" of time that proceeds from the universal ac­ cessibili ty of the articulat�d time is measured, it is possible for i t to be n o longer merely dated, but counted. What Heidegger has in mind i n­ volves a shift in dating in such a way that it is orien ted not merely by events in the surroundings (as, for example , "back when my grandfa­ the r still lived" ) but by a constantly on-hand measure of the presence of what is on hand. As a result, the dating of the articulated nows is no longe r ambiguous or even diverse , but becomes uniform , that is, count­ able or numerable. Thanks to time measurement, dealing with time be­ comes more economical; such dealings are explicitly secured and reg­ ulated (see GP 365£) . The dating accordingly presupposes the presence of an entity ( and since an en tity is made presen t by timeliness in gen­ eral, dating is rooted in timeliness) . Previously reference was made to the fact that the time of concern by no means need be explicitly "dated," that is to say, counted and measured wi th a calendar or clock. If, how­ ever, a time of concern is dated by using a cale ndar or clock, an on-hand "stre tch " of time is counted or numbered according to a ge neral , equally on-hand measure (e.g. , " the game lasts ninety minutes" ) . The measurement of time thus consists in the fact that an on-hand measure is applied to the now that is a matter of concern , and articu­ lated in the course of rendering something present. By this means, "the frequency of its presence" (das Wie-oft seiner Anwesenheit) can be counted (SZ 4 1 7 ) . The time that is counted and dated for this purpose remains world-time, that is to say, the time that springs from the manner of ec-

T H E TI M E L I N ES S O F E X I STEN T I A L T R U T H

3 77

statically rendering something present in a con text of concern. Even with all the refinements and advan ces in precision in measuring time, it continues to proceed from th e time that someone is concerned with . People measure tim e because they have time, because they are coun t­ ing on time, and thus can take or leave time. But all this supposes that time is somehow already "given" or "exposed" to us and , indeed, such that, being-here , we orient ourselves to it. "The time-measuring com­ puting [Rechnen] with time springs as a modification from the primary relation to time as the manner of orienting oneself to it" (GP 365 ) . As noted earlier, presen ting enjoys a certain primacy in the measurement of time, where what is presen ted is presented, not as something handy, but as something constantly or repeatedly on hand. Like the dating (Datierung) of the time of concern , the numerability ( Geziihltheit) of time has its origin in a manner of presenting (Gegenwiirtigen) . Similar con­ siderations underlie the seeming obviousness (Selbstverstiindlichkeit) or unveiledness of time in the common , dimensional view of it. This obvi­ ousn ess springs from the fact that to "be-here" is to "presen t something" in a world into which we have been thrown and upon which we project ourselves. In other words, the obviousness of time, i ts exposed or unveiled character on the dimensional view, derives from the public character of the measurement of world-time, but both that obviousness and that public accessibility are rooted in the same selfdisclosedness of ecstatic­ horizonal timelin ess. Corresponding to this interpretation , the measure ment of time is not grounded in the fact that a number of nows are on hand to be coun ted. The measurement of time is grounded instead in a manner of rendering the measure present in a present stretch of world-time (the time of concern ) . If one measures time by reading it from a clock, then rendering that presence presen t is decisive but left out of considera­ tion . Instead of attending to the manner of presenting or even to the on-hand measure accessible only in that presenting, we are typically concerned solely with making a comparison between the measure on hand and the stretch to be measured. The result of this comparison is the sum of the measured units ( minutes, hours, and so on ) that myste­ riously surface as so many on-hand nows - as long as their ecstatic ori­ gin is left out of consideration . "This ' universal ' time, accessible in clocks, is thus found from the outset as it were as some on hand manifold ofnows withou t the measurement of time being thematically directed at time as such " ( SZ 4 1 7 ) . Because the time of concern , that is, our reck­ on i ng wi th ti m e , i � prior to as well

as

operative in th e measurement of ti m e ,

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C EPT OF TRUTH

the time that is inte rpreted in this way and thus measured appears as sim ply a given or a construction . As already emphasized, the common conception of time stems from the measuremen t of the time of concern (world-time) but in such a way that only traces of the ecstatic basis of the time of concern are still rec­ ognizable. The ecstatic-horizonal timeliness underlies the public charac­ ter of world-time and the reby the unveiledness of the common concep­ tion of time. The assumption that titne can be counted grows out of the datability of world-time , a feature that presupposes or, better, is itself an instance of the ecstatic manner of rendering-present. H eidegger argues that the other aspects of the common , dimen­ sional view of time also proceed from the measurement of a time of con­ cern (world-time ) and hence are equally rooted in ecstatic-horizonal timeliness. The conception of time as a transition (from a now that is no longer on hand to one that is to one that is not yet) flattens or evens out the varying intensities of the time of concern (with all its gaps ) into a paradoxically discontinuous continuum , an irreversible and one-di­ me nsional flow. Concealed i n the process is the ultimate source of the underlying tensio n , namely, the ''distended" way in which how we are­ alre ady ( oblivous to ourselves, clinging to an expectation of something within-the-world, or retrieving ourselves) "springs from" the future (ex­ pecting or anticipating) , just as the original sense of the present ( i .e . , our way of presen ting things) "springs from" the way i n wh ich we abide (are-already) our future. 155 Furthermore , time as it is commonly con­ ceived encompasses the whole of nature in that irreversible process. The dimensional view of time supposes that time is always on hand with everything else in nature, capable of measuring it. This infinitely encom­ passing character, however, is merely the pale reflection of the m,eaning­ fulness of the time of concern that is itself rooted in the finite futurity of the fundamental timeliness - even if by way of a flight from it (see SZ 424£; GP 368 , 387f) .

1 5 5 SZ 3 26 ; H eidegger says, more precisely, that the a biding future - the future th a t is-al­ ready - rele ases from out of it�elf the presen t. See , too, SZ 3 5 : r "Expecting the in­ "

"

volvement while retain ing t h e relevant means n1akes possible i n its ecstatic unity the m a nner of renderi n g the implem ent present specifically by way of h a ndling [ i t] . " My use of 'distended' here is an obv ious refe rence to Augustin e 's distentio animae, though I take the term , not in th e custom ary s e n se of 'extension , ' b u t in other senses of the Lati n tenn a n d th e cognate verb (di� tendo) , namely, ' a spasn1 .or distortion , sep a r a ting or d ivi d i n g , burstin g fro 1n overfill i ng. ' The mom e n t (A ugenbli( k) , it bears re c a ll i n g , constitu tes a d i s r u p t i ve turn (kairo., ) in b e i n g-i n-th e-worl d .

T H E T I MELI N ESS OF EX I STENT IA L TRUTH

3 79

In standard conceptions of time, the characteristics of world-time are generally not taken into account or, if they are, they are construed merely as exemplifications of a "subjective" response to time or simply "subjec­ tive time." Turning this strategy on its head, Heidegger construes these traditional conceptions as ways of "flattening and obscuring worldly time and thereby timeliness altogether" (SZ 424) . However, world-time and ecstatic timeliness do not disappear wi thout a trace in this flattened (ni­ velliert) , "dimens i onal," indeed, one-dimensional conception of time. 1 56 It is precisely the time of concern that is measured, and the time of concern that ec­ static timeliness constitutes. Hence, although Heidegger's view is in a certain sense ultimately at odds with a purely conventional conception of time, h is analysis also enables him to concur that th e standards of time gener­ ally adopted - that is, for one-dimensional time and worldly time - are largely conventional . 1 57 More importantly, he makes a case for the fun­ damentalness of ecstatic timeliness by tracing features of the common , dimensional view of time back through world-time to that timeliness. In making th is case , Heidegger does not explain where we get the time, or at least not if the point of such a question is where we come from . But he does tell us what titne is and what it means to measure time. Time is the sense of being-here and its disclosure - a veritable self­ disclosure - is the original , existential truth . Time is our becoming, th e way that we "present" things by "coming-to" who and what, being-in-the­ world, we "are-already." In the original and genuine sense of the term , ' time ' stands for the ti1neli ness of "anticipating" our death , "retrieving'' the "alreadiness" of that fact, and thus opening ourselves up to what presents itself to us in the "moment. '' However, th rown into th e world and falling prey to it, we are prone to flee this truth and part of th is fligh t consists in preoccupying ourselves wi th a flee ting time , the time of the world. 1 58 This ti m e is the datable , meaningful , tensed, public 1 56

1 57

D . C. vVillia n1s defends " t h e

dimen sional view of ti in e , " wh ere " the j erk and whoosh o f of eve n t s , are no d i ffe re n t fro1n the whooequence �lifJfJinK away-passing away. BPing-hf-rP i" ru qunin tnl with th P /lPPLing limP on lhP ho f>if. r{ it ,- 'jlPPin f!,·' knmniPrlgP nf ' ' '" dPo fh " ,

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

time, or in short, the "world-time" that we together both constitute and make our concern in the course of fleeing our timeliness. "World-time" is the time that we measure . Hence, what we measure when we measure time is an attenuation of the way that each of us be­ comes ( comes-to-ourselves) by way of immersing ourselves in shared, worldly conce rns (in effect, a timely, doomed flight from our timeli­ ness) . Time-measurements in th is context, while undertaken for the sake of some worldly concern, suppose the "presencing" of something more or less permanently or recurrently on hand for public view. It is, of course, not the sun 's trajectory or the movement of the second-h and, but the presumably publ ic availability ( the presence or onhandness) that the trajectory or second-hand measures and is their measure. That public accessibility, like the original dating or structuring itself, is rooted in "world-time. " However, thanks in no small part to that am­ bivalence of the clock, i. e. , being both measure and measured, it is pos­ sible to consider what is measured to be j ust as much on hand as the measures of it. In this way, the features of the on-hand measure of time , while clearly dependent upon those of "world-time," are transferred to time itself. In this transferral lies the genesis of the common ( "vulgar" ) concept of time, "common" because it supposes nothing more or less than "publicly" accessible time-measurements (and even "vulgar" be­ cause it does not question the transfer or, in effect, what is measured) . When this common concept is made explici t, the result is the tradi­ tional conception of dimensional time. Time, on this conception , is a sequence of on-hand nows that are numerable without regard for any handy dating, that encompass whatever there is, quite apart from any question of its meaningfulness, that are transitional, i.e. , fleeting in a con­ stan t, tenseless stream, and unveiled or given , regardless of the way they are publicly viewed or measured. Heidegger's account of dimensional time, world-time , and tinleli­ ness parallels his ontological division into being-on-hand, being-handy, and being-here . Just as being-here is the site of the disclosed ness of be­ ing handy or on hand, so the timeliness of being-here is presupposed by a use or theory of time. As the time that we are concerned with (die besorgte Zeit) , world-time is the sort of time that is handy, the time that we take, use , reckon with , and even measure with-one-another. Dimen­ sional time, by con trast, presupposes that publicly shared character of world-time , but also planes down its basic features. Dimensional time is not so much used as it is regarded and, indeed, regarded as something on

h a n rl . H e i rl egge r 's i n terpre tati on of th e va ri ous sort� of ti m e a n rl

THE TIMELINESS

OF

E X I ST E N T I A L TRUTH

th eir embedded ness in an underlying timing ( ecstatic-horizonal time­ liness) may be outlined as follows. Times and Timeliness Dimensional time Numerable Enco1npassing Transitional Unveiled

___,

World-time Datable Meaningful Tensed Public

�

Timeliness Presen ting/Momen to us Expecting/ Anticipating Forgetting/Retrieving Ecstatic-ho rizonal

A" a means of capturing Heidegger's argument formally, the arrow in

the outline signifies 'only if. ' Tim e is dimensional only if there is a time of concern and a time of concern only if there is ecstatic-horizonal time­ liness. This outline, while highly abbreviated, is mean t to schematize the parallels drawn by Heidegger in his attempt to establish the deriva­ tiveness of di mensional time and, with it, the very notion of being-on­ hand, so crucial to the history of the logical prejudice. Some abbrevi­ ated features, while alluded to earlier, deserve brief comment here. Heidegger subsumes the supposed infinity and thus continuity of di­ mensional time under its transitional character (since each now is be­ fore and afte r another, the sequence of nows must be infinite ) . Under­ lying that transitional character, however, is the stretch of a time that we are concerned with , a time that itself supposes the finitude (''distend­ edness" ) of the underlying timeliness of being-here , whether it is played out by way of forgetting or retrieving it. Also tied to this finitude , in the sense of the preeminently futural character of being-here, is the sup­ posed irreversibility of the now-sequence (SZ 424£) . "Being-here un­ derstands the time-sequence as irreversible because it knows that its own days are numbered" (F 63 ) . At the beginning of this sec tion the common conception of time as an endless, irreversible series of nows was presented along with the pos­ sibility of corroborating the four aspects of this purportedly "flattened" time through a closer consideration of the clock and clock time. By means of the tradi tional , ever-on-hand clock, the time of concern ( "worldly time") that is already more or less clearly articulated and made public is measured with a view to so1nething constantly on hand ( typically, but not exclusively, movemen ts of celestial bodies) . For the purpose of time m easure m e n t, clock time is divided into units, each of wh ich corresponds to a respective now and renders th e counting and m easuring of t i m e prec ise and ge nerally available . I n th i s \vay, ti m e

' HEIDEGGER S

C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

measuremen t unveils o r displays what i s already generally familiar, with­ out needing to consider what explains this familiari ty or acquaintance: public time and the ecstatic timing underlying it (a manner of render­ ing something present) . Wh ile the numerability of the succession of nows replaces or, rather, planes down the datability of a time of concern , it only comes about by rendering units of time - whateve r they be - present. The different amounts of these unities testify to the transitional character of the now, yet the uniformity assigned them also has the effect of smoothing out th e peaks and valleys of intensi ty characteristic of a time of concern (where each time handily refers to something else within a network of implements) . Similarly, the constant movements of the hands of a clock indicate that a now is always on hand, but th ey do so precisely by con­ stantly leveling off and thereby concealing th e ecstatic unity that "presently presents " those units and presents them as more than mere links between nows that are no-lon ger and nows ye t to come . "At the same time" the hands of the clock are constantly moving and movi ng in the same di rection "around" the clock and "over" those units. If the phenomenon of wordly time (the time of concern) is left out of consideration , there is probably no more trenchant image of the al­ legedly infinite , irreversible, and encompassing character of time than the clock. In the actual use of a clock, on the other hand, one attends to the specific meaning of the time, that is to say, the world-tim e that one does not so much count as count on . In the context of concern , time is understood as meaningful , that is to say, "in relation to a 'for-what' [ Wozu] that, for its part, is ultimately fixed in a 'for-the-sake-of the po­ ten tial-to-be of being-here" (SZ 4 1 4 ) . What makes this "for-what" of meaning possible originally is the future ( the ecstases of expecting or an ticipating) . "The self-projecting onto the 'for-the-sake-of its very self, ' a projecting grounded in the future , is an essen tial character of existen­ tiality. Its primary sense is the future" ( SZ 3 2 7 ) . The time of concern , springing as it does from ecstatic timeliness, is measured inastnuch as it is dated and structured according to standards that are intelligible to everyone. Instead of si mply saying "then , " some­ thing that can be differen tly dated by the workers and the foreman i n the factory scene depicted earlier, the foreman points to the clock and says, "in twenty minutes, at four o ' clock, " in order to express unam­ biguously the beginning of the break. The fact that some th ings and movements are o n hand constantly or at regul ar i n tervals ( and th ere­ fo re arc particularly useful fo r measu ring ti m es of concern ) hardly vi-

TH E

T I M EL I N ES S OF E X I STEN T I A L TRUTH

tiates the claim that the origin of the time of concern and its measur­ i ng is ecstatic - unless, of course , one is prepared to identify time wi th those moven1ents. Nevertheless, the question remains as to why the everyday in terpre­ tation of time as a succession of nows prevails, if it emerges from the measurement of a time of concern that is itself grounded in ecstatic tim­ ing. What possible explanation can be given for the fact that the data­ ble , tneaningful , tensed, and public character of worldly time eludes the everyday conception of time? "What is the reason for th e leveling of world-time and concealment of timeliness? " (SZ 424) . In Heideg­ ger's view, answers to these questions lie in the understanding of being that guides and informs "lapsed concern . '' By taking what it is con­ cerned about or, more precisely if less overtly, the manner of being of what is or might be handy and on hand, as the measure of everything, such concern also understands time as so1nething on hand. Time is con­ strued as an on-hand set of n ows, what can be counted in a measure­ men t of time in a context of concern . "The common characterization of time as an endless, transient, irreversible now-sequence springs from the timeliness of the being-here that has fallen away or lapsed and con­ tinues to do so" (SZ 4 2 6; see GP 384£) . It is well known that Heidegger has little regard for "formalistic ar­ gumen tation . " "Understanding on the basis of actually seeing," he de­ mands, "not formal deduction from empty sentences ! " (L 1 88£) . Nev­ ertheless, ac tually seeing in phenomenology is always in need of clarification. Wl1ile formalization and synopses by themselves do not corroborate a view, they can help illuminate it. To this end, as a means of illustrating the alleged necessity of ecstatic-horizonal timeliness on Heidegger's account, his derivation of the common concept of ti me from it is summarized in the foll owing quasi-sorites. In the premises, th e arrow ' -7 ' may be read in the conventional ways: 'only if or ' if . . . , then . . . ' or even ' presupposes. ' 1 Time measurement � a time of concern (with the distinguishing

2

:. 3 4

:. 5

characteristics of being datable, significant, tensed, and public) . A time of concern � a form of ecstatic-horizonal tim eliness (pre­ senting by way of re taining and expecting) . Time measurement � a form of ecstatic-horizonal timeliness. The common conception of time (an endless, irreversible se­ quence of n ows ) � ti m e measure ment. T h e co m tn o n c o n cepti o n of ti m e � e c s tati c-h o ri zo n al ti 1n e l i n ess .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT OF T R U T H

6 The fallenness o f being-here (inauthentic care ) concept of time. :. 7 Fallenness � ecstatic-horizonal timeliness. 8 Fallenness exists. :. g There is an ecstatic-horizonal timeliness .

�

the common

The sixth premise is particularly important since it brings out the fact that fallenness is sufficient for the common conception of time. To­ gether, the sixth and eighth premises also yield the conclusion that a common conception of time of this sort exists. The entire argumenta­ tion amoun ts to a proof of the originality of ecstatic timeliness, a time­ liness that cannot be reduced to being-at-hand ( handy or on hand) . Particularly striking in this reconstruction is the sole uncom pounded statement among the premises, namely, the eighth premise . It brings into sharp relief an assumption on which Heidegger's entire analysis hangs: the assumption of the fallenness, the lapsed character of human existence.

5 DIS C L O S EDNE S S , TRA NSCENDE N TA L P H IL OS O P HY, A N D METH ODO L O GICA L DEL IB E RATIO N S

We philosophize, not i n order to show that we need a philosophy, but instead precisely in order to show that we do not need one. Heidegger, 1 9 20 1

The aim of this investigation has been to set forth a decisive but previ­ ously little considered feature in the development of Heidegger's early thinking. With particular emphasis on a conj unction of themes ad­ dressed in Being and Time and his Marburg lectures, this study has at­ tempted to show how the question of being converges with that of an allegedly fundamental sense of ' truth ' veritas transcendentalis - in the context of Heidegger's confrontation with an influential tradition of philosophical thinking about logic. The hallmark of this tradition is the logical prejudice, the notion that propositional truth is the most ele­ mentary sort of truth or, as Heidegger puts it, that "the ' site' of truth is the assertion ( the judgment) " ( SZ 2 1 4) . In vino veritas may be the proverb but in sobrietate verum is the watchword of those who h onor the logical demands of theory and the ontological commitments entailed by those demands. 2 On this sober view of the matter, analysis of truth is nothing more than an inflated way of speaking about responsible man­ agement of the use of ' true' as a predicate of specific assertions, desig­ nating the ir common property. -

I

PAA g i . This quotation , it bears adding, is from lectures aimed at establishin g '' the ne­ cessity of a critical engagement wi th Greek phi losophy and a transformation of Ch ris t­ ian existence by means of that c ri tique," or, in effect, at sh owi ng " the way to an original Ch ri stian theology - free of the Greek world" ( PAA 9 1 ) . 2 Joh n Au�ti n , Ph ilmof.,hir al Pnpn-s, I 1 7 ; Hege l , Phiinomcn olop;ic dEs Cristt'.), �i !J ·

HEI DEGGER' S

C O N C E PT OF T R U TH

Insofar as Ockham's razor thus becomes an axe merely to cut a cer­ tain kind of theorizing down to size, Heidegger would, of course, be only too willing to sharpen the weapon for contemporary "levelers." 3 However, obliviousness to the question of being, what Heidegger calls " the forgottenness of being," is intimately tied to this particular con­ ception of truth . The truth of a theoretical assertion consists in the fact that the assertion refers to something that is on hand or present in some sense . Or as Heidegger puts it in his interpretation ofAristotle 's account of logos apophantikos, the assertion is what allows for its reference to be seen as such . If there be other manners of being than being-on-hand ( Vorhandensein) , logical consideration of them demands that they be re­ garded as on hand . 4 In this way the equivalence of 'truth ' and ' propo­ si tional truth ' typically marches in lockstep with the synonymy of 'be­ ing' and 'presence ' ( ' being-on-hand ' ) . The properly temporal meaning and the legi timacy of this synonymy go unquestioned, since all ques­ tioning conforms to the iron logic of assertions and the ontological commitments allegedly entailed by that logic. Just as the meaning of ' truth ' or, better, legitimate uses of ' true ' are presumably exhausted by the complete set of true propositions Uudgments, assertions, e tc. ) , so 'being' can stand for nothing more than the universal set of enti ties on hand. 5 � David Hume, A n Enquzry Con cerning the Human UnderstandinK and Concerning the Principles

ofMorals, second edition, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge ( Oxford: Clarendon , 1 902 ) , 1 93 . Thisjux­ taposition of protosocialist and nomin alist thinking is contriYed, but i t serves the purpose of stressing a side of Heidegger ( on both scores) that is too often ove rlooked. As Stanley Rosen righ tly emphasizes, Heidegger is ben t on destroying tradi tional hierarc hies or, bet­ ter, archai, but he sees their roots, not merely in Europe's old caste systetn or its reap­ p ropriation by capitalism, but in a certai n l i ne of classical Greek ph ilosophy. The lor us cla.Hirus for contetnporary students of the inseparability of questions of being and acting for Hei degger is Reiner Sch urmann , Heirleggn-: On Being and A.cting: Fro m PrindfJles to A n ­ archy (Bloomi ngton: Indiana U ni\'. Press , 1 990) ; see, e.g. , 1 55- d)o and 2 9 2 f. N or should Heidegger's fatal etnbrace of a �ocial ist party for workers be overlooked. On th is cotn­ plicated issue , as on so many others, Scheler's influence should not be underestinlated ; cf . tvlax Scheler, DPT Bourgeois, DPr BourgnJi.\ u n d dif rPligiosen Afiirhte, Dif Zuk u nft des Kapi­ talismus: DrPi A 14siitze zum Pmhlem des kapitali�lisrhen Geifltes, in \'Om Umst u rz dn- \Verte, in Gesammelte H f.rke, Yol. 3, eel. 1\tlaria Scheler ( Bern: Francke , 1 95 5 ) , �4 • -3 9:) · 4 L 1 59 : "Insofar as asserting i� now directed thematically at wh at, in rny o riginal orien ta­ tion , I had to deal with , namely, the chal k, w h a t I make the as�e rtion ahou t becotnes some­ t h i ng that is ancrely still on hand and what only n1atters a ny more is to gra"p the thc ane of the assertion in i ts on-handn cs�.'' Cf. L 1 Rgf. !) This sta tement is adn1i ttedly a grossly oversimplifying gene ralization of the diverse theo­ ries of tru th tha t take t h t:>i r heari ngs frorn analy�is of uses of · �rue ' as a predicate, espe­ c i a 1 1 y with its apparent presun1ption of a paral lel - i f not correspondence - wi th uses of ' being' ( or wi t h rea l i tv ) ; �ee Haac k. Ph1losojJh_)' of l.o.Lrin. Hfi- 1 � 1 · Ocspi t� r h e t�n d � n -

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I LO S O P H Y

3 87

For Heidegger, an assertion can be a means by which an entity is un­ covered and communicated precisely as it presents i tself (SZ 2 1 8 ) However, the fact that the assertion is articulated and passed on makes it possible for the "crowd" to appropriate the discovery of the entity, not by discovering the entity on their own , but merely by listening to and repeating what is said about it. "The articulated assertion , however, is some thing handy, indeed , such that, preserving the uncoveredness, it has in itself a relation to the discovered entity'' (SZ 2 24, 1 68£) . As con­ cerns and assertions based upon those concerns "pull back" from the primary understanding (use and projection ) of something, they are re­ stricted and thematically redirected at what is asserted and, indeed, as something merely on hand (L 1 56- 1 59) . Lifted from the context that is suppo�ed to determine it, the ' as'-structure is reduced to a manner of determining one thing as another, x as F. Formally relating x and F in this manner can then be isolated from the primary, intentional func­ tion of assertions, namely, the function of pointing something out and making observation of it possible. Though the intentional function is still apparent in Aristotle's account of the logos apophantikos, his account verges on this decontextualized and nonintentional construal of asser­ tions simply as ways of relating (synth esizing) things, features, aspects, and so forth . Focus then shifts to the asserting, insofar as it is "some­ thing articulated, the word-complex" that is itself "on hand'' ( L 1 6 1 ) . I n this way Heidegger sketches how the emergence of a certain onto­ logical obliviousness and its complicity with the logical prejudice coin­ cide with the practice of regarding assertions not primarily as ways of d isclosing and un covering, but as things that are handy and even on hand in relation to other things on hand. This practice itself, Heideg­ ger submits, is part of a wider tendency to c onformity, a tendency that he associates with the general phenomenon of self-evasion or fallen­ ness. In his lectures Heidegger enlarges this picture by presenting de­ cisive traces of the logical prejudice in the history of Western thinking. Heidegger considers Lotze 's ontological conception of truth the most important immediate source of the logical prejudice's hold on German philosophy at the beginning of the twentieth century. As discussed in Chapter 1 , Heidegger sketches Lotze's con cept of truth as the back.

ti ousn ess of the clai m , a reasonable semblance of i t can be rec on s t ru c ted from the co In­ mon threads among co rrespondence, coherence, pragm atis t, seman tic, and re d u n d a ncy

(disquotational ) theories of truth. The most p ront i n en t such thread is the link between s all t h re� of rh el\e ge n i t i \·� J 'O P n "t'"

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

40 1

The existential-hermeneutic sense (sense 1 ) is the sense of being-here, the horizon against which being-here is always already proj ecting itself for as long as i t exists. The existentiel-hermeneutic sense (sense 2 ) is the function of something utilized or wielded ( "What's the sense of this?" "I t's to be used as a lever" ) or the purpose of its use ("In this position the lever makes sense" ) . The apophan tic sense ( sense 3 ) is the significance of a word or assertion mentioned rather than used, as in the phrase ' three senses of "sense" ' or in the assertion "'Sense" has three senses. ' The three senses of 'se nse ' correspond to the three 'as '-structures discussed in Chapter 3· Sense 1 corresponds to the existential-herme­ neutic 'as' -structure of primary unde rstanding, a disclosedness that lies, much like the Aristotelian asyn theta, outside the framework within which it would be meaningful to speak of obfuscation or falsity. Corre­ sponding to the existentiel-hermeneutic 'as' -structure, sense 2 refers, for example , to use of something as a lever. The sense ( sense 3 ) of the assertion ' x is F' is typically (but by n o means exclusively) the descrip­ tion of x as F. The parallel with the 'as' -structures points to a basic similarity among the three meanings of 'sense. ' Each sense is a horizon (a future or a timeliness oriented to a future ) with a view to which something is de­ termined . In cases of sense 2 and sense 3 the respec tive horizon by no means insures the sui tability or infallibility of the proj ection ( i . e., the appropriate ness of taking x as F or the correctness of 'x is F' ) . In the case of the original sense, by contrast, it is not possible to speak mean­ ingfully of an obfttscation or falsity. Whether somethi ng succeeds or misfires, whether it be uncovered or obfuscated i n view of some exis­ tentiel-hermeneutic sense, or whether an assertion proves to be true or false , the truth of the original sense (genitivus appositivus) , that is, the disclosure of the timeliness of being-here , is i n each case presupposed. To be-here is to disclose . The metaphor of an horizon in this context can be misleading, to be sure . As in the case of 'being-he re , ' the spatiality invoked by the metaphor is by no means dismissed , but it is also meant to be rei n ter­ preted with a vie\v to the timeliness of being-here. For the spatiality of the horizon , like the "situation" in which , being here, we find ourselves, is not itself an independent or even ongoing presence. Even if a sharp­ shooter scarcely takes his entire visual field in to account, his surround­ ings still remain on hand so that he need only direct his attention to them . But wh at being-here origi nally projects i tself upon is not on hand (like the s h a rp s h o o te r s surroun rl i n gs o r e n tir� visn t7t . "

D I S C LO S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

403

or nonsensical to speak of falsity or a false disclosure at this ontological level, it is important to bear in mind two features of Heidegger's ac­ count. In the first place , the fact that disclosedness is in certain respects beyond bivalent truth and falsi ty does not mean that attempts cannot be made to obscure i t. Howeve r, if there is anything to the original, ex­ istential truth of disclosedness (genitivus appositivus) , then such at­ tempts must prove self-defeating. In other words, they must testify, on closer analysis, to that original truth . It is accordingly central to Hei­ degger's en tire existen tial analysis, as exemplified on the final pages of the last chapter, that the sense of being-here is disclosed by the very fligh t from it. Precisely because fallenness discloses the sense of exis­ tence in this way, it is an existential . In the second place, while Heideg­ ger frequently refers to being-here as an entity (Seiendes) as well as a manner of being (Sein) , it is not a subj ect or ego. Hence, being-here is not so much the original phenomenon of the truth in the sense that various manners of being, including its own, disclose thetnselves to it. Being-here is rather the site of the disclosure itself, prior to the consti­ tution of an ego or of the subj ect of acts of perceiving or judging. This last observation points to the sense of the "clearing" retained by Hei­ degger after the turn from transcendental phenomenology with its un­ wanted suggestion that being-here is a transcendental subj ect. 5. 2 2 The Main Charge: Heidegger's Careless and Dangerous Obliviousness to

the Specific Sense of 1ruth. Tugendhat's main charge, it bears reiterating, is that Heidegger effectively abandons the specific sense of truth , the uncovering of someth ing as it is in itself. Heidegger's account of dis­ closedness as the most original truth , Tugendhat maintains, lacks the difference between a "preliminary and merely ostensible" givenness and a given ness of-and-by what is given itself. For this reason, h e insists, it is absurd to maintain that disclosedness can reveal itself or allow itself to be determi ned as it is in itself. As comme n tators have often n oted, remarks by Heidegger over thirty years after the publication of Being and Time can be interpreted as an endorsement of this obj ection . Two years before the publication of Tugendhat's habilitation , Heidegger confesses: "The question of Aletheia, of the unconcealment as such, is not the q uestion of truth . For this reason it was not in accordance with the matter and, consequently, it was misleading to call Aletheia in the sense of the clearing ' truth . "t � H

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

The clearing i s the realm within which alone there can b e presence as such. Heidegger apparently came to the conclusion that the traditional concept of truth is so wedded to the notions of "presence and present­ ing" (Anwesenheit und Gegenwiirtigung) that identification of that clear­ ing as truth only confused matters. This consideration may well form part of the background to Heidegger's most celebrated "turn , " namely, his decision not to publish the rest of Being and Time and, indeed, to give up altogether its "scien tific" proj ect (as discussed in the last section of the present chapter) . 1 9 The self-interpretation of a thinker is, of course, importan t, but hardly the last word to the meaning of his or her work. 20 It is also not obvious that Heidegger's later remarks should be read as an e ndorse­ ment precisely of the sorts of criticisms subsequently elaborated by Tu­ gendhat. More importantly, the fact that Heidegger considers his early use of the term ' truth ' misleading in some sense does not by any means settle the issue whether the disclosedness characterized in Being and Time as the original truth dispenses with the difference that Tugendhat rightly insists is essen tial to propositional truth . What matters, in other words, is not Heidegger's choice of terms, but their function in his ar­ gument. The issue is not whether Heidegger ought to have c haracter­ ized disclosedness as truth , but whether that characterization forfeits the specific sense of truth ( bivalence) , as Tugendhat charges . IfTugendhat is right, the n Heidegger does not and ought not be able to coun tenance the difference between empty and filled intentions, that is to say, between preliminary ways in which something is given (vordergriin diges Gegebensein) and the way in which it presents itself (Selbst­ gegebensein) . On Tugendhat's reading, in other words, the difference 1 9 Prior t o t h i s more celebrated tu rn , Heidegger speaks of t h e necessity of a systeinatic

turn , the turn to m etaphysics after Being and Time or, more precisely, the tu rn to " meton­ tology, " a project he does not appear to follow up on, at least not in so many words, af­

ter th e lectures of 1 9 2 8 . Claudius Strube maintains that the turn in the works a fte r 1 9 2 9 is based n o t upon the failure o f the account of time i n Being and Time, a s is often sug­ gested, but on the failure of that systematic turn and , indeed , its failure to transfor m h uman beings; see Das Mysterium der Moderne ( Munic h : Fi nk, 1 994) , g g : " D i e Kehre m u B sich also in zwei Sc hritten vollzieh e n : erstens im Aufweis d e r i n neren Mogl i c h kei t des Seinsverstandnisses aus der Zeitl i c h keit, und zweitens in der Verwandlung des Seien­ den - Mensch - LU de�jen igen Ort i m Seienden im Gan zen , an dem ei n e neue

Geschich te der Wel t begri.indet wird . I An der Losung dieses P roblem � ist Sein und bit gescheitert. '' Cf. Steven Crowell, " Question, Reflection, and Method in Heid t' gge r 's Ear l y Fre iburg Lec tures" ( forthcoining) . 2 0 Se e Poggeler's review of Tugendh at's work in Philmophisches Jahrbuch 76 ( 1 g fi8/6 g ) : 3 76-�� R 3 ; and Geth m a n n , " Z u H�irlegger� Wahrheitc;; k nn7�ptinn , " 2 00 n . :; 6 .

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

40 5

required for that specific sense of truth no longer remains in force in Heidegger's interpre tation of the uncoveredness of entities and the dis­ closedness of being. Yet this charge is n o more sound than the claim that Heidegger commi ts a non sequitur in inferring the primordiality of disclosedness. To be sure , in the course of Heidegger's account of propositional truth, he drops the qualification "as it is in i tself. " How­ ever, one ought n ot or, at least, not without further ado , conclude from this that that qualification is not 1nean t in his other uses of the term 'truth ' ( namely, in regard to uncovering entities as well as disclosing be­ ing) . Tugendhat maintains that Heidegger deflates the sense of truth from the "self-showing of the entity thus as it is in itself' to the mere "un­ covering" of it (SZ 2 1 8 ) , but it is also possible that Heidegger intended these two formulations as synonyms (as one of Tugendhat's reviewers suggests) or even as metonyms. 2 1 Indeed, there i s ample indication that Heidegger understands propositional truth in j ust this way. I n his elucidation of proposition al truth as a mode of "uncovering" (Entdeckend-sein) , for example, he does not lose sight of the difference between the ostensible givenness of something and its givenness as it is in itself. The fact that he takes into consideration the difference that Tugendhat fails to find is confirmed by the point of departure of the discussion of truth in Being and Time as well as in the logic lectures. That point of departure is not simply the truth of an assertion, but the possibility of its falsity as well. In order to be able to assert something true or false about something, i t must al­ ready be uncovered in some respect. Yet the possibility of an assertion 's truth or falsity consists precisely in the fact that what is uncovered can be interpreted either as i t is in itself or not. Furthermore, Heidegger grounds the apophan tic ' as'-structure of assertions and thus their pos­ sibility of being true or false in the existentiel-hermeneutic 'as'-struc­ ture of prepredicative ( or at least pre thematic) actions that can them­ s t; lves go awry. Heidegger is, to be sure, pleading the case for an original or pri­ mordial truth that is not the uncoveredness of an entity, but i nstead the disclosedness of being, a disclosedness that in the last analysis - like Aristotle 's "being in the most authenti c sense of the term " - excludes any falsity or obfuscation (see L 1 8g ) . Yet in the course of reaching the end of this analysis, the specific sen se of truth (en tailing a distinction 2 1 See J. De

Vri es's revi ew i n

Theologie und PhilosophiP 44 ( 1 969 ) :

395 ; Gethman n ,

de�g-ers \Va h rh ei tsbegriff, " 1 8 8 ; " H eide�gers \'\'ahrh c i ts k o n zc p tion ," 1

1 4f.

"Zu

Hei­

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

between the mere given ness o f something and i ts givenness as i t i s i n it­ self) contin ues to be upheld. His entire analysis aims at interpreti ng or laying out - disclosing - that disclosedness as it is in itself By proj ecting what it genuinely means "to be" and thus retrieving the sense of being­ here that being-here itself discl oses , philosophy is the self-disclosure par excellence. By m eans of true assertions Heidegger thematizes dis­ closedness (of the sense of being) as the original truth underlying the uncovering and concealing of entities and thereby the truth and falsity of assertions. That truth is supposed to be original or primordial but this fact by no means excludes the possibility of incommensurable ren­ derings of it. (What discloses itself as it is in itself is not a presence but an ecstatic-horizonal timeliness. ) In order to establish the original char­ acter of truth as disclosedness, Heidegger must show how other con­ cepts of truth ( perceptual trttth , propositional truth ) presuppose it such that this original truth co-constitutes the derivative truths and thereby discloses itself. In quasi-systematic fashion in the first part of Be­ ing and Time, Heidegger tries to show how other renderings of ' being' an d ' truth ' (for example, being-on-hand and the mimeti c theory of tru th ) are subordinate to the i nterpretation of the "original'' meaning of these concepts. The intent of the subsequently destroyed, second part of the proj ect was supposed to justify that interpretation further through a "destruction" or dismantling of the history of the concepts ( SZ 1 9-2 7; GP 3off; KPM 2 3 2 ) . At the end of the logic lectures Heidegger introduces a distinction ( mentioned in the last chapter) between "worldly" and "phenomeno­ logically categorial'' assertions. This distinction provides further evi­ dence that Heidegger holds himself to the specific sense of truth (bi­ valence ) . Assertions about worldly things on hand can be true or false on the basis of an uncovering or concealing; hence , they are dubbed "worldly" assertions. But there are also "phenomenologically categor­ ial " assertions about being, time, and the like that do not have the sense of worldly assertions ("pointing out something on hand": Aufweisung des Varhandenen) , but nonetheless retain their structure. Like worldly as­ sertions, they are prima facie true or false even if they "indicate" some­ thing that is, to be sure, never on hand, but "here" (L 4 1 o, 4 1 on ) . If the ruminations on the past few pages are correct, then there is reason to be skeptical about Tugendhat's charge that Heidegger is oblivious to the specific sense of truth . The critical differen ce between truth an d falsity, underlying bivalent assertions, reinains i n force in Hei­ degge r 's presen tation of bo th the \vay i n \Vh ich pro pos i tio nal tru th "un1

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

407

covers" entities (Entdeckend-sein) and the way in which the original or primordial truth "discloses" the sense of being (Erschlossenheit) . At a cer­ tain level of H eidegger's analysis of truth , the disclosedness of being-in­ the-world is construed , to be sure, as underlying the ways in which en­ tities are uncovered, obscured, and concealed (and thereby, at yet another step removed from it, the truth and the falsity of "worldly" as­ sertions ) . In this sense disclosedness is a presupposi tion that cannot be rej ected without obscuring the fundamental meaning of 'truth . ' How­ ever, as the history of ontology amply exemplifies, this disclosedness can be misunderstood or overlooked. Yet there is no inherent reason why we should not be able to use true ("ph enomenologically categorial" or "existential") propositions to point to th is truth that underlies every ("worldly" ) proposi tional truth . Since we succeed in speaking of things, including speech itself, there is every reason to suppose that we can speak about what, while not identical to speech , makes the connection between speech and what is spoken of - or, better, the disclosive event of discourse - possible at all. 5 · 3 Skepticism, Transcendental Ph ilosophy,

and H eidegger's Analysis of Truth as Disclosedness H eidegger's conception of disclosedness as the original truth bears the stamp, he is well aware, not only of Husserl's transcendental phenoin­ enology but also of a conception of transcendental philosophy that can be traced back to Kant and Duns Scotus. At the outset of Being and Time he announces: "Each disclosure of being as the transcendens is transcen­ dental knowledge. Phenomenological truth (disclosedness of being) is veritas transcendentalis" (SZ 3 8 ) . He labels the interpretation of historicity on the basis of timeliness "transcendental" (KPM 2 35) . In the summer se­ mester of 1 9 2 7 , the "science of being" is designated " the transcendental science" (GP 46o; PIK 66 ) . Heidegger's use of the Latin expression ' veritas transcendentalis' at the outset of Being and Ti1ne clearly invites comparison with the medieval doctrine of transcendentals, most notably, Scotus 's characterization of metaphysics as "a kind of transcending science, because it is about tran­ scendentals. " � 2 Precisely as the terms that transcend the categories (praedicamenta) , th e transcenden tals foreshadow Heidegger's own ef­ forts, as noted at the outset of c:hapter 4 ' to underscore the limitations

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

and indeed the impoverishmen t o f strictly categorial analyses for on­ tology by sharply distinguishing categories from existentials. Moreover, not unlike the equiprimordiality that Heidegger assigns to certain ex­ istentials, transcendentals are mutually determining. Yet another line of comparison presents itself wi th the self-referential and self-disclosive character ascribed to transcendentals and existentials alike. 23 For most of Heidegger's con temporary readers, however, talk of "transcendental kn owledge" at the outset of Being and Time was bound to suggest a connection with Kant's transcenden tal project. Because of this connection , Heidegger adds that his con cept of transcendental truth "does not coincide without further ado with the Kan tian" (GP 460 ) . In a certain sense , to be sure, both thinkers apply the adjective 'transcenden tal ' primarily to characterize conditions (and kn owledge of the conditions ) of the possibility of a priori knowledge ( by which each understands something quite different) . Yet while Heidegger un­ derstands being-here as "the transcenden t in the authen tic sense of the word," namely, in the sense of "stepping-over-to " (Hiniiberschreitens­ zu ) or in the sense of "the over-and-beyond of being-here" ( Uber-hin­ aus des Daseins) ( GP 425-4 2 9 ) , Kant employs the term ' transcendent' ( not ' transcenden tal ' ) to characterize those prin ciples that - in con trast to the immanent principles of pure understanding - "overstep" the boundaries of possible experien ce (B 35 2£) . Nevertheless, despite these and other differences as well as Heideg­ ger's later criticism of the transcendental standpoint of Being and Time (N II 4 1 5 ) , the connection with transcendental philosophy brings forth an essential feature of the conception of original truth in Being and Time, a feature that further blun ts the force of Tugendhat's main objection. For the determination of truth in the context of a transcen­ dental philosophy proceeds precisely from the specific sense of propo­ sitional truth ( or more precisely, in Kant's case , from empirical judgments ) , even if the transcenden tal truth is to enjoy some sort of (on tological) priority over every other truth . The fact that Heidegger ini tially understands his concept of an original tru th in transcendental­ philosophical terms contradicts - at least in a certain sense - Tugend­ hat's claim that Heidegger renounces "the transcenden tal-philosophi­ cal presupposi tion of a final basis ofjustification " (T 405 ) . The immediate aim of the following section is to show that Tugend­ hat's interpretation is not legitimate, at least not without further quali.

.

�3

.

.

.

.

Ac rt�c n , Afedieval Philosoph}

a nd tht· Transcendentals, 7 3- 7 9 , 9 2 -9 7 , 1 04- 1 0 7 , 4 2 7 f.

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

409

fication, given the allegedly transcendental character of what Heideg­ ger deems the "original truth . " At the same time, elaboration of this transcendental character also sets the stage for exposing the apparent i nadequacy of a transcendental standpoint for this truth, an issue taken up i n the final section . If the transcenden tal standpoin t, as argued here, secures a means of rebutting Tugendhat's obj ections, the n it must be asked whether his turn from that standpoin t provides some vindication for Tugendhat's complaints. The immediate objective, however, is to identify the precise sense in which the original, existen tial truth elabo­ rated in Being and Time is transcendental . Since the transcenden tal character of Heideggerian alethiology emerges in a particularly clear light via comparison with the Kantian, Kant's conception of "transcen­ den tal truth" in the context of his transcenden tal philosophy is briefly considered first. 24 Elaboration of the similarities between Kant's " tran­ scendental truth" and Heidegger's conception of "disclosedness" then serves as a basis for consideration of the bearing of Heidegger's explicit transcendentalism on Tugendhat's main obj ection. 5 · 3 I Transcendental Truth and Transcendental Philosophy in the Critique of

Pure Reason . The transcendental philosophy in the Critique ofPure Rea­ son is distinguished by the fact that it aims at determining "the possibil­ ity, principles, and scope of all knowledge a priori" through analysis of the sole conditions under which objects of human knowledge can be given and thought (B 6, 29£) . This determination itself is a type of knowledge that Kan t designates "transcendental ," namely, the knowl­ edge "that concerns itself not so much with objects, but instead with our sort of knowledge of objects insofar as this is supposed to be possible a prion.,, (B 25, 88o, 1 1 7 ) . As far as the "sort of knowledge" proper to humans is con­ cerned, Kant takes his bearings from the fact that the sole sources of fi­ nite knowledge, by means of whi ch objects are "given " and " thought," are "sensibility" and ''understanding. " The sole elements of knowledge are, correspondingly, "intuitions" and "concepts." Sources and elements of this sort, sensory intuitions and the concepts of the understanding, are the conditions of any human knowledge at all. In transcendental phi­ losophy, however, what matters are those conditions of the possibility of knowledge ( i . e . , empirical knowledge) that make a priori knowledge 2 4 F o r a va l uable presen tation an d c ri ti q ue of Heidegger's reconstruction of Kan t's tran­ scenden tal phil osophy, with a vi ew to t h e notion of subjectivity and the German ideal­ i�t"' critici"m� nf Kan t , "t>e K Di1 �in g , " Selbs thewu f3 tseinsm odell e , " Rg- 1 2 2 .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

410

possible: pure intuitions and pure concepts. Since this sort of a priori knowledge depends ultiinately upon an a priori synthesis of pure intu­ itions (forms of sensibility) and pure concepts of the understanding, transcendental kn owledge lays claim to a final foundational principle or, better, a self-grounding that excludes any further grounding or legiti­ mation . Playing a decisive role in this last respect is the "originally syn thetic unity of apperception," deemed by Kan t "the highest point" of every use of the understanding and thereby of the transcendental philosophy it­ self ( B 1 3 1 f; see esp. 1 34n) . This unity is labeled "originally synthetic" because the transcendental ego , without intuiting or observing itself, can recognize itself again and again in that very activity th at underlies the unity of any clear representation or any legiti mate nontranscen­ dental kn owledge at all (e.g. , logical thinki ng and empirical knowledge respectively) . The originally synthetic unity of apperception ( the unity of the transce11den tal ego's consciousness of itself or that it is in son1e sense ) makes possible and implicitly accompanies every clear (i.e. , con­ scious) representation , indeed, even the representation of its analytic unity ( B 1 3 1 - 1 36) . At the same time, that synthetic activi ty always remains merely the ac­ tivity of thinking, namely, of the understanding or intellect in general . 25 The activi ty is thus spontaneous, to be sure , but by no means without structure. Each original synthesis ( of apperception ) is carried out in accordance with th e pure concepts of the understanding (categories ) ( B 1 42 ) . Up to this poin t, the talk has been of the synthesis of clear repre­ sentations that do n o t have to be "knowledge in th e genuine sense," that is, the syn thesis might be "purely intellectual" (B 1 so) . For knowledge in the genuine sen se, the transcendental in1agination , much like em­ pirical or reproductive imagination , holds toge ther the fleeting sensory elements in a single represen tation. In contrast to the reproductive imagination , however, the syn thesis is origi nal; in accord wi th the unity of apperception it is directed at or, better, constitutes the form of all in­ tuitions in the inner sense (B 1 6 2 n , A 1 2 0, A 1 2 o n ) . Thus , the tran­ sce ndental imagination synthesizes the m anifold of the pure intuition of time into representations (schemata) adequate to the categories; in other words, it brings the pure intuition under the synthetic unity of 2 ?) B

1 � 7ff; A

1 1 9.

It bear()

Fkn nn gct rtt->n f rcalling - fo r i n ter p ret i n g 1-feideggcr

intP!IPrl u \ ' i n t o ' \/rn la n d ' · nr lio' i n t o

•

as we ll as

Vt-•rn 11tljt. '

Kan t - that

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

41 1

apperception (B 1 soff, A 1 2 3 ) . Kan t characterizes the transcendental time determi nations ("the schemata of the pure concepts of the un­ derstanding" ) as "the true and sole conditions of procuring for these [concepts] a relation to obj ects, thus meaning' (B 1 85 ) . In view of the determination of the transce ndental schemata, Kan t then provides the following explanation of "transcende ntal truth" (B 1 85 ) : Every sort of knowledge we might have , howeve r, lies i n th e whole of all possible experience and in the universal relation to th e same [ i . e . , to all possible experie nce] consists the transcendental truth that precedes all empirical truth and makes it possible.

Empirical judgments are meaningful and thus possibly true or false only because they presuppose "transcendental truth .'' Transcendental truth itself is nothing other than the conditions for the "meaning" of the cat­ egories, their universal relation to possible experience; those condi­ tions are the categories ' transcendental time-determi nations ( the tran­ scendental schemata) . 26 The transcende ntal truth is thus dis tinguished from other truths by virtue of the fact that it secures the possibility of the truth and falsity of instances and sorts of empirical knowledge (Erkenntnisse) or, what is the same in this case , empirical j udgmen ts. Kant furthe r elaborates this transcenden tal truth in the sys tem of transce ndental principles and, once again, the explanation has the character of a final grounding or j ustification : "A priori principles bear this name not merely because they con tain in themselves the grounds of other judgments, but rather also because they themselves are not grounded in higher and more uni­ versal instances or sorts of knowledge. Yet this property does not raise them above any proof' (B 1 8 8 ) . The transcendental grounding or justification itself, namely, the proof that there is transcenden tal truth , proceeds from the fact that em­ pirical knowledge is meaningful. That is to say, the proof does not pro­ ceed from the truth of an empirical judgment but from the possibility 26 For various reasons ( that turn on the con ception of time as the form of sensibility, the doctrine of categories ac; pure concepts of the understan ding, and the pri nciple of the originally synthetic unity of apperception ) , the doctri ne of schematism constitutes the

transcenden tal tru th wi thout which experience and thereby any etnpirical j udgment would not be possible, th at is to say, th in kable at all. I t should not be overlooked that the chapter on the schematisms - for good or fu r ill - was nut rewri tten for the second Pcl i ti n n of th�

CntiquP nf PurP RnHtm .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

of the truth as well as the falsity of such a judgment. Kant's concept of "possible experience" is supposed to express precisely this presupposi­ tion. "By m eans of the concepts of the understanding, " reason attains "secure principles, to be sure," Kant explains, "but not at all directly from concepts, but instead always only indirectly th rough [a] relation of these concepts to something utterly con tingent, namely, possible ex­ perience; si nce they are then apodictically certain , to be sure, if this (something as obj ect of possible experience) is presupposed, but in themselves they cannot be (directly) a priori known at all . " 27 Such a pre­ supposi tion, it scarcely needs to be mentioned, by no means contains the conclusion of the proof ( the objective validity of the categories and the pri nci pies) (B 1 97) . Kan t's argument for a transcenden tal truth can only be presented here in extremely compressed form. Neverth eless, the genuine impe­ tus for the argument in the Critique of Pure Reason should not be over­ looked. Transcendental truth contains Kant's answer to dogmatism and skepticism. Over and against the skeptical challenge , the transcenden­ tal schemata ''realize" the categories, that is to say, they "procure" for the categories ''a relation to obj ects, thus meaning' ( B 1 8 5 ) . At the same time, this transcendental truth opposes dogmatism in that the schemata (which are themselves simply a priori time-determinations) "restrict" the use of the categories to sensory conditions (B 1 85£) . As Kant for­ mulates it i n the Doctrine of Method of the Critique of Pure Reason, "not merely limitations, but the specific boundaries" of pure reason have been proven "from principles" (B 789) . Although transcendental philosophy is directed against both dog­ matism and skepticism, Kant regards skepticism as the m ore mature and more sophisticated manner of thinking. He declares skepticism the second - of course, not the last - step taken by human reason following the first, dogmatic step in the "childhood" of reason (B 78 9 ) . The skep­ tical procedure itself is, if not "satisfying,'' still "preparatory" in order to awaken carefuln ess in reason and "to point to the basic means of being able to secure it in its legitimate possession'' ( B 797 ) . Nevertheless, in the wake of the third step ( the critique of pure reason ) , i t should be

27 B 7 6 5 , 794 · See W. Becker, "Kritik u n d B e g r u n d u n g in t ran szen den ta l e r Argumen ta­

tion," Kant-Studien 76 ( t g8!) ) : I go: " I n transze nden taler E rk enn t n i s wi rd die Einlbs­ barkeit empi ri s ch er Anspri.ich e thematisiert und zu g l e i c h - wenn auch in andere r Hin­ sicht - fiir die Gel tu ng transzendentaler P ri n z i p i e n beansprucht. Transzendentale 13c wc isc s i n d datn i t kcin cswc g s zi rkular, wo hl aber selbs tbeziiglich . "

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

413

clear that skepticism is "a resting place for human reason . . . but not a place to live as a constant residence" ( B 789) . In th e oft-cited foreword to the Prolegomena, Kan t confesses that his own thinking was dogmatic until his investigations acquired "a com­ pletely different direction" th rough Hume's skepticism. 2 8 In Kan t's own words, the Critique of Pure Reason arose as a means of "carrying out Hume's problem to the greatest possible exte n t. " The determination of transcenden tal truth means for Kan t noth ing other than the "resolu­ tion of Hume 's problem not merely in a particular instance [ causality] , but with a view to the entire faculty of pure reason. " 29 The meaning of Hume's skeptical challenge for transcendental phi­ losophy is also eviden t in Kan t's conception of the "discipline of pure reason in polemical use" as " th e defense of its principles against the dogmatic denial of them" (B 767 ) . He again lays claim to a final ground­ ing as h e pleads that " the cri tique of pure reason [be regarded] as th e true court of appeal for all con tests regarding it." Wi thout a cri tique, reason is "in the condition of nature" and can only make its claims valid through a war. Critique, by con trast, gives human beings "the peace of a lawful condi tion '' by "tak [in g] over all decisions on the basis of basic rules of its own initiation , the respect for which no one can doubt" (B 779) . Mter all, as Kant puts it (in words that must have enraged Haman n ) , "pure reason is concern ed with nothing but itself' (B 708 ) . Kan t provides an example of the function of reason as such a court of appeal in his "refutation of idealism" ( th e latter expression comin g closer to what i s today designated "skepticism" ) . He has in mind the ''problematic idealism of Descartes," who doubts '' th e existence of objects in space outside us'' ( B 2 74 ) . Kan t main tains that such an idealism is un tenable because it cannot meaningfully raise the question of the exis tence of such things. The skeptic would be able to place their exis­ tence in question only if a separation of "inner" from "outer" experi­ ence can be upheld. By sh owing how an inner experience is possible only th rough the experience of external things, Kant claims to under­ cut the basic presupposi tion of this sort of idealism. 30 Kant, Prolegomena zu Piner jeden kiinftigen Metaphysik, die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten konnen, in Kants WerkP, vol . 4 ( Berli n : de Gruyter, t g68) , 260. See, too, B 7 88, 7 9 2 ; and P. F. Strawso n , Skeptirism and Naturalism, Some Vaneties ( N ew York: Colum bia U n iv. Press, 1 9 85 ) , 2 7 f. 2 9 Kan t, Prolegomena zu einerjeden kiinfligen Metaphysik, 26of. 3 0 B 2 7 4- 2 7 6. For a more am ple discussion, see Di eter H eidemann , Kant unrl da5 Problem des metaphvsischen ldealismus ( Be rl i n : de Gruyter, 1 998) .

28

I.

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C F. PT 0 1' T R U T H

5 . 3 2 The Transcendental Character of Truth as Disclosedness. As evidenced

by the remarks cited at the outse t of this section ( 5 . 3 ) , Heidegger un­ derstands the analysis of truth in Being and Time to be "transcendental" in some sense of the term . The fac t that he fastens o n to the tradition of transcendental philosophy is not surprising, given H usserl 's and Lask's adoptions of the transcendental mantle and, perhaps just as impor­ tan tly, Heidegger's own intensive reading of Kan t frotn 1 92 6 to 1 92 9 ( o r even 1 936) . 3 1 Again and again Heidegger en1phasizes during this period that Kant is "the first one and the only one" in the history of on­ tology to begin to grasp the mean ing of time for th e understanding of being (SZ 2 3 ; L 1 94, 2 00 ) . Indeed, for all the differences between Kan t's analysis of time wi th its N ewtonian accent and Heidegger's ac­ count of timelin ess with a distinctly existen tial character, the similarities are striking: the pure intuition of time and the self-disclosiveness of timeliness, the irreversibility of tim e and the finitude of authentic time­ liness, time as a form of sensibility, distinct from but a constitutive con­ dition for empirical time, and the ecstatic-horizonal character of origi­ nal timeliness, distinct from but constitutive of "world-time" and "dimensional time." Even more important (at leas t for present pur­ poses) are the ways in which Heidegger's account of "the most original truth" mimes Kan t's account of "transcenden tal truth ." On the basis of th e sketch of transcendental philosophy j ust given ( 5 . 3 1 ) , their ac­ counts coincide in three obvious respects. First, each accoun t opposes the presuppositions of a dogmatism as well as a skepticism. Second, de­ spite radically different con ceptions of understanding, each account has the structure of a self-referen tial investigation of the conditions of the possibility of understanding and thereby of science in general (while allegedly carrying out the investigation without fallin g into a circulum vi­ tiosum) . Third, each account lays claim to a critical principle that serves as an ultimate grounding orjustification and yet can not be equated with "absolute knowledge. '' These parallels are given a closer look in the in­ terest of clarifying their meaning for Tugendhat's obj ection . 3 1 PIK 43 1 . Cf. Kisiel, Tlu! Grnesis of Bnng a n d T2 me, 408-4 2 0 ; Charles She rover, Heidfggn; Kan t and Time ( Lanham, M d : U nive rsi ty Press of An1erica, 1 g 88) ; Frank Schalo\v, The Renewal of the Heideggn·-Kant Dzalogue: A l t ion, Thought, and &sponsihility (Al bany: SL NY Press, 1 99 2 ) ; D. Dahlstrom, " Heideggers Kan t-Kommen tar, 1 9 2 5- 1 9 3 6," Phzlosophi::,rhe.\ Jahrburh g6 ( 1 g8g) : 346-366; Dah lstron1, "Heidegger's Kan tian Turn ," Review of A1Pta­ phy!1it!l 45 ( 1 99 1 ) : � 2 9-3 6 1 ; Dahlstro m , "Heidegger's Kant-< :ourscs at M arb u rg, in &ad"

ing Hezdegger from the Start,

2 93-308.

·

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

415

In the win ter semester of 1 92 1 I 2 2 H eidegger observes that dogma­ tism and skepticism , as contrasting characterizations of philosophical knowledge , are meaningful only if one assumes that philosophy "is sup­ posed to be able to come to and has come to some absolute, valid truth'' (PIA 1 6 2 £) . That is to say, th e possibility of characterizing philosophy skeptically depends upon the legi timacy of construing absolute knowl­ edge as its norm and goal . However, philosophizing in this sense has long since passed from the scene, H eidegger contends. Philosophical knowledge takes its bearings from "determinations of the sense of its re­ lation to the obj ect" without losing sigh t of the "conditionalness of the interpretation'' ( "the forestructure of understanding," as he later dubs it) . In view of th is "conditionalness," the idea of an absolute , uncondi­ tioned knowledge is a "dream": "As historical knowing, philosophizing not only cannot, but may not allow something like th is to have any sense" ( PIA 1 63 ; see 1 6 2- 1 66 ; SZ 1 9-26, 1 50£) . Much like Kant, Heidegger is intent on moving philosophy more into the vicinity of a kind of skepticism than in to the comforting confines of dogmatism. Philosophy is "the opposite of all comfort and assurance"; " the highest uncertainty" is "i ts constant and dangerous neighbor" (GM 2 8f; PIA 1 53 ) . Philosophizing maintains itself "in authenti c question­ ableness" and, given the "ruination" of factual life, philosophical inter­ pretation is a constan t "battle . . . against its own factual ruination" (PIA 1 5 2 £) . People make the most philosophical noise, Heidegger observes, when they suddenly realize that philosophy is incapable of becoming a system , be it a system of science or of world-views ( PAA 1 94 ) . Philoso­ phizing is instead, h e urges, a continuous naysaying, a necessary de­ struction , inasmuch as its fundamental motivation is "securing one 's own being-here or, better, rendering it uncertain" (PAA 1 7 1 ) . At the same time, in contrast to Kant and more like Wittgenstein , Heidegger regards the refutation of skepticism itself as neither possible nor necessary. 3� "A skeptic cannot be refuted any more than the being of truth can be ' proven "' (SZ 2 29 ) . An "actttal" skepti c would have "ex­ tinguished existence and thus truth in the despair of suicide " (SZ 2 29; see also SZ 2 04£) . At the same time Heidegger reproaches " the usual 3 2 This difference from Kant is n1irrored in a different construal of the syn thesis that each thi n ker posits as origi n al . Whe reas the ori g ina l syn th esis of pu re apperception com­ bin es representations that are already given somehow, the ori gi n al synthesis in Hei­ d e gge r s sense makes i t possible "' that the gi ve n is for th e ego . " On this crucial diffe r­ e n c e , see Dus i n g , "Selbs tbcwu fi tsei n sm odel l e , " 1 0 3 , 1 0 5 . '

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F

TRUTH

refutation o f skepticism , the denial o f being o r the knowability of truth ," for only going "half-way. " 33 Heidegger has in mind the argu­ ment against skepticism to the effect that the skeptic presupposes the truth of his assertion. The argumen t sheds n o ligh t on the connection between truth and the assertion , on truth 's own manner of being, or on the on tological foundation of that connection in being-here. 3 4 Heidegger's rejection of the skeptical presuppositions and thus of the requisiteness of a refutation of skepticism is, of course , in an im­ portan t respect yet another instance of the legacy of the Husserlian ac­ count of intentionality (see Id I 79) . Neve rtheless, in Husserl 's ideas of a "pure ego" an d a "consciousn ess in general," Heidegger still sees a ba­ sis for skepticism 's question. En tertaining such ideas can all too easily lead to "skipping over the on tological characters of facticity and the on­ tological consti tution of being-here," on the assumption that "philoso­ phy's tl1 eme is the 'a priori ' and not ' empirical facts ' as such" ( SZ 2 2 9) . Thus, in this connection the critical confron tation with Husserl con­ tin ues, not only because the "ideal subject'' is, as Heidegger puts it, "a fantastically idealized subject," but also because he gives a new rendering of the third, decisive discovery of Husserlian phenomenology - the original sense of the a priori (see 2 . 1 3 above ) . The a priori is the on to­ logical sense of care, the care that originally encompasses the facticity and existence of being-here. '"Earlier' than any presupposition and be­ havior i n accordance with being-here is the ' a priori ' of the on tological consti tution of the sort of being of care" ( SZ 2 06) . The original sense of the a priori is timeliness ( SZ 2 2 9, 3 26; GP 46 1 f) . This sort of in terpretation of the a priori in traduces the second sim­ ilarity between Kan t's and Heidegger's transcenden tal manners of ar­ gumen tation . Each of them is concerned with establishing - among many o ther things - the conditions of the possibility of science. The question of being aims, Heidegger declares, at "an a priori condition of the possibility" of on tic sciences as well as ontology ( SZ 1 1 ) . Yet the va­ lidity of such sciences is not simply presupposed from the outset. Hei33 SZ 2 2 8. H e re an unm istakable parallel wi th H egel again surfaces� see "t h e path of de­ " spair an d " t h e self-c ompletin g ske p ticism" i n Phiinomenologie des Geistes, 56. 34 S ee SZ 2 1 6f; PIA I fi 3 f. On skepticism as a pseudo-problem , see R. Carnap, Der lugisrhe A ufbau der Welt, th ird edi tion ( H ambu rg: Meiner, I g66 ) , 2 4_5 ; Carnap , Srheinprobleme z n der Philosophie ( H an1 burg: Mein e r, 1 g66) , 62ff; and Carn ap, "Empiricism , Semantics , and O n tology, " Rn.JuP

lnternationale de Philosophie 1 I ( I 950 ) : 2 0T "To be real in th e sci­

e n tific sense means to be an ele m e n t of the system ; hence th i s concept can n o t be m ean­ ingfu llv applied to the system i tself. "

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

417

degger's accoun t in Being and Time shares with Kan t's transcendental deduction the structure of an argument that can be characterized as a circle but hardly a circulum vitiosum. Each investigation establishes and sets forth in its conclusion what has been co-posited, but is not explici t from the outset. �5 Kant's man ner of argumentation is not circular since, as already em­ phasized, he does not proceed from the actuality of experience or from the truth of an empirical judgment, but rath er from the possibility of experience (B 765 ) . In a corresponding fashion, the analysis in Being and Time proceeds from the presumption that an average and vague un­ derstanding of being is "a factum" and that the en tity interrogated ( the enti ty whose manner of being is precisely to "be-here") distinguishes it­ self ontically by the fact that it is ontological . 36 "Existence is som ehow co-understood, whether explicitly or not, whether adequately or not" (SZ 3 1 2 ) . The role of "possible experience" in the Critique ofPure Reason, how­ ever, is assumed in Being and Time not merely, indeed, not even chiefly by that "vague and average understanding-of-being" that distinguishes being-here ontically ( and whose averageness stamps inauthentic exis­ tence ) . What plays the role of "possible experience" within the "tran­ scendental argument" of Being and Time is instead the "existentiel testi­ mony" of the authentic potential-to-be of being-here in "its existen tiel possibility," thus, the existentiel phenomena of death , conscience, and resoluteness, each of which requires an existential interpretation (as dis­ cussed in section 4· 4 above) . "Without an existen tiel understanding, all analysis of existentiality would be groundless" (SZ 3 1 2 ; see SZ 2 67 , 302f, 305 ) . Corresponding to the hermeneutic "fa restructure of under­ standing," the possibility as well as the necessity of the task of an exis­ tential analysis of being-here is "prefigured in the on tic constitution of being-here" and "ultimately existentielly, that is to say, on tically rooted" (SZ 1 2f, 1 50- 1 53, 3 1 o ) . The ontological truth of the existential analy­ sis takes shape "on the basis of the original existentiel truth " ( SZ 3 1 6) . 3 5 SZ 7f, 1 53 ; I . Kant, Rejlexionen zur Metaphysik, 507 5, in Kants Werke, Akademie Au sga be , vol . 1 8 ( Be rl in : de G r uy te r, 1 92 8 ) , 8o. See, too, S. W. Arndt, "Transcendental Method and Transcendental Arguments," International Philosophical Quarterly 27 ( 1 987 ) : 57f; Karl Am e riks , " Kant's Transcenden tal Deduction as a Re g re ss ive A rg um en t , " Kant-Stu­ dien 6g ( 1 978 ) : 2 73-2 8 7 , esp. 2 84f. Cf. Manfred Baum , Deduktion und Beweis in Kants Transz.endentalphzlosophif ( Kon igs tein: Athena u rn , t g86) , 1 88ff, 2 o8ff. See, too, Becker's remark in n . 2 7 above. �6 SZ 6 , 1 2f; see Apel , .. Sinnkonstitution und Geltungsrechtfertigung." 1 1 2- 1 s o

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT

OF T RUTH

Since hermeneu tic understanding always moves within the ambit of such a forestructure , there is, to be sure, a circle of understanding. But to regard the circle as a circulum vitiosum is "to misunderstand under­ standing from th e ground up" ( SZ 1 53; see SZ 3 1 4f; GP 465 ) . The third point of agreemen t between the philosoph ical proj ects of Kant and Heidegger is probably the clearest indication of their com­ monly "transcendental" character. With his determination of timeliness Heidegger lays claim , no l ess than Kant, to an ultimate grounding (within th e framework of fundamental ontology: the au thentic, origi­ nal disclosedness ) that encompasses the investigation itself. In other words, the analysis that aims at the condition of possibility is self-refer­ en tial . 37 What Heidegger explains as "the original truth " is transcen­ dental because it discloses itself and, indeed, in such a way that i t makes all other (on tological as well as on tic) truths possible and thereby ex­ cludes every further grounding. The self-disclosedness of tim eliness does not thereby have the c h aracter of something on h and that pre­ sen ts itself. Stric tly speaking, " time is not, " at least not if ' is' stands for being present or on hand. In an understandably confusing attempt to explicate this point, Heidegger observes: "Timeliness 'is' no entity at all . It is n o t but instead unfolds and, indeed, unfolds possible m an ners of itself. These make possible the manifold modes of being of being-here, above all , the basic possibility of authentic and nonauthentic existence'' (SZ 3 2 8 ; see 304 ) . The term translated here as 'unfold ' is ' zeitigen ' which also signifies a ripening ( as in the colloquial English expression ' the time is ripe , ' but not without a connotation that what ripens can spoil ) . 38 In this sense , ' timeliness ' stands for manners of unfolding ( in Heidegger's jargon , "ecstases " ) that constitute and underlie being-in­ the-world (and thereby access to the handy, the on hand , and others) . Being-in-the-world provides that access, it bears iterating, because the man ners of being of entities, i ncluding its own, are disclosed in view of its timeliness. 39

Bubner, "Zur Struktur eines transzenden talen Argume nt�," Krz n t-Studien-Sunderheft 6 5 ( 1 9 74) : 1 5-2 7 . 3R Cf. (;oethe , Werke, vol . 1 3 , pt. 1 ( Weim ar: Bohlau , 1 894) , 1 74: "Doc h ware ganz ,-ergeblich aller Cotter Gunst, I Umsonst des Menschen vielgewandtes Th u n , umsonst I Des Feuers Kraft, das alle Speise zeitiget - I Wenn jener Gabe Wohlthat uns Natur verzagt, 1 Die erst mit Anmuth wurzet, was die Nothdurft heisch t." 39 In his i n terpretation of the rol e of the transcenden tal ima �i n ation i n Kant's accou nt, Heidegger fin ds parallels to his own conception o f the origi nal ti m el i n e ss ; s e e KP M I h 7- l R�; PIK 2 6 �-2 9 2 � and Apel. .. Sinnkonsti tution und c;eltungsfertigung," 1 4.� -1 4H. 37 R.

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

419

5·33 1ranscendental Truth and Propositional Truth. Yet what does all this

have to do with Tugendhat's objection to the conception of truth in Be­ ing and Time ? If his objection is trenchant and if Kant's determination of "transcendental truth" agrees in essential respects with Heidegger's conception of truth , then one might simply conclude that Kant's doc­ trine is caugh t up in the same dilemma and confusion. Kant's tran­ scendental argument is in fact reproached for dubiously equating mean ing and truth, thereby all egedly forfeiting the very distinction that is essential for propositional truth . 40 In this respect an unmistakable similarity with the positivistic principle of verification ism comes to the surface. If one understands th e meaning of the principles that proceed from the time determinations of the categories, then one must affirm their truth, since experience, the starting point of the investigation or, more precisely, talk of experience ( empirical judgmen t) is not possible with out these principles. By this argument, a skeptic cannot meaning­ fully claim to be unable to experience an obj ect, since in making the claim the conditions of its meaningfulness are implicitly recognized and those conditions include the possibility of experience of an obj ect (or, more precisely, possibility of determining what is an experience of an object) . The skeptic is thus forced to affirm the validity of conditions of that sort, that is, their "transcendental truth. " 4 1 The fac t that Kant employs argumentation of this sort - devoid , to be sure, of any explicitly performative or pragmatic interpretation of i t - in the course o f making his case for a transcendental truth has already been amply documented. In the process, however, what Tugendhat re40 B . Stroud, "Tran sc e n d en tal Arguments," Journal of Philosophy 65, no. 9 ( 1 968) : 2 54ff; and Strou d , The Significa nce of Philosophical Skepticism ( Oxfo r d : Oxford U ni v. Press, 1 984 ) . See, t oo , P. H acker, "Are Transcendental Argume n ts a Ver s i o n of Verification­ ism?" American Philosophical Quarterly 9 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 7 8-8 5 ; A. C. Genova, " Goo d Tran sc e n ­ d e n tal Argu men t� , " Kant-Studien 66 ( 1 9 83 ) : 49 1 -495. 41 Th is sort of a rgume n t a gain s t the skeptic, often i n terpreted in performative or tran­ s ce nd e nt al ly pragmat i c fashion today, h as a n ce s to rs in the redarguitio elenchia an d "crit­ ical j us tifi catio n by retorsion" of the Aristotelian and Thomistic tr a d it i on s . "Certai n ob­ jection s are thus made that the one objec ting, by th e very fac t of his objection , in actu exercito, c o n cede s the thesis that he wantli to deny o r place i n doubt." Cf. G. I s aye , .. La j ustification cri tique par Ia re tors io n , " Revue Philo!1ophique de Louvain 52 ( 1 954 ) : 205, 2 2 0; Arndt, "Transcenden tal Method and Tra ns cen de n ta l Arguments," 47 n. 20. For a transcenden tal pr agm a tic version of this argument, s ee Becker, "Kri tik und Begru n ­ dung," 1 7 �-3 ff, 1 9 1 � Apel, "Das Problem der p h i l oso p h is c hen Le tz t begru n d un g im Lich te einer transze ndentalen P ragm ati k, " in Sprache und Erkenntnis, ed . B. Kanitscheider ( I n nsbru ck : I n sti tut fi.ir Sprac hwi sse nsch aft, 1 976) , 7 2 ; W. K uh l m a n n , ''Reflexive Le tzt­ begriindung: Zur These von der U nhin tergeh barkei t der Argumen tationssitua tion ," 7-Ritschri/l fur philosophische Fon rhunf! '..\ t) ( 1 qH 1 ) : 1 o-2 0.

420

' H E I D E G G E R S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

gards as necessary for propositional truth , the difference between meaning ( possibility of truth or falsi ty) and truth, is by no means put out of play. The aim of the transcenden tal investigation remains the demonstration of certain a priori syntheses of sensibility and under­ stan ding that cannot meanin gfully be placed i n question . Yet that th e meaning (= sense ) and the truth are logically equivalen t in the case of 3 the principles is th e end and not the poin t of departure of the argu­ ment. Only relative to the other (dogmatic as well as skeptical ) claims - that is to say, only in vi ew of the possibility of the falsity as well as the truth of the principles - is a transcendental j ustification given, that is, a j ustification to the effect that no alternative to these conditions can be meaningfully en tertained. In Heidegger's determination of timeliness as th e "transcendental" or "original" truth , he lays claim, like Kan t, to an ultimate j ustification, that is to say, a self-justification . The aim of the transcendental delib­ eration in Being and Time is to show that and how timeliness is the con­ dition of the possibility of various manners of bei ng (SZ 1 8 , 404, 46of; GP 4 2 9 ) . Successful pursuit of this aim has, as a consequence, the senselessness or self-contradictoriness of any rej ection of this condi­ tio n . The rej ection of ti meliness is a contradiction in itself, not least be­ cause the rej ecting itself is a mode of timeliness. "Even when present­ ing things is taken to an extreme [and their presence is overriding] , it [be ing-here ] is still timely, that is to say, expectant, forgetting" ( "ex­ pectant" and "forgetting," i t bears recalling, are the modes of inau­ then tically coming-to-oneself an d abiding or, more prosaically and less accurately, modes of the inauthentic future and past) . 42 Hence, in Hei­ degger's as well as Kant's dete rmination of "transcenden tal truth ," the spec ific sense of truth (bivalence) is upheld, precisely because that transcendental truth is articulated in propositions, albeit propositions distinguished by the alleged fact that - in the last analysis - they can­ not be meaningfully rejected . In spite of the family resemblances noted, there are unmistakable diffe rences. In H eidegger's existen tial interpretation , the concepts of sense and truth have meanings quite different from those they have in the transcenden tal argument of the Critique of Pure Reason. In Kan t's ar­ gument, what matters is the validity of a specific kind of theoretical kn owledge ( a priori knowledge in mathematics and physics) , and the proof of this validity lays claim, in turn, to a kind of theoretical knowl-

D I S C LO S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

42 1

edge that precedes knowledge in the sciences in general . Just as Kant understands "knowledge in the genuine sense of the term" as a judg­ ment or aj udgmentlike synthesis of intuitions and concepts , so h e also ttnderstands "truth" strictly in regard to theoretical j udgmen ts ( kinds and instances of knowledge ) . In the Critique of Pure Reason, transcen­ den tal truth ultimately forms a system of syn thetic j udgments-a-priori , namely, "the principles of pure understanding. " Whether the principles are i n fact in force depends, to be sure , on whether there is experience (empirical j udgmen ts about obj ects) at all . Nevertheless, the validity of the principles as the conditions of the possibility of experience can be proven a priori, that is, independently of anyone 's actually or histori­ cally making empirical judgments. In short, Kant dubs knowledge "tran­ scendental" not least because it is presupposed by - and thus distinct from - h istory (for example, the history of mathematics or physics) and actual experience (for example, an actual empirical judgment that heating mercury causes it to expand ) . Transcendental truth in Being and Time, by contrast, discloses itself precisely in the pretheoretical , preontological behavior of being-here. In the last analysis it is not a j udgment, but rather the disclosedness of the sense of being-here, a disclosedness that happens (geschieht) , which is to say that it is fundamen tally historical (geschichtlich) . Hence, a philosopher can interpret this original , existential truth adequately only by way of "formally indicating" and thereby retrieving and reen­ acting it. As a transcendental philosopher, Heidegger construes dis­ closedness by means of assertions that, as noted above, he recognizes must be considered prima facie bivalent (L 4 1 0) . The endgame is not, however, as it is for Kant, a set of a priori j udgments that cannot be meaningfully doubted because they stand for conditions that are con­ stantly on hand for any possible experience. Heidegger's existential as­ sertions about the truth of existence, about being-here 's self-disclosure of i ts timeliness, are intended to distinguish this truth from other de­ rivative conceptions of being and truth, precisely by proj ecting and re­ trieving what is not on hand - that timeliness i tself. 43 However, it is not the difference but the similarity between Kant's 43 C lo s el y tied to th is diffe rence is another that deserves men tion . Kant employs ' Sin n' and ' Bedeutung' ch iefly to indicate the manner in which something is u nder s to od ( thus in

sense 2 and sense ) . By con trast, Heidegger in terprets " the original truth" as the prethe­ :� oretical disclosedness of th e sense of bei ng and the sen"e ( sen s e 1 ) as the un thematic horizon ( timeliness) in view of wh ich so methin g is unco\·ered . While there is a verifi­ cationist collapse of mean ing and truth on the transcendental plai n for Kant. Heideg-

H E I DEGGER ' s

42 2

C O N C E P T O J< T R U T H

"transcendental truth" and Heidegger's interpretation of the "original truth" as veritas transcendentalis that has a bearing on the question of the trenchancy of Tugendhat's obj ection . As noted earlier, Tugendhat con­ siders it essential for any meaningful talk of truth that a distinction be­ tween the preliminary or ostensible givenness of something and its be­ ing given "as it is in itself' or, equivalently, a distinction between meaning and truth, be upheld. Before a judgmen t can be verified, it must be meaningful, that is to say, it must be able to be true or false. Without such a distinction , Tugendhat maintains, "the specific concept of truth" is for­ feited. Heidegger's "expansion" of the concept of truth to "disclosed­ ness" allegedly relinquishes the specific concept of truth and, with it, the idea of critical responsibility, an idea bound up with the very essence of philosophy. "He [ Heidegger] would like to th ink that the expansion and deepening [of the concept of truth ] , as he carries it out, would require giving up the idea of a critical demonstration" (T 405 ) . As just explained, however, the distinction required by that "specific conception of truth" is not ann ulled by Heidegger's determination of an original truth . Comparison wi th Kan t demonstrates, moreover, that the distinction need not be forfeited by a transce n dental determination of an "original" truth . Kant's aim is to establish c onditions of the possi­ bility of experience, that is, judgments ( " transcendental principles") that underlie the possibility of truth and falsity. It is obvious that such a j udgment in the ''system of transcenden tal p ri n ciples" can not be em­ pirically true or false. But that by no means e n tails that the specific sense of truth - the truth of bivalent assertions - is suspended in the case of transcenden tal principles . A transcendental pri nciple remains a judg­ ment, the " transcendental " truth of which must be proven. An equivalent structure can be found in H eidegger's determination of the original truth, over and against on tic truths and contrary on to­ logical claims about the fundamental meaning of ' truth . ' The original truth is the disclosedness of ecstatic-horizonal timeliness as the sense ( sense ) of being-here. The disclosedness of timeliness is the condition of the possibility of uncovering, as well as obscuring or even conceal­ ing, entities within-the-world. Insofar as "worldly" (apoph antic) asser­ tions' possibility of being true or false depends u pon uncovering and concealing, "worldly" proposi tional truths like perceptual truths are di­ rected from the outset at (and in that sense depe ndent upon ) the orig=

1

ge r s co nceptions of th e origi n al tru th" and ''the origi n a l se � se" '

"

is not t h e sense o f be ing. but the disclosed n ess o f that

sense .

remain distinct. Tru t h

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D F. N l' A I . P H I I . O S O P H Y

423

inal truth i n the sen se of the disclosedness o f timeliness. I n contrast to ontically true j udgments, the original truth is not con tingent but nec­ essary; it is the condi tion of the possibility of the intraworldly encoun ter. Nevertheless, Heidegger articulates the disclosedness of timeliness (as the sense of being-here) in thematic judgments and assertions - not "worldly" or "apophan tic" but rather "phenomenologi cally categorial " or "existential" assertions - and he does so precisely because there are alternative conceptions (j udgments , assertions, propositions) about the sense of being. The demonstration of the disclosedness of timeliness as the original truth is the "transcenden tal argument" of Being and Time. Heidegger's atte1npt to explain the originality or primordiality of this truth , not only over and against on tic truths but also over and against competing claims in the history of philosophy, contradicts the charge that he fails to up­ hold what Tugendhat understands as the specific and basic sense of truth . Heidegger interprets the original truth as the disclosedness that lies in advance of every proposi tion and the reby every possibility of propositional truth or falsity. Insofar as the interpretation takes the form of a transcenden tal argument or a scientific discourse , the origi­ nal truth is construed in assertions for which there are contraries. Thus, propositional truth or, more precisely, the bivalency criterion of mean­ ingful talk about truth , on which Tugendhat rightly insists, remains in force. 5·4 Heidegger's Pragmatism

The foregoing rebuttal of Tugendhat's objections does not rely upon a pragmatic in terpretation of Heidegger's analyis of truth. Attempts have been made , however, to defend his analysis from Tugendhat's charges by emphasizi ng its si milari ties wi th pragmatic accoun ts of truth and un­ derstanding. Carl Friedrich Gethmann provides an example of such an attempt in his essay "Heidegge r's Conception of Truth in His Marburg Lectures," as he argues that Heidegger maintains a modified version of the concept of truth demanded by Tugendhat. According to Geth­ mann, Heidegger regards the presentation of things as they are in themselves as the cri terion of truth , but wi th the difference that they present themselves in an action , not in an in tui tion . On Gethmann 's reading, Heidegger replaces the traditional ''propo­ si tional model of truth " with an "operational model," grounding the former in the latte r as the apophan tic ' as ' -stru c t1 1 re i'\ grou n d ed in the

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C EPT O F T R U T H

hermeneutic ' as '-structure. "Success" and "serviceability" accordingly form the criterion o f truth that can be operative "even if i t is not as­ serted at all. " 4 4 While the representation of an original-copy relation is supposedly behind the meaning of the agreement in a propositional model of truth , an allegedly deeper-lying operational truth relates to a proposition as a key to a lock. "Whether the key ' agrees ' with the lock shows itself in locking, hence in its use, not in talk about it, " Gethmann declares, as he attempts to show how Heidegger's operational concep­ tion of truth as "success" manages to bring the pragmatic tendencies in Husserl 's in terpretation of truth (as the fulfilled intention ) to a radical conclusion. 45 On the basis of this pragmatic interpretation , Gethmann rejects Tu­ gendhat's c riticism , claiming that the propositional model of truth dominates Tugendhat's reflections. ''Heidegger's pragmatism is . . . completely m issed by Tugendhat. " 4 6 What Gethmann means here by ' pragmatism ' can be gathered from his c laim that the concept of dis­ closedness designates a structure, ''according to which an a priori fit­ tingness obtains between a human being and the world like that be­ tween a key and lock. " 4 7 This metaphor, however, hardly corresponds to the sense of the "clearing," namely, the "here" ofbeing-here. In other words, turning the m e taphor back on itself, one migh t say that this ex­ planation of one metaphor by another does not "succeed." More pre­ cisely, this pragmatic rendering of disclosedness conflates the distinc­ tion between being-here as the site of the disclosure of manners of being, on the one h and, and its behavior of dealing with and uncover­ ing entities, on the other. In terms of the 'as '-structures worked out in Chapter 3 , the pragmatic reading collapses both the apophantic and existential-hermeneutic 'as '-structures into the existentiel-hermeneutic 'as '-structure. The disclosure that defines being-here is always accom­ panied by an existe ntiel proj ection, but the timeliness that is the exis­ tential sense of that proj ection is not a matter of success or failure, at least not in any normal sense of the terms where ' success ' signals the presence of an achievement, ' failure ' its absen ce. An authentic self-un­ derstanding on th e part of being-here is a projection, not of any pres­ ence, but of an abse nce, the possibility most i ts own : its death . The thesis that Heidegger's analysis of truth in Being and Time is es4 4 Gethmann, "Heideggers Wah rheit�konzeption," 1 1 7 . 45 Ge thn1ann, "Heideggers Wahrh eitskon zep � ion/' 1 1 6 . 46 Ge thmann, "Heideggers \Vahrheit�konzeption," 1 1 7 . 1 7 ( �t>t h mann. "Heideggers Wahrheitsko nzeption /' 1 1 8.

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E NT A L P H I L O S O P H Y

42 5

sentially pragmatic is also advanced by Mark Okrent and Richard Rorty. Rorty claims that the analyses in Being and Time recapitulate classic prag­ matic argumen ts against Plato and Descartes. The primacy assigned by Heidegger to social praxis over theoretical kn owing as well as the mis­ trust of traditional optic metaphors are supposedly clear indications of a fundamen tally pragmatic attitude. 48 Rorty endorses Okren t's basic ar­ gument that the successful pragmatic analysis of intentionality in Being and Time offers a sufficient answer to the question of being and all ques­ tions traditionally related to it. In the course of the analysis, however, metaphysics in general (and with it the "fundamental ontology" of Be­ ing and Time itself) is supposedly overtaken an d exposed as superfluous, perverted, and tyrannical. just as important, on this reading, is the fac t that the crucial consequence o f the analysis in Being and Time did not escape Heidegger himself, namely, that pragmatism is the end or, more precisely, the comple tion of p hilosophy as metaphysics. 49 Okrent argues much like Gethmann that in Being and Time Heideg­ ger radicalizes the latent pragmatic (and thus verificationist) tenden­ cies of Husserl 's analysis of truth. Truth in the Husserlian sen se of a ful­ filled intention, that is to say, the identity of what is meant with what is intuited, is so modified that propositional truth is dependent upon prac tical truth while practical truth itself is embedded in th e particular aim and context of socially purposive action. Once again like Geth­ man n , Okre n t emphasizes that Heidegger does not discard the Husser­ lian doc trine of truth as an intention filled by an intuition, but instead reinterprets it pragmatically. "For Heidegger, the fundamental no tion of evidence is tied to the way in which purposeful, practical activity must be recognizable as successful or unsuccessful if the activity is to coun t as purposeful at all. From this basic pragmatism follow his idiosyncratic notions of truth and understanding." 50 Okrent diverges from a purely pragmatic interpretation by righ tly observing that the truth of an assertion about someth ing on hand is not a question of success for Heidegger. 5 1 The truth of an assertion of that sort (for example, the truth of a theoretical assertion about some perR. Rorty, Essays on Heidegger and Others, 1 of, 3 3f. Wh ile Rorty points to the replacemen t o f a system of "optic" metaphors wi th "linguistic" ones, Geth mann ("Heideggers Wahre­ heitskonzeption," 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 ) stresses the system of "hand-related" or "grasping" ( hap­ tisch) metaphors. These emphases are offset, however, by the pervasive and important uses of ' Sicht, ' ' Umsicht, ' ' Ubersicht, ' ' Licht, ' and ' Lichtunt ; see, e.g. , SZ 3 36 . 4 9 H P 7f, 2 1 8; Rorty, Es�ays o n Heidfgger and Others, 3 2f, 3 8 n . 5 0 H P 1 28; see also 1 oof, 1 1 9- 1 2 9, 2 3 7f, 2 8 4 . 48

5l

HP

�7;

for rPcogn i t 1 o n of t h P

�a m �

poi n t ,

'3��

D reyfu '.i , Being-in-lhf lVorld,

':!. i i

�8 1 .

H F I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

ceivable state o f affairs) i s independent of human interests. A t the same time he stresses that the uses and meanings of thematic assertions about things on hand "are fixed only relative to the communicative act of as­ sertion itself' and, hence , that the truth-conditions of an assertion about something on hand depend on " the communally purposive si ttl­ ation of language use itself' ( HP 9 2 ; 87; 1 34£) . "The initial conditions of appropriate use of an assertion and the truth condi tions expressed by the assertion are identical . . . If it weren 't mostly used, when used to communicate, in situations in which it is true, it would have no mean­ ing at all; in lacking function , i t would lack semantic con tent" ( HP 9 2 ) . A particular purposive con text, that "communally purposive situation of language use itself," determines those condi tions. Thus the assertion remains a tool in Okren t's interpretation ; the conditions of a true as­ sertion about something on hand depend upon practical activity and are directed at attaining a practical goal. Still, he insists on the fact that the fulfillmen t of those sorts of conditions, that is to say, the truth of the theoretical assertion about something perceivable , is only possible if the latter is in fact on hand. 5� In contrast to Rorty and apparen tly also to Geth mann, O kren t does attempt in the manner just shown to point out the limits of a full-blown pragmatic interpre tation (at least with respect to Heidegger's accoun t of theoretical assertions about something on hand ) . Nevertheless, he construes the Heideggerian doctrin e of timeliness in unmistakably pragmatic terms. Timeliness, or, in Okren t's rendering, '' temporality as ' the unity of past, present, and future,"' is said to be "nothing other than the structure ofDasein 's purposive social activity" (HP 1 95 ) . That means not only that timeliness is to be understood exclusively in relation to in­ tersubj ective praxis, but also that timeliness is grounded in being-here .

5 2 HP 93, 95f, 1 ooff, 1 o6f. Okrent appeals to nonli nguistic conditions of appropriate use of an assertion , citing Robert Brandom, " Heidegger's Categories in Being and Time, " Monist 66 ( 1 983 ) : 406: "v\'ithout the possibility of language exits th rough non-asser­ tional performances, theoretical or i n tralinguistic infere nce would lose much or all of i ts point." As noted , Okrent insist� that dependency of the truth of assertions upon th e prac tical activity of Dasezn does not imply " that what the extant is revealed to be in the perceptual evidence is not fully o�jective " (H P 1 07 ) . In this regard, it is instructive to recall Rorty's reproaches of Sellars and Quine. According to Rorty, disti nc tions between the given and th e posi ted and bet\veen the analytic and the syn th etic, questioned re­ spectively by Sellars and Quine, continue tacitly to inforn1 the otherwise pragmati c turn of th eir th in king. Presumably, sim ilar issues would beset Okrent's i n terpretation of the necessi ty of the on handness of the sta te of affairs indica ted .by a t r u e theoretical asser­ tion ; see R. Rorty, Philosophy and the A1irror of Nature ( P ri n c e ton : Pri nceton U n iv. Press , 1 �} 7 9 ) , 1 G8- 1 ) G .

D I S C LO S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I LO S O P H Y

427

(or, in Okrent's translation of choice, temporality is grounded in Da­ sein) . From this Okrent infers that "the only consistent metaphysics to be derived from the program of Being and Time is a pragmatic one," Hei­ degger's intentions to the con trary notwithstanding ( HP 2 5 2 f, 2 1 7 ) . Okrent con tends that the ensuing turn in Heidegge r's thinking is the result of the success of the fundamentally pragmatic analyses in Being and Time. Allegedly, after perceiving that neither traditional meta­ physics nor the fundamen tal on tology in Being and 1zme is tenable in the wake of its pragmatic analysis of intentionality, Heidegger turned away from metaphysics altogether in order to raise the question of th e horizon that is neither metaphysical nor within the scope of pragma­ tism . Only in later phases of his thinking did Heidegger realize that the conditions of the possibility of understanding are not to be construed pragmatically ( HP 22 1 ) . Much in Heidegger's analysis of truth is illum inated by the pragmatic interpretations given by Ge thmann , Rorty, and Okrent. Particularly valuable is the in terpretation of understanding with the help of the Rylean concept of "know-how. " 53 At the same time, however, there is a great deal that is wan ting in th is line of interpretation. It is striking, for example, that being-in-the-world is only interpreted in the sense of un­ derstanding, without regard for the other existentials. This man euver has the effect of reducing the analysis of being-here in Being and 1'ime to a single dimension , a critical misreading in view of the equiprimor­ diality of the basic existentials and their relation to the unified struc­ ture of care and its basic timeliness. 54 Too li ttle attention is paid to the thrownness of human existence and to the preeminent role attributed Cf. c;ilbert Ryle , The Con­ & Nobl e , 1 9 49 ) , 3 1 : " Knowing how to apply m axims can­ n o t be re d uced to , o r derived fro 1n , th e acceptance of those or oth e r m axi m s . " Ibid . , 5 4 : " U n de rsta n d i n g i s a part o f k n owi ng how. T h e kn owledge that i s req uired fo r u n­ d e rstan d i n g i n tell igent performances of a specifi c ki nd is son1e degree of com pete n ce

;> 3 I n th i s re�ard D reyfus's work a l s o desern.� " c o n 'i i d e rable c red i t . rPpt of /Wind ( New York: Barn t'"'

in p e rform a n ces of th at kin d . " On the c o n n e c tion wi t h Rylean n o t i o n s , o n e won d e r�

wh e th e r R y le appro p r i a tes so m e lerted Pap�:'\, \'Ol .

of then1 from H e i degger. See h i s review of SZ in Col­ 1 ( :\J ew York: Barn e ':i & 1\' o b l e , 1 9 7 1 ) , 1 9 7-2 l ;J .

do t h e o t h e r exi sten tials "shri n k i n s i gn i fi cance " later, as Okre n t sugges ts . Co n sid­ of boredom as a Gru nd.\ tim m u ng is cen tral to th e lectu re� of 1 9 29/30 ( GM ) , a� c o n � ideration of reti cence i� to t h e BLP. O n the sub'5equent suppl a n ti n g of t h e Gru nd­

:) 4 No r

e ra t i o n

beji ndlirhkeit wi t h the (;ru n d5Limm u ng, see Kl aus H e l d , "Grun dbesti nun u n g u n d Zei tk ri­ tik bei Heide g�e r, " i n

Zur philosophi \rhfn A k tuahtiit Heideggen , \·ol .

1 : Ph il o"op h i e u n d

P o l i ti k , ed . Die trich Pap e n fu13 u n d () ttu P{>gge l e r ( Kl ostenn an n : Fran kfu rt

1 99 1 ) , :, 1 - .� 6 . l I e l d

a t t r i b utt'"> H e i d egge r's bas ic p o l i ti c al 'l tan ce

in h i ... p h c n onH · n o l o l.T\ ' o f ba� ic tn ooct s " ( i h i d .. �� :� - � 2 -:J :, ) .

to

a1n M a i n ,

t h e " o n e-s ided ne"i'i

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

by Heidegger to the manner in which being-he re is disposed (and, in­ deed, fun dam en tally disposed in-and-by Angst) . This neglect of dispo­ sitions is particularly notable, given the preoccupation with questions of idealism am ong pragmatic interpretations and the fact that, accord­ i n g to Heidegger, " the pri1nary discovery of the world" must be left, not to the understanding, but to the "mere mood" ( SZ 1 38 ) . Furthermore, understanding i tself is construed solely as the capacity to use things in th e respectively appropriate, socially purposive manner within a spe­ cific "context of involvement. " From Being and Time, Okrent mai n tains, one learns that "the fundamental form of intentionality is prac tical ac­ tio n ," as Heidegger pursues "a classic transcen dental argument . . . to show the priori ty of practical social activity over o ther types of inten­ tio nality." 55 Such a claim is, however, hard to square with Heidegger's i nsistence that an authentic understanding amounts to "coming to the se lf that is most one 's own, thrown into its individualization [Ver­ einzelung] " ( SZ 3 3 9 ) . Pragmatic interpretations also tend to ignore or at least misconstrue the significance of the difference between on tic, preontological, and on­ tological levels as well as corresponding existentiel and existential di­ mensions of understanding. As far as being-here itself is concerned, it is always already coming to itself ( the original future ) and thus the site of the disclosure of its manner of being and that of others (for this reason, being-here is, like Aristotle's asyntheta, always true) . In other words, the disclosedness that defines being-here is not simply its projection and cer­ tai nly not its projection of what things are for. At on tic and existentiel levels, if one takes something up as a hammer or for hammering, then o ne is at the same time interpreting, i.e., proj ecting it (preontologically) as h andy. But its handiness is only disclosed in the use , and something so p rojected may prove to be not handy at all. Being-here is the site of this disclosure precisely on the basis of the timeliness of a correspondin g self-understanding (self-projecting) . But the fac t that something handy or something on hand, for that matter, discloses itself as such to whoever "is-here" is not the mere product of a projection of what it is or migh t be . It is necessary, in other words, to distinguish between the manner in which something is ( ontically or preontologically) projected by being­ here and the manner in which it discloses itself to the entity that is-here ( and, indeed , discloses itself because that entity is-here, proj ecting, i.e. , 55 H P 203 , 2 8o;

see , too , 1

o,

2 1 f,

1 2 4 , 1 3 0f, 2 oo, 2 1 6 .

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

429

fleeing or anticipating its death ) .5fi So, too, the existential, timely struc­ ture of being-in-the-world must be distinguished from particular prag­ matic "successes" that it makes possible. Okrent appears to overlook these crucial distinctions when he main­ tains that Heidegger does not have the conceptual resources "to dis­ tinguish between ' presence ' in the sense of presentability and presence as the ground of presentability" ( HP 2 1 6) . According to Okrent, Hei­ degger might have been able to avoid the full-blown pragmatic conse­ quences of his early analyses only if he could sustain a distinction be­ tween , for exam ple, something's being perceivable and its being on hand (and thus capable of being perceived) . As evidence that Heideg­ ger cannot sustain the disti nction or, in other words, that he conflates onhandness and perceivability, Okrent cites his claim that "only as long as being-here is . . . , 'is there' being" ( SZ 2 1 2 ) . But this passage sup­ ports Okrent's interpretation only on the supposition that what it means for something to be is, as he puts it, "nothing other than the conditions under which we would be w�rranted in thinking or assert­ ing that some thing is, because our intention that it is would be fulfilled" ( HP 2 1 7 ) . Okrent's gloss is remarkably telling for the way it privileges thinking and asserting (indeed, in terms borrowed from Dewey and Husserl) and, in the process, conflates being-here with socially purpo­ sive and in that sense legitimate activi ty - with nary a word , for exam­ ple, about the disposedness of being-here or about its authentic po­ te ntial-to-be. Yet the accurate claim that being-here is a condition for the givenness of being (es gibt) or even that "entities are accessible as en­ ti ties only if there is [on the part of being-here] an understanding of being" ( SZ 2 1 2 ) does not entail that the ttnderstanding either solely or 5 6 Just as I may on tically mistake one thing for another ( e.g. , a movement for a gesture ) , so, too, I migh t preon tologically or eve n onto logically project so mething as handy, wh en it proves to be no t handy but to be-on-hand or even to be-here . Yet it can only disclose it� manner of being to-and-i n being-he re , to-and-i n bei ng-here's proj ec tion - by way of fligh t or anticipation - of itself as being-i n-the-worl d . While it is true (a) that th e man­ ner of being of enti ties is, ontologically considered, eq uivalent to their manne r of dis­ playing or disclosing themselves, and ( b) th at they disclose themselves to th e en tity that is-here precisely insofar as the en tity that is-here projects itself and its possibil i ties, that projection does not by itself detern1ine th eir manners of being or, equivalen tly, th eir man­ ners of displ ayi ng thetnselves. Being-here , we are abl e to recogn ize ( i nd eed , in the lit­ eral sense of becom ing cogniza n t of a foregoi ng, prethematic cognizance) that our prqj ections, whe ther o n ti c , preontological, o r ontological , are som eti mes false because - relative to th ose projections - we are the site of enti ties' prethen1 atic disclosure of the ir tnanncrs of being.

43 0

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

suitably (genuin ely) determines that givenness. To "be-here" is to be the si te of the disclosure of entities' manners of being, but to "be-here" is not to create those manners of being. 57 There is a further reason to be wary of this sort of pragmatic reading of Heidegger's analysis of understandi ng. As argued in the last section , Heidegger provides a quite traditional account of propositional truth and gives every impression of intending to adhere to it. According to that accoun t, a true proposi tion points out some thing as it itself is, al­ lowing it to presen t itself as i t is in itself. But Heidegger must surrender his commitment to this conception of truth , at least at the level of fun­ damental on tology, if he is claiming that being is completely depen­ dent upon being-here, as some pragmatic - in this respect, idealist readings of the passage in question suggest. 5R True , the assertions mak­ ing up the existential analysis in Being and Time are not descriptive of states of affairs, since, as noted earlier, Heidegger eschews descriptions ( latent theories) and his theme is ontologically different from states of affairs. But even if his assertions are not true by virtue of the accuracy with which they depict some state of affairs, he also clearly does not in­ tend for them to be true in the sense that the re is some socially purpo­ sive warrant for asserting the m . Authenticity, being one 's own self, de­ mands an individuality that an ticipates a fate that can never be overtaken by others, not even those who are authentically with us. Existential analysis of this authenticity must show that timeliness is the sense of being-here an d thtts the site for the disclosure of itself and other modes of being. As noted earlier, the horizon of genuinely being­ here is nothing on hand in the future, indeed , nothing on hand at all, since death is precisely the possibility of the utter impossibility of being­ here at all. 59 No socially purposive activity corresponds to this prospect 5 7 The claim that the understanding/prqjection does not solely detenni n e what presents

itself i n view of it m ust be understood ontologically and ontically, i.e . , with respect to the m anners of being disclosed ( the su�ject of ontology) and the en titie� that are un­ covered ( the subj ect of on tic sci ences) . In regard to on tic sciences, Dreyfus 1nakes a sim­ ilar point, arguing that Heidegge r is neither an instrumen talist nor a pragmatist but a "hermeneutical realis t." Cf. Dreyfus, BeinK-in-the-Warld, 2 ;, 3 : "But Heidegger never con­ cluded from the fact that our p ractices are necessary for arre5s to theoretical en tities that these entities 1n ust be dPfined in term� of our access practices.H 5 8 While denying that Heidegger is a p ragmatist, Blattner argues on th e basis of the same passage ( SZ � 1 2 ) that Heidegge r etn braces "transcenden tal ideal isn1 " ; cf. Hrideggtr :\ Trmporal ldPalzsm, � 3 3- 2 5 4 . !j 9 S Z � 8 6 : "The re tri eval nei t her l eaves i tself ove r t o t h e past nor does i t ai 1n at som e pro�rcss. A u th e n tic ex istence i n th e r noB H..: l l l i� i u d i ffe u : u l lo bul l a . "

D I S C L O S E D N E S S A N D T R A N S C E N D E N TA L P H I L O S O P H Y

43 1

and yet it defines authentically being-h ere and, in the process, the pos­ sibility of seeing one 's situation for what it is. This decisive aspect of Hei­ degger's analysis of understanding is lost in the pragmatic equation of ' understanding' with ' know how. ' In Heidegger's analysis, moreover, 'understan ding' and 'disclosed­ ness' are not syn onyms but metonyms. That is to say, whenever 'under­ standing' or ' disclosedness ' are employed, they signal with their re­ spective accents the entire structure of care. In the disclosedness of being-here ( " the original truth '') , disposedness, understanding, and lapsing are basic and equiprimordial existen tials. However, in haste to present the success of an action as the Heideggerian criterion of truth , pragmatic interpre tations scarcely consider "care," the holistic struc­ ture of the manner of disclosing by being-here , and they tend to dis­ coun t the meaning of existentials other than understanding for h is analysis of truth . 60 Yet, far from being primarily an indication of some success, being-here 's manner of being disposed discloses i ts thrown ness and, in the same process, what is threatening or alluring to it. Also notable for their frequent absence from pragmatic interpreta­ tions of Heidegger's analysis of truth are the existential interpretations of conscience and disclosedness, by means of which, in Heidegger's own words, " the most original, because authentic truth of being-here is gained" (SZ 297) . Conscience is probably not considered because the utterly private form of discourse, namely, the individual call of con­ science, does not fit the pragmatic requiremen t of intersubj ective va­ lidity. One also searches in vain for a discussion of the differen ce be­ tween authentic and inauthentic timeliness. As a consequence, it is perhaps not surprising that the decisive theme of the fi nitude of time­ liness is also left largely unaddressed. 6 1 However, the principal stumbling block for pragmatic interpreta­ tions of Heidegger's conception of truth is his conception of dis­ closedness. Since this disclosedness lies ( preontologically) in advance of any plan and any task, it is not a matter of success, a solution to a problem or a fulfillment of a plan; it does not relate to an assertion , as 6o

61

By con trac;t, see the treatments of the existentials and their unity in F. A. Olafson , Hei­ dRgger and thP Philosophy of !vlind ( New Hav en : Yale U niv. Press, 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 0 2- 1 3 3 ; and Dreyfus, BeinF;-ln-the- \Vo rld, 1 63-2 45· See Gethtnann , H e id e gge rs Wah rheitskonzeption ," I I Hf; Rorty, �:uays on Heidegger and Others, 1 1 ; HP 4�f; R. B ran dorn , "Heidegger's Categories in BPing and Time, " Moni�t 66 ( 1 9 H 3 ) : 3 H9 ; D reyfus at l eas t provides an e x p l a n a ti o n for n eg l ec t i ng then1es of d e a th "

c o n sc i e n c e , :-t n rl t 1 m � t i n P"": " P(� RPing-iu-th�- Worlrl, vi i i

,

43 2

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

Geth1nann would have i t , "like a key t o a lock. " What i s disclosed i s not primarily the world as some sort of "purpose-means-constellation ," but the finite timeliness of being-here , of work-world concerns, of being­ with-others, and of being who one is. Moreover, if ' timeliness' signified nothing other than the structure of purposive social activity, then the individual, mortal h orizon that defines what it means to "be-here" would be closed off from us. The disclosure of the finite and ectstatic­ horizonal timeliness as the sense of being-here is the "most original, be­ cause authentic truth" : the "truth of existence." But all access to this ex­ isten tial truth is precluded as soon as timeliness is viewed as grounded in being-here an d n ot vice versa. 62 Pragmatic lines of interpretation of Heidegger's project deserve far greater scrutiny than has been given them on the past few pages, for the manner in which they both contribute to understanding that project and suggest ways of going beyond it. A more detailed consideration of pragmatic interpre tations lies, h owever, outside the boundaries of the present study. If the in terpre tation were valid, then one would have, as Gethmann shows, reason to reject Tugendhat's objection to H eideg­ ger's analysis of truth . But the pragmatic interpre tation succeeds in this respect only by setting aside the core of the existential analysis of truth . In this connection , i t bears noting that Heidegger mentions pragma­ tism (as well as William james) in his earliest lectures. Though the ex­ ten t of his reading of American pragmatism is probably minimal, he thinks that he understands pragmatism sufficiently to include i t among characteristically e rrant determinations of "caring," implicitly moti­ vated by a factual life bli nd to its fallen ness. 63 Nevertheless, like Tu6 � Geth mann , " H eide gge rs Wa hrh e i tsko n zeption , " 1 1 6 , 1 2 0 ; H P 1 9 5 , 2 .rJ � . Th ere is, in Heideggerian ter m s , a stripe o f prag tn a t is m that is h o pele s s ly onlic, ben t on revealing th in gs (pragmata) not s tru c tu re s ; its concern is essentially tec h nocratic , a matter of c o n­ trol and domin ance, leavi n g no plac e fo r the " pas sive " call of conscience and no un­ derstanding of Heidegger's o n to logica l notion of possi bility. I am gratefu l to Jeremy Ryan fo r th e gi s t of t h is observati on. At the san1e ti m e , H e id e gger ' s vi ew of pragmat i s m is nar­ row to a faul t. P ro b a bl y no con tem porary wri ter has done a better job than Vi c to r Ke s ten bau m in r ec a l li ng the re so ur ce s in Dewey fo r th inking ab out the prepredicati,·e and p recognit i ve , p re th eo re ti c a l and pr ep ra c t i c al dimensions of habitual m e a ni n g and experience ; see V i c to r Kestenbaum, '" Meaning on t h e Model of Truth ' : Dewey and

Gadame r o n H abit and

Vorurteil, " .Joumal of Sperulative Philosophy VI ( 1 99 2 ) : 2 5-66 , esp .

6 1 ; Keste nbau m, " H u man isn1 and Vigilance," Man and World 20 ( 1 9R i ) : Kestenbaum , " 'A Thing of M o od s and Te nses' - E x pe r i e nc e in . J o h n Dewey,'' Phenomenology: Dialogues and Bridges, ed. Ronald Bruzin a and Bruce \t\rilsh i re ( Albany : S U NY P re s s , 1 9R 2 ) , 1 3 5- 1 4 1 . 6:� PlA 1 3 4f. ()ne like ly s o u rce of Heidegge1 's ·

454

H E I D EGGER ' S

C O N C E PT O F T R U T H

is ten tial analysis, i s anchored in conscience - the " testimony o f a n au­ thentic existe n tiel possibility" ( SZ 267 ) - and in resoluteness - the "ex­ istentiel choosin g of the choice of being-a-self' (SZ 2 70 ) . As noted above , Heidegger freely concedes, as indeed he m ust, given the circu­ lar structure of understanding, that "a specific on tic c onception of gen­ uine existence, a factual ideal of being-here" underlies the analysis ( SZ 3 1 0 ) . Yet what that on tic conception is, why it is privileged, how it de­ termines the existential analysis, and what consequences the existen tial analysis is supposed to have in turn for the on tic sciences and modes of behavior ( no t least modes of being-with-one-another) , he does not at­ tempt to elucidate . The problem of mediation discussed in the last few paragraphs con­ firms to a certain extent Tugendhat's reservations regarding Heideg­ ger's in terpretation of the relation obtaining between the most pri­ mordial truth ( the " truth of existence'') and other " truths. " To be sure , insofar as Being and Time can b e in terpreted transcendentally, a s its au­ thor maintains, Tugendhat's central objection can be countered. Through his conception of the primordial truth as disclosedness, Hei­ degger has not dismissed or rejected the critical function of truth ( his occasional, albeit unsupportable , remarks about the suspe nsion of log­ ical principles notwithstanding) . However, by failing to elaborate or even elucidate the m ediating principles, that is to say, the principles me­ diating between that primordial truth and on tic truths, Heidegger does expose his analysis to Tugendhat's other objection, n amely, that the ex­ isten tial analysis dissolves into "a peculiar kind of decisionism. " 83 Nor 8�� Re ferrin g to Heidegger

(SZ

'

s claim that death refers to the "alreadines� n1ost proper to one

"

3 2 5[, 383 ) , Tugendhat observes: "And here then it appears to Heidegger as if this

alreadiness - as 'fate' - were to presen t i tself immediately to the man n er of bei ng-here that, from a n ticipa ti n g death, comes back to itself ( SZ 38 4 ) . B u t do we know without further ado what the alreadiness most proper to us is? Moreover, the sphere of possi­ bilities of o u r a) readiness that present themselves to us is always greater than we would be able to take up i n to our existence ( SZ 2 8 5 ) . Here then it appears to Heidegge r a"i though the ch oice would happen in an unmediated way wi thout perspective, an d thus a peculiar decision ism results." Cf. T 36of, also 3 80. For a defense of Heidegger against charges of an arbi trary decision ism , based upon later wo rks , cf. Fred Dal l m ayr, Thf Other Heidegger ( I thaca, N .Y : C or n e l l U niv. P res s 1 993 ) , 1 1 6 , 1 2 7 . It i� true that Heidegger by no mean� excl udes "the factual , existentiel possibili ties" involved in resoluteness and that the resoluteness shou ld be understood precisely a� the condition for making deci­ si ons and th us the existen tiel phenomena requiring tim eliness as the sense of being­ here . The question is wh eth e r "the existen tia1 delimitation of the . . . authentic poten­ tial-to-be suffices fo r the fundamen ta] ontological aiin of the i � vestigation" ( SZ 30 1 ) Hei dc:-gge r does not pose this qu e s t i on and his supposition of the answer to it cannot ,

.

D I S C L O S F. D N E S S A N D T RA N S C E N D E N TA L P H I LO S O P H Y

4 55

is this cri tic ism unrelated to Klaus Dusing's charge that Heidegger fails to justify his portrayal of knowing as a deficient mode of more original behavior. 84 In Being and 1zme and the Marburg lectures prior to its publication Heidegger is obviously struggling with the problem of how to thema­ tize bei ng and truth , how to think and talk about them without creat­ ing an artificial distance between these themes and those wh o address them , the sort of distance that is otherwise crucial to theoretical inves­ tigations but fatal to philosophy. What seem from some theoretical points of view like lethal ambiguities ("being-in") , unmanageable metaphors ("fallenness," "horizonal") , and pernicious pleonasn1s ("be­ ing-ahead-of-itself-already-in " ) turn out to be de rigueur for a study of nothing less than the manner of bei ng-here shared by the student her­ self. Experimenting with the possibilities of giving this sort of investi­ gation a scientific cast is no doubt the legacy of a broad philosophical tradition that pervades Heidegger's philosophical formation , indeed, even in the unlikely event that his talk of a science in this connection is largely a ruse. U nderstandably, it is only with considerable difficulty that he manages to free himself more and more from this legacy's claims upon him. By h is own accounts (over a decade later) , the analysis of be­ ing-here in Being and Time, while not without meri t, suffers from its tran­ scendental-phenomenological horizon . If the arguments advanced on the last few pages are trenchan t, the analysis also comes up short by fail­ ing to address adequately certain self-reflexive issues that it is incum­ ben t on a philosopher to tackle. In other words, Heidegger does not provide a sufficient account of the principles governing h is analysis. Yet, even if these objections are conceded and Heidegger's own cri ticism of his early work is accepted, they do not entail the failure of his account of "the original phenomenon of truth" - and consequent exposure of the logical prej udice. Being-here , not a j udgment or assertion , is the site of the original truth , the disclosure of manners of being. This disclosure is original in the sense that it is the most basic charac ter of being-here . Every use of things, every manner of uncovering them, every perceptual and every propositional truth presupposes a foregoing disclosure of what it means go u n c h a l l e n ged , give n his own i n sisten ce on the grounding of th e existe n tial an alysis

i n existe n tiel ph e n om e n a .

H4 Dusing-, " SelbstbewuBtseinsmod e l l e , " 1 1 Hf. Afte r a l l , t h e o riginal truth or d i sclosure t h at is not a fo rm of k n owi n g but i ts condi tion t u rns out to be known or knowable, n a m e ly,

in

a

fu ndarn e n tal o n to logy, give n a s u i table existe n tial analysi s .

H E I D E G G E R ' S C O N C E PT

OF

TRUTH

"to be." For mann ers of being other than being-h ere , the sense o f be­ ing proves to be temporal, while the sense of being-here is an ecstatic­ horizonal timeliness. To be here is to care and to care is, in one way or another, to project ourselves and come back to who we already-are and, in the process , to let or even force things to disclose themselves and their manners of being. Philosophy is an authentic man ner of being-here . Its task is to draw attention to these senses of being, to retrieve them from oblivion. In­ sofar as drawing attention to them requires thematic assertions, what is th ematized must be regarded as something presen t. But that no more leads to an act of violence or conceptual violation of what is thematized than it does in the case of melody that is set to notes or in the case of a deity that is prayed to. 8 5 Earlier i t was suggested that Heidegger's use of formal indications (his early way of characterizing philosophical dis­ course) lies closer to art and theology than to science insofar as that use is designed to break down barriers between theory and practice, ob­ servation and participation . However, while philosophy lies closer to art and theology in this respect, it also remains qui te distinct from them . H erein lies another motive behind the assault on the logical prej udice and the sort of theoretical ontological commitments generally associ­ ated with it. H eidegger is unwilling to leave the question of existence to art or theology, as seems inevitable if the logical prejudice continues to hold sway. Nevertheless , mediating principles are required, princi­ ples that clarify the point of departure and the outcome of the thema­ tization - particularly if the thematization in some basic sense is for the sake not of theory but of being-h ere. From this point of view, Heideg­ ger's critical engagement with the logical prejudice is an umistakable success, but only a beginning. 85 P hilo s o p hi cal wri ting must be able to survive crashi n g agai n st the Ramseyan Scylla and

being swept up in the Ni etzschean Charybdis. F. P. Ramsey, Philosophical Papers, ed. D . Mellor ( Cambridge : Cambridge Un iv. Press, t ggo) , 1 46: B ut what w e can 't say we can t say, and we can 't whistle it either. " F. Nietzsche , Die Geburt der Tragodie, ed. G. Col J i and M . Mon tari, Nietz..ttrhe Werke, vol . 3 , 1 ( B erl in : d e Gruyter, 1 97 2 ) , g : "here spoke - so he said to himself s u spiciously - something like a mystical and almost manedic soul, that stammers as i t were i n a stran ge tongue , with great trouble and arbitrarily, al most illog­ ically as to whether i t i n tends to com municate or conceal it")elf. I t should have sung, th i s ' new' soul - and not spoken ! '' H.

"

'

INDEX

acts, ideative, 93-95 ; l evels, 9 1 ; obj ectify­ i n g , 59f, 7 1 , 1 43f; relational, 7 1 -73 ; syn thetic, 7 8 -93 Aegidius Romanus, 1 2 2 Aertse n , Jan , 2 3 3 , 408 A letheia, 1 75 , 1 8 2 , 2 1 4, 403 Alexander, H . G. , 379 alreadin ess ( Gewesensein) , 3 29f ambigui ty, 2 8 5 , 307 , 3 2 3 Ameriks , Karl , 4 1 7 A n ab a p ti st , 2 7 7 , 44 2 Anscombe, G. E . M . , 1 2 5 anth ropologism, 3 2 anticipation , 3 2 1 -3 2 3 , 3 2 7 f, 337, 38 1 a n x i e ty ( A ngst) , 2 99, 3 1 1 f Apel, Karl-Otto, 1 2 , 2 8 , 3 94, 40 3, 4 1 7 , 4 1 8, 4 1 9 apophantic ' as, ' 1 9 1 , 1 9 5 - 1 97 a priori, o ri gi n al sense of, 97- 1 o 1 , 4 1 6 Aquinas, 2 1 3 , 2 1 4, 2 3 3 , 2 7 8 Aristo tle xix-xx , g , 8 , 1 7, 2 1 , 4 8 , 65 , 6g, 7 0, 7 3 , 1 34, 1 7 5 , 1 7 8- 1 86, 2 1 0-2 2 2 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 2 , 2 5 7 , 2 60, 2 / 4 , 2 9 2 , 3 1 5 , 3 2 9 , 3 5 2 , 36 2 , 3 87-3 89, 40 1 , 40 5 , 4 2 8 Arndt, S. W. , 4 1 7 , 4 1 9 assertions, 1 8 2- 1 94, 2 00-2 1 0, 2 5 1 , 386, 40 6 'as'-structure , 1 8 1 -2 03 , 3 8 7 , 400-40 2 , 4 2 3f Asyn theta, 2 1 2 , 2 1 6, 2 1 9 , 2 2 3 attunemen t, mood ( Stimmung) , 292f, 2 9 5-3 00 Augustine, 2 34 , 2 7 8, 2 8 8 , 309, 350, 3 7 8 Aus ti n ] L. , 1 2 , 1 8 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 33 , 38 5 authen tic ( gen u in e ) and inauthentic, 2 76-2 8 1 , 3 1 5� 3 2 1 -3 2 4, 3 2 7-3 3 7 , 39()-3 92 , 4 30 averageness, 2 76 ,

.

Aye r, A. J . , 1 8 , 2 6

Bacon, Francis, 358 Bamberger, Fri tz, 35

Barth , Karl , 2 7 8 , 309 Ba rt hl ein , Karl , 2 33 Bauch, Bruno, 2o, 36, 3 8 Baum , Manfred, 4 1 7 Baumgarten, Alexander, 4 1 o Becker, W. , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 4 1 2 , 4 1 7, 4 1 9 bei n g, 2 1 4, 2 2 5 f, 2 5 1 , 3 2 5f, 335 being-handy ( Zuhandensein) , 1 1 2, 208, 3 25r, 3 8o, 4 1 8 being-h ere ( Da-sein) xxiii-xxv, 1 1 2 , 1 93 , 2 08, 2 2 7 , 243 , 2 5 8 f, 2 9(}--292 , 309, 3 2 5 , 3 3 3 , 380, 392 , 40 1 -403 , 4 1 6, 430, 43 2 being-in-th e-world, 1 59, 1 7 2 , 2 2 7, 2 56f, 2 7 3 , 3 1 2 , 350, 4 1 8 being oneself, 2 2 8f, 3 2 8, 442 being-on-hand ( Vorhandensein) , 1 1 2, 1 39, 208, 2 5 8f, 3 2 5f, 380, 386, 4 1 8 being-with-one-an other, 2 7 2-274 being-with-oth ers ( Mitsein) , 2 7o-2 87 Bergson, H enri, 36, 1 65 Bernascon i , Robert, 1 6 3 Bernet, Rud olf, 64, 1 o 1 f, 1 30, 1 4 1 , 1 42 , 1 44, 1 45 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 2 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 5 , 1 68 Biemel , Wal te r, 1 1 3 b ivalence, 1 8 , 394f, 398f, 404, 406 , 4 2 0 , 4 2 3 , 445-44 8 Blattner, William, 1 1 3 , 34 1 , 343 , 430 Boehm , Rudolf, 1 49, 1 54, 1 5 5 B ol zan o, Bernard , 2 2 , 2 5 Bonitz, 2 1 3 , 2 1 4 Brague, Remi, 2 2 0 Brand, Gerd, 394 Bran dom , Robert, 4 2 6 , 43 1 Brentan o , Franz, 3 1 , 5 7-59, 2 1 3 , 2 3 5 Bubner, Rudiger, 4 1 8 B uc kl ey, R . Philip, 1 4 2 B u rdach , Ko n rad , 2 8 8

457

I N D EX

Caputo, Joh n , 1 1 3 care , 1 3 4- 1 36, 2 2 7-230, 2 7 0f, 288-2 9 1 , 3 1 2 -3 1 5 , 3 3 1 � 340� 3 59, 4 1 6 , 4 3 1 Carnap, Rud olph , 2 7 , 4 1 6 Cartesian ism , 54f, 2 4 1 Casey, Edward , 1 63 categorial intuition , 74-93 , 2 3 9 , 4 3 7 categorical imperative , 2 7of categories, 3 , 5-7 , 7 5 , 7 8 , g 5 , 23 2-2 3 4 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 290 , 300 Ch isholm , Roderick, 3 8 Christ, Wilhelm , 2 1 3 circumspection ( look around) , t 8 g, 25 gf, 2 fi7, 354f Claesges, Ulrich , 1 64 c learing, 2 9 1 f, 403 Coh e n , Herman n , 3, 1 4 , 20, 29, 3 5 , 3 8 , 1 79 Coleridge , Samuel Taylor, 3 3 8 com munication , 2 86f, 3 2 4 community, 2 7 3 complemen tari ty, 1 7 3 concern ( Besorgen) , 2 5 7-2 70, 2 75 , 2 7 8f, 2 89, 3 1 3 , 346-3 49 conscie nce, 2 8 7 , 3 1 6-3 2 4 , 3 2 7 , 390, 402 , 43 1 Core th , Emerich, 402 crowd, 2 7 5-2 8 7 , 3 87 , 4 40, 44 2 £ Crowell, Steve , 5 , 1 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 88 , 2 34 , 404 Cua, An tonio , 45 2 curiosi ty, 2 8 5 , 30 7 , 348-3 5 4 Das tur, Fran 7 exposed, see unveiled fac ti city, 2 g8f, 4 1 6 Falken berg, Richard, 3 5 fallen ness, lapsed ( Verfallensein) , 249 , 2 77-2 8 0 , 3 0 0 , 3 07-� l 1 , 3 1 6 , 3 I 9 � 34fif, �� H 3 f, 44 2 f fear, 2 99 Fichte, J. G. , 76 Fi nk, Eugen , 1 1 5 Fleisc her, Margo t, 34 I -��4.� flight, 2 7 7f, 2 9 3 , 3 0 9 f, 3 7 9 f, 4 0 3 fo rmal in dicati ons, 2 4 2-2 5 2 , 2 8 2 f, g i 6 , 3 9 2 f, 3 9 8 , 4 2 1 , 436-445 Frege , Gottlob, I , 3, 1 3f, I gf, 2 3- 2 7 , 3 5 Freud , Sigmund, 309f fundamental o n tol o gy, 1 4 � f. 1 7 1 , 1 7 4 , 2 08 f, 2 2 7 , 264, 2 80, 2 94f, 3 5 2 , 3 9 2

459

I N DEX

Furth , Hans, 39 1 Fynsk, Ch ristopher,

iden tification (fulfilling i n te n tion ) ,

272

66

Gadamer, H. G. , 2 � 4 , 2 5 3 , 44 1 Gallagher, Shaun , 1 ?) 2 gender, 2 2 9 genetic phenomenology, 1 49- 1 64 Genova, A. C., 4 1 9 Gethmann, Carl, 1 7 , 2 R , 34 , 45, 1 o 1 ,

1 07 , 1 2 7 , 1 gRf, 3 9 7-3 99. 404C 4 2 3-4 2 7 , 43 1 f Geyser, Josef, 3 Goethe, 2 RR , 2 90, 4 1 8

Gogarten , Friedrich , 2 7 8 , 2 89 , 309 G o o dman , Nelso n , 439 Gottsched, J. C. xxiii Griinbatun, Ad o lf, 3 6 2 , 364 , 365 Guignon, Charles, 264 guilt, 3 1 8-3 2 2 Haack , Susan, 2 , 2 5 , 3 86 Habermas, Jiirgen, 3 94 H acker, P. M . S. , 4 1 9 Hamann , ]. G. , 4 1 3 handiness ( luhandenheit) , 3 49

1 8 7 , 2 5 8-2 70,

Harte, Bret, 2 8 3 Hartman n , Nicolai , Hegel, G . W. F. , 8 1 ,

38 1 34, 1 7 3 , 2 5 2- 2 54 , 7 , 2 7 7 , 3 2 9 , 3 6 2 , 4 1 6, 44 6 2 4 Heinz, Marion , 3 4 1 Held, Klaus, 4 2 7 Helmholtz, Herman n , 2 99 Herbart, George , 2 9 , 4 1

Herde� johann, 2 7 7, 2 8 8 hermeneutic 'as, ' 1 R 1 - 2 00, 304 hermeneutic und erstanding, 1 80,

1 88-2 00, 2 1 5 , 2 1 9-2 2 1 , 35 4 • 4 1 7 f

Heym ans, Gerard, 3 historicism , 1 3 2- 1 36 , 2 24f historici ty, 44 1 f Hobbes, Thomas, 1 9 Hobe , Konrad , 2 1 3 Homer, 2 76 Hopki ns, Burt C. , 49, 1 4 2 horizon , 1 63 , 1 94 , 3 3 � -3 3 7 Ho rwi c h , Paul , 2 6 H umboldt, Wilhehn von xxi\' Hume, David, 7 gf, 1 1 R , 2 97 , � 8 6, 4 1 3 HusserI , Edn1und xviii-xxi, 4 , 6f, 9 , 1 2 ,

1 6f, 2 1 f, 3 1 -3 5 , 4 2 f, 46- 1 8 1 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 6f, 2 3 2 , 2 34 , 24 1 , 244f, 248, 2 _r) O, 2 5 6f, 2 6o , 26 3 f, 2 7 0, 2 H8 , 3 2 9 , 3 3 4- 3 3 6 , 3 5 2 , 35 7f, 3 8 8 , 3 9 4, 3 99· 407 , 4 1 4, 4 1 6 , 4 2 4 , 4 2 5 , 4 2 9 , 4 3 4 , 4 3 7, 446-448 · 45 2

H ygi nus,

288

in1 agi nation , 6o-6 2 , 94f impressions, primary or origi nal , 1 5 2 f, 1 5 7f

Ingarden , Roman, 49 in ner time-consciousness, t s 6- 1 5 9

6 2-64,

1 50,

1 49- 1 5 3 ,

54-6.5 , 9 2 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 R- 1 4 8 , 1 5 2- 1 5 7 , 1 6o- 1 64, 1 65 , 1 7 5 f, 2 00, 2 1 0f, 2 2 7 , 2 5 6 , 2 70, 2 8 8f, 293, 2 96 , 3 3 3 , 3 3 5 , 3 5 7 � 43 7 interpretation, 3 04f in tersubj ectivity, 2 7 2 intui tion, 6 2 f, 64f, 6 8 , 2 3 7- 2 40, 303f i rreversibility of time, 3 8 1 f Isaye, G. , 4 1 9

intentionality,

Jaeger, Petra, 5 4 Jaeger, Werner, 2 1 3 James, William , 1 5 1 , 1 ggf, 43 2 Janssen , Paul , 1 1 5 , 1 4 1 Jaspers , Karl, 49, 1 7 1 , 2 56 Jeffrey, Richard, 1 Jonas, Hans, 1 67 3 , 1 5 , 1 9, 2 9, 3 5 , 4 1 , 76, 7 8 , 8 7 , 1 0 1 , ] 1 8 , 1 7 3 , 1 86, 2 3 2 , 2 5 2 , 2 54 · 2 70� 2 74 . 3 1 0, 3 3 9, 36 1 -3 6 3 , 367 , 3 9 3 , 4 08 -4 2 1 , 433 · 43 5 f Kestenbaum , Victor, 432 Kierkegaard, S0ren, 4 8 , 2 34, 3 1 1 , 3 30, 44 1 ki nesthesia, 1 49 , t 6o- 1 64 Kir k ham , R. L. , 2 6 Kisiel, Ted, 7 , 8 , 49 , 2 3 4 , 24 2 , 4 1 4 Kneale, William , 2 4f

Kant, Immanuel,

knowing, 6 2-64 , 2 3 7- 2 40, 303f

Kosi k, Karel, 2 7 9 Kraus, Oskar, 5 8 Kuhlman n , W. , 4 1 9 Kuh n, Thomas , 3 5 3 Kiilpe, Oswald, 1 7 7 Kusch, Martin, 2 R , 3 1

Landgrebe, Ludwig, 6o, 1 6 2 , Lange, F. Albert, 1 4 language ( Sprarhe) xxii-xxii i, 249f

language of fine arts, Lask, Emil, 2, 4 , 5 , 7 • 2 1 3, 414

1 64 1 1 f, 1 g6f,

4 3 9f 1 5 , 3 5 , 4 2 , s o , 1 8 7 f,

Lawrence , Joseph, 2 55 Leibn i.l, Go t t fr i e d , 1 9, 76 Liebert, Art hur, 33f, 3 8 Liebinann, O tto, 1 4 Lipps, Theodore , 2 2 , �� 1 f

I N DEX

lived body ( Leib) , 1 6of Locke , John, 1 9, 8 o, 1 1 8 logic xv, 1 - 1 7 , 3 1 , 1 83 , 246f, 445-4 50 ; philosoph ical, 2f, 1 0- 1 7 , 2 1 f, 1 s6 ; productive, 2 37 logical prej udice xvi-xvii , 9 , 1 7-2 8, 40-44, 69 , 7 1 , 8o, 1 03 , 1 06- 1 o8 , 1 25 f, 1 3 of, 1 33 , 1 3 6, 1 44, 1 4 7f, 1 55 , 1 56, 1 7 1 , 1 77- 1 8 2 , 2 2 1 f, 2 2 5f, 2 4 2 , 266f, 2 68f, 2 8 1 -2 88, 3o8, 3 1 3-3 1 5 , 3 2 2f, 3 2 6f, 349, 3 5 3 f, 3 5 9f, 3 8 5 , 3g2, 433f, 45 5 f Lotze, Hermann xviii-xix, 3 , 4, 1 o, 1 7 , 2 1 , 2 2f, 2 9f, 3 5 -4 7 , 5 0, 5 5 , 1 o6, 1 o8, 1 2 6 , 1 3 3f, 1 36, 1 75 , I 7 8 , 1 8 1 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 34, 38 7f love, 1 2 3 , 453 Lowith , Karl , 3g7 , 44 1 Luther, Martin, 3 7 , 48 , 2 34, 2 89 Maier, Heinrich , 3 1 Marbach, Eduard , 1 4g Marion, Jean-Luc , 5 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 42 Marty, Anton, 3 1 Mauboussin, Pierre, 2 1 1 , 2 5 3 McNeill, William, 3 3 1 meaningfulness, m eaning, 1 87- 1 8g, 1 97f, 268, 3 0 2 f, 366f, 3 7 1 , 38 1 f mediation, 45 1 - 456 Meinong, Alexis, 3 Mellor, H. G. , 368 Menne, A. , 1 3 mention xxii metacategorial distinction , 2 34f, 2 5 5 , 3 1 3 , 322 metalogic, 2 m etaphor, 2 3g, 24gf, 45 1 Mill , John Stuart, 2 2 , 3 1 f Mohanty, J . L. , 6o, 1 46, 1 49, 1 5 1 , 1 55 moment (A ugenblick) , 3 3 1 -3 3 7, 348 mood , see attunemen t Morrison , J. C., 1 42 motivation , 1 63 M uller, Georg, 35 Mulligan , Kevi n, 64, 87, 8 8, 1 48 , 1 49, 1 50 Nachstheim, Stephan , 2 1 3 Natorp, Paul, 8 , 1 5 , 2 9 , 1 og, 248 natural attitude , 1 1 0, I 2 2- I 24, 1 2 7 , I 93 natu ralism , 34, 4 2 , go, 1 2 ,_ , 1 24f, 1 2 7- 1 29, I 3 2- I 36, 1 62 f, 1 6g, 2 68 natural sciences, 1 24f, 2 63-267 , 356 nature, 2 6 1 -267 Nenon, Thomas, 1 64 Neo-Kantianism , 3 . 1 4f, 2g, gs, I I g, 2 68 Newton , Isaac, 3 6 2 f, 4 1 4 Nietzsc he, Friedric h, 1 3 7 , 2 76, 3 3 0, 44 1 , 45 6

noema and noesis, 56, s8, 6 3 , 1 46 noncon tradiction, 8, 446f nothi ngness, 3 I 7-3 1 9 nous, 1 g7 , 2 1 4 , 2 I 9 now, 37of, 3 74-3 77 n umerable character of time, 3 64f, 376-3 7 8 , 3 8 1 objectification , 434f, 439 Ochsner, Heinric h , 1 66 Ockham , Will iam xv, 386 Okre nt, Mark, 1 gg, 4 2 5-42 9 , 439 Olaf�on , Frederick, 2 7 2 , 43 I O llig, Hans-Ludwig, 1 5 onhand ness ( Vorhandenheit) xvii, 45 , 1 30, 1 3g, 2 6 1 - 2 67 , 34g� 356 r, 3 8 6 , 446 on tological di fference xxii-xxiii, 1 g3 , 2 20 openness , 2 93 , 2 9gf, 309, 3 35f original sin , 2 78 Ott, H ugo, 1 66 Oudemanns, T h . C. W. , 242 , 43 5 ovenriew, 1 8 9 , 3 54f Owens, Joseph, 3 2 g palaver ( Gerede) , 2 83- 2 8 7 , 307-3 og passive syntheses, 1 54- 1 5 7 Peirce, Charles S. , 2 7 , 76, 1 gg, 2 00 perception , 6 1 -64, 76-g 1 personalism , 1 2 7- 1 2 g, 1 6 2- 1 64 Ptander, Alexander, 1 4, 2 2 , 4g , 1 66f, 1 68 phenomenology, g6- 1 03 , t og, 1 4 1 f, 1 70- 1 74, 2 08, 2 3 5 , 2 4 4, 25 1 Philipse, Herman n , 6o, 88 philosophical co ncepts, 243-2 5 2 , 436-445 philosophy, 1 73f, 2 4 8- 25 1 , 2 54, 43 3-442 , 444, 456; o f logic, 2 , 1 3 Pippin, Robert, 2 24 Plato, 3 , g, 1 1 , 2 g , 34, 35, 3 8 , 40, 4 2 , .� 5 , 70, 7 7 , 1 7 8 , 2 84, 2 85 , 3 5 2 , 4 2 5 , 43 8 Pl iny, 3 3 8 Poggeler, Otto , 2 34, 2 4 2 , 253f, 2 79, 404 politics, 2 74 positivism , 77f, 1 2 5 pragmatism , 1 9 8- 2 00 , 3 05f, 42 3 -43 3 predication, 1 9 1 prej udice xv-xvi presence ( A nwesenheit, Praesfnz) , 4 5 f, 7 0, 1 0 8 , I 3 0, 1 64 , 2 1 7-2 2 2 , 2 2 5 f, 2 59-26 7 , 3 2 s f, 404 , 44 7 presenting, rendering presen t ( Gegmwiirtigen, Gegenwiirt igu ng) , 3 4 0 , 34 7- 3 59, 4°4 profile, 63f, 1 47 pr�ec tion, 30 1 -304, 3 1 9 propensi ty [ Hang] , . 309-3 1 1 protention, I .lj 2 f, 1 5 6- 1 5 8, 1 7 2 Protevi , Joh n , 1 63

I ND EX

1 4 2 , 1 5 2 , 1 53 , 1 68 , 1 6g ,

Prufe r, Thorn as,

I 70, 2 9 I

1

R4 3, 4, 1 4 , 29- 34 , 55 , 1 2 6 ,

1 69 , 3 88 psyc hology, 30[, 5 5f

public ch arac te r of tim e ,

Quine, vV. v. 0. , I ,

26 , 3 8 , 1 8 3 , 2 43, 4 26, 449

2 2R 2 6 , 4£)6

Raffoul, Franc;oi s , Ram sey, Frank,

Seeburger, Francis Se llars, Wi lfri d , Seneca,

re alism , I 77

426

288

1 3 8- 1 40, I 47- I 5 2 3 3 2-334, 3 99-40 I Sextus Empiricus , 39 Shakespeare , Wi lliam, 3 8, 2R3 Sheehan , Thomas xxiv, 4, 2 1 I , 2 20, 2 9 2 , 3 28 , 3 2 9, 3�10 Sherover, Charles, 4 I 4 Sigwart, Ch ristoph , 3 , I 4, 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 9, 3 2 , I 79 skepticism, 3 8 f, 4 I 2-4 1 6

I 72

sense ( Sinn) xxi ,

reduc tio n , I

1 1 - 1 1 4 , I 2 of 1 74 resolute n ess, 3 20-3 24, 3 2 7-33 1 , 348 , 390 re tai ning, 349· 354-3.� 7 re te n tion, 1 50, 1 5 2f, I S 6- I s 8 , I 7 2 re trieval and re peti tion , 243[, 3 3 2 , 3 34, 3 3 7, 443 revelati o n , 44 2 , 444

society, 2 7 3

religion ,

So kolowski , Robe rt,

Richardso n , Wi l liam xxiv

Stern , Wil liam ,

Ri ckert, Heinrich ,

13

F. , 1 1 3

se nsation ( s ) ,

368-3 70, 3 7 2f,

38 1

reaso n ,

25

Seeboh m , Thomas ,

Prusak, Bernard , psyc hologism ,

Se arle, John ,

3 , 4, 5 , 8, 1 4, 2 2 , 3 5 , 4 1 ,

43, 5 8 , 6s, 95 Riehl, Alo i s , I 4

6 2 , 64, 76f, 1 39 , 1 46 , 1 5 1 , I 5 4, 1 65 (.Fii rsorge) , 2 7 of, 2 7 4, 2 8 9, 3 I 3 ,

1 4 8 , 1 49,

solicitude

32 1 Stapleto n , Timo thy,

1 65 151

Ste i n , Edith ,

Steve ns, Wallace xxii

1

Strawso n , P.

4 2 5 , 42 6 ,

I 37 142

Spengler, Oswald,

Stoics, I

Ro rcy, Richard, 6 5 , 2 2 4 , 2 40 ,

• so,

F. , 2 6 , 4 I 3

Stroud, Barry,

4I g 7 , I 7 7 , 2 34, 404, 43 8 ,

4 2 7 , 43 1 , 439 Rose n , Stanley, 3 86 Ross, W. D . , 2 1 3 Rouse , Jose ph , 2 64

Strube, Claudius ,

Royce, Josiah, 35

subje ctivi ty, 75 , g8f, 1 5 2 ,

3 , 4, 2 3 , I R6 Ryan , Je remy, 92, I 2 4, 1 84 Ryl e , Gilbe r t, 2 3 2 , 2 39, 42 7

Tam i niaux, Jacques,

443 Stum pf, Ca rl ,

29,

1 50 2I3

35,

Suarez, Francisco ,

2 2 8 , 2 70, 403

Russe l l , Be rtrand ,

Salmon, Wesley,

38

San tayana , George, 29

11 13 Schalow, Fran k , 4 1 4 Sch a r ff, Ro bert, 1 1 R Scheler, Max , 1 2 3 , 2 34, 2 93f, 299 , 386, 43 2 , 444· 453 Schelli ng , F. W. , 2 54f Sc hiller, Friedrich, 3 7 , 2 88

Saussure , Ferdi nan d d e , Sch ac ht, Rich ard , 1

Schirmacher, Wolfga ng, 2 7 9 Schlick, Moritz ,

2 , I 4, 1 9 , 20 3 1 o , 330, 33 9

Sc hopen hauer, Arthur,

Sc huhman n , Karl , I 6 6 , 1 67 Schulz, Walter,

255

246, 440-444 2 0 2 f, 2 63-2 6 7 ,

theory, th eori za tio n,

3 5 I -3 .� 9, 393

23 1 , 329 2 g 2 f, 2 95f, 2 98 , 300-3 0 2 , 3 • gf, 4 2 7f ti m e , I 57- 1 59, 1 9 4f, 2 2 4-2 26, 363f, 3 8 1 ; buyi ng a n d havi ng, 37 2 ; cl ock ,

Thornas , Dylan, th rown ness ,

36o-36g; dime nsio nal or comm o n ti me-consciousness , 1 4 9- 1 60,

Sc hftrm a n n , Re i n er,

sc ience , 208[, 2 2 6f, 2 63f, Scrive n , M i c h ae l , 1 o

264-26 8, 35 6-3 59· 369 theology,

concept of, 3 6o-36 5 , 3 7 0

Schuppe , Wil he l m , 2 2

3 86 Schwe gl er, Al be rt, 2 1 3

87, 1 03 , I I 3 , 1 40 25, 1 79 tense and te nsed characte r of ti me, 368, 3 73 , 38 1 f themati zati o n , 202-2 1 o, 356, 3 9 2 , 435-439, 443-446; paradox of, 2 07-2 I o, 2 36- 2 4 2 , 247, 2 5 2 f,

Tarski , Alfred,

1 68f

( lRitlichkeit) , 1 5 9 , � oo , 2 2 4f, 3 25f, �3!)f, 339-344· 359, 3 9 1 f, 4 1 8 ,

ti meliness

3 !'> 7 • 393, 4 44 f

4 3 2 ; ecstatic-h ori Jonal , 3 3 5-3 3 7 , 3 5 7-3 5�), 3 6 3f, 375 transcendental argument, 4 1 1 f, 4 1 8f, 4 2 3 transcendental logic, 4f, 7 f, 2 5 , 1 5 5 f transcendental phenomenology, 2 54 , 403 , 434, 436, 4 5 5 transcenden tal philosophy, 392f, 407-4 2 3 , 435 transcendentals, 233, 4 0 7 f transitional ch a ra cte r of time, 3 7 8 , 3 R 1 translogical, 7f transverse intentionali ty, 1 5 3 truth: existen tial or o ri ginal , see disclosed­ nes s ; Heidegger s cri tique of Husserl 's analysis, 1 04- 1 oR ; H usserl's analysis, 68-7 4; modes , 4 5 of; oper a tional, 4 2 3f; and palaver, 2 8 5-2 8 7 ; post­ Fregean theories of, 2 5-2 8 ; proposi­ tional (= specific or bivalent sense o n , I 8 , 1 83- 1 85 , 3 94-3 9 6, 3 9R , 404, 406, 4 20, 4 2 2 , 434; timeliness of, 3 2 5-3 84; transcendental, 4 1 1 f, 4 1 9-4 2 2 , 445 truth-bearers, 2 4f Tugendhat, Ernst xxi , 6 1 f, 7 2 , g 2 , 1 1 3 f, 39 2-409, 4 1 4 , 4 1 9-4 24, 43 2-434, '

44 5 , 454

Twain , Mark, 2 8 3 uncanniness, see eeriness uncovered ness, 204f, 2 1 4 , 2 1 j-2 2 1 , 2 2 4 , 2 9 1 , 3Rg

understanding, primary ( hern1eneutic) , 92 , 1 88f, 2 h7-26g, 30 1 -306 unfold, ri pen (zeitigen) , 1 59, 2 2 4, 3 36, 3 3 8 , 41R unveiled, exposed character of time, 362 , 378, 38 1 f urge (Drang) , 309-3 1 1 use and mention xxii Vaihinger, Hans, 36 validi ty ( Geltung) , 1 5 , 3 5-4 7 , 1 04, 1 2 6f, 1 33 , 1 36, 3 8 8 van Buren, John , 7 , 2 34, 2 4 2 , 435f van Dijk, R. , 4 3 5 von Freytag-Loringhoff, 1 3 von H artman n , Edward, 5 von Herrman n , F. W. , 1 34 Vorlander, Karl , 3 8 Walther, Ge rda, 1 67 Weber, Max, 2��6f, 2 7 6, 2R9 Weiss, Helene, 3 9 9 Whitehead, Alfred North , 2 3 Williams, D . C . , 379 Windelband, Wilhelm, 3 , 5, 1 4 , 3 5 , 3 8 Wippel, John , 2 3 3 Wittgenstein , Ludwig, 1 2 , 1 7f, 2 3 , 2 70, 392, 4 1 5 Wolff, Ch ristian xxi ii Wolin, Richard , 2 76, 397 Wood, D avid, I 5 2 , 34 1 workworld (world of concern ) , 2 5 7-2 70, 2 7 3-2 8 1 ' 3 49f world, 24 1 , 2 56, g35 worldli ness, 2 4 1 , 2 55-2 59, 266, 2 8 gf, 303f world time ( ti me of concern ) , ��6o, 366--3 84 Wundt, Wilhel m , 3, 3of