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Control of Breathing in Health and Disease
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LUNG BIOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Executive Editor C...
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Control of Breathing in Health and Disease
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LUNG BIOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Executive Editor Claude Lenfant Director, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute National Institutes of Health Bethesda, Maryland 1. Immunologic and Infectious Reactions in the Lung, edited by C. H. Kirkpatrick and H. Y. Reynolds 2. The Biochemical Basis of Pulmonary Function, edited by R. G. Crystal 3. Bioengineering Aspects of the Lung, edited by J. B. West 4. Metabolic Functions of the Lung, edited by Y. S. Bakhle and J. R. Vane 5. Respiratory Defense Mechanisms (in two parts), edited by J. D. Brain, D. F. Proctor, and L. M. Reid 6. Development of the Lung, edited by W. A. Hodson 7. Lung Water and Solute Exchange, edited by N. C. Staub 8. Extrapulmonary Manifestations of Respiratory Disease, edited by E. D. Robin 9. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, edited by T. L. Petty 10. Pathogenesis and Therapy of Lung Cancer, edited by C. C. Harris 11. Genetic Determinants of Pulmonary Disease, edited by S. D. Litwin 12. The Lung in the Transition Between Health and Disease, edited by P. T. Macklem and S. Permutt 13. Evolution of Respiratory Processes: A Comparative Approach, edited by S. C. Wood and C. Lenfant 14. Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, edited by K. M. Moser 15. Physiology and Pharmacology of the Airways, edited by J. A. Nadel 16. Diagnostic Techniques in Pulmonary Disease (in two parts), edited by M. A. Sackner 17. Regulation of Breathing (in two parts), edited by T. F. Hornbein 18. Occupational Lung Diseases: Research Approaches and Methods, edited by H. Weill and M. TurnerWarwick 19. Immunopharmacology of the Lung, edited by H. H. Newball 20. Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Diseases of the Lung, edited by B. L. Fanburg 21. Sleep and Breathing, edited by N. A. Saunders and C. E. Sullivan 22. Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment, edited by L. S. Young 23. Pulmonary Nuclear Medicine: Techniques in Diagnosis of Lung Disease, edited by H. L. Atkins 24. Acute Respiratory Failure, edited by W. M. Zapol and K. J. Falke 25. Gas Mixing and Distribution in the Lung, edited by L. A. Engel and M. Paiva
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26. HighFrequency Ventilation in Intensive Care and During Surgery, edited by G. Carlon and W. S. Howland 27. Pulmonary Development: Transition from Intrauterine to Extrauterine Life, edited by G. H. Nelson 28. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Second Edition, edited by T. L. Petty 29. The Thorax (in two parts), edited by C. Roussos and P. T. Macklem 30. The Pleura in Health and Disease, edited by J. Chrétien, J. Bignon, and A. Hirsch 31. Drug Therapy for Asthma: Research and Clinical Practice, edited by J. W. Jenne and S. Murphy 32. Pulmonary Endothelium in Health and Disease, edited by U. S. Ryan 33. The Airways: Neural Control in Health and Disease, edited by M. A. Kaliner and P. J. Barnes 34. Pathophysiology and Treatment of Inhalation Injuries, edited by J. Loke 35. Respiratory Function of the Upper Airway, edited by O. P. Mathew and G. Sant'Ambrogio 36. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Behavioral Perspective, edited by A. J. McSweeny and I. Grant 37. Biology of Lung Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by S. T. Rosen, J. L. Mulshine, F. Cuttitta, and P. G. Abrams 38. Pulmonary Vascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, edited by E. K. Weir and J. T. Reeves 39. Comparative Pulmonary Physiology: Current Concepts, edited by S. C. Wood 40. Respiratory Physiology: An Analytical Approach, edited by H. K. Chang and M. Paiva 41. Lung Cell Biology, edited by D. Massaro 42. HeartLung Interactions in Health and Disease, edited by S. M. Scharf and S. S. Cassidy 43. Clinical Epidemiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, edited by M. J. Hensley and N. A. Saunders 44. Surgical Pathology of Lung Neoplasms, edited by A. M. Marchevsky 45. The Lung in Rheumatic Diseases, edited by G. W. Cannon and G. A. Zimmerman 46. Diagnostic Imaging of the Lung, edited by C. E. Putman 47. Models of Lung Disease: Microscopy and Structural Methods, edited by J. Gil 48. Electron Microscopy of the Lung, edited by D. E. Schraufnagel 49. Asthma: Its Pathology and Treatment, edited by M. A. Kaliner, P. J. Barnes, and C. G. A. Persson 50. Acute Respiratory Failure: Second Edition, edited by W. M. Zapol and F. Lemaire 51. Lung Disease in the Tropics, edited by O. P. Sharma 52. Exercise: Pulmonary Physiology and Pathophysiology, edited by B. J. Whipp and K. Wasserman 53. Developmental Neurobiology of Breathing, edited by G. G. Haddad and J. P. Farber 54. Mediators of Pulmonary Inflammation, edited by M. A. Bray and W. H. Anderson
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55. The Airway Epithelium, edited by S. G. Farmer and D. Hay 56. Physiological Adaptations in Vertebrates: Respiration, Circulation, and Metabolism, edited by S. C. Wood, R. E. Weber, A. R. Hargens, and R. W. Millard 57. The Bronchial Circulation, edited by J. Butler 58. Lung Cancer Differentiation: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by S. D. Bernal and P. J. Hesketh 59. Pulmonary Complications of Systemic Disease, edited by J. F. Murray 60. Lung Vascular Injury: Molecular and Cellular Response, edited by A. Johnson and T. J. Ferro 61. Cytokines of the Lung, edited by J. Kelley 62. The Mast Cell in Health and Disease, edited by M. A. Kaliner and D. D. Metcalfe 63. Pulmonary Disease in the Elderly Patient, edited by D. A. Mahler 64. Cystic Fibrosis, edited by P. B. Davis 65. Signal Transduction in Lung Cells, edited by J. S. Brody, D. M. Center, and V. A. Tkachuk 66. Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, edited by L. B. Reichman and E. S. Hershfield 67. Pharmacology of the Respiratory Tract: Experimental and Clinical Research, edited by K. F. Chung and P. J. Barnes 68. Prevention of Respiratory Diseases, edited by A. Hirsch, M. Goldberg, J.P. Martin, and R. Masse 69. Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia: Second Edition, edited by P. D. Walzer 70. Fluid and Solute Transport in the Airspaces of the Lungs, edited by R. M. Effros and H. K. Chang 71. Sleep and Breathing: Second Edition, edited by N. A. Saunders and C. E. Sullivan 72. Airway Secretion: Physiological Bases for the Control of Mucous Hypersecretion, edited by T. Takishima and S. Shimura 73. Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders, edited by D. G. James 74. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer, edited by J. M. Samet 75. Pulmonary Embolism, edited by M. Morpurgo 76. Sports and Exercise Medicine, edited by S. C. Wood and R. C. Roach 77. Endotoxin and the Lungs, edited by K. L. Brigham 78. The Mesothelial Cell and Mesothelioma, edited by M.C. Jaurand and J. Bignon 79. Regulation of Breathing: Second Edition, edited by J. A. Dempsey and A. I. Pack 80. Pulmonary Fibrosis, edited by S. Hin. Phan and R. S. Thrall 81. LongTerm Oxygen Therapy: Scientific Basis and Clinical Application, edited by W. J. O'Donohue, Jr. 82. Ventral Brainstem Mechanisms and Control of Respiration and Blood Pressure, edited by C. O. Trouth, R. M. Millis, H. F. KiwullSchöne, and M. E. Schläfke 83. A History of Breathing Physiology, edited by D. F. Proctor 84. Surfactant Therapy for Lung Disease, edited by B. Robertson and H. W. Taeusch
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85. The Thorax: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded (in three parts), edited by C. Roussos 86. Severe Asthma: Pathogenesis and Clinical Management, edited by S. J. Szefler and D. Y. M. Leung 87. Mycobacterium aviumComplex Infection: Progress in Research and Treatment, edited by J. A. Korvick and C. A. Benson 88. Alpha 1Antitrypsin Deficiency: Biology • Pathogenesis • Clinical Manifestations • Therapy, edited by R. G. Crystal 89. Adhesion Molecules and the Lung, edited by P. A. Ward and J. C. Fantone 90. Respiratory Sensation, edited by L. Adams and A. Guz 91. Pulmonary Rehabilitation, edited by A. P. Fishman 92. Acute Respiratory Failure in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, edited by J.P. Derenne, W. A. Whitelaw, and T. Similowski 93. Environmental Impact on the Airways: From Injury to Repair, edited by J. Chrétien and D. Dusser 94. Inhalation Aerosols: Physical and Biological Basis for Therapy, edited by A. J. Hickey 95. Tissue Oxygen Deprivation: From Molecular to Integrated Function, edited by G. G. Haddad and G. Lister 96. The Genetics of Asthma, edited by S. B. Liggett and D. A. Meyers 97. Inhaled Glucocorticoids in Asthma: Mechanisms and Clinical Actions, edited by R. P. Schleimer, W. W. Busse, and P. M. O'Byrne 98. Nitric Oxide and the Lung, edited by W. M. Zapol and K. D. Bloch 99. Primary Pulmonary Hypertension, edited by L. J. Rubin and S. Rich 100. Lung Growth and Development, edited by J. A. McDonald 101. Parasitic Lung Diseases, edited by A. A. F. Mahmoud 102. Lung Macrophages and Dendritic Cells in Health and Disease, edited by M. F. Lipscomb and S. W. Russell 103. Pulmonary and Cardiac Imaging, edited by C. Chiles and C. E. Putman 104. Gene Therapy for Diseases of the Lung, edited by K. L. Brigham 105. Oxygen, Gene Expression, and Cellular Function, edited by L. Biadasz Clerch and D. J. Massaro 106. Beta2Agonists in Asthma Treatment, edited by R. Pauwels and P. M. O'Byrne 107. Inhalation Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides and Proteins, edited by A. L. Adjei and P. K. Gupta 108. Asthma in the Elderly, edited by R. A. Barbee and J. W. Bloom 109. Treatment of the Hospitalized Cystic Fibrosis Patient, edited by D. M. Orenstein and R. C. Stern 110. Asthma and Immunological Diseases in Pregnancy and Early Infancy, edited by M. Schatz, R. S. Zeiger, and H. N. Claman 111. Dyspnea, edited by D. A. Mahler 112. Proinflammatory and Antiinflammatory Peptides, edited by S. I. Said 113. SelfManagement of Asthma, edited by H. Kotses and A. Harver 114. Eicosanoids, Aspirin, and Asthma, edited by A. Szczeklik, R. J. Gryglewski, and J. R. Vane 115. Fatal Asthma, edited by A. L. Sheffer 116. Pulmonary Edema, edited by M. A. Matthay and D. H. Ingbar
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117. Inflammatory Mechanisms in Asthma, edited by S. T. Holgate and W. W. Busse 118. Physiological Basis of Ventilatory Support, edited by J. J. Marini and A. S. Slutsky 119. Human Immunodeficiency Virus and the Lung, edited by M. J. Rosen and J. M. Beck 120. FiveLipoxygenase Products in Asthma, edited by J. M. Drazen, S.E. Dahlén, and T. H. Lee 121. Complexity in Structure and Function of the Lung, edited by M. P. Hlastala and H. T. Robertson 122. Biology of Lung Cancer, edited by M. A. Kane and P. A. Bunn, Jr. 123. Rhinitis: Mechanisms and Management, edited by R. M. Naclerio, S. R. Durham, and N. Mygind 124. Lung Tumors: Fundamental Biology and Clinical Management, edited by C. Brambilla and E. Brambilla 125. Interleukin5: From Molecule to Drug Target for Asthma, edited by C. J. Sanderson 126. Pediatric Asthma, edited by S. Murphy and H. W. Kelly 127. Viral Infections of the Respiratory Tract, edited by R. Dolin and P. F. Wright 128. Air Pollutants and the Respiratory Tract, edited by D. L. Swift and W. M. Foster 129. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Airway Disease, edited by M. R. Stein 130. ExerciseInduced Asthma, edited by E. R. McFadden, Jr. 131. LAM and Other Diseases Characterized by Smooth Muscle Proliferation, edited by J. Moss 132. The Lung at Depth, edited by C. E. G. Lundgren and J. N. Miller 133. Regulation of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms, edited by F. W. Turek and P. C. Zee 134. Anticholinergic Agents in the Upper and Lower Airways, edited by S. L. Spector 135. Control of Breathing in Health and Disease, edited by M. D. Altose and Y. Kawakami ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION Immunotherapy in Asthma, edited by J. Bousquet and H. Yssel Chronic Lung Disease of Early Infancy, edited by R. D. Bland and J. J. Coalson Diagnostic Pulmonary Pathology, edited by P. T. Cagle Multimodality Treatment of Lung Cancer, edited by A. T. Skarin Cytokines in Pulmonary Infectious Disease, edited by S. Nelson and T. Martin
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Asthma's Impact on Society: The Social and Economic Burden, edited by K. B. Weiss, A. S. Buist, and S. D. Sullivan Asthma and Respiratory Infections, edited by D. P. Skoner New and Exploratory Therapeutic Agents for Asthma, edited by M. Yeadon and Z. Diamant ParticleLung Interactions, edited by P. Gehr and J. Heyder Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, Second Edition, edited by L. B. Reichman and E. S. Hershfield The opinions expressed in these volumes do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institutes of Health.
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Control of Breathing in Health and Disease Edited by Murray D. Altose Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine and Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center Cleveland, Ohio Yoshikazu Kawakami Hokkaido University School of Medicine Sapporo, Japan
M ARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL
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ISBN: 0824798546 This book is printed on acidfree paper. Headquarters Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 2126969000; fax: 2126854540 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution Marcel Dekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH4001 Basel, Switzerland tel: 41612618482; fax: 41612618896 World Wide Web http://www.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright © 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
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INTRODUCTION The evolution of our knowledge and understanding of the control of breathing has been long, complex, and somewhat tortuous. Galen (A.D. 130–199) is credited with the first observation that the brain controls breathing, but, surprisingly enough, interest in understanding just how this works did not arise until the 19th century when Julian Jean Caesar LeGallois located a vital respiratory center in the medulla, which he described in 1817 in his remarkable publication Experiments on the Principle of Life. It is said that one of the reasons for this long period of inattention was the absence of real understanding of respiration until the late 17th century when Malpighi first described the fine anatomical structure of the respiratory apparatus. LeGallois was a contemporary of the French revolution, and one may believe that it was the beheading that was then in fashion that led him to study why gasping continued after decapitation. Irrespective of the reason for his work, he observed that “hence an animal might be decapitated in such a manner that it should continue to live by its inherent power, without recourse being had to the artificial inflation of the lungs.” This was undoubtedly a major step, albeit from an extreme approach, that led to an extraordinary interest in understanding the mechanism and control of breathing. Eventually, it was the coupling of advances in the neural (central) control of breathing with those in the chemical control of this function that resulted in current knowledge of the control of breathing in health and disease. Of course, that is what this volume addreses. Much has been written on some aspects of respiration regulation, but never before as comprehensively as in this volume, which covers the fundamental mechanisms of breathing as well as their alterations in disease state and how these alterations can be compensated for. As the editors, Drs. Altose and Kawakami, point out in their preface, this volume goes a step further: indeed it underscores the important research questions that need to be addressed. The Lung Biology in Health and Disease series of monographs has presented many contributions to the field of control of breathing.
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This new volume is a very significant addition. Its contributors are recognized experts who have authored most of the recent advances. I am most appreciative of the opportunity to include this new volume in the series. CLAUDE LENFANT, M.D. BETHESDA, MARYLAND
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PREFACE Over the past several decades, physiologists and clinical scientists around the world have been occupied in intensive study of the regulation of respiration. Their basic and applied research has resulted in enormous advances in our knowledge and understanding of breathing. The products of their work have greatly sharpened our insights into the central neural pathways of breathing, respiratory rhythm generation, properties of respiratory motoneurons, chemoreceptor function, and nonchemical and higher brain center influences on breathing. We have also come to better appreciate that the homeostatic responsibilities of the respiratory system can be met only through a complex set of interrelated functions involving the brain and specialized sensory receptors, as well as the peripheral neuromuscular apparatus and the ventilatory pump. The Lung Biology in Health and Disease series has played an instrumental role in consolidating current knowledge of breathing and bringing the state of the art to view. The first edition of Regulation of Breathing, edited by Thomas Hornbein, was published in 1981. This volume provided an update on structure and function; it outlined new experimental approaches, techniques, and methodologies; and it undertook through several clinical reviews, as Hornbein put it, to bring about a “closer liaison between basic research and patient care.” The volume served as an important reference for students, clinicians, and scientists and undoubtedly also served to stimulate further inquiry. The second edition of Regulation of Breathing, edited by Jerome Dempsey and Allan Pack, published in 1995, included scholarly reviews of the great scientific advances in neurobiology and respiratory neurophysiology with an emphasis on central mechanisms, afferent systems, developmental and hormonal influences, and metabolicstate effects. Along with these advances in basic respiratory neurobiology, there has also been increasing interest in translational research and the application of knowledge of respiratory neurobiology to further our understanding of the pathophysiology of breathing disorders and to develop new approaches to diagnosis and disease
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management. These very pursuits have been integral to our professional careers as physicians and clinical investigators. It is our goal in this volume to bring about a “closer liaison between basic research and patient care.” We have attempted to do so by presenting a series of comprehensive reviews of the clinical aspects of the control of breathing, and of the diagnosis and management of breathing disorders, based on a solid foundation of basic science. Accordingly, we have organized the volume into two sections. The first part covers the physiological foundations of the control of breathing and reviews basic research on central respiratory control mechanisms and chemical, nonchemical, and behavioral influences on breathing. This part also reviews the integrative physiology of breathlessness, exercise, upper airway function, and periodic breathing. The chapter on clinical assessment of the control of breathing serves as a segue to the second part of the volume, which reviews the control of breathing at the extremes of age, during sleep, and in various respiratory, cardiac, neuromuscular, and endocrinemetabolic disorders. This volume, Control of Breathing in Health and Disease, is intended to serve clinicians, clinical investigators, and basic scientists. It is our hope that clinicians will take what is known about the etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of disorders of the control of breathing to improve patient care; that clinical investigators will recognize what is still left to be learned and will be encouraged to continue to work to fill the gaps in our clinical knowledge; and that basic scientists will be stimulated by the relevance of their work to continue their effort to expand our fundamental understanding of the control of breathing. We thank all the contributors to this volume for their comprehensive and insightful scholarly reviews, and we are especially appreciative of the encouragement, assistance, and support of Dr. Claude Lenfant. MURRAY D. ALTOSE YOSHIKAZU KAWAKAMI
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CONTRIBUTORS Yasushi Akiyama, M.D., Ph.D. Head, Section of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Hokkaido Central Hospital, Sapporo, Japan Murray D.Altose, M.D., B.Sc. Professor, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Chief of Staff, Associate Dean for Veterans Hospital Affairs, and Attending Physician, Respiratory Intensive Care Unit and Medical Service, Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio M. Safwan Badr, M.D. Associate Professor, Division of Pulmonary/Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan Alia R. BazzyAsaad, M.D. Associate Professor, Section of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Peter Martin Anthony Calverley, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.C.P.E. Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England E. J. Moran Campbell, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.Sc. Professor Emeritus, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Neil S. Cherniack, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine and Physiology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey Anthony F. DiMarco, M.D. Professor, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, and Director, Medical Intensive Care Unit, MetroHealth Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
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Hans Folgering, M.D., Ph.D. Professor, Department of Pulmonology Dekkerswald, University of Nijmegen, Groesbeek, The Netherlands Harly E. Greenberg, M.D. Associate Professor, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New Hyde Park, New York Gabriel G. Haddad, M.D. Professor, Department of Pediatrics and Cellular and Molecular Physiology, and Director, Section of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Ikuo Homma, M.D., Ph.D. Professor, Department of Physiology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan Yoshiyuki Honda, M.D. Professor Emeritus, Department of Physiology, Chiba University School of Medicine, ChuouKu, Chiba City, Japan David W. Hudgel, M.D. Professor, Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, and MetroHealth Center, Cleveland, Ohio Norman L. Jones, M.D., F.R.C.P. Professor Emeritus, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Yoshikazu Kawakami, M.D., Ph.D. Professor and Head, First Department of Medicine, Hokkaido University School of Medicine, and President, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan Michael C.K. Khoo, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Kieran J. Killian, M.B., F.R.C.P.(I), F.R.C.P.(C) Professor, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Harold L. Manning, M.D. Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, New Hampshire Yuri Masaoka, M.A. Research Fellow, Department of Physiology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan Barbara J. Morgan, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin John E. Remmers, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, Physiology and Biophysics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Carol Lynn Rosen, M.D. Associate Professor, Section of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Mark Heims Sanders, M.D. Professor, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Chief, Pulmonary and Sleep Disorders Program, and Director, Sleep Research and Control of Breathing Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Assistant Chief, Pulmonary Service, Pittsburgh Veterans Affairs Health Care Systems, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Catherine S. H. Sassoon, M.D. Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Section, Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Long Beach, California Steven M. Scharf, M.D., Ph.D. Professor, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New Hyde Park, New York Richard M. Schwartzstein, M.D. Clinical Director, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts James B. Skatrud, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin Hiroaki Tani, M.A. Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Therapy, International University of Health and Welfare, Ootawara, Japan Martin J. Tobin, M.D. Professor, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Loyola University of Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, and Hines Veterans Administration Hospital, Chicago and Hines, Illinois John V. Weil, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado David P. White, M.D. Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts Clifford W. Zwillich, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, and Vice Chair, Clinical Affairs, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, and Chief, Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Denver, Colorado
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CONTENTS Introduction Claude Lenfant
iii
Preface
v
Contributors
vii
Part One Physiological Foundations 1. Central Neural Control of Breathing John E. Remmers I. Introduction
1
II. Breathing and Central Pattern Generators
3
III. Rhythm Generators: Pacemaker or Network Mechanisms?
3
IV. Gasping and Eupnea: Two Types of Respiratory Rhythms in Adult Mammals
11
V. Ontological Considerations
15
VI. Lessons from Amphibia and Reptiles
18
VII. Central Neuronal Elements Generating and Controlling the Motor Output
25
VIII. Synaptic Connection
30
IX. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
33
X. Summary and Conclusions
34
References
35
2. Chemical Control of Breathing Yoshiyuki Honda and Hiroaki Tani
1
41
I. Introduction
41
II. Carbon Dioxide Chemosensitivity
42
III. Hypoxic Chemosensitivity
51
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IV. Summary
75
References
75
3. Nonchemical and Behavioral Effects on Breathing Ikuo Homma and Yuri Masaoka I. Introduction
89
II. Motor Pathways
90
III. Afferent Mechanisms
93
IV. Respiratory Sensation and Behavioral Control of Breathing
95
V. Posture and Breathing
97
VI. Emotions, Personality, and Breathing
99
References 4. Dyspnea and the Control of Breathing Harold L. Manning and Richard M. Schwartzstein
100 105
I. Introduction
105
II. Measurement of Dyspnea
106
III. Mechanisms of Dyspnea
109
IV. Relationship Between Respiratory Control and Respiratory Sensation
118
V. Interplay Between Breathing Pattern and Respiratory Sensation
120
VI. Dyspnea in Patients
122
VII. Conclusion
128
References
129
5. Control of Breathing During Exercise Kieran J. Killian, Norman L. Jones, and E.J. Moran Campbell
89
137
I. Introduction
137
II. Integrative Model
138
III. Exercise Task
139
IV. Metabolic Demand
139
V. The Respiratory Muscles in Exercise
143
VI. Control of Breathing During Exercise
149
VII. Sensory Aspects of Breathing During Exercise
154
VIII. Conclusion
155
References
157
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6. Respiration and the Human Upper Airway David P. White
163
I. Introduction
163
II. Biomechanical Properties of the Human Upper Airway
164
III. The Nose
169
IV. The Pharynx
176
V. The Larynx
188
VI. Conclusions
194
References
195
7. Periodic Breathing and Central Apnea Michael C. K. Khoo
203
I. Introduction
203
II. Periodic Breathing as an Instability in Control
205
III. SleepWake State and Respiratory Stability
217
IV. Respiratory Pattern Generation and Periodic Breathing
227
V. Peripheral and Central Mechanisms Affecting Respiratory Stability
232
VI. Conclusion
240
References
240
8. Clinical Assessment of the Respiratory Control System Yasushi Akiyama and Yoshikazu Kawakami
251
I. Introduction
251
II. Measurement of Respiratory Output
252
III. Methods of Evaluating Control of Breathing
257
IV. Behavioral Effects on Respiratory Test Results
279
References
280
Part Two Clinical Aspects 9. Respiratory Control in Children: Clinical Aspects Carol Lynn Rosen, Alia R. BazzyAsaad, and Gabriel G. Haddad
289
I. Overview of Respiratory Control: A Conceptual Framework
289
II. Control of Respiration: Developmental Physiological Aspects
291
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III. Clinical Disorders of Respiratory Control
294
IV. Assessment of Respiratory Control in Children
335
References
338
10. Ventilatory Control in the Elderly David W. Hudgel I. Introduction
367
II. Control of Breathing in the Elderly
367
III. Ventilatory Variability in Aging
369
IV. Breathing During Exercise in the Elderly
370
V. Sleep Quality in the Elderly
371
VI. SleepDisordered Breathing in the Elderly
372
References
374
11. Control of Breathing During Sleep and SleepDisordered Breathing James B. Skatrud, M. Safwan Badr, and Barbara J. Morgan
379
I. Introduction
379
II. Epidemiology of SleepDisordered Breathing
380
III. Determinants of Breathing Pattern Instability
381
IV. Determinants of Upper Airway Patency
389
V. High Upper Airway Resistance Syndromes
396
VI. Sleep Apnea Syndromes
400
VII. Treatment of SleepDisordered Breathing
405
References
412
12. Control of Breathing in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Neil S. Cherniack
367
423
I. Introduction
423
II. Effects of COPD on Respiratory System Function
425
III. Compensatory Actions of the Control System in COPD
426
IV. Effect of COPD on Ventilation
428
V. Factors Limiting Load Compensation and Producing Hypercapnia
429
VI. Breathing Patterns and Hypercapnia in COPD
431
VII. Factors Modifying Respiratory Control System Operation
432
References
433
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13. Control of Breathing in Interstitial Lung Disease Anthony F. DiMarco I. Introduction and Overview
439
II. Pulmonary Mechanics
442
III. Breathing Pattern
443
IV. Respiratory Muscle Function
444
V. Respiratory Control Mechanisms
446
References
459
14. Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure and During Mechanical Ventilation Catherine S. H. Sassoon and Martin J. Tobin
469
I. Introduction
469
II. Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure
471
III. Control of Breathing During Mechanical Ventilation
489
IV. Summary
507
References
507
15. Control of Breathing in Neuromuscular Disease Peter Martin Anthony Calverley
517
I. Introduction
517
II. Clinical Features
518
III. Ventilatory Control: Theory and Assessment
521
IV. Ventilatory Control in NMD During Wakefulness
525
V. Respiratory Control During Sleep
535
VI. Implications for Treatment
541
VII. Summary
543
References
543
16. Control of Ventilation in Congestive Heart Failure Steven M. Scharf and Harly E. Greenberg
439
551
I. Introduction
551
II. Changes in Respiratory Mechanics in CHF
552
III. Pulmonary Afferent Reflexes: Overview
552
IV. Ventilatory Reflexes Elicited from the Pulmonary Vasculature
554
V. Mechanisms Underlying the Ventilatory Response to Exercise in CHF
557
Page xvi
VI. Control of Respiration During Sleep in CHF
563
References
572
17. Control of Breathing in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders and in Obesity John V. Weil and Clifford W. Zwillich I. Introduction
581
II. Thyroid Diseases
581
III. Diabetes
588
IV. Acromegaly
589
V. Sex Hormones
589
VI. Obesity
593
VII. Summary
599
References
600
18. Control of Breathing Following Lung Transplantation in Humans Mark Heims Sanders
609
I. Introduction
609
II. Are the Lungs and Lower Airways Truly Denervated Following Lung Transplantation?
610
III. Effect of Lung Transplantation on the Defense of Ventilation with Changing Resting Lung Volume
612
IV. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Breathing During Wakefulness and Sleep
614
V. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Ventilatory Chemoresponsiveness
617
VI. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Perception of Breathing and BreathHolding
622
VII. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Exercise
624
VIII. Conclusions
627
References
627
19. The Hyperventilation Syndrome Hans Folgering
581
633
I. Introduction
633
II. Signs and Symptoms
636
III. Pathophysiology of the Control of Breathing
641
IV. Diagnosis
647
V. Therapy
652
Page xvii
VI. Conclusions
654
References
655
20. Management of Respiratory Insufficiency Murray D. Altose
661
I. Introduction
661
II. Respiratory Control System
662
III. Causes of Respiratory Insufficiency
662
IV. Management Approaches
667
V. Summary
677
References
678
Author Index
687
Subject Index
755
Page xix
PART ONE PHYSIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
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1 Central Neural Control of Breathing JOHN E. REMMERS University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1. Introduction Despite the convergence of morphological, neurophysiological, and neurobiological techniques being used to investigate mechanisms whereby the central nervous system (CNS) generates and controls the motor act of breathing, we currently possess fragmentary understanding of these phenomena. This disappointing state of affairs stands as a testimony to the complexity of the neural phenomena involved and the relative inadequacy of the techniques available. Nonetheless, our fragmented understanding includes an outline of the relevant neuronal phenomena as well as partial insights into specific mechanisms that underlie these phenomena. The purpose of this chapter is to review salient knowledge about central neural mechanisms controlling breathing and interpret them in the light of global processes and behavior of the control system. As executed by the skeletal, respiratory muscles (e.g., upper airway, thoracic, and abdominal), the motor act of breathing represents the final product of interplay of a variety of neural components at various levels of the CNS, some voluntary and some involuntary. The global neural respiratory control system involves the interplay of these voluntary and involuntary components, with chemical and proprioceptive feedback from the periphery, as well as central respiratory
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Figure 1 A depiction of the descending projections from the cerebral cortex to brain stem and spinal respiratory neuronal structures: Cortical neurons can directly influence the behavior of spinal and upper airway (UAW) respiratory motor neurons by corticospinal and corticocranial motor neuron projections. In addition, cortical activity can influence the bulbopontine respiratory network of interneurons through corticomedullary and corticopontine projections.
chemoreception. The automatic act, no doubt, depends heavily on chemical feedback acting on brain stem respiratory neural circuitry, as evidenced by the neuronal recordings in awake and sleeping cats provided by Orem and associates (1). As shown in Figure 1, voluntary control derived from “higher centers” can interrupt and modify this automatic bursting of inspiratory and expiratory neurons. These cortically based higher centers can directly influence the respiratory motor output through cortical projections to upper airway and spinal motoneurons. In addition, as demonstrated by the magnificent experiments of Orem et al. with conditions apnea (2), cortical influences can modify the bulbopontine respiratory network (see Fig. 1). Eupnea, normal resting breathing, is fundamentally generated and controlled by neuronal elements resident in the pons and medulla. That the bulbopontine respiratory network plays a central role in generating automatic, eupneic breathing can be seen from the breathing pattern of a decerebrate animal. This preparation, having only brain stem and spinal cord, generates a respiratory motor pattern in upper airway and thoracic pump muscles that closely resembles eupneic breathing
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of the intact animal. Although the respiratory pattern of the decerebrate animal is influenced by feedback from peripheral receptors, such as lung mechanoreceptors or peripheral chemoreceptors, such feedback is not a requirement for rhythmogenesis. This evidence, together with the observation that the completely isolated brain stem of the neonatal rat, turtle, and frog in vitro (see later discussion) generates a fictive respiratory rhythm, provides considerable credence for the notion that breathing is generated by a brain stem central pattern generator (CPG), which can be defined as a neuronal circuit that generates a periodic rhythm with defined spatiotemporal characteristics in the absence of phasic sensory feedback. Although the concept of a respiratory CPG has considerable merit in understanding aspects of neural control of breathing, a more useful analysis of the brain stem respiratory controller is rooted in the idea of a neuronal system, incorporating several interacting components, including central chemoreception, rhythm generation, burst development, as well as timing and shaping activities in various output stations. The overall neuronal system also integrates peripheral feedback from lung and chest wall mechanoreceptors, from peripheral chemoreceptors, and from the higher centers. Important aspects of the central neural control will be omitted from the following discussion or only touched on in passing. These unfortunate omissions result from the deficiencies in current understanding (mine and others) or from scope limitations. One of these relates to the influence of higher centers and the effect of shifts in the “state” of the nervous system (e.g., sleep versus wakefulness) on the automatic brain stem respiratory controller. Another concerns changes in intrinsic membrane properties of respiratory neurons during the respiratory cycle. II. Breathing and Central Pattern Generators One commonly held view is that the respiratory CPG consists of two separate components, a rhythm generator coupled to a separate pattern controller, the former providing a pacemaker function and the latter determining the shape and distribution of respiratory motor signal to various output stations (e.g., cranial and spinal motoneuron pools; 3; Fig. 2A). Whereas such separation of rhythmgenerating and patterncontrolling functions may be conceptually interesting, available evidence does not conclusively demonstrate that such an arrangement actually underlies generation of eupnea. The evidence required to show that a cell belongs to a rhythm generator, rather than pattern controller, involves showing that stimulation of the cell produces phase resetting. Alternatively, pacemaking and motorcontrolling functions may be intertwined, so that the respiratory rhythmogenic function emerges from synaptic interconnections of a variety of respiratory interneurons that also control the spatiotemporal aspects of the respiratory
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Figure 2 Various central pattern generator (CPG) models are depicted: In all three models, a respiratory CPG projects to upper airway motor neurons, spinal inspiratory, and spinal expiratory motor neurons (A) Pacemaker model: Rhythm generator (pacemaker) drives a functionally separate pattern controller that determines the precise timing and amplitude of respiratory bursts in various output stations. (B) Halfcenter model: Rhythm generation and pattern control are functionally inseparable and derived from inhibitory interconnections between inspiratory and expiratory neurons. Phaseswitching is provided by an additional neuronal circuit (not shown). (C) Conditional CPG model: The conditional CPG requires excitatory input from central or peripheral chemoreceptors to be phasically active.
pattern. The simplest such arrangement is the “halfcenter” model (see Fig. 2B), in which inspiratory and expiratory neurons reciprocally inhibit each other (4). Although such formulations serve heuristic purposes, a rigid and literal application of either CPG model will likely obscure reality and stifle progress by providing pat answers to questions about highly complex phenomena. Although the brain stem respiratory neurons and network can be assigned the status of CPG, it is not an endogenously active CPG, as it requires chemoreceptor input to oscillate. This requirement indicates that it is a conditional oscillator. The evidence for the conditional nature of the respiratory CPG is derived from a variety of species and preparations. Hyperoxic hypocapnia produces apnea
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in a variety of decerebrate and anesthetized mammals, as well as in sleeping humans and cats (5,6). Another example is that gill ventilation in early premetamorphic tadpoles, which is not responsive to CO2, ceases when the animal is exposed to high oxygen pressures (7). Accordingly, any satisfactory model of the brain stem respiratory controller is likely to include this conditional aspect of the oscillator as depicted in Figure 2C. The chemoreceptive conditionality of the CPG (i.e., the absolute dependence of rhythm on chemoreceptor input) is a feature that is compatible with either general type off respiratory CPG, pacemaker (see Fig. 2A), or emergent behavior (see Fig. 2B). III. Rhythm Generators: Pacemaker or Network Mechanisms? Whether the respiratory rhythmogenesis reflects pacemaker functionality or emergent behavior of a respiratory neuronal circuit is now a hotly contested and unresolved issue. Both types of rhythmogenic mechanisms may coexist to form a hybrid mechanism (3). As described in the following, both types of respiratory CPGs operate in certain species at particular times; however, what type of mechanism underlies eupneic breathing in vertebrates cannot yet be stated. A. Rhythm Generation as Emergent Network Behavior The most unequivocal demonstration of the role of network properties in generating a respiratory rhythm has been provided by Syed et al. (8) for the respiratory CPG of the mollusk Lymnaea stagnalis. In fact, the evidence provided by these workers establishes that reciprocally connected half centers are necessary and sufficient for respiratory rhythmogenesis. This convincing evidence is, in fact, the strongest evidence provided for any CPG that network oscillatory behavior is an emergent property, dependent entirely on the nature of synaptic interconnections. Lymnaea is an aquatic pulmonate mollusk that displays tidal ventilation of the lung with air in response to hypoxic stimulation. Lung ventilation entails rhythmic opening and closing of the lung orifice (the pneumostome) when the snail periodically visits the water surface. On breaking the surface, the pneumostome opens slowly and remains open for several seconds while active expiration occurs, followed by a passive, asperative inspiration, caused by passive recoil of the respiratory apparatus. The pneumostome closes transiently and then the cycle is repeated as the animal takes additional breaths before submerging again. The rhythmic, patterned muscular activity underlying Lymnaea's respiratory behavior is generated by the CNS without the requirement of feedback from mechanoreceptors. From a neuronal perspective, opening of the pneumostome is equivalent to the motor act of expiration, and closure of the pneumostome is the equivalent of inspiration (9). Fictive inspiration and expiration occurs sequentially in the isolated CNS of Lymnaea, establishing the existence of a respiratory CPG
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generating and controlling inspiration and expiration. Interneurons controlling the opening and closing motor neurons have been investigated, and two essential interneurons were identified; one for the opening movement of the pneumostome (expiratory command neuron), the other for closure (inspiratory command neuron; 10). A third neuron, a giant dopamine neuron, is essential for respiration in the isolated CNS of Lymnaea (8). This dopamine interneuron receives synaptic input from peripheral chemoreceptors sensitive to hypoxia, and stimulation of this neuron initiates the respiratory cycle. The neural respiratory cycle consists of oscillations of membrane potential and bursts of action potentials in these interneurons, or their surrogates, during a respiratory cycle (Fig. 3A). In the absence of the peripheral chemoreceptor, this rhythmic respiratory behavior of the isolated CNS does not occur spontaneously, but requires an initial depolarization of the giant dopamine cell (8). In the intact animal, excitation of this cell is produced by peripheral chemoreceptor input (11). That these three interneurons were sufficient to produce the oscillatory respiratory behavior was demonstrated in a remarkable set of experiments (8), involving reconstruction of the respiratory central pattern generator in vitro. Coculture of the dopaminergic cell, together with the inspiratory and expiratory interneurons revealed, that the three neurons reestablished the appropriate synaptic interconnections depicted in Figure 4. The expiratory neuron and inspiratory neuron are interconnected by inhibitory synapses. Similarly, the inspiratory and giant dopamine neurons are interconnected by inhibitory synapses. Finally, the expiratory neuron projects to the giant dopamine neuron with an excitatory synapse and, vice versa, the latter contacts the former with a mixed, excitatoryinhibitory synapse. In this reconstructed neuronal circuit, depolarization of the dopaminergic neuron initiates the phasic alternating bursts in the inspiratory and expiratory neurons, together with phasic bursting of the dopaminergic neuron (see Fig. 3B). Overall, a rhythm was produced that closely resembled that observed in the intact nervous system (see Fig. 3A). The results demonstrate that when the three nonpacemaker interneurons are appropriately synaptically interconnected, activation of the giant dopamine cell is sufficient to produce the respiratory CPG function. Thus, the threeneuron circuit is an adequate neuronal substrate for generation of the respiratory rhythm. Examination of the intrinsic neuronal properties of each of the three neurons in isolation failed to reveal spontaneous or induced rhythmic behavior. Other attributes of intrinsically oscillating neurons were not seen in these neurons, leading to the conclusion that none of the three cells individually served as a pacemaker. That the inspiratory neuron is essential was shown by the arrest of the lung ventilation following ablation of this neuron (12). Moreover, evidence for the necessity of the inspiratory interneuron was supplied by grafting an identical donor interneuron from another animal into the lesioned animal (12). The transplanted neuron extended neurites within the host nervous system, formed synapses with the appropriate target neurons, and restored normal respiratory behavior.
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Figure 3 Intracellular recordings from respiratory interneurons and the giant dopamine cell recorded (A) in situ and (B) in vitro. (A) Stimulated respiratory rhythm recorded from the isolated brain preparation. Because of the difficulties in recording intracellular activity simultaneously from both the respiratory interneurons and the giant dopamine cell, indirect evidence for the occurrence of I.P3.I was obtained from its follower, Visceral J cell (V.J cell). Direct recordings were made from R.Pe.D1 and V.D4. Depolarizing current injected into R.Pe.D1 (at bar) initiated the I.P3.I activity (as recorded from V.J cell) while inhibiting V.D4. The activation of I.P3.I in turn excited the giant dopamine cell and the previously hyperpolarized V.J cell while inhibiting V.D4. After recovery from inhibition by I.P3.I, V.D4 fired a burst of action potentials, and the cycle was spontaneously repeated. (B) Both the respiratory interneurons and the giant dopamine cell were isolated in culture and were allowed to extend neurites for 24 hr. These cells were then impaled with glass microelectrodes, and simultaneous intracellular recordings were made. Injection of depolarizing current (at bar) inhibited both of the respiratory interneurons. I.P3.I recovered from this inhibition and fired a burst of action potentials caused by the PIR excitation. This activation of I.P3.I in turn excited R.Pe.D1 and caused the further inhibition of V.D4. Similarly, V.D4 recovered from the inhibition by I.P3.I and fired a burst of action potentials inhibiting both R.Pe.D1 and I.P3.I. Thus, an alternating pattern of bursting activity was initiated by R.Pe.D1 that continued for several cycles before reaching a quiescent state. This in vitro pattern of activity mimics the respiratory cycle seen in both isolated and semiintact preparations. (From Ref. 8.)
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Figure 4 The three neurons that constitute Lymnaea's CPG are shown, together with their interconnections: Inspiratory and expiratory command neurons are interconnected with inhibitory synapses, as is the inspiratory and the giant dopamine neuron. Expiratory neurons excite the giant dopamine cell which, in turn, projects to the expiratory neuron with a mixed synapse. The giant dopamine cell is excited by peripheral chemoreceptors that are sensitive to hypoxia.
Overall, these results provide a remarkable body of evidence that the threeneuronal network provides the basis for the respiratory CPG in Lymnaea. The respiratory rhythm emanating from the CPG clearly derives from the reciprocal inhibitory interconnections between inspiratory and expiratory neurons, together with their interaction with the dopaminergic neuron. In other words, the rhythm is not attributable to a pacemaker neuron, but emerges from synaptic interconnections of the three neurons when tonic external stimulation is provided. In the intact animal, this is provided by peripheral chemoreceptor input to the dopamine cell. This network essentially corresponds to the halfcenter model shown in Figure 2B
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and would appear to have remarkable similarities to that proposed for vertebrates, wherein inspiratory and expiratory half centers, with mutually inhibitory interconnections and appropriate switching mechanisms (4). As in vertebrates, the emergent rhythm requires chemoreceptor excitatory input (i.e., the respiratory CPG of Lymnaea is a conditional oscillator). B. Rhythm Generation by Pacemaker Neurons Feldman and his coworkers have developed an important body of evidence demonstrating that the respiratory rhythm of the neonatal rat in vitro is driven by pacemaker neurons (see Ref. 13 for a review). The completely isolated brain stem and spinal cord of the neonatal rat (1–4 days) exhibits a bursting rhythm in vitro. These bursts have a squarewave profile and appear in the hypoglossal roots and all cranial and thoracic ventral roots (14). Feldman and coworkers have provided strong evidence that this bursting constitutes a respiratory rhythm generated by a CPG that uses pacemaker activity. Most notably, they showed that superfusion of the brain stem preparation with a chloridefree medium did not block the rhythm (15). Because postsynaptic inhibition requires activation of Cl conductance, this finding indicates that postsynaptic inhibition is not essential for the respiratory rhythm in the neonatal rat brain stem in vitro. This is a surprising finding, because Hiyashi and Lipski (16) showed in the in situ, artificially perfused brain stem preparation of the adult rat, that Clfree solution abolished the respiratory rhythm. Smith et al. used progressive serial transections to localize a region of the medulla that is essential for generating the respiratory rhythm by the medulla of the 1 to 4 dayold neonatal rat (17). Serial transection beginning at the pontomedullary junction and moving progressively caudally caused no perturbation of the frequency of inspiratory motor discharge recorded from the hypoglossal roots until the level of the retrofacial nucleus was reached. Further sectioning induced instabilities of the rhythm and, ultimately, eliminated the rhythmic motor output. More caudal medually regions were unnecessary for rhythm generation because sectioning rostrally from the spinomedullary junction did not disrupt the respiratory motor output until the retrofacial area was reached. Additional section experiments also localized areas essential for respiratory rhythmogenesis to the ventral portion of the medulla. Overall, such experiments imply that neurons essential for respiratory rhythmogenesis are localized in the ventral medulla just caudal to the level of the retrofacial nucleus. These investigators then studied the respiratory rhythm generated by a transverse slice of the neonatal rat medulla just caudal to cranial nerve VII (17). The 500 m slice at this level contains the hypoglossal motoneurons and their axons. The respiratory rhythm was recorded from the hypoglossal nerve root contained in this slice (Fig. 5A). This is the first thinslice preparation to exhibit a respiratory rhythm, a similar but thicker slice having been described by McLean et al. (18). Recordings of neurons lying in the
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Figure 5 The results obtained with a slice from the neonatal rat medulla at the level of the preBötzinger complex (PreBöt C): (A) Sectioned electrode recordings (lower trace) from the hypoglossal nerve roots (XIIN). Recording from PreBöt C neurons show depolarization and action potentials during each inspiratory burst (upper trace). (B) Injection of KCI (filled circles) or the nonNMDA blocker (CNQX; open circles) into the PreBöt C caused increase and decrease in respiratory frequency. (C) Recording from a nonphasic, PreBöt C neuron that becomes phasic when depolarized and shows increased burst frequency when further depolarized. (D) Recordings from the hypoglossal nerve (upper trace) and from a phasic PreBöt C neuron (lower trace) showing increased burst frequency independent of the hypoglossal nerve burst during depolarization. (From Ref. 17.)
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ventral areas of this slice, just caudal to the Bötzinger complex of respiratory neurons, revealed rhythmically active neurons in the socalled preBötzinger complex. Thin (350 mthick) slices enclosing the boundaries of the preBötzinger complex generated rhythmic motor output on hypoglossal nerves, demonstrating that the neurons at this level are adequate for rhythmogenesis (see Fig. 5A). To verify that preBötzinger neurons influence the rhythm, Smith et al. perturbed neuronal excitability of these neurons. As shown in Figure 5B, transient neuronal depolarization by microinjection of solutions containing a high potassium ion concentration, reversibly increased motor output. By contrast, injection of a nonNmethylDaspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist reduced the frequency and reversibly eliminated the respiratory output. Smith et al. performed wholecell recordings of neurons located in the preBötzinger complex and identified a population of neurons that exhibited periodic membrane potential depolarization, synchronous with the hypoglossal bursts (17). Some neurons that were not phasically active exhibited strong rhythmic depolarization associated with bursts of action potentials when they were depolarized by current injection (see Fig. 5C). When the phasic respiratory neurons were depolarized by intracellular injection of current, they exhibited oscillatory bursting at higher frequency than that of the motor output, suggesting that they may be pacemaker neurons (see Fig. 5D). Nonetheless, these neurons also received synaptic input in phase with the respiratory rhythm, indicating that they are a part of a respiratory network. The results of these remarkable investigations indicate that the respiratory rhythm of the in vitro neonatal rat medulla is generated by neurons of the preBötzinger complex. These neurons possess voltagedependent, pacemakerlike properties, and they interact synaptically with other respiratory neurons to produce a respiratory rhythm. This preBötzinger respiratory CPG, which could be the basis for the generation of respiratory rhythm in the intact mammalian brain stem, conforms to the CPG paradigm depicted in the pacemaker shown in Figure 2A. One caveat must be added: the fictive breathing exhibited by the neonatal rat brain stem in vitro is of uncertain significance; it may represent either eupnea or gasping. IV. Gasping and Eupnea: Two Types of Respiratory Rhythms in Adult Mammals Lumsden noted that severe hypoxia, cerebral ischemia, or transection of the brain stem at the pontomedullary junction eliminated eupneic respiration and induced the appearance of a different respiratory pattern, referred to as gasping (19–22). The respiratory pattern of gasping differs from the eupneic pattern in the following manner: the gasping inspiratory motor output begins synchronously at all motor output stations, the rate of rise of the phrenic burst in gasping is much greater than in eupnea, and the phrenic burst profile describes a decrescendo trajectory resem
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Figure 6 Patterns of automatic ventilatory activity after transections of brain stem: Schematic drawings are of integrated phrenic activity. Eupnea is recorded after a midcollicular transection (level E). After a rostral pontile transection (level A), apneusis is obtained. Gasping is recorded after a transection at pontomedullary junction (level G). Note that duration of apneustic inspiration can be many minutes. IC, inferior colliculus; BP, brachium pontis. (From Ref. 30.)
bling upper airway motor output (Fig. 6). The gasping respiratory pattern is uninfluenced by vagal feedback. Eupnea and gasping differ in the pattern of activity of bulbar respiratory neurons. During gasping, inspiratory neurons exhibit less variation in time of onset and duration than during eupneic breathing (23–25). In fact, one hallmark of gasping is the synchronous onset of all inspiratory neurons at the beginning of the gasp; as well, expiratory neuron activity is greatly reduced (23–25). The onset of gasping is associated with a shift in highfrequency oscillation, considered by some to be a “signature” of the respiratory CPG (26,27). Finally, St. John has identified a region near the nucleus ambiguus that is essential for gasping, but not for eupnea. A lesion of this area, which may correspond to the preBötzinger area, does not alter normal breathing, but does eliminate gasping (28). However, Feldman and coworkers dispute this interpretation, noting that gasping was eliminated by lesions dorsomedial to the preBötzinger area (3) (see note added in proof, p. 35).
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The pons plays a complex and poorly understood role in respiratory rhythmogenesis and pattern control. In the rostral pons, the nucleus parabrachialis medialis (NPBM) and the Kölliker fuse nucleus (KFN) contribute to phase switching. As depicted in Figure 6, rostral pontine lesions in decerebrate, vagotomized animals profoundly alter the respiratory pattern, producing prolonged inspiratory bursts known as apneusis. Figure 7 shows that the ascending inspiratory ramps in apneusis and eupnea are identical until graded inhibition begins during the eup
Figure 7 Integrated phrenic activity with vagal volume feedback (rhythmic breathing) with a superimposed apneustic breath in the absence of volume feedback (respirator switched off) from a cat with a unilateral lesion in the inspiratory inhibitory area of right parabrachial nucleus, paralyzed with gallamine, vagus intact, and ventilated by a phrenicdriven servorespirator. The sweep of the storage oscilloscope was triggered by the onset of inspiratory activity: (A) normocapnia; (B) hypercapnia (breathing 4.2% CO2 in O2). Note that the initial rate of rise of inspiratory activity is virtually identical in rhythmic and apneustic breaths during both normocapnia and hypercapnia. (From Ref. 29.)
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neic ramp. Thereafter, the two diverge, the eupneic output undergoes phase switching, whereas the apneustic continues to rise and ultimately plateaus without phase switching (29). The apneustic respiratory pattern probably does not reflect a fundamental shift in rhythmogenic mechanism. Rather, it appears to represent a failure in switching off inspiration generated by the eupneic CPG (29). Gasping, on the other hand, appears to constitute a fundamental alteration in the function of the eupneic CPG or the appearance of a different CPG. Gasping emanates from the medulla and is the one pattern of automatic ventilatory activity that is reproducibly exhibited by the isolated medulla (30). In fact, Lumsden and others have proposed the existence of a second, noneupneic respiratory CPG in adult mammals (i.e., a gasp CPG) to explain the striking differences in shape and distribution of the motor output between eupnea and gasping (20). Even though the rostral pons is required for a timely switching off of the inspiratory ramp, it does not participate in generating the ramp. By contrast, the caudal pons plays an essential role in generating the normal inspiratory ramp and suppressing the gasping respiratory pattern. Gasping may play an important survival role, particularly in neonates. Lawson and Thach have demonstrated that gasping can provide sufficient alveolar ventilation to promote recovery from apnea produced by profound CNS hypoxia (31). Eupneic breathing is characterized by a respiratory behavior that differs strikingly from gasping. Normally, the adult mammal exhibits a rich variety of spatiotemporal ventilatory patterns in executing a highly coordinated motor act modulated by a spectrum of environmental influences and postural constraints. This involves alternating activation of spinal inspiratory and expiratory neurons in an augmenting pattern and squarewave or decrementing activation of upper airway motoneurons. Depending on the species and the preparation, the rhythm and spatiotemporal pattern of the respiratory motor output is strongly modified by feedback from mechanoreceptors located in the lungs and chest wall. Unlike gasping, eupnea involves participation of the pons and vagal feedback to terminate respiratory phases, to promote alteration and reciprocation of inspiratory and expiratory neurons, and to define the timing and shape of burst activity at various output stations (4). This requires the participation of an extensive brain stem respiratory network, involving both inhibitory and excitatory synaptic interconnections. That such neurorespiratory circuitry is required for full expression of the eupneic breathing in no way forces the conclusion that eupneic rhythmogenesis emerges from the network behavior in the absence of independent pacemaker function. However, it implies that any pacemaker rhythmic generator must be coupled to a spatiotemporal pattern controller that uses rostral pontine mechanisms and vagal feedback to generate a coordinated, flexible spatiotemporal output. Location of a medullary pacemaker for an eupneic CPG has proved elusive; Speck and Feldman demonstrated that numerous lesions throughout the
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medulla failed to eliminate the respiratory rhythm, even though the amplitude of motor output was greatly reduced (32) (see note added in proof, p. 35). This is not true for gasping; rostral ventral medullary lesions eliminate gasping but not eupnea (28). The foregoing poses two fundamental questions on generation and control of the respiratory motor output by the brain stem of the adult mammal: (1) Do gasping and eupnea arise from separate CPGs, or is the gasp CPG the kernel for eupneic breathing? and (2) what is the role of network versus pacemaker properties in each CPG? Ontological and phylogenic comparisons of the motor act of breathing bear on these questions and appear to provide at least partial answers. V. Ontological Considerations Whereas fetal mammals may normally exhibit gaspingtype breathing in REM sleep, newborns exhibit a respiratory motor behavior that is the equivalent of the adult eupneic motor output. Wang et al. (23) have reported the following observations in neonatal rats to support this conclusions: (1) augmenting, reciprocating bursts appear in the phrenic nerve (Fig. 8); (2) the duration of inspiration and expiration are modulated by lung volume; and (3) rostral pontine areas function to produce inspiratoryexpiratory phaseswitching and prevent apneusis. All three observations are consistent with eupnea and not gasping. An important disagreement exists over the role of the vagus in changing the spatiotemporal pattern of inspiratory bursts in neonatal rats. Three reports have observed gaspingtype patterns in the neonatal rat after bilateral vagotomy (14,34,35). By contrast, Wang et al. found persistence of an augmenting phrenic motor output in the absence of vagal feedback (33). Despite this unresolved question, Wang et al. observed that the neonatal, decerebrate rat exhibits a eupneic respiratory motor act, comparable with eupneic breathing in the adult. Moreover, these investigators demonstrated in neonatal rats, age 0–7 days, that hypoxia transforms this eupneic pattern into a gasping pattern (see Fig. 8). In other words, the potential for both eupneic and gasping motor behaviors coexist in the neonatal mammal; the former is normally expressed and the latter emerges under hypoxic conditions. Suzue reported that a respiratory rhythm is exhibited by the isolated brain stem of the neonatal rat superfused by mock cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in vitro (36,37). These initial reports documented that the rhythm was slower than in the intact animal, and that the rate of rise of inspiratory activity far exceeded that of the intact animal. The frequency, but not amplitude, of bursts responds to changes in superfusate pH, and the rhythm is not altered by pontomedullary transection. From these findings, Suzue concluded that “the periodic rhythm correlated to gasping rather than normal respiratory rhythm” (36). The inspiratory burst re
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Figure 8 Eupnea and gasping in neonatal rat: Animals were decerebrate, vagotomized, paralyzed, and artificially ventilated. Records are of integrated phrenic (Phr) activity during eupnea in hyperoxia and in anoxiainduced gasping. Time constant of integrator = 60 msec on and 100 msec off. Records were obtained from an animal on the day of birth (0 days) and others at 2, 4, and 7 days after birth. (From Ref. 33.)
corded from the CIII root is decrementing (Fig. 9A), not augmenting as demonstrated for the phrenic burst in the decerebrate neonatal rat during eupneic breathing (see Fig. 8). Further support for the notion that the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem preparation may exhibit fictive gasping derives from investigation of the respira
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Figure 9 (A) Integrated record of a burst in the C3 nerve root of the 4dayold rat brain stemspinal cord preparation in vitro at 27°C: The burst shows an abrupt rise to a peak value, followed by decrescendo profile lasting 0.7 sec. (B) Recording of a raw (upper trace) and integrated (lower trace) burst in the C5 root recorded from the 9dayold opossum CNS in vitro at 30°C, with the same sweep speed as in A. The opossum CNS exhibits an augmenting bursting lasting 0.25 sec. (From A, Ref. 14; B, Ref. 38.)
tory gas exchange status of the brain. Measurements of tissue pH and PO2 reveal that the brain tissue is extremely acidic and hypoxic, with complete anoxia being present at 400 m below the surface (38). This observation is remarkable because the neonatal brain stem in vitro is maintained severely hypothermic (e.g., 27°C), which reduces tissue hypoxia by decreasing metabolic rate and increasing the solubility of O2 and CO2. Thus, the experimental conditions are those that would be expected to produce gasping in the intact or decerebrate animal. Overall, therefore, available evidence favors the view that fictive breathing of the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem preparation represents gasping, not eupnea. An important distinction should be drawn between the fictive respiratory pattern of the neonatal rat medulla in vitro and that of the neonatal opossum CNS in vitro (39). The opossum brain is likely less hypoxic than the neonatal rat medulla in vitro, owing to its small size and, hence, short diffusion distance. Unlike the neonatal rat, the in vitro opossum CNS exhibits features of eupnea; namely, a short and augmenting inspiratory ramp of efferent activity in the CV spinal nerve root (see Fig. 9B), and an amplitude, as well as a frequency, response to changes in superfusate pH. The results with this promising preparation for the study of respiratory rhythmogenesis and chemoreception demonstrate that the
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putative gasping of the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem is attributable neither to its isolation nor to its immaturity. Rather, it is likely the result of its hypoxia and acidity. That the slice preparation used in the studies of Smith et al. (17) was not hypoxic does not nullify the possibility that the slice preparation generates a gasping rhythm; as pointed out in the foregoing, eupnea requires the pontine mechanisms. The possibility that the fictive breathing of the in vitro rat brain stem preparation constitutes gasping is consistent with the results showing that pontomedullary transection does not influence the respiratory pattern (14,18) and that postsynaptic inhibition contributes little to the fictive respiratory pattern of this preparation (15). The latter finding seems to be more compatible with gasping than eupnea, because a role for precisely timed postsynaptic inhibition is well established in eupnea and because perfusion of the rat brain stem with a Clfree medium eliminated the respiratory rhythm (17). The spatiotemporal pattern of the gasping burst, an abrupt rise in activity followed by a decrescendo appearing synchronously in all respiratory nerves, might indicate little role for postsynaptic inhibition in gasping. If the hypoxic, hypothermic neonatal rat in vitro brain stem, in fact, exhibits fictive gasping and not eupnea, the cellular mechanisms of rhythm generation elucidated by Smith et al. (17) in this preparation must be interpreted accordingly. For instance, one might infer that the preBötzinger mechanism may be the pacemaker for gasping. One might also postulate that, under hypoxic conditions in the neonatal rat, the preBötzinger pacemaker drives a gasp CPG that does not use postsynaptic inhibitory networking (see note added in proof, p. 35). VI. Lessons from Amphibia and Reptiles Comparison of central neural processes controlling breathing among phyla provides a useful source of insights into basic neuronal process generating and regulating the respiratory motor output. Because of the relative simplicity of “lower” vertebrate respiration and because in vitro preparations of the brain stem of these species are less deranged than those from mammals, neurobiological investigation of such preparations holds considerable potential. For instance, as depicted in Figure 10, amphibia employ only two sets of motoneurons that mediate lung ventilation. By contrast, lung ventilation in reptiles and mammals involves five sets of motoneurons. Nonetheless, basic features of the respiratory control system are conserved: central and peripheral chemoreception, vagal volume feedback, and a threephase lung ventilatory cycle. Presumably, the basic features of the respiratory CPG are conserved among the three families. One important focus has been on amphibia, the modern descendants of the first tetrapods that migrated from water onto land. This momentous event in
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Figure 10 The respiratory control systems for amphibian, reptile, and mammal are depicted. Each group is postulated to have a homologous central pattern generator as well as volumerelated and chemical feedbacks. Each produces a threephase respiratory cycle. The motor control systems vary among the three, innervating different respiratory muscles as depicted. Neural components: CPG, central pattern generator; MCSA, motor control system of amphibian; MCSR, motor control system of reptile; MCSM, motor control system of mammal; PCR, peripheral chemoreceptor; CCR, central chemoreceptor; PSR, pulmonary stretch receptor. Muscles: OP, oropharyngeal; LX, laryngeal; Sh, shoulder; RC, rib cage; D, diaphragm; Ab, abdominal.
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evolution was made possible by two important innovations: aerial respiration and quadrupedal locomotion. As one wag quipped, “all that was required for life on land was lungs and legs.” The replacement of gill ventilation by lung ventilation provided enormous advantages, principally owing to the physical properties of the convective media. Air, less dense and less viscous than water, allowed connective distribution through small airways into microalveoli. In addition, air has much greater O2 capacity than water. Together, these set the stage for a dramatic increase in oxidative metabolism. These advantages were countered by problems posed by CO2 elimination, owing to decreased capacity and diffusibility of the gas in air when compared with water. This is reflected in the appearance of central respiratory chemoreception, a key component of CO2 homeostasis. Thus, the shift from water to air ventilation required two essential additions to the respiratory control system: a rhythmic neuromuscular controller for tidal movement of air into the lungs, and a central CO2 chemoreceptor. As recent information indicates, these two functions may be intimately associated at the neuronal level. CO2 chemosensitivity occurs in regions of the brain having dense populations of respiratory neurons (40), and respiratory neurons appear to possess intrinsic CO2 chemosensitivity (41). Tadpoles, the larval form of frogs, provide a remarkable opportunity to investigate the ontogeny and, by inference, phylogeny of CO2 chemosensitivity and lung ventilatory rhythmogenesis; to the extent that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, the gill and lung ventilation in the developing tadpole provides a “rerun” of that momentous episode in evolution when lung ventilation replaced gill ventilation. A. Lung and Gill Ventilation in the Tadpole Investigation of the neurobiology of amphibian respiration has been facilitated by the development of in vitro brain stem preparations derived from the frog (42) and the tadpole (43). Extensive correlative studies have demonstrated that the bursting rhythm recorded from the cranial nerve (CN) roots, V, VII, and X, and the spinal nerve (SN) root II, constitutes fictive breathing. To accomplish this, the bursting rhythm in the cranial and spinal nerve roots were compared with respiratory discharges recorded in respiratory nerves or muscles of decerebrate preparations (44,45). Another important feature is that, unlike the mammalian brain stem preparation, the in vitro tadpole brain stem is well oxygenated in all regions (46). Moreover, the amphibian brain stem is maintained at the animal's normal temperature, 20–22°C. The premetamorphic tadpole uses both lung and gill ventilation for gas exchange, and the in vitro tadpole brain stem exhibits both lung and gill neural ventilatory patterns. As shown in Figure 11B and C, fictive gill breathing in the tadpole is characterized by a highfrequency, lowamplitude burst in CN VII and X, whereas a fictive lung breath is characterized by a large burst in both nerve roots (see Fig. 11A). The characteristics of a fictive lung breath are illustrated in
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Figure 11 Records of fictive gill and lung ventilation recorded from cranial nerves (CN) VII and X in the premetamorphic tadpole (stage 14): Fictive gill ventilation is represented by the highfrequency, lowamplitude bursts in both cranial nerves partially out of phase. Increasing Pco2 from 4 torr (C), to 17 torr (B), to 45 torr (A) is associated with an increase in amplitude and frequency of fictive gill bursts. At the highest CO2 level (A) a fictive lung burst occurs in the middle of the tracing, characterized by highamplitude activity in both cranial nerve roots. (From CS Torgerson, MJ Gdovin, JE Remmers, unpublished data.)
Figure 12 in which lung bursts involve largeamplitude bursts in CN V and VII, in the laryngeal branch of the vagus (Xl) and in SN II. Axons in the hypoglossal nerve are derived from SN II. In the premetamorphic tadpole, gill ventilation is driven principally by hypoxic stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptor (7). Nonetheless, central chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2 are well developed and cause a substantial increase in fictive gill motor output in the premetamorphic animal (see Fig. 11; 43). In addition, CO2 stimulation augments the frequency of fictive lung breath (see Fig. 12; 43). In the premetamorphic tadpole, the fictive lung burst consists of an abrupt and synchronous activation of all respiratory motor outputs, suggesting that this event may be a fictive gasp. Interestingly, the fictive lung breath of the premetamorphic tadpole brain stem, unlike fictive gill ventilation, is unaffected by chloridefree superfusate (47), indicating that, as was seen for the gasplike burst
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Figure 12 Records of fictive gill and lung ventilation in a premetamorphic tadpole (stage 14) brain stemspinal cord preparation. Integrated electroneurograms were recorded from cranial nerve VII (CN VII), the laryngeal branch of the vagus (CN Xl), and the second spinal nerve (SN II) roots at pH 7.65 (upper panel) and pH 7.41 (lower panel). Fictive gill ventilation is represented by the highfrequency lowamplitude burst in CN VII and, to some extent, in CN Xl. Note that SN II exhibits no phasic activity during these periods. Fictive lung bursts are characterized by large bursts in all three recordings. (From CS Torgerson, MJ Gdovin, JE Remmers, unpublished data.)
in the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem preparation, postsynaptic inhibition is not essential for fictive lung rhythmogenesis. The fictive lung breath of the postmetamorphic tadpole and adult frog contrasts with the gasplike lung burst of the premetamorphic tadpole; in the frog, the lung breath begins with an augmenting burst in the sternohyoid of the hypoglossus, followed by a burst in CN V, VII, and X and the main branch of the hypoglossus (Fig. 13A). As was shown by Kimura et al. (48), this coordinated, augmenting activation is dependent on postsynaptic inhibition; superfusion with
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Figure 13 Superimposed traces of integrated nerve discharges of laryngeal branch of the vagus (Xl), main branch of the hypoglossus (Hm), sternohyoid branch of the hypoglossus (Hsh), and contralateral hypoglossus (H) triggered at onset of HM burst (arrow): (A) Before strychnine; (B) synchronous bursting activity induced by 10 M strychnine. (From Ref. 48.)
mockCSF containing strychnine, a blocker of glycinergic receptors, produces sudden onset of a gasplike rhythm, having synchronous onset and decrementing trajectory (see Fig. 13B). In addition, as in mammalian gasping, the frequency of highfrequency oscillation shifts. A plausible conclusion from these studies of tadpole and frog brain stems in vitro is that fictive lung breathing in the premetamorphic tadpole derives from a primitive lung CPG, not requiring postsynaptic inhibition, whereas fictive lung bursts in the adult frog arise from a CPG having welldeveloped network properties, including postsynaptic inhibition. It is tempting to speculate that the output of primitive, premetamorphic lung CPG is homologous with the poststrychnine pattern of the in vitro frog brain stem and to gasping in the mammal, whereas the output of the adult frog CPG is probably related to neural mechanisms responsible for eupneic ventilation in the mammal. Such a view is consistent with Lumsden's sagacious insight that “gasping is a relic of
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some transitory primitive respiratory process, halfway between gill and lung respiration” (20). In other words, the acquisition of air through the mouth by fish, lung fish, and premetamorphic tadpoles, the earliest form of air breathing, may represent gasping. Why does this “relic” persist in higher vertebrates? In general, competitive evolutionary pressures tend to eliminate functional aspects of the CNS that do not contribute in some way to survival. Gasping, therefore, is probably not a “useless” relic. It may provide autoresuscitation in hypoxic conditions, thereby providing a survival advantage. Another, and nonexclusive, possibility is that a gasp CPG served as neuronal basis for lung ventilatory rhythmogenesis in early air breathers (i.e., garfish, lungfish, and premetamorphic tadpoles). In frogs and “higher” vertebrates, the lung CPG evolved by addition of more neuronal elements (e.g., pontine neurons) and network properties (e.g., postsynaptic inhibition). In this scenario, mammals have only one respiratory CPG, and it has evolved from the primitive pacemaker driven gasp CPG of the fish. The pontine synaptic interactions with the putative gasp CPG would have induced two major changes: (1) control of the rate of rise of the inspiratory output by the caudal pons; and (2) phaseswitching by rostral pontine structures. The former would allow more efficient inflation of lungs having high airway resistance, and the latter would modify the role of the primitive pacemaker. Also, reciprocal inhibitory interactions among bulbar respiratory neurons would provide spatiotemporally coordinated activation of a variety of respiratory muscles. The net result of these developments would be a CPG that produced an alternating output of smoothly augmenting inspiratory and expiratory ramps of precisely controlled denotations. This speculation implies that the mechanisms for gasping and eupnea do not differ fundamentally. Rather, they can be seen as evolutionarily and developmentally related and intimately connected in normal breathing of the adult vertebrate. As an extension of this notion, the putative pacemaker for eupnea, the preBötzinger complex, might participate in gasping (see note added in proof). Another implication of the unified CPG speculation is that the mammal develops gasping by hypoxiainduced suppression of nonpacemaker components of the eupneic CPG, particularly the pons. B. The ThreePhase Respiratory Cycle One of the more obvious lessons from comparative respiratory neurobiology is that the basic features of the respiratory pattern are conserved in airbreathing vertebrates. Relative to airflow, lung breathing is a twophase, tidal process: inhalation and exhalation. By contrast, from the point of view of respiratory mechanics, muscle activities and neuronal synaptic events, breathing is a motor act that occurs in three sequential phases: active expiration (deflation of the lungs), inspiration (inflation of the lungs), and postinspiration (breathhold at endinspiration or retardation of expiratory airflow). This is true for amphibia, reptiles, and mammals. As will be described in detail, the neurorespiratory circuit in mammals sequentially assumes one of three activity states: inspiration, postinspiration, and
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active expiration, corresponding to the three sequential mechanical phases. The latter two encompass the two mechanical phases of expiration and are often referred to as the first and second stages of expiration, denoted E1 and E2. As shown in Figure 14A, postinspiration (E1) is associated with retardation of expiratory flow by glottal adduction (activation of the thyroarytenoid) and antagonistic contraction of inspiratory pump muscles (postinspiratory activity of the phrenic), whereas active expiration (E2) is associated with contraction of abdominal expiratory muscles. Similarly to mammals, amphibia and reptiles possess a constellation of bulbar respiratory neuronal circuits, the activity of which shifts sequentially among three activity configurations wherein inspiratory, postinspiratory, and expiratory neurons are active (49,50). Corresponding to this threephase neurorespiratory cycle, amphibia and reptiles exhibit a parallel threephase mechanical respiratory cycle in which the postinspiratory (E1) phase is protracted and is associated with complete closure of the glottis, trapping the lung gas after the end of inspiration. The newborn opossum exhibits a respiratory pattern that entirely parallels that of the amphibian and reptile, exhibiting a breathhold after the end of inspiration (51). Newborn lambs exhibit a similar respiratory pattern, wherein intense and prolonged activation of the thyroarytenoid greatly reduces the expiratory airflow and produces a dynamic endexpiratory lung volume greater than the passive functional residual capacity (FRC; 52). Finally, the adult cat exhibits substantial laryngeal and inspiratory muscle braking of expiratory airflow, both being reflexly regulated by volume feedback (53–55). A unifying hypothesis is that the braking of expiratory airflow produces an increase in endexpiratory lung volume that promotes pulmonary gas exchange and limits water accumulation in the lungs. In support of the latter concept, pulmonary vascular congestion, by activating vagal C fibers, produces rapid, shallow breathing, and intensive expiratory braking, as indicated by activation of laryngeal adductors (56). In summary, amphibia and reptiles display a threephase, neurorespiratory cycle that parallels that observed in mammals. For all three groups, the respiratory neurons display sequential activation of inspiratory, postinspiratory, and expiratory neurons, and these neurons receive postsynaptic inhibition during their inactive phases, indicating that they are interconnected by inhibitory synaptic transmission. Overall, therefore, current evidence strongly indicates that, from a mechanical and a neural perspective, the respiratory cycle of amphibia, reptiles, and mammals occurs in three sequential phases that appear to be homologous among the groups. VII. Central Neuronal Elements Generating and Controlling the Motor Output Respiratory neurons of the pons and medulla and their synaptic connections are the source of the respiratory rhythm, and they also control the distribution of neu
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ral activity in time and space to various output stations (i.e., to spinal motoneurons and cranial motoneurons innervating respiratory muscles). Tidal breathing requires intermittent, repetitive contraction of respiratory muscles that results from a bursting, rhythmic activation of brain stem respiratory neurons. Although this respiratory rhythm is essential for tidal breathing, the reciprocal inhibition of antagonistic muscles and shaping of burst profiles is of equal importance in executing the motor act. The timing and shaping of respiratory bursts in various respiratory motoneuron pools reflect precise timing and rate of rise of bursting activity in specific premotor respiratory interneurons. Coordination of this symphony of activity is largely achieved by rhythmic waves of postsynaptic inhibition occurring during inactive phases, followed by the arrival of postsynaptic excitation. Investigation of neuronal activities responsible for the respiratory CPG function began with extracellular recordings of respiratory neurons in the pons and the medulla (57). Cohen and coworkers carried out pioneering investigations, demonstrating that a variety of respiratory neurons were phaselocked to inspiration or expiration and occurred at transitions between inspiration and expiration (58–60). The modern era of the investigation of central respiratory processes controlling breathing was ushered in by an enormous technological breakthrough, provided by Richter, which allowed, for the first time, intracellular recording of membrane potential of respiratory neurons in anesthetized cats (61,62). These techniques, applied extensively by Richter and coworkers in anesthetized cats (63–66), and by others in decerebrate cats (67–70), have allowed analysis of spontaneous synaptic events occurring during the neurorespiratory cycle, and they have contributed substantially to our current, albeit incomplete, understanding. These techniques have been combined with identification of central and peripheral projections of respiratory neurons, using antidromic activation techniques as well as spiketriggered averaging (71–75). These arduous but essential studies have provided the outlines of interconnection of respiratory neurons and their complementary interactions. Some of the most fundamental and instructive insights derive from observations of postsynaptic potentials recorded by Richter and coworkers. Several reviews of these findings have appeared (76–78). These patterns observed in inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons of the ventral medulla (63,65), together with similar observations in expiratory neurons (64), reveal the arrival of precisely timed inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in three phases during the respiratory cycle. In essence, the results reveal the dynamic behavior of membrane potential of the three common types of respiratory neurons, as shown in Figure 14: postinspiratory (see Fig. 14B, middle trace), augmenting inspiratory, and augmenting expiratory (see Fig. 14C). The activity phase of each corresponds to one of three phases of the respiratory motor output described in the foregoing. Each of these three types of respiratory neurons depolarizes and fires a burst of action potentials during its active phase and is actively inhibited during the other two inactive phases (Fig. 15). These three types of respiratory neurons are commonly
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Figure 14 Recordings of (A) wholenerve efferent discharge (A) and (B–D) bulbar respiratory neurons: (A) The three phases of the neurorespiratory cycle. Inspiration (Insp) is characterized by the phrenic (Ph) burst. First phase of expiration (E1 or postinsp) is characterized by declining activity in Ph and a burst of activity in the thyroarytenoid (TA). The second phase of expiration (E2 or Exp) is characterized by silence in phrenic and thyroarytenoid discharge together with an augmenting burst in the abdominal nerve (AbdL1). (B) Intracellular recordings of membrane potential (MP) of early inspiratory (Early I) and postinspiratory (Post I) neurons showing decrescendo pattern during the active phase and hyperpolarization during the inactive phase for each neuron. (C) Membrane potential recording from augmenting inspiratory (Aug I) and augmenting expiratory (Aug E) showing action potentials during the active phase and hyperpolarization during the inactive phase. (D) Membrane potential recordings from augmenting inspiratory (Aug I) and late inspiratory (Late I) neurons that fire action potentials during their active periods and are hyperpolarized during their inactive periods. (From Ref. 78.)
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Figure 15 Depiction of membrane potential trajectories from six bulbar respiratory neurons, together with relevant respiratory motor outputs recorded in phrenic (Phr), abdominal (Abd), thyroarytenoid (TA), and hypoglossal (HG) nerves. The respiratory cycle is divided into three phases: inspiration (Insp), and two phases of expiration (Exp), phase 1 of expiration (E1) and phase 2 of expiration (E2). Hyperpolarization by inhibitory postsynaptic potentials is indicated by the hatched areas. (Adapted from Ref. 78.)
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impaled, with sharp micropipettes, when recording in the ventral respiratory group of pentobarbitalanesthetized (63.64) or decerebrate (70) cats. In addition, three other types of respiratory neurons have been identified: preinspiratory (not shown), early inspiratory (see Fig. 14B, top trace), and late inspiratory (see Fig. 14D, middle trace). These three are less frequently recorded, perhaps because they are less prevalent or because they are smaller. As shown in Figure 15, each of the six types of bulbar respiratory neurons displays precisely timed depolarization and action potentials during its single active phase, and each receives precisely timed barrages of IPSPs that cause hyperpolarization during one or both of its inactive phases. In addition, each type of respiratory neuron, except for Pre I neurons, exhibits depolarizing behavior that correlates with a specific respiratory motor output (i.e., augmenting inspiratory or late inspiratory with phrenic discharge; augmenting expiratory with abdominal motor activity; Early I with hypoglossal discharge; and Post I with thyroarytenoid activity; see Fig. 15). The principal collections of respiratory neurons lie in three regions of the brain stem in the vicinity of the nucleus tractus solitarius (dorsal respiratory group; DRG); in the vicinity of the nucleus ambiguus (ventral respiratory group; VRG); and in the rostral pons, in the NPBM and KFN (57). The dorsal respiratory group contains principally augmenting inspiratory neurons, whereas the ventral respiratory group contains inspiratory and expiratory neurons segregated topographically. The caudal ventral group contains augmenting expiratory neurons that are principally bulbospinal (79). At the level of the obex and 2 mm rostral to it, the ventral group contains inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons (63). The more rostral portion of the ventral group contains expiratory neurons (Bötzinger complex) (71,72) and a mixture of early inspiratory and Post I neurons in the preBötzinger complex (80), as well as a variety of inspiratory and expiratory neurons in the retrofacial area (70). Finally, the rostral pontine group contains both inspiratory, expiratory, and phasespanning neurons (81). The last may form an additional type of respiratory neuron not commonly encountered in the medulla. An important feature of the ventral respiratory group is the coexistence of abundant cranial motor neurons with respiratory modulation, together with bulbospinal and propriobulbar respiratory neurons (see Ref. 78 for a review). These neurons innervate the hypoglossus, nasolabial, tensor veli palatini, pharyngeal constrictor, and other muscles of the pharynx. About 50–80% of the inspiratory neurons in the DRG are bulbospinal neurons. The more heterogeneous VRG has bulbospinal expiratory neurons in the caudal VRG (nucleus retroambigualis). The intermediate VRG is located in the ventrolateral medulla at the same rostral caudal level as the DRG and includes the nucleus ambiguus and parambigual regions. This area contains an abundance of laryngeal motoneurons, bulbospinal inspiratory neurons, and postinspiratory neurons. The more rostral preBötzinger complex contains both augmenting inspiratory neurons, as well as early expiratory neurons that are associated with pharyngeal muscles. Finally, in the rostral VRG,
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the retrofacial nucleus contains pharyngeal motoneurons, with augmenting expiratory, postinspiratory, and augmenting inspiratory discharge patterns (70). The less wellstudied pontine respiratory areas, the NPBM and KFN, contain numerous respiratory neurons. These areas, previously referred to as the “pneumotaxic center,” play an important role in regulation of the duration of inspiration and expiration in the absence of vagal feedback. Most respiratory neurons in these areas fire tonically, with peak frequencies occurring during inspiration, during expiration or at the transitions between these two phases. Anatomical (82) and electrophysiological (83) studies have shown that KF neurons project to hypoglossal motoneurons. Accordingly, in addition to playing a role in phaseswitching, the KF neurons may be an important source of respiratory input to this group of respiratory motoneurons. VIII. Synaptic Connection The eupneic CPG undoubtedly depends heavily on synaptic interactions between respiratory neurons (16,76,77). By using techniques of crosscorrelation (84–88) and spiketriggered averaging (71–75), several synaptic connections have been identified among respiratory neurons. In addition to these laborintensive, lowyield techniques, the spontaneous fluctuations in membrane potential provide inferential evidence of functional synaptic connections. For instance, a hyperpolarizing wave in membrane potential of an identified respiratory neuron can be established to be caused by a barrage of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) arriving at a particular time during the respiratory cycle (see Fig. 15). One can infer, therefore, that this type of respiratory neuron receives inhibitory projections from another group of neurons that fire action potentials at that particular time in the respiratory cycle. Although this type of evidence does not indicate the location of the neurons that are the source of the inhibitory projections, it clearly establishes the existence of an inhibitory connection between the two types of neurons. Currently, 21 interconnections, 17 inhibitory and 4 excitatory, have been established or inferred among the six types of respiratory neurons using the three methods: crosscorrelation, spiketriggered averaging, and analysis of postsynaptic potentials. These are listed in the interconnection matrix (Fig. 16). Excitatory interconnections have been identified principally between neighboring neurons using crosscorrelational techniques (84–86). Each of the six types of bulbar respiratory neurons receives postsynaptic inhibition during its inactive phases. The combined expression of these 17 inhibitory and 4 excitatory neurotransmissions among the three augmenting and three decrementing respiratory neurons is depicted in Figure 15. IPSP waves, indicated by crosshatched regions, occur in all six neurons during their inactive or nonspiking phases. The plethora of these
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Figure 16 Correlation matrix showing excitatory and inhibitory connections among the six bulbar respiratory neurons: 21 interconnections have been identified or inferred, 4 excitatory and 17 inhibitory. (Adapted from Ref. 78.)
types of reciprocal inhibitions emphasizes their importance in creating a symphonic rhythm wherein each group of neurons begins and ends firing at precise times in the cycle. This is particularly prominent for the three augmenting type of neurons: inspiratory augmenting (Aug I), late inspiratory augmenting (Late I), and expiratory augmenting (Aug E). Specifically, as depicted in Figure 15 (top half), Aug I and Late I neurons receive IPSPs during both stages of expiration, whereas Aug E neurons receive IPSPs during inspiration and postinspiration. The three decrementing neurons present a somewhat different picture (see Fig. 15, lower half); early inspiratory neurons (Early I) and postinspiratory (Post I) neurons discharge abruptly at the onset of the inspiratory and postinspiratory phases, respectively. The precise timing and waveform of inhibitory postsynaptic input renders cells inexcitable during their inactive phase and releases them from inhibition at the beginning of their active phase. In other words, the overall shape and timing of activity of the participating neurons in the network is strongly influenced by the arrival of waveform barrages of IPSPs (see Fig. 15). Although
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Figure 17 Depiction of membrane potential trajectory of an augmenting expiratory neuron that receives IPSPs from four sources: preinspiratory (Pre I), early inspiratory (Early I), augmenting inspiratory (Aug I) and postinspiratory (Post I) neurons. The neuron receives excitatory postsynaptic potentials during the second half of the postinspiratory phase and throughout the active expiratory phase. (Adapted from Ref. 77.)
the activity of these neurons is sculpted by IPSPs, they, in turn, project inhibitory inputs widely to each other and to the augmenting neurons. An example of how these inhibitory interconnections produce a sculpting of the membrane potential trajectory of an Aug E neuron is depicted in detail Figure 17. This type of neuron, similar to the Aug I neuron, receives four different waves of IPSPs during the neurorespiratory cycle. At the end of expiration, Aug E neurons receive a brief barrage of IPSPs from Pre I neurons, which assist in terminating the expiratory burst (see Fig. 17/1). The neurons then receive a biphasic inspiratory wave of IPSPs during inspiration, which comprises IPSPs from two different sources, first from Early I neurons (see Fig. 17/2), then from Aug I neurons (see Fig. 17/3). Finally, they receive a barrage of IPSPs from Post I neurons during postinspiration. When these decay, the neuron depolarizes progressively under the influence of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), some of which are recurrent (i.e., are derived from other Aug E neurons).
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IX. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators. Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters play a key role in mediating neurotransmission among respiratory neurons. Specific neurons release specific neurotransmitters at synaptic clefts, which then act on specific postsynaptic receptors of the target or recipient neuron. In the neonatal rat brain stem preparation, generation of the respiratory rhythm appears to require excitatory amino acid transmission, in particular, the nonNMDA glutaminergic postsynaptic receptors (89). Blockade of nonNMDA receptors causes a slowing of the respiratory rhythm and, ultimately, its elimination. Similar results have been obtained in the in vitro brain stem of the frog (N Kimura, JE Remmers, unpublished observation). Inspiratory to expiratory phaseswitching also appears to be mediated by NMDA neurotransmission, probably at the level of the pons. Inhibitory amino acids, both glycine and aminobutyric acid (GABA), play an important role in mediating the widespread IPSPs that occur within the bulbar respiratory circuit. In elegant experiments in artificially perfused rat brain, Hiyashi and Lipski have shown that both strychnine and bicuculline, blockers of glycine and GABAA receptors, respectively, increase the amplitude of phrenic and hypoglossal motor outputs, the latter more than the former (16). In addition, evidence has been supplied to indicate that the profile of the phrenic motor output loses its augmenting shape in response to administration of strychnine. Experiments using intracellular recording of respiratory neurons and extracellular iontophoresis onto respiratory neurons of decerebrate cats by Haji et al. (69,90) document that application of glycine or GABA arrests spiking by hyperpolarizing the membrane and increasing its conductance and reveals the existence of tonic inhibition, blockable by strychnine and bicuculline, acting postsynaptically on inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons. The results also demonstrate an important role both for glycine and GABAA' postsynaptic receptors in mediation of the periodic barrages of IPSPs in inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons. In particular, as shown in Figure 18, bicuculline blocks outofphase inhibition of inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons, suggesting that GABAergic mechanisms are important in the postsynaptic inhibition that occurs during inspiration for postinspiratory neurons and during expiration for inspiratory neurons. In addition, strychnine alters the time course of membrane projections of inspiratory neurons during inspiration, indicating that endphase inhibition of inspiration occurs for augmenting bulbar inspiratory neurons. This suggests that glycinergicmediated inhibition serves to shape the depolarizing trajectory during inspiration. It probably plays an important role in delaying the activation of late inspiratory neurons. Recent results by Schmid et al. (91), using extracellular recordings of respiratory neurons of decerebrate cats, are largely consistent with those of Haji et al. and show that strychnine elicits spike activity in late inspiration or early expiration.
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Figure 18 Effects of bicuculline on average membrane potential trajectory of a postinspiratory neuron (nonantidromically activated) (A) before and (B) after iontophoresis of tetrodotoxin (50 nA, 1 min): Each tracing represents cycletriggered average of membrane potential for five consecutive respiratory cycles. (A) Tracings obtained before (control) and during (BIC) bicuculline iontophoresis. During iontophoresis of bicuculline (50 nA), membrane potential was adjusted by manual current clamping at the most depolarized point of respiratory cycle to preejection level. (B) Tracings obtained before and during iontophoresis of bicuculline are superimposed. (From Ref. 55.)
X. Summary and Conclusions Despite continuing progress toward understanding the mechanisms that give rise to the rhythmic efferent bursts that produce tidal breathing, substantial challenges remain. Examples of both types of basic mechanisms have been elucidated. In Lymnaea, the respiratory rhythm arises from a circuit of neurons that appears to
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lack pacemaker properties, whereas in the neonatal rat medulla, pacemaker neurons appear to contribute importantly to rhythmogenesis. Two types of respiratory behavior can be observed in mammals and amphibia: one involving augmenting, alternating, and coordinated activation of various motor outputs; and the other associated with decrementing, synchronous activation of inspiratory motor outputs. The former can be referred to as eupnea, as it occurs under normal circumstances, involves important synaptic interaction between respiratory structures in the pons and medulla, and requires postsynaptic inhibition in the neurorespiratory circuit. The latter has been labeled gasping, as it entails a slow repetitive appearance of large bursts of motor output and may not require synaptic interactions to generate the rhythm. To what extent the neurons generating gasping participate in the eupneic rhythm generation is still uncertain, however. A variety of investigational approaches, including ontogenic and comparative, will likely facilitate answering this and related questions. Note Added in Proof A recent article by Ramirez et al. (92) demonstrates that the cat preBötzinger complex in vivo is essential for eupneic but not for gasping breathing. This area lies ventrolateral to the region identified by Fung et al. (28) to be essential for gasping but not eupnea. Thus, current evidence supports the view that gasping and eupnea arise from CPGs that are, at some level, anatomically separate. These results present a conundrum, however; the preBötzinger complex, essential for eupnea but not gasping in the adult in vivo, constitutes the rhythm generator for what appears to be gasping in the neonatal brain stem in vitro. That the gasplike motor output pattern of the latter is not attributable to immaturity seems unequivocal from the results of Wang et al. (33). Why the hypoxic neonatal rat brain stem in vitro displays a gasp like motor output driven by the eupnea rhythm generator may be explained by the regional anoxia of this superfused preparation. The preBötziner complex lies in a superficial region that may not be severely hypoxic (38). Thus, this putative eupneic rhythm generator may function normally, whereas other components of the eupnea CPG may be severely hypoxic. Such hypoxia can be postulated to block postsynaptic inhibition and, thereby, convert the eupnea motor control system to a gasping configuration. Thus, current evidence leads to the speculation that fictive breathing in the neonatal rat brain stem is generated by a hybrid respiratory mechanism in which the eupnea rhythm generator (preBötzinger complex) drives the motor control system or gasping. References 1. Orem J. Central respiratory activity in rapid eye movement sleep: augmenting and late inspiratory cells. Sleep 1994; 17:665–673.
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2. Orem J. The activity of late inspiratory cells during the behavioral inhibition of inspiration. Brain Res 1988; 458:224–230. 3. Funk GD, Feldman JL. Generation of respiratory rhythm and pattern in mammals: insights from developmental studies. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995; 5:778–785. 4. von Euler C. Brain stem mechanisms for generation and control of breathing pattern. In: Fishman AP, Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, eds. Handbook of Physiology. The Respiratory System. Control of Breathing. Sec 3, Vol 2. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society, 1986:1–67. 5. Henke KG, Arais A, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Inhibition of inspiratory muscle activity during sleep. Chemical and nonchemical influences. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:8–15. 6. Orem J, Vidruk EH. Activity of medullary respiratory neurons during ventilatorinduced apnea in sleep and wakefulness. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84(3):922–932. 7. Burggren WW, Doyle M. Ontogeny of the regulation of gill and lung ventilation in the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. Respir Physiol 1986; 66:279–291. 8. Syed NI, Bulloch GM, Lukowiak K. In vitro reconstruction of the respiratory central pattern generator of the mollusk Lymnaea. Science 1990; 250:282–285. 9. Syed NI, Harrison D, Winlow W. Respiratory behavior in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. I. Behavior analysis and the identification of motor neurons. J Comp Physiol A 1991; 169:541–555. 10. Syed NI, Winlow W. Respiratory behavior in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. II. Neural elements of the central pattern generator (CPG). J Comp Physiol A 1991; 169: 557–568. 11. Inoue T, Haque Z, Takasaki M, Lukowiak K, Syed NI. Hypoxia induced respiratory patterned activity in Lymnaea originates at the periphery: role of the dopamine cell. Soc Neuroscience Abstr 1996; 22:1142. 12. Syed NI, Ridgway RL, Lukowiak K, Bulloch AGM. Transplantation and functional integration of an identified respiratory interneuron in Lymnaea stagnalis. Neuron 1992; 8:767–774. 13. Feldman JL, Smith JC, Respiratory control of respiratory pattern in mammals: an overview. In: Dempsey JA, Pack AI, eds. Regulation of Breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:39–69. 14. Smith JC, Greer JJ, Liu G, Feldman JL. Neural mechanisms generating respiratory pattern in mammalian brain stemspinal cord in vitro. I. Spatiotemporal patterns of motor and medullary neuron activity. J Neurophysiol 1990; 64:1149–1169. 15. Feldman JL, Smith JC. Cellular mechanisms underlying modulation of breathing pattern in mammals. Ann NY Acad Sci 1989; 563:114–130. 16. Hiyashi F, Lipski J. The role of inhibitory amino acids in control of respiratory motor output in an arterially perfused rat. Respir Physiol 1992; 89:47–63. 17. Smith JC, Ellenberger HH, Ballanyi K, Richter DW, Feldman JL. PreBötzinger complex: a brain stem region that may generate respiratory rhythm in mammals. Science 1991; 254:726–729. 18. McLean HA, Remmers JE. Respiratory motor output of the sectioned medulla of the neonatal rat. Respir Physiol 1994; 96:49–60. 19. Lumsden T. Observations on the respiratory centres in the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1923; 57:153–160.
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41. Kawai A, Ballantyne D, Muckenhoff K, Sheid P. Chemosensitive medullary neurones in the brainstemspinal cord preparation of the neonatal rat. J Physiol 1996; 492(Pt 1):277–292. 42. McLean HA, Kimura N, Perry SF, Kogo N, Remmers JE. Fictive respiratory rhythm in the isolated brainstem of frogs. J Comp Physiol A 1995; 176:703–713. 43. Torgerson CS, Gdovin MJ, Remmers JE. Ontogeny of central chemoreception during fictive gill and lung ventilation in an in vitro brainstem preparation of Rana catesbeiana. J Exp Biol 1997; 200:2063–2072. 44. Kogo N, Perry SF, Remmers JE. Neural organization of the ventilatory activity of the frog, Rana catesbeiana, Part 1. J Neurobiol 1994; 25:1067–1079. 45. Gdovin MJ, Torgerson CS, Remmers JE. Characterization of gill and lung ventilatory activities of cranial nerves in the spontaneously breathing tadpole Rana catesbeiana [abstr]. FASEB J 1996; 10:A642. 46. Torgerson CS, Gdovin MJ, Kogo N, Remmers JE. Depth profiles of pH and Po2 in the in vitro brainstem preparation of the tadpole, Rana catesbeiana. Respir Physiol 1997; 108:205–213. 47. Galante RJ, Kubin L, Fishman AP, Pack AI. Role of chloridemediated inhibition in respiratory rhythmogenesis in an in vitro brainstem of tadpole, Rana catesbeiana. J Physiol 1996; 492:545–558. 48. Kimura N, Perry SF, Remmers JE. Strychninesensitive mechanism responsible for augmenting and reciprocal patterns of respiratory motor activity in the in vitro frog brainstem. Neurosci Lett 1997; 224:1–4. 49. Takeda R, Remmers JE, Baker JP Jr, Madden KP, Farber JP. Postsynaptic potentials of bulbar respiratory neurons of the turtle. Respir Physiol 1986; 64:149– 160. 50. Kogo N, Remmers JE. Neural organization of the ventilatory activity of the frog, Rana catesbeiana, Part 2. J Neurobiol 1994; 25:1080–1094. 51. Farber JP. Laryngeal effects and respiration in the suckling opossum. Respir Physiol 1978; 35:189–201. 52. Harding R, Johnson P, McClelland ME. Respiratory function of the larynx in developing sheep and the influence of sleep state. Respir Physiol 1980; 40:165–179. 53. Bartlett D Jr, Remmers JE, Gautier H. Laryngeal regulation of respiratory airflow. Respir Physiol 1973; 18:194–204. 54. Gautier H, Remmers JE, Bartlett D Jr. Control of the duration of expiration. Respir Physiol 1973; 18:205–221. 55. Remmers JE, Bartlett D Jr. Reflex control of expiratory airflow and duration. J Appl Physiol 1977; 42:80–87. 56. Hatridge J, Haji A, PerezPadilla JE, Remmers JE. Rapid shallow breathing caused by pulmonary vascular congestion in cats. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67:2257– 2264. 57. Cohen MI, Wang SC. Respiratory neuronal activity in the pons of cat. J Neurophysiol 1959; 22:33–50. 58. Cohen MI. Neurogenesis of respiratory rhythm in the mammal. Physiol Rev 1979; 1105–1173. 59. Cohen MI, Feldman JL. Discharge properties of dorsal medullary inspiratory neurons: relation to pulmonary afferent and phrenic efferent discharge. J Neurophysiol 1984; 51:753–776. 60. Cohen MI, Feldman JL, Sommer D. Caudal medullary expiratory neurone and
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internal intercostal nerve discharges in the cat: effects of long inflation. J Physiol (Lond) 1985; 368:147–178. 61. Richter DW, Heyde F, Gabriel M. Intracellular recordings from different types of medullary respiratory neurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol 1975; 38:1162–1181. 62. Richter DW, Heyde F, Gabriel M. Accommodative reactions of medullary respiratory neurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol 1975; 38:1182–1190. 63. Ballantyne D, Richter DW. Postsynaptic inhibition of bulbar inspiratory neurones in the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1984; 348:67–87. 64. Ballantyne D, Richter DW. The nonuniform character of expiratory synaptic activity in expiratory bulbospinal neurones of the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1986; 370:433–456. 65. Remmers JE, Richter DW, Ballantyne D, Bainton C, Klein J. Reflex prolongation of stage I of expiration. Pfluegers Arch 1986; 407:190–198. 66. Richter DW, Ballantyne D, Remmers JE. The differential organization of medullary postinspiratory activities. Pfluegers Arch 1987; 410:420–427. 67. Haji A, Remmers JE, Connelly C, Takeda R. Effects of glycine and GABA on bulbar respiratory neurons of cat. J Neurophysiol 1990; 63:955–965. 68. Haji A, Takeda R. Variation in membrane potential trajectory of postinspiratory neurons in the ventrolateral medulla of the cat. Neurosci Lett 1993; 149:2333 236. 69. Haji A, Takeda R, Remmers JE. Evidence that glycine and GABA mediate postsynaptic inhibition of bulbar respiratory neurons in the cat. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73:2333–2342. 70. Bianchi A, Grelot LL, Iscoe S, Remmers JE. Electrophysiological properties of rostral medullary respiratory neurones in the cat: an intracellular study. J Physiol (Lond) 1988; 407:293–310. 71. Lipski J, Merrill EG. Electrophysiological demonstration of the projection from expiratory neurones in rostral medulla to contralateral dorsal respiratory group. Brain Res 1980; 197:521–524. 72. Fedorko L, Merrill EG. Axonal projections from the rostral expiratory neurones of the Bötzinger complex to medulla and spinal cord in the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1984; 350:487–496. 73. Ezure K, Manabe M. Decrementing expiratory neurons of the Bötzinger complex II. Direct inhibitory synaptic linkage with ventral respiratory group neurons. Exp Brain Res 1988; 72:159–166. 74. Ezure K, Manabe M. Monosynaptic excitation of medullary inspiratory neurons by bulbospinal inspiratory neurons of the ventral respiratory group in the cat. Exp Brain Res 1989; 74:501–511. 75. Ezure K, Manabe M, Otake K. Excitation and inhibition of medullary inspiratory neurons by two types of burst inspiratory neurons in the cat. Neurosci Lett 1989; 104:303–308. 76. Richter DW. Generation and maintenance of the respiratory rhythm. J Exp Biol 1982; 100:93–107. 77. Richter DW, Ballanyi K, Schwarzacher SW. Mechanisms of respiratory rhythm generation. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992; 281:788–793. 78. Bianchi A, DenavitSaubié, Champagnat J. Central control of breathing in mammals: neuronal circuitry, membrane properties, and neurotransmitters. Physiol Rev 1995; 75:1–45.
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79. Merrill EG. The lateral respiratory neurons of the medulla: their association with nucleus ambiguus, nucleus retroambigualis, the spinal accessory nucleus and the spinal cord. Brain Res 1970; 24:11–28. 80. Schwarzacher SW, Smith JC, Richter DW. Respiratory neurones in the preBötzinger region of cats [abstr]. Pfluegers Arch 1991; 418(suppl):R17. 81. Dick TE, Bellingham MC, Richter DW. Pontine respiratory neurons in anesthetized cats. Brain Res 1994; 636:259–269. 82. Dobbins EG, Feldman JL. Brainstem network controlling descending drive to phrenic motoneurons in rat. J Comp Neurol 1994; 347:64–86. 83. Kuna ST, Remmers JE. Respiratoryrelated projection from the rostral pons to the hypoglossal nucleus in decerebrate cats [abstr]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:A689. 84. Feldman JL, Sommer D, Cohen MI. Short time scale correlations between discharges of medullary respiratory neurons. J Neurophysiol 1980; 3:1284–1295. 85. Madden KP, Remmers JE. Short time scale correlations between spike activity of neighboring respiratory neurons of nucleus tractus solitarius. J Neurophysiol 1982; 48:749–760. 86. Graham K, Duffin J. Shortlatency interactions among dorsomedial medullary inspiratory neurons in the cat. Exp Neurol 1985; 88:726–741. 87. Lindsey BG, Segers LS, Shannon R. Functional associations among simultaneously monitored lateral medullary respiratory neurons in the cat. II. Evidence for inhibitory actions of expiratory neurons. J Neurophysiol 1987; 57:1101–1117. 88. Lindsey BG, Segers LS, Shannon R. Discharge patterns of rostrolateral medullary expiratory neurons in the cat: regulation by concurrent network processes. J Neurophysiol 1989; 61:1185–1196. 89. Greer JJ, Smith JC, Feldman JL. Role of excitatory amino acids in the generation and transmission of respiratory drive in neonatal rat. J Physiol (Lond) 1991; 437:727–749. 90. Haji A, Remmers JE, Connelly CA, Takeda R. Effects of glycine and GABA on bulbar respiratory neurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol 1990; 63:955–965. 91. Schmid K, Foutz AS, DenavitSaubié M. Inhibitions mediated by glycine and GABAA receptors shape the discharge pattern of bulbar respiratory neurons. Brain Res 1996; 710:150–160. 92. Ramirez JM, Schwarzacher SW, Pierrefiche O, Olivera BM, Richter DW. Selective lesioning of the cat preBötziner complex in vivo eliminates breathing but not gasping. J Physiol 1998; 507(3):895–907.
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2 Chemical Control of Breathing YOSHIYUKI HONDA Chiba University School of Medicine ChuouKu, Chiba City, Japan HIROAKI TANI International University of Health and Welfare Ootawara, Japan I. Introduction Two new monographs for the Lung Biology in Health and Disease series entitled Regulation of Breathing: 2nd edition, revised and expanded (1) and Ventral Brainstem Mechanisms and Control of Respiration and Blood Pressure (2) have been published. In these two volumes, comprehensive data and detailed discussion of the chemical control of breathing were presented. They include knowledge from the molecular and cellular to the integrated tissue, organ, and wholebody levels. In the present chapter, we attempt to mainly focus on the control of breathing in humans. It is the author's view that ventilatory control in humans is often different from that in other animal species (3–6) and that anesthesia profoundly affects the control of respiration (7–12). Therefore, one must be cautious in extrapolating the observations obtained from animal experiments or in vitro data to the respiratory function in humans. To understand the chemical control in health and disease, it is important to distinguish between what is known and what is not yet confirmed in humans. However, owing to obvious limitations and difficulties in experimentally exploring human respiratory function, it has not always been feasible to construct the whole story on the basis of human data alone.
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II. Carbon Dioxide Chemosensitivity A. Quantitative Assessment of CO2 Chemosensitivity by the Peripheral Chemoreceptors in Humans From the discoveries of carotid body chemosensitivities, Heymans and his associates (13,14) initially claimed that all blood gas stimulations (i.e., PO2, PCO2, and pH), induce ventilatory excitation through the peripheral chemoreceptors. However, Comroe and Schmidt (15) and Schmidt et al. (16) observed in the anesthetized dog that the ventilatory response to CO2 was only slightly depressed after carotid sinus denervation. They further gave the animal CO2 gas mixture, measured the respiratory response of the whole animal, then collected arterial blood at the height of hyperpnea, and perfused it through the isolated carotid bodies of the same animal. The magnitude of chemoreceptorinduced hyperventilation was far less than that of the whole animal. Thus, from the position of Heymans and Neil in 1958, it was reported that: “Heymans strongly supported the view that peripheral chemoreceptors were more sensitive to carbon dioxide than was the center…. There are few nowadays who hold that this viewpoint is correct” (cited from Ref. 17). Because the CO2 ventilatory response is sensitive to anesthesia and exhibits species difference, the role of CO2 chemosensitivity played by the carotid bodies in awake humans deserves to be investigated. In 1966 Guz et al. (18) compared the CO2ventilation response curve before and after bilateral blockade of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves in one male volunteer. The response slope obtained by the rebreathing method of Read (19) decreased to about 13% of the control after nerve block. Ventilatory depression was caused mainly by a decreased respiratory frequency response. Thus, a considerable contribution to CO2 ventilatory chemosensitivity by the peripheral chemoreceptors was demonstrated in this conscious human subject. Subsequently, Edelman et al. (20) assessed peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity by transient hypercapnia in five healthy subjects, in whom a single breath of 6–20% CO2 was administered many times and peak PETCO2 was plotted against subsequent ventilation within 15 sec following this single breath. The average CO2 ventilation response slope thus obtained was 33% of the steadystate response. However, one subject exhibited almost the same magnitude in both response slopes, and data from this subject were excluded from the mean value. We studied steadystate CO2 ventilation response curves in patients with uni and bilateral carotid body resection and control patients matched for age and pulmonary function (21). The surgery had been conducted more than two decades before this study. These patients had been operated on for the treatment of intractable bronchial asthma, but they were in an asymptomatic state with slightly decreased pulmonary function when examined for CO2 chemosensitivity. Table 1 shows the results. The mean response slope obtained during hyperoxia (PETO2
Page 43 Table 1 Slope of CO2Ventilation Response Curve in Patients with Bi and Unilateral Carotid Body Resection and Control Patients
Value at PETO2 ~200 mmHg Hyperoxia value in % magnitude n Value at PETO2 ~60 mmHg Hypoxia value in % magnitude n
SBR (L/min/mmHg)
SUR (L/min/mmHg)
SC (L/min/mmHg)
0.71 ± 0.05
0.83 ± 0.12
1.10 ± 0.23
65 ± 5
75 ± 11
100 ± 21
6
7
5
0.83 ± 0.16
1.06 ± 0.18
1.33 ± 0.30
62 ± 12
80 ± 14
100 ± 22
5
7
5
SBR; PCO2ventilation response slope in patients with bilateral carotid body resection; SUR; PCO2 ventilation response slope in patients with unilateral carotid body resection; SC; PCO2ventilation response slope in patients with matched pulmonary function. Values are mean ± SE. To express % magnitude, values of the control patients are taken as 100%. n, number of patients in each group.
above 200 mmHg) was 65 and 75% of the control (SC) in bilaterally resected (SBR) and unilaterallyresected patients (SUR), respectively. When tested in moderate hypoxia (PETO2 60 mmHg), SBR and SUR were 62 and 80% of SC, respectively. Thus, roughly speaking, CO2 chemosensitivity was reduced by 20–40% after unilateral and bilateral carotid body resection, respectively. Unfortunately, we did not have the opportunity to measure the CO2 response before surgery, and differences among the three patient groups studies were not statistically significant. This might be at least partly due to the substantial individual differences in peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity, as reported in the foregoing investigations. However, despite arriving at the results by quite different methods, both those of Edelman et al. and ours indicate that about 30% of CO2 chemosensitivity is shared by the peripheral chemoreceptors, with each of the carotid bodies contributing approximately equally to the CO2 response. Studies similar to ours were conducted in patients with carotid endarterectomy by Wade et al. in 1970 (22). They compared the steadystate CO2 ventilation response before and 3–38 days after surgery. Unfortunately, quantitative values for the response curve slopes were not presented. However, judging from the CO2 response curves represented in their figures, the postoperative response slope was moderately diminished, practically unchanged, and slightly elevated in 3, 2, and 2 patients, respectively when tested under hyperoxic condition (PETO2 above 200 mmHg). On the other hand, these distributions were 5, 1, and 1 patients, respectively, under hypoxic condition (PETO2 40 mmHg). Interestingly, the CO2 chemosensitivity showed no definite change after unilateral endarterectomy. This was in contrast with our results with carotid bodyresected patients.
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B. Central CO2 Chemosensitivity It follows from the description in Section II.A that CO2 chemosensitivity arises primarily in the central nervous system (CNS). In 1950, experimental evidence supporting this view was first reported by Leusen (23–25), who observed ventilatory stimulation by perfusing CO2 containing mock cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the cerebral ventricles in the dog. The motivation for his study was that his friend, a Russian doctor, found that cisternal infusion of KCI solution was effective in the treatment of unconscious wounded soldiers, and wrote to him about this after World War II (personal communication). This discovery was taken up by Winterstein and Loeschcke's group (26–28) and further by Mitchell et al. (29–31). By cisternal and medullary surface perfusion, or by using a specially designed pipette to perfuse circumscribed areas of medullary surface, or by the application of a cold block or cotton pledget soaked with acid, base, and varying chemicals, these investigators ascertained the presence of three restricted chemosensitive areas on the superficial layers of the ventral medulla (defined as M, L, and S areas from the rostral to caudal direction). Of these, M and L areas were considered to be essentially sensitive to H+ ion; the S area was thought to be a converging locus for chemosensory signal transmission because cooling effectively depressed ventilation when a chemical stimulus was applied to other areas. Detailed anatomical location of these areas was described by Nattie (32). The findings of a unique area, responsive to H+ stimulus supported the longlasting classic hypothesis, the “reaction theory” proposed by Winterstein at the beginning of this century (34,34). The presence of the medullary chemosensitive areas has received much attention and widespread acceptance as the actual “central chemoreceptors.” The following description will deal with the further development of studies concerning the socalled central CO2 chemosensitive areas. Because of the nature of the location of these structures, discussion has to rely mainly on the results of invasive animal experiments. Possible Penetration of H+ Ion into the Deeper Medullary Layers The central chemosensitive areas were originally thought to be located within a few hundred micrometers from the medullary surface. However, Lipscomb and Boyarski proposed that H+ ions applied to the surface are actually transported within the medulla by numerous blood vessels that penetrate from the ventral surface and affect neurons at these deeper locations (35). In fact, penetration of radiolabeled molecules to as far as a 2mm depth was reported by subsequent studies (36– 39). Proposal for Widespread Distribution of Chemosensitive Regions Within the Brain Stem. The foregoing argument indicates that H+ chemosensitivity is not necessarily located only at the superficial layer of the ventral medulla. Arita and his col
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leagues (40–44), using the method of CO2laden saline infusion into the vertebral artery or micropressure injection of CO2 equilibrated saline in cats, detected pH sensitivity with hyperpneainducing regions in not only the superficial layer of the ventral medulla, but also in its deeper layer. In addition, they also found such responsiveness regions in the dorsal area ventral to the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS). With the method of 1nL microinjection of acetazolamide (AZ), which was claimed to be a powerful microprobe to detect central chemosensitivity, Nattie and his associates (45–48) also found pHreactive regions resulting in augmented phrenic nerve discharges in cats and rats. In addition to the regions reported by Arita's group, they also found reactive sites at the rostral aspect of the locus coeruleus and midline raphe and proposed the term “widespread sites of brain stem ventilatory chemoreceptors.” Two arguments against this “widespread” concept were raised by Severinghaus (49): (1) microinjection may cause cell damage that could result in distortion of the humoral environment and affect local neuronal activities; (2) if we admit the presence of new chemosensitive areas, how can the apnea induced by cooling or topical application of anesthesia to those M, L, and S areas be explained? This issue appears to need further clarification. Heterogeneity in Chemosensitivity within the Brain Stem The classic perfusion experiments suggested that the ventral medullary chemosensitive areas were uniform structures in terms of eliciting ventilatory excitation. However, Arita et al. (43), using a liquidmembrane pH microelectrode, measured the precise profile of extracellular fluid (ECF) pH changes within the medulla during CO2laden saline infusion into the vertebral artery in the cat. As shown in Figure 1, the location of the pHshifted site, which was chemosensitive, together with the confirmation made by pressure injection of CO2equilibrated saline, was distributed from the ventral surface to close to the NTS region. Surprisingly, there were several sites where no change in pH was found, even within the M, L, and S areas. Such heterogeneity in chemosensitivity was also found in the distribution of cfoslike immunoreactivity (50–51) and in the location of neurons that increase the uptake of the nonmetabolizable glucose analogue 2deoxyglucose during systemic hypercapnia (53). Neither approach, however, actually confirms that each of the detected sites correspond to ventilatory augmentation, as ascertained by Arita's and Nattie's groups. In addition, the concentration of inhaled CO2 was as high as 10–15%, and the inhalation was longlasting (45 min to 1 hr), which probably caused abnormal nonphysiological conditions for the animals. Significance of the Intermediate Area and the Retrotrapezoid Nucleus Schlaefke (54) was the first to demonstrate that cooling of the intermediate region between the M and L areas on the surface of the ventral medulla effectively
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Figure 1 Location of medullary sites at which tissue pH decreased in response to vertebral artery injection of CO2laden saline (closed circles). At many other sites, pH was unchanged by the hypercapnic injection. I and E, sites of unit recordings of inspiratory and expiratory neurons. Plane of the sagittal section is 3 mm lateral to the midline. 5SL, laminar spinal trigeminal nucleus; CUR, cuneate nucleus, rostral division; S, solitary nucleus; VIN, inferior vestibular nucleus. (From Ref. 43.)
induced apnea. Thereafter, this site was generally called the S area. She proposed that the afferent transmission of signals from the chemosensitive area may converge at this area and, therefore, cooling would block this signal (55). However, Nattie (32) recently made another interpretation. In the vicinity of the S area, various anatomical structures considered to be responsible for respiratory chemosensitivity and rhythmogenesis, such as Böetzinger and preBöetzinger complex, the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN), the retrofacial nucleus, and the nucleus paragigantocellularis are located. Therefore, the cooling of the S area may extend to these regions and induce apena. In particular, he found that the RTN is a powerful site for respiratory activity; even a unilateral lesion of this nucleus by kainic acid injection or electrolytic procedure can induce longlasting apnea or the virtual absence of CO2 chemosensitivity in cats and rats (38,57,58). Thus, he suggested that cooling the S area results in the suppression of the principal sites of respiratory activity, rather than the blockade of the chemical transmission pathway. Taking into consideration this dramatic influence of unilateral RTN lesions on respiratory activities in the foregoing animal experiment, Heywood et al. (59)
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studied ventilatory chemosensitivity in nine patients with a unilateral lesion of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM). The lesions were localized by symptoms, physical findings, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Although the CO2 sensitivity of these patients was below the normal level, none of them suffered the apnea episodes that were seen in animal studies. This may signify that the effect of chronic lesions is different from that of acute destruction, or this may reflect species differences. Critique of Studies Using Reduced Preparations Neonatal brain stem spinal cord preparation (60,61), brain stem slices (62), or cultured cells (63) are convenient materials for exploring the basic sites and mechanisms responsible for respiratory chemosensitivity. However, it must be remembered that experimentally, these reduced preparations are greatly different from that of the whole animal. For instance, Nattie (32) stated that increasing unit discharges in response to acid loading may merely reflect the response of the control system (i.e., the unit is part of the respiratory control system responding to chemoreceptor stimulation); but it may not be a chemosensitive neuron. Thus, to identify a true chemosensitive region, one needs to confirm the presence of simultaneous pH or PCO2 shift and augmented ventilatory or phrenic nerve output. The significance of the data obtained using the reduced preparation must be assessed after its value is reexamined by in vivo study. CO2 Chemosensitivity in the Hypocapnic Range During Hypoxia In 1951, Nielsen and Smith (64) first observed the steadystate PACO2ventilation response curve while maintaining PACO2 constant at different levels of hypoxia. Owing to hypoxic ventilatory stimulation, the initial PACO2 decreased below the normocapnic level. Then, PACO2 was raised by increasing the CO2 concentration in the inspired air, and ventilation was measured after steady state was attained. As shown in the example obtained by the present author (Fig. 2; 65), the level of ventilation remained nearly unchanged until PACO2 reached normocapnic range. Then the response slope abruptly steepened, with further increases in PACO2. Because the PACO2ventilation curve in the hypocapnic range appeared nearly horizontal, this portion is defined as the “dogleg” or “hockeystick.” The dogleg response gave the impression that ventilatory output in this hypoxic hypocapnic range is not affected by PACO2 change. Using an anesthetized and artificially ventilated dog, we examined whether or not CO2 really stimulates ventilation during hypocapnic hypoxia (66). As shown in Figure 3, to maintain a given minimum phrenic nerve discharge (used an indicator of ventilatory output), the PACO2 level had to decrease with an increase in the degree of hypoxia. Therefore, PACO2 was demonstrated to be an effective ventilatory stimulus even in the hypoxichypocapnic region in anesthetized and paralyzed dogs. More recently,
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Figure 2 PACO2ventilation response curve of one subject. Solid lines represent the response in conscious awake condition and broken lines the response in sleep induced by monosodium trichlorethyl phosphate (Tricloryl). PAO2 at which the response curve was obtained is indicated at each response line. Although the slope of the hypoxic response lines decreased by sleep, their general feature (i.e., dogleg shape) was unchanged. (From Ref. 65.)
this issue has also been studied in conscious awake humans by Roberts et al. (67). The subject was “passively” hyperventilated (without respiratory muscle activity) to alter PACO2 at steadystate level. Then, the peripheral chemoreceptors were stimulated by transient “normocapnic hypoxia” that was delivered by inhaling three to seven breaths of N2 with CO2. They confirmed the presence of effective CO2 stimulation in the hypocapnichypoxic range similar to that seen in the foregoing animal experiments. Previously, we hypothesized that the conscious
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Figure 3 An illustration of threshold PCO2 at four different levels of hypoxia in one dog. Each figure from A to D refers to the just before disappearance of phrenic nerve discharges. As hypoxia developed, the degree of hypocapnia to maintain minimum phrenic activity increased. (From Ref. 66.)
state has something to do with inducing the dogleg response in awake humans. The PACO2ventilation response curves at different given PACO2 levels were compared between conscious and induced sleep state by oral administration of monosodium trichloroethyl phosphate (Tricloryl; 65). Sleep caused no essential change to the dogleg feature (see Fig. 2). We now speculate that a depressant neurochemical transmitter for the peripheral chemoreceptors, such as dopamine, could be involved in this dogleg phenomenon. Loss of CO2 Chemosensitivity During Sleep Patients whose CO2 and hypoxic ventilatory responses are severely depressed after surgery on the high cervical cord or brain stem and who require voluntary conscious effort to maintain normal breathing were first described by Severinghaus and Mitchell (68). Because lifethreatening apnea occurred when falling asleep, this disorder was termed “Ondine's curse.” Children who were born with similar clinical disorders were subsequently reported and defined as having congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS; 69–76). The differences between CCHS and Ondine's curse are that hypoxic chemosensitivity is maintained in some cases of CCHS, and ventilation does not necessarily seem to need
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Figure 4 Schematic representation of the anatomical organization of behavioral (or voluntary) and metabolic (or chemical) control systems in respiration. The pathway of the former descends down the pyramidal tract and then runs along the lateral column of the spinal cord, whereas the latter passes down in its more anterior area. The communication between the two control systems is morphologically unclear.
constant conscious input (75,76). In spite of severe depression of CO2 and hypoxic chemosensitivities, patients with CCHS demonstrated no significant difference from normal in the magnitude of the ventilatory response to aerobic exercise (75). However, they exhibited good evidence for depressed chemosensitivity, such as less exercise hyperpnea, during severe work exceeding the anaerobic threshold (i.e., lack of H+ stimulation), no ventilatory augmentation after the administration of almitrine bismeslate (a potent stimulator to the peripheral chemoreceptors), and substantially long breathholding time. Therefore, in addition to the automatic chemical control in the brain stem, there is also a distinct control system involving consciousness that regulates ventilation during exercise. The presence of the latter system was expressed in the cortical activity as shown by positron emission tomography (PET; 77) and was also demonstrated during volitional respiratory
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movement (78,79). These two control systems are termed the metabolic and behavioral control systems, respectively, and are illustrated in Figure 4. Whether or not both systems converge within the CNS is a matter of controversy (75), but at least they appear to descend by different pathways in the spinal cord. The behavioral signal is conveyed along the pyramidal tracts, located at the lateral regions, whereas the metabolic command descends at the more anterior areas of the spinal cord. Blockade of the behavioral pathways by ventral pontine infarction has also been reported. Haywood et al. described a patient who was quadriplegic, anarthric, and could not perform volitionalbreathing activity. The condition was termed the “lockedin” syndrome (LIS; 81). In contrast to CCHS, the LIS patient exhibited normal CO2 ventilatory responses and suffered dyspnea during hypercapnia. Another characteristic feature of behavioral control is its bilateral nature, as for example, one cannot volitionally contract only one side of the diaphragm (80). III. Hypoxic Chemosensitivity In Japan during the late 1940s and 1950s, a considerable number of patients with bronchial asthma had therapeutic carotid body resection. The operations were mainly conducted at the Department of Surgery of Chiba University Hospital where Dr. K. Nakayama, Professor of Surgery, developed a procedure for removing only the carotid chemoreceptor, while preserving baroreceptor function (82). More than 20 years after these operations, we had the opportunity to study these patients (21,83–87). All of the patients examined were nearly asymptomatic at the time of the study. As to their pulmonary functions, FEV1.0 was moderately depressed, but the vital capacity was generally not impaired, blood pH and PCO2 were about normal, but PaO2 was slightly reduced. Eleven patients with bilateral resection, 10 patients with unilateral resection, and 5 control patients matched in age and pulmonary function were examined. The presence of baroreceptor function was verified by the bradycardic response after the Valsalva maneuver in some of the patients. Also, none of the patients was hypertensive. Given the observations in these patients, the physiological roles of the carotid body (CB) were then assessed. We were particularly interested in finding differences in the response in humans and those reported from other animal species. A. Difference between Progressive and Transient Ventilatory Response to Hypoxia and Its Possible Implication Figure 5 illustrates the ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia in patients who had undergone bilateral carotid body resection (87). As reflected in the relatively constant endtidal PCO2, neither augmentation nor depression of ventilation occurred after induction of hypoxia. The hypoxia ventilatory response is quanti
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Figure 5 Ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia in subject with bilateral carotid body resection (BR). Endtidal PO2 (PETO2) was measured by a rapidresponse O2 electrode housed in an endtidal air sampler. PETO2 was progressively lowered at a rate of 10 mmHg/min, from 100 to 40 mmHg. Despite advancing hypoxia, no change in ventilation was seen, as clearly reflected by the unaltered profile of airway PCO2 measured by an infrared CO2 analyzer. (Right) hypoxic ventilatory response in terms of (mean ± SE; i.e., increment in ventilation as PETO2 decreased from 100 to 40 mmHg, whereas PETO2 was kept constant). UR, patient with unilateral carotid body resection; C, control. The magnitude of of the BR group is tatistically no different from zero, whereas that of the UR and C groups was significantly higher than zero. (From Ref. 87.)
tatively expressed in terms of (i.e., the increment in pulmonary ventilation from PETO2 100 mmHg to PETO2 40 mmHg while PETCO2 was maintained at the resting level). Three groups, controls and patients who had undergone unilateral or bilateral carotid body resection, were compared in the columns in the righthand section. The group with unilateral carotid body resection exhibited significantly less response than the control group, and the group with bilateral carotid body resection exhibited hardly any ventilatory response; in the latter
did not differ significantly from zero.
Although the bilaterally carotid bodyresected patients did not respond to progressive hypoxia, a significant transient increase in ventilation was seen before arrival of the hypoxemic blood at the respiratory center complex in the brain stem. This is demonstrated in Figure 6, which shows the vital capacity (VC) volume after a gas mixture consisting of 15% CO2 in N2 was inhaled in one breath after maximal expiration (i.e., a signal VC breath test; 88). With a similar technique, Bouverot et al. (89) also detected a significant response in two dogs. In five patients with bilateral carotid body resection, Swanson et al. (90) demonstrated that hypoxic gas inhalation on a hypercapnic background exhibited a weak, but still significant, ventilatory response. They assumed that the aortic body was re
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Figure 6 Ventilatory response to a single vital capacity (VC) breath test (singleVC breath test) in BR and UR patients. After maximal exhalation, the subject inhaled a VC volume of 15% CO2 in N2 in one breath. The average of the second and third breaths after this maneuver was calculated as the response of peripheral chemosensitivity. This response is not affected by possible hypoxic ventilatory depression, which is elicited when the CNS is exposed to continuous hypoxemia. The same singleVC breath test with 5% CO2 in O2 was also conducted as a control run. Difference in response between the former and latter runs with calculated as
of the three groups (mean ± SE). In contrast to
ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia of the BR group is now significantly greater than zero. (From Ref. 87.)
sponsible for this ventilatory response. Judging from the magnitude of ventilatory augmentation by the single VC breath test, as well as the drop in ventilation after two breaths of 100% O2 with spontaneous respiration (defined as withdrawal test and also conducted in our patients), we estimated the contribution of the aortic body to hypoxic chemosensitivity to be 5–10% of the full hypoxic response of the control subjects (87–91). Our data generally agree well with the results reported by others in humans who had undergone carotid body resection (92–94) or carotid endarterectomy (85). However, as presented in Table 2, not all animal species show complete blunting of the hypoxicventilatory response after bilateral carotid body resection or sinus nerve section. Dogs, cats, goats, and piglets were reported to maintain, at least partly, ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia (89,96–98,106,107).
Page 54 Table 2 Comparison of Carotid and Aortic Body Contributions in Hypoxic Ventilatory Chemosensitivity Species
n
Dog
4
Dog
94
Dog
2
Cat
26
Cat
Contribution (CB vs. AB)
Method of study
Ref.
Fully CB
CSN section, awake, sustained hypoxia
96
61%: CB > AB; 28%: CB = AB; 11%: CB AB; 19%: CB = AB; 35% CB 6 years old), certain findings may suggest respiratory control problems. Spirometry can detect restrictive disease patterns in patients with neuromuscular weakness. Diminished maximum inspiratory and expiratory pressures can be further evidence of respiratory muscle weakness. Severe obstructive lung disease with chronic hypoxemia and hypercapnia can lead to secondary blunting of the chemoreceptors. A flattening inspiratory portion of the flowvolume loop suggests fixed extrathoracic obstruction, such as vocal cord dysfunction. Normal pulmonary function testing during wakefulness, with hypoventilation (elevated PCO2 and decreased PO2) during sleep suggests central alveolar hypoventilation, either congenital or acquired.
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B. Polysomnography. The respiratory patterns and severity of most pediatric respiratory control problems can be adequately assessed in a sleep laboratory that provides noninvasive, continuous monitoring of multiple cardiorespiratory and neurophysiological parameters. This testing uses changes in behavioral state as “input” stimuli to examine a variety of continuous outputs: respiratory frequency, SaO2 airflow (endtidal CO2), respiratory effort, and heart rate. Inductance plethysmography can provide a semiquantitative assessment of tidal volume changes (524). This information, with the clinical history, physical examination and other ancillary tests should allow physicians to make appropriate patient care decisions. For example, the diagnosis of congenital central hypoventilation syndrome is almost certain in the clinical context of an otherwise healthy infant who breathes normally during wakefulness, but who develops progressive hypercapnia and hypoxemia during NREM sleep, whereas REM sleep is less impaired. The additional diagnosis of Hirschsprung's disease would be pathognomonic for CCHS. In contrast, gas exchange is most impaired in REM sleep and better preserved in deep NREM sleep when in the respiratory dysfunction is associated with upper airway dysfunction. In other recognizable neurological conditions, such as ArnoldChiari malformation, polysomnography can characterize the respiratory dysfunction (obstructive vs. central hypoventilation) and its severity in terms of apnea, gasexchange impairment, associated arrhythmias, or sleep disruption. Decisions about the need for tracheostomy or mechanical ventilation can be made based on data from polysomnography. Finally, polysomnography can characterize the bizarre respiratory patterns seen in Leigh, Rett, or Joubert's syndromes. C. Newer Research Tools More recently, functional magnetic resonance techniques have been used to visualize the more rostral sites involved in respiratory loading in adult humans (525,526). The integration of afferent activity associated with load breathing depends on forebrain, midbrain, ventral medullary, and cerebellar structure. These areas may play important roles in blood pressure and arousal responses to airway obstruction. These newer techniques may provide further understanding of complex respiratory control questions. References 1. Selverston AI, Russell DF, Miller JP. The stomatogastric nervous system: structure and function of a small neural network. Prog Neurobiol 1976; 7:215–290. 2. Calabrese R. The roles of endogenous membrane properties and synaptic interaction in generating the heartbeat rhythm of the leech, Hirudo medicinalis. J Exp Biol 1979; 82:163–176.
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10 Ventilatory Control in the Elderly DAVID W. HUDGEL Case Western Reserve University and MetroHealth Center Cleveland, Ohio I. Introduction Abnormalities in the control of breathing can contribute to clinically significant medical problems in elderly individuals. Periodic breathing, impaired cardiopulmonary response to exercise, and sleep apnea may exacerbate the progression of cardiovascular or neurological diseases. Recognition and appropriate therapy of these abnormal ventilatory system adaptations to the biological environment of the host, or their underlying cause, may help prevent these disease states and, thereby, extend health and longevity in the elderly population. In this chapter we will explore the following topics: (1) control of breathing in the elderly, (2) ventilatory variability in aging, (3) breathing in exercise in the elderly, (4) sleep quality in the elderly, and (5) sleepdisordered breathing in the elderly. II. Control of Breathing in the Elderly One component of the body's response to increased metabolic demand, to biological stress, and to altered blood gas homeostasis is to increase ventilation. The appropriate response to such demand requires two components: (1) an intact
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sensory and motor neurological system and (2) a ventilatory mechanicalpumping apparatus that will be able to increase ventilation in response to neural stimulation. Several factors that are altered with aging might influence the ability to respond to environmental cues, such as chemical stimuli to breathing. First, there is some minor deterioration in pulmonary mechanical function with age. The thorax becomes less compliant, and the lungs lose elastic recoil with aging (1,2). These changes are minor enough that they would not be expected to alter resting ventilation, but might impair the host's ability to respond to a maximal stimulus. In addition, there are changes in respiratory muscle composition that occur in senescence. Studies in animals show changes in muscle fiber type with aging that may affect respiratory muscle endurance (3,4). These results have been supported by findings in human studies that show less pleural pressure generation with respiratory loads in older individuals (5,6). Studies in both animals and humans have shown a diminution in the ventilatory and respiratory muscle pressure generation in response to hypoxia and the hypercapnia (7–11), the effect on the hypoxic response being more obvious than the effect on the hypercapnic response. In fact, the hypoxic response may deteriorate over a relatively short time span in middleage (7,12). These two studies, one in animals and one in humans, are especially important because they are longitudinal studies, compared with the others, which are crosssectional. If the ventilatory system can appropriately respond to at least one stimulus, but not to others, the implication then is that the problem lies more in the sensation of various stimuli and not in the mechanical pump. Because there is a clearcut distinction between the sensing mechanisms for hypoxemia and hypercapnia, but common motoneuronal pathways, then a specific defect in the hypoxic response in aging may indicate that carotid body dysfunction could exist in aging, because the carotid body is the primary oxygen sensor in humans. This concept also applies to sleep. During nonrapid eyemovement (NREM) sleep, the ventilatory response to chemical stimuli is dependent primarily on the chemical control system (13). In the tracheotomized older dog in NREM sleep, the hypoxic, but not the hyperoxic, hypercapnic ventilatory response was depressed (7). This result suggests that carotid body function, and not a central CNS sensation of CO2 or respiratory mechanics are changed with aging during sleep. Interestingly, carotid body function can be affected by carotid artery atherosclerosis. Parallel studies investigating ventilatory control in humans has not been conducted. In addition, there is some evidence that the response to respiratory system loading is impaired with aging. Akiyama et al. (14) found that the respiratory system pressure generation response to an inspiratory resistive load was insufficient to maintain ventilation with application of the load in elderly individuals. Again, this may be a sensory, and not a motor response problem. In the face of parenchymal lung disease, these normal decrements in ven
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tilatory control that occur with aging might contribute to worsening of the clinical consequences of diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or pulmonary fibrosis (15). Therefore, treatment of these primary pulmonary disorders may be suboptimal if the effect of the control of breathing component to the pathophysiological process is not recognized and treated. For instance, mild chronic obstructive lung disease in an elderly person might be accompanied by unexpected hypoxemia because of a depressed hypoxic ventilatory response. Without recognition of this possibility, this particular patient might suffer the ravages of hypoxemia. However, with recognition of the hypoxemia, appropriate treatment can be administered that will prevent the hypoxemic complications. III. Ventilatory Variability in Aging Ventilation is more variable in elderly subjects during sleep, even in healthy elderly, than in younger individuals (16,17). To model this breathing pattern and to test for this variability, one can assume that the classic tests of ventilatory control, the static or progressive ramp tests, would not be applicable to the irregular or periodic breathing seen in the elderly. Therefore, to test dynamic ventilatory control systems, two tests were developed: shortterm potentiation—or after discharge (18,19)— and the pseudorandom binary stimulation test (20,21). It was proposed that either one of these two responses would define one's susceptibility to irregular or periodic breathing. With the shortterm potentiation test in elderly subjects, Ahmed et al. (22) found no difference in the response characteristics in young and in 13/14 elderly healthy subjects; there was a gradual return to baseline ventilation after abrupt removal of a hypoxic stimulus. However, in one elderly subject, there was absence of afterdischarge, with a rapid recovery from hypoxic ventilatory stimulation, to a level of ventilation less than prehypoxic ventilation. It was hypothesized that this undershoot of ventilatory recovery from the rapid transition of hyperoxia following hypoxia could contribute to ventilatory control instability. By using the pseudorandom binary stimulation test applying hyperoxic hypercapnia, Modarreszadeh et al. (23) demonstrated that the response to the random, repetitive application of a singlebreath CO2 stimulus was altered in most of a group of healthy elderly individuals. When there is a rapid recovery and an undershoot of ventilation, sometimes followed by oscillatory breathing in response to the removal of a shortterm ventilatory stimulus, it is predicted that such instability of ventilatory control might precipitate irregular or periodic breathing, as has been classically described (24). This type of abnormal breathing is often observed in elderly individuals, especially those with congestive heart failure or stroke. Interestingly, this same abnormalbreathing pattern exists in healthy elderly subjects during NREM sleep (16,17). Therefore, the pattern of breathing itself is not unusual in elderly subjects, but the situation or condition in which it
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exists may be abnormal. The findings are consistent with the presence of an unstable ventilatory control system. Currently, these tests of the dynamic nature of ventilatory control can be useful in identifying individuals who are especially prone to dysrhythmic breathing, perhaps in sleep if not during wakefulness. The clinical significance of the presence of periodic breathing during sleep may be considerable. It would make one susceptible to sleep hypoxemia and its effect on the cardiovascular and neurological systems. However, further testing needs to be done to reach more definitive conclusions about the value of testing the dynamic control of breathing in the clinical setting. IV. Breathing During Exercise in the Elderly Several factors limit exercise performance and exercise ventilation in the elderly (25,26). First of all, metabolic changes affect exercise performance in older individuals. Because there is a loss of vascularity and a change in fiber type in limb muscles (27), elderly individuals cannot consume as much oxygen during exercise; hence, they cannot perform as much muscular work as young persons. In addition to a change in peripheral vascularity, cardiac performance is altered with aging because relative left ventricular diastolic dysfunction occurs. Some enlargement of the left atrium and stiffening and hypertrophy of the left ventricle contribute to this dysfunction (28). In a large epidemiological study, Inbar et al. (29) found that the maximum oxygen consumption decreased by 0.33 mL/kg min1 yr1 as age increased. In addition, the capacity to ventilate maximally is somewhat impaired because as the elastic recoil properties of the lungs and thorax change with age, the ventilatory capacity decreases. This decrease in ventilatory capacity results in increased work of breathing during exercise. There is some change in respiratory muscle function with aging that may impair performance, depending on the type of activity. Although muscular work and ventilatory capacity decrease with exercise in the elderly, fortunately, these activities decrease proportionately so that maximum oxygen consumption and ventilation remain well matched with advancing age; consequently, healthy elderly persons remain capable of exercising and training physically, if they so desire (30). During sustained submaximal exercise older subjects do not develop as high a heart rate, oxygen consumption, or ventilation, and the rate of increase in these variables is not as rapid as it is in younger persons (25). Because of the changes in circulation and the decreased muscle mass, lactate accumulates less rapidly than expected. In addition, there may be less sympathetic nervous system output during exercise in the elderly (25). Thus, there would be less stimulation to the cardiorespiratory system. During maximal exercise ventilationperfusion mismatch increases, likely because of the accumulation of lung water during exercise. This phenomenon is
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probably due to a combination of high pulmonary capillary vascular pressure and negative intrathoracic pressure. Although worsening ventilationperfusion mismatch occurs in heavy exercise in both young and elderly individuals, it may result in significant hypoxemia in elderly subjects (31). Because of lower ventilatory capacity, recovery from exercise and reduction of lactate and CO2 stores may take longer in older persons. When obesity and physical inactivity come into the picture, levels of glucose intolerance, insulin activity, and body composition play more of a role than age in limiting exercise performance (33). In summary, it is apparent that age surely influences exercise capacity in the elderly based on changes in the cardiovascular, neural, and pulmonary systems. However, if elderly subjects remain active, they can continue to be fit. V. Sleep Quality in the Elderly Two excellent reviews of sleep in the elderly exist (33,34); therefore, the present review of this subject will be brief. The sleep requirement does not decrease with aging. However, elderly individuals have interrupted and less efficient sleep compared with younger persons. Many different organic and affective disorders, as well as medication effects may influence these changes. Consequently, older subjects are more sleepy when they are observed than younger subjects; therefore, they may have associated daytime functional impairment. They often nap or fall asleep inappropriately during the daytime. Other changes in sleep occur with aging. For instance, the time to REM sleep, termed the REM sleep latency, may be decreased in the elderly. Interestingly, this is the same change seen in mental depression. Thus, in the elderly, a population with an elevated incidence of depression, it is not known whether the shortened REM latency is due to aging or to depression. Changes in brain wave characteristics and distribution are seen in older persons, but it is possible that some of these changes occur because of recording artifact. Increased soft tissue electrical resistance present in aging may also affect signal amplitude and quality. Changes in diurnal variables, such as core body temperature, often seen in the elderly, may also affect sleep stage distribution. For instance, a phaseadvance in core body temperature would be expected to shorten REM latency (35). Thus, several variables likely contribute to “normal” alterations in sleep characteristics observed in healthy elderly persons. Unfortunately, these minor changes in sleep in the elderly can be misinterpreted by physicians, and they are at least partially responsible for the overprescription of sedativehypnotic agents to older persons. These agents often do not resolve changes in sleep pattern seen in the elderly and may lead to new abnormalities and further impair daytime function. In deciding whether treatment of a possible sleep disorder is advisable, one should consider
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daytime functioning as the focus, not the sleep time complaints per se. If one is functioning normally during wakefulness, he or she does not need sleep aids. VI. SleepDisordered Breathing in the Elderly Breathing during sleep in healthy elderly subjects may be irregular or periodic (16,17). This sleeprelated irregular breathing may be due to the underlying ventilatory control instability discussed earlier. Possibly, for this reason the prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing (SDB) is relatively high in the elderly. In one community based study, 62% of those older than 65 years of age had ten or more apneas or hypopneas per hour of sleep (36). In spite of this rather high prevalence of SDB in this population, 81% of subjects felt their health status was adequate. Therefore, although ventilation during sleep was irregular in these subjects, it did not appear to affect most of these persons subjectively. To some extent the prevalence of SDB in a given population is dependent on the definition of SDB used. If more strict criteria were used to define SDB, such as counting only those patients with 10 or more apneas per hour of sleep, the prevalence was reduced from 62 to 11% in this population. In this study predictive factors of SDB were body size, daytime sleepiness and napping, male gender, and interestingly, the lack of alcohol consumption before bedtime. Because of the apparent discrepancy between prevalence of SDB and symptomatology, one must question whether SDB is associated with the same degree of impairment in the elderly as in younger populations with significant SDB. For instance, in the data of He et al. (37), untreated patients with obstructive sleep apnea, who were younger than 50 years, had a higher mortality than those patients older than 50. In contrast, in randomly selected, independently living older individuals, AncoliIsrael et al. (36) and Bliwise (38) both found an association between mortality and SDB. On the other hand, in a nonrandomly selected cohort of elderly subjects, Phillips et al. did not find this relationship (39). Thus, although, it is not totally clear whether SDB is a health risk for elderly individuals, two of three communitybased, studies suggest SDB is an important health issue that may contribute to early death in older people. To begin to determine prospectively the longterm effects of sleepdisordered breathing on older subjects, AncoliIsrael et al. (40) performed a followup study on their community, independently living, elderly subjects 8½ years after the initial study. Of this elderly population, 60% had no change in SDB, 20% worsened, and 20% improved. Similarly, Bliwise (41) found minimal changes at a 5year followup. Phillips also found a minimal number of sequelae in the followup study of her elderly cohort (42). Therefore, in the elderly survivors, over relatively short periods of time the breathing disorder does not appear to worsen rapidly.
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However, subsequent evaluation of these longitudinally monitored populations does reveal that these elderly patients with SDB do die younger than those without SDB. Mortality is increased in elderly subjects with higher degrees of SDB (43–46). The community sample of elderly subjects studied over time by AncoliIsrael et al. (36,40,43) was assessed 9.5 years after entry into the study (46). At this time, 45% of the population had died. The mortality in the group with severe apnea who had an SDB index of 30 or more events per hour was significantly higher than in the moderate and mild apnea groups. Age and the presence of cardiovascular or pulmonary disease also predicted mortality in this population (Fig. 1). Another question that arises is whether the SDB identified in the early individual is a predisposing variable for other important disease states. Knight et al. (47) found that although elderly subjects with SDB were more sleepy during the day than those without SDB, they did not have a higher prevalence of hypertension, cardiac disease, or affective disorders. However, Prinz et al. (48,49) found an association between SDB and cardiovascular morbidity. These latter findings would be more consistent with the findings of increased mortality in SDB. Cognitive function appears to be impaired in the elderly with SDB (50–56). Over a 5year interval Bliwise et al. found further deterioration in cognitive function in elderly subjects with SDB (57). Interestingly, several studies have
Figure 1 Cumulative survival of elderly subjects with different degrees of sleepdisordered breathing. (From Ref. 46.)
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demonstrated a strong association between SDB and severe dementia (58–63). However, this relation does not appear to exist in more mild Alzheimer's disease (54,64,65). Accordingly, it appears that SDB does not commonly precede the development of dementia. Thus, the causeandeffect relationship in this association has not been established. The association between early phases of each of these diseases needs further study. In hemispheric stroke patients, the history of snoring was more prevalent than in nonstroke controls (66–73). Mohsenin and Valor (72) found a high prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in a group of ten stroke patients when compared with a group of wellmatched nonstroke control subjects. These authors speculated that the stroke may have precipitated the OSA because of an increased upper airway collapsibility caused by the stroke. One could just as easily propose that the sleep apnea contributed to stroke by producing hypoxemia and sympathetic nervous system stimulation. Further studies will be needed to clarify the relationship between SDB and stroke. The results of these studies indicate that SDB may be an independent, or at least, a contributing factor to mortality in the elderly, a conclusion that is no different from data available on younger people with OSA. Even if not directly responsible for mortality, SDB surely contributes to morbidity in elderly individuals. One hopes that early recognition and successful treatment of elderly individuals with SDB will lead to an improved quality of life, if not a longer life. References. 1. Frank NR, Mead J, Ferris BG Jr. The mechanical behavior of the lungs in healthy elderly persons. J Clin Invest 1957; 36:1680–1689. 2. Mittman C, Edelman NH, Norris AH, Shock NW. Relationship between chest wall and pulmonary compliance and age. J Appl Physiol 1965; 20:1211–1216. 3. Zhang Y, Kelsen SG. Effects of aging on diaphragm contractile function in golden hamsters. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 142:1396–1401. 4. van Lunteren E, Vafaie H, Salomone RJ. Comparative effects of aging on pharyngeal and diaphragm muscles. Respir Physiol 1995; 99:113–125. 5. Black LF, Hyatt RE. Maximal respiratory pressures: normal values and relationship to age and sex. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99:696–702. 6. Chen H, Kuo C. Relationship between respiratory muscle function and age, sex and other factors. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66:943–948. 7. Phillipson EA, Kozar LF. Effect of aging on metabolic respiratory control in sleeping dogs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1521–1525. 8. Kronenberg RS, Drage CW. Attenuation of the ventilatory and heart rate responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia with aging in normal men. J Clin Invest 1973; 52:1812–1819. 9. Peterson DD, Pack AI, Silage DA, Fishman AP. Effects of aging on ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124:387–391.
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29. Inbar O, Oren A, Scheinowitz M, Rotstein A, Dlin R, Casaburi R. Normal cardiopulmonary responses during incremental exercise in 20 to 70yrold men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26:538–546. 30. Johnson BD, Badr MS, Dempsey JA. Impact of the aging pulmonary system on the response to exercise. Clin Chest Med 1994; 15:229–246. 31. Préfaut C, Anselme F, Caillaud C, MasséBiron J. Exerciseinduced hypoxemia in older athletes. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:120–126. 32. Meyers DA, Goldberg AP, Bleecker ML, Coon PJ, Drinkwater DT, Bleecker ER. Relationship of obesity and physical fitness to cardiopulmonary and metabolic function in healthy older men. J Gerontol 1991; 46:M57–M65. 33. Bliwise DL. Sleep in normal aging and dementia. Sleep 1993; 16:40–81. 34. Feinsilver SH, Hertz G. Sleep in the elderly patient. Clin Chest Med 1993; 14:405–411. 35. Weitzman ED, Moline ML, Czeisler CA, Zimmerman JC. Chronobiology of aging: temperature, sleepwake rhythms and entrainment. Neurobiol Aging 1982; 3:299–309. 36. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Mason WJ, Fell R, Kaplan O. Sleepdisordered breathing in communitydwelling elderly. Sleep 1991; 14:486–495. 37. He J, Kryger MH, Zorick FJ, Conway W, Roth T. Mortality and apnea index in obstructive sleep apnea: experience in 385 male patients. Chest 1988; 94:9–14. 38. Bliwise DL, Bliwise NG, Partinen M, Pursley AM, Dement WC. Sleep apnea and mortality in an aged cohort. Am J Public Health 1988; 78:544–547. 39. Phillips BA, Berry DTR, Schmitt FA, Magan LK, Gerhardstein DC, Cook YR. Sleepdisordered breathing in the healthy elderly. Chest 1992; 101:345–349. 40. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Parker L, Stepnowsky C, Kullen A, Fell R. Natural history of sleep disordered breathing in community dwelling elderly. Sleep 1993; 16:S25–S29. 41. Bliwise D, Ingham RH, NinoMurcia G, Pursley AM, Dement WC. Five year followup of sleep related respiratory disturbance and neuropsychological variables in elderly subjects. Sleep Res 1989; 18:202. 42. Phillips BA, Berry DTR, Schmitt FA, Harbison L, LipkeMolby T. Sleepdisordered breathing in healthy aged persons: two and threeyear followup. Sleep 1994; 17: 411–415. 43. AncoliIsrael S, Klauber MR, Kripke DF, Parker L, Cobarrubias M. Sleep apnea in female patients in a nursing home: increased risk of mortality. Chest 1989; 96:1054–1058. 44. AncoliIsrael S, Klauber MR, Fell RL, Parker L, Kenney LA, Willens R. Sleep disordered breathing: preliminary natural history and mortality results. In: Seifer RA, Carlson J, eds. International Perspective on Applied Psychophysiology. 1993. In press. 45. AncoliIsrael S, Coy T. Are breathing disturbances in elderly equivalent to sleep apnea syndrome? Sleep 1994; 7:77–83. 46. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Fell R, Stepnowsky C, Estline E, Khazeni N, Chinn A. Morbidity, mortality and sleepdisordered breathing in community dwelling elderly. Sleep 1996; 19:277–282. 47. Knight H, Millman R, Gur R, Saykin A, Doherty J, Pack A. Clinical significance of sleep apnea in the elderly. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136:845–850.
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48. Prinz PN, Bliwise DL, Vitiello MV, et al. Relationship between impaired sleep, nocturnal oxygen desaturation and systemic diseases. In: Kuna ST, Suratt PM, Remmers JE, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier 1991: 179–188. 49. Prinz PN, Vitiello MV, Raqskind MA, Thorpy MJ. Geriatrics: sleep disorders and aging. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:520–526. 50. Findley LJ, Barth JT, Powers DC, Wilhoit SC, Boyd DG, Suratt PM. Cognitive impairment in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and associated hypoxemia. Chest 1986; 90:686–690. 51. Findley LJ, Presty SK, Barth JT, Suratt PM. Impaired cognition and vigilance in elderly subjects with sleep apnea. In: Kuna ST, Suratt PM, Remmers JE, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier, 1991:259–265. 52. Berry DT, Phillips BA, Cook YR, et al. Geriatric sleep apnea syndrome: a preliminary description. J Gerontol 1990; 45:M169–M174. 53. Berry DTR, Webb WB, Block AJ, Bauer RM, Switzer DA. Nocturnal hypoxia and neuropsychological variables. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1986; 8:229–238. 54. Bliwise DL, Yesavage JA. Tinkenberg JR, Dement WC. Sleep apnea in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1989; 10:343–346. 55. Yesavage JA, Bliwise DL, Guilleminault C, Carskadon MA, Dement WC. Preliminary communication: intellectual deficit and sleeprelated respiratory disturbance in the elderly. Sleep 1985; 8:30–33. 56. Kullen AS, Stepnowsky C, Parker L, AncoliIsrael S. Cognitive impairment and sleep disordered breathing. Sleep Res 1993; 22:224. 57. Bliwise DL. Cognitive function and sleep disordered breathing in aging adults. In: Kuna ST, Remmers JE, Suratt PM, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier, 1991. 58. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF. Now I lay me down to sleep: the problem of sleep fragmentation in elderly and demented residents of nursing homes. Bull Clin Neurosci 1989; 54:127–132. 59. AncoliIsrael S, Klauber MR, Butters N, Parker L, Kripke DF. Dementia in institutionalized elderly: relation to sleep apnea. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39:258– 263. 60. Hoch CC, Reynolds CF III, Nebes RD, Kupfer DJ, Berman SR, Campbell D. Clinical significance of sleepdisordered breathing in Alzheimer's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 1989; 37:138–144. 61. Erkinjuntti T, Partinen M, Sulkava R, Telakivi T, Salmi T, Tilvis R. Sleep apnea in multiinfarct dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Sleep 1987; 10:419–425. 62. Frommlet M, Rpinz P, Vitiello MV, Ries R, Williams D. Sleep hypoxemia and apnea are elevated in males with mild Alzheimer's disease. Sleep Res 1986; 15:189. 63. Inoue H, Hamazoe K, Inoue Y, Miyazaki I, Sakamoto I, Hazama H. Sleepinduced respiratory impairment in elderly patients with some psychoneurological complaints. Sleep Res 1985; 14:167. 64. Prinz PN, Vitiello MV. Sleep in Alzheimer's dementia and in healthy, notcomplaining seniors. In: The Treatment of Sleep Disorders in Older People. NIH Consensus Development Conference, 1990:41–46. 65. Smallwood RG, Vitiello MV, Giblin EC, Prinz P. Sleep apnea: relationship to age, sex, and Alzheimer's dementia. Sleep 1983; 6:16–22.
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11 Control of Breathing During Sleep and SleepDisordered Breathing JAMES B. SKATRUD and BARBARA J. MORGAN University of Wisconsin Medical School Madison, Wisconsin M. SAFWAN BADR Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan I. Introduction Alteration in ventilatory control during sleep results in a spectrum of changes in upper airway dimension, breathing pattern, and oxygen saturation. Most subjects increase upper airway resistance and show occasional variability in breathing pattern, especially during transitions between the waking and sleeping states. Persons who develop more severe elevations of upper airway resistance are susceptible to transient arousals and a more fragmented pattern of sleep. Their breathing pattern may oscillate in association with the fluctuations in upper airway resistance, sleep state, and chemical stimuli. Finally, those patients who develop complete occlusion of the upper airway on a recurring basis experience a great deal of sleep fragmentation and fluctuation in gas exchange and cardiovascular regulation. Thus, the transition from the normal to abnormal cardiopulmonary responses to sleep defies definition based on precise cut points, but rather, it represents a continuum of adaptation to the changes associated with the sleeping state. In this chapter, we will explore the spectrum of sleepinduced respiratory changes, ranging from changes in upper airway resistance, asymptomatic breathing instability, symptomatic sleep apnea or hypopnea, and high upper airway
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resistance syndromes. The consequences of sleepdisordered breathing will be presented, including cardiovascular and behavioral problems. Finally, new developments in the treatment of sleepdisordered breathing will be described, with special emphasis on the approach to the patient with a less prominent number of respiratory events during sleep. II. Epidemiology of SleepDisordered Breathing Determination of the prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing in the population has been plagued with inconsistent definitions, variation in diagnostic technology, and sampling bias (1). Despite these limitations, the picture emerges of a relatively frequent occurrence of apnea and hypopnea in a middleaged working population (2,3). The Wisconsin Sleep Cohort performed nocturnal polysomnography in 602 randomly selected men and women, aged 30–60 years (2). Twentyfour percent of the men and 9% of the women had more than five apneas or hypopneas per hour of sleep (Fig. 1). Sleep apnea or hypopnea was more common in selfreported snorers, compared with nonsnorers. An age effect was evident in men between the ages of 40 and 49 and in women between the ages of 50 and 59 years when compared with subjects in the younger decades. However, the lack of a continuous increase with age suggests that age is not a strong risk factor. Obesity, on the other
Figure 1 Prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing in a middleaged working population: Habitual snorers reported snoring every night or almost every night. Prevalence is expressed as the percentage of subjects showing more than five abnormal respiratory events per hour of sleep (AHI).
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hand, was consistently associated with increased apnea/hypopnea index (AHI), regardless of the specific measure of body habitus used. The proportion of middle aged adults who have both sleep apnea (AHI greater than 5) and selfreported hypersomnolence is 4% in men and 2% in women. Thus, undiagnosed sleep disordered breathing is prevalent in middleaged adults and may contribute to the selfreported hypersomnolence in this group. Excessive daytime sleepiness has also been noted in those selfreported snorers who have an AHI less than 5, which raises the possibility that snoring alone may cause hypersomnolence (2,4). High intrathoracic pressures cause arousals from sleep, even in the absence of perceptible respiratory disturbances and, occasionally, even in the absence of snoring (5,6). Because previous epidemiological studies have not measured intrathoracic pressure, the actual prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing and its consequences is likely to be higher than described in studies that looked only at apneas and hypopneas. Recent studies of middleaged adults have also identified cardiovascular consequences of sleepdisordered breathing. For example, apneas and hypopneas have been associated with transient elevations of arterial pressure in middleaged subjects with undiagnosed sleep apnea. Daytime and nighttime arterial pressures were higher in subjects with modest sleepdisordered breathing (AHI 5–15) than in subjects with an AHI of less than 5. These effects were independent of age, weight, and gender (7). The high prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing and the associated frequent occurrence of cardiovascular and neurophysiological consequences, even in nonclinical populations, point to a high public health burden from this entity. III. Determinants of Breathing Pattern Instability Disordered breathing during sleep is part of a spectrum of the physiological changes that occur in normal subjects during sleep. The abnormalities that will be discussed include disorders of breathing pattern, such as hypopneas and apneas, and disorders of upper airway regulation that lead to manifestations of high upper airway resistance, such as snoring and arousal. The pathophysiology of breathing pattern instability can best be understood in terms of the relative contribution of factors that destabilize versus the factors that stabilize the breathing pattern (Fig.2). It is also important to recognize that the periodicbreathing patterns that are seen in patients with sleepdisordered breathing are due to multiple oscillating influences, rather than to single stimuli or inhibitors of ventilation. Interaction between these influences serve to amplify the strength of any other oscillation. Individual differences in susceptibility to various oscillating influences determine whether clinically significant sleepdisordered breathing will develop. In the following section, we will discuss the various desta
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Figure 2. Determinants of sleepdisordered breathing: The sleeping state induces decreased upper airway dimension and a reduced ventilatory drive that results in apnea or hypopnea. The resultant chemical stimulation, combined with arousal on termination of the respiratory event, produces a ventilatory hyperpnea. The rise of arterial pressure at the end of the respiratory event could be a stabilizing influence that attenuates the hyperpnea by baroreceptor mechanisms (alternatively, it could be a destabilizing influence that accentuates the subsequent hypopnea). Subsequent hypocapnia causes a low or absent ventilatory drive that serves to perpetuate the periodic breathing. Poststimulus potentiation minimizes the posthyperventilation hypopnea and, thereby, stabilizes the breathing pattern. Hypoxic depression can accentuate the posthyperventilation hypopnea, either directly by reducing ventilatory drive, or indirectly by impairing the stabilizing effect of poststimulus potentiation. Solid lines indicate primary effects. Broken lines indicate influences that decrease the primary effect.
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bilizing and stabilizing influences that impinge on the ventilatory control system, and how these influences can lead to sleepdisordered breathing syndromes. A. Destabilizing Influences Hypocapnia Previous studies have demonstrated a critical role for PaCO2 in maintaining rhythmic breathing in sleeping humans (8,9). These studies were performed by lowering PaCO2 for several minutes with either passive mechanical ventilation or active hyperventilation induced by hypoxia and terminated with hyperoxia. As little as a 4 mmHg—sustained reduction in PaCO2 induced by either active or passive hyperventilation was associated with apnea. The duration of apnea was related to the magnitude of the hypocapnia. This contrasts with wakefulness, which showed only an inconsistent effect of sustained hypocapnia on posthyperventilation breathing pattern. These studies indicated that posthyperventilation hypocapnia during sleep could be an important determinant of breathing instability and apnea. Some caution is needed in interpretation of the absolute contribution of hypocapnia to breathing disorders during sleep because of both the limitations of the experimental methods and the usual occurrence of hypocapnia in conjunction with other potential inhibitory influences, such as hypoxic depression of respiration, lung stretch, and changing sleep state. First, most of the experimental methods used passive mechanical ventilation to produce hypocapnia. Recent studies have demonstrated that neuromechanical inhibition associated with passive hyperventilation can cause apneas, during wakefulness and sleep, that are independent of PaCO2 (Fig. 3). Second, recent studies in humans and animals showed that hypocapnia of shorter duration, and more consistent with that seen following brief clusters of hyperpneic breaths, is less likely to produce apnea (10). Third, the lack of experimental methods to produce active hyperventilation in
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Figure 3 Neuromechanical inhibition and delay in stimulus—response during apnea: During NREM sleep, inspiratory muscle activity is eliminated by passive mechanical ventilation in the absence of hypocapnia. Apnea following cessation of mechanical ventilation persists, despite hypercapnia and hypoxemia, consistent with either a memory effect of an inhibitory influence or an inertia phenomenon in the neural control of inspiratory activity.
sleeping humans has required the use of hypoxic ventilatory stimulation, which adds confounding influences (see later discussion; 11,12). Finally, in patients with sleep disordered breathing, hypocapnia occurs in conjunction with other influences, such as changing sleep state and upper airway resistance, which could have a profound effect on breathing pattern. The relative contribution of hypocapnia in the presence of these other confounding variables is difficult to determine with certainty. Despite these limitations, hypocapnia is still likely to be a critical determinant of breathing instability during sleep. A substantial inhibitory effect of hypocapnia, if not apnea, is still demonstrated in sleeping humans even after extremely short periods of hypocapnia (12). Entrainment of the central respiratory rhythm to oscillations in arterial PaCO2 has been reported (13). Profound inhibitory effects of hypocapnia at the level of the carotid body have been reported in awake goats (14). Chemical feedback loops are important in models of periodic breathing in animals and humans (15,16). These findings support the idea that hypocapnia is an important inhibitory influence, the role of which may be most important in its interaction with other destabilizers of ventilation.
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Hypoxia Hypoxia has a complicated effect on the ventilatory control system that causes destabilization as a result of both ventilatory stimulation and ventilatory inhibition (see Fig. 2). The highly alinear ventilatory response to hypoxia and its synergistic interaction with hypercapnia can easily produce an overshoot in ventilation. The resultant hypocapnia, altered sleep state, change in lung stretch, and cardiovascular changes associated with this chemoreflex stimulation can have a profound effect on the subsequent breathing pattern. Less welldocumented during sleepdisordered breathing is the potential of an inhibitory effect of hypoxia directly on ventilation or indirectly, whereby the effect of other inhibitory influences becomes more prominent in the presence of hypoxia. In sleeping humans, the abrupt termination of 5 min of hypoxia with hyperoxia was associated with apnea, even though the PaCO2 had been held at normoxic levels (see Fig. 5B; 12). Similar results were noted in awake humans who showed a greater degree of ventilatory inhibition after 3–5 min, compared with 30 sec of normocapnic hypoxia (17,18). These findings raise the possibility that hypoxic exposure makes ventilation more prone to other inhibitory influences. The more common occurrence of this hypoxic inhibition during anesthesia and sleep also suggests that the neurophysiological state of alertness may influence the propensity toward hypoxic ventilatory depression. Metabolic Rate The fundamental effect of CO2 production in sustaining rhythmic breathing has been demonstrated in dogs in which apnea was induced when CO2 was removed by cardiopulmonary bypass (19,20). A low metabolic rate predisposes to the development of periodic breathing and apnea because the level of ventilation is closer to the apneic threshold, and a given change in drive will produce a relatively greater change in alveolar ventilation. However, when a role of reduced metabolic rate was investigated in sleeping humans, the sleeping state was associated with only a 10% fall in metabolic rate, and periodic breathing was not correlated with the metabolic rate's level (21). These findings suggest that change in metabolic rate is not a major determinant of periodic breathing in sleeping humans. However, as with the other influences described, the change in metabolic rate occurring cyclically with the onset of sleep and arousal from sleep would serve to amplify any ventilatory or cardiovascular oscillations that might occur. Change in FRC The functional residual capacity (FRC) shows a substantial increase during the hyperpneic phase of the periodicbreathing cycle compared with the hypopneic periods (22). This is primarily related to the large, tachypneic breaths following the apnea or hypopnea that do not allow enough time for complete exhalation. In
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addition, the change in sleep state may also cause a minor increase in FRC, especially during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (23). The increase in FRC during the hyperpnea causes rapid improvement in arterial blood gases and, consequently, a decrease in respiratory output. During the subsequent apnea or hypopnea, the reduction in FRC would serve to accentuate the developing abnormality in gas exchange, and this has been proposed as an important determinant of breathing instability (24). In addition, an increase in FRC is associated with improved upper airway patency (22,25,26), which is likely due to traction of the mediastinal structures transmitted to the upper airway (27). Thus, the fluctuating level of FRC would greatly amplify the associated changes in ventilatory drive and breathing pattern and, thereby, serve to perpetuate the disorderedbreathing pattern. Sleep State and Upper Airway Resistance Instability. It is difficult to distinguish the independent effects of sleep state and upper airway resistance changes in contributing to ventilatory instability. In normal subjects, the upper airway resistance increases coincidentally with sleep onset owing to hypotonia of the upper airway muscles (28–30). The increase in upper airway resistance accounts for some of the reduction in ventilation in going from wakefulness to nonREM (NREM) sleep. Normal sleeping subjects show an increase in ventilation and a reduction in PaCO2 when upper airway resistance is reduced with helium inhalation (31) or with nasal constant positiveairway pressure (CPAP; 32). However, part of the reduction in ventilation in going from awake to sleep is a true sleep state effect because a reduction in ventilation and an increase in CO2 retention is noted in tracheostomized humans (8). Thus, the coincidental changes in sleep state and upper airway resistance have an important effect on the ventilatory output. The importance of changes in sleep state as a cause of periodic breathing has been documented in both theoretical and experimental studies. The dynamic interaction between changes in chemical influences, sleep state, and upper airway resistance has been investigated with a mathematical model (16). Periodic breathing resulted from repetitive alterations between sleep onset and arousal and was further accentuated with the addition of fluctuating upper airway resistance. The importance of sleep state fluctuation in periodic breathing was reported in elderly subjects (33) and in the breathing instability during sleep onset (34). These studies confirm the importance of sleep state fluctuation in the initiation and perpetuation of periodic breathing mediated by both changes in ventilatory drive and upper airway resistance. Rapid eye movement sleep represents a unique physiological state that can have a profound effect on ventilatory pattern, as described earlier. REM sleep affects the breathing pattern through the loss of tone of the respiratory muscles and
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the effect of the phasic events on ventilatory output (35). Tremendous variability has been noted in both tidal volume and frequency that is related to changes in the inspiratory flow and expiratory duration (36). Phasic events during REM sleep are associated with brief pauses in activity of the inspiratory muscles that results in a suboptimal recruitment of the muscle activity (35). Accessory and upper airway muscles of respiration appear especially susceptible to this dysfunction. This ineffective upper airway and chest wall muscle activity has been associated with upper airway obstruction and hypoventilation in a variety of lung and neuromuscular diseases. Thus, REM sleep can be a particularly destabilizing influence in patients with already marginal function of the upper airway or the diaphragm. Cardiovascular Instability A transient increase in blood pressure occurs in the hyperpneic period following most episodes of sleep apnea (Fig. 4). Nonrespiratory arousals from sleep also elicit an abrupt pressor response (37). The baroreceptor stimulation that accompanies these blood pressure elevations, in addition to having the wellknown cardiovascular inhibitory effects, can also influence respiration. In experimental
Figure 4 Mixed, central, and obstructive sleep apnea: Note that blood pressure remains relatively stable during apnea and rises abruptly postapnea. Muscle sympathetic nerve activity, which rises progressively throughout apnea, is inhibited after resumption of breathing.
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animal, baroreceptor stimulation causes ventilatory depression and reduced tonic activity in upper airway abductor muscles (38) and arousal from sleep (39). All of these effects could serve to destabilize breathing patterns during sleep and, perhaps, perpetuate sleepdisordered breathing events. Delays in Stimulus—Response Classic control system theory emphasizes the importance of stimulus—response delays in the perpetuation of periodic breathing (24). For example, a central apnea is observed following the abrupt cessation of normocapnic mechanical ventilation (see Fig. 2). What is the mechanism of continued inspiratory muscle inhibition despite that chemical stimuli are at, or more likely even higher than, eupneic levels? One possibility is that the inhibitory influence that caused the apnea in the first place has a time constant for its effect to be dissipated. Only after this effect decays to a sufficiently low level will inspiratory activity be initiated. Examples of phenomena with such an inhibitory memory characteristic are the persistent inhibition following stimulation of the superior laryngeal nerve and the afferent vagus (40,41). However, these inhibitory influences are shortlived, and neither of these afferents were likely to be strongly stimulated during the mechanical ventilation in humans. An alternative hypothesis for the delayed return of inspiratory activity during a central apnea is the presence of an intrinsic inactivity or inertia following the elimination of inspiratory activity during the mechanical ventilation. This mechanism likely resides in the central rhythm generator and is not dependent on the method of elimination of inspiratory motor output. Such a mechanism would require a higher level of chemical stimuli to reinitiate inspiratory muscle activity once apnea has occurred, compared with the level observed during eupneic breathing. This delay in reinitiating breathing would occur as a part of any central apnea. The additional accumulation of chemical stimuli as a result of this delay would accentuate the ventilatory hyperpnea following termination of the apnea, and thus, would tend to perpetuate the periodic breathing. B. Stabilizing Influences Wakefulness Drive The importance of wakefulness in maintaining rhythmic breathing is discussed in the foregoing. The loss of this influence, especially if occurring intermittently, is an important determinant of periodic breathing during sleep (see Fig. 2). Cardiovascular Modulation The magnitude of the hyperpnea following termination of an apnea or hypopnea is a major determinant of whether or not a subsequent hypopnea or apnea will
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develop and thus perpetuate the periodic breathing (see Fig. 2). The abrupt rise in blood pressure, which also occurs in the postapneic period, may limit the magnitude of this ventilatory overshoot by baroreflex mechanisms (see foregoing). Thus, the postapneic pressor response may act to stabilize breathing. Given the relatively low sensitivity of ventilation to increased carotid sinus pressure in the sleeping dog (42), it is likely that increased blood pressure plays at most a modest role in ventilatory stabilization following sleep apneas in humans. Poststimulus Potentiation Following the abrupt cessation of active respiratory motor stimulation, a timedependent, continued hyperventilation persists, which has been referred to as poststimulus potentiation or “afterdischarge.” This phenomenon originates in the brain stem controller, requires active, rather than passive, hyperventilation, and manifests itself independently of the nature of the ventilatory stimulus or the level of consciousness (43–45). Poststimulus potentiation has been proposed as an important stabilizing influence that would prevent ventilatory undershoot following an episode of hyperpnea (46). The occurrence of poststimulus potentiation in awake (11,18) and sleeping (12) humans has been reported using brief periods of hypoxicinduced hyperventilation, followed by abrupt termination with hyperoxia (Fig. 5A). During sleep, associated hypocapnia was sufficient to override the afterdischarge, and poststimulus hypopnea was observed (12). During both wakefulness and sleep, sustained hypoxia of at least 5 min eliminated or greatly reduced the poststimulus potentiation (see Fig. 5B), These observations raise the possibility that periodic breathing during sleep, especially during hypoxia, could be due to insufficient manifestation of poststimulus potentiation. IV. Determinants of Upper Airway Patency A. Upper Airway Anatomy The skeletal and softtissue anatomy of the upper airway plays a critical role in determining whether the upper airway will remain open during sleep. Patients with sleep apnea show a general tendency toward a smaller airway dimension during wakefulness, but there is overlap with normal persons (47). In these patients, the shape of the upper airway, rather than its overall dimension, appears to be a more important determinant of pharyngeal collapse during sleep. The pharyngeal aperture is elongated in the anteroposterior dimension owing to a thickening of the lateral pharyngeal wall. This more elliptically shaped airway may alter the orientation of upper airway musculature and, thereby, compromise the ability to maintain upper airway patency (48). The role of fat deposition in narrowing the upper airway is uncertain. Fat
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Figure 5 Poststimulus potentiation during NREM sleep: (a) Abrupt termination of 1 min of isocapnic hypoxia with hyperoxia. The gradual decay of tidal volume after termination of hyperventilation with hyperoxia is consistent with poststimulus potentiation. (b) Abrupt termination of 5 min of isocapnic hypoxia with hyperoxia. The apnea following termination of hyperpnea indicates that poststimulus potentiation is insufficient to prevent ventilatory inhibition in the presence of sustained hypoxia.
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deposits were described, after magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), at the level of the soft palate and also in the lateral pharyngeal walls (49). Expansion of the soft tissue space in the region of the lateral pharyngeal fat pad is associated with increased upper airway resistance in anesthetized pigs (50). However, in humans with sleep apnea, muscular thickening, rather than enlargement of the pharyngeal fat pads, was the predominant anatomical determinant of upper airway narrowing (47). A unifying hypothesis of the relationship between obesity and craniofacial structure has been proposed (51). Patients with obstructive sleep apnea demonstrate a spectrum of softtissue fat, and structural abnormalities. At one extreme are obese patients with primarily increased upper airway softtissue narrowing. The other extreme consists of predominantly nonobese patients with abnormal craniofacial structure. An intermediate group consists of patients with abnormalities of both craniofacial structure and upper airway soft tissue related to obesity. All of these studies indicate the importance of an anatomical substrate that is a necessary prerequisite for the development of upper airway occlusion during sleep. B. Airway Closure During Central Apnea The investigation of airway dimension during central apnea provides insight into the determinants of airway closure during sleep. In patients with central sleep apnea, a progressive narrowing and occlusion of the upper airway was commonly observed at the velopharyngeal level and before the development of inspiratory effort (Fig. 6). The crosssectional area of the upper airway was not correlated with the length of the apnea. Even in normal subjects in whom posthyperventila
Figure 6 Progressive narrowing and complete occlusion of the upper airway in a patient with central sleep apnea: Note that the complete occlusion occurs before the development of inspiratory effort.
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tion apnea was induced during sleep, a progressive narrowing of the upper airway was observed before any development of inspiratory effort. Velopharyngeal narrowing was the most common site of narrowing in these normal subjects. These findings demonstrate that upper airway narrowing and occlusion can occur, even in the absence of negative intrathoracic pressure. Unless an arousal occurred, the initial recovery breaths, which terminated the central apnea, showed residual consequences of the airway narrowing or occlusion that had developed during the apnea. If arousal occurred, the airway became totally patent, and resistance levels were at awake levels. In the absence of arousal, persistent narrowing of the upper airway was evident in the normal subjects, as evidenced by the high total pulmonary resistance shown on the first postapneic breaths. Both inspiratory and expiratory resistance were high, consistent with residual airway narrowing that persisted after the apnea. In several normal subjects, complete occlusive apnea was noted with the reinitiation of inspiratory effort, as shown by large negative esophageal pressure in the absence of flow (Fig. 7). Thus, airway narrowing or occlusion during central apnea can cause typical obstructive efforts, even in normal subjects. Immediate restoration of normal upper airway mechanics requires electroencephalographic (EEG) evidence of arousal. C. Implications for Obstructive Apnea and Hypopnea. The occurrence of upper airway narrowing during central apnea raises the possibility that the closing of the upper airway during sleep may actually occur at end expiration, rather than with the onset of inspiratory effort, as is currently accepted.
Figure 7 Development of occlusive apnea with reinitiation of inspiratory effort following a central apnea in a normal subject: Central apnea occurred following mechanical hyperventilation during NREM sleep. Obstructive apnea is indicated by the presence of inspiratory effort (esophageal pressure) without flow.
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A progressive increase in expiratory resistance with waning inspiratory drive has been reported on the breaths immediately preceding an obstructive apnea (52). Visualization studies with fiberoptic bronchoscopy in patients with sleep apnea have shown the occlusion to be present before the onset of inspiratory effort (53). These findings suggest that endexpiratory, rather than early inspiratory, closure of the upper airway is the primary event in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. The endexpiratory closure of the upper airway would be consistent with the previous studies that evaluated criticalclosing pressures in the upper airway (54–56). Closing pressures were generally at atmospheric pressure or slightly positive in patients with sleep apnea, compared with negativeclosing pressures in normal subjects. Snorers occupied an intermediate position. Even if the airway did not completely close at end expiration, higher levels of criticalclosing pressure were associated with lower levels of maximal flow during tidal breathing during sleep. All of these studies suggest that the initial narrowing of the upper airway is more a function of a positive extraluminal collapsing pressure, rather than a negative intraluminal pressure, in early inspiration. The practical consequences of this proposed mechanism is that the return to atmospheric pressure of the upper airway at end expiration would be expected to result in complete airway closure in patients with sleep apnea and a narrow, flowlimited airway in patients with snoring or obstructive hypopnea. Data from the central sleep apnea studies provide insight into the determinants for opening a closed or narrowed airway during early inspiration. Arousal and the state of wakefulness clearly provide the ability for even a patient with severe sleepinduced narrowing to restore airway patency. Preliminary evidence does suggest that, during wakefulness, some patients with sleep apnea actually do occlude their airway at end expiration during spontaneous tidal breathing. Despite these occlusions, the subsequent inspiration is associated with airway opening. This maintenance of airway patency appears to require an increase in airway dilator activity associated with wakefulness (57). A component of this enhanced activity is related to protective upper airway reflexes that are present during wakefulness (58,59). As a result of these compensatory responses, awake patients with sleep apnea are able to compensate and maintain a patent airway at closing pressures as low as —11 to —31 cmH2O (60). Thus, wakefulness is a protective state that assures upper airway patency during early inspiration. The effect of ventilatory drive on upper airway patency can also be discussed in terms of endexpiratory airway closure and the ability to open the closed airway during sleep. This question has been difficult to study in sleeping humans because of the presence of confounding influences; therefore, apparently contradicting conclusions have been reached. Subjects also show a wide spectrum of susceptibility to upper airway collapse during periods of altered drive, primarily based on anatomical considerations. The effect of steadystate increases in chemical stimuli on upper airway patency during sleep is either a decrease or no change
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in upper airway resistance (61–64). No studies have reported an increase in upper airway resistance or the initiation of obstructive breaths as a result of a steadystate augmentation of chemical drive. To the contrary, several studies have shown a decrease in the number of apneic and hypopneic events with administration of exogenous CO2 in selected patients with sleep apnea—hypopnea syndrome (65,66). Similarly, steadystate reduction in chemical drive did not cause an increase in upper airway resistance, even in heavy snorers with, presumably, a high degree of susceptibility to upper airway collapse (64). Chemical drive was reduced by lowering PCO2 in sleeping humans by either mechanical ventilation or by hypoxicinduced hyperventilation, and then abruptly terminating the stimulation and observing the level of airway resistance in the recovery period (Fig. 8). Two major conclusions can be drawn from these studies: First, at least in the subjects studied, an increased level of steadystate drive, even when applied in subjects with a susceptibility to upper airway narrowing, does not cause upper airway collapse, despite the increased suction pressure on the compliant upper airway. Second, a reduction of chemical drive alone is not sufficient to narrow or collapse the airway during steady state, normoxic sleep. These findings suggest a very precise regulation of upper airway function and the ability to open the upper airway at early inspiration, even in heavy snorers. The foregoing findings must be reconciled with an extensive literature that has documented the occurrence of high upper airway resistance and even the development of complete occlusion during the nadir of periodicbreathing cycles (67–69). Periodic breathing activates all of the confounding factors described in the foregoing related to destabilizing and stabilizing influences that could accentu
Figure 8 Effect of chemical drive on airway resistance during NREM sleep: Brief hypoxicinduced hyperventilation was abruptly terminated with hyperoxia. The pressure—flow relation of the nadir breath was not compromised as a result of the posthyperventilation hypocapnic inhibition.
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ate the amplitude of the hyperpnea and hypopnea and, thereby, lower the respiratory drive to an even greater degree than with hypocapnia alone (see Fig. 2). Central apnea, changing sleep state, and sustained hypoxia, all are likely mechanisms to cause such changes. First, central apnea allows sufficient time for complete airway closure in subjects who otherwise might have a patent airway at end expiration (70). Opening the closed airway at the onset of inspiration would present a greater challenge to airway stabilizing forces compared with an inspiratory effort in the presence of an open airway. Surface forces related to mucous and tissue changes during the central apnea may also make it more difficult to open the closed airway. Second, the development of the sleeping state as the nadir of the periodic breathing is approached has a profound effect on the ability of the subject to open the airway at inspiration. Sleep state fluctuation has been reported during hypoxic periodic breathing (71), and it is a prominent feature during the reported experimental protocols (68). Finally, the effect of sustained hypoxia on the ability to open a closed upper airway is the least well documented. However, a profound effect of hypoxia on the stabilizing effect of poststimulus potentiation has been demonstrated for the chest wall inspiratory muscles (12). It would not be surprising if this impairment of stabilization were also observed in the upper airway muscles, with consequent impairment of upper airway opening. Many of the studies showing impaired upper airway regulation during periodic breathing used hypoxia in excess of 2min duration, which is sufficient to impair stabilizing mechanisms. Therefore, periodic breathing is likely to contribute to upper airway compromise during sleep by accentuating the magnitude of change in the stabilizing and destabilizing influences that control the ability of the subject to open the airway at inspiration. In patients with severe sleepdisordered breathing, much of the periodic breathing is derived as an epiphenomenon as a result of the episodic upper airway obstruction. The role of periodic breathing in the development of deficits in upper airway opening and in the pathogenesis of milder forms of sleepdisordered breathing is unknown. V. High Upper Airway Resistance Syndromes A. Snoring Snoring is an acoustical phenomenon attributed to vibration of the soft palate, pharyngeal walls, epiglottis, and tongue (72). Most of the power of the snoring sound is lower than 2000 Hz, and the peak power is usually lower than 500 Hz (13). Subtle differences in snoring frequencies have been reported between nasal and oral snoring and between snoring with and without sleep apnea (73). Snoring is difficult to measure objectively, and the subjective assessment of snoring is imperfect (74,75). The loudness of snoring has been measured objectively, with the finding that most sounds classified as a snore, rather than a breath sound,
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exceeded 50 decibels when measured objectively (75). Nighttonight variability in snoring in the sleep laboratory was as much as 65%, and differences between laboratory and home were also greater than expected (76). Even the subjective assessment by a sleep technologist did not compare well with objective measurements of snoring (75). Questionnaires of either selfreported or bed partnerreported snoring can show substantial variance from objectively measured data (75), although questionnaire studies have shown a relatively good degree of sensitivity—specificity in terms of predicting the presence or absence of sleep apnea (77,78). Thus, measurement of the quantity and magnitude of snoring remains difficult, whether using an objective, direct observation, or questionnaire approach. Careful collection of data and validation of methods are essential, considering the high prevalence of snoring in a healthy working population (2) and that snoring may be used as a marker for sleep apnea. The pathogenesis of snoring has been investigated in terms of anatomical and functional changes in the upper airway, as described earlier. Cephalometric studies have shown a longer soft palate and uvula, compared with those of nonsnorers (79). Further differences in the mandibular plane and hyoid bone position separated snorers without apnea from patients with sleep apnea. Subsequent studies emphasized the importance of pharyngeal softtissue volume and obesity as a determinant of sleep apnea versus snoring alone (80,81). Pathological studies of the palate have shown both snorers and apneics to have mucous gland hypertrophy, disruption of muscle bundles by infiltrating glands, focal muscle atrophy, and extensive edema (82). Muscle fiber types of the pharyngeal constrictor muscles showed a relative reduction in the slow alphamotor neurons (type I) and a hypertrophy of type IIa fibers (83). These studies support a role for both anatomical narrowing and functional changes of the upper airway as important determinants for the presence of snoring. In addition, abnormalities of the soft palate, soft tissue, and pharyngeal constrictor muscles could also be a consequence of habitual snoring and could, thereby, further contribute to progression of the upper airway narrowing. The functional differences between snorers with and without sleep apnea have been investigated during both wakefulness and sleep. During wakefulness, snorers with sleep apnea showed a greater increase in pharyngeal area with lung inflation compared with snorers without sleep apnea (84). During sleep, studies of upper airway collapsibility have shown a spectrum of progressively increasing collapsing pressures between nonsnorers, snorers, and patients with sleep apnea (54). Snorers had a collapsing pressure that was only 1.6 cmH2O lower than atmospheric pressure. Such collapse occurring at end expiration would result in a narrowed airway, with substantial flow limitation at the onset of the subsequent inspiration. Thus, snoring does appear to represent an intermediate degree of difficulty in upper airway regulation between nonsnorers and patients with sleep apnea.
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B. High Upper Airway Resistance Syndrome The presence of high upper airway resistance during sleep is associated with clinical symptoms of fatigue and daytime sleepiness, even in the absence of apnea, hypopnea, or major degrees of oxygen desaturation (5,6,85). Snoring is not an essential feature or marker of the syndrome. The diagnosis is difficult to establish by conventional polysomnography and often requires invasive measurement of esophageal pressure. Recognition of the syndrome is important because effective therapy can be offered that will eliminate or greatly improve the symptoms. How can we reconcile the absence or minimum number of hypopneas in patients with the high upper airway resistance syndrome, despite the presence of an extremely high total pulmonary resistance during sleep? In patients with the high upper airway resistance syndrome, two patterns of more sustained elevations in upper airway resistance have been reported (86). The first pattern consists of sustained periods of large, negative esophageal pressure at a relatively constant level (Fig. 9A).
Figure 9 Patterns of high upper airway resistance syndrome: (a) A sustained elevation of upper airway resistance is terminated with an arousal. (b) Periodic, progressive increases in upper airway resistance are interrupted with arousal. Note the stability of oxygen saturation despite the changing resistance.
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The second pattern demonstrated a progressively increasing negative esophageal pressure over time (Fig. 9B). Compared to low resistance periods in both groups, the inspiratory time increased and the peak inspiratory flow, tidal volume, and minute ventilation decreased slightly. However, in the sustained pattern (see Fig. 9A), the gradual reduction in tidal volume over a mean of 13 min would not be detected as a hypopnea during conventional polysomnography. Likewise, in the progressively increasing intrathoracic pressure pattern (see Fig. 9B), the reduction in tidal volume observed just before arousal may not be of sufficient duration or magnitude to result in a major oxygen desaturation, which is used to define hypopnea in most laboratories (6). Previous studies of sustained, externally applied, resistive loads during sleep have also shown small or no reduction in minute ventilation (30,87). These findings demonstrate that increases in upper airway resistance may be associated with only small changes in ventilation and oxygen desaturation that are not likely to be detected during routine polysomnography. The development of high upper airway resistance during sleep is associated with arousals that are thought to be a major determinant of the clinical manifestation of the high upper airway resistance syndrome (5,6,88,89). The mechanism of arousal during upper airway obstruction has been attributed to the magnitude of negative pressure generated during inspiration (90). The stimulus producing the increased ventilatory drive is less important than the negative intrathoracic pressure or level of ventilation produced by the stimulus (91). The occurrence of sleep fragmentation as a result of frequent arousals has been well correlated with decreased daytime alertness (92,93). Demonstration of frequent arousals in the high upper airway resistance syndrome, suggests that symptoms of excessive daytime sleepiness and fatigue may occur, even in the absence of apnea, hypopnea, or measurable oxygen desaturation. VI. Sleep Apnea Syndromes A. Obstructive Sleep Apnea Diagnosis and Evaluation Efforts have been made to identify clinical features that predict the presence of obstructive sleep apnea. The use of stepwise, multilinear regression analysis, showed that age, body mass index, bed partner observation of apnea, and pharyngeal examination were significant predictors of apnea (94). Other studies have found a link between neck circumference, selfreported habitual snoring, alcohol consumption, daytime hypersomnolence, and falling asleep while driving (95–98). A family history is also a risk factor for the development of sleep apnea (99). The subjective assessment of the examining physician had a sensitivity of 60% and a specificity of 63% in identifying an AHI higher than 10 (94). A posttest probability of 81% likelihood that the patient had sleep apnea has been reported
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(98). Some ability to reduce the number of unnecessary sleep studies has been proposed in patients with a low clinical probability of sleep apnea (100). Thus, even though the clinical features provided by the history and physical examination may explain a significant component of the variability in the AHI in a population study, additional objective testing is required to establish the diagnosis in the individual patient. Definitive diagnosis of sleepdisordered breathing requires objective testing, usually with a complete nocturnal polysomnography study. However, cost constraints have led to the investigation of alternative strategies for diagnosing sleep apnea. A singlenight study is sufficient in most patients (101). Several studies have shown the occasional occurrence of falsenegative study results, with the number of respiratory events increasing on the second study night (102). Even a partialnightly study, consisting of at least 2 h of sleep, had an 87% sensitivity and an 86% specificity in detecting more than five events per hour, compared with allnight polysomnography (103). The use of a singlenight study for the titration of nasal CPAP has found widespread application. However, an effective level of CPAP was established in only 71% of patients (104), and longterm outcome evaluation of this approach has not been established (105). An excellent correlation between the number of respiratory events observed during nocturnal and daytime polysomnography (r = 0.9) was reported (106). Less total sleep time, stage III–IV, and REM were noted. However, another study showed that the daytime study, which was preceded by sleep deprivation, recorded almost three times as many apneas as the nocturnal study (107). Reliable information appears to require a sufficient total sleep time and a representative sample of all sleep stages. Even though nocturnal polysomnography remains the definitive diagnostic approach to sleepdisordered breathing, it remains an expensive and highly laborintensive modality. Neuropsychiatric Consequences The adverse consequences of excessive daytime sleepiness are borne out by the increased rates of automobile accidents reported in patients with sleep apnea syndrome (93,108). Patients with documented sleep apnea have an automobile accident rate that is 2–2.5 times the rate of control subjects (109). A random sample of elderly men not referred to a sleep clinic also had over twice the rate of automobile accidents if a polysomnogram showed more than ten apnea—hypopnea events per hour. However, most patients with sleep apnea do not have automobile accidents (109). Thus, rather than proscribing driving privileges in all patients with sleep apnea, additional information is required to identify patients who present an excessive risk to themselves and others. Attempts to identify and quantitate factors related to alertness while driving has led to a distinction between vigilance and sleepiness. For example, some
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patients with sleep apnea who are sleepy can still maintain wakefulness and function well when focused on a specific task (110,111). This distinction may explain why an objective test for sleepiness (MSLT) showed no relationship to the reported incidence of automobile accidents (112). An alternative computersimulated test of driving vigilance demonstrated that patients with sleep apnea had a higher incidence of hitting obstacles than did controls without sleep apnea. Poor performance on the computer simulation was associated with a higher incidence of reallife automobile accidents (113). Such performancebased tests may provide the physician with information needed to evaluate a patient in terms of functional impairment, risk of automobile accidents, and effect of treatment. Cardiovascular Consequences Systemic Hypertension Although a strong association between obstructive sleep apnea and systemic hypertension has been demonstrated in many epidemiological studies, inferences about a causal relationship are limited by confounding factors, such as advancing age, male gender, and obesity (114). Support for an independent effect of sleep apnea on arterial pressure was found in a population of middleaged adults. At all times during the day and night, subjects with sleepdisordered breathing had higher blood pressures than their nonapneic counterparts (7). Compelling evidence for a casual relationship between sleep apnea and hypertension is provided by studies that show a reduction in blood pressure following successful treatment of sleep apnea (114). Thus, sleep apnea and hypertension are strongly associated, but the unequivocal demonstration of causality and the pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for the association have not been identified. Episodes of sleep apnea produce acute blood pressure fluctuations that are caused by the interaction of neural and mechanical influences. Most obstructive sleep apneas are accompanied by stable or gradually decreasing blood pressure during the event and an abrupt increase in blood pressure following the event (see Fig. 4). A marked, progressive increase in sympathetic outflow to skeletal muscle occurs during the apnea. The current concept is that this sympathetic activation, which terminates abruptly after the resumption of breathing, is primarily responsible for the postapnea blood pressure rise. The carotid chemoreceptors are thought to play a major role in the increase in muscle sympathetic nerve activity that occurs during obstructive sleep apnea, because the increase is attenuated, along with the blood pressure response, by administration of supplemental oxygen (115,116). Arousal from sleep observed at the termination of most sleep apneas also contributes to increases in muscle sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, and heart rate (37,89,117–120). On the other hand, lung inflation and negative intrathoracic pressures have not been implicated in the augmented sympathetic nerve traffic or blood pressure elevation. Clearly, sleepdisordered breathing can cause
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acute augmentation of sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, and heart rate, but the mechanisms whereby these acute episodes cause sustained hypertension are still unknown. One mechanism by which sleepdisordered breathing could affect sympathetic neural outflow is through repetitive, intermittent chemoreflex stimulation (121,122). Hypertension was induced by exposure to intermittent hypoxia in rats with intact chemoreflexes, but not in those with carotid body denervation (123). Systemic blood pressure elevation was observed in young and healthy men during a 3week sojourn at high altitude (124). This hypertensive effect, apparent on the second day of exposure to hypobaric hypoxia, was accompanied by an increase in urinary norepinephrine excretion. In healthy humans, relatively brief (20min) periods of chemoreflex stimulation with combined hypoxia and hypercapnia caused an increase in muscle sympathetic nerve activity that outlasted the chemical stimuli (125). This persistent sympathetic activation was not due to continued carotid sinus nerve activity because ventilation returned to baseline levels soon after return to room air breathing. In patients with sleep apnea, high daytime levels of sympathetic nerve traffic were reduced following a reduction in nocturnal apneic activity with nasal CPAP (126). These findings raise the possibility that intermittent chemoreflex stimulation during sleep may contribute to the elevated sympathetic nerve activity and blood pressure elevation observed in these patients. However, heightened sympathetic activity acting alone is not likely to be sufficient to cause hypertension. Altered vascular responsiveness may also be a means whereby nocturnal events cause blood pressure elevations that persist throughout the day (127). Patients with sleep apnea syndrome demonstrate a pressor response to isocapnic hypoxia that is not seen in normal subjects (128). It is not known whether this altered responsiveness is specific for chemoreflex stimulation or whether patients with sleep apnea also have exaggerated responses to other presser stimuli encountered during activities of daily living, such as exercise. A role for impaired endotheliumdependent vasodilation in sleep apnea hypertension has recently been suggested (127). Patients with sleep apnea demonstrated attenuated forearm vasodilation in response to intraarterial infusion of acetylcholine, a substance that causes vasodilation by nitric oxide release. In addition, plasma levels of endogenous nitric oxide synthase inhibitors were higher in hypertensive patients with obstructive sleep apnea than in normotensive patients or in control subjects with and without hypertension (127). Thus, any link between hypertension and sleepdisordered breathing is likely to be complex and multifactorial. Pulmonary Hypertension. Transient increases in pulmonary artery pressure occur during episodes of obstructive sleep apnea. The current concept is that these increases are caused by the
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local effects of hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidosis, and by transmission of elevated left ventricularfilling pressures to the pulmonary vasculature (129,130). Studies in experimental animals raised the possibility that episodic, apneainduced elevations in pulmonary artery pressure could cause persistent pulmonary hypertension (131). In humans, however, it appears that sustained, daytime abnormalities in blood gas levels are more important determinants of pulmonary artery pressure than are the intermittent, nocturnal ones caused by sleep apnea (132,133). Therefore, obstructive sleep apnea per se, in the absence of coexisting obesity or lung disease, does not produce sustained pulmonary hypertension. Myocardial Infarction and Stroke A strong association between myocardial infarction and sleep apnea was demonstrated in a casecontrolled series (134). A multiple logistic regression analysis that adjusted for age, body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, and smoking revealed that patients with more than five apneas or hypopneas per hour of sleep had a relative risk for myocardial infarction many times greater than that of their counterparts without sleepdisordered breathing (135). Although the reasons for this excess risk are unknown, several pathophysiological mechanisms can be postulated. Longstanding obstructive sleep apnea may contribute to the development of atherosclerotic lesions by a primary effect on atherogenesis (136), or by a secondary effect mediated by hypertension. The repetitive blood pressure fluctuations that accompany acute episodes of apnea may facilitate plaque rupture by imposing increased sheer stress on the coronary arteries (137). In addition, highly negative intrathoracic pressures and dramatic changes in heart dimensions may increase arterial wall stress, thereby promoting plaque disruption. Apneainduced sympathetic activation may also enhance platelet aggregability. The pathogenetic link between sleep apnea and stroke has been the subject of several recent investigations. Apneas produce cyclic increases in intracranial pressure that coincide with increases in systemic blood pressure (138,139). These pressure fluctuations may affect the stability of existing atherosclerotic plaques. Cyclic decreases in cerebral perfusion have also been observed (139,140). The interesting possibility has been raised that vibrations produced by snoring and obstructive sleep apnea may play a role in stroke by virtue of the close proximity of the pharynx to the carotid arteries (137). Such vibrations may cause intimal injury, leading to the development of atherosclerotic lesions, and may also facilitate plaque rupture or displacement of an existing thrombus. B. Central Sleep Apnea Central sleep apnea is a heterogeneous entity with multiple causes and variable clinical manifestations. The most common pattern is the crescendo—decrescendo pattern of Cheyne—Stokes respiration. It is common in normal subjects at sleep onset and at high altitude (see Chap. 8). It has been observed in diseases of the
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central nervous system, congestive heart failure, renal failure, hepatic failure, respiratory failure, and conditions associated with depressed sensorium. The symptoms are variable, but most often include excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep disruption, insomnia, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and depression. Chronic hypoventilation may also be associated with central sleep apnea (141). Thus, for practical purposes, it is not possible to distinguish patients with central versus obstructive sleep apnea by historical criteria alone. Central sleep apnea has been reported in 40–50% of patients with stable and optimally treated congestive heart failure (142,143). These episodes are associated with arousals and oxygen desaturation that could contribute to morbidity and mortality. Patients with central sleep apnea tended to have more severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction, an increased prevalence of cardiac arrhythmias, and a higher level of sympathetic activity, compared with patients without sleep apnea (142,144). These abnormalities improve with treatment with nasal CPAP (144,145) and thus may have an influence on treatment and longterm outcome in the management of patients with congestive heart failure. VII. Treatment of SleepDisordered Breathing The indications for treatment of sleepdisordered breathing are not firmly established. The decision to treat sleep apnea—hypopnea is currently based on the clinician's judgment that abnormal respiratory events are associated with adverse health consequences. Such decisionmaking incorporates several factors, including the number of apneas and hypopneas, the degree of oxyhemoglobin desaturation, the degree of daytime sleepiness, and whether systemic hypertension or corpulmonale is present. The aim is to improve oxygenation during sleep, to consolidate sleep architecture, and to alleviate daytime sleepiness. A. Modification of Risk Factors Several studies have demonstrated reduced apnea frequency with weight loss (146,147). The extent of improvement and the magnitude of required weight loss vary among studies. There is little correlation between the magnitude of weight loss and the improvement in sleep apnea. Some studies have documented significant reduction in apnea frequency with modest weight loss (3–5 kg). Nevertheless, complete resolution of sleep apnea with the elimination of the need for nasal CPAP is infrequently reported. Alcohol does have adverse effects on upper airway function, especially in men, perhaps owing to its selective inhibitory effect on upper airway muscle activity (148). Similarly, benzodiazepines inhibit upper airway muscle activity and delay arousal in response to upper airway obstruction. Finally, a recent populationbased epidemiological study has shown a strong association between
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current smoking and the presence of sleep apnea—hypopnea (149). This is likely due to congestion and inflammation of the pharyngeal mucosa by the irritating tobacco smoke. Therefore, all patients with sleep apnea—hypopnea should be counseled to discontinue smoking, reduce alcohol intake, especially in the hours preceding bedtime, and to avoid hypnotics and sedatives. Apnea frequency increases in some patients when they sleep in the supine position relative to the lateral decubitus position. Avoiding the supine position can be accomplished by sleeping with a pillowfilled backpack or placing a tennis ball in an added pocket in the back of a Tshirt. Although these methods appear intuitively attractive, little data are available to support their effectiveness. One potential limitation is that the head and neck retain a full range of motion, even as the torso is prevented from assuming the supine position. In addition, the persistence of snoring, sleep fragmentation, and excessive daytime sleepiness have been observed despite the elimination of apnea. Thus, avoiding the supine position may convert sleep apnea—hypopnea to upper airway resistance syndrome, instead of normalizing respiration. The recognition of metabolic causes of sleep apnea, such as hypothyroidism and acromegaly, is essential for correction of abnormal breathing and its consequences. Treatment of hypothyroidism may not obviate the need for nasal therapy, especially in the early stages of hormonal replacement (150). B. Pharmacological Therapy The development of successful pharmacological therapy for sleep apnea would represent a major advance in the management of this disorder. Various medications have been studied, with variable results. The reader is referred to a recent comprehensive review detailing most of the recent drug trials in obstructive sleep apnea (151). Augmentation of ventilatory drive has been disappointing in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. Neither medroxyprogesterone acetate (152) nor acetazolamide (153) caused consistent enough improvement to justify their use in obstructive sleep apnea. Supplemental CO2 was used in patients with sleep apnea, resulting in reduced apnea frequency in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (65). Acetazolamide was effective in ameliorating central sleep apnea, but side effects often limit its use (154). Supplemental CO2 caused complete resolution of central apnea in patients with Cheyne—Stokes respiration (155) and in idiopathic central sleep apnea (156). However, maintaining a constant CO2 concentration requires the use of a closedbreathing circuit, which may not be well tolerated by patients. This may explain the limited usefulness of supplemental CO2 therapy in patients with sleep apnea. Thus, augmentation of ventilatory drive has not produced convincing therapeutic benefit except in patients with predominantly central apnea.
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Several studies investigated the use of tricyclic antidepressants for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea (157,158). These agents decrease the time spent in REM sleep and preferentially active upper airway muscles. However, the results in human studies have been variable, for apneic episodes continued during NREM sleep, although desaturation during REM was less pronounced. The lack of consistent response, combined with substantial anticholinergic side effects, limit widespread use of tricyclic antidepressants for the treatment of sleep apnea—hypopnea syndrome. Serotonin may enhance central ventilatory drive to pharyngeal muscles and, thereby, promote upper airway patency. LTryptophan, a serotonin precursor, resulted in improvement in sleep apnea in one study (159). Fluoxetine, a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, caused improvement similar to protriptyline in a subgroup of 6 of 12 patients in terms of reduction in apnea—hypopnea index and oxyhemoglobin desaturation (160). However, as a whole, the group showed no improvement in the number of respiratory events or arousals. Thus, neither drug was uniformly beneficial and cannot yet be recommended for use in sleep apnea. In summary, the inconsistent efficacy of pharmacological therapy for sleep apnea is not surprising when the heterogeneity of the disease is considered. Pharmacological therapy would not be expected to be effective in patients with a severe anatomical abnormality of the upper airway associated with morbid obesity or craniofacial deformity. In contrast, patients with less severe anatomical abnormalities may benefit from attempts to augment ventilatory drive in an effort to stabilize periodic breathing, prevent tissue trauma, and thereby eliminate the predisposition or progression to obstructive apnea. C. Supplemental Oxygen The use of supplemental oxygen in the therapy of sleep apnea has shown inconsistent results. Hyperoxia prolongs apneic episodes in some patients and the total time spent apneic (65), and it has also resulted in a shift from central to obstructive apnea (161). In contrast, prolonged administration of supplemental oxygen was associated with reduction in the number and length of obstructive apneas in patients with sleep apnea and daytime hypoxemia (162,163). In children, supplemental oxygen may be considered before definitive therapy, but a polysomnogram with PCO2 measurement is recommended to rule out worsening hypoventilation (164,165). In a recent comprehensive review, Fletcher and Munafo concluded that the weight of the data does not indicate a primary role for supplemental oxygen in the treatment of sleep apnea (166). D. Electrical Stimulation of Pharyngeal Dilators Early studies demonstrated that electrical stimulation of pharyngeal dilators reduced upper airway resistance in anesthetized dogs (167), decreased upper airway
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collapsibility in the cat (168), and reduced the number of apneas in sleeping humans (169). However, a recent report showed that each apnea termination was associated with a simultaneous EEG arousal (169). This latter report raises questions about the future use of electrical stimulation of individual upper airwaydilating muscles as a therapy for sleep apnea. E. Surgery The presence of anatomical susceptibility in the development of obstructive sleep apnea suggests that surgical correction of underlying pathology might be the treatment of choice in subsets of patients (170). For example, tonsilar hypertrophy may cause obstructive sleep apnea in children that can be corrected by tonsillectomy. The results in adults have been less encouraging because other predisposing factors usually contribute to upper airway obstruction. Surgical correction of nasal obstruction has also been proposed, but one study found no significant improvement in the AHI, despite a reduction in awake nasal resistance (171). In some patients, nasal surgery can be a beneficial adjunctive therapy aimed at reducing nasal CPAP pressure and, hence, improving patient tolerance. The effectiveness of tracheostomy as a curative procedure in obstructive sleep apnea has been proved with reasonable certainty (172). However, associated abnormalities may cause nonapneic hypoxemia in patients with a gas exchange defect such as COPD or morbid obesity. The correction of upper airway obstruction may also unmask periodic breathing and central apnea in some patients (156,173). Therefore, these patients require close clinical and laboratory followup to document improvement. The indications for tracheostomy have declined substantially with the introduction of nasal CPAP as the treatment of choice for most patients with sleep apnea. Tracheostomy is now limited to patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea who fail or cannot tolerate nasal CPAP therapy. The widespread use of uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) occurred in an uncontrolled manner and before confirmation of efficacy in scientifically rigorous studies. Many patients continued to have an AHI higher than 20, even if they met the 50% reduction criterion and had subjective improvement in symptoms (105). Relapse was more common in patients who gained weight (174). Predictors of successful response have been inconsistent (170,175,176), and longterm followup data are scarce. Thus, the role of UPPP in the management of sleep apnea—hypopnea remains indeterminate in terms of patient selection and longterm outcome. A twophased surgical protocol of upper airway reconstruction has been proposed (177). Phase 1 involves correction of the most narrowed segment of the upper airway, as identified by cephalometry or nasopharyngoscopy during wakefulness. The patient may undergo any combination of nasal reconstruction, UPPP
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or inferior mandibular sagittal osteotomy, with or without hyoid myotomy and suspension. If obstructive sleep apnea is still present by polysomnography at 4–6 months, the patient is considered for bimaxillary advancement. The authors report success in excess of 60% in phase I and 90% in phase II. This approach is perhaps the most extensive surgical protocol with cure as the stated objective. Although upper airway reconstruction is intuitively appealing, it has not been evaluated in a prospective comparison with less invasive therapy such as nasal CPAP. However, if skeletal abnormalities are the primary risk factor, such surgery may be of potential value, and further investigation is warranted to ascertain which group of patients is likely to benefit. F. Oral Appliances Most appliances are designed to improve upper airway baseline dimensions, either by pulling the tongue forward or by moving the mandible forward. The Standards of Practice Committee of the American Sleep Disorders Association appointed a task force to evaluate the role of oral appliances in the treatment of sleepdisordered breathing (178). The report reviewed 21 studies with a total of 320 patients. Overall, snoring was reduced considerably and often eliminated. The frequency of apnea—hypopnea was reduced, but as many as 40% of patients continued to have an AHI higher than 20. Subjective improvement in daytime function was reported in most studies, although objective documentation of improvement in sleepiness was lacking. Side effects were generally mild, with mouth discomfort being the most reported side effect. On the basis of this report, the committee recommended oral appliances for the treatment of primary snoring and mild obstructive sleep apnea if behavioral measures are insufficient (179). Patients with moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea may also be candidates for oral appliances if they are intolerant of nasal CPAP and are not candidates for surgery (180). G. Nasal Continuous Positive Airway Pressure. The effectiveness of nasal CPAP in eliminating obstructive apnea and hypopnea has been clearly established (181). Nasal CPAP has also been effective in patients with supinedependent idiopathic central sleep apnea (182). However, the effectiveness of nasal CPAP in Cheyne—Stokes respiration or in the central apnea associated with congestive heart failure is less consistent (183,184). Finally, nasal CPAP has also been effective in patients with upper airway resistance syndrome by eliminating snoring, flow limitation, and repetitive arousals (6). The effects of nasal CPAP on the natural history of sleep apnea syndrome has not yet been determined in controlled prospective studies. However, the available data, when taken together, strongly suggest that the beneficial effects of nasal CPAP on breathing during sleep are translated into improved outcome. For
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example, treatment of sleep apnea with nasal CPAP is associated with improved alertness (185,186), decreased hematocrit (187), and improved left ventricular ejection fraction (188). One retrospective study suggested that nasal CPAP was associated with reduced mortality, when comparable with tracheostomy (189). These data and the accumulated clinical experience are compelling, and they explain the widespread use of nasal CPAP in the treatment of sleepdisordered breathing. The optimal level of CPAP is determined by upward titration until apneas, hypopnea, and snoring are eliminated (5–15 cmH2O in most patients). Several studies have evaluated the usefulness of obtaining the diagnosis and titrating nasal CPAP during a singlenight polysomnography (104,190,191). This approach has been effective in most patients, especially those with an apnea—hypopnea index higher than 20 events per hour of sleep. However, one out of four patients may require subsequent modification of CPAP pressure. Splitnight studies appear to be costeffective and to allow initiation of therapy without undue delay. Complications associated with nasal CPAP are generally mild, including local skin irritation, drying of the mucosal membranes, nasal congestion or rhinorrhea, and eye irritation (181). Some patients complain of excessive expiratory pressure and may benefit from bilevel positive pressure which permits inspiratory and expiratory pressures to be varied independently. Many patients require modifications of the type of interface (mask versus “pillows”), inline humidification, or pharmacological treatment of rhinitis. If nasal obstruction is a possibility, an ear, nose, and throat evaluation for possible surgical correction may be needed. Despite its effectiveness, compliance with nasal CPAP remains less than optimal. By covert monitoring of mask pressure, a mean nightly use of only 4.8 hr was documented, and a significant discrepancy was noted between reported compliance and objective compliance (192,193). Inconvenience was the most reported cause of discontinuation of therapy. The severity of apnea or daytime sleepiness did not predict compliance. There was no difference in compliance between regular nasal CPAP and bilevel positiveairway pressure, which is reported to be a more comfortable mode of delivery (194). These studies, combined with the observation that sleep apnea and impaired vigilance return promptly once nasal CPAP is discontinued, suggest that adverse consequences of sleep apnea may not be adequately reversed in most patients. On the other hand, the observation that symptomatic improvement does occur in many patients, even after as little as 4 hr/night of usage, indicates that the optimal duration of nasal CPAP required to eliminate symptoms and prevent morbidity is not precisely known. Progress continues to be made in the development of CPAP machines capable of continuously monitoring pressure and flow and then automatically adjusting the level of CPAP pressure. In a recently published study, Meurice et al. demonstrated that such device is as effective as nasal regular CPAP in normalizing
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respiration and correcting daytime sleepiness and cognitive impairment (195). The next question is whether automated CPAP devices can provide a costeffective approach by obviating the need for polysomnography in patients with high clinical probability of sleep apnea. H. Approach to Management of SleepDisordered Breathing Patients with excessive daytime sleepiness and habitual snoring are referred for nocturnal polysomnography, which allows the distinction between the sleep apnea— hypopnea and high upper airway resistance syndromes. If apneas or hypopneas are present, titration of nasal CPAP is performed, usually during the diagnostic study, to eliminate the abnormal respiratory events. Titrations are generally not performed if the polysomnogram suggests the high upper airway resistance syndrome without apneas or hypopneas although new algorithms are being investigated (see foregoing). The subsequent prescription for therapy is dependent on the severity of the patient's symptoms (196). The more severe the symptoms, the more compelling is the indication for therapy. In patients with mild symptoms, modification of risk factors alone may be sufficient to reduce daytime symptoms. Patients with more severe symptoms are prescribed nasal CPAP based on the titration study. Patients with presumed high upper airway resistance syndrome are usually given a therapeutic trial of nasal CPAP at 5–7 cmH2O, with reevaluation of symptomatic response after 4–6 weeks. Nonobese patients with central sleep apnea may be given a trial of acetazolamide. Alternatively, nasal CPAP, often in the bilevel, ventilatorassisted mode, is recommended. A significant minority of patients will not tolerate the nasal CPAP. Oral appliances are considered in patients with high upper airway resistant syndrome and in patients with mild to moderate sleep apnea—hypopnea. In patients with more severe sleep apnea, with associated morbid obesity, cor pulmonale, or daytime hypercarbia, bilevel mechanical ventilation or tracheostomy can be considered. Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty is infrequently recommended in isolation, but rather, it is used in conjunction with the phased surgical protocol described earlier. Practice parameters for surgical interventions have been proposed (197). 1. Recommendations for Driving Patients with sleep apnea have higher rates of automobile accidents than the general population (109). The American Thoracic Society recently formulated recommendations for identification and the approach to the highrisk driver with sleep apnea (108). A highrisk driver is defined as a person with excessive daytime sleepiness, accompanied by a history of a motor vehicle accident. The committee did not recommend using objective tests of sleepiness to quantitate risk because a test, such as the multiple sleep latency test, has uncertain predictability for driving
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risk. Highrisk drivers should be evaluated promptly, warned about the dangers of sleepiness, and reevaluated within 2 months of initiating therapy. In states with applicable reporting statutes, the committee recommended reporting several groups of patients: (1) patients with sleepiness not amenable to therapy within 2 months, (2) patients who are unwilling to accept treatment, and (3) patients who are unwilling to restrict their driving until effective therapy has been instituted. The committee went on to state, “There is insufficient evidence to suggest this level of caution for drivers with lesser forms of sleepiness, for any given level of apneic activity per se or for persons without a history of motor vehicle accidents.” Acknowledgments We wish to thank the coinvestigators of the UW Sleep and Respiration Group (Jerome Dempsey, Terry Young, Mari Palta, and Khin Mae Hla) and Christine Wilson and Shalu Manchanda for providing original data. Carol Smith assisted with preparation of the manuscript. Original work was supported by NHLBI SCOR, VA Research Service, NHLBI General Clinical Research Center, NHLBI Clinical Investigator Award, American Heart Association of Wisconsin, American Lung Association of Wisconsin, and the Parker B. Francis Foundation. References 1. Stradling JR. Sleeprelated breathing disorders 1. Obstructive sleep apnoea: definitions, epidemiology, and natural history. Thorax 1995; 50:683–689. 2. Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J, Weber W, Badr S. The occurrence of sleepdisordered breathing among middleaged adults. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:1230–1235. 3. Olson LG, King MT, Hensley MJ, Saunders NA. A community study of snoring and sleepdisordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:711–716. 4. Stradling JR, Crosby JH, Payne CD. Self reported snoring and daytime sleepiness in men aged 35–65 years. Thorax 1991; 46:807–810. 5. Guilleminault C, Stoohs R, Duncan S. Snoring (I). Chest 1991; 99:40–48. 6. Guilleminault C, Stoohs R, Clerk A, Cetel M, Maistros P. A cause of excessive daytime sleepiness. Chest 1993; 104:781–787. 7. Hla KM, Young TB, Bidwell T, Palta M, Skatrud JB, Dempsey J. Sleep apnea and hypertension: a populationbased study. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120:382–388. 8. Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Interaction of sleep state and chemical stimuli in sustaining rhythmic ventilation. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55:813–822. 9. Datta AK, Shea SA, Horner RL, Guz A. The influence of induced hypocapnia and sleep on the endogenous respiratory rhythm in humans. J Physiol 1991; 440:17– 33. 10. Badr MS, Kawak A. Posthyperventilation hypopnea in humans during NREM sleep. Respir Physiol 1996; 103:137–145.
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165. Aljadeff G, Gozal D, BaileyWahl SL, Burrell B, Keens TG, Ward SLD. Effects of overnight supplemental oxygen in obstructive sleep apnea in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:51–55. 166. Fletcher EC, Munafo DA. Role of nocturnal oxygen therapy in obstructive sleep apnea: when should it be used? Chest 1990; 98:1497–1504. 167. Miki H, Hida W, Shindoh C, et al. Effects of electrical stimulation of the genioglossus on upper airway resistance in anesthetized dogs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:1279–1284. 168. Schwartz AR, Thut DC, Russ B, et al. Effect of electrical stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve on airflow mechanics in the isolated upper airway. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1144–1150. 169. Guilleminault C, Powell N, Bowman B, Stoohs R. The effect of electrical stimulation on obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 1995; 107:67–73. 170. Sher AE, Schechtman KB, Piccirillo JF. The efficacy of surgical modifications of the upper airway in adults with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep 1996; 19:156–177. 171. Series F, St Pierre S, Carrier G. Effects of surgical correction of nasal obstruction in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1261–1265. 172. Gulleminault C, Simmons FB, Motta J. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and tracheostomy: longterm followup experience. Arch Intern Med 1981; 141:985– 988. 173. Onal E, Lopata M. Periodic breathing and pathogenesis of occlusive sleep apneas. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126:676–680. 174. Larsson LH, CarlssonNordlander B, Svanborg E. Fouryear followup after uvulopalatopharyngoplasty in 50 unselected patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Laryngoscope 1994; 104:1362–1368. 175. Aboussouan LS, Golish JA, Wood BG, Mehta AC, Wood DE, Dinner DS. Dynamic pharynogoscopy in predicting outcome of uvulopalatopharyngoplasty for moderate and severe obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1995; 107:946–951. 176. Doghramji K, Jabourian ZH, Pilla M, Farole A, Lindholm RN. Predictors of outcome for uvulopalatopharyngoplasty. Laryngoscope 1995; 105:311–314. 177. Riley RW, Powell NB, Guilleminault C. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: a review of 306 consecutively treated surgical patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 108:117–125. 178. SchmidtNowara W, Lowe A, Wiegand L, Cartwright R, PerezGuerra F, Menn S. Oral appliances for the treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea: a review. Sleep 1995; 18:501–510. 179. American Sleep Disorders Association. Practice parameters for the treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea with oral appliances. Sleep 1995; 18:511– 513. 180. Ferguson KA, Ono T, Lowe AA, Keenan SP, Fleetham JA. A randomized crossover study of an oral appliance vs nasal continuous positive airway pressure in the treatment of mild—moderate obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1996; 109:1269–1275. 181. American Thoracic Society. Indications and standards for use of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) in sleep apnea syndromes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:1738–1745. 182. Issa FG, Sullivan CE. Reversal of central sleep apnea using nasal CPAP. Chest 1986; 90:165–171.
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183. Takasaki Y, Orr D, Popkin J, Rutherford R, Liu P, Bradley TD. Effect of nasal continuous positive airway pressure on sleep apnea in congestive heart failure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:1578–1584. 184. Granton JT, Naughton MT, Benard DC, Liu PP, Goldstein RS, Bradley TD. CPAP improves inspiratory muscle strength in patients with heart failure and central sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:277–282. 185. Lamphere J, Roehrs T, Wittig R, Zorick F, Conway WA, Roth R. Recovery of alertness after CPAP in apnea. Chest 1989; 96:1364–1367. 186. Rajagopal KR, Bennett LL, Dillard TA, Tellis CJ, Tenholder MF. Overnight nasal CPAP improves hypersomnolence in sleep apnea. Chest 1990; 90:172–176. 187. Krieger J, Sforza E, Barthelmebs M, Imbs JS, Kurtz D. Overnight decrease in hematocrit after nasal CPAP treatment in patients with OSA. Chest 1990; 97:729–730. 188. Krieger J, Grucker D, Sforza E, Chambron J, Kutz D. Left ventricular ejection fraction in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1991; 100:917–921. 189. He J, Kryger M, Zorick F, Conway W, Roth T. Mortality and apnea index in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1988; 94:9–14. 190. Sanders MH, Kern NB, Costantino JP. Adequacy of prescribing positive airway pressure therapy by mask for sleep apnea on the basis of a partialnight trial. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1169–1174. 191. Yamashiro Y, Kryger MH. CPAP titration for sleep apnea using a splitnight protocol. Chest 1995; 107:62–66. 192. Kribbs NB, Kline LR, Smith PL, et al. Objective measurement of patterns of nasal CPAP use by patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:791–887. 193. ReevesHoche MK, Meck R, Zwillich CW. Nasal CPAP: an objective evaluation of patient compliance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:149–154. 194. ReevesHoche MK, Hudgel DW, Meck R, Witteman R, Ross A, Zwillich CW. Continuous versus bilevel positive airway pressure for obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:443–449. 195. Meurice JC, Marc I, Series F. Efficacy of autoCPAP in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:794–798. 196. Hudgel DW. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea: a review. Chest 1996; 109:1346–1358. 197. American Sleep Disorders Association. Practice parameters for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in adults: the efficacy of surgical modifications of the upper airway. Sleep 1996; 19:152–155.
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12 Control of Breathing in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease NEIL S. CHERNIACK University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey New Jersey Medical School Newark, New Jersey I. Introduction Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) comprises a group of related disorders of the lungs and the bronchi that have in common increased airway resistance (Table 1; 1,2). The greater airway resistance leads to an increase in lung volume which shortens the respiratory muscles and impedes their contraction. The pathological processes in COPD that heighten resistance by clogging the airways with secretions, or by destroying the parenchymal tethers that prevent airway collapse, lead to additional function changes that interfere with the production of force by the respiratory muscles and the efficiency of gas exchange (2,3). These mechanical and chemical stresses to the respiratory system, which threaten homeostasis, bring into play the defense mechanisms of the respiratory control system (2,3). The two most common illnesses that constitute COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Both diseases usually occur together. Chronic bronchitis, which can have an infectious or an allergic base, is characterized by hypersecretion and is diagnosed by the symptoms it produces, persistent cough and phlegm on most days for at least 3 months a year for 2 successive years (2,3). Emphysema is a disease, defined histologically as one that causes dilation of the airspaces because of destruction of alveolar walls and interstitial tissue by inflammation (3).
Page 424 Table 1 Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease Major types Emphysema
Related types Bronchiectasis
Panacinar
Cystic fibrosis
Centrolobular
Bronchiolitis obliterans
Bullous
Chronic bronchitis
Allergic
Infectious
Mixed
When the entire acinus is affected, the emphysema is called panacinar; but if only the central portion of the acinus is affected, then the emphysema is termed centrolobular. Easily visible airdistended sacs occur in bullous emphysema. Several other related diseases shown in Table 1 can cause persistently increased airflow resistance (2,3). Various different factors listed in Table 2 cause COPD (3,4). They are of two types: (1) agents that when inhaled cause inflammation, such as noxious particles and gases, air pollutants, infectious agents, and allergens; and (2) familial or acquired deficiency or abnormality of factors that protect against lung injury, such as the cilia lining the airways, immunoglobulins A and G, and antiproteases, such as 1protease inhibitor, 2macroglobin, and antioxidant enzymes (5). By far the leading cause of COPD is cigarette smoking which produces injurious particles, gases, and oxidants that lead to tissue inflammation (6). This, in turn, gives rise to an influx into the lungs of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages that secret proteases, particularly elastases, leading to amplification of tissue injury (4,6). The liver normally synthesizes the antielastase, 1inhibitor, which neutralizes elastases in the lung. Cigarette smoke contains oxygen radicals that are believed to inactivate crucial methionine sites on the 1inhibitor (7–10). Table 2 Causes of Emphysema Smoking Air pollution Severe repeated infections Immotile cilia syndrome IgA deficiency Protease inhibitor deficiency Familial Genetic
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II. Effects of COPD on Respiratory System Function A list of the major stresses placed on the control system by COPD is shown in Table 3. They are of two types: (1) interference with the ability of the respiratory muscles to inflate the lung; and (2) pathological changes that prevent efficient gas exchange (4–10). Destruction of the lung interstitium increases pulmonary compliance; hence, the lung is more easily inflated and functional residual capacity (FRC) is enlarged. The loss of the lung elasticity also allows the airways to be more compressible. This slow airflow during expiration and air may be trapped when increases in respiratory drive shorten the time available for expiration. Inspiration may begin while there is still an alveolar positive endexpiratory pressure (autoPEEP), such that at the start of inspiration, contraction of the inspiratory muscles is necessary to reduce that positive pressure before air can enter the lungs. This increases the work of breathing (11– 15). The hyperinflation of the lungs also shortens the inspiratory muscles so that the maximal force that they generate is diminished (14). In addition, the diaphragm is flattened so that its contraction is wasted in retracting the lateral rib cage instead of expanding the lungs (11,12,16). Increases in respiratory drive require that the intercostal muscles and the accessory muscles of the neck assist the diaphragm. These respiratory muscles use energy less efficiently than the diaphragm and the oxygen they consume in the process of ventilation is increased (12). Even in the absence of parenchymal changes, bronchitis increases airway fluids and alters their viscoelastic properties; consequently, airway resistance rises during both inspiration and expiration. The altered rheological properties of airway fluid compromise ciliary removal of inhaled particles and further diminish airflow rates (17– 19). In both bronchitis and emphysema, airway resistance is greater and flow rates less despite the fact that FRC and total lung capacity (TLC) are both enlarged. Because the increase in FRC and residual volume (RV) are usually Table 3 Disturbances to Control System Operations Produced by COPD Decreased maximal breathing capacity caused by Increased airway resistance Hyperinflation, with shortening of the resting length of inspiratory muscles Air trapping with autoPEEP Increased work and oxygen cost of breathing Inefficient gas exchange caused by Increased dead space Ventilation and perfusion mismatch Reduced diffusing capacity
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greater than the increase of TLC, vital capacity falls in severe COPD, but not as much as flow rates (2,3). Because cigarette smoking, the usual cause of COPD, is injurious both to the airways and to the lung parenchyma, it is common to find both parenchymal destruction and airway injury with hypersecretion in the same patient (20,21). In fact, COPD is a spectrum of diseases, ranging from pure bronchitis to pure emphysema, with most patients occupying the middle of that spectrum (2,3). COPD rarely affects all parts of lungs and airways equally. Some regions of the lungs and airways are more severely affected than others (16,22). Because sites of injury are patchy and differ in severity, ventilation and perfusion in the lung become increasing nonuniform and the normally slight ventilation—perfusion inequalities become magnified (2,16,22) so that the alveolar—arterial gradient for PO2 widens and hypoxemia results. As the disease progresses, ventilation itself becomes increasingly nonuniform, such that regions of the lung fill and empty at different rates. Interstitial tissue destruction also eradicates capillaries, enlarging the dead space, and diminishing the area available for gas transfer (2,3,23). Although ventilation tends to be maintained or is even increased in most patients with COPD, during an acute respiratory inflammatory episode and in disease of sufficient severity, hypercapnia as well as hypoxemia occur (2,3,23). Destruction of the capillary bed, aggravated by increases in cardiac output and pulmonary vasoconstriction caused by hypoxia, may produce right ventricular failure in some patients with COPD (1–3,12). Tissue oxygenation is compromised. The shortness of breath experienced by patients with COPD and air swallowing can interfere with proper nutrition (4). Dyspnea also limits the activity of patients, and muscles of the extremities may weaken and atrophy in part because of disuse (14,24). The weakened poorly oxygenated muscles further limit activity. Killian has found the leg pain limits exercise in patients about as often as shortness of breath (25). Hypoxia and hypercapnia increase cerebral blood flow, but hypoxia may reduce mental performance (2,3,24). Hypercapnia may also impede renal excretion of fluid and contribute to the edema seen in some patients (2,3). COPD severely reduces the quality of life of patients, and many patients are depressed and unable to meet usually encountered daily stresses (26,28,29). III. Compensatory Actions of the Control System in COPD Four different lines of defense allow patients to compensate for the adverse effects of lung disease on respiratory muscle function and gas exchange, as shown in Table 4. These are the intrinsic properties of the muscles; muscle and pulmonary mechanoreceptors; chemical control by chemoreceptors; and in humans, behavioral responses (30–32).
Page 427 Table 4 Bases for Compensatory Control System Responses in Lung Disease Intrinsic properties of skeletal muscles
Chemoreceptors
Length—tension relationship
Peripheral (carotid, aortic bodies)
Force—velocity relationship
Central (medullary) respiratory
Mechanoreceptors Muscles, joints, airways, lungs
Central vasomotor Behavioral
Load detection
Load compensating
Respiratory muscles, similar to skeletal muscle, generally generate more force when stretched by loads (11,14,23). Hyperinflation in COPD tends to elongate the expiratory muscles so that they can contract more forcibly to expel air. However, the resting length of inspiratory muscles, such as the diaphragm, are reduced. Increases in airway resistance slow respiratory muscle shortening and increase contractile forces because, as with other skeletal muscles, forcegenerating ability is inversely and hyperbolically related to contraction velocity (11,14). Spindles present in the intercostal muscles help ensure that the muscles shorten adequately. Intrafusal fibers containing the spindle are embedded within the main force generating (extrafusal) fibers (31). The gamma motor fibers, which signal central respiratory demands to the intrafusal fiber, stretch the spindle, which then reflexly produces greater activity in alpha motor fibers supplying the extrafusal fibers. Spindle stretch is relieved when extrafusal fibers, which are arranged parallel to the intrafusal fibers, shorten sufficiently (31,33). The diaphragm itself has no spindles, but reflexes originating in the intercostal muscles can augment phrenic motor discharge to the diaphragm. Tendon receptors in muscles, particularly in the diaphragm, prevent muscles from contracting too forcibly (31,33). In animals, the pulmonary stretch (HeringBreuer) reflex, which is mediated through stretch receptor afferents passing through the vagi from the airways to the medulla, help offset the effects of loads. Stretch receptors limit lung expansion and thus tidal volume (33). When airway resistance is increased, the expansion of the lungs is slowed. The stretch receptor stimulation is less, leading to a greater tidal volume. This compensatory mechanism does not occur after vagotomy, and the reflex appears to be substantially weaker in humans than in other animals (31,33). Irritant receptors in the larger airway can be stimulated by noxious agents and by inflammation to enhance respiratory motor nerve activity, but this may shorten inspiratory time (31,33). The PO2 and PCO2 in the arterial blood and brain are monitored by peripheral and central chemoreceptors that act on medullary respiratory centers in a multiplicative way to increase drive to the respiratory muscles and are an important source of compensation in COPD (31,34–40).
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Responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia vary greatly among individuals (34). There is considerable indirect evidence that both are influenced by familial and by inherited factors, and that both can be altered by prolonged exposure to elevated CO2 levels or by low levels of O2. Ventilatory responses to chemical stimuli are frequently subnormal in patients with COPD (31,34,35,41,42). However, more direct measures of respiratory drive that are not affected as much as altered respiratory mechanics and muscle function produced by COPD, such as the electrical activity of the diaphragm or airway occlusion pressures, suggest that responses are often within normal limits (36–38). However, in some patients, particularly those with chronic hypercapnia, even these more direct measures show a reduced respiratory drive (39). Studies of highaltitude residents show that sustained hypoxia produces rather complex changes in ventilator responses. The magnitude and direction of these ventilator changes vary with the time of life at which altitude exposure begins and with its duration (40). However, evidence that hypoxic response changes with the duration of COPD is meager and unconvincing. Unlike anesthetized subjects, conscious humans and animals can maintain normal arterial blood gas tension despite substantial elevation in airway resistance produced by bronchoconstriction or experimentally with external loads (36–38). The response seems to depend on the conscious recognition of the impediment to breathing and is mediated by an increase in central respiratory motor output and in the force generated by the respiratory muscles, as measured by the occlusive pressure (43,44). This heightened occlusive pressure response to ventilatory loading is observed during experimentally induced hypercapnia as well as during resting breathing. In fact, in normal persons, the occlusive pressure response to CO2 is generally greater when measured with the subjects breathing through an external load than when breathing is unimpeded. Some of the increase seems to be due to a consciously produced decrease in FRC that enhances the contractile ability of the inspiratory muscles. Humans can detect and grade external loads with substantial accuracy and can also quantitatively evaluate their muscles' force of contraction as well as the level of ventilation and tidal volume (45,46). Nonetheless, there is only scanty evidence that the response to external loads is quantitatively related to the ability to assess load size (46). Some studies suggest that load detection may be influenced by psychological factors, such as the degrees of neuroticism. IV. Effect of COPD on Ventilation As a result of the compensatory mechanisms described, the diaphragm's electrical activity in COPD patients is often increased, as are rates of inspiratory airflow (38,39,44,46). Tidal volume is well maintained, and there is often an acceleration
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of breathing rates. Hence, most patients with COPD are able to maintain normal levels of arterial PCO2 even though dead space is substantially increased by the disease, and maximal inspiratory pressure is reduced. Although hypoxia is quite common at rest and likely contributes to the increased breathing in most patients, normal levels of arterial PCO2 are maintained, even when hypoxia is eliminated by breathing oxygenenriched gases. There is no evidence in most patients of reduced chemosensitivity, although the work required of the respiratory muscles and their O2 consumption may be substantially increased. Dyspnea often occurs in patients with COPD when respiratory drive is increased and can be incapacitating (36). The onset of dyspnea in COPD patients is related to the use of the accessory muscles of respiration, and it also increases as the pressure generated by the respiratory muscles grows higher (36). Patients with COPD are less able to detect added ventilatory loads, which may be related to their higher baseline airway resistance or to their advanced age. The sensory effects produced by respiratory loads is less in an older person, as assessed by psychophysical techniques, such as magnitude estimation and production, and many COPD patients are in the older age ranges (49). The heightened occlusion pressure response to externalresistive loads seen in normal persons is diminished or absent in many patients with COPD, although a heightening of this pressure has been observed in COPD patients who were required to breathe from elastic loads (50). The reason for this difference is obscure. Blunted responses to resistive loading may be a result of prolonged increases in baseline resistance. Asthmatic patients, in contrast, respond as normal subjects to resistive loads with increases in occlusion pressure (51). Exercise capacity becomes reduced in COPD and maximum capacity is best predicted from levels of 1sec forced expiratory volume (FEV1) and maximal voluntary ventilation (52). Many patients with COPD have sufficient respiratory reserve to reach the aerobic threshold, but lactic acid formation may occur at relatively low exercise values (53). Deconditioning and inadequate circulation play an important role in limiting exercise in COPD, and leg pain is as frequent as dyspnea as a symptom that terminates exercise (25). Because of the use of accessory muscles to breathe in COPD, unsupported arm exercise is particularly difficult and often requires higher than normal oxygen consumption (54). V. Factors Limiting Load Compensation and Producing Hypercapnia. With progressively deteriorating respiratory performance or with acute exacerbations of the disease, the ability to keep arterial PCO2 levels within normal limits is lost and hypercapnia results. There is a clear relationship between the level of FEV1 and arterial PCO2. Very little change occurs in arterial PCO2 until the FEV1
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value falls below 1.5 or even 1.0 L, at which point further reductions in FEV1 cause a nearly exponential rise in arterial PCO2 (2,3). Although this relationship indicates that there are limits, this is not obvious. Some possibilities are shown in Table 5. In patients with very severe lung damage, the work of breathing may be so great that the additional CO2 produced by respiratory muscle contraction to raise ventilation may exceed the amount of additional CO2 produced by respiratory muscle contraction to raise ventilation, which may exceed the amount of additional CO2 expired as the result of the ventilation increase. Another possibility is that there is a tight relationship between the respiratory drive, as measured by PCO2 and PO2, and output, as measured by work of breathing. So, the PCO2 level will rise until it is of a sufficiently high level to stimulate enough respiratory work to maintain CO2 homeostasis. However, work is not constant at a given chemical drive. Even when PCO2 is kept constant, reflex drives and behavioral factors can increase neural activity, occlusion pressure, and presumably the work of breathing as well. Feedback through chemoreceptors is an important mechanism that preserves PCO2 at normal levels. The same PCO2 may be maintained by individuals with widely different levels of airway resistance and degrees of respiratory work, suggesting variability in chemosensitivity. Respiratory responses to CO2 are less in close relatives of COPD patients who are hypercapnic than in relatives of normocapnic patients (34). Also, longdistance runners and their relatives have subnormal responses to hypoxia (55). From this it has been inferred that blunted chemosensitivity present in some patients gives rise to CO2 retention. Metabolic alkalosis, sedatives, and anesthetics, all depress respiratory responses to CO2. Diuretic treatment with potassium loss can lead to alkalosis and PCO2 elevation in patients with COPD (56). Sleepdisordered breathing can lead to bicarbonate retention and hypercapnia. In patients in whom the response to CO2 is already Table 5 Potential Causes of Hypercapnia in COPD Excessive work of breathing Excessive metabolic cost of breathing Reduced respiratory muscle, strength, and endurance Decreased chemosensitivity Genetic, familial: acquired because of Medications used Alkalosis Hypoxic depression Sleepdisturbed breathing Reflex shortening of tidal volume or inspiratory time Conscious attempts to avoid dyspnea
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reduced, treatment with O2 to relieve hypoxia may diminish respiratory drive so much that the PCO2 increases substantially. On the other hand, after an initial increase in ventilation arising from stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors, acute hypoxia can produce ventilatory depression, presumably by increasing inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain (47,58). It is possible that longterm hypoxia has a similar effect in COPD, but there is no clear evidence for this. Some patients with COPD seem to lack the behaviorally mediated increase in respiratory activity observed in healthy individuals. The absence of this behavioral response may predispose to hypercapnia. Oliven et al. demonstrated that patients who perceived changes in respiratory pressure more intensely compensated less well to loads than those with more blunted perceptual responses (46). This suggests that subnormal respiratory sensation need not lead to diminished load compensation, but rather, that patients may adjust their breathing such that they minimize sensation of respiratory or discomfort effort. Postures used by COPD patients, such as leaning forward may be adopted to relieve dyspnea. Sharp et al. suggested that this posture lengthens the neck muscles and increases their effectiveness in inspiration (47). VI. Breathing Patterns and Hypercapnia in COPD In the past, hypercapnic patients with COPD have been divided into two categories based on the responses to chemical drives: patients who try to breathe but cannot; and those who because of poor chemosensitivity have insufficient drive to breathe (2). Bronchitis was believed to lead to hypercapnia, hypoxia, right ventricular failure, and fluid retention—to produce “blue bloaters” who had poor chemosensitivity (2,59,60). Emphysema, on the other hand, was believed to produce pink puffers with wellmaintained levels of arterial PCO2 and PO2 (2,59). This classification has not withstood the scrutiny afforded by technologies, such as computed tomographic (CT) scanning and chemical measurements of elastin metabolites, which now can be used to estimate the severity of emphysema premortem (20,59). Sorli and MilicEmili compared ventilatory patterns between normocapnic and hypercapnic COPD patients (60). Although both groups had minute ventilation levels above normal, tidal volume was smaller in the hypercapnia group. The decrease in tidal volume was caused by a shortening of inspiratory time. The authors suggested that because the hypercapnic patients tended to have bronchitis symptoms, irritant receptor stimulation might abbreviate inspiratory time, producing lower tidal volumes and decreased alveolar ventilation so that hypercapnia occurred despite the increase in overall ventilation. However, irritant receptor stimulation also occurs during asthmatic attacks in which hypocapnia is common (39).
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The increased work performed by the respiratory muscles may result in fatigue. Grassino et al. found that fatigue of the respiratory muscles occurs when the product of the pressure generated by the diaphragm and inspiratory time reach some limit (11,14,61). Some studies indicate that, when this limit is approached, the activity of motor nerves supplying the respiratory muscles diminishes to avoid the fatigue that might result in serious muscle damage. It may be that hypercapnia in some COPD occurs in an attempt by the control system to limit inspiratory time and thereby escape fatigue. Finally, dyspnea is related more to the pressure exerted during each breath than to other factors, such as breathing rates (36,62,63). It may be that tidal volume is decreased in the hypercapnic patients to relieve dyspnea (64). Those patients with COPD who have more intense perceptions of pressure maintain smaller tidal volumes when breathing on external loads than those with less intense sensation (46). It has been proposed many times that breathing patterns are regulated such that the work of breathing is minimized or the respiratory pressure generated during a breath is less for a given level of alveolar ventilation. Poon has hypothesized that both alveolar ventilation and breathing patterns are adjusted to optimize a figure of merit that becomes closer to ideal as deviations from desired arterial PCO2 and the work of breathing are reduced (65). Although Poon's hypothesis could explain hypercapnia in COPD patients, work sensors in the respiratory muscles have not been found. However, because humans can consciously sense both respiratory pressure and respiratory volume changes, and work is the product of pressure and volume, there may be cortical mechanisms for integrating sensations so that something akin to work can be sensed (66). Longobardo et al. have suggested that it is possible that breathing is optimized such that work to expel a given volume of CO2 is minimized, and they have shown that, if this is true, resting arterial PCO2 levels would rise as respiratory work increases (67). VII. Factors Modifying Respiratory Control System Operation Although the respiratory controller largely consists of medullary and spinal reflex circuits, its operation can be modified by higher brain centers (36,38). Equally important, the properties of the control system are not static, but can be altered by continued stress. Hypoxia can have intracellular effects that can turn off or on the expression of genes and so alter the intrinsic characteristics of control system elements (69–73). Both higher brain centers and regulation of gene expressions are especially important in chronic disease such as COPD that have widespread systemic effects (70,72). Both increase the capacity of the respiratory control system to adapt and to increase the number of available strategies.
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Orem has shown through studies of conditioned reflexes involving respiratory neurons, that behavioral control of breathing is expressed over neural pathways to medullary respiratory neurons as well as over pathways from higher brain centers that bypass these neurons and act on the spinal motor neurons of the respiratory muscles (63). This cortical control of respiration is clearly evident in breathholding and in speech, but it is possible that more subtle mood changes also affect the level of patterns of breathing in COPD. There are adaptive responses to the prolonged stresses engendered by COPD. For example, the number of sarcomers is reduced in the diaphragm fibers in animals with experimental emphysema (69). Because of these reductions, sarcomers remain at their normal resting length even when the resting length of the diaphragm is subnormal because of expansion of the FRC. In cell cultures, hypoxia retards or accelerates the transcription of genes for enzymes involved in neurotransmission, red cell formation, angiogenesis, and aerobic and anaerobic metabolism (72). Moreover, it is clear that these changes in gene function can be initiated quite early following hypoxic exposure (73). A greater understanding of the complexity of the control system and its potential to adapt will increase opportunities for improving the wellbeing of patients with COPD. References 1. Bergin C, Muller N, Nichols DM, et al. The diagnosis of emphysema. A computed tomographic pathologic correlation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 123:541–546. 2. Snider GL. Emphysema: the first two centuries—and beyond. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1334–1344. 3. American Thoracic Society Statement Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:S77–S120. 4. Ludwig PW, Schwartz BA, Hoidal JR, Niewoehner DE. Cigarette smoking causes accumulation of polymorphonuclear leukocytosis in an alveolar septum. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131:828–830. 5. Burrows B, Bloom JW, Traver GA, Cline MG. The course and prognosis of different forms of chronic airways obstruction in a sample from the general population. N Engl J Med 1987; 317:1309–1314. 6. Janoff A. Elastases and emphysema. Current assessment of the protease—antiprotease hypothesis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132:417–433. 7. Riley DJ, Kramer MJ, Kerr JS, et al. Damage and repair of lung connective tissue in rats exposed to toxic levels of oxygen. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:44. 8. Saito K, Cagle P, Berend N, Thurlbeck WM. The “destructive index” in nonemphysematous and emphysematous lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:308–312. 9. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Oxygen free radicals and iron in relation to biology and medicine: some problems and concepts. Arch Biochem Biophys 1986; 246:501–514. 10. McCusker K, Hoidal J. Selective increase of antioxidant enzyme activity in alveolar
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macrophages from cigarette smokers and smokeexposed hamsters. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:628–682. 11. Grassimo A, Bellemare F, LaPorta D. Diaphragm fatigue and the strategy of breathing in COPD. Chest 1989; 85:515–545. 12. Arora NS, Rochester DF. COPD and human diaphragm muscle dimensions. Chest 1987; 91:719–724. 13. Polkey MI, Kyroussis D, Hamnegard CH, Mills GH, Green M, Moxham J. Diaphragm strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:1310–1317. 14. Wagner PD, Dantzker DR, Dueck R, et al. Ventilation—perfusion inequality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Clin Invest 1977; 59:203–216. 15. Petrot BJ, Legare M, Goldberg P, MilicEmili J, Gottfried SB. Continuous positive airway pressure reduces work of breathing and dyspnea during weaning from mechanical ventilation in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:281–289. 16. Bellemare F, Grassimo A. Force reserve of the diaphragm in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55:8–15. 17. Wanner A. Clinical aspects of mucociliary transport. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977;116 (1):73–125. 18. Mussatto DJ, Garrard CS, Lourenco RV. The effect of inhaled histamine on human tracheal mucus velocity and bronchia (mucociliary clearance). Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:775–777. 19. Sleigh MA, Blake JR, Liron N. State of art. The propulsion of mucus by cilia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137:726–741. 20. Frette C, Jacob MP, Defouilloy C, Atassi C, Kaufman F. Pham QT, Bignon J. Lack of relationship of elastin peptide level to emphysema assessed by CT scans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; ;153:1544–1547. 21. Lamers RJ, Thelissen CR, Kessels AG, Wooters EF, von Engelshoven JM. Chronic obstructure pulmonary disease: evaluation with spirometrically controlled CT lung densitometry. Radiology 1994; 193:109–113. 22. Jones N. Pulmonary gas exchange during exercise in patients with chronic airways obstruction. Clin Sci 1966; 31:34–50. 23. Booshy JF, North LB. Hemodynamic changes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 1977; 72:565–570. 24. Killian KJ, Campbell EJM. Dyspnea and exercise. Annu Rev Physiol 1983; 45:465–479. 25. Killian KJ, Leblanc P, Martin DH, Summers ES, Jones NL, Campbell EJM. Exercise capacity and ventilatory, circulatory and symptom limitation in patients with chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:935–940. 26. Mahler DA, Rosiello RA, Harver A, et al. Comparison of clinical sensations in obstructive airway disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:1229–1233. 27. Gottfried SB, Altose MD, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Perception of changes in airflow resistance in obstructive pulmonary disorders. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124:566–570. 28. Kaplan RM, Reis A, Atkins CJ. Behavioral issues in the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Behav Med 1985; 7:5–10.
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29. Sandhu HS. Psychological issues in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Chest Med 1986; 7:629–642. 30. Bruce EN, Cherniack NS. Central chemoreceptors. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:389–402. 31. Cherniack NS, Altose MD. Respiratory responses to ventilatory loading. In: Hornbein TF, ed. Regulation of Breathing II. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981:900– 964. 32. Rochester DF, Arora NS, Braun NMT, Goldberg SK. The respiratory muscles in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1979; 18: 951–975. 33. Sant' Ambroggio G, Remmers JE. Reflex influences on respiratory muscles of the chest wall. In: Roussos C, MacKlem PT, eds. Thorax. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1985:531–580. 34. Kawakami Y, Irie T, Shida A, Yoshikawa T. Familial factors affecting arterial blood gas values and respiratory chemosensitivity in chronic obstructure pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125:420–425. 35. Flenly DC, Franklin DH, Millar JS. The hypoxic arises to breathing in chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Clin Sci 1970; 38:503–518. 36. Altose MD. Assessment and management of breathlessness. Chest 1985; 88:775–785. 37. Altose MD, McCauley WC, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Effects of hypercapnia and inspiratory flowresistive loading respiratory activity in chronic airways obstruction. J Clin Invest 1977; 59:500–507. 38. Lourenco RV, Miranda JM. Drive and performance of the ventilatory apparatus in chronic obstructive lung disease. N Engl J Med 1968; 279:53–59. 39. Rebuck AS, Slutsky AS. Control of breathing in diseases of the respiratory tract and lungs. In: Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, eds. Handbook of Physiology, Vol. 2, Part II, Sec 3, Control of Breathing. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society 1986:771–792. 40. Dempsey JA, Furster HV. Mediation of ventilatory adaptations. Physiol Rev 1982; 62: 262–346. 41. Sahn SA, Zwillich CW, Dick N, McCullough RE, Lakshminarayan S, Weil JV. Variability and ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exercise Physiol 1977, 43:1019–1025. 42. Vizek M, Pickett CK, Weil JV. Interindividual variation in hypoxic ventilatory responses: potential role of carotid body. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63: 1884–1889. 43. Altose MD, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Respiratory responses to change in airflow resistance in conscious man. Respir Physiol 1979; 37:185–200. 44. Oliven A, Cherniack NS, Deal ED, Kelsen SG. The effects of acute bronchoconstriction on respiratory activity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131:236–241. 45. Bakers JHCM, Tenney SM. The perception of some sensations associated with breathing. Respir Physiol 1970; 10:85–92. 46. Oliven A, Kelsen SG, Deal EC Jr, Cherniack NS. Respiratory pressure sensation. Relationship to changes in breathing pattern in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132:1214–1218. 47. Sharp JT, Druz WS, Moisan T, et al. Postural relief of dyspnea in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122:201–211.
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48. Nochomovitz ML, Cherniack NS. Agerelated changes in respiratory function. Ger Med Today 1984; 3:49–54. 49. Nochomovitz M, Gothe B, Kelsen SG, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Elastic and resistive loading in chronic obstructive lung disease. Chest 1980; 77(suppl):296– 297. 50. Kelsen SG, Fleefler B, Altose MD. The respiratory neuromuscular response to hypoxia, hypercapnia, and obstruction to airflow in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979; 120:517–527. 51. Cherniack RM. The oxygen consumption and efficiency of the respiratory muscles in health and emphysema. J Clin Invest 1959; 38:494–499. 52. Montes MDEO, Rassulo J, Celli B. Respiratory muscle and cardiopulmonary function during exercise in very severe COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:1284–1289. 53. Petessio A, Casaburi R, Carone M, Appendi L, Donner CF, Wasserman K. Comparison of gas exchange, lactate, and lactic acidosis thresholds in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148:622–662. 54. Martinez FT, Couser JI, Celli BR. Respiratory response to arm elevation in patients with chronic airflow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:476–480. 55. Collins DD, Scoggin CH, Zwillich CW, Weil JV. Hereditary aspects of decreased hypoxic response. J Clin Invest 1978; 62:105–110. 56. Cherniack NS, Altose MD. Automatic and behavioral control of breathing. In: Kana ST, Suratt PM, Remmers JE, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier Science, 1991:101–107. 57. Newbaver JA, Melton JE, Edelman NH. Modulation of respiration during hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68:441–451. 58. Sun MK, Reis DJ. Central neural mechanisms mediating excitation of sympathetic neurons by hypoxia. Prog Neurobiol 1994; 44:197–219. 59. Meziane MA, Hroban RH, Zerhooni EA, et al. Highresolution CT of the lung parenchyma with pathologic correlation. Radiographics 1988; 8:27–54. 60. Sorli J, Grassimo A, Lorange G, MilicEmily J. Control of breathing in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Clin Sci Mol Med 1978; 54:295–305. 61. Roussos C. Ventilatory muscle fatigue governs breathing frequency. Bul Eur Physiopathol Respir 1984; 20:445–451. 62. Killian KJ, Bucens DD, Campbell EJM. Effect of breathing patterns on the perceived magnitude of added loads to breathing. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52:578–584. 63. Killian KJ, Gandevia SC, Summers E, Campbell EJM. Effect of increased lung volume on perception of breathlessness effort and tension. J Appl Physiol 1984;57:681–691. 64. Oku Y, Saidel CM, Chonan T, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Sensation and control of breathing: a dynamic model. Ann Biomed Eng 1991; 19:251–272. 65. Poon CS. Optimal control of ventilation in hypoxia, hypercapnia, and exercise. In: Whipp BJ, Wilberg DM, eds. Modeling and Control of Breathing. New York: Elsevier Science 1983:189–196. 66. Tack M, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Effects of aging on sensation of respiratory force and displacement. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55:1433–1440. 67. Longobardo GS, Cherniack NS, DamokoshGiordano A. Possible optimization of respirators controller sensitivity. Ann Biomed Eng 1980; 8:143–158.
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68. Orem J. Neural bases of behavioral and statedependent control of breathing. In: Lydic R, Brebuyck JF, eds. Clinical Physiology of Sleep. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society 1988; 79–96. 69. Supinski GS, Kelsen SG. Effect of elastase induced emphysema on the forcegenerating ability of the diaphragm. J Clin Invest 1982; 70:978–988. 70. Semenza GL, Roth PH, Fang HM, Wang GL. Transcriptional regulation of genes encoding glycolytic enzymes by hypoxiainducible factor 1. J Biol Chem 1994; 269:23757–23763. 71. Erickson JT, Milhorn DE. Foslike protein is induced in the neurons of the medulla oblongata after stimulation of the carotid sinus nerves in awake and anesthetized cats. Brain Res 1991; 567:11–24. 72. Bunn HF, Poyton RO. Oxygen sensing and molecular adaptation to hypoxia. Physiol Rev 1996; 76:839–885. 73. Prabhakar NR, Shenoy BC, Simonson MS, Cherniack NS. Cell selective induction and transcriptional activation of immediate early genes by hypoxia. Brain Res 1995; 697:266–270.
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13 Control of Breathing in Interstitial Lung Disease ANTHONY F. DiMARCO Case Western Reserve University and MetroHealth Medical Center Cleveland, Ohio I. Introduction and Overview The interstitial lung diseases encompass a large and heterogeneous group of disorders that result in inflammation and ultimately fibrosis of the lung parenchyma. As pointed out by Crystal et al. (1), the term interstitial is somewhat of a misnomer because these disease processes involve not only the alveolar interstitium, but also alveolar epithelial and endothelial cells; airways, arteries, and veins may also be affected. This group of diseases, which encompasses more than 100 different entities, are generally classified into two major groups based on whether or not the causative agent is known (1). The major categories of disease are provided in Table 1. This list is not allinclusive, but provides a framework from which these diseases can be categorized in terms of pathogenesis. In terms of the relative number of patients with these various disorders, most have diseases in which the cause is unknown (2). Within this group sarcoidosis and idiopathic interstitial pulmonary fibrosis are by far the most common. Although the general perception is that the incidence of these diseases is uncommon, recent studies estimate a prevalence of pulmonary fibrosis as high as 29:150,000 persons (3). Moreover, a respiratory diseases task force report from the National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Page 440 Table 1 Etiology of Interstitial Lung Disease Known inciting agent Environmental diseases Inorganic materials
Unknown inciting agent Sarcoidosis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
Silicosis
Vasculitis
Asbestosis
Idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis
Berylliosis
Collagen—vascular disorders
Aluminum
Scleroderma
Talc
Lupus erythematosus
Hard metals
Polymyositis
Organic materials
Dermatomyositis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Gases
Sulfur dioxide
Oxygen
Chlorine
Druginduced disease
Secondary to bleomycin, busulfan, paraquat, methotrexate, or nitrofurantoin
Radiationinduced disease
Infection
Mycobacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Cardiogenic and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema
estimated that approximately 15% of a pulmonary physician's practice involved the care of patients with interstitial lung disease (4). On clinical presentation, patients with interstitial lung disease typically complain of dyspnea, often associated with a nonproductive cough and fatigue (1,2). Physical findings usually include basilar endinspiratory crackles and clubbing of the digits. Most patients are hypoxemic and demonstrate chronic hyperventilation when breathing room air (5–7). These diseases are generally progressive. The number of alveolar—capillary units involved and the degree of fibrosis increases over time (8). However, there is considerable variability in the clinical course of these various diseases. Sarcoidosis is usually characterized by a relatively benign clinical course; 20–25% of patients, however, may suffer some permanent loss of lung function (2). Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, in contrast, commonly leads to severe progressive fibrosis and early death, having a mean survival of less than 5 years (10–12). This latter disease represents the prototype of the interstitial disorders; consequently, most
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clinical studies evaluating the physiological aspects of restrictive lung disorders include patients with this disease. Initially, a chest xray film of patients with interstitial lung disease is characterized by a predominantly interstitial, interstitial—nodular, or granular appearance. Ultimately, these changes may progress to a predominantly cystic or honeycomb appearance (1). Pathologically, these diseases typically manifest a high
Figure 1 Lung biopsy specimens taken from two patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: (a) Alveolar architecture is preserved with only mild fibrous thickening of alveolar wall. There is a moderate chronic inflammatory infiltrate around blood vessels and within alveolar walls. Macrophages are present within alveolar spaces (Magnification ×295). (b) Severe advanced fibrosis. Alveolar walls thickened by dense fibrous tissue with a mild chronic inflammatory infiltrate. Hyperplastic type II pneumocytes line the alveolar surface (Magnification ×295). (Courtesy of Dr. J. Tomashefsky.)
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degree of cellularity and minimal fibrosis in the early stages and predominant fibrosis and minimal cellularity in advanced disease (2,8,9). A lung biopsy taken from a patient in the early stages of usual interstitial pneumonitis (UIP) and manifested predominantly by an inflammatory reaction is shown in Figure 1A. Another biopsy taken from another patient with the same diagnosis, but in the late stages of the disease and manifested predominantly by a fibrotic reaction is shown in Figure 1B. Both the inflammatory and fibrotic reactions lead to alterations in lung mechanics, characterized by increases in lung elastance. These diseases, therefore, are often categorized as restrictive lung disorders. The control mechanisms that govern breathing are clearly altered in patients with interstitial lung disease. This is most clearly evidenced by the chronic maintenance of elevated levels of ventilation and altered ventilatory pattern during resting breathing (6,7,13). In this chapter, the specific alterations in respiratory control that occur in patients with interstitial lung disease and our current understanding of their mechanisms will be reviewed. Abnormalities in lung function and status of respiratory muscle function will also be reviewed briefly because these parameters impinge on respiratory control mechanisms themselves as well as our capacity to evaluate them. II. Pulmonary Mechanics The physiological derangements that characterize the interstitial lung disorders are well known. Lung volumes, including total lung capacity, functional residual capacity, residual volume, and vital capacity are reduced (14,15). Static lung compliance is reduced, resulting in an increase in the elastic work of breathing (16). Gas exchange is also impaired, as evidenced by reductions in diffusion capacity, and resting hypoxemia, which typically worsens with exercise (1). Specific airway resistance may be normal (17) or reduced (18). A low specific airway resistance may occur secondary to the fibrotic process, which places tension on the airways resulting in airway dilation (19). Specific monitors of small airways function, however, such as maximal expiratory flowvolume curves and dynamic compliance often indicate small airways disease (17). In fact, some disease processes, such as sarcoidosis (20) and silicosis (21) may manifest a significant component of obstructive physiology evident on standard spirometry. Physiological dead space is also increased in patients with interstitial lung disease. This is secondary to poor perfusion of ventilated areas, resulting in dead space/tidal volume ratios that often exceed 50% (22,23). In the evaluation of control mechanisms that govern breathing, simple physiological parameters to differentiate the inflammatory and fibrotic components of these disease processes would be useful. Inflammatory cells, for example, may inhibit or excite specific intrapulmonary receptors, whereas fibrosis, which
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results in permanent structural damage to lung tissue, may stimulate other receptors sensitive to alterations in lung mechanics. Clinical studies (20) have demonstrated that the results of physiological testing correlate roughly with the actual pathological changes (usually obtained by openlung biopsy). Patients with normal pulmonary function test results have only mild pathological abnormalities, whereas patients with abnormal test results have significant pathology. A more precise relation between pulmonary function and physiological change has not been demonstrated. Investigations attempting to differentiate the cellular and fibrotic components of these diseases based on physiological parameters have yielded no consensus on this issue. The results of some studies (20,24) have shown that changes in the relation between static volume and pressure in patients with pulmonary fibrosis appear to be a good reflection of the degree of fibrosis, and changes in lung compliance and coefficient of retraction correlate with the degree of fibrosis (24). Other more recent studies (25), however, have been unable to corroborate these findings. Some studies have also found correlations between lung volumes and degree of inflammation (25), but others have not (24,26). Studies of gas exchange during exercise provide the most accurate assessment of the overall histological involvement (12,20,24,25). A recent study by Cherniack et al. (25), for example, suggests that this parameter is the best predictor of the severity of fibrosis in patients with interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. This study (25) also demonstrated that smoking status is an important factor in assessing structure—function relations in these patients and may have been an uncontrolled confounding variable in prior investigations. III. Breathing Pattern The resting breathing pattern in patients with interstitial lung disease is generally characterized by higher breathing frequencies and smaller tidal volumes compared with normal individuals. Moreover, the magnitude of changes in breathing pattern mirror the changes in lung elastance (22); breathing frequency is positively correlated with lung elastance, whereas tidal volume decreases with increasing elastance (22). The reduction in breathing frequency is accomplished by reductions in both inspiratory (Ti) and expiratory time (Te; Fig. 2) (22,27). Smaller tidal volumes and the consequent smaller lungdistending pressure, coupled with the shorter time period over which inspiration is maintained, may allow ventilation to be achieved with less work and lower total oxygen cost of breathing. Despite these alterations in breathing pattern, levels of ventilation at rest (5–7) and during exercise (5,28) are higher than normal, even when breathing 100% oxygen. An increased ventilation is necessary to overcome the increased respiratory dead space and abnormal distribution of ventilation. In many patients, however, the level of ventilation exceeds metabolic requirements, resulting in alveolar hyperventilation and reduced arterial PCO2 values (5–7).
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Figure 2 Schematic representation of breathing cycle in a patient with interstitial lung disease compared with a normal subject. Total breath time is reduced owing to reductions in both inspiratory and expiratory time. Tidal volume is also reduced. The ratio of tidal volume to inspiratory time (Vi/Ti) however, is increased.
Ventilation can also be expressed as the product of average inspiratory airflow (VT /Ti) and duty cycle (Ti/TTOT (29):
By this relation, the respiratory controller consists of an intensity or drive component (VT /Ti) and a separate timing component (Ti/TTOT). Although changes in the shape of the tidal volume waveform can alter this relation, it is a simple model that can be used to assess the factors that determine ventilation. In patients with interstitial lung disease, the comparable reduction in Ti and Te result in the duty cycle (Ti/TTOT) being the same as in normal subjects (22,27,30). However, average inspiratory airflow (VT /Ti) is greater in patients with interstitial lung disease despite a greater elastic work of breathing, indicating a higher level of respiratory drive (see Fig. 2). Moreover, the increase in ventilation is achieved because of the increase in airflow, for the timing component is the same as that observed in normal subjects. The reductions in Ti account for the decrease in tidal volume in these patients (22,27,30). IV. Respiratory Muscle Function In one investigation (31), inspiratory muscle strength was normal in this patient population. In all other studies (30,32,33), however, respiratory muscle strength
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has been reduced in patients with interstitial lung disease when compared with normal subjects. Both maximal static inspiratory pressure (MIP) measured at the mouth as well as maximal transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi,MAX) were reduced in a group that comprised largely patients with sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (30). DiMarco et al. (30), reported that MIP and Pdi,MAX were reduced by about 18 and 16%, respectively, suggesting that the pressuregenerating capacity of the inspiratory muscles in general and the diaphragm specifically are impaired. In patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), previous investigators have also described marked reductions in inspiratory muscle strength (32). Studies by Martens et al. (33), have described significant reductions in both MIP and Pdi,MAX. The reductions in inspiratory muscle strength are a somewhat surprising finding because the reduction in lung volumes associated with these disease processes would be expected to optimize the resting length of the inspiratory muscles, resulting in improved pressuregenerating capacity compared with normal subjects. The cause of these alterations in muscle function are not well understood, but there are several potential etiologies. First, many of these patients are treated with corticosteroids, drugs known to result in a muscle dysfunction in some patients. Previous animal studies have clearly documented that each of the commonly used steroid preparations, particularly fluorinated steroids, result in a myopathy affecting both limb and respiratory muscles (34–38). Steroid myopathy has also been demonstrated in human studies. Although it was previously thought that steroid myopathy resulted only from high doses of steroids (39,40), more recent studies have shown (41) that even the administration of relatively low doses (methylprednisolone, 4 mg/day) to patients with chronic airflow obstruction can have adverse effects on both inspiratory and expiratory muscle strength. The degree of respiratory muscle weakness was directly related to the dose of steroids taken. Histological analysis suggests that the observed reductions in muscle strength are secondary to severe steroidinduced myopathy (42). Given the results of these studies in patients with obstructive lung disease, it appears likely that steroids may also affect respiratory muscle function in patients with various forms of interstitial lung disease. In addition, inanition from chronic systemic disease may impair respiratory muscle function. Malnutrition (43) has been associated with reduced respiratory muscle strength secondary to reduced respiratory muscle mass. Finally, specific interstitial diseases may affect respiratory muscle function directly. For example, patients with SLE may develop reductions in respiratory muscle strength secondary to a lupus myopathy. The development of abnormalities in respiratory muscle function could not be explained by corticosteroids or generalized debilitation in these patients (32,33). It would appear that the inspiratory muscles may be involved in a more generalized myositis in patients with SLE. Consistent with this hypothesis, previous work has described reductions in expiratory (33) as well as inspiratory muscle strength and coincident quadriceps muscle involvement (44). In patients with interstitial lung disease, therefore, impairment in respiratory
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muscle function may represent a significant further insult to the respiratory system, particularly in view of the high elastic workload. Concerning studies evaluating respiratory control, neural output parameters that depend on muscle force development may underestimate the magnitude of neural drive in patients with significant respiratory muscle weakness. V. Respiratory Control Mechanisms Our current understanding of respiratory control mechanisms in patients with interstitial lung disease is derived from (1) clinical studies of patients with these disorders, (2) animal models of interstitial lung disease, (3) chest wall restriction, and (4) external elastic loading, that attempt to reproduce the mechanical derangements observed in patients. A. Clinical Studies. Several clinical studies have been performed in an attempt to evaluate ventilatory control mechanisms in patients with interstitial lung disorders. When assessing the results of these studies, it is necessary to be aware of several potential problems inherent in the evaluation of this patient population. First, although these diseases are chronic, they are not necessarily stable conditions. Some of these disorders may run a fairly rapid clinical course, progressing from a predominantly inflammatory disease to one of severe fibrosis and respiratory failure within a few years (1,20). Moreover, the degree of mechanical derangements in lung function may vary widely over this time period (1,20). Because there is no consensus or easily measured parameters to distinguish the inflammatory versus fibrotic components of these diseases (20,24,25) nor have many of these studies controlled for the degree of mechanical derangements (27,30,45), the participants in these studies necessarily include a heterogeneous group. Variations in study population could, therefore, potentially cause widely varying results. A second problem is that some of these disorders do not impose a purely elastic load. As mentioned, sarcoidosis is often associated with endobronchial granulomas, with the consequence of variable degrees of obstructive physiology, in addition to the parenchymal involvement (1,2,20). Because the adaptive mechanisms in respiratory control are quite different in obstructive disorders (46), the degree to which airway obstruction is present in patients with interstitial disease may also complicate the assessment of control mechanisms. Mechanical models of interstitial lung disease, despite their limitations, may provide the only means to assess the mechanical effects of increased elastance alone on respiratory control. That patients with interstitial lung disease maintain higher than normal levels of ventilation, resulting in abnormally reduced levels of PCO2 has been known for many years and confirmed in multiple studies (6,7,30). This is an apparent mal
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adaptive response because (1) ventilation exceeds metabolic requirements; (2) the increased ventilation occurs despite the markedly elevated elastic work of breathing, increasing the oxygen cost of breathing; and (3) most likely contributes to the sensation of dyspnea, a common and often disabling symptom in these patients. That minute ventilation is significantly greater than normal controls and results in chronic hypocapnia in some patients is convincing evidence that central drive to the respiratory muscles is significantly increased in patients with interstitial lung disease (6,7). However, not all patients with these disorders manifest increases in ventilation sufficient to produce hypocapnia. Some of them may have severe derangements in lung mechanics, such that a heightened level of neural drive is not translated in to increased levels of ventilation. Consequently, ventilation may be a poor reflection of neural drive in many of these patients. Shekleton et al. (47) evaluated the reliability of ventilation as an index of neural drive in normal individuals subjected to added elastic loads. In response to CO2 rebreathing, ventilation reflected neural drive in the unloaded condition. However, following the addition of elastic loads, the ventilatory responses were more variable. Mouth pressure during airway occlusion developed shortly after the onset of inspiration (150 msec); however, it increased consistently in all subjects and proved to be a more reliable indicator of neural drive (47). Moreover, under conditions of increased elastance, occlusion pressure measurements correlate well with the rate in rise of the diaphragm's electromyogram (EMG) and, thereby, provide a reasonable estimate of changes in neural drive to the respiratory muscles (26). Subsequent studies performed in patients with interstitial lung disease have documented significantly elevated occlusion pressures both during resting breathing (22,30) and during progressive hypercapnia (27), when compared with normal subjects (Fig. 3). It should be noted that changes in intrinsic muscle properties or alterations in muscle length induced by disease could potentially result in alterations in occlusion pressure, independently of changes in neural drive (48). In patients with interstitial lung disease, the increased occlusion pressure occurs in the face of decreases in inspiratory muscle strength (12). Consequently, these responses represented a greater percentage of maximal pressuregenerating capacity than those found in normal subjects. Taken together, the data strongly suggest that neural drive to the inspiratory muscles is significantly elevated in this patient population. A wide range of factors could be involved in the maintenance of a heightened level of ventilation and altered breathing pattern in patients with interstitial lung disease. These include chemoreceptor stimulation secondary to abnormal gas tensions, particularly because many of these patients are hypoxemic (1,2,20), or possibly to enhanced chemoreceptor sensitivity. Stimulation of intrapulmonary vagal or chest wall receptors could also account for these alterations. The ventilatory response to hypercapnia in patients with interstitial lung disease has been addressed in several studies (6,7,30). In response to steadystate
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Figure 3 Ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia in a normal subject and in a patient with interstitial lung disease (×). The ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses are shown in the left and righthand panels, respectively. At any given level of chemical drive, both ventilation and occlusion pressure in the patient with interstitial lung disease was greater than the normal subject. (From Ref. 30.)
hypercapnia (inhalation of 5% CO2), minute ventilation in normal persons increases to a degree similar to that of patients with interstitial fibrosis and sarcoidosis (6,7). The slope of the ventilatory response to progressive hypercapnia is also normal in a similar patient population (30; see Fig. 3). At any given level of hypercapnia, however, the absolute level of minute ventilation was significantly higher in patients with interstitial disease than in normal controls (30; see Fig. 3). This indicates that the heightened level of ventilation present under resting conditions is maintained during hypercapnia. Moreover, these studies were performed under hyperoxic conditions; therefore, the heightened level of ventilation could not be explained by hypoxemia. The breathing pattern was also significantly different during progressive hypercapnia in patients with interstitial lung disease. At any given level of ventilation, tidal volume was significantly smaller in those patients with interstitial disease than in normal subjects (30; Fig. 4). Other investigators have evaluated the effects of supplemental oxygen on ventilatory patterns in patients with interstitial lung disease. The studies of Stockley and Lee (49) indicate that hypoxic drive may have some effect on resting ventilation. They found that brief administration (30 sec) of 100% oxygen resulted in significant reductions in ventilation in patients with various interstitial lung disorders. These effects are most likely transient, however, because the administration of 40% oxygen for a more prolonged time (25 min) did not result in any significant change in minute ventilation (6,7). In another group of patients with interstitial lung disease and known severe hypoxemia (mean oxygen saturation of
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Figure 4 The relation between tidal volume and ventilation is shown in a representative normal subject and a patient with interstitial lung disease . Values were obtained during progressive hypercapnia. At any given level of ventilation in the patient with interstitial lung disease, tidal volume is achieved with a smaller tidal volume than that in the normal subject. (From Ref. 30.)
85.5%), supplemental oxygen did not significantly affect the resting level of ventilation or breathing pattern (51). However, supplemental oxygen was effective in reducing the level of breathlessness in these patients (50). Exercise testing, by stressing the reserve capacity of the respiratory system, provides additional information concerning the control of breathing in patients with interstitial lung disease (52). Given the derangements in lung mechanics and gasexchange abnormalities, it is not surprising that maximum exercise tolerance is reduced in these patients (57). However, the specific mechanisms responsible for exercise limitation in these disorders are poorly understood. Several studies have addressed the respiratory control mechanism during exercise in patients with interstitial disease and do provide some important insights. Qualitatively, some of the physiological abnormalities present under resting conditions are also present during exercise in patients with interstitial lung disease. These patients maintain a heightened level of ventilation (52) when compared with matched controls at a given level of exercise, and this is achieved with tidal volumes that are smaller and breathing frequencies that are greater than normal (45,53,54). The increased breathing frequency is secondary to reduction in both Ti and Te. Burdon et al. (45) showed that maximum tidal volume during exercise was related to the vital capacity. The PaCO2 has been generally thought to fall further during exercise (28,55). However, Marciniuk and Gallagher (51), who systematically reviewed these
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studies in which PaCO2 was actually measured, found that this parameter has been more commonly found to remain unchanged (i.e., maintained at abnormally low levels) and, in some studies, it actually increased during exercise. That most patients with interstitial disease maintain an abnormally low PaCO2, despite the added metabolic stress of exercise and increased dead space (56), is surprising and emphasizes the significant abnormalities in ventilatory control. The mechanisms responsible for this heightened drive may be similar to those occurring during resting breathing. Both in human studies (26,57,58) and animal models of interstitial lung disease (56,60), PO2 falls with exercise. The development of worsening hypoxemia has been attributed to ventilation—perfusion mismatch, shunt, and diffusion abnormalities (56). During exercise, therefore, chemoreceptor stimulation may make a larger contribution to the heightened level of ventilation. Burdon et al. (45) monitored arterial oxygen saturation in a group of patients with pulmonary fibrosis. They found that oxygen saturation fell by more than 5% in 13 of 31 patients. Surprisingly, they found no relation between changes in oxygen saturation and maximum power output. Other studies (61) have confirmed these findings. Several patients were able to achieve relatively high power outputs despite marked decrements in oxygen saturation. Endurance times, however, do improve with administration of supplemental oxygen in patients with interstitial disease. Bye et al. (61) found that mean oxygen saturation fell by 8% in a heterogeneous group of patients with interstitial lung disease. They observed significant improvement in exercise time when patients exercised with oxygen. Moreover, the increase in endurance was significantly correlated with the fall in oxygen saturation during airbreathing. These investigators also found that ventilation was abnormally high throughout exercise and, at maximum workload, it was above predicted values for all patients. Values of maximal ventilation and breathing fell while breathing oxygen, in comparison with the airbreathing trial, but not significantly. This suggests that chemoreceptor stimulation by hypoxia may make some contribution to the heightened level of ventilation during exercise, but that nonchemical factors may play a more important role. From these studies, it is evident that the chemical control system is well preserved in patients with interstitial lung disease. Although chemoreceptor stimulation may have a transient effect during resting breathing (49) and contribute to hyperventilation during exercise (61), this factor alone does not account for the hyperventilation and alteredbreathing pattern so frequently observed in these patients. Consequently, there has been an intensive search for neural inputs from the lung and chest wall that could reflexively alter respiratory drive and breathing pattern. There are a plethora of receptors throughout the lung, including pulmonary stretch receptors, irritant receptors, bronchial Cfibers and juxtapulmonary capillary or type J receptors (also referred to as pulmonary Cfibers) (62–67). It is
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likely that many of these receptors are stimulated in patients with interstitial lung disease and have important influences on breathing pattern and level of respiratory drive. Owing to the difficulties inherent in evaluating vagal function in humans, there is only very limited information based on clinical studies. Respiratory vagal reflexes, in general, are thought to be relatively weak in normal humans compared with animals (66). Conscious humans, for example, do not have a HeringBreuer inflation reflex, and blockade of the vagus nerve does not alter the pattern of breathing (68). This does not exclude the possibility, however, that vagal influences could affect respiration under conditions associated with lung disease. Guz et al. (69), evaluated the effects of cervical vagal blockade in three patients with interstitial lung disease. Bilateral vagal blockade reduced breathing frequency and increased tidal volume during resting breathing in two patients, and the sensation of dyspnea was eliminated. They speculated that blockade of afferent information from lung irritant receptors accounted for these observations. In other studies, the potential role of superficial airway receptors has been investigated by evaluating ventilatory responses and level of dyspnea following inhalation of morphine (70,71) and local anesthetics (27,72). In animal studies, opioids inhibit the activation of lung irritant receptors and Cfiber receptors as well as cough reflexes (73–75). In human studies (70), there is evidence that inhalation of aerosolized, lowdose morphine results in an increased endurance time in patients with chronic lung disease (including a few with pulmonary fibrosis). Chemoreceptor stimulation was eliminated because patients breathed 100% oxygen during exercise. These results raised the possibility that stimulation of superficial opioidsensitive neural receptors in the lung impairs exercise tolerance. Because the drug had no effect on exercise ventilation, the investigators postulated that morphine may have reduced the sensation of dyspnea. In a more thorough analysis performed by Harriseze et al. (71), lowdose nebulized morphine had no effect on either maximal exercise performance or level of dyspnea with exercise in six patients with various forms of interstitial lung disease. As pointed out by these investigators (71), their findings may be related to dosage, higher doses of morphine may be needed to affect airway receptor activity. Winning et al. (72), evaluated the effects of inhalation of a local anesthetic on ventilation and the degree of breathlessness at maximal exercise in patients with interstitial lung disease. Adequate anesthesia was confirmed by the fact that the cough response following critic acid inhalation was abolished. Airway anesthesia, however, had no effect on the level of dyspnea or heightened level of ventilation. Taken together, these studies suggest that superficial airway receptors play no role in modulating ventilatory responses to exercise. To reconcile the results of Guz et al. (69) that vagal receptors do have an important function in these diseases, it is necessary to postulate that vagal receptors within the lung paren
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chyma, such as the J receptors (pulmonary Cfibers) mediate these responses. Innovative animal models of interstitial disease have provided additional insight concerning vagal reflex effects. B. Animal Models of Interstitial Lung Disease Interstitial lung disease, with associated physiological abnormalities that resemble human disease, can be induced in animals. Instillation of carrageenin through a catheter into the lungs of animals results in a localized acute inflammatory lesion involving both alveoli and lung interstitium (76). Intravenous administration of Freund's adjuvant results in an initial pulmonary reaction that resembles desquamative interstitial pneumonitis seen in human disease, followed by a granulomatous reaction resembling sarcoidosis (77–79). Endotracheal installation of bleomycin results in acute interstitial inflammation, followed by chronic interstitial pulmonary fibrosis (60). Results from animal models of both acute (76) and chronic (77) interstitial pneumonitis provide convincing evidence of an important role for vagal receptors in mediating ventilatory responses. Trenchard et al. (76), using the carrageenin model of acute lung injury, evaluated the effects of inflammation confined to one lobe of the lung by catheter administration of carrageenin in both cats and rabbits. Conscious cats developed alveolar hyperventilation caused by a significant increase in breathing frequency, whereas the anesthetized rabbits developed hyperventilation with rapid, shallow breathing. These responses were dependent on an ipsilateral intact vagal nerve and based on experiments with differential vagal blockade were attributable to stimulation of nonmyelinated vagal afferents (i.e., type J receptors). These receptors lie in the interstitial space and, therefore, are well positioned to respond to inflammation in these lung regions (66). Inflammatory mediators may depolarize nonmyelinated nerve endings directly, thereby resulting in the observed responses (76). Interstitial pneumonitis was induced by intravenous administration of complete Freund's adjuvant in conscious dogs (77). The induced physiological alterations mirrored those seen clinically in patients with interstitial lung disease. These included reductions in functional residual capacity (FRC) and total lung capacity (TLC), increased lung elastic recoil, and reduction in carbon monoxide diffusion capacity. With exercise, these animals developed rapid, shallow breathing and abnormally high levels of ventilation. Complete cervical vagal blockade resulted in a more normalbreathing pattern and abolished the excessive minute ventilation. Because atropine administration had no significant effects on ventilation or breathing pattern, the observed phenomenon were attributable to afferent vagal traffic. Breathing frequency remained higher and tidal volumes smaller than during vagal blockade in the normal animals, suggesting that vagal influences alone did not totally account for the alteredbreathing pattern. From differential
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vagal cooling experiments, these investigators suggested that stretch receptors, responsive to the increased elastic recoil of the lungs, were at least partly responsible for the increased respiratory drive during the granulomatous phase of the disease. The different responses to differential vagal cooling in the aforementioned studies (76,77) may relate to differences between the models employed (i.e., acute versus chronic reactions). However, these methods are far from definitive and provide only indirect evidence of the specific receptors involved. Other clues to potential receptor stimulation can be derived from studies evaluating the direct effects of inflammation and inflammatory mediators on receptor activity. For example, acute inflammation and hypoxia (66,80)— conditions commonly present in interstitial lung disease—result in the release of prostaglandins (PGs), which stimulate type J receptors (pulmonary Cfibers). Coleridge et al. (65), demonstrated that pulmonary Cfibers display a wide range of sensitivity, being stimulated not only by the accumulation of interstitial fluid or pulmonary congestion (64), but also by the prostaglandins PGF2a and PG of the E series. These investigators showed that injection of prostaglandin E2 into the right atrium of openchested dogs resulted in a tenfold increase in the activity of Cfiber endings (81). The increased activity was not related to directional changes in airway pressure nor to the phase of ventilation; therefore they would appear to be the result of direct stimulation. That stimulation of pulmonary Cfibers results in a rapid shallowbreathing pattern (66) suggests that these receptors may mediate the alteredbreathing pattern in animal models of acute inflammation and in patients with interstitial lung disease. Other potential mediators including histamine and, to a lesser extent serotonin, stimulate irritant or rapidly adapting receptors in the lung (66). In animal models of lung inflammation produced by inhalation of histamine aerosol, irritant receptor stimulation results in rapid, shallow breathing, a response that is preventable by vagal blockade (82). Activation of these receptors, which are located predominantly in large airways, evokes a heightened level of ventilation. Inhalation of chemical irritants, such as ammonia and cigarette smoke, also results in marked stimulation of these receptors (80). The most important function of these receptors, however, may be to detect the development of pathophysiological changes in the airways, such as that resulting from acute pulmonary congestion, pneumothorax, chemicals resulting in bronchoconstriction, and reductions in lung compliance (see later discussion) that stimulate these receptors (66). Activated alveolar macrophages and neutrophils, the major immune effector cells in interstitial lung disease, release many other inflammatory mediators that may also be responsible for stimulating intrapulmonary vagal receptors in patients with interstitial lung disease. These include proteolytic enzymes, oxygen radicals, and arachidonic acid metabolites (83). Further investigation is necessary, however, to elucidate the potential role of these substances.
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The alterations in lung mechanics present in patients with interstitial lung disease can also affect the control of breathing, independent of the inflammatory component. Because of the coincident inflammatory component, however, it is difficult to assess the effects of altered elastance alone in these patients. Mechanical loading of the respiratory system in normal subjects and animal studies has provided useful models to assess the consequences of increased elastance on respiratory control. C. Internal Elastic Loading Reductions in lung compliance can be induced in experimental animals by briefly withdrawing positive endexpiratory pressure (84,86). By this method, compliance can be reduced by 50–60% of maximum and, to a certain extent, simulate the mechanical abnormalities observed in patients with interstitial lung disease. As shown in Figure 5 (84), impulse activity of irritant (rapidly adapting) receptors increases progressively as dynamic lung compliance falls and increases quickly to normal values following restoration of lung compliance to normal values. These findings have been confirmed in several other investigations (87). Moreover, the effects of reductions in lung compliance appear to be specific to rapidly adapting receptors (i.e., reductions in lung compliance do not significantly influence other pulmonary afferents; 87,88). The heightened discharge of these receptors has been attributed predominantly to the increased pull of a stiffened lung parenchyma on airway walls (89) and may provide a mechanism to maintain tidal volume as the lungs become more stiff (80,86). In patients with interstitial lung disease, it is conceivable that lung stiffness stimulates pulmonary irritant receptors, resulting in a heightened level of ventilation and rapid shallow breathing. Moreover, as the disease progresses, the degree of irritant receptor stimulation may also increase progressively. Because these receptors reduce their firing frequency rapidly following an applied stimulus (80), they may play a more important role in exercise or during exacerbations of interstitial lung disease (90) rather than during eupneic breathing. Irritant receptor stimulation may also be responsible for the frequent nonproductive cough so often present in patients with these disorders. It would be interesting to evaluate the effects of nebulized morphine or lignocaine on cough suppression in a group of patients with interstitial lung disease in whom chronic cough is a prominent symptom. D. Chest Wall Restriction Several previous investigators (91–95) have evaluated the effects of chest wall restriction in humans, either by chest strapping or restricting movement by inflexible barriers. Similar to patients with interstitial lung disease, rib cage strapping results in significant reductions in TLC and FRC, increases in both lung and total
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Figure 5 Impulse activity of a rapidly adapting receptor in response to a stepwise reduction in dynamic lung compliance. Positive endexpiratory pressure was removed for 2(A), 5(B), 10(C), and 20(D) cycles and then restored (E). Impulse frequency (impulses/cycle, IF); AP, action potentials; PT , tracheal pressure. IF increased progressively as dynamic compliance progressively fell. Restoration of lung compliance with PEEP reduced IF to control values. (From Ref. 84.)
respiratory system elastance, reductions in tidal volume, increased breathing frequency, and either preserved (91,96) or heightened levels of ventilation (95). Because of the increase in lung recoil, maximal expiratory flow is increased (94, 97). Moreover, rib cage strapping also results in a heightened occlusion pressure (P0.1) at any given level of chemical drive, suggesting that neural drive to the inspiratory muscles is increased (91). Owing to the marked reductions in lung
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elastance, rib cage strapping may also result in irritant receptor stimulation, which could mediate the changes in ventilatory output and breathing pattern. However, abdominal strapping alone, although causing significant reductions in FRC and increases in lung elastance, does not significantly alter breathing patterns (91,92) nor ventilatory and occlusion pressures responses to hypercapnia (92). The differences between rib cage and abdominal strapping cannot be attributed to differences in chemoreceptor stimulation, for these studies were performed under hyperoxic conditions (91). Changes in FRC also do not explain the differing responses because the increase in neural drive (as determined by occlusion pressure responses) were greater with rib cage than with abdominal strapping even with comparable reductions in FRC (91). Although these results suggest that receptors specific to the rib cage may be responsible for mediating the observed responses, it has been suggested that they may be secondary, in large measure, to discomfort associated with strapping. Evidence against this hypothesis lies in the fact that other studies (91,98) have shown that an increase in neural drive occurs in response to restriction of rib cage movement alone, without constriction of the rib cage and associated reductions in lung volumes. Green et al. (98), for example, found that selectively restricting movement of the rib cage at the endexpiratory position with an inflexible barrier resulted in an increase in inspiratory drive, as monitored by diaphragm electrical activity. Comparable loading of the abdomen had no effect. Endtidal PCO2 was maintained constant during these studies, thereby eliminating chemical influences on the observed responses. In addition, DiMarco et al. (91) have demonstrated that prevention of movement of the rib cage, but not the abdomen, beyond the endinspiratory position with a rigid barrier also resulted in heightened respiratory drive, as determined by occlusion pressure responses. From the results of these studies, it would appear that receptors sensitive to rib cage movement are responsible, at least in part, for the heightened neural drive. Concerning specific receptors, muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, located predominantly in the intercostal muscles, but also in the diaphragm, are probably most important (99). These receptors are generally classified as proprioceptors. Muscle spindles are primarily length receptors, whereas tendon organs are primarily force receptors (99). Coactivation of fusimotor discharge to intrafusal fibers regulating spindle length, and alpha motor discharge to extrafusal fibers that cause muscle contraction, allow muscle spindles to detect differences in the actual and desired degree of muscle shortening (100–102). When intercostal muscle shortening is impeded, as might occur with restriction of the rib cage, spindle afferent activity increases and reflexively causes an increase in intercostal alphamotoneuron output in an attempt to achieve the “desired” degree of muscle shortening (103,104). Muscle spindle activity increases the rate of intercostal motor activity throughout the breath. This response is graded (i.e., the greater the difference between the actual and desired degree of shortening, the greater the
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response; 103). In anesthetized animals, spindle afferents mediate monosynaptic reflex increases in motor activity (100) and help stabilize the rib cage during severe loading (105). Studies of patients with spinal cord injuries (106) indicate that stimulation of intercostal muscle spindles also stimulates increased respiratory drive. Tendon organs are stimulated when muscle tension is high and cause reflex inhibition of inspiration, probably at a medullary level (99). In addition, distortion or compression of the rib cage may activate muscle—spindlemediated reflexes that project multisegmentally and also supraspinally; resulting in alterations in phrenic nerve activity and respiratory timing (107). Stimulation of muscle spindles in the lowermost intercostal muscles has a facilitatory effect on phrenic nerve output (108). This reflex is thought to compensate for the paucity of muscle spindles in the diaphragm and to provide a mechanism by which loading increases neural drive to the diaphragm (108). Stimulation of midthoracic intercostal afferents results in inhibition of phrenic activity (109, 110). The degree of inhibition is dependent on lung volume, being greatest at very low and very high lung volumes (110). At low lung volumes, stimulation of midthoracic muscle spindles or tendon organs may mediate phrenic inhibition (112). The inhibition of phrenic activation at high lung volumes is less clear and may be mediated by joint receptors (110,111). The effects of rib cage constriction have also been evaluated in anesthetized animals. In these studies, when the rib cage is strapped or compressed (89,112–116), phrenic nerve activity increases and respiratory timing is altered. Shannon (114) showed that the increased respiratory frequency was not secondary to chemical drive, was present in vagotomized animals, and was eliminated by sectioning the dorsal roots. In some studies, however, chest compression does not result in changes in respiratory timing following vagotomy. This discrepancy may be related to different levels of anesthesia (99). In contrast to anesthetized animals, strapping the rib cage has only minor effects in anesthetized human subjects (92). Because the effects of rib cage loading are so prominent in awake, but not in anesthetized humans, it is possible that the response to chest strapping may be more reflective of factors related to consciousness, rather than to the mechanical load itself (23,46). Given these findings, it has been suggested that chest strapping may not be an accurate model of restrictive lung disease (23,46). However, the responses described in awake humans should not be discounted, because the differing responses between anesthetized and conscious humans does not exclude a potentially important role for chest wall reflex effects (see following section). E. External Elastic Loading Breathing from a rigid metal container imposes an elastic load on the respiratory system, because inspiration requires work to be performed on the gas within the
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container. Similar to chest restriction, this model also results in a pattern of rapid, shallow breathing and hyperventilation (102). Moreover, the magnitude of the elastic load can be easily adjusted. As a model of interstitial lung disease, this method has some advantages, compared with chest compression or strapping, in that the effects of the first loaded breath (i.e., before chemoreceptor stimulation) can be more easily assessed. Moreover, the potential effects of stimulation of nocioceptors related to chest constriction or sensory afferents related to pressure applied to the skin surface are eliminated. Several mechanical properties of the respiratory system tend to stabilize tidal volume while breathing against loads (102,117). First, the intrinsic total respiratory system impedance tends to blunt the effects of added mechanical loads. The greater the internal impedance of the respiratory system, the smaller will be the effect of applied loads (118). The active force—length and force—velocity properties of respiratory muscles contracting agonistically adds to the internal impedance, resulting in further load compensation (102). In addition, the application of elastic loads to the extent that resting lung volume is reduced, places the inspiratory muscles on a more favorable position on their length—tension curve, resulting in improved force generation (117,119). In addition, owing to their force—velocity characteristics, the force production by the inspiratory muscles increases when their velocity of shortening is impeded by loaded breathing (117,120). In anesthetized animals, elastic loading results in a reduced tidal volume with the first breath. However, this reduction is less than that expected based on the mechanical properties of the respiratory system (102). This stabilizing effect on tidal volume is attributable to vagal receptors (118,121), with little or no contribution from chest wall proprioceptors (122). Inspiratory duration is prolonged owing to the reduction in stretch receptor activity consequent to the smaller tidal volumes (121,123). With sustained loading, tidal volume progressively increases, an effect that is attributable entirely to chemoreceptor stimulation (124–127). In human studies, Campbell et al. (128) first demonstrated that inspiratory effort increases within the first breath following the application of an elastic load. This was determined by the demonstration that the reduction in tidal volume was less than that predicted by the effects of the increase in elastance alone (i.e., mechanisms were engaged to defend tidal volume). The significance of this finding is that this response occurs too soon for chemical factors to have altered the breathing pattern and, therefore, must be attributable to neural factors. In awake normal individuals, Pengelly et al. (129) and Margaria et al. (130) found that the immediate adjustments to elastic loading depended primarily on the mechanical characteristics of the lung, chest wall, and respiratory muscles. However, with large tidal volumes, stretch receptor activation was thought to promote load compensation (129). With maintenance of elastic loading beyond a single breath, tidal volume progressively increases, which as in animal studies (130,131), is attributable to chemoreceptor stimulation. Margaria et al. (130), for
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example, demonstrated that tidal volume compensation was reduced significantly by administration of supplemental oxygen. The magnitude of the progressive tidal volume compensation was less in anesthetized than in conscious humans. This difference was most likely secondary to barbiturateinduced decrease in sensitivity of the respiratory centers to alterations in blood gas tensions. These same investigators also evaluated the potential role of chest wall receptors by assessing the response to complete sensory epidural anesthesia up to the T4 spinal level in conscious subjects. Spinal anesthesia had no systematic effect on progressive load compensation. Even though elastic loading typically results in tachypnea in conscious humans, the respiratory rate is unchanged with elastic loading during general anesthesia (130) and also during sleep (132). It appears, therefore, that factors related to consciousness play the most significant role in the observed changes in respiratory frequency. Concerning factors related to consciousness, it has been postulated that individuals may adopt breathing patterns that reduce both the discomfort associated with the load and also the work of breathing (102). This would explain the smaller tidal volumes and greater breathing frequencies when subjects breathe against elastic loads. Alternatively, consciousness may facilitate the performance of loadcompensatory reflexes, as suggested by Puddy and Younes (133). These investigators tested this hypothesis by adding external elastic loads in small steps that were below the threshold for perception. This method prevented conscious adjustments in breathing pattern to the applied load. Elastic loads applied in this manner also resulted in progressive reductions in tidal volume and increases in breathing frequency. These results indicate that the tachypnea associated with elastic loads does not require load perception, suggesting that the responses are reflexive. Chest wall proprioceptors shorten Ti and increase breathing frequency and represent the most likely receptors mediating these responses. The lack of breathing frequency changes in the anesthetized state may be secondary to the fact that (1) anesthetic agents in general suppress the response to external loads, independent of the type of load (134), and (2) these drugs may depress spinal reflex arcs from chest wall receptors or interfere with transmission of information from chest wall reflexes to medullary and higher brain centers. References 1. Crystal RG, Gadek JE, Ferrans VJ, Fulmer JD, Line BR, Hunninghake GW. Interstitial lung disease: current concepts of pathogenesis, staging and therapy. Am J Med 1981; 70:542–568. 2. Crystal RG, Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Hance AJ, Keough BA. Interstitial lung disease of unknown cause. N Engl J Med 1984; 310:154–166; 235–244. 3. Coultas DB, Zumwalt RE, Black WC, Sobonya RE. The epidemiology of interstitial lung diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:967–972.
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4. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Respiratory Diseases Task Force. Report on problems, research approaches, and needs. Washington, DC: Oct. 1972; DHEW publication NIH 76–432. 5. West JR, Alexander JK. Studies on respiratory mechanics and the work of breathing in pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Med 1959; 27:529–544. 6. Lourenco RV, Turino GM, Davidson LAG, Fishman AP. The regulation of ventilation in diffuse pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Med 1965; 38:199–216. 7. Turino GM, Lourenco RV, Davidson AG, Fishman AP. The control of ventilation in patients with reduced pulmonary distensibility. Ann NY Acad Sci 1963; 109:932–941. 8. Kuhn C, Boldt J, King TE, Crouch E, Vartio T, McDonald JA. An immunohistochemical study of architectural remodeling and connective tissue synthesis in pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:1693–1703. 9. Burkhardt A. Alveolitis and collapse in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:513–524. 10. Mannino DM, Etzel RA, Parrish RG. Pulmonary fibrosis deaths in the United States, 1979–1991. An analysis of multiplecause mortality data. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1548–1552. 11. Schwartz DA, Helmers RA, Galvin JR, Van Fossen DS, Frees KL, Dayton CS, Burmeister LF, Hunninghake GW. Determinants of survival in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:450–454. 12. Carrington CB, Gaensler EA, Couter RE, Fitzgerald MY, Gupta RG. Natural history and treated course of usual and desquamative interstitial pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1978; 298:801–809. 13. Austrian R, MeClement JH, Renzetti AD, Donald KW, Riley RL, Cournand A. Clinical and physiologic features of some types of pulmonary disease with impairment of alveolocapillary diffusion. The syndrome of “alveolar—capillary block.” Am J Med 1951; 11:667–685. 14. Fulmer JD, Crystal RG. Interstitial lung disease. In: Simmons DH, ed. Current Pulmonary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1979; 1:65. 15. Scadding JG. Diffuse pulmonary alveolar fibrosis. Thorax 1974; 29:271–281. 16. Yernault YC, DeJonghe M, DeCoster A, Englert M. Pulmonary mechanics in diffuse fibrosing alveolitis. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1975; 11:231–244. 17. Fulmer JD, Roberts WC, Von Gal ER, Crystal RG. Small airways in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Comparison of morphologic and physiologic observations. J Clin Invest 1977; 60:595–610. 18. Gibson GJ, Pride MB. Pulmonary mechanics in fibrosing alveolitis: the effects of lung shrinkage. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 116:637–647. 19. Dubois AB. Resistance to breathing. In: Fenn W, Rahn H, eds. Handbook of Physiology, Sec 3: Respiration Vol 1. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society 1964:451–462. 20. Keough BA, Crystal RG. Clinical significance of pulmonary function tests. Pulmonary function testing in interstitial pulmonary disease. What does it tell us? Chest 1980; 856–865. 21. Ziskind M, Jones RN, Weill H. State of the art. Silicosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 113:643–665.
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14 Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure and During Mechanical Ventilation CATHERINE S. H. SASSOON University of California, Irvine, and Veterans Affairs Medical Center Long Beach, California MARTIN J. TOBIN Loyola University of Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Chicago, and Hines Veterans Administration Hospital Hines, Illinois I. Introduction The respiratory system is a closedloop system consisting of the gas exchange organ, the lungs, the upper airways, and the controller (1; Fig. 1). The controller comprises the respiratory centers, located in the brain stem (2), the respiratory muscles, and the connecting nerves. The rhythmic act of breathing requires the integration of all of these components and represents the output of the respiratory centers (3,4). The respiratory centers receive and process information from a variety of sources; namely, the “higher” centers (behavioral input); chemical (central and peripheral chemoreceptors); and nonchemical (mechanoreceptors). This information is then transmitted to the upper airways and by the spinal motoneuron to the respiratory muscles, which contract and generate pressure. The pressure generated by the respiratory muscles (Pmus) is dissipated to overcome the resistance, elastance, and inertia of the lungs (including the airways) and chest wall, and translated into tidal volume. Tidal volume, which reflects neural intensity per breath, together with respiratory timing, determine total ventilation. Because of the closedloop system, tidal volume and respiratory timing, through the forcelength and forcevelocity relations of the respiratory muscles, affect Pmus which, in turn, through mechanoreceptors in the lungs and chest wall, modifies the
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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the control of breathing. The respiratory system consists of the gasexchange organ (lungs), the upper airways, and the controller, which in turn consists of the respiratory centers in the brain stem that integrate information from the higher centers, chemoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors, and send the information through the cranial nerves (V, VII, X, and XII) to the upper airway muscles and by the spinal and phrenic motoneurons to the respiratory muscles. The output of the respiratory centers can be evaluated at various levels as phrenic electroneurogram (ENG), diaphragmatic electromyogram (EMG), occlusion pressure (P0.1) or muscle pressure (Pmus), and total ventilation ( ) and its components: tidal volume (VT ), inspiratory time (TI), and expiratory time (TE). Solid lines with arrows indicate output signals, dotted lines with arrows indicate feedback signals.
activity of the respiratory centers. Likewise, ventilation and the gasexchange properties of the lungs determine the arterial blood gas levels which, through central and peripheral chemoreceptors, modulate the activity of the respiratory centers. The output of the respiratory centers can be assessed at various levels of the respiratory system by measuring total minute ventilation ( ) (5,6) and its components (i.e., tidal volume and respiratory timing; 7), pressure during occlusion of the airway for 0.1 sec (P0.1) (6,8), Pmus (9), the rate of rise of the integrated diaphragmatic electrical activity (10,11), and the rate of rise of the phrenic nerve activity (12,13; see Fig. 1). The last method has not been performed in humans (5–11). Each method has its own limitations (6,8,14), which are discussed elsewhere in this volume. The closedloop organization of the respiratory system also enables the system to adjust to the changing environment and to metabolic condi
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tions, to maintain ventilation at appropriate levels to preserve oxygen and carbon dioxide homeostasis. However, these adjustments are limited by the structural characteristics and geometry of the lungs and chest wall (15). Such mechanical limitations not only limit ventilatory performance, but also influence the efficiency of the lungs as a gasexchanging organ, resulting in hypercapnia and hypoxemia, respectively, that characterize respiratory failure. In acute respiratory failure or when faced with an increased load to the respiratory system, the respiratory centers modify their output by bringing about an array of compensatory adjustments (16). Nonetheless, these compensatory adjustments can be inadequate, and mechanical ventilator support becomes necessary. During mechanical ventilation, depending on the degree of support, tidal volume and respiratory timing may be determined entirely by (1) the ventilator (i.e., when the patient is completely passive); (2) by the interaction between the patient and the ventilator (17,18), that is, when the patient triggers the ventilator; or (3) entirely by the patient. With total ventilator support, the feedback control is disrupted. With partial ventilator support, the ventilator, through its interaction with the patient, becomes an essential component in modifying the output of the respiratory centers. This review will focus on the control of breathing in acute ventilatory failure and during mechanical ventilation. II. Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure Little information exists on the control of breathing in patients experiencing acute ventilatory failure (AVF). We will focus on studies of the respiratory center's responses to chemical stimuli and load compensation during the AVF, and studies of the pattern of breathing. When specific information is unavailable, pertinent data obtained in patients with chronic but stable diseases will be discussed. AVF, a failure of primarily the controller, may result from depression of respiratory central drive, disruption of the connecting nerves, respiratory muscle weakness or fatigue, and an increased ventilatory demand or load on the respiratory muscles. In general, the output of the respiratory centers consists of a small tidal volume VT , with varying frequency (f), which will be discussed under each of the foregoing conditions. A. Control of Breathing in Patients with Depressed Respiratory Central Drive Depression of respiratory central drive may be due to structural damage to the respiratory centers, metabolic causes (e.g., severe metabolic alkalosis), effects of various drugs or unknown etiology (e.g., congenital central hypoventilation syndrome [CCHS] or primary alveolar hypoventilation; 19). In six patients with coma owing to an overdose with barbiturates and six patients with carbamates, the ventilatory response to CO2 was diminished, with values ranging between 0.03
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1
1
1
and 0.98 L min torr , compared with that in controls (1.41–3.54 L min torr ; 20). In contrast, the P0.1 response to CO2 was similar to the control subjects. The investigators attributed the depressed ventilatory response to increased effective respiratory system elastance (Ers), which was 57.0 ± 7.1 (± SE) cmH2O/L in the barbiturate group and 54.0 ± 8.5 cmH2O/L in the carbamate group. Those patients were studied 30–120 min following last recording of apnea and after achieving a stable pattern of breathing, but who had not regained consciousness (20,21). Mean PaCO2 and PaO2 breathing air were 37.2 and 70.0 torr, respectively. All patients displayed a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern. The administration of O2 was associated with small changes in breathing pattern. VT and mean inspiratory flow rate increased by 8 and 6% (p