Conquerors and Slaves (Sociological Studies in Roman History, Vol. 1)

C O N Q U E R O R S AND

SOCIOLOGICAL

SLAVES

STUDIES IN ROMAN VOLUME

1

HISTORY

CONQUERORS AND

SLAVES SOCIOLOGICAL

STUDIES IN ROMAN VOLUME

KEITH Professor

1

HOPKINS

of Sociology,

CAMBRIDGE

Brunei

University

UNIVERSITY Cambridge

London

HISTORY

New York

Melbourne

PRESS

Published by the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press T h e Pitt Building, T r u m p i n g t o n Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP Bendey House, 200 Euston Road, L o n d o n N W I 2DB 32 East 57th Street, New Y o r k , N Y 10022, U S A 296 Beaconsfield Parade, Middle Park, Melbourne 3206, Australia © Keith Hopkins 1978 First published 1978 Printed i n Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge Library

of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Hopkins, Keith. Conquerors and slaves. (Sociological studies in R o m a n history; v. 1) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Slavery in Rome, 2. Social structure. 3. Rome - Social conditions. 4. Rome - History. I. T i d e . I I . Series. HT863.H66 3 -44'93'°9376 7*-9M°9 I S B N o 521 21945 o OI

CONTENTS

List of plates List of tables List of figures Preface Abbreviations Map

I

page v i i viii viii ix xiii xvi

CONQUERORS

AND SLAVES:

CONQUERING

AN E M P I R E ON T H E P O L I T I C A L

ECONOMY

T H E IMPACT

OF

OF ITALY

I

The argument T h e i n t r u s i o n o f slaves A sketch o f t h e e c o n o m y Continuous war T h e products of war T h e f o r m a t i o n o f l a r g e estates L a n d i n politics T h e s o l u t i o n - mass m i g r a t i o n Structural differentiation and the wider implications o f c h a n g e : t h e a r m y , e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e law A p p e n d i x : O n t h e p r o b a b l e size o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e city o f R o m e

II

T H E GROWTH ROMAN

i 8 15 25 37 48 56 64 74 96

AND PRACTICE

OF SLAVERY

TIMES

IN 99

T h e g r o w t h o f a slave society W h y d i d t h e R o m a n s f r e e so m a n y slaves? Conclusions

v

99 115 131

Contents 111

BETWEEN AT

SLAVERY

AND FREEDOM:

ON F R E E I N G

DELPHI

133

T h e background F u l l f r e e d o m a n d c o n d i t i o n a l release Prices F a m i l y ties a m o n g t h e f r e e d Conclusions

IV

T H EPOLITICAL

POWER

133 141 158 163 168

OF EUNUCHS

172

T h e p o w e r a n d privileges o f c o u r t eunuchs Changes i n the power structure T h e strategic p o s i t i o n o f e u n u c h s

V

D I V I N E EMPERORS OR T H E SYMBOLIC THE

ROMAN

UNITY

172 181 186

OF

EMPIRE

197

Introduction T h e b e g i n n i n g s o f e m p e r o r w o r s h i p i n R o m e , its establishment a n d diffusion S o m e f u n c t i o n s o f b e l i e f - t h e l i v i n g presence Omens and portents Conclusions

Bibliography Modern Modern Modern Modern Modern

works works works works works

Supplementary

SLAVES

cited cited cited cited cited

in in in in in

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

i 11 111 iv v

197 200 215 231 241

243 243 246 248 249 250

bibliography

R o m a n h i s t o r y f o r sociologists a n d sociology f o r R o m a n historians Index of subjects Index of proper names

252 255 261

vi

PLATES

i

Between pages 222 and 223 A p o t h e o s i s o f Sabina. R o m e , Palazzo d e i Conservatory, I n s t . N e g . 60.2542

2 a A p o t h e o s i s o f A n t o n i n u s Pius a n d Faustina. V a t i c a n , A r c h i v i o Fotografico Vaticano, M o n u m e n t ! Musei e Gallerie Pontificie, A r c h . V a t . x v m 27.22 2ft C a m e o o f a n e m p e r o r ' s apotheosis. Paris, C a b i n e t des médailles, B i b l . N a t . C4656 3 a M a x i m i n u s T h r a x . C o p e n h a g e n , N y C a r l s b e r g G l y p o t e k 744. F r o m A r c h ä o l o g i s c h e s I n s t i t u t des d e u t s c h e n Reiches, M . W e g n e r , e d . , Das römische Herrscherbild: Caracalla ( B e r l i n , 1971) p l . 6 9 a 36 D o m i t i a n . M u n i c h , G l y p o t h e k 394. F r o m W e g n e r , Flavier (1966) pl. 23a 3c M a r c u s A u r e l i u s . R o m e , M u s e o C a p i t o l i n o , I m p e r a t o r i 38. F r o m W e g n e r , Antonine (1939) p l . 26 3d L u c i u s V e r u s . T u r i n , M u s e o d i A n t i c h i t à . F r o m W e g n e r ,

Antonine

(«939) P - 41 4 a H a d r i a n . I s t a n b u l , A n t i k e n m u s e u m 585. F r o m W e g n e r ,

Hadrian

1

(1956) p l . 16c

46 Severus A l e x a n d e r . Naples, M u s e o N a z i o n a l e 5993. F r o m W e g n e r , Caracalla ( 1971 ) p l . 5 6 a 4c M a r c u s A u r e l i u s . R o m e , C a m p i d o g l i o - A n d e r s o n 347. F r o m W e g n e r , Antonine (1939) p l . 22 4h;»d 213,215,241; divorce, 88 between man and god, 198, 217; doctors: in emperor's entourage, 232; deified on death, 202-3, 213; disin ritual of emperor's death, 214; believed, 203-4,213; divinity, i97ff., slave, 124 200, 202, 235; formal belief, 199, dowry, as channel of wealth, 48 225, 229, 241; genius of emperor, drachma, 160 204, 212, 224, 228; political, 209, dreams, interpretation of, 135, 233, 215; sacrifices, 205,207-8; senators, 204-5, 3»ex-slaves active, 211 - 1 3 ; 239 son of God, 201, 202; test of loyalty, economies of scale, 36 227-9 economy: subsistence, 15; unification empire: area, 1, 102; population, 1, of, 94, 159, 162; without labour 102 market, 109, 111 empress, 176, 214 edict, praetor's, 81, 86 enemy killed or captured, 26 education, 76ff., 117 elite: based on slavery, 123; belief in epigraphers, failings of, 217-18 astrology, 234!?.; differentiation eunuchs: access to emperor, 173, 177, 188; agents of emperor, 174, 179; within, 90-1, 174; relation to embarbarian origins, 192; bribed, peror's divinity, 200-5, 3 » shared 177-8, 188; castration, 173, 190, norms and values, 27, 87-8, 93, cf. 193-4; corporate identity, 179, 65; wealth, 12, 14, 47-8 189-91, 195-6; functions, 173-4, emperor; acts attributed to, 173; ap196; number at court, 176,195; perpeals) to,| 222-3;! audience with, 177; 22

22

22

2

21

21

256

2

F

Index of Subjects

eunuchs: (cont.) Jews, Court, 173-4, 190 sonal characteristics, 173, 180,juries, 84 3 - 5 J power at court, 173, 177, justice, 43, 8 iff., 222 179-81, 190-1, 196; ranks, 174-6; sudden demise, 174, 180-1, 190; king, English, French, 197, 231 wealth, 174, 178, 190 kinship, 88 ex-slaves, see slaves knights (equites): against senators, expectation of life, 21, 34, 50 46-7, 90-1; army officers, 184; exploitation: forms, 114, 125-6; limiimperial administrators, 125, 182, ted by political structure, 24, 112, 184; killed, 71; land-owners, 49-51, 114; of citizens, 14; of provinces, 41; 66; lawyers, 86; tax-farmers, 45-7,51 of slaves, 114 labour: cost subsidised, 39; input of family, life cycle, 22 peasants, 110; productivity increasfamily, as unit of labour, 109, 111, ed, 36; of slaves, 10, n o ; see also 125-6 wage-labour farms: single family, 4; increase in land: arable to pasture^; the basis of size, 105 wealth, a safe investment, 6, 11,13, folk-heroes, 21, 25 48-51, 65, 104-5, 7 » " 3 1 outside food: distribution to poor, 13; see also Italy, 95, 105; in politics, 6, 50, 59, 63, 66; as security for contracts, 51; wheat small-holdings, 21; to soldiers, 30, fortunes, size of, 39 foundlings ((threptot), 158 3 » 39» 50, 70» 105 free labourers, 9-10 land-commission, 5, 63-4 free peasants, 5, 7 land-laws, 5, 50, 58-64, 66 freedman, see slaves, ex-slaves lar, see genius large landholdings: formation of, 4, games, public, 38, 95, 119, 206-8 11, 35, 48-9, 54, 56, 60, 105, 111; genius, 201-2, 214; of emperor, 204, slaves on, 55, 109; see also slaves 212, 224, 228 Latin culture, 76-8 grammarians, see Greek and Latin law: codification, 86; see also Twelve culture Tables; criminal, 84-5, 93; ineffecGreece, conquered by Romans, 135 tiveness, 115, 122-3, 237> praetorGreek: culture, 76-9, 83; economy, ian, 84; protecting property, 85; 134; manumission, 130, 133, 153; rule of, 93-5; substantive, 83, 85 slaves, 124; slave society, 99 laws (specific): on astrology, 237; debt, 50; employment of free men, 109; ship-owning by senators, 52; slaves, hereditary status, 184-5 115, 120, 122, 128-9, 222; sumptuary, 49 ideals: of aristocracy, 45, 52; Christian, 122; of clientship, 23; legal, law courts: criminal, 81,84; emperor's 88; of philosophers, 121-2; of Prinportrait in, 223-4; extortion, 41-2, cipate, 182, 199-200, -203, 226; 46-7; magic in, 240; specialised, 81, rhetorical, 28, 198-200; of slave89 owners, 15, 121-3, 129-30 lawyers, 37, 80, 83-7 inflation of titles, 174 legal: consultants, 86; fictions, 82,125; inheritance, as channel of wealth, 48 formulae, 82,86; judgements, exeinnovation, resisted, 78, 91 cution of, 81; language, 80-1; ruinscriptions: honorary, 198, 211; rebrics - terms of reference, 83, 86; cording manumissions, 133 system, 81-3 i o

io

6

257

Index of Subjects

mining: conditions, 119; corporations legal procedure, 80-4, 86, 227-9 of investors, 53 legionaries, see soldiers miracles, see emperor: magic power legion, size, 33, 35 legitimacy of monarchy, 91, 94-5; see mnoy 160 monarchy: imposed by Augustus, 72, also ideals of Principate 92, 94; modus operandi, 95, 124 letters of recommendation, 88-9 monétisation, 8, 94 litterateurs, 79 money, multiplier effect of expenditure, 48 magic, 231, 233, 239-41 mortality, high, n o , 128, 145 magistrates, 83, 86 manumission: age at, 126-7, l39~4 > mystic powers of universe, 197,23iff., 241 bought by slaves, 126; chances of getting, 126-7, " 3 ; » 3 3 - 4 . myth, 223, 234-7; see also anecdotes 138-9, 142, 146, 160; frequency, nobles: modest standard in early 101-2, ii5ff.; profitable to slaveRome, 24; see also aristocrats; owners, 128, 131-2, 170; reasons senators for, 117, 127-8, 147; sex-ratio, 139-40; by statue of emperor, 225; oaths: by emperor, 224-5; °f loyalty, see also slaves, ex-slaves 225 manumission at Delphi, i33ff. market: lack of labour market, 23; oligarchy, power-sharing, 46, 93-5 olive oil, 3, 107 new, 12, 106-7; * » 3™4» 15-16 omens, see portents marriage of slaves, 163 ostentatious display, 26, 39, 48-9, 71, meat, 3, 207-8, 210-11 104, 112, 128 Mediterranean, 1,4, 162 methods: extremes juxtaposed, 75; see slaves, ex-slaves at formal definition, 89; frequency of paramoni, Delphi, conditional freedom mention, 129; incompatible rejected as anachronistic, 24; model patronage, 22, 87-9 (scheme), 12, 17-18, 34, 94-5, 103; patrons' power over ex-slaves, 115, 153-5 plausibility not proof, 128; rough peasants, i6ff.; eviction of, 10, 30, 36, order of magnitude, 58,66,97,146; 49, 56ff., 63, 103, 113; impoverishtied to testimony, 65; traditional ment, 11,18,36,62; lack of political method inadequate, 2, 107; wigpower, 183-5; participation in emwam argument, 20 peror worship, 210; see also military migration: to army, 50; colonies, 57; service of landed from Italy, 50,64,66-7,95,103,106; within Italy, 66, 68-9, 113; process, peculium, see slaves: private purse 57-8; scale, 7,66-9,72; of slaves into Persian king's harem, 192-3 Italy, 50; to towns and the city of philosophers, 58, 61, 77-8; and emperor, 197-8, 217, 234; o n slavery, Rome,i 1,1 3,5»57- » -9'7 -3»« 04-5 i 2 i , 123 military service: of allies, 57-8; political conflict, 46-7, 50, 60, 63, 85, changes in pattern, 2off., 63, 74; of 90, 92-3, 180 landed, 20,28-30,37,75; of landless, political murder, 63-4, 71, 93, 105, 31, 36, 91, 105; length, 27, 30-2, 35, 202, 235 75; number liable, 4, 61, 67, 108, political office, 14,28,48,54,63,111,178, 112—13; proportion of males re183 cruited, 34, 104; in provinces, 73; political slogans, 72-3, 220 rewards at end, 70; unpopular, political system, 92, 185, 196-8 3 0 - 1, 36; see also army pomp, see rituals militaristic ethos, 1, 25ff., 103-4 0

1

s

c o s t

!

zc

8

6d

2

Index of Subjects

poor, 5, 14, 62, 74, 81, 109 popular assemblies, 59-60,84, 111-12 population: of city of Rome, 2, 96-8, 105, 107; of empire, 1; rural, 63, 67-70, 73; urban, 68-9 portents, 232, 239 power: arbitrary exercise in provinces, 41-4; emperor's, 94, 172,187-8, 197-8, 200, 202; eunuchs', 173, 177, 179-80,188; government's, 91-2; of imperial ex-slaves, 116, 124; landbased, 7, 50, 61; military, 92-3, 184; plebs', 14, 37, 59, 112; political and religion, 92; senate's, 59, 182; structure, 46, 181-6, 196, 198-200 prefects, 174-5, 183 pre-industrial society, 90, 114 prices, see slaves, conditional freedom, full freedom; wheat priests, 37,85-6,91-2,135, 204,208-9, 213

Principate, 94-5 processions, 25-6,206,209-10,215-16, 218-19

profit, 10, 41-3, 48, 66; from provinces, 41, 45-6, 48 provincials, emperor worship, 203-5, 207-10

rebellion, 55, 120, 187 recruitment, see military service religion: at Delphi, 134rT., 142-3, 147; divine forces, 200-1, 219; and emperor-worship, 201-2, 205, 225, 227-30; and law, 85-6; and politics, 204-6, 212, 215-17, 231, 237, 240;

sacrifice, 202, 210; and ex-slaves, 117, 142-3, 145-6

rents, 5, 16, 18, 38, 50, 55 resettlement of soldiers, 36, 66 return on investment, 2, 107 rhetoric, 77-9, 85, 89-90, 198-9, 217 rich: incomes, 39, 51-2, 55; landowners, 3-4, 50, 66, 70, 105, 113; and poor, 3, 14, 50, 59, 61-3, 112; become richer, 38, 39ff., 71, 90; slaves, 59, 114 rituals, 82, 180, 182, 186, 192-3, 212, 214-15

schools,

76-7, 79-80, 89-90

school-teachers, 37, 79, 123 secretaries, imperial, 189 seed, 17 senatorial career, 28, 46-7, 86, 191 senators: and emperor, 213, 226; killed, 71; and knights, 46-7, 90-1, '184; land-owners, 49-50,55,66,179; lawyers, 85-6; power, 182-3, 238 sexual desire, 240 slave-owners: affective ties to slaves, 127, 134, 148, 154; cruelty, 118-21, 122-3; female, 164; generosity, 117, 127, 129, 132; hostility to slaves, 119-21, 152; humanity, 121-3; and manumission, 128-9, 130-2, 147, 155, 160; size of holdings, 168-9 slavery: compared with American, 9, 100, 113-14, 121, 125, 163; decline, 156; functions, 13-14, 99-100, 102, 112-13, 5 » labour in, 9, 24, 100, i n , 124; medium term, 126, 148, 169; punishment central to, 144-6; stigma, 144; system of, 114, 118, l2

147-8

slaves: affective ties to owners, 127, 132, 134, 148, 154, 166-7; agricultural, 55, 106, asylum, 221-3; freedom, 128-30, i33ff., 142-3,146, 148, i58ff., 168, see also manumission; ex-slaves (below); children 165-6; compared with free labour, 108, i n , 125, 131; decline, 95, 185; gangs, 109,111; high status of some, 101; hostility to owners, 119-21, 152; import of, 1, 103; legal status, 123»., 131, 153; marriage, 163; misery of, n8ff., 144; motivation, 126, 128, 147,149; never freed, 118, 7 > i 3 9 - f i ; number, 7-9, 55, 102, 108; origins (aliens), 112-13, 141, (captives), 8, 108, (home-born), 139-41; paid wages, 128; price, 108, n o , 113, 117, 134, 158».; private purse (peculium), 125-6, 129, 147, 168; productivity, 10, i i o - n , 131; profitability, 107; rebellions, 55, 120; reproduction, 155-8, 166-7, 169; rich landowners, 59,61-3,106; risk of loss, n o , 126; runaway, 121; status spectrum, 131, 137, 153; stereotype character, 121; D U V

I2

259

f Subjects

Index

taxes, 11, 16-17, 38, 94, 182, 185, 198 slaves: (conL)\ supervision, 110,126; teachers, 76, tax-farmers, 43-4; corporations, 53; knights, 45-7, 51 79; trusted, 51,123-5, urban, 49, 67, temples, 25, 133, 137, 145; asylum, 97, 104. 221; to emperor, 204-5, ° 8 ex-slaves: as agents, 117; in commerce, 52; given citizenship, 102, tenancy, 53, n o , 126 116; disappointed with freedom, town-councillors (decuriones): competition among, 206, 208-9, 229; gifts 149; active in emperor worship, from, 210-11; power, 183, 185; sta211-13; gratitude to former tues, 208, 220 owners, 118, 128, 130, 154; legal status, 153; number in the city of town-country relations, 18 Rome, 115-17; obligations to trade and tax interacting, 94 traditional Roman histories, 4 , 2 0 , 2 7 , former owners, 129-31, 144, 155 64-5, 103, 112 ex-slaves at Delphi, 1331T.; contransport costs, 3, 107 ditional freedom (contract), i42ff., (defined), 133, 142, (deteriorated), tribune of the people, 5 , 3 6 , 3 8 , 5 9 - 6 1 , 2

«34» i49-5 » 149-5«» 0

!

55» 1°*» Oength), 148, 156, i58ff.,

triumphal procession, 26; see also pro(price), cessions; rituals 161 -2, 171, (punishment during), Twelve Tables, 22, 80 145-6, (surrender of child), 155-8, (compared with conditional freedom at Calymna), 156-8, 170; full underemployment, 2, 4, 10, 24 freedom, 133, 141-2, (declining urban markets, n , 74, 107 proportion), 150, 161, (increasing urban poor, 3, 15, 74, 95,97,183,185, 210 cost), 150, 159, 161-2, 165-7, 7 « imperial ex-slaves, 116, 176; staviolence, 3, 70-1, 93, 95,105 tus, 124-5 slave societies, 9, 99-100 wage-labour, 23, 43, 109-11, 120 small-holdings, 3, 6, 106 soldiers, 38, 40, 42, 70, 75, 90, 94; see war, 251T., 28, 56, 104, 108; war trophies, 25 also army; land; military service water supply, 58 soubriquet, 25, 103, 195, 224 specialisation: in law, 80-1; in schools, wealth, 8, 13, 39, 41, 48-9, 107, 113 80 wheat, 3 , 9 7 - 8 , 1 0 7 - 8 ; price, 20,38,56, state: attacks on, 91-2; power, 93-4, 73» 146 113; resources, 91; revenues, 37-8, wheat dole, 15, 38-9, 66-7, 72-3, 90, 44» 63, 73» 94» weakness, 36, 4 3 , 4 5 , 95, 108, 112; cost and functions, 39, 196 72-4; number of recipients, 67, 73, statue, 201—2; see also emperor's statue 96, 105 stratification pyramid, 40, 46-7 wheat equivalent, n o , 157 structural differentiation, 37, 74-5, wills, 87, 127, 129, 149 89ff.,96 wine, 3, 107, 210, 212 subsistence, level of minimum, 40,58, women: emancipation, 88; and eunn o , 146, 168 uchs, 192, 194; sex-ratio, 97, 106; surplus, 16,90,106-7; surplus labour, slaves, 147, 159^., 162, 168; exslaves, 127, 139-40, 152 9» * 4 !

yeomen, 2iff., 37 260

INDEX OF PROPER

Abasgi, tribe in Caucasus, 172 Abbasid Caliphate, 187, 197 Acolius, Grand Chamberlain under Valentinian III, 190 Acts of the Aposdes, 222 Aeneas, mythical founder of Rome, 202

NAMES

Antioch, 187, 225-6 Antiochus, Grand Chamberlain under Theodosius II (?), 175, 178, 181

Antoninus Pius, emperor (AD 138-61), 214, 222-3; Plate 2a Antony, M. Antonius, consul 44 BC,

Aesop, 124 70» 9*> 95 Aetolian League, connection with Apamea Cibotus, city in Phrygia, 207 Delphi, 135 Apolaustrus, family tomb of, 128 Africa, Roman provinces in, 108, n o , Apollo: associate of emperors, 206, 21 o; oracle of, at Delphi, 133-6,137, 239-40 Africa, and slave trade, 100 142-3, 145, 151, 156, 159; power of, Albinus, A. Postumius, consul, 151 145-6; see aJso Delphi BC, 77 Apollonius of Tyana, wonder-worker, Alexander the Great, 135, 235 ist century AD, 221, 233, 234 Alexandria, 54, 205, 231-2 Apollonius, Christian martyr, 2nd Amantius, Chief Steward to empress century AD, 228 Eudoxia, 176, 177 Appian, historian, 2nd century AD 5, Ambrose, Saint, Bishop of Milan (AD 32, 36, 38, 40, 60, 70, 103, 115, 136, 374-97)» «77»

**7> 196

American, southern states of USA, slavery in, 9, 99-101, 113-14, 117,

119,121, 123,125-7, *44-5» 148» 163, 168

Ammianus Marcellinus, historian, 4th century AD, I 73-4,175,176,178, 179, 180, 187, 191, 194-5» 96» 219 !

2 I O

»

Amphictionic Council, met at Delphi, «35 Anastasius, emperor (AD 491-518), 175» 176

Ancient Near East, slavery in, 133,152 Andronicus, Livius, man of letters, 3rd century BC, 76 Antigonus of Nicaea, astrologer, 2nd century AD, 236-7

202-3

Apuleius, man of letters, 2nd century AD, 223, 224

Arcadius, emperor (AD 395-408), 194

187,

Arezzo, Italy, 70 Aristides, Aelius, man of letters, 2nd century AD, 199, 216 Artemidorus, interpreter of dreams, 2nd century AD, 226, 233 Artemis, temple of at Ephesus, 221 Asia Minor, 63,94,119,141,204,206-7 Asklepias of Mendes, writer, 206 Aspendos, city in Pamphylia (southern Turkey), 221 Assos, city in western Asia Minor, 206 Athanasius, Saint, Bishop of Alexandria (AD 328-73), 176, 179

Index of Proper

Names

Athens: Academy of, 77; factory at, Carneades, philosopher, 2nd century 53; slavery at, 99, 113-14» «44» «47 BC, 77-8 A tula, H u n leader, 5th century AD, Carpus, Papylus and Agathonice, Christian martyrs, 2nd or 3rd cen'79 tury AD, 228 Augustoles, 21 i f f . Carthage (Tunisia), 19, 31, 45, 54, 72, Augustus, tide of gods, 211, 230-1 135, 220 Augustus, C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, Plate +d; establishes Princi- Catiline, L. Sergius Catilina, 6 pate, 72, 94-6,182; honoured like a Cato, M. Porcius Cato 'Censorim', consul 195 BC, 76-8; on farming, 5, god, 201-10, 21 i f f . , 218, 222-3, 225, 9-10, 23, 51, 55, 106, 109, i n , 118, 229,241; land settlement and army, » 3» 3°* 3 » 3 » 3 » 4» 5°» °9-7» 72» 92,94-7,106; and slaves, 115,118-19, 6

1

2

6

8

121, 124, 128; other mendons, 65,

212

Cedrenus, Byzantine chronicler, 172, 181

Censorinus, grammarian, 3rd cen79, 87, 232, 233 tury AD, 202 Aurelian, emperor (AD 270-5), 192 Aurelius, Marcus Aurelius Antoni- Charles II of England, and King's nus, emperor (AD 161-80), 79, 211, Evil, 231 Chief Steward of the Palace (costrensu 220-1, 224, 233; Plate 3c, Plate 4c socri polatii), 175ff.; see also under Aurelius Victor, see Victor Auximum, colony in Italy, 64 individual names China, 1, 14, 79, 100; Imperial court, Baalbek, Syria, 230 176, 186, 188-90, 193-5, 197 Balbillus, court astrologer under Christianity, 122-3, °°» » 7 " 9 » Nero, 234 237, 240 Basil, Saint, Bishop of Caesarea in Chrysaphius, Grand Chamberlain Cappadocia (AD 370-9), 194, 195 under Theodosius II, 178-9, 194-5 Brazil, slavery in, 100, 119, 123 Cicero, M. Tullius, orator, consul 63 Brutus, Marcus Junius, 'tyranicide', BC; on government and tax-farm1 st century BC, 52, 213 ing, 16,41-2,44-5,47,54,89,91; o n Bulla Regia, city in Africa (Tunisia), land-ownership, 31,47-8,50,51,55, 220 61, 71, 85; law, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86-7; senatorial politics and elections, Caecilian Law (98 BC), 81 88-9, 91, 93; slaves, 71,89,124,126; Caesar, C. Julius: army remuneradon other mentions, 28, 39, 46, 52, 65, and land setdement, 6,13,36,40-1, «35 67, 70, 72-3, 94, 96, 106; honoured Cicero, Quintus Tullius, brother of like a god, 201-3,209,212,241; miliM. Tullius Cicero, 53-4, 89, 124 tary career and successes, 25-6, 28, Cilicia, 41 38, 40-1, 65, 92, 103; other men- Cincian law (204 BC), 87 tions, 16, 50, 52, 71, 109, 128, 233 Cincinnatus, general and farmer, 5th Calapodius, Grand Chamberlain century BC, 4, 21 under Leo, 178 Claudian, poet, late 4th century AD, Caligula, emperor (AD 37-41), 191, 189» «94 199, 206, 213, 224-5 Claudius, emperor (AD 41-54), 116, Calligonus, Grand Chamberlain 192, 203-4, 214, 224 under Valentinian II, 196 Claudius, Appius, senator, 135 Calymna, small island near Cos, 156-8, Cleander, chamberlain under Corn209 modus, 192 Cleopatra, 92 Capua, Italy, 2, 210 2

262

2 2 2

22

Index of Proper

Names

Codinus, writer on Constantinople, 127» '55-8» 164-6, 169; temple and ?i5th century AD, 176 oracle at, 134-6, see also Apollo Columella, writer on farming, 1 st cen- Dentatus, Manius Curius, consul 290 tury AD, 9, 53, 55, 106, 109, I I I , BC, 21 Dio, Cassius, consul AD 229 and hist"7 orian, 70,87,115,192,202,205,208, Commodus, emperor (AD 180-92), 212-13, 235

192, 225, 228

Constantine I, emperor

(AD 306-37),

176, 184, 226

Dio Chrysostom, orator, ist century AD, 122

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Diocletian, emperor (AD 284-305), 184, 186, 192, 199-200; edict on emperor (AD 912-59) and author, Prices (AD 301), 79, 110, 190 176-7, 179, 191 Diodorus Siculus, historian, ist cenConstantius II, emperor (AD 337-61), tury BC, 119 173. 179» 190. 219 Diogenes Laertius, historian of philoCordoba, Spain, 231 sophy, 148 Corinth, Greece, 99 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, historian, Cornelian Law, 81 1 st century BC, 4,5,20-1,23,128,212 Corpus Hermeticum, 217 Court Jews, in 17th/ 18th-century Ger- Dionysopolis, Asia Minor, temple of Apollo, 145-6 many. «73-4» »9° Domitian, emperor (AD 81-96), 191-2, Crassus, M. Lirinius Crassus Dives, 199, 217, 226, 234; Plate 36 Dositheus, lawyer, 153 millionaire, 1st century BC, 39-40, Drusus, stepson of Augustus, consul 4^» 52, 7

9 BC, 209

1

Crete, 221-2 Dura Europos, town on the EuphraCuba, slavery in, 148 tes, Syria, 207-8 Cumae, near Naples, 207 Cybele, 192 Edessa, northern Mesopotamia, 226 Cyprian, Saint, Bishop of Carthage Egypt, 16, 119, 135, 146,157, 204, 210, (AD 248/9-58), 119 223, 225 Cyprus, 41, 52, 209, 240 Elagabalus, emperor (AD 218-22), Cyrene (Libya), 230 187-8, 192 Cyril, Saint, Bishop of Alexandria England, 18th century, 52, 100 (AD 412-44), 178, 194 Ennius, poet, 3rd/2nd century BC, 201 Danube and Danubian provinces, Ephesus, west coast of Asia Minor, 99, 127» 233

Decius, emperor (AD 249-51), 223 Delos, 146 Delphi, 99, 127, 129, Chapter III passim; Apollo and priests involved in manumission, 137-9, 140-2, 145-6, 156; full freedom and conditional release, 133-4» 137» 4 ~4» i46ff., 148-52, 169-70; inscriptions recording manumission of slaves, *33> l35> «37» »42-4» *53» l5^T> origins, 99, 139-^1, 166; prices, 133-4, 146-8, 158-63,166-8; relations with owner and his family, 144-5,153-4, 163,167; slave women and children, I

I

221, 234

Epictetus, philosopher, ist/2nd century AD, 51, 122, 148 Epicurus, philosopher, 4th/3rd century BC, 201 Eudoxia, empress, wife of Arcadius, 176

Eugenius, usurper (AD 392-4), 179 Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (c. AD 315-c. AD 340) and church historian, 184 Eusebius, Grand Chamberlain of Constantius II, 173, 179-80, 190-1,

263

194

Index of Proper

Names

Eutherius, Grand Chamberlain of Gracchus, brother of Gaius GracJulian, 194-5 chus, 58-9, 61^4, 105 Eutropius, consul AD 387 and histor- Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, ian, 183 consul 177 BC and 163 BC, 25 Eutropius, Grand Chamberlain Grand Chamberlain (proepositus socri under Arcadius, 175, 179, 181, cubicxdi), i74ff., i88fL, 195-6 188-90, 194 Greece, 130-1, 162-3, 9» 5 Evagrius, church historian, 178 Greek language, 76-7, 90 Gregory Nazianzcn, Saint, Bishop of Fabius, Quintus Fabius Maximus Constantinople (AD 381), 157 Cunctator, consul for the fifth time Gregory of Tours, Saint, Bishop of 209 BC and general, 25, 103 Tours (AD 573-94) and historian, Falcidian Law, 81 178 Fausdna, empress, wife of Antoninus Hadrian, emperor (AD 117-38), 118, Pius, 214; Plate 2a 122, 136, 182, 210, 219, 231, 234, Felix, procurator of Judaea, 1st century AD, 116 236-7, 239; Plate 4a Festus, procurator of Judaea, 1st cen- Hadrian's Wall, 224 tury AD, 222 Halicarnassus, Caria (south-west Festus, scholar, late 2nd century AD, Turkey), 218 Hammurabi, 180 "9 Hannibal, Carthaginian general, Firmicus Maternus, astrological 3rd/2nd century BC, 28, 56, 60, 103 thinker, 4th century AD, 233, 237-8 Harun al Raschid, Abbasid Caliph Florentinus, lawyer, 122 (AD 786-809), 187 Fronto, orator and tutor to Marcus Helicon, chamberlain under CaliAurelius, 79, 221 gula, 191 Gaius, lawyer, 2nd century AD, 82,84, Heliopolis, Egypt, 239 Heliopolis, Syria, see Baalbek 104, 115-16, 122-3 Galba, emperor (AD 68-9), 226, 232 Hercules, 199, 230, 241 Galen, doctor, 2nd century AD, 99, Herodian, historian, early 3rd century AD, 203, 214-15 118, 119 Herodotus, historian, early 5th cenGalerius, emperor (AD 293-311), tury BC, 192 «93 Homer, 76, 136 Gallicanus, Grand Chamberlain of H o n g Kong, population of, 97 usurper Maximus, 177 Gallus, brother-in-law of Constantius Horace, Q. Horatius Flaccus, poet, 1st century BC, 76, 202, 206, 212 II and Caesar (AD 351-4), 176, 180, Hyampolis, central Greece, 225 187, 191 Hyginus, writer on land-tenure, 6 Gellius, Aulus, man of letters, 2nd century AD, 23,26,29,49,51, 79,82, Ios, inscription from, 240 Germanicus, adopted son of Tiber- Isis, Hellenised Egyptian goddess, ius, 205, 214, 219, 239 225, 230, 239, 240 Gorgonius, Grand Chamberlain of Italy: food and farming, 2,4,6,9-10, Gallus, 191 12, 14-15, 38-9, 55, 67, 106-8; landGracchi, land reformers and sons of ownership and land law, 3, 5, 7-8, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, 13, 16, 18-24, 36-7» 39» 4 8 - 5 . 54~6» 13» 36, 61-5, 72-3, 201; Gaius Grac59-65,105; land taxation, 16-18,24, chus, 46, 64; Tiberius Sempronius 38; migration, colonies and the 21

2 2

1

264

Index of Proper

Italy: (cont.) effects of war, 4,11,13-14,21,24-5,

28-32, 35-8, 56, 64, 66-74; 103»., 105-6; slavery, 2-3,5,8-10,14,24-5, 5 * 55. 99* - » 7> < & > 59 -» 169, 211-12 1

I 0 2 f f

lo

1

S

I

ff

James I of England, 197 Japan, 23, 79 Jerome, Saint, 194 Jerusalem, 222 Jesus Christ, 199, 203, 232 John of Antioch,historian, 172,176,180 John Chrysostom, Saint, Bishop of Constantinople, (AD 398-403), 190, 226

John of Ephesus, church historian, 6th century AD, 175-6, 178-9 Josephus, Jewish historian, 1st century AD, 97, 210 Julian, emperor (AD 361-3), 136, 173, 180

Julius Caesar, see Caesar Julius Obscquens, writer on prodigies (?4th century AD), 233 Jupiter, 27, 199, 202-3, b* 230-1; see also Zeus Justinian, emperor (AD 527-65), 178; Code of, 172, 175, 176, 178; Digest 22

of,

129,

and

see under

names

of

law-

yers; novels, of, 172, 179, 187, 190 Juvenal, satirical poet, ist/and century AD, 237

Kleomantis, slave-owner at Delphi, 153-4

Names

Leo, emperor (AD 457-74), 176 Leptis Magna (Libya), 220-1, 230 Lex Julia Municipalis, 81 Libanius, orator, 4th century AD, I 72, 177, 195, 225-6

Liber

Pontifical^

178

Liberius, Bishop of Rome, (AD 352-66), 179

Ligurians, 58 Livia, wife of Augustus, 218 Uvy, Titus Livius, historian, 1st Century Bc/ist century AD, 2, 5, 16, 22, 25-8,30,36,46,52,56-8,60,104,135

Lucian, man of letters, 2nd century AD, 182, 124, 233

Lucretius, poet, 1st century BC, 201 Lucullus, general and gourmet, 1st century BC, 47 Lysias, orator, 5th/4th century BC, 53 Lyttos, Crete, 220 Macedonians, 135 Macrobius, writer, early 5th century AD, 119

Madrid, 3 Malalas, John, Byzantine chronicler, 6th century AD, 172* 181 Malchus, historian, 196 Mamertinus, Claudius, political orator, consul AD 362, 190 Mao Tse-tung, Chairman, 200, 204 Marcellinus Comes, Byzantine chronicler, 6th century AD, 179-80, 187 Marcian, lawyer, early 3rd century AD, 131, 153

Marcus Aurelius, see Aurelius Marius, consul for the seventh time 86 BC, general, 31, 65, 92, 201 Mars, 214, 220,230; Field of Mars, 29,

Kourion, Cyprus, 240 Kwakiud, 100 Lactantius, Christian political satirist, 214-15 3rd/4th century AD, 192-3 Martial, poet, 1st century AD, 115,118 Laelius, C. Lealius Minor Sapiens, Maximian, emperor (AD 286-305), 199-200 consul, 140 BC, 61 Maximus Thrax, emperor (AD 235-8), Lares Compitales, 211-12 Plate 3a Latins, 57 Maximus, usurper (AD 383-8), 177, 180 Lausus, Grand Chamberlain under Melania, the Younger, Saint, 178,194 Theodosius II, 195 Mercury, 230 laws, see under names of individual laws Milan, 199 and lawyers and under Justinian and Twelve Tables (Index of Subjects) 265

Index of Proper

Moses, 80 Musa, Antoninus Musa, doctor of Augustus, 124

AD, 3, 21, 26, 45, 51, 53, 54, 70, 117, 136, 241-2

Naples, 97, 208 Narbonne (southern France), 208,211 Narses, eunuch general under Justinian, 178 Nero, emperor (AD 54-68), 131, 136, 187, 199, 213, 252, 234

Notitia

Dignitatum,

7 *=» 239

Plutarch, philosopher and biographer, ist/2nd century AD, 26, 38, 44, 52, 58-9, 76, 78, 119, 135-6, 226

Polybius, historian, 2nd century BC,

«5» 3 » 37» 40- » 49» °5-6\ 92-3, 103 6

1

Porphyry, Bishop of Gaza (AD

Paetus, Sextus Aelius, consul 198 BC and lawyer, 86 Palestine, 140 Palladius, hagiographer, 4th/5th century AD, 194-5 Pallas, ex-slave of the emperor Claudius, 116 Papinian, lawyer, early 3rd century AD, 84, n o Parthenius, chamberlain under Domitian, 191 -2 Paul, Saint, 116, 122-3, 222 Paul, lawyer, early third century AD, n o , 122, 131, 237 Pausanias, antiquarian and traveller, 2nd century AD, 136 Pergamon (Asia Minor), 99, 135, 205 Persian court, eunuchs at, 192-3 Petronius, novelist, 1st century AD,

Plato, 162 Plautus, playwright, 3rd/2nd century BC, 99 Pliny the Elder, naturalist, 1st century

116,118,128,158,182,199,217,226, 229, 238

Polycarp of Smyrna, Christian martyr, 2nd century AD, 228 Pompeii, near Naples, 201-2, 212 Pompey, consul 52 BC and general, 6,

Octavian, see Augustus Olympiodorus, of Thebes, historian, early fifth century AD, 51, 172 Ottoman court, 176 Ovid, P. Ovidius Naso, poet, 1st century Bc/ist century AD, 212

Philae, holy island in the Nile, 204 Philippi, Macedonia (northern Greece), 222 Philostorgius, church historian, 5th/6th century AD, 181, 188 Piso, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, consul

Pliny the Younger, nephew of Pliny the Elder and friend of Trajan, 88,

20, 31» 45» 77» «35

175-6

117, 202

Names

395-420), 176-7

Priscus, historian, 172, 179, 195 Procopius, historian, 6th century AD, 172, 190

Prudentius, Christian poet, late 4th century AD, 194 Ptolemy, astronomer, 2nd century AD, 238-9

Puteoli, near Naples, 44 Quintilian, orator, 1st century AD, 109, 216

Regulus, M. Atilius, consul for the second time 256 BC, general and farmer, 4 Rhodanus, Grand Chamberlain under Valentinian I, 181 Rhodes, 235 Roma, cult, of 208-9 Rome: citizenship and law, 41, 80-7, 116,123,153-4; culture and display, 48-9,76-80,104,123-5; early Rome, 19-25; emperors honoured at, 200, 202-6,211-15,217; food supply, 2-3, 14-15,38-39,66,73-4,107-8; immigration to, 14, 50, 56-8, 66-7, 73, 105; monuments and triumphs, 2, 16,25-7,104,219-20; population of, 68-9, 96-8, 107, 127; power of and politics at, 2, 11,19,42,46,88-9,94, 102-4, 237; slaves and ex-slaves,

266

Index of Proper

Rome:

Names

Stobaeus, compiler, ?5th century AD, 113-14, i i 5 f f . , n 8 f f . , i26ff., 147, 198 (Diotogenes), 242 (Diotogenes) 153-4, 211-13 Strabo, geographer, 1 st century BC/ I st Roscius of Ameria, 1st century BC, 71 century AD, 119, 134, 209 Rullus, land reformer, 1st century BC, Suetonius, biographer, ist/2nd cen66 tury AD: lives of literary men, 76-9, 124; lives of emperors, 10, 50, 69, Sabina, empress, wife of Hadrian, 96-7, 109, 118, 130, 187, 192, 203, 214; Plate 1 206, 212-13, 222, 232-4, 238 Sabratha, Libya, 220 Suidas, Byzantine encyclopaedist, late Sallust, historian, 1st century BC, 6, 10th century AD, 172 Sulla, consul 88 BC and general, 6,36, 3 > 70 Sarapis, 225, 231 41, 60, 65-6, 70-1, 92, 115, 135 Sardinia, 16, 25 Superintendent of the Sacred BedScillitan martyrs, Christian martyrs in chamber (primicerius socri cubiculi), Africa, late 2nd century AD, 227-8 175* Scipio Africanus, consul for the Symmachus, consul AD 391, 88 second time 194 BC, and general, 25, Synesius of Cyrene, Bishop of Ptole201 mais (c. AD 410-c. AD 414) and man Scriptores Historioe Augustoe (SHA), of letters, 187 late 4th-century AD imperial bio- Syria, 135, 141 graphies, 98, 122, 187-8, 192, 231, Tacitus, historian, ist/2nd century 234 AD, 50, 74, 87, 116, 120-1, 126, 130, Seneca, philosopher, 1st century AD, (cont.)

!

116, 118-19,

I2I

181, 204-5, 3 » 221-2, 224, 226, 231-2, 237, 239

~ 3 » 9> 201, 222

2I

I2

Septimius Severus, see Severn s Taranis, British god, 230 Servius, lawyer, 86, 130 Servius, literary critic, 4th century AD, Tarraco, Spain, 216 Tegea, Peioponnese, 219 202 Severian, Bishop of Gabala (c. AD Terence, playwright, 2nd century BC, 124

400), 223-4

Severus, Septimius, emperor (AD Tertullian, Christian sophist, 227-8 Theodore, Steward of the Sacred 193-211), 192 Palace under Justinian, 178-9 Severus Alexander, emperor (AD Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrrhus (AD 222-35), Plate 46 423-c. AD 466) and church hisSicily, 16-17, 61, 102, 108, 120 torian, 176 Smyrna, west coast of Asia Minor, Theodorus, ? governor of Cyprus, 240 209, 216 Socrates, church historian, 4th/5th Theodosius I, emperor (AD 379-95)» 179, 180 century AD, 175, 177, 180 Sophronius, Bishop of Jerusalem, Theodosius II, emperor (AD 408-50), 176, 180; Theodosian Code (AD (AD 634-8) and hagiographer, 239 Sozomen, church historian, early 5th 43 >» *75» 178» «9° Theophanes, Byzantine chronicler, century AD, 175, 179, 195, 225-6 Spain, 16, 94, 119, 127, 204, 230 8th/oth century AD, 172,175-6,180, Spartacus, leader of slave revolt 73 BC, «93» 194 120 Thessaly, 219, slavery in, 134,147,149 Speratus, Christian martyr, late 2nd Theveste (Algeria), 208 century AD, 227-8 Thrasyllus, court astrologer under Statius, poet, 1st century AD, 116 Tiberius, 234-5 8

267

Index of Proper

Names

Tiberius, emperor

Verres, governor of Sicily (73-70 BC),

Tlo, Lycia (south-west Turkey), 218 Trajan, emperor (AD 98-117), 51,182,

Verus, Lucius Verus, emperor (AD 161-9), 220; Plate 3