Chemical Technology in the Pre-Treatment Processes of Textiles (Textile Science and Technology)

TEXTILE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 12 CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES OF TEXTILES TEXTILE SCIENCE AND...

Author: S.R. Karmakar

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TEXTILE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 12

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES OF TEXTILES

TEXTILE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Volume 12

Open-end Spinning by V.Rohlena et al. Processing of Polyester Fibres by O. Pajgrt and B. Reichst~dter Shuttleless Weaving Machines by O. Talava~,ek and V. Svat~/ Fluorescent Brightening Agents by R. Williamson Polypropylene Fibres - Science and Technology by M. Ahmed Production and Applications of Polypropylene Textiles by O. Pajgrt et al. Absorbency edited by P.K. Chatterjee Needle Punching Textile Technology by V. Mr~tina and F. Fejgl Industrial Textiles edited by J. Sv6dova Modified Polyester Fibres by J. Militk~ et al. Textile Processing and Properties: Preparation, Dyeing, Finishing and Performance by T.L. Vigo Chemical Technology in the Pre-treatment Processes of Textiles by S.R. Karmakar

TEXTILE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

12

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES OF TEXTILES BY

S.R. KAR MAKAR

Professor of Textile Chemistry College of Textile Technology Serampore, Hooghly, West Bengal India

1999

i ELSEVIER Amsterdam

- Lausanne - New York-

Oxford - Shannon

- Singapore

- Tokyo

ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V. Sara Burgerhartstraat 25 P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands 91999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. This work is protected under copyright by Elsevier Science, and the following terms and conditions apply to its use: Photocopying Single photocopies of single chapters may be made for personal use as allowed by national copyright laws. Permission of the Publisher and payment of a fee is required for all other photocopying, including multiple or systematic copying, copying for advertising or promotional purposes, resale, and all forms of document delivery. Special rates are available for educational institutions that wish to make photocopies for non-profit educational classroom use. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier Science Rights & Permissions Department, PO Box 800, Oxford OX5 1DX, UK; phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected]. You may also contact Rights & Permissions directly through Elsevier's home page (http://www.elsevier.nl), selecting first 'Customer Support', then 'General Information', then 'Permissions Query Form'. In the USA, users may clear permissions and make payments through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; phone: (978) 7508400, fax: (978) 7504744, and in the UK through the Copyright Licensing Agency Rapid Clearance Service (CLARCS), 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WlP 0LP, UK, phone: (+44) 171 631 5555; fax: (+44) 171 631 5500. Other countries may have a local reprographic rights agency for payments. Derivative Works Tables of contents may be reproduced for internal circulation, but permission of Elsevier Science is required for external resale or distribution of such material. Permission of the Publisher is required for all other derivative works, including compilations and translations. Electronic Storage or Usage Permission of the Publisher is required to store or use electronically any material contained in this work, including any chapter or part of a chapter. Except as outlined above, no part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Publisher. Address permissions requests to: Elsevier Science Rights & Permissions Department, at the mail, fax and e-mail addresses noted above. Notice No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. First edition 1999 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A cataloglrecord from the Library of Congress has been applied for. ISBN: 0-444-50060-X

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). Printed in The Netherlands.

PREFACE

Textile chemical processing today, particularly the pre-treatment processes require a highly sophisticated technology and engineering to achieve the well known concepts of"Right first time, Rigtht everytime and Right on time" processing and production. Chemical pre-treatment may be broadly defined as a procedure mainly concerned with the removal of natural as well as added impurities in fabric to a level necessary for good whiteness and absorbancy by utilismg minimum time, energy and chemical as well as water. This book discusses the fundamental aspects of chemistry, chemical technology and machineries involved in the various pre-treatment process of textiles before subsequent dyeing, printing and finishing. With the introduction of newer fibres, specialty chemicals, improved technology and sophisticated machineries developed during the last decade, all attempts have been made to fill a gap in this area of technology. New chapters are integrated and introduced to upgrade the information and the subject matter and contents are so chosen that it will permit the teacher to rearrange units to suit the needs of individual groups of students. Efforts are also made to provide an in-depth exposition of the topic with a review of the most exciting recent developments in the rapidly moving field. But the real strength of this book is its clear perception of ample background description, which will enable to understand most current journals empowering the reader to stay abreast of the latest advances in the field. The interplay between fibre structure, morphlogy and chemistry is an integral part of all pre-treatment processes and in Chapter 1 an attempt is made to cover the most up-to-date information regarding all the principal classes of fibres, viewed in the light of research and commercial exploitation. Chapter 2 is devoted to mechanical fabric preparation before chemical processing commences to achieve smooth and trouble free results in subsequent dyeing and finishing. Chapter 3 discusses the chemistry of different sizing agents with respect to their removal from the fabrics. Chapter 4 covers a purifying treatment of textiles to reduce the amount of natural impurities sufficiently to enable level and reproducible dyeings and finishing to be produced. Specialty chemicals have very high value in the chemical processing of textiles and the applications of chemical auxiliaries are included in the relevent processes. Chapter 5 describes the various machineries that have been developed

vi

Preface

for the purifying operations. Chapter 6 deals with the detailed understanding of various bleaching agents and their mechanisms or mode of action on various fibres. The chemistry, technology and care guides are included seperately for each fibre and blended fiber fabrics. New machineries have been developed for the bleaching of textiles and Chapter 7 looks at the machineries involved in such process. Recent technological advances of mercerizing and heat-setting of textiles are included in Chapters 8 and 9 respectively. Textile fibres do not appear perfectly white even after chemical bleaching and Chapter 10 describes the chemistry and mechanism of optical brightening agents as well as their applications to various kinds of fibers. All serious efforts have been directed in Chapter 11 towards shortened or combined pre-treatment processing in order to minimize energy consumption. Chemical degradation or damages caused by improper application of processes, erroneous concept of procedure, faulty operation of machines and chemicals are critically reviewed in Chapter 12. A changing concern in matters relating to environmental pollution from pre-treatment processes involved in textile mills and processing house in particular is increasingly demanded and thus all these varied developments in legislation, in analysis and standards and in treatments are included in Chapter 13. Pre-treatment or surface modification of textiles with low temperature glowdischarges or plasma is of great interest in near future and Chapter 14 discusses its application as an alternative to conventional techniques. Enzymatic pre-treatment ( a biological approach) is becoming an important commercial process and Chapter 15 contains the development in the field of enzyme treatments for textiles. Testing, analyses and evalutation of the efficiency of processes present the time domain approach to modem process control, which allows for the formation of precise performance objectives that can be examined. Thus, Chapter 16 will be a valuable resource for practicing process control technologists and students. I hope the reader will find the book interesting and useful with suggested references in each chapter along with simplified flow diagrams showing various processes and machineries involved in pre-treatment technology of textiles. No single text can be sufficient unto itself. Any constructive suggestions and comments are therefore welcome for future revesions and corrections.

Serampore,Hooghly, West Bengal, (India), April 1999.

Samir Ranjan Karmakar

CONTENTS

Preface

Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

Kinds of fibres Introduction Classification of fibres Chemical composition, morphology and structure of cotton 1.3.1 Cotton impurities Natural protein fibres 1.4.1 Molecular structure of wool fibres 1.4.2 Impurities in raw wool 1.4.3 Morphology and chemical structure of silk Long vegetable fibres 1.5.1 Flax (linen) 1.5.2 Remie 1.5.3 Hemp 1.5.4 Jute Regenerated natural fibres 1.6.1 Cuprammonium rayon 1.6.2 Viscose rayon 1.6.3 Acetate fibres 1.6.4 Regenerated protein fibres Synthetic fibres 1.7.1 Polyester 1.7.2 Nylon 1.7.3 Acrylic fibres 1.7.4 Olefin fibres Miscellaneous synthetic fibres 1.8.1 Chlorofibres 1.8.2 Poly(vinyl alcohol) fibres 1.8.3 Elastomeric fibres 1.8.4 Carbon fibres 1.8.5 PTO fibres (Enkatherm)

1 1 1 3 5 8 8 13 14 16 17 18 19 19 22 22 22 25 26 27 27 29 34 37 38 39 39 40 41 42

viii

Contents

1.8.6

Other synthetic fibres

References

Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

2.5

2.6

Preparation before chemical processes Introduction Inspection Sewing Mechanical cleaning of fabrics 2.4.1 Brushing 2.4.2 Cropping and shearing Singeing 2.5.1 Singeing different kinds of fibres fabrics 2.5.2 Plate singeing machine 2.5.3 Rotary cylinder machine 2.5.4 Gas singeing machine 2.5.5 Singeing circular knit fabrics Process sequence 2.6.1 Cotton fabric on kier 2.6.2 Cotton fabric on J-Box 2.6.3 Cotton fabric on pad-roll/thermoreaction chamber (T.R.C.) 2.6.4 Cotton fabric on Jumbo jigger 2.6.5 Knitted cotton goods 2.6.6 Woollen fabrics 2.6.7 Silk fabrics 2.6.8 Polyester fabrics 2.6.9 Nylon fabrics 2.6.10 Polyester/cotton blends 2.6.11 Polyester/viscose blends 2.6.12 Polyester/wool blends 2.6.13 Diacetate/viscose blends

Chapter 3 Desizing 3.1 3.2

Introduction Methods of desizing 3.2.1 Rot steeping

42 44 49 49 49 51 52 52 52 55 56 57 58 58 63 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 67 68 68 68

69 69 71 72

Contents 3.2.2 Acid desizing 3.2.3 Enzymatic desizing 3.2.4 Desizing with oxidising agents 3.3 Desizing of synthetic fabrics and their blends 3.4 Desizing machineries References

Chapter 4 Scouring 4.1 4.2 4.3

4.4

4.5 4.6

Introduction Mechanism of removal of impurities Scouting of cotton in alkaline agents 4.3.1 The lime-soda boil 4.3.2 The caustic soda boil 4.3.3 The soda-ash boil 4.3.4 The mixture of caustic soda and soda-ash boil 4.3.5 The soap/detergent-soda-ash boil 4.3.6 Sequestering agents 4.3.7 Builders 4.3.8 Fibre protecting reducing agents 4.3.9 Mild oxidising agents 4.3.10 Water insoluble solvents Surfactants 4.4.1 Anionic surfactants 4.4.2 Cationic surfactants 4.4.3 Non-ionic surfactants 4.4.4 Amphoteric surfactants 4.4.5 Blends of surfactants 4.4.6 Surfactants as wetting agent 4.4.7 Surfactants as detergent (scouting agent) 4.4.8 Emulsion scouting Solvent scouting Scouting of raw wool 4.6.1 Emulsion scouting 4.6.2 Suint scouring 4.6.3 Solvent extraction scouring 4.6.4 Refrigeration process

ix 72 72 75 77 79 84

86 86 87 89 89 89 90 90 90 91 93 94 94 94 94 95 96 97 98 99 99 101 103 106 107 108 109 109 109

x

Contents 4.7

Scouting wool yarn and fabric 4.7.1 Setting and scouting of wool yarn 4.7.2 Crabbing (setting) of woollen fabric 4.7.3 Potting of woollen fabric 4.7.4 Scouting of wool fabric 4.8 Carbonising of wool 4.9 Degumming of silk 4.9.1 Degumming in water 4.9.2 Degumming with alkali and acid 4.9.3 Degumming with soap 4.9.4 Degumming with synthetic detergents 4.9.5 Enzymatic degumming 4.9.6 Foam degumming 4.9.7 Partial degumming 4.9.8 Washing of degummed silk 4.10 Degumming of remie 4.11 Scouting of linen 4.12 Scouting of jute 4.13 Scouting of synthetic-polymer fibres 4.13.1 Polyester 4.13.2 Nylon 4.13.3 Polyacrylonitrile fibres 4.13.4 Acetate fibres 4.13.5 Regenerated cellulose 4.13.6 Texturised fabrics 4.14 Scouting of blended fibre fabrics 4.14.1 Polyster/cotton 4.14.2 Polyester/wool 4.14.3 Polyester/acrylic 4.14.4 Acrylic/wool 4.14.5 Acrylic/cellulosics 4.14.6 Acetate/wool 4.14.7 Blends containing viscose 4.14.8 Polyester/silk 4.14.9 Blends containing casein References

109 109 110 110 113 113 114 116 116 116 116 117 117 117 118 118 119 120 120 121 121 122 123 123 123 125 125 126 122 127 127 128 128 129 129 129

Contents

Chapter 5

Scouring machineries

Introduction Batch type (rope) scouting machines 5.2.1 Low pressure kier 5.2.2 High pressure kier 5.2.3 Jafferson-Walker's kier 5.2.4 Gebauer kier Batch type (open-width) scouting machines 5.3 5.3.1 Mather and Platt horizontal kier 5.3.2 Jackson kier 5.3.3 Jig process Semi-continuous scouting machines 5.4 5.4.1 Padd-roll system 5.4.2 Padd-steam-roll system 5.4.3 Padd-roll on perforated cylinder Continuous scouring machines 5.5 5.5.1 Saturator J-Box-rope washer 5.5.2 Open-width roller steamer 5.5.3 Batch or re-batching system 5.5.4 Vaporloc system 5.5.5 High pressure Klienewefer roller steamer 5.5.6 Conveyer storage steamer system 5.5.7 Roller-bed steamer with pre-swelling time 5.5.8 Continuous relaxing/scouring machines 5.5.9 Solvent scouting machines Wool scouring machines 5.6 5.6.1 Raw wool scouting machines 5.6.2 Wool hank scouring machines 5.6.3 Wool fabric scouting machines 5.6.4 Carbonising range for woollen fabric 5.6.5 Crabbing and decatising machines 5.7 Silk degumming machines 5.7.1 Yarn degumming machines 5.7.2 Piece goods degumming machines References

5.1 5.2

xi 132 132 132 132 133 134 135 135 135 136 137 138 138 138 138 138 138 139 139 140 141 142 142 142 14,4 145 145 147 147 15(3 152 156 156 156 158

xii

Contents

Chapter 6 6.1 6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5 6.6

6.7 6.8

Bleaching of textiles

160

Introduction Bleaching with hypochlorites 6.2.1 Calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder) 6.2.2 Sodium hypochlorite 6.2.3 Lithium hypochlorite and chlorinated trisodium phosphate 6.2.4 Factors effecting hypochlorite bleaching operations 6.2.5 Accelerated hypochlorite bleaching 6.2.6 Advantages of hypochlorite bleaching over bleaching powder 6.2.7 Disadvantages of sodium hypochlorite bleaching over bleaching powder Bleaching with peroxides 6.3.1 Mechanism of peroxide bleaching 6.3.2 Stabilisers for peroxide bleaching 6.3.3 Parameters in peroxide bleaching operations Bleaching of wool with hydrogen peroxide 6.4.1 In alkaline hydrogen peroxide 6.4.2 In acidic hydrogen peroxide 6.4.3 Alkaline peroxide followed by hydrosulphite treatment 6.4.4 Mordanting and peroxide bleaching 6.4.5 Sequential oxidative and reductive bleaching 6.4.6 In emulsion of hydrogen peroxide Bleaching of silk with hydrogen peroxide Bleaching of synthetic fibres with peroxide 6.6.1 Regenerated cellulose 6.6.2 Acetate fibres 6.6.3 Acrylic fibres Advantages and disadvantages of peroxide over hypochlorite bleaching Bleaching with sodium chlorite 6.8.1 Mechanism of bleaching 6.8.2 Bleaching of cotton 6.8.3 Bleaching of polyester 6.8.4 Bleaching of nylon

160 161 161 162 163 164 166 167 168 168 170 170 172 173 174 174 175 175 176 178 178 180 180 180 180 181 182 182 183 184 184

Contents

6.9

6.10

6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14

6.15 6.16

6.8.5 Bleaching of acetate fibres 6.8.6 Bleaching of polyacrylonitrile 6.8.7 Bleaching of polyvinyl alcohol 6.8.8 Problem of corrosion and its prevention 6.8.9 Merits and demerits of chlorite bleaching Bleaching with peracetic acid 6.9.1 Cotton 6.9.2 Nylon 6.9.3 Cellulose acetate 6.9.4 Acrylics 6.9.5 Merits and demerits Reductive bleaching of wool 6.10.1 Sulphur dioxide 6.10.2 Sodium bisulphite 6.10.3 Sodium hydrosulphite 6.10.4 Thio-urea bleaching of wool 6.10.5 Photo-bleaching of wool Bleaching of silk with reducing agents Reductive bleaching of nylon Peroxygen bleaching compounds Bleaching of jute 6.14.1 Hypochlorite 6.14.2 Hydrogen peroxide 6.14.3 Sodium chlorite 6.14.4 Peracetic acid 6.14.5 Drawbacks in bleaching of jute 6.14.6 Causes of yellowing and improvement of photostability of bleached jute Bleaching of linen Bleaching of blended fabrics 6.16.1 Polyester/cotton 6.16.2 Polyester/wool 6.16.3 Nylon/cellulose 6.16.4 Nylon/wool 6.16.5 Acrylic/cellulose 6.16.6 Acrylic/wool

xiii 185 185 186 186 187 188 190 190 191 191 191 192 192 193 193 194 194 194 195 196 196 197 197 198 198 199 199 201 203 203 206 206 207 207 208

Contents

xiv

6.16.7 Acetate/cellulose 6.16.8 Polyester/linen 6.16.9 Wool/viscose 6.16.10 Viscose/cotton 6.17 Bleaching of cotton weft knitted fabrics References

208 208 209 209 209 211

Bleaching and washing equipment

217

Chapter 7

Introduction Batch bleaching process machineries Semi-continuous bleaching process machineries Continuous bleaching by J-Box systems Continuous open-width bleaching equipment 7.5.1 Steamers without plaited storage 7.5.2 Conveyer steamer without pre-steeping zone 7.5.3 Conveyer steamer with pre-steeping zone 7.5.4 Pressureless or Combi-steamers 7.5.5 Submerged bleaching systems 7.6 Washing equipment 7.6.1 Rope washing machines 7.6.2 Open-width washing machines References

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

8.5

Heat-setting Introduction Thermal behaviour of synthetic fibres Stages of heat-setting Methods of heat-setting 8.4.1 Contact method 8.4.2 Steam-setting method 8.4.3 Hydro-setting method 8.4.4 Heat-setting using tenter frame 8.4.5 Selective infra-red emitters method Heat-setting conditions for different kinds of fibres 8.5.1 Polyester fabrics 8.5.2 Nylon fabrics

217 217 222 224 230 232 232 234 236 238 240 241 247 257 259 259 259 260 261 261 261 262 263 266 267 267 267

Contents 8.5.3 Texturised fabrics 8.5.4 Acrylic and modacrylic fabrics 8.5.5 Cationic dyeable polyester 8.5.6 Triacetate fibres 8.5.7 Polyvinyl chloride fibres 8.5.8 Elastomeric fibres Heat-setting of blended fibre fabrics 8.6 8.6.1 Polyester/cotton 8.6.2 Polyester/wool 8.6.3 Polyester/linen 8.6.4 Polyester/silk 8.6.5 Polyvinyl chloride/cellulosics 8.7 Effect of heat-setting on properties of synthetic fibres 8.7.1 Structural changes 8.7.2 Dimensional stability 8.7.3 Stiffness 8.7.4 Crease recovery 8.7.5 Dyeability References

Chapter 9 9.1 9.2 9.3

9.4 9.5 9.6

Mercerization Introduction Conditions for mercerization Changes in properties of cellulose on mercerization 9.3.1 Swelling and shrinkage 9.3.2 Structural modification 9.3.3 Increased lustre 9.3.4 Gain in strength 9.3.5 Increased moisture absorption 9.3.6 Increased dye absorption 9.3.7 Increased reactivity 9.3.8 Removal of immature cotton 9.3.9 Physical compactness Mercerization of remie and flax fibres Mercerization of blended fibre fabrics Mercerizing machineries

XV

268 269 269 269 270 271 271 271 271 272 272 272 272 272 273 275 275 276 277 279 279 279 288 281 285 286 288 288 289 290 290 290 290 291 292

xvi

Contents 9.6.1 Cloth (woven) mercerizing machines 9.6.2 Yarn mercerizing machines 9.6.3 Knit goods mercerizing machines 9.7 Hot mercerization 9.8 Liquid ammonia mercerization References

Chapter 10

Optical brightening agents

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Introduction Chemical constitution of optical brighteners Mechanism of fluorescent whitening Factors influencing the functions of optical whiteners 10.4.1 Substrate 10.4.2 Saturation 10.4.3 Method of application 10.4.4 Time 10.4.5 Temperature 10.4.6 pH 10.4.7 Salt 10.5 Application of optical brighteners 10.5.1 Cellulose fabrics 10.5.2 Woollen fabrics 10.5.3 Silk fabrics 10.5.4 Polyester 10.5.5 Nylon 10.5.6 Polyacrylonitrile 10.5.7 Cationic dyeable polyester 10.5.8 Polyvinyl chloride 10.5.9 Other synthetic polymers and plastics 10.5.10 Blended fibre fabrics References

Chapter 11 11.1 11.2 11.3

Combined pre-treatment processes of textiles Introduction Combined scouring and desizing Combined scouring and bleaching

293 302 303 306 309 315

3211 320 321 323 323 324 324 324 324 324 325 325 325 326 327 328 328 329 330 331 332 332 332 334

336 336 336 337

Contents 11.4 Combined desizing, scouting and bleaching References

Chapter 12

Degradation of fibres associated with chemical pre-treatment processes

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

Introduction Degradation of cotton during desizing Degradation of cotton during scouring Degradation of cotton during bleaching 12.4.1 Hypochlorite bleaching and damage 12.4.2 Peroxide bleaching and damage 12.5 Damage of wool during pre-treatment processes 12.6 Damage of silk during pre-treatment processes 12.7 Damage of polyester during pre-treatment processes References

Chapter 13 13.1 13.2 13.3

13.4

13.5

Conservation of energy and water, economy and effluent control in pre-treatment processes Water consumption in textile industry Impurities in water Water purification 13.3.1 Soda-alum process 13.3.2 Lime-sodaprocess 13.3.3 Base exchange process Economy through energy conservation 13.4.1 Efficient generation of energy and minimum consumption 13.4.2 Mechanical removal of water before drying 13.4.3 Increased efficiency of drying and heat-setting 13.4.4 Reduced liquor to material ratio 13.4.5 Efficient heat recovery 13.4.6 Heat recovery from process effluents Economy through water conservation 13.5.1 Minimising liquor to material ratio 13.5.2 Minimising wash liquor 13.5.3 Re-using rinsing bath water

xvii 339 342

344 344 344 346 350 350 353 354 356 357 357

3611 360 361 363 363 363 364 364 365 365 365 366 366 367 367 367 367 367

xviii

Contents 13.5.4 Direct steam injection 13.6 Economy through process modification 13.6.1 Vaporloc bleaching 13.6.2 J-Box bleaching 13.6.3 Solvent scouting 13.6.4 Cold bleaching 13.6.5 Combined processing 13.6.6 Shortening of process sequence 13.7 Pollution aspects in pre-treatment processes of textiles 13.7.1 Water and air pollution 13.7.2 Parameters for assessment of harmful materials in waste water 13.8 Pollution load and pre-treatment processes 13.8.1 Desizing effluents 13.8.2 Scouting effluents 13.8.3 Bleaching effluents 13.8.4 Auxiliary effluents 13.9 Waste water treatment from pre-treatment plants 13.10 Protective measures for ultra-violet radiation References

Chapter 14 14.1 14.2

Pre-treatment of textiles under plasma conditions

Introduction The concept of plasma 14.2.1 Corona discharge 14.2.2 Glow-discharge 14.3 Generation of plasma and its action 14.3.1 Machine performance for producing plasma 14.3.2 The interaction of plasma with substrate 14.4 Surface modification of fabrics under plasma treatment 14.4.1 Plasma treatment of wool 14.4.2 Plasma treatment of other fabrics 14.5 High energy radiation of textiles References

368 368 368 368 368 369 369 369 370 370 372 374 376 377 378 379 380 390 391

395 395 395 396 396 397 398 404 407 407 410 412 414

Contents

Chapter 15

Application of bio-technology in the pre-treatment processes of textiles

15.1 15.2

Introduction Enzymes for textile application 15.2.1 The chemistry of enzymes 15.2.2 Mechanism of enzyme action on cotton 15.2.3 Parameters governing the cellulase treatments 15.2.4 Structural and morphological changes of fibres by enzymatic hydrolysis 15.2.5 The use and advantages of enzymatic processing 15.3 Treatment of cotton with enzymes 15.3.1 Enzymatic desizing of cotton and silk 15.3.2 Use of enzymes in mercerization 15.3.3 Enzymatic scouting and bleaching processes 15.3.4 Bio-polishing 15.3.5 Effect of cellulase treatment in washing processes 15.3.6 Stone washing 15.4 Treatment of protein fibres with enzyme 15.4.1 Wool carbonising 15.4.2 Wool bleaching 15.4.3 Shrink-proofing and modification of wool 15.5 Bio-technology and effluent treatment References

Chapter 16 16.1 16.2

16.3

xix

41~ 418 418 418 420 422 423 424 425 426 426 426 428 431 431 432 433 433 434 435 436

Analysis and testing in preparatory processes

441

Introduction Analysis of water 16.2.1 Suspended matter 16.2.2 Total soluble salts 16.2.3 Total hardness 16.2.4 Calcium hardness 16.2.5 Magnesium hardness 16.2.6 Temporary and permanent hardness Analysis of non-cellulosic residues 16.3.1 Ash content (mineral matter) 16.3.2 Silicate and phosphate

441 441 442 442 442 443 443 443 443 443 444

xx

Contents

16.4 16.5

16.6 16.7

16.8

16.9

16.10

16.11

16.3.3 Calcium and magnesium 16.3.4 Iron and copper Evaluation of wax content in cotton Evaluation of lubricants 16.5.1 Total fatty matter 16.5.2 Saponification value of an oil 16.5.3 Unsaponification matter Determination of moisture content Tests and analyses of sizes 16.7.1 Identification of sizes 16.7.2 Percentage size by ordinary method 16.7.3 Total size by Soxhlet method 16.7.4 Total size by enzyme method Determination of the efficiency of scouting 16.8.1 Measurement of weight loss 16.8.2 Measurement of residual wax content 16.8.3 Practical test of absorbancy 16.8.4 Removal of motes (kitties) Testing and evaluation of bleaching agents 16.9.1 Bleaching powder 16.9.2 Sodium hypochlorite 16.9.3 Sodium chlorite 16.9.4 Hydrogen peroxide 16.9.5 Stabilisers for peroxide bleach 16.9.6 Sodium hydrosulphite 16.9.7 Sodium bisulphite 16.9.8 Sodium silicate Assessment of damage of cellulose 16.10.1 Determination of fluidity 16.10.2 Determination of Copper Number 16.10.3 Methylene Blue absorption test 16.10.4 Silver nitrate test 16.10.5 Determination of acidic groups by iodometric method Assessment of damage of wool 16.11.1 Microscopic test 16.11.2 Swelling test

444 445 445 446 446 447 447 447 448 449 451 451 451 452 452 452 452 453 453 455 456 456 456 457 457 457 458 458 458 460 461 462 462 463 463 463

Contents

16.11.3 Solubility test 16.11.4 Spectrophotometric test 16.12 Determination of degree of mercerization 16.12.1 Deconvolution count 16.12.2 Swelling index 16.12.3 Benzopurpurine test 16.12.4 Sodium hydroxide spotting test 16.12.5 Goldthwait red-green test 16.12.6 Staining test 16.12.7 Barium activity number 16.12.8 Determination of lustre 16.12.9 X-ray analysis 16.12.10 Infra-red analysis 16.13 Evaluation of whitening efficiency of optical brighteners 16.13.1 Visual assessment 16.13.2 Extraction method 16.13.3 Instrumental analysis 16.14 Determination of degree of heat-setting 16.14.1 Shrinkage test 16.14.2 Crease recovery angle 16.14.3 Assessment of handle 16.14.4 Iodine absorption method 16.15 Determination of biodegradability of surfactants 16.15.1 Methylene Blue method References

Subject index

xxi 463 464 464 464 465 465 465 466 466 466 467 467 468 468 468 468 469 469 469 469 469 470 470 471 472

474

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Chapter 1 KINDS OF FIBRES

1.1 Introduction Textile fibers consist of polymers. Polymers are long chain molecules which are formed by chemically joining the monomers and the process is known as polymerisation. The length of the chain is represented by degree ofpolymerisation (DP). If a polymer is formed from two or more monomers, it is called copolymer. To improve the properties of the fibre sometimes additional monomer is grafted on to the polymer chain. With the introduction of new fibres during the last decade and increasing consumption of fibre blends it has become necessary to look at general fibre chemistry as the pre-treatment technology of one fibre is different to that of another. Table 1.1 gives some of the global textile fibre consumption data. The consumption of TABLE 1.1 Global Fibre Demand (Unit : 1000 tons : share % in consumption) Fiber Type

1994

2000

Annual Growth (%)

Cotton Wool

15160 (41.3) 1520 (4.1)

16530 (31.2) 1720 (4.1)

1.5 2.1

Cellulosic Synthetic

2320 (6.3) 17720 (48.2)

2280 (5.4) 21640 (51.3)

-0.3 3.4

Source : The Japanese Ministry of International Trade & Industry. cellulosic fibres is expected to decline marginally at the rate of 0.3%. The interplay between fibre structure, morphology and chemical composition is an essential part of all pre-treatment processes and thus, it is necessary to know the differences in the structures of different polymers and their effects on the properties of the fibres. There are many good books on this subject and hence only general fibre chemistry and manufacturing processes are presented in reference form and then proceeded to discuss how preparatory processes are chosen for use as fibre processing. 1.2 Classification of Fibres Though textile fibres are classified by many systems, it is only in 1960, the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act (TFPIA) became effective. The classification shown in Table 1.2 is based on the principal origin of the fibre (natural or

2

Kinds of Fibres

TABLE 1.2 Classification of Textile Fibres [ 1] l

9

Natural Cellulosic Fibres 1. s e e d h a i r s : (a) cotton (b) milk weed (c) kapok (d) cattail 2. b a s t f i b r e s : (a) flax (b)remie (c) hemp (d) jute (e) sunn (f) kenaf (g) urena

coir

I

I

Natural Protein Fibres Regenerated Natural Synthletic 1. a n i m a l h a i r fibres : Fibres Fibres (a) wool (sheep) (b) spe- 1. r a y o n : cialty hair fibres like al- (a) Cuprammonium paca, Camel, Cashmere, Bemberg (b) Viscose guanaco, llama, mohair rayon like regular & (angora goat), vicuna (c) high tenacity, high wet hollow fur fibres like mink, modulus, muskrat, angora, rabbit. fibires. 2. a n i m a l s e c r e t i o n

9

(a) silk fibre like cultivated, dupioni, tussah, wild (b) spider silk.

3. leaf fibres : (a) abaca (b) pineapple (c) agave (sisal, henequen)(d) palm (e) New Zeland flax (f) yucca (g) palma istle 1. con~ensa4. fruit"

Fibre

I

tion polymer fibres :

(a) nylon 6,6, nylon 6, 5. mineral 9 nylon type asbestos 11, 6, 10, aromatic type (Quina), bicomponent nylon (b) aramid like Kevlar and nomex (c) Polyester.

2. a c e t a t e :

(a) secondary acetate (b) tri-acetate. 3. p r o t e i n "

(a) casein (b) zein (c) peanut (d) soyabean. 4. M i s c e l l a n e o u s

I

2. a d d i t i o n polymer :

9

(a) alginate (b)rubber. I !

I

3. elast0mers' 4.manmade 5. o t h e r 9 (a) Spandex mineral : (a)alginate

(a) anidex (b) (b) rubber acrylics (c) (c) lastrile. modacrylic (d) novoloid (e) nytril (f) olefin fibres like polyethylene, polypropylene (g) Saran (h) Vinal (i) Vinyon.

(a) glass (b) inorganic (b)metallic, like Avceram, Fibrefax, Thomel (c) Organic like PBI, Teflon (d) biconstiment.

Kinds of Fibres

3

man-made), chemical type (cellulosic, man-made cellulosic), generic term (seed, hair, rayon)and common names and trade names of the fibres (cotton, viscose, rayon). However, this list of fibres under such category is not complete and for complete list books are to be referred [2,3]. 1.3 Chemical Composition, Morphology and Structure of Cotton The apparel industry is pre-dominantly cotton based and the share of cotton in total fibre consumption is about 70-75%. The cotton productivity of major countries is depicted in Table 1.3. TABLE 1.3 Cotton Productivity 1992-'93 Country

Kg/Hectares

India

304

Brazil

384

Pakistan

550

China

660

USA CIS (Formerly USSR)

728 728

Israel

1830

Source : Indian Textile Commissioner Statistics. Cotton is single cell fibre and develops from the epidermis of the seed [4]. An elongation period continues for 17-25 days after flowering. Cotton consists of cellulosic and non-cellulosic material. A morphological structure of the cotton fibre is given in Fig. 1-1. The outer most layer of the cotton fibre is the cuticle, covered by waxes and pectins, and this surrounds a 'primary wall', built of cellu-

Figure 1-1. Concept of an idealized cotton fibre [5]. lose, pectins, waxes and proteinic material [6]. The inner part of the cotton fibre

4

Kinds of Fibres

comprises the 'secondary wall', subdivided into several layers of parallel cellulose fibrils, and the lumen. The smallest unit of the fibrils is the elementary fibril, consisting of densely packed bundles of cellulose chains [7], for which highly ordered (crystalline) regions alternate with less ordered (amorphous) regions in a longitudinal direction. Inside the microfibrils a microcapillary system is developed [8]. These two capillary systems are responsible for swelling and absorption processes which are important for the pre-treatment of cotton [9]. The primary and secondary wall cellulose result from different polymerisation mechanisms [ 10]. Cotton consists of practically pure cellulose and may be chemically described as poly (1, 4-B-D- anhydroglucopyranose) (Fig. 1-2). The helical reversal struc,

CH2OH

,-,

OH

-'"O"

Figure 1-2. Molecular structure and configuration of cellulose [ 11]. ture of natural cellulose shows the constantly recurring cellobiose unit, consisting of two glucose units each with six carbon atoms. The length of unit cell along the fibre axis is 10.4A calculated for the cellobiose unit. In natural cellulosic fibres there are 3000 - 5000 C 6 or glucose units joined together. This corresponds to a molecular weight of the order of 300,000 -500,000. When cotton fibres dry from their initial fully swollen state, the cell wall collapse to give a typical kidney-shaped (Fig. 1-3) cross-sections and the different

"~cutide [12L----,oo~

it

~-'-----primary

wall

Figure 1-3. Diagram of a cotton fibre, cross-section. regions of the cross-section have important differences in structure [12]. This is commonly referred to as 'bilateral structure' of the cotton fibre. The fibre is more

Kinds of Fibres

5

accessible to liquids on the concave side of the fibre, which could lead to uneven penetration. The spiral arrangement of microfibrils reverses direction on rotation periodically along the length of the fibre [ 13,14]. Accordingly, some relationship between convolution angle and fibre strength is established [15]. In the crystalline part, the cellobiose units are closely packed to form Cellulose I in native cellulose fibres and Cellulose II in regenerated cellulose fibres. In Cellulose I the chain molecules are parallel to one another [ 16]. The folded chain occurs at Cellulose II, in the crystalline regions the chain molecules are antiparallel. Thus, the basis for helical structure for Cellulose I is preferably extended to the structure of Cellulose II [ 17].

1.3.1 Cotton impurities The impurities in cotton fibre can range from 4 to 12% (o.w.f.) and the overall composition of cotton fibres are indicated in Table 1.4. Even after mechanical TABLE 1.4 Composition of Mature Cotton Fibres Constituents

Percentage by dry weight

a-cellulose

8 8 . 0 - 96.5

Protein

1 . 0 - 1.9

Wax

0 . 4 - 1.2

Ash (inorganic salts)

0 . 7 - 1.6

Pectins

0 . 4 - 1.2

Others (resins, pigments, hemi-cellulose, sugars, organic acids, incrusted

0.5 - 8.0

ligneous substance) ginning process, certain amount of seed-coat fragments, aborted seeds and leaves etc., clinge (adhere) to the fibre and these impurities are called 'motes'. The impurities in cotton fibre vary according to the fibre maturity [18] (Table 1.5). Cotton impurities are located largely on the outer side of the fibre (Table 1.6). The noncellulosic material is mainly situated in the primary wall and the secondary wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Their quantity is higher when the fibre is finer, that

6

Kinds of Fibres

TABLE 1.5. Influence of Maturity on the Impurities of Cotton Fibres (in percent of dry weight) [ 19] Constituents

U. S. Cotton Mature

Immature

Waxes

0.45

1.14

Proteins

1.01

2.02

Ash

0.71

1.32

Pectins

0.58

1.26

TABLE 1.6. Proportion of Cellulosic and Non-cellulosic Material in Whole of Cotton Fibre and in Primary Wall [20] Constituents

Proportion (wt. %) Of the whole fibre

Of primary wall

88 - 96

52

Pectins

0 . 7 - 1.2

12

Waxes

0 . 4 - 1.0

7

Proteins

1.1 - 1.9

12

Minerals

0.7 - 1.6

3

Other organic compounds

0.5 - 1.0

14

Cellulose

is to say when the specific surface area is large [21 ]. Other factors which influence the impurities in raw cotton are 9geology of the cultivation area, soil constitution, weather conditions during the maturing period, cultivation technique, raw cotton treatment etc. The proteins are situated in the central cavity of the fibre and are therefore relatively inaccessible to chemical attack. About 14% (on dry weight) proteins are concentrated in the primary wall of the cotton fibre, but their presence in the lumen are also reported [22]. The elements of protein components generally found to be are : leucine, valine, proline, alanine, oxyproteine, threonine, glutamic acid, glycine, serine, aspertic acid, aspergine, lysine and arginine [23]. The yellowish or

Kinds of Fibres

7

brown discolouration of the cotton fibre is related to the protoplasmic residues of protein [24,25] and the flavone pigments of cotton flowers [26]. Natural oils and waxes are mostly mixtures of fatty alcohols, fatty acids and esters of these carbohydrates [27]. Wax content varies greatly among the different varieties of cotton and also same variety grown in different locations. The wax is located on the outside of the cotton fibre and the quantity increases with surface area of cotton [28]. The composition and removal properties of cotton wax are given in Table 1.7. Cotton wax contain carbon (80.38%), hydrogen (14.51%) and TABLE 1.7 Composition of Removal Properties of Cotton Wax [27] Component

Content (%)

Wax ester

22

Phytosterols

12.14

Polyterpenes

1- 4

Hydrocarbons

7- 8

Free Wax alcohols

42 - 46

Saponifiable

3 6 - 50

Non-saponifiable

50 - 63

Inert

0- 3

oxygen (5.11%) [30]. The linkage between cellulose and waxes are mainly due to phosphatides [31 ] and amino acids, glucose and wax acids [32]. Melting points of cotton waxes vary between 68 to 80~ The inorganic matters (residual ash) in cotton contain cation (K § Na § Ca 2§ Mga+,Fe 2§ Fe 3+, AP +, Mn 2+, Cu2+and others) and anions (CI-, CO3,

PO43", 8042plus

Fe, Mg, Ca as insoluble pectinates) [ 19]. The alkaline earth elements vary from fibre varieties and require appropriate treatments to reduce their presence on the fibre as far as possible. Any residue present in the fibre will lead to the formation of insoluble alkaline earth carbonates or hydroxides during alkaline scouring. These salts change the soft water to hard water rendering certain dyes insoluble which may be attached to the fiber surface [3 3]. Pectin is the name applied to impure methyl pectate. Pectins (0.4 - 1.2%) are

8

Kinds of Fibres

present in cotton as a poly -D - galacturonic acid in the form of insoluble salts of Ca, Mg and Fe [34, 35]. Chemically hemicelluloses are arabane, xylene, galactane, mannan, galactomannan, arabinomannan, as well as monosaccharides, disaccharides and digosaccharides. Hemicelluloses are easily soluble in alkali and hydrolysed by acids. Other substances are reducing sugars such as hexoses, pentoses, free glucose etc., constitute the base units of hemicellulose. Citric and malic acid, encrusted ligneous substances are coloured pigments. 1.4 Natural Protein Fibres

Natural protein fibres are generally obtained from animal hairs and animal secretions. Protein fibres have higher moisture regain and warmthness than natural cellulosic fibres. Natural protein fibres have poor resistance to alkalies but have good resiliency and elastic recovery. A good precaution is necessary during the chemical pre-treatment of natural protein fibres (except silk) due to its low strength. 1.4.1 Molecular structure of wool fibres

Wool fibre grows from the skin of sheep. It is composed of protein known as keratin. Major varieties of wool come from Merino, Lincoln, Leiester, Sussex, Cheviot and other breeds of sheep. Different species of sheep produce different types of wool in fibre length, diameter and other characteristics. The modification of the fibre properties during growth by dietary additives to produce purpose-grown wools is possible. Generally fine wool fibres are 1.5 -5" in length and 14 - 40~t in width. Wool fibres are roughly oval in cross-section and grows in a more or less wavy form with a certain amount of twist. The waviness is called crimp (Fig 1 - 4). The finer the wool the more is the crimp.

o,

I

|ori,xls I

Figure 1-4. Diagram of wool fibre crimp and three-dimensional diagram of wool fibre, showing crimp.

Kinds of Fibres

9

The histological structure of wool fibre comprises consisting three layers : the scaly covering layer (cuticle), the fibrous fibrillar layer (cortex) and medullary layer (medulla). Fig. 1 - 5 shows the diagarm of wool fibre showing fibre morphology

Figure 1-5. Diagrammatic representation of the morphological components of a wool fibre. (medulla is not shown). The cuticle is sub-divided into two main layers, exocuticle (with A- and B- layers) and endocuticle, and has an outermost membrane called epicuticle. Beneath the epicuticle, there is a layer of flat, scale like cells which overlap like shingles on a roof. Fig. 1 - 6 shows the longitudinal section of a wool follicle [36]. The sebaceous

Figure 1-6. Longitudinal section of a wool follicle [36].

10

Kinds of Fibres

gland is beleived to produce the wax [37-39], and the sudoriferous gland the suint [37, 39]. As the opening of the sebaceous gland is placed below that of the sudoriferous gland, the wax is deposited directly onto the growing fibre while the suint is deposited over the wax. This is the situation of the primary fibres; the secondary fibres differ in that they do not usually have a sudoriferous gland. An important component of cuticle is 18 - methyl - eicosanoic acid [40]. Fatty acid is bound to a protein matrix, forming a layer in the epicuticle [41,42], and this layer is referred to as F - layer [43]. The F - layer can be removed by treatment with alcoholic alkaline chlorine solution in order to enhance wettability. The cuticle and epicuticle control the rate of diffusion of dyes and other molecules onto the fibre [44]. The cortex, however, controls the bulk properties of wool and has a bilateral structure composed of two types of cells referred to as ortho and para [45, 46]. The cortical cells of both are enclosed by membranes of at least three distinct layers within which the microfibrils fit. Cells of intermediate appearance and reactivity designated meso - cortical have also been reported [47]. Cortical cells on the ortho side are denti-cuticle and thin, those on the para side are polygonal and thick [47]. Fig. 1-7 illustrates the bilateral structure which is responsible for the crimp of the

Figure 1-7. Comparison of cortical cells (Courtesy ofl' Institut Textile de France). fibre. The two cells differ in chemical composition and density and can be differ-

Kinds of Fibres

11

entiated under the microscope using polarised light and also by selective staining techniques. The ortho cortex are chemically more reactive and have a greater receptivity to certain dyes. In the centre of the wool is the medulla, which consists of spiral-shaped, air-filled cells. The finer wools, having no medulla, absorbs dyes more rapidly. Medulla contains pigment that gives colour to fibre. Keratin is of amphoteric in nature and is composed of 16 to 18 different oc amino acids. The amino acid residues join together to give a polypeptide chain. There are two types of structure postulated for wool fibre : one is folded form of keratin ( ot - form ) [Fig. 1-8] and the other is helical or spiral structure (Fig. 1-9).

~'co

('o" /

"~.C:H--CH,,-S--S ' CH;.--CH

NH(

~CO

Cystinelinkage ~NH CO..,..

RHC,.~I~

:~IH~ ~I

.,~NH

OC"

(

CHR

"-"'"CO,,,~

tlI4~F(

'

""R-(

NH,,"~

C6H702(OH) : Cu(NH4OH ) H2SO4 C6H702(OH)3 Figure 1-16. Formation of cuprammonium rayon. The spinning solution is pumped through the spinnerette into a funnel through which soft water is running. The movement of water stretches the newly formed filament. The fibres then move to spinning machines, where they are washed, put through a mild acid bath to remove any adhering solution, rinsed and twisted into yams.

1.6.2 Viscose rayon Purified bleached wood pulp or sheets of cellulose are steeped in an alkali solu-

Kinds of Fibres

23

tion (17.5%) until the cellulose is converted to soda-cellulose. The alkali pulp is then shredded into alkali cellulose crumb, which is aged for specific time. The crumbs are then treated with carbon disulphide and produce sodium cellulose xanthate. This is dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide and forms a honey coloured liquid and aged till required viscosity is obtained. The viscous solution is pumped to the spinning tanks, delivered to the spinning machines, forced by pump through a spinnerette into a dilute acid bath (Fig. 1-17). The method of making fibre is

Figure 1-17. Viscose rayon manufacturing process. called wet-spinning. The chemical changes that occured in the process are outlined in Fig. 1-18. In the mid- 1960s fibres with higher wet stretch, low wet extensibility and a high wet modulus (HWM) are produced and known as 'polynosic' or 'modal' type fibres. HWM fibres are generally produced [69,70] by adding modifiers, e.g. various amines or poly (ethylene) glycol to the viscose to control the rate of regeneration of the filament in the coagulation bath. They are usually produced as staple fibre. Viscose and modified viscose are composed of cellulose and like cotton they are polymer of anhydroglucose unit. The significant physical differences between various regenerated cellulose and cotton polymers are listed in Table 1.14. HWM viscose rayon may appear nearly round in cross-section. Viscose polymers are very amorphous and have high moisture absorption capacity of 11 to 16%. Vis-

24

Kinds of Fibres CIH2OH

I

H

I

H

OH

t

I

I

OH

CH2OH \

Each hydroxyl group is represented by" - /C - O H \ Formation ofxanthate ester" -/C - O H + CS 2 + OH- ~ Regenerated viscose rayon"

-O-

H§ ~

,, //S /---C-O-C + H20 N S-

- ~ - O H + CS 2

Figure 1-18. Viscose process. TABLE 1.14 Significant Physical Differences Between Rayon and Cotton Polymer

Approx. no. of cellobiose units

Approx. Approx. Approx. polymer polymer degree of length (ram) thickness (nm) polymesisation

Viscose

175

180

0.8

175

Polynosic

300

310

0.8

300

Cuprammonium rayon

250

260

0.8

250

Cotton

5000

5000

0.8

5000

cose shows no discernible micro-structure, but polynosic shows a distinct fibrillar structure similar to cotton. Viscose fibres show longitudinal striations (tiny grooves), but cuprammonium and polynosic are coagulated much more slowly on extrusion, do not develop any striations. Folded chains model have been proposed [71] for the fine structure of viscose rayon (Cellulose II). The difference between Cellulose I and Cellulose II families appears in the arrangement of polarity of folded chains produced from the cellulose molecules [72].

Kinds of Fibres

25

1.6.3 Acetate fibres

In this group there are two fibres : secondary cellulose acetate and triacetate fibres. Acetate fibres are produced from cotton linters or purified wood pulp, which are acetylated at temperature up to 50~ with acetic anhydride in presence of glacial acetic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid. It is then aged or ripened in presence of water and hydrolysis occurs during the ripening and results in the formation of secondary acetate. The flakes are then dissolved in acetone containing 4% water as the solvent to form the spinning dope, which is filtered and then forced through the spinnerette into a warm-air chamber and the method of spinning is called dry-spinning. Triacetate is manufactured from the same raw materials as secondary acetate, but the ripening stage in which hydrolysis occurs is omitted in triacetate production. To produce spinning solution, dried acetate flake is dissolved in methylene chloride and dry-spun into a warm-air chamber. The chemical structure of acetate fibres are shown in Fig. 1-19. In secondary (Cellulose) - OH +(CH3CO)20

H,_SO,>(Cellulose)_O.CO.CH 3 +CH3COOH

?
Scouring --> Carding --> Gilling --> Combing --> Combed Tops --> (Top Dyeing) --->Gilling --> Recombing --> Drawing and Spinning (Yarn Dyeing) --> Weaving/Knitting --> Fabric Dyeing --> Finishing. Method B : For dyeing in the woollen routine : Greasy wool --->Scouring (loose stock dyeing) --> Oiling --->Willeying --> Carding --> Spinning --> (Yarn dyeing) --> Weaving --> Scouring and Milling --> Fabric Dyeing --> Finishing. 2.6.7 Process sequence for silk fabric Method A : Grey Inspection & Stitching ~ Singeing --->Washing -->Degumruing --> Bleaching --> Dyeing --> Padding mangle (apply some adhesive also) --> Stentering ---> Felt Calendering --> Curing --> Decatising (to impart fluffy & soft feel). 2.6.8 Process sequence for polyester fabric Method A 9Heat setting --+ Scouring --~ Bleaching --+ Weight reduction --~ Dyeing --~ Drying on stenter. 2.6.9 Process sequence for nylon fabric Method A : Ordinary woven fabric : Heat-set --~ Desizing & Scouring ~ Bleaching --+ Fluorescent Whitening --~ Pre-setting. Method B 9Hard twisted woven fabric (Gorgette) : Embossing -~ Creping (relaxing) --~ Desizing & Scouring ~ Bleaching--> Fluorescent Brightening ~ Presetting. Method C 9Knitted goods : Desizing and Scouring --~ Bleaching--* Fluorescent Whitening --~ Pre-setting. 2.6.10 Process sequence for polyester/cotton blends Method A : For yam: Scouring --~ Bleaching --~ Dyeing --~ Anti-static finishing. Method B 9For White goods : Desize --~ Scour -~ Mercerizing --~ Heat-set --~ Anti-pilling i.e. Brushing, Cropping and Singeing --~ Bleaching and Optical Whitening ~ Stentering or Sanforizing. Method C : For deying : Desizing --~ Scouring -~ Mercerizing--> Heat-setting Bleaching --~ Dyeing --~ Anti-pilling i.e. Brushing, Cropping and Singeing Stentering or Sanforizing. Grey singeing of polyester/cotton blended fabrics may be carried out only on

68

Preparation Before Chemical Processes

goods that are to be dyed by continuous processes or by high temperature batch processes using non-critical dyes. If the warp is heavily sized, singeing will be ineffective in the beginning and inset later in the routine. Goods that are to be prepared on J-Box range in rope form, may be heat-set in the grey state if they are reasonably free from loom stains. Unmodified sizes are also difficult to be removed from the fabric after heat-setting. 2.6.11 Process sequence for polyester/viscose blends Method A : Desizing --> Washing --> Heat-setting --> Singeing --->Drying. Method B : Singeing --> Desizing --> Washing --> Drying --->Heat-setting.

The process of mercerizing is omitted when viscose is present in the blends. Sometimes singeing operation is done after dyeing to avoid sooty appearance or dye specks arisen from melted beads of polyester. 2.6.12 Process sequence for polyester/wool blends Method A 9General : Grey Inspection --> Removal of stains --> Scouring --->

Pre-setting (Setting of wool component by crabbing) --->Drying --->Heat-setting --> Dyeing --> Brushing & Cropping --> Singeing --> Light scour (if necessary) --> Steam or Damp --> Decatising or Pressing. Method B 9Knitted goods (Crisp handle) : Open steam (allowing full relax-

ation) --->Light brushing --> Close Cropping on face side of fabric --> Decatising. Method C : Knitted goods (Soft handle) : Heavy Scour --> Cropping on face

side of fabric --> Open Steam --> Decatising. A worsted polyester/wool blended fabric is prepared by crabbing or blowing and then Scoured --> Dry --> Heat-set (on pin stenter) --->Brushed and Cropped --> Press or Decatise. If it is desired to finish a simulating wool, the loose fibre from the surface of the blended fabric is first removed by brushing, cropping and singeing and then soap milled to produce a wool cover, which can be cropped to give required appearance and handle. Heat-setting after milling is an optional process. 2.6.13 Process sequence for diacetate/viscose blends

Most blends for shirtings consists of 50% each of diacetate and viscose in plain weaves and the sequence of operations may be as follows : Singeing (where necessary) --> Contraction or relaxation --> Scouring and Desizing --->Dyeing --->Finishing.

Chapter 3 DESIZING 3.1 Introduction

Desizing is the process in which the size applied to the warp yarn before weaving is removed to facilitate the penetration of dyes and chemicals in the subsequent wet processing operations. About 65% of the cotton used for textiles is made into woven fabric. The purpose of sizing is to form coating of sufficiently strong and elastic film around the cotton warp yams so as to stand the tension during weaving and reduce the breakage. The surface coating of sizes are stiff, hard, smooth and less absorbant to water. Apart from film forming materials, the size recipe many a time also contains other additions such as humectants, binders and lubricants. Traditionally, starch-and tallow based lubricants (triglycerides) have been used as sizing components for cotton, being readily available, relatively cheap, and based on natural, sustainable materials. The removal of hydrophobic part of the sizes (the lubricants) is often especially problemetic. These are not removed during desizing, but are expected to be stabilised or emulsified in the alkaline scouring. The total material present in the cotton fibre is up to 20% of the fibre weight including that of 4-12% natural impurities. In the process of desizing, not only sizing agents, but also some natural impurities are eliminated from fibres. About 75% of the sizing agents used throughout the world today consist of starch and its derivatives because of its low cost. Chemically starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose molecule is in the form of helix with six glucose units per turn (Fig. 3-1). The low molecular weight ofamylose is water soluble .~:~,..,,o...._

,,c,.~

.:',

Figure 3-1. Helical structure of amy|ose [ 1].

70

Desizing

straight chain polysaccharides of glucose whereas amylopectin (70-80%) being water insoluble is difficult to remove from cotton due to its higher molecular weight and branches chain (Fig. 3-2). Apart from starch, modified starches such as A

A

- a- "I,

c ....... ..... ~,

(a)

R

A

L~,.. -

-,
H O 2 + C I ' + O H HO2" + O H--> H 2 0 + O 2 terminate by reaction with HO2". In actual practice fabric is first treated with cold alkaline hypochorite solution as a pre-bleaching agent and then an after bleach is carried out (without rinsing) in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide or sodium chlorite [9]. The cold hypochlorite treatment can be carried out in a J-Box type cold reaction chamber of 7 rain reaction time. The cloth then passes in another hot reaction J-Box in open width form and plaited into a bigger pile without any serious risk of creasing and possible crease marking. The advantages of this process are that the total reaction time of the bleaching process can be reduced, H202 acts as an antichlor and fabrics containing cotton/rayon mixture as well as colour-woven goods can be bleached due to milder conditions employed in the hypochlorite stage.

6.2.5.3 Accelerated bleaching at elevated temperature Another possible way to reduce the bleaching time is to work at elevated tern-

Bleaching of Textiles

167

perature [5, 10]. Rapid bleaching may be done at 60-80~ containing 0.9-1.6% of active chlorine (o.w.f.) in the pH range of 8.6 to 12.8.

6.2.5.4 Accelerated bleaching in presence of additives Sometimes bromides or related compounds are added to the hypochlorite liquor to accelerate the bleaching action. It is likely that sodium hypobromite is formed which is a stronger oxidising agent than hypochlorite. Methods of bleaching at high temperature and pH close to 7 in presence of sulfamic acid in hypochlorite bleaching of cotton has been suggested [ 11 ]. It has a stabilising effect, slowing the rate of decomposition ofhypochlorite and reducing the damage to the fibre, without having any adverse effect on the final whiteness. 6.2.5.5 Accelerated bleaching by steaming An accelerated method for bleaching polyester/cotton blended fabric is described [12]. The process consists of steaming at 100 +15~ for 60 rain followed by washing and padding through a solution containing 10-12 g/1 active chlorine at 25~ The fabric is then aged in a series of chambers for 60 min and then led through an acidifying bath with 2-2.5 g/1 sulphuric acid at 20~ The accelerated effect is achieved by changing the order of the operations. 6.2.6 Advantages of sodium hypochlorite bleaching over bleaching powder Sodium hypochlorite has practically replaced bleaching powder due to its various advantages although solutions of hypochlorite are more expensive than calcium hypochlorite. (i) Bleaching powder is a mixture of calcium hypochlorite with lime. Thus, calcium carbonate settles on the fibre during bleaching process. On the contrary, sodium hypochlorite is free from any such danger of specks of lime being deposited on the cloth. (ii) Bleaching powder is partially soluble in water and exists in a solid form. However, sodium hypochlorite, being a sodium salt ofhypochlorous acid, does not require any dissolving arrangement and are ready for immediate use. Hypochlorites are easy to handle. (iii) Chlorinated lime requires higher alkalinity than that of sodium hypochlorite solutions for active bleaching conditions. (iv) Sodium hypochlorite solutions have less tendency for the pH value to fall during bleaching. Caustic soda is liberated by the hydrolysis of sodium

168

Bleaching of Textiles hypochtorite form sodium carbonate under the action of carbon dioxide from atmosphere. Sodium carbonate thus formed can be easily washed away with water and reduces acid requirement for souring. In such case, sulphuric acid may be used as souring agent in place of the more costly hydrochloric acid.

(v)

Sodium hypochlorite can penetrate into the fabric more thoroughly than in the case of bleaching powder and therefore shorter time of bleaching is possible in the case of sodium hypochlorite.

6.2.7 Disadvantages of sodium hypochlorite (i) Sodium hypochlorite does not produce completely satisfactory whites inspite of many advantages. (ii) Bleaching with sodium hypochlorite produces slight damage to cellulosic fibres. (iii) Sodium hypochlorite cannot be used for the bleaching of synthetic fibres as it produces greater damage to such fibres. (iv) Bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution requires corrosion resistant equipment. (v) Sodium hypochlorite produces unpleasent odours in working environment. (vi) Sodium hypochlorite solution is harmful to skin in concentrated form. (vii) It produces harsh handle on fabric. Furthermore, it cannot be used on natural animal fibres. (viii) Stabilisation of sodium hypochlorite is difficult to achieve where pH varies. (ix) The formation of highly toxic chlorinated organic biproducts (AOX) during the bleaching process has limited its use because these compounds are a potential hazard to the drinking water resources when discharged [13, 14]. 6.3 Bleaching with Peroxide Hydrogen peroxide was discovered in 1818 and its use in bleaching textiles was first suggested in 1866. However, its high cost limited its use in cotton bleaching until 1935. The problem was partially solved by the process using barium peroxide and phosphoric acid. In 1926 hydrogen peroxide was manufactured by an electrolytic process based on the decomposition of persulphuric acid (H2SOs) [15].


169

Sulphuric acid is first ionised into hydrogen and bisulphate ions which is discharged on the anode and then form persulphuric acid, which on vacuum distillation reacts with water to form hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide can also be obtained by dissolving sodium peroxide in water. Instead of dissolving the peroxide and then neutralising the liberated alkali, the peroxide can slowly be stirred into slight excess of sulphuric acid. The reaction is carefully controlled as a large amount of heat is evolved. For every 100 lb ofH202 (40% by volume) 95 lb ofNa202 is to be used.

H2804 ~

H+ + HSO4-

2 H S O 2 - - 2 e ~ 2HSO 4

2HSO 4 --+ H2S208 H2820 8 + H2O ---->H2SO s + H2SO 4 HzSO 5 + H2O ~ H2SO 4 + H2O 2

Na202 + 2H20 = 2NaOH + H202 Na202 + HzSO 4 = Na2SO 4 + H202 Pure hydrogen peroxide is fairly stable in presence of sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid if stored away from sunlight in a perfectly smooth bottle. In alkaline medium it is less stable and even traces of alkali (NaOH, Na2CO3) decompose aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide. The addition of alcohol, glycerine or berbituric acid also stabilise hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide also decomposes in the presence of finely divided heavy metals such as copper, iron, manganese, nickel, chromium etc. or their oxides with liberation of oxygen. 2H202 ~ 2H20

+ O2

The volume strength of hydrogen peroxide is expressed as the volume of liberated oxygen at N.T.P. on heating one volume of hydrogen peroxide sample. Hydrogen peroxide is generally made of 10, 12, 20, 100 and 130 volume strength. A 10 volume peroxide solution is one which will liberate 10 times its own volume of oxygen. The percentage concentration is expressed as the quantity of pure hydrogen peroxide in 100 parts of sample and is expressed as x%, y% etc. The commercial supply of hydrogen peroxide are generally 35% and 50%. A 10 volume hydrogen peroxide contains 3% hydrogen peroxide and thus, 1% H202 = 3.3 volume concentration. The strength of the available oxygen can be estimated by titrating the peroxide using standardised potassium permanganate (KMnO 4) until or faint permanent pink colour appears. However, iodine method is preferred to permanganate method.

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6.3.1 M e c h a n i s m of peroxide bleaching

Though hydrogen peroxide is stable in acidic medium, but bleaching occurs by the addition of alkali or by increased temperature. Hydrogen peroxide liberates perhydroxyl ion (HO2-) in aqueous medium and chemically behaves like a weak dibasic acid. The perhydroxyl is highly unstable and in the presence of oxidisable substance (coloured impurities in cotton), it is decomposed and thus bleaching action takes place. Sodium hydroxide activates hydrogen peroxide because H § ion is neutralised by alkali which is favourable for liberation of riO2-. H202 ~

H + + HO 2-

H202 __~ H + + HO 2-

OH- > HO 2- + H20

However, at higher pH (above 10.8) the liberation of HO 2- ion is so rapid that it becomes unstable with the formation of oxygen gas which has no bleaching property. If the rate of decomposition is very high, the unutilised HO 2- may damage the fibre. A safe and optimum pH for cotton bleaching lies between 10.5 to 10.8 where the rate of evolution of perhydroxyl ion is equal to the rate of consumption (for bleaching). At higher pH, hydrogen peroxide is not stable and hence a stabiliser is frequently added in the bleaching bath. 6.3.2 Stabilisers for peroxide bleaching

The process of regulation or control ofperhydroxyl ion to prevent rapid decomposition of bleach and to minimise fibre degradation is described as stabilisation. Stabilisers for peroxide normally function by controlling the formation of free radicals. These are complex blends of a selection of materials serving a number of functions. They could include any of the following" - A l k a l i , e.g. caustic soda/carbonate/silicate. - Dispersant, e.g. acrylates/phosphonates.

- Sequestrants, e.g. EDTAfl)TPA/heptonates/gluconates. - Inorganics, e.g. magnesium salts. -Colloid stabilisers, e.g. acrylic polymers. The selection of alkali to be used in peroxide bleaching is dependent on the fibres or blends being bleached. Sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate are generally used on cellulosic fibres whilst ammonia and various phosphates are used when bleaching protein fibres. Of the various phosphates only tetrasodium pyrophosphate, Na4P207 and hexametaphosphates are of interest as stabilisers in alkaline bleach bath.


171

Sodium silicate is the most conventional, easily available and widely used stabiliser. Sodium silicate [ 16] is mildly alkaline in nature and the commercial grade consists ofpolysilic acid and having a Na20 : SiO 2ratio 1 : 3.3. The most preferred ratio for bleaching is 1 : 1, however, the final ratio will depend on the bleach bath and alkali used. Sodium silicate forms a complex compound with perhydroxyl ions which are liberated slowly at higher temperature during bleaching process. Metallic silicates are also oxidation and thermal resistant, offer a buffering effect, are colloidal in nature and are not greatly effected by the presence of ionic iron. Sodium silicate, however, has a greater stabilising action in the presence of calcium and magnesium salts so that water with hardness between 2 ~and 5~is recommended or, if water of zero hardness be used, 0.06 g/1 magnesium sulphate may be added. The effect of magnesium ions in the form of MgSO4.7H20 for stabilising peroxide bleaching bath is recommended [ 17]. Colloidal magnesium silicates and hydrated silicas must be kept in colloidal form during their formation and during bleaching. Since this is seldom fulfilled completely under plant conditions, some deposition of silicate onto fibre produces harsh feel and silicate scale on J-Box surface which abrades the goods producing defects. It is advisable to rinse very thoroughly after bleaching to avoid harshness on the fabric. Alternative way to avoid precipitation, an additional alkali may be added to bring the ratio of Na20 : SiO 2 to within the region of 2.25 : 2.75. Calcium phosphate, produced by the addition of disodium phosphate brought to pH about 9.6 with caustic and buffered with borax, substitutes satisfactorily for silicate and no scale is formed. Sequestering agents for heavy metals should theoretically make the best stabilisers. In effect, stabilisation may be effected by elimination of heavy metal ions that are responsible for free radical formation. This appears to be an anticatalytic reaction. Many types of sequestering agents are used in textile processing. The main types are : - polyphosphonates, - polyhydroxy-carboxylic acids, -

-

aminopolycarboxylic acids, phosphonic acids,

- polyacrylic acids. Organic stabilisers are often commercially blended products which may or may

172


not contain magnesium salts, the three main types being the aminopolycarboxylate, protein degradation products and selected surfactants. The preferred sequestering agents in terms of both sequesteribility and stability to oxidation are diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA), either as sodium or magnesium salt, and its hydroxy derivatives. Aminopolycarboxylic acids used in the form of their magnesium and calcium salts have the advantage over conventional amino polycarboxylic acids in that they are not reduced to amino oxides at high temperature and thus do not loose their sequestering power. Polycarboxylic acids act mainly as dispersing ion-exchangers. Phosphonates have limited application and since recently, due to their eutrification nature, are not preferred. Phosphonates are active as complex formers with good dispersing properties. In recent years acrylates have been used in preference to phosphonates and whilst heptonates and gluconates have replaced EDTA and DTPA. Acrylic acid copolymers are normally not biodegradable. A method has been patented to introduce sugar molecules directly in the polymer chain of polycarboxylic acid [18]. The sugar molecule in the tautomeric endiol form has C=C double bond which is necessary for copolymerisation with acrylic acid. Sugar polyacrylates, however, due to the hydroxyl groups of sugar, have a binding capacity for ferric ion. Other biodegradable compounds (stabilisers) are prepared by graft copolymerisation of available unsaturated monomers such as maleic acid, vinyl acetate, methallyl sulphonates, methoxy PEG, methacrylate and saccharose and have a molecular weight range of 3-20 thousand. They can be used in the form of free acid or their salts. The binding power of calcium and magnesium salt is 3-5 times that ofhomopolyacrylates, particularly for hydroxides of iron, calcium and magnesium at room temperature as well as at boil. They have high dispersing power for iron oxides, of the level of phosphonates.

6.3.3 Parameters in peroxide bleaching operations It is very difficult to specify strict guidelines for optimum bleaching conditions for hydrogen peroxide as the operation is normally affected by the nature and quality of the goods to be bleached, the amount of bleaching required and on the equipment available. However, the following general variables are considered to be important: 6.3.3.1 Effect of pH The stability of hydrogen peroxide depends on pH. At pH 1 to 3 it is stable ; but


173

at highly alkaline pH 11.5 to 13 it has least stability. The bleaching takes place around 10.5 due to accumulation of perhydroxyl ions in the bleaching bath. At neutral or weak alkaline media, hydrogen peroxide does not produce any whitening effect and may cause degradation of cellulose. 6.3.3.2 Effect of temperature

In practice cotton bleaching with hydrogen peroxide is carried out at 90-100~ but the temperature may be increased to 120~ in the case of pressurised equipment with a corresponding reduction in process time. The rate of bleaching increases with the increase in temperature, but at the same time solution becomes unstable and degradation of cotton increases. Below 80~

the evolution of

perhydroxyl ion is very slow so also the rate of bleaching. 6.3.3.3 Effect of concentration of liquor

The optimum concentration of hydrogen peroxide depends on number of factors namely liquor ratio, temperature and class of fibre. In the batch process using kiers about 2-4% (o.w.f.) hydrogen peroxide is sufficient for cotton fabrics with a liquor ratio of 10:1 to 20:1. In the continuous process, the cotton fabrics are saturated with bleach bath containing 1-2% (o.w.f.) hydrogen peroxide. Very high concentration may damage the fibre. 6.3.3.4 Effect of time

The time required to bleach with hydrogen peroxide depends on temperature, class of fibre and equipment used for bleaching. In general, the time of bleaching is inversely proportional to the temperature of the bleaching bath. Cotton may be bleached in open kiers by circulating heated hydrogen peroxide solution (88-95~ for 6 to 10 hours. 6.4 Bleaching of Wool with Hydrogen Peroxide The natural colour of animal fibre is closely related to the character of environment in which the animal lives [ 19]. Wool lots completely free of dark fibres do not exist [20]. In animal (and human) hair two kinds of pigments occur, namely eumelanin (responsible for black, dark brown and grey colours and commonly referred to as melanin) and pheornelanin (present in yellow, reddish-brown and red hair). Both are thought to be formed by different mechanisms and chemically differed [21 ]. Eumelanin is formed by enzymatic (tyrosinase) oxidation of tyrosine and polymerisation of several oxidation product [22]. Pheomelanin occurs in form of discrete grannules. Melanin grannules can occur in the cortex or in the cuticle.

174


Scoured Wool varies in shade from the light cream of wools considered to have good colour to discoloured, urine-stained wools and the near black of heavily pigmented wool. Bleaching is common with all these wools which has been well reviewed [23-25]. The main problem is that the whiteness of wool attained during bleaching is not permanent. Wool tends to yellow over a period of atmospheric exposure of approximately six months. Blueing or optical whiteners may be added either to bleach liquor or to final rinse bath. The main bleaching agents for wool are oxidising and reducing agents. Amongst the oxidising agents hydrogen peroxide is most commonly used because sodium hypochlorite gives a deep rust colour and sodium chlorite develops pink colouration on wool. Traditionally wool is bleached by oxidative processes either in the presence of alkaline stabiliser or under acidic condition of hydrogen peroxide [27, 28].

6.4.1 Bleaching of wool in alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution In the alkaline condition, wool is treated at pH 8-10 with a 1.5-3 vol. solution of hydrogen peroxide containing 2-3 g/1 stabiliser, which may be sodium silicate or sodium pyrophosphate. A mixture of sodium pyrophosphate and ammonium oxalate is also useful for use as a stabiliser in bleaching of wool with hydrogen peroxide [28]. Bleaching may be carried out at 50~ for 3 to 5 h and then rinsed, treated with dilute acetic acid and rinsed again. The level of whiteness can be controlled by concentration of hydrogen peroxide, length of treatment time, pH and temperature of treatment bath. 6.4.2 Bleaching of wool in acidic hydrogen peroxide solution In the acid process wool is treated with a solution of hydrogen peroxide containing formic acid (2.5 g/l) at pH around 4 to 4.5 at room temperature. The treated wool is then squeezed to remove excess liquor and passed into a drier where bleaching takes place. Ageing is preferable because the colour of the wool continues to improve for 24-48 h after drying. Citric acid activates peroxide bleaching of wool between 80 and 60~ [29]. Activated hydrogen peroxide bleaching of wool with reduced bleaching time and damage is reported by treatment in a bath consisting a mixture of organic salts that form carboxylic acids [30, 31]. Further, bleaching with alkaline and acidic hydrogen peroxide at 60~ can be improved by adding 100 to 200 g/1 of urea [32]. The precautions during bleaching are exactly the same as those needed in the bleaching of cotton with hydrogen peroxide. The advantages of


175

acid process are lower chemical degradation of wool, rinsing after bleaching is not required and no tendency for bleeding of coloured threadings. 6.4.3 Alkaline peroxide bleaching followed by hydrosulphite treatment of wool Where an excellent stable bleach is required, especially if it is to be followed by the application of a fluorescent brighteners, then an alkaline peroxide bleach followed by stabilised hydrosulphite treatment is necessary. Bleaching is carried out for 3-5 h at 50~ with alkaline hydrogen peroxide followed by a second treatment with 2 g/1 ofhydrosulphite solution to raise the whiteness further. 6.4.4 Mordanting and peroxide bleaching of wool The best chance for an efficient bleaching of highly pigmented wool with minimum fibre damage is provided by the use of metal catalysts in a mordanting step preceeding peroxide bleaching. Mordanting is done in presence ofhypophosphorous acid and it is an excellent stabiliser for iron (II) ions under mordanting conditions (Table 6.2). More imporTABLE 6.2 Mordanting and Rinsing Conditions for Pigmented Wool [33 ]_ Mordanting Iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate Hypophosphorous acid (50%) (reducing agent) Formic acid Temperature (~ Time (rain)

Rinsing

10 g/1 3-4 g/1 To pH 3 to 3.5 80 60

8O 20

tantly, cystine suffers hardly any attack from hypophosphorous acid under conditions that favour disulphide scission induced by sulphur containing reducing agents [34-36]. It is possible to avoid the use of formaldehyde in pigment bleaching when a mild reducing agent such as hypophosphorous acid is present. However, with hydrosulphite, ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate mordanting, addition of 4% of 40% formaldehyde as a cross-linking agent to prevent fibre degradation is suggested [37, 38]. Rinsing following the mordanting step proved to be critical with regard to selectivity and consequently to fibre damage. A normal cold rinse would remove virtually no iron from the fibre.

176


In the second stage, bleaching is carried out in alkaline condition of hydrogen peroxide. Iron that settles on the surface and inside the fibre acts as a catalyser and brings about enhanced bleaching action by extremely reactive radicals (HO. and HO 2 .) that are produced from oxidising agent. The bleaching conditions are summerised in Table 6.3. Tetrasodium pyrophosphate (diphosphate) (10 g/l) is a TABLE 6.3 Bleaching Conditions for Wool Pigmented in the Bulk Fibre type

U202(35%)

pH (adjusted with

(ml/1)

Temp. (~

Time (rain)

amm. hydroxide) Karakul Wool, Cashmere,

25-45

8-8.5

50-60

45-180

20-40 30-50

8-8.5 8.5

50-60 60-70

45-120 60-180

Alpaca, Camel, Yak. Rabbit, Chicken feather. Goat, Human hair.

good stabilising agent in peroxide bath having liquor ratio of 15:1. After bleaching the wool is thoroughly rinsed with water. The retention of non-selective ferrous ions on wool following rinsing and subsequent bleaching with hydrogen peroxide leads to an undesirable light brown discolouration from ferric species. Selectively bleached fibre may be given a second step reductive or oxidative bleaching to yield whiter material for customer requirement. 6.4.5 Sequential oxidative and reductive bleaching of wool There are two approaches for sequential oxidative/reductive bleaching of wool in a single bath. In the first approach, following the oxidative bleaching of wool using hydrogen peroxide, the peroxide bath is converted to reductive bath by addition of thiourea and bleaching continues without the need for a flesh bath for the reductive steps. In the second approach after bleaching of wool with oxidative hydrogen peroxide (alkaline or acidic), the remaining active hydrogen peroxide is decomposed by the use of an organic catalyst, and finally a reductive bleaching agent is added to the bath with necessary pH adjustment. Regarding the first approach vast amount of information is available on thiourea [39-43] and the reaction mechanism can be represented as : H 2N

-

C ( - NH) - SH + 2H 2~ 2

thiourea

pH4.5-5.5

)

H 2N - C ( - NH) - S O 2 H +2H20 thioureadioxide

Bleaching of Textiles H2N - C ( = NH) - SO2H + 2OH- pH7-8

),

177

H2 N - C ( - N H ) - OH

+ SO 2

urea sulphinate ion SO2-+ [chromophore] + SO4 2--}- [reduced chromophore] The reaction route and the final products of the reaction of thiourea with hydrogen peroxide are very much dependent on the molar ratio of reactants and the pH of the reaction. Thiourea dioxide is produced in situ and reductive bleaching occurs. The bleaching conditions developed are, alkaline hydrogen peroxide bleaching at 60~ for 60 min followed by an addition of thiourea, pH adjustment, and subsequent reductive bleaching at 60~ for 25 min followed by washing and rinsing. There are number of patents on these new bleaching process [44, 45]. In the second approach, the addition of thiourea directly to hydrogen peroxide bath is avoided because it wastes considerable reductive agent due to large excess of hydrogen peroxide usually left in the bleach bath. To avoid this problem, organic catalysts that decompose hydrogen peroxide are added and finally thiourea dioxide or methane sulphinate is added directly to the bath with necessary pH adjustment. There are many inorganic catalysts that readily decompose hydrogen peroxide, but some (Fe B+, Fe 2+, Cu 2+, Mn 2+) tend to cause excessive damage as well as discolouration of wool. Co 2§is the only metal cation reported to cause no damage or discolouration [46]. Despite the advantages of using thiourea to induce in situ reductive bleaching, some potential users of single bath processes hesitate to use it due to the toxic nature of thiourea. Furthermore, thiourea though easily handled and thoroughly consumed, is classified as carcinogen unlike its oxidised counterpart, thiourea dioxide (formamidinesulphinic acid). Trithiocyanuric acid (TTCA; s-triazine-2, 4, 6-trithiol) is a cyclic analog ofthioS-S~LNH H~N Thiourea

3Na +

~

~

S

-

S~-'~/~" Sodium salt trithiocyanuric acid (Na3TTCA)

urea. Na3TTCA is not classified as a carcinogen and thiourea may be replaced by it. Na3TTCA is most effective at 90% of the stoichiometric weight to peroxide, as

178


opposed to 70% for thiourea. The Na3TTCA is more sensitive to the pH of the rinse bath than the thiourea process and is more expensive than thiourea. Nevertheless, the attractiveness of using Na3TTCA is the avoidance of a potential carcinogen and achievement of exceptional whiteness over conventional peroxide bleaching [47,48].

6.4.6 Bleaching of wool with emulsion of hydrogen peroxide Wool has been successfully bleached with a stable emulsion of hydrogen peroxide [49] or permonosulphuric acid [50] in perchloroethylene. By this means it appears to be possible to obtain the same degree of whiteness as that attainable in a standard aqueous bleach, but more rapidly and with the use of less peroxide. No stabilising or activating agents are needed, but the bleaching of wool in perchloroethylene seems to be more deleterious to mechanical properties of bleached wool than equivalent aqueous procedure. 6.5 Bleaching of Silk with Hydrogen Peroxide The natural colour of silk thread differs depending upon the type of silkworm and its feeding habit. Although the bulk of the natural dyestuff such as chlorophil, xanthophil and carotin are to be found in the silk gum, the degummed mulbery silk also has strong yellowish inherent colour. Since some of the sericin is tenaciously held by fibrion, complete elimination of colour by degumming is not achieved. Thus, the fabrics manufactured from yellow raw silk retain a yellowish tint after boiling-off. This natural yellowish tint on silk is desired by some fashion designers as a 'soft white' or natural shade. The desired degree of whiteness can be relatively easily achieved with Bombyx mori silk on bleaching. With tussah silk the yellowish colouring of the fibrion is considerably more intensive. One reason for this is that with the tussah silk the sericin also penetrates the actual silk fibre, so that the natural dyestuffs lend the tussah fibrion a typical brownish yellow to greenish yellow colour. The natural colouring matter is the tannin of the oak tree leaves on which tussah silkworm is fed. The bleaching process for tussah silk to get white fabric is thus usually very difficult, which makes such silks unsuitable for white fabrics or for certain pastel tones. The silk may be bleached by oxidative as well as reduction methods. If a very high degree of whiteness is required, a combination of both methods in the form of double bleach is applied. The best method of bleaching silk is the use of hydrogen peroxide in a seperate


179

bath. The perhydroxyl ion or even atomic oxygen is responsible for the oxidation effect on the organic colouring matter present in silk and thus for bleaching effect. The recipes for bleaching two varieties of silk with hydrogen peroxide are given in Table 6.4. The material after degumming is entered into the prepared bleaching TABLE 6.4 Recipe for Bleaching Silk with Hydrogen Peroxide Chemicals Hydrogen peroxide (35% by wt.)

Mulbery

Wild silk

silk

(tussah, muga, eri)

15-20 ml/1

20-30 ml/1

Stabiliser

2 g/1

4 g/1

M:Lratio

1 : 20

1 : 30

Temperature (~

75-80

80-90

1-2

3-4

Time (h) bath at 40~

With these fibres, which are sensitive to alkali, the alkali necessary for

activation of hydrogen peroxide must be added to the bleaching bath should be ammonia or tetrasodium pyrophosphate. The pH value of the bleaching liquors should lie between pH 8.5-9. Stabilisers are added to the bath to achieve a slow seperation of the oxygen needed for the bleaching effect. Water glass, which is often used as a stabiliser, should not be used for bleaching silk, because owing to the precipitation of silicic acid the silk can get a hard, brittle handle [51 ]. In this case, tetrasodium pyrophosphate and fatty protein condensates are the ideal choice. The mixtures of sodium silicate and trisodium phosphate or organophosphates exert a great stabilising effect on peroxide and help to control bleaching action. Generally, one should consider whether instead of the seemingly contradictory method of using activators on the one hand and stabilisers on the other hand, it would be better to have exact metering of the hydrogen peroxide solution. The dispensing systems that most dyehouses are now using make this feasible. Hard water with metallic salts or impurities is avoided as the metals act as catalyst and weaken the silk. It is advisable to use stainless steel or aluminium vessel and rods. Bleaching above the specified temperatures lower the tensile strength of silk and becomes yellow. The bath is gradually raised to required temperature in 1 h and bleaching is done at this temperature for specified time. Whereas bleaching of mulbery silk is

180


complete after about 2 hours, the time required for bleaching tussah silk can be a lot longer depending on the origin and inherent colour. The silk after bleaching is thoroughly rinsed first with warm water and then with cold water, hydroextracted and dried. Standing baths of peroxide can be used by replenishing the bath with 1/3rd the quantity of hydrogen peroxide and 1/4th the quantity of stabiliser originally taken for bleaching. Silk goods to be sold as white require a treatment with 0.08 to 0.5% optical whitening agent along with 0.5% glauber' s salt at 45~ for 20 min at pH 4 to 5 with the addition of acetic acid. Ultramarine Blue is also recommended in the optical brightening bath to obtain a bluish tinge to the white silk goods.

6.6 Bleaching of Synthetic Fibres with Hydrogen Peroxide 6.6.1 Bleaching of regenerated cellulose Filament viscose rayon may not require bleaching since this is normally carried out during manufacture. However, viscose in staple form requires bleaching as it may not necessarily include a bleaching treatment during its manufacture. The same reagents as those used for bleaching linen and cotton fabrics are useful for these fibres. For very good whiteness, rayon may be bleached on a jigger with alkaline hypochlorite or combined scour and bleach using hydrogen peroxide (up to 1 vol. strength) containing sodium silicate and alkaline detergents-at a temperature of about 70~ The presence of heavy metals (from Xanthate hydrolysis stage) makes the use of peroxide a hazardous process. It is also possible to use peracetic acid with viscose rayon.

6.6.2 Bleaching of acetate fibres The whiteness of the fabric made of acetate may be improved by treatment with hydrogen peroxide (30%), 1-3 g/1 in presence of sodium silicate, 0.3 g/1. During this treatment the alkalinity of the bath and the required temperature should be carefully maintained. The pH of the bleach bath should not be greater than 9 and treatment for 1 h at 45~ gives combined scour and bleaching with the addition of non-ionic detergent. 6.6.3 Bleaching of acrylic fibres Certain acrylic fibres should not be chlorite bleached because of their tendency to yellow/or loose stability to light. Many fluorescent brighteners added to the chlorite bath are also not stable and such materials may exhibit an accelerated fade when


181

exposed to sunlight in wet alkaline condition. Such fibres can be bleached with hydrogen peroxide or hydrosulphites. However, the need for bleaching varies with different acrylic fibres. Acrilan 16 is sufficiently white for most purposes, but Acrilan 1656 has a more yellowish brown natural colour. Orlon 42 has a colour which is intermediate between natural and bleached cotton. 6.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peroxide over Hypochlorite Bleaching Advantages :

(i)

Peroxide is an universal bleaching agent and can be employed for wool, silk as well as cotton. It is specially suited to the bleaching of union fabrics

containing both cotton and wool or silk. (ii) Hydrogen peroxide is a milder reagent than hypochlorite and the degrading effect of peroxide bleaching on cellulose is less influenced than is the case with hypochlorite. (iii) Peroxide is capable of continuing the scouring action simultaneously with the bleaching action, thus a single stage combined scour and bleach or a continuous method is possible using hydrogen peroxide. (iv) Peroxide bleaching is in general less liable to have adverse effect on dyed threads. The white effect is good and permanent and there is less risk of yellowing at a later stage. (v) Thorough rinsing followed by scouring or antichlor treatment is required with hypochlorite bleaching, whereas with peroxide a comparatively short rinsing suffices. (vi) With hydrogen peroxide, there is no danger of equipment corrosion, no unpleasent odours and no limitations as to processing techniques. (vii) Increasing strict control over the discharge of AOX from chlorine bleaching liquors has led to a greater advantage of peroxide processes for bleaching cellulosic fibres [52-54]. Disadvantages 9

(i)

Bleaching with peroxide is costlier than that ofhypochlorite or bleaching

powder. (ii) Hydrogen peroxide bleaching requires stabilisation usually with silicates which brings the risk of forming resist stains in subsequent dyeing, and causes a build-up of hard crystalline deposits on plant and machinery causing abrasion damage to the fabric during passage.

182


(iii) 'Catalytic damage' occurs during hydrogen peroxide bleaching of cotton fabrics and results in small spots of unevenly dyed fabric or even, in severe cases, the formation of small holes. (iv) There is limitation in white obtained on acrylic fibres. It also causes deleterious effect on skin when used in a concentrated form.

6.8 Bleaching with Sodium Chlorite Commercial manufacture of sodium chlorite under the trade name of 'textone' began in 1930s and by 1939 it was being promoted for continuous bleaching of cellulosic textiles for which purpose US manufacturers, Mathieson Alkali Co. designed a large conveyer system. Sodium chlorite (NaC102) in its white crystalline form is highly hygroscopic in nature. Solid sodium chlorite is stable at room temperature for a longer time when it is mixed with small quantity of alkali (Na2CO3). Now-a-days chlorile bleaching is increasingly being used for polyester, because the chemistry is better understood [55].

6.8.1 Mechanism of chlorite bleaching Sodium chlorite on decomposition produces a strong oxidising gas known as chlorine dioxide. The lower the pH values and higher the temperature (above 70~ of bleach bath, the greater is the speed of decomposition [56]. The rate of chlorine dioxide formation is proportional to the concentration of sodium chlorite in the solution. Chlorous acid (HC102) that is formed is unstable and decomposes to chlorine dioxide (C102) which is the acitve species so far as bleaching is concerned. Maximum chlorine dioxide is formed between pH 2.5 and 3.0. In the absence of metal ions and textiles, the rate of formation of chlorine dioxide approximately doubles for each 0.4-pH drop, in the 3.0-5.0 range, at 85~

Addition of an acid

such as formic, acetic or phosphoric acid is recommended so that pH lies between 3 to 5. If the pH drops below 3.0, cotton fibre is severely damaged because weak acid (HC102) and strong acids (HC1 and HC103) are formed which hydrolyse the cellulose. On the other hand, the loss of oxygen evolution from hot chlorite solution when cotton is added also suggests that chlorite ion rather than chlorous acid is responsible for bleaching [57]. 2NaC102 + H2SO4 --> Na2SO 4 + 2HC102 HC102 --> C102 + H § H C 1 0 2 --), HC1 + 20


183

Aqueous sodium chlorite solutions, which are stable under alkaline conditions are to be activated by acidification. Activation with strong acid produces a toxic corrosive chlorine dioxide gas. It is thus necessary to control its rate of evolution. Technical developments have been linked mainly to control the chlorine dioxide evolution [58-60]. In practice this is generally achieved by controlling the temperature and pH by addition of buffers in the bleach bath. This can be avoided by addition of weak acid (which forms a buffer with the alkali in the chlorite) or a mixture of weak acid and its salt wtih a strong base [61 ]. Some auxiliary products function by giving a slow development of acidity on heating or long stroage at ambient temperatures. Special brands of sodium chlorite are available which contain acid generating materials and thus attain the required pH, without further addition on reacting at bleaching temperature. Activation with persulphates above pH 7 [62], aldehyde at pH 3-7 [63], bromides [64], salts with cobalt, nickel and manganese at pH 5-8.5 [65], sulphur, selenium or finely divided carbon [66] and chlorinated hydrocarbon [67] have been proposed and also acitvation by organic acid esters such as ethyl lactate (1-3 g/l) with addition of sodium nitrate (1-3 g/l) to inhibit corrosion [68] is possible. Sodium hydrogen orthophosphate (NaH2PO4) , sodium formate which produce acid when the liquor is heated are also suggested as buffers. Organic esters such as diethyl tartarate which hydrolyses to give tartaric acid, or sodium chloroacetate which liberates hydrochloric acid and glycollic acids during steaming, have also been suggested as buffers [55]. Other alternatives are the use of either special auxiliary products which limit chlorine dioxide evolution, for example, foam formation on the bleach liquor surface or other chemicals capable of trapping chlorine dioxide chemically. 6.8.2 Bleaching of cotton with sodium chlorite

Cotton can be effectively bleached with sodium chlorite (1-2%) at a pH 4.0 • 2 containing sodium dihydrogen phosphate (0.2-0.5%), stable foaming and wetting agent (0.1-0.25%), nitrogenous chlorine absorber and formic acid to maintain the pH. The temperature of the bleach bath is raised to 82-90~ and maintained at this temperature for 1-3 h depending upon the machines (batchwise) employed for bleaching. Chemicals should be added in the following order : water, previously dissolved sodium nitrate, buffer salts or other chlorite stabiliser, surfactants, sodium chlorite (pre-dissolved, if solid product) and lastly the diluted acid. The addi-

184


tion of acidic materials to concentrated sodium chlorite solutions must be avoided. Sodium nitrate is used as a corrosion inhibitor. It is not essential to use acid chlorite solutions in the semi-continuous processes (pad-roll or pad-stack) where effective liquor ratio is low and neutral chlorite solutions (10 g/l) are recommended. When long batching time are used, soda-ash (1 g/l) is added to maintain stability of the bath. Cotton goods that have been prepared in kiers are advantageously bleached by an alkaline sodium chlorite activated by hypochlorite. In this method, cotton goods 2NaC102 + NaOC1

+

H20

~

2CIO 2 +

NaOH + NaC1

passes through a saturator containing (1-3 g/1 available chlorine) mixture of sodium chlorite and sodium hypochlorite and a buffer mixture of bicarbonate of soda and soda-ash. An available chlorine pick-up of 0.3% (o.w.f.) is typical. In actual practice, the hypochlorite : sodium chlorite ratio can vary between 3 : 2 and 3 : 1, on an available chlorine basis. The acceptable pH varies from 8.8 to 9.7 maintained by buffer. After leaving the saturator, the goods remains in J-Boxes or bins for the time necessary for bleaching, usually 1-2 hours. At the end of the bleaching cycle the goods are washed, antichlored, and washed again. The third method of activating sodium chlorite involves the reaction of sodium chlorite with chlorine. The reaction goes to completion very rapidly. However, this 2NaC102

+ C12 --~

2C102 + 2NaC1

method has not yet found an application in the industry.

6.8.3 Bleaching of polyester with sodium chlorite Synthetic polyester fibres are normally supplied in an off-white state. Sometimes high degree of whiteness is required for white goods. The polyester is generally bleached with sodium chlorite in a bath containing sodium chlorite (50%), 3-5 g/l, formic acid to get pH 3.0 for 1-2 h at a temperature of 95~

A small

quantity of wetting agent can be added in the bleaching bath. Bleaching is followed by anti-chlorination with thiosulphate (2-3 g/l) at 60~ for 20 min. Finally, warm (60~

and cold rinses are given for 10 minutes.

6.8.4 Bleaching of nylon with sodium chlorite Nylon is also supplied in quite white state. Bleaching of nylon is normally carried out where the nylon has been discoloured by heat-setting treatment. The problem ofdiscolouration is comparatively less in the case of nylon 6 than that of nylon


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6,6 due to the lower temperature required in the spinning process and lower softening point of nylon 6,6. Neither sodium hypochlorite nor hydrogen peroxide is recommended for bleaching of nylon. When hypochlorite is used, there is a tendency for chlorine to combine with secondary amino groups, causing decrease in tensile strength. Nylon can be bleached in a bath containing sodium chlorite (80%), 1-2 g/l, sodium nitrate, 1-3 g/l, formic acid (85%), 2 ml/1 for 1 h at 80-85~

Acetic acid is preferred to

formic acid for adjusting the pH (3.5 to 4) because it has a buffering action on sodium chlorite solution in the required region. A small amount of acid stable detergent (0.2 g/l) may be added to the bleach bath to have a combined effect of scouring and bleaching as well as reduction in the loss of chlorine dioxide to the atmosphere due to the formation of surface froth. An activator for bleaching with sodium chlorite is also recommended so that bleaching can be carried out in near neutral pH. Acid donors organic esters e.g. ethyl lactate are readily hydrolysed in bleach bath and split into alcohol and organic acid. As the hydrolysis progresses R-COOR' + H20 ~ RCOOH + R' OH the organic acid which is slowly liberated regulates the the decomposition of chlorite. The pH of the bath. is maintained within 6.6 to 6.0 during the period of bleaching. The amount of ethyl lactate added to the bath depends on the liquor ratio. For short liquor ratio 2-3 ml/1 and for long liquor 1 ml/1 of ethyl lactate is sufficient. Sometimes ammonium chloride is also used as an activator for bleaching with chlorite. Bleaching of differential dyeing nylon is not normally recommended since this tends to limit the contrast effects during subsequent dyeing. However, when bleaching is essential a mild chlorite bleach [69] can be employed. 6.8.5 Bleaching of acetate fibres with sodium chlorite It is more safe to carry out bleaching of acetate fibres with sodium chlorite than with hydrogen peroxide. Bleaching can be carried out with sodium chlorite (0.5-2 g/l) in presence of mono substituted ammonium phosphate (0.5-2 g/l) and non-ionic detergent at 70-80~ for 60-100 min. 6.8.6 Bleaching of polyacrylonitrile with sodium chlorite

Fabrics made from polyacrylonitrile in grey condition have a yellowish or cream tint. Polymer textile finishing agents containing polyacrylonitrile and nitrile groups tend to yellow during fibre processing and requires bleaching [70].

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6.8.7 Bleaching of polyvinylalcohol with sodium chlorite After boiling with 1-2 g/1 of non-ionic or anionic detergent for 45-60 rain at 85-90~ the fabrics requrie bleaching if they are delivered undyed. The bleaching can be carried out with a solution containing sodium chlorite, 0.4-0.7% (o.w.f.), pH 3-4, at 70-80~ for 30-45 min. 6.8.8 Problem of corrosion and its prevention in chlorite bleaching Most of the materials used in the construction for bleaching equipment, are corroded due to free chlorine dioxide gas evolved during bleaching process. Various approaches have been suggested to minimise the evolution of chlorine dioxide gas and corrosion problem. (i) Stainless steel containing 2.5% molybdenum makes the bleaching equipment quite resistant to chlorine dioxide. Titanium also does not corrode in presence of chlorite [71 ], but its use is limited due to its high cost. Vessels lined with titanium, glass or ceramics can be used. Fibre-glass J-Boxes are sufficiently smooth, resist reactions with chlorite. Cross-linked polyester and resins [72] used in surface coatings are sufficiently resistant to chlorine dioxide. (ii) Corrosion can be suppressed virtually completely by adding selected assistants which tend "to harness the free evolution of chlorine dioxide [73]. These assistants are those products which contain nitrogen and have the ability to scavange chlorine and its products. These assistants range from products such as ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), nitric acid to nitrogenous resins such as melamine, urea and others. (iii) The problems of corrosion hazard, fuming and formation of chlorate are all minimised without loss of bleaching efficiency by raising the pH from 3 to 5 by means of magnesium dihydrogen phosphate activator [74]. (iv) It is claimed [75] that the salts of mono -, di - or triethanolamine will maintain a pH of 7.0-8.5 at 20-50~ and yet bring about quantitative decomposition of chlorites at temperatures above 70~ (v) To eliminate the corrosion of the exposed parts by chlorine dioxide vapour, the machine should be designed in such a manner that condensation is prevented [76] or by means of gas washeries which are installed within the ventilation duct with water or an alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution [77]. (vi) Corrosion can be well controlled by the use of ammonium salts, which


187

reacts with commercial alkaline chlorite in the following manner, NH4+ + OH- --~ NH31' + H20 The ammonium salts appear to act by neutralising chlorite solutions. Moreover, they appear to improve bleaching at 100~ (vii) The suppression of chlorine dioxide by addition of hydrogen peroxide has been suggested [78], but, although this is effective at pH 4.0-7.0, there is some deterioration in bleaching efficiency. (viii) Sometimes surfactants which are stable in acid chlorite bath of producing minute foam cells are added. The foam bubble can trap the gas formed before it is emitted to the atmosphere. (ix) It has been stated that corrosion difficulty may be partly circumvented by pad application of cold chlorite solution followed by steaming. (x) Use of a discontinuous process i.e. closed jigger, the closed package bleaching methods have also been successfully employed to minimise the problem. 6.8.9 Merits and demerits of chlorite bleaching Sodium chlorite as a bleaching agent has got the following technical merits : (i) Sodium chlorite is a versatile bleaching agent. It can be used for cotton and synthetic fibres and their mixtures. Man-made fibres which are sensitive to alkali can be safely bleached with sodium chlorite. (ii) Sodium chlorite bleaching will give permanent white coupled with excellent mote removal on cotton which has not been kier boiled. There is little or no tendency to degrade cellulose. (iii) The vigorous alkaline treatments employed in kier boiling are not necessary in using sodium chlorite for bleaching. Cotton waxes are very easily freed from bleached cloth by hot-alkaline after-treatment. (iv) Under the acid conditions of chlorite bleaching, hardness of water has little harmful effect and therefore low ash content is obtained on bleached cotton. (v) Sodium chlorite is rather insensitive to the presence of metal ions as iron with peroxide. (vi) Sodium chlorite is ideally suitable for bleaching of cotton/polyester blended fabrics since both fibre components respond to acidic chlorite bleaching. However, hydrogen peroxide is also found equally satisfactory for this fibre blend.

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The chlorite bleaching process suffers from certain drawbacks as follows : (i)

Sodium chlorite is more expensive than hydrogen peroxide. It is not useful for the bleaching of silk and wool, since it gives pink colouration which, however, can be removed with treatment of soidum bisulphite solution.

(ii)

Even at pH 4-5 certain amount of chlorine dioxide is evolved, and the bleaching action is extremely corrosive to metals including stainless steel. Neutral and alkaline pH may tender the cotton.

(iii) Chlorine dioxide is a very toxic gas because it can decompose into both hydrochloric acid and chlorine gases. The gas mixture is a skin irritant, attacks mucous membranes and can cause fatal pulmonary edema. The TLV of this compound is 0.1 p.p.m, and shows the necessity for adequate care and ventilation during usuage. (iv) Explosions are fostered when gaseous chlorine dioxide and HC102 is exposed to uv light. 6.9 Bleaching with Peracetic Acid Peracetic acid is an equilibrium solution consisiting of hydrogen peroxide, acetic acid and peracetic acid. It can be used for bleaching of nylon, viscose rayon, cellulose acetate and even cotton [79, 80]. Peracetic acid is commercially available for textile bleaching in 5, 15 and 40% solutions as What is known as "equilibrium peracid". Peracetic acid can be prepared by the interaction of concentrated hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid in the presence of strong mineral acid such as sulphuric acid [81, 82]. Alternatively, it can be prepared by mixing hydrogen peroxide with acetic anhydride at room temperature in presence of suitable catalyst like caustic soda or EDTA [83]. The optimum reaction takes place with 1 part of hydrogen peroxide and 6 parts of acetic anhydride after about 4 h at room temperature to give a yield of about 80%. The excess acetic anhydride may, however, cause an undesirable side reaction to yield highly explosive diacetyl peroxide.

H202+CH3COOH

H+ ; C H 3 . C O . O . O H + H 2 0 peracetic acid

CH3-C=O Cat. O q- H202 @ CH3CO.O.OH + CHgCOOH [ NaOH CH3-C=O acetic anhydride


189

The physical and chemical properties of peracetic acid is summerised in Table 6.5. The concentrated solution ofperacetic acid is volatile and has a pungent smell TABLE 6.5 Properties of Peracetic Acid Properties

Concentration ofperacetic acid 5% 15%

Physical properties colourless liquid

Appearance odour pH Density (g/mL, 20~

2.0 1.120

pungent 2.0 1.480

27.0

22.0

6.3

16.6

Chemical properties

H202 Acetic acid

and strongly irritates the mucous membrane. The stability of peracetic acid is not quite high as that of stabilised hydrogen peroxide. Free radicals may be produced in the presence of ions such as copper, iron etc. Peracetic acid has proven to be effective bleaching agent in the household detergents and also found wide application in the laundry industry. To reduce the danger in the on-site production ofperacetic acid from acetic anhydride/hydrogen peroxide, activators can be used in household detergents to generate peracetic acid in situ. The commonly used activators are sodium perborate and acetylated 0 or Ncompounds such as tetraacetylethylenediamine (TAED) [84, 85]. The perborate activators are assumed to act via the stages of peracetic acids [86]. Perborate hydrolyses in aqueous solution and hydrogen peroxide is produced. Reactive peroxide anion is produced from hydrogen peroxide under weakly alkaline medium and

Na4(H4B2Os) + 4H20 --+ 2Na2[B(OH)4] + 2H202 H202 + OH- --~ HO 2- 4- H20 X-Ac + HO 2- ~ X- + AcOOH then the activator reacts [87]. The chemistry ofTAED/H202 bleaching is based on the following mechanism:

190

Bleaching of Textiles C H2-N(COCH3)2

CH2-N (C OCH3)2 TAED

+ 2H02- @ pH8-9

CH2C-O 2- + H202 ~

CH2-NH COCH 3 CH2-NH COCH3 DAED

+ 2CH2C-02O peracetic acid anion

CH3COOOH + OH-

O

CH31CIOOH+ CH3-C-02- --> CHBCOOH + CH3COO-+ 2(O) O

O

The peroxide anion reacts with TAED to form DAED (diacetylethylenediamine) and peracetic acid anions. At pH 8-9 the peracetic acid anion is in equilibrium with the free peracetic acid. This equilibrium peracetic acid oxidises its own per anion to form active oxygen, which acts as a bleaching agent [88].

6.9.1 Bleaching of cotton with peracetic acid Though the use ofperacetic acid has been suggested for bleaching of cotton but has never reached the commercial success like hypochlorite, chlorite and peroxide [89]. The mechanism of reaction is somewhat similar to that of hydrogen peroxide.

CH3COOOH --~ CH3COOH +(O) Recently, peracetic acid is used as a replacement ofhypochlorite in multi-stage bleaching process of cotton and linen [90, 91 ]. Peracetic acid is most effective as a bleaching agent of cotton in the pH range of 6 to 7. The preferable bleaching temperature range is between 50-80~ and bleaching time of 20- 60 rain depending on the temperature. The degree of brightness increases proportionately with the concentration of bleaching agent. To avoid the damage of cloth, a sequestering agent may be added to remove to those catalytically active ions such as Cu, Fe etc. which can be absorbed by fibre. Bleaching of 100% cotton in rope form in a J-Box with peracetic acid (1.5-2.5 g/l) at room temperature, followed by an alkaline hydrogen peroxide treatment at 90~ yield a good whiteness. Linen can be successfully bleached using a process consisting of scouting, alkaline hydrogen peroxide bleach and a peracetic acid bleaching stage.

6.9.2 Bleaching of nylon with peracetic acid Peracetic acid is particularly suitable for bleaching of nylon because this can be applied in a liquor which pH is virtually neutral and hence there is no danger of loss of strength of nylon fibre. The bath is set with pre-dissolved chemicals containing


191

sequestering agent(0.75%), sodium bicarbonate (0.75%), caustic soda (flake) (2.00%) and peracetic acid (5.0%) on the weight of the fabric. Seperate container is used for peracetic acid and concentrated alkali is not mixed. Bleaching may be carried out at a pH between 6.0 and 7.5 for about an hour at 80~

After bleaching

the material is rinsed thoroughly in cold water. The bleaching equipment should not contain copper, brass or iron and preferably it should be made of ceramic or stainless steel. 6.9.3 Bleaching of cellulose acetate with peracetic acid Peracetic acid is very suitable for bleaching of cellulose acetate fibres. The liquor should be made-up in the following manner : Peracetic acid (36 - 40% ) Sodium hexametaphosphate

0.3 kg 0.05 kg

Wetting agent

0.1 kg

Water

99 litres

The solution is adjusted to pH 5-6 by the addition of well diluted sodium hydroxide and bleaching is carried out in 1 h at 66~ It is desirable that pH should be checked at intervals. The bleached goods is then rinsed in hot and then in cold water. 6.9.4 Bleaching of acrylics with peracetic acid The bleaching bath is set with predissolved (all o.w.f.) sodium hydroxide (50%), 1%, sodium bicarbonate, 1%, sequestering agent, 1%, and prediluted peracetic acid, 5% in the given order. The goods are run cold for 10-15 min and then the bath is heated slowly to 75~ and bleaching is continued at this temperature for 20 min. The bath is then cooled, dropped and the goods are rinsed well. For white goods, an optical brightener may be added. 6.9.5 Merits and demerits of bleaching with peracetic acid The advantages of peracetic acid as a bleaching agent are : (i)

Peracetic acid is environmentally safe since it decomposes to acetic acid and oxygen and do not form any toxic product [81].

(ii) Peracetic acid as an industrial chemical is easily available and can be safely introduced to an existing process design [82]. (iii) Peracetic acid is very suitable for bleaching of nylon and it can be used successfully for the bleaching of cotton dyed with indanthrene colours.

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(iv) Peracetic acid bleached goods show comparable or even higher brighmess with less fibre damage. (v)

In the household powder detergent, peracetic acid is generated in situ from activators.

The disadvantages ofperacetic acid as a bleaching agent are : (i) Concentrated solution ofperacetic acid (35-40%) is dangerously explosive and cannot be handled. The concentrated solution has a pungent odour, is caustic and burns the skin. It needs to be carried in specially protected tanker wagons when transported by rail. (ii) It is expensive for bleaching of cotton and rayon and is used only as a last resort. (iii) The stability ofperacetic acid is not quite high as that ofstabilised hydrogen peroxide. Free radicals may be produced in the presence of Cu and Fe ions. 6.10 Reductive Bleaching of Wool Reductive bleaching treatments are normally employed for the bleaching of wool, silk and nylon fibres. Now-a-days, the main form of reductive bleaching employs hydrosulphite compounds. The treatments using sulphur dioxide or sodium bisulphite are now only of historical value as the process has many practical disadvantages. Sodium hydrosulphite may be used alone, provided the temperature of the bleach bath is kept low to prevent rapid decomposition. However, a stabilised form of sodium hydrosulphite is more commonly used, in which the inclusion of sodium pyrophosphate (or other non-phosphate buffers) controls the pH close to neutral to inhibit the too rapid decomposition of the hydrosulphite. By the use of such stabilised hydrosulphite compound a much higher temperature can be employed. Thioureadioxide is sometimes employed as a reducing agent for the bleaching of wool [93-95]. The decomposition rate of thioureadioxide increases with increasing pH and temperature and decreases with increasing concentration [96].

6.10.1 Bleaching of wool with sulphur dioxide (stoving process) In this method moist woollen yarn in the hank form is exposed to the action of sulphur dioxide produced by burning sulphur (3 to 6% o.w.f.) placed in an iron or earthenware pot inside the chamber. Sulphur is converted to sulphur dioxide and


193

sulphurous acid gas in the presence of moisture. Sulphurous acid is a strong reducing agent which reduces the organic colouring matter into colourless substances. The material is exposed to sulphur dioxide for 6 to 8 h or over-night and then rinsed for 15 min in H202 (0.1%) solution at 35~ which oxidises retained sulphur dioxide (present as sulphurous acid) to sulphuric acid and finally neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid and blued. Piece goods in moist condition can also be stoved in a similar manner by passing them into the stove through a narrow slit in the stove and suspending on wooden rollers arranged in two tires. The disadvantages of this method are : (i) Bleaching effect is not permanent, the natural colour of wool returns (ii)

gradually. The sulphurous acid gas may be formed by the reaction of SO 2 and water, which can cause permanent damage to eyes and respiratory system.

(iii) Even after thorough washing wool retains sulphur dioxide and hence treatment with oxidising agent like NaOC1 or H202 is necessary. (iv) The process requires longer time for bleaching. (v)

If wool is too dry, the bleaching effect is poor.

6.10.2 Bleaching of wool with sodium bisulphite In the sodium bisulphite method [97], wool is impregnated with a solution containing 2~ sodium bisulphite and 1~ HzSO 4 for 2 h. Alternatively, wool can be treated with a solution of sodium bisulphite (2~ for 6 to 10 h, squeezed, and is then followed by second impregnation in HzSO 4 (l~ and washed thoroughly. 6.10.3 Bleaching of wool with sodium hydrosulphite Reductive bleaching with non-stabilised sodium hydrosulphite [98], sodium hydrosulphite-based sulphoxylate formaldehyde [99] and sodium and zinc hydroxymethanesulphinate [100] have been shown to provide wool excellent whiteness, with a lower cystine content than in the case of bleaching wool with other reducing agents. The result obtained is permanent, in contrast to the unstable peroxide white. The goods are treated with a solution containing sodium hydrosulphite (4-8 g/l) or stabilised sodium hydrosulphite (5-10 g/l) and pyrophosphate or buffer (3-4 g/l) at 50-55~ for 1-2 h. Sodium hydrosulphite in aqueous solution is converted into sodium bisulphite when applied at 50~ at pH around 7.0. After bleaching the

194


goods are rinsed in warm water and then in cold. The presence of sodium laurylsulphate (SLS) in the bleaching bath improves the whiteness and mechanical properties of the bleached goods without affecting the cystine content [ 101 ]. The protection is the outcome of sulphitolysis inhibition derived from the ionic or nonionic interaction of SLS in the positive sites ofkeratine (-NU3 +) or in the paraffinic side chains of same amino acid residues. The interaction or combination of SLS with protein increases its net negative charge and hinders the access of the reducing agent to the disulphide linkage [102]. Iron and copper in the hydrosulphite bleach bath can cause a greyish discolouration due to the formation of their respective sulphides which are difficult to remove during washing.

6.10.4 Bleaching of wool with thio-urea dioxide The optimum bleaching value of wool can be achieved at thio-urea dioxide 1.5 g/l, time 30 min and temperature 80~

The cost of bleaching with thio-urea

dioxide is claimed to be three times lesser than that of bleaching carried out with sodium hydrosulphite. Also, its lack of mutagen activity and its low COD and BOD values recommended it as a non-toxic product giving a low concentration of effluents. 6.10.5 Photobleaching of wool The novel method of bleaching wool by exposure to intense light are attractive because of the dry and pollution-free nature of the process. Photobleaching can be rapid and the resulting colour and brighmess are similar to those of peroxide bleached wool [103]. Though photochemical bleaching is industrially possible, but not economically attractive yet. Wool can be photochemically bleached [104] by exposure to u.v. light below 360 nm. When wool is treated with a zinc complex of thioglycollic acid to minimise yellowing and then exposed to sunlight, undergoes photochemical bleaching which effectively destroys the impurities caused by photodegradation.

6.11 Bleaching of Silk with Reducing Agents Silk fibrion is highly sensitive to oxidising agents like hypochlorite and chlorite solutions. Oxidation and substitution in the benzene ring of tyrosine is responsible for degradation of silk with the formation ofchloro-amino acids, ketonic acids and r

in several stages [105]. Reduction bleaching of silk is generally carried out with sodium hydrosulphite

or appropriate stabilised commercial products on this basis. The silk fibrion is


195

resistant to the reducing agents. Since the bleaching effect is poorer than with peroxide bleach, the term "half bleach" is sometimes used. A brief resume of the TABLE 6.6 Bleaching of Silk with Reducing Agents Reducing agent Sulphur dioxide or Sulphurous acid.

Condition 4 to 6 h at an atmosphere of SO 2, yellowish tint obtained.

Sodium hydrosulphite.

4 to 6h at temperature around 50~

Na2S204 +

4H202 --> 2 N a H S O 4 + 3H 2 pH 7, concentration around 45 g/1.

Stabilised hydrosulphite.

30 to 90 min at temperature of 60-90~ pH 5 to 7, concentration around 10 g/1.

Sodium sulphoxylates.

Concentration 4 to 6 g/l, temperature 60-95~ pH 4 to 5.5, time 20-30 min.

NaHSO2.CH20 + H20 --> NaHSO3 + H2

bleaching operations is highlighted in Table 6.6. Sometimes silk is still bleached with sulphur dioxide in gas form. To do this the damped fabric is subjected to the sulphur dioxide gas for several hours in an enclosed chamber. Through the formation of sulphur dioxide some natural dyestuffs are reductively destroyed, whereas others are only converted to water soluble leuco compounds, which then have to be washed out, so as not to risk reoxidation and thus yellowing during storage. The frequently noticed unpleasant odour of the remaining sulphur dioxide on the fabric can be eliminated by a rinsing process with hydrogen peroxide of 35% strength (1 mg/1). If a very high degree of whiteness is required, a double bleach process is recommended. Here bleaching is carried out on two seperate stages, first the silk is treated with 3 to 5 g/1 stabilised sodium hydrosulphite at 60~ for 1 h, followed by oxidative bleaching using H202, 10-20 ml/1 (35% strength), 2-3% sodium silicate, the pH of the bath being maintained at 8.5-9.0 at 90~ for 1 h. With this process, as a role, an excellent full white is achieved, which will endure storage and is lightproof. Certain tussah silks cannot, however, be bleached to a full white, even applying this process [ 106].

6.12 Reductive Bleaching of Nylon Reductive bleaching of nylon is normally employed under acidic conditions.


196

Virtually no fibre degradation occurs and the resistance of the fibre to photodegradation is not impaired. The liquor is set with 2-4% (o.w.f.) stabilised hydrosulphite, 2% (o.w.f.) sequestering agent, 0.2-1% (o.w.f.) selected fluorescent brightener and acetic acid to pH 4.5. The goods are entered into the bath and the temperature is raised slowly (1 ~

to 85-100~

Treatment is continued until

the desired colour is achieved. The goods are then cooled and rinsed thoroughly.

6.13 Peroxygen Bleaching Compunds There are several peroxygen derivatives that occasionally find use in textile industry. These are potassium peroxymonosulphate (monopersulphate), potassium perphosphate and urea peroxide. These compounds are rarely used by themselves, but are used primarily as bleach boosters. They are all powders and are usually compounded where a strong colourless oxidising agent is indicated. The mechanism of potassium peroxydisulphateperoxide is represented by the following reactions ; 82082. ~ 2804-" SO4-o -}- H20 ~ H + + 8042- "ol-OH" OH" + H202 --~ H20 + HO 2" HO 2" + 82082- ~ 02 q-- HSO4-+ SO4-" HO 2" + H202 to give a net reaction

~

0 2 q-

H20 + OH"

82082-q- H202 ---> 02 -it-HSO4Above pH 5.0, the addition steps are written : HO 2" @ O 2- + H + 0 2 - + 8208 ~ 02 -1t- 8042- q- SO 4O 2- q- H202 ~ 02 -1- O H + OH" Under the name o f " O x o n e " Du Pont has put on the market a bleaching agent for polyamide fibres. Its active bleaching component is potassium persulphate (KHSOs, pH of a 1.0% solution is 2 to 3). Oxone is used for the bleaching of nylon, together with NaC1 and a mixed buffer K2CO 3 and NaH2PO4.2H20 at pH between 7.5 and 8.0 at 80~ This bleaching auxiliary is used more for domestic bleaching than for bleaching finish works.

6.14 Bleaching of Jute The art of bleaching jute has received fresh attention as diversified jute products like decoratives, soft luggage, and upholstry material are in great demand now-adays. Raw Indian jute is brown in colour and requires bleaching. Scoruing of jute


197

fabric before bleaching has no beneficial effect, rather it deteriorates whiteness index. The grey jute fabric attains reddish tone after scouring in alkali. However, scouring of jute fabric before sodium chlorite bleaching enhances the whiteness index. A damage to the jute fibre occurs at concentrations of caustic soda higher than 9.0% [ 107]. Bleaching renders jute near white resulting in better lustre and appeal to the fabric. Bleaching of jute is also required for good colouration background. Bleaching ofjute can be affected by all bleaching agents, but bleaching powder and hydrogen peroxide [108,109] find commercial application. Owing to the presence of non-cellulosic constituents, particularly lignin, the actions of conventional bleaching agents such as H202, NaC102, peracetic acid and NaOC1 are somewhat different as compared to their action on cotton [110,111]. The bleaching effect of H202 and peracetic acid on lignin is almost nil. The use of sodium hydrosulphite, sodium bisulphite, sodium borohydride have also been recommended for bleaching ofjute [ 112]. Jute bleached with reducing agents is not all stable and develops reddish or brown tinge on storage.

6.14.1 Bleaching of jute with sodium hypochlorite Jute piece goods are bleached in open width e.g. on jigs and jute carpet yarn is bleached in hank form or in the form of cross-wound cheeses in an open machine. Jute can be bleached with alkaline hypochlorite using 5-7 g/1 available chlorine. Afterwards the goods are usually given an antichlor with sodium bisulphite, but it is not soured because of the difficulty of removing the traces of acid. However, the sodium hypochlorite bleaching produces poor whiteness which is not acceptable for subsequent dyeing and printing.

6.14.2 Bleaching of jute with hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide bleaching process is most suitable for bleaching jute fabrics and the bleached goods are suitable for making diversified jute products. Bleaching exclusively with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of silicate generally necessitates high peroxide consumption level and rigorous conditions and hence substantial fibre damage can result. Bleaching of grey jute can be carried out with H202 (2 vol.), sodium silicate (10 g/l), sodium hydroxide (1 g/l), trisodium phosphate (5 g/l), pH around 11 at 80~ for about 1 h. After bleaching the fabric is thoroughly washed, neutralised with 2 ml/1 acetic acid and then usual washing and drying is carried out. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide gives a good white colour and less marked yellowing than that ofhypochlorite bleach. The losses in strength and weight due to

198


bleaching treatment are also less in case of peroxide bleaching process, compared to hypochlorite bleach. Process involving only use ofH202 is not very suitable as above certain percentage of H202 (6% of 50% H202) concentration, there is no appreciable increase in brighmess value. Modified bleaching recipes for jute are now being reported [ 113, 114]. Jute with high lignin content compared with other cellulosic fibres, can be bleached in a sequential process using sodium chlorite or hypochlorite followed by hydrogen peroxide-sodium silicate bleach to produce the best fibre whiteness without appreciable strength loss. Lignin present in jute is chlorinated to convert into chlorolignin which are further extracted during alkaline extraction. This is then followed by peroxide bleaching. The whiteness can further be raised by the application of a suitable fluorescent brightening agent to the bleach bath or seperately.

6.14.3 Bleaching of jute with sodium chlorite Scouring and bleaching ofjute with sodium chlorite with an acceptable whiteness can be achieved, but the process is a time consuming two step process. Moreover, sodium chlorite is metal corrosive and health hazardous. A single stage process containing 5% sodium chlorite solution at 65-70~ with a liquor ratio of 10:1 can produce pale yellow colour, with moderately good wet strength, but the fabric is mined yellow on exposure to light [ 115]. In another attempt, treatment of jute with 3 g/1 sodium chlorite at boil for 90 min at pH 4 and then followed by treatment with H202 (0.5 vol.) solution buffered to pH 10 at 80~ for 30 min, gives a product with comparatively improved whiteness and resistance to yellowing on exosure to light [ 116]. A direct bleaching process [ 117] by the use of a solution containing sodium chlorite, hydrogen peroxide as a stabiliser for the chlorite, and buffer salts such as mono-and di-sodium phosphate (50-250% based on chlorite content) at pH 4.5-7 is also reported. The fabrics are wrung out to remove excess liquid, are heated by means of a superheated steam and are kept at a temperature of 90~ for 3 h. The whiteness of the fibre is uniform and of a high standard. A minimum change in the DP occurs when the jute is bleached with 0.7% sodium chlorite at pH 4 and 65-70~ for 80 min. The rate of bleaching can be increased by increasing the temperature [ 118].

6.14.4 Bleaching of jute with peracetic acid The use ofperacetic acid as a bleaching agent for jute fabrics is reported [119]. The optimum bleaching results are obtained at 70~ around pH 6.5. The mild acidic condition is most suitable because of the fact that neither hydrocellulose nor


199

oxycellulose is produced at this pH. Peracetic acid bleaching is more effective in reducing losses in weight and tensile strength than hydrogen peroxide bleaching. The improvement in handles/feel and low ash content of peracetic acid bleached jute fabrics is attributed to silicate free bleaching. Jute can also be effectively bleached with peracetic acid in the presence of selected buffering and stabilising agents [ 120]. A superior bleaching effect can be achieved by using tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) as a stabiliser under mildly alkaline conditions (pH 8.0-8.5) and excellent fibre brightness can occur at temperatures as low as 40-60~

This process offers a

more energy efficient option for bleaching 100% jute fabric. This process can also be extended to bleaching of jute/cotton blends.

6.14.5 Drawbacks in bleaching of jute There are some serious drawbacks with reference to the bleaching ofjute. They are: (i) Jute fabric bleached with alkaline hypochlorites or hydrogen peroxide undergoes marked losses in weight and strength and also shows decrease in width. These are mainly attributed to the action of bleaching agent or alkali or alkaline reagents on the non-cellulosic constituents of jute i.e., hemi-cellulose and lignin [121,122]. (ii) The heavy deposits of calcium or magnesium silicate on the surface of the fabric, resulting from peroxide bleaching with silicate, produce harsh feel and present difficulties in subsequent processing. (iii) The main drawback of hypochlorite or peroxide bleached jute is photoyellowing. The reason for yellowing is environmental effects like heat, air, uv radiation in sunlight etc. On exposure to light, the shade of bleached jute turns to brownish yellow, which ruins the decorative look. This yellow-brown colour can be removed by second bleaching treatment, but it appears on further exposure to light. The on-set of yellowing varies considerably with the bleaching agent used.

6.14.6 Causes of yellowing and improvement of photostability of bleached jute Jute has three main components c~-cellulose (60%), hemi-cellulose (24%) and lignin (13%). The first two components do not absorb uv-radiation present in the sun-light (300-400 nm), lignin however does. The reaction is believed to be oxidative in nature and heat and oxygen in the air cause photo-sensitization of lignin. This discolouration is also associated with loss of strength. The degradation of lignin

200


may be associated with the production of simpler aromatic compounds having two phenolic functional groups, or a phenolic and an aldehyde functional group attached to the nucleus. The compounds then appear to undergo condensation reactions involving a free radical mechanism. In this process, chromophore groups are formed with quinone-methide types of structures, and these are responsible for yellowing. The improvement ofphotostability ofjute fabric itself is an important matter to be given priority. Various processes have been developed in which bleached jute does not revert to its natural colour on exposure to light. The blocking of reactive phenolic groups by etherification or esterification is expected to arrest the yellowing process. The presence of some chromophore in dyes can cause absorption of near uv-radiation of sunlight and prevent discolouration. Bleached jute goods treated with copper-potassium dichromate (0.25% o.w.f.) improve photostability over conventional bleached fabric [ 123 ]. Bleaching ofjute with H202 followed by treatment with an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate (8-12% o.w.f.) and a mineral acid, H2SO 4 (8-12% o.w.f.) is recommended [ 124]. Subsequently, the reduced permanganate is cleared by rinsing the fabric in an aqueous solution of sodium bisulphite or sodium sulphoxylate formaldehyde at pH 3.0-3.5. Another process [125] consists in bleaching of jute fabric at a pH below 3.0 and a temperature in the range 15-43~ in an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate and phosphoric acid in amounts such that the ratio of potassium permanganate to phosphoric acid ranges between 1 : 0.7 and 1 : 1.1. The bleached fabric is then scavanged with an aqueous solution of an organic reducing agent, such as sodium bisulphite, at a pH below 4.0. The fabric is then scoured with hot water or steam. A continuous or semi-continuous process for bleaching of jute fabric with chlorinated derivatives ofcyanuric acid is developed [126]. The process comprises a preliminary treatment with boiling water, followed by impregnation of the materials with 0.4-0.6% aqueous alkaline solution, and then subjection of the material to steam treatment. Thereafter, the material is treated at 20-50~ with a mixture of trichlorocyanuric acid and cyanuric acid (with available chlorine content 7-15 g/l), containing sodium carbonate or bicarbonate. The pH of the solution is finally adjusted to 4-5 with acetic acid or phosphoric acid. The treated material is then bleached with H202. The time of treatment is usually 40-60 min, but can be extended to 2 h in the case of a heavy fabric with high lignin content.


201

A two step process [ 127] based on the preferential removal of lignin from the surface of jute fibres has been developed. In the first step the fabric is treated with either moist chlorine gas and aqueous chlorine solution or with an aqueous solution of hypochlorous acid at pH 6 and containing available chlorine equivalent to 5-10% (o.w.f.). In the second step, the treated fabric is extracted with an aqueous solution of at least one compound selected from : sodium hydroxide, phosphates, and sulphites ; an equivalent to 5-10% (o.w.f.). Finally, the fabric is washed, and is bleached by the conventional H202 and/or hypochlorite method. Biological bleaching techniques using direct growth of lignin degrading fungi [ 128-130] or pre-treatment with hemi-cellulase enzymes [ 131 ] have been reported in the delignification of kraft pulp. A briefpre-treatment oflignocellulose jute with mixed enzyme preparation containing cellulase and xylanase enhances the brightness of fibres after bleaching with alkaline hydrogen peroxide [132]. Surface fuzziness and yellowing on exposure to light can be overcome and the cloth may be made more dyeable with improved light-fastness by judicious use of sodium hydroxide on the bleached fabric or enzymatic treatment of the grey state material. The effects of progressive delignification and various bleaching processes on jute fibres show that surface features progressively changes with gradual removal of lignin and lead to the "cottonization" of jute fibre at 93% delignification [133, 134].

6.15 Bleaching of Linen The morphology of linen and the nature and amount of impurities is related to the scouring and bleaching method. The recipes for scouring and bleaching linen by conventional process are already discussed in Chapter 4. There is an interaction between scouring and bleaching that can cause a wide spectrum of cottonization effect. Green scutched flax generally bleached more easily than retted flax, but the bleaching of green flax, even after boiling with alkali, gives a higher loss in weight than of retted flax. The loss in weight is generally 18% by the older method of bleaching. This is due to the removal ofhemi-celluloses, which are low molecular weight polysaccharides and polyuronides. These are sensitive to alkaline treatments and are present in linen fibre to the extent of about 18%. The optimum results are generally obtained with a mixture of (3:1) soda-ash and causitc soda followed by chlorite and peroxide bleaching sequence [135-138]. The lignin content of flax is

202


much lower than that ofjute. The lignin is difficult to remove in the wet processing of flax, and incomplete removal is responsible for yellowing of the fibre after bleaching. Bleaching of linen can be carried out by either sodium hypochlorite or sodium chlorite. Linen can be bleached white from the grey state without any prior boiling treatment by using higher concentration of sodium chlorite (20-30 g/1 at 80~ and pH 3.5-4), the impurities in grey flax activate sodium chlorite. However, bleaching by chlorine containing compounds gives organohelogen compounds AOX. This is caused by reaction with chlorine containing bleaching agents with lignin [139]. This problem is eliminated by replacing it with another bleaching agent that also lignify fully. A technique for removal of flax rust (Melampsoza lini) from flax fabrics is established [140] by using bleaching mixture (NaOC1 - H202). The fabric made from rusted flax yams is treated with an aqueous solution of NaOC1 (2.5 g/1 of active chlorine) at pH 9 and ambient temperature. This is followed by treatment with 30% H202 (3.5 g/l) at pH 9 and at a temperature of 85-95~ For good white, optical brightening agent may be finally applied. The exhaustion of the oxidant is slow and the degree of whiteness can be improved, if the moderate scouring is done before bleaching [ 141 ]. The main disadvantage by using sodium chlorite or peroxide bleaching of linen is that of presence of "sprit' (remmnants of woody core of flax stem). The dyeing properties of sprit may differ from those of the linen fibre. The only effective way to remove it is by treatment with hypochlorite. Peracetic acid/peroxide combinations can replace hypochlorite/peroxide and similar whiteness can be obtained as the chlorine route [142]. The results are summerised in Table 6.7. Peroxide itself is a good delignification agent, and in TABLE 6.7 Reflectance Value of Bleached Linen State Grey linen Ash scoured Peroxide bleached Peracetic acid process Hypo/peroxide bleach

Reflectance (%) 20 30 65 77 67


203

fact, better than peracetic acid [143]. It is likely that peracetic acid will be able to replace these agents both as bleaching and delignification agents. The water insoluble products ofperacetic acid on lignin is almost nil. On chemical analysis of the water insoluble product after treatment for 1 h, the proportion of functional groups are also reduced by different degrees (Table 6.8). The high chlorine content in lignin treated with hypochlorite indicates that in this chlorination is more vigorous, whereas with sodium chlorite oxidation processes are dominant and the chlorination reaction is almost absent. TABLE 6.8 The Effect of Oxidising Agent in the Functional Groups of Lignin Extracted from Flax [ 144] Percentage of functional groups in Functional group Methoxyl Hydroxyl Carboxyl Aldehyde Elemental Analysis Carbon Hydrogen Chlorine

Original lignin 4.47

Lignin treated with Hypochlorite 2.23

H202

PAA 2.91 3.76

NaC10 2 1.62 2.41

6.50 1.23 6.50

0.83

1.55 4.15

0.23 7.50

0.34 4.30

1.03 5.80

0.76 4.55

%

% 39.86

% 51.03

% 51.23

% 49.27

5.96 12.90

7.45

7.48

7.68 0.30

58.39 6.40

6.16 Bleaching of Blended Fibre Fabrics In tropical countries like India synthetic fibres blended with cellulosic fibres fabrics are very popular due to their excellent combination of aesthetic properties and easy care properties. Thus, bleaching of blended fibre fabrics before further processing is an important step. Many of the preparatory processes used for natural and synthetic fibres have little or no application in preparation of blended fibre fabircs. 6.16.1 Bleaching polyester/cotton blends Polyester fibre in blends with cellulosic fibres in the ratios of 65/35 and 50/50 are common construction. When cellulose portion is rayon, the blends rarely require

204


bleaching, but when cotton is present bleaching is usually necessary. Bleaching treatments of such blends are normally required to remove the natural colours of cotton, sighting colours and if the polyester portion is turned yellow at the time of heat-setting operation. Chlorine bleaching, peroxide bleaching and chlorite bleaching are employed widely. If the polyester portion requires bleaching, then chlorite bleaching is used, as this bleaching agent bleaches both polyester and cellulose. If the polyester portion does not need bleaching, then a peroxide bleaching is more convenient. However, in case ofhypochlorite bleaching, if chlorine remains in fibre degradation can occur. Peracetic acid bleaching causes no undue degradation of the fibre. Chlorine bleaching can be done at 1-2~

bleaching powder solution for 2-3 h,

which is followed by dechlorinating treatment. Sodium thiosulphate, acidic sodium sulphate, ammonia, H202 etc. can be used as dechlorinating agents. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide bleaching is the most preferred system for polyester/ cotton blends and bleaching can be carried out on various equipment using batchwise, semi-continuous and continuous method. Table 6.9 shows conditions for bleaching TABLE 6.9 Bleaching of Polyester/Cotton at HT/HP Condition with H202 Chemical Hydrogen peroxide (35%) Sodium silicate (38~ Sodium hydroxide (solid) Sodium tripolyphosphate Surfactant

Concentration 30-40 ml/1 10-12 ml/1 2-4 g/1 some quantity some quantity

Temperature

130-140~

Time

60-120 sec

with hydrogen peroxide in HT/HP equipment by batchwise system. However, the use of continuous open width bleaching with short reaction time has led to considerable and dramatic advances in the bleaching of polyester/cotton blended fabrics. It enables the complete pre-treatment to be accomplished in 12 min instead of 24 h required for pad-roll system. In this system the desized fabric after impregnation with a liquor containing H202 (above recipe) solution at 35~ is


205

steamed (heated to 95-96~ and stored in the J-Box for 75 min. The fabric is then washed at 65~ and dried. Blended fabrics containing coloured threads can be bleached at 80~ instead of 95-96~ without danger of bleeding. The most effective method of bleaching polyester/cotton is sodium chlorite, which may be followed by peroxide bleaching. Chlorite bleaches the husk, but does not destroy them completely. Polyester/cotton blends may be bleached with sodium chlorite in long liquors and also by pad-steam process [Table 6.10]. The TABLE 6.10 Recipe for Bleaching Polyester/Cotton Blends with NaC102 Condition

Jig

Winch beck

Pad-steam (Dry-in-wet)

Liquor ratio

7:1-3:1

50:1-20:1

70% pick-up

NaC102 (80%), g/1

5-7

1-2

10-20

Stabiliser, (g/l)

2-4

0.5-1

-

Sodium nitrate, (g/l) Formic acid to maintain

2-3

1-2

10-15

pH to

3.5-4

3.5-4

5.5-6

Reaction temp., (~ Reaction time, (h)

80-90 1-3

80-90 1

85-90 2-4

amount of various chemicals required for bleaching depend on the liquor ratio. The fabric after bleaching is rinsed as hot as possible and an antichlorination treatment is given with sodium bisulphite. In another method, the cloth is steeped in the liquor at pH 3 to 3.5, squeezed at 100% pick-up, put in a reaction tower made of titan, passed through a heating duct so that the cloth temperature is raised to proper temperature, put in a staying chamber where the cloth is steamed and bleached. Peracetic acid can also be used for bleaching polyester/cotton blended fabrics with a solution containing 4 g/1 peracetic acid, 1 g/1 tetrasodium pyrophosphate (stabiliser) and 1 g/1 wetting agent with a liquor ratio of 5 : 1. Peracetic acid has a pH of about 1.5 and the bleaching bath solution is adjusted to pH 5.5 with the help of dilute alkali. The material is entered cold and mn for 10 min. Then the temperature is raised to 65-70~ in 15 min and bleaching is continued at this temperature till the concentration ofperacetic acid drops to 0.09 g/1. The fabric is then washed thoroughly

206


with hot and cold water. The bleaching can be performed in the kier or in the jigger. A single stage combined scouring and bleaching of polyester/cotton blended fabric can also be done for economy. There are various approaches which include : alkali treatment with detergent and peroxide hot bleach ; alkali treatment with detergent and sodium chlorite bleach ; sodium chlorite and peroxide bleach ; and peroxide cold and peroxide hot bleach.

6.16.2 Bleaching of polyester/wool blends The wool portion contained in the blend show reversion to a creamy colour and yellowing of the fabric. In general, blends containing wool and polyester fibres can be bleached with hydrogen peorxide either in acid or alkaline medium without risk of damage. In acid medium, the fabric is treated with a solution containing 30-40 ml/1H202 (35%), 2-4 g/1 organic stabiliser, 0.25 g/1 wetting agent and 0.25 g/1 detergent at pH 5.5-6 (acetic acid) for 40-60 min at 80~ or 2-2.5 h at 65~ The treated fabrics are then given warm and cold rinse. In alkaline medium, the bath comprises of H202 (35%), 30-40 ml/1 ; sodium pyrophosphate, 2-4 g/1 ; ammonia to maintain the pH between 8.5-9.0. The bath is set at 40~ and the goods are treated for 2-4 h, and rinsed well in warm and cold water. As peroxide-bleached goods tend to show reversion to a creamy colour, it is usual to follow with a treatment in reducing agent to stabilise the bleach in a bath containing 3-4 g/1 stabilised hydrosulphite and 1 g/1 synthetic detergent at 50~ for 30-40 min, rinsed and dried. Polyester/silk blends can be bleached by a similar manner to that of polyester/ wool blends.

6.16.3 Bleaching of nylon/cellulose blends Blends of nylon and cellulosic fibres may be bleached with either H202 or NaC102, using batchwise or continuous method [145,146]. H202 does not bleach nylon and normal methods of bleaching degrade nylon and cause yellowing. Blends containing 30% or less of nylon may be bleached by the continuous H202 method, and in such cases cotton will absorb the peroxide preferentially and so protect the nylon from damage. The use of protective agents which prevent undue damage to the nylon poriton of the blend is reported [ 147].


207

The goods are entered into a bath containing 2-3 volume H202, 1 g/1 sodium hydroxide flake, 0.2 g/1 peroxide stabiliser, 0.25 g/1 sequestering agent and 0.002 to 0.05 g/1 free radical suppressor at 40~

the temperature is raised to 85~ and

then the treatment continued for 1 h. The treated goods are then cooled and rinsed thoroughly. When appropriate, selected optical brighteners may be incorporated in the peroxide bleach bath. Hypochlorite does not damage nylon but it has got no bleaching action on it. Sodium chlorite causes no degradation of either cellulosic or polyamide and is a better bleaching agent than peracetic acid for cotton. For batchwise bleaching the fabric is treated with a solution containing sodium chlorite (2-5 g/l) at pH 3 to 4 at 90~ for 1 ~/2 to 2 h. This is followed by a treatment in a 2 g/1 solution of sodium carbonate at 40-50~

and finally hot and cold rinses are given in water. Pad-roll

and continuous processes are also used for bleaching polyamide/cellulose mixture.

6.16.4 Bleaching of nylon/wool blends It is difficult to bleach this blends since the method normally used for nylon degrade wool. The usual method is either to bleach the wool portion with

H202 at

low temperature [ 148] or to carry out reduction bleaching process [ 149]. Alkaline

H202bleaching always damage the polyamide fibres to some extent. Normal alkaline H202 bleaching process may be used with safety on blends containing up to 25% polyamide, but an acid bleach must be used when proportion exceeds this figure. The fabric can be bleached with a solution containing 12-15 ml/1

H202 (35~

2 g/1 tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 1 g/1 EDTA (30%) and 0.25 g/1 protective agent at 60-65~ for 45-60 min and then rinsed well in water.

6.16.5 Bleaching of acrylic/cellulosic blends If the cellulosic portion is cotton, bleaching is invariably required for this fibre. If the acrylic portion does not require bleaching, then a peroxide treatment can be done at pH 9.5. The alkaline condition should not be high as otherwise it would cause degradation of the fibre. The fabric is treated with a solution containing 7.5-10.0 g/1H202

(35%), 3 g/1 sodium silicate (79~

and 1 g/1 sodium carbonate

at 90~ for 45-60 min. After bleaching the bath is cooled slowly to 50~

rinsed

and neutralised. When acrylic fibre also requires bleaching, then mild chlorite treatment will act on both the fibres in the blend. The bath is prepared at 35~ with 1.5 g/1 sodium

208


chlorite, 2 g/1 oxalic acid, 1 g/1 tetrasodium phosphate and 1 g/1 corrosion inhibitor. The bleach bath should give a pH of about 3.5 to 4.0. The temperature of the bath is raised to 90~

over 30 min and processing continued for 30-45 rain at this

temperature. The bath is cooled slowly to 50~ and then rinsed thoroughly. An antichlor treatment is given in a bath containing sodium bisulphite (1.5 g/l) and tetrasodium phosphate (1.5 g/l) at 60~ for 20-30 min, cooled the bath and rinsed well. The temperature of drying should not exceed 80~

6.16.6 Bleaching of acrylic/wool blends Hydrogen peroxide is not suitable for acrylic fibre at highly alkaline condition and moreover acrylic fibre turns yellowish on alkaline peroxide treatment. The discolouration can be improved by after-treatment with formic acid in presence of detergent. Acrylic/wool blends can also be bleached by a reduction bleach or by combination of peroxide and reduction bleaching process. 6.16.7 Bleaching of acetate/cellulosic blends Diacetate/viscose blends have been used in dresswear, shirting and under-wear. These blends may be bleached with hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite, preferably the latter. The goods may be treated with a solution containing 5 g/1 H202 (100 vol.), 2 g/1 sodium silicate and 1 g/1 soap at 70-75~ for a minimum time of 30 rain. Bleaching can be done by treatment with a solution containing sodium hypochlorite (2-3 g/1 available chlorine) adjusted to pH 10 at room temperature for 30 min, and then the fabric is given cold treatment with 1 ml/1 HC1 and thorough rinsing. Alternatively, an acid solution is prepared with 10 ml/1 sodium hypochlorite (50~ and 2 ml/1 hydrochloric acid adjusted to pH 3. The treatment is carried out cold for 40 min, goods are well rinsed and then treated in a second bath with 3 g/1 sodium bisulphite at 40~ for 20 rain. 6.16.8 Bleaching of polyester/linen blends Polyester/long-staple fibres are used in the linen industry, where yams may be of either the "stretch broken" or "unbroken" type, but more commonly of the latter. The linen component of the blend may be of bleached or unbleached fibre and yams spun from unbleached fibre may be bleached before weaving. Most fabrics in this blend are woven on sized (singles) warps. Unmodified warp sizes are removed by enzyme treatment and non-cellulosic matter is removed by an alkaline scour.


209

Goods made from bleached yarns or fibres require only a light scour with 2 g/1 soda-ash along with 1 g/1 detergent. Goods prepared from unbleached yarns or fibre are padded with dilute caustic soda solution at 70 to 80~

batched on a roll

and allowed to rotate at this temperature for 24 h. The goods are then rinsed, scoured and bleached with hydrogen peroxide or with sodium hypochlorite. Sodium chlorite is not normally used for bleaching this blend.

6.16.9 Bleaelling of wool/viscose blends Bleaching is usually carried out by immersion of the material in a liquor containing 1-2 vol. H202 and 5 g/1 sodium silicate or sodium pyrophosphate at 30~ overnight or at 40-50~ for 4 h. The bath is adjusted to pH 8 and it is advisable to add 0.25-0.5 g/1 of a suitable sequestering agent. For treatment by the shorter time, the concentration of HzO 2 may be increased to 3 to 3.5 vols. The amount of H202, however, depends on the quality of wool or proportion of viscose in the blends.

6.16.10 Bleaching of viscose/cotton blends Viscose/cotton blends can be bleached either by batch method on jig and winch or by a continuous process using J-Box [150]. Bleaching is done on a winch with sodium hypochlorite (2 g/1 available chlorine) adjusted to pH 10-11 with sodium carbonate, for 1 h at 25~

or alternatively, with 5 g/1 sodium chlorite adjusted to

pH 4 with acetic acid for 30 min at 80~

Alternatively, the bleaching treatment

may follow with alkaline hydrogen peroxide at 85~ In the continuous method the fabric is saturated with bleach liquor consisting of H202 and potassium persulphate, passed through a J-Box, followed by short boiloff, rinsing and drying over cans with a total processing time of 15 min. The temperature in the J-Box approximates 70~ and that of wash liquor 80~

6.17 Bleaching of Cotton Weft Knitted. Fabrics Knitted fabrics can be produced from a wide range of fibres and blends, either as flat fabric or garments. Garments, ranging from outerwear (including sport and leisure wear) to hosiery, are generally weft knitted. Warp knits usually require filament yams which are 100% synthetic and do not normally require bleaching. The weft knitted fabrics produced from 100% cotton and synthetic fibre/cotton blends may be called jersey, rib or fleece depending on how the loop lie. While weft knitted fabrics are comfortable to wear, since they are light and pleasing to the

210


skin, they do have disadvantages in that they are easily deformed by mechanical stresses and wet creased than woven fabrics. Since knitting yarns are unsized and usually combed to reduce seed and 'trash content', there is normally any need for treatment prior to bleaching. The knitting lubricants which replace the size on woven fabrics are usually self scouring, but sometimes from their very volume may create problems with foam and stains in wet processing or in the knitting machine which need to be treated with solvent containing auxiliaries. The bleaching of knitted fabrics-like that of woven fabrics-should result in high whiteness, low chemical or abrasion damage, low crease formation and high absorbancy to water. Sodium hypochlorite is generally not suitable for bleaching of knitted fabrics on account of alkaline nature of the bleach process and recent restriction on adsorbable organo-helogen compound (AOX) generation. However, hypochlorite may be used at pH 11 and at temperature not exceeding 30-35~ in presence of effective wetting agent [151 ]. Then the fabric is given an antichlor treatment, the whole process taking 3-4 h. The acidic nature of sodium chlorite bleaching process make it ideal for knitted fabrics, as the natural fats and waxes of the fibre were not scoured out, enhancing the soft, voluminous handle of the goods. Alternatively, a single-stage combined scouring and bleaching can be operated using a peroxide solution containing mild alkali, a detergent and sodium silicate as stabiliser. The alkalinity of peroxide bleaching conditions may scour out the natural fats and waxes from knitted fabrics and results in harsher handle and poorer sewability. A soft fabric can be produced by treating with softener after peroxide bleaching. The combined hypo/peroxide process generally provides the highest whiteness on knitted cotton fabrics. Cotton hosiery made from dark coloured mercerized yam can be rapidly bleached by hypochlorite followed by peroxide without preliminary scour. Cotton in knitted fabrics is usually less seedy than for woven fabrics making one step scour/bleach with peroxide more readily applicable. Low tension machineries are generally suitable.


211

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44 R. Shibuya, Japanese Patent, 74136626 (1976). 45 W. Streit, K. Reineke and M. Vescia, German Patent, 3433426 A 1, 1986. 46 A. Bereck, Proc. 7th Int. Wool Res. Conf., Tokyo, Vol IV, 1985, p 152. 47 D. Dickson, Analyst, 91 (1966) 809. 48 W.N. Marmer, J. M. Cardamone, Bao Guo ping and F. Casado, Textile Chem. Color., 27 (Sept 1993) 75. 49 N. J. J. van Renburg, S. A. W. T. R. I., Technical Report No. 143, 1976. 50 N. J. J. van Renburg and S. G. Scanes, S.A.W.T.R.I. Bull. 5(3) (1971) 14. 51 P. Alexander, D. Carter and C. Earland, Biochem. J., 47 (1950) 251. 52 F. Gahr and G. Schulz, Int. Textile Bull., Dyg./Ptg./Fing., 1 (1995) 27. 53 W. S. Hickman, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 110 (1994) 170. 54 N. Steiner, AATCC Technical Conference 1993, Book of paper, pp 214-219. 55 J.K. Skelly, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 76 (1960) 469. 56 A. Agster, Melliand Textilberichte, 39 (1978) 908. 57 J. Meybeck, Teintex, 17 (1952) 71.

Bleaching of Textiles 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89

213

H. Hefti, Textile Res. J., 30 (1960) 860. R. S. Higginbotham and R. A. Leigh, J. Textile Inst., 53 (1963) 312. L. Chesner and R. A. Leigh, Textil-Rund, 20 (1965) 217. Farbworke, Hoechst A. G., B P 898677. Mathieson Alkali Works, BP 560, 995 ; 576, 9009. A. W. Nath, BP 561,192 ; 596, 193. Palestine Potash Ltd., BP 596, 192 ; 596, 193. Ecusta Paper Corpn., USP, 2, 477, 631. Solway Cie, Belgian P 364, 390; 470, 021. Solway Cie, Belgian P 365,072 ; 365,084. Mosse, Teintex, 19 (1954) 811. ICI Ltd., Technical Information, p 960. Blume, Textilveredlung, 4 (1969) 88. S. Henrikson, Ind. Pulp. Pap., 22 (1967) 22. Meybeck and Ivannow, Bull. Inst. Text. France, 39 (1953) 23. H. Hefti, Textile Res. J., 30 (1960) 867. R. H. Parkinson, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 76 (1960) 552. H. Grunow and B. Mellbin, B P 873,554. B. F. Melbin, Amer. DyestuffRep., 44 (1955) 877. B. I. Lamaborn, USP 2, 810, 717. Mathieson Alkali Works, BP 588,040. L. Chesner and G. C. Woodford, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 74 (1958) 531. E. Just, Textil Praxis, 19 (1964) 1015. P. W~aYster, Textil Praxis, 47 (1992) 960. G. R~sch, Textil Technik, 10 (1960) 191. L. Neino, K. Baczynka and H. Sihtota, Finish Pulp and Paper Research Inst., Helisinki, Pub. No. 342, 1965. M. Pasch et al., Fette Wachse, 1990, p 77. R. Klebber, Melliand Textilberichte, 75 (1994) 746. G. Becker, Tenside Surfactants, Deterg., 13 (1976) 116. W. Pritzkowett alt, J. prakt. Chem., 334 (1992) 293. E. Redling, Diplomerbeit der FH Reuttingen, 1992. J. W. Rucker, Textile Chem. Color., 21 (5) (1989) 19.

214 90 91 92 93 94

Bleaching of Textiles N. Steiner, Textile Chem. T., 27 (Aug 1995) 29. R. Klebber, Melliand Textilber., 74 (1993) 395. V. Olip, Melliand Textilber., 73 (1992) 819. G.F. Henderson, Sources and Resources, 3 (1978) 29. M. Weiss, Amer. DyestuffRep., (Aug/Sept 1978) 3.

95 J. Gace'/a, J. Ceggara and M. Carro, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 107 (1991) 138. 96 J. Ceggara, J. Gacce~n, M. Carro and M. Pepld, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 104 (1988) 273. 97 98 99 100 101

J. Gace~a et al., J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 109 (1993) 301. J. Gace~a, J. Cegarra and M. Carro, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 105 (1989) 438. J. Gace'n, J. Cegarra and M. Carro, Bull. Sci. ITE, 15 (58) (1986) 33. L. A. Holt and B. Milligan, J. Textile Inst., 71 (2) (1980) 117. J. Gace~a, J. Ceggara and D. Cayuel, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 110 (1994) 277.

102 103 104 105 106

D. Melle~)', M. R. Julidand P. Erre, Melliand Textilber., 75 (1994) 402. H. F. Launer, Textile Res. J., 41 (1971) 311. H. F. Launer, Textile Res. J., 41 (1971) 211. C. Earland, J.C.P. Stell and A. Wiseman, J. Textile Inst., (1960) T 817. M. Anstoetz, Diplomebeit Fachhochschule Niederrhein M~ncheng!adbach (1983). R. R. Mukherjee and T. Radhakrishnan, Textile Prog., 4 (4) (1972) 33. B. Sikdar, D. Adhikari and N. N. Das, Indian J. Textile Res., 12 (1987) 93. S. R. Tendulkar and A. K. Mandavwalla, Textile Dyer Print., (1991) 27. V. I. Lebedeva, Technol. Text. Industr., USSR, No. 1 (1969). V.I. Lebedeva, Technol. Tekstil. Prom., 68 (1) (1969) 113. S. K. Mazumder, Jute Chronicle, 5 (2) (1970) 44. T. K. Guha Ray, S. Chatterjee, D. Adhikari and A. K. Mukherjee, J. Textile Inst., 79 (1988) 108. B. Sikhdar, D. Adhikari and N. N. Das, Ind. J. Textile Res., 12 (1987) 93. P.B. Sarkar and H. Chatterjee, Sci. and Culture, 10 (1945) 340. G. M. Nabar, V. A. Shenai and M. R. Kaulgud, Ind. J. Tech., 3 (1965) 130. Ugine Kahlmann, BP., 1,266, 896 (France, 8 March, 1968).

107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117

118 M. H. Rahman and M. M. Rahman, Pakistan J. Sci., Industr. Res., 13 (1970) 303.


215

119 P. Mazumdar, S. Sanyal, B. Dasgupta, S. C. Shaw and T. K. Ghosh, Ind. J. Fibre & Text. Res., 19 (1994) 286. 120 Y. Cai and S. K. David, Textile Res. J. 67 (6) (1997) 459. 121 R.R. Mukherjee and T. Radhakrishnan, Text. Prog., 4(1972) 54. 122 M. Lewin, TAPPI, 41 (1958) 8. 123 S.N. Pandey, S. N. Chattopadhay, N. C. Pan and A. Dey, Textile Asia (Feb 1994) 59. 124 Nujute Inc., USP 3,472, 609 (8 July, 1968). 125 Reeves Brothers Inc., BP 3,384, 444 (29 July, 1964). 126 National Industrial Del Azote, BP. Appl. No. 40604/67 (France, 6 Sept 1966). 127 Indian Jute Ind. Res. Assocn., BP 1,221,527 (21 Dec 1967). 128 T. Nishad, Mokuzai Gakaaislu, 35 (1989) 649. 129 M. G. Paice, L. Jurasek, Ho. C. Bourbon nais R. and F. Archibald, TAPP172 (1989) 217. 130 J. Pallinen, J. Abuhassan, T. W. Jayee and H. M. Chang, J. Biotechnol., 10 (1989) 161. 131 A. Kantelinen, Kemkeni, 15 (1988) 228. 132 A. K. Kundu, B. S. Ghosh, S. K. Chakraborty and B. L. Ghosh, Textile Res. J., 61 (12)(1991) 720. 133 T.K. Guha Ray, A. K. Mukhopadhay and A. K. Mukherjee, Textile Res. J., 54 (1984) 874. 134 A.B. Sengupta and T. Radhakrishnan, "New Ways to Produce Textiles" (ed. by P. W. Harrison), The Text. Inst., Manchester, 1972, pp 112. 135 Boute, Bull. Int. Text. France, No. 24 (July-Aug 1970) 637. 136 K. H. Ruiker, Melliand Textilber., 51 (1970) 1085. 137 Van Lancker, Industrie Textil Balge, 13 (5) (1972) 41. 138 Lambrinou, Melliand Textilber., 52 (1971) 1184. 13 9 W. Schulz, Textil Praxis, 45 (1990) 40. 140 K. Poklewska, Prace. Inst. Prezem. Wolk., 14 (1968) 223. 141 E. Bonte, Bull. Inst. Text. France, 24 (1970) 637. 142 S. Steiner. AATCC-Technical Conf., 1993, Book of Papers, 214. 143 V. I. Lebedeva, Tech. of Textile Industry, USSR (English version) 1 (1969) 117.

216


144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151

R. R. Mukherjee and T. Radhakrishnan, Textile Prog., 4(4) (1972) 56. K. Kimer, Textil Praxis, 26 (1971) 621. Bode and Guth, Melliand Textilber., 54 (1973) 391. Tourdot, Teintex, 37 (Feb 1972) 67. Du Pont, Bulletin No. 259. Schmidt, Intemat. Text. Bull. No. 4 (1972) 371. B. K. Easton, Amer. DyestuffRep., 51 (14) (1962) 502. P. Gr5"nig, Deutsch. Faerber-Kalender, 80 (1976) 48.

Chapter 7 BLEACHING AND WASHING EQUIPMENT 7.1 Introduction Textiles can be bleached and washed in loose form, yarn form and fabric (woven and knitted) form. Loose stock can be bleached by steeping method in a suitable vessel. Yarns and tops are bleached using skiens or package machines. Knit goods are commonly scoured and bleached in comparatively small batches in winch and jet machines [ 1,2]. However, continuous bleaching ranges for cotton knit goods are available. Rotary machines can be used for bleaching of hosiery fabrics. Woven fabrics can be bleached in three different ways, such as batch process (kiers), semicontinuous process and continuous process. In the semi-continuous process, padbatch and pad-roll systems and in continuous process, rope or open-width J-Boxes are popular. Over the past few years, there have been new open-width continuous machineries designed, developed and installed in the modern bleach house and have made efficient impression in the industry. " 7.2 Batch Bleaching Process Machineries In the earlier days bleaching of woven piece goods was usually carried out by piling the material into glazed brick or tile lined tanks containing hypochlorite solutions. The usual practice is to turn the load into an adjacent second tank, so that the end which entered first is also drawn out first. The bin or pits have false bottom which allows drainage of bleaching solution. The cloth is allowed to dwell there until the bleaching is complete. Bleaching of cotton, linen, rayon, man-made fibres etc. in the form of woven or knitted fabrics, hanked yarns and loose stock with appropriate bleaching agents can be carried out in pack bleaching ranges (Fig. 7-1) or in kiers. The bleaching tanks can be fully enclosed or open type equipped with automatic temperature control and the entire process can be programmed control. The capacity of the machine may be 200-2000 kg goods. There is an arrangement of automatic plaiter to pile the fabric ropes (Fig. 7-2). This ensures even twistless piling of fabric ropes at all speeds, regardless of fabric weight. Rail is mounted to serve several tanks seperately. After the bleaching solution is added sufficient water is added to ensure that the load is completely immersed. The temperature is raised to the required tempera-

218

Bleaching and Washing Equipment

Figure 7-1. Pack bleaching ranges (Courtesy of Friedrichsfeld, Germany).

Figure 7-2. Automatic rope piler for circular tanks.

ture, the bleach liquor is sprayed from the top and the liquor percolates through the batch continuously. In the liquor circulating system only 2 h may be necessary, but longer time is required for open kier type of machineries. After bleaching, the goods may be washed in the same machine itself, preferably with warm water, then put through a rope washer. Raw stocks and yams in packages or in beams can be bleached only by the liquor circulating machines. Cotton yarn in the form of hank can be bleached as a rope of cloth using pressure kiers, washing machines and hypochlorite bleaching pits. But the modem tendency is to bleach in a more efficient manner in dyeing machines in the form of beams (Fig. 7-3) and packages (Fig. 7-4). This machine

Figure 7-3. Universal HT dyeing and bleaching machine (Courtesy of Argelich, Teames & C.A., Spa~n).

Figure 7-4. Rapid low liquor ratio package dyeing and bleaching machine [3].


219

(Fig. 7-3) is suitable for dyeing and bleaching of loose stock and yarn as well as of warp beams, tops and carded sliver. All known natural and synthetic fibres can be treated. The cylindrical, vertical autoclave is lifted with a central, conical support for the material carrier, as well as with a drain valve. The cover is lifted with a rapid lock. Counterweight springs assist easy opening and closing of the lid. The main line of development in package dyeing machines (Fig. 7-4) has been the ability to dye and bleach at high temperature and pressure with greatly improved liquor flow. The alkali scour and hypochlorite process is not particularly suitable for yam in such forms. A single stage peroxide bleaching and for full white double peroxide bleach may be required. In the past it has been and still is common practice to use mainly winches or jet machines for preparatory of both woven and knitted fabrics in tubular form. Starting with the winch beck, machineries for pre-treatment processes have passed through several stages of development (jig, beam, jet, overflow), some paralleled in washing machines. The current trends towards smaller series have led to a comeback of the conventional systems using jigger machines (Fig. 7-5) for textile processing.

Figure 7-5. Automatic jigger offering maximum automation and enhanced quality (Courtesy ofMezzera-Kleinewefers S.p.A., Italy). Now-a-days, old obsolete hydraulic jiggers are replaced by new models capable of working with constant fabric tension and adjustment ranging from 1 and 500 Nw/ m with a maximum working speed up to 150 m/min. Where batched size is around 6000 m, jumbo jiggers and pressurised jumbo jiggers [Fig. 7-6(b)] can be used for bleaching in open-width form. In non-pressurised jumbo jiggers [Fig. 7-6(a)] prepa-

220


Figure 7-7. Winch machine. ric runs through in 30 sec as against the 3-4 min otherwise required, and also penetration is excellent. The fabric is propelled by a winch in conjunction with bath circulation. Maximum liquor ratio is 10 : 1. Such batch processes are made continuous with the development of'spiral' winches and 'spiral' jets [4-6]. Scouring and bleaching performance has been considerably improved with the novel rope washing machine (Fig 7-8), in which tubular fabric is moved through the machine


221

Figure 7-8. Novel counterflow rope treatment machine (Courtesy ofMCS, S.p.A., Italy). in a sprial fashion. The new ranges are primarily intended for prewashing, bleaching and afterwashing of knitted and woven fabrics in rope form. They can comprise 6 or 12 washing sections connected in series, a guide roller, a rotary pulsator fitted with several individual milling rollers, a heat recovery unit and a fabric feed and delivery system in a stainless steel housing. The washing sections each have an inlet and outlet and are interconnected by a flexible tube round the rotary pulsator. The fabric is drawn into the machine by means of a transport roller and fed to the individual washing sections. The latter are connected so that fresh water can be supplied to the entire machine on a counterflow principle. There is provision of metering the chemicals and the necessary textile chemicals can be added in controlled quantities and the correct processing temperature can be maintained for the individual washing sections. The process control technology stores all machine and process cycle data and makes overriding operating data logging units accessible via profibus. Another one is spiral jet bleaching unit in which the woven and knitted fabrics can be pre-treated as shown in Fig. 7-9. In this machine, the fabric is moved in a spiral, in rope form, through the tube, using jets that lifted the fabric out of one compartment and deposited in the next [7-9]. A comparison of typical bleaching recipes of cotton fabric for batch bleaching in different equipment with hydrogen peroxide is summerised in Table 7.1. When making-up a bleaching bath, naturally the quality of cotton, degree of pre-treatment, liquor ratio, equipment used and temperature must all be taken into account.

222


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Jet Channel Heat exchanger By-pass Circulation pump Side tank Control panel Loading winch Rolls Doors Unloading winch Drive

Figure 7-9. Spiral jet bleaching unit (Courtesy ofK~ster KBR). 7.3 Semi-Continuous Bleaching Process Machineries Both peroxide and sodium chlorite can be used for bleaching of cotton and polyester/cotton goods by semi-continuous open-width form. In the pad-batch (or pad-stack) process the padded goods are batched and then covered with plastic sheet to prevent evaporation of bleaching agent or gas and then allowed to lie for 24 h. In the pad-roll process (Fig. 7-10), the goods after padding with bleaching solution are then heated in a steam chest and rolled-up in a mobile batch chamber for 4-12 h. The chamber can be sealed so that no gas can evolve during bleaching.


223

TABLE 7.1 Comparison of Bleaching Recipes for Various Batch Processes Form of material Machine used

Fibre, Stock Circulating

Yarn Fabric Package Kier

machine

m/c

8:1

10:1

3-4

5-10

0.37-0.5

0.5-1

o.w.f., %

3.5

o.w.s., %

0.44

o.w.f., % o.w.s., %

L:m

Fabric Knitted fabric Hosiery Jig Beck Rotary

6:1

1:1

6.6:1

20:1

0.5-1.5 1.17-2.34

3.5

1.4-2.2

0.8-0.25

-do-

0.53

0.7-1.1

4.0

1-3

0.84-1.33

-

1.8

0.4

0.17-0.5

-do-

-

0.9

1.0

1.0

-

-

-

0.125

0.1

-

-

-

-

-

0.25

-

-

o.w.f., %

-

0.5

0.06

0.04

3.0

o.w.s., %

-

0.5

0.01

-do-

0.45

Amount of H202 (35%) (o.w.f.), % On weight of solution (o.w.s.), % Sodium silicate

Sodium carbonate

Trisodium phosphate (o.w.f.), % Sodium hydroxide

)

Saturator

Pre-Heater

Caravan

Figure 7-10. Pad-roll range. Generally, the goods in open-width form are padded (100% expression) with either 4.3% H20 2 (35%) along with usual chemicals or with sodium chlorite (10 g/l) containing soda-ash (1 g/l) and wetting agent (3 g/l). It is not essential to use acid chlorite solutions in this process where effective liquor ratio is low and thus neutral

224


chlorite solutions are suitable. However, for a longer bleaching time, a small amount of soda-ash is useful to maintain the stability of the bath. The roll is rotated gently during its dwell period. The procedure is followed by a hot wash with 1% soda-ash in the case of H202 and antichlor treatment with bisulphite in the case of sodium chlorite and then soaping the goods in a bath at about 80~ The pad-jig process is also used for the bleaching of textiles. These systems are simple to operate but have some disadvantages like impairment of the levelness ofpre-treatment due to variation in dwell time and temperature from batch to batch. However, machineries with easy and automatic batching and unbatching systems are developed with special features for the various pre-treatment and bleaching plant.

7.4 Continuous Bleaching by J-Box Systems The main purpose of the continuous bleaching system, whether in the rope form or in open-width form, is to reduce the time of bleaching and the cost of labour involved. Continuous bleaching in J-Box in rope form was started in the late in 1930s with the introduction of hydrogen peroxide [10, 11] and plant scale equipment had been built and a suitable procedure was developed [ 12]. In 1942, the unit used in the bleach range was called a J-Piler [13], but by 1952 the name had become J-Box and bleacher' s dream of one-step process had finally come true [ 14]. The heart of the process is the J-Box storage unit and the shape is like the English letter 'J'. In rope bleaching the fabric is pulled together to form a somewhat circular mass, which is loose enough for penetration and resembles a large rope ; in open-width form the fabric is under tension and is flat and smooth. J-Boxes, whether open (Becco type) or closed (Du Pont type) can both be used for pre-treatment. In the Becco type (Fig. 7-11), the cloth is piled cold into the top and is heated as it passes down through the box by steam and passed through the perforated plates around the box, just below the top of the pile. Two heating positions are provided, the lower one for use when the box is being filled. In the Du Pont type of J-Box units (Fig. 7-12), the fabric passes through the long entering box which enables the fabric rope to reach the desired temperature (98~

before piling down into the top

of the J-Box itself. The internal surface of the entire J-Box is ground very smooth to avoid any friction on the moving cloth. The material of construction of J-Box should be high quality stainless steel for peroxide treatment, fibre glass reinforcement plastic for hypochlorite treatment, stainless steel with titanium component


225

Figure 7-13. Operating sequence of a three-stage rope range. wash) rope range sequence in a continuous J-Boxes bleaching plant. The energy conservation is a major factor in multi-stage processing and hence considerable importance has been given to the development of modified routes, first by combining scouring with desizing or bleaching. Fig. 7-14 shows the Du Pont two-stage (singe --~ desize --~ scour & bleach ~ wash) bleaching range. In this range the cloth in rope form is saturated with 2.5-4% caustic soda solution at 30~ and squeezed to 100% pick-up. The cloth is then rapidly heated to 100~ and piled in J-Box for about 1 h. The goods are then saturated with 0.5-1 volume peroxide solution ofpH 10.6 to 10.8 in presence of sodium silicate (1-1.6%). The fabric after squeezing is

226


Figure 7-14. Du Pont continuous two-stage bleaching range [ 16]. once again heated to 100~ in the heater tube and stored for 1 h in J-Box. Goods containing dyed yarn are heated at slightly lower temperature. Finally, the goods are washed in a rope washer. Bleaching with hypochlorite can also be done using JBox system with saturator. The fabric after saturation with hypochlorite solution containing 0.75 g/1 non-ionic wetting agent and 0.25 g/1 of 15% chemic at room temperature are piled into J-Box for 15-40 min at 60-100~ and then washed. The two-stage plant with a speed of about 100 yds/min requires treatment of about 2 h and also proper time and pH is required to be maintained to control the rate of reaction which may damage the cloth. Thus, in one-stage continuous rope bleaching ranges (Fig. 7-15), one more stage is eliminated and the goods are caustic treated

Figure 7-15. One-stage continuous rope bleaching range using J-Box (Courtesy ofFriedrichsfeld GmbH, Germany). and bleached in one bath. The sodium chlorite method is often the only feasible


227

procedure for bleaching blends of cotton and synthetic fibres by one stage system. The wetting and rinsing unit (1) is made up of three compartments, each with its own squeezing unit. Before entering the next stage the goods are deposited on a chute (2) coated with PTFE in the impregnating machine (3), liquor uptake is kept constant at about 30% by means of squeeze rollers. The impregnating liquor is circulated and filtered continuously, and the concentration of chemicals is measured and topped up automatically (4). In the heating up and shrinkage unit (5) the goods are heated to 98~ by spraying with saturated steam and piled into the J-Box (6). After exiting from the J-Box, the goods are conveyed loosely and without creasing to a water and neutralising bath by a winch forming part of the washing and neutralising section (7). The rope is squeezed only when cooled and then deposited in another intermediate store (8). The following section of the range is used to apply fluorescent whitening agents and all compartments are fitted with their own squeeze units. On leaving the range, the rope is piled into a trolley (10) for loading into a centrifuge. The concentrations of bleaching bath are given in Table 7.2. If hydrogen peroxide is used as a bleaching agent, the fabric is saturated with a TABLE 7.2 Recipe for One-Stage Bleaching with Sodium Chlorite Additives Sodium chlorite (80%), g/1 Bleaching auxiliary, g/1 pH (with formic acid) J-Box dwell period, min

Cotton Polynosic/Cotton 12-20 12-15 5 5 3.8 3.8 90-105 60

Polyester/Cotton 10-12 5 4.0 60

solution containing H202, wetting agent, sodium silicate, caustic soda, softeners and whitening agents. The process, operated by two men at up to 200 yds/min can turn out about 10,000 yds of fabric an hour. In the case of knitted goods, peroxide bleaching on either FMC wet bottom J-Box (Fig. 7-16) or on the Gaston County DuBec system (Fig. 7-17) are suitable. Such ranges (Fig 7-16) consist of an unwind cradle, a sewing scray, a dry storage J-Box, holding about 900 kg of tubular fabric, a saturator, a bleach J-Box and a washer. The FMC system has a wet bottom created by having a 540 litre heel tank of liquor, which is made by dropping 270 litre of the saturator liquor to it, making

228


Figure 7-17. The Gaston County DuBec system. up to 540 litre with water and circulating the liquor by means of pump inside the JBox. In contrast, in the DuBec system (Fig. 7-17), the bleaching J-Box has a PTFE lining and the washer is a spiral rope washer. This dry storage J-Box is run 20% faster than the wet J-Box and any variation in load in the system is accomodated


229

with compensating or balanced scrays. The DuBec range combines the best features of two well-known processes : the Du Pont single stage method and the Becco Wet heel J-Box method. Capacity of the DuBec's J-Box is 3,000 pounds. Range speeds from 50 to 150 yds/min with a production averages of about 2000 lbs/h. The J-Box recipes for the two types are compared in Table 7.3. Kolmer describes TABLE 7.3 J-Box Recipes (100% Pick-up, Steam 90 Minutes at 90~ Chemical

FMC

Du Pont

Wetting agent (g/l)

5

5

DTPA, 40% (g/l)

1

1

10-20 7-10

10-20 4-7

45

45

Sodium silicate, 79~

(g/l)

Sodium hydroxide, 100% (g/l) H202, 35% (ml/1)

a development of the Galaxy which uses J-Boxes for storage and washes the fabric as a flattened" open-width' tube. Each section of the washer (the Tubolavar) consists of a small J-Box in which the flattened tubes are spray washed. On emerging from the J-Box the tube is inflated, to alter the crease location, and nipped, before going into the next section. The follwing are the advantages and disadvantages of continuous rope bleaching in J-Box :Advantages :

i) J-Box offers economy in space, time, water, steam, and chemicals. ii) Material to liquor ratio is 1:1. Minimum electrical power is required with advantage of variable speed. iii) Uniform and reproducible absorbancy with good whiteness of the goods is obtained. iv) Minimum handling damage with less loss of tensile strength is observed. v)

Fabrics of different width, weight and densities can be run through the plant without alteration or adjustment, except for speed and dwell time at each stage of the process.

Disadvantages :

i)

J-Box system is economical only if the production target is big enough to

230

Bleaching and Washing Equipment feed the J-plant by about 2 lacs linear meter per day. However, smaller units have also been developed for handling 2 to 3 tons of cloth per day.

ii)

Pin holes-catalytic action of iron coming from steam pipes is observed sometimes on the bleached fabric.

iii) Some silicates from the wet cloth containing bleaching solution may be deposited on the heated walls of the J-Box. The cloth sliding down the J-Box rubs against these silicate scales that lead to abrasion marks which shows up in subsequent dyeing. iv) Due to great weight of the cloth, the lower portion of the fabric is subjected to great pressure, which may be up to 2 tons in larger J-Boxes. This may lead to severe rope marks in certain compact and heavier varieties of cloth. Continuous treatments in rope form are also likely to cause lengthwise crease marks.

7.5 Continuous Open-Width Bleaching Equipment Some fabrics such as heavy drill, corded fabrics, satins and other sensitive weaves are liable to be damaged if they are bleached in rope form. Creaseless running and low cloth tension are also important factors for blends with synthetics. These necessitated the development of new types of open-width bleaching machineries for fabrics. Generally, a continuous open-width bleaching range consists of 2 to 3 units with maximum speed of 100 to 150 m/min and reaction time of about 2-7 min per treatment unit. Different types of steamers can be combined in various ways to form a large number of different ranges, to cater for a broad spectrum of requirements in terms of productivity, fabric qualities and subsequent treatment [ 17,18]. It is difficult to explain various fabric paths in different types of steamers and steaming operations, however Table 7.4 mentions some of them. For chemical pre-treatment of woven cotton and polyester/cotton blended fabrics Benninger has developed the "Ben Bleach system" for desizing, scouring and bleaching in one operation i.e, "Ben-Injecta" for desizing, "Ben-Impacta" for impregnation, "Ben-steam" for steaming and "Ben-Extracta" for washing. Following desizing in the "Ben-Injecta/Ben-Extracta" section, the fabric is saturated and loaded with bleaching solutions in the "Ben-Impacta" for high degree of penetration and high fabric -liquor interchange. Ben-Impacta (Fig. 7-18) is in its geometry like an upside down Injecta. The fabric passes through two long narrow slots, in


231

TABLE 7.4 Different Open-Width Continuous Bleaching Steamers [ 19] Manufacturer Artos

Name Continuous open-width steaming machines with ARTOX "Rapid Relax" U-box

Features (a) Capacity-400 kg/m of fabric width. (b) Running speed up to 100m/min.

Air Industry

Roll-a-Belt combination steamer

(a) Tight-strand section-30 m. (b) Conveyer capacity- 100 kg of fabric per meter of width.

Brugmann

Conveyer steamer

Capacity-3000 m.

Type DS combination steamer

(a) Tight-strand section 50,100

Estafette Benninger

or 150m. (b) Roller-bed-Minimum 7 rain dwell at up to 150 m/min. Goller

Conveyer steamer

(a) Capacity-300 to 400 m fabric per meter of conveyer.

Kleinewefer

Combi-steamer box

(b) A range of conveyer length is available. (a) Tight-strand section 40 or 80m. (b) Roller-bed-400 to 600 kg of fabric per meter of fabric width. (c) Reaction time- 10 to 15 min.

Mather & Platt Vaporloc Roller-bed pressure steamer

(a) Dwell t i m e - 2 to 3 min at 100 m/min. (b) Pressure- up to 30 p.s.i. (c) Temperature - up to 134~

which the impregnating liquor circulates. Impregnation at 40~ is normal with perox-

232


Figure 7-18. Impregnating unit (Ben-Impacta) for pre-treatment (Courtesy ofBenninger AG). ide, but with good stabiliser the temperature can be raised even up to 60~

The

advantages of this type of impregnating unit are : small liquor volume, intensive fabric-liquor interchange over a long reaction zone, variable liquor application, low consumption of chemicals, even saturation and loading, small space requirement, no streakiness or creases and self- regulation of liquor concentration. Monitering of the liquor concentration in the impregnation unit is nonessential, except at material changeover. 7.5.1 Steamers without plaited storage Figures 7-19 to 7-23 show the various fabric paths in continuous open-width bleaching equipment with steamer systems based on positive fabric guidence without plaited storage. The main features of this system are : very much suitable for crease susceptible fabric, fair degree of whiteness, fabric with good absorbancy, less chances of fabric degradation and fair mote removal. 7.5.2 Conveyer steamer without pre-steeping zone Conveyer steamer was first designed by Mathieson Alkali Corporation in USA [20]. Figs. 7-24 to 7-28 show the line diagrams of such conveyer steamer systems based on plaited fabric storage without pre-steeping zone. During the early 60s steamers were developed to treat the cloth in open-width form for very short steaming time (90-120 secs) at 120-130~ under pressure for continuous scouring


Fig. 7-21

Fig. 7-22

233

Fig. 7-23

Figures 7-19 to 7-23. Steamers without plaited storage. Figure 7-19. Babcock KG ; Figure 7-20. Benninger AG ; Figure 7-21. Klieinewefers GmbH ; Figure 7-22. E. Kusters ; Figure 7-23. C,mez S.p.A. and peroxide bleaching [21]. The main difference between the Kleinewefers (Pressurlok) and Mather & Platt (Vaporloc) systems is the means of fabric transport. Klienewefers uses a tight-strand design while Mather & Platt uses a roller-bed system. The latter allow greater flexibility in running speed [22]. The rollers are positively driven which pushes the fabric forward. The time for storage varies from 7 to 15 min or more. The entire set of rollers is placed in a steaming chamber. The fabric content is about 6000 m at a production speed of about 100 m/rain. The fabric is sensitive to creasing owing to the tightly compressed cloth piles within the steamer. Tight-strand steamers with a reaction time of 1 to 2 rain and without any plaiting or batching avoid above difficulties. Howerer, these units are not suitable for fabric containing seed husks which are, even otherwise difficult to remove [23]. In the multilayer conveyer steamer (Fig. 7-29) the cloth is bleached by

234


Figures 7-24 to 7-28. Steamers with plaited fabric storage without pre-steeping zone. Figure 7-24. Babcock KG ; Figure 7-25. Sir James Farmer Norton ; Figure 7-26. Kleinewefers GmbH ; Figure 7-27. Mather & Platt Ltd ; Figure 7-28. K. Menzel. impregnating with peroxide solution, and then drawn into a steamer where it is plaited on to a slowly moving conveyer by the action of steam jets. The time of steaming can be varied by altering the speed of the conveyer. Speeds of 60 to 100 yds/min are claimed. The fabric is then withdrawn from the conveyer at the exit end of the steamer and washed in an open soaping range. 7.5.3 Conveyer steamer with pre-steeping zone The various fabric paths in continuous open-width bleaching equipment with a conveyer system based on plaited fabric storage with pre-steeping zone are outlined in Figs. 7-30 to 7-33. The salient features of this system are : not much suit-


Fig. 7-32

235

Fig. 7-33

Figures 7-30 to 7-33. Conveyer steamers with pre-steeping zone. Figure 7-30. Babcock KG ; Figure 7-31. Sir James Farmer Norton; Figure 7-32. Kleinewefers GmbH ; Figure 7-33. Mather & Platt Ltd.

236


able for crease sensitive fabrics, fair degree of whiteness, better absorbancy, low DP values and fair seed husk removal. Such steamers also have tight-strand section of 40-80 m with a roller-bed of about 400-600 kg of fabric per meter of fabric width with a reaction time of 10 to 15 minutes. 7.5.4 P r e s s u r e l e s s or c o m b i - s t e a m e r s

The combi-steamers are associated with horizontally laid out positively driven roller-bed and a heating-up and reaction zone which is judiciously combined. The tight-strand fabric transport has the object of ensuring uniform swelling of cellulosic fibres. Here the fabric is subjected to lengthwise tension and the rollers simultaneously exert an ironing effect which levels out internal tension within the fabric during the treatment. The plaiting down system on the conveyer belt or roller-bed offers flexibility as far as the reaction times are concerned, and allows production speeds up to 150 m/min. Some typical combination steamers are shown in Figs. 7-34 to 7-37. One-step continuous bleaching range with maximum impregna-

Figure 7-35. Farmer Norton combination steamer.


237

Figure 7-38. One-step continuous bleaching range using combi-steamer (Courtesy ofExclusivas TEPA S.A.). mum impregnation (1) is a combination of spraying and vacuum extraction by

238


which the fabric attains a previous residual moisture of 35-55%. The fabric is then passed through Pad-Steam bleaching steamer," combi" type (2) with upper fabric passage between rollers and lower roller-bed for long batching. The washing units (3) at the end of the steamer completes the range. In all types of combi-steamers the fabric enters through an air-lock which is followed by heating-up zone at 100~ for about 15-20 min. From the extreme end of the steamer the fabric is carefully led out of the machine through the delivery airlock. The tight-strand steamer section of the combi-steamer is assembled on a modular principle. Each module generally has a fabric content of 50 meters. The problem of crease marking is also eliminated in all types of fabrics.

7.5.5 Continuous submerged bleaching system The continuous submerged bleaching process is also known under the designation PKS (peroxide continuous rapid bleach) process [24]. The horizontal storage chamber and the continuous PKS range are shown in Figs. 7-39 and 7-40 respec-

Figure 7-40. Continuous, submerged, open-width PKS range. tively. Ahead of the store (Fig. 7-39) is an impregnating padder to apply various

239


liquors required. After padding, the fabric is run over a guide roller into the entry slot and passes through a hot aqueous bleach liquor which allows bleaching for 1520 min at 95-98~ The liquor which is continuously circulating and overflowing in the pre-chamber, sweeps the fabric gently and without tension into the horizontal storage chamber, which is closed at top and bottom by a special conveyer grid that is driven by means of cam-shaft. At each revolution of the shaft the fabric, which is plaited down in folds, advances a given distance. This conveyer grid is fitted above and below the storage chamber to enable all kinds of goods to be treated. Part of the circulated liquor is fed to the goods running out so as to prevent creases owing to over-rapid cooling in the plaited state. Because the dwell occurs under the bleach liquor surface, the process is also referred to as "under liquor bleach". Bayer followed their original reports with others [25-28]. A recipe for reservior is given in Table 7.5 and the economy of the process is reviewed [29]. TABLE 7.5 PKS Bleaching Recipes from Bayer and Menzel [30] Chemical Organic stabiliser (g/l) Sodium silicate, 79~

(g/l)

Wetting agent (g/l) Detergent (g/l) Sodium hydroxide (solid, g/l) H202, 35% (ml/1) Minimum dwell time (min) Temperature (~

Bayer 6

Menzel 5

7

6

-

1

2 4 20 10-15

1 4 10-17 20-40

95

85

The fabric leaves the store via a regulator and a pair of squeeze rollers, then runs to a wash unit and bleaching can be made into a continuous process (Fig. 7-40). The use of tower washing units, which work according to a pure counter current principle can save water during washing. K~a'sters [28] additionally recommended a steaming stage for the fabric emerging from the reservior, before washing and drying. In 1986, Heetjans [31] and Witte [32] announced the entry of Thies into the PKS market. It is claimed to produce 400-500 kg/h at a running speed of 40 m/min. This machine is very good for the bleaching of all types of woven and knitted

240


fabrics of natural and synthetic fibres and their blends, as well as for the bleaching of coloured woven goods as very little tension is applied. Advantages claimed for this process are 9minimum chemical damage, short bleaching time at an average liquor ratio of 15 91, low machinery costs and good shrinkage values. The main disadvantage is the bleaching chemical cost.

7.6 Washing Equipment Washing is called for at all stages of textile processing, in pre-treatment, after dyeing and printing, after resin finishing etc. The aim is to remove impurities, size, softening agents, lye, degradation product, residues of auxiliaries, unfixed dye, thickening agents used in printing etc. All these substances must be water soluble or, with the aid of added chemicals, emulsifiable. Fig. 7-41 shows the situation

Figure 7-41. Situation before and after washing [32]. A - Actual state ; B - Desired state ; 1 - Liquor, 2 - Fabric, 3 - Extraneous matter. before and after washing. In general the washing process can be divided into three phases 9loosening of extraneous matter, transfer of extraneous matter and removal of extraneous matter. In the first phase the extraneous matter must swell and loosen as quickly as possible. In the second phase the matter is transported by diffusion to the layer of liquor flowing next to the surface of the textiles. In the third phase the extraneous matter is carried away by the flow of the washing liquor and the movement of the goods. In actual practice all the three phases are found to overlap. Washing is characterised by maximum efficiency combined with significant sav-


241

ings in water, electricity, heat and chemicals. The efficiency of washing action is promoted by mechanical movement, liquor flowing counter to the run of the goods, efficient drives and controls, suitable fabric guides etc. Taking all factors into consideration, the best average consumption for modem machines is of the order of about 4-6 kg water/kg goods. The fabric can be washed in rope and open-width form. Pot eyes, made of porcelain or stainless steel, are used for drawing the fabric in the rope form from one step to the other. Open-width washing gives more uniform results than does the rope form. Furthermore, delicate fabric and texturised woven and knitted fabrics need a very soft treatment during scouring and washing. Both the form, that is the rope and open-width washing can be done in batchwise or continuous fashion. Manufacturers all over the world have marketed and established their rope and open-width washing machineries and it is difficult to describe all of them, however, a few of them designed on different principles are described.

7.6.1 Rope washing machines The line diagram of tight rope washing machine is given in Fig. 7-42. The machine

Figure 7-42. Tight rope washing machine.

242


consists of two cast iron side frames and a pair of heavy and wide squeezing bowls (E). The bowl is driven positively while the upper one rotates by frictional grippage. Two ropes of cloth are generally washed at a time. One rope (J) enters through a pot eye (I), passes into the nip of the squeezing bowls (E), enters the water in the trough (A), passes under the trough guide rollers (B) and between the pegs (D) and then passes into the nip again. Pressure is applied by simple lever (F) and weight (G). H is the handwheel, L is fulcrum, M is internally threaded block and N is threaded bar. The passage of both the ropes through the machine continues in a spiral fashion to the centre where both the ropes finally leave the machine. The tank usually receives fresh water (K). The out put of the machine is about 250 to 350 m/ min. Due to considerable tension on the fabric, this type of machine is utilised in the case of medium or heavy fabrics. In the slack rope washing machine (Fig. 7-43), the fabric rope is allowed to drop

Figure 7-43. Slack rope washing machine. down the machine tank and is maintained there for a certain amount of time in a relaxed form. The fabric rope (K) enters the pot eye (I), passes between the squeezing bowls (E), over the winch (F) and then into the deep trough (A) with a sloping base down which the cloth falls in a slack and slightly plaited state. The fabric then passes under a wooden guide roller (B), then upward between the pegs (D). A peg


243

rail (C) is fitted to prevent the entanglement of ropes and then passes through the nip again. Thus, the fabric takes a spiral path. The production is about 150 m/min with an water consumption of about 6 to 8 litres/kg of cloth. Another type, namely square beater washing machine is used mainly for washing printed goods. The beater revolves in a direction opposite to that of the cloth so that it receives a flapping motion which beats out loose particles adhering to the fabric. The high speed rope washing machine (Fig. 7-44) offers efficient processing

Figure 7-44. High speed rope washer (Courtesy of Hemmer, Germany). without cumbersome threading up. In this type the liquor trough is divided into two or more parts or sections by means of clearly rounded removable partitions. The fabric is fed into the machine from a suitably positioned pot eye and first washed in one side of the partition and then on the other side and so on. The wash liquor is arranged to flow in a direction opposite to the fabric rope. The fabric rope passes alternatively under a stainless steel bottom roller and a loose stainless steel bobbins on the top shaft. At the end of the washing section, the fabric passes through pneumatically loaded squeeze device located at the top. The machine is totally enclosed and fitted with sliding glass panels. The fabric is guided through the machine in such a manner that lowest possible tension is exerted on the fabric. The high performance rope washing machines may be employed both as a single unit or in continuous operation with similar machine with a working speed of up to 200 to 250 m/min. After rope washing, the fabric is passed through the rope squeezing machine

244


(Fig. 7-45) which allows the fabric to have reasonably consistant water content.

Figure 7-46. A carriage piler for fabrics. which move forward or backward in one direction over the rope of pits. Then the fabric is opened out from rope to open width form with the help of an opener (Fig. 7-47) or scutcher (Fig. 7-48). Rope expanders or rope openers are usually fitted


245

Figure 7-48. Diagram of scutcher for opening cloth from rope form. behind the rope washing machines. In the case of rope openers without scutcher, the fabric ropes are opened with the aid of cloth guiders and sometimes additional scroll rollers are used. The scutcher usually consists of a revolving brass beater, two scroll rollers, a pivoted guiding device and draw rollers. The two scroll rollers are geared together by means of spur wheels and are driven in pairs in the counter direction to the cloth which passes between them. The beater is also driven in the opposite direction of the cloth. For both the systems, an adequate unhindered feeding distance of at least 6-8 m is necessary to ensure that the fabric rope can be sufficiently detwisted. Occasionally rope detwisters are fitted between the last rope guide ring or wheel and the rope opener. Scanners sense the direction of twist of the rope and

246


appropriate signal is given to the controll element. Sometimes "Whittler" rope openers are fitted with the scutcher and the particularly good opening effect is due to the fact that the fabric rope is subjected to a rhythmical undulating movement of the two, three, or four part scutcher, which causes the rope to loosen up and decrease, and existing twist is eliminated. The essence of the "Whittler" rope opener is, however, the regulator (Fig. 7-49), which keeps the open-width fabric on centre

Figure 7-49. Whittler rope opener regulatc ~ and guides it to further processing operations. Machine speeds from 120-180 m/ min can be achieved if the regulator can fulfil its task in every respect. With rope openers of other designs machine speeds of only 40-60 m/min can be attained. After leaving the opener, the cloth is then passed through hot water in water

"-....

1 Figure 7-50. Water mangle.


247

mangle (Fig. 7-50). The water mangle removes last traces of dirt, excess water, rope marks and flattens the fabric. A water mangle has 3 to 6 bowls, but sometimes even 8. The mangle is equipped with an entry scaffold, an adjustable tensioner, two scroll rolls and automatic cloth guiders suitable for wet fabrics at the entry side and a piling winch at the delivery side. The cloth speed ranges from 100 to 200 m/min depending upon the type of the fabric. The water mangle can be synchronised with the dryer, which usually follows the water mangling process.

7.6.2 Open-width washing machines Of the many open-width washing machine concepts, the three drum washing machines, namely perforated oscillating drums, perforated drums with oscillating central units (Rotowa), perforated rotating drums and spraying arrangements are very popular in the batch form. The more common type of open-width continuous washing machine is open soaper. Modification followed modification in which the manual operations are progressively mechanised, the aim being to co-ordinate the individual steps. Different effective and inexpensive systems for washing even very sensitive woven and knited goods are available. In the suction drum washing machine (Fig. 7-51) the scouring liquor is drawn

Figure 7-51. Suction drum washer (Courtesy of Artos, Germany).

248


through the perforations of the drums, and the fabric interstices, thus effectively removing the water soluble material. Suction drum washers usually have two or more bowls driven at some synchronous speed, the fabric covering about 80% of

Figure 7-52 to 7-56. Typical installations ofvarious suction drum washing ranges [32].


249

the circumference of the drums. Liquor is pumped out at the end of the drum (Fig. 7-51) and is recirculated through the washer. Edge uncurlers are fitted before the first drum on the machine. A simple nip may be fitted between the successive bowls. The function of the nip is mainly to advance the fabric into the unit rather than to remove the surplus liquor. The suction drum washing machine (Fig. 7-52) treats the goods under low tension with a good convective rinsing action. The same machine can be used in tendem with impregnation squeeze rollers (Fig. 7-53), with impregnation trough (Fig. 7-54), with festoon boiling off range followed by rinsing tanks (Fig. 7-55), and special washing and bulking machine followed by rinsing tanks (Fig. 7-56). In the Rotowa washing machine (Fig. 7-57) the fabric is wound on to the perfo-

Figure 7-57. Rotowa washing machine (Courtesy ofHeberlein & Co. AG). rated beam on the batching trolly. The range (Fig. 7-58) comprises with perforated drum and liquor circulation, plus associated combined winding and washing drive. The fabric is washed by pumping liquor through the perforated drum. The liquid is forced from the centre to the outer layer of the fabric batch at right angles ensuring good washing effectl This process is intensified by the centrifugal action of the drum. Working speeds range from 20 to 140 m/rain. The range is supplied in roller widths of 1400 to 3600 mm. The water consumption is 6-8 1/kg of dry goods. On completion of processing, the chamber is opened and the goods are reversed through the squeezer or feed rolls and either wound up onto a giant batch or plaited down.

250


1. Batching unit 2. Fabric 3. Expander rollers 4. Squeezer with d-cmotor 5. Faller roller 6. Winding arm 7. d-c motor winding and washing drive 8. Hydraulic system 9. Liquor reserve 10. Circulation pump

Figure 7-58. Rotowa open width washing range (Courtesy ofHeberlein & Co. AG). The spray drum washing machine (Fig. 7-59) consists of stainless steel perforated drum which allows easy wash liquor through the perforations. The drum runs in ball bearings mounted outside the tank. The movement of the drum is brought about by the drag of the running fabric. The washing drum is set in a stainless steel tank, with provision to properly drain away the wash water. A set of nozzle batteries is placed round the circumference of the drum, with a view to spray water jets on the fabric. The jet washer (Fig. 7-60) consists of a trough and a cascade zone.

Figure 7-59. Wash tank with spray drum.

Figure 7-60. Jet washer (Courtesy of E. Ktisters, Germany).

Above the cascade zone, there is a nozzle with a wide slot which forms a continu-


251

ous curtain of water across the full width of the goods. The trough is fitted with filter and liquor circulation pump. Water is pumped into the fabric at a high speed via the wide slot nozzle. The cascade zone, an inclined plane, ensures that the water from the wide slot nozzle has to flow through, and in countercurrent with, the pile. The fabric runs over the drum and is guided to be taken away from the drum over suitably positioned, ebonite covered, rollers running in ball bearings. In some cases a longer washing time with spray is required and this can be achieved by using wash tank containing roller bed as shown in Fig. 7-61. The fab-

Figure 7-61. Spray washing and soak tank roller-conveyer. ric transport is effected by means of a positively driven set of transport rollers. The first roller pushes the cloth, the second roller in turn transport the fabric to the third roller and so on. About 150 to 300 m of fabric is piled on the roller conveyer in order to allow complete relaxation of the fabric. A powerful spray through the jet is arranged for an efficient washing of the fabric, while the fabric is adequately soaked in the roller bed. The fabric is lifted and led further from the washing part over a set of guide rollers and a special rotary fabric guiding device. The open soaper is the common type of continuous washing machine in open-

252


width form (Fig. 7-62). The machine consists of six or more compartments or

Figure 7-62. Continuous open-width washing range (Courtesy of Farmer Norton, Type R-16). tanks depending upon the processes to be carried out. It has a series of bottom and top rollers. The lower set is usually immersed in the washing liquor. The fabric passes over the adjustable tensioners and then over and under the guide rollers which guide the fabric in vertical folds through different liquors in the tank. The fabric is sprayed with water from the spurt pipes and squeezed between the bowls before entering the next tank. The speed range of this machine varies between 2040 m/min depending on the number of tanks. The execution of the machine may be open at the top or closed depending upon the expected performance of the machine. In some machines the washing tanks are fitted with special beaters (Fig. 7-63) to have more efficient washing. The beater consists of copper gutters

Figure 7-63. Beater with four swivelling gutters for washing tanks.


253

soldered on stiff steel rods, the ends of which are carried loose on spider wheels keyed on beater shaft. Two sets each of three beaters are inserted between the folds of the cloth and do not touch the fabric. The beater revolves at a great speed, so that gutters are caused by the centrifugal force to fly out. They are partially dipped into the water and give an elastic beating without rubbing. For soaping and washing of delicate goods with a minimum tension, Aquatex soaper (Fig. 7-64) with expres-

Figure 7-65. Benninger Becoflex washing compartment. processing goods of any width. Creation of turbulance in the wash tank by arrang-

254


ing ingeneous fabric passage forward and reverse is an added advantage. Such unit is also used to remove alkali from the mercerized cloth. However, this arrangement is more complicated and costly. The need to improve the washing efficiency has further led to the adoption of counter-current flow, of the wash liquor, in the washing compartment (Fig. 7-66). Vertical metal plates seperate the liquor between the

+................ " .'C~ ( ~:,k-L..-.." ...........

". . . . . .

23J

................

(~- :.".i 7.,..-~"_ ................................................................................................................

|

'i-~i%l~T~ .i. DRAIN

Figure 7-66. Counter-current open-width washing unit. metal rollers. The liquor flows in the direction opposite to the fabric travel either by cascade arrangement of the sections or by arranging vertical positions in such a manner, that the liquor flows in a serpentine manner. Each seperate successive immersion of the fabric is in a cleaner liquor, whereas the liquor becomes increasingly contaminated as it approaches the discharge point, close to the fabric entrance. Similar arrangement is used for washing mercerized cloth in chain mercerizing machine. Washing compartments with a horizontal fabric run have been purpose-built down to the very last detail. In horizontal fabric layer washing machine (Fig. 7-67), the fabric enters at the bottom and stepwise ascends to the top. The distance between the two vertical banks of rollers is about 70 cm. Washing is done by multiple counter-current principle. The fresh water enters at the top, and after being expressed at the top roller is collected in the tray and fed to lower ones, turn by turn. Intermediate squeezing of the fabric at the extreme positions increases the washing

255


9

~ , , - " , ~ "

.....

.........

(,,g...

...............

(%'-~) ~

!

r

......==< t !

i

q]

~.~

............................... . 0.1

I

60

I

L

i

100 140 180 220 Heat-setting temperature (~

L

Figure 8-7. Tension produced in heat-setting at constant length. [(i) unset yarn, producer twist, 30 t.p.m.; (ii) unset, thrown, 300 t.p.m.; (iii) steam-set, thrown 300 t.p.m.].

Heat-Setting

275

of tension produced in polyester yarn on heat-setting at different temperatures. In general, the tension in the yam at first increases but temperatures over about 180~ it decreases steeply. The third curve (iii) of Fig. 8-7 represents the tension produced in a polyester yam that have been twist set in steam at 110~ and the tension is unlikely to exceed 0.1 g/decitex unless the yam is deliberately stretched [32]. In general, the higher the setting temperature, the lower is the resultant shrinkage of the heat-set fabric at any given temperature. The shrinkage ofunset polyester fabric at 175~ is about 15% as compared to 1% for the same fabric set at 220~

Fabrics containing both dyed yarns and unset yam tend to show differential

shrinkage effects, and these must be set at the highest temperature permitted by the sublimation fasmess of the dyed yams. 8.7.3 Stiffness

The setting process stiffens the fabric, which is undesirable. Higher the setting temperature, more is the stiffening. A fairly linear correlation exists between the stiffness and setting temperature [31]. The stiffening is due to the formation of continuous film on the fibre surface and high tension developed during setting. The stiffening effect is lost if the fabric is subsequently treated mechanically e.g. by dyeing on a winch. High tensions during setting leads to the production of a thin paper like and impoverished handle while free relaxation gives a soft and silky fabric. However, it is difficult to completely eliminate tensions and full relaxation also leads to considerable loss of yield. Also, tensions have the effect of removing yarn crimp. About 3-4% potential yarn shrinkage is restrained and the rest is allowed to freely shrink in the stenter. 8.7.4 Crease recovery One of the purpose of heat-setting is to reduce the extent of creasing on subsequent dyeing and washing processes. The higher the setting temperature the less is the wet creasing. The degree of wet creasing, is however also related to fabric construction, for example, open or loose construction fabrics show better crease recovery than dense fabrics. High setting temperature which creates a degree of stiffness in the fabric does not recover well from creasing of dry polyester fabrics. Some compromise is necessary between the temperature necessary for maximum dimensional stability and that for an acceptable dry crease recovery.

276

Heat-Setting

8.7.5 Dyeability Fig. 8-8 shows a typical disperse dye uptake at the boil without carrier in the Ro

50

d

12o

14o

1~o

Heat-setting

~o

20o z~o 22o ~.~o

temperature, ~

Figure 8-8. The effect of heat-setting temperature on dye uptake when polyester is dyed with C.I.Disperse Red 1 [33]. dyebath in which dye uptake varies with the setting temperature used when polyester is heat-set. Although this pattern of behaviour is general for all disperse dyes applied to polyester, the shape and position of the absorption curve depend on the method of dyeing [34] ; the size, planarity and polarity of disperse dye ; position of substituent groups and solubility of dyes [35]. The absorption of some dyes is practically independent of heat-setting temperature whilst absorption of others is highly sensitive to it [36]. As the setting temperature is increased, the curve shows a reduction in the rate of dyeing for setting temperatures between 130 and 150~ followed by a levelling-off. Above about 190~ the rate of dyeing rises rapidly and eventually reaches values greater than that for unset cloth. The initial decrease in the uptake suggests that new crystals are formed as setting temperature is increased by coming together of well parallelised chains in the amorphous regions and amorphous volume per crystal decreases so the path for the dye particles through the amorphous region is very tortuous. In the later stages of crystallisation, the crystallites increase in size and also become more perfect. Thus at the higher temperature of setting, the amorphous volume per crystal increases. Chain folding

Heat-Setting

277

also occurs giving rise to segregation of crystalline and amorphous regions. This results in less tortuous path for the dye and provide easy passage for the dye molecule. The degree of crystallinity affects the total amount of dye that can be absorbed, whereas the degree of orientation affects the rate of dyeing. Sharp increase in dyeability above 220~ is thought to be associated with disorientation of the fibre and cannot be employed on commercial scale because small differences in temperature may give uneven adsorption of dye and reproducibility of the results would be very poor. In addition tension, moisture and time of contact during heatsetting are also important factors that cause variation in the dyeing properties of the fibre. The effect of disperse dye uptake on heat-set temperature of polyester is also attributed to the fibre being purified [37]. Purification has been visualised as being either the elimination of di -, tri -, and tetramers or their melting and coalesence to form greater distances between the bonds. The greater bond distances then provide for greater voids causing molecular voids. This is correlated between Tg and apparent transition temperature of dyeing. Structural changes in nylon due to heat-setting affect the dye uptake. Steam treatments increase the uptake and rate of dyeing whereas dry heat causes some reduction. This increased dye receptivity and hence lower activation energies in steam heated materials may be attributed to the more open structure of set nylons. In the dry setting, the minima observed suggests that at the temperature at which decrease in dyeing properties occurs, the increase in crystallinity is important; however, the increase in dyeing properties at the higher temperatures suggests an opening up of the amorphous structure. REFERENCES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R6"sch, Textil Praxis, 27 (1972) 233. Frinken and Reiff, Textil Praxis, 29 (1974) 671. ICI, BP 1,327,661 (6 May 1971). Fr'~;lich, Melliand Textilber., Chemiefasem, 23 (1973) 729. Doggett, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 80 (1964) 80. Houben., Melliand Textilber., 53 (1972) 808. Franke, Chemiefasern/Textilindustrie (1972) 22.

278 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Heat-Setting Franke, Chemicfasern/Textilindustrie, (1974) 618. Kramer and Steio, Chemicfasem/Textilindustrie, (1974) 777. Houben, Textilveredlung, 9 (1974) 174. Anon., Int. Text. Bull., No. 3 (1972) 231. Anon., Knitting Times, 40 (53) (1971) 147. Gotteschalk, Melliand Textilber., 53 (1972) 453. Anon., Int. Text. Bull., No. 1 (1973) 59. Anon., Dyer, 152 (1974) 41. Anon., Int. Text. Bull. No. 1 (1971) 57. Anon., Dyer, 151 (1974) 290. Jacob, Dyer, 152 (1974) 256. Harberr, Dyer, 151 (1974) 271. Schellenberger, Int. Text. Bull., No. 1 (1974) 47. Stacey, Hatranote, 14 (HATRA) Woolard, 'Control' (Shirley institute, 1972). Robertson, Int. Text. Bull., No. 1 (1973) 78. Meunier, Thomas and Hoscheit, Amer. DyestuffRep., 49 (1960) 53. Hearle, Textile Industries, (Aug 1969) 57. Thomas and Holfeld, Textile Chem. Color., 4 (1972) 216. Munden, J. Textile Inst., 50 (1959) T 448. Holfeld, "AATCC Symposium : Knit Shrinkage; Cause, Effect and Control' ', (Oct. 1973) 37. Brown, "AATCC Symposium : Knit Shrinkage ; Cause, Effect and Control' ', (Oct 1973) 12. Beirtz, Chemiefasem, 20 (1970) 41. Tech. Inf. Manual LF/1/3, Terylene, Fibre Division, Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. Marvin, J. Soc. Dyers Colourist, 70 (1954) 16. Nunn (Ed.), The Dyeing of Synthetic Polymer and Acetate Fibres, Dyers Co. Pub. Trust, (1979) p 177. Fortess et al., Amer. DyestuffRep., 50 (1961) 57. Merian, Carbonell, Ulerech and Sanahuja, J. Soc. Dyers Colourist, 79 (1963) 505. Salbin, Amer. DyestuffRep., 54 (1965) 272. Hallida, Keen and Thomas, Amer. DyestuffRep., 50 (1961) 50. Olson and Menoza- Vergara, M. S. Thesis, Textile Dept., College of IM & T.S., Clemson University, Clemson, SC, (1974) p 45.

Chapter 9 MERCERIZATION 9.1 Introduction

Mercerization was discovered by John Mercer in England and the process is named after him : mercerizing. The process of alkaline treatment of cotton was patented in 1850. Later Horace Lowe in England found that the glazing effect became even more pronounced when cold caustic soda acted on cotton under tension. He discovered the actual mercerizing process and applied for its patent in 1890. Mercerization gives cotton woven cloth a silky lustre, and is the foundation of many improved and beautiful finishes. Sewing and embroidery cotton yarns are mercerized with tension in the form of hank. Stretched yarn can be made by mercerizing without tension [1, 2]. The stretched materials are used for bandages, casual wear (originally garments for skiing), skirts, boat covers etc. The increasing cost of chemicals, machinery, labour, effluent control and recovery of caustic soda make the process of mercerization less attractive now-a-days. 9.2 Conditions for Mercerization

Mercerization is defined as the treatment of cotton textiles with a concentrated solution of alkali consisting the following conditions: (a)

Application of caustic soda solution around 55-60~

( ~- 31 to 35%) at a

temperature of 15 to 18~ (b)

A dwell period of 55 sec on an average, so as to permit diffusion of alkali into the fibre.

(c)

Warp tension during alkali treatment and stretching the weft (width) of the fabric during washing are necessary to prevent shrinkage.

(d) Finally, washing-off of the traces of alkali from the treated fibres. Mercerization may be carried out on grey fibres or after scouring/bleaching. The cloth should be singed before mercerizing to give a smooth surface. If mercerization is carried out in the grey state, complete removal of alkali is not necessary during washing treatment as the residual alkali in the cloth is used for the kier process. However, mercerization is commonly carried out after scouring, but it is preferable to mercerize after bleaching if continuous bleaching plant is available.

280

Mercerization

Another necessary condition for successful mercerization is the rapid and uniform wetting of the grey cloth. Penetration of alkali is hindered by the high viscosity of the strong caustic soda solution at lower temperature on the one hand and the hydrophobic nature of the fatty matter present in the size coating as well as natural fats and waxes present in the fibre on the other. To obviate these problems a small amount of penetrating and wetting agent is added to the caustic bath,. The wetting agents should be selected so that it should have good solubility and high wetting ability in the alkaline bath, should have no affinity to fibre, low foaming power, good efficiency at low concentration and stability under conditions of sodium hydroxide recovery by centrifuge or vacuum evaporation technique etc. [3]. It is obvious that a single wetting agent does not show all these properties and, therefore, blends of wetting agents are needed to get the optimum effect during mercerization process. Generally, two types of wetting agents are commonly used in mercerizing liquors e.g. cryslic acid derivatives coupled with selected solvents such as triethyl or tributyl phosphate and the other type is non-cryslic type. Mixtures of ortho, meta and para cresols (also called cryslic acid ), CH3-C6H4-OH, are not soluble in water, but dissolve in strong caustic soda solutions. Their wetting power is also found to be improved considerably by incorporating methylated spirit, polyhydric alcohols having CI8 chains, butanol, polyethylene glycol etc, by diminishing the viscosity of mercerizing liquor. Non-cryslic wetting agents include sulphated lower fatty alcohols such as hexyl or octyl alcohol and the addition of polyhydric alcohols, enable the stabilisation of wetting agents while avoiding their precipitation during the process of recovery of sodium hydroxide. A product obtained by the distillation of pine oil as a fraction between turpentine and rosin, has excellent wetting, penetrating and emulsifying properties in mercerizing liquor. Wetting efficiency of non-cryslic type is generally higher than that ofcryslic type. In case ofmercerization of knit goods which contain paraffin products, the wetting agents used must also possess dispersing power towards these products [4]. 9.3 Changes in the Properties of Cellulose Due to Mereerization Cellulose undergoes chemical, physico-chemical and structural modifications on treatment with caustic soda solution of mercerizing strength [5]. Chemical reactions lead to the formation of alkali cellulose, physical reactions, to a change in arrangement of units of cellulose. The optimum modifications in the properties of

Mercerization

281

cellulose can be manipulated with the selection of proper concentration of alkali, time, tension and temperature during the mercerizing process. 9.3.1 Swelling and shrinkage of eellulose When cellulose is immersed in a solution of caustic soda of mercerizing strength, water and alkali diffuses in and the material swells. The fibre hair quickly commences to untwist from its twisted ribbon like form and tends to become cylindrical rodlike surface due to deconvolution. The cross -section of the fibre diminishes, the diameter of the fibre becomes more round. The surface of the nearly cylindrical cotton fibre after mercerizing reflects light more evenly to all sides than the kidneyshaped cotton fibre and the fibre surface becomes more lustrous [6]. As the fibre swells, the fibre shrinks in length [7, 8]. Swelling and shrinkage are more when there is no tension in the fibre, but the alteration in cross-section caused by swelling is more when mercerization is carried out under tension. Under optimum conditions each cotton fibre may contract nearly 9% in length and swell nearly 150%. Swelling of the cotton fibre also has a disadvantage. The fibre becomes more compact in its swollen condition. This compacting diminishes the further penetration of caustic soda into the fibre i.e. penetration slows down and mercerization in the fiber's core is lower than on its surface. Maximum swelling concentrations of different alkalies depend on the degree of hydration of the alkali ion [9, 10]. Table 9.1 contains data of different kinds of TABLE 9.1 Effect of Alkali Metal Hydroxides on the Swelling of Cotton Fibre [ 11 ] Reagent

Concentration of alkali at which

Increase in

maximum swelling is obtained

fibre diameter

g/100 g of solution

mole/1

(%)

LiOH

9.5

4.0

97

NaOH

18.0

4.5

78

KOH

32.0

5.8

64

RbOH

38.0

3.8

53

CsOH

40.0

2.7

47

alkali metal hydroxides on the swelling of cotton fibre. For small concentration of alkali, the diameter of the hydrated ions is too large to penetrate into the

282

Mercerization

macromolecular structure of cotton, but as the concentration increases, the number of water molecules available for the formation of hydrates decreases and thus hydrated ion pairs, dipole hydrates (solvated or not ) are formed with the decreasing hydrodynamic diameter, are capable of penetrating into the fibre structure of cellulose forming hydrogen bonds with the molecular chains of cellulose. Thus mercerization induces important structural modification of cellulose when interfibrillary swelling takes place. With further increase in concentration of alkali-metal hydroxides in the solution, fibre swelling is reduced due to decrease in hydration of alkali metal ions. The influence of alkali concentration and temperature of treatment on swelling 1000

Temperatures ---- 0oC

900 800 700

A

7_.. 20~ - . - - 60oC

600 o

500 400 30O 200 100 I0 . . . . . . . 2b .......... 30 NaOH (WIW)%

40

Figure 9-1. Dependence of swelling on temperature and concentration of alkali [12]. of cellulose are represented in Fig 9.1. The extent of swelling depends on the concentration of alkali. In solution with an increasing concentration of NaOH at 20~

the swelling of cellulose (cotton linters) increases to a maximum value for a

concentration equal to 8 to 9% by weight ofNaOH ; next it decreases to a minimum (12 - 13% NaOH by wt.) and then slowly increases in higher concentration ranges. Though 8% NaOH (by wt.) solutions give maximum swelling, commercially mercerization is done at higher concentration of about 31 to 35% which indicates that swelling is not the only determining factor. This is because of preferential

Mercerization

283

absorption of NaOH during mercerization process. This preferential absorption is associated with the question of compound formation to form soda-cellulose. The amount of alkali adsorbed is very much greater than that of preferentially adsorbed (Fig. 9-2) as a result of very large swelling and adsorption of water in the cellulose. The adsorption of NaOH is found to be constant between certain concentrations of r .... - ~ .......... r .... T . . . . . F ...... Y . . . . . . I t t i , ........

ti.~

~o I........ ~- ..... .-t .......... 4- .... _L._.~_o

i9

........

! ,~.i

i~ill~ ~

o

2

MOtlhly

i:o

......

4

i.

.

.... + ....

~.

t

..R~.

....L6 J _ _Bm _ ' . 'K) _ L . . _12m

of iitkiti

]

in

finltt

~fotutiOl3

~i.~

oi

14-

Figure 9-2. NaOH and water absorbed by cellulose sheet at 25~ [ 13, 14]. 1-total alkali absorbed, 2-preferentially absorbed alkali, 3-water absorbed. alkali, it is thus assumed that a definite compound is formed with the cellulose molecule. Further water absorption plays a large part and this water absorption fall rapidly after reaching a maximum, thus causing alkali absorption to appear constant. Two broad explanations are possible for the interaction of cellulose and caustic soda. For the first one, it is assumed that cellulose combines with caustic soda to form alkali-cellulose and swelling is due to the molecular attraction with associated

C6H904 - O H + NaOH --+ C6H904 - O N a + H20 Alkali-cellulose hydration. The extent of this combination is governed by the concentration of alkali. It is assumed that alkali-cellulose is more hydrated than the native cellulose. Maximum swelling in particular range of alkali concentration is the result of the attraction of alkali-cellulose on the one hand and the remaining free alkali on the other. The hydration of the cellulose increases with the increased fixation of alkali in solutions of rising concentrations up to a certain limit, after which free alkali exerts a dehydrating effect on the alkali-cellulose to a great extent. The second theory is based on osmotic phenomena. It is assumed that cellulose behaves as a very monobasic acid due to the hydroxyl groups in it and forms an alkali-cellulose

284

Mercerization

during mercerization with alkali. The excess alkali diffuses into the cellulose according to Donan's theory of membrane equilibrium. The presence of ions in cellulose result in unequal distribution and thus brings about an osmotic pressure. This causes water to enter the fibre until such time as the osmotic pressure is in balance with the restraining or elastic forces of the swollen fibre. When the alkali solution is replaced by a large excess of water, the sodium cellulosate is hydrolysed, osmotic pressure falls, undissociated hydroxyl groups are reformed and the cellulose is recovered chemically unchanged, but permanently distorted if the osmotic pressure is high enough. Another term is transient swelling. When alkali impregnated material is washed with water, increased swelling is observed whilst the alkali is being removed (Fig. 9-3). Water diffuses into the cellulose more rapidly than the alkali ions can diffuse out, and hence, since the activity of the water in the aqueous phase 30

o

lo

8 c_ 0 o WATER

f

*-----" . . . . . . . . . . .

lO.7t~f

NaOH

. . . . . . . . . .

~" ' q - - - t ' 4 1 j ~ )

.-'K)

T~'r,e (rain)

Figure 9-3. Transient swelling of cellulose [15]. is increased, the osmotic pressure is transitorily larger. This greater momentary swelling which occurs for a short period of time decreases as the ions diffuses out of the fibre. If the activity of water in the wash liquor is reduced by the addition of salt, the swelling effects are reduced and the alkali may be removed without undue swelling of the fiber [ 16]. Swelling of cellulose fibres in alkali increases with a decrease in temperature [ 17] as the formation of alkali-cellulose compounds is an exothermic process. At 0~ the swelling of cellulose in alkali (8-9% by weight) is about 800% (Fig. 9-1) and swelling decreases rapidly at higher concentration of alkali due to the decrystallisation of NaOH hydrates. The extent of swelling also decreases as the

Mercerization

285

treatment temperature increases (60~ or 100~ and maximum swelling is observed at 7-8% NaOH by weight. Shrinkage of cotton is greatest on swelling in alkali at 15-18~ and the value decreases with increase in temperature. The use of cold (2~ concentrated solutions of alkali reduce the shrinkage as the solutions become too viscous to impregnate fibres significantly in a short time. The shrinkage of raw cotton fibre is lower than that of scoured cotton [ 18]. Volume changes are significant ranging from 62cc to 177 i 8cc in the alkali concentrations ranging from 14.3 to 48.8% (w/w) [7]. The increase is, however, small if treatment is carried out under tension. 9.3.2 Structural modification Due to swelling of cellulose in caustic soda solution of mercerization strength, many hydrogen bonds are broken, the plane of molecular chains have been moved apart, molecular structure tends to become decrystallised, the chains or spaces within the cellulose structure become more uniform and the chains of glucose residues have been given a slight twist. Because of the distortion of polymer network and changes in crystalline structure, the process of mercerizaation is irreversible [ 19-23]. Mercerization also affects the size of the crystallites [24] and orientation of the crystalline region [25, 26] and the extent of orientation depends on the tension during mercerization. The influence of alkali concentration on changes in the crystalline structure of cotton yams mercerized for 60 secs at 20~ with constant length (0% stretch) is illustrated in Fig. 9-4. Soda-Cellulose I is formed with sodium .

90

. . . . . . .

.

.

.

Total crystallinity

80 70 -~ 60 .=_ Z" 50 ._ 40

Cellulose I

30

Cellulose II

20 10

100

200

300

N a O H concentration (g/l)

Figure 9-4. Influence of NaOH concentration on the crystalline structure of cellulose fibres [27].

286

Mercerization

hydroxide at concentrations of 12-19% (by wt.) [28-30], Soda-Cellulose II at concentrations between 20 and 45% by weight. Cellulose I exists in a parallel chain conformation while Cellulose II exists in an antiparallel chain conformation [31]. Soda-Cellulose III is obtained by drying Soda-Cellulose I [32, 33]. For temperature higher than 30~ and in solution 20-25% NaOH (by wt.), the formation of Soda-Cellulose III and II is obtained [34]. Soda-Cellulose IV is obtained by washing Soda-Cellulose I and II in water or in dilute solution of NaOH [35]. SodaCellulose V appears between -10 and +20~ in a wide range of NaOH concentrations of about 40-45% (by wt.) [36-38]. However, concerning the formation of SodaCellulose compounds there is some approximation the manner in which they form with respect to the nature of NaOH hydrates present in concentrated solutions. Cellulose I content and total crystallinity index decreases as the temperature of mercerization increases, whereas Cellulose II follows an opposite course due to the better penetration of NaOH hydrates. Mercerization without tension allows total conversion of Cellulose I to Cellulose II to take place, whereas when mercerizing with tension, mixtures of the two are formed [39, 40]. Cellulose III, IV and X can also be obtained by treatment of cotton with ammonia at -35~ hot glycerine and phosphoric acid respectively. The shape of native cellulose crystal (Cellulose I) is monoclinic and the dimensions ofmonoclinic unit cells of various crystalline forms (Cell I to Cell X) are shown in Table 9.2. Out of various Celluloses, Cellulose II is most stable and the other Celluloses may be reconverted into each other [41,42]. TABLE 9.2 Dimensions of Unit Cell of Different Celluloses on Structural Modification Dimensions Cellulose I Cellulose II Cellulose III Cellulose IV Cellulose X a(A)

8.35

8.14

7.74

8.11

8.10

b ()k)

10.30

10.30

10.30

10.30

10.30

c (A)

7.9

9.14

9.9

7.9

8.16

[3 (degrees)

84

62

58

90

75.36

(fibre axis)

9.3.3 Increased lustre

Unmercerized cotton has a general appearance of a flat ribbon with spiral twists, its surface is rough and non-uniform, its cross-section is irregular and ear-shaped

Mercerization

287

while the lumen, the central canal, is broad, irregular and resembles a collapsed tube. All these factors result in less lustre. When a cotton hair is brought into an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide of 18% (40~ cellulose begins to swell immediately, the hair is elliptical in section in a few seconds, and on further swelling becomes circular and the lumen is practically eliminated. The untwisting of the fibre takes place under effect of swelling and increased alignment and packing of the fibres in the yam also take place. The changes that take place in the crosssectional shape of cotton fibre during mercerization are shown in Fig. 9.5. Stages 1 .

9

-

~

2

~

4

5

6

.

.

.

.

-,F"

8

1

.

1.0

7

Figure 9-5. Seven successive stages of change in the cross-sectional shape of a cotton fibre as produced during mercerization. to 5 show the change for a twisted ribbon like fibre to one which is uniformly cylindrical and in its most swollen form at 5. Stages 6 and 7 show some contraction but without loosing its cylindrical form when the fibre is washed with water (6) and then dried (7). During the last three stages, the hair retains the same form of section, but shrinkage proceeds uniformly towards the centre and lumen does not recover its original size. But to secure an increase in lustre the cotton material must be prevented from shrinkage by stretching the yam lengthwise and the fabric both lengthwise and widthwise during the treatment and washing out of the alkali by water. When cotton is mercerized without tension, the fibre while much smoother and rounder with little or no twist, still show residual creases and wrinkles and there is no appreciable increase in lustre as the cross-section is oval and lumen is contracted but not collapsed. Lustre increases as the tension applied to the fibre during mercerization is increased [43, 44]. Lustre also depends on other factors. Mercerization reduces the axial ratio and increase the light scattering within the fibre (transparency) and thus increases the lustre. The presence of short fibre on the surface decreases lustre and is removed during singeing. Lustre increases from 180 g/1 of NaOH solution to a maximum at 260-300 g/l, then decreases slightly [45]. Theoretically lustre increases with an increase in swelling and therefore with a decrease in the temperature ofmerceriza-

288

Mercerization

tion [46]. However, if the temperature is decreased, there will be surface dissolution of the fibre which may result in a decrease in lustre [44]. On the contrary, lustre increases with increase in temperature of mercerization [47, 48] inspite of lower swelling value. This may be due to the faster and uniform penetration of NaOH at higher temperature. The staple length of the cotton is also significant since the long staple fibre has the best shape of cross-section. Twisted double yarn is more lustrous after mercerization than non-twisted loose yam. A face cloth such as sateen will show the greatest increase in lustre and is caused by the long floats lending themselves to the effective tension more readily than shorter crossings of the yarn. 9.3.4 Gain in strength Mercerization, both slack and with tension, increases the strength uniformity along the fibre length [49], but mercerized fibre with tension shows greater gain in strength than that of without tension. In practice, the improvements in strength are noticed mostly upon yarn treatments, with fabric the major effect is on the surface only. Mercerization increases the tensile strength of cotton fibres by eliminating the weakest points in the fibre [50, 51 ]. Mercerization increases the cohesion between individual cotton hairs and this closer embedding of the hairs in the yam not only increases the strength but makes it more uniform in strength and less in diameter. The physical properties of mercerized fibres are related to the orientation factor; the Young's modulus increases with increase in orientation. The elongation acts in reverse, decreasing as the orientation increases [52, 53]. The increase in orientation of the crystallites with respect to fibre axis can be attributed to such factors as the reduction in crystallinity of the fibre, the decrease in lengths of crystallites and fibre deconvolution [54, 56]. In case of slack mercerized cotton increased strength is accompanied by an increase in extensibility, thus deconvolution is not the only factor influencing the changes in mechanical properties on mercerization apart from decrystallisation and length ofcrystallites [57]. The twist of yarn plays an important role and low twist appears to be essential for maximum increase in strength. Grey yam with soft doubling twist gives stronger yarn. 9.3.5 Increased moisture absorption Mercerized celluloses absorb more water, have higher regains and more easily wet out than unmercerized fibres. Due to caustic soda penetration, many hydrogen

Mercerization

289

bonds are broken and it is estimated that the number of available, hydroxyl groups are increased by about 25%. Mercerization, thus decreases the amount of crystalline part or increases the amorphous content of the fibre. This increase in the proportion of amorphous part is directly related to the moisture sorption. Moisture is assumed to be absorbed by suitable groups in the amorphous region and on the surface of the crystallites. When mercerization is carried out under tension, the changes in crystalline portion is comparatively lower than that without tension and hence also the moisture sorption. Standard cotton has moisture content of about 7%, mercerized cotton with tension has about 9% and that of without tension about 11%.

9.3.6 Increased dye adsorption Mercerized cotton shows increased depth of shade, increased rate of dyeing and the irregularities due to neps and unripe cotton are less prominent. Generally immature cotton with large lumen responds particularly well to increased light scattering and hence decreased dye uptake. The greater colour yield on mercerized cotton takes place to different degrees at different depth of colours [58] and the magnitude of increased depth of shade varies for different dyestuffs [59]. The increased depth of shade of mercerized cotton has been attributed to optical effects arising from the modifications of fibre size and shape [60, 61] and to changes in internal light scattering [62], as well as to actual increases in dye content due to increased amorphous part of the fibre. About half the total dye savings is attributed to optical effects. The change in pore volume and reduction in lumen diameter are primary causes of consequent improvement in colour yield and reduced light scattering within the fibre. Mercerization thus lowers the dye costs, savings at 2% depth averaged 40%, while at 6% with the same dyes the average saving is about 60%. Cotton can be causticized or half-mercerized to increase the dye uptake and economics up to 25% may be realised. Semi-mercerization or causticization is carried out in caustic soda solution between 25 and 30~ 25~

at a temperature of 20-

sometimes without stretching the cloth to restore original dimensions. So-

dium hydroxide solution above 30~

the rate ofcolour absorption decreases. Semi-

mercerization is also an important step where heavy shades are required with the expensive vat colours. Better results are also observed with aniline black on goods which have received a semi-mercerization treatment.

290

Mercerization

9.3.7 Increased reactivity

The reactivity of mercerized cotton is increased by about 1 I/2 times at lower temperature in comparison to that ofunmercerized cotton. The increased reactivity is not so marked when mercerization is carried out under tension. The reactivity ratio is generally referred to as the ratio of copper number of the mercerized to unmercerized samples. The increased reactivity increases dye absorption, moisture sorption and chemical reaction, but at the same time it also accelerates the reaction with acids and oxidising agents and is susceptible to degradation. 9.3.8 Removal of immature cotton

Mercerization has been recognised as a method for removing immature (dead) fibres to obtain level dyeing effect on cotton fabrics. The dead fibres are underdeveloped and appear as flat or slightly twisted tapes. They are non-crystalline, convolutions are sometimes absent, cell walls are extremely thin and the lumen is collapsed and hence do not contain dye to same extent as matured fibres. 9.3.9 Physical compactness Mercerization improves dimensional stability of cotton woven fabrics [63]. When knitted fabrics are compared with respect to their relative openness, temperature increases can be said to improve mercerization because when the goods are bleached and then mercerized, the fabric becomes more dense. However, when unbleached fabrics are mercerized, the fabrics become more open [64]. Mercerization also gives moderate improvement in crease recovery of cotton fabrics [65] as well as some protection against the decrease in tensile strength caused by easy-care finishing. 9.4 Mercerization of Remie and Flax Fibres

Remie and flax are often used in the same fabrications and are often blended with cotton to improve its performance. Informations as a result of common conditions of mercerization are of great interest to minimise the variation in dyeing behaviour for the three natural cellulosic fibres. Flax fibres generally possess a high degree of lustre and mercerization is generally done to improve the affinity of dyestuffs, assist in the crease-resisting process, improve abrasion resistance and cover the reediness in cloth associated with yarn unlevelness. The effects of slack and tension mercerization on the morphology and accessibility characteristics of remie, flax and cotton fibres are compared [66]. Mercer-

Mercerization

291

ized remie increases in size but not in circularity; mercerized flax fibres do not increase in size or shape; mercerized cotton fibres increase in area and in circularity as a result of swelling in caustic soda. The changes occuring in linen [67, 68] and flax [69, 70] fibres have been reported. Slack mercerizations of remie and flax result in considerable losses in yam strength, while tension mercerizations result in increased strength. Increased yarn strength is seen in both slack and tension mercerization of cotton yam. Increases in fibre accessibility are obtained in all mercerized fibres, but the magnitude of change in flax is approximately half of that in remie and cotton. Changes in fibre shape and accessibility characteristics are lower when cellulose yarns are held under constant tension than when they are allowed to shrink freely during mercerizing treatment. Mercerization of remie results in a complete conversion of Cellulose I to Cellulose II and a decrease in the degree of crystallinity to 50% [71 ]. The orientation of the crystallites in cotton is increased and that ofremie is decreased due to intra-crystalline lateral swelling unrestrained by a restrictive primary wall [72]. Structural realignment of cellulose crystals does take place during the NaOH treatment of flax fibre [73]. With the same dyes and conditions of dyeing used for remie, flax and cotton, variations exist in the shade produced. All three fibres can be successfully mercerized to improve dye exhaustion and colour yield, but the extent of increased depth of shade produced on each treated fibre will vary with the specific dye used. 9.5 Mercerization of Blended Fibre Fabrics

Mercerization of blended fabrics containing polyester and cotton is done to improve the low lustre of cotton as compared to polyester and also to secure a more solid dyeing. For such blends the mercerization process is generally carried out in the same way as 100% cotton, but using caustic soda of lesser concentration i.e. 420 Tw along with penetrating agent. Hot mercerization has been found to give more uniform results. Under the mercerizing conditions cotton component in the blend undergoes physical and chemical changes, whereas polyester component undergoes a topochemical changes, resulting in surface hydrolysis. This leads to a reduction in strength proportional to the weight loss of the polyester component. The fabric after mercerizing is neutralised and made slightly acidic (pH 6) with acetic acid. Generally, the blends containing polyester/viscose or polyester/polynosic corn-

292

Mercerization

ponents are not mercerized. Fabrics containing mixtures of cotton and rayon require special precautions as the regenerated fibres, and in particular the viscose fibres show a higher alkali solubility than cotton fibres. Maximum swelling and solubility of viscose fibres occur at room temperature for NaOH concentration on the order of 9-10% by weight (100 - 110 g/l). Actually, viscose rayon withstands the action of alkali of mercerizing strength, but during washing with water, the alkali becomes diluted and at a concentration of about 9-10% (by wt.), the hydrated ion pairs, 20H20 can penetrate the amorphous as well as crystalline regions, causing an unlimited swelling and the fibres are degradated. The loss in strength of viscose fibre, thus, is not during mercerization step, but during the washing-out process. The following approaches can be adopted to minimise the degradation of viscose in the blends: (i) Alkali should be quickly removed from the fabric after mercerization with a good flow of water at 100~

The solubility of viscose is less marked at

higher temperature. (ii)

If possible, hot mercerization can also be adopted to minimise degradation.

(iii) Addition of electrolyte (e.g. NaC1) in the rinsing bath diminishes the proportion of dissolved viscose. Other protective agents such as sucrose, glycerine etc. are also recommended. (iv) Additions of electrolyte into the mercerizing liquor are also possible. (v)

Use of KOH or mixture of KOH and NaOH in the similar proportion (ratio) to that of blended fibres in the fabrics is useful. Mercerizing with KOH alone can be done in a solution of 55-60 o Tw at 15-18~ with dwell time of 90 sec but is expensive.

Polynosic fibres are more stable than the ordinary viscose fibres in alkaline medium and thus cotton/polynosic blended fabrics can be mercerized without taking any special precautions. However, rinsing process with hot water is also advisable. High wet-modulus (HWM) fibre induces a higher strength loss and thus mechanical degradation can be minimised by applying sufficient tension.

9.6 Mercerizing Machineries Mercerization with alkali can be carried out in the cloth (woven and knitted) form and in the yam (hank) form. Mainly two systems i.e. chain and roller mercer-

Mercerization

293

izing machines are developed for mercerizing cloth in open-width form. There has been a long standing supremacy contest between chain type and chainless mercerizer. One particularly tricky problem is reconciling the need for tension during mercerizing with the undesirability of tension in knit goods. Yarn mercerizing has, of course, been commercially established for many years in the manufacture of sewing threads, embroidery cottons, and lace goods. Farmer Norton, Benninger, Mather and Platt, Machinen, Bobcock, Bruckner, Brugman (Netherlands), Co. Pro. Tex S.r.1. (Italy), Menzel, Kusters, Goller, Domier, Cibitex, S.r.1., Kleinewefers, Jaeggli and other makers have developed new types of machines with the aim of low mercerizing liquor pick-up, good degree of mercerization, better final width control, increased output and cost reduction. Now-a-days mercerizing units are equipped with liquor concentration regulator, measuring unit, cooling unit, lye recovery unit, purification unit, reciprocating metering pump and unit to dissolve caustic soda. Generally a mercerizing machine consists of four sections which will have different tasks according to the process technique : i) mercerizing section : impregnation with caustic soda; ii) intermediary squeezing aggregate : dividing off the mercerizing section against the stabilizing section; ui) stabilizing section : water treatment and thinning down concentration of the lye; iv) intermediary squeezing aggregate : dividing off the stabilizing section against the washing section; v) washing section : washing-off the alkali and neutralisation (if necessary). 9.6.1 Cloth (woven) mercerizing machines A typical clip chain mercerizing machine for woven cloth is shown in Fig. 9-6. 9In this type of mercerizing machine shrinkage is allowed in the primary stage of the ,- _..~._.. ~ . . .

i'-" "i'~ ' ~

~ .... .

t:~" :.

~ , ,---

'-0" Centreso C ipC ain ...... - - - i ~ g d . . , . . . . . ~ .........

ees

~ .:

.~ .. . . . . .

"~~ -~o . : ~,.

.]1..

E2 _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 9-6. Clip chain mercerizing machine (Courtesy ofMather & Platt).

294

Mercerization

process and tension is applied in the later stage to bring the material to the original dimensions. The cloth is impregnated with cold concentrated caustic soda solution by passing through two 3- bowl padding mangles. Pressure of 10 to 25 tons is applied and more pressure is applied to the second mangle. In between the padding mangles the cloth is passed over timing drums to allow thorough action of alkali on the cloth. Due to higher speed of the second mangle only warp tension can be applied to the fabric and a warp tension indicator is fitted on the drums. On leaving the second mangle, the cloth is led to an open stenter frame for applying tension both the filling and warp direction. After the cloth has travelled about 20 ft in a stretched condition alkali is rinsed from the fabric by overflowing water from a series of cascades. Beneath each of the cascades, vacuum extraction slots are mounted so that as the rinse water overflows it is immediately vacuumed from the underside of the fabric. The washing on the stenter can be carried out in a counter current system. The residual alkali concentration should not be more than 8% on the cloth. After leaving the stenter the cloth passes over compensating rollers which regulate the tension. The cloth then enters the recuperator or the steaming box divided into series of compartments. The residual caustic in the cloth is dissolved under the action of steam and caustic is collected at the bottom of each compartment. On emerging from the steaming chamber, the cloth is squeezed and washed. These washing units are the final portion of the mercerizing range and may be a series of 7 to 8 washers followed by neutralising washer using either sodium bicarbonate or acetic acid. The whole range is about 107 ft long with a standard chain length of 50 ft. The width of the range is 14 ft. Production of this machine is about 55 m/min. The chain mercerizing machine has one inherent disadvantage. As the force for keeping the material under tension acts mainly on the outer edges and the line of force diminishes towards the middle, a greater elongation takes place at the edges than in the middle of the fabric (Fig. 9-7). Prior to needling up on the chains the warp density, threads per cm over the whole width of the fabric is constant, after stentering it is less at the edges than in the middle. Different measures were tried to avoid this considerable disadvantage but none were really successful. Therefore development took place from chain mercerizing machines to chainless mercerizing or roller mercerizing machines.

Mercerization ..............

295

.........

_j3_ \

.......

" ...................

1

1< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

....

..............

4 ........................................... + . 5

-

-

2

1 6

Figure 9-7. Disadvantages of chain mercerizing. 1. normal warp density ; 2. reduced density ; 3. normal density ; 4. difference in warp density ; 5. in front of chain expanding unit ; 6. in the chain expanding unit ; 7. after the chain expanding unit. The line diagram of a Benninger chainless mercerizing machine is shown in Fig. 9-8. Fig. 9-9 shows a traditional chainless mercerizing machine with the roller

'

'

2"

1

P. ~ , ~ t ~ , - ,

II

p ~ s~c.,. if6

]Z_'~ . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig. 9-8. Chainless mercerizing machine (Courtesy ofBenninger AG). arrangement. In this system the fabric is pre-stretched, tension is maintained till the mercerizing process and after-washing are completed. The cloth enters the padding set-up exactly in a similar manner to that of chain type. The cloth after padding with mercerizing liquor is passed through specially curved and specifically dimensioned expander rollers which make possible an even expanding effect over the whole width. The expansion depends on the diameter of the roller, the curvature of the roller as well as the angle of warp. Fig. 9-10 shows the expanding zone

296

Mercerization

Figure 9-11. Driven system of the expanding zone. 1. Differential gear unit ; 2. Cloth tension control ; 3. Actual value ; 4. Nominal value.

Mercerization

297

arrangement. The expanding zone consists of a combination of 5 curved expander rollers and 4 driven cylindrical rollers. The drive system is driven by one motor which drives the 4 driven rollers via differential gear unit. Washing takes place only after the cloth has passed over first few rollers. Normal shrinkage takes place in the washing compartment. The material - at the entry into the mercerizing section - is expanded to its original width at the entry into the washing section by the "mycock" roller arrangement. Fig. 9-12 shows the arrange-

Figure 9-12. Different types ofchainless mercerizing installations. 1. traditional roller arrangement ; 2. new roller arrangemnt of the Zittauer Maschinenfabrik. ment of the rollers in a traditional chainless mercerizing machine as well as the improved arrangement found in the mercerizing machine of the Zittauer Maschinenfabrick. In this the rollers are not situated obliquely to one another but directly one above the other in pairs. The material in this arrangement has a longer contact with each other. The cloth content in the mercerizing compartment is larger, or alternatively, for the same cloth content as in a traditional compartment, this arrangement permits a far more space-saving installation. Generally, hot water is used for washing. The steaming (recuperator), washing and neutralising steps are carried out in a similar manner mentioned in the chain type of machine. Development of new high efficiency washing units in the mercerizing machines have minimised the amount of water required to adequately remove alkali from the processed fibres [75, 76]. Open-width washing sections with vertical or horizontal cloth run with 15-25 m fabric holding capacity, drum washing section with squeezing units and "Extracta" with efficient predetermined washing effect with low water and steam consumption are some of the washing units frequently used with mercerizing machines. The advantages of chainless mercerizing

298

Mercerization

system over chain type are less floor space requirement and more production. It is possible to process two, or three cloths superimposed in chainless machine to increase the output. Mercerizing and causticizing of cotton woven fabrics can also be carried out in batch system for small and medium lots [77]. Figs. 9-13 and 9-14 show the line

Figure 9-14. Menzel "minimerce" range for mercerizing-caustic treatment. diagrams of"Sodatrice" (Cibitex S.r.1.) and "Minimerce" (Menzel) mercerizing and causticizing machines. In these systems the fabric after impregnation in alkali and extension is wound onto a roll. The caustic soda supply tank is mounted overhead, providing gravity feed t6 fill the impregnation tank. After the trough has been filled

Mercerization

299

it is lifted by hydraulic pistons. At the same time the rubber and steel rollers, which are arranged in a V-formation, are pressed from below against the two squeeze rollers (Fig. 9-13). The guide rollers squeeze the goods repeatedly (7 times) below the liquor surface. The high liquor fabric interchange ("sponge impregnation") thus set-up promotes extremely uniform penetration of the textile by the mercerizing liquor. Continuous contact with the guide rollers prevents widthwise shrinkage. The squeeze rollers above the impregnation trough work with a fixed, driven centre roller and two horizontally movable squeeze rollers. The goods are squeezed offto liquor uptake of about 80%. After the impregnation and batching the goods are ready for washing-off and neutralisation, washing-off is a high-temperature operation. Water is continuously sprayed on the fabric during unwinding and stabilisation occurs. The repeated immersion squeeze offpromotes rapid removal of the caustic soda solution during washing. The advantages of this system are space saving, best economic efficiency, complete process control, tight-strand fabric guidence with tension control and reduced pollution of environment. The productivity of this type of machine is about 3000 m/h with more uniform mercerization than on continuous ranges and a favourable cost/performance ratio. Among the various other developments K/ister's Ecomerce is a new system utilising the Flex Nip impregnation unit in which the treatment liquor is metered through twin banks of pipes which feed a V-shaped treatment bath (Figs. 9.15 and 9.16). Fabric passes vertically downwards at open-width through the liquor and

Figure 9-15. Ecomerce Mercerizing machine (Courtesy of Ki.i'sters).

300

Mercerization

Figure 9-16. Flex-Nip impregnation unit (Courtesy of K't]sters). the fabric is squeezed on exit from the bottom of the V-shaped low liquor capacity bath. "Ecomerce" is designed for hot mercerization in accordance with the wet-onwet process. The great ecological and economic advantage of the "Ecomerce" process is that the lye circulation contains only approximately 10-20 litre of lye. This chainless mercerizing system maintains a constant fabric tension in both warp and weft directions by the use of differentially controlled stretching zone. Kleinewefers has promoted the application of reduced pressure to the fabric immediately prior to impregnation using "vacuum cap" unit [78] to facilitate fast, more rapid and complete swelling. In core mercerizing (Fig. 9-17) the impregna-

Figure 9-17. Core mercerizing system with vertical reaction section, 1 Vacuum hood (Courtesy of Kleinewefers).

Mercerization

3 01

tion and reaction sections constitute the mercerizing compartment. The fabric is impregnated with caustic soda solution in the impregnating section with vacuum hood. At the exit squeeze rollers remove excess liquor from the fabric. Moving on, the fabric runs through the reaction section under positive guidence in the same way as in a conventional mercerizing machine. The Farmer Norton dual purpose chain mercerizing machine can be used for conventional cold lye impregnation or for hot impregnation. Higher impregnation temperatures are always followed by cooling section to ensure maximum fibre swelling. Farmer Norton (U.K.) has also developed a "Baby Mercerizer" where the fabric passes both direction through the machine. Apart from the low level investment character, this machine is useful for small scale processors. The Gollar Perfecta chain mercerizer uses two low volume impregnation units with low tension fabric guiding. The Gollar Optima Model MM chainless mercerizing range for single run treatment of woven and knitted fabrics, from pile or large-diameters batch, may be optionally used for impregnation with caustic soda dry-on-wet or wet-on-wet. Benninger's Dimensa mercerization range (Fig. 9-18) is a combination of

Figure 9-18. Dimensa mercerizing machine : cloth run diagram. 1. impregnating zone; 2. cooling and reaction zone ; 3. stenter frame ; 4. stabilizing zone ; 5. washing and neutralising zone. chainless and chain type mercerizing machine. The fabric is first impregnated with hot mercerizing lye in a very short intensive impregnation compartment followed by a cooling and reaction zone. In this area fabric guidence is on the chainless principle. This is followed by a pin stenter section or stabilising zone in which hot weak lye is introduced into the fabric using the chain principle. Ultimate stabilisation is obtained using a conventional, highly effective stabilising compartment with chainless guidence. The final section comprises a high efficiency washing and

302

Mercerization

neutralising zone consisting of Extracta compartments. Saving on strong lye, water and steam of around 30% and shorter down times are claimed. Application of foamed alkali liquor on the cloth can produce one sided mercerization and differential dyeing [79]. Some innovative open width washing units are developed in which steam, water and air are projected onto both sides of fabric in any desired combination to generate turbulance and intensive washing of the mercerized fabrics.

9.6.2 Yarn mercerizing machines Many machines for mercerizing of cotton yarn in the form of hank are developed. The yam mercerizing machine usually available may be single sided or double sided with about 5 to 10 kg per batch per pair of rollers. Almost all the yam mercerizing machines have similarity in design. Mather & Platt, Bertshinger, Kleinewefer, Noubold, Jaeggli and others are well known makers of yam mercerizing machines. Useful summeries of the state of the art of yarn mercerizing have been presented [80-82]. A typical two sided yam mercerizing machine (double arm type) is shown in Figs. 9-19 and 9-20. The machine is provided with pairs of

Figure 9-19. Yam mercerizing machine (Courtesy ofMather & Platt). rollers and one roller is fixed and the other is movable (B) (Fig. 9-20). Yarn is laid on the rollers and then caustic soda solution of 25% strength at 20~ is applied by raising the trough, F. The rollers are caused to rotate and the yarn is allowed to shrink during impregnation process to ensure penetration of alkali. It is arranged to bring the rollers somewhat closer together while they still continue rotating. Squeez-

Mercerization

r

,

(a)

9

[

303

i~.~. ---,

(b)

(c)

Figure 9-20. Line diagram of yarn on rollers (a) water trough on trolly ; (b) in stretched state ; (c) in slack state. E - Spurt pipe A - Stationary roller F - Caustic soda trough B - Movable roller G - Water trough on trolly C - Squeezing roller H - Rail D - Yarn in hank form ing roller (C) above the fixed roller also assists penetration of alkali. The yam is then stretched during which the rollers are made to move away from each other steadily thus extending the length of the skiens and stretching the yam to about its original length. The excess alkali is squeezed out. The alkali trough (F) then goes down and the water trough (G) is brought into position. The yam is washed by spraying hot and cold water through spurt pipe and the yam is still under tension and is squeezed. During mercerizing and washing the direction of the rotation of rollers and thus the skiens are periodically reversed which ensures even penetration. Finally, the supporting arms go down, tension is released, rollers come closer together, squeezing rollers are lifted up, hanks are removed from the rollers and then neutralised with acid and again washed in other apparatus. The complete cycle takes 5 min out of which alkali treatment lasts for 2.5 min. The whole cycle occurs in one complete revolution of the cam shaft. Machinery developments of interest include the cone-to-cone continuous yam mercerizing machine from Jaeggli with highly developed automatic control [83]. Various studies have been carried out to examine the potential for mercerized rotor yarns [84, 85].

9.6.3 Knit goods mercerizing machines The traditional machines used for mercerizing woven fabrics are inadequate to treat circular knit fabrics. Owing to knit structure, such fabrics are easily deformed, distorted and extended on stretching during mercerization and washing. These dis-

304

Mercerization

tortions become permanent and have adverse effect on the elastic properties of the fabric structure [86, 87]. The existing chainless mercerizing machines can be modified to suit the knit goods either by installing tension controlling device [88, 89] or by processing between conveyer belts [90, 91 ]. However, the main disadvantages of open width knit goods mercerizing are edge creases of the flattened tube and variation in several characteristics from edge to centre. To eliminate edge creasing problem air is introduced into the fabric by means of jets to balloon the tube [92] and several manufacturers have produced machines for knit goods mercerization. A typical Domier continuous mercerizing range for tubular knit goods is shown in Fig. 9-21. Fig. 9-22 shows the line diagram of similar Sperotto Rimar Knit goods

Figure 9-22. Sperotto Rimar Knit goods mercerizing range.

Mercerization

305

mercerizing range. Other machinery manufacturers offering equipment for tubular fabric mercerizing include Jaeggli [93], Caber [94], Pegg-Whiteby [95,96] etc. Dornier's tubular mercerizing range consists of a flat tubular impregnation zone followed by opening of the fabric using a circular expander with rolling friction and pressure compensation. Thus a higher spreading tension can be achieved with almost constant traction force, i.e. longitudinal tension. Motorised adjustment of circular and flat tube expanders drastically decrease the setting up times, and the water used in rinsing is recycled and passed through a heat recovery system. The sperotto Rimar MT-15 tubular cotton knitted fabric mercerizer consists of three units, an impregnation/reaction tank, a stabilisation and reduction tower and a washing and rinsing tower. To achieve tension in the width steel spreaders (called cigars) are necessary, these being placed inside the circular knit fabric enabling stretching during passage of the fabric both in the first phases of hot washing and in the following cooling phases. In case of MCS machine this frame is flat and horizontal, but the other manufacturers produce vertical frames of tubular design. Knit goods mercerization can also be done in batches by rinsing the knitted fabrics after impregnation and winding onto a perforated beam [97] or by carrying out the stabilisation by water spraying during batching after impregnation [98, 99]. Based on the tubular fabric mercerizing machine, Domier, GmbH, has developed a combinable mercerizing and bleaching concept for tubular warp knitted fabrics. The combined mercerizing/bleaching machine (Fig. 9-23) comprises im-

Figure 9-23. Combined mercerizing/bleaching machine for tubular warp knitted fabrics (Courtesy of Dornier, GmbH). pregnating, reaction and scouring sections in the mercerizing unit, and is comple-

306

Mercerization

mented by a heating and dwell zone for peroxide bleaching. A combined afterwashing section can be integrated, enabling fluorescent brighteners to be applied, including a neutralising bath and treatment trough located after the scouring unit. The metering cycles are controlled, automatically regulated and partially monitored. 9.7 Hot Mereerization

Since the beginning of the sixties, mercerization with hot caustic soda at a temperature between 60-70~ has become known as hot mercerization. In classical cold mercerizing, processing takes place at temperatures of 15 to 18~ with 31 to 35% caustic soda solution with a dwelling period of about 50 seconds. At that range cotton swells best but also fastest. The fast swelling increases the outer edge density of the fibre also rather swiftly. The viscosity of the caustic solution is also such that the penetration into the grey fabric becomes even more difficult. These result in poor mercerizing of the core and lack of uniformity as the reaction is restricted mainly to the surface of the yam or fabric. To increase the penetration into the fibre alkali stable wetting agents are necessary and are expensive. In addition, the effluent load is considerable and ecologically critical. In hot mercerization process, with caustic soda at 60-70~ the cotton swells more slowly. The outer edge density of the cotton fibre is not increased as fast as in cold mercerizing. At 60-70~

the viscosity is considerably low. Thus the penetra-

tion of alkali is extremely rapid with improved core mercerization and consequently results in better uniformity of alkali treatment. Due to higher temperature and higher diffusion into the core the dwell time of the material in the mercerizing section can be reduced from 50 sec (cold) to 20 sec (hot). In other words, the mercerizing installation for the same production speed is shorter than the one based on cold mercerizing. Fig. 9-24 shows the interrelations between the necessary dwell time and the temperature of the lye. Cold mercerizing requires about 55 sec to reach a nominal concentration of 300 g/1 on the material. Hot mercerizing at 6070~ achieves the same possible effect already in 20 seconds. In hot mercerization fabric is either padded through hot caustic solution or at ambient temperature and then passed through steamer where the fabric is steamed. The process sequence of two step hot mercerization is as follows :

Mercerization "-~

E .=

=: o

307

2

I

/"

/"

.--f "

9 / E / : ./ ,.: ,~"

/:('/ il.

.......... 5

6

Dwell time in caustic soda (sec) Figure 9-24. NaOH concentration in the textile fabric in relation to dwell time in the lye and lye temperature. 1 NaOH in material (g/l) ; 2 nominal concentration (approx. 300 g/1 NaOH) ; 3 "Flexnip" addition mercerizing 60 .... 70~ ; 4 hot mercerzing 60 .... 70~ ; 5 cold mercerzing 10 .... 15~ ; 6 dwell time in NaOH. i)

Saturation of cotton material with sodium hydroxide solution of mercerizing strength preferably under relaxed condition at temperature between 60~ and boiling point with an impregnation time ranging from 4 to 60

ii)

sec. Controlled hot stretching following the saturation. The material being stretched 2-20% of its original dimensions.

iii) Cooling the stretched material to a temperature less than 25~ which completes the swelling effect. iv) Tension controlled washing to NaOH solution of 6% (stabilisation). v)

Final washing or neutralisation under normal condition without tension being applied to the fabric.

Another possible method of hot mercerization consists of wet-in-wet impregnation of fabric immediately after washing at 95~ and a subsequent hot squeezing with high speed steam injected. The heated fabric is then impregnated with caustic solution at 30~

in the first step and 20~

in the second step. These offer the

stabilisation. Sequence is normally carried out under tension controlled condition. The various factors changing the properties of cotton due to hot mercerization are slightly different from that of conventional mercerization. The degree of swelling of individual fibre is lower at higher temperatures [ 100] as the process is an

308

Mercerization

exothermic one. The conversion of the crystalline structure from Cellulose I to Cellulose II is retarded at higher temperature and reveals a skin-core appearance [ 101 ]. Mercerizing at elevated temperatures can lead to improvements in lustre and shrinkage, has no adverse effect on strength, and under certain recommended conditions, can result in a softer handle [102-105]. However, the improvement in lustre is contradictory which may be due to the fact that the double treatment during hot mercerization produces a different response compared with that of the single stage process in cold mercerization. Temperatures upto 45~ can be used without any deterioration of lustre [ 106], but on the other hand no substantial improvement in lustre is found as a result of double mercerization [107]. The following advantages can be detailed for the hot mercerizing process : i)

Due to higher and rapid penetration of alkali, level and uniform mercerization can be obtained with lesser contact time resulting in greater productivity with more compact unit.

ii)

At higher temperature (about 100~

the shrinkage is nearly half as com-

pared to conventional mercerization and the shrinkage does not vary with dwell time. iii) The necessary and expensive alkali resistant wetting agents needed in cold mercerization are not necessary for the hot mercerizing process. Production costs are reduced and the environment load is lowered. iv) In hot mercerization the freed reactive heat is used to raise the temperature of the lye to about 40~

The further increase in heat to about 60-70~ is

done in a moderately priced heat exchanger. v)

The fibre and fabric structure become more pliable and less elastic.

vi) Higher tensile strengths are obtained due to greater degree of stretch and modification of cellulose while saturated with hot caustic soda solution. These lead to a greater orientation of molecular structure and increased cohesion between fibres. vii) Hot mercerized fabrics have better wet crease recovery than conventionally mercerized fabrics. It induces easy care finishing characteristics. Hot mercerized fabrics are flatter and less crumpled when drip dried. viii) Hot mercerized cotton fabric gives uniform application of dyes. Though the total uptake is better, but the colour yield is less pronounced than con-

Mercerization

309

ventional mercerized cotton. The colour yield decreases as the temperature of mercerizing treatment increases [ 108]. ix) The combined mercerizing and desizing, and mercerizing and scouring processes minimise the energy conservation and can lead to cost saving. In combined processes a steaming step is inserted between hot alkali saturation and stabilisation [ 109]. The steaming time is about 10 min at atmospheric pressure and about 5 sec under pressure at 130 - 140~ x)

Hot mercerizing technique also reduces the inventory and pollution problem.

9.8 Liquid Ammonia Mercerization Some twenty years ago it was found in systematic research work that a treatment of cotton fibre with liquid ammonia produces effect similar to that obtained with caustic soda. Liquid ammonia treatment was first developed by the English firm Coats in the mid-1960s. Coats developed a process with which it was possible to treat cotton yarn in a continuous manner and the firm Platt Saco Lowell Ltd., Accrington, England acquired the world wide licence for this process called "Prograde". The firm Cluett, Peabody & Co., known for its process of compressive shrinking (Sanforising), has in 1973 registered two trade marks : "Duralized' ', name for a material treated with liquid ammonia and "Sanfor-Set", name for a material treated with liquid ammonia as well as by compressive shrinkage, system Cluett. The liquid ammonia treatment is widely accepted for yams used in sewing threads and for special fabrics such as denims, corduroys, chambays, pillow material, materials made of cellulose, linen, jute and mixtures of cellulose with polyester or nylon. Among various amines, the liquid ammonia appears to be unique in its swelling action on cellulose and its effect on crystal structure. Anhydrous liquid ammonia, being smaller molecule, penetrates cellulose very rapidly and complexes with hydroxyl groups of cellulose after breaking hydrogen bonds in crystalline regions and increases distance between cellulose chain in crystallites [ 109-115]. The "Prograde" process requires the addition of selected amines to improve the original ammonia system. In this process (Fig. 9-25) yam is treated in liquid ammonia at its boiling point (-33~ or-28~

for less than a second, then subsequent

immersion of yam under tension in hot water for about 0.1 sec to produce a 40%

310

Mercerization

Supply bobbin Tension control

t

Uptake bobbin Hot water bath ~ 200~ Liquid N H 3 b a t h - 28~ Figure 9-25. Diagram of the "Prograde" process [116]. increase in tensile strength, improved lustre etc. In this process the yarn after ammonia treatment is stretched and subsequently ammonia is removed by hot water washing. "Sanforset" represents a combination of exclusive liquid ammonia processing and controlled compressive shrinkage to provide no iron characteristics without strength loss on cotton denims, plus an unusually soft and supple handle. The installation for ammonia treatment on woven and knitted fabric is shown in Fig. 9-26. Fig. 9-27 shows the fundamental construction of such an installation for the ammonia process. After the entering process (1) the material passes over five predrying cylinders (2) and then through a cooling station (3). The drying cylinders reduce the moisture content of the material to below the normal humidity, whilst the cooling station it is being cooled. The material then passes through a lock (4) into the actual treatment chamber (5) where it is impregnated with liquid ammonia in a trough (6). Finally it is squeezed off in a padder which can be determined by looping (7). The ammonia is driven off in two felt calenders. In this heat treatment some 90-95% of the ammonia is removed. The rest, which is chemically bound to

Mercerization

311

Figure 9-27. Sanfor-set treatment range (Courtesy of Monforts, Germany). the cellulose is removed in a steaming compartment (9) consisting of a pre-dwelling zone (10) and a steaming zone (11 ). The entering and exit ends of the steaming compartment are again sealed by locks (12). An after dwelling zone (13) and the take-off device (14) complete the installation. The treatment chamber is kept under slight vacuum to prevent ammonia gas from escaping. The evaporated ammonia is led to a recovery unit where it is compressed, cooled and liquidized, to be led to a storage tank for later perusal. The chemically bound ammonia is removed from the material seperately. It is possible to dissolve it in water and reuse it as a chemical or as manure. It can also be heated until it escapes and is oxidised. In all cases care is taken that no pollution occurs. The properties and swelling processes of cotton fibres after treatment with liquid ammonia are compared with conventional and hot mercerized cotton in Table 9.3. The nature of the improvement in properties resulting from the treatment of cotton with liquid ammonia depends on the conditions of its removal from the fibre. Dry removal of ammonia after treatment converts Cellulose I to Cellulose III,

312

Mercerization

TABLE 9.3 Comparison of Various Swelling Processes [ 117] Mercerization Conventional Hot Characteristics of swelling processes Speed Relatively low Relatively fast Degree High Decreases with temperature Uneven in Evenness Good tightly constructed fabrics Shrinkage forces Relatively small shrinkage forces and exhibit good extensibility in swollen condition. Properties. Lustre Large increase Improved

Liquid ammonia treatment NH3/H20

NH3/dry-steam

Very fast

Very fast

Somewhat less than hot caustic Good

Good

High shrinkage forces, may lead to difficulties in maintaining exact dimensions.

Improved Only slightly but not quite increased. as high as mercerization. Not quite as high 80-90 % Slightly or no compared improvement. to conventional mercerzation.

Dye take-up

Strongly increased

Strength

Improvement in the treatment of yam or knit goods, none in the treatment of fabric. Similar effect for all methods.

Dimensional

Similar effect by all methods. On heavy and tight fabrics,

stability

treatments have the advantage. Relatively Somewhat softer

Resistance to deformation

NH 3

Similar to Softer and hot mercer- more resilient. stiffer and hand zation harshes Distinctly Dry crease recovery angle (C.R.A.) is scarcely increase dry C.R.A. altered.

Mercerization

313

and there is hardly any increase in dye diffusion. The ammonia-water system gives an improvement in colour yield in subsequent dyeing which is only slightly less than that obtained by mercerizing [ 118]. This has been attributed to the changes in internal volume after ammonia treatment [49]. The moisture regain and water absorbancy of fibres treated with liquid ammonia are increased compared with values of untreated fibres, whereas both these parameters and dyeing properties of mercerized cotton are adversely effected by liquid ammonia treatment. "Sanforest" process produces a shrinkproof material which does not only shrink in domestic washing (as is the case with Sanforised material) but also not during drying in tumbler dryers. The treatment with liquid ammonia produces non-iron properties without loss of strength, such as one must put up with in the so-called non-iron finishing processes. At the same time the wearing properties of the material are improved ; it acquires a smoother surface, better uncreasing angles and soft and pliable handle (Table 9.4). The stretching of the fabric with 60-80% ammonia not only avoids shrinkage during the treatment but also compensates for shrinkage during scouring and bleaching. The ashing shrinkage potential is greatly reduced and fabrics treated in this manner are more resistant to shrinkage through repeated washings (Fig. 9-28). Liquid ammonia treatment prior to resin application will improve the relationship between strength and crease recovery and increase resistance in most cases to tensile, tear strength and abrasion (Table 9.5). Liquid ammonia is found to reduce fibrillation in the laundering of resin-finished goods. A combination of slack mercerization and liquid ammonia treatment for the production of cotton stretch fabrics have been reported [ 124]. It is also possible to combine liquid ammonia treatment with dyeing into a single operation as in the case of "Rapid anhydrous method". Liquid ammonia treatment is found to have less pollution problem but comparatively an expensive process. The most important cost element is the recovery of ammonia which involves refrigeration. The liquid ammonia treatment can also be applied in the pre-and after-treatments with organic solvents, since no water is used and the liquid ammonia can be largely recovered. There is no danger of the personnel being troubled by smell, etc., since the machines are hermetically sealed and the process is carried out in a closed system which is under slight vacuum.

314

Mercerization

T A B L E 9.4 M e c h a n i c a l P r o p e r t i e s o f a 1 0 0 % L i n e n F a b r i c for G a r m e n t s Properties

Conventional finishing

F i n i s h i n g with

Finishing with damp

dry c o n d e n s a t i o n

reticulation

Without

With

Without

With

NH 3

NH 3

NH 3

NH 3

- 4.20%

- 1.20%

4.00%

- 1.50%

S h r i n k a g e after 5 w a s h i n g s at 40~ Warp

- 8%

- 3.50%

- 1.10%

Weft

- 8%

- 3.50%

- 2.00%

-

Creasing angle (Warp + Weft) Dry

127 ~

170 ~

250 ~

145 ~

240 ~

Wet

124 ~

165 ~

235 ~

170 ~

265 ~

3

4.3

3.5

4.5

- 32%

- 16%

- 26%

- 10.50%

Wash-and-Wear behaviour (Monsanto)

1.5

Abrasion resistance (Accelerator 3 ' 0 0 0 r p m / 1 2 0 ' ) - 10%

8

7

6

~D 3

.=_

o

o

" i0

-. . . . . . . 211

311

411

50

611

711

811

Number of washings F i g u r e 9-28. S h r i n k a g e after m u l t i p l e w a s h i n g s ; c o t t o n f a b r i c for p r o f e s s i o n a l c l o t h i n g s , 2 9 0 g / m 2. 1 B l e a c h e d ; 2 B l e a c h e d + N H 3 ; 3 B l e a c h e d + N H 3 + Resin.

Mercerization

315

TABLE 9.5 Results of the Ammonia Treatment on Cotton Fabric [ 120-123] Grey fabric

Bleached

Bleached +

Bleached +

sample

NH 3

NH 3 + resin

Tensile strength Warp

1191.9 N

1267.5 N

1393 N

896.6 N

We~

890.7 N

864.3 N

879 N

662.2 N

Warp

16.30%

10.20%

11.20%

12.40%

Weft

11.10%

15.60%

20.80%

13.80%

Warp

50.2 N

29.3 N

30.8 N

48.3 N

Wett

48.1 N

24.0 N

28.2 N

40.2 N

Dry

183.6 ~

193.2 ~

220 ~

Wet

128.8 ~

143 ~

235 ~

4.40%

3.60%

3.90%

Elasticity

Tear strength

Creasing angle

Creasing angle (3'000 rpm/90s)

REFERENCES

1 G.E. Collins and A. M. Williams, J. Textile Inst., 14 (1923) T 287. 2 G.F. Davidson, J. Textile Inst., 27 (136) T 112. 3 H. Ficher, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 507. 4 P. Gr~ing, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 510. 5 J.O. Warwicker, R. Jeffries, R. L. Cobran and R. N. Robinson, Shirley Institute Pamphlet no. 93, Manchester (1966). 6 C. R. Nodder, J. Textile Inst., 13 (1922) 61. 7 H. F. Coward and L. Spencer, J. Textile Inst., 14 (1923) T 32. 8 R.W. Willows and A. C. Alexander, J. Textile Inst., 13 (1922) T 237. 9 R. Bartunex, Das Papier, 9 (1955) 254. 10 R. Bartunex, Das Papier, 16 (1962) 568.

316

Mercerization

11 M. Sadov, M. Korchagin and A. Matetsky, Chemical Technology of Fibrous Materials, Mir Pub., Moscow, 1973, p 211. 12 R Bartunex, Kolloid Z., 146 (1956) 35. 13 W. D. Bancroft and J. B. Chalkin, Textile Res. J., 4 (1934) 119. 14 W. D. Bancroft and J. B. Chalkin, J. Phys. Chem., 39 (1935) 1. 15 16 17 18

S. M. Neale, J. Textile Inst., 20 (1921) T 373. J. T. Marsh, Mercerzing, Chapman and Hall, London, 1951. J. D'Ans and A. Jaeger, Cellulosechem, 6 (1925) 137. C. F. Goldhwait, Textile Res. J., 35 (1965) 987.

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

G. Lal, Textile Res. J., 44 (1974) 313. T. Okano and A. Sarko, J. Poly. Sci., 29 (1984) 4175. T. Okano and A. Sarko, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 30 (1985) 325. H. Nishimura and A. Sarko, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 33 (1987) 855. H. Nishimura and A. Sarko, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 33 (1987) 867. C. Steinbrinck, Biol. Zbl., 26 (1906) 657. J. M. Preston, Trans. Faraday Soc., 29 (1933) 65. G. M. Venkatesh and N. E. Dweltz, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 20 (1976) 273. Handbook of Fibre Science and Technology, Vol. 1, Part A (Eds. M. Lewin and S. B. Sellow) Marcell Dekker, Inc., New York and Basel, 1983, p. 1373. K. Hess and C. Trogus, Z. Phys. Chem., B 43 (1939) 309. K. Hess and C. Trogus, Z. Phys. Chem., B 12 (1931) 381. K. Hess, C. Trogus and Schwarzkopf, Z. Phys. Chem., A 162 (1932) 187. J. Blackwell, K. H. Gardner, F. J. Kolpak, R. Minke and W. B. Claffey, ACS Symposium Series No. 141, Ch. 19, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington. D. C.,

28 29 30 31

1980, p 315. 3 2 C. Trogus and K. Hess, Cellulosechem, 15 (1934) 1. 33 J. B. Chalkin, Z. Phys. Chem., 40 (1936) 27. 34 H. Sobue, H. Kiessig and K. Hess, Z. Phys. Chem., B 43 (1939) 309. 35 36 37 38 39

K. Hess and C. Trogus, Z. Elektrochem, 42 (1936) 696. J. Chedin and A. Marsaudon, Makromol Chem., 15 (1955) 115. J. Chedin and A. Marsaudon, Makromol Chem., 20 (1956) 57. J. Chedin and A. Marsaudon, Makromol Chem., 33 (1959) 195. H. J. Philips, M. L. Nelson and H. M. Ziffle, Textile Res. J., 17 (1947) 585.

Mercerization

317

40 R. S. Orr, A. W. Burgis, J. J. Creely, T. Mares and J. N. Grant, Textile Res. J., 29 (1959) 355. 41 A. Sakthivel, Diss. Abstr. Int., B 49 (5) (1988) 1744. 42 A. Turbak and A. Sakthivel, CHEMTECH., 20 (7) (1991) 444. 43 L. Fourt and A. M. Sookne, Textile Res. J., 21 (1951) 469. 44 L. Fourt and H. J. Elliot, Textile Res. J., 25 (1955) 11. 45 46 47 48

L. Fourt and A. M. Sookne, Amer. DyestuffRep., 43 (1954) 304. O. Mecheels, Melliand Textilber., 13 (1932) 645. D. Bechter, Textil Praxis Int., 31 (1976) 1431. D. Bechter, Textil Praxis Int., 33 (1977) 178.

49 R. S. Orr, A. W. Burggs, E. R. Andrew and J. N. Grant, Textile Res. J., 27 (1959) 349. 50 H. Wakeham and N. Spicer, Textile Res. J., 21 (1951) 187. 51 H. Wakeham and N. Spicer, Textile Res. J., 25 (1955) 585. 52 B.R. Shelat, T. Radhakrishnan and B. V. Iyer, Textile Res. J., 30 (1960) 836. 53 B.R. Shelat, T. Radhakrishnan and B. V. Iyer, Textile Res. J., 29 (1959) 322. 54 S. H. Zeronian, K. W. Alger and K. E. Cabradilla, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 20 (1976) 1689. 55 J. J. Herbert, L. L. Muller, R. J. Schmidt and M. L. Rollins, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 17 (1973) 585. 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

J. W. S. Hearle and J. T. Sparrow, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 24 (1979) 1465. S.H. Zeronian, H. Kawabata and K. W. Alger, Textile Res. J., 60 (1990) 179. C. F. Goldhwait, Textile Res. J., 47 (1977) 632. L. Cheek, A. Wilcock and L. Hsu, Textile Res. J., 57 (1987) 690. S. A. Heap, Colourage, 23 (3) (1976) 28. J. H. Morton, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 92 (1976) 149. G. Goldfinger, Textile Res. J., 47 (1977) 633. K. Bredereck, Melliand Textilber, 59 (1978) 648.

64 J. K. Skelly, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 76 (1960) 469. 65 K. Bredereck, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 498. 66 L. Cheek and L. Roussel, Textile Res. J., 59 (1989) 478. 67 H. Herzog, Textilberichte, 1 (1920) 136. 68 I. Lambrinou, Melliand Textilber., 63 (1975) 526.

318 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Mercerization J. Kopezynski and A. Wlochowicz, Textile Res. J., B6 (1966) 967. A. J. Turner, J. Textile Inst., 40 (1949) 857. S.K. Batra, Other Long Fibres, Marcell Dekker Inc. New York, 1985, p 727. J. O. Warwicker, J. Poly. Sci., Part A-2, 4 (1966) 571. H. S. S. Sharma, T. W. Fraser, D. McCall, N. Shield and G. Lyons, J. Textile Inst., 86 (4) (1995) 539. W. Weltzien, Textilber., 7 (1926) 338. R. S. Bhagwat, Colourage, 38 (2) (1991) 61. S. Grief, Melliand Textilber., 72 (9) (1991) 753. Anon., Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 527. W. Packschies, Textil Praxis, 31 (1976) 1170, 1179. J. D. Turner, W. A. Blanton and L. Kravetz, Textile Res. J., 52 (1982) 73. E. Gassmann, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 514. G. Lombardi, Colourage, 32 (7) (1985) 23. J. R. Modi and A. M. Patel, ATIRA Technical Digest, 19 (1) (1985) 4. Anon., Int. Textile Bull., Dyg/Ptg/Fing., (1982) 309. L. H. Hunter and S. Smuts, SWATRI Tech. Report, 390 (1978). P. K. Hari, Textile Res. J., 55 (1985) 630. H. E. Bille, W. Thoniog and G. Smidt, Amer. DyestuffRep., 61 (1972) 56. P. F. Greenwood, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 103 (1987) 342. P.F. Greenwood, Br. Knitting Ind., (July 1972) 77. H. Weber, Modem Trends in Mercerization (Benninger, 1972). Anon., Industrie Textile, 1061 (Nov 1976) 633. Anon., Dyer, 161 (1979) 500. Anon., Knitting Times (15 Aug 1977) 24. Anon., Int. Textile Bull., Dyg/Ptg/Fing (1981) 104. Anon., Int. Textile Bull., Dyg/Ptg/Fing (1985) 71. Anon., Melliand Textilber., 66 (1985) 138. Anon., Dyer, 169 (10) (1984) 12. P.F. Greenwood, Textile Inst. and Ind., 14 (1976) 373. Lindauer Dornier GmbH, L'Industrie Textile (1976) 1062,707. E. Worth, Textilbetrieb, 95 (1977) 56. D. Bechter, D. Fiebig and S. A. Heap, Textilveredlung, 9 (1974) 265.

Mercerization 101 102 103 104 105

319

E.K. Boylston and J. J. Hebert, Textile Res. J., 49 (1979) 317. D. Bechter, Textil Praxis, 31 (1976) 1431. D. Bechter, Textil Praxis, 33 (1978) 75. D. Bechter, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 490. D. Bechter and G. Bucher, Textil Praxis, 39 (1984) 680.

106 N. Ahmed and K. D. Tahir, Textile Horizon, 5 (2) (1985) 20. 107 J. R. Modi and A. M. Patel, ATIRA Tech. Digest, 19 (1) (1985) 4. 108 D. Bechter, Textilveredlung, 21 (1986) 256. 109 K. Bredereck and R. Pfundter, Textilveredlung, 10 (1975) 92. 110 K. Bredereck and R. Weckmann, Melliand Textilber., 58 (1977) 310. 111 K. Bredereck and R. Weckmann, Melliand Textilber., 59 (1978) 137. 112 K. Bredereck, Melliand Textilber., 59 (1977) 310. 113 K. Bredereck, Melliand Textilber., 60 (1979) 1027. 114 K. Bredereck, Textil Praxis, 36 (1981) 1010. 115 K. Bredereck and A. Saafar, Melliand Textilber., 63 (1982) 510. 116 R.M. Gaily, Conf. Proc. in Liquid Ammonia Treatment of Cellulose Textiles, Shirley Institute, Manchester, England, Nov 19, 1970, pp 34. 117 K. Bredereck, Textilveredlung, 13 (1978) 498. 118 T. Wakida et al., Textile Res. J., 111 (1995) 154. 119 J. A. Calamari, S. P. Schreiber and A. S. Cooper, Textile Chem. Color., 13 (1971) 61. 120 M. Raheel and M. D. Lien, Textile Res. J., 52 (1982) 493. 121 M. Raheel and M. D. Lien, Textile Res. J., 52 (1982) 555. 122 M. Raheel, Textile Res. J., 53 (1983) 557, 639. 123 B.W. Jones, J. D. Turner and D. O. Lubarello, Textile Res. J., 50 (1980) 165. 124 USP 4345908 (1980).

Chapter 10 OPTICAL BRIGHTENING AGENTS 10.1 Introduction

Textile fibres do not appear perfectly white due to the presence of certain coloured impurities. During chemical bleaching, coloured impurities are either destroyed or decoloured by oxidation or reduction. Over-bleaching may reduce the fibre strength. Even well bleached fabrics possess a slight yellowish appearance. This yellowish hue of the materials can be eliminated by whitening with optical brighteners or fluorescent brightening agents (OBA or FBA). Sometimes blueing agents are also used. In 'blueing' the initial yellowish shade of the textiles is covered by the blue dye and a bluish white results. However, the corresponding blue dye itself absorbs in visible light and thus the total amount of reflected light is smaller than in the case ofunblued material, so that the blued mjaterial is less bright i.e., it is dull, or greyish. The optical brighteners counteract the yellowness of the fabric by increasing the reflection of blue light rays. They convert invisible short-wave ultraviolet rays of sunlight into visible blue light and has a degree of whiteness which is comparatively more intense. Fig. 10-1 illustrates a comparison of the possible spectral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

80

~

.

.

.

A

.

.

.

.

.

.......

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

:...i_-_.:,:-

' ...........

60

""

q~ 40

'2

300

.......

400

1

500

...............

I ....

600

?00

Nanometers (nm) Figure 10-1. Reflectance of a bleached cotton fabric (A), after adding a blue tint (B) and after adding a fluorescent brightener (C) [1 ]. reflectances of a fabric after bluing and optical whitening. The 100% reflectance

321

Optical Brightening Agents

which represents a pure white light is shown as a straight line parallel with the horizontal co-ordinate. Curve A which represents the bleached cotton deviates from the ideal, while the fabric with blue tint (Curve B) is apparently whiter although there is some loss of intensity and less reflectance. The fabric treated with whitening agent (Curve C) improves the distribution over the spectral reflectances and also add to the total amount of light reflected, thus giving whiteness of outstanding brighmess. One possible reason for high reflectance in the visible region is that the fluorescing material does not absorb light in the 400-500 nm region and exhibits the effects of emission. The whitening effect given by the optical brightener is thus an additive effect, while that produced by 'bluing' is a substractive effect.

10.2 Chemical Constitution of Optical Brighteners The production and consumption of optical brighteners are constantly increasing and the annual increase is amounted to about 10-12%. In addition to textile, detergent and paper industries (Table 10.1), optical brightening agents are also used TABLE 10.1 Consumption of Optical Brightening Agents Branch

Consumption (%)

Detergent mixture Paper

40 30

Textiles Synthetic fibres & plastics

25 5

for the brightening of feather, fats, gelatine, wood shavings and sand dust, for the brightening of paints, leather, furs, straw and in the photographic industries. Fluorescent brightening agents are organic compounds, which when present on textile fibres, exhibit fluorescence. FBAs resemble dyes in all respects except that they have no visible colour and are thus called colourless dye. They are substances normally having a system of conjugated double bonds [2] and must be essentially planer and should contain electron donating groups such as OH, NH 2 etc. and be from electron accepting groups such as NO 2, -N=N - etc. Table 10.2 contains a selection of important basic structures with reference to the main field of their derivatives. The majority of the compounds are built up from aromatic and heteroaromatic structural elements which are reconnected together either by direct

322


TABLE 10.2 Chemical Constitution of Some Important Optical Whiteners [3, 4] Fields of application General basic structures Substituents and substrates N HO3S N -R=H -alkyl, Textiles, R , \ (~ ~N_g__~___~._.C/__~~___N __ j ~y 1~2 ' SO3U detergents //~ // Polyamide R2~ N / x~/~ ~ ~/~ \N//&" R1 ~ < ~ (T,W). Textiles, detergents,

"SO3H

4, 4'-bis-(),-triceol-zoyl)stilbene2-2' disulphonic acids

melts, plasticsSpinning solutions/R~/O~

/0\//~

R

-X=~~(~~=" "'b" " ~

H ~t- @

Polyamide (T,W), ~K/' ~v , / ~"r~ -X-~N~ R Polyester (T,W,S), Polyvinyl chloride .OlS-toenzoxazo~y~). . . . . . -R=-H,-C(CH3)2, u H H (K!, Polystyrene (K!, derivatives ~ 3/~-----~z"~ll -~:C- -C:C---(@ _.r~176 try), -~- ~k.,,l-I 3 l--I H lnacetate(T,S). CH3 R H CH CH COOH Textiles, detergents, SpinR - t= ' 3" ~Z2~,i ning solutions/melts, plas~... /~..--~ .. ,-, , , , ~ % ~T ~,~TT r~T~ ,~,-,r,~T tics f" "~ ~'(K, -1~2-- IN~__~, " , ~ t-'l-13Gl-12%kYk)l-1 Polyamide (T,W), Polyester R.Z~/Ak..n/J,,,., ~ ~ N .. ~H, x, (S), Polyacrylonitrile (T), "'3 --'- t9 .N--< / N ~ / ~ . ~/~'~'-,./ PVC (K) Coumarins -R3=-N(-~ N , - N I )--N . _~ Textile, detergents R. -R1= -N, -C1 Wool (T), Silk (T), Triac- R ~ / N .~_~R etate (T), Polyacrylonitrile // '~ 2 -R2=C1, -SO3H, -SO2NH 2. -SO2NH, SO2CH 3 (T), Polyamide (T,W). -R3,-R4=-H, A l k y l - ~ Pyrazolins -Rs=H, -C1 Textiles O, (f---~R -Rt:alkyl, -(CH2)3N(CH3) 2 Polyester (T), Polyacrylonitrile ( T ) , ~ 2 Sec. acetate (T), Triacetate (T). R~-TO~,~. - R 2 = - O alkyl,-SO3H , -NHCOCH 3 Naphthalimides -R~=CN,-COO alkyl,-C1 Textiles, detergents 411 ~-&O/N/-~I.t Polyamide (T,W), Polyester R ~-~R -R2+R3 = (T,W). R'~~N / H I -R3,-Rs=H, -alkyl R2 -R4=H , - a l k y l - ~ ~ 2-styryl-benzoxazoles and naphthoxazoles H O..~-R~ Textiles, Spinning solutions/melts alkyl -SO2CH 3 Polyester (T), Polyamides (S). 4-phenyl-4'-benzoxazolylstilbene

T = Textiles, W = Detergents, P = Paper, S = Spinning solutions, K = Plastic.


323

bonds or by ethylene bridges. These latter serve as n-electron bridges and connect the resonance systems without interrupting the continuous conjugation essential to the whitener molecule (Table 10.2). By far the greater number of compounds are derivatives of stilbene, benzidine, benzthiozole, benzaminazole, benzoxazole, coumarin, pyrazolines etc. [3 ]. About 80% of all optical brightening agents produced are derived from stilbene. The world market now carries more than 2500 trade marks, representing 200 various products belonging to more than 15 structural types

[4]. 10.3 Mechanism of Fluorescent Whitening When a specimen transforms a part of the absorbed light into light of another wavelength instead of into heat (as is the case with normal dyed specimens), it is called fluorescent specimen. FBAs absorb ultraviolet light in 300-400 nm region from day light and emit it in the visible region (400-460 nm) at the blue-violet of the spectrum. The emitted blue light compensates for yellow tints of fibres and at the same time they also increase the luminosity of the goods. The emission spectrum is characteristics of a particular agent on a given substrate. Depending on the energy distribution of the spectrum, the fluorescent light emitted is blue-violet, blue, blue-green [5]. According to Stoke's law the shape of the fluorescene band can be predicted from the shape and the position of the absorption band, and the colour of the fluorescence can thus be determined. The relative distribution of the emitted light within the emission band is also important. The mechanism of optical brightening is also explained on the basis of quantum theory of light and electronic structure of atoms and molecules [6, 7]. In the fluorescent substance molecules which have absorbed radiation (light) of short wavelength can pass into an excited state of higher energy. These excited molecules then return to the ground state of lower energy with re-emission of light quanta only slightly smaller than those absorbed i.e., of lower energy and longer wavelength (visible light). The average mean life of excited molecules is 10-s to 10-9 sec and in general the shorter this life the less difference will be there between the wavelength of fluorescence and emitted light and greater will be the fluorescence as there will be less time for dissipation of energy as heat.

10.4 Factors Influencing the Functions of Optical Whiteners Optical brighteners are applied to substrate as a seperate after-treatment process

324


or are incorporated into bleaching and finishing baths. Since the fluorescent brightening agents behave like dyestuffs, their efficiency and effectiveness are influenced by various factors that are important in application. 10.4.1 Substrate The brightening effect is dependent on the nature of the substrate. For example, a very strong reflectance is observed with whitened cotton, but it is weaker in viscose and wool. All synthetic fibres absorb strongly in the near ultraviolet region. Since the fluorescence produced by optical brightening agent is added to reflectance of the substrate, the maximum fluorescence effect is achieved on those substrate whose ability to absorb the ultraviolet region is suppressed by chemical brightening. In the absence of sufficient affinity of brighteners, the application results in yellow to green colour yield. 10.4.2 Saturation

There is a saturation limit for each optical whitening agent. Above certain concentration on the fibre a yellow colour is superimposed on the flourescence resulting in decrease in whiteness. This is because at higher concentration of brighteners a protective optical layer (filter) is formed on the surface of the substrate which prevents the extinction of the molecules of the brightening agent in deeper layers (so called self-quenching, concentration quenching of fluorescence or filter effect). 10.4.3 Method of application The saturation limit of an optical brightening agent, however, is also dependent on the method of application to the substrate. Usually exhaust application process gives higher whiteness value then it does when applied by padding technique for a given amount of whitener. 10.4.4 Time

Generally optical brightening agents have high rate of exhaustion on the substrate and therefore great care is to be taken to avoid unlevel application. Slow exhaustion rate and increased migration time is necessary to produce level whiteness on the fabric. 10.4.5 Temperature

The optimum temperatures of optical brightening agents on cellulosic fibres are usually between 40 and 60~ and further rise in temperature tend to lower the exhaustion. However, for synthetic fibres higher temperature is needed for good penetration of the brighteners.


325

10.4.6 pH The chemical stability, solubility and affinity of optical brightening agents depend on effective pH value in solution. For example, for wool and polyamide fibres, optimum pH is on the acidic side for better exhaustion.

10.4.7 Salt Generally salt is added in the application bath to promote and also to control the rate of exhaustion of the brighteners on cellulosic fibres.

10.5 Application of Optical Brighteners The application of fluorescent brightening agent depends on the kinds of fibres on which it is applied and accordingly can be classified as direct (or substantative), disperse and cationic types. The direct brightening agents are mostly derivative of 4, 4'-diaminostilbene-2, 2'-disulphonic acid and are used mainly for the brightening of cotton, paper, viscose, linen and polyamides. Acid optical brightening agents contain free sulpho groups and serve mainly for the brightening of silk and wool. Basic optical brighteners contain amino groups and include mainly r and pyrazoline types. They are used primarily for the brightening of natural and synthetic polyamides. Disperse optical brightening agents are water insoluble compounds of various structures and are used mainly for the polyester, cellulose acetate and polyacrylonitrile. They are mainly triazolyl stilbenes, bis (benzoxazolyl), ethylene r

etc. Often mixtures of optical brightening agents with violet and

blue/green type are used to get a natural white fluorescent effect [8], Cation -active optical brighteners are compounds mainly of the methane ethanine type, which are used mainly for the brightening ofpolyacrylonitrile fibres. Optical brightening agents may be obtained as powders, pastes, liquid waterinsoluble forms or stable dispersion. The stabilised dispersions are suitable only for insoluble disperse optical brighteners. Generally the liquors of the brightening agents are not stable to light and should not be stored for a long time or exposed to light. They undergo cis-trans isomerisation in addition on exposure to light resulting in a compound which has practically no fluorescent effect. They also accelerate the photodegradation of textile materials on exposure to sunlight. An optical brightener should not be used on dyed materials because it flattens the shade. Optical brightening agents are applied to textiles at the time of scouring, bleaching or finishing. When chlorite bleaches are used anti-chlorinating measures must

326


be taken. The fluorescent brighteners should be stable in the bleaching bath and also should be stable on the fibre at the thermosoling temperature in the case of polyester. In continuous processing when sodium chlorite is the bleaching agent, then fluorescent brighteners must be applied after bleaching in the wash-off, but with hydrogen peroxide bleaching it can be included in the peroxide bleach liquor. Fluorescent brighteners can be applied to cotton materials prior to resin treatment or it can be added to the resin formulation bath. However, proper selection of catalyst is needed since certain catalysts impair the light fastness of the treated fabric. Sometimes optical brightening agents are added during polymerisation of synthetic fibres to impart a reddish to neutral bluish tinge to fibre [9, 10]. Mass brightened material gives equal fluorescence intensity throughout the fibre, while the textile brightening effects have a ring of bright fluorescence with little intensity in the centre of the cross-section. For blended fabrics, a mixture of two whiteners that are suitable for both the component fibres is used. 10.5.1 Cellulosic fabrics

Optical brightening agents when applied to cellulosic fibres behave like direct cotton dyes and their uptake is influenced by temperature, electrolyte concentration and liquor ratio etc. The links between fibre and brightener involve hydrogen bonds, Van der Waal's forces and interactions of the dipoles of the brightener. The brightener penetrates the fibre in a monomolecular form, and having expelled a part of water in it, aggregates there, and takes on a greater volume, where it can no longer so easily leave the interior of the fibre. Optical brighteners can be applied on cellulosic fibres either by exhaust or padding methods. In the exhaust method, goods are entered into the cold liquor containing optical brightener (0.5-0.6%, o.w.f.) and electrolyte (5 g/l) and then the temperature of the bath is raised to optimum slowly over a period of 15 min. When required temperature (depending upon the brighteners used) is reached, a further 30 min of running is sufficient for complete exhaustion. When padding methods are used, the fabric is padded with a solution containing 0.05 to 4 g/1 brightening agent in a two-bowl mangle at room temperature keeping 80-100% expression. The material is dried and stored in dark. To achieve good diffusion, full fluorescence and complete development of the brightener, a subsequent heat treatment on stenter or in curing unit may be given.


327

The light fasmess properties of the direct optical brighteners used for cellulosic materials are medium i.e. of the order of 2-3. Other fasmess properties are good to water and washing at 40~

medium to good to washing at 95~ and medium to

heat treatment at temperatures above 150~ and to sanforising. 10.5.2 Woollen fabric

Wool fibres have amphoteric properties rendering them capable of combining with both acidic and basic substances. However, wool contains more number of basic side groups which enable them to combine with acid type optical brighteners containing sulphonir or carboxylic groups. The most common brighteners for application to wool are a selected range of dastriazine derivatives with certain pyrazoline derivatives. The mechanism involves salt formation with amino groups of the polypeptide chains in the wool structure. In addition to this hydrogen bonds are also formed depending on the structure of the brighteners. The goods are treated with a solution containing 0.02 to 0.2% fluorescent brightening agent and 2-4% acetic acid (40%) or 1-2% formic acid (85%) to maintain the pH of the exhaust bath 3 to 5. The treatment time is about 20 rain at 40~

A final

rinsing with water completes the process. Optical brighteners are often applied to wool with a reductive bleacher under acid or alkaline conditions. Wool after peroxide bleaching, a reductive bleaching is carried out for 1-3 h at 50-55~

during which optical brightening agent may be

added. It is usually added into the neutral reducing bath after 75% of the reduction time. When all the dithionite has been consumed, a 2% formic or acetic acid is added to complete the exhaustion of the whitening agent. Brightening in an acid bath alone does not give much good results. The main problem of wool is its creamy colour and yellowing on exposure to sunlight. Both the bleaching and fluorescent brightening of wool accelerate the photo-yellowing and also photo-tendering [ 11 ]. These yellowing and tendering of wool have been shown to depend on the spectral distribution of light (affected by glass etc.), the pH [12], the moisture content of wool, the temperature [13] and the nature of chemical pre-treatment [14]. Photo-tendering is caused by oxidative and hydrolytic cleavage of the protein chains and the disulphide bonds [15]. The anionic degradation of protein fibres has been associated with photochemical reactions of the tryptophan, histidine and tyrosine residues [16, 17]. The fluorescent

328


brightening agents present on the fibre absorb uv light and thus accelerates the yellowing. The chemical structures of chromophores found during photo-yellowing have been reported, with amino acid dityrosine being identified on irradiated wool [18, 19]. A number of chemical treatments have been suggested to reduce the photoyellowing of bleached and whitened wool. Tetrakishydroxymethyl phosphonium chloride, thiourea (alone or as a formaldehyde condensate) and some mercaptans and reducing agents [20, 21 ] and the reaction of wool with sulfamic acid [22] have been shown to offer some protection against photo-yellowing, particularly on wet wool. 10.5.3 Silk fabric

In contrast to wool, in silk the acid nature of the proteinic substance (fibrion) predominates, which can permit whitening with acid and basic type of brightening agents. However, for silk direct brightening agents are preferred. After degumming of silk, a peroxide bleaching is given and the brightener is added in the subsequent reductive bleaching bath containing 0.5 to 4% optical brightener and 2-5 g/1 reducing agent and treated for 45 rnin at 70~ Then the pH of the bath is adjusted to 3.5 with formic acid and the treatment is continued for about 15 rain, rinsed warm and cold. Silk is generally brightened by exhaust method because higher degree of whiteness can be obtained in this case than by padding method. In the padding method, fabric is padded with a solution of 5 to 20 g/1 of optical brightening agent along with 1 g/1 wetting agent at room temperature, squeezed to approximately 100% pick-up and then dried at 100 to 120~ Like wool, yellowing is also a problem with silk. Fluorescent brightening agent accelerates the photo-degradation of silk, resulting in greater yellowing and losses in strength, especially in the presence of moisture [23-25]. 10.5.4 Polyester fabric

Polyester fibres have no affinity for the water soluble optical brightening agents and thus water insoluble compounds are applied to polyester from dispersion in the same manner as disperse dyes by the formation of a solid solution in the fibre. These brightener particles penetrate into the fibre in a state of molecular dispersion and they are held in the fibre by Van der Waal's forces. A part of the finely dis-


329

persed particle forms a molecular solution in the bath. Only this proportion which has dissolved in the bath penetrates into the outer layer of the polyester, from where it diffuses slowly into the interior of the fibre. Diffusion within the interior of the fibre is essentially a function of the temperature and the concentration of the brightener in the interfacial zone. In carrier method of application by exhaust process the polyester fabric is entered into a bath containing 0.5 to 2.0% optical brightening agent, 1 g/1 dispersing agent, 2-4 g/1 suitable carrier and acetic acid to maintain the pH around 5 to 6. The goods are run through the solution at 40~ for 15 to 30 min, the temperature of the bath is then raised to boiling in 30 min, and the treatment is continued for at least 90-120 min at the boil. Compounds such as diphenyl and chlorinated hydrocarbons are suitable carriers. The goods are then rinsed with hot water and dried. In the thermofixation process the fabric is padded with 5-25 g/1 dilute suspension of optical brightening agent at room temperature with a liquor pick-up of approximately 50%, dried at about 120~ in an open stenter and then heated for 30-60 sec at 190-200~

Finally, the goods are washed and dried. This process

makes possible higher thoroughput of material with superior dimensional stability. In the pad-steam process the goods after padding with a liquor pick-up of about 80% are steamed at 100-101 ~ for 2-3 h or under pressure (1-1.5 kg/cm 2) for 2530 min. Alternatively, the goods may be thermofixed by superheated steam at 150170~ for 3-5 min.

10.5.5 Nylon fabric Optical brightening agents of acid dyeing type are applied to nylon from an acid bath. Direct cotton dyeing type of brighteners vary in their affinity for polyamides. Cationic optical brighteners show affinity at low temperature, but maximum yield and fastness is not developed below 70~ [26]. The disperse optical brighteners are applied to nylon at boil in presence of dispersing agent (0.5-1%) at pH 5 to 6. They exhibit better light fasmess (3-4) and washfasmess (4-5 at 60~

then acid dye type

of brighteners. With acid dyeing type, the goods are treated on jiggers or winch beck with a solution containing high affinity type brighteners (0.05 to 0.5%) and acetic or formic acid (pH 3.8 to 4.5) at 40~ for 10 min and then the temperature is raised to boil in 15 min and the treatment is continued for 30 min. The goods are rinsed and

330


dried. The light fasmess of the anionic product is of the order of 1-2 but yellowing does not occur as in wool fibre. Nylon can be brightened by the hydrosetting process in HT equipment. The bath is set with 0.2-2% optical brightening agent, 0.5% sodium hydrosulphite, 0.1-0.5 g/1 sequestering agent and 0.5 g/1 surface active agent. The bleached goods are treated at 40~ for 10 min and hydrosetting is carried out for 15-20 rain at 120-130~ (120~ for nylon 6, 130~ for nylon 6, 6). The treatment liquor is cooled to 80-85~ and then the goods are rinsed and dried. The improved light ( = 3) and wash ( ~ 5) fastness can be obtained. Selected acid and disperse type of optical whitening agents can be applied to nylon by continuous or semi-continuous process. In the pad-roll process, fabric is padded with 10-20 g/1 optical brightening agents at 50-70~ with padding mangle expression at 60-70% and then kept in a chamber for 1-2 h at 90~

Acid condi-

tions are maintained by adding ammonium chloride in the pad-bath solution. In the pad-steam process, the padded goods are steamed for about 3 min at a steaming temperature of 105~ In the acid-shock process, the fabric after padding with cold solution containing brighteners are then treated in a boiling bath containing formic acid in an open width soaper, washed and dried. Certain acid type brighteners (pyrazolines and 1 : 2 : 3 triazoles) can be applied to polyamide by the thermosol process at 170-190~ medium.

Heat fastness during heat treatment and fixation, however, is

10.5.6 Polyacrylonitrile fabric The acrylic fibres are normally white, but variations in degree of yellowness and stability to thermal degradation with fibres from different sources can be minimised by application of whitening agents [27, 28]. The Neochrome process involves applying brightener during the gel stage of fibre production. Though chlorite bleaching removes yellowness but certain fibres such as Courtelle cannot be bleached with chlorite because of subsequent degradation of the fibre. Furthermore, the nature of copolymer also determines the affinity of fibre for various optical brighteners. Mostly, polyacrylonitrile containing anionic groups confers an affinity for cationic type optical brighteners. These types of brighteners have either a heterocyclic nitrogen or external amino group with cationic character. In the exhaust method, the fibre material is introduced into a bath containing cationic brightening agent and 3-5% formic acid (85%) to maintain the pH 3 to 4 at

Optical Brightening Agents about 70~

331

The liquor is then brought to the boil in 30 min and held at that tem-

perature for a further period of 30 min. The bath is finally cooled and the material is washed or rinsed. The one bath two stage bleaching and brightening of acrylic fibres is quite popular. In this procedure, the material is boiled with chlorite, using oxalic acid as an accelerator for about 30 min, the bath is cooled to 80~ and excess chlorine is eliminated with sodium hydrosulphite. In the second phase, the optical brightening agent is added and the bath is again heated to the boil in 30 min and the material is treated at this temperature for further 30 min. The material is then worked up in the usual manner. Non-ionic brightening agent can also be taken up by the fibre from suspensions. The fibre material is treated with a solution containing disperse type brighteners and 2% formic acid (85%) (pH 3 to 4) at 100~ for 30 to 40 rain. Exhaustion can be accelerated by raising the temperature of the bath to 110~ There are certain type of acrylic fibres that can be whitened by padding techniques. The three methods of padding are pad-roll, pad-steam and acid-shock process. In the pad-roll process, the fabric is padded with a solution containing optical brightening agent, formic acid, dispersing agent and thickening agent, at room temperature to a mangle pick-up of 80-85%, batched, stored on roll in a chamber set at 100-105~

for 2 h. In the pad-steam process, the padded fabric is steamed in a

saturated steam for 5 min at 105~ In the acid shock process, the fluorescent brightening agents are applied to the material by mechanical pick-up and white is developed by acid treatment in a seperate bath.

10.5.7 Cationic dyeable polyester fabric Cationic dyeable polyester possesses anionic group and hence cationic brighteners can be applied as in the case of acrylic fibres. However, the effect of cationic brighteners on acrylic fibres cannot be reproduced on anionically modified polyester [29]. This proves the fibre-brightener inter-relationship. Disperse brightener can also be applied to cationic dyeable polyester. The optical brightening agent can be applied to cationic dyeable polyester in a chlorite bath. The brighteners are applied at 98~ in presence of carrier based on dichlorophenyl or biphenyl. Suitable brighteners are chlorite resistant types based on benzofuranyl and benzoxazoyl benzimidazole. Certain brighteners can be applied by thermosol method at 200~

332


Soft disperse brighteners can be applied at 160~

The light fastness ratings of

cationic brighteners on cationic dyeable polyester are higher than on acrylic. Nonionic brighteners give poor ratings than on normal polyester. 10.5.8 Polyvinyl chloride fabric The low melting types of PVC permit a maximum temperature of 60~ during optical brightening and thus carrier must be used in the application bath. The heat resistant types of PVC can be brightened either in presence of carrier at 65 to 75~ or without carrier in a boiling bath. Brightening is generally done during bleaching with sodium chlorite and optical brighteners, carrier, dispersing agent and crosslinking agents are added in the bleach bath. The bleaching bath is heated to 55~ and worked at this temperature for about 45 minutes. The material is then washed with cold water.

10.5.9 Other synthetic polymers and plastics The use of fluorescent brighteners in whitening of polyolefins, polycarbonates and poly (methyl methacrylate) are reported [30]. The increasing demand for many new applications for plastics and trends for recycling have created a demand for the use of special optical brightening agent. Long life expectations for children's playing things, refrigerators and rainwear need a long life of optical brightening agents. New stilbene derivatives and addition of stabilisers improve the brilliance and high long life. These compounds also prevent yellowing of plastics during thermosol processing, giving a better white based material.

10.5.10 Blended fibre fabrics The polyester/cotton blended fabrics can be optically brightened to the same degree of intensity and brilliance as pure cotton fabric. Normally, after application of disperse type optical brighteners for polyester fibre, either by exhaustion or padding method, the usual direct optical brighteners are applied to cotton by exhaust method. An intermediate treatment with hydrosulphite is necessary to remove polyester brightener deposited mechanically on cotton portion during padding operation. Optical brightening of polyester/cotton blends can be combined with bleaching. In the combined proicess, the goods are treated in a bath containing 1-5 g/1 sodium chlorite along with 0.5-1.5% fluorescent brightener (o.w.f.) and acetic acid (pH = 4) at boil about an hour. The bath is then drained and the goods are given treatment with an optical brightening agent for cotton. In the continuous process of


333

application, the blended fabrics are padded with a solution containing disperse and cellulose brighteners along with dispersing agent. After padding and drying, the white is developed by baking for 20-30 sec at 150-200~ The fabrics are then washed-off with detergent (2 g/l) and soda ash (1 g/l) at 50-60~ for 15 min, rinsed and dried. Pad-steam process can be applied to polyester/cotton blends in the same way as for 100% polyester by the inclusion of the pad bath of a suitable concentration of a cellulose brightener. In another method, the optical brighteners for polyester/cotton blends may be added in the resin finishing bath. In this method, the goods are padded with a solution containing cross-linking agent, catalyst, softener, fluorescent brightener for both polyester and cotton and wetting agent, dried and cured at 140-150~ for 4-5 min. A final scouring followed by washing process completes the process. Although the process is economical, the brightening effects obtained are not very intense. The most efficient process for optical brightening of polyester/wool blended fabrics is to brighten polyester content first and then bleach wool portion with peroxide and brighten the wool in a reducing bleach following peroxide bath. However, the two bath process is time consuming. In one bath process, the goods are treated with a bath containing the optical brighteners for wool and polyester, carrier, dispersing agent, a protective agent for wool and acetic acid (pH ~- 5) at 95100~ for 20-30 min, cooled the bath, rinsed and washed with non-ionic detergent (2-3 g/l) at 40-45~ for 15 to 20 min. However, the one bath process suffers from the disadvantage of possible staining of the wool by the carrier and polyester brightener not being removed by a simple scour. The blends containing polyamide/cellulose can be optically brightened with a solution containing selected cellulose brighteners by adjusting the temperature and pH of the application bath. The brighteners which show little change in uptake on nylon by change in pH should be selected. Likewise, raising the temperature increases the uptake on the nylon relative to cellulose. The temperature of the bath is raised to 95-100~ over 30 min and the fabric is treated for 30-40 min and then rinsed well and dried. For polyamide/wool blended fabrics fluorescent brightening agents (1-2%) are applied following hydrogen peroxide bleaching in presence of stabiliser (3-5 g/l). The treatment is carried out at 70-75~ for 45-60 min and then rinsed and dried.

334


For brightening of acrylic/cellulose fibre blended fabrics the compatibility of the brighteners for each fibre is most important. If the two classes of brighteners are not compatible, then a two-bath process is necessary, first applying the acrylic brightener and, then in a fresh bath the cellulose brightener. Peroxide/hypochlorite bleaching of acrylic/cotton or combined bleaching techniques can be used. Chlorite stable products should be applied from the bleach bath. Another requirement is wet light fastness in presence of perborate containing washing agents. Garments made from PAN or their blends on drying in sun, after washing with washing powders containing perborate, are observed to show yellowing. For acrylic/wool blends, the acrylic portion is brightened in the normal way and then the wool is bleached with hydrogen peroxide and subsequent reduction bleaching is done in a bath containing suitable brightener (1-2%) and stabilised sodium hydrosulphite (3-5 g/l) at 85~ for 30 rain. The fabric is then rinsed and dried. For polyamide/acrylic blends, both the fibres can be brightened by using suitable disperse type brighteners at 95-98~ for 30-60 rain, cooled, rinsed well and dried. Where bleaching is necessary, a suitable brightener stable to chlorite may be included in the bleach bath.

REFERENCES

1 E. S. Olson, Textile Wet Processes,Vol I, Noyes Pub., Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA (1983) p 153. 2 E. Weber, Melliand Textilber., 35 (1954) 204. 3 D.A.W. Adams, J. Soc. Dyers. Colourists, 75 (1959) 22. 4 Millo~ Zahradnik, The Production and Application of FBAs, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, Sussex (1982) p 14. 5 E. Allen, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 47 (1959) 22. 6 D. A.W. Adams, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 75 (1959) 933. 7 D. A.W. Adams, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 77 (1961) 670. 8 T. H. Martini and H. Probst, Melliand Textilber., 65 (1984) 627. 9 A. E. Siegrist, H. Hefti, H. R. Meyer and E. Schmidt, Rev. Prog. Color., 17 (1987) 39. 10 T. H. Martini, Chemifasern / Textilindustrie (CTI), 38/90 (1988) 827.


335

11 P. A. Duffield and D. M. Lewis, Rev. Prog. Color., 15 (1985) 38. 12 W. S. Simpsion, J. Textile Inst., 78 (1987)430. 13 R. Leven, Textile Res. J., 55 (1985) 477. 14 D. J. Tucker and C. S. Whewell, Proc. Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Aachen (1977) 590. 15 L.A. Holt and P. J. Waters, Proc. Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Tokyo., 1985 IV. 16 L. A. Holt, B. Milligen, W. E. Savige, J. Textile Inst., 63 (3) (1977) 124. 17 L.H. Leaver and G. C. Ramsay, Photochemical and Photobiology, 9 (6) (June 1996) 531. 18 K. Rooper, Melliand Textilber., 65 (1984) 812. 19 L. H. Leaver, R. C. Marshall and D. E. Rivett, Proc. Int. Wool Text. Res. J., 44 (1974) 846. 20 L. A. Holt, B.Millgen and L. J. Wolfram, Textile Res. J., 44 (1974) 846. 21 R. S.Davidson, G. M. Ismail and D. M. Lewis, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 103 (1987) 308. 22 M. Pailthrope and B. Camoron, J. Photochem., 37 (1987) 391. 23 R. S. Davidson, G. M. Ismail and D. M. Lewis, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 101 (1987) 261. 24 P. A. Duffield and D. M. Lewis, Rev. Prog. Color & Related Topics, 104 (1985) 477. 25 R. Leven, Textile Res. J., 55 (8) (1985) 477. 26 Williamson, Man-made Textiles, 39(1962) 40 & 55. 27 Rosch, Melliand Textilber Intemat., 50 (1969) 199. 28 Decorte, Textiles Chimiques, 27(4) (1971) 4. 29 Siehe anch., R. Anilker, H. Hefti , A. Rauchle and M. Schlapfer , Textilveredlung, 11 (1976) 369. 30 E. Eschle, Plastverabeiter, 21 (1970) 629.

Chapter 11 COMBINED PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES OF TEXTILES 11.1 Introduction Now-a-days all efforts in the field of pre-treatment processes of textiles are directed towards shortening and simplification of the treatment. In the conventional preparation, the desizing, scouring and bleaching processes are carried out seperately at high temperatures, requiring the use of large amount of thermal energy. In order to minimise energy consumption it has become necessary to combine several pre-treatment stages by reducing number of operations or by shortening the reaction time. Although several new processes and some continuous and semi-continuous machineries have been developed, the ideal of a truely single stage process employing only one desizing cum bleaching stage suitable for all qualities of cloth and end uses, has not been developed so far. Process integration to enable integrated desizing/scouring, scouring/bleaching or desizing/scouring/bleaching continues by boosting the chemical recipe to improve the removal and decolourisation of impurities. Low energy chemical pre-treatment of textiles using higher concentrations of chemicals in order to integrate the processes can work well if the process is carefully controlled. Many methods have been reported and a number of low temperature (25-45~

batch scouring and bleaching processes are

available [ 1-10] combining two or all the three stages into two stage or single stage process. In all these accelerated processes, cost savings are obtained in steam, water, electricity and labour with little increase in chemical costs. The brief account given in this chapter aims at presenting a bird's eye view in the area of combined pre-treatment processes. 11.2 Combined Scouring and Desizing Many combined scouring and desizing processes are developed but these processes are particularly useful if the sizes are not intended to be recovered [11-13 ]. Alkaline hydrogen peroxides and peroxy compounds such as persulphate, perphosphate, peroxydiphosphate can be used as oxidative desizing agent and free radicals are produced favouring size degradation rather than bleaching. However, some bleaching does also take place under these conditions. A combination of peroxy compound and caustic soda at elevated temperature can effectively combine desizing and scouring conditions. In this process, the fab-

Combined Pre-Treatment Processes of Textiles

337

ric is treated with a solution containing 0.2% potassium persulphate and 4% sodium hydroxide and then steamed in J-Box at 95~ for 85 min, washed and dried. This combined process of cotton fabric is more or less adequate with a fluidity of about 1.8. In the pad-steam process, the fabric is padded with a solution containing 70 g/1 caustic soda, 3 g/1 sodium persulphate and 10 g/1 non-ionic detergent at 40~ with a wet pick-up of about 80% and then the fabric is steamed for 12 rain at 102~ The fabric is then washed thoroughly in an open soaper with a temperature of about 98~ in the first and second, 80~ in the third and 60 and 50~ in the fourth and fifth compartments respectively. Grey fabric can be simultaneously desized and scoured by making use of a suspension of enzyme, a chlorinated solvent and surfactant solution (Markal II process, Chapter 4).

11.3 Combined Scouring and bleaching Single stage bleaching processes using hydrogen peroxide require some additional chemicals that can act as activator, stabiliser, surfactant and scouring agent. Strongly alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide has been advocated for such combined processes. Sodium persulphate and potassium persulphate boost the single stage operation in presence of hydrogen peroxide. Other compounds which accelerate the peroxide reactions are urea, methylcarbonate and tetra acetyl ethylenediamine. However, such chemicals increase the chemical cost. Generally, in traditional kier bleach the cost of utilities is nearly 3.5 to 4 times the chemical cost and in continuous bleach it is about twice to 2~/2 times the chemical cost. A combined process (ATIRA) can be carried out in a kier with a bleach liquor containing hydrogen peroxide (50%) 1.5%, sodium hydroxide 1.5%, sodium meta silicate 1%, sodium tetrapyrophosphate 0.5%, emulsifying agent 0.5% and wetting agent 0.1% with a liquor ratio of 2.5:1 at 60~

The liquor is circulated through the

material for about 12 h. A low temperature catalyst ("Urjal") developed by ATIRA avoids the use of sodium silicate in the bath and also bleaching with hydrogen peroxide may be possible even at room temperature. In another process [ 14,15], the kier circulation is reduced by using emulsified solvent systems (Chapter 4). Emulsified solvent system consists of blends ofemulsifter and solvents like chlorinated hydrocarbons, mineral oils etc., which stabilises

33 8


or emulsifies oils, fats and waxes from the raw cotton and enhances the action of other chemicals like hydrogen peroxide. This system may be used in kier boiling or J-Box or thermofixation chambers. In this process, the desized and washed cotton fabric is treated in open kier boiling for 4 h with a liquor containing hydrogen peroxide 1%, emulsified solvent 0.3%, caustic soda 0.3%, soda-ash 0.5%, sodium silicate 2.5%, magnesium sulphate (Mg S O 4. 7H20 ) 2.4% and wetting agent 0.1% at 90~

The treated fabric is then washed, soured and washed. The use of

magnesium sulphate is made use for this treatment for stabilising hydrogen peroxide bath by the formation of magnesium silicate which is the actual stabiliser. This system is well suited for polyester blended fabrics because the use of caustic soda is restricted. The high concentration of caustic soda at high temperature may damage the polyester component in the blends. In order to reduce the peroxide consumption, the fabric can be treated with sodium hypochlorite prior to peroxide treatment to increase the initial whiteness [16]. In this process, the desized fabric is first chemicked by pad-store method using sodium hypochlorite ( 3 g/1 available C12), 3 g/1 soda-ash and wetting agent with pad pick-up of 100% and dwelling time of 30 min at 30~

In the second

stage, the washed and dried goods are padded with a liquor containing hydrogen peroxide (1.2%), sodium hydroxide (2.5%), potassium persulphate (50%) (0.4%) and magnesium sulphate (1.5%) at 100% pick-up. The padded fabric is then batched for 7 h followed by a hot wash at 80~ or higher for 1 min. Sandoz has recommended two recipes (Table 11.1) for combined scouring and bleaching. The desized goods are impregnated wet-on-wet (drying after desizing and before steaming is omitted). This process demands continuous feed of a strongly reinforced feed liquor and systematic control of the concentration of

U202and

caustic soda. The cloth is impregnated in a U-Box system container for 45 min at 100~ with the liquor of recipe I. In another process the cloth is padded with liquor of recipe II at room temperature (add-on 30%), batched for 40 min at 100 ~ C and rinsed thoroughly. The result of this treatment greatly depends on the duration of reaction. The longer this is, the better the results. In an energy saving and trouble free combined scouring and bleaching system [17], the goods are padded with a bleaching formulation containing sodium chlorite (0.85-1%), formaldehyde as catalyst (3 g/l), sodium carbonate (3 g/l) and an


339

TABLE 11.1 Recipes for Combined Scouring and Bleaching Recipe I Ingradients

Recipe II

Impregnation

Feed liquor

Impregnation

Feed liquor

liquor (ml/1)

(re-inforced

liquor (ml/1)

(ml/1)

3.5 times) (ml/1)

H202(35%) NaOH (36~

30 20

105 70

70 22

105 77

8

28

-

-

12

42

-

-

Sandopan CBN liq.

-

-

4

14

Stabiliser SIF liq.

-

-

8

28

0.4

0.4

0.4

')

Sodium silicate (38~

')

Sandopan SF (wetting agent)

Magnesium Chloride 0.3

emulsified solvent (pentachloroethylene) based scouring agent (2%) at 30~ and batched for 6-8 h and then washed.

11.4 Combined Desizing, Scouring and Bleaching Many continuous processing machineries have been developed over the past few decades by which cotton and polyester/cotton blended fabrics can be desized, scoured and bleached in one single operation. As ASISA shock system for continuous desizing, scouring and bleaching in open width gives result within few minutes without any need for previous padbatch process. The reaction time is only 2 min. Du Pont has developed a 2 min bleaching process for heavy fabrics using

H202

at specific pH value employing a special formulation to prevent undue decomposition of peroxide and damage to the fabric under process. ITCO process deals with a six sectioned J-Bbox system and the treatment is continuous with complete saturation and counter-current flow of water. The Farmer-Norton steam-purge system is extremely effective in promoting a thorough saturation of the fabric with chemical pre-treatment liquors.

340


In the vaporloc machine full bleaching can be obtained in one passage of 90 to 120 sec duration at a temperature of 134~ (30 p.s.i.). The ICI Markal III process combines bleaching with scouring and desizing by using an emulsion of aqueous H202in trichloroethylene-surfactant solution, followed by steaming and washing-off. An example of latest preparatory equipment for one step desizing, scouring and bleaching is the Reco-Yet from Ramisch Kleinewefers [ 18, 19]. With the Reco-Yet a heated aerosol of steam and chemicals, including a new multi-functional auxiliary agent and thermal energy, is applied to the fabric simultaneously in a reaction time of one to three minutes. Benninger has developed "Ben-Bleach-System" for desizing, scouring and bleaching in one operation. The system comprises four models : Ben-Injecta for desizing, Benm-Impecta for impregnation, Ben-Steam and Ben-Extracta for washing. With the aid of individual dispensing system, the feed - to each module - of chemical can be controlled. In the steamer, the tight-strand fabric is plaited on a roller-bed permitting a dwell time of 1-60 min. In the Flexnip (Kusters) cotton fabric can be processed by a single stage process and a reduction in energy and water used is claimed. Dip-Sat Vario unit (Goller, Germany) uses a single stage process in which high degree of humidity is generated on cotton fabrics leading to efficient swelling of fats, waxes and cotton seeds, producing good whiteness with low fibre damage. The C.R.C. process (Caustification Reductrice a chaud i.e. causticizing, Reductive, hot) from Sandoz is a simple and economical method of pre-treatment by which cotton is desized, scoured, bleached and causticized in one operation. The flow sheet diagrams of C.R.C. process equipment are shown in Fig. 11-1. The combined desizing, scouring and bleaching is mainly achieved by the addition of a second peroxy compound to hydrogen peroxide or sodium chlorite bath when its reactivity is boosted synergistically during bleaching. In the case of H202, tetra potassium peroxydiphosphate as booster along with stabiliser and non-ionic wetting agent in the bath can act as a substitute to conventional process with savings in water and energy. The effectiveness of the system used under alkaline conditions can be interpreted in terms of free radical formation. A number of patents are available on the use of emulsified solvents in combined

Combined Pre-Treatment Processes of Textiles Pad-roll r a n g e

4

(251

2

~

,

3

,

o

341 ,.

6

J-Box range(openwidth) "V~

9

9

~

s

9

1

2

~_,

3

s

7

Pad-steamrange 4 ---v:v.-.~v:::::-::.v.:.-

1

2

--,:-~v.+.---. v..v+

:3

+

+.~ _~ .-.-~v:.._.

8

s

Figure 11-1. C.R.C. (Sandoz) processs equipment. 1 Grey goods from the loom (cotton or polyester) ; 2 Singeing unit; 3 Impregnation bath at 20-40~ ; 4 Padding mangle (80-100% pick-up) ; 5 Washing compartments (95, 95, 70, 50, 30~ ; 6 Pad-roll chamber (60-120 rain at 90-95~ ; 7 J-Box (20-60 rain at 95-100~ ; 8 Steamer (5-20 min at 100-107~ desizing, scouring and bleaching. In one process, the cloth is padded with an emulsion comprising of aqueous solution of alkaline compound emulsified in chlorinated hydrocarbon with selected emulsifier at 25-60~

dried and steamed to re-

move chlorinated hydrocarbons. In another process, the singed and desized cotton fabric is padded with ethylene carbonate, peracetic acid and emulsifier in trichloroethylene followed by heating at 95~ for 10 rain. Solvent assisted combined desizing, scouring and bleaching process using a mixture of 4% scouring agent [a mixture of pine oil (50 parts), non-ionic emulsifier (40 parts), perchloroethylene (10 parts)], H202 (100%) 1%, sodium silicate 2% and activator 2% is reported [20]. The fabrics are padded with the mixture and batched for 12 to 24 h at 40 to 60~

342


Single stage preperatory processs for cotton using sodium hypochlorite is optimised [21, 22]. A process based on emulsified solvent system as scouring agent along with sodium hypochlorite as a bleaching cum desizing agent at pH 11 is reported [23, 24]. Around 30-35% more hypochlorite is required in the single stage process compared to conventional bleaching. A fast desizing, scouring and bleaching system using sodium chlorite for cotton-based textile material is reported [25]. In this process, the fabrics are padded in a solution containing 20 g/1NaC102, 0.05 g/1KMnO 4 and 2 g/1 wetting agent at pH 10 to a wet pick-up of about 80%. The treated fabrics are then exposed to 90~ for 30-60 min and washed and dried. Another approach is the combination of an enzyme treatment with hydrogen peroxide [26]. By combining enzyme treatment (a simultaneous treatment of pectinase and cellulase), or alkaline boil-off, with an alkaline peroxide bleaching, the total degree of whiteness is reported to be higher in combination with enzyme treatment. The combined process, including an enzyme treatment, deliver results comparable with those of alkali treatment [27]. A single stage preparatory process on polyester/cotton blended fabrics can be carried out using peracetic acid as an oxidising agent. The fabric is treated with a solution containing peracetic acid 5-6 g/l, tetrasodiumpyrophosphate 1 g/l, bacterial type desizing agent 1 g/l, common salt 2 g/1 and non-ionic wetting agent at pH 5 to 6 (m : 1 :: 1 : 3 to 1 : 5) at 75-80~ for 90 min. The treated fabric is then washed with hot water and finally with cold water. Solar water heating system for single stage preparation in a kier and pad-batch systems with a process cost savging is possible [28, 29]. Solar heat may be utilised to the maximum extent for drying the fabric to reduce consumption of fuel.

REFERENCES

1 C. Duckworth and L. M. Wrennall, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 93 (1977) 407. 2 Southern Section of AATCC, Textile Chem. Color., 14 (1) (1982) 23. 3 B.C. Burdett and H. G. Roberts, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 101 (2) (1985) 53.


343

4 B. C. Burdett and H. G. Roberts, Low Energy Preparation Process of Textiles, Final Rep. No. EUR/OO/BEN. Published by the Commission of European Communities, Luxemberg, 1985. 5 K. Dickson, W. S. Hickman, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 101 (1985) 283. 6 T. K. Das, A. K. Mandavawalla and S. K. Datta, Textile Dyer and Printer (1986) 21. 7 H. E. Bille, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 103 (1987) 427. 8 K. Dickson, Rev. Prog. Col. Rel. Topics 17 (1987) 1. 9 G. Rosch, Textil Prax. Int. (March 1988) 264. 10 T. S. Sharma, R. M. Mittal et al., Colourage, 37 (20) (1990) 48. 11 Anon., Int. Dyer, 179 (1) (1994) 22. 12 M.L. Gulrajani and N. Sukumer, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 100 (1984) 21. 13 M.L. Gulrajani and N. Sukumer, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 101 (1985) 383. 14 I.C.I., BP 1, 130 554 (1965). 15 Kalinwasky, 1st Shirley Int. Seminar on solvent based processing of textiles, Manchester (Oct 1969). 16 T. S. Sharma et al., Textile Res. J., (1989) 748. 17 R. M. Mittal, M. L. Gulrajani and R. Venkatraj, Amer. Dyestuff Rep., No. 4 (1988) 20. 18 Anon., Int. Dyer, 177 (1992) 2. 19 Anon., Dyer, (Apr 1995) 22. 20 N. Sukumar and M. L. Gulrajani, Ind. J. Textile Res., (1986) 38. 21 J. Militk'y, Textile Res. J., 58 (1988) 672. 22 J. C. Whitwell, Textile Res. J., 57 (1987) 239. 23 M.L. Gulrajani and N. Sukumar, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 100 (1984) 21. 24 M. L. Gulrajani and N. Sukumar, Textile Res. J., 55 (1985) 367. 25 M. H. E1-Rafie et al., Amer, Dyestuff Rep., 79 (Dec 1990) 43. 26 E. Bach and E. Schollmayer, Textil Praxis, 3 (1993) 220. 27 U. Rossner, Melliand Textilber., 2 (1993) 144. 28 M. L. Gulrajani, S. Gupta and S. K. Gupta, Textile Res. J., 59 (4) (Apr 1989) 217. 29 M. L. Gulrajani and S. Gupta, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 106 (1990) 98.

Chapter 12 D E G R A D A T I O N OF F I B R E S A S S O C I A T E D W I T H C H E M I C A L PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES 12.1 Introduction Faultless pre-treatments of textiles are very essential for the quality of the final products. Faulty pre-treatments impair the reproducibility of the desired effect with an increased amount of rejects. Generally, the defects can be classified into two broad classes namely, grey mill defects and defects during chemical processing. The grey mill defects are arisen from yarn defects, warp-wise weaving defects, weft-wise defects and general defects. The defects in chemical processing may be classified as chemical damage, mechanical damage or operation faults. Chemical damages are caused by the improper application of pre-treatment processes, erroneous concept of procedure, faul~ operation of machines, faulty feeding of chemicals and haphazard work. Excessive tension or stretch may often be the cause of mechanical damage. Degradation or damage depends on chemical structure of individual fibre and pre-treatment history. Degradation also involves changes in molecular structure of the fibre. Further, the strength of cotton yarns depends not only on the strength of the fibres, but also on the twist and the lubrication of the fibres. Similarly, high and low crimp wool fibres, as a result of the influence of nutrition levels, have different levels of degradation during chemical processing [ 1]. Molecular orientation in a synthetic fibre, fabric thickness and spacing in a weave can also modify the way in which fabric is degraded by abrasion. Degradation may also arise as a result of storage, maintanance procedure, exposure to ultra-violet sources, weathering, fungi or other microbiological attack, heat and acid and alkaline hydrolysis of fibres.

12.2 Degradation of Cotton During Desizing Desizing is carried out to remove the sizes and its degradation product is removed from the fabric before subsequent processing. In rot-steeping, the cloth is allowed to lie for about 24 h and the fermentation is not controlled. The degradation of cellulose may occur as a result of cross infections e.g. of mildew. The loss in weight in acid steeping is slightly higher than with water steeping. Cotton fabrics treated with dilute sulphuric acid at room temperature show little degradation, the

Degradation of Fibres Associated with Chemical Pre-Treatment Processes

345

fluidity increases from 4 to 5.8 rhes in 4 h and about 70% of the starch is removed. Generally dilute solutions of mineral acids and acid producing salts such as ZnC12 and A12C16have little action on cotton fibre provided they are washed out before the fibre is dried [2-4]. If washing is not done, hydrocellulose, a break down product of cellulose, is produced with consequent tendering of the fibre [Fig. 12-1]. H

CH2OH

\

H OH

o-~H~O~ H OI-~i~H H ~ ILI O'H ]H 7H2OH l

[H

CH2OH

OI~~'O~H~H H O

-

O

i

,,[, +2H20 H CH2OH

\

H OH

o~HHoHH--~I

[

CH2OH

O ? 2 H + H{0t H~Q~ 2

\

O

H OH

n

Figure 12-1. Mechanism of hydrolysis of cellulose molecule. Due to partial hydrolysis of the cellulose molecule, the average molecular length is reduced. The appearance of additional -CHOH end groups increase the reducing power because they can undergo tautomeric change in the formation of aldehyde

H OH -OH~H

H~c/H O/\OH CH2OH

Hi OHI -. "

- 0 ~ ~C--~'-.~/H ..~OH H U\ n C-OH \ O H t CH2OH

Figure 12-2. Formation of aldehyde group on hydrolysis. [Fig. 12-2]. Most organic acids in dilute solution have little effect on cotton even if dried in, but oxalic, citric and tartaric acids are liable to cause tendering [5]. When sodium bromite is used as a desizing agent for cotton fabric by continuous and discontinuous processes, the concentration ofbromite should be restricted to ensure that the oxidaiton of cellulose is kept to a negligible proportion. In enzymatic desizing, the time, temperature and pH of the desizing bath is well controlled. Furthermore, the action of enzyme is restricted only on the sizes present on the fabric and thus degradation of the fibre due to enzymatic desizing is few and

346 Degradation of Fibres Associated with Chemical Pre-Treatment Processes far between. Repeated treatment ofcellulase enzymes from Penicillium funiculosum [6] and trichoderma endocellulase enzymes [7] leads to extensive fragmention of cotton fibres. Repeated enzyme treated cotton shows Cellulose I pattern with the absence of 101 plane similar to that of drastically acid hydrolysed cotton [8]. This confirms that enzymatic hydrolysis of cotton fibres proceeds preferentially along the orientation, which is a cleavage phase. Morphological changes take place during the phases of degradation. Acid hydrolysis causes localised degradation whereas enzymatic hydrolysis is uniform. There are changes in moisture regain, crystallinity of the hydrolysates and weight loss due to enzyme hydrolysis.

12.3 Degradation of Cotton During Scouring Scouring of cotton is generally carried out under mild concentration of alkali. The scouring treatment increases the wettability of the fibre, but it induces fibre degradation under severe conditions by creating crevices in fibre or dissolution of cuticle or primary wall [9, 10]. The main changes in cotton during scouring process are loss in weight (about 5-10%), loss in length due to shrinkage and alteration in count affected by both losses and changes in tensile strength (generally an increase) [ 11, 12]. Since the scouring treatment contributes to the dissolution of a portion of shorter cellulosic chains, it bestows on cotton an average DP higher than that of native cellulose. The alkali treatment of scouring condition does not induce pronounced changes in the fine structure of fibres and has a small effect on the degree of crystallinity [ 13 ]. The degradation of cellulose in alkali solution depends on the concentration of alkali and on the presence or absence of oxygen. In the absence of air cellulose is slowly attacked by hot alkali in a stepwise fashion at the reducing end of the cellulose chain [ 14] resulting in a loss of material. The entrapped air should be sweeped out before kier boiling under pressure. The cotton must be entirely covered by the scouring liquor as otherwise part of the fibre exposed to the air loose strength and result in unevenness in dyeing. Fig. 12-3 shows the role of pH in the endwise depolymerisation of hydrocellulose from cotton by treatment in NaOH solution (0.5 to 18.6 N) at 120~

The curve shows a pattern similar to the degree of swell-

ing of cellulose in alkali. The number of carboxyl groups increases with increasing [OH] ion concentration, with a rapid rate between 6 and 8.5 N, but the viscosity decreases only slightly, which implies the loss of low molecular weight compo-


347

0.5 r e~o 0 . 4

r

0.1 o

0.3

o 0.2 o o r

"\\ 0.1

5

10

15

20

[OH-] (mole/l) Figure 12-3. Effects of alkali concentrations on the extent ofhydrocellulose degradation at 120~ for 1 h [15].

nents. The loss in weight, however, increases with temperature of the alkaline solution [16]. The reaction scheme of this kind of degradation is represented in Fig. 12-4 by the formation of peeling-off centres on the cellulose i.e. aldehyde

r r-t~ ....... 0 - - J \ ,

, /I

C. .......

C. .2~ u

I

//

:3

OH

I

C~ 20

R~---o-

9

kc ' ~ w/ c ! Z!H ~(~/ C

~!20

OH

C H ~OH H C ....... O , % r~! .... O. --J}c..-3' "

~~7.

,,./

..... C J OH

Figure 12-4. [3-alkoxy elimination reaction [21 ].

348 Degradation of Fibres Associated with Chemical Pre-Treatment Processes groups, by p-alkoxy elimination reaction from the reducing ends of the chains, by the formation ofcarbonyl groups containing coloured products and yellowing [ 17] and by the formation of metasaccharinic acid at the end of the chains [ 18-20]. In the presence of air i.e. the reaction of oxygen with cellulose in presence of strong alkali (above 40 g/l), the degradation can be very serious and the oxidative attack may likely to follow the pattern suggested for alkali cellulose [22]. The attack of oxygen at 20~ is slow, rapid at 40-50~ and is 1000 times higher at 95~ than at 20~ [22]. A theory based on free radical intermediates i.e. the oxidative degradation which occurs with chain scission is shown in Fig. 12-5. It is shown that INITIATION OH (~H

SIEP OiH

i

....... C

"- C ~

I

t

H

"

0 2

...........

,P.Rg~AszA3~ Sl".F.P ....

"

~..

02

--C

--~"

H

--C

0

oH

oH i

$

--C-I

;-

C-I

9

lI

0

&

I2"

-- C -,~

I

H

I

H

qH ~

---~

t

...... ~

~)

]If

qH 9 ~ t

--C

I

..~'~C)O

f,1

H

~:

--C--C--

i,,

"

:~ ?H "

, OH

OH

I

?H

..... C ~

H

H

I

--C--C f

r

9 HO"

9"

OH

OH~ tOH .... , :

0H. ~:.~H,

......c . . . . . . . . .

0 (}f.i

c-c

H

H O ' - ......

(..-f

C .... '

~4

c -

t

~~20

Ii.

O.O"

.........~OF

H 20

2

CARBONYL

qH 9H u

I

9

OH

.,.3 ta -

FOi.~MAT~ON

.....c ..... c -

c . . . . . .

H

3~

:3" .

i

c--. 9

e

....... C ... ~.... -:'. I H H .,:

OH~OH. .OH OH

..............

GROUPS

,q,H --'-I-f-

" ~.2L

Figure 12-5. Free radical mechanism of alkali cellulose auto-oxidation [22].


349

hydrogen peroxide is always present during cellulose auto-oxidation. Oxygen may attack on hydrogen atom at C 2 or C 3position to produce a radical II in the cellulose. Radical II may then rapidly take up oxygen forming a peroxide type radical III which may react with other groups in cellulose to give hydroperoxide IV and the original radical II. Thus, a chain reaction may be set up. Hydroperoxide IV gives a hydroxyl radical and a new radical V, which may abstract hydrogen from cellulose to give compound VI and the original radical II. The hydroxyl radical may attack cellulose to give new type II radicals (in autocatalysis). Hydroxyl radicals may also combine to form hydrogen peroxide. Compound VI finally loses water with the formation of carbonyl group in the cellulose chain compound (VII) and thus chain scission may occur by [3-alkoxy elimination. The rate of reaction of alkali cellulose with oxygen increases with the number of reducing end groups. An ionic mechanism (Fig. 12-6) is also proposed for the auto-oxidation of al.CA...N._N.[Z.ZA,RO-

Cell-C

//

RE A C T I O N

0 9 OH-

\H

~--"'"

0I C-H

Cell-

I OH

g'~

lX

! Ceil- C - H , OH

FORMATION

9OH-

OF

~

Cell - C - H I O-

PERHYDROXYL

0Cell-C-

9H 2 0

ION

o H

90 2

.....~

OH

Ix

CeII-C

\ OH

9 HOO

xE

so Ceil-C-.-H I O-

X

.

02

--"*

Celt-C

.", O-

HO0

X!I

Figure 12-6. Ionic mechanism of alkali cellulose auto-oxidation [23]. kali cellulose [23]. The reducing aldehyde groups in cellulose under strong alkaline condition form Cannizzaro intermediates such as IX and X which is autooxidisable.The initiation step of auto-oxidation reaction consists of the formation

350 Degradation of Fibres Associated with Chemical Pre-Treatment Processes of the perhydroxyl ion. The propagation step is the attack of cellulose by the perhydroxyl ion with rupture of the cellulose chain and is similar to the degradation mechanism during bleaching with hydrogen peroxide.

12.4 Degradation of Cotton During Bleaching Bleaching agents commonly used are mainly oxidising agents which react with cellulose forming oxycellulose with accompanying tendering of the fabric. The rate of decomposition of bleaching agent and also the rate of attack on cotton depends on concentration, pH, time and temperature of the bleaching bath and also on the soils present in the fabric. Over bleaching takes place due to lack of proper control of these parameters and oxidation proceeds at a faster rate and fabric is destroyed. Tendering takes place if bleaching is carried out in presence of metals which act as catalysts in accelerating the oxidation process. Tendering also takes place if the removal of bleaching agent during washing treatment is incomplete. Generally, bleached cloth is soured with HC1 (1.5%) or H2SO 4 (1.0%) to remove calcium carbonate or metallic composition deposited in the cloth. Tendering due to acid may also occur if the acid is not properly washed-off after the goods are soured. Hydrocellulose may form due to acid action on cellulose on storage. Yellowing of the bleached fabric is another defect. Yellowing of the cotton fabric is caused by improper control of bleaching condition parameters, faulty working of the kier during boil-off operation, poor circulation or filtering of some cotton impurities and defective circulation of bleach liquor. The yellower the substrate, the higher is the oxycellulose present and the more susceptible the fabric to after-yellowing on storage.

12.4.1 Sodium hypoehlorite bleaching and damage Bleaching of cotton with sodium hypochlorite solution is done in alkaline condition (pH 8.5 to 10) by the the addition of sodium carbonate. Maximum damage to the fabric takes place in the neutral region ofpH (Fig. 12-7). Around pH 7.0, the hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion are present at approximately the same concentrations and hence the rate of attack on cellulose is greatest in this region. The degree of degradation is demonstrated by increase in fluidity which also shows a maximum at approximately pH 7.0. The temperature of the liquor should be kept as low as possible and also direct sunlight should be avoided to ensure minimum oxycellulose formation. Bleaching with sodium hypochlorite can be done at 20~


351

2.4 0

o .,,...,~

.

/6!

,,..,..~

E =

/2

/

o

E c,.)

~5

i--,\

....,,,,,,,.,.,.//

,.:?-S 3

4

S

,, 9 j,," N,~,j,"

6" 7 8 9 /0 pH

Figure 12-7. Degradation of cotton with self-buffered hypochlorite solution (3 g/1 av. C12) after 5 h treatment [24]. for a treatment time of 16 h, but the same result can be obtained for 30 min at 60~ without appreciable increase in damage to cellulose [25, 26]. The degradation of cotton at elevated temperature proceeds faster than that of impurities, but the effect is dependent only on the effective hypochlorite consumption. Certain metals such as mercury, copper, cobalt, nickel and iron should be absent in the bleach bath as the oxides and hydroxides of these metals are able to catalyse the decomposition of hypochlorite solution and the liberated oxygen converts the cellulose into oxycellulose. Certain yellow and orange vat dyes also accelerate the rate of oxidation accompanied by degradation of cellulose under combined action of hypochlorite solutions and light [27]. The reaction ofhypochlorite with cellulose is non-specific i.e. not confined to a particular hydroxyl group. The degradation is located mainly on the surface of the fibre as the reaction is heterogeneous nature. Hypochlorite may attack and convert the accessible hydroxyl groups of cellulose into carbonyl groups (i.e. aldehyde and ketone groups) and carboxyl groups with subsequent chain cleavage. Strength loss,

352 Degradation of Fibres Associated with Chemical Pre-Treatment Processes in the early stages, is accompanied with slight weight loss but stength decreases rapidly with continued oxidation [28]. The formation and extent of carboxyl contents (determined by methylene blue absorption) and aldehyde groups (determined by Copper No.) depend on the pH of hypochlorite solution during the treatment (Fig. 12-8). Under acidic pH reducing type (aldehyde and keto groups) and under ~-~.

,

.

,;

..... ,

'~. 9

.

/

)

("f"

- .,\

,-

9

2

3

!:~I

) I

,w~.,,~ ..~-

r...~....... ,,,~ii~. ~

:.

,!':

.....

~,

.... \ Nv.,

~

!'.:.,

~.~

,-~w..:~:r~:;

7

~~

~...~

:.,.:.', ~

.

'---

",;;.. '..3 .4

Figure 12-8. Effect ofpH ofhypochlorite solutions on the copper number and methylene blue absorption of oxycellulose [29]. alkaline pH acidic type (carboxyl groups) of oxycelluloses are formed. The changes in pH modify the rates of reactions but do not alter the mechanism for them [30]. The oxidation may be progressive and proceeds along a course known as [3-elimination [Fig. 12-4]. Bleaching with hypochlorite is done in alkaline pH and hence oxycellulose of the acidic kind are insensative to alkali, but when in the free acid form, the hydrogen ions from the carboxyl groups catalyse hydrolysis of the adjascent glucosidic linkage. A sequence of reactions is shown in Fig. 12-9 and 12-10 [30].

0.f

0 ..,..

H

~.... ,,- , O

RO-CH~_ + *CH-COOH + *OH (propagating radical)

Since peroxide groups are indefinitely stable under ambient conditions and thus, they can be stored as reactive sites and used at a later time. These surfaces also show improved adhesion in different circumstances.

Initiation for grafting 9The free radicals formed on the surface of fibre by exposure to plasma can be used directly to initiate polymerisation, with new polymer bonded firmly to the surface by carbon linkages. Thus, a new polymer can be applied in the following manner" R- H

discharge

> R * .____Acr___yylicacid

),

RCH2CH _ C O O H CH2.*CHCOOH

Pre-treatment of Textiles under Plasma Conditions

407

14.4 Surface Modification of Fabrics Under Plasma Treatment

The plasma-induced surface modification of textile substrates has gained increasing importance over the last few years [40]. Probably the most advantage behind this renewed interest in plasma technology is the restriction of the concentration of AOX compounds in the discharged effluents to 0.5 mg/1 [41 ]. The other reason for this interest is the intriguing possibility of modifying properties leading to better performance. The range of applications is diverse and modifications of surface of various materials like cotton, wool, silk, polyester have been reported. Plasma treatment generally takes place in dry conditions, thus the fibres are not swollen. The changes in properties induced by plasma treatment are therefore restricted to the surface and any damage to the interior of the fibre is very unlikely. The physico-chemical nature of the modified fibre surface has a tremendous influence on the following important phenomenon: i) Static electricity build up and dissipation. ii) Moisture transport and comfort. iii) Oily stain adsorption and release in detergent solution. iv) Soil deposition, release and redeposition in detergent solutions. v) vi)

Wettability and adhesion. Scourability and bleachability of textiles.

vii) Wettability and dyeability Form the physical point of view, roughening of fibre surface as seen by atomic force microscopy is responsible for changes in the coefficient of friction, top cohesion, spinnability, yam strength, etc., as well as for increase in felting resistance of wool. From the chemical point of view, the oxidation of the fibre surface and interaction with polymeric materials are the main factors responsible for improvements in various properties of plasma treated materials. 14.4.1 Plasma treatment of wool

The effects of a plasma treatment on wool such as anti-felting effect, degreasing, improved dyestuff absorption and increase in wetting properties have been documented in numerous publications [42-46]. Other changes in wool properties are summerised below : (i) Plasma treatment increases the fibre/fibre friction as measured by RlJder method [47], but reduces the differential friction effect (DFE) as defined by Mercer [48] and Lindberg [49].

408


(ii) Plasma treatment does not change the strength and elongation; the breaking force in loop form is slightly reduced. (iii) The plasma treatment increases the top cohesion by a factor of 1.5-2.0; this increased cohesion remains stable after prolonged storage. (iv) The specific electrical resistivity does not change considerably after plasma treatment. (v)

The fatty matter content in wool is reduced by about one-third due to plasma treatment.

(vi) The water content of the wool top is reduced by about 3% due to plasma treatment. (vii) There is changes in spinning behaviour of plasma treated wool [50,51 ]. The spinning aids applied on the first drawing frame are carefully selected. The rubbing intensity or twist of the slubbing should be increased. Reduction in breaks rate at ring spinning frame is usually observed and an increase in yam tenacity by 20-25% is observed for all yams. The normal process of preparing light weight woollen fabrics has involved a chlorination operation. However, this leads to difficult working conditions, rapid con-osion of equipment and has a bad effect on the local ecology. Plasma treatment is a good alternative for chlorination treatment although two problems remain : namely the efficiency of plasma/polymer system itself and the ways and means to improve the fabric handle [52]. However, plasma treatment considerably reduces the felting potential for any product obtained from the modified wool. The reduction in the content of covalently bound highly hydrophobic methylicosanoic acid and increase in content of oxidised sulphur species are the main factors responsible for improvements in dyeing and shrinkproofing of plasma treated wool. Plasma treatment of wool followed by polymer application has also been studied [36]. Almost all polymers used currently on pre-chlorinated wool cannot be used on plasma-treated top. Silicone resins applied to plasma-treated wool increase the shrinkage over that for untreated wool. However, the combined plasma/ PMS/Hercosett treatment encompassing the top treatment gives excellent shrink resistance [53]. The polymer after-treatment reduces both relaxation and felting shrinkage almost independently of plasma treatment time. There is more even and quicker penetration of dyestuffs and chemicals on plasma-


409

treated wool than the untreated reference sample. Fig. 14-12 shows the fibre cross-

Figure 14-12. Fibre cross-section of the untreated wool (enlargement 30 000X).

Figure 14-13. Fibre cross-section of the wool following plasma treatment (enlargement 30 000X).

section of an untreated wool fibre with the fibre stem (cortex) and the scale layer (cuticula), which is made up of the A-and B-layer of the cystine rich exocuticula and the cystine poorer endocuticula. Essentially A-layer of the exocuticula is changed by the plasma treatment. Fig. 14-13 reveals that the A-layer of the combed sliver is attacked to a different extent by the plasma treatment (glow-discharge) [54]. This manifests itself in a partially much reduced contrastability and gives the A-layer a "pearl-necklace like" appearance in the electron microscope. The increased dyes and chemicals affinity is presumably attributed to the plasma induced oxidation of the cystine in the A-layer of the exocuticula and thereby to a reduction of the wetting bridge density in the fibre surface. Surface analyses of wool fibres treated with different plasma gases reveal that the wettability, wickability, printability and surface contact angle of the materials are significantly changed in a direction that may lead to new uses for these materials. Several aspects affect the web wettability, such as pore size, fibre diameter, fibre surface roughness and fibre surface chemical composition. Chemical composition of the fibre surface is most important as it determines the surface bonding forces with water, i.e. disruption force, polar force, and H-bonding force. Surface roughness is not a primary reason for improved wettability, but it may increase it

[351. Plasma treatment increases the hydrophillic groups in the wool fibre and the cystine present in the surface layer is converted to cysteic acid [55, 56]. The

410


endocuticle and the intercell membrane complex and the density of cross-links in the surface layer is decreased by the reactive species in the plasma gas and thus facilitate diffusion of dyes and chemicals [57]. The internal lipids of cell membrane complex are also modified to a certain extent [58]. These changes in the interior of the fibre are presumably caused by the short wave ultra-violet radiation which is produced by the low temperature glow-discharge plasma apart from the chemical active species such as electrons, radicals etc. [59,60]. Woollen sliver and yarn have been treated in low temperature plasma in a vacuum chamber for times from 20 to 30 min [61 ]. There is a significant increase in the strength which lead to better stability of the material during subsequent processing. Fabrics made from treated wool do not felt and also the shrinkage is reduced e.g. from 37% to 3-5%. Plasma treated wool may exhibit more or less firm or harsh handle because of surface roughening. This property is very important for hand-knitting yarns or yams for underwear fabrics. Softeners generally deteriorate the shrink resistance imparted by plasma treatment or plasma plus polymer after-treatment quite heavily [36]. The enzyme treatment is capable of improving the handle of plasma treated wool as well as plasma treated and polymer after-treated hand-knitting yarns without imparting their shrink resistance [62]. 14.4.2 P l a s m a treatment of other fibres

Plasma may be used for removing the contaminants, finishing and sizing agents from the fabric. Desizing of polyester fabric that used polyvinyl alcohol as the sizing agent can be removed by plasma treatment [63]. The efficiency of scouring, mercerizing etc. depends on the penetration of water into the fibre and thus its wettability The wettability of cotton and silk is increased a few fold due to its pre-treatment by N 2plasma. In case of polyester fabrics also the wettability increases significantly. The effectiveness of treating grey state and mercerized cotton and polyester/ cotton blends in a low temperature plasma before dyeing is reported [641]. Both air and oxygen plasma treatment allowed the scouring process to be eliminated before dyeing. A process has been developed for bleaching textile materials containing cellulose activated by microwave radiation [65]. High degree of whiteness and capil-


411

lary sorption are obtained. The bleaching can be carried out without silicate stabilisers with no increase in oxidation damage to the cellulose. The hydrophobic effect on a woven cotton fabric can be obtained by surface treatment. Plasma treatment with acid as a component of original gas will result in a hydrophilic surface [66]. Polyester fibres can be effectively modified by low pressure plasma treatment. For yams the plasma should be capable of being incorporated into the finished yam production process, depending on the end-use of the yam, alternatively it should be possible to add on a plasma treatment [67]. Treatment of polyester fibres by glowdischarge in air or oxygen causes a partial degradation of the fibre surface together with an increase in the capillary sorption of iodine or cations in aqueous solution [68]. Wetting out properties of polyester can be achieved by treatment of polyester with plasma and corona discharge [69]. The fabric can be processed without the use of a wetting out agent. Generally, polyester has a very hydrophobic surface because the surface is made up of ether oxygen (C-O-C) linkages while the hydrophilic ester oxygen (C - O) is facing towards the core of the fibre. When surface is treated by plasma either the ester oxygen (C - O) comes closer to the surface as a result of etching or some new C - O bonds are formed due to oxygen ions present in the plasma chamber. Soiling of fabrics is another important aspect. Treatment of polyester with air plasma considerably decreases the soiling. During plasma treatment fabrics get negatively charged. The soils are also generally negatively charged and therefore there is increased repellency. The plasma etching increases the hydrophilic nature and therefore the soiling decreases. Etching by air plasma causes greater weight loss of nylon, cotton, silk or wool fibres than does etching by carbon tetrafluride or nitrogen plasma, The degree of surface modification is lower for plasma etched nylon or polyester fibres than for cotton or wool fibres [70]. A small scale method for the preparation of linen fabric is described which practically eliminates the use of chemical reagents [71 ]. The grey fabric is treated in a glow-discharge plasma in air and then washed in hot water. The process maintains the strength of the fabric, does not affect the natural colour of linen and does give fabric a high degree ofhydrophilicity [72]. The electron microscopic studies provide additional information regarding mor-

412


phological changes as a result of plasma treatment. Due to very low range of penetration the bulk structural property such as crystallinity of the sample is no! much affected. Plasma etching alters the surface structure of cotton and silk considerably. The fibrillar structure is apparent only on the uppermost surface, whereas deep down it disappears. The surface of the polyester is very smooth initially, but plasma treatment produces a typical" sea-shore" structure. In addition in most of the fibres the plasma treatments give rise to the formation of some cracks, voids etc. The type of surface structure produced depends on the type of gas and pressure. For example, the use of nitrogen, oxygen, air and carbon dioxide tor polyester gives distinct surface structure with striations and depressions. The use of CO~ . _

produces even more single crystal structures. On the other hand, the use of He, Ar, N H 3 gives

low profile surface structures.

14.5 High Energy Radiation to Textiles Energy sources fall conveniently into two groups, viz. high energy ionising radiation (X-rays, alpha particles, protons, deuterons, y-rays and electrons) and low energy radiation (gas discharge and ultraviolet). In the case of radiation processing of textiles, only y-rays from radioactive isotopes and high energy electrons ([3-rays) from machines are needed to be considered, y-rays are high energy electromagnetic waves and have great penetrating power. Among the radioactive materials recommended are Cobalt- 60 and Cesium - 137. 1-MeV gamma photons lose half their initial energy after passing through 10 cm of material of unit density. Only a small amount of available energy is in general utilised when textile materials are irradiated. The maximum dose rate from a powerful Cobalt - 60 source is about 2 M rad/h, and since several M rads are needed to effect significant changes in the material, long reaction times are generally needed. The irradiation source dictates the time of exposure. For example, radiation using ultraviolet lamp requires substantially longer times. However, the amount of radiation dosages depends on the kind of fibre (Table 14.1). It varies from 2 M rad for cellulosic fibres to that of about 40 M rad for polyester fibre ( 1 M rad = l0 s erg/g of substance). With high energy radiation elaborate screening and safety measures are essential, capital costs are high, and the active material must be replaced from time to time. Nevertheless, y-radiation is useful when low dose rates are required and when thick materials or rolls of fabric, are to be irradiated.


413

TABLE 14.1 Guide Values of Irradiation Dosages [73]. Substrate

Radiation dosage M rad

Cellulose

2-3

Cellulose/synthetic

2-3

Polyamide

5

Polyacrylic

5

Polyester

40

Certain fibre forming polymers have been reported to degrade and to cross-link on exposure to high energy radiation. The relative extent of degradation and crosslinking varies from fibre to fibre and is dependent upon radiation dose, temperature, and whether air is excluded during irradiation [74-77]. Degradation predominates in cellulosic fibres, cellulose acetates, wool, poly (vinylidine chloride) and polytetrafluoroethylene, whereas polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamides, polyesters and polyacrylonitrile are more susceptible to cross-linking [78]. The result of the introduction of radiation with a polymer is the creation of free radicals. These frequently result from the of breaking C-H bonds leaving a polymer radical. The latter usually abstracts another hydrogen forming hydrogen gas and another polymer radical. The fate of the radicals determines whether the polymer chain degrade or form cross-link. The mechanism by which these cause effective cross-linking is not clear but presumably the monomer adds to the macromolecule before cleavage, just as in the grafting process [79]. The use of high energy radiation for the bleaching of textile materials has been patented [80]. A wide range of possibilities exists for modifying both the physical and the chemical properties of textiles. Bleaching of textiles can be done either by radiating the bleach bath before the entry of the fabric into the bleaching solution or the fabric may be exposed to radiation and stored and then bleaching is carried out. The bleach bath containing sodium chlorite (5 - 110 g/l) can be activated by high energy radiation, with pH adjusted to 9 to 11. The application baths also contain other usual additives such as optical brighteners, wetting agents and auxiliaries and bleaching can be done using continuous or batch methods at or below normal pro-

414


cessing temperature. The free radicals are formed when textile materials are subjected to moderate amounts of radiation (1-2 Mrad), so that the fibre degradation can be kept to minimum. The potential of ultra-violet or electron beam curing treatments on textiles needs further investigation as such treatments have been used in surface coating treat-ments in the packaging industry [81 ]. The use of appropriate polymer systems with appropriate functional performance properties for use with such treatments may be particularly valuable for surface treatments using UV curing, although electron beam curing is an expensive technique [82-84]. Gas phase or vapour phase treatments is not yet popular in wet processing of textiles. However, in the area of garment finishing, the difficulties of treatment by any other method potentially render gas phase treatments attractive, particularly for treatment of a composite multiple layers of fabrics, such as in a garment [85, 86]. REFERENCES

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415

14 Ciba-Geigy, European P 0548013.

15 J. Hirai and O. Nakada, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 7 (1968) 112. 16 H. Yasuda, J. Polym. Sci., Macromol Rev., 16 (1981) 199. 17 H. Yasuda and T. Hirotsu, J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 16 (1978) 228. 18 J. Goodman, J. Polym. Sci., 44 (1960) 551. 19 P. Kassenbeck, Melliand Textilber., 39 (1958) 55. 20 A. E. Pavlath and R. F. Slater, Appl. Polym. Syrup., 18 (1971) 1317. 21 B. S. Split, Polymer, 4 (1963) 109. 22 H. Z. Jung, T. L. Ward, R. R. Benerito, Textile Res. J., 47 (1977) 217. 23 C. I. Simiontscu, F. Denes, M. M. Macoveanu and I. Negulescu, Makromol Chem. Supplem., 8 (1984) 17. 24 W. J. Thorsen, Appl. Polym. Symposium, 18 (1971) 1171. 25 G.A. Byme and D. M. Jones, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists (Dec 1971) 496. 26 S. Kanazawa, M. Kogoma, T. Moriwaki and S. Okazaki, J. Physics D., 21 (1988) 838. 27 N. Kanda, M. Kogoma, H. Jinno, H. Uchiyama and S. Okazaki, Proc. 10th Int. Symp. on Plasma Chemistry, Vol. 3 (1991 ) 201. 28 J.R. Roth, Industrial Plasma Engineering : Vol. I - Principles, Ch. 12, Institute os Physics Publisher, Bristol, U. K., 1995. 29 J. R. Roth, P. P. Tsai and C. Liu, U. S. patent 5,387~842, Feb. 7, 1995. 30 J. R. Roth, P. P. Tsai, L. C. Wadsworth, C. Liu and P. D. Spence, U. S. patenl 5,403,453, Apr. 4, 1995. 31 J. R. Roth, P. P. Tsai, C. Liu, M. Laroussi and P. D. Spence, U. S. patent 5,414,304, May 9, 1995. 32 J. R. Roth, P. D.Spence and C. Liu, APS Bull., 38 (10) (1993). 33 J.R. Roth, Industrial Plasma Engineering : Volume II - Applications, Institute of Physics Publisher, Bristol, U. K., 1997. 34 J. R. Roth, L. C. Wadsworth, P. D.Spence, P. P. Tsai and C. Liu, Book of Papers, TANDEC 3rd Annual Conference, Knoxville, TN, Nov 1-3, 1994. 35 P. Tsai, L. C. Wadsworth and J. R. Roth, Textile Res. J., 67 (5) (1997) 359. 36 W. Rakowski, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 113 (1997) 250. 37 A. Bradley and J. D. Fales, Chem. Tech., (1971) 232. 38 F. H. Fredich, Acta Chemica Hungaria, 125 (1985) 165.

416


3 9 G. Franz, Kalte Plasmen, Springer, Verlag, Berlin, 1990. 40 G.A. Carnaby, Proc. 9th Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf. Biella, Vol 4 (1995) 430. 41 German waste water legislation, Bonn (5 Mar 1987) (amendment of 1986 legislation). 42 A. E. Pavlath, Techniques and Applications of Plasma Chemistry, Eds. J. R. Hollahan, A. T. Bell, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974, pp 149. 43 A. E. Pavlath, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem. Ed. 12 (1974) 2087. 44 J. Ryn, T. Wakida, H. Kawamura, T. Goto and T. Takagishi, Chem. Express, 2 (1987) 377. 45 W. Rakowski, Plasma Treatment of Wool, 1992, Biella Wool Textile Award, Citta degli Studi Biella (Publ.), Italien. 46 47 48 49 50 51

M. Lee, J. Ryn, T. Wakida and Y. Sato, Chem. Express, 7 (1992) 241. H. L. Roder, J, Textile Inst., 44 (6) (1953) 247. E. H. Mercer and K. R. Makinson, J. Textile Inst., 37 (1946) 269. J. Lindberg, Textile Res. J., 18 (1948) 480. W. Rakowski, Proc. 9th Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Biella, Vol. 4 (1995) 359. M. Bona, E. Pirna and F. Ramazio, Proc. 9th Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Biella, Vol. 5 (1995) 230.

52 L. L. Gorbeg et al., Tekstilprom., 11 (Nov 1989) 43. 53 K. M. Byrne, W. Rakowski, A. Ryder and S. B. Havis, Proc. 9th Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Biella, Vol. 1a (1995) 234. 54 H. Thomas, J. Herring, W. Rakowski and H. Hocker, Int. Textile Bull., 2 (1993) 42. 55 M. M. Millard, Proc. 5th Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Aachen, 11 (1975) 44. 56 T. Klausen, Diplom-Arbeit RWTH, Aachen, 1992. 57 M. Lee and T. Wakida, Sen'i Gakkaishi, 48 (1992) 699. 58 F. S. Lee, Textile Res. J., 46 (1976) 779. 59 H. Yasuda, J. Macromol. Sci.-Chem., A 10 (1976) 383. 60 D. T. Clark and A. Dilks, J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed. 18 (1980) 1233. 61 V.K. Afans'ev, T. M. Aleksandrova and M. N. Serebrenikova, Tekstilprom., 8/9 (1993) 34. 62 S.M. Smith et al., Proc. 9th Int. Wool Text. Res. Conf., Biella, Vol. 3 (1995) 335.


417

63 R. Riccobono, Textile Chem. Color., 5 (1973) 219. 64 A. L. Tsriskina, J. N. Gushchina, B. L. Gorberg and A. A. Ivanov, Referat. Zhur., 42 B ( July 1991) 7. 65 E. L. Grigoryan and S. M. Gubina, Referat. Zhur., 12 B (Nov 1990) 11. 66 M. Rabe, Diplomarbeit, Fachhochschule Niederrhein, M~;nchengladbach, 1991. 67 M. Rabe et al., Melliand Textilber., 75 (1994) 506. 68 M.V. Yasuda, I. B. Blinicheva and A. I. Maksimov, Vyssh. Ucheben. Zaved. Khim. Khim. Tekh., 24 (1981) 1143. 69 S. Ruppert, B. M~ller, T. Bahners and E. Schollmeyer, Textil Praxis, 49 ( ! 994) 614. 70 T. Yasuda et al., Mukogawa Joshi Diagaku Kiyo Shokumolsu-Ken., 30 (1982) A9. 71 E. L. Vladimirtseva, L. V. Sharina and B. Blinicheva, Referat. Zhur., 12 B (Aug 1994) 8. 72 N.M. Krach, T. V. Tyurkina, S. F. Sadova, E. V. Naumov and A. S. Kechikyan, Textilprom., 1/2 (1995) 32. 73 E. S. Olson, Book of Papers, AATCC Int. Tech. Conf., Montreal, Canada (1976) 156. 74 F. R. Leavitt, J. Polym. Sci., 45 (1960) 536. 75 F. R. Leavitt, J. Polym. Sci., 51 (1961) 341. 76 G. A. Byme and D. M. Jones, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, (Dec 1971) 496. 77 V. Stannett, Amer. DyestuffRep., (May 1965) 374. 78 V. Stannet and A. S. Hoffman, Amer. DyestuffRep., 57 (1968) 998. 79 S. R. Karmakar and P. P. Kulkami, Synthetic Fibres, 23 (4) (1994) 7. 80 Hoechst, AG, British Patent 1,397, 595 (11 June 1975). 81 I. Holme, Colourage, Annual (1998) 41. 82 I. Holme, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 110 (12) (1994) 362. 83 Albright & Wilson, Technical Information Leaflet, ITMA 95, Milan, Italy. 84 G. H. J. Van der Walt, and Van Rensberg, N. J. J. Text. Prog., 2 (1986) 14. 85 M.M. Morris, C. E. Morris and E. A. Catalano, AATCC Int. Conf., (1996). 86 M. M. Morris, C. E. Morris and E. A. Catalano Textile Chem. Color., 28 (8) (1996) 50.

Chal~ter 15 APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES OF TEXTILES 15.1 Introduction

Biotechnology can be defined as t h e " application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services". The earliest evidence of biotechnology include baking of bread using yeast by the ancient Egyptians and brewing [ 1]. Early methods of producing coloured pignaents from natural viable sources may also be cited as primitive technology [2-6]. Today enzymes have been used on a large scale in medicine, food analysis, genetically modified food, transgenic animals and plants and also in the domestic detergent fields. The discovery of chemical structure of DNA has led to genetic engineering, DNA finger-printing, rapid gene sequencing and host of related technologies such as process engineering, fermentation, enzymology, downstream processing, microbiology, biochemistry, process control, reactor design, immobilised cells and enzymes, biosensors, biopolymers and biotransformation [7]. Modem genetic technology is constantly producing new types of application potential which will continue in the future. Biotechnology is also increasingly gaining importance in bioremediation and in the clean up of polluted environments. 15.2 Enzymes for Textile Application

In textile application, the knowledge of specific action of enzymes-amylases for starch splitting began around 1857, when malt extract was used to remove size f?om fabrics before printing [8]. The use of enzyme in pre-treatment processes ot textiles has found much broader acceptence. At present the priority areas are scouring and bleaching of cellulosic fibres and carbonising, bleaching and shrink-resist treatment of wool. Enzymes have traditionally been used for stone washing and bio-polishing of cotton fabrics and garments. Also enzymes have been incorporated in detergents to remove fibre fuzz and brighten the colour of the fabric. In contrast to cellulose and woollen fabrics, the other market segments includes a spectrum of fibres from linen to lyocell (Tencel), rayon (viscose) and cellulose acetate and a multitude of blends, weights and fabric constructions. With the apparel industry trend towards increasing use of cotton knits for achieving novelty finishes is observed.

Application of Biotechnology in the Pre-treatment Processes of Textiles 419 15.2.1 The chemistry of enzymes

Enzymes are naturally-occuring proteins capable of catalysing specific chemical reactions and being catalysts, facilitate the reaction without being consumed. After catalysing the chemical reaction, therefore the enzyme is released and is able to catalyse another reaction-and so on. Enzymes have a protein like structure with primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures and are susceptible to denaturing (degradation due to temperature, ionising radiation, light, acids, alkalies and biological effect factors). The textile and clothing sector is now a major user of enzymes during manufacturing and after-care. Table 15.1 summerises some of the already important established enTABLE 15.1 Important Enzymes for Textile Application [9] Enzymes Amylase

Origin Bacillius Subtilis Bacillius lickerinforms

Effect Desizing of starches. Desizing of jeans. (AQUAZYM) makes denim streak-free, softer and more uniformly faded.

Cellulases and Hemicellulases

Trichoderma raesci Aspergillus niger

Desizing of CMC, stylish effects on cellulosic fibres, Non-stone treatment for j earls.

Pectinase

Aspergillus niger

Scouring of vegetable or bast fibres like jute, hemp, flax, remie etc.

Proteases

Lipases

Scouring of animal fibres, or

Bacillius subtilis B. Licheniformis

degumming of silk, modifi-

B. Oryzaeof

cation of wool properties.

Aspergillus niger Mucojavanicus

Elimination of fats and waxes.

zymes. Cellulases are widely used in textile application. Cellulases are high mo-

420 Application of Biotechnology in the Pre-treatment Processes of Textiles lecular colloidal protein catalysts in metabolic form and are commonly produced by soil-dwelling fungi and bacteria [ 10]. Industrial cellulases are complexes of a number of cellulases, cellobiase and related enzymes in non-uniform composition, with molecular weight ranging from 10,000 to 4,00,000 [ 11 ]. Cellulases comprise a multicomponent enzyme system, including endoglucalases (EGs) that hydrolyse cellulose chains randomly, cellobiohydrolases (CBHS) that split cellobiose from cellulose ends, and cellobiases that hydrolyse cellobiose to glucose. EG or EG-rich preparations are best for aging and defibrillation of fibre surfaces, while complete cellulase systems are best for cleaning and depilling effects [12, 13]. In general, there are two major commercial classifications ofcellulase enzymes based on optimum ranges 9'acid cellulases' exhibit the most activity within the pH range 4.55.5, at a temperature of 45-55~ ; while 'neutral cellulases' ', are more effective in the 5.5-8.0 pH range at 50-60~

Currently, acid cellulases and neutral cellulases

are more commonly used. With alkaline cellulases, there is a possibility of applying the enzymes in combination with reactive dyes from a dyebath. 15.2.2 M e c h a n i s m of enzyme action on cotton textiles

Enzyme' s effect mechanism, i.e. enzyme catalysis, operates first of all to form an enzyme substrate complex [ 14]. Direct physical contact of enzyme and substrate is required to obtain the complex. The current proposed mechanism of cellulase action is illustrated in Fig. 15-1. However, the mechanism of enzymatic hyCelluh~:

b:l~le,~

Cl~.stalline

regions

Amorphous

~ ,

==-

~

. . . .

~

1

a

Endo-b-glucanase

regions

(EGs)

-

9" . r " -

. .*'.,-"

I b

Ceilobiohydrolases.

(CBHs)

~ _ - . - = - - - - ' - - ' - " ~== 5 ::= ~ " _ " _ ~. c

d

~

~ ..

~ e..~.~-:

CBH 9"

= .......... =

-:

_

EG

......................

-

~

.

.

.

.

~

*

Glucose

Figure 15-1. Schematic representation of synergistic action of enzymes on cellulosics [15].

Application of Biotechnology in the Pre-treatment Processes of Textiles 421 drolysis of cellulosic materials is complicated and not yet fully understood [16-18]. Enzymes contain true activity centre in the form of three dimensional structures like fissures, holes, pockets, cavities or hollows. Endoglucanases or endocellulases hydrolyse cellulose polymers randomly along the chains, preferably attacking non-crystalline region [ 19]. Cellobiohydrolases or exo-cellulases, attack the polymer chain ends and produce cellobiose [20]. Coupled with the binding domains associated with the enzyme, exo-cellulases may assist in degradation o! cellulose by disrupting the local crystalline cellulose structure, which makes the region more susceptible to subsequent hydrolysis by endo-cellulases [21]. Fig. 15-2 shows the reducing and non-reducing end groups by the action of celluOH

O

3

Cel lulase

~

OH

aH ~

0

Non-Reduc I ng End Group

Reducing End Group ~~.~

A0 +, Cu(OH} 2or Ferrlcyanlde Ag~, Cu20 ~1,or Ferrocyanlde

o

Figure 15-2. Enzymatic hydrolysis of cotton cellulose [22]. lase on 1,4-[3-glycoside bond of the cellulose molecule. [3-glucosidases hydrolysc small chain oligomers, such as cellobiose into glucose. The three types ofcellulasc component act synergistically in degrading cellulose to glucose. Synergism of di fferent components in the cellulase complex and inhibition mechanisms further complicate the reaction [23, 24]. Enzyme diffusion plays a much more decisive role in the heterogeneous system of soluble enzyme and solid substrate. The kinetics o! reaction therefore depend on the diffusion of enzyme to and into the solid phase o!

422 Application of Biotechnology in the Pre-treatment Processes of Textiles the substrate and the diffusion of the reaction products out of the solid phase into the liquor. For cotton, the restriction of the enzyme to the fibre surface is easily achieved because cellulose is a highly crystalline material and possesses only small amorphous areas, making the diffusion of enzymes into the interior of the fibre nearly impossible. Thus, by regulating enzyme dosage and choosing the right type of enzyme, the catalytic action of the enzyme can be confined to the surface of cotton and to the amorphous regions, leaving the fibres, as a whole, intact [25]. 15.2.3 Parameters governing the eellulase treatments

The cellulase multi-enzyme complex is completely non-uniform. Added to that is substrate specificity in the form of a selective suitability for enzymatic degradation, due to non-uniform structure of collulose. Yam type, structure and textile substrate also influence the break-down effect. Fine yams and open material constructions, particularly any freely accessible projecting fibres, are specifically susceptible to degradation. Prior to enzymatic treatment any impurities or additive present have to be removed first. In particular, the substrate must be free from any enzyme toxins. Some of the enzyme toxins recognised are formaldehyde containing finishing agents, tannic acids like natural tannin or polyphenolic fastness aftertreatment agents, proteases, specific surfactants and microbiocides. Denaturing can occur through specific storage effects. In general buffered granulates are more stable for storage. The presence of chemical substances such as organic salts, iron, magnesium and zinc ions etc. can either enhance or inhibit enzyme activity [26]. Both pH and temperature are critical factors affecting cellulase treatment (Fig. 15-3 and Fig. 15-4). A particular type of cellulase will only operate under a specific pH and temperature optima and its activity will decrease sharply on both log ---+

/ "

"m

..............

88 .=- 68 .,~ ~9

.-

!

48

68

/

30"

> 100"

Good Pre-treatment Poor

10"

penetration, poor fasmess properties and unlevel dyeing.

16.8.4 Removal of motes (kitties) This is done visually by observing the kitties present on the prepared samples, and the ratings on an arbitrary scale of 1-5 are given. A rating of 5 may be given to the sample with no kitties present on the fabric.

16.9 Testing and Evaluation of Bleaching Agents Although it is generally accepted that an improvement in whiteness is one of the basic requirements in bleaching it is by no means the sole objective. Now-a-days with the increased production of polyester/cotton blended fabrics, polyvinyl alcohol, CMC and starch or their blends are used as sizing agents. During enzymatic desizing starch sizes are being solubilised, but the PVA and other polymers will be ineffective. Therefore, one of the major purposes of bleaching is the removal of these polymers apart from the degradation of the naturally occurring pigments in

454

Analysis and Testing in Preparatory Processes

the fibre. Also extremely high whiteness is not worthwhile if it is obtained at the expense of degrading the material being bleached. It is impossible to give strict guidelines for the optimum bleach bath because of the nature and quality of the goods to be bleached, the amount of bleaching required and the availability of equipment in which bleaching is to take place. The evaluation of effective bleaching can be done by measuring the absorbancy, fluidity, whiteness and analysis of impurities which should be 2-3% or less with an ash content of 0.20-0.25%. However exact control on the concentration of bleaching agents is most important along with the treatment time, temperature, pH and stabilisation of the bleach bath. The processed fabric should be absorbant, clean, white, uniform bottom for dyeing and printing. In the textile industry, it is quite common to check the strengths of solutions by means of normality, molarity, specific gravity, density, percentage and g/1 of available chlorine. Bleach liquors, mercerizing liquids and resin solutions are checked with hydrometer for determining specific gravity and strength is expressed in terms of degrees Twaddell (~ Sometime Baume (~ is also used to express the strength in solution. The relations among the three common methods for expressing the density of solutions can be simplified by arithmetical expression for quick routine checking. 145 specific gravity = 145- ~ ~

= 145 -

145 specific gravity

specific gravity = 0.005 (~ ~

+ 1

= 200 (specific gravity- 1)

precent by weight =

g/1 10 (specific gravity)

pounds per gallon = g/1 x 0.008345 The relationship between ~

and strength of bleaching powder solution is shown

in Table 16.7. These methods of expressing strengths of solutions, however are far from accurate and hence quantitative estimation by titration for practical control of bleaching operation is preferable.


455

TABLE 16.7 Fresh Bleaching Powder Solutions [ 10] ~

Available chlorine, g/1

0.5

1.40

1

2.71

2

5.58

3

8.41

4

11.41

5

14.47

6

17.36

7

20.44

8

23.75

9

26.62

10

29.50

15

45.70

20

61.50

16.9.1 Analysis of bleaching powder 5 g sample is made up to 500 ml in a volumetric flask. 50 ml of this solution is pipetted out to a 250 ml conical flask and 25 ml of distilled water is added followed by 20 ml of KI solution (10%) and 10 ml of glacial acetic acid. The liberated iodine is titrated against N/10 sodium thiosulphate solution using starch solution as indicator towards the end point when the blue colour will be discharged. Ca (OC1)2 + 4KI + 4CH3COOH --+ CaC12 + 4CH3COOK + 2I 2 + 2H20 212 + 4Na2S203 --~ 2Na2S4 O6 + 4NaI 1 ml of 0.1 N Na2S203 = 0.00355 g available chlorine % available chlorine = B.R.x Normality of Na2S203 x

E q . w t . o f C12 1000

X

500 50

100 wt.of sample (W) = B.R.x

3.55 W

456


16.9.2 Analysis of sodium hypochlorite The estimation by above method expresses chlorates as well as hypochlorites as available chlorine. The errors due to chlorates can be avoided by titration with an N/10 solution of sodium arsenite (Na2HAsO3) 1 ml of 0.1N Na2HAsO 3 = 0.003546 g chlorine.

16.9.3 Analysis of sodium chlorite 2 g sample is made up to 500 ml in a volumetric flask. 25 ml of solution is pipetted out and then 25 ml of 10% KI solution and of 10% H2SO 4 are added. The content is titrated against 0.1N Na2S203 solution using starch as an indicator till blue colour disappears completely. 2NaC102 + 8KI + H2SO 4 ---->2NaC1 + K2SO 4 + 8I + H20 1 ml of 0.1N Na2S203 - 0.00226 g NaC102 % NaC102 = B.R.x normality

of Na2S203 x E q ' w t ' ~

1000

x ~500 x 25

100 W

4.52 =B.R.x~ W

16.9.4 Analysis of hydrogen peroxide 10 ml of sample solution is diluted to 1000 ml with distilled water. 10 ml of this solution is pipetted out into a conical flask and 10 ml of 10% H2S Q is added to it. This solution is then titrated against 0.1 N KMnO 4 till pink colour of permanganate solution persist. 5H202 4- 2 K M n O 4 + 3H2SO 4 ~ K2SO 4 + 2MnSO 4 + 8H20 +502

1 ml o f 0 . 1 N KMnO4 = 0.0017 g H202 o~ H202 = B.R. x Normality of KMnO 4 x

Eq. wt.of H202 1000

1000

100

10

10

X ~ X ~

= B.R. x 1.7 Generally, H202 concentration is expressed in volume. 10 volume H202 = 10 times its volume of 02 which corresponds to 3% solution by weight of convert %

H202. To

H202 into volume of H202 following calculations can be used 9

112 Volume of H~O 2 = % of H202 x . 34


457

16.9.5 Analysis of stabilisers for peroxide bleach The efficiency of a stabiliser for peroxide bleach is tested by titrimetric determination of the speed of decomposition of H202, in the presence and absence of stabiliser, during the bleaching of cotton. Bleaching baths containing 10 ml/1H202, 5 ml/1NaOH (67~

and 0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1 g/1 stabilisers are prepared by adding

stabiliser, caustic soda and H202, in that order, to water. Cotton cloth pieces (5g) are bleached in this solutions at 90~ for 90 min, material to liquor ratio being 1:50. After replenishing water lost due to evaporation, about 25 ml samples are withdrawn after 0, 30, 60 and 90 min, cooled in ice water and a 5 ml aliquot is pipetted from these for analysis. It is diluted with 50 ml of distilled water, acidified with 10 ml of 2N H2SO 4 and titrated with 0.1 N potassium permanganate to a permanent pink colour. In the case of stabilisers which consume permanganate under these conditions, the determination is done iodometrically by adding 1g KI to the acidified solution and titrated the iodine liberated, after keeping in dark for 10 min, with 0.1N sodium thiosulphate using starch as an indicator. 1 ml 0.1 N KMnO 4 = 0.0017 g H202 1 ml 0.1 N Na28203 = 0.0017 g H202

16.9.6 Analysis of sodium hydrosulphite 2 g sample is dissolved in a mixture of 10 ml HCHO and 25 ml water in a 250 ml volumetric flask. The stoppered flask is allowed to stand for 5 min and the volume is made up to the mark. 25 ml of this solution is pipetted out and titrated against 0.1N 12 solution using starch solution as an indicator till blue colour persists. 1 ml of 0.1 N 12 = 0.00435 g Na2S204 4.35 % N a 2 8 2 0 4 = B.R. x ~ . W

16.9.7 Analysis of sodium bisulphite 10 g sample is accurately weighed and dissolved in 1 litre distilled water. To 10 ml of this solution 5 ml acetic acid is added and then titrated against 0.1 N I, solution using starch solution as an indicator. End point is judged when the colourless solution turns blue. NaHSO 3 + I 2 + H 2 0 --~ NaHSO 4 + 2HI 1 ml of 0.1 N 12 = 0.0052 g NaHSO 3 % NaHSO 3 = B. R. x 52.

458


16.9.8 Estimation of sodium silicate In a commercial sample of silicate, Na20 (total alkali) and SiO 2 (silica) are determined. 5 g of sodium silicate is dissolved in 100 ml water. 10 ml of this solution is titrated against 0.5 N H2SO 4 using Methyle Orange as an indicator. 1 ml 1N H2SO4 = 0.031 g Na20 For determination of silica, 20 ml of silicate solution is kept in an evaporating dish and then 20 ml ofN HC1 is added to it. The content is evaporated to dryness with constant stirring. After cooling 10 ml of N HC1 is added and again evaporated to dryness. The content is baked (over a sand bath) at about 130~ to convert the silicir acid into silica. After cooling water is added to dissolve the soluble matter and then filtered through a weighed-ash filter paper, washed free from chloride (test the filtrate with dilute AgNO 3 solution). The content is incinerated and weighed as silica. 16.10 Assessment of Damage of Cellulose During Pre-treatment Processes The damages that occur during various pre-treatment processes of cellulosic fibres can be detected by various chemical tests like fluidity, copper number, Methylene Blue absorption and silver nitrate staining etc. 16.10.1 Determination of fluidity of cellulose The extent of chemical damage to cellulosic fibres is usually expressed from fluidity measurements, although with oxidative damage some problems arise. Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity of cellulose solution and is measured as rhes. Oxycellulose or hydrocellulose has equal effect upon viscosity and give overall degradation of cellulose. Degradation is always accompanied by a decrease in DP, therefore higher the viscosity the less is the damage which has been inflicted upon the fibre. Viscosity changes do not give a straight line plot in relation to loss of tensile strength. When fluidities are used, however, the curve is near enough to a straight line for all practical purposes. Among the various solvents suggested for dissolution of cellulose, cuprammonium solution is recommended as a general solvent having 15 _+0.1 g/1 Cu, 200 + 5g/1NH 3 and less than 0.5 g/1 nitrous oxide. The fluidity in this solvent of the solution of cotton is given by F=-

C

t


459

where, c is the viscometer constant. If it is necessary to apply kinetic energy correction, k, C F ~ ~ t~

k t

The kinetic energy correction is unnecessary for times of flow greater than 200 sec. In actual practice 0.5 g of finely cut dry cotton sample is dissolved in 100 ml of standardised cuprammonium hydroxide solution. The viscometer (Fig. 16-2) is

B ! !

1

) Figure 16-2. Shirley X-type viscometer and jacket. used for dissolving as well as flow time of cellulose solution. The viscometer tube is calibrated. The three marks on the tube are timing marks. The ratio of the time of flow from BC to CD should be near unity. The viscometer is then wrapped with black cloth and wound on a cycle wheel which rotates at 4 r.p.m, overnight. Steel cylinder or Hg placed inside the cylinder falls from one end to the other during rotation. The established procedure [11,12] involves long agitation of cellulose with the solvent. A modified method is also described which gives only slightly less accurate results in a much shorter time [ 13].

460


Chemically undamaged cotton has a fluidity of 3 to 5. A value of 10 or more can be taken as an indication of excessive degradation during chemical pre-treatment processes.

It is usual to work with 2% solution in the case of regenerated

cellulose. Unprocessed viscose has a fluidity of 10 to 12. The fluidity values can be expressed in terms of DP of cellulose by the following equation [14]: DP = 2160 [(logrl~ + 1) - 0.267] where rl, is the relative viscosity of 0.5% solution of cellulose in Cuoxam compared to the viscosity of the solvent. When the fluidity measurements in different solvents are compared, it is observed that the apparent DP of the degraded (oxidative) cotton is dependent on the alkalinity of the solvent [15] :

DPEwNN < DPcuEN < DP CUOXAM < DP NO3AI Fluidity results determined in Cuxam and Cuen for chemically damaged cotton are correlated with viscosity values obtained in Cadoxen and FeTNa solvents [ 16]. The comparison and conversion of the viscosity values to apparent cuprammonium fluidity is a quick method of determining degradation of cotton occured in pretreatment processes [ 16]. 16.10.2 Determination of copper number

Copper number is an expression of the reducing power of degraded celluloses. Oxidation of cellulose can produce ring fission of the glucose residues, resulting in the formation of aldehyde groups at carbon atoms 2 and 3. The aldehyde groups can reduce Fehling's solution to cuprous oxide. The latter may be determined quantitatively by allowing the oxide to reduce ferric alum to the ferrous state and determining the latter by titration with ammonium cerric sulphate. The copper number is thus the weight of copper from Cu 2§ to Cu § state by 100 g dry cellulose and is a measure of its inter and intra chain break down. Pure cellulose has a copper number of 0.2 - 0.3 and when fully degraded may be as high as 14. The importance of copper number has suffered a decline because it has been demonstrated that there is a poor correlation between increase in copper number and decrease in tensile strength. Four solutions are prepared as follows : Solution A : 100 g pure CuSO 4 dissolved in 1 litre H20. Solution B 950 g NaHCO 3 and 350 g Na2CO 3 dissolved in 1 litre H20. Solution C : 100 g ferric alum and 140 ml pure concentrated H2SO 4 dissolved in 1 litre H20. Solution D : N/100 cerric sulphate.


461

Solution A and B are mixed in proportion 5 to 95 and the mixture is boiled. 0.125 g finely cut dried sample is kept in a pyrex test tube and 100 ml of the mixture (A and B) is added to it. The test tube is immersed in a constant level water bath which is kept boiling. The test tube is covered with loose glass bulb during boiling. After 3 h test tubes are taken out, cooled and transferred onto Gooch crucible and filtered with suction. The sample is washed, first with dilute sodium carbonate solution (5 g/l) and subsequently with hot water. The residue is then washed with solution C twice with about 5 ml each time. The residue is then finally washed with about 10 ml of 2N H2SO4. Distilled water is added. The filtrate and washings are collected and then titrated with N/100 cerric sulphate solution using ferroin (23 drops) as indicator until the colour changes from red to pale blue. 1000 ml of N/100 cerric sulphate = 0.000635 g Cu (reduced) Copper Number = B.R. x 01000635 x

100

0.125 = B.R. x 0.508 The cuprous oxide reduces ferric alum as follows" Cu + + Fe 3+ __~ Cu 2+ + Fe 2+ and final titration with cerric sulphate involves the oxidation Fe 2+--~ Fe z+ [ 18].

16.10.3 Methylene Blue absorption test Methylene Blue test can also be used to differentiate between oxycellulose and hydrocellulose. Methylene Blue is a cationic dye. Standard cellulose generally has no affinity for Methylene Blue, but oxycellulose with the formation of carboxyl groups confer an affinity and can be sorbed onto cotton. For this purpose, Methylene Blue absorption tests are carried out both at pH of 7.0 and at a pH of 2.7 (acidic). Two pieces of fabrics to be tested are taken and treated one with Methylene Blue at a pH of 2.7 and the other at pH 7.0. If oxycellulose is present, the material will absorb less dye in the acid than in the neutral solution, whilst reverse is the case if hydrocellulose is present. The degree of staining will indicate the extent of degradation. In another method, 1g cation free sample is treated with 100 ml of Methylene Blue solution (10 m. moles/l) buffered in presence of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.625 m. moles/l) and NaOH (0.4 m. moles/l). The contents of the flask are agitated for about 18 h at room temperature. The solution is poured off from the

462


cellulosic sample and preferably centrifuged. The supematent solution is suitably diluted to determine the absorbance at 620 nm. The loss in concentration of the dye in the treating solution is found out by referring to the calibration graph and the carboxyl content of the cellulose sample is calculated and expressed as m.eq/100g dry cellulose. If a dyed material is under test, the stripping of dye will be necessary before the test can be carried out. Alternatively, degradation can be determined by titration using an anionic dye which precipitates Methylene Blue from solution. Scoured and bleached American cotton have carboxyl contents of 0.8-0.9; Egyptian cotton 1.16-1.74. Unbuffered Methylene Blue solutions give lower values viz., 0.45 and 0.65 respectively. Methylene Blue absorption of cotton depends on the ash alkalinity of the cotton and the value decreases as the ash alkalinity decreases. 16.10.4 Silver nitrate test This qualitative test is also referred to as Harrison's test since he was the first to describe it in 1912. The test specimen is either boiled or padded with a reagent containing a mixture of silver nitrate (1%), sodium thiosulphate (4%) and sodium hydroxide (4%) and then steamed. Those parts where degradation takes place due to oxycellulose or hydrocellulose in a fabric will be stained black or dark grey due to the formation of silver by reduction. 16.10.5 Determination of acidic groups by iodometric method

1 g of bone dry cation freed sample is treated with 50 ml solution [NaC1 (A.R.) 50 g, KI (CP) 83 g, KIO 3 (CP) 21.4 g, sodium thiosulphate crystals 4.96 g dissolved in 2 litres of water] in a stoppered flask. To this 25 ml of CO2-free distilled water is added. A current of CO2-free air is also bubbled through the solution and water washing the bubbling glass tube with 25 ml CO2-free distilled water, the flask is stoppered and kept for 24 h. The contents in the flask are titrated with 0.02 N iodine solution using starch indicator. The end point is indicated by the appearance of a faint blue colour. Carboxyl content (m. eq. COOH/100g)=

lx(a-b)xNxl00xl000 1000 x W

where, a and b are the titration readings for blank and sample, N = normality of iodine solution, and

W = bone dry weight of the sample.


463

16.11 Assessment of Damage of Wool Wool fibre during its various pre-treatment stages also undergoes some kind of damage, the extent of which may be assessed by both physical and chemical methods. The very multiplicity of tests available is in itself evidence of the lack of a universal method for assessment of damage [ 19].

16.11.1 Microscopic test Modification of the external scale structure of wool by chemical treatment can be examined visually with the aid of microscope. Wool is immersed in a dilute solution of Methylene Blue (0.4 g/l) for 1 rain and washed in water for 5 min and finally dried. The stained fibres are then cut into short lengths of about 1 mm and then mounted in a liquid paraffin and examined under microscope of about • 200. The degree of damage is then expressed in comparative numerical terms depending on the extent of staining. Alternatively, damage to the outer layers (epicuticle) may be revealed by means Allw'6rden reaction [20]. When wool fibres are immersed in chlorine or bromine water, bubbles or blisters known as Allw'6rden sacs are formed on the surface. Damage to the fibre surface may show up by lessening the size of or eliminating altogether, the blisters. This test is particularly useful when damage caused by alkali treatment is severe.

16.11.2 Swelling test [21 ] Wool fibre is immersed in a solution of sodium monohydrogen and dihydrogen phosphate at a pH of 5.95 for 1 h at 20~ The samples are then centrifuged to remove the entrained liquor and then weighed wet and afterwards dried thoroughly and reweighed. The ratio of the weight of absorbed water to that of dry fibre i.e. retention of water will give the degree of swelling. The alkali solution will rupture the disulphide bonds in the polypeptide chains and thus the extent of swelling will give some idea of damage in wool. 16.11.3 Solubility test In this method the amount of wool capable of being dissolved with a solution, which rupture the disulphide cross-links, is determined. Essentially it is a test which detects main chain breakage caused, most often, by action of acids on wool [21,22]. 1 g wool (oven dry) is treated with 100 ml of 0.1 N solution NaOH at 65~ for 1 h. The sample is then rinsed with 2 litres of distilled water and dried to constant

464


weight at 105~ The alkali solubility is then determined as the loss in weight of the test specimen expressed as percentage. Normal wool is expected to have about 1213% solubility and values greater than 18% may be taken as suggesting that the sample has been damaged. In the Krais-Viertel reagent test the wool is immersed in a solution of ammonia in caustic soda [23]. The test entails timing of the appearance of the characteristic swellings in this reagent. When the fibre has been damaged with acid, the time for appearance is decreased. In the urea-bisulphite solubility test [24], wool is treated with a solution of urea (50%) and sodium bisulphite (3%) (pH adjusted to 7) at 60~ for lh and then the residue is washed and dried till constant weight is obtained. Urea breaks the hydrogen bonds and bisulphite attacks the disulphide bonds in wool. Solubility in this method depends on the wool which had been treated in acidic or alkaline pH.

16.11.4 Speetrophotometric test [25, 26] 1g sample is extracted with 10 ml solution comprising isopropanol : pyridine : water 5:5:90.2 ml of the wool extract solution is then reacted with 2 ml ofninhydrin solution (21.02 g NaOH, 62.4 ml propionic acid and 30 ml distilled water. After cooling 125 ml of methyl cellosolve and 18.75 ninhydrin is added and dissolved and the solution is made up to 250 ml) in capped test tube at 100~ for about 8 min. After reaction the solution is made up to 50 ml and the absorbance is measured in spectrophotometer at 570 nm against blank ninhydrin solution that contain no wool extract solution. The absorbance reading for the extract from the original clean wool is zero. The absorbance reading for the ninhydrin/wool extract reaction is directly related to the damage caused by sulphuric acid. The results correlate well with both alkali solubility and tensile strength test methods.

16.12 Determination of Degree of Mercerization The effect ofmercerization depends on the conditions ofmercerization. A quantitative assessment of the degree of mercerization is carried out mainly in three different ways i.e. variation in the mercerized product, external appearance (lustre) and internal appearance (x-ray diagram) etr [26].

16.12.1 Determination of deconvolution count [27] In this method cotton hairs are cut in large number of hair fragments 0.2 mm long. They are then mounted in liquid paraffin on a microscopic slide, and then


465

counted the proportion of fragments free from twist on convolution during mercerization. The result is expressed as percentage and is called" Deconvolution Count". If the figure is above 20, the fabric is mercerized. The ratio of the two sets of data may be used to estimate the degree of mercerization. The disadvantage of this method is that the extent of deconvolution is influenced by the maturity of cotton and by the structure of material that is twist of the yam or weave of cloth.

16.12.2 Determination of swelling index [28] Untwisting number of single yam can give reliable means for estimating degree of swelling of cellulose in non-polar liquids such as carbon tetrachloride and benzene. Strong alkali solution and cadoxen (cadmium ethylene diamine complex of 3.6%) also causes large amount of untwisting. In this method, the yarn together with the weight (0.8 g) is hanged into the measuring cylinder containing sufficient amount of solvent as to dip the upper end of the yam. The yam is then allowed to untwist and the number of revolutions made by weight are measured for 3 min. Swelling index =

Untwisting number in solvent Untwisting number in water

Swelling index increases with degree of mercerization. In this method there is no necessity of untreated sample.

16.12.3 Benzopurpurine test In this method mercerized and unmercerized cotton samples are treated in a 0.5% solution of Benzopurpurine for 30 min at boiling temperature. The treated samples are then washed, dried and compared visually or spectrophotometrically. The mercerized sample is always more deeply dyed than the unmercerized. However, it is recommended that a standard swatch be calibrated so that the actual degree of mercerization can be assured. 16.12.4 Sodium hydroxide spotting test In this method the undyed fabric is spotted with 30% solution of caustic soda and then both mercerized and undyed spotted fabric samples are dyed by using Benzopurpurine. If the fabric is fully mercerized, the spots will not be evident after dyeing. On the other hand, if the fabric is not mercerized or semi-mercerized, dark spots will be evident and the degree of mercerization can be evaluated on comparing the spots.

466


16.12.5 Goldthwait Red-Green test [29] In this test a mixture of red and green direct dyes is used to compare the maturity of cotton fibre samples. Immature fibres dye red, and mature fibres green. Mercerization increases the fibre's affinity for green compound and" causticization number" can be assessed related to the strength of the green hue. Fabric treated with liquid ammonia "under industrial mill condition" dyes red. 16.12.6 Staining test The fibre is immersed in iodine solution (20 g iodine in 100 ml of standard KI solution) for 3 min and rinsed thoroughly. Mercerized cotton is stained bluish black and unmercerized cotton remains white. Cotton fibres in the yarn bundle can be counted using a microscope and the ratio of dyed to undyed fibres can be used to determine the degree ofmercerization. The iodine sorption value shows the largest increase for those samples treated in liquid ammonia with NH 3removal by evaporation, followed by caustic mercerized samples, and last by those samples NH 3 treated and water quenched. Generally only minor differences in iodine sorption value are found between samples mercerized slack or under tension. In another method [30] fabrics treated with several concentrations of NaOH are immersed in a mixture of 1.3 g/1 Telon Fast Red AF-3G 150% (BAY), a low molecular weight acid dye, C.I Acid Red 151 and 1.4 g/1 Benzo New Blue GS 140% (BAY), a large molecular weight direct dye, C.I. Direct Blue 10, liquor ratio 70:1 at pH 2 using H2SO4 for 10 min cold followed by washing off. Untreated cotton is stained red and becomes progressively bluer with increase in NaOH concentration. 16.12.7 Barium activity number [31-33] Mercerized sample absorbs barium hydroxide (alkali) to a greater degree than sodium hydroxide and from practical point of view, barium hydroxide is more easy to estimate. The ratio of uptake for this reagent has been referred to barium activity number. 2 g mercerized and unmercerized samples are placed separately in two conical flask containing 30 ml of N/4 barium hydroxide and left for 2 h or preferably overnight. 10 ml of clear solution is withdrawn and titrated against N/10 HC1 using phenolphthalein as indicator. A blank titration is also carried out on the measured barium hydroxide solution using Methyl Red as indicator. b-s Barium activity number -- ~ x 100 b-u


467

where, b = ml required for blank test, s = ml required for mercerized cotton, u - ml required for unmercerized cotton. For exact estimation, correction should be made for the moisture regain of the sample. Barium activity number of unmercerized cotton is considered as 100 and semi-mercerized cotton ranges between 115 to 130 and that for completely mercerized cotton is about 155.

16.12.8 Determination of lustre [34, 35] Pulfrich photometer, the Gorez Glarimeter comparative glass method and microscopic examination of cross-section of fibre are the qualitative methods for the assessment of degree of mercerization. Mercerization increase the lustre and reduces the axial ratio (Fig. 16-3). Micro-

b

I

Before mercerization

After mercerization

Figure 16-3. Cross-section of cotton fibre before and after mercerization. scopic examination shows that the corss-section of the cotton fibre changes from eliptical to circular form due to mercerization. This can be measured as a ratio of two axes 'a' and 'b'. The axial ratio (a/b) of unmercerized cotton is about 2.2 to 2.6, whereas that of mercerized cotton is about 1.5 to 1.6. Caustic mercerized samples appear to give superior lustre than ammonia treated fibre. The measurement of specular reflectance is considered as an accurate evaluation of lustre. Lustre can be determined from reflectance measurements with incident light inclined at 450 , the reflected light is measured either perpendicularly to the surface of the material (diffuse reflectance) or viewed at 45 ~ symetrically to the incident light (specular reflectance). Lustre is therefore defined by the contrast ratio of the specular to diffuse reflectance [36, 37]. 16.12.9 x - r a y analysis X-ray photograph of native cellulose (unmercerized) reveals the presence of two arcs close together and inside the prominent 002 arc. These reflections are

468

Analysis and Testing in Preparatory Processes ,ram

from 101 plane and 101 plane, the latter being nearer the centre of the photograph. They are not as intense as 002 arcs. In case of completely mercerized or regenerated cellulose, X-ray photograph shows a change in position of two shorter arcs. The 101 arc is much nearer to 002 arc and 101 arc is nearer the centre of the photograph. On the basis of this estimations it is estimated that mercerizing efficiency seldom exceeds 60-70% for yam and 35-40% for cloth.

16.12.10 Infra-red analysis Determination of infra-red crystallinity index at different wavelengths (1429 cm-~/893 cm -~) by the usual base line technique can be used [38]. When celluloseII samples are considered, the 1372 cm-~/2900 cm -~ ratio is more reliable index [39, 40]. A rapid method for estimation of the degree of mercerization has been developed using a near IR diffuse reflection technique [41 ].

16.13 Evaluation of Whitening Efficiency of Optical Brighteners The estimation of optical whiteners in substrate is really a difficult problem, but the qualitative and quantitative estimation of fluorescent brightener in solution by examination of absorption and/or emission spectra have been detailed [42-46]. Since the brightener will differ in substantivity for a particular substrate with differences in their chemical structure, cost comparisons of performance can only be based upon evaluation of the treated substrates. Various techniques for such evaluation have been described [46-51 ].

16.13.1 Visual assessment Visual assessment of a white object is based on a comparison of the test sample with a standard sample. A viewing angle of 45 ~is generally recommended and the position of the samples are changed several times during the test. Out of many white scales, Ciba-Geigy's "Cotton white scale" occupies a prominent position [52].

16.13.2 Extraction method Generally optical brighteners on cotton are extracted from the fabric by suitable solvent like pyridine. The absorbance of the extracted solution of optical brighteners of unknown concentration is determined by using a uv-spectrophotometer, and by referring the calibration graph, the unknown concentration is determined. Optical brighteners can also be determined by extraction with alkaline cadoxen solution within narrow limits [53] and with relatively large errors (> 20%) in the uv range


469

[54]. This must place some doubt on results of fluorescent brightening agent concentrations determined in this way. A similar technique is also used to determine fluorescent brightening agents on nylon and acetate fibres [55]. A m-cresol-methanol mixture is used as solvent for nylon fibres and DMF for the acetate fibres. Extraction with a DMF-water mixture is recommended for cellulosic fibres.

16.13.3 Instrumental assessment Thin-layer chromatography, tristumulus filter photometer and spectrophotometer are the most popular techniques for seperation, identification and quantitative analysis of fluorescent brightening agents, although some other instrumental techniques have been developed [56]. Spectrophotometers simply measure spectral reflectance, from which tristumulus values are calculated on the basis of spectral energy distribution of the light source and the C.I.E. spectral tristumulus values function. The L*, a*, b* values for the standard reference substrate and the sample are determined. The former values are substracted from the latter to get AL*, Aa* and Ab* values. This determines the whiteness and tonal differences. The results obtained by this method are not always with full agreement with the results of subjective evaluation, and therefore it is used as an auxiliary method, especially in the determination of the concentration of the brightening agent on fibres.

16.14 Determination of the Degree of Heat-setting 16.14.1 Shrinkage test Normally a square area is drawn on the heat-set material and measured. The marked cloth is boiled in soft water in the washing wheel for 30 min, centrifuged and air dried. The dimensions of the square are measured without ironing the dried fabric and the shrinkage is determined. A well set fabric should not show more than 1% residual shrinkage. 16.14.2 Crease-recovery angle The determination of crease recovery angle before and after heat-setting of the fabric is done. The extent of crease-recovery of heat-set fabric before and after setting at and above 170-175~ will give idea of the degree of heat-setting. 16.14.3 Assessment of handle Assessment of handle before and after setting gives an idea of the degree of heat-setting. In general, fabric becomes stiff after heat-setting. Stiffness is measured by bending length and compared with that of the unset fabric. The narrower

470


the difference of bending length between the set and unset fabrics, the better the setting.

16.14.4 Iodine absorption method The degree of heat-setting of polyester fabrics can be correlated with their iodine absorption value. Heat-setting under industrial conditions in a taut form reduces the amorphous content of synthetic fibres. So, there will be a decrease in iodine sorption and increase in critical dissolution value [57].

16.15 Determination of Biodegradability of Surfactants [58] The efficiency of a sewage treatment is often expressed as the percentage removal of the BOD, less often in terms of COD removal. Dividing the percent removal of the surfactant by the percent removal of the BOD or COD gives the biodegradability index of the surfactant. The

procedure

for

alkylbenzenesulphonates

(ABS)

and

linear

alkylbenzenesulphonates given by the soap and detergent association involves both a presumptive and a confirmatory test. In the presumptive test, a nutrient medium, to which 30 mg/1 test surfactant has been added, is inoculated with micro-organisms in a culture flask and aerated by a reciprocating shaker at 128 two-four inch strokes / min at 25 + 3~ After two 72 h adaptive transfers, in which 1 ml of the 72 h culture is transferred to 100 ml of a fresh nutrient medium plus surfactant, samples are taken at zero time, i.e. immediately after inoculation and mixing and on 7th and 8th days. A blank under the same conditions but without the surfactant is carried out side by side. The samples are then tested for the active content by the Methylene Blue method. If analysis is not done immediately, 1 ml formaldehyde per 100 ml should be added as preservative. If the percent degradation is less than 80, the sample is non-biodegradable. If above 90, the sample is biodegradable and in this case no further test is necessary. A value of 80-90% indicates the necessity of carrying out a confirmatory test. Although presumptive test is simple and inexpensive it suffers from the disadvantage in that it takes 14 days in all and that it does not measure rate per day or per hour, but only total degradation in one week. In the confirmatory test, activated sludge from a domestic sewage treatment plant, test surfactant (20 rag/l) and synthetic sewage of composition

Analysis and Testing in Preparatory Processes Glucose

13.0 g

Neutrient

13.0 g

Beef extract

13.0 g

K3HPO4

13.0 g

(NH4)2SO 4 Tap water

2.5 g 1 litre

471

are mixed in a specially designed vessel, brought to a steady state and aerated for 23 h. After 1 h settling, supematant liquid is withdrawn and the same amount is replenished with synthetic sewage containing 20 mg / 1 surfactant. This is repeated for a minimum of 15 days after which the active content is determined by Methylene Blue method. The confirmatory method suffers from the disadvantage that the testing time exceeds the normal retention time in an activated sludge system in sewage plants.

16.15.1 Methylene Blue method A 10 ml aliquot of a solution containing 0.625 g of 100% active content in 500 ml is pipetted in a 100 ml graduated glass stoppered cylinder and 25 ml of aqueous methylene blue indicator (The indicator is prepared by pipetting 10 ml of 0.3% solution of methylene blue hydrochloride into 500 ml water, adding 12 g concentrated H2SO 4 and 50 g Na2SO 4 and then diluting to 1 litre) and 15 ml of chloroform added. The solution is then titrated with 0.004 M cetyl pyridinium bromide, shaking mixture vigorously for 3 min after each addition. As the titration continues there is a slow transfer of blue colour from chloroform to aqueous layer. When the colour of the two layers has equalised the end point is reached. Active ingredient, % = where,

axbxmx5 W

a = ml of titrant consumed, b = molarity of above solution, m = molecular weight of active ingredient, and w = weight of sample in g.

472


REFERENCES

1 D. T. Cousineau, New Approaches and Developments for Bleaching of Cellulose and its Blends, American Hoechst Corporation. 2 J. E. Nettles, Handbook of Chemical Specialties, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983. 3 ASTM Designation : D 1909-68 (1973). 4 M.W. Rutenberg, "Starch and its Modifications" in Handbook of water-soluble Gums and Resins, Robert I., Davidson, Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980. 5 British Standard Handbook No. 11 (1963) 485. 6 AATCC test method 97, USA. 7 DIN 54285, Germany. 8 DIN 54278, Germany. 9 "Standard Draves Wetting Test" AATCC Method No. 17 (1974). 10 E. R. Trotman, Textile Scouring and Bleaching, Griffin, London, 1968. 11 D.A. Clibbens and A. Geake, J. Textile Inst., 19 (1928) T 77. 12 D. A. Clibbens and A. A. Little, J. Textile Inst., 27 (1936) T 285. 13 14 15 16

Shirley Institute Bulletin, Manchester, England, 39 (1966) 29. O. A. Battista, Industr. Eng. Chem. Anal. Edn., 16 (1944) 351. A. Agster, Melliand Textilber., 54 (1973) 497. S. R. Karmakar and W. B. Achwal, Proc. 13th Tech. Conf., ATIRA, BTRA, SITRA, Ahmedabad, (Dec 1972). 17 S. R. Karmakar and W. B. Achwal, J. Textile Assocn., (1972) 23. 18 C. Earland and D. J. Raven, Experiments in Textile and Fibre Chemistry, London, Butterworths (1971 ) 134. 19 W. G. Crewther and T. A. Pressley, Wool Science Rev., No. 26 (1964).

20 21 22 23

K. Von All~worden, Z. Angew. Chem., 29 (1916) 79. E. F. Elseworth, J. Soc. Dyers Colourists, 68 (1952) 207. E. F. Elseworth, J. Textile Inst., 52 (1961) 8678. P.K. Krais, H. Merkert and O. Viertel, Forsch. Inst. Text. Ind. Dresden, 1933, H 14 and 15. 24 Anon., J. Textile Inst., 52 (1961) 8681. 25 C. Wang and M. T. Pailthorpe, Textile Res. J., 57 (12) (1987) 728.


473

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

H. Hermanutz, H. Herlinger and D. Bechter, Textil Praxis, 49 (1994) 495. J. T. Marsh, Mercerizing, Chapman and Hall, London, 1951, p 39. J. H. Corr et al, Textile Res. J., 32 (1962) 1041. P. Vonhore, Int. Textile Bull. (Dyg/Ptg./Fing.) (1982) 104 S. Dugal, U. Denter and E. Schollmeyer, Melliand Textilber., 64 (July 1983) 494. S.M. Neale, J. Textile Inst., 22 (1931) T 349. S. M. Edelstein, Amer. DyestuffRep., 25 (1936) 186, 545 and 724. S.M. Edelstein, Rayon and Synthetic Textiles, 32 (10) (1951) 62. Monen, J. Textile Ind., 49 (1934) 257. Desbleds, Dyers, 64 (1930) 515. L. Fourt and A. M. Sookne, Textile Res. J., 21 (1951) 469. L. Fourt and A. M. Sookne, Amer. DyestuffRep., 43 (1954) 304. R. T. O'Connor et al, Anal. Chem., 29 (1957) 998. M. L. Nelson and R. T. O'Conner, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 8 (1964) 1311. M. L. Nelson and R. T. O'Conner, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 8 (1964) 1325. S. Ghosh and D. Dilanni, J. Textile Inst., (1944) 308. Szekely, Magyav, Textiltech, 20 (1968) 437. Ziolkowsky, Seifen Oele Fette Wachse, 95 (1969) 705. Szekely, Text. Kutato Intezet, 19 (1969) 35. Pestemer, Melliand Textilber., 51 (1970) 75. Soljacic, Textilveredlung, 6 (1971) 796. Stensby, Soap Chem. Spec., 43 (5) (1967) 84. Mieuwenhuis, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 45 (1968) 37. Meckel, Melliand Textilber., 50 (1969) 859. Laube, Textilveredlung, 5 (1970) 418. Anders, J. Amer, Oil Chem. Soc., 48 (1971) 80. Ciba-GeigyReview, 1973/1. W.B. Achwal and A. K. Narkar, Textilveredlung, 7 (1972) 19. I. Rusznak, I. Tanczos and P. Sallay, Kol. Ert., 15 (1973) 2.

55 56 57 58

L. S. Krasnovskay and V. T. Kudryashova, Khim. Volok., 14 (1972) 68. J. Gasparic, Chemicke Listy, 63 (1969) 1363. Anon., Int. Dyer, (19 Feb 1965). N. F. Desai, Colourage (Sept 1980) 62.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

SUBJECT I N D E X

. . . . , peraeetic acid, 191 .... , peroxide, 181

Abaca, 2

Air pollution, 370

Absorbancy, 452

Air in kiers, 346, 348

Accelerated bleaching of blends, 167

Alkali cellulose, 285

Accelerated hypochlorite bleaching,

Alkali earth metal, 88

---, by steaming method, 167

Allworden reaction, 463

---, conjunction with

H202, 166

qq,

Alpaca, 2

---, elevated temperature, 166

Amino acid content,

---, in danger zone, 166

---, on silk, 12,15

---, in presence of additives, 167

, , wool, 12

Acetate fibres,

Ammonia mercerization, 309

--, manufacturing of, 35

Amorphous region, 4

Acid hydrolysis of cotton, 346

Amphoteric surfactants, 98

Acrilan, 181

Amylase, 69,418,419

Acrylic fibres, 34

Amylopectin, 70

Action of acids, 350

Analysis of non-cellulosic residues,

---, on cotton, 345

. . . . , ash content, 443

Action of alkalies,

.... , calcium and magnesium, 444

---, on cotton, 86, 346

. . . . , iron and copper, 445

, , nylon, 31

. . . . , silicate and phosphate, 444

, , polyester, 357

Analysis of water,

, , silk, 86, 356

---, calcium hardness, 443

, , wool, 86, 355

---, magnesium hardness, 443

Activated sludge plant, 385

---, suspended matter, 442

Activators for,

---, temporary and permanent hardness, 443

--, chlorite bleaching, 183-185

---, total hardness, 442

--, H202 bleaching of silk, 179

---, total soluble salt, 442

,

,wool,174

Animal fibres, 2

--, peracetic acid, 189

Anion active substances, 94

Advantage of bleaching with,

Anti-chlor treatment, 164, 166

. . . . , chlorite, 187

Anti-redeposition agents,

. . . . , hypochlorite, 167

---, CMC structure, 102

476

Subject Index

---, PVP structure, 103

--, lithium hypochlorite, 163

AOX, 168, 372

--, peroxygen derivatives, 196

Assistants, kier boiling, 134

--, reducing, 192

Available chlorine, 165,455

Bleaching of,

Auxiliary products in,

--, acetate, 180

---, emulsifying bath, 101, 103, 106

--, acrylics, 180

---, mercerizing liquor, 250

--, blended fabrics, 203-299

---, kier boiling, 90, 91

--, cotton, 161,168, 173, 183, 190 --, jute, 196-201

Barium activity number, 466

--, linen, 201,202

Bast fibres, 16

--, nylon, 184, 195

Batch equipment,

--, polyester, 184

--, cotton desizing, 79

--, polyvinyl alcohol, 186

--,-, scouring, 132

--, polyvinyl chloride, 185

--, -, bleaching, 217

--, regenerated fibres, 180

Battrice machine, 148

--, silk, 178

Becoflex roller, 255

--, weft-knitted cotton, 193, 194, 209

Becco J- Box, 138, 224

--, wool, 192-194

Ben-bleach system., 230-232, 340

Bleaching of blended fabrics,

Beta-alkoxy reaction, 347

.... , acetate/cellulose, 208

Bicomponent fibres, 43

.... , acrylic/cellulose, 207

Bio-degradation, 380, 384

.... , acrylic/wool, 206

Bilateral structure of,

.... , nylon/cellulose, 206, 207

---, cotton, 11

.... , nylon/wool, 207

---, wool, 10

.... , polyester/cotton, 203-206

Bioplastic fibres, 43

. . . . , polyester/linen, 208

Bio-polishing, 428

.... , polyester/wool, 206

Bio-technology, 418

.... , viscose/cotton, 209, 210

Bleaching agents,

.... , wool/viscose, 209

--, chlorinated trisodium phosphate, 163

Bleaching ofcoloured woven goods, 166

--, classification of, 161

Bleaching equipment, batch,

--, emulsion, 178

--, -, jiggers, 219

--, oxidising, 161, 168, 188

--, -, rope, 221

Subject Index , , spiral jet, 222

BOD, 372

--,-, winches, 220

Builders,

Bleaching equipment, semi-continuous,

-, defination of, 93

--,-, pad-batch, 222

-, effect on detergency, 93

--, -, pad-jig, 224

Burrs, 107, 433

--,-, pad-roll, 223 Bleaching equipment, continuous rope, ,

,3-stage J-Box, 225

,

,2-stage

J-Box, 226

--, --, DuBec system, 228

Cadoxen, 460,465,468 Calcium hypochlorite, 128 --, preparation of, 162 --, decomposition of, 162

,

, FMC Wet bottom, J-Box, 228

Carbon fibres, 41

,

, single stage plant, 226

Carbonisation of wool, 355

Bleaching equipment, continuous open-width,

---, enzymatic process, 113

,

, Ben-bleach, 230

---, rapid process, 111

,

, combi-steamers, 236-237

Carbonising machineries, 150-152

,

, multilayer conveyer, 235

Casein fibre, 27

,

, PKS system, 238

Cannizaro intermediates, 349

,

, without plaited strorage, 233

Causticization, 287

,

, , pre-steeping, 234

Catalytic damage, 350, 354, 358

Bleaching, major break-throughs, 180

Cationic surfactants, 96

Bleaching powder,

Cellobiose, 4

--, action of acid, 162, 165

Cellulase treatment, 420

--, analysis of, 455

--, effect of temperature, 422

--, catalytic decomposition of, 165

,

, pH, 422

--, chemical structure, 161

Cellulose,

--, effect of pH & temp., 165

-, chemical composition, 3

--, manufacture of, 162

-, molecular weight, 4

--, rate of attack on cotton, 162,165

-, morphology, 3

Blueing tints, 188

-, structure, 4

Boilers,

Cellulose I, II, 5, 24, 285,286

-, scaling, 362

Cellulose fibres,

-, water supply, 361

--, continuous bleaching, 224-229

Brushing, 52

--, copper number, 352

477

478

Subject Index

--, fluidity, 458

Cold desizing, 78

--, man-nade, acetate, 25

Colour woven goods,

,

, cuprammonium rayon, 22

---, scouring of, 90, 94

,

, polynosic, 24

---, kiering of, 133

Chain mercerizing machine, 293

---, bleaching of, 175

Chainless mercerizing machine, 294

Combined processes,

Chelating agents, 91

--, scouring and bleaching, 180, 185,

Chemical structure of,

210, 337, 339

---, acetate fibres, 25

,

---, acrylics, 34

,

, knitted cotton, 210

---,carbon fibres, 42

,

, Polyester/cotton, 126,206

---, chloro fibres, 39

,

,silk, 180

, acetate fibres, 189

---, elastomeric fibres, 40

--, scouring and desizing, 79, 84, 336

---,flax, 8

--, scouring and milling, 149

---, jute, 20

--, scouring and relaxation, 125

---, modified nylon, 33

--, solvent assisted, 341

, , polyester, 28-30

--, emulsified solvent, 337, 341

---, nylon, 30, 32

--, enzyme treatment, 342

---, polyester, 28

--, desizing, scouring and bleaching, 82, 123

---, polypropylene, 38

Combined processing equipment,

---, PTO fibres, 42

---, Ben-bleach, 340

---, silk, 14-16

---, C.R.C. process, 340

---, wool, 11

---, desizing/scouring/bleaching, 399

Chlorine dioxide, 182

---, Flex-nip, 340

Chlorite bleaching, 182

---, Markal process, 340

---, corrosion of, 186

---, mercerizing and bleaching, 305

Chlorous acid, 182

---, mercerizing and desizing, 309

Cloud point, 98

---, Reco-Yet, 340

Coagulation of impurities, 382

---, solar system, 342

---, mechanism, 383

Combined plasma and enzymetreatment, 423,434

, , bridging, 383

Contact angle, 101

, , charge patch, 383

Cortex in wool, 10

Cold bleaching, 365,369

Cotton fabric,

Subject Index

479

--, bleaching of, 85-120

Decomposition of H202, 77

--, boiling-off, 89

Deconvolution count, 464

--, colouring matter, 166

Degradation of cellulose, 344-355

--, desizing of, 69

---, during bleaching, 163, 166, 350

--, scouring,86

, , desizing, 344

--, singeing, 55-65

, , scouring, 346-349

--, mercerizing, 285

---, in hypochlorite, 350-353

--,-, ammonia, 39

, , hydrogen peroxide, 170, 173, 182, 353

--,-, hot, 306

, , alkali, 346

Crabbing of wool, 110,152

Degradation of,

Critical micelle concentration, 94, 103

--, flax, 203

Corpping, 52

--, jute, 197

Cross-section of,

--, silk, 179, 194, 356

---, acrylics, 35

Degradation of nylon,

---, cotton, 4

---, during bleaching, 185

---,flax, 17 ---, hemp, 19

, , chlorite bleaching, 188 Degradation of polyester, 357

---, jute, 19

---, on exposure to ~,-rays, 413

---, modacrylic, 36

Deagradation of wool, 354-356

---, nylon, 31, 34

---, in acids and alkalies, 355

---, plasma treated wool, 409

, , bleaching, 355

---, polyester, 29

, , carbonising, 355


, , decatising, 355

---, remie, 18

Degreasing of wool by plasma, 407

Cross-links in wool, 111

Degree ofpolymerisation,

Crystallinity of,

---,flax, 17

--, cotton,

---, silk, 15

--, polyester, 28


--, silk, 15

Degumming of,

--, wool, 13

--, remie 118 --, silk, 114 -116

Decatising apparatus 152-155

--, silk by plasma, 407

Dechlorinating agent, 204

Degumming 351,399, 409

480

Subject Index

-, and pH, 116

Desuinting, 230

-, with alkali and acid, 116

Detergency, 44, 101, 103

-, -, enzymes, 117

-, detachment of oils, 101

-, -, foam, 117

-, effect of CMC, 344

-, -, soap, 116

-, effect of enzyme, 431

-,-, synthetic detergent, 116

-, theory of soil removal, 102

-, partial, 117

Detergents,

-, weight loss, 115

-, anionic group, 118

Delignification of flax, 203

-, interfacial tension, 101

Delustering of acetate fibres, 123

-, cloud point, 88

Demineralisation of cotton, 88

-, concentration, 94

Desizing, 69-84

-, non-ionic structure, 97

-, after-wash, 100

-, soiling activity, 101

-, BOD, 377

-, soil suspending, 101, 102

-, mixture, 99

Dimensional stability, 270

-, of blended fabrics, 78

Disadvantages of,

-,-, cotton, 69

--, bleaching with peroxide, 181

-,-, synthetic fabrics, 77 Desizing of starch, ---, acid application, 73

,

, bleaching powder, 167

--,--, sodium chlorite, 187 ,

, sulphur dioxide, 193

---, enzyme attack, 72- 75

--, -, of jute, 199

---, oxidation method, 75-77

Draves test, 452

---, peroxy compounds, 337

Dolly machine, 149

Desizing machineries, 79-84

Double bleach of silk, 195

--, batch process, 79

Dynel, 39

--, pad-batch, 80 --, pad-roll, 81

Ecru silk, 115

--, pad-steam, 337

Ecology, 372

--, pad-store, 338

Economy through,

--, continuous, 81

--, process modification, 368

--, -, J-Box, 83

--,-, sequence, 369

--,-, rope form, 80

Effluent problems in,

--,-, solvent, 83

---, auxliliaries, 378

Subject Index ---, bleaching, 378

--, of cotton, 425

---, desizing, 376

--,-, silk, 428

---, scouring, 377

--,-, wool, 432

Effluent treatment,

Enzymatic,

--, and biotechnology, 435

-, bleaching of cotton, 428

Elastic recovery of Spandex, 41

-,--, wool, 432

Electrolyte effect during,

-, carbonisation of wool, 433

---, desizing, 95

-, degumming of silk, 426

---, mercerizing, 292

-, desizing of cotton, 426

---, optical brightening, 325

-, hand modification of wool, 435

Electrolytic method,

-, mercerization, 426

--, hypochlorite, 163

-, shrink proofing of wool, 435

--, peroxide, 169

-, scouring of cotton, 426, 427

Emulsification of oil, 87, 88

Enzyme effect on,

Emulsified sovents, 105

---, dyes, 429

Emulsion scouring, 337

---, mechanical agitation, 431

--, mechanism of, 106

---, resins, 430

--, recipe, 106

---, surfactants, 430

Enzymes,

---, washing process, 431

-, textile application, 418

Epicuticle, 10

-, chemistry of, 418

Eumelanin, 173

-, mechanism on textile, 418

Evaluation of,

-, heat protection, 14

--, lubricants, 446

-, pH response, 74

--, saponification value, 447

-, salt addition, 75

--, unsaponified matter, 447

-, toxins, 422

--, whitening efficiency, 468

Enzymatic degradation during,

--, wax content in cotton, 445

481

---, bleaching of jute, 201 ---, desizing, 345

Fabrics,

---, bio-polishing, 428

-, blend mercerization of, 291

Enzymatic processing,

-, knitted mercerization of, 303

--, advantages of, 424

-, liquid ammonia treatment of, 309

--, disadvantages of, 425

Fatty acids, 131

482

Subject Index

--, in cotton wax, 7, 440

Flue gas, 382

--, in wool, 14, 107

Fluidity of cotton, 350, 458

Fatty alcohols in cotton wax, 7

Fluorescent brightening agents (FBA),

Fibril, 4

---, absorption and emission curves, 320

Fibrion,14

---, mechanism of, 323

Fibre,

---, photo-yellowing and tendering, 327

-, acetate, 25

---, quanititative measurements of, 468

-, cotton, 3

---, salt sensitivity, 325

-,flax, 17

---, solubility in bleach liquor, 326

-, hemp, 19

---, temperature and exhaustion, 324

-, jute, 19

---, wet fasmess, 327

-, rayon, 22

FBA, application to,

-, remie, 18

-,--, acrylics, 330

-, regenerated proteins, 26

-,--, blended fabrics, 322

-, synthetic, 27-54

-,--, cellulosic fibres, 326

-, viscose, 28

-,--, CDPET fibres, 331

-, wool, 8

-,--, nylon, 329

Fibre classification, 2

-,--, polyester 328

Fibre structure,

-,--, polyvinyl chloride, 332

--, casein, 27

-,--, silk, 328

--, cotton, 2

-,--, wool, 327

--, linen, 4 --, protein fibres, 26

Gas singeing of,

--, rayon, 22, 23

---, blended fabrics, 57

--, silk, 14, 15

---, cotton, 56

--, synthetic fibres, 22-24

---, polyester, 57

Fibrolane, 26

---, regenerated fibres, 56

Flax,

---, wool, 56

-, bleaching of, 201,202

Gas singeing machines, 58-63

-, removal of rust, 202

Galacturonic acid, 8

Flavone pigment, 180

Gebauer kier, 135

Fleissner scouring bowl, 146

Generic names of fibres, 3

Flex-nip, 340

Glass fibres, 43

483

Subject Index Glass-transition temperature of,

. . . . . , polyester/linen, 272

. . . . , acrylics, 36

. . . . . , polyester/silk, 272

. . . . , olefin fibres, 37

. . . . . , polyester/wool, 271

. . . . , polyester, 29

. . . . . , polyvinyl chloride/cellulose, 272

. . . . , Spandex, 41

Heat-setting degree, determination by,

. . . . , effect on singeing, 57

,

, assessment o f handle,

Glucose, 4, 449

,

, crease recovery, 469

Gluconates, 172

,

, iodine absorption, 470

Glutamic acid, 12

,

, shrinkage test, 469

Goldthwait test, 466

Hemi-cellulose, in

Glycerines, 12, 87

-,-, cotton, 8 - , - , f l a x , 17

Hard water, 441

-, -, hemp, 19

--, effect on cotton, 353

-, -, jute, 20, 21, 199

,

,silk, 199

-, -, linen, 201

Harsh handle of,

Hexa-methylene diamine, 30

---, silk, 179, 199

High energy radiation,

---, p l a s m a treated wool, 410

---, bleaching o f textiles, 413

Harrison test, 462

---, degradation and cross-linking, 412

Heat-setting, 259-277

High pressure kier, 133

--, in autoclave, 261

High wet m o d u l u s viscose, 23

--, b o n d rupture, 260

Histidine, 12

--, changes in dyeability, 271

Hydrocellulose, 182, 345

,

, structure, 272

-, staining test, 461

--, by contact method, 261

Hydrosulphite,

--, by convection (tenter), 263

-, in bleaching, 193

--, by infra-red, 266

-, stabilised, 195

--, o f knitted fabrics, 265

-, analysis of, 457

--, o f polyester,259

H L B system, 95

--, stages, 230

H y d r o g e n peroxide,

--, o f texturised fabrics, 256

--, activation of, 170

Heat-setting o f blended fabrics,


. . . . . , polyester/cotton, 271

--, bleaching action, 169

484

Subject Index

--, catalytic acceleration, 354

Husk in cotton, 88

--, decomposition of, 169, 355, 356 --, expression of strength, 169

Identification of starch, 450

--, manufacture of, 166, 172

Immature cotton, 210

--, reaction with cellulose, 350

Impurities in,

--, stabilisers, 170-173

--, cotton, 5, 86

--, reaction with wool, 355

--,jute, 120

H y d r o g e n peroxide bleaching of,

--, silk, 115

. . . . , acetate, 180

--, water, 361

. . . . , acrylics, 180

--, wool, 13, 107

. . . . , cotton, 172

Impregnation,

. . . . , jute, 97

-, Ben-impacta, 230

. . . . , silk, 178

Inorganic salts in,

. . . . , viscose, 180

---, cotton, 7, 87

. . . . , wool, 173-178

---, jute, 20

H y d r o g e n peroxide, effect of,

---, synthetic fibres, 120

,

, concentration, 173

---, wool, 126

,

, fluidity, 170

Inspection of fabric,

--, --, impurities, 169 ,

, metal ions, 3 5 3 , 3 5 4

--, --, pH, 172 ,

, sodium silicate, 353

--, --, temperature, 172 ,

,time, 173

,

,water, 171

---, burling, 50 ---, by laser beams, 50 ---, mending, 50 ---, perching, 49 Interlock stitch, 51 Ion-exchange resin, 364

Hyperfiltration, 388

Jackson kier, 136

(see reverse osmosis)

Jafferson Walker Kier, 134

Hypochlorite bleaching, 162-168

J-Box,

Hot mercerization,

--, Becco, 139, 229

--, advantages of, 308

--, bleaching range, 224-226

--, changes in properties, 307

--, desizing, 83

--, comparison, 307

--, Du Bec system, 228

--, methods, 307

--, Du Pont, 139, 229

Subject Index

485

--, FMC wet bottom, 227

--, effect of air, 348

--, material of construction, 224

--, procedure, 134

--, preparation range, 126

--, yarn in hank, 109

Jet washer, 250

Kitties, 447

Jig,

Knitted fabrics,

-, process, 79

--, bleaching equipment, 220, 227, 237

-, scouring, 137

--, heat-setting of, 265

J-piler, 224

--, mercerization of, 304

Jute,

--, opening of, 224

-, bleaching of, 196-198

--, scouring of, 104

-, chemical constitution of, 21

--, singeing of, 163

-, cottonisation of, 201

--, solvent scouring, 106

-, dimensions of, 20

--, treatment with liquid ammonia, 311

-, drawback of, 129

--, wax content, 446

-, lignin content, 19, 21 -, properties of, 21

Lanolin, 18 Laminated structure of silk, 15

KB value, 106

Lignin in,

Kenaf, 2

--, coir, 21

Keratin, 11

--, flax, 21

Kinds of fibres, 1-47

--, jute, 19, 21, 199

Kier,

--,-, action on bleaching, 197

-, circulation, 33

--,-, removal of, 201

-, high pressure, 133

Lime-soda scouing, 89

-, horizontal, 135

Linen,

-, Jackson, 138

-, bleaching of, 201

-, low pressure, 132

-,-, loss in weight, 14, 201

-, open-width, 136

-, reaction with chlorite, 202

-, vertical, 133

-,--, hydrogen peroxide, 202

-, Walsh's, 133

,

, peracetic acid, 202

Kier boiling,

-, scouring of, 119

--, assistants, 134

Lipases, 418

--, coloured goods, 90

Liquid ammonia,

486

Subject Index

--, comparison, 312

--, polyester, 28

--, effect of, 311

--, rayon, 23

--, Prograde process, 310

Markal process, 144

--, properties of treated goods, 313-315

Maturity of cotton, 466

--, Sanfor-set process, 309

Mechanism of bleaching with,

--, treated, test, 466

. . . . , chlorite, 182

Lithium hypochlorite, 163

. . . . , hypochlorite, 162, 163

Lo-flo process, 142

. . . . , lithium hypochlorite 143

Long vegetable fibres, 18

. . . . , peracetic acid, 189, 190

---, aspect ratio, 20

. . . . , peroxide, 170

Loose wool scouring, 107

. . . . , peroxygen compounds 196

Lot number, 52

. . . . , reductive agents, 176

L o w energy processes, 316, 317

. . . . , TAED/H202, 190

Lubricants, 69, 103, 104, 446

Mechanism of reaction with,

-, for wool yarn, 109

. . . . , alkali, 348

-, for worsted, 110

. . . . , enzyme, 420

-, removal of 110

. . . . , in wool scouring, 108 . . . . , emulsion scouring, 106

M a g n e s i u m sulphate in bleaching, 171

Mechanical cleaning process,

Malt amylases, 73

---, brushing, 52

Malt enzyme, 449

---, cropping, 52

Maltose, 78, 89

---, shearing, 54

M a n - m a d e fibres,

Mechanical removal of water, 345

---, acrylics, 34

Medulla in wool, 11

---, miscellaneous, 38

Melanine, 173

---, nylon, 29

Mending, 50

---, olefin fibres, 37

Mercerization of,

---, polyester, 27

-, blended fabrics~ 291

---, regenerated fibres, 22

-, cotton, 279-315

Manufacturing process,

-, flax, 290

--, acetates, 25

-, knit goods, 303

--, acrylics, 35

Mercerization of cotton,

--, nylon, 31

---, adsorption of barium hydroxide, 460

Subject Index ,

, caustic soda, 283

,

, swelling index, 465

,

, d y e s , 289

,

, X-ray analysis, 467

,

, w a t e r , 288

Mercerizing machines

---, changes in properties, 280-290

--, causticizing, 298

---, in h a n k form, 302

--, chainless, 2 9 5 , 2 9 7

Mercerization, effect of,

--, clip-chain, 293

- , - - , alkalies, 2 8 1 , 2 8 2

--, cloth (woven), 293

-,--, fabric construction, 288

--, combined, 305

-, --, i m m a t u r e cotton, 290

--, core, 300

-,--, lustre, 286

--, D i m e n s a , 301

-, --, structural modification, 285

--, dual purpose, 301

- , - - , shrinkage, 2 8 5 , 2 8 6

--, Ecomerce, 296, 299

-,--, swelling, 281

--, Flex-nip, 300

-,--, temperature, 282

--, Goller perfecta, 301

-, --, tension, 287

--, hot, 301

-, --, water during washing, 284

--, knit goods, 304

-, --, wetting agents, 280

--, liquid a m m o n i a , 311

Mercerization,

--, m i n i m e r c e , 293

-, h a l f mercerization, 289

--, Prograde, 310

-, hot, 306

--, recuperator, 297

-, liquid a m m o n i a , 309

--, Sanforset range, 211

-, r e c o v e r y o f caustic soda, 387

--, y a m , 302

-, strength, 288

M e t h o d s to generate plasma, 398

-, theory, 283

M e t h y l e n e blue absorption, 352

M e r c e r i z i n g efficiency, test b y ,

Micellisation of surfactants, 100

,

, b a r i u m activity n u m b e r , 466

M o d a c r y l i c fibre, 34, 36

,

, benzopurpurine, 465

M o d i f i e d fibres,

,

, d e c o n v o l u t i o n count, 464

--, acrylic, 36

,

, G o l d t h w a i t method, 466

--, nylon, 33

--, --, infra-red analysis, 468

--, polyester, 30

,

, lustre, 467

Moisture sorption,

,

, staining, 466

--, determination of, 447

,

, spotting, 465

--, of acetates, 26

487

488

Subject Index

--,-, acrylics, 35

. . . . , wool, 173

--, -, cotton, 288

N y l o n , 29-34

, , flax, 21

-, m a n u f a c t u r i n g of, 31

--, -, jute, 21

-, m o d i f i e d , 33

--, -, nylon, 32

-, properties of, 32

, , P B I fibres, 34 , , p o l y e s t e r , 29 , , p o l y p r o p y l e n e , 38 , , viscose, 23

N y l o n , b l e a c h i n g with, ,

, peracetic acid, 190

-, --, p e r o x y g e n c o m p o u n d s , ,

196

, r e d u c t i v e agents, 195

-,--, s o d i u m chlorite, 184 M o l e c u l a r structure of,

N y l o n , scouring of, 121

---, acrylics, 34

-, heat-setting of, 267

---, cotton, 4 ---, p o l y e t h y l e n e , 37

Olefin fibres, 37

---, p o l y p r o p y l e n e , 37, 38

O p e n e r (fabric), 244

---, p o l y v i n y l alcohol, 40

Open-width bleaching equipment,

M o t e s , 5, 14, 86

. . . . , bleaching, 281

-, r e m o v a l of, 453

. . . . , desizing, 80

M u l t i - l a y e r stenter, 261

. . . . , scouring, 138

N a t u r a l fibres, impurities of,

Optical b r i g h t e n i n g agents,

. . . . , w a s h i n g , 247-255 ,

, cellulose and n o n - c e l l u l o s i c , 6

---, c h e m i c a l constitution of, 322

,

, cotton, 5

---, c o n s u m p t i o n of, 321

,

, cotton wax, 7

---, m e c h a n i s m of, 325

,

, flax, 21

---, application of, 325-337

,

, silk, 21

Orlon, 42, 181

,

, wool, 13

O x o n , 196

N a t u r a l y e l l o w i s h tint in,

O x i d a t i o n o f cellulose, 352, 358

. . . . , cotton, 16

---, with bromite, 345

----, jute, 196

O x i d a t i v e d a m a g e o f cellulose, 3 4 8 , 3 5 4

. . . . , linen, 202

---, wool, 355

. . . . , silk, 178

O x y c e l l u l o s e , 89, 90, 346, 350

. . . . , w e f t knitted cotton, 210

-, d e t e r m i n a t i o n of, 455

Subject Index Pad-steam process, 337

Photo-yellowing of,

Pad-store process, 338

--, acrylics, 18

Paraffin wax, 88

--, jute, 199

Pectic substances, 5, 6, 88

--, optical brighteners, 325

Peracetic acid,

--, silk, 328

--, activators for, 189

--, wool, 174, 327

--, bleaching of acetate, 191

Piler, 244

,

, acrylics, 191

PKS unit, 238

,

,jute, 198

Plasma,

,

, nylon, 190

-, concept to, 395

--, --, polyester/cotton, 205

-, cold, 396

--, manufacture of, 188

-, corona discharge, 396

--, merits and demerits of, 191

-, generation, 397

--, properties of, 189

-, glow-discharge, 396

--, stability of, 189

-, interaction with substrate, 404

--, in houshold detergents, 189

-, reaction, 405

Perborates, 189

-,-, initiation for grafting, 406

Perching, 49

-,-, oxidation, 406

Perfumed fibres, 43

-,-, peroxide formation, 406

Perhydroxyl ions, 179

-,-, recombination, 405

Permanent hardness, 363

Plasma generating equipment,

Permonosulphuric acid, 178

---, batch, 403

Permonosulphonate, 196

---, continuous, 404

Peroxide,

---, corona reactor, 401

-, advantage and disadvantages, 181

---, laboratory, 399

-, bleaching of cotton, 170

---, low pressure, 401

-,--, blended fabrics, 206

---, one atmosphere, 402

-, --, silk, 178

Plasma treatment for,

,

, synthetic fibres, 180

489

---, bleaching, 410

-, --, wool, 174

---, desizing, 410, 411

-, volume defined, 169

---, improved dye absorption, 407-409

Photo-bleaching of wool, 194

---, mercerization, 410

Photo-stability of bleached jute, 199,200

---, soil repellency, 411

490

Subject Index

---, surface modification, 407

-,--, scouring, 377

---, wettability and wetting, 41 O, 411

-,--, textile auxiliaries, 379

Prevention of corrosion,

,

, wool scouring, 378

---, in chlorite bleaching, 486

-, from ozon depletion, 390

Prograde process, 309

-,-, uv radiation, 390

Properties of fibres,

, , , absorption, 390

---, acetate, 26

, , , protection, 391

---, acrylics, 35

Pot eyes, 241

---, cotton, 24

Potting of woollen fabrics, 110

---, flax, 21 ---, jute, 21

Quality control, 404

---, modacrylics, 36

Quina fibre, 34

---, nylon, 32 ---, polyester, 29

Rayon,

---, viscose, 24

-, cellulose acetate, 25

Protein in cotton, 5, 6, 88

-, cuprammonium, 22

Polyacrylate of sugar, 172

-, regenerated cellulose, 23

Polycarbonate fibre, 43

-, --, acetate, 25, 26

Polyethylene fibres, 37

-,-, protein, 20

Polyester, 27-29

Reactivity of mercerized cotton, 290

Polynosic fibres, 23

Reco-yet, 348

Polypropylene fibre, 37

Reductive bleaching of,

Polyvinyl chloride, 39

---, nylon, 195

Pollution,

---, silk, 194

-, air and water, 372

---, wool, 192

-, loads of cotton, 374, 375

, , with sodium bisulphite, 193

-,--, synthetic fibres, 373

, , , sodium hydrosulphite, 193

-,--, wool, 378

, , , sulphur dioxide, 192

-, assessment of parameters, 372

,

,

,

thio-urea dioxide, 194

-, problems in textiles, 371

Relaxation of,

-, tolerance limit, 373

--, textured nylon, 121

-, effluents from bleaching, 378

--, -, polyester, 124

,

, desizing, 376

--, acrylonitrile fibres, 122

Subject Index --, w o o l , 110

. . . . , a c r y l i c / c e l l u l o s e , 127

R e l a x i n g m a c h i n e s , 44

. . . . , a c r y l i c / w o o l , 127

R e m i e , 18

. . . . , c o n t a i n i n g casein, 129

-, d e g u m m i n g of, 116

491

, , v i s c o s e , 128

Removal of impurities,

. . . . , p o l y e s t e r / a c r y l i c , 127

---, f r o m cotton, 87, 88

. . . . , p o l y e s t e r / c o t t o n , 125

R e t t i n g of,

. . . . , p o l y e s t e r / s i l k , 129

--, flax, 17

. . . . , p o l y e s t e r / w o o l , 126

--, r e m i e , 19

S c o u r i n g o f c o t t o n with,

--, jute, 19

. . . . , alkaline agents, 8 9 - 9 4

R e v e r s e o s m o s i s , 386

. . . . , b l e n d e d surfactants, 99

Rope,

. . . . , caustic s o d a boil, 89

-, d e t w i s t e r , 245

. . . . , e m u l s i o n p r o c e s s , 183

-, e x p a n d e r , 2 4 5 , 2 4 6

. . . . , l i m e - s o d a boil, 89

-, piler, 2 1 8 , 2 4 4

. . . . , m i x e d alkali, 90

-, s q u e e z i n g , 2 4 4

. . . . , s o d a - a s h , 90 . . . . , s o a p / s o d a boil, 90

Saran, 39

S c o u r i n g efficiency, d e t e r m i n a t i o n by,

S a n f o r s e t , p r o c e s s , 309

,

, D r a v e s test, 4 5 2

-, r a n g e , 311

,

, w a x contant, 4 5 2

S a p o n i f i c a t i o n o f w a x , 39

,

, w e i g h t loss, 4 5 2

S c o u r i n g of,

Scouring machines,

--, b l e n d e d fabrics, 125

--, batch, rope, 132

--, cotton, 89

- - , - , jig, 137

--, c o l o u r e d w o v e n g o o d s , 94

--, -, p a d d l e , 125

--, Jute, 120

--, -, r o t a r y d r u m , 125

--, linen, 119

--, -, o p e n - w i d t h , 135

--, r a w w o o l , 107

--, s e m i - c o n t i n u o u s , 138

--, s y n t h e t i c fibres, 120

--, c o n t i n u o u s , 138

--, t e x t u r i s e d fabrics, 123

--, -, c o n v e y e r s y s t e m , 142

--, w o o l y a r n a n d fabric, 109

- - , - , J - B o x , 138

S c o u r i n g o f b l e n d e d fabrics,

--,-, s t e a m e r , 138

. . . . , a c e t a t e / w o o l , 128

--, -, V a p o r l o c , 140

492

Subject Index

--, with relaxing, 142

--, organic, 92

--, in solvent, 144

--,-organophosphates, 93

Scouring of wool,

--, in scouring, 91

---, emulsion, 108

,

, function of, 91

---, multi-stage, 108

Sequential bleaching of,

---,raw, 107

---, jute, 198

---, refrigeration, 109

---, wool, 126

---, suint, 109

Silk,

Scouring machine for wool,

-, degumming, 115

. . . . , fabric, 149

-, gum content, 115

. . . . , Fleissner, 146

-, impurities, 115

. . . . , hank, 147

-, photomicrograph of, 114

. . . . , jet, 146

Silk bleaching with,

.... , Lo-flo, 147

---, hydrogen peroxide, 178

. . . . , raw wool, 145

,

, process, 179

Scrooping, 118

,

, recipe, 179

Scroll roller, 245

---, --, stabilisers, 179

Scutcher, 245

Silk deguming machines,

Sericin, 14, 178

---, continuous, 157

Semi-continuous bleaching equipment,

---, piece goods, 157

---, pad-batch, 222

---, star, 157

---, pad-roll, 223

Singeing of fabrics,

---, pad-jig, 224

---, blended, 67

Semi-continuous scouring equipment,

---, knitted cotton, 63

---, pad-roll, 128

---, polyester, 57

, , perforated cylinder, 136

---, vegetable fibres, 56

---, pad-steam-roll, 138

---, wool, 56

Semi-mercerization, 289

Singeing machines,

Setting of woollen fabric, 110

--, gas, 56-60

Sequestering agent,

--, gas range, 62

--, chemical structures, 91

--, knitted fabrics, 64

--, effect of pH, 92

--, plate, 57

--, m e c h a n i s m of action, 95

--, position of burner, 61

Subject Index

493

H202, 166

--, rotary cylinders, 58

, , conjuction with

Silver nitrate test, 462

, , presence of additives, 167

Sizes,

, , steaming process, 167

-, analysis of, 451

---, merits and demerits of, 168

-, identification of, 449

---, preparation of, 162

-, for filament yam, 448

---, rate of attack, 350

-,-, spun yam, 449

---, reaction species, 352

Soap, 96

, , with cellulose, 352, 353

Sodium bisulphite,

Sodium silicate,


--, as stabiliser, 17

--, bleaching of wool, 193

--, in kier boiling, 89

Sodium chlorite bleaching,

Soil repellency, 411

---, acetate fibres, 185

Solar heating, 342

---, acrylic fibres, 185

Solvent,

---, activation, 183-185

-, booster, 106

---, analysis of, 456

-, difficulties, 107

---, cotton, 183

-, detergents, 106

---, damage of cotton, 182

-, desizing machine, 83

---, jute, 198

-, scouring, 106, 108

---, mechanism of, 182

-, -, machine, 144, 145

---, merits and demerits, 187

-, -, of wool, 109

---, nylon, 184

-,-, with trichloroethylene, 127

---, polyester, 184

Spin finishing agents, 104

---, polyvinyl alcohol, 186

Starch, 69, 70

---, problems of corrosion, 186

-, liquifying enzymes, 73

Sodium hypochlorite bleaching

Stabilisers,

---, accelerated, 166

-, analysis of, 457


-, bleaching silk, 179

---, catalytic acceleration, 351

-, -, wool, 174

---, cotton, 165

-, for hydrogen peroxide, 169, 170, 172

---, decomposition of, 105, 163

-,-, sodium chlorite, 163

---, factors effecting, 164 ---, in danger zone, 166

, ,

, analysis of, 468

-, as sequestrants, 171, 172

494

Subject Index

-,-, sodium silicate, 353

-, cloud point, 98

Stabilisation of wool, 40

-, HLB, 95

Stabilised hydrosulphite, 192

-, non-ionic,97


-, as detergents, 101

Stain remover,

-, -, emulsifier, 103

--, emulsion scouring, 105

-, -, scouring agents, 101

--, emulsified solvents, 105

-,-, wetting agents, 99

--, oxalic acid 106

-, in synthetic fibre scouring, 95

Steamer, 82, 231,236

-,-, wool scouring, 95

Steam consumption, 365 Stenter, 260

Tallow (Triglycerides), 87

Stero structure of polypropylene, 38

-, evaluation of, 446

Stoving process, 192

Tape scouring machine, 127

--, disadvantage of, 193

Tendering of cotton, 354

Stone washing, 431

-, during bleaching with bromite, 345

Structure of cotton, 4

,

, hydrogen peroxide, 353,354

--, silk, 14

,

, hypochlorite, 350-352

--, wool, 11

-,--, wool, 355

Suint in wool,

-, during carbonising of wool, 355

---, constitution of, 13, 14, 107

-,-, desizing, 344

---, scouring, 109

-,-, scouring, 94, 346, 350

Sulphur dioxide,

Tendering of,

--, bleaching of silk, 194

--, silk, 356

--, bleaching of wool, 192

--,-, during degumming, 356

Sulphurous acid, 193

--, polyester, 357

Surface activity, in water, 100

--, wool, 354

Surface tension, 94, 100, 103

--,-, assessment of, 463-464

Surfactants,

,

, microscopic test, 463

-, amphoteric, 98

,

, solubility test, 463

-, anionic, 95

,

, swelling test, 463

-, blends, 99

Tendering of cotton, determination of,

-, cationic, 96

,

, acidic group, 462

-, classification of, 95

,

, copper number, 460

Subject Index

495

,

, fluidity, 458

Vapour phase treatment, 414

,

, methylene blue, absorption, 461

Vegetable fibres, 16

,

, silver nitrate test, 462

--, chemical composition of, 16-21

Tentering, 260

Vicara, 22

Temporary hardness, 361

Vinyon, 39


Viscose process, 39

Textone, 182

Viscometer for fluidity, 459

Textured fabric,

Viscosity, 350

--, heat-setting of, 260 --, relaxation of, 124

Washing of,

--, scouring of, 123

--, d e g u m m e d silk, 118

Textured yams,

--, scoured goods, 91

--, spin finishes, 124

Washing machines,

,

, removal of, 124

Thermosetting, 256

--, rope, high speed, 241 , , slack, 242

Thiourea

--,-, square beater, 243

-, dioxide, 177, 192, 194

--,-, tight, 249

-, reductive bleaching, 176

--, open-width, aquatex, 253

Throwing of silk, 115

--, --, Becoflex, 253

Triacetate, 25

,

, Ben-extracta, 230

Trichloroethylene, 106, 127

,

, counter-current, 254

Trithiocyanuric acid, 177

,

, horizontal, 255

Tussah silk, 178

,

,jet, 250

,

, open soaper, 252

Ultrafiltration method, 388

,

,

Ultramarine blue, 180, 320

,

, roller conveyer, 251

Unsaponifiable matter,

,

, Rotowa, 249

, with beater, 252


- - , - - , - , range, 250

uv radiation, 390

--,--, spray drum, 250

--, protection from, 3 9 1 , 3 9 2

,

, suction drum, 247

--, surface coating, 414

,

,

,ranges, 248

Waste water, Vaporloc machine, 140

--, activated sludge, 385

496

Subject Index

--, a s s e s s m e n t of, 372

-, metal content, 361

--, i n c i n e r a t i o n of, 390

-, structure, 1O0

--, pollution, 370

-, purification process,

- - , - , load, 374 --, m a n a g e m e n t activity, 382 --, t o l e r a n c e limit, 373

,

, base e x c h a n g e , 364

-,--, lime-soda, 363 ,

, s o d a - a l u m , 363

--, t r e a t m e n t plant, 380

W a l s h ' skier, 133

W a s t e w a t e r pollution from,

Wax/es,

. . . . , a u x i l i a r y effluents, 379

-, acid value, 447

. . . . , b l e a c h i n g effluents, 378

-, alcohol, 7

. . . . , d e s i z i n g effluents, 376

-, c h e m i c a l nature, 13

. . . . , s c o u r i n g effluents, 377

-, content, evaluation of, 439-441

W a s t e water, r e c o v e r y of,

- , - , in cotton, 5, 6, 87, 88

,

, caustic soda, 386

, ,

, c o m p o s i t i o n of, 7

,

, sizing agents, 386

, ,

, evaluation of, 445

,

, size m i x t u r e s , 389

,

, p o l y v i n y l alcohol, 387

--, t r e a t m e n t s , 380

- , - , in flax, 17 , , , s i l k , 14 , , , wool, 10, 1 3 , 1 0 7

, , tertiary, 385

-, iodine value, 441

, , b y hyperfiltration, 386

-, saponification value, 89

, , , precipitation and coagulation, 383 , , , r e m o v a l o f inorganic matter, 386 , ,

, organic matter, 386

,

, evaluation of, 449

-, u n s a p o n i f i e d matter, 446 W e f t knitted fabrics,

---, plant, for wool scouring effluents, 384.

---, b l e a c h i n g of, 209

Water,

---, m e r c e r i z a t i o n of, 303

-, alkalinity, 361

---, singeing of, 63

-, a n a l y s i s of, 435

W e t t i n g agents, 99

-, c o n s u m p t i o n of, 249, 360

W e t t i n g o f textiles, 95, 1O0

-, d i s s o l v e d matter, 362

W h i t l e r rope regulator, 246

-, h a r d n e s s , 4 3 6 , 3 6 2

W i l d silk,14

-, turbidity of, 362

--, b l e a c h i n g of, 179

-, for boiler, 362

Wool,

-, m a n g l e , 246

-, action o f steam, 110

Subject Index -, a m i n o acid content of, 12

--, yarn, 109

-, burrs, 107, 103, 104

--,-, battrice machine, 148

-, carbonising, 110-113

--,-, tape machine, 148

-, c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of, 12

--, fabric, 113

-, cortex, 9, 10

, , Dolly, 149

-, crimp, 8

--, -, rapid, 150

-, cuticle, 9

W o o l scouring machine,

-, degradation, 44, 354

---, conventional, 145

- , - , a s s e s s m e n t of, 4 6 3 , 4 6 4

---, Fleissner, 146

-, disulphide exchange, 111, 112

---, jet, 146

-, -, rupture, 457

---, Lo-flo, 147

-, impurities, 13

--, treatment plant, 384

-, process sequence, 47

W o o l l e n fabric,

-, p i g m e n t e d , bleaching, 176

--, carbonising range, 151

-, rapid carbonising, 113

--,-, and washing, 151

-, structure, 11

--, -, in solvent, 152

-, yellowness, 11

--, crabbing of, 110

W o o l bleaching with,

--, decatising, 155

---, acidic peroxide, 174

--, -, machine, conticrabbing, 153

---, alkaline peroxide, 174 ---, emulsified peroxide, 178 ---, m o r d a n t i n g and peroxide, 175 ---, Na 3 TTCA,

177

---, photobleaching, 194

, , continuous multi-set, 153 , , , kier decatising, 154 --,-, -, lustre decatising, 156 , , , N R decatising, 154 , , , p e r m a n e n t decatising, 156

---, sequential, 176

--, singeing of, 56

---, s o d i u m hydrosulphite, 193

--, potting of, 110, 112

---, sulphur dioxide, 192

W o o l and W o r s t e d fabrics,

W o o l scouring,

. . . . , burling, 49

--, emulsion, 108

. . . . , m e n d i n g , 50

--, refrigeration, 109

. . . . , perching, 49

--, solvent extraction, 109 --, suint, 109

Xanthation, 23

--, systems, 107

Xylanase, 201

497

498

Subject Index

Yam,

--, flax, 202

-, liquid N H 3 t r e a t m e n t of, 310

--, jute, 199

-, mercerization, 302

--, silk, 178

-,-, with tension, 303

--, nylon, 31

-, -, machine, 302

--, wool, 174

Y a m bleaching,

Yellowness of fabrics, 174

--, p a c k a g e form, 218

---, during bleaching, 350

--, hank form, 192

, , scouring, 348, 350

Yellowness in,

,

--, acrylics, 35

, , optical whitening, 327

--, cotton, 7, 8, 160

, , potting, 83

,

heat-setting, 184

Chemical Technology in the Pre-Treatment Processes of Textiles (Textile Science and Technology)

Absorbent Technology (Textile Science and Technology)

Textile Technology

Absorbent Technology, Volume 13 (Textile Science and Technology)

Textile Laundering Technology

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