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Advances in Giardia Research edited by: Peter M. Wallis Kananaskis Centre for Environmental Research University of Calgary, Calgary, AB CANADA T2N 1N4 and Brian R. Hammond Alberta Environment, 10405 Jasper Ave., Edmonton, AB CANADA T5K 3N4
The University of Calgary Press
Page ii
Disclaimer: This book contains characters with diacritics. When the characters can be represented using the ISO 88591 character set (http://www.w3.org/TR/images/latin1.gif), netLibrary will represent them as they appear in the original text, and most computers will be able to show the full characters correctly. In order to keep the text searchable and readable on most computers, characters with diacritics that are not part of the ISO 88591 list will be represented without their diacritical marks. © 1988 Kananaskis Centre for Environmental Research, University of Calgary. All rights reserved. ISBN 0919813860 The University of Calgary Press, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB CANADA T2N 1N4 Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Main entry under title: Advances in Giardia research Papers from the Calgary Giardia Conference held Feb. 2325, 1987. Includes index. ISBN 0919813860 1. Giardia lamblia—Congresses. 2. Giardiasis—Congresses. I. Wallis, Peter Malcolm. II. Hammond, Brian R., 1934 III. Calgary Giardia Conference (1987 : Calgary, Alta.) QR201.G45A38 1989 616'.016 C880916370 No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher. Printed in Canada
Page iii
PREFACE The papers in this book were prepared from the Calgary Giardia Conference which was intended to provide a forum for the reporting and summarizing of the results of recent research and development in the study of this important, worldwide parasite. All of the papers were reviewed by the Editors and the Chairperson of the session in which they were presented. The editors have made the format of the papers as uniform as possible but have not attempted to standardize spelling in recognition of the international nature of the papers contained in this volume. The Conference was attended by 150 scientists, engineers, and public health officials from Canada, the United States, Central America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Europe. Their enthusiastic participation was directly responsible for making the Conference a success. The editors would like to express their deep appreciation to the following agencies and individuals for their efforts and support. • The Calgary Giardia Conference was funded by the Alberta Environmental Research Trust, Alberta Environment, Health and Welfare Canada, the Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research, the Alberta Environmental Centre and the University of Calgary. Without their support, the Conference and this volume would not have been possible. • The editors wish to thank all of the authors of scientific papers for their excellent presentations and patience throughout the lengthy process of publication. • The Conference and this volume would not have been possible without the organizational and word processing efforts of Grace Lebel and the public relations work of Janice Crowther. • The editors are especially indebted to Jane Lancaster who mastered desktop publishing in record time, to Anne Hannan for her accurate and patient formatting of many papers and to Dave Savage for his imaginative programming which saved us all an enormous amount of work. • We also wish to acknowledge the assistance of Terry Zenith, Section Head of the Alberta Environment Drafting Pool for his help in overhauling some of our graphics. PETER WALLIS BRIAN HAMMOND
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This book is dedicated to my wife Marcia without whose understanding and support this project would never have been completed
Page v
ADVANCES IN GIARDIA RESEARCH iii
Preface Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Drug Sensitivity
Drug Resistance and the Treatment of Giardiasis P.F.L. Boreham, N.C. Smith and R.W. Shepherd Cell Injury in Giardia lamblia Detected by Forward Light Scatter B. Kinosian, R.H. Gilman, J. Ordonez, J. O'Hare, S. Wahl, F. Koster and W. Spira
913
The Importance of Nonwaterborne Modes of Transmission for Giardiasis, A Case Study S. Harley
1519
A New Miniculture Technique for determining In Vitro Antimicrobial Agent Sensitivity of Axenically Cultivated Strains of Giardia lamblia S.M. Wahl, R.H. Gilman, J.P. O'Hare, D.B. Keister and W.M. Spira
2124
Ultrastructural Study of a Bacterial Symbiont of Giardia lamblia S. Radulescu, E.A. Meyer, B. Burghelea and T. Meitert
2528
Morphology of Giardia Encystation In Vitro D.G. Schupp, M.M. Januschka and S.L. Erlandsen
2932
Cytopathogenicity of Giardia lamblia in HeLa and Vero Cell Monolayers A. Jyothisri and U.K. Baveja
3337
Studies on the Prevalence of Giardiasis in Czechoslovakia M. Giboda
3941
Immunology
Immunology of Giardia Infections M.F. Heyworth
4548
The Secretory Immune Response in Rats Infected with Rodent Giardia duodenalis Isolates and Evidence for Passive Protection with Immune Bile G. Mayrhofer and A. Waight Sharma
4954
Biological Differences in Giardia lamblia T.E. Nash and A. Aggarwal
5558
Animal Models and CrossInfection
37
Prevalence of Giardia sp. in Dogs from Alberta P.D. Lewis, Jr.
6164
Location of Giardia Trophozoites in the Small Intestine of Naturally Infected Dogs in San Diego H. Douglas, D.S. Reiner, M.J. Gault and F.D. Gillin
6569
Seasonal Increase in the Incidence of Giardia lamblia in Arkansas J.J. Daly, M.A. Gross, D. McCullough, T. McChesney, S.K. Tank, E.B. Daly and C.L. Puskarich
7174
Page vi
Infection of Mongolian Gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) with Giardia from Human and Animal Sources K.D. Swabby, C.P. Hibler and J.G. Wegrzyn
7577
Transmission of Giardia duodenalis from Human and Animal Sources in Wild Mice P.D. Roach and P.M. Wallis
7982
Water Treatment
Water Treatment and the Giardia Cyst A. van Roodselaar
8586
Removal of Giardia Through Slow Sand Filtration 100 Mile House, British Columbia J.M.G. Bryck, B.L. Walker and D.W. Hendricks
8793
Comparison of Some Filtration Processes Appropriate for Giardia Cyst Removal G.S. Logson Monitoring as a Tool in Waterborne Giardiasis Prevention J.L. Sykora, W.D. Bancroft, A.H. Brunwasser, S.J. States, M.A. Shapiro, S.N. Boutros and L.F. Conley
103 106
The Efficiency of Point of Use Devices for the Exclusion of Giardia muris cysts from a Model Water Supply System D.R. Cullimore and H. Jacobsen
107 112
Diatomite Filtration: Why it Removes Giardia from Water H.G. Walton
113 116
Small Water System Improvements for Giardia Removal A Case Study M.R. Alberi, S.J. Quail and R.A. Kruse
117 124
Inactivation of Giardia lamblia Cysts from a Surface Water by Oxidation with Ozone C. Nebel, A. Lally, T. Bosher, J.W. Hmurciak, L. Hmurciak and D.A. Breen
125 128
A Regulatory Agency's Experience with Giardia S. McClure and I.B. Mackenzie
129 131
Effects of Chlorine on the Ultrastructure of Giardia Cysts M. Neuwirth, P.D. Roach, J.M. BuchananMappin and P.M. Wallis
133 135
Removal and Inactivation of Giardia Cysts in a Mobile Water Treatment Plant Under Field Conditions: Preliminary Results P.M. Wallis, J.S. Davies, R. Nutbrown, J.M. BuchananMappin, P.D. Roach and A. van Roodselaar
137 144
Differentiation of Giardia Isolates
95102
The Genome of Giardia intestinalis P. Upcroft, P.F.L. Boreham and J.A. Upcroft
147 152
The Partial Characterization of an Immunodominant Antigen of Giardia intestinalis J.A. Upcroft, A.G. Capon, A. DharmkrongAt, P. Upcroft, and P.F.L. Boreham
153 157
Immunofluorescence Differentiation Between Various Animal and Human Source Giardia Cysts Using Monoclonal Antibodies H.H. Stibbs, E.T. Riley, J. Stockard, J.L. Riggs, P.M. Wallis and J.Issac Renton
159 163
Comparison of Giardia Isolates by DNADNA Hybridization A. Uji, P.M. Wallis and W.M. Wenman
165 167
Page vii
Differentiation of Giardia duodenalis from Giardia muris by Immobilization in Various Sera D.L. Lehmann and P.M. Wallis
169 172
Conserved Sequences of the HSP Gene Family in Giardia lamblia A. Aggarwal, P. Romans, V.F. de la Cruz and T.E. Nash
173 175
The Response of Humans to Antigens of Giardia lamblia M.G. OrtegaPierres, R. Lascurain, R.A. Garcia, R.C. Vazquez, G. Acosta and J.I. Santos
177 180
Properties of Giardia lamblia RNAs. C. Montanez, L. Cervantes, C. Ovando and M.G. OrtegaPierres
Enzyme Activites of Giardia lamblia and Giardia muris Trophozoites and Cysts D.G. Lindmark, and J.J. Miller
187 189
Studies on Giardia lamblia Trophozoite Antigens Using Sephacryl S300 Column Chromatography, Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis and Enzymelinked Immunosorbent Assay P.P. Chaudhuri, S. Pal, S.C. Pal, and P. Das
191 194
Detection of Giardia Cysts
181 185
An Overview of the Techniques Used for Detection of Giardia Cysts in Surface Water C.P. Hibler
197 204
Methods for the Recovery of Giardia and Cryptosporidium from Environmental Waters and their Comparative Occurrence J.B. Rose, D. Kayed, M.S. Madore, C.P. Gerba, M.J. Arrowood, C.R. Sterling and J.L. Riggs
205 209
Comparison of Five Procedures for the Sedimentation of Giardia lamblia and Other Protozoan Cysts D.R. Pennell, J.F. Stoebig, D.E. Sampson, and R.F. Schell
211 213
Comparison of the Modified "Reference Method" and the Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Technique for Detection of Giardia Cysts in Water B.E. Quinones, C.P. Hibler and C.M. Hancock.
215 217
Giardia Detection using Monoclonal Antibodies Recognizing Determinants of In Vitro Derived Cysts C.R. Sterling, R.M. Kutob, M.J. Gizinski, M. Verastegui, and L. Stetzenbach
219 222
Routine Monitoring of Watersheds for Giardia Cysts in Northeastern Pennsylvania S.A.M. McFarlane
223 225
Waterborne Giardiasis: Sources of Giardia Cysts and Evidence Pertaining to their Implication in Human Infection S.L. Erlandsen and W.J. Bemrick
227 236
Analysis of Municipal Water Samples for Cysts of Giardia C.P. Hibler
237 245
Page viii
Viability Testing A Review of Methods that are used to Determine Giardia Cysts Viability F.W. Schaefer, III
249 254
Fluorescent Dye Exclusion as a Method for Determining Giardia Cyst Viability S.J. Hudson, J.F. Sauch and D.G. Lindmark
255 259
A New Method for Excystation of Giardia J.F. Sauch
261 264
Assessing Giardia Cysts Viability with Fluorogenic Dyes: Comparisons to Animal Infectivity and Cyst Morphology by Light and Electron Microscopy D.G. Schupp, M.M. Januschka and S.L. Erlandsen
265 269
Panel Discussions Excystation and Encystation F.D. Gillin, E.A. Meyer, S. Erlandsen, C. Sterling
273
The Implications of Regulatory Changes for Water Treatment in the United States S. Regli, A. Amirtharajah, B. Borup, C. Hibler, J. Hoff, and R. Tobin
275 286
Taxonomy of the Genus Giardia S.L. Erlandsen, E.A. Meyer, T.E. Nash
287 289
Methods of Handling Giardia in the Laboratory W. Jakubowski, E.A. Meyer, T.E. Nash, C.P. Hibler
291 294
Index
295 302
Page 1
EPIDEMIOLOGY, PATHOGENESIS AND DRUG SENSITIVITY
Page 3
Drug Resistance and the Treatment of Giardiasis P.F.L. Boreham*, N.C. Smith and R.W. Shepherd Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Bramston Terrace, Herston, Brisbane, Qld. 4006, Australia The possible existence of drug resistant Giardia intestinalis has been investigated, as a possible explanation for treatment failures in patients. Analysis of 15 isolates of G. intestinalis has demonstrated major differences in sensitivities to metronidazole, tinidazole, furazolidone and quinacrine. Each isolate is heterogeneous and is composed of populations of parasites with differing drug sensitivities and doubling times. Cross resistance between the 5nitroimidazoles has been demonstrated in an in vitro test. Clinical and laboratory data provide strong evidence for drug resistance in G. intestinalis. Investigations of the molecular basis of drug resistance suggest that different mechanisms occur with the nitrofurans and the 5nitroimidazoles, with the former being related to the glutathione cycling enzymes, glutathione perioxidase and gluthathione reductase and the latter to pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase activity.
Introduction Management of patients with giardiasis often proves to be difficult due to problems related to accurate diagnosis, lack of knowledge concerning pathophysiology and a lack of fully effective chemotherapeutic agents (8,10,11). Research into the treatment of giardiasis has been limited by the lack of suitable laboratory models. All the existing drugs were developed for other infectious diseases and subsequently found empirically to be active against Giardia intestinalis. In this paper we briefly review the existing drugs and their deficiencies and discuss some of our current research which is designed to effect improvements in the therapy of infected humans, particularly children. The Current Armamentarium Four drugs, metronidazole, tinidazole, furazolidone and quinacrine are commonly used to treat giardiasis, but the choice is largely dependent upon the personal preference of the prescribing physician, drug availability and to a degree, the occurrence of untoward effects. The two 5nitroimidazoles commonly used are metronidazole and tinidazole. These drugs may cause nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, lassitude, skin rashes, drowsiness, disulfiramlike reactions with alcohol and occasionally transient leucopenia and peripheral neuropathy. Nitroimidazoles have been shown to be carcinogenic in rodents and mutagenic in bacteria. Single and multidose regimens have been evaluated but there is not general concensus on the most appropriate course of treatment (10,11). A third nitroimidazole, ornidazole, has been evaluated and appears to be equipotent to tinidazole (22). A new member of this group, satranidazole, is currently undergoing clinical trials in India and the preliminary data look most promising (20). Many physicians consider furazolidone, a 2nitrofuran, to be the drug of choice for the treatment of giardiasis in young children. However, a wide range of mild side effects can occur, including headache, nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, diarrhea and malaise. More severe side effects, such as agranulocytosis and hemolytic anemia, in patients with glucose6phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, may occur. Quinacrine is commonly used in North America. This antimalarial compound may cause dizziness, headache and gastrointestinal disturbances. The fact that quinacrine causes toxic psychoses in 12% of patients, together with occasional cases of exfoliative dermatitis and aplastic anemia, has resulted in this drug not being used by some physicians. Paromomycin sulfate has been recommended for the treatment of giardiasis in pregnancy, mainly because, as an aminoglycoside, it is not absorbed from the gut (14). However, controlled trials have not yet been conducted and it should be used with caution. Other drugs which have been recommended for the treatment of giardiasis include amodiaquine (21), berberine sulfate (13), sulfasalazine (1) and erythromycin (19) but again none of these drugs have been exposed to controlled clinical trials. A major problem with the current drugs is that treatment failures are known to occur with all of them. It is very difficult to assign accurate figures to these failure rates since every study uses different assessment criteria for cure, ranging from a single stool examination to multiple examinations over several months together with a small intestinal biopsy. Based on 11 published reports metronidazole has a cure rate of 4695%, tinidazole 88100%, furazolidone 5892% and quinacrine 60100%. It is generally accepted that treatment failures do occur with all four drugs and that this poses a serious problem to physicians. Many reasons can be postulated to explain these treatment failures including: patient noncompliance with the prescribed drug regimen. This is certainly an important consideration and recent studies have demonstrated major problems in this area (3) the possible reinfection of the patient. At present there is no way to effectively monitor this by typing isolates changes in the pharmacokinetics of the drug * Corresponding author.
Page 4
possible escape of organisms to priviliged sites where antigiardial drugs are unable to reach deficiencies in the host's immune system the inactivation of the drug by concommitant bacterial infections (12) the existence of drug resistant strains. Resistance to metronidazole has been well documented in the Trichomonads and also in some anaerobic bacteria. Screening Tests Against Giardia intestinalis 1. In vitro Research on drugs for the treatment of giardiasis has been severely hindered by the lack of appropriate screening tests. Most work has either involved testing drugs directly on man, where standardization and assessment of cure have been problems, or by using Giardia muris in the mouse as a model (2,11). In order to investigate the possible existence of resistant strains of G. intestinalis we first developed appropriate standardized drug screening tests. Culture in microtitre trays was achieved by incubating the plates in an atmosphere of nitrogen in sealed containers and a test to measure reproductive viability, based on the uptake of [3H]thymidine into the nuclei of the organisms, was developed (4). This assay proved to be considerably more sensitive than using either flagellar movement or dye exclusion as an index of viability. Development of this in vitro test has allowed the drug sensitivities of different isolates of human G. intestinalis to be compared and compounds to be screened for their activity against G. intestinalis (5). Analysis of 15 isolates cultured from patients attending the Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, has shown that there is a tenfold difference in sensitivity between these isolates for metronidazole and furazolidone, a threefold difference for tinidazole and a twentyfold difference for quinacrine (8,15 and unpublished data). In addition, by examining the drug sensitivities of cloned lines derived from a single stock it has been shown that each isolate of G. intestinalis is not homogeneous, but is composed of different populations of organisms having differing drug sensitivities (7). Doubling times of the stocks also vary considerably, ranging from 12.5 to 44.5 hours when grown in axenic culture in the absence of bile from the medium (15). 2. In vivo An in vivo test for drug sensitivity has also been developed using a neonatal mouse model (6). Litters of mice less than 5 days of age are infected with 3 × 104 trophozoites via an intragastric tube and after 6 days half of each litter are treated with an appropriate concentration of the drug under study in 50µL of vehicle also by the intragastric route. The other half of the litter act as controls and are treated with the vehicle alone. A further 2 days later the mice are killed, the small intestine removed, opened longitudinally and placed in cold buffer to allow the trophozoites to detach. The total number of parasites present can then be counted and expressed as a percentage of the untreated controls. Using this technique a number of compounds have been assayed and it has been shown that there is a direct correlation between in vitro and in vivo activity for twelve 5nitroimidazoles (P15 years
Children's homes
8.2
6.8
28.1
5.4
Family school
12.7
10 15 years
Orphan school
12.1 29.1
11.3 1.8
7.5
24.1
5.2
6.5 16.7
15.7
35.6
9.1
5.5
Volna, Ašmera (1968)
11.6
5.2
8.3
Pazdiora, Palicka (1971)
Škracikova et al. (1981)
Family Kindergartens Children'shomes school
27.3 15.0
6 9 years
3.7
6.8
2.5 10.0
3.2
Page 40 TABLE 2. Effectiveness of the search for further infection with Giardia among family members in the microfoci of giardiasis (Palicka 1973). Frequency in % Giardia positive families examined micro foci
Examined members of families
107
394
Family members with secondary without primary Giardia giardiasis infections 59
with primary Giardia infections (n=107)
15
prevalence of giardiasis in population (%)
Index prevalence in microfoci prevalence in population
42
1.8
8.3
Children in institutions represent a special case. Every author who studied the prevalence of Giardia in these institutions found that children of every age category suffered from giardiasis more frequently than those at daycare centres (Table 1). The permanent contact between the children in these homes creates better conditions for Giardia transmission than in daycare centers and kindergartens where close contact is restricted to the period of the parents' working day. This is also the case with other intestinal parasites such Pentatrichomonas hominis, Chilomastix mesnili and Hymenolepis nana which are commonly transmitted by the fecal oral mode of transmission (3). In their study of Giardia transmission in preschool facilities, Pazdiora and Palicka (1971) examined the staff of these establishments for intestinal parasites. The prevalence rate of giardiasis corresponded to the average rate among the adult population in the region studied. This suggests that the staff of preschool facilities do not play an active part in spreading Giardia among the children although they can influence transmission through food handling, changing diapers etc. Kvasz (6) examined all the members of families of children who were infected with Giardia, both from preschool facilities and hospitalized patients. He examined 790 members of 142 families and found that the average prevalence rate in those families was 23.07%. In another region Pazdiora (12) reported a Giardia frequency of 9.77% in families of Giardia positive children. In families with noninfected children the frequency of Giardia stood at only 3.21%. The effectiveness of antiepidemic measures among infected families was studied by Palicka (10) whose results are reproduced in Table 2. He examined 394 members of 107 families (micro foci) who were found to have at least one infected member. Additional cases of giardiasis were discovered in 15% of their family members. When 107 original infections were added, the frequency of giardiasis increased in such families to 42%. Since the average frequency of giardiasis in the rest of the population was 1.8%, this represented a 23 times higher frequency. The risk of becoming infected with Giardia in families with even a single case of giardiasis was computed to be 8.3 times higher (15/1.8%) than that experienced by the general population. Giboda (4) tested the validity of the theory of familial occurrence of giardiasis. The study was carried out in different geographical and epidemiological conditions from those of the authors mentioned above. The data are reported in Table 3. Of 157 members of 44 families in which one child was infected with giardiasis, new giardiasis was discovered in 31 persons from 25 families (56.8%). This means that the prevalence rate among the members of an infected family was 19.74%. Among newly discovered infections adults were more commonly infected than children (20.8% vs. 17.6%). In a control group (families without primary giardiasis) of 151 members of 35 families, new giardiasis was detected in three individuals only who belonged to three families. The prevalence rate in the noninfected families was therefore only 1.91%. A comparison of the average prevalence rate of Giardia in children up to 15 years of age in the study region (9.8%) with the prevalence of Giardia in children from infected families (primary plus secondary infections 55.8%) resulted in an index of 5.7 (55.8/9.8 = 5.7). This index was lower than the one found in Palicka's study (8.3). The frequency of giardiasis in both studies among infected families was similar (Palicka 33.1%; Giboda 37.3%) as were the overall prevalence rates of giardiasis in both regions of Czechoslovakia. These results have already had an influence on the practical activity of the Public Health Service in Czechoslovakia. In the event of Giardia and geohelminths diagnosis, all members of the family are parasitologically examined as well. This antiepidemic measurement is highly effective, especially in regions with low prevalence of intestinal parasites. TABLE 3. Giardia infections in family members of Giardia positive and Giardia negative children. Infected child in house
Giardia () adult
children
Giardia (+) total
adult
children
total examined total
adult
total
84
42
126
22
9
31
106
51
157*
no
77
71
148
2
1
3
79
72
151**
* Represents 44 households 25 (57%) of households had a second case attributed to index case ** Represents 35 households
children
yes
Page 41
Literature Cited 1. Cerva, L. 1962. Occurrence of intestinal parasites in the population of Central Bohemia. (In Czech, English summary). Cs. Parasitol. IX:135141. 2. Ditrich, O., J. Šterba, J. Prokopic, K. Kadlcik, and I. Maleckova. 1984. Intestinal parasitoses in South Bohemia farmer. (In Czech). IV. Prowazkovy dny, Komarno, 4.5.10.1984. 3. Giboda, M. 1971. The problem of intestinal parasites especial Protozoa in East Slovakia. (In Slovak). Thesis to B.Sc. 4. Giboda, M. 1978. Conditions of occurence of Giardiasis and ascariasis in children population of East Slovakia. (In Slovak). Thesis to Ph.D. 5. Jecny, V. 1965. The results of examination on intestinal parasites in some groups of population in district Most. (In Czech, English summary). Cs. Parasitol. XII:185195. 6. Kvasz, L. 1972. Contribution to lambliasis in Slovakia. (In Slovak). Thesis to Ph.D. 7. Kvasz, L. 1979. Accumulation of Giardiasis in families and closed collectives. (In Slovak, English summary). Bratisl. Lek. Listy 72:597600. 8. Kvasz, L., B. Petranska, M. Pavlina, A. Halasova, and J. Vodrazka. 1986. Screening of parasites of gastrointestinal tract in employs of large scale animal farms and the meat concern in the Nitra district. (In Slovak, English summary). Cs. Epidem. 35:5054. 9. Moravec, P. 1980. Prevalence of intestinal parasites in population of district Opava. (In Czech). Cas. Slez. muz. Opava (A) 29:5764. 10. Palicka, P. 1973. Effectivity of epidemiological work in the foci of intestinal parasitosis. (In Czech, English summary). Cs. Epidem. 22:3944. 11. Pazdiora, E., and P. Palicka. 1971. Notes to epidemiology of some intestinal parasitoses. (In Czech, English summary). Cs. Epidem. 20:216220. 12. Pazdiora, E. 1972. Some epidemiological aspects of occurrence of lambliasis in creche. (In Czech, English summary). Cs. Epidem. 21:271276. 13. Škracikova, J., S. Straka, E. Galikova, and G. Klimentova. 1981. Familial incidence of Giardiasis. Bratisl. Lek. Listy 76:369373. 14. Volna, L., and J. Ašmera. 1968. The occurrence of parasites at the population of the Ostrava region. (In Czech, English summary). Prirodoved. Sborn. (Ostrava):179183. 15. Vošta, J. 1955. Intestinal parasites of children in the surroundings of Tabor (In Czech). Cs. Parasitol. II:177180. 16. Zitek, K., and P. Palicka. 1979. Incidence of intestinal parasites in the population of a community and scope for influencing it. (In Czech, English summary). Cas. Lek. ces. 118:447450.
Page 43
IMMUNOLOGY
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Immunology of Giardia Infections Martin F. Heyworth Intestinal Immunology Research Center, Cell Biology Section, Veterans Administration Medical Center, San Francisco, California 94121 and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. Many studies have shown that human subjects infected with Giardia lamblia, and mice infected with Giardia muris, develop antibody responses to Giardia trophozoites. The present author has shown that immunocompetent BALB/c mice produce intestinal IgA and IgG antitrophozoite antibodies during G. muris infection. Such mice eliminate the infection. In contrast, athymic (nude) mice do not clear G. muris infection, and show little evidence of an intestinal antibody response to Giardia trophozoites. These observations suggest that antibodies play an important part in clearance of G. muris infection. Experiments in which BALB/c mice were selectively depleted of either helper/inducer (Th/i) or cytotoxic/suppressor (Tc/s) T lymphocytes by treatment with monoclonal antibodies, have shown that Th/i lymphocytes are necessary for clearance of G. muris by infected mice. Tc/s lymphocytes and natural killer cells are not required for elimination of this parasite from the mouse intestine. Important areas of future study include the following: (i) to determine whether intestinal antibodies are cytotoxic to Giardia trophozoites, and (ii) to identify and characterize trophozoite antigens which are major targets for mouse and human intestinal antiGiardia antibodies.
Introduction Human subjects become infected with the intestinal protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia by ingesting Giardia cysts. These can be acquired by drinking cyst contaminated water (11,42,49), or by fecal/oral contact, as in infant daycare centers (4,38). G. lamblia is an important cause of diarrhea in immunologically normal individuals (51), and patients with immunodeficiency diseases (particularly common variable hypogammaglobulinemia and Xlinked immunoglobulin deficiency) show increased susceptibility to giardiasis (18,31). Such immunodeficiency diseases predispose to chronic giardiasis, which can lead to severe, persistent diarrhea and malabsorption (18,31). The association of chronic giardiasis with immunodeficiency diseases suggests that immunological processes are responsible for clearing G. lamblia infections in immunologically normal individuals. This suggestion is strengthened by the demonstration of antiGiardia antibodies in immunologically normal human subjects (16,48). These antibodies include IgG antitrophozoite antibodies which occur in human sera (43), IgM antitrophozoite antibodies which are present in patients' sera during G. lamblia infection (17), and IgA antitrophozoite antibodies found in human milk (33). The functional significance of these antibodies is, however, unknown. Furthermore, very little is known about human immunological responses to G. lamblia at the site of the infection, namely in the gastrointestinal tract, although IgA has been demonstrated on Giardia trophozoites present on the epithelial surface of human jejunal biopsy specimens (6). Study of the pathophysiology of giardiasis, and of the immunological response to Giardia trophozoites, has been facilitated by the development of a mouse model of giardiasis. In this model system, mice are infected with the intestinal parasite Giardia muris (5,40). By analogy with G. lamblia infection in human subjects, G. muris trophozoites colonize the mouse small intestine (5,15,37). In immunocompetent mice, G. muris infection lasts for several weeks and the parasites are then cleared from the gastrointestinal tract (5,40). Mice with various types of immunodeficiency have an impaired ability to clear G. muris infection. The infection is chronic in athymic (nude) mice (39,46), in mice treated from birth with an antiserum directed against mouse IgM (44; such mice are deficient in IgM, IgA, and IgG), and in mice depleted of helper/inducer T lymphocytes (20). Such observations indicate that immunological events play an important part in the clearance of G. muris infection. Production and Role of AntiGiardia Antibodies Immunocompetent mice which are infected with G. muris produce antibodies directed against Giardia trophozoites. Such antibodies have been demonstrated in the serum, milk, and intestinal secretions of G. murisinfected mice (1,2,24,44,45). There is evidence that antibodies directed against G. muris trophozoites play a part in the clearance of G. muris infection. Thus, in mice treated with rabbit antiserum directed against mouse IgM, G. muris infection is persistent, and antibody production against G. muris trophozoites is impaired as judged by titers of trophozoitespecific antibody in the serum and intestinal secretions of treated mice (44). The present author has shown that IgA and IgG become bound to G. muris trophozoites in the intestinal lumen of Giardiainfected immunocompetent BALB/c mice, from day 10 of G. muris infection onwards (19). There is little evidence of IgA or IgG on trophozoites harvested from immunocompetent mice less than 10 days after the start of Giardia infection, suggesting that immunoglobulins detected
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on trophozoites later in the infection are Giardiaspecific antibody molecules, rather than immunoglobulins that are nonspecifically adsorbed to the trophozoites. There is little if any IgA or IgG on trophozoites harvested from the intestine of nude mice, at any time after the start of Giardia infection, suggesting that these mice have an impaired antibody response to Giardia trophozoites in the intestinal lumen (19). This impairment of antibody production may explain why nude mice are unable to clear G. muris infection. It has been shown that introduction of G. lamblia trophozoites into the duodenal lumen of rats leads to the appearance of trophozoitespecific IgA in rat bile (30). Although the source of this IgA is unknown, it may include IgA transported from serum to bile via the rat liver (35). It is likely that much of the intestinal trophozoitespecific IgA produced in rodents with Giardia infection arises from plasma cells in the intestinal mucosa. Numerous plasma cells are present in the lamina propria of the intestine in various mammalian species (9,10), and these cells are believed to originate from B lymphocytes in Peyer's patches (3). Carlson et al (7) have shown that the number of IgA+ cells in Peyer's patches of immunocompetent mice with G. muris infection increases before the infection is cleared. It is justifiable to speculate that the Peyer's patch IgA+ cells which increase in number during G. muris infection are precursors of intestinal mucosal plasma cells that secrete trophozoitespecific IgA. Although it is probable that trophozoitespecific antibody contributes to the clearance of Giardia infections, little is known about the mechanisms by which antibodies may eliminate trophozoites from the intestine. One theoretical possibility is that antibodies might inhibit adherence of Giardia trophozoites to the luminal surface of intestinal epithelial cells. There is recent evidence that Giardia trophozoites have a lectinlike surface molecule by which they bind to carbohydrate residues on mammalian cell membranes (14,29). This lectin may facilitate trophozoite attachment to the luminal surface of intestinal epithelial cells in vivo. If antibodies are directed against the lectin, they might inhibit this attachment. Similarly, antibodies directed against components of the trophozoite adhesive disk might impair attachment of the parasites to the intestinal epithelium (12,30,47). It has been shown that rabbit serum and mouse milk which contain antibodies directed against G. muris trophozoites inhibit adherence of trophozoites to mouse intestinal villi (23). Another possibility, that warrants investigation, is that antitrophozoite antibody may actually kill Giardia trophozoites in the intestinal lumen. It has been shown that monoclonal antibodies directed against a trophozoite surface antigen are able to kill G. lamblia trophozoites in vitro (34). Important areas of future study include the following: (i) to determine whether intestinal secretions and serum, from immunocompetent mice which have recently cleared G. muris infection, contain antibodies that are cytotoxic to G. muris trophozoites in vitro, and (ii) to determine whether antibodycoated G. muris trophozoites harvested from the intestinal lumen of immunocompetent mice (19) are viable or nonviable. Roles of T Lymphocytes, Natural Killer Cells, and Macrophages As noted above, nude mice lack the ability to clear G. muris infection, and become chronically infected with Giardia trophozoites (39,46). This observation indicates that T lymphocytes play an important part in clearance of G. muris infection from the gastrointestinal tract of immunocompetent mice, but does not identify the Tcell subset that is involved in clearance. Either helper/inducer (Th/i) or cytotoxic/suppressor (Tc/s) T lymphocytes, or conceivably both of these subsets, might be important. To identify the Tcell subpopulation that plays a major part in elimination of G. muris infection, the present author treated immunocompetent BALB/c mice with monoclonal antibody directed against either the mouse helper/inducer Tcell antigen L3T4 (13) or the cytotoxic/suppressor Tcell antigen Ly2 (27). This maneuver depletes L3T4+ or Ly2+ lymphocytes respectively (28,50). The Th/idepleted and Tc/sdepleted mice were then infected with G. muris cysts, and the timecourse of the infection was compared in these two groups of animals. It was found that Tc/sdepleted mice cleared the infection at the same rate as immunologically normal mice that were treated with phosphatebuffered saline. In contrast, mice depleted of Th/i lymphocytes became chronically infected, and continued to excrete large numbers of G. muris cysts for the duration of the study (20). These data indicate that helper/inducer T lymphocytes play a major role in the clearance of G. muris infection, and that cytotoxic/suppressor T cells are of little importance for the elimination of this infection. It is likely that the impaired ability of nude mice to mount an intestinal antibody response against G. muris trophozoites is the result of helper/inducer (L3T4+) Tcell deficiency. Nude mice are known to have a more profound deficiency of helper/inducer T lymphocytes than of cytotoxic/suppressor (Ly2+) T lymphocytes (8,32). Preliminary studies by the present author suggest that immunocompetent BALB/c mice which have been depleted of Th/i lymphocytes, by treatment with antiL3T4 monoclonal antibody, have an impaired ability to mount an intestinal antibody response against G. muris trophozoites (M.F. Heyworth, unpublished data). Natural killer (NK) cells are present in the intestinal mucosa of immunocompetent mice. However, little is known about the role of NK cells in the gastrointestinal tract. To determine whether NK cells play a part in the elimination of G. muris infection, the timecourse of this infection has been studied in beige mice, which are deficient in NK cells (41). The results of this work show that beige mice eliminate G. muris infection at the same rate as mice with normal NKcell activity (21). This finding strongly suggests that NK cells are not involved in the clearance of G. muris infection from the mouse intestine.
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In an attempt to determine whether macrophages are important for the clearance of G. muris infection, the present author harvested leukocytes from the intestinal lumen of Giardiainfected immunocompetent BALB/c mice and nude mice. Leukocyte subsets were then identified by immunofluorescent staining with monoclonal antibodies directed against leukocyte surface antigens, including the macrophage surface antigen Mac1 (22). Leukocytes bearing this antigen were quantified by fluorescence microscopy. This work showed that there was no appreciable difference between the number of Mac1+ cells harvested from the intestinal lumen of BALB/c mice or nude mice, and that only small numbers of cells bearing the Mac1 antigen were present in cell suspensions harvested from the mouse intestinal lumen (25 × 103 Mac1+ cells per mouse; 22). These observations suggest that intraluminal macrophages do not play an important effector role in the elimination of G. muris infection. Transmission electron microscopy of Peyer's patch sections from Giardiainfected mice has shown that macrophages in the patches are able to phagocytose Giardia trophozoites (36). Because Peyer's patches are known to be important sites for the initiation of intestinal immune responses (25,26), it is likely that ingestion of trophozoites by Peyer's patch macrophages is followed by presentation of trophozoite antigens to local helper/inducer T cells and B cells, with subsequent production of Giardiaspecific antibodies in normal immunocompetent mice. Conclusions There is extensive evidence that human subjects infected with Giardia lamblia, and mice infected with G. muris, develop antibody responses to Giardia trophozoites. The ability of mice to mount an antibody response to Giardia trophozoites correlates with the ability of these animals to eliminate G. muris infection. The observation that nude mice are unable to clear G. muris infection indicates that T lymphocytes play an important part in antiGiardia immunity. Studies in which immunocompetent BALB/c mice were selectively depleted of either helper/inducer or cytotoxic/suppressor T lymphocytes, by treatment with monoclonal antibody, have shown that clearance of G. muris infection is dependent on helper/inducer T cells. Cytotoxic/suppressor T cells and natural killer cells play little, if any, part in elimination of G. muris infection from the mouse intestine. Important areas of future study include: (a) to determine whether Giardia trophozoites are killed by trophozoitespecific antibodies present in mouse or human intestinal secretions, and (b) to characterize trophozoite antigens which are major targets for intestinal anti Giardia antibodies. Acknowledgements Grant support from the National Institutes of Health (grants AM33930 and AM33004) and from the Academic Senate Committee on Research of the University of California, San Francisco, is gratefully acknowledged. Literature Cited 1. Anders, R.F., I.C. RobertsThomson, and G.F. Mitchell. 1982. Giardiasis in mice: analysis of humoral and cellular immune responses to Giardia muris. Parasite Immunol. 4: 4757. 2. Andrews, J.S.,Jr., and E.L. Hewlett. 1981. Protection against infection with Giardia muris by milk containing antibody to Giardia. J. Infect. Dis. 143: 242246. 3. Bienenstock, J., and A.D. Befus. 1980. Mucosal immunology. Immunology 41: 249270. 4. Black, R.E., A.C. Dykes, S.P. Sinclair, and J.G. Wells. 1977. Giardiasis in daycare centers: evidence of person to person transmission. Pediatrics 60: 486491. 5. Brett, S.J., and F.E.G. Cox. 1982. 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Detection of Giardia in human jejunum by the immunoperoxidase method. Specific and nonspecific results. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 79: 110113. 16. Gilman, R.H., K.H. Brown, G.S. Visvesvara, G. Mondal, B. Greenberg, R.B. Sack, F. Brandt, and M.U. Khan. 1985. Epidemiology and serology of Giardia lamblia in a developing country: Bangladesh. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 79: 469473. 17. Goka, A.K.J., D.D.K. Rolston, V.I. Mathan, and M.J.G. Farthing. 1986. Diagnosis of giardiasis by specific IgM antibody enzymelinked immunosorbent assay. Lancet ii: 184186. 18. Hermans, P.E., J.A. DiazBuxo, and J.D. Stobo. 1976. Idiopathic lateonset immunoglobulin deficiency: clinical observations in 50 patients. Am. J. Med. 61: 221237. 19. Heyworth, M.F. 1986. Antibody response to Giardia muris trophozoites in mouse intestine. Infect. Immun. 52: 568571.
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20. Heyworth, M.F., J.R. Carlson, and T.H. Ermak. 1987. Clearance of Giardia muris infection requires helper/inducer T lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 165: 1743 1748. 21. Heyworth, M.F., J.E. Kung, and E.C. Eriksson. 1986. Clearance of Giardia muris infection in mice deficient in natural killer cells. Infect. Immun. 54: 903904. 22. Heyworth, M.F., R.L. Owen, and A.L. Jones. 1985. Comparison of leukocytes obtained from the intestinal lumen of Giardiainfected immunocompetent mice and nude mice. Gastroenterology 89: 13601365. 23. Kaplan, B., and D. Altmanshofer. 1985. Giardia muris adherence to intestinal epithelium the role of specific antiGiardia antibodies. Microecology and Therapy 15: 133140. 24. Kaplan, B.S., S. Uni, M. Aikawa, and A.A.F. Mahmoud. 1985. Effector mechanism of host resistance in murine giardiasis: specific IgG and IgA cellmediated toxicity. J. Immunol. 134: 19751981. 25. Keren, D.F., P.S. Holt, H.H. Collins, P. Gemski, and S.B. Formal. 1978. The role of Peyer's patches in the local immune response of rabbit ileum to live bacteria. J. Immunol. 120: 18921896. 26. Kiyono, H., J.R. McGhee, M.J. Wannemuehler, M.V. Frangakis, D.M. Spalding, S.M. Michalek, and W.J. Koopman. 1982. In vitro immune responses to a T celldependent antigen by cultures of disassociated murine Peyer's patch. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79: 596600. 27. Ledbetter, J.A., and L.A. Herzenberg. 1979. Xenogeneic monoclonal antibodies to mouse lymphoid differentiation antigens. Immunol. Rev. 47: 6390. 28. Ledbetter, J.A., and W.E. Seaman. 1982. The Lyt2, Lyt3 macromolecules: structural and functional studies. Immunol. Rev. 68: 197218. 29. Lev, B., H. Ward, G.T. Keusch, and M.E.A. Pereira. 1986. Lectin activation in Giardia lamblia by host protease: a novel hostparasite interaction. Science 232: 7173. 30. Loftness, T.J., S.L. Erlandsen, I.D. Wilson, and E.A. Meyer. 1984. Occurrence of specific secretory immunoglobulin A in bile after inoculation of Giardia lamblia trophozoites into rat duodenum. Gastroenterology 87: 10221029. 31. LoGalbo, P.R., H.A. Sampson, and R.H. Buckley. 1982. Symptomatic giardiasis in three patients with Xlinked agammaglobulinemia. J. Pediatr. 101: 7880. 32. MacDonald, H.R., C. Blanc, R.K. Lees, and B. Sordat. 1986. Abnormal distribution of T cell subsets in athymic mice. J. Immunol. 136: 43374339. 33. Miotti, P.G., R.H. Gilman, L.K. Pickering, G. RuizPalacios, H.S. Park, and R.H. Yolken. 1985. Prevalence of serum and milk antibodies to Giardia lamblia in different populations of lactating women. J. Infect. Dis. 152: 10251031. 34. Nash, T.E., and A. Aggarwal. 1986. Cytotoxicity of monoclonal antibodies to a subset of Giardia isolates. J. Immunol. 136: 26282632. 35. Orlans, E., J.V. Peppard, A.W.R. Payne, B.M. Fitzharris, B.M. Mullock, R.H. Hinton, and J.G. Hall. 1983. Comparative aspects of the hepatobiliary transport of IgA. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 409: 411427. 36. Owen, R.L., C.L. Allen, and D.P. Stevens. 1981. Phagocytosis of Giardia muris by macrophages in Peyer's patch epithelium in mice. Infect. Immun. 33: 591 601. 37. Owen, R.L., P.C. Nemanic, and D.P. Stevens. 1979. Ultrastructural observations on giardiasis in a murine model. I. Intestinal distribution, attachment, and relationship to the immune system of Giardia muris. Gastroenterology 76: 757769. 38. Pickering, L.K., W.E. Woodward, H.L. DuPont, and P. Sullivan. 1984. Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers. J. Pediatr. 104: 522 526. 39. RobertsThomson, I.C., and G.F. Mitchell. 1978. Giardiasis in mice. I. Prolonged infections in certain mouse strains and hypothymic (nude) mice. Gastroenterology 75: 4246. 40. RobertsThomson, I.C., D.P. Stevens, A.A.F. Mahmoud, and K.S. Warren. 1976. Giardiasis in the mouse: an animal model. Gastroenterology 71: 5761. 41. Roder, J.C. 1979. The beige mutation in the mouse. I. A stem cell predetermined impairment in natural killer cell function. J. Immunol. 123: 21682173. 42. Shaw, P.K., R.E. Brodsky, D.O. Lyman, B.T. Wood, C.P. Hibler, G.R. Healy, K.I.E. MacLeod, W. Stahl, and M.G. Schultz. 1977. A communitywide outbreak of giardiasis with evidence of transmission by a municipal water supply. Ann. Intern. Med. 87: 426432. 43. Smith, P.D., F.D. Gillin, W.R. Brown, and T.E. Nash. 1981. IgG antibody to Giardia lamblia detected by enzymelinked immunosorbent assay. Gastroenterology 80: 14761480. 44. Snider, D.P., J. Gordon, M.R. McDermott, and B.J. Underdown. 1985. Chronic Giardia muris infection in antiIgMtreated mice. I. Analysis of immunoglobulin and parasitespecific antibody in normal and immunoglobulindeficient animals. J. Immunol. 134: 41534162. 45. Snider, D.P., and B.J. Underdown. 1986. Quantitative and temporal analyses of murine antibody response in serum and gut secretions to infection with Giardia muris. Infect. Immun. 52: 271278. 46. Stevens, D.P., D.M. Frank, and A.A.F. Mahmoud. 1978. Thymus dependency of host resistance to Giardia muris infection: studies in nude mice. J. Immunol. 120: 680682. 47. Torian, B.E., R.C. Barnes, R.S. Stephens, and H.H. Stibbs. 1984. Tubulin and highmolecularweight polypeptides as Giardia lamblia antigens. Infect. Immun. 46: 152158. 48. Visvesvara, G.S., P.D. Smith, G.R. Healy, and W.R. Brown. 1980. An immunofluorescence test to detect serum antibodies to Giardia lamblia. Ann. Intern. Med. 93: 802805. 49. Vogt, R.L., A.A. Little, K.C. Spitalny, and G. Visvesvara. 1984. Investigation of a waterborne outbreak of giardiasis using serologic testing by IFA. Am. J. Public Health 74: 272. 50. Wofsy, D., D.C. Mayes, J. Woodcock, and W.E. Seaman. 1985. Inhibition of humoral immunity in vivo by monoclonal antibody to L3T4: studies with soluble antigens in intact mice. J. Immunol. 135: 16981701. 51. Wolfe, M.S. 1978. Current concepts in parasitology. Giardiasis. N. Engl. J. Med. 298: 319321.
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The Secretory Immune Response in Rats Infected with Rodent Giardia duodenalis Isolates and Evidence for Passive Protection with Immune Bile Graham Mayrhofer* and Agnes Waight Sharma Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Adelaide, Box 498, G.P.O., Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia. Two isolates of Giardia, one from mice and one from rats, have been identified as Giardia duodenalis by morphological criteria. They are identical with each other and with a human and a feline isolate by isoenzyme analysis. Nevertheless, the rat isolate produced a chronic infection in all seven inbred rat strains tested, while the mouse isolate in each case produced an acute infection. Infections with both isolates were chronic in congenitally hypothymic nude rats. Natural or metronidazoleinduced termination of primary infections with either organism was followed by a high level of immunity to reinfection. IgM and IgA antibody responses to homologous trophozoite antigens have been measured in serum by enzymelinked immunoabsorbent assays during primary and secondary infections with both isolates. However, only IgA antibodies were detected in bile from infected rats. Immune bile, but not normal bile, led to a substantial fall in faecal cyst excretion when infused into the duodena of conscious rats infected with the mouse isolate. The findings suggest that secretory antibodies are protective and that comparisons between the immune responses against these closely related rodent isolates may help define protective antigens.
Introduction Most of the Giardia that infect mammals have similar morphology and they have been grouped into a single species, Giardia duodenalis (5). By this classification, the organisms responsible for giardiasis in man are referred to as G. duodenalis (lamblia). G. duodenalis has been divided into races on the basis of supposed host specificity and by morphometry (20). However, the relationships between the tentative species are only now being explored by more sophisticated methods such as isoenzyme analysis (3,6), restriction endonuclease analysis of DNA and genome probing with cloned fragments of Giardia DNA (9). Even within isolates from humans, these methods have revealed evidence of genetic diversity, while the usefulness of host specificity is now recognized to be limited. Most of the experimental work on the immunology of giardiasis has been carried out in mice, using isolates presumed to be Giardia muris. G. muris can be separated easily from G. duodenalis on morphological grounds and is therefore a distinct species. This may affect its value as an experimental model for human giardiasis, especially in work aimed at defining antigens responsible for inducing protective immunity. Although antigens are known to be shared between G. muris and G. duodenalis (lamblia), the extent of sharing is not known (13). There may therefore be value in using animal isolates of G. duodenalis as models for human disease. This would allow studies of infection in the natural host with organisms that are potentially more closely related to G. duodenalis (lamblia) than is G. muris. The most readily available parasitehost combination is G. duodenalis (simoni) in the rat. The choice of the rat has the added advantage that secretory immunity is well understood in this species. In particular, secretory antibody responses to intestinal infections can be measured in bile because most of the IgA that enters the intestine in rats is transported there from the blood via the liver (8). There is evidence that the rodent isolates of G. duodenalis used in this study are in fact very similar to G. duodenalis (lamblia). This raises the possibility that protective antigens identified in this model may be more closely similar to those of G. duodenalis (lamblia) than would be the case for G. muris. Materials and Methods Animals The specific pathogen free (SPF) rats used to study the kinetics of cyst excretion after infection with Giardia isolates were 810 week old females obtained from the Animal Resources Centre, Western Australia. No evidence of any parasitic infection was found in these animals. The strains used were Fischer 344 (F344, RT1lvl), WAG (RT1u), Lou/M (RT1u), Wistar Furth (WF, RT1u), Brown Norway, (BN, RT1n), PVG/c (RT1c), and DA (RT1avl). Hypothymic nude rats (CBHmu/mu) came from the same source. Female 810 week old rats used to study antibody responses were obtained from the Gilles Plains Animal Resource Centre, South Australia. These were believed to be SPF but they were subseqently found to excrete cysts of Entamoeba spp. They were free from all other parasites including Giardia spp. During experiments, animals were housed in a clean conventional room on sterilized litter and had free access to sterilized water and food. Giardia Isolates and Parasitological Techniques Two isolates of G. duodenalis have been studied. The mouse Giardia was isolated from randombred albino mice in a nonlaboratory colony and the rat Giardia was isolated from a conventional laboratory colony of inbred Ginger Hooded rats. The isolates have been maintained by serial passage through nude rats at 34 month intervals. For cyst counts, faeces collected from individual
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rats over a 2 hour period were emulsified in 0.01% Tween 20 in distilled water and the cysts concentrated by centrifugation over 1 M sucrose (14). The cysts were then counted in a haemocytometer by phase contrast microscopy and the counts are expressed as the log10 mean cysts per gram of faeces for the animals in each group. To infect animals, cysts were concentrated from faecal suspensions as described above. After counting, the concentration was adjusted to allow intragastric intubation of 5000 cysts in 0.05 mL of distilled water. To completely eradicate the primary infection, animals were treated with 50 mg of metronidazole by intragastric intubation on three consecutive days. Morphological Studies Trophozoites were obtained by excystation from purified cysts, as described below. Small amounts of suspension were partially airdried on slides and fixed in Schaudin's fixative. The smears were then stained with Trichrome (19) to identify the median bodies. Isoenzyme Studies Trophozoites were excysted from cysts purified from rat faeces by initial concentration over 1 M sucrose (see above), followed by repeated sedimentation at unit gravity through Percoll gradients (15). The cysts were held in distilled water containing penicillin (200 µg/ml), gentamicin (200 µg/ml) and amphotericin B (2 µg/ml) for 3 days and were shown to be bacteriologically sterile. Excystation was performed essentially as described by Schaefer, Rice and Hoff (16). Aliquots containing 5 × 107 trophozoites were snapfrozen in dry iceacetone and transported on dry ice to the Evolutionary Biology Unit of the South Australian Museum. Enzyme analysis was performed by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate gels using a sonicate of the organisms, essentially as described elsewhere (11). Surgical Procedures and Specimen Collection At the time of bile duct cannulation, blood was collected from the tailtip under ether anaesthesia. The bile duct was then approached by a midline incision and cannulated as near the porta hepatis as possible with a polythene cannula. Approximately 2 mL of bile was collected immediately into icechilled tubes from the conscious animals held in Bollman metabolic cages. Bile and serum samples were frozen in dry iceacetone and held at 100°C until assayed for antibodies. Further bile was then collected into icechilled containers for 24 days. This material was also frozen and stored for use in passive transfer experiments. Intraduodenal infusion of bile was achieved through a cannula connected to a peristaltic pump delivering 0.5 mL per hour. The cannula consisted of medical grade polyethylene tubing (0.4 mm internal diameter, 0.8 mm external diameter), tipped with 2.5 cm of soft silicone rubber tubing, (Silastic, DowCorning; 0.012 in. internal diameter, 0.025 in. external diameter). An anterior midline abdominal incision was made under ether anaesthesia. The cannula was passed through the posterior abdominal wall on the left side and into the stomach through a puncture in the antral region. The cannula was fed through the pylorus and anchored with a purse string suture as it entered the stomach. The end of the silicone tubing was adjusted to lie in proximity to the entry of the common bile duct. The animals were held unanaesthetized and with free access to food and water in Bollman metabolic cages. At the conclusion of the period of bile infusion, cannulae were removed by quick traction and the animals returned to individual holding cages. Antigens Antigens for coating ELISA plates were prepared from cysts purified by unit gravity sedimentation through Percoll gradients (see above). The purified cysts were stored at 4°C in distilled water containing antibiotics (see above) and used within 7 days. Trophozoites were excysted, suspended in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, 400 mOsm/L), adjusted to 2×106 organisms per mL and sonicated. Preliminary experiments showed that sonicates prepared in this way optimally sensitized ELISA trays for antiGiardia antibody estimations. Immunological Reagents Rabbit antirat IgA was raised against IgA purified from rat thoracic duct lymph and it was absorbed by passage through 2 Sepharose 4B columns, one coated with normal rat serum proteins and the other with purified rat IgG (all classes). Pure antiIgA antibody was prepared by adsorption to and elution from an IgA Sepharose 4B column. The antibody was conjugated with alkaline phosphatase (Calf Intestine VIIS, Sigma Chemical Co., Missouri, USA) by the one step glutaraldehyde procedure (1). The conjugate of rabbit antirat IgA with alkaline phosphatase was prepared as above, using immunopurified antibody kindly provided by Dr. D.W. Mason (Oxford). The antiIgA and antiIgM conjugates were isotypespecific when tested by ELISA in wells coated with optimal amounts of purified rat IgA, IgG, IgM or IgE. Enzyme Linked Immunoabsorbent Assay (ELISA) Assays were carried out using 96 well roundbottomed vinyl microtitre plates (Costar, Data Packaging Corporation, Cambridge, Mass.) coated with antigen by incubation with 100 µL of Giardia sonicate for 1 hour at 37°C and then overnight at 4°C. After washing with normal PBS containing 0.05% Tween 20 and 0.05% sodium azide (PBSTween 20 buffer), free binding sites on the plates were blocked by incubation with 1% bovine serum albumen (BSA Fraction V, Flow Laboratories, NSW, Australia) in PBSTween 20 for 68 hours at 4°C. To assay antibodies in serum or bile, 2fold serial dilutions in PBSTween 20 containing 1% BSA were incubated at 4°C overnight in wells coated with the homologous trophozoite antigen preparation. After washing, bound antibody was detected by a further incubation overnight at 4°C with predetermined dilutions of alkaline phosphataseantibody conjugates. Substrate (pnitrophenylphosphate disodium, Sigma Chemical Co., in 10% diethanolamine buffer) was added in 100 µL aliquots to the washed wells and further incubated for 4 hours at 37°C. Optical densities of wells were read at 405 nm using a Titertek Multiscan automated spectrophotometer adjusted to zero on a substrate blank. A positive antibody titre in any sample was defined as the reciprocal of the dilution which produced a mean optical density of 0.150, representing twice the mean OD405 produced by conjugates reacting in antigencoated wells without added rat antibodies. Results Characterization of the Two Giardia Isolates Trophozoites from the two isolates are shown in Figure 1. Morphometry has not been performed, but they appear very similar in shape and size. In particular, the median bodies in both isolates have the ''claw hammer" appearance and this places them in the G. duodenalis group. Evidence supporting a close relationship between the isolates came from comparison of the electrophoretic mobilities of the 27 enzymes shown in Table 1. Differences in the electrophoretic mobilities of enzymes between individuals or between species (i.e. isoenzymes)
Figure 1. Examples of trophozoites excysted in vitro from the rodent isolates. a) Mouse isolate. b) Rat isolate. Both have median bodies characteristic of G. duodenalis and they have similar general morphological features.
Page 51 TABLE 1. Enzymes identified in the G. duodenalis isolates. Enzyme
E.C. No.
Enzyme
E.C. No.
Aconitase
4.2.1.3
Glutathione Reductase
Acid Phosphatase
3.1.3.2
Hexokinase
2.7.1.1
Adenosine Deaminase
3.5.4.4
Malate Dehydrogenase
1.1.1.27
Alcohol Dehydrogenase
1.1.1.1
Malic Enzyme
1.1.1.40
Aldolase
4.1.2.13
MannosePhosphate Isomerase
5.3.1.8
Enolase
4.2.1.11
Nucleoside Phosphorylase
2.4.2.1
FructoseDiphosphatase
3.1.3.11
Peptidase (Valineleucine)
3.4.11or13
Glyceraldehyde3Phosphate Dehydrogenase
1.2.1.12
Phosphoglycerate Mutase
2.7.5.3
Glutamate Dehydrogenase
1.4.1.3
6Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase
1.1.1.44
GlutamateOxaloacetate Transaminase
2.6.1.1
Phosphoglycerate Kinase
2.7.2.3
Glucose6Phosphate Dehydrogenase
1.1.1.49
Phosphoglucomutase
2.7.5.1
Glycerophosphate Dehydrogenase
1.1.1.8
Sorbitol Dehydrogenase
1.1.1.14
5.3.1.9
TriosePhosphate Isomerase
5.3.1.1
Uridine Monophosphate Kinase
2.7.4.?
GlucosePhosphate Isomerase
1.6.4.2
reflect corresponding structural differences between the genes that encode those enzymes. No differences were noted between the rat and mouse isolates for any of the 27 enzymes examined and identity at this number of loci suggests strongly that both organisms belong to the same species. Furthermore, there were no differences at any of these loci when the two rodent isolates were compared with a human isolate (Adelaide1) or with the feline isolate Portland1 (E.A. Meyer, Portland). The rodent isolates of G. duodenalis therefore appear to be closely related to G. duodenalis (lamblia) and to a G. duodenalis from cats. Infections in Normal Rats The duration of infection with G. muris varies, depending on which strains of mice are studied (2,10,12). Primary infections with the mouse (Figure 2) and rat (Figure 3) isolates of G. duodenalis have been studied in the strains of inbred rats that were available. The strain had little influence on either the magnitude or duration of cyst excretion by rats during infections with either isolate. However, when the infections produced by the two isolates were compared, there were striking differences. With the mouse isolate, cyst excretion reached a peak quickly and within a week commenced to decline, until finally it ceased after approximately 56 weeks. In contrast, all rat strains became infected chronically with the rat isolate and showed no evidence of expelling the organisms. The infection has been observed to persist at a similar level for at least 6 months in F344 strain rats (data not shown). Infections with both isolates were treated with metronidazole after 10 weeks. When challenged with the homologous organism 2 weeks later, the animals were found to be highly resistant to reinfection. Some animals in most strains failed to excrete cysts at detectable levels and where excretion did occur, it was in small numbers and for only a few days. In more recent experiments (not shown), where 4 weeks have been allowed between metronidazole treatment and reinfection, resistance after a primary infection has been complete.
Figure 2. The course of infection with the mouse isolate of G. duodenalis in 7 normal inbred rat strains and in congenitally hypothymic nude mu/mu rats. Primary and secondary infections were both initiated with 5000 cysts. Rats were treated with metronidazole 10 weeks after commencement of the primary infection and were challenged with a second dose of cysts 2 weeks later. (•) course of primary infection. course of secondary infection. Limits of detection of cysts in faeces are indicated by horizontal dotted lines. Points are mean for 5 animals, ± standard error.
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Infections in Hypothymic Nude Rats Nude rats of the CBH mu/mu strain have been used to maintain stocks of the two G. duodenalis isolates. As shown in Figures 2 and 3, these rats continued to excrete high levels of cysts for long periods of time after infection with either organism. In particular, the infection produced by the mouse isolate was dramatically different when compared in thymusdeficient and immunocompetent rat strains. Serum and Biliary Antibody Responses Titres of IgM and IgA antibodies were estimated by isotype specific ELISA in the serum and bile of rats infected with the mouse and rat isolates (Figures 4 and 5). During primary infections with either organism there was an early rise in IgM antiGiardia antibodies in serum, which declined between 10 and 15 days after infection. This was followed by a rise in serum IgA antibodies, which was sustained until the time of metronidazole treatment 6 weeks after infection. Secondary infections produced serum IgM antibody responses similar to those following primary infections. However, the IgA antibody responses in serum were secondary in character (i.e. large and more rapid). IgM antibodies were not detected in bile at any time during primary or secondary infections with either isolate. IgA antibody levels in bile rose in parallel with the levels in serum. A secondary IgA antibody response was detected in the bile of rats undergoing secondary infections with either isolate. Prior to infection, the rats used in these experiments had significant levels of IgM antibody in serum and of IgA antibody in bile. These low levels of specific or cross reactive antibody appear related to the source of animals. SPF rats of the same strain from a different source (Animal Resources Centre, Western Australia) were found to have levels of serum and biliary antibodies near to the backgrounds of the ELISA assays (data not shown). Passive Protection With Immune Bile In this experiment, 8 rats were infected with the mouse isolate of G. duodenalis. Cannulae were inserted into the duodena of the animals on day 8 after infection. Four rats received approximately 12 mL of bile per day from a pool collected from the animals with the primary infections in the previous experiment. The ELISA titre of IgA antibody in this pool was 2048. The remaining 4 rats received the same volume of bile, but from a pool of uninfected donors. The rate of bile infusion approximated the normal daily bile output. Infusion was continued for a period of 84 hours, after which the cannulae were removed and the animals were returned to holding cages. Faecal cyst excretion during the course of infection in the two groups is shown in Figure 6. Infusion of control bile from uninfected donors had no effect on the rate of cyst excretion. In contrast, in animals receiving immune bile there was a very significant decline in cyst excretion, commencing towards the end of the infusion period. Animals that had received immune bile continued to excrete fewer cysts until the end of the infection, when cyst excretion declined in both groups.
Figure 3. The course of infection with the rat isolate of G. duodenalis in 6 normal inbred rat strains and in congenitally hypothymic nude CBH mu/mu rats. All details are as described in the legend to Figure 2. (•) course of primary infection. course of secondary infection.
Figure 4. Specific antibody titres, against homologous trophozoite antigens, in the sera and bile of female DA rats infected with the mouse isolate of G. duodenalis. a) Primary infection. b) Secondary infection. The primary infection with 5000 cysts was terminated after 6 weeks with metronidazole and the animals were reinfected with the same dose of cysts 4 weeks later. Antibody titres were measured using isotypespecific enzymelinked immunoabsorbent assays. (Dotted lines) measurements on sera, (Solid lines) measurements on bile, ( ) IgA antibodies, (•) IgM antibodies. Points are mean ± standard error for 5 animals.
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Figure 5. Specific antibody titres, against homologous trophozoite antigens, in the sera and bile of female DA rats infected with the rat isolate of G. duodenalis. a) Primary infection. b) Secondary infection. All other details as described in legend to Figure 4. (Dotted lines) measurements on sera, (Solid lines) measurements on bile, ( ) IgA antibodies, (•) IgM antibodies. Points are mean ± standard error for 5 animals.
Figure 6. The effect of passive intraintestinal immunization with immune bile on the course of infection with the mouse isolate in female DA rats. The rats in each group were infected with 5000 cysts and 7 days later a cannula was introduced into the duodenum. Immune bile (Dotted line), or control normal bile (Solid line), was infused at the rate of 12 mL per day for the period indicated by the horizontal bar. The cannulae were then withdrawn and cyst excretion was monitored for the period indicated. Horizontal dotted line indicates limits of cyst detection. Points are mean ± standard error for 4 animals.
Discussion Important findings with regard to speciation of G. duodenalis have emerged from this study. Although related by morphology and at all enzyme loci tested, the two rodent isolates cause very different infections in rats. The infection produced by the mouse isolate was acute. This isolate also produces an acute infection in BALB/c mice (unpublished results), similar to that described for G. muris (12). A further similarity to G. muris was that the mouse isolate produced a chronic infection in C3H/HeJ mice that was only cleared after approximately 15 weeks (unpublished results). In contrast, the rat isolate produced a chronic infection in rats, with no evidence of resolution after many weeks. In BALB/c mice, this isolate produced an acute infection similar to that caused by the mouse isolate, although in C3H/HeJ mice the infection with the rat isolate was less chronic, resolving in approximately 12 weeks (unpublished results). In general terms, each organism appears to produce a more chronic infection in its host of origin, but this is more pronounced with the rat isolate. No evidence was obtained for large differences in susceptibility to infection between rat strains, in contrast to the findings in mice (2,10,12). Comparative studies between these organisms may therefore provide important clues to the nature of virulence determinants in Giardia. The findings suggest that parasite factors, as well as host factors, influence the chronicity of giardiasis. They raise the possibility that similar parasiterelated factors may be responsible for the chronicity of infection in some cases of human giardiasis. Furthermore, it is clear that differences between isolates producing acute or chronic infections in man could be quite subtle and they could be missed by techniques such as isoenzyme analysis. A potential advantage of this model of giardiasis is that comparisons can be made of the immune responses to infection with the two closely related organisms in the same strain of rat. This may allow identification of the antigens against which the protective immune response is directed. A similar strategy has been attempted with G. muris, when the immune response was compared between strains of mice that differed in their susceptibilities to infection with the one organism (4). Previous isoenzyme studies have suggested a close relationship between some human isolates and the feline Portland1 strain (3). In the present study, examining a greater number of enzymes, Portland1 was found to be identical to a human isolate (Adelaide1) and to the two rodent isolates of G. duodenalis. It is therefore likely that some human isolates are closely related to Giardia that infect other mammalian species. The similarity of the rodent G. duodenalis isolates to G. duodenalis (lamblia) may therefore assist in defining the protective antigens in human giardiasis. The mechanism of protective immunity in giardiasis is still poorly understood. The chronic infections in hypothymic rats suggest a role for T lymphocytes, as has been suggested from studies on murine giardiasis (12,18). However, further studies, including antibody measurements in sera and secretions, will be necessary to identify the precise role of T cells. Evidence of the role of antibody in protection has been strengthened by recent studies in immunoglobulindeficient mice (17). Levels of IgM and IgA antibodies have therefore been measured in the sera and bile from rats infected with each rodent isolate. The serological findings indicate that both isolates are comparably immunogenic and that both induce secretory antibody responses which could be important in immunity to this essentially lumendwelling organism. Studies are in progress to examine whether qualitative differences exist between the antibody responses to the two organisms. These studies may reveal why the immune response is effective against the mouse isolate but not against the rat
Page 54
isolate in primary infections. However, the processes that frustrate the immune response to the rat isolate may be subtle, because animals primed against this organism and cured by treatment with metronidazole are subsequently highly resistant to reinfection. The latter phenomenon will provide an interesting area for future investigation. Finally, direct evidence has been sought for the role of secretory antibody in immunity against Giardia by passive transfer of bile, which can be obtained easily and is a major source of intestinal IgA in rats (7,8). Immune bile, containing IgA against the homologous isolate, was infused into the duodena of animals infected with the mouse isolate. Infusion of immune bile, but not of bile from uninfected rats, led to a marked decrease in cyst excretion. This sort of study is limited by the amounts of bile available and the time for which animals can be restrained. Nevertheless, the evidence is compelling that immune bile delivered in physiological amounts reduced the parasite load. This effect is attributed to the content of IgA antibody in the bile. Further studies are in progress to examine the effects of immune bile in preventing establishment of infections with the homologous isolates and in affecting the course of infection with the rat isolate. These studies suggest that infections in the rat with rodent G. duodenalis isolates may be useful as a model for investigating immunity in giardiasis. Although the importance of bile as a route of secretion of IgA antibodies into the intestine differs between rats and man, the convenience of bile in rats for measurement and collection of IgA antibodies is obvious. The mode of action of secretory antibodies in reducing the trophozoite population in the duodenum is unknown, but they are likely to interfere with attachment to the mucosa. In vitro studies suggest that serum antibodies can prevent attachment of trophozoites to artificial substrates by immobilization of flagellae (Mayrhofer, unpublished results). Acknowledgements This work was supported by grants from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and the Channel 10 Children's Medical Research Foundation, Adelaide. The authors thank Dr. P. Ey for his advice on immunoassays and Mrs. Glenys King and Mrs. Rosie Thomas for their help in preparing the manuscript. The isoenzyme analysis was kindly performed by Dr. R. Andrews at the Evolutionary Biology Unit of the South Australian Museum. Literature Cited 1. Avrameas, S. 1969. Coupling of enzymes to proteins with glutaraldehyde. Use of the conjugates for the detection of antigens and antibodies. Immunochemistry 6:4352. 2. Belosevic, M., G.M. Faubert, E. Skamene, and J.D. MacLean. 1984. Susceptibility and resistance of inbred mice to Giardia muris. Infect. Immun. 44:282286. 3. Bertram, M.A., E.A. Meyer, J.D. Lile, and S.A. Morse. 1983. A comparison of isozymes of five axenic Giardia isolates. J. Parasitol. 69:793801. 4. Erlich, J.H., R.F. Anders, I.C. RobertsThomson, J.W. Schrader, and G.F. Mitchell. 1983. An examination of differences in serum antibody specificities and hypersensitivity reactions as contributing factors to chronic infection with the intestinal protozoan parasite, Giardia muris, in mice. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 61:599615. 5. Filice, F.P. 1952. Studies on the cytology and life history of Giardia from the laboratory rat. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 57:53146. 6. Korman, S.H., S.M. LeBlancq, D.T. Spira, J. El On, R.M. Reifen, and R.J. Deckelbaum. 1986. Giardia lamblia: identification of different strains from man. Z. Parasitenkd. 72:173180. 7. LemaîtreCoelho, I., G.D.F. Jackson, and J.P. Vaerman. 1977. Rat bile as a convenient source of secretory IgA and free secretory component. Eur. J. Immunol. 7:588590. 8. LemaîtreCoelho, I., G.D.F. Jackson, and J.P. Vaerman. 1978. Relevance of biliary IgA antibodies in rat intestinal immunity. Scand. J. Immunol. 8:459463. 9. Nash, T.E., J. McCutchan, D. Keister, J.D. Dame, J.D. Conrad, and F.D. Gillin. 1985. Restrictionendonuclease analysis of DNA from 15 Giardia isolates obtained from humans and animals. J. Infect.Dis. 152:6473. 10. Olveda, R., J.S. Andrews, and E.L. Hewlett. 1982. Murine giardiasis: localization of trophozoites and small bowel histopathology during the course of infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:6066. 11. Richardson, B.J., P.R. Baverstock, and M. Adams. 1986. Allozyme electrophoresis: a handbook for systematic and population studies. Academic Press, Sydney. 12. RobertsThomson, I.C., and G.F. Mitchell. 1978. Giardiasis in mice. I. Prolonged infections in certain mouse strains and hypothymic (nude) mice. Gastroenterology 75:4246. 13. RobertsThomson, I.C., and R.E. Anders. 1981. Serum antibodies in adults with giardiasis. Gastroenterology 80:1262. 14. RobertsThomson, I.C., D.P. Stevens, A.A.F. Mahmoud, and K.S. Warren. 1976. Giardiasis in the mouse: an animal model. Gastroenterology 71:5761. 15. Sauch, J.F. 1984. Purification of Giardia muris cysts by velocity sedimentation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48:454455. 16. Schaefer III, F.W., E.W. Rice, and J.C. Hoff. 1984. Factors promoting in vitro excystation of Giardia muris cysts. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 78:795 800. 17. Snider, D.P., J. Gordon, M.R. McDermott and B.J. Underdown. 1985. Chronic Giardia muris infection in antiIgMtreated mice. I. Analysis of immunoglobulin and parasitespecific antibody in normal and immunoglobulindeficient animals. J. Immunol. 134:41534163. 18. Stevens, D.P., D.M. Frank, and A.A.F. Mahmoud. 1978. Thymus dependency of host resistance to Giardia muris infection: studies in nude mice. J. Immunol. 120:680682. 19. Wheatley, W.B. 1951. A rapid staining procedure for intestinal amoebae and flagellates. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 21:990991. 20. Woo, P.K. 1984. Evidence for animal reservoirs and transmission of Giardia infection between animal species. p. 341364. In: S.L. Erlandsen and E.A. Meyer (eds.), Giardia and Giardiasis. Plenum Press, N.Y.
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Biological Differences in Giardia lamblia T.E. Nash* and A. Aggarwal National Institutes of Health, NIAIB, LPD, Building 5, Rm 118 Bethesda, Maryland 20205, U.S.A.. Although isolates of Giardia differ biochemically it is not known if these or other differences result in altered biological behavior. Gerbils were infected with two unique human isolates, GS/E and WB. All WB inoculated gerbils became infected and were able to selfcure by day 28. In contrast GS/E infected gerbils tended to remain infected. After treatment, previously WB infected gerbils resisted infection after rechallenge with WB and GS/E, while GS/E infected gerbils partially resisted rechallenge with GS/E. All were infected with WB. Resistance to infection correlated with the development of cytotoxic antibodies which reacted with the surface of the Giardia. Experimental infections in humans confirmed that Giardia isolates differed biologically. In the first study, five volunteers were enterally inoculated with 50,000 trophozoites of isolates GS/M or Isr, followed serially and treated on day 15. In the second study, two of the previously inoculated, infected and treated volunteers were rechallenged along with five new volunteers as controls. All 10 of the GS/M inoculated volunteers became infected compared to none of the 5 inoculated with Isr. Both rechallenged individuals became infected although one only transiently shed cysts. Of the 10 infected, 5 or 50% became ill, 4 with diarrhea and typical symptoms of giardiasis. Humoral immune responses to Giardia occurred in all infected volunteers. Therefore, these experiments give credence to the idea that Giardia are not only biochemically different, but also differ in their biological behavior.
Introduction Morphologically, Giardia lamblia isolates appear to be similar (4); however, both casual observations and detailed analysis reveal differences among isolates. Some isolates, after axenization, adhere mostly to the surface of the tubes while others swim vigorously in the medium and tend not to adhere to surfaces (personal observation). Other isolates are long and slender while some are plumper and fuller in shape (personal observation). Some are easily axenized while others grow axenically with difficulty or not at all (personal observation). Biochemical differences have also been noted (6,8,9,10). When the DNAs of various human Giardia isolates were digested with endonuclease restriction enzymes and hybridized to Giardia specific probes, the number and position of the bands differed in a majority of the isolates (9). In addition, the surface antigens varied in most isolates as demonstrated by surface labeling (8) and the binding of monoclonal antibodies (McAb) to the surface of isolates possessing a 170 kd antigen (5). Other studies suggested most of the heterogeneity resided on the surface (12). Since many interactions among cells occur at the surface, it is not unreasonable to expect that varying surface antigens and other differences would result in alterations in behavior. Others have noted differences in cyst shedding in mice infected with human infective Giardia cysts (1), and we have noted marked differences in the ability of cysts obtained from infected humans to infect infant mice (personal observation). To more fully study whether isolates varied in their biological behavior, gerbils (3) and humans were infected with characterized isolates and the course of infection followed (2). The goals of the gerbil infections were to answer the following questions: (i) Do gerbils infected with different isolates become infected and undergo a similar course of infection? (ii) Does resistance to reinfection develop? (iii) If resistance develops, is it the same to homologous and heterologous isolates? (iv) What are the immune responses to infection and do any correlate with the course of infection or the development of resistance? Results Sixweek old Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) were inoculated with 2 million trophozoites by gavage and the number of Giardia in the intestines determined over time. The two compared isolates differed dramatically. Both originated from symptomatic infected humans. WB was isolated from a patient infected in Afghanistan (9,11) and GS/E from a scientist infected while fishing and camping in Alaska (9). The isolates differed in all parameters tested including endonuclease restriction patterns (9), surface antigens (8), and excretorysecretory products (8). Some gerbils were also infected with isolate Isr. This isolate closely resembles WB; in fact, WB and Isr appear indistinguishable biochemically (8,9). Both the course of infection and ability to induce resistance to reinfection differed (2). Although all the gerbils inoculated with either WB or GS/E became infected, * Corresponding author.
Page 56 TABLE 1. Percent Giardia trophozoites killed by cytotoxic antibodies induced by WB or GSE infection in gerbils. Infection WB
GSE
Day post inoculation
Isolate Used as Target
7
14
21
28
WB
12.5 ± 0.5*
27.5 ± 5.7
48.3 ± 4.3
48.5 ± 0.5
GSE
10.3 ± 5.5
25.0 ± 3.0
47.0 ± 5.0
48.0 ± 5.0
WB
3.6 ± 2.3
3.1 ± 3.1
10.5 ± 5.0
18.7 ± 2.0
GSE
20.4 ± 4.0
29.0 ± 5.0
32.3 ± 3.0
38.5 ± 15.0
Cytotoxicity was determined as previously described (2). Briefly, surviving Giardia were subcultured in TYIS33 after 12 h exposure to gerbil serum. The number of viable Giardia after 24 h was proportional to the original inoculum. Controls consisted of Giardia exposed to medium alone. * Each time point represents the mean ± S.D. percent cytotoxicity of three experiments. Pooled sera from 35 animals were used for each time point per experiment.
those infected with WB selfcured (Figure 1, Panels A and D) by day 35. In contrast, most GS/E infected gerbils were still infected even on day 42 although the number of trophozoites in the intestines had decreased. Gerbils infected with either isolate were treated with metronidazole on day 28 and challenged with either the homologous or heterologous isolate 7 days later. Gerbils previously infected with WB (Figure 1, Panels B and E), resisted infection with either isolate; however, gerbils previously infected with GS/E were partially resistant to challenge with the homologous isolate but all animals challenged with the WB isolate became infected although there were fewer organisms in the intestines (Figure 1, Panels C. and F). The pattern of infection with Isr was similar to that with WB. Complement independent cytotoxic antibodies developed in the sera of gerbils during infection and the degree of cytotoxicity was dependent on the infecting Giardia isolates, the test isolate employed, and the duration of the infection (Table 1). The development of cytotoxic antibodies correlated with the ability to resist infection. WBinfected gerbils developed appreciable cytotoxicity for both isolates and resisted infection to both isolates. On the other hand, GS/E infected gerbils developed higher levels of antibodies to GS/E than to WB. These animals were partially resistant to both isolates but more so to the homologous GS/E Giardia. These studies conclusively show that Giardia isolates not only differ biochemically but in their behaviour in vitro. In addition, the ability of each isolate to induce varying amounts of cytotoxic antibodies against these two isolates suggest surface antigens may be important as target antigens in protecting gerbils from reinfection. Humans were also infected with two different Giardia isolates (7). The goals of these experiments were necessarily different than those using gerbils mainly because much less is known about experimental Giardia infections in humans. The goals of these experiments were to answer some of the following questions: (i) Can axenized trophozoites infect humans? (ii) Are different isolates equally capable of infecting humans? (iii) Do these isolates cause disease?
Figure 1. The lower half of the graph shows the number of trophozoites in the small intestines of gerbils. The upper half shows the percent of animals infected on different days after inoculation with WB or GSE isolates. Each point represents the log of mean trophozoite counts from 1015 gerbils. WB,GSE Panels A & D, infection with the WB or GSE isolate. WB/WB Panels B & E, primary WB infection challenged with WB. WB/GSE Panels B & E, primary WB infection challenged with GSE. GSE/WB Panels C & F, primary GSE infection challenged with WB. GSE/GSE Panels C & F., primary GSE infection challenged with GSE.
(iv) What is the course of infection and disease? (v) Does resistance to infection develop, and is it equal in homologous and heterologous isolates? (vi) What are the immunological responses to infection in humans? Two isolates were used, GS/M and Isr. GS/M is the same isolate as GS/E, except the trophozoites used for axenization were obtained from neonatally infected mice and not after in vitro excystment of purified cysts. Isr was isolated from an infant (from Bethesda, MD) with diarrhea (8,9). As mentioned above, this isolate resembled WB. WB could not be used because the isolate originated from a person who was resistant to standard courses of chemotherapy.
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Extensive studies were done to exclude infection with Giardia or other agents and to exclude other underlying or complicating conditions. On day 0 volunteers were inoculated with 50,000 viable trophozoites enterally via a polyvinyl catheter positioned in the jejunum. Each day they were asked about the presence or absence of particular symptoms and examined if necessary. Stools were collected daily, and the consistency and presence of Giardia noted. Jejunal aspirates were obtained on days 0, 14, and 19. Stools were initially examined without concentration, and if negative, were reexamined following concentration. Volunteers were treated on day 15. Twelve weeks after inoculation and infection, 3 GS/M infected and treated patients were challenged with the same isolate as before. An additional 5 volunteers were inoculated at the same time, as controls. In the first experiment, all 5 of the GS/M inoculated volunteers became infected and none of the Isr inoculated volunteers. In the second experiment all 5 of the controls became infected. Therefore, 10 of 10 GS/M inoculated volunteers became infected while 0 of 5 Isr inoculated were infected (p 300 cysts (Figure 3). In most cases the cysts were identified as "excellent and probably infectious". The presence of the cysts varied not only throughout the year but also between two samples taken 1624 hours apart. For example, on August 26, 1986 a sample taken between 0900 and 1329 hours found 110 cysts but no cysts were detected in a sample taken the next day between 0850 and 1400 hours.
Figure 1. Air and filtered water temperatures.
Figure 2. Average raw and filtered water turbidity, = raw water, + = filtered water.
Page 90
No cysts were detected in the 22 samples of treated water from the slow sand filters. This was even true of samples taken in November and December when the filters had been in operation a total of only 21 and 40 days, respectively. In November over 300 cysts were detected in the raw water while in December 14 cysts were detected. At the time the raw water temperature was 1 to 2°C and at this water temperature it is unlikely any biological activity was present in the media. Pilot filter B was spiked with Giardia cysts and coliform on November 27, 1985 and March 20, 1986. The pilot filter had been in continuous operation for 12 days at the time of the spiking in November and 125 days at the time of the spiking in March. The water temperature to November was continuously at 1°C while it varied between 1°C and 4°C from November 27, 1985 to March 20, 1986. On November 27, 1985 an estimated 2,000,000 cysts were supplied but only 675,000 cysts were detected in two1 litre grab samples from the filter headwater. It is unknown if there was a dieoff of cysts between Fort Collins and 100 Mile House that resulted in a smaller amount recovered, or if the cyst distribution was not equal throughout the headwater. Ten cysts were recovered in the filtered water for a removal efficiency of at least 99.99%. It is unknown if cysts moved through the media after completion of the 31 hours of sampling. On March 29, 1986 the estimated number of cysts supplied was 4,400,000. The two 1litre filter headwater grab samples were spoiled in transit. There were no cysts detected in the filtered water. The variation in algae levels is identified in Figure 4. The algae level in the raw water peaked in the July and August period when the total count on two occasions was 59 and 460 cells/mL. There were generally low algae levels in the filtered water with the count on two occasions being 21, 22 and 43 cells/mL. The dominant genera of algae in the raw water in March 1986 were Synedra sp., Tabellaria sp. and Fragellaria sp., while Fragellaria crotonensis, F. virescens and Achnanthes sp. were found in the June 1986 raw water sample. For the raw water
Figure 3. Number of Giardia cysts in raw water to village's water treatment plant
Figure 4. Relative algae levels in raw and filtered water
sample taken in August 1986 the dominant genera were Cocconeis placentula and Achnanthes minutissima. Synedra and Ceratium contribute to taste and odour. Dinobryon, Synedra, and Fragilaria contribute to filter clogging. The village has had comments from users of the system that the taste associated with the raw water has disappeared with startup of the water treatment plant. It is suspected that the removal of Synedra and Ceratium algae was the reason. Coccidia is a mammalian parasite not infectious to man. Coccidia were detected in the raw water fourteen times out of 21 samples taken. The type was from beaver, rodent or mammal. The occurrence was throughout the year, and whenever Giardia cysts were detected Coccidia was also detected. The Coccidia was not detected in the filtered water. Plant debris in the context of this research refers to rodent (beaver, muskrat, mouse) fecal debris. Plant debris was detected in every sample of raw water taken in amounts that varied between occasional to a small amount, but was in moderate amounts in one sample. Plant debris was not detected in the filtered water except in a rare amount in November 1985 and an extremely rare amount on January 20, 1986 when the filters were still in the ripening stage. Complete removals were also found for crustaceans/eggs, pollen, ciliates and flagellates. General Water Quality Parameters A major purification mechanism in the slow sand filter is biological oxidation of organic matter. The nitrogen, phosphorus and total organic carbon concentrations taken on five occasions are presented on Table 1. The main biodegradable substances, ammonium and organic matter, have the potential to be oxidized by bacteria in the sand media. Organic removal is achieved with a high growth rate of heterotrophic bacteria while nitrification is achieved by autotrophic bacteria. Important parameters include media size, oxygen levels, solids retention time and shear stress. Biodegradation of organic matter as measured by the reduction of TOC seemed to have occurred in June but not September while nitrification of the ammonia occurred in June but not the March or November/85 samples.
Page 91 TABLE 1. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations (mg/L)
Ammonia
Nitrate
TKN
Total
Ortho
Nov. 21/85
Raw
.014
.018
.32
2 O + Low Energy Electron The oxygen atoms formed are a very reactive species and react almost immediately with oxygen molecules to form ozone. O + O2> O3 The net reaction is: 3 O2 > 2 O3 H° = 34.61 kcal/mole TABLE 1. Comparative concentration time data for 99% inactivation.
G. lamblia Cysts
E. Coli
Concentration × Time
Ozone
25°
0.17
5°
0.53
25°
15.00
5°
125.00
20°
0.08
5°
0.22
Chlorine
5°
2.00
Ozone
1°
0.02
Chlorine
5°
0.04
Chlorine
Poliovirus I
Temperature °C
Disinfectant
Ozone
Page 127
Figure 3. Ozone Generator Electrode Assembly double fluid cooled.
Materials and Methods The Ozone Generator The ozone generator is an electronic device which accelerates electrons in the presence of very dry air. A silent corona discharge is produced between two charged electrodes. The corona discharge accelerates electrons which in turn disassociates oxygen found in air molecules into oxygen atoms. Alternating current must be employed when ozone is generated in the corona discharge. If a direct current were employed, the electron would enter the corona discharge and immediately proceed to the grounded electrode where it would become unavailable for further interaction with oxygen molecules. When alternating current is used, the electron vibrates between electrodes in accordance with the frequency of the alternating current. The higher the frequency, the greater the time the electron will exist in the discharge area. Ozone production should, therefore, be a function of the frequency applied to the high voltage electrode. Generally, ozone production is doubled whenever the electrical frequency is doubled. With the use of properly designed high frequency inverters, modern ozone generators can operate at 2,500 cycles per second. The rate of ozone production can be readily changed through a ten to one turndown by altering the power applied to the electrodes. Figure 3 shows a diagram of the ozone generating electrodes which are contained in an ozone generator. The grounded 321 stainless steel 1/4" thick electrode (A) is placed in the center of the ozone generating module. The electrode is fixed in a vertical position and is cooled by passing potable water through it. The total cooling water requirement for an ozone system capable of producing 1150 pounds of ozone per day is 32 gpm and the temperature rise of the water is from 70°F to 76°F. The cooling water is discarded into the ozone contactor. Surrounding the grounded inner stainless steel electrode (A) is a glass electrode (B). The outer surface of the glass (C) is plated with silver which serves as the high potential electrode. To prevent destruction of ozone on the inner surface of the glass electrode, the outer surface of the electrode is cooled with a nonelectrical conducting fluid which is continuously recirculated in a closed loop system. The heat which is removed by the cooling fluid is transferred to water in a shell and tube heat exchanger. Attention is paid to that removed from the ozone generator because heat induces decomposition of ozone back to oxygen. 2 O3 > 3 O2 Dry air is passed through the annular space (D) between electrodes (A) and (B). It is in this area where the corona discharge takes place and where the ozone is produced. The silver glass electrode (C) is charged with 10,000 volts at a frequency of 2,500 cycles per second. The glass electrode, when operated at 10,000 volts, has an infinite life. The air which is passed through the ozone generator must be oilless, particle free and must have moisture removed to a 40°F dew point or lower. The rate of ozone production can be varied from an external 420 mA DC control signal. The start up time of air preparation unit and the ozone generator is approximately one minute. Ozone System Sizing The single most important concern in system sizing is to supply an adequate contact time and ozone concentration to kill Giardia lamblia cysts. The work of Sproul (3) has shown that this should be at least 0.53 mg × min/L. The water at North Andover exhibits a very high instantaneous ozone demand which will decrease the amount of ozone available for microbial control. This ozone demand exists because the water has been shown to have COD values as high as 20 mg/L. Considering the ozone demand of water and the residual required for G. lamblia inactivation, an applied dosage level of 5 mg/L was chosen. At a water flow rate of 2400 gpm, the corresponding quantity of ozone is 150 pounds per day. A further consideration in contactor sizing is the gas to liquid volume ratio. Ozone is generated at a concentration of 2% in air, hence ozone and 98% percent air must be diffused through the water. The quantity of gas applied to the water from 150 pounds of ozone at a 2% concentration is 70 scfm. If the contactor is too small, then the small air bubbles which are formed will coalesce into larger bubbles. This would result in a poor transfer of ozone from air into water. Factors affecting ozone contacting design are documented in the literature (5) as well as the application of ozone to potable water (6). Considering the above three factors, a contactor was constructed which has the following dimensions: 10 feet wide by 20 feet long with a water depth of 16 feet. At a water flow rate of 2400 gpm (3.5 mgd) the contact time was 10 minutes. The contactor consisted of four ports through which the water flowed on a vertical plane (Figure 4). At the bottom of each port, porous
Figure 4. Ozone Contactor.
Page 128 TABLE 2. Public Health impact of study before and after ozone.
Total reported cases of giardiasis
Before mandate made it reportable in 1985
7
Before the installation of ozone (1/1/86 10/1/86)
23
After the installation of ozone from 10/1/86
0
Total reported cases in 1987
5
stone diffusers were placed by which the ozoneair mixture was sparged through the water. In practice, it was found that the ozone residual at the end of the contactor was in the range of 0.9 1.0 mg/L. If we assume that this residual continues to build through the contactor in a linear mode, then effective residual is onehalf of the final residual or 0.5 mg/L. The product of time (10 minutes) and residual (0.5 mg/L) now becomes 5 mg × min/L. This compares favorably with the 0.53 mg × min/L established by Sproul (3) for 5°C water. Although this is nearly an order of magnitude greater than the minimum requirement, it should be noted that this residual will decrease slightly during the summer months when the water is warmer. From inception to system start up, this project took approximately two months. This time includes the engineering, equipment manufacturing and site construction. Construction time of the contactor was decreased by the use of mild steel sheet piling, wood baffles and a concrete top. The use of the mild steel and wood in an ozone contactor is certainly innovative, but was warranted on an economic and timing basis. Results and Discussion The presence of viable Giardia lamblia cysts has been eliminated via ozonation. Total coliform count entering the ozone contactor is in the range of 10 700 mg, whereas the plate count leaving the contactor is zero. When the pumping station employed only chlorine (~4mg/L), the trihalomethane levels were in the range of 8 120 mg/L. The installation of ozone prior to chlorination lowered the trihalomethane concentration to the range of 1.1 to 2.0 mg/L. The true color levels dropped 65 to 95%. The taste and odour levels also showed a substantial decrease. The public health impact of this study before and after ozone are listed in Table 2. Literature Cited 1. Craun, G.G.. 1979. Waterborne Giardiasis in the United States: a review. Am. J. Public Health 69:817. 2. Jarroll, E.A. et al.. 1981. Effect of chlorine on Giardia lamblia cysts viability. Appl. and Environ. Microbiol. 41:483. 3. Wickramanayake, G.B., Rubin, A.J., and O.J. Sproul. 1984. Inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts with ozone. Appl. and Environ. Microbiol. 48:671. 4. Nebel, C.. 1981. Ozone. Encyclopedia of Chemical Tech. 16:683. 5. Nebel, C.. 1981. Ozone water treatment systems. Water Eng. & Manage. Reference Handbook R77. 6. Nebel, C.. 1981. Ozone treatment of potable water. Public Works 112(1):86, 112(2):68.
Page 129
A Regulatory Agency's Experience with Giardia S. McClure* and I.B. Mackenzie Alberta Department of Environment, 9820 106th Street, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. T5K2J6. The province of Alberta has experienced two major outbreaks of giardiasis which could be attributed to public water supply transmission. Following these incidences, the province initiated an extensive Giardia monitoring program spanning three years and involving over 700 water samples from more than 40 Alberta communities. Only in three of these samples were Giardia cysts detected. It is thought that the existing monitoring method has many inherent limitations and thus cannot be effective for predicting or controlling giardiasis outbreaks. Until such time as significant improvements in Giardia cyst detection and recovery are availaable, it is felt that more traditional indicators of plant performance will be more effective in ensuring cystfree water.
Introduction The Province of Alberta has experienced two major outbreaks of giardiasis which could be attributed to public water supplies. This resulted in the development of a Giardia monitoring program and a review of the water treatment practices. This paper reviews the efforts made by the Municipal Engineering Branch, Pollution Control Division, Alberta Environment, in dealing with potential waterborne giardiasis outbreaks. The first known outbreaks occurred late in the winter of 1982 in the resort town of Banff, located in the Canadian Rockies. The town has a permanent population of approximately 4,000, with peak season fluxes reaching 20,000. Over 150 cases of giardiasis were diagnosed. The town's water supply came from a reservoir on Forty Mile Creek which was untreated except for chlorination. The Creek watershed is well protected from human activity, however, the Public Health Inspector investigating the outbreak found that beaver had colonized the reservoir, and Giardia lamblia cysts were subsequently detected in samples taken from the reservoir. The town has since converted to groundwater sources and there appears to have been no reccurrence of the disease. The second major outbreak occurred in the City of Edmonton late in the fall of 1982 and the spring of 1983. The local health unit did a followup survey to determine the extent of the infection. Their epidemiological report (Collier and Macdonald 1983) indicated there had been 895 laboratory confirmed cases. The dates on which the number of infections were reported forms a classic epidemic curve generally associated with a single infective source. Data plotted on a city map indicated that the majority of people affected lived in the downtown or University area; an area serviced by the Rossdale Water Treatment Plant. The Rossdale Water Treatment Plant is a conventional water treatment plant utilizing chlorine dioxide as a predisinfectant, chloramines as a postdisinfectant, alum coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and lime softening. During the incident, the plant was neither predisinfecting with chlorine dioxide nor carrying out softening procedures (Lippy 1984). Although there was no conclusive evidence to implicate the water supply, no other common source for the infection was identified. In the summer of 1983, it became mandatory to report giardiasis in Alberta. Since that time it has been one of the most common diseases in the province with approximately 1300 to 1500 cases per year. However, the data base does not suggest any epidemics attributable to water supplies. Because of the high incidence of giardiasis and the aforementioned epidemics, it was decided that the province should develop a water treatment plant monitoring program. The overall objectives of the provincewide Giardia monitoring program initiated in the spring of 1983, were to: 1. Develop the capacity to predict and control giardiasis outbreaks; 2. Provide a wide coverage of the water supplies for the majority of the Alberta population to evaluate if the organisms were present; 3. Develop and refine sampling and detection techniques; and 4. Monitor water treatment plant methods and performance. Materials and Methods The Giardia sample concentration method as outlined in the 15th edition of Standards Methods (APHA 1980) which utilizes a 7µm wound orlon filter was initially investigated. Analysis were conducted by the Provincial laboratory of Public Health associated with the University of Alberta in Edmonton. This laboratory had had considerable experience in performing protozoan analysis from stool samples for diagnostic purposes. The laboratory subsequently reported that there were difficulties in utilizing the floatation method as outlined in Standard Methods and concluded that they were more successful in centrifuging to concentrate the water from the filter, and then microscopically examining the entire pellet (this resulted in approximately 60 slides per samples). Because of the difficulty and time required to process the orlon filters, and the potential cyst loss, other methods were investigated. * Corresponding author.
Page 130
Figure 1. Schematic of Giardia sampling apparatus.
The Branch next looked at a 5µm polycarbonate membrane. A housing generally used in geological work and known as a geofilter was used, however the membrane quickly clogged and increased pressure on the filter housing. The housing would then open or separate causing a washout of the membrane surface. The laboratory was also experiencing difficulties in conducting their examinations because of the amount of debris, particularly alum sludge that was being filtered out. During the summer of 1984, another concentrating device (Figure 1) was designed. It basically condisted of a 20 µm wound orlon roughing filter followed by three 5µm polycarbonate filters. Initial trials were carried out in the fall of 1984 to determine suitable flow and pressure conditions. The device was calibrated in June of 1985 using Giardia cysts obtained from dog feces and then compared to a membrane filtration device used by the Kananaskis Centre. The Centre's system consisted of the same membrance with no prefiltration device. The filtration devices were found to be generally comparable. However, the Kananaskis laboratory obtained higher recovery rates using the zinc sulphate flotation method compared to the Provincial Laboratory's method of examining the centrifuge plug. For the 1985/86 program, sampling was conducted using the Alberta Environment divice and the Kananaskis Laboratory methodology. Discussion All sampling was conducted on treated municipal surface water supplies. Larger municipalities were sampled on a weekly basis, and smaller municipalities on a monthly basis. During the 1983/84 and 1984/85 seasons, the samples were collected by Environment staff and analysis were performed by the Provincial Laboratory of Public Health. During the 1985/86 season, some of the municipalities were provided with sampling devices and required to take their own samples. These were then sent to the Kananaskis Laboratory for analysis. A major problem encountered in the sampling for Giardia cysts was plugging of the membrane by debris. Not only did this affect the concentration procedure but it also greatly hampered cyst identification. Alum sludge was the major interfering agent but other organic and inorganic debris including algae and nematodes were frequently encountered. Occasionally, air was entrained in the influent filter water and caused it to bind off. The most significant problem was that of low cyst recovery rate. The orlon filters generally had recoveries of less than 10% while recoveries for the polycarbonate membranes ranged from less than 10% to more than 40% depending on the influent cyst concentration. The recovery rates were verified several times through calibrations using both live organism and polystyrene beads. Although the low cyst recovery is considered a serious shortcoming, the techniques used were considered comparable to those practised elsewhere. Table 1 presents the results obtained from the threeyear program. For this period over 700 samples were examined from concentrating more than 450,000 L of water. From this, three possible Giardia cysts were detected. Followup intense sampling at the municipalities where they were detected revealed no further cysts, nor was there any increase in giardiasis cases reported by the local health units. Conclusions 1. The organism could not be detected in significant numbers in the treated water tested. 2. Using current procedures, the Giardia monitoring program would not be effective in predicting or controlling the outbreak of giardiasis. The tests are time consuming and expensive for the type of results they produce. 3. The sampling and analysis techniques developed are thought to be at least comparable to those practised elsewhere. 4. The process of microscreening water is also a useful indicator of the efficiency of operation of water treatment plants. This is indicated by the amount of organisms, sludge, and debris that was accumulated on the filters. Alberta Environment will continue to maintain a monitoring capability for Giardia, but will not conduct a sampling program of the magnitude of the 1983/84 and 19844/85 season. TABLE 1. Alberta Environment Giardia Monitoring Program. Number Communities Monitored
Total* Water Filtered (L)
Number** Samples
Potential*** Number of Cysts
1983/84
29
316.0 × 103
321
0
1984/85
40
79.4 × 103
337
2
1985/86
12
66.7 × 103
66
1
Year
* Using various filter ** Varying sample sizes *** Unconfirmed beyond visual identification
Page 131
The Department will embark on a program to encourage operators to improve their water treatment practices. Initially this will involve concentrating on the proper use of coagulants using turbidity as the indicator. Literature Cited 1. APHAAWWAWPCF. 1980. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 15th Edition, Washington, D.C. 2. Collier, M.K. and P. Macdonald. 1983. Giardiasis in Edmonton. Edmonton Local Board of Health, Edmonton, Alberta. 3. Lippy, E. 1984. Review of treatment practices. Rossdale Water Treatment Plant, Alberta Environment, Edmonton, Alberta.
Page 133
Effects of Chlorine on the Ultrastructure of Giardia Cysts M. Neuwirth*, P.D. Roach, J.M. BuchananMappin and P.M. Wallis Alberta Environmental Centre, Vegreville, Alberta, Canada, TOB 4L0. Giardia muris cysts were exposed to chlorine concentrations of 0, 1.3, and 4.3 mg/L for 10, 20, and 30 minutes and at 10.5 mg/L for 90 minutes. Cysts were recovered from the experimental beakers by concentration on 5µm Nuclepore membranes and centrifugation. Samples were split; half were preserved in 5% glutaraldehyde for TEM examination and the other half were subjected to viability assays by in vitro excystation. After a buffer rinse, aliquots were fixed and embedded for TEM. Control cysts were fixed without treatment. Transmission EM showed that cysts treated with 0 mg/L chlorine for 10, 20 and 30 minutes appeared ''normal". They contained 2 or 4 nuclei, ribosomes, rough ER, axonemes, microtubules, remnants of ventral discs, and vacuoles. The cysts exposed to chlorine exhibited varying degrees of morphological changes. These include some cyst wall deterioration, ruffling of the plasma membrane and progressive granularity of the cytoplasm. Nuclei and flagella appeared unaffected in most cysts studied. These ultrastructural changes are correlated with viability as determined by excystation.
Introduction Waterborne giardiasis has been well established as an important worldwide health problem. Transmission of Giardia cysts is frequently via public water supplies. The efficacy of chlorination for the inactivation of human infective Giardia duodenalis cysts is a matter of great concern to those responsible for water treatment plants. In spite of the number of studies on effects of halogens on cyst viability (1,4,5,7,10), there is no information dealing with ultrastructural changes in cysts inactivated by chlorine. In this study, the effects of chlorine on the morphology of Giardia muris cysts were observed. G. muris cysts were used since they are similar in morphology to the human G. duodenalis cysts but are noninfective to humans. Materials and Methods Cysts were separated from feccal material collected from mice by flotation on 1M sucrose (14). Chlorine stock solutions were prepared by adding sodium hypochlorite to distilled water in 20 L quantities and were allowed to equilibrate for 24 hours. Exposure medium consisted of nonchlorinated tapwater at pH 8.2 to which sufficient stock was added to provide a free residual chlorine concentration of 0, 1.3, 4.3, and 10.5 mg/L. All tests were performed at 6°C on a stirring apparatus which stirred the contents of 6 beakers simultaneously. Approximately 106 cysts were added to the chlorine solution to make up a final volume of 800 mL. Chlorine concentrations were determined by amperometric titration using a Fisher model 397 Cl titrimeter. The contents of each beaker were filtered through a 5µm Nucleopore filter after stirring for 10, 20, 30, or 90 minutes. One mL of 10% sodium thiosulphate was added during filtration to neutralize the chlorine. Cysts were washed from the filters with Triton X100 solution into 15 mL tubes and concentrated by centrifugation. Each pellet was divided into two aliquots. One was examined for excystation by the method of Rice and Schaefer (11). The other was resuspended in 5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1M cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2, rinsed in 0.1M cacodylate buffer pH 7.2, postfixed in 1% osmium tetroxide in 0.1M cacodylate buffer pH 7.2, dehydrated in ethanol series and embedded in Spurrs epoxy resin (13). The pellet obtained following 10 mg/L chlorine and 90 min exposure was also treated for excystation. Thin secctions were cut on an LKB Ultrotome, stained in uranyl acetate and lead citrate (9) and viewed and photographed with a Hitachi H600 electron microscope. Results The results of excystation of Giardia cysts after chlorine treatment are summarized in Table 1. These results show that as concentration of chlorine and exposure time increase, the inactivation of cysts increases. A concentration of 10.5 mg/L for 90 minutes ensures total inactivation of cysts. Morphologically, the cysts exposed to 0 mg/L chlorine had a normal appearance (Figure 1). The cyst wall is 0.3 0.5µm thick and is closely applied to what appears as a narrow band of cytoplasm. A space or lacuna is present between this narrow band of cytoplasm and the organism. The cyst membrane enclosed the organism which consists of 2 or 4 nuclei, axonemes, ventral disc fragments, ribosomes and occasional rough endoplasmic TABLE 1. Viability of Giardia muris cysts following chlorine treatment measured as % excystation.
Chlorine concentration (mg/L)
0 Exposure time (min)
4.3
10.5
0
100
100
100
10
100
97
86
20
100
100
73
30
100
93
63
90
* Corresponding author
1.3
0
Page 134
Figure 1. Cyst exposed to 0 mg/L chlorine for 10 minutes and vesicles with electron dense and electron lucent material (x 9000).
Figure 2. Cyst exposed to 0 mg/L chlorine for 10 minutes, showing flagella in lacuna (x 13,500).
Figure 3. Cyst exposed to 1.3 mg/L chlorine for 30 minutes showing a "normal" appearance (x 10,000).
Figure 4. Cyst exposed to 4.3 mg/L chlorine for 20 minutes showing moderate granulation (x 15,000).
Figure 5. Cyst exposed to 4.3 mg/L chlorine for 20 minutes showing granulation of cytoplasm and shrinkage of cyst (x 17,000).
Figure 6. Cyst exposed to 10.5 mg/L chlorine for 90 minutes showing "normal" appearance of cytoplasm, ruffling of narrow band of cytoplasm (17,000).
Figure 7. Cyst exposed to 10.5 mg/L chlorine for 90 minutes showing a necrotic cell (x 8,000). A, axonemes; CW, cyst wall; Er, rough endoplasmic reticulum; F, flagellum; 1 shows a higher concentration of cysts in the final suspension. The higher the CC, the greater the concentration efficacy. The mean CC for each procedure was calculated, and the means were compared by the two tailed Ttest for paired samples (6). P