A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha'i Faith (Concise Encyclopedia of World Faiths)

BAHA'~FAITH

Wrltten by a well-known author &I the 5eld of BaWi studies, this ia a comprehennive and aocessible e n q d c + i a to the yMmgest of the

1 world diglom. Regarded aa the mend most widespread faith after ChWatdtp, with adherents in almost every m t qaround the globe, the BaM'i , F&th is d 8 8 8 udamllk to many. Here Dr Bmith traces the origias and development of the mugion from nfn-th-centutp Iran \ to the modem day, introdwlng its central @area and mejor Wried . ev~dts.ComblnIng breadth with a readable yet c o n o h style, he I provide8 a balanced overview of BaM'l scriptures, dootrines and pracwes, sootrl tmehga and organbation. Prea dear and knowledgeabie view .of a f%a&WW new digbn, M a is II unique and invaluablereferenae work.

PETER SMITH is the B o d Bcienoea Co-ordinatol at bdahidd UnivW~ Ptexnatiod Cone@ in Thadand whem he teaches w& history, 80cfolo#, and anlhropoiagy.He is the author of several books in the fieM of BaM'i Studies, including TheJ36bt and W 1 6 4RefWms (Cambrid&e Univer~ityReas) and The M Y FafL. A Short I I h f o ~ (-om.

'

[BACK COVER]

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA

of the

A Concise Encyclopedia of Christianity, Geoffrey Parrindcq ISBN 1-85166174-4 A Concise Encyclopedia ofjudaimt, Dan Cohn-Sherbk, ISBN 1-85168-176-0 A Concise Encyclopedirr of Hinduism, Klaur K. Klostermaier, ISBN 1-85168-175-2 A Concise Encyclopedia of Islom, Cordon D. Newby, ISBN 1-85168-295-3 A Concise Enryclopedia of Buddhism, John Powers. ISRN 1-85168-233-3

The Gardeners of Cod: An Encounter ruith Five Million Bohd'ir, Colene Gauvion and Philippe Jouvion, ISBN 1-85168-052-7 The Hiddm \Vords of Bahd'u'lloh, ISRN 1-8Sl6R-007-1 Olyab Stny: A Survivor> Drumalic Account of the Pnremtion of Bohd'is in Revobrtionory Iran, Olya Rrmhiradegan, ISBN l-85168473-X 77lc Seven Vallqs of Bahd'u'lloh, ISBN I-85168-031-4 The Bohd'iFaith: A Short Hbtoy, Peter Smith, ISBN 1-85168-20X-2 The Rahh'i Faith: A Short Innuductior,. Moojan Momen, ISBN 1-8.7168-209-0 William Henry Rundall: Disciple of 'Ahdu'l Bahd, Rahiyyih Randall-Wincklcrwith Mnbrl

Gnrir, ISBN I-XS16R124-8

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA of the

B A E ~ FAITH ' ~

PETER SMITH

O N E W O R L D O X F O R D

A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE B A H FAITH ~ ~ Oneworld Publications (Sales and Editorial) 185 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7AR England www.onewarld-publicatio~~com

6 Peter Smith 2000 Reprinred 2002

All rights reserved. Copyright under Bcrne Convention A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-85168-184-1 Cover design by Design Deluxc Typeset by LaserScript Ltd, Mitcham, Surrey Prinred in England by Clays Ltd, St Ivcs plc

To Philip and Parry Harvey and Betty Reed, and to the memory of Chattida Suwansathien ('Maw') (2509-2537 Buddhist Era1196694 CE).

'All that the sages and mystics have said or written have never exceeded, nor can they ever hope to exceed, the limitations to which man's finite mind hath been strictly subjected'. Bahi'u'llih (Gleanings, p. 316 no. 148). 'All human attainment moveth upon a lame ass, whilst Truth, riding upon the wind, darteth across space'. Islamic tradition, cited by Bahl'u'llih (~itib-i-fqrin,p. 120).

Contents

List of maps Preface

ix

Introduction

xiii

Chronology

1

List of abbreviations

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha'i Faith Further Reading Bibliography Thematic Index

11

Preface

Maps

Important Bahi'i sites in and around Akka

34

The Journeys of Bahb'u'llih from Baghdad to Akka

75

Iran, Iraq and the Levant in the 19th Century

205

T

his book differs from its companion volumes in that the BahB'i Faith is comparatively recent in its origins and, despite a growing body of academic studies, is not yet studied in the same detail and comprehensiveness as the other religions covered in the series. There are several earlier reference works - the most important in English being Wendi Momen's A Basic Bahd'iDictionary (1989) (261 pp.) but there is an obvious need for a more encyclopedic study. A large-scale 'Bahi'i Encyclopedia' project is at present under way in the United States, but its completion date is uncertain. In the interim, it is hoped that the present work will be of value to those who are seeking basic information about the BahB'i Faith and the Bibi movement from which it emerged. I am couscious of the limitations of this work. It is something of a pioneer effort, and no single writer can hope to have a comprehensive knowledge of all aspects of a religion -its history, doctrines, practices, and social embodiment in diverse cultures. Again, in some areas, there is as yet little primary research, so that my own remarks are necessarily highly provisional. I can aim only to provide a basic summary of our present knowledge, and to point readers in the direction of other works they might consult on particular topics. I am solely responsible for such mistakes as the reader may discover. Writing an encyclopedia is a good way for any author to lcarn more about their area of research - and also to become more conscious of their own ignorance. In preparing this work, I have accumulated the following debts of gratitude: most particularly to Moojan Momen and Susan Maneck for having read through the entire manuscript and commenting on it; to Juan Cole, Graham Hassall, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Chile, Charles Nolley, Vaughan Smith, Robert Stauffer and Will van den Hoonaard for their responses to specific queries; to Jackson Armstrong-Ingram, Richard Hollinger, and

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A Concire Encvrlo~ediao f the B a h n Faith

x

Moojan Momen for the provision of unpublished work; to Firouz Anaraki, Mozhdeh and Check Woo Foo, Victor Greenspoon, Virginia Harden, Sammi Smith and Dale Walton for their encouragement and assistance; and to those family members and friends who endured the considerable disruptions to everyday life caused by the writing of the book.

On language and names The English language is implicitly 'sexist' (referring in the abstract to the third person singular, an author is forced to use 'he' or 'she'; many terms, such as 'mankind', contain gender references). Growing awareness of this reality has led many writers to question the use of what were formerly common turns of phrase. A 'non-sexist' English usage generally acceptable to most readers has yet to emerge, however. It is easy enough to substitute terms such as 'humanity' for 'mankind' (the latter is common in older Bahl'i texts), but other issues are more difficult to resolve, notably the third person singular, both regarding people and God. For the latter, I bave followed contemporary Bahd'i usage - itself reflecting traditional biblical English - by referring to God as 'he', this despite the Bahb'i view that God is beyond gender, and is neither 'he' nor 'she'. Traditional Persian, Arabic and Turkish names can be quite confusing for those who are not Middle Easterners. Prior to the twentieth century, there were no surnames, and individuals might be known by a variety of names and titles. A personal name might be bracketed by various titles (Mirzi Taqi Khln), or prefixed by a string of titles (Hlji MirzB Sayyid 'Ali), or an individual might become known by a religious or state title, or by a succession of such titles (MirzB Taqi Khln is most commonly known as AMIR KABIR).Prefixes included Arabic religious titles, such as 'HBji' (a man who has made the pilgrimage (hdj) to Mecca), 'Mulll' (an Islamic cleric), 'Sayyid' (a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad), and 'Shaykh' (commonly a religious leader or teacher), as well as the secular 'Mirza', which in 19thcentury Iran had come to be used to indicate a respectable educated man. Suffixes included titles of social rank such as the Persian 'Khan' (originally a ruler or military chieftain, but by the early 20th century, s u ) and 'Khinum' ('lady'), and their Turkish equivalents: 'Effendi' and 'Bagum'. The titles of social rank have also been subject to change over time. Other suffixes indicated place of origin ('Tihrlni', one from Tehran), or, less commonly, occupation, and bave often been the basis for the surnames adopted during the 20th century. z . 3

1

U

Preface

The format adopted here is t o generally refer to individuals by and whatever name or title they are most well known. Thus 'QIJDD~IS', not '(Mulll) Muhammad-'Ali' or 'Blrfu~sbi', and to provide crossreferences where this seems helpful. As the Bahb'i Faith developed in a 19thsentury Context in which all the major Middle Eastern languages were used, Bahl'i literature often melds Persian and Arabic (Bahl'i writings in Persian commonly include much Arabic vocabulary; Arabic writings may include Persian constructions). In the matter of names, however, I have generally sought to use personal names and technical terms in their original language.

References, lronsliteration and abbreviations References to articles in the Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahd'i Faith are indicated by text in small capitals, e.g. PRAYER. The transliteration of Arabic and Persian follows an adapted version of that used by Bahb'is, itself based on that of the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists (1894). Ottoman Turkish names are given in their modern Turkish form. Oriental names in common use are given without transliteration ('Tehran' not 'Tihrin'). Dates are given according to the Gregorian ('Common Era') calendar, but in some cases are preceded by the Muslim lunar date (e.g. AH 126011844). A list of abbreviations used in bibliographic references is given on pp. 11-12. Recommended reading on specific areas appears in a special font within or at the end of entries, e.g. BKGII-12.AS the book is intended for an English-language readership, few references are given to works in other languages. A number of works of evident value arrived on my desk as I was finishing off the present manuscript (by Juan Cole (on BAH~U.LLAH); Charles Lerche (Towards the Most Great justice); Diana Malouf (on the and Moojan HIDDENWORDS);Velda Metelmann (on Lua GETSINGER); Momen (Scripture and Revelation)). I have included these in the bibliography, but was not able to use them in the preparation of this book. Peter Smith, Bangkok

1

Introduction

T

he Bahi'i Faith centres on the person and teachings of Bahb'u'llih (1817-92),the religion's prophet-founder. For Bahi'is, Bahi'u'llih is the latest in a succession of Manifestations of God, divine teachers who have revealed God's will to humankind over the millennia and have founded the world's great religions. From this perspective, all of these revelatory teachers - including Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, the Buddha, Jesus and Muhammad - have contributed to a single process of progressive revelation, designed to lead humanity ever forward towards a future kingdom of God on Earth, which Bahb'u'llih termed the 'Most Great Peace'. The Bahi'i teachings are regarded as the blueprint for that future global society and the BahH'i community as a leaven for its accomplishment. Bahi'u'llih's religion of birth was the Shi'i form of Islam, hut while still a young man he announced his adherence to the religion of the Bib (1819-1850),a youthful merchant who was eventually to lay public claim to being the promised Mahdi. Those who followed the Bib -the Bibis - quickly became a significant element in Iranian religious life, and the new movement was violently persecuted, in large part at the instigation of the religious establishment, provoking what were regarded by their opponents as Bibi rebellions in various parts of Iran. The Bib himself was eventually executed (1850),and most of the BiM leadership killed. For his part, Bahb'u'llbh was exiled to the Ottoman Empire, initially as a free man in Baghdad, but later as a prisoner, and finally consigned to Akka in Ottoman Syria. From exile, he was able to contact the Bibi remnant in Iran, reinvigorating the Bibis as a community through his writings, and subsequently gaining their allegiance for his claims to be the promised one foretold by the Bib (and indeed by the founders of all the religions). A vigorous campaign of BahH'i missionary expansion followed, which under the guidance of BahP'u'llih's

I

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bah6'i Faith

xiv

successors - his son, 'Abdu'l-BahP (1844-1921), and great-grandson, Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957) -took on an increasingly global dimension. Thus, what had originally been seen as a religious movement amongst mostly Iranian Shi'i Muslims emerged as a world religion, with several million followers widely spread across the entire world, and comprising individuals from perhaps every religious background. A short summary of these historical developments is provided in the Chronology following this Introduction (pp. 1-10). The Bahl'i teachings are derived from a corpus of canonical texts, mostly by BahP'u'llPh, 'Abdu'l-BahP and Shoghi Effendi, and to a I extent the Bib and the Universal House of Justice, an elected which has led the Bahl'i world since 1963. Central beliefs includs idea of successive divine revelations (see above) and of a successio.. vl authoritative and divinely sanctioned leaders of the Bahl'i Faith itself (the Covenant doctrine); the conviction that the purpose of human life is to know God, follow his teachings as given by his prophets, and to develop spiritual qualities; the belief that society as well as the individual can be reshaped according to the prescriptions of sacred law and the promulgation of a range of Bahl'i principles; the expectation that this reshaping of society will eventually lead to the development of a spiritualized and unified human race in a new World Order (the Biblical 'Kingdom of God on Earth'); and faith that the system of Bahb'i administration provides a divinely-sanctioned means for the expansion of the Bahl'i religion as well as a model for the organization of human society. Specific teachings include the beliefs that:

( I ) God in essence is unknowable, and that he can instead be best known through the Manifestations of God (2) true religion is essential to human progress (3) the major religions of the world share a common divine origin and 'fundamental unity' (religious diversity) (4) reason and science are important sources of knowledge, and there is an essential harmony between true religion and science (5) the progress of the individual soul involves the pursuit of the spiritual path (6) the hwnan race is one, God making no distinction between people on the basis of race (7) human civilization depends on spiritual as well as material progress (8) divine love is a powerful force

Important aspects of Bahi'i practice include the cultivation of prayer and meditation, fasting, the development of Bahl'i community and family life, consultation as a means of problem solving, the exercise of rolerance, freedom from prejudice, the non-use of alcohol and drugs, the value of work, particularly when performed in the spirit of service to others, the promotion of socio-economic development, and the endeavour of teaching the BahP'i Faith and principles to others. Moral development is understood mostly in terms of the acquisition of spiritual qualities (including charity, chastity, detachment, the fear of God, trustworthiness, truthfulness, and wisdom). Important Bahl'i social teachings deal with the topics of agriculture, economics, education, the environment, government, human rights, indigenous peoples, justice, the need for a universal language, social order, war and the advancement of women. The Thematic Index at the end of the hook (pp. 388-96) provides listings of entries on (1) 'The principle figures and periods of BBhiBahB'i history' -including listings of the major Bahb'i texts referred to; (2) 'Aspects of Baha'i belief and practice' and (3) 'People and places' of significance.

I

iI I

Chronology

R

esearch is gradually establishing a fairly reliable chronology for the Bihi and early Bah6'i period, but many obscurities still remain, and conflicting dates are given for a number of events. Cameron's Bahd'i Chronology makes a commendable attempt to bring together available dates. His neglect of the works by Amanat (ARR) and MacEoin represents a serious shortcoming for the early Bibi period, but his dating of Bahi'i developments is invaluable.

The early Babi period, 1844-53 The emergence of the Bibi movement, centring on the BAB. The movement spreads to Iraq and much of IRAN,generating increasing opposition and persecution. The BBb's claim to he the MAHD~/QA.IM (1848) and a growing radicalism on the part of many of his followers (BABI RADICALISM) leads to a more confrontational relationship with the authorities: armed conflicts break out (1848-53), and the movement is suppressed. 1843/4

Death of Sayyid KAZIMRashti (31 Decemherll/2 January). The search for a successor.

1844

The Bib's revelatory dream. His declaration of mission to Mulli HUSAYN Buswnir.i (22-23 May), and composition of the Q A Y Y U M U . L - AThe S M ~conversion . of the LETTERS01: THE LIVING. The Rib's pilgrimage to Mecca (beginning September) and declaration of mission there (December).

1845

Trial of Mulli ' A L ~BAST AM^, the Bib's emissary in Iraq (13 January). The Bib cancels his plans to meet his followers in KARRAI.A, and after two months in Muscat (March-April)

I

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A Concise Encyclopedia of the Boh8i Faith

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returns to Iran (15 May). In Shiriz, a group of Bibis is severely punished for adding the Bib's name t o the Muslim call to prayer, and following his return to the city (early July) the Bib himself is arrested, interrogated and forced to make a M composes the first public recantation. In Kirmin K A R ~KHAN Bihis (July). Secret propaganda of his attacks on the and HUJJAT.TAHIRIH continues, with the conversion of VAH~D establishes Karbali as an important Bdbi centre. 1846

The Bib escapes from Shiriz (23 September) and proceeds to Isfihin, where he is favourably received by the governor, MANUCHIHR KHAN.

1847

Following the death of Manhchihr Khin (21 February) the Bib is taken to Kulayn (March-April) and then to the fortress-prison of MAKU(July). Tihirih is expelled from Iraq (March), and eventually returns to Qazvin (July). The murder BARAGHAN~ (August-September?) of Mulli MUHAMMAD-TAQ~ leads to Tihirih's confinement, and persecution of the Qazvin Bibis. The first killings of Bibis occur. The Bib begins his composition of the BAYAN.

1848

1849 1850

Mulli Husayn journeys t o see the Bib in Mikh, reaching there in March. He then visits Qunous in Birfurhsh, before returning to Mashhad. The Bib is transferred to the fortress Q He is brought for trial in Tabriz, of C H I H R ~(April-May). and makes public claim to be the Qa'im (JulyIAugust), and later denounces Hiji Mirzd AQAS~.A group of Bibis gathers in BADASHT (June), Quddhs is later arrested. Mull& Husayn (July), and leads a growing band raises the BLACK STANDARD of followers from Khhrasin to MBzandarin. Following the SHAH(4 September) the conflict of death of MUHAMMAD Shaykh TABARS~ begins (10 Octoher-10 May 1849).

c. 2 January 1851). The Bib is executed at the instructions of A M ~ R (819 July). 1851

The Zanjin conflict ends (January). Bahi'u'llih leaves Iran for Karbali at the urging of Amir Kabir (June(?)-April/ May(?) 1852). Several Bihis are killed in Yazd and elsewhere.

1852

Amir Kabir is killed at the order of the king (January). One Bihi faction (headed by A z i ~makes ) an attempt on the life of NA$IRU.D-DIN SHAH(15 August). Many Bibis are killed, including Tihirih. Bahi'u'llih is arrested (16 August) and (August-December). where he imprisoned in the S~YAH-CHAL experiences his initiatory vision.

1853

~ e n e w e dconflict in Nayriz (March-October).

The development of Babism, 1853-66 The Bihi remnant in Iran maintains a more or less underground existence, and is divided into factions following different claimants to Suhh-i-AZAL in BAGHDAD may have leadership, including DAYYAN. exercised an ineffective overall headship, but from 1856 onwards he is increasingly eclipsed by B A H ~ U ' L L A who H , both revives and remodels Bihism. 1853

Bahi'u'llih is exiled from Iran. He and his family journey from Tehran to Baghdad (12 January-8 April).

1854-6

Bahi'u'llih leaves Baghdad for Kurdistan (10 April 1854-19 March 1856).

1856-63 Bahi'u'llih gradually revivifies the Bihi community, and his writings, such as the H ~ D D EWORDS N (c. 1858) and Kitlib-i~QAN (18621, are widely

circulated. He becomes the dominant Bihi leader. Suhh-i-Azal remains in hiding.

The Taharsi conflict ends (10 May). Quddhs is taken to Birfurhsh and killed (16 May).

1863

The SEVENMARTYRS O F TEHRAN are executed (19120 February). Vahid's preaching in Yazd leads to disturbances (January-February). He goes to N ~ y n i z :an armed struggle between the Bibis and their opponents follows (27 May-21 (c. 13 MayJune). An armed struggle also occurs in ZANJAN

Bahi'u'llih stays in the garden of RIDVAN(22 April-3 May) prior t o his journey to Istanbul (3 May-16 August). He remains in Istanbul until his journey to Edirne (1-12 December). Claims to divinely-bestowed authority become prominent in his writings.

1864

Major persecution of Bibis in Najafibid by Shaykh Muhammad-Biqir (the 'WOLF').

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c. 1865

i

The emergence of the Baha'i Faith, 1866-92

4

Bahb'u'llih is poisoned (by Azal), but survives. Western scholarly interest in Bibism begins with the publication of and Mirza Kazem-Beg. works by GOBINEAU

The development of the Bahl'i Faith as a new religion centring on Bahl'u'llih.

I

1866

Bahi'u'llih makes formal announcement to Azal to be HE Goo SHALL M A K E MANIFEST in the Sdri-yi-Amr ('Chapter of Command'), and refers for the first time to his followers as 'the people of Bahd'. He withdraws to the house of Ridi Big (10 March). The 'Most Great Separation' continues for two months, during which the Edirne Bibis are asked to choose between Bahi and Azal. Most follow Bahi'u'llih. Bahb'i missionaries begin to convert the Bibi remnant in Iran, leading in some instances to confrontations between the Bahi'is and the now-emergent Azali Bbbis.

WHOM

1867

1868

Azal challenges Bahl'u'llbh to let God judge between them ( M U ~ A H A I . ~ ) ,but does not attend the proiected meeting. Bahi'u'llih begins his proclamation to the RULERS. Execution of three Bahi'is in Tabriz. Persecutions in various parts of Iran. Arrest of Bahi'is in Egypt and Baghdad. Conversion of first Bahi'i of Christian background. Bahb'u'llih is banished to AKKAunder an order of life imprisonment (he and his companions leave Edirne on 12 August and reach Akka on 31 August). Azal and some others are sent to Famagusta (arr. 5 September).

5

Chronology

1873

The new governor of Akka becomes sympathetic to the Bahi'is. Bahb'u'lllh completes the Kitib-i-AQDAS.'Abdu'lBahi marries (8 March).

1875

'Abdu'l-Bahi writes the SECRETO F D I V ~ NCIV~LIZATION E (lithographed, 1882). Bahb'u'llih sends JAMALEFFENDIto India as a missionary.

1876

Deposition of Sultan ABDULAZIZ (30 May).

1877

Bahi'u'llih leaves Akka, and moves to Mazra'ih (June).

1879

Execution of the KINGAND BELOVED OF MARTYRS in Isfihin (17 March). Bahi'u'lMh moves to BAHJ~ (September).

1889

1892

murder of a Bahi'i in ASHKHABAD by Shi'is (8 September) prompts Russian intervention. The Bahl'is in Turkistan henceforth emerge as a separate religious community free of persecution.

I

I !

I I

Death of Bahi'u'llih (29 May). He designates 'Abdu'l-Bahb as head of the Faith.

The period of 'Abdu'l-BahC's leadership (1892-1921) 'ABDU.L.BAHA becomes the leader of the Bahi'i movement; oversees its expansion to the West; and initiates administrative and other develop ments. He faces the persistent opposition of his half-brother MUHAM. MA~-'ALI and other family members, which causes him to stress the doctrine of the COVENANT, and to denounce his opponents as COVI.:NANTBREAKERS.

1894

Ibrahim KHEIRALLA begins Bahi'i teaching activity in Chicago. Conversion of the first American Bahi'is.

1896

Assassination of Nisiru'd-din S h i h by a follower of JAMALU'D-DIN 'al-Afghini' (1 May). 'Abdu'l-Bahb moves to the House of 'Abdu'llih Pishi.

1869

BAD^‘ delivers Bahi'u'llih's letter to Nisim'd-din Shih, and is tortured and killed.

1870

Death of Mirzi MTHDI(23 June). Bahl'u'llbh leaves the Akka barracks, and lives under house arrest in the city (from October).

1897

Birth of Shoghi Effendi (1 March). Consultative council of HANOS OFT HE CAUSE^^ Tehran prepares for the formation of a Bahi'i ASSEMBLY (1899).

1872

Three Azalis are murdered by Bahl'i hotheads in Akka (22 January).

1898

Tarbiyat Bahi'i school for boys established in Tehran. The first Western pilgrims arrive in Akka (December).

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6

7

Bahl'is lose possession (1922). Leonora ARMSTRONG arrives in Brazil. The first Race Amity Conference is held in the USA. 'Abdu'l- Bahi dies (28 November).

Bahd'i activities begin in Paris and London. Kheiralla returns to America. A leadership crisis develops, finally marked by Kheiralla renouncing 'Abdu'l-Bahi (1900). Construction of the Bahl'i temple in Ashkhabad begins. Bahb'i activities begin in Germany. The Constitutional Revolution in Iran. The Young Turk Revolution transforms Ottoman government and releases political and religious prisoners. 'Abdu'l-Bahb is released from Ottoman confinement, and subsequently moves his family to Haifa (1909). The remains of the Bib are interred in a shrine on Mount Carmel (21 March). The BAHAITEMPLEUNITY is established in Chicago. 'Ahdu'l-Bahh travels to Egypt (10 August). Establishment of a BahB'i girls' school in Tehran. 'Abdu'l-Bahi completes his first tour of Europe (AugustDecember). A systematic teaching campaign is launched in India.

The guardianship of Shoghi Effendi, 1922-57 SHOCHIEFFENDI is head of the Faith. Process of administrative consolidation (see ADMINISTRATION) begins (1922). Systematic planning becomes part of regular Bahi'i activity (from 1937) (see PLANS). Largescale conversions of Bahi'is in various parts of the 'Third World' begin in the 1950s (see EXPANSION). 1922

Shoghi Effendi is publicly named as Guardian (January). He calls a conference of leading Bahi'is to discuss the future of the Faith. His first general letter on Bahb'i administration is sent t o the West ( 5 March).

1923

Shoghi Effendi's second general letter on administration (12 March). National assemblies are elected in Britain, Germany and India.

1925

The INTERNATIONALBAHM BUREAU is established in Geneva. A Bahi'i ESPERANTO magazine begins publication in Germany. An Egyptian court declares the Bahi'i Faith to be separate from Islam. Shoghi Effendi establishes definite qualifications for Bahi'i membership. QAJARrule in Iran formally comes to an end, and Reza Khan becomes Shah.

1926

Queen MARIEof Romania meets Martha ROOTand pays public tribute to the Faith. Ruth WHITEbegins her campaign of opposition to the Baha'i administration.

1927

The American national assembly adopts a Declaration of Trust preparatory to legal incorporation (May 1929).

1928

Persecution of the Bahi'is in Soviet Asia. The case of Bahi'u'llbh's House in Baghdad is brought before the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations, which finds in favour of the Bahi'is.

1929

New History Society founded by Ahmad SOHRAB in New York. His de facto excommunication ensues. Shoghi Effendi obtains possession of the mansion at Bahji, and begins work

'Abdu'l-Bahi begins his second Western tour (North America, 11 April-S December; Europe, 13 December-13 June 1913). He returns to Haifa on 5 December. World War I begins. Bahi'i activity started in Japan. British take Palestine from the Turks, ensuring 'Abdu'l-Bahb's safety. World War I ends. The Tablets of the Divine Plan are ceremonially 'unveiled' in New York. Martha ROOTtravels to Latin America to teach the Bahb'i Faith. 'Abdu'l-Bahb composes his Tablet to The HAGIIE. Hyde and Clara DUNNarrive in Australia. Famy KNOBLOCH arrives in South Africa. Work begins at the site of the proposed Bahs'i House of Worship at Wilmette, Illinois. The first All-India Bahi'i Convention is held. 'Abdu'l-Bahi is knighted by the British. Shi'is seek to gain possession of the House of Bahi'u'llih in BAGHDAD (January; long-running legal dispute ensues, but

Chronology

i on the expansion of the SHRINEOF THE BAB. He begins his 'WORLDORDER'letters (until 1936). 1932

BAHIYYIH KHANUMdies (15 July). Shoghi Effendi publishes DAWN-BREAKERS.

1934

Bahi'i schools in Iran closed. Purge of Bahi'is in government employment. Mounting campaign of official persecution (to 1941). National assembly established for Australia and New Zealand. The Egyptian assembly secures legal incorporation. OF BAHA.U.LLAH (8 Shoghi Effendi issues The DISPENSATION February).

1937

1938

II.

Shoghi Effendi publishes G o o PASSES BY.

1

Systematic campaign begins to establish the Bahl'i Faith throughout Western Europe.

1948

Establishment of the B A H ~ ~ ~ N T E R N ACOMMUNITY T I O N A L (BIC) affiliated with the United Nations. The state of Israel comes into being. Construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Bib begins (to 1953).

1951

INTERNATIONAL B A H COUNCIL ~ ~ inaugurated. A systematic campaign to establish the Faith in Africa begins. Shoghi Effendi's first appointment of Hands of the Cause.

1953

TENYEARCRUSADE begins (to 1963). A series of intercontinental teaching CONFERENCES is held. The Bahi'i temple in Wilmette is dedicated for worship.

1954

Women become eligible to serve on Bahi'i ASSEMBLIES in Iran. BOARDS. Shoghi Effendi establishes the A~XTLIARY Construction of the INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES building begins

Chronology

I

(to 1957). National campaign of persecution against the Bahl'is in Iran. 1957

I

II

I 1

1 I

Death of Shoghi Effendi in London (4 November). The Hands assume leadership of the Bahl'i world.

The custodianship of the Hands, 1957-63 An 'interregnum' between the death of Shoghi Effendi and the election of the Universal House of Justice during which the Hands seek t o complete the Ten Year Crusade, and prepare for the election of the House. 1960

Mason REMEYmakes claim to be the second Guardian, and is declared a Covenant-breaker. All Bahi'i activities in Egypt are banned by presidential decree (August).

1961

The Bahi'i temples in Kampala and Sydney are dedicated for worship. 'Mass teaching' begins in India. The International Bahb'i Council changes from an appointed to an elected body.

1962

Persecution of Bahl'is in Morocco (to 1963). Bahi'i institutions are banned in Indonesia.

Mass arrests and exile of Bahi'is in Soviet Asia. The Ashkhabad temple is turned into an art gallery.

1944

1955

I

Shoghi Effendi marries RB~lyyrHKHANUM (25 March). First American Seven Year Plan (to 1944) marks beginning of a systematic campaign to establish the Faith in Latin America. Other national PLANS follow (1938-53). The Bahl'i Faith is banned in Nazi Germany.

1939-45 World War

9

9

I

The Universal House of Justice, from 1963 The UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICEbecomes head of the Faith, and oversees its continued expansion and administrative development, as I CENTRE. Political well as substantial developments at the B A H ~WORLD revolution in IRANprofoundly affects the Bahi'is world-wide. 1963

Establishment of the Universal House of Justice (21-22 April). It announces that it knows of no way in which further Guardians can be appointed (6 October). Fist Bahl'i world congress held in London (28 April-2 May).

1964

The Bahi'i temple in Frankfurt is dedicated for worship. The Universal House of Justice declares that there is no way to appoint further Hands of the Cause. The Nine Year Plan begins (to 1973). Other international plans follow.

1967

Permanent BIC office established in New York. The Universal House of Justice issues The Proclamation of Bahd'u'liih and

A Concire Encyclopedia of the BolG'i Faith

10

presents copies t o many world leaders. Global PROCI.AMATION campaign begins. Establishment of the CONTINENTAL BOARDS OF COUNSELLORS.

Abbreviations

AIl Bahl'i institutions and activities are banned in Iraq. The BIC gains consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Panama temple is dedicated for worship. The Universal House of Justice adopts its constitution. CENTRE. Establishment of the INTERNATIONALTEACHING The Bahi'i Faith is bamed in Ketnam. BIC is granted consultative status with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). First Bahi'i radio station established in Latin America (Ecuador). The first of a series of international Bahb'i women's conferences is held. Islamic revolution in Iran. Major persecution of Bahh'is begins. The House of the Bbb is destroyed. Seat of the Universal House of Justice comes into use. Office of Social and Economic Development established. The Bahb'i Faith is officially banned in Iran. Bahb'i temple in Apia dedicated for worship. International Bahb'i Refugee Office established. The Universal House of Justice issues its statement The PROMISE OF WORLD PEACE. The Bahb'i temple in New Delhi is dedicated for worship. The Bahi'i Office of the Environment is established as part of BIC. European Bahi'i Youth Council established. Collapse of communist rule in Eastern Europe.

A special teaching plan for former Fastem Bloc countries is launched (to 1992). Second BaM'i world congress in New York. Publication of the Kitdb-i-AQDAS. HUQUQU.LLAH becomes universally applicable. BIC Office for the Advancement of Women is established.

AB AD1 ARR BA BFA BFSH BKG BW BWNS CC

H.M. Balyuzi, 'Abdu'l-Bahd Shoghi Effendi, The Advent of Diuine Justice A. Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal Shoghi Effendi, Bahd'i Administration R.H. Stockman, The Bahd'i Faith in America (2 vols) Smith, The Bahd'i Faith: A Short History H.M. Balyuzi, BahZu'lldh: The King of Glory BaU'i World (19 vols to date) Bahd'i World, New Series (5 vols to date) Universal House of Justice, Compilation of Compilations (2 vols) CF Shoghi Effendi, Citadel of Faith: Messages to America EB H.M. Balyuzi, Eminent Bahd'is in the Time of BaM'u'Ndh EGBBF H.M. Balyozi, Edward Granville Browne and the Bahd'i Faith El2 The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn. ESW Bahb'u'llbh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf Faith Shoghi Effendi, The Faith of Bahd'u'lldh, A World Religion Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By GPB GWB Bahl'u'lllh, Gleanings from the Writings of BaM'u'lldh Bahi'u'llbh, The Hidden Words (a=Arabic; p=Persian) HW Bahi'u'llih, The Kitdb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book KA Kl Bahi'u'llih, The ~itab-i-fqdn:The Book of Certitude LG H. Hornby, Lights of Guidance MBBR M. Momen (ed.), The Bdbiand Baha"i Religions, 1844-1 944 MBW Shoghi Effendi, Messaxes to the Bahd'i World, 1950-1957 McR D. MacEoin, Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism McS D. MacEoin, The Sources for Early Babi Doctrine and History MF 'Abdu'l-Bahl, Memorials of the Faithful

1

12

A Concise Encyclopedia of the BnhliT Faith

MMS M. Momen, unpublished manuscripts MUHJ Universal House o f Justice, Messages . . . 1963-1986 Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is Come PDC PM Bahl'u'llbh, Prayers and Meditations Proclamation Bahl'u'llbh, The Proclamation o f Bahri'u'lldh PT 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Paris Talks PUP 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Promulgation o f Universal Peace RB A. Taherzadeh, The Revelation o f Bahri'u'lldh ( 4 vols) SAQ 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Some Answered Questions SBBR P. Smith, The Babi and Baha'i Religions 'Abdu'l-Bahb, The Secret of Divine Civilization SDC Star Star of the West 'Survey' P. Smith, and M. Momen, 'The Baha'i Faith 1957-1988: A survey o f contemporary developments' SV Bahb'u'llbh, Seven Valleys 'Abdu'l-Bahb, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahd SWAB TB Bahb'u'llbh, Tablets of Bdha'u'lldh Revealed after the Kitdb-iAqdas TCB A. Taherzadeh, The Covenant o f BaM'u'lldh TDP 'Abdul'l-Bahi, Tablets o f the Divine Plan TI E.G. Browne, The Tdrikh-i-Jadid TN E.G. Browne, A Traveller's Narrative UHJC Universal House o f Justice, Constitution WEBW 0.2. Whitehead, Some Early Babd'is of the West 'Ahdu'l-Bahb, Will and Testament Will WOB Shoghi Effendi, The World Order o f Bahd'u'llib WSBR O.Z. Whitehead, Some Bahd'is to Remember

.

'Abbas N t r i , Mirza Buzurg (d. 1839)

The father of BahB'u'lllh. 'Abbls came from an eminent family in the Iranian province of Mizandarin which traced its ancestry back to the last pre-Islamic Sassanian king of Iran, Yazdigird In. The family's ancestral lands were around the village of TBkur in the district of Nhr. 'AbbAs served as minister

..

'Abbbd, lly61 (d. 1878)

'9 1960) (16) Z W a b KXADEM(1904-1986) (17) Adelbert M ~ ~ S C H L E (1897GEL 1980) (1877(18) Siegfried SCHOP~LOCHER 1953) (19) Codnne TRUE(1861-1961) Appointed indi&Ily (20) R ~ ~ I Y Y KHANUM, IH Amam'l-BahP (b. 1910),26 Mar& 1952 (21) Jalll KHAZEH(1897-1990). 7 December 1953 (22) Paul E. HANEY (1909-821, 19 March 1954 (23) 'Ali-Mu$umnad VARQA(b. 19111, I5 November 1955

Third contingent, October 1957 (25) Hasan BALYUZI (1908-80) (26) Abu'l-Qisim FNZI(1906-80) (27) CoUis FEATHERSTONE (1913-90) (28) John FERSABY (1914-73) (29) R&matu'll& MUHAJIR(1923-79) (30) E n d OUNGA (192679) (31) John ROBARTS (1901-91) (1911-92) (32) William SEARS

Apsormeu BY SHOGHI EFFENDI. 1951-7 THE TNTBBREGNUM'. 195743 Fiw contingent. 24 Decmnber 1951 Shoghi Effendi's death (4 November (1) Dorothy B. BMER(1898-1954) 1957) came as an unexpected blow to (2) Amelia E. COLLINS Bahl'is. Gathering cogether in Hale (1873-1962) (18-25 Novaober), the Hands discov(3) 'All-Akhar Fua(n&~ (b. 1905) (4) Ugo QACHERY (18964989) ered that Shoghi had left no will or any (5) Hnmann GROSSMANN (18994968) instructions as to what was to be done (6) Horan HOLLEY (1887-1960) regarding the fmorc lcadcrship of the (7) Leroy IOAS(189&1965) B&'is. However, in his last general (8) William Sutherland MAXWELLleaer to the -'is he had referred to the Hands as the 'Chief Stewards' of the (1874-1952) (9) Charles Mason REMEY (18744974) Faith, and it was in this capacity that 110) 'jkAru'Ulh SAMANDARI (1874- they now acted, assuming temporary 1968) headship of the Bahl'ii and elecdng nine of their numbu m serve as 'Gusto (11) Gwrge TOWNSHEND (18764957) dians' in Haifa to ovusec the continued (12) Vallyu'llHh VAUQA(1884-1955)

lknw, Paul .E

progrca~of Shoghi Effendi's plans. They m c e 1963 received the worldwide support of the The Hands ham w e d the Universal Babi'is. Meeting in annual conclave, the H o w of Justice since its f o d o n The Hands derumined that the best response House determined that it was not to the absence of a Guardian was the possible to appoint any fnrther Hands rapid establishment of the UNIVERSAL(1964). and sought ways of both d e v Housa OF ]USTIC& R body guatanteed ing the Hvlds ftom unnecessary admiadivine guidance and protection by kkative work so that they could devote 'Abdn'l-Bahi in his WILLAND T B ~ M ~ N Tthemselves . m inspiring Baha'ip throughTo this end, they called for the latema- out the world and of creating new tional Council m become an elected institutions to continue the Hands' body in 1961, and for thc Houee itself functions of the propagation and protecm be e l d in April 1963. They asked tion of the Faith into the future. The that they themselves shouldnot bc voted new institutions created were the f o Support ~ for this policy &om the CONTINENTAL BOARDS OP COLINSSLLORS BahiTs was almost universal, the main (1968) and the ~IERNKCIONALTEACHopposition coming from the veteran ING CEMRE (1973). Meanwhile, the Amedcm Hand C.M. Remey, President passing y e w greatly reduced the numof the arisring Council, who kid claim ber of Hands, such that by the end of m be the second Gwdian (1960). a 1998 only three remained. claim that was rejected by all bur a and number of Bahih. The Hands d their headship until 1963 and the elec- Hanoy, Paul E. (1909-82) or THE CAUSE of Bahi? tions for the iirst Universal House of American HANO V t a g e . He was active in American Justice

T h H d of (hc O n r of ~ God a! their P l e ~ Meting, ~y April 1963

hnhhand h#Eng

179

m ' i adminisuation, and was a mbcr of the national spiritual assembly from 1946 until 1957. He was appointed a Hand of the Caue by Shoghi Effendi in on 19 M a d 1954, andbecameoneofthentsmdiPlHands living in Ha& after Shoghi Effendi's dtath. awl& 613-l8;nolprlSt43. Hannen, Joseph (d. 1920) and Pauline (d. 1939) Prominem early American Bakh from Washington DC. They played a major role in promoting racial unity in the Bah6'i community. Shoghi Effendi honoured Joseph as one of the Drsmm OP 'AUDIJL-BA~A (BW8: 660-1; Srm 10119 3454. Yaydar-'Ali I+fhhbni, YLji MirzL (d1920) Emineot Itanian MI.He became a Blbi in Igfihln, and subsequently became a learned and effective B&'i teacher, travelling widely in h n and the O m m n empire. He was acrested by the icanian c o d g e n e r a l in (1867). and with other BahVis eale to Sudan of monaous hardship. in conditio~~s They were eventually released by Goneral Gordon (1877). He l a m settled in AkUHnifa (1903). EMPcts from his memoirs, Bihiaw'ppdr (The Deli& of Hearts), have been published in Englhh. EU 23740; rsZ 43-0.

fjaqimtu'l-Quds (h, 'Sacred Fold') kah6'1 administrative headquarters. ' C ~to&be National ~ ~ m u r r began established in the 19406 at Shoghi Effendi's direction, aU national spidtual s m m s ~ u u u a l l ybeing directed to obtain one. These were to be the seats of their respective assemblies, and so would provide office space for the national mremiai and aeasnry, and a meedog room for the assembly. They should also include an archives, library, publishing office, assetably ball and him' hostel. If there was no do: ila>e available they might also w e as a meplace for the local BaMY community, its assembly and commiaar. They should embody the Wl ideal of service, both to the Faith and humanity in general. Although essauidy administrative buildings, t h q wuld also be d f0r a 0cd OM SU& ilS d d b @ and hmenls. Dancing was not to be pvmimd in them,howew In the future the &girdu'I-Qnds would be located in the environs of rhe M A ~ H R ~ Q U ~ L ADHKA~, the two institutions bciw compluncntary in rhcir fumfions. a h b and committeew m h would then gatha for dawn prayers at the Mashriqn'dBdbkdr before beginning their dey's wotk. In larger B&i communicis it has become inawinaly commonfor then to be l d or r e g i d ~ r m u ' G Q n & .wcrsl39-do; ronl-4.

--

health and healing Hayden, Robert a. (1913-80) The -1 writiuga praise mcdidne as African-Aaauicvr p o a of considerable the noblest of yimes (see Tublei of repute who b a Baha in 1943. H is MEDICINE), and CMourage its mdy. poetry a m p ~ n dinternational a W v n Medical work, offed in a spirit of andhe bocamethefirecbla.&Amui~~~~ service, is regarded as a means of tobesppoinredascomukaminp~ praising God. Those who me sick should to the Library of CwgrrJs (1976-8), the consult com~cmuphysician6 andfoUow e q n i d ~ l tof poet i a m t e . J.s. H a k ; their insen;tio* (men if they are Avnd BWl& 71S17. p h W m t h d v e s ) . They ahodd also tumtoCod,andanumberofWi healing prayus are provided for Or%

to use. The individual's spiritual and emotio1~1state (sea EMOTIONS) is their physical regarded as off* health. 'Abdu'l-Bah6 taught that ill health can result from both physical and spiritual causes, and accordingly can be seated by both maoerial and spiritn~dhealing. He said that a major cause of physical ill health was chemical imbalanecs in the body c a u d by poor m m die* and herbal remedies wem the apvropriate resvonse m these maladies ~ o d & t i o n&d simplicity in eating were advised). Same h e w s result from emotional shccks, fcaq and the cxperierne of sumeumc: these should he anted spiritwuy. Ingeneral a persoo's s ~ i r ihas t a emat effect on their ~hvsical . obndidoh 6 is therefore important for donors to bring comfort and joy to their patienrs, even if it invool~not telling the truth about the nature of their condition (the only circunmnce in which this is permitted: see m~nlpm~ess).S i l y , everyone should visit the sick, showing them kindnes, and seeking to bring them love and happiness; pi* m& to tmat a phy&aI ailment 1s only part of the cute. Specific forms of split& healing inclvd; tnminp, m God, ~narm,and the healer co--mt& his mind on a sick person whohasfaiththatthiswilleffecracure. This latter method requires a cordial relaticdip between the two. Sometima a healer laying hii or her hands on a aotient mi&t also have an effect. ~ e a l &un d&be e&cted through the wwer of ths Holy SvLit and a Ball? B ~ ~ P U for ~ U power and guidance in effecting a cute. Responding to qncstions, Shoghi Effendi noted the complementarity of spiritual and material healing methods, and stlessed that spirimal healing should not be regarded as a substitute for material healing, and that those who practise it should not regard themselves as W'i healers', as thue is no such thing. He also stressed thcimpartance of

nun m

gndnssufIicientslcep,andtakiag*~rr of one's health. Again, he noted char psychiatric mcdicine was as yet in its inhncy - psychiamsts were neither always wise not always right - and refused to comment on a variety of issueq including the value of Freudian w c h 0 8 d ~ s i 6or chirovractic. If an inhividual lk? found i &me particular method bcnehiaLthw were welcome to use it and recommend it to others. The Univusal House of lustice has stated that although mental L e k s may impede an individual's strivina for p~idtual progress, it is not in itself a spiritual maladv. It bas also swmsted that in some of such illoeSqprayq mdy, work and involvemenr in U'i activities may aid the sufferer to recover (LC 2834). CCl: 459-W; L0275-94.

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OTRBP MEDICAL lSSUBS M I L D CARE

'Abdu'l-Bah4 emphasized the importance of proper child care: from birth, each infant should he provided with whatever is condncive to its health; unless impossible, this should idclude the mother's breast milk as this is best suited to the child. Children should a h receive physical education to ensure rhek strength and growrh (CC1: 461 no. 1026; LC 2 9 3 4 nos. 998-1000). EUTHANMlA

There is as yet no W i policy on euthanasia or the removal of life support in rrrtain medical situations. Baha'is are reminded that God is the giver of li, ~ and that be alone can d i s 6 of it as he deems best, but the decision is left to the consciences of the individuals involved (LC 290-1 no. 985, no. 987). ORGAN DONATION

This is mmmended, but the donor's body andorrransshouldhecceatedwithreslrea as the F i r 'tanples of rhe human &it

(LC 290-1 no. 984, no. 986).

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HMLTH-CABB PBOPBSSIONAM

Given the grut i m p o m a given to medicine in the BabB'i wdtings, is is not surprising that many BaWis have become doctom or other healthcam professionals. Health care has also become an important pnrt of Baha'i SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT work. This has involved numerous medical projects, including many trmporary medical camps orgsnized in poorer ewnuies or diaaicLI to pmvide free or reduccdcost medical suviccs by groups of doctors and other health pro& sionals. A number of B&'i medical associatiom and M t h agencies have d y been established, notably the B&? lnternatioml Health Agency (BIHA, 1982), and also o d t i o m in Britain, Canada, Prance, India and the United States, as well as European continend associations (indudkg one for W'i d a d ) . 8W1~ZOl;NSlWA&11618. (see a[so ABORnON;

A R ~ C U F B U ~ O N

BIRTH CONTROL;

CUMU US ION.)

Hearrt, Phoebe (18424919) Millionaire widow of Smm George Hears. She became a Bahi'L nfru meeting Edward and Lua G F I S I N(1898). ~ and subsequently invited the CHsinaaf, 4 ofher &ti* and cmplo& q d e r with LG. KHBoUW and his wife, to join her in a aip to the Middle East, includinz a visit to 'Abdu'l-Mi in Akka which cotlstituted the f i wemm Baha'i pilgrimage (1898-9). Aftu her mum to the United States she playid an imponant role in holding the fledgling Baha'i cormgunicy togaher dudng the time of Kheiralla's defection. Sbc & quently became alienated from the commauity after a fcw B&'is had .I sought to importune m o w from & She retained her regprd for 'Abdu'lB&, whom she hosted during his visit to San F&o (1912). H I : 139-45.155, 168-9; WEtlW13-19.

hmaven and hell For Bahi'is heaven and hell am states of the SOUL, which may be e n t e d both in the prermt life and the afnrlife (sm DEATH). The pUrpOs0 of human wdstence ism know and love Gcd.To come c l w to Godhrltisthispurposeandraiaesthe individual to a heavenly stan: one attains 'etunal Life' and entus the 'Kingdom of God'. To nun away kom God and become immcrscd in worldly attachmentsis to rebel against the divine purpose, and will ultimately lead to -&adation and despgir Ea& individual has m WILL, by which they can choose to develop the heavenly 4;lities that are their n a n d ootenrial, or adovt qualities that am kianic (see H U M ~ N NATURE). Aftu death those who ate nea~ to God rejoice, whilst those who are distant from him l a m . The soul is a non-material reality, and heaven and hell am not phwcal places (ESW 132; SAQ 241-3; see METAPHYSICS). The ; wming of each ~ ~ ~ I P ~ S T A TOPI O GOD N also separates the faithful from the unbelievers 01, metaphorically, the living from the dead. Acceptance of Godk masenger is equivalent to 'life', 'paadisc', and 'resurrection'; rejection to 'death' and 'hell' (ia72-9). He whom God shall make manifest (Ac: M m - y u e W l k f b ) Mbi messianic f i g w repeatedly Rfured to by the B6b in the BAYAN.This personage was said to be the origin of all divine names and anriburn; his command was equivalent to God's command. AU should seek refuge in him. Not to believe in him would be to cease to be a believer. A thousand peruspLs of the Buy&n w e not equal to reading one of his verses. The Bay& was itself a gift to him, and evolved around his word The day of his advent was known only to God, but would cerraiuly occm. It was impassible for anyone to falsely claim to be him. He

would be known by his own self, and not by the Boy&. In the meantime, all must rire on hePring his name and in e m mcerinn a vacant o l a a was to be Ieftiorh~aAfter theB4b's execution 11850)and the d u g of Bibism as an orgnhizFd movement (1852), several Blbis c b e d hiph-mnking spiritual stations, including that of Manyryhinrhu'M&. BaJ~Vu'llih himself eventually laid claim to be the Bib1 promised one in the 1860s. The AZALISobjected to &Iha'uall$h's claim, on the g o d that the BBb had stated that the promised one would come b e f m the number of 'mustagh6th' ('the Easeched', a divine attribute; the word is numerically equivalent t o 2,001 years), o r 'aghyatb'Pghiy4fh' ('the Most Succour in& ~1.511years), i.e. in the distant &e. The BP~P'I~ counteted by strrssins that rhe M b had also said that the Man-yyhimhu'lldh would adse suddenly at a time known only to God, a h 'a while' ()in, =68, ir. 1268 ~ d l 8 5 1 - 2 ml. and had w e d the signiscana of th; 'year nine' (i.e. of his own disoensation. =1269/1852-3). the year o i W ~ ; I I ~ W ~ arrival id I~. Baghdad. EW39-40; M ~ E O'niwac)rl 123-35.

Hidden Words (PA: Kalbtuai-MakmW) Collenion of Arnbk and Pusian rrrsur by Bphh'u'llsh composed in Baghdad in 1274 ~1d1857-8 ca. Identified by B M u ' l U with thc 'Hidden Book of Piima', which in Shi'i tradition had been addressedto the Pmphet'sdanghter to console her a h her father's death. It is presented as the 'inner e*of what had kcnrnceled by the prophets ofdupast,'asamkmofgraaunrothe righteous', that they might be f a i M to God's Covenant, Live according to his W t , and obtain 'thc gem of Divine virtue'. She@ Effendi dewibed it as

Bphh'u'Ws presminmt ethical work (GPB 140). In it Bphh'u'I1Ph ~amresthe reader of God's love. God has made human beings mbk, and they should dcms their h r t s so that they might h d the divine light withi dmnsdves. The bvman hean is God's home and the human spirit his placeof revelorion. This is th*r natural station, but human beings busy themaelms with the world ('chat vhich &wish&'), and thus l w sight of their true nanua. rnscea4 they shotlld commune with God and free themselves &om the 'priron' of slf and the 'fencrs' of worldly acdunmts. They should bung &vca to account eacb day; eonow only at rheir wpmtion from God; not fax && follow divine law; submit themselvca to God; aaept aids for God's sake; ready themxdves for mawrdom: neither fePr a h s e m m nor mjo& inpmspui% not vaunt themselves over the mor (who am ~ o d mw), k but -Ltow a d ' s wealth upon thew not bruthe the dm of others, nor 4 t themselves over others, nor commit iniquity; eschew covetousness, mvy and malice; be for beaing with othus; avoid fellowship with the ungodly; disdnguisb chem&ea by their dads; plant only 'the IOX of love' in the garden of the heact; and work to suppon themselves. They should know that a 'new garden' had appeared, inhabited by heavenly beHgp. They should &s to leam the mysteries of inr love and wisdom. God is always close to dKm,but they heedlessly ignore him. They should seize their chana before the '8ecting momenf of their KVW is ended. H ' 4 & b k I s J .71-03. ljikrnat, Lawij-1(PA, Tablet of Wisdom)

Early A!&-period tablet of W'u'llsh wmposcd in 187314 and a d d r d to N ~ ~ t ~ t - A uaa edhiqphhed , BaM'I, well vuscd in Islamic philosophy. It discusses a n u m b of topis, includiog:

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CRBATION, thc Word of GOD;PHILOSOPHT, and the importance of TEACHING,

which it prcsmts as encompasing the SPIRnVAL PATR. 1II 13SJ2; cd..%&M d dxondod;53-49.

Hinduism SSC b W N RELIGIONS.

secretary almost continuously from 1924 to 1959. In this mle he played a &d O W in the doeloC+IWUt of the W'i ~ M I N L S T M ~ O Nin 'North Amuifa. He.as0 was Shoehi Effdi's dosan cobboramr in the iroducdon of the BAMA~IWORLD voluma. He was among the Jim contingar of Hands of the Cause appointed by Shoghi Wendi in Dmmbcr 1951. He lam became one of the cusmdid Hands in Haifa. swl+ arc^ 50; W M.

Hoar, William H. (1856-1922) Pmmincnt carly Amrxicau W'i. He convemd in Chicago in 1895/6, and subsequently became one of the Ileading holy days Bahn'is of New York. Shoghi Effendi h o n o d him as one of the DKWLESOP In the Kitdb-i-Apors, Bah5'u'llPh o r d a i d two 'MostGreat Festivals' for 'hoIJ.bBAKA. &lZ/l9IIpul: 311. the BaM'ls to celebrate: the annivusaries of the BQb's declaration of mission Holley, Horace H. (1887-1960) in 1844 (when God 'shed upon the whole of maion the dhlgent glory of England background. Holley first His most excellent Names') and encountered the B&'i teaching6 in BaM'u'lW's own declaration in thc 1909 en route ro Europe. He larer b v h Garden in 1863. 'thc King of enablirhed himself in New York, and Fcstivalsals.He also idc&cd NAW-R~Z in 1923 was e l d to the American (NewYear)and the birthdays of the BPb national spiritualASSWLY, serving as its and himself as holy days, and dirccrcd chat these T w i n Binhdays' (they uxur on the fint and second days of the Muslim month of M&amm rcr;pectively) be accounted as one. During W'u'Ws r i W ' i s as0 rammcmoraml the annivusvg of the martyrdom of the Bhb. The anniversary of Wu'uph's paging was s-umdy commemorated as a holy day. 'Abdu'lB& did not wish BahH'is to celebrate his own bidday (it coincided with the annivof rhc Bib's declaration). Instead, he allowed them m celebrate the W'i covenant of leud&p and his own amrsion, hut appointed a date for this 180 days after Baha'u'llHb's passing. The annivusary of his own pPsDing was also lPocr wmmmorated. Shoghi E f h d i did not permit any d a m wnoecbdtohislifer0bemadvdas holy aPys. The dam of wmmuooration of the major BPhP7 holy days are as follows:

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N~Iw-RJe, 21 March The RidVan Festival, 21 April-2 May, with rhc h, ninrh, and twelfth days (21,W ApdlJMayI bd0swxiE-b markd as boly days (rhas comwmorate the pnivd of BaKa'u'llPh at the Garda,the~valofhisfamily,pnd his fionl depblralre). Sh celebration of the fint day of Ri@n should be at 3 o'clock in the afmnoon, markkg the thne of Babi'ullsh's MiVal Dcdnrstiun of the B6b. ZUU May. Cmnncmorated at about two hours after sunset on the twenty-second Ascension of BaM'u'Uh. 29 May

~ a n y r & mof the BPb, 9 July. Commcmomd at noon Birth of the Bib, 20 October B f i of B a W u ' W 12 N d W'isshould abstain from work on the three spsial days of RiW and on the Mhcr major boly days. At pwmt, the 'nvin birthdays' are alebraced acaxdhg to the lskmic lunar d m d a r in the Middle East, bur according to the Grcgo- deadar ekmrhere. There is no set format for t h e vviow commemontions, and B&'i wmmunitio organize tbcir own for thuu as they see fa. Dcvotiod programmu of prayers and spxi6c writings for the holy day pa&datly BBhP'uUllPh6tablet of VISKA. noN forthe day of his passing and for the muty4dom ofthe B5b-are commonly orpized. Public celebmtim and comare often held on N a w munal .b R*r and the b i i d a y of W'ullhh. The two minor holy days on which work is not suspmded arc

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Day of the Covenant, 26 November Passingof'Abdu'l-Bahb,28 Nownbu. C o ~ n t c at d about 1 o'clock in

Agaii thuc is no set format for these

days, and Baha'i wmmunides o@ their own meetings.

Shoghi Effendi emphasized the importance of W'is abstaining from work on the major Bahi'i holy days, d e s a this was spxi6caUy disaUowad mder the nrms of rh*r employment. Such abstention was an important

muns of gaining ~ m u ilecocmoa c of the Faith. BaWi parents should similrlp seek to gain psrmkion for rhsi children not to attend school on these days. He also encouraged the -'is not to celebrate the holy days of other religions among themselves. KA 5WO kI 10-12,105gl-2,2216 n13840;tGZPe 303; Forphd; n i ; , ~183-4,ZlW. .---I

In Islam, holy war (iihrld) against u n W v e r s has been regsrded as a means of cxpuudhg and debding the Islpmic rrnlm.

and d k q m s hu as0 " b legimkwd. The messianic 6 p - e of the Mnllol is expected to lead a fiaa jihdd against the forces of unbelief. The BQb's major rdcrenco to the s u b i ~occnr in his QAYY~IAZ- ASH^., &ten during the wrly 'Islamic' phase of his mission. There, in keeping with traditional Islamic ~ t i o n s he , bade his followen, prepare for 'the day of slaughter' that would accompany the advent of the prcdicred Mahdi, and promised tbe desanr of angels to help them slay the unbelievers. In his l a m -+dings the B6b made it clear that the iihrld could only be called by the Mohdi. However, foIlowin&his own ope. claim to chat station. no such call was ever issned, and the BQb instead insmuted fume Bib1 kings to bdeg the peoples of the world to the Bibi & i o n and not to allow unbelie vus - with the cxccption of trader6 to live in their territories. The manner in which the Bhbl 'upheavals' (see BAsf RA~ICAUSM) involved concepts of holy war remains conaoversiaL Certainly the w Iighters saw h r e l v e s Engpged in a holy sm~gglcagainst unbelievers, but

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no declarations of jihrid ever appear t o have been made, even though a t T A B A R Sboth ~, QUDDOS and Mulll HUSAYN were accorded messianic starus, and as such could have taken the role of the Mahdi in leading a jihrid. The struggles may perhaps be seen as 'defensive jihrids', in which the paradigm of MARTYRDOM at the hands of the ungodly coexisted with the use of the sword as a means of proving God's truth. UmEoln, 'MU c a u e p l of holy rmr'; SBBR 21-2. 27, 44-5; Wolbridgs. '866 uw-ring'.

In marked contrast t o Blbism and Islam, the Bahi'i Faith explicitly rejects the concept of jihU. One of the statements made by Bahi'u'llih at the time declaration (1863) was to of his RIDVAN forbid holy war, a command later reiterated in his writings (RBI 278; TB 21, 28, 91; SBBR 79). Instead, Bahl'is should teach the Bahi'i cause with moral example and peaceful persuasion (see TEACHING). If they were persecuted for this, they should be willing to accept martyrdom. It is of note, how eve^ that 'military' imagery remains common in Bahi'i references to the teaching work. Thus 'Abdu'l-Bahl referred t o Bahl'is as the 'armies of God' who, supported by 'the cohorts of the Supreme Concourse', would defeat the 'hosts' and 'legions' of the nations and become the 'conquerors' of East and West (TDP 47-9). and Shoghi Effendi called upon them t o 'mount the steed of steadfastness, unfurl the banner of renunciation, don the armor of utter consecration to God's Cause, gird themselves with the girdle of a chaste and holy life, [and] unsheathe the sword of Bahi'u'llih's utterance' (MBW 49). Again, the first international reaching PLAN was designared as a 'Global Crusade', and its PIONEERS as OF BAHVU.LLAI.I.. 'KNIGHTS

holy years Shoghi Effendi declared 1952-3 (from October to October) t o be a holy year,

commemorating the centenary of the 'birth' of Bahi'u'llih's revelatory mission in the S~YAH-CHIL. It was marked by the fitst series of international Bahi'i CONFERENCES; the start of the TENYEAR CRUSADE; and the dedication t o public worship of the Bahl'i temple a t Wilmette (BW12: 115-88). The Universal House of Justice declared the period from Ridvln 1992 to Ridvin 1993 to be a second holy year, marking the cent e n w of Bahl'u'llih's passing.and the inauguration of his COVENANT. Events of the vear included a n international gathering of Bahi'is a t the BAHM W&LO CENTRE(27-30 May 19921, a t which a scroll with the names of the pioneers of the Ten Year Crusade (the KNIGHTS OF B A H ~ U , L Lwas ~ Hceremonially ) interred at the Shrine of Bahi'u'lllh, and the holding of the second Bahi'i World Congress in New York City (23-26 November). The authorized Englishlanguage translation of the Kitdb-iAQDASwas also published during the came year, and the law of HUQOQU,LLAN into general effect (BWNS 1992: 1 9 4 6 , 95-1021.

homosexuality In the Kitkb-i-AQDASBahi'u'lllh forbade pederasty. Shoghi Effendi interpreted this t o imply a general prohibition on all forms of homosexual activity, regarding it as 'spiritually condemned'. Love people of the same sex between two . . may be very devoted, but to express this love in a sexual relationship is considered wrong. Homosexuality is an affliction, and a Bahi'i who is homosexual should struggle against his or her condition. if necessary seekinrc .medical advice. Such a struggle may be very hard, but will lead t o spiritual growth. Daily spiritual struggle to conform t o God's standard is something all devoted Bahi'is strive f o ~ as , with the unmarried heterosexual who seeks t o remain chaste. Bahi'i institutions should offer

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loving counsel to homosexuals, and only consider administrative sanctions in the case of public scandal. u s 8 tl07.223n131; IG36d-a. (See also SEX.)

houses of justice

Bahl,u,llih called for the fume establishment of~housesof justice' in each city t o administer Bahl'i affairs (KA 2 9 k301, the present 'local spiritual ASSEMBLIES' being- rqarded as precursors of these. He honorific titles also envisaged theestahiishment of what The BLb gave various of his followers is now referred t o as the UNIVERSAL honorific religious titles. The best HOUSEOF JUSTICE, as the d i n g body of known of these are rhe LERERSOF THE k42). In some instances the Faith (KA 35 LIVING.Others were named 'Mirrors'. it i s not clear which of these bodies is Individuals were also given specific being referred to; some responsibilities S religious names: Q U D D ~ ('Holy'), EDUCATION and care for the poor T A H l R l H ('Pure'), VAH~D ('Unique'), HC. perhap being assigned t o both (KA 37 Similarly, BahB'u'llih gave a number of k48, 72 k147, 185 1142). 'Abdu'l-Bahl his early followers titles, including some introduced the concept of 'secondary' or recognizing various names of God national houses of justice (the present (Imu'l-lldh, the 'Name of God'). These spirihlal assemblies') to act as 'national included M u l l l SADIQ K h u r l s i n i the electors of the Universal House of (Imu'lldhu'l-Asdaq, the 'name of God, the most truthful') and Sayyid M I H D ~ Justice (CC1: 322, 325). D A H A IiImu'lldhu'/-Mihdr7. ~ He also HOd appointed four of his followers as OF THE CAUSE OF GOD, a title that HANDS Q u r a n i c p r o p h e t referred t o by was both a rank and came to entail an BahB'u'llih (KI 6-7). administrative h n m o n . 'Abdu'l-Bahl posthumously identified a number of Hujiat (Ar., 'Proof') individuals as Hands. He also gave some of his Western followers Persian names Religious title of rhe Blbi leader in indicative of spiritual qualities and ZANJ~N, M d I l M&mmad-'Mi 7~r1jhd referred to some as 'Handmaiden of (181U3-50). Hujjat was already a leadBah.5' (Amafu'l-Bahri) or 'Handmaiden ing clerical figure in his home town when of the Most High' (Amafu'l-A%). Shohe received a copy of some of rhe Bib's ghi Effendi named various early Bahl'is writings, and his conversion was folas APOSTLES OF BAH;\.U.LLAH and DIS- lowed by that of several thousand of his CIPLES OF 'ABDU.L-BAHA. He also named fcllow townsmen. He was a conrrovera number of BahL'is as Hands, and gave sial figure prior to his conversion, adhcrPloNaEns during the TENY'AR CRUSADE ing t o the minority Akhblil school of OF BAH~U.LLAH'. Shi'ism, and war summoned to Tehran the title of 'KNIGHTS on several occasions ahcr accusations were made against him by other clerics in House of the Bob Zanjln. Greatly revered by his followers, See SninAz: HOUSE OF THE BAB. he became the focal point of the lengthy struggle between rhe local Babis and House of Bahb'u'llbh government forces. His death 0 2 9 December 1850) precipitated the surrenSee BAGHDAD: HOUSE OF BAH~U.LLAH. der of the remaining Bibis. ARR 101-2; Browne, 'Personal reminiscences'; GP8 12; House of Worship MBBP 1 IC23:MES 11617; Nobtl 175-9.529-73: TJ 135-70, 3715; M 9-10: Wolbridgs. 'B6bl upilng'. See MASHRIQU'L-ADHKAR.

human life,

DUIDOK

human rights -~.

of

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human life, purpose of Bahl'is believe that the purpose of life is for the individual to know, love and worship God and to contribute to the onward progress of humanity. To these ends, all human beings are called upon of GOD to recognize the MANIFE~TATI~N (i.e. at the present time, Bahl'u'lllh); to follow his laws and teachings; to seek to develop SPIRITUALQUALITIFS, SO that they draw closer to God, receive his grace and realize their own spiritual potential; and to work for the betterment of the world, through both TEACHING the Rahl'i Fairh and spreading and imple~ (EDUCAmenting the B A H APRINCIPLES noN. racial and gender equality, ctc.). GWBbSno. 27.214ro. 109:KAI91;1, IW-I.

human nature

they are able to advance towards moral perfection, ultimately becoming heavenly kings but they can also . (ANGELS), turn to degradation, acquire 'satanic qualities', and become viler than the most savage beast. They can acquire spiritual characteristics, or they can accustom themselves to wrongdoing, thus perverting their natural potential (SAQ 214,235-7; SWAB 287-8). Divine education is essential. Self-love is 'kneaded' into the human clay. It is mistaken to believe that there is 'an innate sense of human dignity' which prevenn the individual from committing evil and ensures the attainment of perfection. Infants display signs of aggression and lawlessness, and if they do nor receive the instruction of a teacher their undesirable qualities increase. Through the force of divine RELICION human beings are able to overcome their innatc selfishness and S lives express SPIRITUAL Q U A ~ . ~ - ~in~ Etheir (SDC 96-9). Individuals differ in their innate, inherited characteristics, but whatever these are, they can be transformed, both as a result of education and the capacities the individual acquires for good or evil through the life rhey lead (CCI: 257-60; SAQ 212-16).

For Baha'u'lllh human kings arc created becausc of divine love, and in order that they might in turn love God (HWa nos. 3, 4). Uniquely, the human reality (see SOUL) is able to mirror ail of Gon's names and attributes: howsoever imperfcctly rhey might do this, humans have been made in the 'image' of God (CWR 65 no. 27; HWa no. 3). They are 'as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value*. But these treasures can only he revealed, and individuals achieve their potential, if human race thc human 'mirror' is cleansed 'from the UNITY dross of carthly dcfilements', and this in turn is to br achieved through divine Bahi'u'llhh taught that the human race grace and the spiritual E D U C A T I O N is one indivisible whole: 'the fruits of cxpresscd through the MANIFESTATION(S) one nee. and the leaves of one branch' OF Gon and their scriptures (GWB 65 (TB 164). The canh is a s i n ~ l chomeland, and peaplc should work for the no. 27,261-2 no. 124; TB 161-2). God has given humans FNEI WII.L, howcvcr, well-being of all humankind. Glory lies and it is thus first neccss.aty for the in uprighr conduct, not in nationality or individual to dccide to turn to God rank (TB 67-8). Thc vision of the (GWB 148 no. 77). If people only Rahl'is should be world embracing. rcalizc the grcamess of their own staThey should lavc thc whalc world and tion. they will manifest .. zoodlv. conduct not just their own nation (TB 87-8, (TB 172;. 127). SERVICE to the entire human race Similarlv. .. 'Abdo'l-Bahl referred to and promotion of its hcst interests is human beings as having both an angelic called for (TB 167). Unity would be and an animal namre: if they choose, promoted by TOI.ERANCE and the adop-

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tion of a universal LANGUAGE, and most of all by the union of all the world's peoples in one common faith, religion being a 'binding force' which unites people of different beliefs, creeds and temperaments (K1 72-3). 'Abdu'l-Bahl compared the human race to a flower garden, made beautiful by its diversity of colour and form (SWAB 290-2). Shoghi Effendi identified the principle nf the oneness of mankind as the pivotal teaching of the Bahl'i Fairh (WOE 423). (See also PEACE; RACE; SOCIAL EVOLUTION; WORLD ORDER; wonm U N I . ) MATURITY

Bahi'u'llih stared that the adoption of a universal language; the ability to transmute elements; and the refusal by individuals to accept the burden of kingship would all be signs of the maturity of the human race (KA 88 k189,250-1 11194).

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human rights HUMAN RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

The Bahl'i view of human riahts is based on conceptions of divinely revealed standards of social justice and of the responsibilities of human beings towards each other and towards God. Human responsibiliticr include both those of individuals and those of Eovernmenrs. Specific teachings include: (1)Economic Individuals have the righr to life, food, clothing, adequate wages and rest from labour, private properry and familial inheritance; as well as freedom from both chattel and economic slavery (see ECONOMIC TEACHINGS; SLAVE TRADE). Governments have a responsibility to care for the poor, to institute equitable systems of taxation, to intervene in industrial disputes, and to promote AGKICULNKE and economic development. The rich have a moral responsibility to help the poor. Everyone

has a responsibility to WORK. Everyone has a right to receive a basic EDUCATION and to become literate (see LITEKACY), and parents and the community have a responsibility to ensure that all children are educated. has the (2) Politicnl A GOVERNMENT responsibility to rule with JUSTICE, and to combat CRIME. Arbitrary rule is to k condemned, and should be checked by the existence of consultative assemblies, an educated populace and a free press. Individuals have the right to be neared equally before the LAW, and only to be sentenced aher due legal process. NF.WSPAPERS have a responsibility to report with 'fair speech and truthfulness'. Bahi'is have an obligation to be loyal to government. (3) International and moral order Governments have a responsibility to work for PEACE and international accord, and to promote RF.l.lc1oN. (4) Human equality In the estimation of God all human beings are cqual, and 'an cqual standard of human rights must be recognized and adopted' (PUP 182). WOMENhave equal rights with men (education, work, political participation). All have a responsibility to counter racism (see RACE). Special considcrarion should be given to MINORITIES. (5) Family Individuals have the right to choose their own MARRIAGE partner subject to parental consent, and to determine the number of childtcn rhey have (see BIRTH CONTROL). Everyone within a FAMILY has rights and responsibilities. No one has the right to domination. The BmPi INTERNATIONAL COMMUN~~Y has issued a number of statements relating to various aspects of human rights. These include Religious Intolerance (1995) and Violence Against Women (1995) (BW NS 1994-5: 297-

303).

human rights RELIGIOUS LIBERALISM AND RELIGlOUS AUTHORITY

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Bahl'is are enjoined to 'consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship' (TB 22); religious intolerance and perrccution are condemned; the principle of the INDEPENDENT INVESTIGATION OF TRUTH is upheld; and Bahl'i children are free, if they wish, to choose their own religion (LG 153-6 no. 512, 519-23); Again, wirhin the Bahi'i community 'the undoubted right of the individual t o self-expression, his freedom t o declare his conscience and set forth his views' is stated t o be at 'the very root of the Cause' (BA 63). In seeming contrast t o these 'liberal' teachings, however, Bahi'is also have a suong belief in the vital importance of religious authority. The most important expressions of this are in the claims of the successive Bahi'i leaders (BahB'u'Uih, 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice) to various forms of divinely bestowed authority and infallible guiand in the dance (see INVALUBILITY), the concept of the Bahi'i COVENANT, belief thar there is a clear chain of authoritative succession thar links these leaders together. Those Bahl'is who reiect the authority claims of some of these centres of the Faith whilst claiming t o accept the authority of others are deemed t o have broken this Covenant and are expelled from the religion as COVENANT-BREAKERS. Other expressions of the concern with authority are the emphasis on obedience to the BahP'i ADMINISTRATION; the deprivation o f ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS of those who seriously breach Bahl'i moral and cerrain social teachings; and the system of official REVIEW of Bahl'i literature. For the great majority of Bahi'is the coexistence of these 'liberal' and 'authoritarian' elements wirhin their Faith has probahly been unproblematic: the two elements arc seen as component

parts of a single religious system. Some Bahl'is, however, have experienced difficulty wirh the assertion of authority within their religion. Given that Western liberal ideas are most firmly established as part of popular consciousness in the West, it is not surprising . .that it has been in the Western BahH'i communities, particularly thar of the United States of America, that issues of authority have led t o difficulties. Thus divergent artitudes towards authority and organization can be traced within the American community from the turn of the century through t o the late 1920s and early 1930s (SBBR 122-26). The contradiction between Western liberalism and the Bahi'i insistence on religious authority has again become a n issue in the American Bahl'i community in recent years, as is evidenced by the statement of the Universal House of Justice to the American Bahi'is, on individual Rights and Freedom (29 December 1988). THE B A H CRITIQUE ~ ~ OF WESTERN LIBERALISM

Part of the distinctiveness of the Bahi'i position on issues of freedom and authority derives from the complex anitude that Bahb'u'llih and 'Abdu'lBahi took towards Western civilization in general: they condemned tyranny and oppressive governments and pratscd the democratic rights and freedoms of the West, but werc also extremely critical of what they saw as the excesses of thc WEST,particularly its MATERIALISM and immorality. For them true civilization could only develop on the basis of true religion ('the highest means for the maintenance of order in the world and the security of its peoples' (KA 1 9 k2; cf. ESW 28, TB 6 3 4 ) ) and the FEAR OF GOD. Again, Bahi'u'llih wrote that he approved of LIBERTY in certain circumstances, but refused t o sanction it in others. Absolute liberty was licence. True liberty consisted 'in man's submission unto My commandments' (KA 63

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k122-5). Similarly, the Universal House of Justice regards liberty as having been carried t o excess in the modem world. Its promotion originally emerged in the struggle against social oppression and injustice, but it has became a wideranging philosophy which promotes the interests of the individual even to the detriment of wider society, leading t o the rejection of all forms of authority and social institutions, whether of government, religion or marriage (UHJ, individual Rights 11). Civilized life depends upon 'the utmost degree of understanding and cooperation between society and the individual'. There has t o be a correct balance between the rights of the individual and the integrity of the social group. The progress and viability of society depends on the development of individual potential and the exercise of individual initiative. It is, therefore, one of the responsibilities of Bahi'i institutions t o safeguard the rights of the individual. At the same time, 'the subordination of the individual will to that of society' is a basic principle of BahB'u'llihS world order (UHJ, individual Rights 20).

Huqirqv'llah (Ar., 'the Right of God') Monetary payment to be made t o the head of the Faith by all Bahl'is able t o afford it. It was established in the Kitdb~-AQDAS by Bahi'u'llih, who described payment as a spiritual bounty which brings the individual closer to God and purifies their possessions. Payment is an individual spiritual obligation, and no Bahl'i is t o Ire solicited for it. It should be offered in a spirit of joy. It is to be paid when a person's property exceeds 1 9 MITI~QALS of gold (2.2 troy ounces) in value. It then amounts t o 19 percent of the value of all wealth other than one's residence, place of business and household furnishings. The payment is t o be made only once on any particular

amount, and subsequent payments become payable on funher increments of wealth after necessary expenses have been deducted. Payment of Huqdq should precede division of a deceased's estate, but after the settlement of funeral expenses and debts. Those who are unable to pay are exempt. Payment also precedes donations t o other Bahi'i FUNDS. The payment is made t o the Centre of the Faith, who determines how it is to be disbursed. Expenditures may be used for such purposes as the promotion of the Bahl'i religion; the upkeep of its propertieq and general charity. K4 28 k28. 55 k97. 108-9 q8-9. 120-1 qA2, q A A 4 . 132-3 q89-99. 135 q9S. 137-8 q102. 187-8 d7.21&19 "125: CCI;489-527; lG3068; W~lbrIdg~. *red 9&101. HISTORY

Bahi'u'llih promulgated the law of Huqdq in 1873, bur initially declined to accept payments. In 1878, however, he appointed Hiji Shlh-Muhammad Manshidi, Aminu'l-Boydn (trustee of the Baydn) as the first Trustee of the Huqdqu'llih, charged wirh collecting the Huqdq from the Bahi'is in Iran. Payments were also made via ZAYNU.LM U Q A R R A in B ~Mosul. N The successive trustees following Manshidi's death in 1881 were: HIii A M ~ N(Abdu'l-Hasan Ardiklni), Amin-i-Ildhi ('trusrec of God'; 1881-1928); HBji Ghulim- Ridi, Amin-i-Amin ('trustee of the trustee'; 1928-38); Valiyu'llih VARQA(193855); and 'Ali-Muhammad VARQA (from 1955). Hiji Amin was posthumously and the named as a HANDOFTHECAUSE, two Varqbs (father and son) wcre appointed to this rank directly. After ~ahl'u'lllh", death in 1892 the'successive Centres of the Faith have been the recipients of the Huqdq, expending it largely for the promotion and practical needs of the religion as it expanded world-wide. Payment of Huqdq was a t first mostly confined t o the Bahi'is of the Middle East, this being one of a

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H u s g Khbn, M i d , Mushihirv'd-drmrlih

Husv number of laws (see LAW) that were deliberately not applied universally throughout. the ~ a h a ' world. i lnformition about the Huatla was made freely available to ~ a h l ' kelsewhere in 1985 (increasing the potential number who might pay if they wished), but the law was nor made universally applicable until 1992. As the numbcr of Bahi'is paying Huqtlq has increased, a nerwork of dcpurics and representatives has been appointed t o receive the payments. A central office of Huqciqu'llih was estahlished in Haifa in 1991. Haqtlq resembles the Shi'i payment of khumr, 'the fifth' of gained wealth, in p a n payable to the representatives of the IMAMS.The term also occurs in the BAYAN.MUHl 637-8 no. 404. 670 "0. 430; Walbridge, Sacrd9L8.

Hurayn (626-80)

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Third of the Shi'i IMAME; killed at KARBALA. Having refused to pledge his allegiance ro rhe Umayyad caliph Yazid, Husayn, with a small group of supportcrs, was confronted hy the Ummayad forces. All the fighting men were killed, apart from Husayn's son 'Ali, the future Fourth Imlm, and the women and children captured. Husayn's death is by Shi'is as sacrificial Mnnrvn~ regarded n0.u for the cause of truth against the forces of impiety. It is annually commemorated with great emotional fcrvour hy Shi'is during the holy month of Muharram and continues t o inspire Shi'is t o sacrificial action. Husayn is expected to return following the advent of the Mnlmi. Baha'u'llih eulogized Husayn, claimed to he his RETURN and identified himself with him, and prrr mised that God would soon 'torment' those who had waged war apainst him (a prophecy that BahB'is associate with the sultans and downfall of the *OMAN the cn~.~virrn-r). Shoghi Effendi referred to Husayn's uniqueness, and stated that he had k e n endowed wirh a special

'grace and power' amongst the Imims. 2833. 288-9. Hqlgie 86-8; 1G 496.4W: Maman. ShRl&m

Hurayn BurhrG'i, Mu116 (c.181449) The first of the Blb's disciples (see OF THE LIVING), and ialled by LETTERS him the B6buPl-bib('Gate of the Gate'). He was born in the hamlet of Zirak near the small town of Bushrhyih in the north-eastern Iranian province of Khurisin. His father appears to have k e n a wealthy cloth dyer who was also a local cleric. His mother was a respecred poet. Hc furthered his own religious studies in Mashhad and Igfihln, and then went to Karbali as one of the students of the Shaykhi leader Sayyid K;\ZIMRASHTI, becoming so highly respected that some thought that he nrighr he his successor. He was sent as Rashri's representative to defend Shaykhi views before Mu116 Muhammad-BBqir Shafri, the preeminent Shi'i cleric of his age. Returning to Karbali shonly after Rashti's dcarh (31 December 184311 January 1844), he became leader of a group of younger Shaykhis who held messianic cxpectations. After a period of religious retrrar he travelled to S ~ i x l z ,perhaps intcnding to travel on to Kirmin to meet KAniM KHAN,one of the claimants to Shaykhi leadership. Insread, he met the RAn and, after a period of hesitation (douhring thar a non-cleric could have a station of Icadership), accepted his claims, the night of his acceptance (22 May) effectively marking rhc start of Bibism as a religious movement. Others of his companions followed his lead, including his brother and nephew. He then iourneyed to Isfhhln, Klshin and Tehran (where he fonvardcd a lerter from the Bll? to M U I I A M M SHAII A ~ and HQji M i n i A ~ h s i ) ,gaining convem in each (including Mull6 SAmq Khurlsini and B A H ~ W L L AkHf o) ,r c returning to his home province, where he established

1

himself in Mashhad, mak~nga a focal point h Bibi mission H e travelled extensively, including visiting the BBb again in Shirlx and M A K O . In July 1848, a t the Bib's insmucrions, he left Mashhad at the head of a eroun of followers. carrying the messianic symbol of the Evenrually reaching BLACKSTANDARD. Blrfurhsh, the parry was anacked, leadins to the Shavkh TABARSI 'u~heaval'. , . -~~~ during which Mu116 Husayn was killed ( 2 February 1849). Accounts of this conflict note his physical frailry, and contrast his former life as a scholar to his new life as a fearless and muchfeared warrior. AaR 155-74. 2615, 2673; Mshrobkhoni: Nabil 19-24 47-67, 85-7, 97-108.

- .

the volume of the Quran. BahB'u'llih stated thar if it had not k e n for him God 'would not have ascended the throne of eternal glory'. GPB7.50; MarEoin. '~iermrck/10s-8.

...

Husayn Khan, MirzL, Mushiru'd-dawlih (Ar., 'Counsellor of stare') (d. 1881)

~~~

~~

123-8.I594l.170.254-57.28E91.324-68.379-

83: TI 32-9. 4355. 67-71, 934. 1 W . 335-6. 3442.35943; IN 24GI. Thc Blbis accorded Mu116 Husayn an exalted station. He was the 'gate' to the Blb, acting as his deputy; 'the first to believe'; and the ' ~ r i m a lmirror'. He was also regarded by some as the 'RETURN' of the Prophet Muhammad and of the Imlm Husayn, as well as the Q A I M of Khurisin. The Bib's eulogies and prayers for him amount to three rimes

As Iranian minister in Istanbul, 1859-

70, he was responsible for discussions wirh the Ottoman authorities regarding the exiles of Baha'u'lllh. He became NA$IRU.D-D~N SFIAH'Schief minister in 1871, and embarked on an energetic campaign of government reform. Opposition t o his policies led to his dismissal in 1873. He remained an influential political figure far a few more years, but was then increasingly marginalized. He died under mysterious circumstances -poisoned by order of the shah according t o some. Bahl'u'llih held him responsible for his own exile to Akka, but praised his honesty and dedication to his country, and asked for divine forgiveness for him (ESW 68-9). bLhosh n-132; Comb+ H ; W d l m n 7 184-$0.

I

Im(lms

Agdaq visited ~ahl'u'llbh in Baghdad Hiji Mirzi Muhammad-Taqi Ahhari, with his father in 1861-3, and father and Iranian HAND0s THE CAUSE.He was son were imprisoned together an BahP'is born into a family of respecred TILAMA in shortly after their return to Iran. He the villape of Abhar (between Qazvin and longed to attain the station of a martyr Zanjln). His father kcame a Blhi in for the Faith and wrote to Bahl'u'llih to 1847 and later a BahP'i. After the murder supplicate for this. BahCu'lllh replied of his father in 1874 and threats to his (in 1880) that what was called for was own life, Ibn-i-Abhar moved to Zanjin service to the Cause, and in particular and brought the large Bibi community TEACHING it with wisdom. Such endeathere to an acceptance of Bahi'u'lllh. He travelled extensively in lran, consolidat- vour might have the status of MARTYRing the network of Bahl'i communities DOM even though no blood was shed. In 1882 Bahi'u'lllh gave ibn-i-Asdaq the and teaching the Faith. Bahl'u'llih title of 'Martyr, son of a martyr' (Shohid appointed him a Hand of the Cause in ibn-i-shohid). Meanwhile Ihn-i-Agdaq about 1886. He was imprisoned for his Bahi'i activities in 1878-9 and again had begun to devote himself to extenswe between 1890 and 1894. He was one of a group that travelled to India to promote the Faith in 1907, and also visited Turkistan and the Caucasus. His wife, Munifih Khinum (d. 1957), daughter of Hiji AKH~JND, was involved in the esrab lishment of a BahlY school for girls in Tehran, and hoth she and her husband were members of a Bahi'i committee for the advancement of women formed in 1909 (see WOMEN). Shoghi Effendi named OF BAH~U.LL~\H. him one of the APOSTLES

travels within lran to promote the Faith. In 1887 he was desimated a Hand of the Cause by ~ a h i ' d l l i h and he was involved in the subsequent work of that body in Tehran. ~hro;gh his marriage to 'Udhrl Khinum Id. 19231, a member of the Q6j.i~ nobility, h e w a s able to contact members of the ruling stratum and inform them about the Faith. He was also able to deliver 'Abdu'l-Bahi's 'Treatise on POLITICS' (Rislili-yi-Siyiisipjh) to the shah. He later travelled widely in India, Burma, the Caucasus and Russian Turkistan. In 1919, together with Ahmad Yazdini, he delivered 'Abdu'l-Bahi's letter to the Central Organization for a Durable Peace in The Hague (see Tablet to the HAGUE). Shoghi Effendi named him as one of the APOSTLES OF BAH~U.LLAH. EB 1714; H o p r 9-12; RU.3014 iconography There is little in the way of a distinctive BahP'i iconography. Calligraphic representations of the GREATEST NAME in Arabic are commonly found as wall hangings and on the covers of some older BahP'i books. Many Bahl'is place photographs of 'Abdu'l-Bah6 in their homes (hut never those of Bahl'u'llih, as a mark of respect for his sanctity). Much Bahi'i AncHlrEcTunE at the BAHM WORLDCENTREis classical (largely Greek) in inspiration, but other buildings, particularly the Houses of Worship (MASH~IQWL-ADHKAR) reflect the indigenous styles of their localities. The Houses of Worship do not contain any figurative representations. Nine-pointed stars (see NUMBERS) are sometimes used as a decorative motif. (See also ART; CALLIGRAPHY.)

EB26B; Harp. 13-16; R E 4 30612.

I b n - i - A r d a q , (c.1850-1928) Mirzi 'Ali-Muhammad. Iranian &ND CAUSE.He was the son of the revered Blhi and Bahi'i teacher Mu116

OF THE

Ibn-i~Alddq,o m offhc IIarrds of the Cnlrre

appointed by RoU'~r'1ldb

Imams In general, Islamic religious leaders (At.: imim, lit. 'one who stands in front'), including the leader of the Friday communal prayers (imrim-jum'a).

In Twelvcr S H ~ I Sthe M term designates specifically the succession of twelve legitimate leaders after the Prophet Muhammad. Denied their rightful role as rulers of the Islamic community, they guided their followers in the path of true faith. They were the signs of Cod on earth. Created from divine light, they received inspiration from God. They were the best of men, immune from sin and error. It was the duty of every person to recognize the lmim of the age: those who did not were nor true believers. Each received the specific designation (nos?) of his predecessor. The Twelver succession is as follows (other Shi'i groups having different lists):

1

~

(1) 'Ali ibn Ahi Tilib. The cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. Briefly caliph, 656-61. His shrine is at Najaf in Iraq. (2) Hasan Id. 669). Eldest son of 'Ali by his wife (Muhammad's daughter) Fltima. He was buried in Medina. (3) HUSAYN (626-80). Second son of 'Ali and Fitim? Killed at K*RBALA. (4) 'Ali, Zaynu'l-'Abidin (658-71213). Son of the I m i m Husayn by ShahrhlnO, daughter of the last Sassanian ruler of Iran. He was huried in Mcdina. (5) Muhammad al-Blqir (676-?735). Son of the Fourth lmlm and a daughter of the Imlm Hasan. He was buried in Medina. His halfbrother, Zayd, revolted against Ummayad rule in 740, and was the originator of Zaydi Shi'ism. (6) Ja'far as-Sidiq (d. 765). Son of the Fifth Imlm and of a great-granddaughter of the first caliph, Abh Bakr. The Isml'ili Shi'i lmlms traced their descent from his eldest son, Ismi'il, who predeceased his father. (7) Mhsl al-Klzim (d. 799). Son of the Sixth lmlm and a Berber slave. Poisoned by order of the Ahhasid

I

i n d i i n o u s peoples - --

Imbrie, Major Robeti caliph Hiar-Rashid. His shrine is in what became the Kizimayn suburb of Baghdad. (8) 'Ali ar-Rid6 (765-818). Son of the Seventh Imim and a slave. He died in Khurlsin, and his shrine is in whar is now the Iranian city of MASHHAD. The shrine of his sister, Finma, is in the Iranian city of Qum. (9) Mu!mmmad at-Taqi (81CL33). Son of the Eighth lmim and a Nubian slave. He was buried in whar is now Kizimayn. (10) 'Ali al-Hidi (82719-68). Son of the Ninth lmim and a Moroccan slave. He spent most of his adult life under house arrest in the Iraqi city of Simarrb. (11) Hasan al-'Askari (?84&7314). Son of the Tenth Imim and a slave. He spent most of his life in detention at Sirnard. (12) Muhammad al-Mahdi. Supposed son of the Eleventh l m h and a slave. At the time of the Eleventh LmimS death, the Shi'is disagreed as t o whether he had had a son, and if he had, whether this son had survived him, and what hc war called. According to the Twelver Shi'is there was a son, and he disappeared into mysterious occulh e n . $hi? lslom tation (see SH~'ISM). 2345.

Bahl'is accept the validity of the imamarc, Bahi'u'llih referring t o the lmims as 'lights of divine guidance' and 'lamps of certitude' IKI 92.. 98).. and Shoehi Effendi describing the imamate a s a 'divinelv-aoooinred institution' which ' .. was 'the chosen recipient' of divine guidance for some 260 years after the passing of Muhammad, and was (with the Quran) one of the t w o 'most precious legacies' of Islam (WOE 102). Bahi'is do not believe that there was a Twelfth h i m , however. The Bahl'i d m i n e of COVENANT, with its emphasis

on designated succession, and the institution of GurnorANrHrP have obvious similarities to the imamate. Imbrie, M a j o r Robert (d. 18 July 1924) Recently appointed American viceconsul in Tchran, who war murdered by a mob on the mistaken suspicion that he was a Bahi'i. The incident anracred enormous attention in the United States, and indicated the continued force of anti-Bahi'i sentiment in Iran. It had significant diplomatic consequences and prompted the departure of resident American Bahi'is from Tehran. (See also MOODY) MBBR462-5. incorporation Canstitution of an organization as a separate legal entity. It is used by many national and local ASSEMBLIES as a means of gaining a definite legal status, enabling them t o enter into contracts, hold property and receive bequests. The first national assembly m gain this status was that of the United States and Canada in May 1929, and the first local assembly that of Chicago in February 1932, in each case following the adoption of their resoective CONSTITUTIONS. Numerous other assemblies around the world have since followed their examvle. Avart from legal advantages, incorporation has been rcgarded as a means of securing pueLlc RECOGNITION. GP8335-5.

independent investigation of truth Basic Bahi'i principle, repeatedly stressed by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Everyone should investigate truth for themselves rather than following tradition and the beliefs of others. They should depend on their own perceptions and be guided by their own consciencer. They should use the power of REASON, itself a divine creation and gift. In the investigation of

nELlCloN they should seek divine assisScholarly studies relating the nvo relitance for themselves. As reality is one, gions are as yet few. MiBm;~onsn.n;nduim. such investigation will lead to religious uniry and human solidarity. It was the indigenous p e o p l e s blind following of the past that led t o the rejection of the successive MANIFES- Bahi'is believe in the unity and oneness TATIONSOFGOD. Unthinking imitation of of the human race, bur also value the the past smnts the mind. Independent diversity of culture and thought (WOE enquiry frees society from endlessly 41-21, in p a n because this demonstrates reoeahna the mistakes of the Dart IPT the universality of the Faith. Thus ethnic diversity has come to be valued as a characteristic of the world Bahi'i cam4434,454; SWAB 29,248,298). There muniry, Shoghi Effendi noting with is an imdicit contrast here with the Shi'i pleasure the conversion of representaprinciple of raqlid (imitation), whereby tives of an increasing number of ethnic it is considered nccessarv for the ordingroups during the course of Bahi'i ary believer to follow a learned specialist EXPANSION (leaving aside the question in maners of religious law (Momen, of what exactly constitutes an 'ethnic Shi'i Islam 175-6). 'Abdu'l-Bahi was group', a total of 2,112 such groups are rejecting taqlid and the clerical status of now (May 1994) said to be represented certain .ULAMI( (the mujtahids) which in the Faith (BWNS 1994-5: 317)). This rested on it. diversity was well illustrated in the Baha'i World Coneresses of 1963 and 1992 (see CONFERENCES), with Bahb'is in Indian religions indigenous dress from around the world. A complex variety of religious tradiIn a number of national Bahi'i tions coexist in India, many of them communities indigenous peoples have included within the overarching framebecome a significant presence, and comwork of 1-lindoism. Separate and dismunity life has evolved t o reflect their tinctive religious traditions includc concerns, as with the establishment of B U ~ U H I SJainism M, and Sikhism. The Bahi'i nAnto stations in Latin America Baha'i writings contain few cxplicit catering for local needs and promoting references to any of these reliaions - (see Amerindian culture. Members of indiRELIGION). Such refcrcnces as there are - genous groups have also sometimes mostly from Shoahi Effendi - recomize played an international role, as with ~ r i s h n aas a ~ A ~ ~ r s l ' A T r o N o F ~ o ~ Native a n d American Bahi'i musical and Hinduism as one of nine recognized cultural groups which have toured parts revealed religions; doubt the origins of Europe and Asia promoting the Faith, and authcnriciry of the Hindu scripand contacts made by traditional leaders tures; and claim that Bahi'u'llih was among the Bahi'is of various Pacific the prophetic 'tenth avatar' in succesnations with their counterparts in other sion t o Krishna. ccl: 15-22;cde.'~aWu'lh5h pans of the Pacific. Again, Rahb'is have on Hinduism mod Zomor"ioni,m'. participated in such events as the Unitcd The very rapid expansion of the Nations International Year for the Baha'i community in India from the World's Indigenous Peoples (1993) and 1960s onwards has in part rested on a International Decade for Indigenous successful presentation of the Bnhi'i Peoples (launched in December 1994); Faith in popular Hindu terms, and the 'Spiritual Gathering of the Tribes' specifically dc-emphasizing Islamic terbringing together indigenous peoples minology (Garlington, 'Bahb'i hhajuns'). from Siberia and North America; and

indigenous religions the Austtalian Aboriginal Reconciliation Council (BWNS 1994-5: 85-8). (See o/s0 MINORITIES; PREJUDICE; RACE.)

indigenous religions Although now increasingly overlain o r replaced by more universal religious systems, such as Buddhism, Christianity or Islam. localized religions maditionally provided an imporrantbasis for the sen* of identity of 'tribal' and other peoples. . Such 'indigenous religions' vary greatly in their beliefs and practices. They commonly stress a particular pattern of moral and community life, specify techniques for approaching or utilizing sacred power, and provide a n overarching explanation for the way the world is. Animistic and magical elements are often prominent, as they are also in the folk versions of the universal religions. Specific references t o other religions in the Bahl'i writings focus on the 'historic' religions, particularly lslam and Christianity, but it is also believed that God has communicated his will t o all the world's peoples, 'Abdu'l-Baha explicitly stating rhat God's call had undoubtedly been raised in the Americas in the past. Combined with the Bahl'i belief in the common humanity of all peoples, this belief has provided a potential point of contact between Baha'is and indigenous groups in various parts of the world: rather rhan condemning traditional beliefs as 'pagan' - as is sometimes done by the missionaries of other religions - Bahl'is are often able to accept at least elements of traditional religious culture as com. patible with Bahl'i membership. Native American or Native Australian Baha'is, for example, may thus be able t o regard Bahl'i as a fulfilment o f their own traditional beliefs. This is pamcularly relevant when the native tradition contains millenarian elements which can be interpreted in Bahl'i terms. Buck. '% meuenp"'; O3.i; weirs1-n; wi1k.p and nrom. ~

individual For Shoghi Effendi the role of the individual in the progress of the Faith was primary. The fate of the entire Baha'i community depends on its individual members. Only through the support of the 'rank and file' can the Bahl'i aoMrNlsmmoN function effectively, and the Faith's expansion PLANS be accomis depenplished (CF 130-1). TEACHING dent on individual effort (CC2: 320 no. 1991, 324 no. 2004). Again, ultimately the only factor that will secure the 'triumph' of the Cause is the extent t o which the 'inner life' of individual Bahl'is mirrors forth Bahh'u'lllh's principles (BA 66). He also stressed that the right of individual self-expression (in relationship to the administration) lies 'at the very root of the Cause' (BA 63). Similarly, the Universal House of Justice has repeatedly stressed the importance of the individual in accomplishing all Bahl'i plans, staring that through 'universal participation', both the individual and the whole body of believers would be empowered. Each person has their own 'talents and faculties' which they are able to contribute. All can teach, pray, 'fight their own spiritual battles', deepen their knowledge of the Faith, and contribute t o the Bahl'i FUND (MUH] 33 no. 14.7, 42-3 no. 19).

infallibility Being incapable of error, in terms of doctrinal statements. The term used in the Baha'i writings - 'isma means both sinless and infallible, and is of Islamic origin (according t o Shi'i belief Muhammad, Fltima and the Twelvc Imams all possessed 'isma). Bahl'is distinguish between nuo kinds of infallibility. THE 'MOST GREAT 1NFALLIBII.ITY'

Bahl'u'lllh

taught that this was the OF of the MANIFESTATIONS Goo alone, whereby they were both

sanctified from error, and constituted in themselves the standard of truth which others were t o follow. Thus they were not limited by human standards: if they pronounced water to be wine, or heaven t o be earth, it was the truth. It war incumbent on others t o adhere to what they ordained (KA 36-7 k47; TB 10810). Some other individuals might also be guarded from sin, but this was a lesser infallibility. 'Abdu'l-Bahl commented that the Manifestations' infallibility was essential t o themselves and inseparable from them. Thus, whatevcr emanated from them was identical with the truth. Whatever they said was the word of God. Whatever they did was an upright action. No one had the right to criticize. If their words and actions were not understood by people, this was because of human ignorance (SAQ 171-4). 'CONFERRED' OR 'ACQUIRED) INFALLIBILITY

This is granted by God t o tho% who are the mediators of grace and guidance between God and human beings. By this God protects and preserves many 'holy beings' from error, so rhat they may act as guides t o other humans. Such acquired infallibility would not be inherent in their persons, however. 'Abdu'lBahi stated that it would bc granted to S A L OF the as yet unelected U N ~ V ~ HOUSE JUSTICEa s a body, but not t o its individual members (SAQ 172-3); as Guardian of the Bahit'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi would also be under God's uncrring guidancc (see GUARDIANSHIV); whilst as appointed interpreter 'Ahdu'lBahl himself voiced 'the very truth', and whatever his pen recorded was correct (SWAB 214; MUH] 545). Shoghi Effendi defined his own infallibility as being confined t o the INTERI'RETATION and application of scR!PrUnE and t o the protection of the Bahl'i Faith. It did nor extend to economics, science or technical matters. Unlikc the Manifestations of

God he was not 'omniscient at will'. When he stared that something was for the protection of the Faith he should be obeyed, but if he merely gave advice t o an individual, then this was not binding (LG 311 no. 1050, 313 no. 10.55; MUHJ 546"). He also distinguished his own position from that of 'Abdu'l-Bnhl, in whose person human nature and 'superhuman knowledge and perfection' had been blended (WOB 134, 151).

inheritance Bahl'u'lllh instructed his followen t o write WILLS, and specified that they had complete freedom t o dispose of their property as they wished. In cases of intestacy, however, he provided a detailed schedule of inheritance adapted from the provrsions set our by the Bib in the BAYAN. According t o the Bahl'i schema it is necessary fint to ensure that the haneral and burial expenses of the deceased have been paid, then any other outstanding Afrer debn. and then the HUQUQU.LLAH. this the estate is to be divided among scven categories of hcin (the equivalent of three-sevenths to the children, with progressively smaller shares for the spouse, father, mother, brothers, sisters and teachers). In the absence of all or some of these categories the son's children (not the daughter's), nephews and nicces, uncles and aunn, cousins, and the local HOUSE OF JUSTICE may inherit specified portions of the estate. In the absence of any of these relatives the entire estate passes to the house of justice. The deceased's principal house parser to the eldest son, who also has the responsibility to support his widowed mother. Clothing and personal effects generally pass to the same-sex offspring. The proportions allotted to sons are grearer rhan those allotted to daughters. 'Abdu'l-Babl upheld the principle of primogeniture, emphasizing the 'extraordinary distinctions' given to the eldest son in most religions, not only in matters

I

of material inheritance, bur also in religious leadership (KA 186: WOB 148). Bath the ~hi'iimamate(see LMAMS) and the Baha'i GuAnolaasnIr are based on the idea of primogeniture. ~n 2 6 8 k20-8, lob9 q5-7. q9, 115-17 q28. 9334. 118 q37.119-20qd1, lZZJq535. 127q69. 128q72. 12930 q78. 130 q80, 13.6-7 qlW. 1534. 182-8 "38-47: Wolbridge. S m d 83-93. institutes

Bahl'i educational and DEEPENING facility. With the large-scale EXPANSION of the Bahl'i Faith into the 'Third World' from the late 1950s onwards, new approaches t o deepening the large number of new and often illiterate rural Baha'is were necessary: it was not feasible to expect the new Bahl'is to journey t o often distant S U M M E R scHoor.s and follow their traditional book-based curriculums. One response increasingly adopted during the 1960s was rural-based 'teaching institutes', held in the areas where the new Bahl'is lived, and often utilizing modest buildings constructed t o serve as village Bahi'i centres. Visiting or local tutors would then present courscs covering the basic rudiments of Baha'i belief and practice and designed t o prepare the new Baha'is for active involvement in the ongoing TEACHING campaigns. The instin~tebuildings were also readily used as a venue for LITERACY CI~SSCS and simple 'tutorial scHooLs. With increasing experience, the institute concept has heen expanded t o include various aspects of human rrsourcc de~~clopmcnr, h a c d on Iwal nrcds and the Rahi'i idml of service to the community (e.g. training courses for teachers and Baha'i administrators). Permanent institutes have now been established in many countries, the Ruhi Institute in Puerro Tejada, Columbia (established 1976), and the Bahl'i Academy in Panchgani, India (1982) being particularly well known. C C k 42-4: LG 5634.

intellect

1

The capacity for KNOWLEDGE, understanding and thinking. 'Abdu'l-Bahi regarded it as God's greatest gift to humanity: it is a wonderful power, born of divine light, which enables human beings t o comprehend the material creation. It distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. Through it, human beings are able m develop rheir science and technology by which they understand and to some extent gain control over nature. Its divine purpose is the promotion of human CIVILIZATION, but it can also be misused t o create means of war and destruction (PT32-3, 65). With WISDOM, it is one of the Iwo most luminous lights in creation (SDC 1). Human beings vary in their intellectual capacity, but intellecrua! deuelopmcnt requires EDIJCATION, and through it the ignorant become learned (SAQ 21214). The intellectual faculty is viewed as unlimited, and the source of discoveries, arts, crafts and sciences. No subject should be excluded from its purview. (PUP 63-4, 287).

International Archives

The international archives of the Faith comprise a variety of items, including personal effects of thc B6b, Bahb'u'llih and 'Ahdu'l-Rahi (clothes, pen-cases, rings, watches, ctc.), relics such as locks o f t h e i r hair, a p h o t o g r a p h o f Bahi'u'llhh and a ponrait of the BQb, original manuscripts, and other objects of historical interest such as Mu116 HUSAYN'S sword. Shoghi Effendi wanted to display these in a way in which they could be viewed reverentially by visiting

intercalary days

See AYYAM.I.HA. intercession

See DEATH.

I I

interfaith dialogue

Bahi'is regard all divine religions as expressions of the same Gad-given truths (see RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY). Nondis~utatiousinterfaith dialogue . is implicirly encouraged, Bahl'is offering their supporr to organizations such as rhe World Fellowship of Faiths and the World Conference on Religion and Peace, and initiating o r supporting interreligious conferences concerned with such topics as the promotion of religious tolerance or the contribution of religion to peace and justicc. American

Bahi'is began celebraring World Religion Day (held on the third Sunday in January) in 1950. It is now celebrated world-wide, and in some countries has generated considerable interest, attracting the support of various religious leaders and other dignitaries. Its format varies, commonly featuring speakers from various religious traditions, but its essential purpose is t o express the need for a single world religion ( L G 507 no. 1710). UWNS i w k ~ 93-4. : 12830; W. h a . b h 0 7 D k I h m q 242.

I

Bahi'is. The three new rooms Shoghi OF Effendi had added on t o the SHRINE THE BAB(1929) were at first used for this purpose, becoming the fint 'international Bahi'i Archives'. A second 'minor' archives was later established in a building close to what is now the Monument Gardens. These arrangements were not adequate, and in 1952 Shoghi Effendi announced his decision t o construct a purpose-built archives building. Work began in 1954 and was completed in 1957. The building itself is in the style of the Parthenon in Athens, with a colonnade of fifty Italian marble columns and a green-riled roof. It measures 3 2 x 14 metres and is 12 metres high. The interior consists of a large display hall with a surrounding balcony. Shoghi Effendi referred to the building as the first of the 'stately' edifices of the Bahi'i world administrative centre. A large extension connected to the basement of the original building has been constructed as parr of the present development of the Anc. ~ u h e168-70: nebbani, PrcFk>sPeorl2636; Giochav 14869.

1

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201

International kk'iBureau International Baha'i Bureau Office established by Mrs Jean Stannard in Geneva in 1925 following consultations with Shoghi Effendi. It served t o promote Bahi'i teaching activities in Europe, and also as a communications centre between Bahi'i groups internationally. It organized meetings, distributed Bahi'i literature, maintained contacts with the League of Nations as a recognized international organization, and produced various publications and translations, including a trilingual (English, French, German) bulletin. It functioned as an auxiliary t o the Bahi'i administrative centre in Haifa. Its public relations activities were greatly reduced in the worsening political situation of the 1930s. Much of its work was taken over by the BAHki INTERNATIONALCOMMUNITY from 1948 onwards. The Bureau closed following the formation of the national spiritual assembly of Switzerland in 1957. ew4: 25761.6: I3M: GPS 380. lnternational Baha'i Council Institution created in November 1950 by Shoghi Effendi, a n d formally announced t o the Bahi'i world in January 1951 as a forerunner of the UNIVERSAL HOUSEOF JUSTICE. Its initial functions were to forge links with the Israeli authorities and to conduct negotiations regarding matters of personal status with them (i.e. regarding the possibilities of establishing a Bahi'i court), and t o assist Shoghi Effendi in the work of completing the superstrucOF THE BAD.It also ture of the SHRINE served as an international Bahi'i secrctariat. The Council war to be evolutionary in nature. Eight members were initially appointed, and a ninth added in 1955. Five were also appointed as HANDSOF T H F CAUSE.After Shoghi Effendi's death in 1957 the Council operated under the direction of the Custodial Hands in Haifa. The original

appointed Council was reformed as an elected body in Ridv5n 1961. The election was by postal ballot by the members of all national and regional spiritual assemblies formed a t Ridvln 1960; all adult Bahi'is except for the Hands were eligible for election. The Council ceased to exist with the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963. All five of its then male members were elected onto the House. ewrz: 37a W. 13: 39MOl; MBW7-9.22.86;Robbanl. Prhbu Psa( 92-94.249-53. lnternational Baha'i Library Projected future building on the Anc. There is a t present a B ~ n k iWORLD CENTRElibrary which serves as a library of deposit for all Bahi'i publications. lnternational Teaching Centre Bahi'i i n s t i ~ t i o nestablished in Haifa by the Universal House of Justice in June 1973, primarily in order to extend into OF the fut"re the functions of the HANDS THE CAUSE resident at the BahP'i World Centre. l a original duties were: ( I ) to direct and ca-ordinate the work of the CONTINENTAL BOARDS O F COUNSELLORS and t o act as liaison between there Boards and the Universal House of Justice; (2) t o be fully informed of the situation of the Faith in all pans of the world, and on the basis of that knowledge make recommendations to the House of Justice and advise the Continental Counsellors; (3) to be alert to the possibilities for the extension of BahB'i reaching activity; (4)to determine and anticipate needs for literame, PIONaeRs, and travelling teachers (see TEACHING), and to work out regional and global teaching plans for approval by the House of Justice. It directs the work of thc Continenral Pioneer Committees. It is directly responsible to the House of Justice. A building to serve as the permanent seat of the lnternational

International leaching Centm

Members and office-bearers of the IBC

ELECTED

APPOINTED RONlYYlrl KHANUM Amelia COLLINS Charles Mason ~ M E Lotfullah Hakim Jessie Revel Ethel Revel Ben Weeden Gladys Weeden

Y

1950-61 1950-51 1950-61 1950-61 1950-61 1950-61 1950-1 1950-1

LSFlHand WMand PMand AS-E Tr AS-W

Leroy l o ~ s Ugo GIACHERI Sylvia loas

1961-3 VF'

Ali Nakhjavani Charles Wolcott Ian Semple Mildred Mottahedeh Borrah Kavelin

1961-3 1961-3 1961-3 1961-3 1961-3

AS AS-E AS-W LSE MaL P

assistant secretary Eastern assistant secretary Wcrtcrn assistant secretary liaison with Shoghi Effendi member-at-large president

Teaching Centre is a t present under construction (see ARC). swra r11-14. Its original working nucleus comprised the four Hands resident in Haifa (ROHlYYm KHANUM,A.A. F~ROTAN, P. HANEY and A-Q. FAIZ!),coxether with . three newly appointed lnternational Counsellors (see list below). All other Hands were members. The remaining Hands were freed from rerrular involvement with the work of t i c Centre in May 1988, maintaining only an advisory role (only three Hands are now still alive, all based in Haifa). The number of Counsellor members was raised to four in 1979, to seven in 1983, and to nine in 1988. A five-year (reappointable) term of S ~ M Cwas ~ introduced in 1983, and a requirement that a quorum of five should always be present at the Bahi'i World Centre in 1988.

P

1- UHJ)

SG AS

(-r (-r

UHJ) UHJ)

MaL

(-

UHJI

SG

TI VP -t

secretary-general treasurer vice-president UHJ subsequently elected as a member of the Universal House of Justice

COUNSELLOR MEMBERS

Mr H m p r Dunbar

1973-88 (- UI-IJ) Mrs Florence Maybercy 1973-83 (retired) Mr Aziz Yazdi 1973-88 (retired) Miss A ~ e l i e r eBODD .. Dr Maxdalrne Carney Mr Masud Khnmsi

Dr Peter Khan Mrs Isobel Sabri

1979-88 (retired) 1983-91 (d.) 1983-93 1983-7 ( 4UHJ) 1983-92 id.) . .

Dr Famam Arhab 1988-93 (- UHJ) Mr Hanmut Crmrmann 1988Mrr Lauxna King 198& -wDonald 198G98 .MIS Joy Stevenson 1988-98 1Mr Peter Vuyiya 1988-93 Mr Kaiser Barnes MrsJoan Lincoln Mr Shapanr Maadjern Mr Frrd SFhechrer Mrs Kimiko Schwerin

199319931993-8 1993-8 1993-8

Mr Rolf von G i k u s Mrs Wolett Hankc Dr Firaydaun Javaheri Dr Payman Mohajer Dr Penny Walker

1 II

19981998199819981998-

interpretation Bahl'is recognize rwo different kinds of interpretation of their own canonical LITERATIIRE.

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AUTHORITATIVE Both 'Abdu'l-Bahl and Shoghi Effendi were explicitly appointed as authoritative interpreters of the Bahi'i writings (WOE 133, 134, 136, 14&50), and their interpretations are regarded by Bahl'is as infallible (LC311 no. 1050, 313 nos. 1055-6; See INFALLIBILITY). Since the death of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, and the consequent loss of a living GUARDIANSHIP, there is no Bahi'i institution empowered to give authoritative interpretation (LC 310 no. 1049). The Universal House of Justice explicitly refrains from interpretation (MUHJ 87 no. 35.12). The interpretations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi remain a major source of guidance. INDIVIDUAL

In studying the writings, each individual arrivcs at his or her own understanding of the BahB'i teachings. The House of Justice states that such interpretation is to he seen as the fruit of human REASON, and should not be supvressed. What .. should bc avoided is disputation amongst the Bah:,'is regarding - .the reachings, or any insistcncc rhat one's own undcrstanding ir the only correct one. Individuals should make it clcar that rheir views are merely rheir own and not press them on their fellows. Again, they should learn to listen to the views of others without being either overawed or shaken in their faith. They should remember thar individual undersrandings continually change through the

process of DEEPENING. (Taken with the endine of authoritative interuretation. this implies thar a single 'correct'view of the BahB'i Faith is nor possible at the present time: cf. 'Abdu'l-Bahlt statement regarding the limitation of scriprural tradition as a source of KNOWLEDGE.) In previous religions believen had sought to encompass the divine message within the framework of rhcir own limited understanding, defining as doctrines matters rhat were beyond easy simple definition. This tendency had to be avoided (MUH] 87-8 no. 35.1 1-13).

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INTERPRETATION OF THE SCRIPTURES OF OTHER RELIGIONS All three of the Bahl'i 'Central Figures' (the Bib, Bahl'u'lllh and 'Abdu'l-Bahl) wrote commentaries on Quranic verses. Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi also comyenred on bihlical vcrses. In the Kitlib-iI Q ~ Baha'u'llih N states that God's messengers use bath straightforward and concealed language. PROPHECY is offen metaphorical, and to interpret it always in a literalistic fashion leads nor only to a loss of understanding, but to the failure to recognize future promised messengers - as in the Jews' failure to recognize Jesus,and the Christian failure to recognize Muhammad (KI 17, 51-2, 162-3). (See C O M M E N ~OANRTHE Y SORA or;nrr SUN).There is a growing secondary literature concerned with presenting the Bahl'i Faith as rhe prophetic fulfilmcnt of other religions (see ~ro1.0GETITS).

loas, Leroy (1896-1965)

American HANRO F THE CALISE. Both his parents were of German Lutheran hackground and hecame BahB'is in the 1890s. He played a major role in the development of systematic Bahi'i teaching plans in North America, and was elected onto the national spiritual ASSEMBLY in 1932. Shoghi Effendi appointed him a Hand of the Cause in

December 1951 and invited him to Haifa, where he became both secrerarygeneral of the INTERNATIONAL B A H COUNCILand an assistant secretary to Shoghi Effendi. The octagon door of the SHRINEOF THE BADwas named after him.

iq8n, Kit6b-i(PA, Book of Cenitude) The most important and influential of Bahi'u'llSh's early wrirings, regarded by Shoghi Effendi as his outstanding doctrinal work (and as the basis for unity between the religions of the world). Composed in Persian in Baghdad in 1278~~11861-2 cE in response to questions by one of the as yet unconverted maternal uncles of the Bsb, Hlji Mirzl Sayyid Muhammad, it was s w n widely. circulated among the Bihis in Iran. It was also one of the first Rahl'i books to be printed (by lithography in India), perhaps as early as 1882. The first English translation was published in

1900. The present official manslation by Shoghi Effendi was published in 1931. Asked to reconcile the Blb's claim to be the Q.4.r~ with traditional Shi'i expectations, Bahl'u'lllh noted that the contemporary rejection of the Bib echoed similar rejections of the past. In every age, people had expccrcd God's OF GOD), messenger (see MANIFESTATION hut had opposed him when he came. LEADERS had ignored the RELIGIOUS truth, either through ignorance - judging the messengers' claims by their own limited understanding - or because they feared what they saw as a threat to rheir own leadership. Most other people then blindly followed rheir religious leaders in opposition rather than investigating truth for themselves. One persistent 'veil' war literalistic INTERPRETATION of scripture (e.g. of biblical verses regarding 'stars' falling from heaven and the promised one coming in the 'clouds of heaven' (,Matthew 24:29-31)). much of which was ro be understood meraphoriAgain, God was nor bound by ~ call?. ~ human expectations: he chose MOSES,a murderer, and JESUS,with no known father, as messengers, and directed MUHAMMAD to change the QIBLAH - to the consternation of his followers. God tested the people. True understanding was only possihle to those who had put rheir tnlst in Gad and did not use human standards as a measure of God and his prophets. Repeatedly the reader was called upon to 'cleanse' his hearr from worldly standards. The essential proof of any of God's messengers was his own self and the divine word revealed in his scriprure. Other signs were his constancy in proclaiming his cause in the face of opposition; the transforming influence he had on his followers; the willingness of those followers to give their liver for his cause (see MARTYRDOM);and the fulfilment of PROPHECY. All these evidences the Blb had. People expected the messengers to exercise

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worldly sovereignty (as Shi'is did of the QZim), but the messengers' true sovereignty was a spiritual ascendancy which they exercised over all in heaven and on earth. During their liver they suffered from opposition and persecution, and it was only later, when the religions they founded had grown, that peoples bowed before their names. The life of the ImLm HUSAYNwas a vivid example of the sufferings of God's chosen ones. BahB'u'llBh also referred to KNOWLEDGE; the SPIRITUAL PATH; and the future BLbi messianic figure of HEWHOM GODSHALL MAKE MANIFEST, perhaps making cryptic reference t o his own claims, shortly t o be made explicit (1863). He hoped that the BLbi learned would not treat this personage in the same way as the messengers of the past had been rreated. The book is of interest in indicating BahB'u'llBh's knowledge of the BIULE, and his sympathy for CHR~STIANITY, both unusual in a 19thsentury Islamic context. The iqdn became an important element in attracting Bhbis and others to BnhB'u'llLh (including the uncle for whom it was wrinen). A factor in iu appeal was its straightforward Persian prose style, which conuastcd markedly with such BLbi writings then extant, and which made it extremely accessible to ordinary Iranians who had not received a clerical education. Although written prior to BahP'u711Ph's open claim to prophetic status, it was readily accorded the status of divine revelation by Bahh'is KI; Buck, Svbol; G B 138-40; K8I: 15347. lran Birthplace of the BBbi religion and, until the 1960s, homeland of the majority of ~ ; nohoi the world's BahP'is. ~ 8 8 nofoti. comrnuni~';SB8R4856. 8649,

175-80.

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Ancient Iranian empires extended thcir control over large areas of the Middle

East and Central Asia, and embraced ~ R O A S T R I A N ~ Sas M their state religion. The Arab conquest (from 637) gradually led t o the conversion of most Iranians to ISLAM,but did not destroy a sense of separate Persian identity. The establishment of SHVISMas the state religion under rhc Safavid dynasty (1501-1722) served funher to distinguish lran from its Arab, Turkish and Central Asian neighbours, and laid the basis for modern Iranian nationalism. The country's present borders were established during the rule of the Qbjdn dynasty (1794-1925). The country's size (three rimes the size of France) and geography (large areas of semi-desert and mountainous terrain) have favoured regionalism, and it has only been with the development of modern tranrporr and communications that a centralized, unitary state has been able to develop. Although the majority of the population in modern times have been Persianspeaking Shi'is, there are significant minorities of Azeris and other Turkic speakers, together with Arabs, Kurds and Baluchis. There are also Sunni Muslims, and Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian minorities. Until recently the great majority of the population were poor peasant farmers, dominated both by the local urban elites and the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribal groups (such as the Turkoman QLjBrs) who provided the country's main military forces until the development of a modern army. Iran's relative isolation meant that Western influence only became a major influence on Iranian economic and political life in the second half of the 19rh-century. This precipitated a lengthy period of crisis and instabiliry which culminated in the rise to power of the cavalry leader Reza (Ridl) Khan, who proclaimed himself shah in 1925 (with the dynastic name Pahlavi), and embarked on a campaign of modernilation (until 1941). These policies were

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I continued under his son, MohammadReza Shah, but engendered enormous cultural tensions within Iranian society. These werc exacerbated by economic and social problems in the 1970s, leading t o the overthrow of the regime, and the establi!hment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatu'llih Khomeini in 1979. C o r n w e Hisary d imn: Keddia. Rwll oi

I

menl'.

BAHMDEVELOPMENT DURING THE QAJAR PERIOD (TO 1925)

Bahi'u'llih both revived and transformed the Bibi movement fallowing THE B A B ~ S its near collapse in the early 1850s. As a movement within Shi'ism, SHAYKI~.Baha'i EXPANsloN (from the 1860s) was correspondingly much broader than ISM drew most of its support from that of the Ribis, encompassing Iranian Iranians, although its centre of operaJews and Zoroastrians as well as Shi'is tions for many years was in Ottoman IRAQ.Similarly, Bibism war essentially (the Bahl'is' acceptance of "on-Musa movement within Shi'ism, and its lims contrasted sharply wirh the Shi'i membership was largely Iranian. Effectreatment of these people as being tive Bibi missionary endeavour sucritually impure, and was a factor in attracting them t o the Rahfi Faith), ceeded in gaining converts widely amongst the sertled population, partiand the reformist nature of the Bahj'i teachings appealing t o some of those cularly in the towns (with perhaps who wanted to see Iran modernized. 100,000 adherents the Bibis may have coasriruted some 2.5 per cent of the Bahi'u'llih sought t o dissociate his followers from Bib1 extremism. and non-nomadic oo~ularionl.Persecution of the Bibis in Iran hegan after the insisted that they be loyal to G0VEP.N. MENT. Although NASIR~I'D.D~N SHAH(r. return of the Rib from his pilgrimage to 1848-96) remained a n t a g o n i s t i c Mecca (1845). Early opposition ro the Bahia came primarily from the Islamic towards the Rahi'is, his successors Iearncd (TILAMA) acting as defcndrrs of and many local governors werc more an Islamic orthodoxy from which the sympathetic - or a t least indifferent. Rahis clearly diverged. Support from Persecutions continued, however, and scveral hundred Bahi'is were killed local governors was a t first limited, and during the Q i i i r period. Opposition motivated by the desire to maintain again came primarily from the 'ulomi, public order which they saw thrcarcncd hy RQhi fervour. Strong action by a who were able t o use their judicial role govcrnor in support of the Bibis (as t o issue sentcnccs of dcath against with MANilclllHn KHAN in I ~ f i h i n was ) Rahj'is as unbelievers as well as sumsufficient t o contain clerical opposition. moning up bands of strong-armed The s i ~ a t i o nchanged wirh the develfollowers and mob acrion t o occasion opment of Rlei RADICALISM: hy protheir death and to intimidate local , Bib laid claiming himself the Q ~ I Mthe governors. Thc situation varied widely implicit claim t o absolute temporal as from region to region depending on the wcll as spiritual authority within a Shi'i power and attitudes of local governors universe, whilst his followers' growing and clerics. Persecution wan not always readiness to respond t o attack made motivated by religious hntrcd alone. confrontarion cvcr more likcly. Attacks Declaring a Rahi'i a n unbclicvcr meant that his property and womenfolk could on the Bibis then led to armed struggles, and the stigmatization of the Ribis be taken wirh impunity, and this could R d , i i ; Imwi.

I

as dangerous revolutionaries whose existence threatened the stare. Their extirpation subsequently became a mattcr of state policy. Several thousand were killed. MR;smith and h e n . vobi nune-

..

provide mobs with additional cause t o follow the anri-Bahi'i urgings of clerics. At a more sophisticated icvel, the killOF MARing of the Kixc AND BELOVED Tvns (1879) was evidently t o the pecuniary advantage of the clerics involved. Again, a wily politician such could use persecution as ZILLU.S-SULT*N of Bahi'is for his own political ends. Periods of political unrest also became times when Bahi'is (and other minority groups) could be made scapegoats for the people's discontents and frustrarions. Persecution neither detcrrcd Baha'i missionary endeavour nor the consolidation of the community (with the establishment of Bah&'i SCHOOLS (from c.I870s), children's classes (from 1898), local councils (ASSEMBLIES; from 1899), a RahP'i FUND (1907) and a children's savings fund (1917)). At 'Abdu'l-Bahi's instruction most Bahf'is remained uninvolved in the political movements t h a t buffeted lranian society at the turn of the century.

THE B A H ~ DUR;NG ~ S THE PAHLAVf PERIOD, 192115-79

The establishment of a centralizing, modernizing regime initially seemed t o promise a better situation for the Bahl'is, and an end ro the clerically inspired persecution of the past. Thus during the early years of Pahlavi rule the Bahi'is were able t o expand their activities, and for the first rime to hold large public meetings, sometimes attended by government officials. They also esrablished modem public baths, and were able to organize a national elective system, culminating in the election of the first national spiritual assembly in 1934, and t o consolidate local spiritual assembly administration throughout the country. A campaign of government repression (1932-41) ensued, however, seemingly as part of a n endeavour to cow all potentially independent erouos . in Iranian sociew. Thus, Rahi? schools were closed; Bahb'i meetings prohibited; a number of

Senior Iranion ntilitary olficerr under the Pablovip.uvcmment attacbinp the Notional Bahd'i Centre, Tehrat,, 1955

i

Bahl'is dismissed from government population appears t o have declined since the early years of the century employ; and Bahl'is imprisoned for contracting Bahl'i marriages. The offi- (Smith, 'Blbi and Bahl'i numbers'). cial campaign ended only with the over- The Bahl'i birth rate has probably been lower than the Muslim rate (Jensen). throw of Reza Shih by the British and Russians during World War I1 (1941), THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC, FROM 1979 hut was followed by a partial breakIn the early years of the republic there down of public order, and a recrudeswas a massive campaign of persecution cence of locally inspired attacks (clerical against the Baha'is, exacerbated by the and political) on Bahi'is. Internal develactivities of one of the anti-Bahi'i opment of the Baha'i community congroups (thc Hujjutiyyih or Tabligbaf-itinued, wirh the esrablishmcnt of a ls16mr~ which for a while enjoyed Bahi'i-linked hospital and orphanage political influence. Thus there was a in 1940. It was also at this time that Iranian Baha'is began to send P I ~ N E E R ~ systematic endeavour to destroy all Bahi'i organization (including the iudit o neighbouring countries and t o implecia1 murder of many Bahi'i leaders), as ment systcmatic expansion PLANS. A well as to pressurize the rank-and-file to special plan for the advancement of apostatize: Baha'is were arrested; disBahi'i women was also adopted missed from their jobs; and nor allowed (1946-50). and women became eligible t o serve on Bahi'i assemblies for the first to attend school or university. Baha'i sacred sites and burial grounds were also time in 1954. .Major advances in female destroyed. More than two hundred litcracy were also madc. A new wave of Bahi'ir were killcd or have disappeared artacks was mounted against the Bahi'is and are presumed dead. The F&h was in 1951 and 1955 (probably as a officially banned in 1983. and membergovernment sop t o Muslim religious ship o i Bahl'i administrative bodies extremists). Thereafter, the situation made a criminal offence (the Bahi'is eased - in part to protect Iran's public subsequently disbanded all their assemimage abroad - until the rising turmoil blies). There was widespread intemathat presaged the Islamic Revolution. rional condemnation and enormous However, Bahi'is were still not allowed publiciry, which may have contributed to contract legal marriages (leading their t o some easing of the simation since the opponents to accuse them of immoalmid-1980s. Persecution continues, howity); publish lirerature other than by ever, and rhc economic plight of many lithography; or combat the activities of Bahi'is remains dire, with Baha'is being various anti-Bahi'i groups which were disbarred from higher education and able t o operate freely and widely dismany forms of employment. Bahi'is seminate a distorted and intensely haremay not legally inherit property, and it filled propaganda against them, accosing is difficult for them to obtain passports them of political manipulation, acting as o r exit visas. Their marriages and agents of foreign powers, and immordivorces are not recognized. Bahi'i ality. T I e development of a 'culture of graves continue to be desecrated, and harred' resulted. There has been no Bahl'is~rcceive litrle or no protection proper study of lranian Bahl'i demofrom the law, as indicated by the case of gaphics, but the imprcssion is of gratwo Muslims who killed a Baha'i, but dual growth to perhaps 350,000 by were subsequently released from prison 1979. However, this growth seems to because their victim was 'an unprotccrcd have been mainly the result of natural infidel'. The situation apparently varies increase rather than new conversions: from one p a n of the country to another, the proportion of Baha'is in the total

but an official document of 1991 indicared that it was then government pollcy r u stlflr a n y furthrr developn>rnt oi [he Bahl'i community, and, ii possible, to uproot its cultural foundations. Internarional condemnation of human rights abuses in Iran, specifically mentioning the Baha'is, continues. Ironically, the sinele most imoortanr f.actor in amacting international anention to the Bahl'i Faith has orobablv b c n its oersccurion in the land of in hirth. bhb.i lnfamtioml Communny, Bohaix oflrm: BWl8 2914: NS I 9 9 G 133-8: Coop.; GhaneoHsrcack; Lobib; Mocloin. 'Bohoi per=uhons':

89, 173-80; W

D. Morlin. P e o ~ l m o nMBBR; ; SBBR

o k . Ironska&kunumtw.

THE R A H FAITH ~ ~ AND IRAN

persecution. Some of these CmigrCs have hecomr pnonecrs. using their o w n hardshtp as a v~.h~clc for Bahh'i activity. For others religious motivation has been less important, and they have gathered in large 'enclave communities' in various Western cities. In some instances this influx initially created tensions within the rccciving Bahi'i communities, with linguistic and cultural barriers emerging bcrween the incamina Iranians and the indigenous Bahi'is, but such evidence as there is (from Britain and Italy) s u g that succcsnful integration may have occurred quirc rapidly, wirh the 'newcomers soon taking part in the Baha'i administration in rheir adopted homes, and a high level of intermarriage between lranian and Western Baha'is la third of all Bshi'i marriages in Britain in 1984-6) (Momen, 'Integration'; SaintRlancat).

lran remains a sacred land for Baha'is. both as the birthplace of their Faith and as the site of numerous Bahi'i holy places. Until the 1960s the largest single BahiT community in the world war that of Iran, and the majority of Raha'is in lraq the world were Iranians (including lraq has a special significance in S I I ~ I S M expatriates). Correspondingly, a large as the burial place of six of the IMAM^: proportion of prominent Bahl'is havc 'Ali (the First Imhln) at Naiat; H u s , w ~ been lranian (including eleven out of the Mi~saalt h i r t y - t w o H A N D SO r THF. CAUSE (the Third Imim) a t KARBALA; Kigim (the Seventh Imlm) and Muhamappointed by Shoghi Effcndi ktwecn mad at-Taqi (the Ninth Imim) a t Kizi1951 and 1957). and up to the present mayn ((the place of) the two Ki~ims); time Iranian Bahj'is havc continued to and 'Ali al-Hidi (the Tenth Imlm) and play a major role as pioneers and in thc Masan al-'Askari (the Elevcnth Im6m) a t administration of the Faith world-wide. Since the 1960s, however, the c n o r m o ~ ~ s Simarri. Simarri was also the place of the disappearance ('occultation') of the growth of the Faith in the 'Third World' Twelfth Imim. Collectively these shrine(see EXPANSION) has greatly lcssened the cities are known as the 'thresholds' proportion of Bahl'is who are lranian ('atobit), and have assumed a special (perhaps to 6-7 per cent): Prior to the significance, hoth as rcvcred places of Islamic Revolution the Bahb'is o f Iran Shi'i pilgrimage, residence and burial, were the main contributors to Bahl'i and as centres of Shi'i learning, focused international funds, bur this is no l o n g r on the leading 'IJLAMA who lived there possible. (thus Sayyid KATIMR~slr.ri madc KarIRANIAN B A H A ' ~DIASPORA bali the cenne of Shaykhism). During the 19th-century, the shrine cities The largest and most recent dispersion assumed particular importance, because of lranian Bahfis has occurred in the they allowed leading Shi'i clerics to aftermath of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, with many thousand Bahi'is flee- function outside lranian government control (SBBR 7). ing lran m escape actual or possible

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Islam KarbalL was briefly a cenrte of Blbi activity, and BAGHDAD assumed importance during the period of Bahi'u'llih's exile there (1853-63), whilst his twoyear retreat t o the mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan led to important conracrs with Sufi leaders. A small number of Bibis remained in Baghdad after his departure, and these subsequently became Bahl'is. Shi'is murdered one of them in 1868, and the conversion of the son of a prominent Sunni cleric in the same year led to public upraaq and to the exile of thirty o r forty leading Bahl'is to the northern city of Mosul (MBBR 265-71, which for a while became a n imporrant staging post for Iranian Bahi'is journeying t o see Bahi'u'llih. Bahi'i communities developed in various parts of Iraq, gaining a small but significant number of converts. Local assemblies formed from the 1920s, and a national assembly was established in 1931. Also during the 1920s local Shi'is expropriated the House of Bahi'u'llih in Baghdad. The lengthy and unsuccessful litigation by the Baha'is t o hy to recover the building hrought the Bahi'i situation to the attention of the League of Nations. Official action against Bahi'is began in 1965, and since 1970 all Bahi'i activities bavc been banned.

lgfbh6n (1868 pap. est. 60,000)

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Central Iranian provincial capital, formerly seat of the Safavid dynasty (15011732) and an imporrant centre of Bibi and Bahi'i acriviry. The Bib found refuge there under the governorship of MnailCHlHR KHAN.A number of Baha'is were martyred in the city and region during the governorship of ZILLU.S.SLILTAN.

kfahani, Muhammad-Taqi (c.1860-1946) Prominent Egyptian Bahi'i w h o migrated from Iran some time after 1878. A merchant by profession, he

became a centre of Baha'i activities in Egypt, and was posthumously named a HANO OF THE CAUSE by Shoghi Effendi. EW11: 50&2;Hmpr 110-11.

lshr6q6t (Splendouts) Late Syrian-period rablet of Bahi'u'lllh composed in Arabic and Persian for Jalil-i-KhB'i, a Baha'i coppersmith from the province of Azerbaijin. In it Bahi'u'lllh addresses the Bibis (the 'people of the Bayin'), calling upon them t o recognize him and not t o be misled by thcir 'vain imaginings'; proclaims his own coming 'invested with power and sovereignty'; asserts the INFALLIBILITY of the MANIFESTATIONS OF Goo; reveals a long prayer in which the supplicant is to praise God and ask for his mercy, and which sorrows over d ~ e behaviour of Subh-~-AZALtowards Baha'u'llih; proclaims the fulfilment of prophecies regarding the promised one; summons the Bahfis to picry and the development of praiseworthy characters; lamenn the hchaviour of some of his followers; recalls his vision of TRUSTWORTHINES~; complains of the oppressive actions of a recent governor of Akka; a n d permits the charging of moderate interest on loans (in contradistinction to Islamic law). The tablet also includes nine 'splendours' from is Bahi'u'llih's teachings: (1) RELIGION a stronghold for social order and must be supportcd by those in authoriry. (2) KINGS are a mauifestarion of God's power and should uphold the Lesser PEACE.(3) God's LAW brings life to the world. (4) That which best promotes Bahi'u'llih's Cause is the praiseworrhy deeds of the Bahi'is, and these are led by the FEAR OF GOD.(5) A GOVERNMENT has respo~isibilitiestowards its citizenry. (6) The unity of the HUMANRACE is stressed, and the need for a universal LANGUAGE to promote that unity. (7) The importance of parenthood (see FAMILY LIFE) and EOUCATION are emphasized. (8) The

responsibilities of the HOUSE O P JUSTICE and aspects of Baha'i ETHICS are enumerated. (9) The purpose of RELIGION is to establish unity. m w-134:ae4: 1-0.

lslam on the formerly brutish tribes of Arabia, who had thereby become the founders of a brilliant and enlightened civilization, which had in rurn exerred enormous influence on the civilization of Christian Europe (SDC 87-9). He Ishrirq-Khavari, 'Abdu'ldeplored the ignorance and prejudice Hamid (1902-72) of many Western writers on Islam, as Prominent Iranian Baha'i teacher and well as the fanaticism of many Muslims. scholar. He received an Islamic clerical For Shoghi Effendi Islam was 'the source education in Mashhad and was beginand background' of the Baha'i Faith, ning to gain a reputation as an Islamic and a study of Islam was 'ahsolurely teacher when he converted m the Bahi'i indispensable' for Baha'is if they were t o Faith in 1927. He devoted the rest of his gain a sound understanding of their own life to Bahl'i activities: taught in one of rcligion. Western Bahi'is were therefore the Bahl'i SCHOOLS until their closure in encouraged to study the QunAN; the rise 1934, travelled extensively to promote of lslam>ccivilisstion; and the particular the Faith, and produced an enormous institutions and circumstances our of body of compilations of Bahi'i writings, which Bahi'i emerged. He noted that commentaries, apologetic works and the public acknowledgement of the historical studies. swrs: 518-20. validity of lslam by Bahi'is of nonMuslim background (prominently Islam Queen MAnlE of Romania) represented Bahi'is uphold the divine origin and powerful evidence of Bahi'i support for true lslam, and countered the claims of independent status of Islam, regarding it those Muslims who thought rhat Bahi'i as one of thc nine known revealed as a MANI- was anti-Islamic (AD] 41; Hcggie 9 1 4 ; religions. and MUHAMMAD LG 4 9 4 8 , 5 6 1 nos. 1903-4; PDC 112FESTATION O F GOO. They follow what is an essentially Shi'i interpretation of the 14). There is as yet no proper study of the rightful succession following the death Islamic roots of the Baha'i Faith. Baha'i of Muhammad, i.e. accepting the validshares with lslam the belief in a series of ity of rhe imamate a s a divinely divine messengers - generally referred t o appointed institution which continued as PROPI~ETSin Islam, and as Manifestat o bc 'the chosen recipient' of divine tion of God by Bahi'is - but diverges guidance after the death of the Prophet from it in denying that the line of and was 'one of the two most precious legacies of Islam' (i.e. alonz with thc messengers has ended. Specifically, the . QURAN; WOE 102; see ~ M ~ M SHi'l~hl). S ; Quranic statement rhat Muhammad was Bahi'u'llih referred t o Muhammad's the 'Seal of the Prophets' (khdtam annabiwin; 33: 40) is interpreted m mean exalted station, and hlessed his kindrcd that he was the last in the cycle of and companions who had established prophets preparing the way for the the religion of God in the world. The prcsenr Day of R ~ s u n n a ~ ~not l o ~that , enemies of God had finally caused 'the he was the last of God's messengcn banner of lslim to be reversed amongst (popularly, a distinction is made all peoples*, however (TB 162-3). Spebetween the tcrms nabi ('prophet') and cifically, the .urnmA had subverted rnrril ('messenger'll. T h e B6b and Islam, opposed those who sought t o Bahi'u'llbh are thus regarded as having exalt it, and caused the people t o fulfilled Islamic messianic expectations become abased (TB 213). 'Abdu'l-Bahl ~ the descent (for Sunnis as the M A H Dand stressed the transforming impact of early

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of Jesus (the 'Spirit of God') respectively; for Shi'is, as the Q k r ~and the return of (GPB 57-8. 94., 96the Imim HUSAYN 7)), whilst a t the same time functioning as sources of divine revelation and the initiators of the latest expression of God's eternal religion (i.e. Islam; this divergence reflects a quitc different understanding of TIME: Baha'is d o not regard the resurrection as marking the end of time). Bahi'i also shares with lslam the concept of Holy LAWas a necessary guide for human action, and many aspects of Bahl'i law bear a clear relationship to the corresponding elements of Islamic law, although the emphasis in observance is more on individual conscience than communal enforcement. Again, elcments of Bahl'i PHlLOSoPHY and METAPHYSICS are rooted in pans of the Islamic tradition, particularly Mu'tazilite rationalism and Ishriqi ('llluminationisr') Neoplatonism. As a religious movement Blbism can only be understood in the context of Iranian Shi'ism, and it never nansccnded thar milieu (see EXPANSION). Baha(u9116h's teachings represent a significant departure from that context, bur the grcnt majority of early Bahl'is were still former Muslims (mostly Iranian Shi'i), and even the small numbers of nonMuslims who convened during his lifetime were heavily imbued wirh the religion's culture of origin. It was only wirh rhe conversion of Westerners and others from the 1890s onwards thar the Baha'i Faith began t o transcend its Islamic origins. Within the Middle East Bahi'is have been exrremely cautious in rheir TEACHING endeavours, but even outside the region, conversions of Sunni Muslims have been relatively few. Bahi'i apologetics directed a t Muslims commonly focus on passages in the Quran and Traditions ( H ~ ~ T which H) Bahl'is regard as prophetic of rheir own religion. Several such works exist in Persian and Arabic, bur there is linle material in English. Exceptions are

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~ f land ~ Mustafi. i On Bahl'i and lslam in general, see Moayyad.

Isfonbul (1856 pop. est. 430,000) The city of Constantine, the former Eastern RomanlByzantine capital known as Consrantinople. It fell to the OTTOMANS in 1453, and remained their imperial capital until the formal end of rheir empire in 1922. The new Turkish republic relocated the capital t o Ankara (1923). During the Otroman period it was the 'Great City', the seat of the SULTANATE and CALIPHATE, and the premier city o f the Muslim world. Bahi'u'llih and his companions arrived in Istanbul as guests of the Ottoman government on 16 August 1863 and remained until 1 Deccmbcr 1863, when they were rent as exiles to Eoln~E.this change in his political status marking the key event of the soioum. Bahl'u'lllh's eighteen-month-old daughter Sidhijiyyih (Iry his second wife, Mahd-i-'Lnyl) also died during these months and was buried outside the Edime Gate. Neither o f t h e t w o houses occupied by Bahi'u'llih (the houses of Semsi Beg and Visi Pass) now exists. Bahi'u'llih described the city as seat of the 'rhrone of tyranny', in which the foolish ruled over rhc wise, and predicted that its 'outward splcndour' would soon perish, and its people ('sunk in heedlessness') lamenr. BKG I P ~ - Z O ~ : G P1B5 6 6 1 ;~ 5 kg?: 2 PC€ I D I ; RB2: 1-5.55-52.317-19.

Ives, Howard Colby (1867-1941) Unitarian minister in New Jersey, who became a Bahi7 afrer meeting 'Abdu'lBahi during his 1912 visit t o Nonh America. He subsequently devoted much of his life to TEACHING the BahB'i Faith, and wrote Portolr to Freedom (1937), an account of his meetings with 'Abdu'l-Bahl. Shoghi Effendi identified him as an 'outstanding promoter' of the Faith. BW608-13; WEBW13954.

Jack, Marion (1866-1954) Prominent Canadian Bahb'i. She became a Bahi'i in Paris in 1900. In 1908 she taught English to the children of 'Aldu'lBahi's household in Akka. In 1919 rhc and Emogene Hoagg travelled extensively rhroup,h Alaska and the Yukon t o teach the Bahi'i Faith. In 1930 she senled in Bulgaria as a Rahl'i PIONEER, remaining rhcre for rhc rest of her life despite enormous hardships. Shoghi Effendi dmcribed her as an 'immortal heroine' and as a 'shining example' to all Rahb'i pioneers. swrz: 6767.

He came from a promincnr Iranian family in Mlzandsrin, but spent most of his life as a wandering dervish and, following his conversion, as a Bahi'i teacher. Hc was first sent m lndia hy Bahl'a'IIih in around 1875 in response to a request from memhcrs of the AFNAN family in Bomhay far a Bahi'i teacher. For the next clcven years be navelled widely in the subconrincnr, and also visited Sri La& and various pans of South East and Central Asia. He taught the Bahl'i Faith exrcnsively during his travels, gaining a number of important converts, most notably Siyyid Mustafa RUMI.BW4: 285; €5 119-28;M13CB.

Jamhl Burbjirdi

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Prominent lranian BahU who retained his clerical status after becoming a Bahi'i. Enormously respected as a Bah6'i teacher, at one time he insisted on acting as head of the consultative council estahlishcd by the HANDS ~VTIIE CAUSEin Tehran, although nor himself appointed as a Hand. He apparently cravcd a greater position of leadership, but rapidly . . lost his following after giving his allegiance t o MIJI~AMMAD.'AI.I. and becoming his chief lieutenant in Iran. GW

Jam61 Effendi id. 1898) Pioneer Bahl'i reacher in India, also known as Sulaymln Khin Tunuklbuni.

Jamalu'd-din, Soyyid, 'olAfghani' (183819-97) Pan-lslamist Muslim reformer and political activist. He published a n Arabiclanguagc newspaper (01-'Urruats'lwethqci, 'The Sure Handle') in Paris. O n e of his disciples assassinated N;ISIILII.U-OIN SIIAH.He was associated with AZALIfreethinkers in Istanbul, and wrote hostile accounts of the B6his and BahB'is in articles in the Egyptian press and an Arabic encyclopedia puhlished in Beirut ( B u p s al-Bustini's D6'irotu'l-Mo'cirifl. Bahi'u'llih rcprovcd him horh for his writings about the Faith and his political hypocrisy (TB 9G6). Kaddis, %id Jomd d i n ; EGBBF 2341; MBBR 362-3.

Jesus

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Jesus (c.6 BCE-29CE?) other prophets of Israel are also Recognized by Bahl'is as a MANIFESTA-acknowledged, but mostly as 'Lesser PROPHETS'. The Torah is regarded as TION OF GOD. Bahi'u'lllh emphasized divine scripture (see BIBLE).Jewish histhat Jesus' unique station was 'exalted tory is seen as indicative of both the above the imaginings of all rhat dwell power of divine grace to uplift a people on earrh'. At his coming he shed 'the and the consequences of human wrongsplendour of His glory upon all created doing. Thus the Israelites had suffered things'. At the moment of his death 'the oppression in Egypt until Moscr had whole creation wept with a great weepdelivered them our of their wretchedness ing', and by his sacrifice 'a fresh and given them divine teachings. On this capacity war infused into all created basis the ancient Jewish stare had things', the evidences of this 'quickening become a centre of both divine and power' being now manifest in all the material civilization. It was subsequently world's peoples, including in philosoweakened by internal divisions and phy, learning, the arts and the potency idolatry, however, such that it was af statesmanship. He purified the world, destroyed by the Babylonians and its and any man who turned to him, 'with a people made captive. Later returning face beaming with light', was blessed from exile, the Jews rallied to the (PDC 114). 'Abdu'l-Bahl referred to reforms inrroduced by Ezra, but further him as the 'essence' of the Holy Spirit; disobedience towards God, including the cause of the spiritual life of humanthe rejection and persecution of -lasur.. ity; and a ransom for the life of the led to a second destruction of Jerusalem, world. He had brought a 'perfect by the Romans (SDC 75-81; PUP 361example of love into the world'; taught 70, 402-10). a way of life rhar was 'the highest type Bahl'u'lllh denounced European of action on earrh'; and transformed the anti-Semitism as evidence of tyranny, lives of his followers. He had bcen the calling for JUSTICE to be exercised under promised Messiah for the Jews, and had all conditions (TB 170). He also stared abrogated Mosaic law. Though rejected that the long days of the Jews' abaseby most of his own people, he had laid ment were now over: overshadowed by the basis for the eternal glory of the divine bounty, rhey would progress Jews, whose scriptures and prophets (AD] 46). Again, in the 1890s. had bccn glorified by Christians 'Abdu'l-Bahl affirmed rhar the prophethroughout the world. Most of the sied 'ingathering' of the Jcws to Palestine MIRACI.ES artrihuted to him were to be would occur, and thousands of years of interpreted symbolically rather than ignominy (since the denruction of Jerliterally. His REsunnEcnoN was to be usalem in 586 BCE and the beginning of understood as a spiritual rather than the Babylonian captivity) would be physical cvenr. Shoghi Effendi accepted replaced by 'erernal glory', and in the his 'Sonship and Divinity' and the dmrine of the virgin birth (PDC 113). early 1900s stated that rhis process had now begun (LG 499 no. 1677; SAQ 65Hqlgls 1W16; LG 48993: SAQ 1&17: Slakman. 6; GPB 305). Bur he also warned of 'lerur Chris?. (See also CHRIWIANLTI.) future humiliations and, in 1912, referred to the possibility of an uprising Judaism, Jews against the Jews in Europe (PUP 414). Bahl'is regard Judaism as one of the Shoghi Effendi regarded Bahl'u'lllh's nine known revealed religions, and arrival in Akka as 'ushering in' the include ABRAHAMand MOSESin their Jewish return through its prophetic list of MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD. The significance, and the formation of the

nare of Israel (1948) as adding 'notable impehls' to the development of the BAuki WORLDCENTRE(GPB 107; MBW 13, 19). Bahi'u'lllh claimed to be the promised one of all religions, including Judaism. He had come to rule on 'the throne of David' (PDC 78-9). Bahl'is interpret many of the verses of the Jewish prophets as referring to him. Specifically, he was the 'Everlasring Father' and 'Prince of Peace' mentioned by Isaiah, and Davidt 'Lord of Hosts', whilst the BBb was the 'rerurn of Elijah' (GPB 58, 94). Bahh'is also regard Jesus as having been the Jewish Messiah. (Speaking to Jewish congregations in the United States, 'Ahda'l-Bahl was uncompromising in asserting rhat rhey should acknowledge the greatness of Jesus, who himself had fallawed Moses, and whose influence had led to the teachings of Moses becoming known throughout the world (PUP 366-9,407-IS).) A significant number of Iranian Jews became Bahl'is from the 1870s onwards, including a number of crypto-Jews who had previously been forcibly converted to Islam. Same of these had already been attracted by Bibism, particularly by the eloquence of T~ulnlH;others were affected by the rational proofs offered by MirzB AnurFAI)Lin his 'Epistle to A p l b ' (188718) addressed specifically to Jews. The Baha'is' openness towards the Jews, then a deeply despised minority group in Iran, is also likely to have k e n a powerful factor in attracting them to the new religion. (ARR 315,360; RR3: 16871, 260-8; SBBR 93-7). Bahl'u'llih called upon one of his followers of Jewish background to proclaim his Faith to one of the Barons Rothschild, then the

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effenive heads of Western Jewry (RB3: 168,172). A number of eminent Western Bahl'is have been of Jewish background, Lidia including Hippolyte DREYFUS, ZAMFNHOF, Siegfried SCHOPFLOCHER and John FERRABY bur, overall, conversions from Westem Jewry do nor appear to haw been numerous. Musa BANANI was one of the most eminent Middle Eastern Bahl'is of Jewish background. The BahP'i authorities do not allow Bahi'i TEACHING work to be conducted in Israel.

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justice Bahl'u'lkh decried the injustice, ryranny, corruption and dishonesty that prevail in thc world (TB 39.84). He had come as a bringer of justice. The 'best beloved of all things' in the world is justice. It is a divine gift, and thosc who want to approach God cannot neglect it. Through it rhey will see and know for rhcmsclves and not be dependent on others (HWa no. 2). It mains the world (TB 27). The tranquillity of humanity depends upon it. Its radiance is bcyond comparison (AD] 23). Its purpose is to secure human uniry and SOCIAL onurn (TB 67). It is upheld by 'the twin pillars' o f R E W A R D ANII PUNISIIMENT. If the n themselves to world's ~ l e dedicated the highest interests of humanity as a whole, then the reign of justice would be csrablishcd and thc world sanctified from tyranny and utterly transformed ITB 164). The essence of governance is justice (TB 166-7). Again, every individual should be just in their dealings with others; rhis is the 'most fundamental' of human virtues, and a defining qualiry of k i n g truly human (AD] 21). brche, rowd h k t GmolJur?im. (See also LAW.)

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Kappes, Lillian' (d. 1920) most of the non-Bihi Shaykhis afrer the dearh of S a ~ i dKAZIMRAsnri. He American Bahi'i who taughr at rhe claimed to possess superior knowledge Tarhiyar Rahi'i School in Tehran from - his writings being a copy of those of 1911112. Shoghi Effendi honoured her God's eternal hook - and emphasized as one of the DISCIPLES OF 'AHI>u.I.-RAI~IQU.LLAH was not msdc universallv . - applicable until 1992. Even quite fundamental social laws - such as the prohibition on drinking ALCOHOL - have only bcen applied extremely gradually in those countries in which they go against established social parterns and the majority of the Bahi'is havc been very new t o the Faith. Shoghi Effendi also made it clcar that cerrain laws (e.g. criminal laws) were only applicahle in a future (Bahl'i) society, and that others could nor be practised if they came into conflict with the present civil law in cerrain countries (e.g. the BahB'i prohibition on emhalming the dead: see BURIAL.)

INDIVIDMI. CONSCIENCE

Bahl'u'lllh directed his followers t o obey his laws for 'the love of My

beauty', and warned that those who disobeyed had erred grievously in Cod's sight (KA 20 k2, 4). It is attraction to Bahi'u'lllh, combined wirh the F E A n OF Goo, rhat is intended to hc the primary motivation for obedience. With the exception of behavionr that is criminal or liable to bring the Bnhl'i community into disrepute (punishable hy the loss of Bahl'i AnMrulsrnnTlvr nlct~Ts),compliance is a matter of individual CONSCIENCE. There is no equivalent of the Islamic practice of social regulation of prayer, fasting and other individual obligations.

codifications of law should replace the often arbitrary pronouncements of individual lslamic jurisconsults (SDC 14, 18,37-8). Shoghi Effendi referred to the need for a future single code of inremarional law wirh hinding .authority, and to the development of a world legislsturc and world court (WOR 41, 203). (See also HUMAN RIGHT% JUSTICE.)

lawh (Ar, board, tablet, slaw, pl.: alrudh) Term used to refer m the writings of Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and incorporated as part of the title of many smallcr works (e.g. lau,h-i-AQDAS). The term is traditionally used t o refer to various writings, including the tahlrts of the law hroughr down hy Moses from Mount Sinai and the 'Preserved Tablets' on which, according to Islamic tradition, the doings of humankind have bcen recorded for all eternity.

GENERAL PRlNClPLB

Bahl'i law is often prcsentcd in rhc form of general principles which each individual must apply as they hcsr see fit in rheir own lives. The successive heads of the religion havc been reluctant to prcscrihe derailed codes of hehaviour. This is in marked contrast t o the detailed provisions found in Islamic law. GENDER EQUALITY

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The Universal House of Justice has csrshlished the principle that any BahH'i law originally defined in relation to onc sex should be applied t o the other, mutatis mrrtnndir, unlcss this is inapproprinte (MUH] 272-3 no. 145: KA 7). CLERICAL CLASS

Thcre is no equivalent to the Islamic .ULAMA able to elucidate the law authoritativcly (KA 5). SECULAR LAW

All shoi~ldbe equal before the law and law itself should be just. 'Abdu'l-Bahl called for the protection of hoth the rights of the individual and 'all mankind'. In the 19th-century Iranian conrcxr capital punishment cases tried by local authorities should be contingent upon confirmation by the central govcmment; litigants should have the right of appeal to higher courrs; and uniform

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Leach, Bernard (1887-1979) Internationally rcspccted potter and artist who was a Bahi'i. Hc was honoured by bath the British and Japanese governments for his work. His pottery at St lvcs in Cornwall attracted studenn from many parts of the world. He became a BahH'i in around 1940. BWl8: M9JI:Lwch BqndEes!, Dmvnngr League of Nations See UNITED NATIONS.

'learned' Many prominent early Baha'is bclongcd to the lslamic learned class, the klorni, and Bah6'u'llih specifically blessed them, 'the learned among the people of Bahi'. They were his 'trustees', 'the manifestations' of his commandments, the embodiments of steadfastness. 'the daysprings of Divine Utterance', 'rhe billows of the Most Mighry Ocean', 'the stars of the firmament of Glory',

and 'the standards of triumph [of his cause]' ( K A 82 k173; TB 221). More generally, he praised those servants who dedicated themselves 'to the education of the world' and 'the edification of its peoples'. These brought 'the life-giving water of knowledge' to the peoples of the world, directing them to 'the straight path' and acquainting them wirh what was conducive 'to human uplifrmenr and exaltadon' (TB 35). That there would continue to be Bahl'i 'learned' was indicated 1,y Bahi'u'lllh's appointOF ment of certain followers as HANUS THE CAUSE, a position later given institutional status as part of the Babl'i 'Administrative Order', and thc esrahlishmcnt of such other 'institutions of ~Y the learned' as the A U X I L I ARonnns and CONTINENTAL BOARDS o r COUNSKLmns. Thcse individuals are accorded high rank, hut unlike their Shi'i counterp a m are denied executive power (given instead ro the clecred A S S E M R I . I E ~ )or the right to make authoritative inrcrprctarions hinding on rheir fellow believers (MUH] 214-17 no. 111). Nor - apart from the Hands - are rheir appointments for life. Other eminent Baha'i tcachcrs may also he considered 'Icnrncd', hut havc no administrative rank. (See also ADMINISTRATION; 'ULAMA).

Letters of the Living (H~#rifi"l-hon~) The first eighteen disciples of the Bih. The lia given by rhc Bah5.i chronicler NAH~L.I.A.ZAM follows. (Those also listed ar Letters by Qatil al-Karhall'i (ARR 176) are marked ". Qatil also lists Mulll Muhammad Maylma'i.) (1) 'Mulll HUSAYN Busn~it'i,killed a t

Tabarsi

(2) 'Muhammad-Hasan BushrB'i, brother of Mulli Husayn, killed at Tabarsi (3) *Muhammad-B6qir BushritT, nephew of Mulli Husayn, killed at Taharsi

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(4) 'Mull6 ' A L BAST ~ AM^ (5)Mulli Khudi-Bakhsh Qdchlni, later known as Mulli 'Ali (6) "Mulli Hasan Bajistini (7) 'Sayyid Husayn Yazdi, the Blb's secretary, killcd in Tehran (1852) (8) "Mirrl Muhammad Rawdih-KhBn Yazdi (9) (Shaykh?) Sa'id Hindi (10) 'Mu116 M a b d d Khu'i, killed at Tabarsi (11) "Mull6 ('Abdu'l-)Jalil U r h i (Urdkbidi), killed a t Tabarsi 1121 . . *Mu116 Ahmad-i-lbdll Marlzhi'i. . killcd at ~ a b a r s i 1131 . . 'Mull& Blair Tabrizi. the onlv one of rhc Letters to become a Bahl'i. He died in about 1881 in Istanbul, having outlived all his fellows (RE2 145-7) (14) Mu116 Yksuf Ardibili, killed at Tabarsi (15) MirG HBdi Qazvini, hrother of Mirri Muhammad-'Ali Qazvihi (16) 'Mirrl Muhammad-'Ali Qazvini, brother-in-law of Tihirih, killed a t Tabard killed in Tehran (1852) (17) TAHIRIII, (18) 'QUDDUS,killcd in Birfurdsh (1849) Of Nabil's list, six were from Khurasan (nos. 1-6); five from Azerbaijin (nos. 10-14), three from Qazvin (nos. 15-17), rwo from Yazd (nos. 7-R), and one each from Mazandaran (no. 18) and India (no. 9). .Most were of relatively humble social origins, and had been followers of the Shaykhi leader, Sayyid KAZIM.Nine were killed during or immediatcly following the Shaykh TAnn~siconflict. As a group, the Letters of the Living were given a cosmic role by the B6b, who identified them with the 'forerunners' (sribiqdn), the first members of the human race to respond t o God's preeternal covenant and, in Shi'i tradition, Muhammad, the lmlms and Fltima (see RETIIRN). They were also t o have a n organizational function as the first

'unity' (wrihid) in a proposed hierarchy of nineteen-member groups of believers (see NUMBERS). The three most prominent Letters (Mulli Husayn, phirih and Quddds) came to exercise an independent charisma and authority, expressed in the attribution of high spiritual stations m them. ARR 17441, 189.93; GPB 7 4 ; Modain. 'Hiaochy' 1044, 113-22; S B B R 2 6 5 . dl.

liberty

Bahi'u'llih condemned political and religious tyranny, advocated participatory democracy, and stteued the importancc of individual religious freedom. At the same time hc regarded unchecked liberty as destructive of SOCIAL ORDER. The principle of MODERATION had to apply. Liherq is beneficial in some circumstances but not in others. When carried to excess it exerts a pernicious influence on human beings, leading in the end t o sedition, 'whosc flames none can quench'. For human beings, 'true libeny9 consists in submission t o God and his commandments. This protects the individual from borh his own ignorance and the had influences of others. People are like a flock of sheep which need a shepherd far their protection (KA 63-4 k122-5; TB 169). Similarly, 'Abdo'l-Bahi referred to the 'modcrate freedom' rhar guarantees human welfare and preserver 'universal relationships' (SWAB 3051, and the Universal House of Justice has stressed the need for limits t o freedom in order far there t o be a balance berween the rights of the individual and those of the community (Individual Rights). (See also HUMAN RIGHTS.)

literacy For BahB'u'lllh it was imperative rhar every child - boy or girl - learns how to read and write. The responsibility for this rests both with the father and the HOUSE OF JUSTICE (KA 3 7 k48; TB 1281.

It is the dury of children t o exert themselves to acquire these skills, but it is not necessary for all t o attain the same level of ability: basic skills are enough for some (CCI: 368 no. 771). The importance of EDUCATION in general was also stressed. The BahB'is' response to these reachi n g ~has reflected the religion's pattern of EXPANSION. From the late 19th century onwards members of the Iranian Bahl'i communiry became committed to cducational development, and the community as a whole became distinguished for its higher level of education. The contrast was particularly marked in the case of WOMEN, most Iranian Bahl'i women becoming literate by the 1970s a t the latest, whilst until very recently most Iranian Muslim women remained illiterate. Western Bahi'is, by contrast, were generally uninterested in literacy: most were already literate and educated and lived in societies in which education was readily available. With the influx of large numhers of new BahB'is in the rural Third World (from the 1950d60s). many of whom were illiterate, the importance of Bahi'u'llih's injunction again became evident. Particular attention has been directed t o Bahi'i litcracy since 1989, when the Universal Housc of Justice called for systematic action to eliminate illiteracy from the Bahl'i community world-wide, identifying literacy as a 'fundamental right and privilege of every human being', and emphasizing its role in giving thc individual access to the 'dynamic influence' of the 'sacred Word' (see WORDOF Goo). This encouraged a variety of local literacy projects (186 by 1992). In addition, the Officc of Social and Economic Development at the Bahl'i World Centre has embarked on an international literacy campaign, beginning wirh pilot projects in Cambodia, the Central African Republic and Guyana, and already spreading t o other countries (BWNS 1992-3: 313; 1994-5: 128).

literature

BahP'i is an intensely literate religion, which emphasizes the power of the Wono OF GOD and encourages all its adherenn to become literate so that they can read its writings for themselves (see LITERACY). A large literature has developed, particularly in Persian, Arabic and English. The most important category of Bahl'i literature comprises the religion's CANONICAL TEXTS (the writings of the Bib, Baha'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahl, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal Housc of Justice, together wirh the authenticated talks of 'Abdo'l-Bahl). There is a large 'secondary literature', comprising the work of individual Bahl'is and institutions (Collins (Bibliography 41-158) lists 2,819 items in English on the Bibi or Bahi'i religions up to 1985, including multiple editions, but excluding marerials in Braillc ( I 4 2 items) and rmlonIcALs). 8roun. Rmdar's Guide pwider o of English-longuq rm~eriolsomund 1986. (See also Blsi AND Bnl1l.i STUDIES; INTERPILETATION; WEIR? PUBLISHING; TRANSLATION.) 'living the life'

Bahb'is are exhorted to live lives of virtuous conduct and devoted service to the Bahl'i Cause. This objective is often referred to as 'living the life'. cc2 1-27. (See also EXCELLENCE; S P ~ R I T U A LQUILITIE(; .TCACIIING.)

local spiritual assemblies See ASSEMBLIES. love

Bah6'11'116h taught that God created human beings out of his love for them, and so they in turn should love him. His love is their paradise and their safe stronghold (HWa nos. 3-91, For 'Abdu'l-Bahi love was 'the ground of all things' (SWAB 66). It is a 'living power' which brings life, illumination, hope and gladness t o those who are

lifeless, cold, hopeless and sorrowful. It is the greatest power in the world of existence. All genuine love is divine ( P T 192-4). No matter where it is found, love is light and hate is darkness (SWAB 3). Love proceeds from God and from human beings. God's love is part of his own essence, and a reflection of himself in the mirror of his creation. His love for his creatures gives them material existence, divine grace and eternal life ( P T 193). It is 'the Holy Spirit's cternal breath' which vivifies the human soul; the cause of divine revelation; 'rhe vital bond' inherent in the rcality of all created things; the true source of cternal happiness; 'the living link' that unites God and the individual human being; 'heaven's kindly light' that 'guideth in darkness' and assures the progress of every 'illumined soul'. It is the attractive power that binds the material elements together; directs the movements of heavenly bodies; and is the revealer of scientific knowledge. It is the basis for true civilization, and those who turn towards it will be exalted whilst those who rum away from it will fall inro despair and he destroyed (PUP 255,268-9; SWAB 27-8). Human love is directed towards both God and orher

human beings. Love of God artracrs the individual towards God. It purifies the human heart, preparing it for the revelation of divine grace, and is the source of philanthropy ( P T 193; SWAB 202-3). Through ir human beings are transformed, and become self-sacrificing (PUP 256-7). Such activities as MUSIC and the quest for KNOWLEDGE become heavenly only when joined with thc love of God (SWAB 181). True love for other human beings (as opposed to transient amaction) occurs when each see 'the Beaury of God' reflected in the other's soul (PT 193-4). A family, a city, a nation, humanity itself, will all progress when their members are hound together in unity and agreement. Correspondingly. rhey will be destroyed and dispersed if thcir members are divided by mutual hatred (PUP 1445). Bahl'is should strive t o become the manifestations of divine love. There should be lave and 'spirihlal communion' among the Bahi'is (becoming 'as one being and one soul'), but they should also love all human beings of all religions, races and communities, including their enemies (SWAB 21, 28, 69,203,246). lG403-5. (See alro H U M A N RACE.)

MacNuft, Haward (1858-1926) Prominent carly Americsn Bahi'i. He converted in 1898, and was appointed as B a l l reacher by lbrahim KHEIRALLA for New York. He later rravcllcd widely as a Bahj'i lecturer, and compiled the English translations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's talks in North America, T17c Promulgalion of Univnrol Peace (1922-5). Shoghi Effcndi honoured him as one of the OP 'ARUU.L-BAHA. BFAl; BHZ; DISCIPLES WBW35-42. magic The manipulation of supernatural forces to bring ahout dcsired practical conscquenccs (e.g. curing dlscase, obtaining a good harvest). In general the Bahd'i Faith promotes a rationalistic, 'scientific' understanding of phystcal and social processes (see SCIENCE). and is thus antipathetic t o w a r d s the magical world-view characteristic of much folk religion. Certain magical and occult practices and beliefs are specifically condemned. The conccpt of talismanic proreirtun appears to he acccprcd, boa.cbrr Isec ~ < l . ~ r u \ ' . O .\lngnsal . rlrmrnn are sometimes found in Bahi'i 'folk religion', as in the practice of some Persian Bahi'is of keeping porrions of sugar loaf ( n a b i t ) which have been deliberately placed in the Bahl'i Shrines in Haifa in the belief that they will acquire healing properties - although

Shoghi Effendi stressed that thc remains of the Prophets have no 'physical significance', bur only a spiritual one (LG 507). It was a common belief among 19th-century Iranian Muslims that BahB'is posscssed some magical suhstance which rhey added tu tcs to make people convert to their religion. sssn 38. 84. (See alro MIRACI.FS.)

Mahdi (Ar., 'the rightly guided onc') Islamic messianic figure, expected to deliver the world from oppression, establish the rule of justice and restore the purity of Islam. He would fight against the AN.TICHRIST, conquer rhc world, and then reign over a messianic kingdom until the RESURRECTION and the final day of divine judgcmcnr. He would come at a time of iniusticc and decadence, and it was the duty of all true Muslims t o hasten t o his support. Expcctarion of the iMahdi is found in both Sunni and Shi'i Islam, hut whereas in Sunnism it has bccn mainly confined rclision. to rhc level of pnpolar . . .. . in SIII.I%\I 11 has l~rcomepan of the officjal docrrtne, rhc ll~d'len lnjdm - cornom>nlv known as the Q ~ I M- being equatcd with the Mahdi. There arc various expected 'signs' of his advent and appearance. Numerous individuals have claimed the status of Mahdi over the centuries, and the doctrine possesses considerable religio-political potency.

l

Manifestations of Gad

Maid of Hnnen -The Bib claimed t o be the Mahdi, and he and his chief disciples consciously sought t o fulfil the signs of the Mahdi's coming (the Bib's proclamation a t Mecca; the projected gathering of believers a t Karbali; the flying of the etc.). scam. L I I W O ~ , . H ; ~ BLACK STANDARD; 1: 39BdM; Momso. Shi'i Irbm 36. 16670: S a c b dina; S&BR 42-3: Smilh. 'Millanotionism' 238-9.

garbed in white, sanding in the air before him, consoling him in her embrace, or alluding to his own death. Shoghi Effendi refers t o the Maiden as an analogous representation of the divine as the burning bush encountered by Moses, the dove that descended on Jesus, o r the Angel Gabriel who appeared to Muhammad. GPO 101: wol. bridgs. kocred 15845.

Maid of Heaven

I

In one of his visions in the SIYAH.CH~L MakO (Mi-Kbh) Small town in north-weaern Iran (Azerprison in Tehran (1852) Rahi'u'llih saw haijin) close m the Russian and Turkish a maiden (hdri) - the 'cmhodiment' of bordcn. Rising above the town is an the remembrance of Go& name - who overhanging rock face at the base of addressed the entire creation t o which there is a fonress in which rhc B5b announce his mission, and whose sweet was imprisoned for nine months Uuly voice imparted such tidings as rejoiced 1847 - 9 April 1848). The Bib's imprihis very being. This figure recurs in a number of Bahi'u'11ihb visionary writsonment was at first severe, but the ings ('The Tablet of the Maiden' ( k w h - attitude of the govern04 'Ali Khin, later changed (reportedly as a result of a i-Htirr), 'The Tablet of the Deathless virion), and a flow of Bihi visitors was Youth' (Lawh-i-Ghuldmu'l-khuld),The Tablet of tlte Holy Mariner ( I ~ w h - i - permirred. 7he local population - Sunni Kurds - were initially hostile, but came to Mallrihu'l-quds) and 'The Tablet of the regard the Bib as a holy man whose Vision' (Iau~h-i-Ru'yci), the first three blcssing rhey sought. The Bib referred to all written in Baghdad), luminous,

the place as the 'Open Mounrain' uaboli;Bbit). The town was Hiji ~Mirzl A~iiriSbirthplace, and was under his control, and it was no doubt for this reason that it war initially chosen as the Bib's place of confincment. Russian security concerns and the governor's leniency prompted the Bib's subsequent The M i k i ~~ e r i o dis transfer t o CHIHR~Q. significant both asmarking the end of any hopes that the Bib miaht . aain - the s u.o.~ o r r of the Qijar regime and in in doctrinal developmenrs: the Bah'r composition of the BAYAN and the DaWiI-i-rab'ih, and his claim to be the Q A I Mb. I p ~ i e 4 1 2 8 3 3 ; MBBR 72; McS 16, 82-8; Nobil242-50.

Manifestations of God IPers sinpolar: trtn?l~flr-i-ilihr)

a transformation in the lives of their followers, bringing unity to diverse peoples, and giving them peace, courage and certitude (Kl 72-3, 100). They have a double 'station': of 'essential unity' and 'dirtinnion'. Thus, whilst they share a common role as bringers of divine revelations and proclaim the same faith (see nr~lcloN),each also has his own mission, message and human individuality. Again, as thechannels through which human beings approach the divine, they may claim to bc the veryvoice of God, o r they may refcr to themselves as mere prophets and emphasize the unapproachability of the divine essence (KI 97-8, 113-16). Ft~rureManifestations will arise undcr the 'shadow' of Rahi'u'llih (WOE 11 I),though none for at least a thousand years (KA 32 k371. cds. Caocsot. (See also

For BahB'is Goo in essence is unknowable, therefore he sends his messengers the Manifestations of God - to he his exponents on earth. They are theophanics: mirrors who reflect God's glory and reveal his anribures. They are not incarnations of God: rhey d o not embody the divine essence (WOE 112-13). Thcy transmit divine knowledge and infinit" grace to humankind (KI 63-8). For ' human heings they represent the divine presence. They are the means of approach t o God (KI 89-92). They are PROPHETS 'endowed with constancy', who reveal divinc LAW; possess the 'Mast Great INFALLIBILITY' ('ismah-i-kabri); and are protected from sin. They come as a succession of reachers (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION; PROPHECY). There is no definitive list of recognized Manifestations bur rhey include ADAM,ABRAHAM, Mosas, Zoroaster (see Z O R ~ A S T ~ I A N I S M ) , Krishna (see INDIAN RELIGIONS), the BudJESUS,IMUHAMMAD, dha (see BUDDHISM), the Biis and BAH~U~I.I.AII. They exercises spiritual sovereignty over all in heaven and earth ( K I 69). Each one brings a judgement which separates the faithful (who accept them) from the unbelieven A4iznzichihr Khir,. lhe pon,erf,,i ,golrmor (who reiecr them) lK172). They engender of ir(dbda who offered rhe Bdh pruterrron

1'

Tire /ortress

of

Mibri, ,reor the Zrrkrrh orrd Arnretiiorr borders,

rvhere the Bib war impnroned. 1847-8

marriage

Manbchihr Khbn Manbchihr Khbn Mu'tamadu'ddowlih (Ar., 'Trusted of the State'), id. 1847) Governor of lsfihin from 1838 until his death. A Georgian eunuch converted t o Islam, he was regarded as one of the most capable administrators in mid19th-ccnrury Iran. I-le gained a reputation as a severe but even-handed ruler of the province, and protected the Jewish and Christian minorities. The B6b gaincd the Mu'fnnrad's protection following his escape from Shirir, and remained for four months in Isfihin. At the governor's request the Bib composed a treatise on the 'special prophethood' of Muhammad. According to the Bibi-Bahf'i account the governor becamc a Bibi, and promised the Bib his support in gaining access to MUHAMMAD SHAH.Such hopes were cot short by the Mu'tnmad's death (21 February 1847). ARR 2sbs. 3BlNn: h b z i . BL 108-16;MEap 167.9; NOUI 199-215. Man-yu~hiruhu'llah See HEWHOM GOOSIHALL HAKE

MANITFIT.

Maqsld, Lawh-i(PA, Tnhlet of Maqrtid) Late Syrian-period tahlet of Bahi'u'llih composed for a M i r d MaqsOd. The tablet dcals with a range of themes, including the inherent greatness of H U M A N NATURE; JUSTICE; the need for a n assemblage of rulers to gather to rstablish the Lesser PEACE;SERVICEto the and human race; MODERATION; WISDOM; the state of the world. It is written in the form of a letter from Bahi'u'llih's amanuensis, M i r ~ A i ~ iJAN. i TB 159-78.

Marie (1875-1938) Queen of Romania. Shc was the grandof Britain daughter of Queen VICTORIA II of Russia. She and of Tsar ALEXANDER married the Romanian crown prince Ferdinand in 1893, and became queen

Shoghi Effendi described marriage as the bedrock of the whole structure of human society. It is a divine institution.

ensure that a proper ceremony is held and parental consent obtained. THE BRIDAL G F I I M A H R l

REQUIREMENTS OP I I A H LAW ~ ~

The stipulations concerning betrothal, the bridal gift, virginity and travel are at present only applicable for Middle Easte m Bahi'is. CONSENT

in 1914, and queen dowager after her husband's death in 1927. She learnt of the BahB'i Faith in 1926 from Martha ROOT, and paid public tribute to the 'wondrous message' of Bah6'u'IIBh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, stating that the Bahi'i teaching represented 'the real spirit of Christ', and brought 'peace to the soul and hope to the heart'. Shoghi Effendi lauded her support. Her daughter Ileana, later an Orthodox nun (the Reverend Mother Alexandra), has denied that her mother ever becamc a BahB'i (Miller 304 "41). Elhv, GPB 389PS: Mam 59-52; lobbani. Pticelcu Paad 107-17; Zintyond Bomm 10%15.

marriage BahB'u'llBh bade his followerr t o marry, both so as t o bring forth children and as an 'assistance' to themselves. Marriage is not obligatory, however. True marriage is 'a fortress for well-being and salvation'; a spiritual as well as a physical relationship which will continuc through 'all the worlds of God'.

Marriage is dependent first on the consent of the couple, and then of their parents, this latter permission being required t o strengthen ties between family members and to prevent any enmity. Parental permission is required regardless of the age of the parties, and whether or not they have been married before. In cases of adoption it is the permission of the n a ~ r a parents l that is required unless these cannot he located. It is important thar the couple thoroughly appraise themselves of each other's characters before martying: they must be conscious of their commitment t o a lifelong relationship rather than being simply attracted by passion. Both partners must have reached 'the age of maturity', i.e. fifteen, and neither can evcn become engaged hefore this age.

The marriage is conditional upon the payment of a relatively small amount of money by the husband to the wife. (Bahl'i sources refer to this payment as a 'dowry', giving the term a new mcaning: the payment is not brought to the marriage by the bride from her family. In thar the payment is not given to the bride's parents, it is not a 'brideprice' either) This payment is fixed a t the equivalent of a minimum of 19 MITHQALS (69 grams) of precious metal -gold if the husband is a city-dweller and silver if he is a villager -and a maximum of 95 ntithqdls (346 grams), with the lower rate being preferable. If it is accepted, a husband can instead give his bride a promissory note for the money a t the time of the wedding. VIRGINITY

This must not exceed ninety-five days,

If a man had supposed that his bride was a vizin. - hut then at the time of c o n m a t ing the mattiage discovers that she is not, the bride-~avmentand weddin~e m n s e s may k demanded. If thc marriage itself had been made conditional o n the woman's virginity, then it is thereby invalidated. To conceal the matrer is highly meritorious in the right of God, however.

THE MARRIAGE CEREMONY

TRAVEL

The ceremony itself consists of both parmers saying a specific verse ('We will all, verily, abide by the Will of God') in the presence of rwo witnesses. They may add to this as they wish - for example by the inclusion of ptayen and scriptural readings - but the ceremony should remain simple. Any other ceremony, such as a civrl marriage in places where the Bahi'i marriage has no legal standing, should take place on the same day as the BahP'L marriage. Modem Bahi'i marriages take place under thc jurisdiction of a spiritual nssauaru, which must

If a man embarks on a journey, he must fix a date with his wife for his return. If circumstances prevent his return by the promised date, he must inform her. If she receives no word from him for a period of nine months beyond the appointed dare, or she receives reliable report of his death from two witnesses, she can remarry. If his fate is unknown, hawever, she is encouraged t o be patient.

BETROTHAL

SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS

Such relationships outside marriage are not permitted (see SEX). This includes

1 l

I

l

I

I

I

I I

1

'trial' and 'companionate' marriages. Modem Bahiy practice permits only strict monogamy (cf ~ O L Y G A M Y ~but , if polygamous mamiages have been contracted prior to an individual becoming a Bahi'i, then these are accepted. PROHIBITED RELATIONSHIPS Bahl'u'llih forbade men from marrying their fathcr's wives. The Universal House of Justice extends this prohibition, mutotis mut~ondis, t o include marriage between a woman and her stepfatheq i.e. a man and his stepdaughrer. More generally, 'Abdu'l-Bahi stated rhat the more distant the relationship between the marriage partners the better: this would promote both physical well-being and wider fellowship between peoples. He also encouraaed interracial marriages. This conttasn markedly with the common tendency in many Middle Eastern societies to marry close relatives, particularly cousins. The whole question of permitted relationships is leh to the futum decision of the House of Justice. INTfRRLLlGlOUS MARRIAGES

Bahi'is are free to marry those of other religions, bur if they participate in the marringc ceremony of another religion, this should nor involve them in any dissimulation of their own fairh. DOMESTIC: V1OI.ENCE Rahs'i marriage should be based on a relationship of mutual respect and equality. All fonns of spousal ahuse are thrrefore condemned. For one partner t o use force to compel the other to obey them would contradict the principle of consultation on which the marriage should be based. cc2: 458-9. (See atso FAMII.Y LIFE.) Km 7. 41 k63. 4 2 3 k 6 7 . 58 k107. 69-70 kI39. 10Sdq3d. 11%11 q13. 115q267. lldq30. 119 +9. 120~43.121 qd67. 122 q54131q8d. 132 qS7-8. 131-4 q 2 . 149-52.205-10 n8%99.2224 "133; LG36E90.

martyrdom A martyr is one who suffers death in the [heir religion. ney become a swimers, for their faith. ~~~d~~ is a motif in shyism, parti. ,j0, cularlq linked to the death of the lmim HUSAYN(see IMAMS) at KARBALA, and glorifying sacrificial anion in the cause of truth. This paradigm was readily appropriated by the Bibis as the tensions hctwcen them and the secular and religious authorities increased, the readiness of the Bibis t o face marryrdom giving them lroth courage and religious legitimacy. The struggle at TAsn~siin particular assumed the guise of a reenactment of Karbali (SBBR 27.44-5). This motif continued after most of the remaining Blbis had hccomc Bahs'is. and the readiness of some Bahl'is t o face martyrdom continues to provide powerful validation of their commitment in lran and clsewherc. Whilst BahB'u'll6h praised those who had given their lives tor God's cause, and eulogized marryrdom as heing greater in God's sight rhan 'the creation of the universe' (I-1LVa nos. 45-7, hc counselled his followers to he cautious in propagating his faith, and to observe 'mrsno~'(kikmot) in identifying thrrnsclves as Baha'is. They should definircl~not seek marryrdom (some Bahl'is desired to become martyrs, seeing rhat station as a means of expressing their self-sacrifice and utter dedication, even writing t o Rahi'u'llah asking him to grant them this lhonour). Instead, they should serve and in particular reach the Bahi'i cause. Those who led lives of self-sacrificial dedication might indeed gain the status of martyr, though rhcy died natural deaths (e.g. l a ~ . ~ . A s ~ aIEB o ) 172: MacEoin. 'From Bihism' 225-7). number of Bibi martyrs is uncertain. Bahi'i sources commonly refer t o a rounded figure of twenty thousand, but a recent estimate places the number at between two and three

thousand (MacEoin, 'Bahl'i persecutions'; 'From Blbism' 2367; 'A note on the numben'). The mue figure may lie somewhere between these extremes. The total number of Bahfis killed in lran before the Islamic Revoludon of 1979 is again unknown: MscEoin estimates three hundred or so - but, as with the Ribi numbers, we should add probable deaths by starvation of dependants of those killed. Since 1979 over two hundred Bahl'is have becn murdered o r executed for their beliefs (see IRAN). Outside Iran, whilst there have been many instances of persecution and imprisonment (see OPPOSITION), there have been very few cases of Bahi'is having been martyred, one of the most notable heing Duarte VIEIRA(1966), in what was then Portuguese Guinea. Several dedicated individuals who were not killed for their beliefs were given the status of martyrs by Shoghi Effendi (George BENKE;May ~MnxlvaLl.;Keith RANSOM.KLHLER).

,,,,

Moshhad (Ar., lit. 'the place of martyrdom') (1868 pop. . . esr. 70,000) Capital of the north-eastern Iranian province of Khurdsln, and the shrine city of the eighth IMAM,Imdm Ridl. It became Mulld HUSAYN BUSHKWSS centre of operations, and it was from here that he and his companions began their STANDARD. march with the BLACK

".

_ ; ~Effcrrdi l?i in Hoifo appointment by 'Abdu'l-BahB there was

1

Shoghi Effendi RaWni

Shoghi Effendi, WriIings of ~~

Bahirs 'your true brother', and referred progress of the Caurc, and successfully to the institution of the guardianship communicated this t o the Bahiys of the rather than t o his own personal role. world through thousands of lctrers and Whilst 'Ahdu'l-Bahi had acted as a local his meetings with pilgrims. During the notable, even attending the mosque, 1920s a major focus of his work was the Shoghi Effendi distanced himself from sysrematization and extension of the the local Palestinian notability and conBahi'i ADMINISTRATION througho~tthe centrated his energies on the world-wide existing Bahi'i communities. During the direction of the Faith. Unlike 'Abdu'l1930s he presented the Bahi'is with his Rahi he never iourneyed to visit the ideas of the future W o n l . ~ORDER,and BahP'is overseas, his primary contacts completed a number of major nanswith the Bahh'is being through his lation projects (see S H ~ C HEFFENDI. I extensive correspondence. He met all WRITINGS or). From 1937 onwards a visiting BahP'is during their pilgrimages major focus was the development of the system of systematic planning (see to Haifa, teaching and inspiring them, and in many instances using them as PLANS), with the aim of eventually emissaries to reinforce his instructions to esrablishing BahP'i communities in every counrry of the world. In the late 1940s the Bahi'is in the various national commoniries. and 1950s he began a series of major developmcnrs s t the B A H ~W I onm PeRSDNAL LIFE CENTRE(constr~ctionof the SuperStNCThis was generally uneventful, and was rure of the SllnlN~OF TIIE BABand the largely subordinated t o his work as ~ N T E R N A T ~ O N A LARCHIVES Buildina; Guardian. The problem of securing extension and beautification of the sufficient secretarial support to help aardens at BAHJI).D u r i n ~the 1950s he again turned t o matters of adminisrration: establishing the INTERNATIONAL B A H ~COUNCIL I (1950) as a precursor of the Universal House of Justice, and Allxlu~nvBonnos (1954); and appoinring Hands of the Cause (1951-7). Throughout his minirrry he was concerned to define maners of Bahi'i belief and practice (such that much of the modern understanding of what is involved in being a Bahi'i comes from Shoghi Effendi), and periodically had t o deal wirh persecution of the Bahi'is in Iran and elsewhere. LEADERSHIP STYLE

Shoghi Effendi was a young man of twenty-four when he became Guardian. Western educated and, apart from a black fez which he normally wore, Western in dress, his style of leadership was very different from the venerable, patriarchal figure of 'Abdu'l-Bahi (leading t o criticism from some members of his family). He signed his letters t o the

7%c resting plnce uf Shuxhr Effetrdi it, London, Enalnnd

with the ever-growing mass of correspondence was only really resolved in the 1950s. by which rime Shoghi Effendi LEmRS had long since adiusted to a pattern of The vast majority of his writings are unremitting hard work when in Haifa, letters (over 17,500 letters by him or interspersing this with summer breaks during which he might visit Europc - wrirren on his behalf by a secretary have been collecred so far). These range from normally in the early years the Swiss routine correspondence dealing wirh the Alps - or (on two occasions) traverse activities of Bahi'is in various pans of Africa from south t o north (1929, the world t o lengthy monographs 1940). In 1937 he married Mary Maxaddressing specific themes. To date, well (b. 1910), the only daughter of nvo fourteen volumes of the English-lanNonh American BahP'is. The couple guage letters have been published: colhad no children, but ROHIYYIIIKH~NUM, lections of more or less routine letters to as she was called, became his helpmate the American, Canadian, Alaskan, and constant companion until his pasBritish, German, Indian, Australian and sing. During the 1940s a conflict dcvclNew Zealand Bahi'is, together with oped between Shoghi Effendi and many members of his extended family (his monograph letters on the WORLI) ORDEROF BAH~U.LLAH; teaching the brother, sisters, cousins and aunts), BahP'i Faith (ADVENT~FDIVINE]USTICE, partly because of their contacts, includ1938); and Bahi'u'llih's proclamation ing marriage, with Covenant-breaking to the rulers (PROMISED DAYIS COME, members of Baht'u'llih's extended 1941). Published copies of other letters family. All were eventually excommunicated by him (see COVENANT-BREAKERS;are found in various compilations. The letten cover a variety of themes: encourNOnl FAMILY). He died unexpecredly agement to the BahP'is to teach and 'live during a visit to London on 4 Novcmkr the life' of true Bahl'is; reports of BahP'i 1957 following a bout of influenza and activities in various parts of the world, was buried there. 80.h: ~ i o s h e v ;Robboni. commonly pointing to the wider signifiR;c.ks Psorl: 588) 115-28. 136-7; BFSH 101-12. cance of particular events; summons to Bahi'is to achieve specific goals such as Shoghi Effendi, Writings of the settlement of pioneers, the esrablishment of assemblies, rhe translation of Shoghi Effendi wrote extensively in both Bahl'i literature, and the acquisition of English and Persian. As he himself Bahi'i centres and other properties; emphasized, 'Abdu'l-Bahi had conferred analysis of particular developments upon the guardianship the function of within Bahi'i history; sratemenn regardinrerpreter of the word of God (WOR ing Bahi'i beliefs, morality, social prin148, 150-1). As such, the Guardians ciples, law and administration; and were empowered 'to reveal the purport obituaries of outstanding Bahl'is. Some and disclose the implications of the utterof the letters to the Iranian Bahi'is have ances of Bahi'u'llBh and of 'Abdu'l-Baalso been ~ublishedin the original. but h i ' (WOB 151). These interpretations these are generally difficult to obrain, werc authoritative and binding. In this and few have been translated. manner, his writings have been a primary elemcnt in thc shaping of modem BOOKS Bahi'i belief (SBRR 136-7). George Shoghi Effendi wrote one book in TOWNSHEXD served as Shoghi Effendi's English, an interpretive history of the literary adviser, reading and commentfirst cenrury of Bibi-Baht'i history, G o o ing on a number of his manuscripts.

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PASSESflu (1944). He also wrote a shorter, Persian-language, version, the L a w h - i - Q n m , and was extensively involved in editing work for the R~rr,i.r WORLDvolumes.

foundation stone was then laid and, afrer some months, construction work began. A marhle sarcophagus war also received from the Bahi'is of Burma to serve as the eventual resting place of the remains. The project proceeded slowly TRANSLATIONS in the face of a succession of difficulties O f Shoghi Effendi's translations, a few regarding the acquisition of land and smaller pieces appeared in print in the building permission. The building was 1920s. together with a collaborative completed hy 1907, hut it was not until rendering of Bahi'u'llih's H l o o r v March 1909, on the evening following Wonas (1929). Later he published a the first N ~ w . R u zafter the ending of his further four volumes o f Rahl'u'llih's own confinement in Akka, that 'Abdu'lwritings (The K i t d b - ~ - I Q , ~(1931); N Bahi finally placed the remains of the Glennings from t h e W r i t i n g s of Bib and his executed companion inside Bahd'u'llah (1935); Prayers and Meditathe sarcophagus which had been placed tions by Bahl'u'llih (1938); and EPISTLE in a vault beneath what is now the TO THE SON O P T H E WOLF(1941)), and a central room of the Shrine. Whcn translation of N ~ a i ~ - l - A . z n(Zarandil's ,v 'Abdu'l-Bahi died in 1921 he was history of the Bibis, which appeared in buried beneath another mom of the Shrine, giving the building an increased English under the title DAWN-BREAKERS (1932). Many other translated passages religious significance. from Bahi'i scripture appeared in his The Shrine constructed by 'Abdu'lleners. Bahi consisted of a six-room masonry structure on what was then a relatively OTHER WORKS isolated sire on the northern slope of Shoghi Effendi prepared several compiMount Camel some distance ahove the lations of Bahl'i sratistics and other German TEMPLE SOCIKTY colony. The materials, as well as a number of Bab's remains were deposited beneath historical maps. the central of the three southern rooms next t o the mountainside and those of 'Abdu'l-Bahl beneath the central of the Shrine of the Bab three northern rwms facing the sea. In The Bahi'is' second-holiest shrine. 1928-29130 Shoghi Effendi had extenLocated in Haifa and one of the focal sive excavations made into the side of points of the B A HWORLD ~ ~ CENTRE, it is the mountain and an additional three also a major Haifa landmark. AB 12t-30; rooms constructed to the south to form Giachay 41-1 18; GPB 274-7; Rabboni. Rireku Psorl a square with the room of the Rib's 23447. remains at the centre. 'Abdu'l-Bahl had intended that a more elaborate outer THE SHRINE Shrine would eventually he constructed. The site for the Shrine was indicated by In 1942 Shoghi Effendi asked William Bahi'u'llih to 'Abdu'l-Bahl in 1891 Sutherland MAXWFI.L (his father-in-law during a visit t o Mount Carmel. In and then resident in Haifa) t o begin 1898 'Abdu'l-Bahi gave instructions work on the design of the superstrucfor the Bib's remains t o be transported ture, and the final form of this was from cheir place of concealment in approved in 1944. Actual construction Tehran, the remains arriving secretly in was delayed until after the end of World Akka on 31 January 1899 (fifty lunar War I1 and preparations tinall" hegan in years afrer the Bib's execution). The 1947 amtdrr the turbulent pertod mark-

b:xrerior of the Shritte of t/,c 866

Names dven by'Abdu.1-Bahi in bold Nama &en by Shoghi Effendi,to porn he added oper ilbdu'l-BahdP dwth in d o k

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Shrine of BaM'u'llbh ing the birth of the state of Israel. The work proceeded in sages, with first the construction of a colonnaded arcade surrounding rhe original Shrine building, topped by a balustrade (completed in May 1950); then a windowed central actaaon. - . towed .. by a second balustrade with minarcr-like pinnacles a t each corner: a n ll-metre-hiah drum-like clerestory with eighteen lancet windows; and finally a dome covered in gilded tiles and topped with a lantern and finial. The work was completed in September 1953 at a total cost of threc-quarters of a million dollars. Much of the work was completed in Italy, including that on the granite and marble used in the canstruction. The Shrine is illuminated a t night.

shrines and holy places this pathway t o visit the Shrine. In 1987, the Universal House of Justice initiated a massive project involving the reconstruction of these terraces, the consrtuction of a further nine terraces above the Shrine, and extensions t o the gardens. This project is now well advanced. Its archirccr is Farihorz Sahha, the designer of the Indian Bahi'i temple. Shoghi Effendi described the Shrine as a 'focal center of Divine illuminarion and power', and the Bib's sacred remains as the spiritual centre of a series of concentric circles which ultimately embraced the entire planet. The Shrine also constituted a n institution that would play a major role in the future unfoldment of the Rahi'i world administrative centre (GPB 277; CF 95-6).

result of visiting such sites, then their acrions are meritorious. Except for the pilgrimages to the Shiriz and Baghdad houses there are no designated rituals for those visiting Bahl'i holy places, apart from a general injunction t o observe reverence, both physically and in one's own heart. In practice this involves being quiet in manner and dignified in dress, and in the care of the Bahl'i Shrines the removal of one's

shoes. When large groups of Bahi'is visit the Shrines there is often a prearranged programme of vRAunns and other wrirings which are recited or chanted by individuals within the group. On some special cari ions large groups of Bahl'is circumambulate Bah6'u'llih's Shrine at Rahji or that of the Bib in Haifa. Individuals who visit holy placer on their own will commonly pray (in whatever manner they wish: standing,

THE DOORS

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'Abdu'l-Bahi had named the five doors o f rhe original Shrine afrer two eminenr Iranian Bahi'is (Hiji A M ~ and N Mirzi ARVI..FA~L) and rhree of the Rahi'i masons who had contributed t o the Shrine's constru~rion(Usrid Aqh 'AliAshraf, Ustid Aqi BQIi, and Ustid 'Ahdu'l-Karim). Shoghi Effendi named the doors of the three extra rooms he had huilt after Hiii Mahmbd Qn$$hac ~ (who i provided the funding for the construction of the rooms), W.S. Maxwell (rhe architect of the supersrructurel, and UEO GIACHERY (who acted as liaison with the various Italian companies involved). The door t o the octagon war named after Lcroy Ions, who oversaw much of the final work (Giachery 214-16). T H E GARDENS A N D TERRACES

The Shrine is now surrounded by extensive ornamental gardens. Most of these were constructed by Shoghi Effendi, beginning in the 1920s, but particularly in the 1950s. Shoghi Effendi also consmcred a series of nine terraces leading up from the foor of the mountain ro the Shrine, prophesying that in the future Bahl'i kings and rulers would ascend

Shrine of Bahb'u'lluh See BnHli.

shrines and holy places Various sites associatcd with the Bib, Bahh'o'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahl are considered holy by Bahi'is, in particular the Shrines of the BAn and B A H ~ ~ . L I a. A t N i CENTRE, the House of the R a ~ kWORLD the Rib in S~inAz,and the House of Bahs'u'llih in R A C I ~ ATDh.n c last two were accordcd special s t a t u s by Bahi'u'llih and were designared by him as places of PILGRIMAGE. 'Abdn'lBahi added the 'Most Holy Shrine' of Bahi'u'llih as a place of pilgrimage. The graves of some other prominent Bihis and Bahi'is - including those of some Mnnrvns - have also acquired the status of holy places. The importance of holy places lies in their association with particular holy personages and in the faith of those who visit them. Apart from the three designated places of pilgrimage there is no obligation on Bahl'is t o visir any holy sire. They may if they wish, however, and if a person draws closer t o God as a

Ennonce

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Shrine of Bahd'tr'lldh

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social evolution kneeling, sirting), and many will prostrate themselves, particularly a t the 'holy thresholds' of the Shrines. Wherever possible the Bahi'is have worked t o restore and beautify those holy places under their ownership. Internal decorations convey a sense of dignity and beauty. Extcrnally there are often flower gardens. At the Bahi'i World Centre there has been extensive landscaping around the Shrines. In the 1940s, at Shoghi Effendi's instruction, the Iranian Bahi'is established a committee responsihle to locate and whcrever prchase holy places and historical sites linked to the Faith.

OTHER

In Iraq there is the House of Bah6'u'lllh in Baghdad and the RIDVAN (Naiibiyyih) Garden. In Turkey one of the houses Bahl'u'llPb occupied in EolnNE (the house of Rid6 Big) and a nearby orchard rented by Rahi'u'llih are now in BahP'i ownership. Other houses he occupied there and in Istanbul are no longer home standing. In Canada the MAXWELL in which 'Abdu'l-Bahi stayed when he visited Montreal has the status of a national Bahi'i shrine. In Britain there is HI in London, the grave of S W ~ CEFFENDI and in Burma the grave of Siyyid Mustafa RUMI.

IRAN

sin The holiest sire in Iran for Bahi'is is that Disobedience to God and his laws. It of the House of the Bib in Shiriz. The from the SOUL'S attachment t o the second holiest site is that of the S ~ Y ~ I Iresults material world, and reflects the 'animal' C t r 6 ~prison in Tehran. Other sites clcmcnrs and demands of HUMAN NATURE. include the fortress prisons of the B6b Sin hinders thc soul from artaining its V C t ~ ~ ~ n the i p , house of in M ~ K and destined Though ahsolute perBahi'u'llih in Tehran (the bnyt-ifection is never to be obtained, seeking to mt,bdmk, Blessed housc'), Bahl'u'llih's pcrfecr the soul by acquiring SPlnlTuAL ancestral home in the village of TikGr, QUALITIES leads thc individual towards the Shaykh T~nAnsishrine, and thegrave God (see HEAVEN). but a sinful life of Quno"s. Almost all Bahi'i holy sites separates him or her from God. As a in Iran were seized by the authorities in person draws nearer to God, their underthe aftermath of the Islamic Revolution standing of what God expects of them of 1979. incrcascs, such that 'the good deeds of THE B A H ~ WORLD .~ CENTRE the righteous are the sins of the Near Ones [to Godl' (SAQ 126). God's mercy There are numerous holy sites in the and LOVE for his creatures are so great Haifa-Akka area, most importantly the that all sins can he forgiven, but genuine Shrines of the BBb and Bahl'u'llah. In REPENTANCE is necessary. The FEAR o r AKKAthe main sites are the cell in the G o o and the development of CON. Citadel in which Bahi'u'llih was conSCIENCE help the individual t o avoid fined, the combined houses of 'Abb6d wrongdoing. Specific sins include anger, a n d ' ~ d iK h a m m i r , i n w h i c h jealousy, disputatiousness, lust, ride, Bahi'u'llih lived from 1871 until lying, hypocrisy, fraud, worldliness, self1873, and the house of 'Abdu'll6h love, covetousness, avarice, ignorance, Pish6, in which 'Abdo'l-Bahi lived from prejudice, hatred, pride and tyranny 1896 until 1910. In thesurrounding area (SAQ 92, 119). The Christian docmine the most important site is BAHJ~.In ~ I A I Papart A , from the combined SHRINE of original sin is rejected: babies are born sinless, it is a person's subsequent behaOF THE BAe and 'Abdu'l-Bahi, the most viour and worldly attachments that imponant site is the House of 'Abdu'lseparate them from Cod (SAQ 119-26). Bahi.

OF G O D a r e T h e MANIFESTATIONS regarded as free from sin. (See also EVIL.)

S i n g h , Pritam (1881-1959) Prominent early Indian Bahi'i. The first Bahi'i of Sikh background, hc came from a prominent family - his father was a High Court judge in 1.ahore. He became a Bahi'i shortly after completing his fist degree (19041, and subsequently became a university professor of economics, as well as one of the leading Bahi'i speakers and writers in India. His proclamation of the Baha'i Faith to Sikh princes, ministers and priests engendered considerable opposition. In 1927 he resigned from his profession in order t o devote himself full time t o Bahi'i activity, travelling and leawing extcnsively. He was also a member of the national spiritual assembly for many years. BW13: 8746; Khionm 109-30.

Siybsiyyih, Risbliy-i See POLIT1CS. TREATISE ON. s l a v e trade, slavery In his tablet to Queen Vcronu, Bahi'u'116h praised the British abolition of the slave trade, and in the Kitih-I-AQDAS prohibited the buying and selling of slaves, stating also that evcry individual was a bondslave of God, and thar none should exalt himself over another. Shoghi Effendi appears to have interpreted this as a prohibition of slavery itself (in the 19th century the two issues were distinct, the British declaring the slave trade illegal in 1807, and subsequently leading a campaign against the imernational slave trade from 1811 onwards, hut only abolishing slavery in their own colonies at later dates). ~mdornotim33-d;KA 45 k72; G B 214; Huddbslon. h n h 84-92.

smoking Tobacco smoking is discouraged but nor The underground dungeon in Tehran in forbidden, 'Abdu'l-Bahi noting that it is which Bahl'u'llbh and o t h a Blbii were a habit that is unclean, progressively imprisoned following the assassination injurious t o health and expensive. atrempt on the life of NASIRU.D-D~N SHAH Bahi'is are advised to be coucreons and in 1852. It was a disused cistern which considerate t o all, whether they be was reached along a narrow corridor and smokers or non-smokers. Thus, whilst down three steep flights of steps, and into IISSLM~I.IES might decide t o prohibit which as many as one hundred and fifty smoking a t Rah6'i devotional and prisonen might be held, in conditions of administrative meetings for the sake of appalling discomfort. The Bibis were non-smokers, they should also make chained together and many were taken provision for any smokers. Smoking away for execution, but they retained other onucs (such as marijuana) is their spirit, chanting verses of scripture completely forbidden. IG~SM. with such fervour that apparently they The BBb forbade the use of tobacco could be heard in the royal palace nearby. altogether, and one of the distinguishing Bahi'u'llih was weighed down with the characteristics of the early Bibia was infamous chains 'Qara-Guhar' (51 kg in their abstention from smoking. weight) and 'Solkil'. It was here that he experienced the initiatory visions thar social evolution marked the beginning of his mission For Shoghi Effendi Bahl'u'llih's mission (ESW 21-2). The Pit was later closed. was to achicvc thc 'organic and spiritual Shoghi Effendi described it as the second unity of the whole body of nations'. This halicst Baha'i site in Iran (MBW 80). It will mark humanity's 'coming of age', a was in BahP'i ownership from 1954 until mystic process of maturation analogous the Islamic Revolution of 1979. S i y 6 h - C h 6 1 (Pers., lit. 'Black Pit')

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to that of the individual, and the furthermost limits of possible societal Indiorganization (see WORLOORDER). vidual progress within such a society will continue indefinitely (WOE 1 6 3 6 ) . The present age of transition (see TIME) reprcscnts the adolescent stage in humanity's 'slow and painful evolution' characterized by impetuosity, self-assurance and rebelliousness. Previous stages in this process have seen the progresive unification of the family, tribe, city-stare and nation. The mocnEssrvr REVELATION of divine truth corresponds to the possibilities of human receptiveness at each stage of social evolution. Thus Bahi'u'llih's emphasis on the unity of the human race was only possible in an age in which there was knowledge of the whole world and unification was an actual possibility. P o C 1 2 2 4 ; WOB43.202.

social order BahA'u'llih emphasized the imporrance of social order. The maintenance of social order is based on JUSTICE, and rhis in Nrn is based on the hope for newAnn and the fear of punishment (TB 66). RELIGION, the FEAR OF Goo and ToLEn. ANCE for other peoples are other important means of securing social order. Those who are poor, downtrodden or captive should be protected (TB 70); the individual's social station rerpened; and crahm.cn praised nnd not disdained as in the past(^^ 38). Actions that lead to disorder (conflict, contention, theft, entering the house of another without permission, bloodshed) are condemned (ESW23-25). socio-economic development For Bahi'is the development of both spiritual and material ClvlLIzATlON is important. Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'lBahi referred to an idyllic future (the Mast Great PEACE), whilst at the same rimc advocating more immediate measures of societal change. Thus their

324 emphasis on the importance of political and lezal reform (HUMAN RIGHTS); care for the poor; limitations on ARMAMENTS (arms spending itself being regarded as a major facrar in keeping ordinary people poor); WORK; AGRICULTURE; EOUCATlON and unnAcy; and later on the emancipation of WOMEN. Many of these themes are brought together in 'Abdu'l-Bahl's treatise Tbe Sccnar OF DIVINECIVILIZATION,which urges the adoption of a wide-ranging policy of social and economic development and state strengthening in Iran. Some of these ideals notably those to do with education, work and the role of women - had a cumulative effect within the Iranian Bahi'i community, leading to a progressive process of internal socio-economic development which firmly linked the Bahl'is with 'modernization'. Development issues assumed increasing importance with the large-scale EXPANSIOY of the Bahl'i Faith into the poor countries of the 'Third World', particularly from the 1960s onwards. SCHOOLS were esrahlished, and in the 1970s a number of rural development programmes were starred, including the first in a series of community-oriented nAoxo stations. This trend was given focus and impetus by rhe Universal House of Justice in October 1983, when they called for the more systematic application of Bahi'i principles 'to upraising the quality of human life' and announced the establishment of an Office of Social and Fronomic Development in Haifa to 'promote and coordinate' Bahi'i development activities world-wide (MUH] 6 0 1 4 no. 379; see also 576 no. 358.6, 613 no. 385.6, 723 no. 453.18,725 no. 456.2). The numbcr of projects rocketed as a result: from 127 in 1979 to 1,344 in 1986 (BWNS 1992-3: 238). The largest number of these were educational (488 'tutorial schools' and 178 academic schools). There were also 186 projects concerned with literacy, 56 with health, 52 with ~

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conservation and the environment, 52 with women and youth and 21 with agriculture. The largest numbcr were in Asia (5321, followcd by the Americas (379) and Africa (286) (BWNS1 9 9 4 5 : 319-20). Most were small in wale. A variety of agencies and institutes have k e n esrablishcd in a number of counnies to promote development. Some of these are agencies of the particular Bahl'i national spiritual ASSrMBl.Y, and others are separate non-governmental organizations. A considerable body of experience is hcing built up. Some of the projects have evidently been highly successful, and several have gained government backing and the support of international donor agencies such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the Norwegian Agency for International Development Co-operation (NORAD). There have heen a number of national and international conferences for Bahl'is interested in development issues, where they can share ideas and develop perspectives.

who settled in the United States afrer World War 1. In 1929, with the help of Julie (Lewis Smyvesant) Chanler (188219611, he established the New History Society in New York City to propagate the Bahl'i teachings. When he refused to place this venture under the control of the local Bahl'i rssaMal.r, a confronration with the national spiritual assembly ensued, and Sohrab and Chanler were excommunicated (1930). A youth organization, the Caravan of East and West, was also starred (1930). which dcveloped into a world-wide pen-pal club. Whilst accepting the legitimacy of Shoghi Effendi's appointment as Guardian, Sohrab was highly critical of his leadership, and in particular of the Bahi'i ADMINlSTRATION he had built up. c h m t : SBBR 1265; ahr rob. ~ r d a n s i k s ~ ; ~ 8 3 4 3 - 7(See .

Some Answered Questions

A compilation of talks delivered by 'Abdu'l-Bahi in Akka between 1904 and 1906 in response to questions posed BWNS 1992-3229-45; 1994-5.1268. (See llb0 NF.Y, by Laura Clifford D ~ E Y F ~ ~ - B A Ran B A H ~ I - U N I FPROJECT; EM B A HVOCA~ ~ American Bah5.i. A secretary recorded TIONAI. ~NST~TUTE FOR RURAL WOMEN. the talks in Persian, and these transcripts Elements of a developing Bahl'i were later checked by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. An perspective on development include the English translation was published in i~nporranceof grassroors initiatives and London in 1908 (this has been revised knowledge, reinforced by local CONSUL. in subsequent cditionn). The topics disTATION and empowerment; the essential cussed include Christian subjects, and a need for wider social and moral issues to range of metaphysical and social issues. form part of development process (notably female emancipation and the fastera stress on ing of TRUSIWORTHINESS); The essential inner reality of each self-reliance, the developmenr of 'human resources', and an ethos of community human being. service (Bahl'i projecrs are non-secrarFor Bahi'is every human being posian in their focus, and not confined to sesses both a physical body and a nonthe Bahl'is); and a valuing of local material, rational soul (or human spirir). minority cultures. Mornen. Boho'r Fmocur on The nature of this essence is mysterious k k p m c n t : nd. and beyond human undemanding (GWB 158 no. 82, 16+5 no. 83). The soul is both a spiritual and an intellecSohrab, Ahmad (c.1893-1958) ma1 reality. It is the h t among created One-time secretary and English-lanthings to recognize and love God. It is guage interpreter of 'Abdu'l- Bahl, one of the 'signs of Cod'; the 'harbinger'

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spiritual assemblies which proclaims the reality of all of God's worlds (GWB 158-60 no. 82). It is a divine bounty; an emanation from God; an intermediary beween the heavenly and lower worlds; the medium for spirirual life (Savi 146). If faithful, it rcflccts the divine light and eventually returns to God. If faithless, it becomes a victim of 'self and passion', and will 'sink in their depths' (GIVU 1 5 8 4 0 no. 82) (see FREE WILL; HUMAN NATURE). The powen of the 'rational faculty', the 'mind' (imagination; conceptualization; reflection; comprehension; memory) are also an expression of the soul (GWB 163-4 no. 83; SAQ 208-11). The progress of the soul involves pursuit of the SFIRITUAI. PATH and the acquisition of srrnjroAr QUALITIES. The purpose of the pnorHErs is to educare human beings SO that at the rime of death they will be so detached from the world that they will ascend 'to the rhronc of the Most High' (GWB 156 no. 81). SOUL AND BODY

The body is suhjecr to physical limitations (it occupies a particular space; it is subject to disease) and it decomposes at death, hut the soul is unlimited and immortal (SAQ 229, 242). The soul is independent of physical and mental infirmities. These might prevent the soul from revealing its inherent power - like clouds preventing the receipt of the sun's rays - but they do nor of themselves affect it (GWU 153-4 no. 80). The soul comes into existence and its light becomes reflected in the 'mirror' of the body at the rime of conception (SAQ 151, 239-40). At that moment all souls are pure and equal to each other. It is subsequent life events and decisions that lead to different levels of spiritual development, some souls reaching a higher and others a lower station. After death the body decomposes, but the soul enten a new existence, freed from the constraints of its former attachment to the body (SWAB 1 7 k 1 ) .

THE AFTERLIFE

The soul is immortal. After the death of the body it continuer to progress until it attains God's presence and manifests divine anributes. That progress is without limit (LC 204-9). Those souls that are sanctified from the world, living in accordance with the divine will, are blessed, and will converse with the prophets of God, and the dwellers of the highest heaven will circle around them. Those that have walked humbly with God will be 'invested with the honour and glary of all goodly names and stations' (GWB 155-6 no. 81, 159 no. 82). After death each soul will recognize the wotth of its own deeds and understand thc consequences of its actions. Those who have turned to God will experience inexpressible joy and gladness. Those who have lived in error will be filled with fear and consternation. Those who have rejected God will become aware of the good things that had escaped them and bemoan their plight, humbling themselves before him. Souls will recognize thc accomplishments of other souls rhat have anained the samc level as themselves, but they will not understand those rhat are higher in rank (GWB 169-70 no. 86). If a murderer has already been punished for his crime in this life he will not be punished anew in the next (SWAB 179). (See also DEATH.)

s p i r i t u a l assemblies SECASSEMBLIES. s p i r i t u a l path In writings such 35 the SEVENVALI.TYS and Foun VALLEYS Bahi'u'lllh outlined the various stages.0: the mystical path, and in his Kitdb-i-IQ~Nhe referred to the path of the 'tme seeker' after God. To follow this path the seeker needs first to 'cleanse and purify' his or her heart from the 'obscuring dust' of 'acquired

knowledge', and from those emotions that would divert him from the truth. Then, trusting in God, and with utter detachment, he should seek t o acquire moral and SPIRITUAL QUALITIES (humility; patience; refraining from idle speech and BACKBITING; contentment with little; companionship with those who have renwnced the world and avoidance of fellowship with the ungodly; daily communing with God at dawn: perseverance in the quest; succouring the dispossessed, the destitute and animals; preparedness to offer up his life for God; faithfulness in promises; nhservance of the COI.DF.N RULE; forgiveness and prayer for the sinful; mindfulness of his own nothingness before God and the unknown nature of his own spiritual fare). Next, with 'earnest striving', 'passionate devotion', 'rapture' and the like, divine love will he wafted over his soul, and 'the lights of knowledge and certitude envelop his being', such rhat he can see the evidences of divine revclarion wherever he goes, and distinguish truth from falsehood as easily as the sun from shadow (KI 1 2 2 6 ) . The link between spirituality and moral behaviour is constantly stressed. The Bahi'i writings also emphasize the importance of Pnavra, MEDITIITION, CLEANLINESS and steadfastness in the COVENANT in the attainment of spirituality (LC 540-3). The Universal House of Justice has given a lin of six 'essential requisites' for spiritual growth: daily obligatory - . prayer . . with purehearted devotion; reverential and thoughtful reading of scripture at least every morning and evening; prayerful meditation on the BahB'i teachinss; -~daily. effort to model one's behaviour on the Bahi'i ideals; TaAclllNG the Faith to others; and 'selfless service' both to the Faith and in one's WORK (LC 540). The

spiritual qualities

The Bahi'i writings abound with references to various spiritual and moral qualities which the individual shot~ld seek to acquire. Although primarily addressed to Bahi'is, such injunctions are also specifically identified as necessary for those who occupy positions of political or religious leadership in any society. The attributes of good character include the 1:rAR O F GOD; reverence; piety; obedience to religious law; love for God expressed in love for humanity; prayerfulness; compassion; consideration for others; courtesy; philanthropy; service to others; industriousness; sclflessness; forbearance and calm; meekness; amiability; a lack of malice; loyalty; courage; magnanimity; generosity; energy and real; a sense of honour and regard for the rights of others; highmindedncss; DETACHMENT from material things; submissiveness to the will of God; humility; control of the passions; temperance; purity; CH~n'lrv;JUSTICE (including equity and fair-mindedness); TnurHFoI.NEss, honesty. (including . candour and financial probity); TRUSTWORTHINESS (including .reliability); fairhh~lncss;integrity; sinceriry; w ~ r o o and ~; moderation. Purtty of motivarion is crucial (CC2: 1). Such virtues are conducive to human dignity and honour, and the attainment of 'man's true station' (CCZ: 330, 333). Only those who are adorned with these virtues can be reckoned among 'the m e servsnts of God'. Each individual should 'strive diligently' to acquire them (CCZ: 332). Moral and religious qualities are also to be balanced by reason and knowledge (SDC 60). Bahi'is should be diainguished by their moral qualities (SWAB 71). They should promote freedom (CCZ: 341). The 'sword' of upright concept of g l r ~ o l l t y1, d i w v d in W. Halcher, conduct is 'sharper than blades of stecl'. C-, hklmn.D ~ ~ in~S p i~r i ~~l u ~~(See I i ~ M s It is the means by which 'the citadels of also DEVOTIONALISM; HIDDEN WORDS men's hearts' will he subdued ICC2: HUMAN NAWRB; SUFISM.) 331; see T E A C H I N G ) . If the Bahi'is

'summer whwls' succeed in exemplifying divine vimtes then they will become both completely united amongst themselves and a magnet far others, who will want to discover the source of their radiance and joy. Each individual is responsible for their own life, and should seek to perfect their own character (and avoid BACKBITING about others) (CC2: 3). (See also SPIRITUAL PATH.)

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sterilization Permanent sterilization is forbidden as a form of BIRTH CoNTnoL, but is permiaed for medical reasons. Subh-i-Azal See A ~ A LSUBH-I.. ,

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suffering 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi regarded suffering as having various causer: (1) Some is a consequencc of the individual's own actions, e.g. they ruin rheir digestion through ovcrerring; they become poor because they gamble. Obedience to God's laws would end many of these sources of suffering. (2) God tests those who want to draw nearer to him. Suffering is a means of perfecting the individual, those who suffer most attaining the greatest perfection. It causer people to turn to God, when in happiness they might forget him. It proves the sincerity of those who claim to have dedicared their lives to God. (3) The material world is, by its very nature, transient and unsarisfactory. Suffering alerts people to this reality. They should learn thar the only m e happiness is to be found in the world of the spirit. (4) Some suffering is a result of fear of the unknown, parti~ whereas if people cularly of D E A know the nature of the afterlife, they would not fear what is a superior form of existence (LG 601-4; PT 41-3, 11013,191; PUP 46-8; Savi 130-2; SWAB

81, 200, 239). ( 5 ) For those who have muly tumed to God, separation from him is the greatest suffering. For the development of the soul, ignorance and bad deeds (lying, cruelty, treachery, erc.) are a torment (SAQ - 224, 265). In response to suffering people should develop the spiritual qualities of fortitude and-parien;e (RBI:. 269-71). as with those prophets and saints who found contentment in the midst of ordeal. The fortitude displayed by rhc suffcrer might also have a profound effect on others. This does not imply fatalism, however. Through a combination of PRAYER and determined and continued efforr, even seemingly insuperable hindrances can be overcome (CC1: 477-8 no. 1060, 479 no. 1067; LG 280 nos. 943-4). Again, Baha'is should work to overcome such causes of human distress as p o v e q and disease. If someone is ill, they should seek help from competent physicians (see HEAI.TH AND HEALING).

Sufism Islamic myaicism, expressed in a diverse range of beliefs, practices and organizations. Bahi'u'llih evidently sympathized with some aspecn of Sufism, but was critical of others. In Kurdistan he lived the life of a solitary dervish, later moving to the Khilidiyya Sufi centre in Sulaymlniyya at the invitation of Shaykh Ismi'il, its local shaykh. He also gained the respect of the leaders of the regional Naqshabandi and Qidiri orders. During his stay, at the request of his hosts, he commented on Ibnu'l'Arabi's 'Meccan Revelntiom' (Al-futBb6t a/-mokkiyya), and composed his ODE OF THE DOVEin the ecstatic style of Ibnu'l-Firid. Returning to Baghdad he remained in contact with Kurdish Sufis, receiving them as visitors, and writing the SEVEN VALLEYS and the FOUR VALLEYS in response to Sufi correspondents (GPB 1 2 1 4 , 128-9). Several of

his followers were Sufis, notably Sidq'Ali, in whore honour he dedicared an annual night for the remembrance of God (dhikr) (MF 36-8). In sharp distinction to the beliefs of many Sufis, Bahl'u'llih absolutely rejected any form of pantheism: Goo in essence is beyond any human anribure or physical location. No human being has ever known him (SV22-3; TB 60). He also criticized those expressions of Sufism thar involve seclusion from the everyday . . world and extreme ASCETICISM; 01 which encourage idleness and drug-taking, .rheir followers believing themselves to be ahove the LAV. The true constrains of religious Sufi was one who ~ 3 both s cevcrcd from all rlqc hut Cod and constant in worsh~o and obedience to holy law (MF 36-8; TB 60).

suicide Suicide is forbidden, and is regarded as endangering the soul. Life is a gift of Cod. The individual is not responsible for acts committed when he or she is mentally deranged, howeve6 and under such circumstances would not suffer from spiritual consequences. LG 357 "0%. 1 199-2CQ.

Sulaymbn Khbn Tunukbbuni See JAMAL E~FENOI.

Sultbn, Lawh-i(PA, 'Tablet of the King*) Bahl'u'llih's tablet to NASIRU.O-DIN SHAH. Written in a mixrure of Arabic and Persian, it is the lengthiest of the leners to the RULERS. Composed in Edirne, it was not sent to the shah until after Bahl'u'llih had arrived in Akka, the young messenger, Broi., who delivered the tablet, being put to death for his pains. The tablet includes an appeal to the shah to grant religious toleration to the Bahi'is as they were loyal and obedient subjects. Bahi'u'llih himself had consistently opposed violence, and had summoned the Bibis to lay down the sword and eschew sedition. The clerics were those who were primarily to blamc for the persecution of the Bibis and, if the shah wished, Bahi'u'llih would return to Iran to confront the WLAMA and establish the truth of his cause (presumably in MUBAHALA). If the shah would respond to Bahl'u'llih's call he would amain a great spiritual station. He was reminded that kingship was itself transitory: the skeletal remains of a king and a pauper in their graves were the same, and numerous rulers and countless great men had come and gone without leaving a trace of their existence. Various autobiographical derails of Bahl'u'llib's life were also given. Browns. Seboims 2 6 0 6 ; RB2: 337-40. 34651. 355-7.

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sultanate An institution of Islamic kingship, most of OTTOMAN particularly thc dynasry ~. rulers, who combined secular power with the religious leadership of the Sunni Muslim world by their ilaims to the CAI.IPHATE. The sultanate was abolished by the new Turkish republic on 1 November 1922, and the caliphate in 1924. These twin institutions were regarded by Shoghi Effendi as the 'arch-enemy' of the Bahi'i cause, and their collapse cited as an instance of DIVINE JUDGEMENT.

'summer schools' Courses of learning intended to foster Bahi'i DEEPENING and spiritual and social life. Commonly, summer schools are held for a week or more during the holiday season, and provide Bahl'is with an opportunity to meet and study rheir religion. Winrer and other seasonal schools are also held, as are shorterduration weekend schools, all with a similar purpose. Given that in many countries the local BahB'i groups are small and scattered, there schools offer

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sbm (Ar.)/sbn'h (Pers.) an experience of Bahl'i communiry life. As a Bahi'i activity they can be traced back to the GREENACREsummer conferences in New England in the early 1900s. These were copied in newly established Bahi'i conference cenrres, as in other pans of the United Stares (Geyserville, California, 1927; Lnuhelen, Michigan, 1931), Germany (1931) and Australia (1937181, or in temporarily hired premises, as in Britain (from 1936) and India (from 1938). Such schools have since proliferated and have become a common part of Bahi'i life warld-wide. Shoghi Effendi stressed the value of anendance; encouraged the study of such topics as Bshi'i scrimure and history, islam, comparative religion, interracial amity, ethics, Bahl'i admin-

330 isrrarion, the COVENANT and public speaking; emphasized the imponance of maintaining a high spiritual and intellectual standard, and of linking the schools t o the TEACHING campaigns; noted the value of having study classes and discussion groups as well as lectures; and expressed the hope that the schools would eventually evolve into BahB'i universities. ccr: 2642: GFB34&1; LG 55843. s i r r a (Ar.)/sbrih (Pcrs.) The name given co the various 'chapters' of the Q U ~ A N . Several of ~ahi'ullih's writings are also referred to as stiras, including the Slra of the KJNOSand the Stira of the BRANCH.

Tabarsi, S h a y k h

Bahi'is of the United States and Canada during World War I. The first eight Small shrine of Shaykh Ahmad ibn Abi letters were composed in 1916 (26 Talib Tabarsi about 1 4 miles southeast March-22 April), and five of these had of BBrfur(lsh. It became a Bibi strongbeen received and published before hold and was the site of rhc most famous communications beween Palestine and of the conflicts beween them and their America were severed because of the BusHnui had opponents. Mulli HUSAYN war. A funher six letters were composed led a growing hand of armed Ribis in 1917 (2 February-8 March). Lerrcrs wesward from Mashhsd carrying the messianic s y m b o l o f t h e B L A C K were addressed to the North American STANDARD. On entering Birfudsh (10 BahB'is as a whole as well as by region (Canada, the North-eastern, Southern, October 1848) they were attacked. Central and Western United Stares). The Responding, rhcy killed scvcral of their complcte set was ceremonially 'unveiled' adverrarics. Arracked again, they retired t o the Bahl'is at a smcial convention in to Tabarsi (12 October), which they New Yark in April i919. 'Ahdu'l-Bahi's fortified. Other Bibis later joined them, instructions were that Bahi'is should including Quonus, their total numbers systematically teach the Faith in those rising t o perhaps six hundred. Fighting in American states and Canadian provinces what they came to see as a re-enactment in which there were as yet few or no the Bibis held out against of KARBAI.~, Bahi'is: establish it throuzhout Latin large numbers of professional troops America; and propagate it throughout until, weakened by amition and starvathe rest of the world 'as far as the islands tion, they respnded to a false truce and most were massacred (10 'May 1849). of the Pacific'. Long lista of territories and islands where the Bahi'is should go were Nine of the L E ~ E ROFSTHE LIVING were given. The American continent was killed at Tabarsi or in its immediate where God's light would be revealed, aftermath. nnn 358-9; B~OWM. sd-ti141.2; and if the N a n h American Bahl'is MBBK 91-9; Moman. '5ociol b l s ' 1tC-7; Nobil 326 responded t o his call, waves of spiritual 429: SBBR 267: TJAA-llO.3603; TN 3 5 9 , 177-9. power would emanate, and the Bahi'is 189-90. (See also Blei R A O ~ C A U ~ M . ) become 'established upon the throne of a n everlasting dominion'. Panicular sigT a b l e t s of t h e D i v i n e Plan nificance was anached t o teaching the Series of fourteen lcrrers by 'Abdu'lEskimos and other indigenous AmeriBahi on the imponance of TEACHING the cans, and t o establishing the Faith in Bahi'i Faith. They were addressed to the Alaska, Greenland, Mexico, Panama

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and the Brazilian ciry of Bahia (Salva- She was also known as Umm Salamih, Zarrin-Tij ('Crown of Gold'), and Qurdor). The teachers should seek to of the Eve'). She was become 'Apostles of Baht'u'llih'. (This ratu'l-'Avn . ('Solace . born into a prominent clerical family in required three conditions: to be firm in the northern Iranian city of Qazvin. Her the COVENANT;fellowship and love father, Mu116 Muhammad Silih, was a amongst the Bahi'is; and that the respected and powerful mulwero, as teachers were dedicated and severed was his brother, Mullh MUHAMMAD~TAQ~ from the world, continually travelling, BARAGHANI. Unusually for a woman in sanctified, and like a shining torch in 19th<entury lran she was allowed to God's love.) Those who travelled to undertake higher Islamic srudies, and foreign countries should Learn the local eventually gained a considerable reputalanguages. Bahi'i literature needed to be tion for scholarship. When she was translated or composed in the world's fourteen she was married to her uncle's various languages. The war had made son, Muhammad, by whom she had the peoples of the world yearn for peace three sons and one daughter (her husand become receptive t o the Bahi'i band later became leader of the Friday message. Specific prayers were given prayers (imrirn jrrm'o) in Qazvin, and far the teachers t o use. nen2&5; m. was in turn succeeded by the cldcst son). 'Abdu'l-Bahi had written that 'this is Whilst Muhammad-Taqi, hcr elder rhc time' for teaching, bur at first only a unclc, was one of thc most vehcment few Bahi'is responded t o his appeal opponents of SHAYKHISM, scve~alof her (these included Martha ROOT, who relatives hecame Shaykhis, including a travelled n Latin America, John and marernal cousin, Mulli Javld Valiyini, Clara Hyde-DUNN,who settled in Ausand her younger paternal uncle, Mu116 who tralia, and Leonora A~MSTRONG, settled in Brazil). Only from 1937 'Ali. Plcimih followed suit, and entered into secret correspondence with Sayyid onwards did Shoghi Effendi direct the KAZIM~ S I I T who ~ , called her QurroBaha'is m undertake a series of systematu'l-'Ay". Her younger sister, Mardiyyih, tic reaching PLANS intended to fulfil the married t o Mu116 Muhammad-'Ali (like ohjecrives of 'Abdu'l-BahBis letters. He Tihirih a futurc L E ~ ~ E R O FLIVING), TAE a referred to the fulfilment of 'Abdu'lson of the Qazvin Shaykhi leader Mulli Baht's Divine Plan as passing through a ' ~ h d u ' l - ~ a h h i balso , became a Shaykhi. scrim of stages (see TIME). The religious differences within the family exacerbated tensions between Tabriz (1868 pop. n t . 110,000) Firimih and her husband and, late in Cadtal of the nonh-western Iranian 1843, she separated from him and of Azerbaijin ( ~ d h i r b i y j i n ) . proceeded to Karbali with her sister, A maior international tradinp. - centre, it arriving there shortly after Sayyid was the most populous city in Iran by Kizim's death. At some point shc also the 1860s. Unlike the rest of lran the sent a message of recognition to the as province is largely Azeri Turkish-speakyet unidentified Bib in Shiriz, being ing. There are also important Kurdish enrolled by him as a Letter of rhe Living, Sunni and Assyrian Christian minorities. and rapidly becoming one of his most It was the site of the Bib's trial (late July renowned followers. Residing in Rashti's 1848) and execution (819 July 1850). house, and with the support of his widow, she energetically Tbhirih (PA, the 'Pure') Bibism, attracting many of the Shaykhis in Karbali. This leadership on the p a n Title of the Bibi leader Fitimih Baraof a woman, together with her increasghini (1814-52). given her by the Bib.

ingly radical understanding of Blbism as a messianic new age - reflected in her disregard for Islamic convention - p n erated opposition from more conservative Bibis as well as other Shaykhir. The Bib supported her, however, and in response t o allegations of immorality (caused by her apparently appearing unveiled before her disciples on a t least one occasion) named her 'the Pure' (Tihihitih). Mounting opposition finally caused her to leave Karhali for Baghdad, where she resided for some time in the house of the chief mufti (the head of the Sunni hierarchy in Iraq), Shaykh Mahmfid AIBsi, who was favourably impressed by her intellect and devotion. Then, in March 1847, on instructions from the Ottoman government, she was deported. Travelling slowly through western lran with a large group of supporters, she openly proclaimed Bibism t o Shi'is, sectarian Ahl-i-Haqq and Jews. She returned t o Qazvin in July. Regarding her husband as an infidel, she refused to live with him, staying instead with her brother. Tihirih's arrival exacerbated existing tensions, already made worse by the growth of a Bibi group in the town. Denying involvement in her unc1e.s subsequent murder (AugustlSeprember 1847), she escaped to Tehran. She was later one of the principals at the (June-July conference of BADASHT 1848). where she advocated a radical break wirh Islam. After this she went into hiding. Discovered in January 18.50, she was arrested and transferred to Tehran. She remained in confinement until her execution (strangled or choked to death) in September 1852, in the aftermath of the attempt on the life of Nb$lRu~o-DIN SHAH. Tihirih's role in the development of Bihism was crucial, particularly in its 'radicalization'. She was a charismatic figure who attracted attention, in pan because she sought to transcend the restrictions placed on her as a woman in a traditionalistic society. Her own

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immediate followers regarded her as the 'RETURN' of the Prophet Muhammad's daughteq Fhtima. She wrote eurensively, including apologetic works and a large correspondence dealing with BBbi matten. Little of &is has survived apart from her poems, however. Her poetry, and poetry attributed t o her is still widely regarded internationally in the Persian cultural world. Accounts of her life came to inspire later generations of feminists. AKR 295331; Brame. Momiah 34352: GPB 72.7; McS 54 107-16. 177; MF 190-203; Nobil81-4.26&73.283-7.621-9; TI269-84.3556.421.43Ml; IN309-16.

Tajalliy6t (PA, Efilgencer) Tablet of Bahi'u'llih composed in about 1885-6 in honour of Usrid 'Ali-Akbar Banni, a master builder in Yazd, who was the recipient of nvenry-seven tablen from Bahh'u'llih, and later prepared the initial plans for the Bahi'i House of Worshir, a t ASHIHABAD.He was martyred in 1903. The first part of the tablet is in Arabic. and contrasts the blessedness o f those who have accepted Bahi'u'llih with the utter loss of those who have rejected him. Usrid 'Ali is praised. The remainder of the tablet is in Persian, and details four 'effulgences': (1) In this day knowledge of God can only be arrained through recognition of Bahi'u'llih 3s a M A N ~ ~ E S T AOfT GOD. ~ON Complete recognition entails that the believer should also follow his LAW. (2) Steadfastness in God's Cause requires complete FAITH. (3) The importance of KNOWLEDGE is emphasized. (4) Were someone t o judge Bahi'u'llih fairly then they would recognize him as Manifesration of God. 1645-54; ne4: 1 l e a .

talismans The idea that a physical object can provide the wearer wirh some form of s u p e r n a ~ r a protemon l from danger is a common element in folk religion around the world. The Bib insmcted his fol-

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Tanumafili 11, M a . l i .e t w lowers t o make and wear talismans, and there are numerous references t o these in his writings. Whilst the Bahl'i teachings greatly d e l m p h a s i ~the esoteric elements of the Bibi tradition (instead stressing rationality), there are some prayers that appear t o offer talismanic protection, as wirh Bahi'u'llih's 'Long Healing Prayer', in which God is beseeched 'to protect the hearer of this and whoso passeth blessed Tablet around the house wherein it is', and t o heal by it (the Tablet), 'every sick, diseased and poor one' (Writings of Bal~d'e'116b 708-9; cf. McR 138-40). Again, 'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote that thosc who sought 'immuniry from the sway of the forces of the contingent world' should hang a copy of the CREATEST NAME in their dwellings, wear Bahi'i rings, place 'Abdu'l-RahQ's picture in their homes, and always recite his prayers (LG 520). McR 14-24. 48-51, 98104. 138-53; MeS 99-101; MmcEoin. 'Ninelanth

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God strengthen his followen t o serve the Faith; and complained of the injustice and falsity of the present age, and of the largely erroneous reports that had appeared about him in newspapers. The tshlet ends with an address to the AZALI Bbbi leader, Mirzb HAni DAWLATABADI, censuring him for his hypocrisy (he had publicly recanted his faith) and asking him to investigate Bahi'u'llih's Cause without prejudice. m31-M: 084: 168-76. T a r b i y o t schools See scHooLs.

teaching

The endeavour to attract more people t o the Bahi'i Faith is strongly emphasized in the Bahi'i writings, and is commonly referred to as 'teaching'. All Bahi'is arc given the obligation to teach their religion, and thcre is now no specific group of reachers, although up until at least the early years of the 20th century o n b r y obi nlirman.'. certain prominent Iranian Bahl'is were designated as 'teachers' (msbalighinl. T a n u m a f i l i II, M a l i e t o a Some Bahi'is esrahlish themselves in Head of stare of Western Samoa and one countries or localities in which there of its traditional rulers. He became a are no Bahl'is in order to spread the Bahi'i in 1968, his declaration of faith Faith to those places (see PIONEERI). being made puhlic in 1973. The Samoan Many spend ohen considerable periods capital, Apia, is the site of the first of time as 'travel teachers', travelling Bahi'i House of Worship (MASHRIQU'L. from one place to another to teach t h e ~ r AOHK~R of) the Pacific Islands. ewls: faith. 1803. Bahl'u'llih commanded his followers to reach, emphasizing the imporT o r n z a f (PA, Ornaments1 tance of ethics and wisdom: it is goodly conduct and saintliness that will ensure Tablet of Bahl'u'llih composed around the triumph of the Faith (TB 88, 126, 1889. In it Bahi'u'llih revealed six 196). Teaching and the S P l R l N A L PATH 'ornaments', concerning: ( I ) S E L F were thus linked, as in the LAWH-IKNOWLEDGE; (2) TOLERANCE; (3) good character (~~1.11~s); (4) TRnsnvoRTHINEss; HIKMAT,in which he counsels thosc who want t o serve his cause to forsake (5) respect for craftsmen and acknowlall evil; strive t o manifest divine virtues ed~ementof present Western prowess; and make each day bener than the nne (6) KNOWLEDGE and NEWSPAPERS. He also before; and he unworldly, generous in referred to the OPPOSITION to his Cause prosperity, patient in loss, active, chaste, (even in the face of the 'ascendancy of the faithful, truthful, enlightened, just, wise, oppressor' God's purpose could not be forgiving and merciful. They should be thwarted); revealed a prayer asking that

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335 united in thought; love all of humanity; follow what would profit all people, regardless of age or social status; avoid causing dissension or doubt; respect the Bahl'i learned and the mlers; and banish ignorance from the earth (TB 138-9). Elsewhere Bahi'u'llih counselled Bahi'is to be as 'unrestrained as the wind' in their reaching endeavour, putring their whole trust in God, arraying themselves with 'the robe of virtue', and becoming enkindled with 'the fire of His love'. Thus would their words have an impact on those who heard them, and God render them victorious over those who opposed the Faith (AD] 42, 47). They should be ablaze with 'the fire of rhe love of God' (CCZ: 293), and speak wirh 'penetrating power' (itself based on purity of spirit) (TB 198-9). At the same time, however, they should exercise MODERATION, tact, and wisdom in what they say (TB 143) and show 'extreme kindliness' and friendliness to those whom they hope t o attract to the Faith. They should not exceed the individual's capiciry by saying too much, lest rhey engender opposition. If others reject the teachings rhey should not protest, bur leave them t o themselves and turn t o God (CC2: 293-4; TB 129). The reacher should also memorize passages from scripture, as these exert a potent influence on the hearer when auoted ITB 200). 'Abdu'l-Bahi also emohasired the importance of Bahi'is teaching their religion t o others (see particularly his TABLETS OF THE DIVINE PLAN,in which he also outlined a global mission of Bahi'i EXPANSION). Thus they would attract 'divine confirmations'. They should be detached, pure in heart, laving, humble, wire and courageous. They should never argue with anyone. Each Bahi'i should reach one new person each year (CC2: 298-3011, In The ADVENTOP DlvlNe JUSTICE Shoghi Effendi outlined the prerequisites and requirements of teaching in the

Tehmn Seven Year PLAN. Elsewhere he appealed t o Bahl'is to make teaching 'the dominating passion of our life' and emphasized the importance of pioneering (BA 69). Bahl'is should place their reliance on God and deepen their knowledge of the Faith and its holy writings. They should teach constructively. There is no one right method of teaching (though informal meetings in homes - Ivlneslnrr with discussions and hospitality, had proved particularly effective). Bahi'is should be sensitive to those rhey sought to teach. The Bahi'i Faith is for everyone. To teach educated people Bahi'is should themselver be well informed so that they could discuss contemporary issues intelligently. They should not disdain illiterates or regard them as unintelligent. PRAYER and perseverance are important (CCZ: 301-26). The entry of large numbers of new Bahb'is in various 'Third World' countries from the 1950s onwards dramarically changed the composition of the Bahi'i community world-wide, and also changed conceptions of reaching. The Universal House of lustice has accordingly emphasized the importance of 'teaching the masses' as a means of achieving continued large-scale expansion. Effective COXSOLIDATION is vital, particularly in areas where largc numbers of rural illiterates had become Bahl'is. New Bahl'is should be made t o feel part of the existing Bahl'i community. Bahs'is should not give the impression that conversion would lead to any material advantage to the people they were teaching (CC2: 61-71).The House has also stressed the importance of fostering cordial relations wirh prominent people (CC2: 258-80). (See olro MISSION; PROCLAMATION.)

Tehran ( T h r i n ) (1868 pop. esr. 85,000) Iranian capital since the Qhjbn period. It was the birthplace of Bahi'u'lllh and

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