Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Taylor & Francis Routledge 0415223644 9780415223645 9780203169940 English Philosophy--Encyclopedias. 2000 B51.C58 2000eb 100 Philosophy--Encyclopedias.

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1617) who also drew on the epistemology and metaphysics of another great medieval thinker Duns Scotus; and, more recently, Joseph Marechal (1878–1944) whose ‘Transcendental Thomism’ accepted as its starting point the Kantian assumption that experience is of phenomena and not of reality as it is in itself. An example drawn from the ranks of contemporary analytical philosophers is Peter Geach who draws in equal measure from Aquinas, Frege and Wittgenstein. In the twentieth century there have been two major proponents of the philosophy of Aquinas, namely Jacques Maritain and Etienne Gilson, both of whom contributed significantly to the development of NeoThomism in North America. Interestingly, both men were French, neither had been trained in a Thomistic tradition and both were drawn into philosophy by attending lectures by Henri Bergson at the Collège de France in Paris. The Neo-Thomism they inspired declined following the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) as Catholics looked to other philosophical movements, including existentialism and phenomenology, or away from philosophy altogether. Today Thomists tend to be close followers and interpreters of the writings of Aquinas, but there is also a growing interest among mainstream Englishlanguage philosophers in some of his central ideas. While not a movement, this approach has been described as ‘analytical’ Thomism. See also: GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE, R.; MARITAIN, J. Further reading Gilson, E. (1964) The Spirit of Thomism, New York: P.J. Kennedy & Sons. (A short account of the nature and condition of neo-Thomism in relation to the religious philosophy of Aquinas. Useful on the question of how basic Thomist principles should be applied in challenging modern philosophies.) McInerny, R. (1968) Thomism in an Age of Renewal, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. (A study of central features of Thomistic thought in relation to developments in Catholic theology following the Second Vatican Council.) JOHN J. HALDANE THOREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817–62) Thoreau was one of the founders of the new literature that emerged within the fledgling culture of the United States in the middle decades of the nineteenth century. He inherited an education in the classics and in the transcendentalism of his older friend and teacher Ralph Waldo Emerson. Thoreau forged a means of writing which was dedicated to recording particular events in all their transience but capable of rendering graphic the permanent laws of nature and conscience. His incorporation of both confidence and self-questioning into the texture of his writing forms the ground of his standpoint as an observer of human lives and other natural histories. Thoreau’s relation to philosophy goes beyond his inheritance from Plato, Kant, Emerson and Eastern thought. Above all, his quest for philosophy is evident in the ways his writing seeks its own foundations. It is in the act of writing that



Page 890 Thoreau locates the perspectives within which to give an account of the humanness of a life. His project is to report sincerely and unselfconsciously a life of passion and simplicity, using himself as a representative of basic human needs and projects. Influenced by Plato’s Republic, Thoreau gives an account of some basic human needs, such as food, shelter and society. But also, like Plato, he shows that the particular institutions by which human needs are met are very far from being necessary. Tracing the relationship between need and necessity is one of the primary goals of Thoreau’s work. See also: AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY IN THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES Further reading Thoreau, H.D. (1981) Walden and other Writings, ed. W. Howarth, New York: Random House. (Good selection of writings including Walden, ‘Walking’, ‘Civil Disobedience’ and ‘A Plea for Captain John Brown’.) Richardson, R., Jr. (1986) Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind, Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. (Intellectual biography which maps Thoreau’s background of reading and some central themes of his writing against the major events of his life.) TIMOTHY GOULD THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS Thought experiments are strange: they have the power to present surprising results and can profoundly change the way we view the world, all without requiring us to examine the world in the way that ordinary scientific experiments do. Philosophers who view all hypothetical reasoning as a form of thought experimentation regard the method as being as old as philosophy itself. Others maintain that truly informative thought experiments are found only in mathematics and the natural sciences. These emerged in the seventeenth century when the new experimental science of Bacon, Boyle, Galileo, Newton and others forced a distinction between the passive observation of Aristotelian mental narratives and the active interventions of real-world experiment. The new science gave rise to a philosophical puzzle: how can mere thought be so informative about the world? Rationalists argue that thought experiments are exercises in which thought apprehends laws of nature and mathematical truths directly. Empiricists argue that thought experiments are not exercises of ‘mere thought’ because they actually rely upon hidden empirical information – otherwise they would not count as experiments at all. More recently it has been argued that thought experiments are not mysterious because they are constructed arguments that are embedded in the world so as to combine logical and conceptual analysis with relevant features of the world. See also: EXPERIMENT; SCIENTIFIC METHOD Further reading Brown, J.R. (1991) The Laboratory of the Mind: Thought Experiments in the Natural Sciences , London: Routledge. (An accessible account of influential thought experiments in physics and mathematics; defends the rationalist interpretation advanced by Koyré.) Sorensen, R.A. (1992) Thought Experiments, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (An accessible comprehensive study, containing many examples, which develops an empiricist explanation of the efficacy of thought experiments as limiting cases of ordinary experiments.) DAVID C. GOODING THOUGHT, LANGUAGE OF see LANGUAGE OF THOUGHT THRASYMACHUS (late 5th century BC) Thrasymachus, a Greek Sophist and orator, is known principally for his role in book 1 of Plato’s Republic, in which he argues that justice is simply a social institution created by rulers to further their own interests. It is intended solely for the subjects; the rulers themselves need not practise it. Since justice thus consists in promoting another’s advantage rather than one’s own, injustice is far more profitable. Apart from issues of internal coherence, his claims raise many questions. What, for example, are our true interests? And what are the actual and ideal operations of power? See also: SOPHISTS Further reading Kerferd, G.B. (1981) The Sophistic Movement , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (The best introductory handbook to the Sophists in general; for Thrasymachus, see especially pages 120–3.) ANGELA HOBBS THUCYDIDES ( fl. c .400 BC) A Greek historian with philosophical interests, Thucydides wrote about the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta (431–404 BC). He



Page 891 elaborates on the decisions of war in brilliantly reconstructed debates and speeches, reflecting his training under various Sophists. Many of these speeches take for granted that people care less for justice than for their own narrow interests. This dark view of human nature influenced Hobbes, while the style of the debates and speeches has had an enduring effect on public rhetoric. His account of Athenian democracy in action is cautionary, and his conservative political views anticipated Aristotle’s in some respects. Further reading Connor, W.R. (1984) Thucydides , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (The most thorough modern treatment.) Thucydides ( fl. c .400 BC) History of the Peloponnesian War , trans. R. Crawley, London, 1876, revised by R. Feetham, Chicago, IL, 1910; trans. B. Jowett, Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War , 1881, revised by S. Hornblower, 3rd edn, 1995. (Crawley is the most admired and widely used translation; the Jowett translation reflects recent scholarship.) PAUL WOODRUFF TI AND YONG Ti and yong (literally ‘body’ or ‘substance’ and ‘use’ or ‘function’) are technical terms in Chinese philosophy. Ti often is used to denote the essence or fundamental nature of a given thing, for example, ‘the substance/true essence of the Way’. As a verb, it can also mean to ‘embody’ or ‘instantiate’ a given characteristic or virtue, for example ‘to embody/fully realize humanity’. A thing’s yong is its characteristic activity in accordance with its nature. See also: DAODEJING; Further reading Levenson, J.R. (1965) Confucianism and Its Modern Fate , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. (Contains an excellent discussion of late nineteenth and early twentieth century Chinese attempts to apply the notions of ti and yong to meet the challenges posed by Western imperialism; see in particular Chapter 4, pages 59–78.) PHILIP J. IVANHOE TIAN Tian , conventionally translated as ‘Heaven’, is both what our world is and how it is. The myriad things are not the creatures of tian or disciplined by a tian which stands independent of what is ordered; rather, they are constitutive of it. Tian is both creator and the field of creatures. There is no apparent distinction between the order itself and what orders it. This absence of superordination is a condition made familiar in related notions of the Daoist dao and the Buddhist dharma, which also refer to concrete phenomena and the order that obtains among them. On this basis, tian can be described as an inhering, emergent order negotiated out of the dispositioning of the particulars that are constitutive of it. In the human world, tian is the experience of meaningful context felt differently by each person in the fellowship of family and community. See also: DAOIST PHILOSOPHY; HEAVEN DAVID L. HALL ROGER T. AMES TIBETAN PHILOSOPHY Tibetan philosophy – if we can make a rough separation between what is predominantly argumentoriented and analytical and what is more a question of ritual, devotion or vision – is best characterized as a form of scholasticism. It exhibits marked parallels with philosophy in Western medieval contexts, including a heavy emphasis on logic, philosophy of language and metaphysics, all in the service of exegesis of religious doctrine found in root texts. Just as in Western scholasticism, there is a reliance upon scripture, but within that traditional context there is also ample room for rational analysis and synthesis of potentially disparate doctrines, as well as a considerable quantity of argumentation which is a type of ‘fine tuning’ of Indian issues. Tibetan thinkers explored matters which are often of genuine importance in our understanding of Indian texts. In particular, in Mādhyamika Buddhist philosophy we find an important synthesis of Indian Yogācāra ideas with a relatively natural interpretation of key ideas in the literature on the Buddha-nature ( tathāgatagarbha); we also find important debates on the nature of the two truths, the status of means of valid cognition ( pramāṇas ), and on questions of philosophical method, such as the possibility or impossibility of Mādhyamikas holding theses and themselves defending positions. Beginning with the Great Debate of bSam-yas (Samyay) in the latter part of the eighth century, we find constantly recurring reflection on questions concerning the nature of spiritual realizations and the role of conceptual and analytic thought in leading to such insights. In the logico-



Page 892 hotly debated issues generally centre around the problem of universals, the Indian Buddhist philosophy of language and the theory of the triply characterized logical reason ( trirūpahetu ). In addition, the Tibetans developed an elaborate logic of debate, an indigenous system containing many original elements unknown in or even alien to Indian Buddhist logic. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, INDIAN; BUDDHISM, MĀDHYAMIKA: INDIA AND TIBET Further reading Karmay, Samten Gyaltsen (1988) The Great Perfection: A Philosophical and Meditative Training of Tibetan Buddhism , Leiden: Brill. (A reference work on the history and principal doctrines of the Great Perfection school and on issues concerning the Subitist school in the Great Debate.) Tucci, G. (1980) The Religions of Tibet, trans. G. Samuel, London: Routledge. (Tucci’s work remains one of the best introductions to Tibetan religions.) TOM J.F. TILLEMANS T’IEN see TIAN TILLICH, PAUL (1886–1965) Tillich was one of the most influential Christian theologians of the twentieth century. Notable for his effort to translate the language of the Western religious tradition into terms comprehensible to modernity, he drew upon various secular philosophies, including Marxism, existentialism and psychoanalysis, as well as literature and the arts. In his view, these contemporary secular expressions contain the questions which theology must address. He was sometimes criticized for losing one or another aspect of Christian orthodoxy, but more often praised for making it possible to be both Christian and modern. He fled Germany in 1933, in the early days of Nazism. As an expatriated German who became an American citizen, Tillich came to understand his life as one standing ‘on the boundary’. He saw himself as an interpreter, occupying the boundary between the Old World and the New, between philosophy and theology, between religious orthodoxy and humanistic secularity, and between university and church. Tillich was an intellectual who achieved widespread popular acclaim. Even though his lectures and publications were strewn with allusions to obscure thinkers, he gained a substantial following and was frequently quoted in the popular press. His courses were immensely popular, and his sermons – delivered mostly in college chapels – met with great public approbation. Two of Tillich’s themes stand out as most influential. First was his advocacy of a broadened category of the religious. By defining religion as a person’s ‘ultimate concern’, he was able to maintain that virtually everyone has some religious commitment. Through this conceptualization it became possible to view such twentieth-century ideologies as Nazism and Communism – as well as Americanism – as in significant respects religious perspectives. This broadened definition of religion gained wide acceptance, with sociopolitical and even judicial implications. (The US Supreme Court’s definition of conscientious objection was influenced by Tillich’s formulation.) Second, Tillich’s persistent claim that all language about God is symbolic had great impact. Objecting to views of religious language as merely symbolic, he contended that efforts to be literal in one’s talk of God are seriously deficient. By the same token, he argued that the mythic quality of religious narratives cannot be removed without detriment. Finding much American religion strongly literalistic, Tillich persistently argued the contrary view. Further reading Hopper, D. (1967) Tillich: A Theological Portrait, Philadelphia, PA: J.P. Lippincott. (A summary view of the man and his work for the non-specialist.) Tillich, P. (1957) Dynamics of Faith, NewYork: Harper & Row. (Analysis of what faith is and is not; valuable as an introduction to Tillich’s thought.) GUYTON B. HAMMOND TIME Time is the single most pervasive component of our experience and the most fundamental concept in our physical theories. For these reasons time has received intensive attention from philosophy. Reflection on our ordinary-tensed language of time has led many to posit a relation of metaphysical importance between time and existence. Closely connected with such intuitions are claims to the effect that time is unlike space, and in deep and important ways. The development of physical theories from Newtonian dynamics through relativistic theories, statistical mechanics, and quantum mechanics has had a profound effect on philosophical views about time. Relativity



Page 893 threatens the notion of a universal, global present, and with it the alleged connections of time to existence. The connection between temporal order and causal order in relativity theories, and between the asymmetry of time and entropic asymmetry in statistical mechanics, suggest various ‘reductive’ accounts of temporal phenomena. Finally, the radical differences between time as it appears in our physical theory and time as it appears in our immediate experience, show important and difficult problems concerning the relation of the time of ‘theory’ to the time of ‘our immediate awareness’. See also: CONTINUANTS Further reading Grünbaum, A. (1973) Philosophical Problems of Space and Time, Dordrecht: Reidel, 2nd edn. (Time in physics and philosophy.) Sherover, C. (1975) The Human Experience of Time, New York: New York University Press. (Historical survey of philosophical views on the place of time in human experience.) LAWRENCE SKLAR TIME TRAVEL The prospect of a machine in which one could be transported through time is no longer mere fantasy, having become in this century the subject of serious scientific and philosophical debate. From Einstein’s special theory of relativity we have learned that a form of time travel into the future may be accomplished by moving quickly, and therefore ageing slowly (exploiting the time dilation effect). And in 1949 Kurt Gödel announced his discovery of (general relativistic) spacetimes whose global curvature allows voyages into the past as well. Since then the study of time travel has had three main strands. First, there has been research by theoretical physicists into the character and plausibility of structures, beyond those found by Gödel, that could engender closed timelike lines and closed causal chains. These phenomena include rotating universes, black holes, traversable wormholes and infinite cosmic strings. Second, there has been concern with the semantic issue of whether the terms ‘cause’, ‘time’ and ‘travel’ are applicable, strictly speaking, to such bizarre models, given how different they are from the contexts in which those terms are normally employed. However, one may be sceptical about the significance of this issue, since the questions of primary interest – focused on the nature and reality of the Gödel-style models – seem independent of whether their description requires a shift in the meanings of those words. And, third, there has been considerable discussion within both physics and philosophy of various alleged paradoxes of time travel, and of their power to preclude the spacetime models in which time travel could occur. See also: RELATIVITY THEORY, PHILOSOPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF; SPACETIME Further reading Earman, J. (1995) ‘Recent Work on Time Travel’, S. Savitt (ed.), in Time’s Arrow Today , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Includes a comprehensive, critical review of the physics literature.) Yourgrau, P. (1993) The Disappearance of Time, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Argues that the import of Gödel’s results is the non-existence of time rather than the possibility of time travel.) PAUL HORWICH TIMON ( c .315–c .225 BC) Timon was a Greek philosopher-poet. The formative influence on his life was his meeting with Pyrrho, who was later hailed as the founder of Scepticism. He devoted his literary talents to eulogizing Pyrrho, and his satirical vigour to criticizing other philosophers. He, more than anyone else, carved the image of Pyrrho into what was to become its traditional form and placed it on its pedestal. In this, Timon seems to have been not only a fervent propagandist but also a major philosophical figure, exerting a decisive influence on the history and the very definition of neo-Pyrrhonian scepticism. Further reading Long, A.A. and Sedley, D.N. (1987) The Hellenistic Philosophers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 vols. (Includes Timon’s main philosophical fragments, with English translation and brief but excellent commentary.) JACQUES BRUNSCHWIG TINDAL, MATTHEW (1657–1733) Matthew Tindal was one of the last and most learned exponents of English deism. His most famous work is Christianity as Old as the Creation (1730), a comprehensive apology for natural religion. In it, he argued that God’s law is imprinted on the nature of all things, including the human soul, and is accessible to



Page 894 reason. Revealed religion merely restates this universal law – the will of God – in a different form. Religion enables us to act in accordance with this natural order, and its end is happiness. However, Tindal was scathingly critical of the clergy, and cast doubt on the reliability of the Bible. Although Tindal’s work was severely criticized by William Law, it exerted a considerable influence on the English and Continental Enlightenment. See also: DEISM Further reading Tindal, M. (1730) Christianity as Old as the Creation or, the Gospel, a Republication of the Religion of Nature, London, vol. 1 (no more published); facs. edn ed. J.V. Price, London: Thoemmes, 1995. (Tindal’s most famous work, which provoked some 150 published replies in the years following.) JEAN-LOUP SEBAN TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS DE (1805–59) The French liberal Alexis de Tocqueville once observed that his temperament was the ‘least philosophical’ imaginable. He meant that his mind was governed by passionate commitment, a determination to defend civil and political liberty against threats resulting from social levelling and the growth of state power. Thus, Tocqueville’s most famous work, De la démocratie en Amérique ( Democracy in America) (1835, 1840), did not spring from detached curiosity about US institutions. It was rather an attempt to draw lessons from US society and government which could be used to reform French institutions. His belief in local autonomy – he called the New England township a ‘school for citizens’ – led him to develop a distinctive conception of liberty that combined elements of ancient citizenship and modern autonomy. That conception also shaped his own political career and later writings. In L’Ancien régime et la révolution ( The Old Regime and the French Revolution ) (1856) Tocqueville traced bitter class conflicts in France to the destruction of local autonomy long before 1789. See also: LIBERALISM Further reading Siedentop, L. (1994) Tocqueville, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (An intellectual biography and survey of his thought.) Tocqueville, A. de (1835, 1840) De la démocratieen Amérique ( Democracy in America), trans G. Lawrence, ed. J.P. Mayer and M. Lerner, London: Fontana, 1966. L.A. SIEDENTOP TODOROV, TZVETAN (1936–) Tzvetan Todorov is a Bulgarian thinker and literary theorist who lives and works in France. His thought is ‘structuralist’ in that it seeks stable abstract principles explanatory of, but not directly given in, phenomena of literature and history. His thought is not only a milestone in the history of structuralism but is ‘negatively’ important to the development of post-structuralist thought: the rules and oppositions conveyed by structuralist typologies such as those of Todorov constitute much of what thinkers such as Jacques Derrida seek to ‘deconstruct’. See also: STRUCTURALISM IN LITERARY THEORY Further reading Todorov, T. (1977) Théorie du symbole , Paris: Éditions du Seuil; trans. C. Porter, Theories of the Symbol, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982. (A history of semiotics through one of its key concepts – that of the symbol – this work constitutes a major irruption of history into the supposedly atemporal features uncovered by structuralist analysis.) FRANÇOISE LIONNET T’OEGYE see YI HWANG TOLAND, JOHN (1670–1722) Deist, freethinker and political republican, the Irishman John Toland’s reputation is closely associated with the radical attack on Christian metaphysics and institutions in the Augustan period. His philosophical achievement was to turn the more erudite thinking of Spinoza, Hobbes and Locke into a popular polemic against the shibboleths of orthodox religious belief. In Christianity Not Mysterious (1696), burnt in Dublin by Parliamentary command in 1697, he exploited and extended the epistemology of Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding into a revision of Christian descriptions of the relationship between faith and knowledge, and a consequent defence of liberty of thought and belief. Further reading Sullivan, R.E. (1982) John Toland and the Deist Controversy , Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. (The best intellectual biography of Toland, which locates him within the broader intellectual and religious



Page 895 Toland, J. (1696) Christianity not Mysterious , London: Samuel Buckley. (The work was condemned and prosecuted in London and Dublin. There are various modern reprints.) J.A.I. CHAMPION TOLEDO, FRANCISCO DE see TOLETUS, FRANCISCUS TOLERATION Toleration emerged as an important idea in the seventeenth century, receiving its fullest defence in John Locke’s A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). Initially developed in the context of attempts to restore peace in a Europe convulsed by religious conflicts, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries it came to be extended to the accommodation of disputes about racial, sexual and social differences. Toleration is widely thought to be an essential element of a free society, especially one marked by moral and cultural pluralism, and it figures particularly prominently in the political theory of liberalism. The paradigm example of toleration is the deliberate decision to refrain from prohibiting, hindering or otherwise coercively interfering with conduct of which one disapproves, although one has the power to do so. The principal components of the concept of toleration are: a tolerating subject and a tolerated subject (either may be an individual, group, organization or institution); an action, belief or practice which is the object of toleration; a negative attitude (dislike or moral disapproval) on the part of tolerator toward the object of toleration; and a significant degree of restraint in acting against it. Philosophical arguments have mostly concerned: the range of toleration (what things should or should not be tolerated?); the degree of restraint required by toleration (what forms of opposition are consistent with toleration?); and, most importantly, the justification of toleration (why should some things be tolerated?). See also: FREEDOM OF SPEECH; MULTICULTURALISM Further reading Horton, J. (ed.) (1993) Liberalism, Multiculturalism and Toleration, London: Macmillan. (Essays on multiculturalism and toleration with particular reference to the ‘Rushdie Affair’.) Locke, J. (1689) A Letter Concerning Toleration, ed. R. Kilbansky, trans. J.W. Gough, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968. (An accurate modern translation of Locke’s letter.) JOHN HORTON TOLETUS, FRANCISCUS (1533–96) Toletus had an independent, somewhat eclectic, but fundamentally Thomistic outlook. In philosophy his most important works were his commentaries on Aristotle in the areas of logic and natural philosophy. In these commentaries he drew upon the whole previous scholastic tradition to raise and answer questions which were debated in his time and later. In theology he commented upon the greater part of Aquinas’ Summa theologiae . Here again he drew upon scholastic philosophers to raise and discuss a wide variety of metaphysical, epistemological and ethical topics. Far from being a slavish follower of Aquinas or Aristotle, he expressed his respectful disagreement with them wherever reason compelled it. See also: AQUINAS, T.; ARISTOTELIANISM, RENAISSANCE Further reading Ashworth, E.J. (1974) Language and Logic in the Post-Medieval Period , Dordrecht and Boston, MA: Reidel. (A general study which includes discussion of Toletus.) JOHN P. DOYLE TOLSTOI, COUNT LEV NIKOLAEVICH (1828–1910) Tolstoi expressed philosophical ideas in his novels Voina i mir ( War and Peace ) (1865–9) and Anna Karenina (1875–7), which are often regarded as the summit of realism, as well as in shorter fictional works, such as Smert’ Ivana Il’icha (The Death of Ivan Il’ich) (1886), often praised as the finest novella in European literature. In addition, he wrote numerous essays and tracts on religious, moral, social, educational and aesthetic topics, most notably ‘Chto takoe iskusstvo?’ (What Is Art?) (1898), Tsarstvo Bozhie vnutri vas ( The Kingdom of God Is Within You) (1893) and his autobiographical meditation ‘Ispoved’ ’ (A Confession) (1884). Tolstoi apparently used his essays, letters and diaries to explore ideas by stating them in their most extreme form, while his fiction developed them with much greater subtlety. Critics have discerned a sharp break in his work: an earlier period, in which he produced the two great novels, is dominated by deep scepticism; and a later period following the existential trauma



Page 896 and subsequent conversion experience described in ‘Ispoved’ ’. Tolstoi stressed the radical contingency of events, valued practical over theoretical reasoning, and satirized any and all overarching systems. After 1880, he assumed the role of a prophet, claiming to have found the true meaning of Christianity. He ‘edited’ the Gospels by keeping only those passages containing the essence of Christ’s teaching and dismissed the rest as so many layers of falsification imposed by ecclesiastics. Tolstoi preached pacifism, anarchism, vegetarianism, passive resistance to evil (a doctrine that influenced Gandhi), a radical asceticism that would have banned sex even within marriage, and a theory of art that rejected most classic authors, including the plays of Shakespeare and Tolstoi’s own earlier novels. Further reading Berlin, I. (1970) The Hedgehog and the Fox: An Essay on Tolstoy’s View of History , New York: Simon & Schuster. (Views Tolstoi as torn between scepticism and dogmatism.) Tolstoi [Tolstoy], L. (1969) What Is Art? and Essays on Art, trans. A. Maude, London: Oxford University Press. (Anthology containing What Is Art? (1898); ‘Introduction to the Works of Guy de Maupassant’ (1894); Tolstoi’s ‘Afterword’ (1905) to Chekhov’s story ‘Darling’; and other essays on art.) GARY SAUL MORSON TOMINAGA NAKAMOTO (1715–46) Tominaga Nakamoto was a leading representative of what some scholars have called the eighteenthcentury ‘enlightenment’ movement in Tokugawa thought. Nakamoto’s philological critiques of the historical development of Buddhist, Confucian and ShintŌdoctrines are noteworthy for their modern, empiricist tendencies. His advocacy of makoto no michi , or ‘the True Way’, a quotidian ethics advocating practical morality, gained no real following during Nakamoto’s brief life. See also: JAPANESE PHILOSOPHY Further reading Najita Tetsuo (1987) Visions of Virtue in Tokugawa Japan: The KaitokudŌ Merchant Academy of Osaka , Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Examines Nakamoto in the context of the KaitokudŌ academy, the kogaku movement and kokugaku thought.) JOHN ALLEN TUCKER TONGHAK Tonghak is an indigenous religion in Korea. Founded by Ch’oe Cheu (1824–64), it presently flourishes under the new name of Ch’ôndogyo. An eclectic religion, Tonghak borrowed from Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, shamanism and other folk beliefs. Its central tenet is founded on the concept of In nae ch’ôn (Man is God). God is not a supernatural God who exists outside or beyond man, but is an immanent God who is present within every man. See also: RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Weems, B.B. (1964) Reform, Rebellion and the Heavenly Way, Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. (A still useful English history of Tonghak from its beginnings until 1950.) YÔNG-HO CH’OE TOTALITARIANISM A term adopted in the 1920s by the Italian philosopher Giovanni Gentile to describe the ideal fascist state, ‘totalitarianism’ quickly acquired negative connotations as it was applied to the regimes of Hitler in Germany and Stalin in the USSR. Within political science it has generally been used to refer to a distinctively modern form of dictatorship based not only on terror but also on mass support mobilized behind an ideology prescribing radical social change. Controversially, the specific content of the ideology is considered less significant than the regime’s determination to form the minds of the population through control of all communications. Totalitarianism has attracted the attention of philosophers as well as political scientists because a number of classic philosophical systems have been suspected of harbouring totalitarian aspirations, and also because the model of total power exercised through discourse has been used by critical theorists to mount an attack on modernity in general. Further reading Arendt, H. (1951) The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York: Harcourt Brace. (A classic text of the theory of totalitarianism.) Popper, K. (1945) The Open Society and Its Enemies, London: Routledge, 2 vols. (A denunciation of Plato, Hegel and Marx as proto-totalitarians.) MARGARET CANOVAN



Page 897 TRADITION AND TRADITIONALISM Tradition is that body of practice and belief which is socially transmitted from the past. It is regarded as having authority in the present simply because it comes from the past, and encapsulates the wisdom and experience of the past. For some, the very idea of tradition is anathema. It is characteristic of modernity to reject the authority of the past in favour of the present deployment of reason, unencumbered by tradition or prejudice. While prior to the seventeenth century tradition was largely unquestioned as a source of insight, and in need of no defence, since the Enlightenment the notion of tradition has been defended by traditionalists such as Burke and, more recently, Hayek. Upon inspection, however, traditionalism, if not indefensibly irrational, turns out to be a demonstration of the overlooked rationality contained within traditions. Traditions often turn out upon inspection to be not so much irrational as subtle and flexible deployments of reason in particular spheres. See also: CONSERVATISM Further reading Burke, E. (1790) Reflections on the Revolution in France , London, Dent, 1967. (The classic statement of the argument for tradition.) Hayek, F.A. (1988) The Fatal Conceit , London, Routledge. (Gives an evolutionary account of the importance of apparently unthinking traditions.) ANTHONY O’HEAR TRAGEDY Tragedy is primarily a type of drama, though non-dramatic poetry (‘lyric tragedy’) and some novels (for example, Moby Dick) have laid claim to the description. As a genre, it began in ancient Greece and forms a part of the western European tradition. Historically, it has carried prestige for playwrights and actors because it dealt with persons, generally men, of ‘high’ or noble birth, who, by virtue of their stature, represented the most profound sufferings and conflicts of humanity, both morally and metaphysically. The history of the genre is part of the history of how art and culture reflect views about class and gender. Tragic theory has concentrated primarily on how to define the genre. A persistent feature is the tragic hero, who begins by occupying a position of power or nobility, but comes to a catastrophic end through some action of his own. According to the Aristotelian tradition, the audience is supposed to experience pity and fear in response to the sufferings of the tragic hero, and perhaps pleasure from its cathartic effects. Hegel initiated a paradigm shift in tragic theory in proposing that tragic plots essentially involve conflicts of duty rather than suffering. Greek tragedy and Shakespearean tragedy provide two different exemplars of the genre. The tradition inspired by Greek tragedy emphasized a rigidly defined genre of dramatic poetry; French neoclassic tragedy is part of this tradition. Shakespearean tragedy, on the other hand, is written partly in prose, and includes comic elements and characters who are not nobly born. Lessing and Ibsen also resisted restraints imposed on the genre in terms of its representation of social class and gender in favour of drama that was more realistic and relevant to a bourgeois audience. Twentieth-century criticism has questioned the viability of the genre for modern times. Further reading Steiner, G. (1961) The Death of Tragedy, New York: Alfred A. Knopf. (Proposes that tragedy arises in cultures that see indomitable and implacable forces as limiting and thwarting human power and reason, leading to suffering and destruction.) Williams, R. (1966) Modern Tragedy, London: Chatto & Windus. (A poet and critic, he argues that our understanding of the history of tragedy and tragic theory is coloured by our own perspectives, and this helps us to resolve the conflict between what is accepted as tradition and our own ordinary notion of a tragic event.) SUSAN L. FEAGIN TRANSCENDENTAL ARGUMENTS Transcendental arguments seek to answer scepticism by showing that the things doubted by a sceptic are in fact preconditions for the scepticism to make sense. Hence the scepticism is either meaningless or false. A transcendental argument works by finding the preconditions of meaningful thought or judgment. For example, scepticism about other minds suggests that only the thinker themselves might have sensations. A transcendental argument which answered this scepticism would show that a precondition for thinking oneself to have sensations is that others do so as well. Expressing the scepticism involves thinking oneself to have sensations; and the argument shows that if this thought is expressible, then it is also false.



Page 898 Arguments with such powerful consequences have, unsurprisingly, been much criticized. One criticism is that it is not possible to discover the necessary conditions of judgment. Another is that transcendental arguments can only show us how we have to think, whereas defeating scepticism involves showing instead how things really are. See also: SCEPTICISM Further reading Davidson, D. (1984) Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Rather elliptical, at times technical, but very stimulating. Essays 11 and 13 contain examples of transcendental arguments.) Peacocke, C. (1989) Transcendental Arguments in the Theory of Content , Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Exhibits his work on mental content as a transcendental argument; at times over-condensed.) ROSS HARRISON TRANSLATORS Translators played a crucial role in the history of medieval philosophy. Since multilingualism was generally restricted to places in which a direct contact between different languages was possible, such as Byzantium, the Near East, southern Italy or Spain, the dissemination of knowledge into foreign cultures was mainly brought about by means of translation. In this conversion process various kinds of writings were involved, including the Bible, the Qur’an and liturgical and hagiographic works as well as literary and historiographic texts. See also: ENCYCLOPEDISTS; ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY: TRANSMISSION INTO WESTERN EUROPE Further reading Haskins, C.H. (1924) Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Despite its age, still valuable as a source of information about translators of the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries.) JOZEF BRAMS TRINITY The doctrine of the Holy Trinity is a central and essential element of Christian theology. The part of the doctrine that is of special concern in the present entry may be stated in these words: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are each God; they are distinct from one another; and yet (in the words of the Athanasian Creed), ‘they are not three Gods, but there is one God’. This is not to be explained by saying that ‘the Father’, ‘the Son’ and ‘the Holy Spirit’ are three names that are applied to the one God in various circumstances; nor is it to be explained by saying that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are parts or aspects of God (like the leaves of a shamrock or the faces of a cube). In the words of St Augustine: Thus there are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and each is God and at the same time all are one God; and each of them is a full substance, and at the same time all are one substance. The Father is neither the Son nor the Holy Spirit; the Son is neither the Father nor the Holy Spirit; the Holy Spirit is neither the Father nor the Son. But the Father is the Father uniquely; the Son is the Son uniquely; and the Holy Spirit is the Holy Spirit uniquely. ( De doctrina christiana I, 5, 5) The doctrine of the Trinity seems on the face of it to be logically incoherent. It seems to imply that identity is not transitive – for the Father is identical with God, the Son is identical with God, and the Father is not identical with the Son. There have been two recent attempts by philosophers to defend the logical coherency of the doctrine. Richard Swinburne has suggested that the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit be thought of as numerically distinct Gods, and he has argued that, properly understood, this suggestion is consistent with historical orthodoxy. Peter Geach and various others have suggested that a coherent statement of the doctrine is possible on the assumption that identity is ‘always relative to a sortal term’. Swinburne’s formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity is certainly free from logical incoherency, but it is debatable whether it is consistent with historical orthodoxy. As to ‘relative identity’ formulations of the doctrine, not all philosophers would agree that the idea that identity is always relative to a sortal term is even intelligible. See also: INCARNATION AND CHRISTOLOGY Further reading Hill, E. (1985) The Mystery of the Trinity, London: Geoffrey Chapman. (A very useful exposition of Augustine and Aquinas on the Trinity.) McGrath, A.E. (1994) Christian Theology: An Introduction , Oxford: Blackwell. (Recom



Page 899 mended for readers with no background in theology or church history. Clear and reliable.) PETER VAN INWAGEN TROELTSCH, ERNST PETER WILHELM (1865–1923) Born in Germany, Ernst Troeltsch was a theologian, sociological historian, and philosopher of religion and history. He aimed to reconcile theology with modern scientific culture by grounding his philosophy of religion on historical analysis, and is regarded as the systematician of the ‘history of religion school’. He is famous for his critical appraisal of the Protestant Reformation, which, he argued, had retarded the development of modern culture. Further reading Troeltsch, E. (1912) Die Soziallehren der christlichen Kirchen, Gesammelte Schriften I, Tübingen: Mohr; trans. O. Wyon, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches , London: Allen & Unwin, 1949. (Troeltsch’s favourite of his own works, in which he develops his famous typology of social forms of Christian institution.) JEAN-LOUP SEBAN TROTSKY, LEON (1879–1940) Trotsky’s chief claim to attention is as the leader of the Russian Revolution who opposed the consolidation of the Stalin regime in the Soviet Union and sought to dissociate the classical Marxist tradition from that regime and its official ideology. In doing so, however, he developed a version of Marxism which sought to give proper place to the ‘subjective factor’ in history, and at the same time to integrate Marx’s social theory into a broader, dialectical theory of nature. See also: MARXIST PHILOSOPHY, RUSSIAN AND SOVIET Further reading Trotsky, L. (1942) In Defence of Marxism, New York: Pathfinder, 1973. (Trotsky’s last thoughts on Stalinism and the future of Marxism; also contains his most celebrated defence of the dialectic.) ALEX CALLINICOS TRUST Most people writing on trust accept the following claims: trust involves risk; trusters do not constantly monitor those they trust; trust enhances the effectiveness of agency; and trust and distrust are selfconfirming. Three further claims are widely accepted: trust and distrust are contraries but not contradictories; trust cannot be willed; and trust has noninstrumental value. Accounts of trust divide into three families: risk-assessment accounts, which are indifferent to the reasons why one trusts; will-based accounts, which stress the importance of the motives of those who are trusted; and affective attitude accounts, which claim that trust is a feeling as well as a judgment and a disposition to act. One of the central questions concerns when trust is justified, and, in particular, whether justified trusting can outstrip evidence for the belief that the person trusted is trustworthy. If trust can leap ahead of evidence of trustworthiness, then trust poses a problem for evidentialism, or the view that one should never believe anything without sufficient evidence. Further central questions include whether trusting is a virtue and trustworthiness morally required, while a final set of questions concerns the role of trust in politics and the connection between interpersonal trust and trust in institutions. See also: PROMISING; TRUTHFULNESS; XIN (TRUSTWORTHINESS) Further reading Gambetta, D. (ed.) (1988) Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations , New York: Blackwell. (A collection of essays most of which provide risk-assessment accounts of trust. Contains articles by Patrick Bateson, Partha Dasgupta, John Dunn, Ernest Gellner, Keith Hart, Geoffrey Hawthorn, Edward Lorenz, Niklas Luhmann, Anthony Pagden and Bernard Williams. Dunn’s contribution, ‘Trust and Political Agency’, is an especially useful discussion of the role of trust in politics.) KAREN JONES TRUTH AND MEANING see MEANING AND TRUTH TRUTH, COHERENCE THEORY OF The term ‘coherence’ in the phrase ‘coherence theory of truth’ has never been very precisely defined. The most we can say by way of a general definition is that a set of two or more beliefs are said to cohere if they ‘fit’ together or ‘agree’ with one another. Typically, then, a coherence theory of truth would claim that the beliefs of a given individual are true to the extent that the set of all their beliefs is coherent. Such theories, thus, make truth a matter of a truth bearer’s relations



Page 900 to other truth bearers rather than its relations to reality. This latter implication is the chief hindrance to plausibility faced by coherence theories, and most coherence theorists try to escape the problem by denying that there is any extra-mental reality. See also: TRUTH, DEFLATIONARY THEORIES OF; TRUTH, PRAGMATIC THEORY OF Further reading Kirkham, R.L. (1992) Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (An introduction to theories of truth.) RICHARD L. KIRKHAM TRUTH, CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF The two oldest theories of truth in Western philosophy, those of Plato and Aristotle, are both correspondence theories. And if the non-philosopher can be said to subscribe to a theory of truth, it would most likely be to a correspondence theory; so called because such theories are often summed up with the slogans ‘truth is correspondence with the facts’ or ‘truth is agreement with reality’. Aristotle puts it thus: ‘to say that [either] that which is is not or that which is not is, is a falsehood; and to say that that which is is and that which is not is not, is true’. In epistemology, such theories offer an analysis of that at which, supposedly, investigation aims: truth. But correspondence theories are also now thought to play important roles in philosophical semantics and in the physicalist programme, which is the task of reducing all non-physical concepts to the concepts of logic, mathematics, and physics. See also: MEANING AND TRUTH Kirkham, R.L. (1992) Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (An introduction to theories of truth; see Chapter 4.) RICHARD L. KIRKHAM TRUTH, DEFLATIONARY THEORIES OF So-called deflationary theories of truth, of which the best known are the redundancy, performative and prosentential theories, are really theories of truth ascriptions. This is because they are not theories of what truth is; rather, they are theories of what we are saying when we make utterances like “‘Routledge editors are fine folks” is true’. The surface grammar of such utterances suggests that we use them to predicate a property, truth, of sentences or propositions; but the several deflationary theories all deny this. Indeed, they all endorse the Deflationary Thesis that there is no such property as truth and thus there is no need for, or sense to, a theory of truth distinct from a theory of truth ascriptions. Thus, for deflationists, the classical theories of truth, such as correspondence, coherence and pragmatic, are not wrong. They are something worse: they are wrong-headed from the start, for they are attempting to analyse something which simply is not there. See also: JUSTIFICATION, EPISTEMIC; MEANING AND TRUTH Further reading Kirkham, R.L. (1992) Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (An introduction to theories of truth; see Chapter 10.) RICHARD L. KIRKHAM TRUTH, PRAGMATIC THEORY OF Two distinctly different kinds of theories parade under the banner of the ‘pragmatic theory of truth’. First, there is the consensus theory of C.S. Peirce, according to which a true proposition is one which would be endorsed unanimously by all persons who had had sufficient relevant experiences to judge it. Second, there is the instrumentalist theory associated with William James, John Dewey, and F.C.S. Schiller, according to which a proposition counts as true if and only if behaviour based on a belief in the proposition leads, in the long run and all things considered, to beneficial results for the believers. (Peirce renamed his theory ‘pragmaticism’ when his original term ‘pragmatism’ was appropriated by the instrumentalists.) Unless they are married to some form of ontological anti-realism, which they usually are, both theories imply that the facts of the matter are not relevant to the truth-value of the proposition. See also: MEANING AND TRUTH; PRAGMATISM Further reading James, W. (1909) The Meaning of Truth , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. (A collection of essays on truth, mainly written in the last few years before the author’s death, in an excellent critical edition.) RICHARD L. KIRKHAM TRUTHFULNESS Humans are the only species capable of speech and thus of lies. Choices regarding truthfulness



Page 901 and deceit are woven into all that they say and do. From childhood on, everyone knows the experience of being deceived and of deceiving others, of doubting someone’s word and of being thought a liar. Throughout life, no moral choice is more common than that of whether to speak truthfully, equivocate, or lie – whether to flatter, get out of trouble, retaliate, or gain some advantage. All societies, as well as all major moral, religious and legal traditions have condemned forms of deceit such as bearing false witness; but many have also held that deceit can be excusable or even mandated under certain circumstances, as, for instance, to deflect enemies in war or criminals bent on doing violence to innocent victims. Opinions diverge about such cases, however, as well as about many common choices about truthfulness and deceit. How open should spouses be to one another about adultery, for example, or physicians to dying patients? These are quandaries familiar since antiquity. Others, such as those involving the backdating of computerized documents, false claims on résumés in applying for work, or misrepresenting one’s HIV-positive status to sexual partners, present themselves in new garb. Hard choices involving truthfulness and lying inevitably raise certain underlying questions. How should truthfulness be defined? Is lying ever morally justified, and if so under what conditions? How should one deal with borderline cases between truthfulness and clear-cut falsehood, and between more and less egregious forms of deceit? And how do attitudes towards truthfulness relate to personal integrity and character? The rich philosophical debate of these issues has focused on issues of definition, justification, and line-drawing, and on their relevance to practical moral choice. See also: SELF-DECEPTION; VIRTUES AND VICES Further reading Bok, S. (1978) Lying: Moral Choices in Public and Private Life , New York: Pantheon. (A contemporary treatment of the ethics of lying and truthfulness and of the traditions of debate on these subjects. Appendix has selections from Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Grotius, Kant, Sidgwick, Ross and others.) Ross, W.D. (1930) The Right and the Good, Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Contains Ross’ specifications of the duty not to tell lies as a prima facie duty of fidelity.) SISSELA BOK TSCHIRNHAUS, EHRENFRIED WALTHER VON (1651–1708) The German natural philosopher E.W. von Tschirnhaus emphasized bodily and mental health, was a friend of Spinoza and correspondent of Leibniz. He perfected the construction of concave mirrors (used to generate extremely high temperatures) and was probably the first European to produce porcelain. Hoping to make scientific progress more predictable, Tschirnhaus devised a method of inquiry orientated to mathematics and experimentation. See also: ENLIGHTENMENT, CONTINENTAL Further reading Wollgast, S. (1988) Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus und die deutsche Frühaufklärung (Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus and the Early German Enlightenment), Berlin: Akademieverlag. (Tschirnhaus’ role in the early German Enlightenment, as interpreted through the Marxist categories of historical materialism.) MARTIN SCHÖNFELD TSONG KHA PA BLO BZANG GRAGS PA (1357–1419) Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa (Dzongkaba Losang dragba), the founder of the dGa’-ldanpa (Gandenba) school of Tibetan Buddhism, was born in Tsong-kha, in the extreme northeastern region of Tibet. He is often depicted as a type of reformer, putting great emphasis on moral precepts and interpreting Tantra in a way which would not create any conflict with the traditional Mahāyāna doctrines found in the sūtras and treatises. He was also an eclectic, drawing upon and synthesizing numerous different currents of Indian Buddhism – for example, he put forth a version of *Prāsangika-Mādhyamika which was inextricably bound up with the logical tradition of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti. On the Tibetan side, one of his major philosophical debts was undoubtedly to the gSang-phu (Sangpu) traditions stemming from the highly original thinker Phya pa Chos kyi seng ge (Chaba Chögyi sengge, 1109–69). Finally, his dGa’-ldan-pa school subsequently became the dGe-lugs-pa (Gelukba), a predominantly monastic tradition which in time became the dominant current of Buddhism in Tibet. Tsong kha pa thus had, in addition to his philosophical influence, a long-term impact on the Tibetan political situation, contributing to the transfer of power from the southern





Page 902 provinces to the Lhasa region and laying the groundwork for the peculiarly Tibetan synthesis of religion and political power which was to be embodied in the institution of the Dalai Lamas. See also: BUDDHISM, MĀDHYAMIKA: INDIA AND TIBET; TIBETAN PHILOSOPHY Further reading Napper, E. (1989) Dependent-Arising and Emptiness, London: Wisdom Publications, 1989. (An introduction to Tsong kha pa’s Mādhyamika with a translation of parts of the Lam rim chen mo .) Tsong kha pa (1357–1419) Yid dang kun gzhidka’ ba’i gnas , trans. G. Sparham, Ocean of Eloquence: Tsong kha pa’s Commentary on the Yogācāra Doctrine of Mind, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993. (An excellent translation of Tsong kha pa’s text on the mental faculty and the storehouse consciousness.) TOM J.F. TILLEMANS TSUNG-MI see ZONGMI TUCKER, ABRAHAM (1705–74) Like many of his eighteenth-century British contemporaries, Abraham Tucker was an empiricist follower of John Locke. Tucker held that the mind begins as a blank slate and remains nothing more than a passive receptacle for ‘trains’ of ideas with ‘a motion of their own’. In his moral philosophy Tucker proposed that the motive of all our actions is the prospect of our own satisfaction, and that the maximization of everyone’s satisfaction is the ultimate moral good. (The latter view became a central tenet of the utilitarians who followed him.) According to Tucker, God ensures that our self-interested motivation will be congruent with morality, for God has arranged that we will be rewarded for good and punished for evil – either in this world or in the next. Among those most influenced by his work was the utilitarian and philosophical theologian William Paley. See also: LOCKE, J. Further reading Tucker, A. (1777) The Light of Nature Pursued, 7 vols; 2nd edn, 1805; repr. London: Garland, 1977. (Tucker’s major work, written in a discursive and painstaking style. Includes a short biography of the author. The first edition was published under the pseudonym Edward Search.) T. McNAIR TUNG CHUNG-SHU see DONG ZHONGSHU TURING, ALAN MATHISON (1912–54) Alan Turing was a mathematical logician who made fundamental contributions to the theory of computation. He developed the concept of an abstract computing device (a ‘Turing machine’) which precisely characterizes the concept of computation, and provided the basis for the practical development of electronic digital computers beginning in the 1940s. He demonstrated both the scope and limitations of computation, proving that some mathematical functions are not computable in principle by such machines. Turing believed that human behaviour might be understood in terms of computation, and his views inspired contemporary computational theories of mind. He proposed a comparative test for machine intelligence, the ‘Turing test’, in which a human interrogator tries to distinguish a computer from a human by interacting with them only over a teletypewriter. Although the validity of the Turing test is controversial, the test and modifications of it remain influential measures for evaluating artificial intelligence. Further reading Hodges, A. (1983) Alan Turing: The Enigma , New York: Simon & Schuster. (Excellent biography.) JAMES H. MOOR TURING MACHINES Turing machines are abstract computing devices, named after Alan Mathison Turing. A Turing machine operates on a potentially infinite tape uniformly divided into squares, and is capable of entering only a finite number of distinct internal configurations. Each square may contain a symbol from a finite alphabet. The machine can scan one square at a time and perform, depending on the content of the scanned square and its own internal configuration, one of the following operations: print or erase a symbol on the scanned square or move on to scan either one of the immediately adjacent squares. These elementary operations are possibly accompanied by a change of internal configuration. Turing argued that the class of functions calculable by means of an algorithmic procedure (a mechanical, stepwise, deterministic procedure) is to be identified with the class of functions computable by Turing



Page 903 later became known as Turing’s thesis; an equivalent claim, Church’s thesis, had been advanced independently by Alonzo Church. Most crucially, mathematical results stating that certain functions cannot be computed by any Turing machine are interpreted, by Turing’s thesis, as establishing absolute limitations of computing agents. Further reading Herken, R. (ed.) (1988) The Universal Turing Machine: A Half-Century Survey, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (See especially Kleene’s and Gandy’s articles. Feferman’s article reviews the ideas leading to the notion of oracle machine.) GUGLIELMO TAMBURRINI TURING REDUCIBILITY AND TURING DEGREES A reducibility is a relation of comparative computational complexity (which can be made precise in various non-equivalent ways) between mathematical objects of appropriate sorts. Much of recursion theory concerns such relations, initially between sets of natural numbers (in so-called classical recursion theory), but later between sets of other sorts (in so-called generalized recursion theory). This article considers only the classical setting. Also Turing first defined such a relation, now called Turing- (or just T-) reducibility; probably most logicians regard it as the most important such relation. Turing- (or T-) degrees are the units of computational complexity when comparative complexity is taken to be Treducibility. Further reading Odifreddi, P. (1989) Classical Recursion Theory , Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, Elsevier Science Publishers. (A very good introductory text, emphasising breadth, up-to-date as of 1989; the author plans to extend this with at least one further volume.) HAROLD HODES TURNBULL, GEORGE (1698–1748) George Turnbull studied in Edinburgh and became regent at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He was an early champion of the use of empirical methods in the moral sciences. Involved in contemporary religious debate, he favoured religious toleration and the use of rational argument in defence of Christian belief. He also made contributions to educational theory and practice. See also: ENLIGHTENMENT, SCOTTISH Further reading Turnbull, G. (1740) The Principles of Moral Philosophy , London: Noon, 2 vols; repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1976. (Based on Turnbull’s moral philosophy lectures at Marischal College, and incorporating ideas taken from Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Butler, Berkeley, Pope, Newton and John Clark among others.) PAUL WOOD AL-TUSI, KHWAJAH NASIR (1201–74) While philosophical activity in the Islamic west virtually ceased after Ibn Rushd at the close of the sixth century AH (twelfth century AD), it experienced renewed vigour in the east through the intellectual efforts and political involvement of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. Although primarily a reviver of the peripatetic tradition of Ibn Sina, he was also possibly influenced by the ideas of al-Suhrawardi. He defended Ibn Sina from the criticisms levelled against him from the direction of theology, notably by Fakhr al-Din alRazi, made a significant contribution to the acceptance of metaphysical argumentation and terminology in Twelver Shi‘i theology, brought the ethical tradition of Ibn Miskawayh and the philosophers into the centre of Islamic ethical discourse, and had a lasting effect on the study of the exact sciences in Islam through both his original contributions to mathematics and astronomy and the observatory at Maraghah which the Mongol Khan Hülegü established for him. See also: IBN SINA Further reading Al-Tusi (1235, 1265) Akhlaq-i Nasiri (The Nasirean Ethics), trans. G.M. Wickens, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1964. (An excellent, meticulous translation of the Akhlaq-e Nasiri , with a brief introduction and notes.) JOHN COOPER TWARDOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1866–1938) Twardowski, one of the most distinguished of Brentano’s students, became famous for his distinction between the content and object of presentations. Twardowski, after his appointment as a professor of philosophy at the University of Lwów (Lvov), considerably limited



Page 904 his own philosophical research for the sake of teaching activities. He set himself an ambitious task: to create a scientific philosophy in Poland. Twardowski fully realized his aim, giving the first step towards the so-called Lwów–Warsaw School, a group of philosophers working in analytic philosophy – in particular, logic, philosophy of science, and philosophy of language. In spite of his concentration on teaching, Twardowski also made remarkable contributions to philosophy after coming to Lwów. See also: POLAND, PHILOSOPHY IN Further reading Twardowski, K. (1998) Selected Papers , eds J. Brandl and J. Wolenski, Amsterdam: Rodopi. (This collection contains Twardowski’s most important papers.) JAN WOLEŃSKI TYPE/TOKEN DISTINCTION The type/token distinction is related to that between universals and particulars. C.S. Peirce introduced the terms ‘type’ and ‘token’, and illustrated the distinction by pointing to two senses of ‘word’: in one, there is only one word ‘the’ in the English language; in the other, there are numerous words ‘the’ on the physical page you are now looking at. The latter are spatiotemporal objects composed of ink; they are said to be word tokens of the former, which is said to be the word type and is abstract. Phonemes, letters and sentences also come in types and tokens. See also: ABSTRACT OBJECTS; Tocqueville, A. de (1835, 1840) De la démocratie en Amérique ( Democracy in America), trans G. Lawrence, ed. J.P. Mayer and M. Lerner, London: Fontana, 1966. Further reading Hale, R.J. (1987) Abstract Objects, Oxford and New York: Blackwell. (An excellent discussion about abstract objects generally, including types, and our reasons for being justified in concluding they exist.) LINDA WETZEL





Page 905 U UDAYANA (11th century) Perhaps the most important philosopher of the Nyāya school, Udayana authored several works in the eleventh century which brought to a close the long-standing debate between Nyāya and Buddhist philosophers. The realist Nyāya philosophers had argued for the existence of an enduring self ( ātman ), a thesis denied by their Buddhist opponents. Such was the importance of this disagreement that it pervaded all other areas of philosophical contention between them. In the Ātmatattvaviveka (On the Discrimination of the Reality of the Self), Udayana systematically clarified the connections between the ātman debate and many other areas of philosophical dispute, with the result that, in defending ātman, he also produced a masterly defence of Nyāya realism. Udayana is also credited with giving the definitive defence of theism in the Nyāyakusumāñjali (A Handful of Nyāya-Tree Flowers). Further reading Tachikawa, M. (1981) The Structure of the World in Udayana’s Realism, Dordrecht: Reidel. (Contains translations of the La kṣaṇāvalī and the Kira?āvalī .) JOY LAINE UDDYOTAKARA (6th century) Uddyotakara, a philosopher of the Nyāya school, wrote the Nyāyavārttika , a lengthy commentary on the Nyāyasuūtra. Hismost urgent task was to re-establish the authority of the Nyāya school in the face of extensive criticism from the great Buddhist logician Dignāga. Dignāga had been particularly critical of the logical work of Vātsyāyana, Uddyotakara’s predecessor. In response, Uddyotakara incorporated Dignāga’s logical work into the Nyāya school, and added his own interpretation. He was less receptive to Dignāga’s other views, especially his account of perception and its relation to language. See also: NYĀYA–VAIŚEṢIKA Further reading Sastri, D.N. (1964) The Philosophy of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣaika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignāga School , Delhi: BharatiyaVidya Prakashan. (A detailed account of the defence of Nyāya realism in the face of Buddhist opposition. There are frequent references to Uddyotakara and his role in this long philosophical dispute.) JOY LAINE ÛISANG (605–702) Ûisang was the founder of the Korean branch of the Flower Garland (Hwaôm; in Chinese, Huayan) school of East Asian Buddhism which emerged as the main scholastic tradition within Korean Buddhism, thanks in large measure to Ûisang himself. His works emphasize the unimpeded interpenetration that Hwaôm posits to pertain between all phenomena in the universe. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, KOREAN Further reading Odin, S. (1982) Process Metaphysics and Huayen Buddhism: A Critical Study of Cumulative Penetration vs. Interpenetration , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (The expository section includes a comparative treatment of Ûisang and Whitehead.) ROBERT E. BUSWELL, JR ULRICH OF STRASBOURG ( c .1220/5–1277) A Dominican theologian and philosopher and a student of Albert The Great, Ulrich was well known for a widely studied summa theologiae , De summo bono (On the Supreme Good), which represents an advance over previous summae in plan and organization. Ulrich provides a rich synthesis of Christian Neoplatonic theology and mysticism by systematizing the Aristotelianized Neoplatonic philosophical theologies of Albert the Great, Pseudo-Dionysius’ De divinis nominibus and the Liber de causis. He exercised a notable influence on the Rhineland mystics. See also: ALBERT THE GREAT Further reading Lescoe, F.J. (1979) God as First Principle in Ulrich of Strasbourg , New York: Alba House. (As well as the edited but untranslated text of Book 4 tractate 1, Lescoe provides a comprehensive discussion of the authenticity and





Page 906 contents of the entire treatise, a detailed study of the central metaphysical themes in Ulrich’s thought, and an extensive bibliography.) JOHN BUSSANICH UNAMUNO Y JUGO, MIGUEL DE (1864–1936) The Spanish philosopher-poet Miguel de Unamuno upheld a heterodoxical Catholicism, resembling much nineteenth-century Liberal Protestantism, which viewed reason and faith as antagonistic. By ‘reason’, he understood scientific induction and deduction; by ‘faith’, a sentiment varying with his readings and personal experiences. Adolescent scepticism led him to reconcile science with religion by grafting Spencer’s positivism onto various German idealisms, but a family tragedy brought this period of experimentation to an abrupt end. Obsessed with mortality, Unamuno achieved philosophical maturity with a blend of Liberal Protestant theology and the philosophies of James and Kierkegaard in his conception of the ‘tragic sense of life’ – the theme of his essays, novels, dramas, poetry and journalism. He acquired deep and intense insights into the quest for immortality. Unamuno was a professional in neither philosophy nor theology. See also: SPAIN, PHILOSOPHY IN Further reading Nozick, M. (1971) Miguel de Unamuno, New York: Twayne. (The deepest, most concise and comprehensive treatment of Unamuno’s philosophy.) Valdés, M.J. and Elena, M. (1973) An Unamuno source book: A Catalogue of Readings and Acquisitions with an Introductory Essay on Unamuno’s Dialectical Enquiry , Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press. (Indispensable list of holdings and annotations in Unamuno’s personal library at the Casa-Museo Unamuno, Salamanca.) NELSON R. ORRINGER UNCONSCIOUS MENTAL STATES Unconscious phenomena are those mental phenomena which their possessor cannot introspect, not only at the moment at which the phenomenon occurs, but even when prompted (‘Do you think/want/ . . . ? ’). There are abundant allusions to many kinds of unconscious phenomena from classical times to Freud. Most notably, Plato in his Meno defended a doctrine of anamnesis according to which a priori knowledge of, for example, geometry is ‘recollected’ from a previous life. But the notion of a rich, unconscious mental life really takes hold in nineteenth-century writers, such as Herder, Hegel, Helmholtz and Schopenhauer. It is partly out of this latter tradition that Freud’s famous postulations of unconscious, ‘repressed’ desires and memories emerged. Partly in reaction to the excesses of introspection and partly because of the rise of computational models of mental processes, twentieth-century psychology has often been tempted by Lashley’s view that ‘no activity of mind is ever conscious’ (1956). A wide range of recent experiments do suggest that people can be unaware of a multitude of sensory cognitive factors (for example, pupillary dilation, cognitive dissonance, subliminal cues to problemsolving) that demonstrably affect their behaviour. And Weiskrantz has documented cases of ‘blindsight’ in which patients with damage to their visual cortex can be shown to be sensitive to visual material they sincerely claim they cannot see. The most controversial cases of unconscious phenomena are those which the agent could not possibly introspect, even in principle. Chomsky ascribes unconscious knowledge of quite abstract principles of grammar to adults and even newborn children that only a linguist could infer. Many philosophers have found these claims about the unconscious unconvincing, even incoherent. However, they need to show how the evidence cited above could be otherwise explained, and why appeals to the unconscious have seemed so perfectly intelligible throughout history. See also: CONSCIOUSNESS; PSYCHOANALYSIS, METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN Further reading Grünbaum, A. (1984) The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. (A standard philosophical critique of Freudian theories.) Ryle, G. (1949) The Concept of Mind, London: Hutcheson. (Historical source of the suggestion that much unconscious knowledge may be merely ‘know how’, not ‘knowledge that’.) GEORGES REY UNDERDETERMINATION The term underdetermination refers to a broad family of arguments about the relations between





Page 907 theory and evidence. All share the conclusion that evidence is more or less impotent to guide choice between rival theories or hypotheses. In one or other of its guises, underdetermination has probably been the most potent and most pervasive idea driving twentieth-century forms of scepticism and epistemological relativism. It figures prominently in the writing of diverse influential philosophers. It is a complex family of doctrines, each with a different argumentative structure. Most, however, suppose that only the logical consequences of a hypothesis are relevant to its empirical support. This supposition can be challenged. See also: INDUCTIVE INFERENCE Further reading Hempel, C.G. (1965) Aspects of Explanation, New York: Free Press. (The principal formulation and critique of the qualitative theory of confirmation.) LARRY LAUDAN UNITY OF SCIENCE How should our scientific knowledge be organized? Is scientific knowledge unified and, if so, does it mirror a unity of the world as a whole? Or is it merely a matter of simplicity and economy of thought? Either way, what sort of unity is it? If the world can be decomposed into elementary constituents, must our knowledge be in some way reducible to, or even replaced by, the concepts and theories describing such constituents? Can economics be reduced to microphysics, as Einstein claimed? Can sociology be derived from molecular genetics? Might the sciences be unified in the sense of all following the same method, whether or not they are all ultimately reducible to physics? Considerations of the unity problem begin at least with Greek cosmology and the question of the one and the many. In the late twentieth century the increasing tendency is to argue for the disunity of science and to deny reducibility to physics. Further reading Schaffner, K. (1993) Discovery and Explanation in Biology and Medicine, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Presents a survey of the literature and a discussion of the applicability of different notions of reductionism in the biomedical sciences, especially his own; it includes a very helpful bibliography with essential primary sources.) JORDI CAT UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE Most often associated with attempts to establish an international language such as Esperanto, the idea of a universal language is rooted in the biblical claim of an original language common to all human beings. The idea received its most thorough investigation during the seventeenth century. Drawing on the example of Chinese characters, early schemes involved a system of written signs that would allow communication between speakers of different languages. Later thinkers argued for the importance of an ideal ‘philosophical language’ in which the structure of signs exactly mirrored the structure of reality. While such projects fell short of their authors’ expectations, their influence can be discerned in the formalisms of modern logic and science. See also: FORMAL LANGUAGES AND SYSTEMS Further reading Knowlson, J. (1975) Universal Language Schemes in England and France 1600–1800, Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press. (The best survey of the topic; contains a valuable checklist of universal language schemes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.) DONALD RUTHERFORD UNIVERSALISM IN ETHICS The claim that ethical standards or principles are universal is an ancient commonplace of many ethical traditions and of contemporary political life, particularly in appeals to universal human rights. Yet it remains controversial. There are many sources of controversy. Universalism in ethics may be identified with claims about the form, scope or content of ethical principles, or with the very idea that ethical judgment appeals to principles, rather than to particular cases. Or it may be identified with various claims to identify a single fundamental universal principle, from which all other ethical principles and judgments derive. These disagreements can be clarified, and perhaps in part resolved, by distinguishing a number of different conceptions of universalism in ethics. See also: INTUITIONISM IN ETHICS Further reading Williams, B. (1985) Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press and London: Fontana. (Particularist criticism of aspects of ethical universalism.)



Page 908 UNIVERSALS In metaphysics, the term ‘universals’ is applied to things of two sorts: properties (such as redness or roundness), and relations (such as kinship relations like sisterhood, or the causal relation, or spatial and temporal relations). Universals are to be understood by contrast with particulars. Few universals, if any, are truly ‘universal’ in the sense that they are shared by all individuals – a universal is characteristically the sort of thing which some individuals may have in common, and others may lack. Universals have been conceived to be things which enable us intellectually to grasp a permanent, underlying order behind the changing flux of experience. Some of the gods of ancient mythologies correspond roughly to various important underlying universals – social relations for instance, as for example if Hera is said to be the goddess of Marriage and Ares (or Mars) is said to be the god of War. Many traditions, East and West, have dealt with the underlying problem which generates theories of universals; nevertheless the term ‘universals’ is closely tied to the Western tradition, and the agenda has been set largely by the work of Plato and Aristotle. The term often used in connection with Plato is not ‘universals’ but ‘Forms’ (or ‘Ideas’, used in the sense of ideals rather than of thoughts), the term ‘universals’ echoing Aristotle more than Plato. Other terms cognate with universals include not only properties and relations, but also qualities, attributes, characteristics, essences and accidents (in the sense of qualities which a thing has not of necessity but only by accident), species and genus, and natural kinds. Various arguments have been advanced to establish the existence of universals, the most memorable of which is the ‘one over many’ argument. There are also various arguments against the existence of universals. There are, for instance, various vicious regress arguments which derive from Aristotle’s socalled ‘third man argument’ against Plato. Another family of arguments trades on what is called Ockham’s razor: it is argued that we can say anything we need to say, and explain everything we need to explain, without appeal to universals; and if we can, and if we are rational, then we should. Those who believe in universals are called realists, those who do not are called nominalists. See also: PARTICULARS; UNIVERSALS, INDIAN THEORIES OF Further reading Armstrong, D.M. (1978) Universals and Scientific Realism, London: Cambridge University Press, 2 vols. (A groundbreaking resuscitation of a broadly Aristotelian realism about universals as extra ‘objects’ in Frege’s sense.) Spade, P.V. (trans. and ed.) (1994) Five Texts on the Medieval Problem of Universals , Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. (Great works from the heyday of the problem of universals; requires no formal logic, but both historically and conceptually difficult.) JOHN C. BIGELOW UNIVERSALS, INDIAN THEORIES OF Indian philosophers postulated universals for two principal reasons: to serve as the ‘eternal’ meanings of words, upon which the eternality of language – in particular, the Hindu scriptures, the Veda – is based, and to account for why we conceive of things as being of certain types. However, universals were seen as problematic in various ways. How can something exist simultaneously in numerous individuals without being divided into parts? How can a universal, which is supposed to be eternal, continue to exist if all its substrata are destroyed? In what sense can a universal be said to ‘exist’ at all? Is a universal distinct from or identical with the individuals in which it inheres? In light of such difficulties, it is not surprising that certain other Indian philosophers – specifically Buddhist philosophers, who did not accept the doctrine of the eternality of the Veda – rejected universals and took up a nominalist stance. They held that general terms refer to mentally constructed ‘exclusion classes’, apohas . The use of the term ‘cow’, for example, is grounded not on some positive entity common to all cows but on the idea of the class of things that are different from all things that are not cows. This proposal, which originated with Dignāga in the sixth century AD, was debated vigorously until the eleventh century. See also: LANGUAGE, INDIAN THEORIES OF; ONTOLOGY IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Further reading Dravid, R.R. (1972) The Problem of Universals in Indian Philosophy , Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. (A comprehensive treatment of the views of all schools.) JOHN A. TABER





Page 909 USE/MENTION DISTINCTION AND QUOTATION Speakers ‘use’ the expressions they utter and ‘mention’ the individuals they talk about. Connected with the roles of used expressions and mentioned individuals is a way of uniting them and a characteristic mistake involving them. Usually the expression used in an utterance will not be the same as the individual mentioned, but the two can be made to converge. The means is quotation. Quotation is a special usage in which an expression is used to mention itself. A failure to distinguish between the roles of used expressions and mentioned individuals can lead to mistakes. Such mistakes are called use/mention confusions. In themselves use/mention confusions are a minor linguistic faux pas , but under unfavourable conditions, they have the potential to cause greater problems. See also: DE RE/DE DICTO Further reading Quine, W.V. (1940) Mathematical Logic , New York: Norton; repr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951, 23–37. (A careful discussion of the use/mention distinction, quotation and quasi-quotation.) COREY WASHINGTON UTILITARIANISM Utilitarianism is a theory about rightness, according to which the only good thing is welfare (wellbeing or ‘utility’). Welfare should, in some way, be maximized, and agents are to be neutral between their own welfare, and that of other people and of other sentient beings. The roots of utilitarianism lie in ancient thought. Traditionally, welfare has been seen as the greatest balance of pleasure over pain, a view discussed in Plato. The notion of impartiality also has its roots in Plato, as well as in Stoicism and Christianity. In the modern period, utilitarianism grew out of the Enlightenment, its two major proponents being Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Hedonists, believing that pleasure is the good, have long been criticized for sensualism, a charge Mill attempted to answer with a distinction between higher and lower pleasures. He contended that welfare consists in the experiencing of pleasurable mental states, suggesting, in contrast to Bentham, that the quality, not simply the amount, of a pleasure is what matters. Others have doubted this conception, and developed desire accounts, according to which welfare lies in the satisfaction of desire. Ideal theorists suggest that certain things are just good or bad for people, independently of pleasure and desire. Utilitarianism has usually focused on actions. The most common form is act-utilitarianism, according to which what makes an action right is its maximizing total or average utility. Some, however, have argued that constantly attempting to put utilitarianism into practice could be self-defeating, in that utility would not be maximized by so doing. Many utilitarians have therefore advocated non-utilitarian decision procedures, often based on common sense morality. Some have felt the appeal of common sense moral principles in themselves, and sought to reconcile utilitarianism with them. According to ruleutilitarianism, the right action is that which is consistent with those rules which would maximize utility if all accepted them. There have been many arguments for utilitarianism, the most common being an appeal to reflective belief or ‘intuition’. One of the most interesting is Henry Sidgwick’s argument, which is ultimately intuitionist, and results from sustained reflection on common sense morality. The most famous argument is Mill’s ‘proof’. In recent times, R.M. Hare has offered a logical argument for utilitarianism. The main problems for utilitarianism emerge out of its conflict with common sense morality, in particular justice, and its impartial conception of practical reasoning. See also: GOOD, THEORIES OF THE; TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS Further reading Mill, J.S. (1861) Utilitarianism , ed. R. Crisp, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. (One of the most important and widely studied works in moral philosophy. Contains argument that pleasures can be seen as higher and lower.) Scarre, G. (1996) Utilitarianism, London: Routledge. (Useful introduction, including history. Contains bibliography.) ROGER CRISP TIM CHAPPELL UTOPIANISM Utopianism is the general label for a number of different ways of dreaming or thinking about, describing or attempting to create a better society. Utopianism is derived from the word utopia, coined by Thomas More. In his book Utopia (1516) More described a society significantly better than England as it existed at the



Page 910 time, and the word utopia (good place) has come to mean a description of a fictional place, usually a society, that is better than the society in which the author lives and which functions as a criticism of the author’s society. In some cases it is intended as a direction to be followed in social reform, or even, in a few instances, as a possible goal to be achieved. The concept of utopianism clearly reflects its origins. In Utopia More presented a fictional debate over the nature of his creation. Was it fictional or real? Was the obvious satire aimed primarily at contemporary England or was it also aimed at the society described in the book? More important for later developments, was it naïvely unrealistic or did it present a social vision that, whether achievable or not, could serve as a goal to be aimed at? Most of what we now call utopianism derives from the last question. In the nineteenth century Robert Owen in England and Charles Fourier, Henri Saint-Simon and Étienne Cabet in France, collectively known as the utopian socialists, popularized the possibility of creating a better future through the establishment of small, experimental communities. Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and others argued that such an approach was incapable of solving the problems of industrial society and the label ‘utopian’ came to mean unrealistic and naïve. Later theorists, both opposed to and supportive of utopianism, debated the desirability of depicting a better society as a way of achieving significant social change. In particular, Christian religious thinkers have been deeply divided over utopianism. Is the act of envisaging a better life on earth heretical, or is it a normal part of Christian thinking? Since the collapse of communism in eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, a number of theorists have argued that utopianism has come to an end. It has not; utopias are still being written and intentional communities founded, hoping that a better life is possible. See also: SAINT-SIMON, COMTE DE Further reading Kateb, G. (1963) Utopia and Its Enemies, New York: Free Press. (Early study of utopian and anti-utopian thinkers.) More, T. (1516) Utopia , ed. G.M. Logan and R.M. Adams, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. (The origin of the word utopia and an early statement of communism and religious toleration.) LYMAN TOWER SARGENT





Page 911 V VAGUENESS It seems obvious that there are vague ways of speaking and vague ways of thinking – saying that the weather is hot, for example. Common sense also has it that there is vagueness in the external world (although this is not the usual view in philosophy). Intuitively, clouds, for example, do not have sharp spatiotemporal boundaries. But the thesis that vagueness is real has spawned a number of deeply perplexing paradoxes and problems. There is no general agreement among philosophers about how to understand vagueness. Further reading Williamson, T. (1994) Vagueness, London: Routledge. (Clear defence of the view that vagueness is ignorance.) MICHAEL TYE VAIHINGER, HANS (1852–1933) Hans Vaihinger was a German philosopher and historian of philosophy. Much of his work was a response to Kant’s philosophy, and he contributed to the revival of interest in Kant at the end of the nineteenth century both in his published commentaries and in founding a journal and society for the discussion of Kant’s thought. He developed his own philosophy, the philosophy of ‘as-if’, which was derived from the Kantian notion of ‘heuristic fictions’. Further reading Vaihinger, H. (1911) Die Philosophie des als-ob , Berlin: Reuther & Reichard; 10th edn, 1927; trans. C.K. Ogden, The Philosophy of As-If , London: Harcourt, Brace, 1924. (A lengthy and rather difficult work in which Vaihinger sets out his notion of fiction, based on his reading of Kant and Nietzsche.) CHRISTOPHER ADAIR-TOTEFF VAIŚEṢIKA see NYĀYA-VAIŚEṢIKA VALLA, LORENZO (1407–57) Unlike most Renaissance humanists, the Roman-born scholar Valla took a special interest in philosophy. However, his most influential writing was a work of grammar, Elegantiae Linguae Latinae ( The Fine Points of the Latin Language); he had no comprehensive philosophy, nor did he write mainly on philosophy. Valla considered himself to be a revolutionary overturning received opinions, bragging that through his works he was ‘overturning all the wisdom of the ancients’. His preference for Quintilian over Cicero and criticism of classical authors shocked older humanists, and religious authorities were upset by his views on the Trinity and on papal authority, but Valla never sought the overthrow of classical studies – or the papacy for that matter. He sought rather to destroy the Aristotelianism then reigning in the universities. In De Vero Falsoque Bono (On the True and False Good) (1431), he argued for the superiority of Epicureanism over Stoic and Aristotelian ethics. In De Libero Arbitrio (On Free Will) (1439), he corrected Boethius’ treatment of free will and predestination. In the Dialectica (1438–9) he set out to reform logic and philosophy because he believed Aristotle had corrupted them. Asserting that Aristotle had falsified thought because he had falsified language, Valla was determined to show how logic rightly conformed to the linguistic usage of the classical literary authors; essentially Valla had aggressively revived the ancient competition between the rhetorical and philosophical traditions. The first great humanist, Francesco Petrarca (better known in English as Petrarch), had attempted something similar in the fourteenth century, but Valla’s knowledge of philosophy was greater than Petrarch’s and he had access to more sources. Furthermore, Valla knew Greek and could read texts which the medieval Aristotelians knew only in Latin translation. See also: HUMANISM, RENAISSANCE Further reading Mack, P. (1993) Renaissance Argument: Valla and Agricola in the Traditions of Rhetoric and Dialectic, Leiden: Brill. (The best and most thorough study to date of Valla’s logic.) Valla, L. (1439) De Libero Arbitrio (On Free Will), trans. C. Trinkaus, in E. Cassirer et al ., The Renaissance Philosophy of Man, Chicago, IL, and London: University of Chicago Press, 1948, 147–82. JOHN MONFASANI





Page 912 VALLABHĀCĀRYA (1479–1531) A pivotal figure in the history of Indian philosophy and religion, Vallabhācārya was the last of the classical Vedānta philosophers, as well as the originator of a religious community which called for the worship of Kṛṣṇa through acts of devotion, in return for grace and deliverance from rebirth. He proposed a modification to Śankara’s philosophy of nondualism, claiming his ‘pure nondualism’ better explained the relationship between the Supreme Being and the soul. For the laity, he offered a practical religious regimen called the ‘path of fulfilment’, through which the devotee is initiated into an individual relationship with Kṛṣṇa before proceeding to fulfil the relationship through specific personal acts of devotional worship. See also: VEDAĀNTA Further reading Barz, R. (1976) The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhācārya, Faridabad: Thomson Press (India). (A trustworthy historical treatment of Vallabhācārya’s life and work.) RICHARD J. COHEN VALUE JUDGMENTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE Leading theorists in the social sciences have insisted that value judgments should be strictly separated from scientific judgments, which should be value-free. Yet these same thinkers recognize that social scientists are often committed to values in carrying out their work and may be motivated by moral goals of removing or remedying social conditions. From this perspective, scientific conclusions (one sort of fact) and moral commitments (one sort of value) are intertwined in scientific practices, and the question arises whether a social scientist qua scientist makes value judgments or only makes such judgments in a nonscientific capacity. Related questions concern the role played by moral, social, and political values in the pursuit of scientific knowledge and the impact of these values on scientific theories and methods. See also: ECONOMICS AND ETHICS; SOCIAL SCIENCES, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Beauchamp, T.L., Faden, R.R., Wallace, Jr, R.J. and Walters, L. (eds) (1983) Ethical Issues in Social Science Research , Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. (An anthology of original essays by leading figures in social science methodology and moral theory.) Myrdal, G. (1958) Value in Social Theory , ed. P. Streeten, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (A comprehensive treatment by a leading spokesman for the value-impregnation of the social sciences.) TOM L. BEAUCHAMP VALUE, ONTOLOGICAL STATUS OF We evaluate persons, characters, mental states, actions, inanimate objects and situations using very abstract terms such as ‘good’, ‘unjust’ and ‘beautiful’, and more concrete terms, such as ‘courageous’, ‘cruel’ and ‘crass’, drawn from fields such as aesthetics, ethics, politics and religion. Do these evaluations ascribe value properties to the entities evaluated? If so, what are these properties like? If not, what are we doing when we evaluate? See also: MORAL REALISM Further reading Sayre-McCord, G. (ed.) (1988) Essays on Moral Realism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. (An excellent collection of papers both for and against the existence of ethical value, including a reprint of McDowell’s paper and the relevant passages from Mackie.) ALEX OLIVER VALUES The theory of value has three main traditions: subjectivism, which holds that the only valuable goods are subjective states of sentient beings; objectivism, which claims that while values must be humanrelated, they exist independently of us; and Neo-Kantian rationalism, which suggests that value is postulated on the basis of practical reason. Central distinctions in the theory of value are between subjective and objective values, instrumental and final values, intrinsic and extrinsic values, organic unities and the idea of an ultimate or architectonic value. There are also distinctions drawn between different types of value, such as moral and aesthetic value. See also: ART, VALUE OF; FACT/VALUE DISTINCTION; VALUE, ONTOLOGICAL STATUS OF Further reading Grice, P. (1991) The Conception of Value, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (A foundational work in value theory, suggestively parallel to the Korsgaard but drawing inspiration as much from Aristotle as from Kant.)



Page 913 Wiggins, D. (1987) Needs, Values, Truth , Oxford: Blackwell; revised edn, 1991. (Contains many seminal papers which present the view that moral properties are tied to our evaluative interests and thus anthropocentric, but none the less real.) ALAN THOMAS VAN HELMONT, FRANCISCUS MERCURIUS see HELMONT, FRANCISCUS MERCURIUS VAN VASUBANDHU (4th or 5th century AD) An Indian Buddhist philosopher of the fourth or fifth century, Vasubandhu was a prolific author of treatises and commentaries. Best known for his synthesis of the Sarvāstivāda school of Abhidharma, he was sympathetic with the Sautrāntika school and frequently criticized Sarvāstivāda theory from that perspective. Vasubandhu eventually became an eminent exponent of the Yogaācāra school. He also wrote short treatises on logic that influenced Dignāga, traditionally said to have been his disciple. Probably the most original of Vasubandhu’s philosophical works are his two short works in verse, known as the Viṃśatikākārikāvṛtti (Twenty-Verse Treatise) and the Tiṃśikākārikāvṛtti (Thirty-Verse Treatise). In these two works, he argues that one can never have direct awareness of external objects, but can be aware only of images within consciousness. Given that some of these images, such as those in dreams and hallucinations, are known to occur without being representations of external objects, one can never be certain whether a given image in awareness corresponds to an external object. Because one can never be sure of what is externally real but can be sure of internal experiences, he concludes, a person seeking nirvāṇa should focus attention on the workings of the mind rather than on the external world. See also: BUDDHISM, ĀBHIDHARMIKA SCHOOLS OF; BUDDHISM, YOGĀCĀRA SCHOOL OF Further reading Anacker, S. (1984) Seven Works of Vasubandhu, the Buddhist Psychological Doctor, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. (Contains well-annotated translations, along with good introductions, of seven key works. Also has a general introduction and short biography of Vasubandhu, with discussion of Frauwallner’s hypothesis of two Vasubandhus.) RICHARD P. HAYES MAREK MEJOR VĀTSYĀYANA (5th century) Vātsyāyana belonged to the Nyāya school of Indian philosophy, and his Nyāyabhāṣya is the first extant commentary on the Nyāyasūtra, the foundational text of that school. In it, he emphasized the distinctive epistemological and logical character of the topics he deemed appropriate for treatment by Nyāya philosophers. In so doing, he helped both to establish the authority of the Nyāya school in matters related to logical reasoning, and to demarcate the enterprise of the Nyāya school from that of the earlier, more traditional, soteriological approach of the Upaniaads. His commentary on the Nyāyasūtra set the agenda for succeeding generations of Nyāya commentators and their Buddhist opponents. In particular, Vātsyāyana initiated arguments that were to become crucial in the Nyāya defence of its characteristic brand of realism. See also: KNOWLEDGE, INDIAN VIEWS OF Further reading Nyāyasūtra ( c .400 AD) trans. G. Jha, The Nyāya-Sūtras of Gautama with the Bhāṣya of Vātsyāyana and the Vārttika of Uddyotakara, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 4 vols, 1984. (Complete translation with detailed notes.) JOY LAINE VEDĀNTA Indian philosophical speculation burgeoned in texts called Upaniaads (from 800 BC), where views about a true Self ( ātman ) in relation to Brahman, the supreme reality, the Absolute or God, are propounded and explored. Early Upaniṣads were appended to an even older sacred literature, the Veda (‘Knowledge’), and became literally Vedānta, ‘the Veda’s last portion’. Classical systems of philosophy inspired by Upaniṣadic ideas also came to be known as Vedānta, as well as more recent spiritual thinking. Classical Vedānta is one of the great systems of Indian philosophy, extending almost two thousand years with hundreds of authors and several important subschools. In the modern period, Vedānta in the folk sense of spiritual thought deriving from Upaniṣads is a major cultural phenomenon. Understood broadly, Vedānta may even be said to be the philosophy of Hinduism, although in the classical period there are other schools (notably Mīmāṃsā) that purport to articulate right views and conduct for what may be called a Hindu community (the terms ‘Hindu’ and ‘Hinduism’ gained currency only after the



Page 914 Muslim invasion of the South Asian subcontinent, beginning rather late in classical times). Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), the great popularizer of Hindu ideas to the West, spoke of Vedānta as an umbrella philosophy of a Divine revealed diversely in the world’s religious traditions. Such inclusivism is an important theme in some classical Vedānta, but there are also virulent disputes about how Brahman should be conceived, in particular Brahman’s relation to the individual. In the twentieth century, philosophers such as Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, K.C. Bhattacharyya and T.M.P. Mahadevan have articulated idealist worldviews largely inspired by classical and pre-classical Vedānta. The mystic philosopher Sri Aurobindo propounds a theism and evolutionary theory he calls Vedānta, and many others, including political leaders such as Gandhi and spiritual figures as well as academics, have developed or defended Vedāntic views. See also: HINDU PHILOSOPHY Further reading Deutsch, E. and Buitenen, J.A.B. van (eds) (1971) A Source Book of Advaita Vedānta, Honolulu, HI: University Press of Hawaii. (The editors’ introductions are excellent, explaining the positions and context of pre-classical Vedānta and the Brahmasūtra, as well as classical Advaita.) Potter, K.H. (ed.) (1981) Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies , vol. 3, Advaita Vedānta, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Contains an excellent introduction to Advaita philosophy, as well as summaries of works in the early Advaita school.) STEPHEN H. PHILLIPS VENN, JOHN (1834–1923) John Venn was a British symbolic logician and methodologist of science. He is known for having invented the method of Venn diagrams for judging the validity of categorical syllogisms and for advocating the ‘compartmental’ conception of categorical propositions which they display. He strongly defended Boole’s algebraic methods in logic by giving them clear logical meanings. He provided the first systematic formulation of the frequency theory of probability, and he showed the uncertainties inherent in the use of J.S. Mill’s inductive methods. See also: LOGIC IN THE 19TH CENTURY Further reading Copi, I. and Cohen, C. (1994) Introduction to Logic , New York: Macmillan, 9th edn, 235–42, 251–61. (An introduction to Venn diagrams in a standard textbook.) Venn, J. (1889) The Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic , London: Macmillan, 2nd edn, 1907. (A systematic analysis of scientific method, based upon, yet critical of, Mill’s inductive methods.) DANIEL D. MERRILL VERNIA, NICOLETTO (d. 1499) Nicoletto Vernia was a celebrated Aristotelian philosopher during the second half of the fifteenth century. His acquaintances included such personalities as Ermolao Barbaro, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Pietro Pomponazzi and Agostino Nifo. His special interests were in natural philosophy and psychology, but he also revealed interests in logic. Although usually characterized as a rigid Averroist, he moved from a clear commitment to Averroes as the true interpreter of Aristotle to a preference for the Greek commentators, especially Themistius and Simplicius. Nonetheless, throughout his career he also maintained a noteworthy interest in Albert the Great. After first attempting to conciliate Albert with Averroes as much as possible, he later attempted to conciliate Albert with the Greek commentators. He was one of the first Renaissance Aristotelians to use the commentary on Aristotle’s On the Soul that is attributed to Simplicius, and also to cite Plato, Plotinus and their translator and expositor, Marsilio Ficino. See also: ARISTOTELIANISM, RENAISSANCE Further reading Mahoney, E.P. (1976) ‘Nicoletto Vernia on the Soul and Immortality’, in E.P. Mahoney (ed.) Philosophy and Humanism: Renaissance Ess ays in Honor of Paul Oskar Kristeller , New York: Columbia University Press and Leiden: Brill, 144–63. (Examines Vernia’s early treatise in favour of Averroes’ doctrine of the unity of the intellect and his later work attacking that doctrine.) EDWARD P. MAHONEY VICES see VIRTUES AND VICES VICO, GIAMBATTISTA (1668–1744) Born in Naples, Vico lived in a period in which the successes of the natural sciences were frequently attributed to the Cartesian method of a priori demonstration. His own first interest, however, was in the



Page 915 method was irrelevant. Initially, therefore, he sought a methodology for these values in the techniques of persuasion and argument used in political and legal oratory. But he soon came to believe that the Cartesian method was too limited to explain even the advances in the natural sciences and developed an alternative constructivist theory of knowledge by which to establish the degree of certainty of the different sciences. Wisdom and prudence, however, came low on this scale. Through certain historical studies in law, he became convinced that, although there were no eternal and universal standards underlying law at all times and places, the law appropriate to any specific historical age was dependent upon an underlying developmental pattern of social consciousness and institutions common to all nations except the Jews after the Fall. His New Science (1725, 1730 and 1744) was a highly original attempt to establish this pattern, originating in a primeval mythic consciousness and concluding in a fully rational, but ultimately corrupt, consciousness. He believed that knowledge of the pattern would enable us to interpret a wide range of historical evidence to provide continuous and coherent accounts of the histories of all actual gentile nations. The primacy of consciousness in the pattern led him to claim that there must be a necessary sequence of ideas upon which institutions rested, which would provide the key to the historical interpretation of meaning in all the different gentile languages. He supported this conception by extensive comparative anthropological, linguistic and historical enquiries, resulting most famously in his interpretation of the Homeric poems. He also advanced a more developed account of his earlier theory of knowledge, in which the work of philosopher and historian were mutually necessary, to show how this conception of ‘scientific history’ was to be achieved. Vico believed that the knowledge that wisdom and prudence vary in different historical ages in accordance with an underlying pattern could provide us with a higher insight into those of our own age and enable us to avoid a collapse into barbarism which, in an over rational age in which religious belief must decline, was more or less inevitable. Unfortunately, the metaphysical status of his pattern rendered this impossible. Much of his thought was expressed in a context of theological assumptions which conflict with important aspects of his work. This has given rise to continuous controversy over his personal and theoretical commitment to these assumptions. Despite this, however, his conceptions of the historical development of societies, of the relation between ideas and institutions, of social anthropology, comparative linguistics and of the philosophical and methodological aspects of historical enquiry in general, remain profoundly fruitful. See also: ANTHROPOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY OF; HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Adams, H.P. (1935) The Life and Writings of Giambattista Vico , London: Allen & Unwin. (An excellent simple historical introduction to the development of Vico’s thought.) Vico, G. (1725) Principi Di Una Scienza Nuova Intorno Alla Natura Delle Nazioni Per La Quale Si Ritruovano I Principi Di Altro Sistema Del Diritto Naturale Delle Genti (Principles of a New Science of the Nature of Nations Leading to the Discovery of the Natural Law of the Gentes), trans. L. Pompa in Vico: Selected Writings, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. (With notes by L. Pompa.) LEON POMPA VIENNA CIRCLE The Vienna Circle was a group of about three dozen thinkers drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly in Vienna between the wars to discuss philosophy. The work of this group constitutes one of the most important and most influential philosophical achievements of the twentieth century, especially in the development of analytic philosophy and philosophy of science. The Vienna Circle made its first public appearance in 1929 with the publication of its manifesto, The Scientific Conception of the World: The Vienna Circle (Carnap, Hahn and Neurath 1929). At the centre of this modernist movement was the so-called ‘Schlick Circle’, a discussion group organized in 1924 by the physics professor Moritz Schlick. Friedrich Waismann, Herbert Feigl, Rudolf Carnap, Hans Hahn, Philipp Frank, Otto Neurath, Viktor Kraft, Karl Menger, Kurt Gödel and Edgar Zilsel belonged to this inner circle. Their meetings in the Boltzmanngasse were also attended by Olga Taussky-Todd, Olga Hahn-Neurath, Felix Kaufmann, Rose Rand, Gustav Bergmann and Richard von Mises, and on some occasions by visitors from abroad such as Hans Reichenbach, Alfred Ayer, Ernest Nagel, Willard Van Orman Quine and Alfred Tarski. This discussion circle was pluralistic and committed to the





Page 916 ideals of the Enlightenment. It was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic on the basis of scientific and everyday experience. At the periphery of the Schlick Circle, and in a more or less strong osmotic contact with it, there were loose discussion groups around Ludwig Wittgenstein, Heinrich Gomperz, Richard von Mises and Karl Popper. In addition the mathematician Karl Menger established in the years 1926–36 an international mathematical colloquium, which was attended by Kurt Gödel, John von Neumann and Alfred Tarski among others. Thus the years 1924–36 saw the development of an interdisciplinary movement whose purpose was to transform philosophy. Its public profile was provided by the Ernst Mach Society through which members of the Vienna Circle sought to popularize their ideas in the context of programmes for national education in Vienna. The general programme of the movement was reflected in its publications, such as the journal Erkenntnis (‘Knowledge’, later called The Journal for Unified Science), and the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science . Given this story of intellectual success, the fate of the Vienna Circle was tragic. The Ernst Mach Society was suspended in 1934 for political reasons, Moritz Schlick was murdered in 1936, and around this time many members of the Vienna Circle left Austria for racial and political reasons; thus soon after Schlick’s death the Circle disintegrated. As a result of the emigration of so many of its members, however, the characteristic ideas of the Vienna Circle became more and more widely known, especially in Scandinavia, Britain and North America where they contributed to the emergence of modern philosophy of science. In Germany and Austria, however, the philosophical and mathematical scene was characterized by a prolongation of the break that was caused by the emigration of the members of the Vienna Circle. See also: ANALYTICAL PHILOSOPHY LOGICAL POSITIVISM Further reading Hanfling, O. (1981) Logical Positivism , Oxford: Blackwell. (A systematic survey of the themes and topics central to the Vienna Circle.) Stadler, F. (ed.) (1993) Scientific Philosophy: Origins and Developments , Vienna Circle Institute Yearbook 1, Dordrecht, Boston and London: Kluwer. (A contemporary look at scientific philosophy and philosophy of science by former members of the Vienna Circle and their students.) Translated from the German by C. Piller FRIEDRICH STADLER VILLEY, MICHEL (1914–88) Michel Villey was France’s leading post-war philosopher of law in the ‘natural law’ mode. He aimed to rediscover a distinctively philosophical approach to law rooted in the history both of legal ideas and of legal institutions. Legal institutions he considered to have been uniquely a gift of Greco-Roman civilization to the world. They represent a distinctive domain of human activity, concerned with an objectively just ordering of human relationships as these affect external conduct and the possession and use of things. Villey has in common with legal positivism a belief in the differentiation of the legal, concerned with objective interpersonal relations in their ‘external’ concern with a distribution of things, from morality and from religion with their distinctively ‘internal’ and ‘spiritual’ concerns. In opposition to legal positivism, however, he holds that justice is a concept implicit in the legal, and discountenances positivists’ tendency to reduce law to a simple aggregation of enacted statutes. See also: NATURAL LAW; ROMAN LAW Further reading Villey, M. (1991) ‘Law in Things’, in P. Amselek and N. MacCormick (eds), Controversies About Law’s Ontology , Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ch. 1. (A relatively short and witty statement of the author’s view about the objectivity of right and its essential reference to ‘things’, in a quite wide sense; one of the regrettably few statements available in English.) NEIL MacCORMICK VIOLENCE Violence is a central concept for much discussion of moral and political life, but lots of debate employing the concept is confused by the lack of clarity about its meaning and about the moral status it should have in our development of public policy. Wide understandings of the term – for instance, structural violence – not only include too much under the name of violence, but also put an excessively negative moral loading into the concept. This is also a problem for some other definitions of violence, such as legitimist definitions, which treat violence as essentially the illegitimate use of force.





Page 917 It is better to confront directly the important and disturbing claim that violence is sometimes morally permissible than to settle it by definitional fiat. See also: CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE; WAR AND PEACE, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Grundy, K.W. and Weinstein, M.A. (1974) The Ideologies of Violence, Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill, 8– 13. (A useful introductory discussion of some definitions of violence.) C.A.J. COADY VIRTUE EPISTEMOLOGY ‘Virtue epistemology’ is the name of a class of theories that analyse fundamental epistemic concepts such as justification or knowledge in terms of properties of persons rather than properties of beliefs. Some of these theories make the basic concept constitutive of justification or knowledge that of a reliable belief-forming process, or a reliable belief-forming faculty or, alternatively, a properly functioning faculty. Others make the fundamental concept that of an epistemic or intellectual virtue in the sense of virtue used in ethics. In all these theories, epistemic evaluation rests on some virtuous quality of the person that enables them to act in a cognitively effective and commendable way, although not all use the term ‘virtue’. The early, simple forms of process reliabilism are best treated as precursors to virtue epistemology since the latter arose out of the former and has added requirements for knowledge intended to capture the idea of epistemic behaviour that is subjectively responsible as well as objectively reliable. Proponents of virtue epistemology claim a number of advantages. It is said to bypass disputes between foundationalists and coherentists on proper cognitive structure, to avoid sceptical worries, to avoid the impasse between internalism and externalism, and to broaden the range of epistemological inquiry in a way that permits the recovering of such neglected epistemic values as understanding and wisdom. See also: JUSTIFICATION, EPISTEMIC; NORMATIVE EPISTEMOLOGY Further reading Sosa, E. (1991) Knowledge in Perspective , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (This collection of essays is a valuable source on reliabilism and Sosa’s own version of virtue epistemology.) Zagzebski, L. (1996) Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Presents a virtue theory that is designed to handle both moral evaluation and epistemic evaluation within a single theory. It includes a theory of knowledge based on intellectual virtue.) LINDA ZAGZEBSKI VIRTUE ETHICS Virtue ethics has its origin in the ancient world, particularly in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. It has been revived following an article by G.E.M. Anscombe critical of modern ethics and advocating a return to the virtues. Some have argued that virtue ethics constitutes a third option in moral theory additional to utilitarianism and Kantianism. Utilitarians and Kantians have responded vigorously, plausibly claiming that their views already incorporate many of the theses allegedly peculiar to virtue ethics. Virtue theory , the study of notions, such as character, related to the virtues, has led to the recultivation of barren areas. These include: What is the good life, and what part does virtue play in it? How stringent are the demands of morality? Are moral reasons independent of agents’ particular concerns? Is moral rationality universal? Is morality to be captured in a set of rules, or is the sensitivity of a virtuous person central in ethics? From virtue ethics, and the virtue theory of which it is a part, have emerged answers to these questions at once rooted in ancient views and yet distinctively modern. See also: DUTY AND VIRTUE, INDIAN CONCEPTIONS OF; MORAL JUDGMENT Further reading Crisp, R. and Slote, M. (1997) Virtue Ethics , Oxford: Oxford University Press. (A collection of well-known papers on the virtues, with introductory essay. Includes bibliography on various topics.) MacIntyre, A. (1981) After Virtue, London: Duckworth. (Influential critique of modern ethics, and advocacy of Thomistic virtue ethics.) ROGER CRISP VIRTUES AND VICES The concept of a virtue can make an important contribution to a philosophical account of ethics, but virtue theory should not be seen as



Page 918 parallel to other ‘ethical theories’ in trying to provide a guide to action. Modern accounts of the virtues typically start from Aristotle, but they need to modify his view substantially, with respect to the grounding of the virtues in human nature; the question of what virtues there are; their unity; and their psychological identity as dispositions of the agent. In particular, one must acknowledge the historical variability of what have been counted as virtues. Aristotle saw vices as failings, but modern opinion must recognize more radical forms of viciousness or evil. It may also need to accept that the good is more intimately connected with its enemies than traditional views have allowed. Virtue theory helps in the discussion of such questions by offering greater resources of psychological realism than other approaches. See also: SELF-CONTROL; TRUTHFULNESS Further reading French, P.A., Uehling, T.E. and Wettstein, H.K. (eds) (1988) Ethical Theory: Character and Virtue, Midwest Studies in Philosophy, vol. 13, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. (A useful collection of papers on contemporary virtue theory.) Sherman, N. (1989) The Fabric of Character: Aristotle’s Theory of Virtue, Oxford: Clarendon Press. (A useful philosophical and interpretative discussion.) BERNARD WILLIAMS VISION Vision is the most studied sense. It is our richest source of information about the external world, providing us with knowledge of the shape, size, distance, colour and luminosity of objects around us. Vision is fast, automatic and achieved without conscious effort; however, the apparent ease with which we see is deceptive. Since Kepler characterized the formation of the retinal image in the early seventeenth century, vision theorists have known that objects do not look the way they appear on the retina. The retinal image is two-dimensional, yet we see three dimensions; the size and shape of the image that an object casts on the retina varies with the distance and perspective of the observer, yet we experience objects as having constant size and shape. The primary task of a theory of vision is to explain how useful information about the external world is recovered from the changing retinal image. Theories of vision fall roughly into two classes. Indirect theories characterize the processes underlying visual perception in psychological terms, as, for example, inference from prior data or construction of complex percepts from basic sensory components. Direct theories tend to stress the richness of the information available in the retinal image, but, more importantly, they deny that visual processes can be given any correct psychological or mental characterization. Direct theorists, while not denying that the processing underlying vision may be very complex, claim that the complexity is to be explicated merely by reference to non-psychological, neural processes implemented in the brain. The most influential recent work in vision treats it as an information-processing task, hence as indirect. Computational models characterize visual processing as the production and decoding of a series of increasingly useful internal representations of the distal scene. These operations are described in computational accounts by precise algorithms. Computer implementations of possible strategies employed by the visual system contribute to our understanding of the problems inherent in complex visual tasks such as edge detection or shape recognition, and make possible the rigorous testing of proposed solutions. See also: COLOUR AND QUALIA; PERCEPTION Further reading Marr, D. (1982) Vision, New York: Freeman Press. (Somewhat technical, but includes a clear account of the rationale behind the computational approach to vision.) Schwartz, R. (1994) Vision: Variations on Some Berkelian Themes, Oxford: Blackwell. (A useful discussion of historical work on the problems of vision. Also includes a chapter on Gibson’s theory.) FRANCES EGAN VITAL DU FOUR ( c .1260–1327) A French Franciscan philosopher and theologian, Vital du Four was noted for denying the distinction between a thing’s essence and its existence, for expounding an Augustinian theory of perception and for emphasizing the absolute power and contingency of God’s will in creating the universe. One interpretation of his views holds that created things have no intrinsic goodness, only that which has been conferred upon them by God. See also: CREATION AND CONSERVATION, RELIGIOUS DOCTRINE OF



Page 919 Further reading Lynch, J.E. (1972) The Theory of Knowledge of Vital du Four, St Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute. (Useful on du Four’s theory of knowledge of particulars, along with the theories of other Franciscan thinkers.) WILLIAM E. MANN VITALISM Vitalists hold that living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things. In its simplest form, vitalism holds that living entities contain some fluid, or a distinctive ‘spirit’. In more sophisticated forms, the vital spirit becomes a substance infusing bodies and giving life to them; or vitalism becomes the view that there is a distinctive organization among living things. Vitalist positions can be traced back to anti-quity. Aristotle’s explanations of biological phenomena are sometimes thought of as vitalistic, though this is problematic. In the third century BC, the Greek anatomist Galen held that vital spirits are necessary for life. Vitalism is best understood, however, in the context of the emergence of modern science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Mechanistic explanations of natural phenomena were extended to biological systems by Descartes and his successors. Descartes maintained that animals, and the human body, are ‘automata’, mechanical devices differing from artificial devices only in their degree of complexity. Vitalism developed as a contrast to this mechanistic view. Over the next three centuries, numerous figures opposed the extension of Cartesian mechanism to biology, arguing that matter could not explain movement, perception, development or life. Vitalism has fallen out of favour, though it had advocates even into the twentieth century. The most notable is Hans Driesch (1867–1941), an eminent embryologist, who explained the life of an organism in terms of the presence of an entelechy , a substantial entity controlling organic processes. Likewise, the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1874–1948) posited an élan vital to overcome the resistance of inert matter in the formation of living bodies. See also: LIFE, ORIGIN OF Further reading Driesch, H. (1914) The History and Theory of Vitalism, London: Macmillan. (Driesch’s synoptic discussion of vitalism, from its leading twentieth-century proponent.) Mayr, E. (1982) The Growth of Biological Thought, Harvard, NY: Harvard University Press. (An excellent general introduction, covering the span of biological thought from early Greek thought through to the twentieth century.) WILLIAM BECHTEL ROBERT C. RICHARDSON VITORIA, FRANCISCO DE ( c .1486–1546) Francisco de Vitoria, who spent most of his working life as Prime Professor of Theology at Salamanca, Spain, was one of the most influential political theorists in sixteenth-century Catholic Europe. By profession he was a theologian, but like all theologians of the period he regarded theology as the ‘mother of sciences’, whose domain covered everything governed by divine or natural, rather than human, law; everything, that is, which belonged to what we would describe as jurisprudence. Vitoria’s writings covered a wide variety of topics, from the possibility of magic to the acceptability of suicide. But it is on those which deal with the most contentious juridical issues of the period – the nature of civil power and of kingship, the power of the papacy and, above all, the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest of America – that his fame chiefly rests. Further reading Hamilton, B. (1963) Political Thought in Sixteenth-Century Spain, Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Although unsophisticated in many respects, this is still a useful summary of Vitoria’s political thought.) Vitoria, F. de (1991) Francisco de Vitoria, Political Writings, ed. A. Pagden and J. Lawrance, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ANTHONY PAGDEN VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1493–1540) Vives, Spanish humanist and educational reformer, was an eclectic but independent thinker, blending Aristotelianism and Stoicism with Christianity. He wrote on philosophy and psychology, religion and social concerns, and a wide range of subjects related to education. He was known by his contemporaries both for his lively attack on scholastic logic and for his practical judgment, or common sense. Familiar with classical, Christian and contemporary literature, he believed, with the Stoics, that



Page 920 learning should be applied for the common good. His original contributions are associated with an empirical approach to the sciences and the observation of nature, and his interest in the practical arts and inventions. His social concerns included international politics (in which he is always a pacifist), and the relief of the poor in cities. His most scholarly work was an edition, with commentaries, of Augustine’s De civitate Dei (The City of God) (1522), but he is best known for his pioneer work on psychology and educational reform. De anima et vita (On the Soul and Life) (1538) offers the first empirical study of the emotions and their relations with the body, based on Galen’s theory of humours, and enriched with insights from Vives’ lifelong observation of human nature and conduct. De disciplinis (On Instruction) (1531), the outstanding work on education in the sixteenth century, is nothing less than a programme for education from infancy to old age, with due emphasis on moral training and, in the case of the study of nature, reverence for its creator. See also: ARISTOTELIANISM, RENAISSANCE; HUMANISM, RENAISSANCE Further reading Bonilla y San Martin, A. (1903) Luis Vives y la filosofia del Rinacimiento (Luis Vives and Renaissance Philosophy), Madrid: Imp. del Asilo de Huésfanos. (The first full-scale modern work on Vives.) RITA GUERLAC VLASTOS, GREGORY (1907–91) A leading figure in the study of ancient Greek philosophy, who studied and taught in both England and the USA, Vlastos was a pioneer in the application to ancient philosophers of the techniques of analytic philosophy. Concentrating on figures of early Greek philosophy, he made major contributions to the understanding of the Presocratics, Socrates and Plato. He saw the Presocratics as applying ethical concepts to nature which ultimately rendered nature intelligible. He distinguished between the early dialogues of Plato, which represent the philosophy of Plato’s master Socrates – a philosophy the earlyPlato shared – and themiddle dialogues in which Plato develops a transcendental metaphysics and rationalist epistemology to ground Socratic ethical concepts. Vlastos’s work played a major role in bringing the history of philosophy into the mainstream of philosophical research. Further reading Vlastos, G. (1995) Studies in Ancient Philosophy , ed. D.W. Graham, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2 vols. (Collects those of Vlastos’s major essays which do not appear in Platonic Studies, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher and Socratic Studies . Volume 1: studies in the Presocratics; volume 2: studies on Socrates, Plato and later figures. Contains a complete bibliography of Vlastos’s work.) DANIEL W. GRAHAM VOEGELIN, ERIC (1901–85) Throughout his career, the German political scientist Eric Voegelin was concerned with modernity; unlike his contemporaries he sought the explanation of its character and deformities (especially totalitarianism) in the restoration of ‘political science’ as Plato and Aristotle understood it. He therefore explored order in the individual’s soul, political society, history and the universe, and its source in God. He did so by studying the representation of order in philosophy (Eastern as well as Western) and in revelation and myth. Voegelin concluded that ‘gnosticism’, the misinterpretation of the insights of myth, philosophy and revelation as descriptions of some future perfected society, and the wilful denial of transcendence and human limitation, represented the essence of modernity. Further reading Voegelin, E. (1952) The New Science of Politics , Chicago, IL, and London: University of Chicago Press. (The most widely known of Voegelin’s writings, now superseded by later work but still a useful introduction to Voegelin’s themes of representation, modernity and gnosticism. Often reprinted.) H.M. HÖPFL VOLTAIRE (FRANÇOIS-MARIE AROUET) (1694–1778) Voltaire remains the most celebrated representative of the reformers and free-thinkers whose writings define the movement of ideas in eighteenth-century France known as the Enlightenment. He was not, however, a systematic philosopher with an original, coherently argued world-view, but a philosophe who translated, interpreted and vulgarized the work of other philosophers. His own writings on philosophical matters were deeply influenced by English





Page 921 empiricism and deism. His thought is marked by a pragmatic rationalism that led him, even in his early years, to view the world of speculative theorizing with a scepticism that was often expressed most effectively in his short stories. As a young man, Voltaire was particularly interested in Locke and Newton, and it was largely through his publications in the 1730s and 1740s that knowledge of Lockean epistemology and Newtonian cosmology entered France and eventually ensured the eclipse of Cartesianism. After his stay in England Voltaire became interested in philosophical optimism, and his thinking reflected closely Newton’s view of a divinely ordered human condition, to which Alexander Pope gave powerful poetic expression in the Essay on Man (1733–4). This was reinforced for the young Voltaire by Leibnizian optimism, which offered the view that the material world, being necessarily the perfect creation of an omnipotent and beneficent God, was the ‘best of all possible worlds’, that is to say the form of creation chosen by God as being that in which the optimum amount of good could be enjoyed at the cost of the least amount of evil. Voltaire’s later dissatisfaction with optimistic theory brought with it a similar loss of faith in the notion of a meaningful order of nature, and his earlier acceptance of the reality of human freedom of decisiontaking and action was replaced after 1748 with a growing conviction that such freedom was illusory. The 1750s witness Voltaire’s final abandonment of optimism and providentialism in favour of a more deterministically orientated position in which a much bleaker view of human life and destiny predominates. Pessimistic fatalism was a temporary phase in his thinking, however, and was replaced in turn by a melioristic view in which he asserted the possibilities of limited human action in the face of a hostile and godless condition. See also: ENGLIGHTENMENT, CONTINENTAL Further reading Spink, J. (1960) French Free Thought from Gassendi to Voltaire , London: University of London Press. (A well-documented overview of the key stages in the development of sceptical traditions of thought in France. On Voltaire, see particularly pages 312–24. For the general reader.) Wade, I. (1969) The Intellectual Development of Voltaire , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (A rich intellectual biography. Part IV deals with Voltaire’s philosophical thought and development and has special sections on Newton, Locke, Leibniz, Spinoza and Male-branche relevant to Voltaire’s position on cosmology, optimism and freedom. For the general reader.) DAVID WILLIAMS VOLUNTARISM Voluntarism is a theory of action. It traces our actions less to our intellects and natural inclinations than to simple will or free choice. Applied to thinking about God’s actions, voluntarism led late medieval philosophers to see the world’s causal and moral orders as finally rooted in God’s sheer free choice, and to take God’s commands as the source of moral obligation. Medieval voluntarism helped pave the way for empiricism, Cartesian doubt about the senses, legal positivism and Reformation theology. See also: FREEDOM, DIVINE Further reading Courtenay, W.J. (1984) Covenant and Causality in Medieval Thought, London: Variorum. (Discusses voluntarism, the absolute/ordained power distinction, causation and theology.) BRIAN LEFTOW VOLUNTARISM, JEWISH Voluntarism with respect to humanity and divinity became a powerful current in medieval Jewish philosophy, partly in response to the Neoplatonic doctrine of eternal and necessary emanation, which seemed to rob God of the freedom to create, and partly in response to predestinarianism. Solomon ibn Gabirol and Hasdai Crescas were among the Jewish philosophers whose metaphysics gave pride of place to the divine will over intellect, like medieval Christian voluntarists. For many other Jewish thinkers, the centrality of actions sets voluntarism firmly into the context of moral responsibility rather than of metaphysics. Predestinarian arguments like those of Abner of Burgos seemed to Jewish thinkers to rob human beings of moral responsibility. Among the typical defenders of Jewish voluntarism against these arguments was Abraham Bibago. See also: FREE WILL; NEOPLATONISM Further reading Goodman, L.E. (ed.) (1992) Neoplatonism and Jewish Thought, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (A collection of eighteen essays, including three on Ibn Gabirol and



Page 922 three on Maimonides, that pay attention to the divine will, as does the editor’s introduction.) ALLAN LAZAROFF VON CIEZKOWSKI, AUGUST see CIEZKOWSKI, AUGUST VON VON HARTMANN, EDOUARD see HARTMANN, EDOUARD VON VON HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN see HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN VON VON HUMBOLDT, WILHELM see HUMBOLDT, WILHELM VON VON JHERING, RUDOLF see JHERING, RUDOLF VON VON WRIGHT, GEORG HENRIK (1916–) G.H. von Wright is one of the most influential analytic philosophers of the twentieth century. Born in Helsinki, Finland, von Wright did his early work on logic, probability and induction under the influence of logical empiricism. In 1948–51 he served as Ludwig Wittgenstein’s successor at Cambridge, but returned to his homeland and later became a member of the Academy of Finland. He did pioneering work on the new applications of logic: modal logic, deontic logic, the logic of norms and action, preference logic, tense logic, causality and determinism. In the 1970s his ideas about the explanation and understanding of human action helped to establish new links between the analytic tradition and Continental hermeneutics. Von Wright’s later works, which are eloquent books and essays written originally in his two native languages (Swedish and Finnish), deal with issues of humanism and human welfare, history and future, technology and ecology. See also: DEONTIC LOGIC; MODAL LOGIC; SCANDINAVIA, PHILOSOPHY IN Further reading Von Wright, G.H. (1951a) A Treatise on Induction and Probability, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (On eliminative induction.) Schilpp, P.A. and Hahn, L.E. (eds.) (1989) The Philosophy of Georg Henrik von Wright, La Salle, IL: Open Court. (Includes an intellectual autobiography, thirty-two critical essays and replies, and a complete bibliography up to 1988.) ILKKA NIINILUOTO VULNERABILITY AND FINITUDE Power has always been a central category of political thought and theory; its counterparts, powerlessness or vulnerability, and more generally finitude, have seemingly been much less discussed. Yet finitude has been a theme for many writers, particularly on metaphysical and epistemological topics, who emphasize that claims about human knowledge cannot presuppose that we command a God’s-eye view of ourselves or the world; while vulnerability has been a theme in ethical and political philosophy, challenging idealized ‘models of man’ that take exaggerated views of human capacities and autonomy, and which overlook the mundane realities of dependence, poverty and frailty. See also: GOD, CONCEPTS OF Further reading O’Neill, O. (1996) Towards Justice and Virtue: A Constructive Account of Practical Reasoning, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Argues for a conception of practical reasoning which does not presuppose a transcendent vantage point and can support linked accounts of justice and virtue which take account of human vulnerabilities.) ONORA O’NEILL VYGOTSKII, LEV SEMËNOVICH (1896–1934) Vygotskii was a Soviet psychologist, the most comprehensive in creative reach and the most influential. Trained in literary studies and originally active as a critic, he took a post in a pedagogical institute and came thus to psychological science, with a special interest in child development. That was the period of foundational debates between rival schools of psychology, intensified in the Russian case by the Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent campaign for a Marxist school. Vygotskii became the major theorist at the central Institute of Psychology. While dying of tuberculosis he worked his intensive way through contested claims to know what mind is and how it acts. His profuse reflections on that large contest remained largely unpublished for decades, while disciples echoed his call for a ‘cultural-historical’ approach to a unified science of the mind, and actually worked on the mental development of children and the neuropsychology of brain damage. The concept of ‘activity’, which was supposed to resolve



Page 923 Among Western cognitive psychologists Vygotskii acquired a tardy reputation as a pioneer who emphasized social interaction in the mental development of children. The publication of his major works in the 1970s and 1980s revealed a much broader theorist. His central theme was the obvious truth at the basis of each artistic and psychological school, the lure of an effort to unify all of them, and the present impossibility of achieving such unification within science, outside philosophical speculation. See also: PIAGET, J. Further reading Vygotskii, L.S. (1934) Myshlenie i rech’ (Thinking and Speech); trans. Thought and Language, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1962; revised and ed. by A. Kozulin, 1986. (An expanded translation, with an illuminating introduction.) Kozulin, A. (1990) Vygotskii’s Psychology: A Biography of Ideas, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Vygotskii’s development, by a thoughtful, well-informed psychologist.) DAVID JORAVSKY VYSHESLAVTSEV, BORIS PETROVICH (1877–1954) Boris Petrovich Vysheslavtsev, Russian idealist philosopher and religious thinker, was exiled from his homeland in 1922 because of his anti-Marxism (which he later elaborated in a full-fledged philosophical critique). In western Europe he became a leading figure in the Russian émigré philosophical community, lecturing and writing on questions of metaphysics, ethics, philosophical psychology and social philosophy. Vysheslavtsev was particularly noted for his study (begun in an early work on the ethics of Fichte) of the irrational as the sphere of human contact with the Absolute. Subsequently he developed this theme through the application of concepts of depth psychology to ethics and to the interpretation of Christian doctrine. Further reading Zenkovsky, V.V. (1948–50) Istoriia russkoi filosofii , Paris: YMCA-Press, 2 vols; 2nd edn 1989; trans. G.L. Kline, A History of Russian Philosophy , 2 vols, London:Routledge & Kegan Paul and New York: Columbia University, 1953, vol. 2, 814–19. (Summary of Vysheslavtsev’s thought by the authoritative historian of Russian philosophy.) JAMES P. SCANLAN





Page 924 W WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823–1913) Co-discoverer with Charles Darwin of the theory of natural selection, the British naturalist Alfred Wallace travelled to the Amazon in 1848. Four years of collecting specimens there for sale in Europe revealed patterns of geographical distribution among animals. Unfortunately, much of his South American collection was lost in a fire at sea during the voyage home, which forced him to begin his collecting anew. This led to eight more years of travel (1854–62), this time in the Malay Archipelago, where he made his own momentous discovery of the theory of natural selection in 1858. An exceptionally clear thinker, he made many valuable contributions to evolutionary thought. See also: EVOLUTION, THEORY OF; SPECIES Further reading Beddall, B.G. (ed.) (1969) Wallace and Bates in the Tropics: An Introduction to the Theory of Natural Selection , London: Macmillan. (Aimed at the nonprofessional.) BARBARA G. BEDDALL WANG CHONG (AD 27–c .90) The Han philosopher Wang Chong wrote a text called Lunheng (Disquisitions or Discourses Weighed in the Balance), one of the most exceptional and original documents in Chinese thought, compiled as it was during a crucial transitional period. Wang’s main approach can be defined as a rational scepticism, questioning accepted history, the contents of canonical texts and philosophical claims about reality. His writings on fate develop ideas such as necessity, cause and uncertainty. See also: CHINESE CLASSICS Further reading Wang Chong (AD 27– c .90) Lunheng (Disquisitions or Discourses Weighed in the Balance), ed. Huang Hui, 1938; repr. Taiwan: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1983; trans. A. Forke, Lun-heng: Philosophical Essays of Wang Ch’ung, Berlin, 1907; repr. New York: Paragon, 1962, 2 vols. (The standard translation of most but not all of the text.) AGNES CHALIER WANG CHUANSHAN/WANG FU-CHIH see WANG FUZHI WANG CH’UNG see WANG CHONG WANG FUZHI (1619–92) A seventeenth-century neo-Confucian and Ming loyalist, Wang Fuzhi is best known for his nationalism and his theories of historical and metaphysical change. His classical commentaries and other writings, not published until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, present an exceptionally comprehensive and vigorously argued synthesis and critique of China’s intellectual tradition. His ideas on topics such as politics, cosmology and knowledge have fascinated readers of widely differing philosophic persuasions. See also: NEO-CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY Further reading Black, A.H. (1989) Man and Nature in the Philosophical Thought of Wang Fu-chih, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. (Develops expressionist interpretation of Wang’s philosophy–cosmology, epistemology and theory of poetry – against Western creationist background.) ALISON H. BLACK WANG YANGMING (1472–1529) Wang Yangming was an influential Confucian thinker in sixteenth-century China who, like other Confucian thinkers, emphasized social and political responsibilities and regarded cultivation of the self as the basis for fulfilling such responsibilities. While sometimes drawing on ideas and metaphors from Daoism and Chan Buddhism, he criticized these schools for their neglect of family ties and social relations. And, in opposition to a version of Confucianism which emphasized learning, he advocated di





Page 925 rectly attending to the mind in the process of self-cultivation. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE Further reading Wang Yangming (1472–1529) Quanxilu (Instructions for Practical Living), trans. Chan Wing-tsit, Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yangming , New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. (Translation of main work containing Wang’s philosophical ideas, with introduction by translator giving summary of Wang’s biography and philosophy.) SHUN KWONG-LOI WAR AND PEACE, PHILOSOPHY OF The war/peace dichotomy is a recurrent one in human thought and the range of experience it interprets is vast. Images of war and peace permeate religion, literature and art. Wars, battles, pacts and covenants appear as outcomes and antecedents in historical narratives. Recurrent patterns of warlike and pacific behaviour invite scientific explanations in terms of underlying biological, psychological or economic processes. War and peace are also often matters of practical concern, predicaments or opportunities that call for individual or collective action. While philosophers have explored all these ways of looking at war and peace, they have paid most attention to the practical aspects of the subject, making it part of moral and political philosophy. Practical concern with war and peace can go in either of two main directions, one focusing on war and the other on peace. Those who doubt that war can be abolished naturally worry about how it can be regulated. So long as war is possible, there will be principles for waging it. Whether such principles should limit war-making to ends like self-defence or leave the choice to the discretion of political and military leaders is a matter of continuing dispute. Nor is there agreement regarding restrictions on the conduct of war, some holding that belligerents need only avoid disproportionate damage, others that it is morally wrong to harm innocents (for example, noncombatants). In situations of emergency both limits may give way, and moralists have debated whether this relaxation of standards is defensible. Disputes over the principles governing war raise difficult questions about action, intention and the character of morality itself. If we think that wars can be prevented, it becomes important to focus on the conditions of permanent peace. Some who do this conclude that peace depends on the conversion of individuals to an ethic of nonviolence, others that it requires strengthening the rule of law. According to a powerful version of the latter argument, the absence of law creates a condition in which persons and communities are at liberty to invade one another: a condition that, in Hobbes’s classic metaphor, is a ‘state of nature’ which is also a perpetual state of war. While treaties of peace may terminate particular wars, only political institutions that establish the rule of law within and between communities can provide security and guarantee peace. See also: BUSHI PHILOSOPHY; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Ceadel, M. (1987) Thinking about War and Peace , Oxford: Oxford University Press. (A clear introduction to a wide range of positions in twentieth-century debates about war and peace.) Gray, J.G. (1959) The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle , New York: Harcourt Brace. (Readable war memoir by a philosopher.) TERRY NARDIN WATSUJI TETSURŌ (1890–1960) Watsuji Tetsurō stands out as the leading thinker on ethics in twentieth century Japanese philosophy. He is regarded as a peripheral member of the ‘Kyoto School’ of philosophers centring around the thought of Nishida Kitarō. Like Nishida and the Kyoto School, the thought of Watsuji can be characterized by the effort to formulate a syncretic East–West philosophy developed within the framework of a Buddhist metaphysic of ‘emptiness’. At the same time, Watsuji established his own highly distinctive system of ethics. He must rank as one of the most creative and profound thinkers in modern Japanese philosophy. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, JAPANESE; KYOTO SCHOOL Further reading Dilworth, D.A. (1974) ‘Watsuji Tetsurō : Cultural Phenomenologist and Ethician’, Philosophy East and West 24 (1). (Looks at his ethical and cultural works.) STEVE ODIN



Page 926 WEBER, MAX (1864–1920) Max Weber, German economist, historian, sociologist, methodologist, and political thinker, is of philosophical significance for his attempted reconciliation of historical relativism with the possibility of a causal social science; his notion of a verstehende (understanding) sociology; his formulation, use and epistemic account of the concept of ‘ideal types’; his views on the rational irreconcilability of ultimate value choices, and particularly his formulation of the implications for ethical political action of the conflict between ethics of conviction and ethics of responsibility; and his sociological account of the causes and uniqueness of the western rationalization of life. These topics are closely related: Weber argued that the explanatory interests of the historian and social scientist vary historically and that the objects of their interest were constituted in terms of cultural points of view, and that consequently their categories are ultimately rooted in evaluations, and hence subjective. But he also argued that social science cannot dispense with causality, and that once the categories were chosen, judgments of causality were objective. The explanatory interests of the sociologist, as he defined sociology, were in understanding intentional action causally, but in terms of categories that were culturally significant, such as ‘rational action’. Much of his influence flowed from his formulation of the cultural situation of the day, especially the idea that the fate of the time was to recognize that evaluations were inescapably subjective and that the world had no inherent ‘meaning’. The existential implications of this novel situation for politics and learning were strikingly formulated by him: science could not tell us how to live; politics was as a choice between warring Gods. Weber’s scholarly work and his politics served as a model for Karl Jaspers, and a subject of criticism and analysis for other philosophers, such as Karl Löwith, Max Scheler, and the Frankfurt School. Further reading Gerth, H.H. and Mills, C.W. (1946) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology , NewYork: Oxford University Press. (The standard translation of Weber’s major essays.) Weber, M. (1904–5) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , trans. and ed. T. Parsons, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958. (Presents Weber’s account of the role of the Protestant theology of salvation in producing the rationalistic individuals who could bring about the capitalistic rationalization of labour.) STEPHEN P. TURNER REGIS A. FACTOR WEIL, SIMONE (1909–43) Simone Weil’s life and work represent an unusual mixture of political activism, religious mysticism and intense speculative work on a wide range of topics, including epistemology, ethics and social theory. Much of her most important writing survives in fragmentary form, in notebooks published after her untimely death. Though Jewish by family, her attitude to Judaism was largely hostile; and despite a deep commitment in the later part of her life to Christian ideas and symbols, she consistently refused to be baptized. Her religious views are eclectic in many ways, drawing on Plato and on Hindu sources. In everything she wrote, she was preoccupied with the dehumanizing effects of economic unfreedom and the servile labour required by industrial capitalism; but this is only one instance, for her, of the experience of ‘necessity’ or ‘gravity’ that dominates material transactions. The essence of moral and spiritual action is the complete renunciation of any privileged position for an ego outside the world of ‘necessity’. Such renunciation is the only escape from necessity, in fact: what she calls ‘decreation’ becomes our supremely creative act, since only in the ego’s absence is love, or an apprehension of nonself-oriented goods, possible. Marx, Kant and the gospels are all in evidence here. Born in France, Weil died in London while working for the Free French in 1943. Further reading Petrement, S. (1976) Simone Weil, A Life , trans. R. Rosenthal, New York: Pantheon, and London/Oxford: Mowbray. (The most comprehensive biography, by a former fellow student of Weil’s.) Winch, P. (1989) Simone Weil: ‘The Just Balance’, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Incomparably the best philosophical study, drawing out parallels with Wittgenstein.) ROWAN WILLIAMS WEINBERGER, OTA (1919–) The Czech philosopher Ota Weinberger is noted as a proponent of ‘institutionalist positivism’ in legal theory. By contrast with earlier forms of so-called ‘institutionalism’ in law, Weinberger





Page 927 advances a theory in which norms are ideal entities linked by logical relations inter se, while being at the same time social realities identifiable in terms of the effect they exercise in guiding human social behaviour. The institutions which make possible this duality of ideal entity and social reality have themselves to be understood as structured by norms. Hence, in contrast with earlier proponents of institutionalism, who denied the foundation of law in norms, Weinberger is normativist in his approach; and for the metaphysical vitalism of precursors, he substitutes a social realism. See also: INSTITUTIONALISM IN LAW Further reading Weinberger, O. with MacCormick, N. (1986) An Institutional Theory of Law , Dordrecht: Reidel. (A collection of essays by two authors, with a joint introductory essay, explaining the development and implications of an ‘institutionalist’ theory of law, and its relationship to legal positivism.) NEIL MacCORMICK WELFARE Notions of welfare occur widely in political philosophy and political argument. For example, utilitarianism is a social ethic that may be interpreted as giving a pre-eminent place to the idea that the welfare of society should be the overriding goal of public policy. Discussion of the ethics of redistribution focuses upon the institutions and practices of the so-called welfare state. Even those not convinced that we can validly speak of animal rights will often accept that considerations of animal welfare should play a part in legislation and morals. Moreover, the concept of welfare is clearly related to, and indeed overlaps with, concepts like ‘needs’ or ‘interests’, which are also central to public decision making and action. Welfare can be thought of in three ways. Firstly, there is a subjective sense, in which to say that something contributes to a person’s welfare is to say that it makes for the satisfaction of a preference. However, people can adapt their preferences to their circumstances, and happy slaves might be better off changing their preferences than having them satisfied. This thought leads on to the second sense of welfare as doing well according to some objective measure, like the possession of property. However, this conception can ignore subjective differences between people and fail to account for their capacity to take advantage of their objective circumstances. Hence, a third conception of welfare would make the capacity to take advantage of one’s possessions an essential element of welfare. A satisfactory overall conception will have to bring these ideas together. See also: HAPPINESS Further reading Arrow, K.J. (1963) Social Choice and Individual Values , New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2nd edn. (States the idea that interpersonal comparisons in the preference view of welfare might be based on extended sympathy.) Rawls, J. (1971) A Theory of Justice , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (States the idea of primary goods.) ALBERT WEALE WEYL, HERMANN (1885–1955) A leading mathematician of the twentieth century, the German-born Weyl made fundamental contributions to theoretical physics, to philosophy of mathematics, and to philosophy of science. Weyl wrote authoritative works on the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, as well as a classic philosophical examination of mathematics and science. He was briefly a follower of Brouwer’s intuitionism in philosophy of mathematics. Upon moving closer to Hilbert’s finitism, he articulated a conception of mathematics and physics as related species of ‘symbolic construction’. See also: GENERAL RELATIVITY, PHILOSOPHICAL RESPONSES TO Further reading Weyl, H. (1918a) Raum-Zeit-Materie , Berlin: Springer; 4th edn, 1921, trans. H. Brose, Space-TimeMatter, London: Methuen, 1922; repr. New York: Dover, 1952. (The third and later editions present Weyl’s generalization of Reimannian geometry.) T.A. RYCKMAN WEYR, FRANTIŠEK (1879–1951) František (Franz) Weyr was Professor in Legal Philosophy and Public Law in Brno, Czechoslovakia, and a main author of the Czechoslovakian Constitution of 1920. His influence on Czechoslovakian jurisprudence was exceptional. He advocated the ‘Pure Theory of Law’, demanding that law be studied in a methodologically distinct way, pure of natural-scientific or ideological inputs. He was founder and leader of the ‘Brno School’ of Pure Theory (or ‘Norma



Page 928 tive Theory’, in his preferred terminology). This school stands close to the Vienna School of Hans Kelsen. See also: LEGAL POSITIVISM Further reading Kubeš, V. and Weinberger, O. (1980) Die Brünner rechtstheoretische Schule (The Brno School of Legal Theory), Vienna: Manz Verlag. (Weyr’s work is almost inaccessible in English or even in French; but this collection of essays in German, by Czech authors, gives a rounded account of the work of Weyr and his school.) OTA WEINBERGER WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794–1886) William Whewell’s two seminal works, History of the Inductive Science, from the Earliest to the Present Time (1837) and The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded upon their History (1840), began a new era in the philosophy of science. Equally critical of the British ‘sensationalist’ school, which founded all knowledge on experience, and the German Idealists, who based science on a priori ideas, Whewell undertook to survey the history of all known sciences in search of a better explanation of scientific discovery. His conclusions were as bold as his undertaking. All real knowledge, he argued, is ‘antithetical’, requiring mutually irreducible, ever-present, and yet inseparable empirical and conceptual components. Scientific progress is achieved not by induction, or reading-out theories from previously collected data, but by the imaginative ‘superinduction’ of novel hypotheses upon known but seemingly unrelated facts. He thus broke radically with traditional inductivism – and for nearly a century was all but ignored. In the Philosophy the antithetical structure of scientific theories and the hypotheticodeductive account of scientific discovery form the basis for novel analyses of scientific and mathematical truth and scientific methodology, critiques of rival philosophies of science, and an account of the emergence and refinement of scientific ideas. See also: SCIENCE, 19TH CENTURY PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Butts, R.E. (ed.) (1968) William Whewell’s Theory of Scientific Method , Pittsburgh, IL: University of Pittsburgh Press. (A short selection of Whewell’s philosophical writings.) Fisch, M. and Schaffer, S. (eds) (1991) William Whewell: A Composite Portrait, Oxford: Clarendon Press. (A collection of 13 authoritative studies of the content and context of Whewell’s life, work and impact. Contains a useful bibliography.) MENACHEM FISCH THOMAS WHITE (1593–1676) The English Catholic scholar Thomas White’s reputation has suffered unmerited decline since he was described by John Evelyn in 1651 as ‘a learned priest and famous philosopher’. His works embrace theology, metaphysics, natural philosophy and political theory. The leader of a minority faction of English Catholics, known after his alias as ‘Blackloists’, White’s overall intellectual position is determinedly antisceptical, characterized by a certainty-seeking synthesis of old and new. The traditional Aristotelianism of his own education is blended with aspects of the ‘new philosophy’ which he encountered in the 1640s; and in this respect White stands as an important representative of the intellectually turbulent times in which he lived. See also: ARISTOTELIANISM IN THE 17TH CENTURY Further reading Southgate, B.C. (1993) ‘Covetous of Truth’: The Life and Work of Thomas White, 1593–1676, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Includes bibliography.) BEVERLEY SOUTHGATE WHITEHEAD, ALFRED NORTH (1861–1947) Whitehead, a British mathematician and philosopher, made fundamental contributions to modern logic and created one of the most controversial metaphysical systems of the twentieth century. He drew out what he took to be the revolutionary consequences for philosophy of the new discoveries in mathematics, logic and physics, developing these consequences first in logic and then in the philosophy of science and speculative metaphysics. His work constantly returns to the question: what is the place of the constructions of mathematics, science and philosophy in the nature of things? Whitehead collaborated with Bertrand Russell on Principia Mathematica (1910–13), which argues that all pure mathematics is derivable from a small number of logical principles. He went on in his philosophy of science to describe nature in terms of overlapping series of events and to argue that scientific explanations are



Page 929 constructed on that basis. He finally expanded and redefined his work by developing a new kind of speculative metaphysics. Stated chiefly in Process and Reality (1929), his metaphysics is both an extended reflection on the character of philosophical inquiry and an account of the nature of all things as a self-constructing ‘process’. On this view, reality is incomplete, a matter of the becoming of ‘occasions’ which are centres of activity in a multiplicity of serial processes whereby the antecedent occasions are taken up in the activities of successor occasions. Further reading Lowe, V. (1985, 1990) Alfred North Whitehead: The Man and His Work, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2 vols. (A detailed biography of Whitehead, with analyses of his works.) Whitehead, A.N. and Russell, B.A.W. (1910–13) Principia Mathematica , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3 vols; 2nd edn, 1927. (One of the central works in modern logic and the philosophy of mathematics.) JAMES BRADLEY WILL, THE As traditionally conceived, the will is the faculty of choice or decision, by which we determine which actions we shall perform. As a faculty of decision, the will is naturally seen as the point at which we exercise our freedom of action – our control of how we act. It is within our control or up to us which actions we perform only because we have a capacity to decide which actions we shall perform, and it is up to us which such decisions we take. We exercise our freedom of action through freely taken decisions about how we shall act. From late antiquity onwards, many philosophers took this traditional conception of the will very seriously, and developed it as part of a general theory of specifically human action. Human action, on this theory, is importantly different from animal action. Not only do humans have a freedom of or control over their action which animals lack; but this freedom supposedly arises because humans can act on the basis of reason, while animal action is driven by appetite and instinct. Both this freedom and rationality involve humans possessing what animals are supposed to lack: a will or rational appetite – a genuine decision making capacity. From the sixteenth century on, this conception of the will and its role in human action met with increasing scepticism. There was no longer a consensus that human action involved mental capacities radically unlike those found in animals. And the idea that free actions are explained by free decisions of the will came to be seen as viciously regressive: if our freedom of action has to come from a prior freedom of will, why shouldn’t that freedom of will have to come from some yet further, will-generating form of freedom – and so on ad infinitum? Yet it is very natural to believe that we do have a decision making capacity, and that it is up to us how we exercise that capacity – that it is indeed up to us which actions we decide to perform. The willscepticism of early modern Europe, which persists in much modern Anglophone philosophy of action, may then have involved abandoning a model of human action and human rationality that is deeply part of common sense. We need to understand this model far better before we can conclude that its abandonment by so many philosophers really was warranted. See also: FREE WILL; INTENTION Further reading Kent, B. (1996) Virtues of the Will: The Transformation of Ethics in the Late Thirteenth Century, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. (Describes the medieval conflict between intellectualist and voluntarist views of the will.) Pink, T. (1996) The Psychology of Freedom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (The book explains how common sense psychology conceives of decision making as a second-order, action-generating action; and how our freedom of action depends on a freedom specifically of decision-making.) THOMAS PINK WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE ( c .1180–1249) Active in Paris during the third and fourth decades of the thirteenth century, when universities were emerging as centres of Western European intellectual life, William played a decisive role in the early development of high medieval philosophy. His writing reveals a familiarity with Aristotle, all of whose major works except the Metaphysics were readily available in Latin translation, and with the Islamic philosophers, most especially Avicenna but also Averroes, whose commentaries on Aristotle were just beginning to circulate. William looked back to the Neoplatonic traditions of the twelfth century, but he also looked ahead to the late-thirteenth-century Aristotelia



Page 930 nizing that he and his contemporary, Robert Grosseteste, did so much to promote. See also: ARISTOTELIANISM, MEDIEVAL Further reading Marrone, S.P. (1983) William of Auvergne and Robert Grosseteste: New Ideas of Truth in the Early Thirteenth Century, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Emphasizes William’s epistemology and relation to Aristotelian ‘science’.) STEVEN P. MARRONE WILLIAM OF AUXERRE (1140/50–1231) William’s career spans the decades at the end of the twelfth century and the beginning of the thirteenth century during which the newly recovered Aristotelian natural philosophy, metaphysics and ethics and the newly available works of great Muslim thinkers such as Avicenna and Averroes brought enormous energy and upheaval to intellectual culture. William’s own views are traditional, owing their largest debts to Augustine, Boethius and Anselm. However, his major work, Summa aurea, is an influential precursor of the monumental systematic theological treatises that followed half a century later. See also: ALBERT THE GREAT; PHILIP THE CHANCELLOR Further reading Ribaillier, J. (1967) ‘Guillaume d’Auxerre’, Dictionnaire de Spiritualité vol. 6, ed. Gabriel-Guzman, Paris: Beauchesne, cols. 1192–9. (A fuller account of William’s life and work than that provided by the editors in the introductory material in Ribaillier’s edition of Summa aurea.) SCOTT MacDONALD WILLIAM OF CHAMPEAUX ( c .1070–c .1120) William studied under Anselm of Laon and became one of a number of famous teachers of logic, rhetoric, grammar and theology in early twelfth-century France, teachers who helped to establish the schools which eventually turned into the University of Paris. He is perhaps best known for his dispute with his young pupil Peter Abelard over the reality of universals, a debate which William lost so badly that most of his students elected to be taught by Abelard instead. See also: ABELARD, P. Further reading Tweedale, M. (1976) Abailard on Universals , Amsterdam: North Holland, 95–111. (An analysis of William’s view of universals and Abelard’s critique.) MARTIN M. TWEEDALE WILLIAM OF CONCHES ( fl. c .1130) William of Conches – whom many historians have attached to the School of Chartres – was one of the early twelfth century’s keenest commentators on Platonic texts, and wrote also on natural science. He believed in the harmony of Platonism and Christianity. He thought that the ostensibly pagan texts of Plato and his followers contained Christian truths which the interpreter needed to uncover, while Platonic (and more recent) science could help towards an understanding of the account of creation in Genesis. See also: CHARTRES, SCHOOL OF; PLATONISM, MEDIEVAL Further reading Elford, E. (1988) ‘William of Conches’, in P. Dronke (ed.) A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 308–27. (Mainly on William’s scientific thought.) JOHN MARENBON WILLIAM OF OCKHAM ( c .1287–1347) William of Ockham is a major figure in late medieval thought. Many of his ideas were actively – sometimes passionately – discussed in universities all across Europe from the 1320s up to the sixteenth century and even later. Against the background of the extraordinarily creative English intellectual milieu of the early fourteenth century, in which new varieties of logical, mathematical and physical speculation were being explored, Ockham stands out as the main initiator of late scholastic nominalism, a current of thought further exemplified – with important variants – by a host of authors after him, from Adam Wodeham, John Buridan and Albert of Saxony to the school of John Mair far into the sixteenth century. As a Franciscan friar, Ockham taught theology and Aristotelian logic and physics from approximately 1317 to 1324, probably in Oxford and London. He managed to develop in this short period an original and impressive theological and philosophical system. However, his academic career was interrupted by a summons to the Papal Court at Avignon for theological





Page 931 scrutiny of his teachings. Once there, he became involved in the raging quarrel between Pope John XXII and the Minister General of the Franciscan Order, Michael of Cesena, over the poverty of the church. Ockham was eventually excommunicated in 1328. Having fled to Munich, where he put himself under the protection of the Emperor Ludwig of Bavaria, he fiercely continued the antipapal struggle, devoting the rest of his life to the writing of polemical and politically-oriented treatises. Because he never was officially awarded the title of Doctor in Theology, Ockham has been traditionally known as the venerabilis inceptor , the ‘venerable beginner’, a nickname which at the same time draws attention to the seminal character of his thought. As a tribute to the rigour and strength of his arguments, he has also been called the ‘Invincible Doctor’. The core of his thought lies in his qualified approach to the old problem of universals, inherited by the Christian world from the Greeks through Porphyry and Boethius. Ockham’s stand is that only individuals exist, generality being but a matter of signification. This is what we call his nominalism. In the mature version of his theory, species and genera are identified with certain mental qualities called concepts or intentions of the mind. Ontologically, these are individuals too, like everything else: each individual mind has its own individual concepts. Their peculiarity, for Ockham, lies in their representative function: a general concept naturally signifies many different individuals. The concept ‘horse’, for instance, naturally signifies all singular horses and the concept ‘white’ all singular white things. They are not arbitrary or illusory for all that: specific and generic concepts, Ockham thought, are the results of purely natural processes safely grounded in the intuitive acquaintance of individual minds with real singular objects; and these concepts do cut the world at its joints. The upshot of Ockham’s doctrine of universals is that it purports to validate science as objective knowledge of necessary connections, without postulating mysterious universal entities ‘out there’. Thought, in this approach, is treated as a mental language. Not only is it composed of signs, but these mental signs, natural as they are, are also said to combine with each other into propositions, true or false, just as extra-mental linguistic signs do; and in so doing, to follow rules of construction very similar to those of spoken languages. Ockham thus endowed mental discourse with grammatical categories. However, his main innovation in this respect is that he also adapted and transposed to the fine-grained analysis of mental language a relatively new theoretical apparatus that had been emerging in Europe since the twelfth century: the theory of the ‘properties of terms’ – the most important part of the logica modernorum, the ‘logic of the moderns’ – which was originally intended for the semantical analysis of spoken languages. Ockham, in effect (along with some of his contemporaries, such as Walter Burley) promoted this new brand of semantical analysis to the rank of philosophical method par excellence. In a wide variety of philosophical and theological discussions, he made sustained use of the technical notions of ‘signification’, ‘connotation’ and, above all, ‘supposition’ (or reference) and all their cognates. His distinctive contribution to physics, for example, consists mainly in semantical analyses of problematic terms such as ‘void’, ‘space’ or ‘time’, in order to show how, in the end, they refer to nothing but singular substances and qualities. Ockham’s rejection of universals also had a theological aspect: universals, if they existed, would unduly limit God’s omnipotence. On the other hand, he was convinced that pure philosophical reasoning suffices anyway for decisively refuting realism regarding universals, since all its variants turn out to be ultimately self-contradictory, as he endeavoured to show by detailed criticism. On the whole, Ockham traced a sharper dividing line than most Christian scholastics before him between theological speculation based on revealed premises and natural sciences in the Aristotelian sense, which are based on empirical evidence and self-evident principles. He wanted to maintain this clear-cut distinction in principle through all theoretical and practical knowledge, including ethics and political reasoning. In this last field, in particular, to which Ockham devoted thousands of pages in the last decades of his life, he strenuously defended the independence of secular power from ecclesiastical power, stressing whenever he could the autonomy of right reason in human affairs. See also: ARISTOTELIANISM, MEDIEVAL; LANGUAGE, MEDIEVAL THEORIES OF; NOMINALISM Further reading Adams, M.M. (1987) William Ockham , Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2 vols. (The best overall book on Ockham’s philosophy and theology; a must for any serious study. Leaves out the political works.) McGrade, A.S. (1974) The Political Thought of William of Ockham,





Page 932 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Avery useful and illuminating synthesis of a large body of material.) William of Ockham (1322–7) Expositio in libros Physicorum Aristotelis (Commentary on the Physics of Aristotle), in Opera Philosophica, St Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, vols IV–V. (Ockham’s largest and most important work on physics.) CLAUDE PANACCIO WILLIAM OF SHERWOOD ( c .1200/5 – c .1266/75) William of Sherwood, an English logician of the mid-thirteenth century, is most noted for his theories of supposition and syncategorematic terms. In application, these theories enable us to express the true logical form of sentences with misleading grammatical forms. William’s Insolubilia (Insolubles) deals with paradoxes of self-reference, such as ‘I am now uttering a falsehood’. See also: LANGUAGE, MEDIEVAL THEORIES OF Further reading William of Sherwood( c .1250?) Syncategoremata (Treatise on Syncategorematic Words), ed. R. O’Donnell, Medieval Studies 3 (1941): 46–93; trans. N. Kretzmann, Treatise on Syncategorematic Words, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1968. (Kretzmann’s translation contains extensive analytical notes.) JOHN LONGEWAY WILLIAMS, BERNARD ARTHUR OWEN (1929–) The British philosopher Bernard Williams has written on the philosophy of mind, especially personal identity, and political philosophy; but the larger and later part of his published work is on ethics. He is hostile to utilitarianism, and also attacks a view of morality associated in particular with Kant: people may only be properly blamed for what they do voluntarily, and what we should do is the same for all of us, and discoverable by reason. By contrast Williams holds that luck has an important role in our evaluation of ourselves and others; in the proper attribution of responsibility the voluntary is less central than the Kantian picture implies. Williams thinks shame a more important moral emotion than blame. Instead of there being an independent set of consistent moral truths, discoverable by reason, how we should live depends on the emotions and desires that we happen to have. These vary between people, and are typically plural and conflicting. Hence for Williams ethical judgment could not describe independent or real values – by contrast with the way in which he thinks that scientific judgment may describe a real independent world. See also: MORALITY AND IDENTITY Further reading Altham, J.E.J. and Harrison, R. (eds) (1995) World, Mind, and Ethics: Essays on the Ethical Philosophy of Bernard Williams , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Critical essays of varying difficulty.) Williams, B.A.O. (1972) Morality, Harmondsworth: Penguin; repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. (Simple, introductory account, with useful treatments of subjectivism and amoralism.) ROSS HARRISON WISDOM In ancient times, wisdom was thought of as the type of knowledge needed to discern the good and live the good life. Philosophy takes its name from it ( philosophía means love of wisdom). But wisdom is little evident as a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. It is interesting to ask how the concept of wisdom has come to vanish almost entirely from the philosophical map. See also: EUDAIMONIA; VIRTUE EPISTEMOLOGY Further reading Sternberg, R.J. (ed.) (1990) Wisdom. Its Nature, Origins, and Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Collection of essays on wisdom by psychologists.) NICHOLAS D. SMITH WITHERSPOON, JOHN (1723–94) John Witherspoon, Scottish-American clergyman, political leader and educator, was born at Gifford, East Lothian, educated at Edinburgh University and ordained Presbyterian minister. In his mid-forties he went to America as president of the College of New Jersey, later Princeton University. He held political office for New Jersey and played a major role in organizing the Presbyterian Church in America and improving the College at Princeton. Witherspoon was representative of eighteenth-century Scottish and American Calvinists who tried to reconcile their orthodox theological doctrines with the Enlightenment’s philosophical currents of empiricism, scepticism, and utilitarianism by



Page 933 harmonizing reason and revelation. Although Witherspoon was a philosophical eclectic, Francis Hutcheson’s moral sense philosophy was the major source of his utilitarian ethics and republican politics. Witherspoon was not an original thinker, but his popularization of Scottish common sense and moral sense philosophy through his forceful personality and effective teaching laid the foundation for its dominance of nineteenth-century American academic philosophy. See also: AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES Further reading Noll, M. (1989) Princeton and the Republic, 1768–1822, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 16– 58. (A skilful weaving together of several strands of Witherspoon’s thought in its academic and religious contexts.) Witherspoon, J. (1768) Lectures on Moral Philosophy , in The Works of the Rev. John Witherspoon, Philadelphia, PA: Woodward, vol. 3. (Not published until 1800.) R.J. FECHNER WITTGENSTEIN, LUDWIG JOSEF JOHANN (1889–1951) Ludwig Wittgenstein was born in Vienna on 26 April 1889 and died in Cambridge on 29 April 1951. He spent his childhood and youth in Austria and Germany, studied with Russell in Cambridge from 1911 to 1914 and worked again in Cambridge (with some interruptions) from 1929 to 1947. His first book, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , was published in 1921. It presents a logical atomist picture of reality and language. The world consists of a vast number of independent facts, each of which is in turn composed of some combination of simple objects. Each object has a distinctive logical shape which fits it to combine only with certain other objects. These objects are named by the basic elements of language. Each name has the same logical shape, and so the same sort of possibilities of combination, as the object it names. An elementary sentence is a combination of names and if it is true it will be a picture of the isomorphic fact formed by the combination of the named objects. Ordinary sentences, however, are misleading in their surface form and need to be analysed before we can see the real complexity implicit in them. Other important ideas in the Tractatus are that these deep truths about the nature of reality and representation cannot properly be said but can only be shown. Indeed Wittgenstein claimed that pointing to this distinction was central to his book. And he embraced the paradoxical conclusion that most of the Tractatus itself is, strictly, nonsense. He also held that other important things can also be shown but not said, for example, about there being a certain truth in solipsism and about the nature of value. The book is brief and written in a simple and elegant way. It has inspired writers and musicians as well as being a significant influence on logical positivism. After the Tractatus Wittgenstein abandoned philosophy until 1929, and when he returned to it he came to think that parts of his earlier thought had been radically mistaken. His later ideas are worked out most fully in the Philosophical Investigations , published in 1953. One central change is from presenting language as a fixed and timeless framework to presenting it as an aspect of vulnerable and changeable human life. Wittgenstein came to think that the idea that words name simple objects was incoherent, and instead introduced the idea of ‘language games’. We teach language to children by training them in practices in which words and actions are interwoven. To understand a word is to know how to use it in the course of the projects of everyday life. We find our ways of classifying things and interacting with them so natural that it may seem to us that they are necessary and that in adopting them we are recognizing the one and only possible conceptual scheme. But if we reflect we discover that we can at least begin to describe alternatives which might be appropriate if certain very general facts about the world were different or if we had different interests. A further aspect of the change in Wittgenstein’s views is the abandonment of solipsism. On the later view there are many selves, aware of and co-operating with each other in their shared world. Wittgenstein explores extensively the nature of our psychological concepts in order to undermine that picture of ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ which makes it so difficult for us to get a satisfactory solution to the socalled ‘mind–body problem’. Although there are striking contrasts between the earlier and later views, and Wittgenstein is rightly famous for having developed two markedly different philosophical outlooks, there are also continuities. One of them is Wittgenstein’s belief that traditional philosophical puzzles often arise from deeply gripping but misleading pictures of the workings of language. Another is





Page 934 his conviction that philosophical insight is not to be gained by constructing quasi-scientific theories of puzzling phenomena. Rather it is to be achieved, if at all, by seeking to be intellectually honest and so to neutralize the sources of confusion. See also: LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY OF; MATHEMATICS, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Monk, R. (1990) Ludwig Wittgenstein , London: Jonathan Cape. (A full and illuminating biography.) Wittgenstein, L.J.J. (1922) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , trans. C.K. Ogden and F.P. Ramsey, London: Routledge; trans. D.F. Pears and B.F. McGuinness, London: Routledge, 1961. (The major work of Wittgenstein’s early period and the only book published during his lifetime. The first English translation was revised and approved by Wittgenstein himself, though the later version is now standard. The German version was published in 1921 in Annalen der Naturphilosophie.) JANE HEAL WITTGENSTEINIAN ETHICS Although the strict ‘fact-value distinction’ of Wittgenstein’s early period has shaped much subsequent work on ethics, his most profound influence on the subject stems from the later Philosophical Investigations and associated writings. Of particular significance have been, first, the concept of a ‘language game’, and second, the discussion of following a rule. The vision of morality itself as a language game – a complex of speech and action ordered in a way that makes sense to the participants – has seemed to diminish the urgency of traditional questions about the ‘foundations’ of ethics, and has promoted acceptance of moral experience and consciousness as natural (human) phenomena. More recently there has been a growing interest in how Wittgenstein’s general reflections on rule-governed practices might apply to the specific case of moral understanding. Further reading Johnston, P. (1989) Wittgenstein and Moral Philosophy , London: Routledge. (Monograph providing useful orientation and guide to sources.) Pitkin, H.F. (1972) Wittgenstein and Justice , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. (Extended discussion of the significance of the later Wittgenstein for political theory.) SABINA LOVIBOND WODEHAM, ADAM ( c .1298–1358) An English Franciscan theologian, Wodeham was preoccupied with logical and semantic questions. He lectured for about a decade on Peter Lombard’s Sentences, first at London, then at Norwich and finally at Oxford. His lectures emphasized the dependence of the created world on God and the contingency of nature and salvation. John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham exerted the most important influences on Wodeham. He regarded Scotus as a vigorous thinker and respected him enough to accept his opinion in case of doubt. Proud to have learned logic from Ockham, Wodeham devoted considerable time to defending Ockham’s views from Walter Chatton, whom he saw as someone whose errors in logic arose from malice as well as ignorance. However, despite Wodeham’s reservations about Chatton, he was considerably influenced by him. Similarly, Wodeham modified his own opinion about sensory illusions in response to Peter Aureol, whom he saw as skilled and prudent but often mistaken, sometimes as a result of faulty logic. See also: CHATTON, W.; LANGUAGE, MEDIEVAL THEORIES OF; WILLIAM OF OCKHAM Further reading Courtenay, W. (1978) Adam Wodeham , Leiden: Brill. (The most complete introduction to Wodeham’s life and times.) REGA WOOD WOLFF, CHRISTIAN (1679–1754) Christian Wolff was a rationalistic school philosopher in the German Enlightenment. During the period between the death of Leibniz (1714) and the publication of Kant’s critical writings (1780s), Wolff was perhaps the most influential philosopher in Germany. There are many reasons for this, including Wolff’s voluminous writings in both German and Latin in nearly every field of philosophy known to his time, their unvarying employment of a strict rationalistic method to establish their conclusions, the attention directed to Wolff and his views as a result of bitter controversies with some theological colleagues, his banishment from Prussia by King Frederick Wilhelm I in 1723 and triumphant return from Hesse–Cassel in 1740 after Frederick the Great assumed the





Page 935 throne, and his active teaching at the Universities of Halle and Marburg for nearly 50 years. Through his work as a university professor, his prolific writings, and the rigour and comprehensiveness of his philosophy, Wolff influenced a very large group of followers, educators and other writers. Even after his influence had begun to wane, Kant still referred to ‘the celebrated Wolff’ and spoke of ‘the strict method of the celebrated Wolff, the greatest of all dogmatic philosophers’. Wolff thought of philosophy as that discipline which provides reasons to explain why things exist or occur and why they are even possible. Thus, he included within philosophy a much broader range of subjects than might now be recognized as ‘philosophical’. Indeed, for Wolff all human knowledge consists of only three disciplines: history, mathematics and philosophy. The reasons provided by Wolff’s philosophy were to be established through unfailing adherence to a strict demonstrative method. Like Descartes, Wolff first discovered this method in mathematics, but he concluded that both mathematical and philosophical methods had their ultimate origins in a ‘natural logic’ prescribed to the human mind by God. In fact, the heart of Wolff’s philosophical method is a deductive logic making use of syllogistic arguments. For Wolff, the immediate objective of philosophical method is to achieve certitude by establishing an order of truths within each discipline and a system within human knowledge as a whole. The ultimate goal is to establish a reliable foundation for the conduct of human affairs and the enlargement of knowledge. Wolff applied his philosophical method unfailingly in each of the three principal parts of philosophy: metaphysics – knowledge of those things which are possible through being in general, the world in general, human souls, and God; physics – knowledge of those things which are possible through bodies; and practical philosophy – knowledge of those things which are concerned with human actions. Wolff’s philosophical system also includes logic, an art of discovery (to guide the investigation of hidden truth and the production of new insights), some experiential disciplines (for example, empirical psychology) and several bodies of philosophical knowledge that were not well developed in Wolff’s time concerning law, medicine, and both the practical and liberal arts. See also: ENLIGHTENMENT, CONTINENTAL Further reading Gerlach, H.-M., Schenk, G. and Thaler, B. (eds) (1980) Christian Wolff als Philosoph der Aufklärung in Deutschland (Christian Wolff as Philosopher of the Enlightenment in Germany), Halle: Wissenschaftliche Beiträge der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg. (Proceedings of a colloquium held at Halle in 1979 on the 300th anniversary of Wolff’s birth; contains some two dozen contributions.) Wolff, C. (1728) Discursus praeliminaris de philosophia in genere, trans. R.J. Blackwell, Preliminary Discourse on Philosophy in General , Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963. (Originally published together with the Philosophia rationalis sive Logica.) CHARLES A. CORR WOLLASTON, WILLIAM (1660–1724) William Wollaston, a popular eighteenth-century English moral philosopher, is often grouped with Samuel Clarke as a staunch defender of the kind of moral rationalism that David Hume later opposed. Wollaston’s project, as he describes it, is to find a rule to distinguish right actions from wrong. He complains that previous philosophers have either overlooked this task or proposed rules which are imprecise, incomplete or misleading. The rule he proposes is fidelity to truth. Actions, he argues, express propositions and so may be true or false. Moral actions express truths and immoral actions express falsehoods. He thinks this rule explains other widely held views about morality, for example, that we should live in accordance with nature, right reason or the will of God. His most remembered (and most misunderstood) claim is that an evildoer ‘lives a lie’. Further reading Wollaston, W. (1722) The Religion of Nature Delineated, printed privately; repr. London: Samuel Palmer, 1724. The ‘Life of Wollaston’ is prefixed to the 6th edn, London, 1738. 10 more editions by 1750. (Wollaston’s philosophically important work; argues that as moral creatures we should aim to mirror truth, representing the way things are in our conduct.) CHARLOTTE R. BROWN WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY (1759–97) Wollstonecraft used the rationalist and egalitarian ideas of late eighteenth-century radical liberalism to attack the subjugation of women



Page 936 and to display its roots in the social construction of gender. Her political philosophy draws on Rousseau’s philosophical anthropology, rational religion, and an original moral psychology which integrates reason and feeling in the production of virtue. Relations between men and women are corrupted by artificial gender distinctions, just as political relations are corrupted by artificial distinctions of rank, wealth and power. Conventional, artificial morality distinguishes between male and female virtue; true virtue is gender-neutral, consists in the imitation of God, and depends on the unimpeded development of natural faculties common to both sexes, including both reason and passion. Political justice and private virtue are interdependent: neither can advance without an advance in the other. See also: FEMINISM Further reading Sapiro, V. (1992) A Vindication of Political Virtue: the Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft, Chicago, IL and London: University of Chicago Press. (The first book-length study of Wollstonecraft’s philosophy; generally reliable.) Wollstonecraft, M. (1792) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Moral and Political Subjects , in The Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, London: William Pickering, vol. 5, 1989. (Attacks conventional female education, morality and gender role as presented by various contemporary authors of educational and conduct books, principally by Rousseau in Émile.) SUSAN KHIN ZAW WÛNCH’ŪK (613–96) Wônch’ćk, a Korean monk-scholar, was head of the Ximing Monastery in Tang China. Neglected by history, research has now recovered this prolific writer, whose commentaries on Yogācāra texts influenced later Buddhist scholars in China and also in Tibet, notably Tsong kha pa. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE; TSONG KHA PA Further reading Thurman, R.A.F. (1984) Tsong Khapa’s Speech of Gold in the Essence of True Eloquences: Reason and Enlightenment in the Central Philosophy of Tibet, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Translation with an introduction.) SHOTARO IIDA WÔNHYO (617–86) Wônhyo is one of the most important figures in Korean Buddhism, and a significant influence on the development of East Asian Buddhism in general. His lifework was the reconciliation of ideological conflicts among the various Buddhist schools. His goal was to create an all-inclusive, non-sectarian Buddhist doctrine. To do this he utilized the all-embracing, systematic metaphysics of the Hwaôm school of Buddhism, deriving both a guiding theoretical principle – hwajaeng or ‘the harmonization of all disputes’ – and a powerful dialectical method for the examination of Buddhist doctrinal conflicts. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, KOREAN Further reading Lee, P.H. (ed.) (1993) Sourcebook of Korean Civilization , vol. 1, From Early Times to the Sixteenth Century, New York: Columbia University Press. (Contains selected English translations of important Korean texts reflecting the culture and civilization of Korea, including excerpts from Wônhyo on pages 145–59.) SUNG BAE PARK WORK, PHILOSOPHY OF Unlike play, work is activity that has to involve significant expenditure of effort and be directed toward some goal beyond enjoyment. The term ‘work’ is also used to signify an individual’s occupation, the means whereby they gain their livelihood. In modern market economies individuals contract to work for other individuals on specified terms. Beyond noting this formal freedom to choose how one shall work, critics of market economies have maintained that one’s occupation should be a realm of substantive freedom, in which work is freely chosen self-expression. Against this unalienated labour norm, others have held that the freedom of self-expression is one good among others that work can provide, such as lucrative pay, friendly social contact and the satisfaction of the self-support norm, and that none of these various work-related goods necessarily should have priority over others. Some philosophers place responsibility on society for providing opportunities for good work for all members of society; others hold that the responsibility for the quality of one’s occupational life appropriately





Page 937 falls on each individual alone. Finally, some theorists of work emphasize that performance of hard work renders one deserving of property ownership (John Locke) or enhances one’s spiritual development (Mahatma Gandhi). Further reading Nozick, R. (1974) Anarchy, State, and Utopia, New York: Basic Books. (Expresses a libertarian view that repudiates any positive obligations on the part of society to provide desirable work opportunities for members of society.) RICHARD ARNESON WRÓBLEWSKI, JERZY (1926–90) Jerzy Wróblewski was a leading representative of analytical legal theory in Poland in the second half of the twentieth century. Leon Petrażycki and the school of logical thought of Lwów and Warsaw provided his background inspiration. His approach to legal theory and legal science belongs, in philosophical terms, to minimalism, relativism and moderate reconstructivism. See also: LAW, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Wróblewski, J. (1992) The Judicial Application of Law , ed. Z. Bankowski and N. MacCormick, Dordrecht, Boston, MA, and London: Kluwer. (This is Wróblewski’s major work available in English.) MAREK ZIRK-SADOWSKI WUNDT, WILHELM (1832–1920) The German philosopher, psychologist and physician Wilhelm Wundt founded the world’s first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879 – at a time when psychology was still generally regarded as a theoretical and institutional part of philosophy. This event typified his life’s work and its reception in many respects. On the one hand Wundt tried to develop psychology as an independent science by defining its subject matter and methodology; on the other, he wanted to integrate psychology into the context of philosophy, cultural theory and history. With both attempts he acquired world fame and at the same time became a most controversial figure. Systematizing his approach, Wundt worked on a great amount of material in very different disciplines. He has been called the last philosophical ‘polyhistor’ in the tradition of Leibniz and Hegel, as well as the first modern scientist in psychology. See also: DUALISM; INTROSPECTION, PSYCHOLOGY OF; PSYCHOLOGY, THEORIES OF Further reading Wundt, W. (1863–) Vorlesung über die Menschenund Thierseele , Leipzig: Voß; trans. J.E. Creighton and E.B. Titchener, Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology , New York: Macmillan, 1894. (Wundt’s first systematic treatment of the traditional philosophical field of ‘mind’, ‘soul’ and ‘thought’ from the point of view of an experimental and quantitative psychology.) JENS BROCKMEIER WYCLIF, JOHN ( c .1330–84) John Wyclif was a logician, theologian and religious reformer. A Yorkshireman educated at Oxford, he was first prominent as a logician; he developed some technical notions of the Oxford Calculators, but reacted against their logic of terms to embrace with fervour the idea of the real existence of universal ideas. He expounded his view as a theologian, rejecting the notion of the annihilation of substance (including the eucharistic elements) and treating time as merely contingent. The proper understanding of universals became his touchstone of moral progress; treating scripture as a universal idea, he measured the value of human institutions, including the Church and its temporal property, by their conformity with its absolute truth. These views, though temporarily favoured by King Edward III, were condemned by Pope Gregory XI in 1377 and by the English ecclesiastical hierarchy in 1382, forcing him into retirement but leaving him the inspirer of a clandestine group of scholarly reformers, the Lollards. See also: LANGUAGE, MEDIEVAL THEORIES OF; UNIVERSALS Further reading Kenny, A. (1985) Wyclif , Oxford: Clarendon Press. (An admirably clear exposition of Wyclif’s philosophy.) Workman, H.B. (1926) John Wyclif , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2 vols. (The most modern biography and a comprehensive study.) JEREMY CATTO





Page 938 X XENOCRATES (396–314 BC) The Greek philosopher Xenocrates was the third head of the Platonic Academy. Like his predecessor Speusippus, he further developed Plato’s philosophy, but along more orthodox lines. Indeed, Xenocrates contributed much to the formalization of Plato’s philosophy into dogma. Starting from a metaphysical system of Monad and Dyad, the former being a self-contemplating intellect on the Aristotelian model and the latter a material principle, he systematically derived the rest of creation, postulating first the generation of number, and then soul, defined as ‘self-moving number’. He is notable for a tendency towards triadic divisions of the universe, and a developed theory of daemons. He was probably responsible for the first definitive edition of Plato’s works. Further reading Dillon, J. (1977) The Middle Platonists , London: Duckworth. (See pages 22–39 for an introductory account of Xenocrates.) JOHN DILLON XENOPHANES ( c .570–c .478 BC) Xenophanes was a philosophically minded poet who lived in various cities of ancient Greece. He is best remembered for an early comment on the limits of knowledge, a critique of anthropomorphism in religion and an advance towards monotheism. The surviving fragments of his poems span a wide range of topics, from proper behaviour at symposia and the measures of personal excellence to the nature of the divine, the forces that rule nature and how much can be discovered by mortals concerning matters in either realm. Both Plato and Aristotle characterized him as the founder of Eleatic philosophy, a view echoed in the pseudo-Aristotelian treatise, On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias , and in ancient doxographical summaries. But in many of his poems Xenophanes speaks as a civic counsellor and inquirer into nature in the tradition of the philosopher-scientists of Miletus. While his one, unmoving, whole and eternal divinity bears some resemblance to Parmenides’ ‘being’, in other teachings he anticipates the views of Heraclitus and Empedocles. His comments on divine perfection, the limited utility of the victorious athlete and the need to restrict poetic expression all foreshadow views expressed by Plato in the Republic. Further reading Lesher, J. H. (1992) Xenophanes of Colophon: Fragments, Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press. (A full-length study of Xenophanes in English; contains Greek texts of fragments with English translations, notes and commentaries, translations of ancient testimonia and essays on various aspects of Xenophanes’ philosophy.) J.H. LESHER XENOPHON ( c .427–355/50 BC) The Greek historian and philosophical writer Xenophon was a companion of Socrates, and is second in importance only to Plato as a source for our knowledge of him. He was also a penetrating and influential political thinker in his own right. He left Athens to embark on a spectacular military career in 401 BC, two years before Socrates’ execution, and his military experiences had a deep impact on his thought and writings. An important historian and an innovator in literary forms, Xenophon limited his philosophical interests to political and ethical themes. Two questions are especially prominent: (1) What are the psychological roots of human virtue, and how can it be taught? (2) What are the limits of and the prospects for human attainment of self-sufficiency? He develops these themes most fully in two major works that present two competing models of the best human being. His Memoirs (usually referred to by the Latin title Memorabilia ) presents the model of the philosophical life, mainly by recounting conversations between Socrates and a wide variety of human types. His The Education of Cyrus (often referred to by its Latin title Cyropaedia) presents the model of the political life, mainly by giving a fictionalized account of the rise to power of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian empire. Generally speaking, Xenophon seems in these works less willing than Plato and Aristotle to privilege the claims of philosophy over the claims of politics, and





Page 939 less optimistic about the power of reason to produce happiness. His works were highly esteemed by the Romans, as well as by such moral thinkers as Machiavelli, Montaigne and Rousseau. Further reading Xenophon ( c . 360s BC) Memorabilia , trans. E.C. Marchant, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press and London: Heinemann, 1923. (Parallel Greek text and English translation.) Tatum, J. (1989) Xenophon’s Imperial Fiction, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (A stimulating literary examination of the Cyropaedia.) DAVID K. O’CONNOR XIN (HEART-AND-MIND) In the West, questions of the distinguishability of mind and matter and of rationality and emotion or sentiment are central issues within the philosophy of mind. Neither of these topics is of much interest, however, to the mainstream of Chinese thought. On the one hand, the notion of qi , the vital energizing field that constitutes all natural processes, renders discussions of the relevance of any psychophysical dualism moot. On the other hand, xin , normally translated as ‘heart-and-mind’, preludes the assumption of distinctions between thinking and feeling, or idea and affect. Xin is often translated simply as ‘heart’, but since it is the seat of thinking and judgment, the notion of mind must be included in its characterization if the term is to be properly understood. Indeed, what we often think of as ‘will’ or ‘intention’ is likewise included in the notion of xin . See also: SELF-CULTIVATION IN CHINESE PHILOSOPHY Further reading Analects ( c . 4th–2nd century BC?), trans. D.C. Lau, Confucius: The Analects, Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1979. (An authoritative translation.) DAVID L. HALL ROGER T. AMES XIN (TRUSTWORTHINESS) The earliest and basic sense of xin is ‘being true to one’s word’. While one’s words can be xin (that is, worthy of trust), in most cases xin indicates an excellence of character; it is thought to be the central virtue governing the relationship between friends. Since xin is primarily a virtue, its exercise involves practical reasoning and not a mechanical adherence to one’s promises. Xin later was added to an original list of four cardinal Confucian virtues, though its status as a distinct disposition remained controversial. Buddhist thinkers broadened the sense of the term to include religious faith. This innovation in turn influenced certain neo-Confucian thinkers who then talked about the need to xin (have faith in) one’s innate moral faculty. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE PHILIP J. IVANHOE XING Xing is conventionally translated as ‘nature’ or ‘human nature’. Some read xing as meaning a heavenly endowed tendency, directionality, or potentiality of growth in the individual. On this essentialistic reading, xing is an innate and unchanging ‘given’, a defining condition of all human beings. Others have given a historicist interpretation of xing , reading it as an achievement concept rather than as a given. In this view, xing is derived from, and is a refinement on, sheng , denoting the entire process of birth, growth and ultimate demise that constitutes the life of a living creature. See also: HUMAN NATURE; TIAN Further reading Graham, A.C. (1990) ‘The Background of the Mencian Theory of Human Nature’, in A.C. Graham (ed.) Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (A rejection of the innatist position.) DAVID L. HALL ROGER T. AMES XUN KUANG see XUNZI XUN QING see XUNZI XUNZI ( fl. 298–238 BC) Xunzi is one of the most brilliant Confucian thinkers of ancient China. His works display wide-ranging interest in such topics as the relation between morality and human nature, the ideal of the good human life, the nature of ethical discourse and argumentation, the ethical uses of history, moral education and



Page 940 dao, the Confucian ideal of the good human life. He criticized other philosophers not because of their mistakes, but because of their preoccupation with one aspect of dao to the exclusion of others. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE Further reading Xunzi ( c .298–238 BC) Xunzi, ed. Li Disheng, Xunzi chishi, Taibei: Xuesheng, 1979; ed. and trans. J. Knoblock, Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, 3 vols, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988, 1990, 1994. (Li is a good modern Chinese annotated edition. The Knoblock edition contains long, valuable introductions in volumes 1 and 2, and extensive bibliographies in volumes 1 and 3.) A.S. CUA





Page 941 Y YANG see YIN-YANG YANG CHU see YANGZHU YANG HSIUNG see YANG XIONG YANG XIONG (53 BC–AD 18) Master Yang Xiong, the first Confucian classicist and the greatest of the pre-Song metaphysicians, is best known for two major philosophical works, the Taixuanjing (Canon of Supreme Mystery) and the Fayan (Model Sayings). Both works explore the interaction between significant cosmic and social patterns by explicit reference to earlier canonical traditions. Further reading Knechtges, D. (1981) The Han shu Biography of Yang Xiong (53 B.C.–A.D. 18), Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University. (Translates Yang’s Hanshu biography, based on his autobiography.) MICHAEL NYLAN YANGZHU (5th–4th century BC) Yangzhu, detested by the Confucians, is important in the Chinese tradition for initiating the explicit discussion of human nature. He focuses on the thesis that human nature has no inherent ethical or mystical qualities; instead, there is simply an innate tendency to live a long life, a tendency that must be carefully nurtured by a rational regulation of sense stimulation and by the avoidance of any of the entanglements incumbent in a life of working for the good of human society. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE Further reading Fung Yu-lan (1952) A History of Chinese Philosophy , trans. D. Bodde, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 132–43. (Presents a detailed but rather difficult analysis of the ideas of Yangzhu, valuable for its discussion of possible links between him and early Daoists.) H.D. ROTH YI HWANG (1501–70) Yi Hwang, also known by his honorific name T’oegye, is one of the two most honoured thinkers of the Korean neo-Confucian tradition. His fully balanced and integral grasp of the complex philosophical neoConfucian synthesis spun by Zhu Xi during China’s Song dynasty marks the tradition’s arrival at full maturity in Korea. His ‘Four–Seven Debate’ with Ki Taesûng established a distinctive problematic that strongly oriented Korean neo-Confucian thought towards exacting investigation of critical issues regarding the juncture of metaphysics and their all-important application in describing the inner life of the human heart-and-mind. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, KOREAN Further reading Yi Hwang [T’oegye] (1569) Sônghak sipdo (Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning), ed. and trans. M.C. Kalton, To Become a Sage: The Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning by Yi T’oegye, New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. (A translation of the Sônghak sipdo , his most famous work. Includes a long introduction dealing with Yi Hwang’s life, times and work.) MICHAEL C. KALTON YI I see YI YULGOK YI KAN (1677–1727) Yi Kan was a major Korean neo-Confucian thinker. He is best remembered as a major protagonist in the Horak controversy where he opposed Han Wônjin, championing the position of the school of Yi Yulgok against Han’s novel tri-level theory of nature. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, KOREAN MICHAEL C. KALTON YI YULGOK (1536–84) Yulgok was one of the foremost neo-Confucian scholars in Korea during the Yi (Chosôn) dynasty. He is considered one of two pillars, along with Yi T’oegye, of the Korean neo-Confucian tradition. Yulgok, an active statesman and educator as well as scholar, not only compiled the theories of previous Confucian scholars of China and Korea but, more



Page 942 mportantly, developed his own interpretations of them. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, KOREAN Further reading Chung, E.Y.J. (1995) The Korean Neo-Confucianism of Yi T’oegye and Ti Yulgok , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (A comparative study of Yi T’oegye (Yi Hwang) and Yi Yulgok; a very good introduction to Korean Confucianism.) YOUNG-CHAN RO YIJING The Yijing (Book of Changes) or Zhouyi (Changes of the Zhou) was originally a divination manual, which later gradually acquired the status of a book of wisdom. It consists of sixty-four hexagrams ( gua ) and related texts. By the time the Yijing became a coherent text in the ninth century BC, hexagram divination had changed from a means of consulting and influencing gods and spirits to a method of penetrating moments of the cosmic order to learn the shape and flow of the dao and determine one’s own place in it. By doing so, one avoids wrong decisions, failure and misfortune and achieves their contrary. Tradition has it that the Yijing can only be successfully approached through humility, honesty and an open mind. Through interaction with it, one gains ever increasing self-knowledge and sensitivity to one’s relations to others and to one’s situation in life. ‘Good fortune’, ‘happiness’ and ‘success’ are but by-products of such self-knowledge and sensitivity. See also: CHINESE CLASSICS Further reading Yijing ( c .9th–2nd century BC), trans. R.J. Lynn, The Classic of Changes: A New Translation of the I Ching as Interpreted by Wang Bi , New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. (An integral translation of the Yijing along with the commentary by Wang Bi. Where Wang’s interpretation differs significantly from the later readings of Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi, references to and translated excerpts from their commentaries are provided for purposes of comparison.) RICHARD JOHN LYNN YIN see YIN-YANG YIN–YANG Yin and yang always describe the relationships that obtain among unique particulars. Originally these terms designated the shady side and the sunny side of a hill, and gradually came to suggest the way in which one thing ‘overshadows’ another in some particular aspect of their relationship. Any comparison between two or more unique particulars on any given topic is necessarily hierarchical: one side is yang and the other is yin. The nature of the opposition captured in this pairing expresses the mutuality, interdependence, hierarchical relationship, diversity and creative efficacy of the dynamic relationships that are immanent in and give value to the world. The full range of difference in the world is deemed explicable through this pairing. See also: DAO Further reading Hall, D.L. and Ames, R.T. (1995) Anticipating China: Thinking Through the Narratives of Chinese and Western Culture, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (A comparative study of the uncommon assumptions that ground the Chinese and Western philosophical traditions.) ROGER T. AMES YOGĀCĀRA SCHOOL OF BUDDHISM see BUDDHISM, YOGĀCĀRA SCHOOL OF YONG AND TI see TI AND YONG YORUBA EPISTEMOLOGY The Yoruba of west Africa have articulated systematic criteria that are used to assign varying degrees of epistemic certainty to experience. What one views with one’s own eyes and experiences at first-hand ( ìmò) are judged as reliable ways of knowing the truth, providing there is conscious comprehension of what one is perceiving. Only propositions describing such experiences are regarded as true, or òótó . Less reliable is information received via books, other people, the media and the oral tradition. If such comparatively second-hand information, or ìgbàgbó , can be experimentally tested and accordingly verified, it has the potential to become ìmò. If verification cannot be attested, discussion, analysis and good judgment are essential tools for distinguishing the more reliable information from the less reliable. Further reading



Page 943 Knowledge Belief and Witchcraft: Analytic Experiments in African Philosophy , London: Ethnographica. (Chapter two expands on Yoruba epistemology and draws comparisons with English-language epistemological equivalents.) BARRY HALLEN YOU–WU In the Western metaphysical tradition, ‘being’ has most generally been thought to denote either a common property of things or a container which relates things by placing them within its own structure. Metaphysical notions of being are generally associated with the concept of ground. By contrast, the Chinese existential verb you (being) overlaps with the sense of ‘having’ rather than the copula, and therefore you (to be) means ‘to be present’ or ‘to be around’ while wu (not to be) means ‘not to be present’ or ‘not to be around’. This means that wu does not indicate strict opposition or contradiction, but absence. Thus, the you–wu distinction suggests mere contrast in the sense of either the presence or absence of x, rather than an assertion of the existence or nonexistence of x. See also: BEING; CHINESE PHILOSOPHY Further reading Daodejing ( c .350–250 BC?), trans. D.C. Lau, Tao te Ching, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963. (The being– nonbeing relation, expressed through the yin–yang pairing, is a principal theme of the Daodejing .) Hall, D.L. and Ames, R.T. (1995) Anticipating China: Thinking Through the Narratives of Chinese and Western Culture, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (A comparative study of the uncommon assumptions that ground the Chinese and Western philosophical traditions.) DAVID L. HALL ROGER T. AMES





Page 944 Z ZABARELLA, JACOPO (1533–89) Jacopo Zabarella was a professor of philosophy at the University of Padua. His work shows conclusively not only that it was possible to philosophize creatively within the limits of the Aristotelian tradition but also that this was still being done towards the end of the Renaissance period. Zabarella’s aim was not to overthrow Aristotle’s doctrines, but to expound them as clearly as possible. He produced an extensive body of work on the nature of logic, arguing that it was neither an art nor a science, but rather an instrumental intellectual discipline which arose from the philosopher’s practice of philosophizing or forming secondary notions. He also worked extensively on scientific method. He gives an account of order as disposing what we come to know through method, and he divides method into the method of composition, which moves from cause to effect, and the method of resolution, which moves from effect to cause. He also discussed regressus (a method for uniting composition and resolution) and thought that it would enable the scientist to discover new causal relations at the same time as proving conclusions with absolute necessity. Zabarella’s work was instrumental in a renewal of natural philosophy, methodology and the theory of knowledge; and it had a major impact on seventeenthcentury philosophy textbooks, especially in the Protestant countries of northern Europe. See also: ARISTOTELIANISM, RENAISSANCE; LOGIC, RENAISSANCE Further reading Mikkeli, H. (1992) An Aristotelian Response to Renaissance Humanism. Jacopo Zabarella on the Nature of Arts and Sciences , Studia Historica 41, Helsinki: Societas Historica Finlandiae. (Basic exposition of Zabarella’s conception of the arts and the sciences; good bibliography.) ECKHARD KESSLER ZEAMI (1363–1443) Zeami was one of the leading innovators in the art of Nō , at a time when Zen Buddhism dominated the Japanese intellectual and cultural order. He practised Zen Buddhism (Sōtō branch), and found in Zen teachings the epistemology that gave Nō its aesthetic foundations. While his Nō treatises are buttressed by his observation of the nature and the workings of the mind, they also reveal Shintō sensibility in their view that the origin of entertainment is sacred. See also: AESTHETICS, JAPANESE; BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, JAPANESE Further reading Rimer, J.T. and Yamazaki, M. (ed. and trans.) (1984) On the Art of the Nō Drama: The Major Treatises of Zeami, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (English translation of eight treatises written by Zeami plus the Sarugaku dangi.) MICHIKO YUSA ZEN see BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, JAPANESE; BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE ZENO OF CITIUM (334–262 BC) Zeno of Citium, a Greek philosopher from Cyprus, founded the Stoic school in Athens c .300 BC. His background and training lay in various branches of the Socratic tradition, including the Platonic Academy, but especially Cynicism. His controversial Republic was a utopian treatise, founded on the abolition of most civic norms and institutions. He laid the main foundations of Stoic doctrine in all areas except perhaps logic. See also: CLEANTHES Further reading Schofield, M. (1991) The Stoic Idea of the City, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Outstanding reconstruction of Zeno’s Republic and its place in Stoic political thought.) DAVID SEDLEY ZENO OF ELEA ( fl. c .450 BC) The Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea was celebrated for his paradoxes. Aristotle called him the ‘founder of dialectic’. He wrote in order to defend the Eleatic metaphysics of his fellow citizen and friend Parmenides, according to whom reality is single, changeless and homo





Page 945 geneous. Zeno’s strength was the production of intriguing arguments which seem to show that apparently straightforward features of the world – most notably plurality and motion – are riddled with contradiction. At the very least he succeeded in establishing that hard thought is required to make sense of plurality and motion. His paradoxes stimulated the atomists, Aristotle and numerous philosophers since to reflect on unity, infinity, continuity and the structure of space and time. Although Zeno wrote a book full of arguments, very few of his actual words have survived. Secondary reports (some from Plato and Aristotle) probably preserve accurately the essence of Zeno’s arguments. Even so, we know only a fraction of the total. According to Plato the arguments in Zeno’s book were of this form: if there are many things, then the same things are both F and not-F; since the same things cannot be both F and not-F, there cannot be many things. Two instances of this form have been preserved: if there were many things, then the same things would be both limited and unlimited; and the same things would be both large (that is, of infinite size) and small (that is, of no size). Quite how the components of these arguments work is not clear. Things are limited (in number), Zeno says, because they are just so many, rather than more or less, while they are unlimited (in number) because any two of them must have a third between them, which separates them and makes them two. Things are of infinite size because anything that exists must have some size: yet anything that has size is divisible into parts which themselves have some size, so that each and every thing will contain an infinite number of extended parts. On the other hand, each thing has no size: for if there are to be many things there have to be some things which are single, unitary things, and these will have no size since anything with size would be a collection of parts. Zeno’s arguments concerning motion have a different form. Aristotle reports four arguments. According to the Dichotomy, motion is impossible because in order to cover any distance it is necessary first to cover half the distance, then half the remainder, and so on without limit. The Achilles is a variant of this: the speedy Achilles will never overtake a tortoise once he has allowed it a head start because Achilles has an endless series of tasks to perform, and each time Achilles sets off to catch up with the tortoise it will turn out that, by the time Achilles arrives at where the tortoise was when he set off, the tortoise has moved on slightly. Another argument, the Arrow, purports to show that an arrow apparently in motion is in fact stationary at each instant of its ‘flight’, since at each instant it occupies a region of space equal in size to itself. The Moving Rows describes three rows (or streams) of equal-sized bodies, one stationary and the other two moving at equal speeds in opposite directions. If each body is one metre long, then the time taken for a body to cover two metres equals the time taken for it to cover four metres (since a moving body will pass two stationary bodies while passing four bodies moving in the opposite direction), and that might be thought impossible. Zeno’s arguments must be resolvable, since the world obviously does contain a plurality of things in motion. There is little agreement, however, on how they should be resolved. Some points can be identified which may have misled Zeno. It is not true, for example, that the sum of an infinite collection of parts, each of which has size, must itself be of an infinite size (it will be false if the parts are of proportionally decreasing size); and something in motion will pass stationary bodies and moving bodies at different velocities. In many other cases, however, there is no general agreement as to the fallacy, if any exists, of Zeno’s argument. Further reading Barnes, J. (1987) Early Greek Philosophy , Harmondsworth: Penguin. (Chapter 11 translates Plato’s account of Zeno, and the passages relevant to all Zeno’s extant arguments, along with their original contexts.) Sainsbury, M. (1988) Paradoxes , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 1 is a philosophically lively discussion of a selection of Zeno’s arguments; and includes a number of footnoted questions, designed to draw the reader into the problems Zeno raises.) STEPHEN MAKIN ZERMELO, ERNST (1871–1953) The German mathematician Ernst Zermelo is today best known for his axiomatization of set theory, presented in the spirit of Hilbert’s early axiomatic programme. Originally working in the calculus of variations and mathematical physics, Zermelo concentrated on set theory after proving that every set can be well-ordered. His proof, based on the axiom of choice, provoked a lively controversy. In the 1930s Zermelo worked on infinitary logic, trying to overcome Gödel’s incompleteness results. See also: SET THEORY



Page 946 Further reading Moore, G.H. (1982) Zermelo’s Axiom of Choice: Its Origins, Development, and Influence, Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, 8, New York, Heidelberg and Berlin: Springer. (Despite its title, a full account of Zermelo’s writings on set theory, their historical context and their influences in contemporary set theory.) VOLKER PECKHAUS ZHANG ZAI (1020–77) Zhang Zai was a seminal neo-Confucian cosmologist and ethical thinker. Like Zhou Dunyi and Shao Yong, he was inspired by the Yijing (Book of Changes) and its commentaries; unlike them, he worked out a conception based solely on the concept of qi (cosmic vapour). He espoused an ethical vision, global in spirit, that greatly enhanced the moral significance of Confucianism. See also: NEO-CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY Further reading Kasoff, I. (1984) The Thought of Chang Tsai (1020–1070), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Systematic overview of Zhang’s philosophy; clear and accessible.) KIRILL OLE THOMPSON ZHENG XUAN (AD 127–200) Zheng Xuan, perhaps the most influential commentator on the Confucian classics, is widely credited with constructing both a compelling unitary vision of Chinese civilization and a hierarchy of written authorities which upheld the supremacy of the five Confucian classics as infallible guides to morality and history. Inevitably, scholars (including Zheng’s many critics) have ‘read’ early Chinese society through the filter of Zheng’s surviving commentaries, which ultimately superseded earlier divergent scholastic traditions. See also: CHINESE CLASSICS Further reading Kramers, R.P. (1949) K’ung tzu chia yü: The School Sayings of Confucius , Leiden: Brill, 77–98. (Outlines the major controversy between Zheng Xuan and Wang Su.) MICHAEL NYLAN ZHI In classical Chinese philosophy, zhi, conventionally translated as ‘knowing’, is not so much a knowing ‘what’, which provides some understanding of the natural world, as it is a knowing ‘how’ to be adept in relationships, and ‘how’, in optimizing the possibilities that these relations provide, to develop trust in their viability. The cluster of terms that define knowing are thus programmatic and exhortative, encouraging the quality of the roles and associations that define us. Propositions may be true, but it is more important that husbands and friends be so. See also: DAO Further reading Hall, D.L. and Ames, R.T. (1995) Anticipating China: Thinking Through the Narratives of Chinese and Western Culture, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (A comparative study of the uncommon assumptions that ground the Chinese and Western traditions.) DAVID L. HALL ROGER T. AMES ZHI DUN (AD 314–66) Buddhist monk and specialist on the Zhuangzi, Zhi Dun was active in the xuanxue or ‘learning of the mysterious’ salons of the Eastern Jin regime in southeastern China. For him, the sage described by the Zhuangzi and Buddhist texts alike was a great man who knows the ways of heaven triumphantly and responds to beings in perfect freedom. Zhi Dun was also known for his interpretation of emptiness and his expansion of the concept of li (‘order’ or ‘pattern’) into an underlying metaphysical principle. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE; Further reading Zürcher, E. (1959) The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China , Leiden: Brill. (The best treatment of the earliest phase of Chinese Buddhism in any language.) JOHN R. McRAE ZHIYI (538–97) The Chinese Buddhist monk Zhiyi is revered as the chief architect of the Tiantai school of Buddhism, one of the most distinctive and influential systems of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought and practice to take shape on East Asian soil. His systematization of the Tientai teachings marked the emergence of the first major



Page 947 of the East Asian Buddhist tradition, for it effectively brought to a close some five centuries of Chinese dependence on Indian Buddhist traditions of exegesis and opened the way to creation of the distinctive forms of scriptural hermeneutics and motifs of religious life that we regard as representative of East Asian Buddhism today. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE Further reading Swanson, P. (1989) Foundations of T’ien-t’ai Philosophy , Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press. DANIEL B. STEVENSON ZHONGYONG The Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean) has traditionally been ascribed to Zisi, the grandson of Confucius and the indirect teacher of Mencius. Although this ascription has been challenged by modern critical scholarship since the turn of the twentieth century, recent archaeological finds indicate that the traditional view is not without textual base. If the Zhongyong actually predated the Mengzi , it seems that a significant portion of the Liji (Book of Rites), of which the Daxue (Great Learning) and Zhongyong are chapters, contains documents of the fifth century BC. This fact alone merits a fundamental restructuring of classical Confucian chronology and reinterpretation of the Mencian line of the Confucian tradition. See also: CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE Further reading Chan Wing-tsit (1963) A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (A translation and commentary on this text translated as The Doctrine of the Mean .) TU WEI-MING ZHOU DUNYI (1017–73) Zhou Dunyi was the father of Chinese neo-Confucianism. His oracular presentation of the notions of supreme polarity ( taiji), yin and yang , and the five phases to explain the formation of the cosmos and sagehood became enshrined by Zhu Xi as the authoritative neo-Confucian view. See also: NEO-CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY Further reading Zhou Dunyi (1017–73) Taiji tushuo (Diagram Explaining the Supreme Ultimate), trans. Wing-tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963, 463–80. (This essay is a rather oracular presentation of Zhou’s metaphysics and ethics; thus, the supporting notes and discussion are required reading.) KIRILL OLE THOMPSON ZHU XI (1130–1200) The Chinese neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi was a consummate scholar and classicist as well as a superb critical and synthetic thinker. He fused the ideas of the seminal eleventh-century thinkers Shao Yong, Zhou Tunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi into a grand philosophical synthesis. In addition, by effectively editing and annotating the essential classical Confucian texts – the Analects of Confucius – the Mengzi of Mencius, the Daxue (Great Learning) and the Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean) – as the Four Books, Zhu worked out a lasting renewal of the Confucian project. See also: NEO-CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY Further reading Chan Wing-tsit (ed.) (1986) Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. (Anthology of essays by prominent Zhu Xi scholars; contains Zhu’s biography and authoritative articles on all aspects of Zhu’s thought and scholarship.) KIRILL OLE THOMPSON ZHUANGZI The Zhuangzi is a Daoist text usually associated with ‘Master Zhuang’ (fourth century BC), also known as Zhuang Zhou. Scholarly consensus regards the thirty-three chapters of this text to be composite, containing passages that offer different and sometimes even contradictory interpretations of basic Daoist tenets. The opening seven ‘inner chapters’ are traditionally thought to be from the hand of Master Zhuang himself, while the remaining ‘outer’ and ‘miscellaneous’ chapters are taken to be later elaborations and commentary by members of what retrospectively can be called a Master Zhuang school, or better, lineage. As a philosophical text, the Zhuangzi is for the most part addressed to the project of personal realization, and only derivatively concerned about social and political order. As one of the finest pieces of literature in the classical Chinese corpus, the Zhuangzi is itself an object lesson in marshalling every trope and literary device available to provide rhetorically charged flashes of insight



Page 948 into the most creative way to live one’s life in the world. See also: DAOIST PHILOSOPHY Further readings Zhuangzi ( c .4th century BC?), trans. B. Watson, The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu , New York: Columbia University Press, 1968; trans. A.C. Graham, Chuang-tzu: The Inner Chapters , London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981. (Watson is the standard translation of the Zhuangzi which takes advantage of the Japanese translation by Fukunaga Mitsuji. Graham is a philosophically sophisticated translation of about 85 per cent of the original text.) ROGER T. AMES ZIONISM Zionism, the idea of Jewish nationality in its modern form, emerged towards the end of the nineteenth century, several decades after nationalism had taken hold among most European peoples. The term denotes the ideology as well as the movement(s) whose goal is re-establishment of the Jewish people as a nation in its homeland in Palestine. Unlike many other movements of national liberation, Zionism seeks not the removal of a colonial regime but the return of a people to its land. The most ancient roots of this aspiration were religious, but many forms of modern Zionism shed the messianic and eschatological elements of the two-thousand-year-old hope in favour of more immediate political and social aims that were often philosophically shaped. See also: JEWISH PHILOSOPHY, CONTEMPORARY; NATION AND NATIONALISM Further reading Cohen, I. (1946) The Zionist Movement , New York: The Zionist Organization of America. (History and issues of Zionism, with a supplementary chapter on the Zionist movement in America.) Hertzberg, A. (ed.) (1970) The Zionist Idea, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. (Anthology about the intellectual history of the Zionist movement.) ZE’EV LEVY ZONGMI (780–841) Zongmi was a Chinese Buddhist Chan (Zen) and Huayan scholar, traditionally reckoned as the fifth ‘patriarch’ both in the Heze line of Southern Chan and in the Huayan scholastic tradition. He is important for his revision of Huayan doctrine, his commentaries to the Yuanjuejing (Scripture of Perfect Enlightenment), his accounts of Chan teachings and his contribution to the theory of the essential unity of the three teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism. See also: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, CHINESE Further reading Zongmi (780–841) Yuanrenlun (Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity), ed. and trans. P.N. Gregory, Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity: An Annotated Translation of Tsung-mi’s Yüan jen lun with a Modern Commentary, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1995. (Uses a translation and commentary to Zongmi’s Yuanrenlun as a means of presenting medieval Chinese Buddhist thought to the nonspecialist.) PETER N. GREGORY ZOROASTRIANISM Zarathushtra, better known to the Classical and modern world in the Greek form of his name ‘Zoroaster’, revealed his vision of truth, wisdom and justice in the verse texts known as the Gāthās ( c .1200–1000 BC) and is revered by Zoroastrians as their holy prophet. The religion is correctly described as mazdāyasna , ‘the worship of Ahura (‘Lord’) Mazdā, creator of the world and source of all goodness. Since the Avestan word mazdā means ‘wise, wisdom’, Zoroastrians see their prophet as the original philosophos , ‘lover of wisdom’. Zarathushtra’s message is primarily ethical and rationalistic. Zoroastrianism teaches a life based on (1) the avoidance of evil, through rigorous discrimination between good and evil, and (2) the service of wisdom through the cherishing of seven ideals. These latter are personified as seven immortal, beneficent spirits: Ahura Mazdāhimself, conceived as the creative ‘holy’ spirit; Sublime Truth; Virtuous Power; Good Purpose/Mind; Beneficent Piety; Wholeness/Health and, finally, Immortality. Evil originates neither from God nor from his creatures, but from a wholly other source, personified as Angra Mainyu, the ‘Hostile Spirit’, whose existence is ritually and doctrinally rejected as being pretended and parasitic. Real existence is solely the domain of Ahura Mazdāand his creation; Angra Mainyu and his demons are actually states of negativity, denial or, as the religion puts it, ‘the Lie’. Thus the charge that the religion is ontologically dualistic is no more true



Page 949 than it is of other systems which conceive of good and evil as being in fundamental opposition. Equally, the allegation that its theology is ditheistic or polytheistic is a misunderstanding of the Zoroastrian theological and ritual tradition. The influence which this religion has exerted on classical philosophy and the thought and practice of Judaism, Christianity and Islam is being reappraised by scholars in modern times. See also: ILLUMINATION; RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY OF Further reading Boyce, M. (1975–) A History of Zoroastrianism, Leiden: Brill. (The most authoritative scholarly treatment of the subject to date. Volumes 1, 2 and 3 have been published.) —— (1984) Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism, Manchester: Manchester University Press. (New, reliable translations of major texts.) ALAN WILLIAMS





action 5 see also karma; moral motivation akrasia 19; decision theory (Ramsey, F.P.) 737; events distinction 5; fatalism 274; holism 359; mental causation 581; motivation 205–6; passions (Hume, D.) 367; practical reason 703; prescriptivism 708; reasons 745; social 841; supererogation 871; will 929 Active Intellect ethics 259 actual entities process theism 713 actualism Gentile, G. 309 Adam Kadmon 349 Adams, Marilyn McCord evil, problem of 262; hell 342 adaptation natural selection 263 Adler, J.E. 742 Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund 5 critical theory 182; negative dialectics 5 Advaita Vedānta School of Hindu philosophy God 318; Mādhava 517; monism 589–90; Ramakrishna Movement 736; reincarnation 751; salvation 791; Śankara 792; self-certificationalism 251 adverbs 6 Aenesidemus 6 Aertsen, Jan A. Meister Eckhart 561–2 aesthetics African 10; appreciation 7; attitude 8; Baumgarten, A.G. 78; Belinskii, V.G. 83; characteristics/relation distinction (Anderson, J.) 36–7; Chinese 11; common-sense philosophy (Reid, T.) 750; concepts 8; ethics relationship 10; immediacy (Santayana, G.) 793; Islamic philosophy 11; Japanese 12–13; katharsis 435;

mimēsis 575; theological (Edwards, J.) 233 affection for the just Duns Scotus, J. 221 el-Affendi, Abdel Wahab Islamic theology 411 affirmative action 13 al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din 13





Albo, Joseph 21 Jewish philosophy 421 alchemy 21 Alcibiades 848 Alcinous 21–2 Alcmaeon 22 Alemanno, Yohanan ben Isaac 22 Alembert, Jean le Rond d’ 22–3 Enlightenment 22 Alexander of Aphrodisias 23 Alexander of Hales 23–4 John of La Rochelle 424 Alexander, P.S. midrash 572 Alexandria Ammonius, son of Hermeas 27; Hellenistic philosophy 34; Hypatia 371; Philo of Alexandria 672–3; Philoponus 674 algebra analytic geometry (Descartes, R.) 203 Algeria Augustine of Hippo 63 algorithms computability 140 Algra, Keimpe Posidonius 696 alienation 24 Alighieri, Dante 24 Alison, Archibald 25 Allan, T.R.S. rule of law 779–80 Allen, Diogenes justification, religious 431; Nygren, A. 639; sanctification 791–2 Allen, R.T. Polanyi, M. 686 Allison, Henry E. Eberhard, J.A. 229; Spinoza, B. de 857 Allison, J.W.F. 428 Allistel, C. learning 474 Almond, Brenda applied ethics 42 Alston, William P. empiricism 239; internalism-externalism distinction 399; religious experience 761; religious language 761–2 alterity heterology (Certeau, M. de) 130; Latin American liberation philosophy 487; postmodern theories of 25

Althusser, Louis Pierre 25 Altman, Andrew 780 altruism 233–4 Amaterasu 827 Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji 26 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 ambiguity 26 de re/de dicto 194; medieval language theories 454–5 Ambuel, David ontology in Indian philosophy 645 Ames, Roger T. Chinese philosophy 136–8; dao 190; Daoist philosophy 190–2; de 193–4; East Asian Philosophy 225; qi 729; Sunzi 871; tian 891; xin (heart-and-mind) 939; xing 939; yinyang 942; you-wu 943; zhi 946; Zhuangzi 947–8 al-‘Amiri, Abu’l Hasan Muhammad ibn Yusuf 27 Ammonius, son of Hermeas 27 amnesia 562–3 Amo, Anton Wilhelm 14–15 analogy Aquinas, T. 118; knowledge of God (Browne, P.) 103





anomalous monism 37–8 Anscombe, Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret 38 Anselm of Canterbury 38–9 atonement 63; Cur deus homo 38–9; Incarnation 39; necessary being 619; Proslogion 38; satisfaction doctrine 39 anthropology philosophy of 39–40; theological (Brunner, E.) 103 anthroposophy 861 anti-Aristotelianism Patrizi, F. 662 anti-humanism Marxism 25 anti-individualism mental content, wide 570 Antilles, French Fanon, Frantz 272 Antiochus of Ascalon 40 Antiphon 40 anti-positivism Latin America 40–1 anti-postmodernism 700 antirealism Dummett, M.A.E. 219; mathematics 41; metaphysics 569–70; objectivity 640; scientific 808 anti-Semitism 41 see also Holocaust anti-slavery movement 27 Antisthenes 42 Antonelli, Gian Aldo definition 197 Any, Carol Russian literary formalism 781 Apamea (Syria) Numenius 638 apatheia emotion 238 apeiron (infinite matter) 32 Apel, Karl-Otto communicative rationality 154 apologists Tertullian, Q.S.F. 881 Appiah, Kwame Anthony Africa 13–15; Cabral, A. 118; Fanon, F. 272; pan-Africanism 654 applied ethics 42 applied philosophy Passmore, J.A. 660 Apuleius 33 Aquinas, Thomas 43

see also Thomism Aristotelianism 49; Aristotle 43; faith 271; immutability 385; Islamic/Jewish philosophy 43; justice, equity and law 429; knowledge (Rahner, K.) 736; Maritain, J. 526; necessary being 619; perfect goodness 322; prophecy 718–19; soul 852; theological virtue 883; Thomism 889 Arama, Isaac ben Moses 44 Arcesilaus 44 Academic scepticism 34 archaeological method of knowledge Foucault, M. 290 archaeology 44–5 archē (principle) 45 etymology of 45





women 276 arithmetic 52 geometry distinction 536 Arkush, A. Mendelssohn, M. 563 Armstrong, David Malet 52 Arnauld, Antoine 52 Arneson, Richard J. paternalism 660 Arrighetti, G. 245 arrow argument Zeno of Elea 945 art aesthetics 7–8; Chinese 11; emotion in response to 9; ethics 10; expression 9; politics relationship (Belinskii, V.G.) 83; and truth 54; value of 8 artha (meaning) 549 artificial intelligence (AI) 58 see also Chinese room argument; computation computational models of vision 918; computational theories of mind 145–6 Arya Samaj (The Association of Nobles) 61 asceticism 61 Ikhwan al-Safa’ 382 Ash‘ariyya 61–2 emergence 411; al-Juwayni 431 Asher, Nicholas anaphora 30–1; discourse semantics 213 Ashworth, E.J. Bruno, G. 104; Lipsius, J. 491; Paracelsus 655; Patrizi, F. 662; Paul of Venice 662–3; Renaissance philosophy 762–5 Asian philosophy, East 225 Asmus, Valentin Ferdinandovich 62 Aspasia 848 Astell, Mary 62 astronomy Galilei, G. 304; geometric modelling (Eudoxus) 260; Islam 803; mathematical (Copernicus, N.) 177; Philolaus 674; Stoicism (Cleomedes) 144 Athanasian Creed Incarnation 386; Trinity 898 atheism 62–3 definition of 62–3; justification for 63 Athens Antisthenes 42;

Epicurus 245; philosophical centre 34; Plato 677; Socrates 847; Thucydides 890–1; Xenophon 938–9 Atiyeh, George N. Ibn Massara 375–6; al-Sijistani 829–30 atomic physics quantum theory (Bohr, N.) 94–5 atomism Gassendi, P. 305–6; Gestalt psychology 313; meaning/belief content 360; Nyāya 702; Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika 639 atomism, ancient 63 see also Democritus chemistry 133; Epicureanism 244; Leucippus 483 atonement 63 see also justification, religious doctrine of Attwooll, Elspeth Jhering, R. von 423; legal idealism 476–7 Audi, Robert epistemological belief 746 Augustine of Hippo 63 African philosophy 14; Augustinianism 65–6; educational philosophy 231; illuminationism 383; immutability 385; Manicheism 522–3; original sin 831 Augustinianism 65 Aristotelianism conflict 66; Kilwardby, R. 438 Aureol, Peter 66





substance 869 Aztec (Nahuatl) civilization philosophcal methodology 571; thought 571 Bach, Kent ambiguity 26; performatives 666; speech acts 855–6 Bachelard, Gaston French philosophy of science 297 Bacon, Francis 73 crucial experiments 183; induction 73 Bacon, Roger 74 Badhwar, Neera K. friendship 299 Baert, Patrick Bourdieu, P. 98 al-Baghdadi, Abu‘l-Barakat 74 Bahti, Timothy Man, P. de 194 Baier, Annette C. Hume, D. 366 Baker, A.J. Anderson, J. 36–7 Baker, Judith Grice, H.P. 325–6 Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich 74 dialogue 74; novels, theories of 74–5 Bakhurst, David Asmus, V.F. 62; Il’enkov, E.V. 382; Marxist philosophy, Russian and Soviet 532 Bakunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich 75 Balazs, Etienne 812 Baldwin, Thomas analytic philosophy 29; McTaggart, J.M.E. 517; Merleau-Ponty, M. 565–6; Moore, G.E. 592 Ball, Terence green political philosophy 324–5 Báñez, Domingo 75 Bañkowski, Zenon Kelsen, H. 436; legal norms 636–7 baptism 489 Bar Hayya, Abraham 75 Barker, Peter Hertz, H.R. 350 Barnes, Jonathan Academy 4–5; Antiochus 40; Arcesilaus 44; Carneades 124; Philo of Larissa 673; Pyrrhonism 728 Barnish, Samuel

Encyclopedists, medieval 240–1 Barry, Brian justice 428–9 Barth, Karl 76 dialectical theology 76; theology of the Word 76 Barthes, Roland 76 Bartolus of Sassoferrato 76 Basinger, David miracles 582–3; process theism 713–14 Bataille, Georges 77 Baudrillard, Jean 77 Baumgardt, David 78 Jewish philosophy 422 Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb 78 Bayesian confirmation theory subjectivity 860 Bayesian epistemology criticisms of 713; rational belief 712–13 Bayle, Pierre 78 Baynes, K. Habermas, J. 328 Bealer, G. analyticity 30 Bealer, George intensional entities 397–8





Page 956 beatific vision heaven 335 Beattie, James 79 Beatty, John ecology 229–30 beauty African aesthetics 10; connoisseurs (Kant, I.) 10; of God (Edwards, J.) 233; Islamic philosophy 11; Japanese aesthetics 12; supervenience 873 Beauvoir, Simone de 80 Bechtel, William vitalism 919 Becker, Lawrence C. reciprocity 746 Beddall, B.G. Wallace, A.R. 924 Beer, John George Eliot 236 Beetham, David legitimacy 479–80 behaviour communication (Mead, G.H.) 546; rational choice theory 739 behaviourism analytic 80; methodological 80; scientific 81; verbal (Sellars, W.S.) 815 being 81–2 see also categories; Dasein ; existence; God; metaphysics; ontology changelessness (Parmenides) 658; in common (Nancy, J.-L.) 610; fictional characters 284; Stoicism 863 being for-itself consciousness (Sartre, J.-P.) 793–4 being in-itself consciousness (Sartre, J.-P.) 793–4 Beiser, Frederick C. Cambridge Platonism 120; Culverwell, N. 186; Eberhard, J.A. 229; Hamann, J.G. 330–1; Herder, J.G. 348; Romanticism, German 775 Beitz, Charles R. international relations 400–1 Belgium Denys the Carthusian 201–2; Geulincx, A. 314; Godfrey of Fontaines 319–20; Helmont, F.M. van 343; Henry of Ghent 345; Irigaray, L. 405;

Lipsius, J. 491; Man, P. de 194 belief 82 see also a posteriori; a priori; cognitive pluralism; cognitivism; faith; foundationalism; justification, epistemic; probabilism; religious belief; web of belief analytic behaviourism (Dennett, D.C.) 201; certainty 129; commonsensism 153; conceptual content 173; de re/de dicto 194; degrees of 712; epistemic relativism 246; induction 391; knowledge relationship 82; moral sentiments 598; rational 739; rationality of 742; reasons for 746; social relativism 837 Belinskii, Vissorion Grigorievich 83 Bell, John L. Boolean algebra 97 Bellamy, Richard Croce, B. 183; Gentile, G. 309–10; Gramsci, A. 323–4 Beller, Mara Bohr, N. 94–5; Heisenberg, W. 342 Bell’s theorem 83 Belsey, Andrew journalism ethics 427 Belzer, Marvin deontic logic 202 Benakis, L.G. Byzantine philosophy 116 Bencivenga, E. free logic 293 beneficence 344 benevolence moral sense (Hutcheson, F.) 370 Benfield, David Chisholm, R.M. 138 Ben-Menahem, Yemima Putnam, H. 726 Bentham, Jeremy 83–4 legislation 84; punishment and reward 84; utility principle 83–4 Bentley, Richard 84 Berdiaev, Nikolai Aleksandrovich 84 Bergson, Henri-Louis 85 Berkeley, George 85 idealism 85–6 Berlin, Isaiah 86 liberty 86; value pluralism 86 Bernard of Clairvaux 87 Bernard of Tours (Bernardus Silvestris) 87 Bernasconi, Robert Levinas, E. 483–4

Bernier, François 87 Bernstein, Eduard 87 Bernstein, J.M. Adorno, T.W. 5; Horkheimer, M. 362–3 Berry, Christopher J. Enlightenment, Scottish 243; human nature, eighteenth-century science of 364 Beth’s theorem 87–8 Beuchot, Mauricio Báñez, D. 75 Bhagavad Gītā duty and virtue 223 Bhargava, Rajeev holism and individualism in history and social science 359–60 Bhartṛhari 88 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389; sentential understanding 354





Page 957 Bhaskar, Roy critical realism 182 Bhattacharyya, Sibajiban God, Indian conceptions of 318 Biard, Joël Albert of Saxony 20; Major, J. 521 Bible hell 342; hermeneutics 348–9; scientific reality 757; sin 831 Bible, Hebrew 88–9 midrash 572; sin 831 Bicchieri, Cristina decision and game theory 195 Biel, Gabriel 89 Bienenstock, M. Rosenzweig, F. 776 Bierman, G.M. linear logic 490 Bigelow, John C. functionalism in social science 301; particulars 658; universals 908 Bilimoria, Purushottama Kauṭilya 435; testimony in Indian philosophy 882 bioethics 89 see also animals, ethics; ecology; environmental ethics; medical ethics; nursing ethics Jewish 89–90; Singer, P. 68 biology molecular 587; species 855 biotic community 325 Birdwhistell, Anne D. Lu Xiangshan 512; Shao Yong 825 Birkhoff, G. 731 Birks, Peter B.H. Roman law/civilian tradition 774 bivalence intuitionistic logic 404; truth conditions 404 Black, Alison H. Wang Fuzhi 924 Black, Deborah L. aesthetics in Islamic Philosophy 11; logic in Islamic philosophy 496–7 Blackburn, Simon Collingwood, R.G. 148; projectivism 715; supervenience 872 Blackloism 821 Blackstone, William 90 Blair, Hugh 90

Enlightenment, Scottish 90 Blake, J. 696 blame 705 see also rectification; remainders moral sentiments 600 Blanchette, Patricia A. realism, mathematics 745 Blanchot, Maurice 90–1 Bland, K.P. Delmedigo, E. 199 Blasius of Parma (Blasius de Pelacanis) 91 Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna 886 blindness Molyneux problem 588 blindsight unconscious mental states (Weiskrantz, L.) 906 Bloch, Ernst Simon 91 hope 362 Block, Ned computational theories of mind 576; conceptual role semantics 816 Bloomfield, Leonard 866 Bloor, David sociology of knowledge 846 Bobbio, Norberto 91 legal positivism 477 Boden, M.A. artificial intelligence 58 bodies Epicureanism 244; motion (Hobbes, T.) 357 bodily sensations 91–2 see also pain; pleasure Bodin, Jean 92 Boehme, Jakob 92 Boeotia Plutarch of Chaeronea 683 Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus 92 Aristotle 48–9; De consolatione philosophiae (On the Consolation of Philosophy) 92; eternity 255; immutability 385; Valla, L. 92 Boethius of Dacia 94 Bogdanov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich 94 Bohemia Hus, J. 369 Bohman, James systems theory in social science 874 Bohr, Niels 94–5 Bok, Sissela truthfulness 900 Bold, Samuel 95 Bolshevism empiriocriticism 532–3 Bolt, John Dooyeweerd, H. 215 Bonaventure 95–6 happiness 95; mysticism 95–6 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich 96 BonJour, Laurence coherence theory of justification and knowledge 439

Bonnet, Charles 96 Bonsor, Jack Rahner, K. 736 Boolean algebra 97 Borsellino, Patrizia Bobbio, N. 91 Bos, Egbert Peter Marsilius of Inghen 527 Bostick, Curtis V. Hus, J. 369





Patañjali 660 Brown, Beverley A. legal discourse 475 Brown, Charlotte common-sense ethics 152–3; Paley, W. 653; Wollaston, W. 935 Brown, Mark 584 Brown, Stephen F. Chatton, W. 133; Clarembald of Arras 143; Gregory of Rimini 325; Matthew of Aquasparta 545; Richard of Middleton 771 Brown, Stuart Helmont, F.M. van 343 Brown, Thomas 103 substance dualism 103 Browne, Peter 103 Brueckner, Anthony deductive closure principle 196 Brunner, Emil 103 Bruno, Giordano 104 Brunschwig, Jacques Anaxarchus 32; Pyrrho 727; Timon 893 Bryant, C.J. Brown, T. 103 Bryce, James 104 Bryson, Thomas L. Ramakrishna Movement 736 Brzezinski, Jan Gauḑīya Vaiṣṇavism 306; Rāmānuja 737 Bub, Jeffrey quantum measurement 731 Buber, Martin 104 mysticism 105 Buchanan, Allen E. communitarianism 155 BuÈ chner, Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig (Louis) 105 Buchwald, J.Z. 235 Buddha 105 central teachings 109–10; Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389; Yogācāra Buddhism 107 buddha-nature li 485 Buddhist philosophy Chinese 108–9; East Asian Philosophy 228; emotions 238; Indian 109; Japanese 110; Korean 111–12; nirvāṇa 633; renunciation 223; Tibetan 891 Buffier, Claude 112

Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de 112 evolutionary theory 112 Buldt, Bernd infinitary logic 394 Bulgakov, Sergei Nikolaevich 112 Bulgaria Kristeva, J. 444; Todorov, T. 894 Bultmann, Rudolf 113 bundle theory of mind 575 Bunge, Mario 29–30 Burch, Robert W. Royce, J. 778 bureaucracy Chinese Legalism 479 Burgess, John P. constructible universe 171; forcing 288; set theory 822 Buridan, John 113–14 Albert of Saxony 20





Calder, Robert R. Kemp Smith, N. 436 Calhoun, C. Taylor, C. 877 Callicles 119 calligraphy Chinese 11 Callinicos, Alex Althusser, L.P. 25; Lukács, G. 512; Marcuse, Herbert 525; Trotsky, L. 899 Calude, Christian computability and information 156 Calvin, John 119–20 predestination 119 Calvinism Dooyeweerd, H. 215; predestination 706; providence 722 Cambridge Platonism 120 see also Latitudinarianism Cudworth, R. 184 Campanella, Tommaso 120–1 Campbell, George 121 Aberdeen Philosophical Society 2; Enlightenment, Scottish 121 Campbell, Keith epiphenomenalism 245–6 Campbell, Norman Robert 121 Camus, Albert 121 Canada Lonergan, B.J.F. 509; Taylor, C. 877 Candlish, Stewart bundle theory of mind 575; private language argument 711 Canguilhem, Georges 297 canonical system (Post, E.L.) 698 Canovan, Margaret totalitarianism 896 Cantor, Georg 121 continuum hypothesis 175; set theory 822 Cantor’s theorem 122 capitalism social democracy 836 Capozzi, Mirella logic in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 497–8 Capreolus, Johannes 122 Card, Claudia rectification and remainders 746–7 Cardano, Girolamo 122 cardinality of the continuum 122; value theory 739 care nursing ethics 638 Carmichael, Gershom 123 Carnap, Rudolf 123–4

confirmation theory 162; propositional attitude statements 719 Carneades 124 Academic scepticism 34 Carolingian renaissance 124 Carroll, David Lyotard, J.-F. 514 Carter, R.E. 497 Cartesian Circle 204 Cartesianism Clauberg, J. 144; Cordemoy, G. de 177; demonstration (Vico, G.) 914–15;





Page 960 Desgabets, R. 205; Fardella, M. 273; La Forge, L. de 448; Le Grand, A. 473; persons 668; Port-Royal 695 Cartwright, Nancy causation 127–8; Neurath, O. 626 Cārvāka causation 128; inference 442 Casati, Roberto dreaming 217 Cassirer, Ernst 124–5 caste duty, Indian concepts of 223; social emancipation (Ambedkar, B.R.) 26 Castellanos, Rosario 281 casuistry 125 Cat, Jordi Neurath, O. 626; unity of science 907 Catalonia Llull, R. 493; Nahmanides, M. 609 categories 125 see also classification Aristotelian 125; concepts 159; Graham, A.C. 125; Kant, I. 125; metaphysics 568; Ryle, G. 125 category theory 126 Catholic Modernism 508 Catto, Jeremy Wyclif, J. 937 causa sui (self-caused) 294 causality 127–8 see also dependent origination; determinism; end cause; mental causation; occasionalism Buddhism 110; four causes (Galen) 304; Islamic philosophy 127; miracles 582; voluntarism 921 Cavell, Stanley 129 Cavendish, Margaret Lucas 129 Celsus of Alexandria 129 certainty 129 see also belief; doubt; scepticism cogito argument (Descartes, R.) 204; divine illumination 96; doubt 216; perception (Nicholas of Autrecourt) 628; propositional 129; religious 754 Certeau, Michel de 130

Cerutti-Guldberg, Horacio liberation philosophy 487; Mexico, philosophy in 571 Chaadaev, Pëtr Iakovlevich 130 Russian Idea 783–4 Chadwick, Henry Boethius, A.M.S. 92; Clement of Alexandria 144 Chalcedon Xenocrates 938 Chalcedon Council 387 Chalcis Iamblichus 372 Chaldaean Oracles 130–1 Chalier, Agnes Wang Chong 924 Champion, J.A.I. Toland, J. 894–5 Chan Buddhism Platform Sutra 677 Chan Wing-tsit self-cultivation 813 chance randomness 738 Chang, Leo S. Chinese Legalist philosophy 478–9; Han Feizi 331 change 131 see also immutability; impermanence;momentariness cognitive development 146; cycle of (Empedocles) 239; metaphysics 569; power 703; time 131 Chanter, Tina Irigaray, L. 405; Kristeva, J. 444 chaos theory 131 Chappell, T.D.J. utilitarianism 909 charity 131–2 Christian love 131 charity, principle of 132 Charleton, Walter 132 Charron, Pierre 132 Chartres, School of 133 Clarembald of Arras 143 Chatton, Walter 133 Wodeham, A. 934 chemistry 133 cheng (integrity or sincerity) 134 Cheng Hao 134 Cheng Yi 134 Cherniak, Christopher rational beliefs 739 Chernyshevskii, Nicolai Gavrilovich 134 Russian Marxism 135 Chevalley, Catherine Helmholtz, H. von 343 child development

child’s theory of mind 575; false beliefs 575–6; infant cognition 145; moral 593; Piaget, J. 675; pretend play 575–6 child’s theory of mind 575 Chillingworth, William 135 China 136–8 aesthetics 11; art 11; Buddhism 108–9; Cheng Hao 134; Cheng Yi 134; Christianity 225; classics 135–6; Confucianism 162–3; Confucius 166; Dai Zhen 189; dao 190; Dong Zhongshu 215; Fazang 274; Han Feizi 331; Han Yu 332; history, philosophy of 355–6; Huainanzi 363; Jia Yi 423; law and ritual 465–6; Legalist philosophy 478–9; Linji 490; logic 495–6; Lu Xiangshan 512;





faith 271; heaven 335; hell 342; hope 362; Incarnation and Christology 386–7; Judaism comparison (Ibn Kammuna) 375; Kabbalism (Pico della Mirandola, G.) 676; liberation theology 487; medieval philosophy relationship 553; natural religion (Paley, W.) 653; Nietzsche, F.W. reconciliation (Merezhkovskii, D.) 631; Philoponus 674; pietism 676–7; political influence of 756; process theism 713–14; purgatory 726; sacraments 790; science 757; sin 831; supererogation 871–2; Trinity 898–9; virtues 883 Christine de Pizan 139–40 Christmas, Simon intensionality 398 Christodoulidis, Emilios A. Dworkin, R. 223 Christology 386–7 see also Incarnation; Jesus Christ orthodox doctrine 386 Chrysippus 140 Stoicism 862 Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals) 136 see also Gongyangzhuan; Guliangzhuan ; Zuozhuan Church, Alonzo 140 see also Church’s theorem Church of England Farrer, A.M. 273 Church’s theorem decision problem 140 Cicero, Marcus Tullius 33 Cilicia Chrysippus 140; Simplicius 831 citizenship 142 see also community; nation; obligation, political; society democratic theory 142; identity 142 civil disobedience 142 definition 142; justification 142 civil law origins of 775; rationalization of (Pothier, R.J.) 702 civil society 142–3 Cixous, Hélène 143 clairvoyance Steiner, R. 861 clandestine literature 143 Clapiers, L. de, Marquis de Vauvenargues 599

Clarembald of Arras 143 Clark, Maudemarie Nietzsche, F.W. 630–1 Clarke, Samuel 143 classification Linnaeus, C. von 491; natural kinds 612; species 855 Clauberg, Johannes 144 Cleanthes 144 Clement of Alexandria 144 Cleomedes 144 closure clauses inductive definitions and proofs 392 Coady, C.A.J. Australia, philosophy in 67; testimony 881; violence 916 Coase’s Theorem economics and law 466 Cocchiarella, Nino B. property theory 718; theory of types 886 Cockburn, Catharine 144–5 codes of practice engineering ethics 241 coercion 145 cogito ergo sum Descartes, R. 204 cognition cognitive architecture 145–6; Gangeśa 305; intuition (Lossky, N.O.) 510; language of thought hypothesis 455; learning 474;





Latin America 460; postcolonialism comparison 699; Renaissance philosophy 763 colour 149 objective 149; scientific-perceptual conflict 150; secondary qualities 810–11; subjective 149–50 combinatory logic 150–1 comedy Epicharmus 244 Comenius, John Amos 151 commentators Bartolist school 76 common law 152 change/continuity paradox 152; as custom 152; history of 775 common nature individuation (Duns Scotus, J.) 220 common sense philosophy ethics 152–3 Common Sense School 152 Aberdeen Philosophical Society 2; Beattie, J. 79; ethics 152; Oswald, J. 650; Stewart, D. 861 commonality, of being (Nancy, J.-L.) 610 commonsensism 153 commonwealth civil philosophy (Hobbes, T.) 357–8; Harrington, J. 333 communalism Feuerbach, L.A. 283; Jewish (Kaplan, M.) 433 communication intention 153; Mead, G.H. 546; and meaning 546; mind-language connection 457; speech acts 855–6 communicative action Habermas, J. 328 communicative rationality 154 Apel, K.-O. 154 communism 154–5 see also Marx, K.; Marxism; socialism; Stalinism religious perspective of 892 communitarianism 155 definition of 155; obligations to future generations 302; political obligation 641 community 155 see also citizenship; communitarianism socialism 844 compatibilism causation (Ayer, A.J.) 72 competence medical ethics 551 complementarity

Bohr, N. 94 complexity computational 155; information-theoretic 156; recursion-theoretic 747 compositionality 156 compound terms Mohism 495 computability theory 157 and information 156; Post, E.L. 698; Turing machines 902 computation human behaviour 902





Yu 332; harmony 227–8; Japanese 163–4; Korean 164; Mencius 563; Mozi 587; Wang Yangming 447; Yang Xiong 941; Zheng Xuan 946 Confucius Five Classics 136; rectifying names 495; Shijing 135–6; Shujing 135 conjunction Ibn Bajja 373; linear logic 490 Conley, Tom Certeau, M. de 130 Conley, Verena Andermatt Cixous, H. 143 connectionism 166 computation 166; computational models of vision 918 conscience 167 consciousness 167–8 see also cognition; experience; mental states; mind; perception; unconscious mental states eliminativism 168; intentionality 671; moral standing 598; mysticism 606; noema (Husserl, E.) 370; panpsychism 654; phenomenology 168; qualia 168 consensus gentium (universal consent) Cudworth, R. 184–5 consent 168–9 government 252 consequence conceptions of 169; multiple-conclusion logic 604 consequentialism 169 act-consequentialism 169; instrumentalism (Dewey, J.) 705; punishment 180–1 conservation principles 169 conservation (religious doctrine of) 180 conservatism 170 consistency constructible universe 171 conspiracy theories Illuminati 383 Constant de Rebecque, Henri-Benjamin 171 Constantinople capture of 763 constants logical 504–5 constitutionalism 171 see also sovereignty utilitarian government (Bentham, J.) 84

constructible universe 171 constructive existence constructivism in mathematics 172 constructivism 171 ethical 172; mathematics 172–3 contemplation Richard of St Victor 771 content externalism 580; indexical 173; informational semantics 817; meaning 579; thought 579–80; wide and narrow 173 context indexical content 173 contextualism epistemological 174; scepticism 174 Conti, Alessandro D. Kilwardby, R. 438 contingency 174 divine freedom (Leibniz, G.W.) 480–1; of history 826; of human nature (Bakhtin, M.) 75 continuants 174–5 continuity common law 152





Way of Seeming (Parmenides) 658 cosmopolitanism Meinecke, F. 561 Cotterrell, Roger social theory and law 843 Cottingham, John impartiality 385 count terms mass terms contrast 534 counterfactual conditionals 178–9 Counter-Reformation Italy 412 coup d’état revolution distinction 770 Cousin, Victor 179 Cousins, L.S. Buddha 105; nirvāṇa 633 covering-law model of explanation 268 Cowie, F. innateness of language 313 Cox, Collett Ābhidharmika Schools of Buddhism 106 Craig, Edward fatalism 274; metaphysics 567–7; monism 589; ontology 645; pluralism 683; private states and language 711–12; realism/antirealism 744; relativism 752; solipsism 849 Craig’s theorem 87–8 Crane, Tim intentionality 399 Crathorn, William 179 Cratylus 180 Creath, Richard Carnap, R. 123–4 creation 180 see also cosmogony; cosmology; emanationism; evolutionary theory; life, origin of deism 198; eschatological cosmology 96; mystical structure (Bonaventure) 95–6; nature relationship (Eriugena, J.S.) 252–3; Plato 679 creatures moral standing 598 Crescas, Hasdai 180 critique of Aristotle 180; Jewish philosophy 421 Crete Delmedigo, E. 199 Cridos Eudoxus 260 crime 180–1 see also punishment civil disobedience 142 Crimmins, Mark language 455–8; semantics 816

Crisp, Roger ethics 256–8; fact/value distinction 270; moral particularism 595; utilitarianism 909; virtue ethics 917 criteria 181 scepticism 181 Critical Legal Studies 181 United States of America 181 critical rationalism Popper, K.R. 694 critical realism 182 Kemp Smith, N. 436 critical reasoning role of imagery (Le Doeuff, M.) 473 critical theory 182 see also Frankfurt School Adorno, T.W. 5; Horkheimer, M. 362





Cyrene Aristippus the Elder 47 Czech Republic 187–8 Reformation 187; Weyr, F. 927 Czechoslovak Republic 534 see also Czech Republic; Slovakia Comenius, J.A. 151; Hus, J. 369; Husserl, E. 369–70; Mazaryk, T.G. 534; Patočka, J. 661; Weinberger, O. 926; Weyr, F. 927 Czerkawski, Jan Poland 685–6 Dabashi, Hamid Mir Damad, Muhammad Baqir 582 Dahlquist, Thorild Hägerström, A.A.T. 329 Daly, Chris natural kinds 612–13 Damascius 189 Damian, Peter 189 damnation reprobation 766 dao (Way) 190 Daoism Confucianism distinction 190; Daodejing 190; East Asian Philosophy 228; language theories 495–6; Zhuangzi 947–8 Darden, Lindley genetics 308 Darwall, S. Price, R. 709 Darwin, Charles Robert 192 see also Darwinism Huxley, T.H. 371; On the Origin of Species 192 Darwinism pragmatism 704 Dasein (being-in-the-world) disclosure 341; entity 340–1; Heidegger, M. 340–1; temporality 340–1 David of Dinant 192 Davidson, Donald 193 anomalous monism 37; rationality and cultural relativism 741 Davie, George Kemp Smith, N. 436 Davis, Michael engineering ethics 241 Davis, Stephen T. eschatology 254 Davis, Wayne A.

implicature 386 al-Dawani, Jalal al-Din 193 Dawson, John W. Jr. Gödel, K. 318–19 Dayanand Saraswati 61 de dicto 194 see also de re modal logic 502 de facto question religious belief 755 de jure question religious belief 755 De Man, Paul 194 de re 194 see also de dicto modal logic 502





demarcation problem scientific-nonscientific 199 Dembski, William A. randomness 738 democracy 199–200 see also constitutionalism; majoritarianism; political representation citizenship 142; journalism ethics 427; Masaryk, T.G. 534; multiculturalism 604; postmodernism 700; rational choice theory 740; social 836 Democritus 33 atomism 200; Leucippus 483 demonstration Cartesianism (Vico, G.) 914–15; Islamic philosophy 496–7; method (Wolff, C.) 935 demonstratives 201 see also indexicals demythologization New Testament 113 Denmark Boethius of Dacia 94; Bohr, N. 94–5; Ross, A. 777 Dennett, Daniel Clement 201 Dent, N.J.H. conscience 167; Rousseau, J.-J. 777 Denyer, Nicholas Diodorus Cronus 211–12; Philo the Dialectician 673 Denys the Carthusian 201–2 deontic logic 202 deontological ethics 202 see also Kantian ethics moral pluralism (Ross, W.D.) 777 dependence Latin American liberation philosophy 487 dependent origination, Buddhist doctrine of 870 Derrida, Jacques 203 post-structuralism 701 Descartes, René 203–5 Arnauld, A. 52; cogito argument 204; dualism 204; Elisabeth of Bohemia 236; introspection 402; mind-body problem 724–5; persons 668; voluntarism 921 descriptions 205 see also definite descriptions; reference knowledge by 439; mental imagery 384 desert 205 see also blame; merit; praise Desgabets, Robert 205 de-Shalit, Avner obligations to future generations 301

desire 205–6 action (Freud, S.) 298; analytic behaviourism (Dennett, D.C.) 201; self-control 812; sexual 824; utilitarianism 909 determinism 206 see also fatalism; free will; indeterminism; predestination Bakhtin, M.M. 75; Edwards, J. 233; environmental 344; freedom 294; nature-nurture debate 309; pessimistic (Voltaire) 921 Detlefsen, Michael Gödel’s theorems 319; Hilbert’s programme and formalism 352 Deutsch, Harry demonstratives and indexicals 201 Deutscher, Max Le Doeuff, M. 473; memory 562–3





Alcinous 21–2; Apuleius 42–3; Calcidius 119; Celsus 129; Damascius 189; Numenius 638; Platonism, Early and Middle 679; Plutarch of Chaeronea 683; Speusippus 856; Xenocrates 938 Dilthey, Wilhelm 211 descriptive psychology 211; hermeneutics 211; worldview 211 Dinnerstein, D. 276 Diodorus Cronus 211–12 Diogenes of Apollonia 212 Diogenes Laertius 212 doxography 35 Diogenes of Oenoanda 212 Epicureanism 212 Diogenes of Sinope 212 Dipert, Randall R. logic machines and diagrams 499; logic, nineteenth century 498 discourse Latin American literature 491 discovery logic of 213 discretion judicial 429 discrimination 214 see also anti-Semitism; race; racism; sexism affirmative action 13; linguistic 490 disputation Japanese Buddhism 111 dissoi logoi (twofold argument) 214 divination Yijing 135 divine authority morality 755 divine election Judaism 88 divine freedom 295–6 Leibniz, G.W. 480–1 divine intervention 760 see also miracles; providence classical Christian theism 713–14; process theism 714 divine law Islamic philosophy 466–7 divine revelation secular learning relationship (Damian, P.) 189 divine truth Llull, R. 493 divisibility arguments against (Zeno of Elea) 945 Dobbs-Weinstein, I. Abravanel, J. 3 docta ignorantia (learned ignorance)

Nicholas of Cusa 628 Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge (Lewis Carroll) 214 Dōgen Kigen 214 dogmatism idealism contrast (Fichte, J.G.) 283 Dolník, Peter Church, A. 140





Plato 851–2; Western (Cixous, H.) 143 Ducasse, Curt John 218 Duff, R.A. crime and punishment 180–1; responsibility 768 Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie 218 crucial experiments 183–4; underdetermination 218–19 Dummett, Michael Anthony Eardley 219 bivalence 404; meaning 458 Dumont, Stephen D. Duns Scotus, J. 219–21 Dunn, R. intention 399 Dunne, John D. Buddhist nominalism 635 Duns Scotus, John 219–21 individuation 220 Duran, Profiat 221 Duran, Simeon ben Tzemach 221 Durandus of St Pourçain 221–2 Durkheim, Émile 222 sociological method 222 duty 222 see also dharma; supererogation deontological ethics 202; Indian conceptions of 223; perfectionism 666; right and good 772; self-respect (Kant, I.) 815 Duval, Edwin M. Rabelais, F. 734 Duxbury, Neil Frank, J. 291; legal realism 477–8 Dvaita Vedānta Madhva 517 Dworkin, Ronald 223 dynamic logics 224 Dyzenhaus, David Ludovic Schmitt, C. 800 East Asian philosophy 225 Easton, Patricia Desgabets, R. 205; Le Grand, A. 473 Eatwell, Roger fascism 273–4 Ebbesen, Sten Averroism 69–70; Boethius of Dacia 94; Brito, R. 102; language, medieval theories of 454–5 Eberhard, Johann August 229 Eckardt, B. von introspection, psychology of 402 ecological philosophy 229 ecology 229–30 see also environmental ethics; green political philosophy

economic efficiency 466 economics 230–1 see also market economy efficiency 230; and ethics 230; general (Bataille, G.) 77; law 466; rational choice theory 739 education equality (Diderot, D.) 209; Marxism, Chinese 530; moral 593; Neoplatonic curriculum 624; rational enlightenment (Comenius, J.A.) 151; social conditioning (Rousseau, J.-J.) 778 educational philosophy 232 history of 231–2 Edwards, D.L. 737 Edwards, Jonathan theological aesthetics 233; theological determinism 233 Edwards, Paul suicide 871





eliminativism 236 see also materialism belief and knowledge 82; colour 149–50; phenomenal consciousness 168 Elior, R. Hasidism 334 Eliot, George 236 Elis Hippias 354; Pyrrho 727 Elisabeth of Bohemia 236 Ellenson, D. Kaplan, M. 433 emanationism divine word (Judah Halevi) 330 Embree, Lester phenomenological movement 670 Emerson, Caryl Mamardashvili, M.K. 521–2 Emerson, R.L. Home, H. 361 Emery, Kent, Jr Denys the Carthusian 201–2; Richard of St Victor 771; Thomas à Kempis 887 Emilsson, Eyjolfur K. Plotinus 683 Emmet, Dorothy processes 714 emotions 237 see also passions; pleasure art 9; love 511; meaning 238; reason relationship 238 emotivism 238 Ayer, A.J. 72; Hägerström, A.A.T. 329; meaning 238; Stevenson, C.L. 861 Empedocles 33 empiricism 239 see also logical empiricism a posteriori 1; analytic-synthetic distinction (Quine, W.V.) critique 732–3; Berkeley, G. 85; critiques of 240; global 240; nativism contrast 611; phenomenalist 240; public 240; Russell, B.A.W. 780–1; stratified form of 239–40; thought experiments 890; voluntarism 921 empiriocriticism Russian 532 emptiness Buddhism 108 Encyclopedists eighteenth century 240; medieval 240–1

end cause medieval metaphysical doctrine 557 Engel, Pascal propositions, sentences and statements 720–1 Engelhardt, H. Tristram, Jr medicine, philosophy of 552 Engels, Friedrich dialectical materialism 208; utopianism 910 engineering ethics 241 see also professional ethics; technology, ethics enjoyment pleasure 682 enlightenment Linji 490; rational (Comenius, J.A.) 151 Enlightenment absolutism 4; educational philosophy 232; social theory 843; suicide 871 Enlightenment, continental 241 Enlightenment, French 22 Enlightenment, German Thomasius, C. 888





Page 970 Enlightenment, Jewish 242 Enlightenment, Russian 242 Enlightenment, Scottish 243 Blair, H. 90; Campbell, G. 121; historical jurisprudence 428; Millar, J. 574 Ensoph (the Infinite) 349 entailment belief and knowledge 82; relevance logic 753 enthusiasm 243 entities being distinction (Heidegger, M.) 340; extensional 398 environmental ethics 243–4 see also ecology; green political philosophy liberalism conflict 690 Epicharmus 244 Epictetus 244 Epicureanism 244 atomism 63; death 245; Diogenes of Oenoanda 212; Epicurus 245; free will 244; god 244; Lucretius 512; Philodemus 673; physics 244 Epicurus 34 see also Epicureanism death 195 epiphenomenalism 245–6 epistemic logic 246 epistemic regress problem 439 epistemic relativism 146 see also cognitive pluralism epistemological contextualism 174 epistemology 246 see also knowledge; normative epistemology; religious epistemology; social epistemology advisory 636; Chinese Marxism 530; empiricism 239; ethics compared 249; Helmholtz effect 343; history of 250; illumination theories 383; Indian 250; information theory 396; internalism-externalism distinction 399; Islamic philosophy 250; justification 430; mathematical 541–2; memory 563; Native American philosophy 611; non-naturalistic 636; probability theory 712–13; realism (Prichard, H.A.) 709; risk assessment 774;

virtue 917 epoché Husserl, E. 370 equality 251–2 property 718; social contract theory (Rousseau, J.-J.) 777–8 equity 429 see also fairness; justice discretion/legality problem 429; legality conflict 429; positive law 429 Er Ya 136 Erasmus, Desiderius 252 Ericsson, K.A. introspection, psychology of 402 Eriugena, Johannes Scottus 252–3 Carolingian renaissance 124; divisions of nature 252–3 Erlangen School 509 Erler, Michael Diogenes of Oenoanda 212; Lucretius 512; Philodemus 673 Ermarth, Elizabeth Deeds postmodernism 699–700 error Indian philosophy 253; measurement theory 550 eschatology 254 see also afterlife; death; immortality; reincarnation; resurrection Russian Idea (Berdiaev, N.A.) 783 esotericism theosophy 886 Esquith, Stephen L. slavery 833 essence common nature (Duns Scotus, J.) 220; eidos ( Wesen ) (Husserl, E.) 370; existence without (Nancy, J.-L.) 610; substance distinction (Locke, J.) 493–4 essence-existence relationship Giles of Rome 315; Godfrey of Fontaines 320; Ibn Sina 378 essentialism 254 eternity 254–5 ether scientific theories 885 ethic of belief Mīmāṃsā 251 ethical constructivism 172 ethical discourse logic of 500 ethical intuitionism 403 pluralism relationship 403; Prichard, H.A. 709; utilitarianism relationship 909 ethical pragmatism 705 ethical universalism 907 logic of ethical discourse 500–1 ethico-aesthetics

Chinese art 11 ethics 256–8 see also agricultural ethics; analytic ethics; economics, and ethics; emotivism; environmental ethics; ethical; good; Kantian ethics; meta-ethics; moral; morality; prescriptivism; right; value pluralism Abelard, P. 2; aesthetics relationship 10; African 255; agricultural 18; animals 37; applied 42; aretē 46; bioethics 89; business 115–16; common-sense 152–3; conceptual scope (Aristotle) 51; consequentialism 169; constructivism 172; deontological 202; Duns Scotus, J. 221; engineering 241; epistemology compared 249;





existentialist theology 266 Evans, Gareth 261 Evans, Mark self-realization 814 events 261–2 action distinction 5; continuants 174–5; processes 714 Everitt, C.W. Francis Maxwell, J.C. 546 evidence legal 476; scientific 805–6 evidentialism religious belief 758; trust 899 evil 262 see also evil, problem of death 195; evolution (Teilhard de Chardin, P.) 878; knowledge relationship (Shestov, L.) 826; Zoroastrianism 948–9 evil, problem of 262 see also theodicy hell 342; Holocaust 360; Manicheism 522; process theism 713–14 evolution ethics 262–3 evolution theory cosmogony (Empedocles) 239; Huxley, T.H. 371 evolutionary positivism Latin America 697 evolutionary theory 263 see also natural selection; sociobiology Buffon, G.L.L. 112; Darwin, C.R. 192; élan vital (Bergson, H.-L.) 85; language development (Monboddo) 589; natural selection (Wallace, A.R.) 924; optimism (Teilhard de Chardin, P.) 878; origins of life 489; philosophy of science 807–8; social science 263–4; species 855 examples in ethics 264 excellence ideals 380 excluded middle, law of the many-valued logics 524 exclusivism doctrinal 762 existence 264–5 see also being; Dasein ; essence-existence relationship; ontological commitment being in common (Nancy, J.-L.) 610; ontology 645 existential phenomenology French philosophy of science 297–8 existentialism 265 Berdiaev, N.A. 85;

Dostoevskii, F.M. 215; ethics 265; Herzen, A.I. 350; Latin America 266–7; Marcel, G. 524; religion (Shestov, L.) 826; Sartre, J.-P. 793; self-realization (Jaspers, K.) 417 existentialist theology 266 phenomenology of religion 672; Tillich, P. 892 experience a posteriori knowledge 1; adverbial theory of mental states 565; bodily sensations 91; empiricism 239; ideas (Locke, J.) 493; numinous (Otto, R.) 650–1; of the Other (Buber, M.) 105 experiments 267 see also verification Boyle, R. 98–9; Bridgman, P.W. 102; crucial 183; in social science 267–8; theory relationship 267; thought experiments 890 expertise moral 593–4 explanation in history and social science 268; scientific 268; social science 268; structural 268–9; teleological 879 explicit definition 197 extension intensional logic 398 extensional entities 398





Biel, G. 89 fascism 273–4 Gentile, G. 309; totalitarianism 896 fatalism 274 Indian 274 fate Stoicism 863 Fazang 274 Fechner, C. Witherspoon, J. 932 federalism 275 Fëdorov, Nikolai Fëdorovich 275 Feenstra, Ronald J. Calvin, J. 119–20; reprobation 766 Feferman, Solomon ordinal logics 647 Feinberg, Joel coercion 145; freedom and liberty 295 Feldman, F. death 195 Feldman, Richard charity, principle of 132; epistemology and ethics 249 Feldman, Seymour Crescas, H. 180; Gersonides 313 feminist jurisprudence 278–9 parity model 278–9; subversionist critique of 279; transformative model 278–9 feminist philosophy 275 see also gender aesthetics 8; écriture feminine (feminine writing) (Cixous, H.) 143; ethics 278; gender politics (Cavendish, M.L.) 129; Latin America 281; literary criticism 279–80; political philosophy 280; psychoanalysis 276; radical 280; science 307; and social science 276; Wollstonecraft, M. 935 feminist theology 280–1 Fénelon, François de Salignac de la Mothe 281–2 Fenton, Paul B. Ibn Ezra, M. 374; Maimonides, A. 519 Fenves, Peter alterity and identity, postmodern theories of 25; Nancy, J.-L. 610 Ferguson, Adam 282 Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas 282 see also Young Hegelians Feyerabend, Paul Karl 283 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 283 Absolute 3;

Wissenschaftslehre (theory of science) 283 Ficino, Marsilio 284 critique by Pico della Mirandola, G. 676 fiction semantics of 284; Socratic dialogues 848 fictional entities aesthetics 9 fictionalism 285 entities 747 field theory quantum 286 filiality Confucius 136 Filmer, Sir Robert 286–7





logic, philosophy 503; proper names 717 forcing method of 288 Ford, John D. Grotius, H. 327; Pufendorf, S. 725; sovereignty 853 forgiveness 288–9 self-respect 289 form logical 289; medieval metaphysical doctrine 557 Form of the Good 322 formal languages 289 dynamic logics 224 formal logic 289 see also mathematical logic application to ordinary speech (Strawson, P.F.) 865; languages 289; Leibniz, G.W. 481; speech relationship (Strawson, P.F.) 865 formalism Hilbert, D. 352; nominalism conflict (Gerson, J.) 312 Forms, Platonic 678 universals 908 Forrest, Peter mereology 565; quantum logic 731 Fort, Andrew O. Śankara 792 Foucault, Michel 290 archaeological method of knowledge 290; genealogy 290 Foucher, Simon 290 foundation, axiom of 822 foundationalism 247 commonsensism 153; definition 430; knowledge by acquaintance/description 440; sense-data 821 Fourier, Charles 910 Four-Seven Debate 165 France Abelard, P. 2; Ailly, P. d’ 19; Alemanno, Y. 22; Alembert, J. le R. d’ 22–3; Althusser, L.P. 25; Anselm of Canterbury 38–9; anti-postmodernism 700; Arnauld, A. 52; Aureol, P. 66; Barthes, R. 76; Bataille, G. 77; Baudrillard, J. 77; Bayle, P. 78; Beauvoir, S. de 80; Bergson, H.L. 85;

Bernard of Clairvaux 87; Bernard of Tours 87; Bernier, F. 87; Blanchot, M. 90–1; Bodin, J. 92; Bourdieu, P. 98; Brito, R. 102; Brunschvicg, L. 104; Buffier, C. 112; Buffon, G.L.L. 112; Buridan, J. 113–14; Cabanis, P.-J. 118; Calvin, J. 119–20; Camus, A. 121; Capreolus, J. 122; Certeau, M. de 130; Charron, P. 132; Cixous, H. 143; Clarembald of Arras 143; Comte, A. 158; Condillac, É.B. de 160; Condorcet, M.J.A.N. 161; Cordemoy, G. de 177; Cousin, V. 179; David of Dinant 192; Deleuze, G. 198–9; Derrida, J. 203; Descartes, R. 203–5; Desgabets, R. 205; Diderot, D. 209; Du Châtelet-Lomont, É. 217; Ducasse, C.J. 218; Duhem, P.M.M. 218; Durandus of St Pourçain 221–2; Durkheim, É. 222; Eriugena, J.S. 252–3; Fénelon, F. 281–2; Fontenelle, B. de 288; Foucault, M. 290; Foucher, S. 290; Francis of Meyronnes 291;





Suchon, G. 869; Teilhard de Chardin, P. 878–9; Thierry of Chartres 887; Tocqueville, A. de 894; Ulrich of Strasbourg 905–6; Villey, M. 916; Vital du Four 918–19; Voltaire 920; Weil, S. 926; William of Auvergne 929–30; William of Auxerre 930; William of Champeaux 930; William of Conches 930 Francis of Meyronnes 291 Franciscan religious order Alexander of Hales 23; Aureol, P. 66; Bacon, R. 74; Bonaventure 95; Brinkley, R. 102; Chatton, W. 133; Duns Scotus, J. 219; Francis of Meyronnes 291; Gerard of Odo 311; Grosseteste, R. 326; Henry of Ghent 345; John of La Rochelle 424; Marston, R. 528; Matthew of Aquasparta 545; medieval natural philosophy 614; Olivi, P.J. 643; Pecham, J. 663; Richard of Middleton 771; Richard Rufus of Cornwall 771; Thomas of York 888; Vital du Four 918; William of Ockham 930; Wodeham, A. 934 Franco, Eli Gautama, A. 306; materialism, Indian school of 536; Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika 638 Frändberg, Åoke legal concepts 475 Frank, Daniel H. Albo, J. 21; Ibn Gabirol, S. 374; political philosophy in classical Islam 692 Frank, Jerome 291 Frank, Semën Liudvigovich 291 Frankfurt School 292 capitalism critique (Marcuse, H.) 525 Franklin, Benjamin 293 Franklin, Julian H. Bodin, J. 92 Franks, Paul German idealism 312; Maimon, S. 518 Frazier, Robert L. duty 222;

intuitionism in ethics 403 Freddoso, Alfred J. Molina, L. de 587–8; Molinism 588 Frederici Vescovini, Graziella Blasius of Parma 91 free logics 293 free rider problem rational choice theory 740 free will 293 see also autonomy; determinism; freedom ‘Abduh, M. 1; compatibilism 294; divine foreknowledge conflict 758; Epicureanism 244; fatalism 274; incompatibilism 294; moral psychology 596; Pelagianism 664; pessimism 294; Renaissance philosophy 765 Freeden, Michael ideology 381–2 freedom 295 see also autonomy; divine freedom; free will; liberty astrological causality (Blasius of Parma) 91; autonomy 295; conditioning dichotomy (Sartre, J.-P.) 794; nature relationship (Kant, I.) 432; optionality 295; paternalism 660; revolution 770; of speech 296; will (Duns Scotus, J.) 221 Freeman, Samuel contractarianism 175–6; Rawls, J. 743–4 freemasonry Illuminati 383 Frege, Gottlob 296 abstract objects 4; predicate calculus 708; proper names 717; reference 748; singular terms 261 Frei, Hans 297 French Antilles Fanon, Frantz 272 French Revolution responses to 691; Tocqueville, A. de 894 Freud, Anna 724 Freud, Sigmund 298 feminist response to 276; political philosophy 691–2; religion and epistemology 755; unconscious mental states 906 Frey, R.G. bioethics 89; Butler, J. 116 Friedman, Michael



Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 Garber, Daniel Clauberg, J. 144; Descartes, R. 203–5; Leibniz, G.W. 480–1; Regius, H. 345 Garrett, Brian personal identity 667; persons 668 Garrigou-Lagrange, Réginald 305 Garson, James W. intensional logics 398 Garver, Eugene rhetoric 770–1 Gaskill, Thomas E. al-‘Amiri 27 Gassendi, Pierre 305 atomism 305–6; Christianized Epicureanism 305–6; civil society 306 Gauḍīya Vaiaiṣṇavism 306 Gaukroger, Stephen Clarke, S. 143; Fludd, R. 287 Gautama, Akṣapāda 306 gay-lesbian studies 279–80 feminist literary criticism 279–80 Geach, Peter T. historical chain theory of reference 717 gender ethics 278; and science 307; social construction of (Wollstonecraft, M.) 935–6 genealogy 307 Foucault, M. 290 Genequand, Charles al-Tawhidi 876 general economy 77 general will 308 see also social choice generalization laws of nature 737 genetics genetic drift 263; Mendelian 308–9; molecular 309; nature-nurture debate 309 Gentile, Giovanni 309–10 totalitarianism 896 Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich 310 Geoghegan, Vincent Bloch, E.S. 91 geology 310 geometry 310–11 arithmetic distinction 536; Hobbes, T. 357; Oresme, N. 648–9; Pascal, B. 659 George of Trebizond 311 George, Alexander

Frege, G. 296 Gerard of Cremona 311 Gerard of Odo 311–12 Gerbert of Aurillac 312 Gerdil, Giancinto Sigismondo 312 German idealism Hegel, G.W.F. (Rosenzweig, F.) 776; influence on Russian philosophy 783 German Romanticism 775 Germany Adorno, T.W. 5; Agrippa von Nettesheim, H.C. 18–19; Albert the Great 20; Albert of Saxony 20; Arendt, H. 46; Barth, K. 76;





Marcuse, H. 525; Marsilius of Inghen 527; Mauthner, F. 545–6; Meinecke, F. 561; Meister Eckhart 561–2; Melanchthon, P. 562; Mendelssohn, M. 563; Nicholas of Cusa 628–9; Nietzsche, F.W. 630–1; Otto, R. 650–1; Planck, M.K.E.L. 677; Pufendorf, S. 725; Radbruch, G. 734–5; Rahner, K. 736; Reichenbach, H. 749; Reinach, A. 751; Romanticism 775; Rosenzweig, F. 776; Ruge, A. 779; Schmitt, C. 800; Steiner, R. 861; Strauss, L. 864; Suso, H. 873; Tauler, J. 876; Tetens, J.N. 882; Thielicke, H. 887; Thomas à Kempis 887; Thomasius, C. 888; Troeltsch, E.P.W. 899; Tschirnhaus, E.W. von 901; Ulrich of Strasbourg 905–6; Voegelin, E. 920; Weber, M. 926; Weyl, H. 927; Wolff, C. 934; Zermelo, E. 945–6 Gerson, Jean 312 Gersonides 313 Jewish philosophy 421 Gestalt psychology 313 Gettier problems 313 defeasibility theory of knowledge 441; epistemology 247–8 Geulincx, Arnold 314 Geuss, Raymond critical theory 182 Ghaffar Khan, Hafiz A. Shah Wali Allah 825 Ghana Akan philosophical psychology 19; Amo, Anton Wilhelm 27 al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid 314 necessity 127; prophecy 718–19; Sufism 314 Gibson, Roger F. radical translation and radical interpretation 735 Gilbert of Poitiers 314–15 Gilbert, Margaret social norms 837 Giles of Rome 315

essence-existence debate 315; natural philosophy 315 Gillon, Brendan S. negative facts in classical Indian philosophy 620 Gilson, Étienne Neo-Thomism 889; Thomism 889 Giovanni, George di Jacobi, F.H. 413 Given, Myth of the 815 Glanvill, Joseph 316 global politics development ethics 206 Glymour, Clark learning 474 gnosis Gnosticism 316 Gnosticism 316 see also mysticism Mir Damad, Muhammad Baqir 582; Voegelin, E. 920 goals teleological 879 God atonement 63; attributes of 758; beauty of 233; concepts of 317–18; creation 180; eternity 255; evil, problem of 262; grace 323; as a human projection 282; human relationship with 323; illumination 96; immutability 385; Incarnation 386–7; as infinite space (More, H.) 601; justification by faith (Luther, M.) 514; monotheistic view of 590; moral authority of 755; perfect goodness 322; possible worlds (Leibniz, G.W.) 480; reprobation 766; union with 558; voluntarism 921 Gödel, Kurt 318–19 see also Gödel’s axiom; Gödel’s theorems constructible universe 171 Gödel’s theorems 319 Hilbert, D. 352; incompleteness 319 Godfrey of Fontaines 319–20 Godfrey-Smith, Peter Fodor, J.A. 287 Godwin, William 320 Goldbach’s conjecture intuitionism 52





Page 977 Goldie, Mark Harrington, J. 333 Goldsmith, M.M. Mandeville, B. 522 Gómez-Martínez, José Luis Latin America literature, philosophy in 491 Gongyangzhuan (Gongyang Annals) 136 good 321 see also consequentialism; eudaimonia ; evil; goodness; hedonism; intuitionism; perfectionism; summum bonum; utilitarianism; virtue ethics egoism 233; medieval conceptions of 558; theories of the 257 Gooding, David thought experiments 890 Goodman, Lenn E. Ibn Paquda 376–7; Jewish philosophy 417; Judah Halevi 330; Maimonides, M. 519; Saadiah Gaon 789 Goodman, Russell B. American philosophy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 26 goodness perfect 322 Goodrich, Peter legal hermeneutics 476; Selden, J. 811 Gopnik, Alison infant cognition 145; Piaget, J. 675 Gordon, William M. Bartolus of Sassoferrato 76 Goré, J.-L. 282 Gorgias 322–3 Sophists 850 Gor’kii, Maksim (Gorky, Maxim) 631 Gosling, J.C.B. hedonism 336 Gottschalk, H.B. Heraclides of Pontus 346 Gouhier, Henri Fénelon, F. 282 Gouinlock, James Dewey, John 207 Gould, Timothy Thoreau, H.D. 889 government absolutism 4; authority (Locke, J.) 494; contractarianism 175; democratic 199; Filmer, R. 286–7; Kau9ilya 435; monarchy (Abravanel, I.) 3; rights (Bentham, J.) 84; Shōtoku Constitution 827 grace 323

justification doctrine 431; Pelagianism 664; personal relationship with God 323 Graeco-Roman culture influence on early Christianity 661–2 Graham, Angus C. categories 125 Graham, Daniel W. Vlastos, G. 920 grammarians Bhartṛhari 88 Gramsci, Antonio 323–4 Marxism 531 gratitude 747 Grattan-Guinness, I. analysis 28 gravity Kepler, J. 436–7 Great Britain Aberdeen Philosophical Society 2; Alexander of Hales 23–4; Alison, A. 25; Anscombe, G.E.M. 38; Anselm of Canterbury 38–9; Astell, M. 62; Austin, J. 66–7; Austin, J.L. 67; Ayer, A.J. 72; Bacon, F. 73; Bacon, R. 74; Beattie, J. 79; Bentham, J. 83–4; Bentley, R. 84; Berlin, I. 86; Blackstone, W. 90; Blair, H. 90; Bold, S. 95; Boyle, R. 98; Brinkley, R. 102; Broad, C.D. 102–3; Brown, T. 103; Bryce, J. 104; Burke, E. 114; Burley, W. 114; Burthogge, R. 115; Butler, J. 116; Cambridge Platonism 120; Campbell, G. 121; Campbell, N.R. 121; Carmichael, G. 123; Cavendish, M.L. 129; Charleton, W. 132; Chatton, W. 133; Chillingworth, W. 135; Clarke, S. 143; Cockburn, C. 144–5; Collier, A. 148; Collingwood, R.G. 148; Collins, A. 148; Conway, A. 176–7;

Crathorn, W. 179; Cudworth, R. 184; Culverwell, N. 186; Cumberland, R. 186; Darwin, C.R. 192; Dicey, A.V. 209; Digby, K. 210; Dodgson, C.L. 214; Dummett, M.A.E. 219; Duns Scotus, J. 219–21; Eliot, G. 236; Evans, G. 261; Farrer, A.M. 273; Ferguson, A. 282; Filmer, R. 286–7; Fludd, R. 287; Gerard, A. 311; Glanvill, J. 316; Godwin, W. 320; Grice, H.P. 325–6; Grosseteste, R. 326; Hare, R.M. 333; Hart, H.L.A. 333; Hartley, D. 333–4; Hayek, F.A. 335; Henry of Harclay 345–6; Herbert, E. 347; Heytesbury, W. 352; Hobbes, T. 357; Holcot, R. 358; Home, H. 361; Hume, D. 366; Hutcheson, F. 370; Huxley, T.H. 371; Inge, W.R. 396–7; Isaac of Stella 405; John of Salisbury 425; Johnson, A.B. 426; Johnson, S. 426; Kemp Smith, N. 436; Keynes, J.M. 437; Kilvington, R. 438; Kilwardby, R. 438; Latitudinarianism 463–4; Law, W. 472; Lewis, C.S. 484–5; Locke, J. 493–4; McTaggart, J.M.E. 517; Major, J. 521; Mandeville, B. 522; Marston, R. 528; Masham, D. 534; Maxwell, J.C. 546; Monboddo, Lord (James Burnett) 589; Moore, G.E. 592; More, H. 601; Neckham, A. 619–20; Newton, I. 627; Norris, J. 637; Oakeshott, M.J. 640;



Aristippus the Elder 47; Ariston of Chios 47; Aristotle 50; Callicles 119; Carneades 121; Celsus of Alexandria 129; Cleomedes 144; Cratylus 180; Delmedigo, E. 199; Democritus 200; Diodorus Cronus 211–12; Diogenes of Apollonia 212; Epictetus 244; Epicurus 245; Eudoxus 260; Galen 304; Heraclitus 346; Hesiod 351; Hippias of Elis 354; Homer 361; Leucippus 483; Melissus 562; Panaetius 653–4; Parmenides of Elea 658; Philo the Dialectician 673; Philo of Larissa 673; Philodemus 673; Plato 677; Plutarch of Chaeronea 683; Prodicus 715; Protagoras 721; Pseudo-Dionysius 722; Pyrrho 727; Pythagoras 728; Socrates 847; Speusippus 856; Thales 883; Theophrastus 884; Thrasymachus 890; Thucydides 890–1; Timon of Philius 893; Xenocrates 938; Xenophanes 938; Xenophon 938–9; Zeno of Elea 944–5 Greek philosophy, ancient 33–6 see also Aristotelianism; Neoplatonism; Platonism Academy 4–5; Aenesidemus 6; Agrippa 18; Alcinous 21–2; Alcmaeon 22; Alexander of Aphrodisias 23; Ammonius 27; analytic interpretation of (Vlastos, G.) 920; Anaxagoras 31–2; Anaxarchus 32; Anaximander 32; Anaximenes 32–3; Antiochus 40;

Antiphon 40; Antisthenes 42; Apuleius 42–3; Arcesilaus 44; archē 45; Archytas 45–6; aretē 46; Aristippus the Elder 47; Ariston of Chios 47; Aristotle 50; Aristotle commentators 51–2; atomism 63; Calcidius 119; Callicles 119; Carneades 124; Celsus 129; Chaldaean Oracles 130–1; Chrysippus 140; Cleanthes 144; Cleomedes 144; Cratylus 180; Cynics 186–7; Cyrenaics 187; Damascius 189; Democritus 200; Dialectical school 208; Diodorus Cronus 211–12; Diogenes of Apollonia 212; Diogenes Laertius 212; Diogenes of Oenoanda 212; Diogenes of Sinope 212; dissoi logoi (twofold argument) 214; doxography 216–17; dualism 851–2; Egyptian influence upon 234; Empedocles 239; Epicharmus 244; Epictetus 244; Epicurus 245; eudaimonia 260; Eudoxus 260; Galen 304; Gorgias 322–3; Hellenistic philosophy 343; Heraclides of Pontus 346; Heraclitus 346; Hermetism 349; Hesiod 351; Hierocles 352; Hippias 354; Hippocratic medicine 354; Homer 361; Hypatia 371; Iamblichus 372; katharsis 435; language 451; Leucippus 483; logic 494–5; logos 508; Lucian 512;

medicine 552; Megarian school 561; Melissus 562; mimēsis 575; Neoplatonism 624; Neo-Pythagoreanism 626; nous 637; Numenius 638; optics 646; Orphism 649; Panaetius 653–4; Parmenides 658; perfect goodness concept 322; Peripatetics 666–7; Philo of Alexandria 672–3; Philo the Dialectician 673; Philo of Larissa 673; Philodemus 673; Philolaus 674; Philoponus 674; physis and nomos debate 675; Plato 677; Plutarch of Chaeronea 683; pneuma (spirit) 684; political 690; Posidonius 696; Presocratics 708; Proclus 714; Prodicus 715; Protagoras 721; psychē (soul) 723; Ptolemy 725; Pyrrho 727; Pyrrhonism 727; Pythagoras 728; Pythagoreanism 728; Sextus Empiricus 823; Simplicius 831; Socrates 847; Socratic dialogues 848; Socratic schools 848; Sophists 850; Speusippus 856; Stoicism 862; Strato 864; Strauss, L. 864; Thales 883; Theophrastus 884; Thrasymachus 890; Thucydides 890–1; Timon 893; Xenocrates 938; Xenophanes 938; Xenophon 938–9; Zeno of Citium 944; Zeno of Elea 944–5 Green, Leslie authority 68; power 703 Green, Mitchell S.

imperative logic 385





Jewish philosophy 422 Haardt, Alexander Shpet, G.G. 827 Habermas, Jürgen 328 communicative action 328; communicative rationality 154; Frankfurt School 292 Häfner, Ralph Jungius, J. 428 Hägerström, Axel Anders Theodor 329 legal realism 477–8 Haight, Roger liberation theology 487 hairgrease, Gothic 92 Haksar, Vinit moral agents 592 halakhah 329 Jewish bioethics 89 Haldane, John Thomism 888 Hale, Robert J. abstract objects 4 Halevi, Judah 330 Jewish philosophy 420 Hall, David L. Chinese philosophy 136–8; dao 190; Daoist philosophy 190–2; de 193–4; qi 729; tian 891; xin (heart-and-mind) 939; xing 939; you-wu 943; zhi 946 Hallen, Barry African aesthetics 10 Halonen, Ilpo epistemic logic 246 Hamann, Johann Georg 330–1 Enlightenment, German 330–1; Sturm und Drang 331 Hamlin, Alan social choice 835 Hammond, Guyton B. Tillich, P. 892 Hampsher-Monk, Iain Burke, E. 114; political philosophy 690 Hampton, Jean practical reasoning 742 Han Feizi 331 language 496 Han Wônjin 331 Hand, Michael game-theoretic semantics 816–17 Hankins, James Ficino, M. 284; Pico della Mirandola, G. 676 Hankinson, R.J.

Aenesidemus 6; Agrippa 18; Galen 304; Hellenistic medical epistemology 342; Hippocratic medicine 354; Pyrrhonism 727; Sextus Empiricus 823 Hanna, Robert conceptual analysis 160 Hansen, Chad logic in China 495–6 Hanson, Norwood Russell 332 Hanson, Russell L. republicanism 767





Hause, Jeffrey Francis of Meyronnes 291; Origen 649 Hausheer, Roger Meinecke, F. 561 Hawthorne Effect 267 Hayek, Friedrich August von 335 Hayes, Richard P. Buddhist philosophy in India 109; Dignāga 210; Indian and Tibetan philosophy 387; potentiality 702; Vasubandhu 913 Hazen, Allen non-constructive rules of inference 635 Headley, John M. Campanella, T. 120–1 Heal, Jane Wittgenstein, L. 933 health nursing ethics 638; risk assessment 773 Heath, Peter Dodgson, C.L. 214 Heath, Stephen Tel Quel school 879 heaven 335 beatific vision 335; Indian concepts of 335 Heck, Richard G. Frege, G. 296 hedonism 336 see also evaluative hedonism; psychological hedonism; reflective hedonism Charleton, W. 132; utilitarianism 909 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich alienation 24; anti-Semitism 41; conservatism 170; Hegelianism 338–9; historicism 355; metaphysics 568 Hegelian idealism Croce, B. 183 Hegelian Marxism post-Stalin (Il’enkov, E.V.) 382 Hegelianism 338–9 see also Hegelian idealism; neo-Hegelianism; Young Hegelians Hegel, G.W.F. 338–9; history, end of (Kojève, A.) 443; Russian 339 Heidegger, Martin 340 Dasein 341; disclosure 341; hermeneutics 348 Heideggerian philosophy of science 341 Heidelberger, Michael Büchner, L. 105; Naturphilosophie 618 Heine, Steve Kumazawa Banzan 447 Heisenberg, Werner 342

Heisig, James W. Kyoto School 447; Miki Kiyoshi 572–3; Nichiren 628 hell 342 Hellenistic philosophy 343 see also Epicureanism; Stoicism characteristics of 34; Egyptian influence on 234; medical epistemology 342; Stoicism 862; Themistius 883 Helmholtz, Hermann von 343 epistemology 343 Helmont, Franciscus Mercurius van 343 help 344





Luther, M. 513–14 Hilbert, David computability theory 157; Gödel’s theorems 319 Hilbert, David R. colour, theories of 150 Hilbert’s programme 352 proof theory 716 Hildegard of Bingen 353 natural philosophy 613 Hill, R. Kevin genealogy 307 Hill, Thomas E., Jr respect for persons 767–8 Himi Kiyoshi Nishi Amane 634; Tanabe Hajime 875 Hindu philosophy 353 see also Advaita Vedānta; Brahmanism; Cārv āka; Dharmaśāstras; Mīmāṃsā; Neo-Hinduism; Nyāya; Śaivism; Sānkhya; Vaiśeṣika; Veda; Vedānta; Yoga Arya Samaj movement 61; Brahmo Samaj movement 100; cosmology and cosmogony 178; critiques of (Ambedkar, B.R.) 26; duty 223; Indian and Tibetan 387–8; Madhva 517; Ramakrishna Movement 736; reincarnation 751; renunciation 223; Śankara 792 Hintikka, Jaakko confirmation theory 162; quantifiers 729–30 Hippias 354 Hippocratic medicine 354 historical chain theory 717 historical jurisprudence 428 historical materialism Chinese Marxism 530; Marxism 844 historicism 355 absolute (Croce, B.) 183; metaphysics (Collingwood, R.G.) 148 history Chinese philosophy of 355–6; explanation in 268; vital reason relationship (Ortega y Gasset, J.) 650 history, philosophy of 356 see also historicism al-Afghani 13; eschatology 254; holism 359; Ibn Khaldun 375; individualism 359; methodology 356; Russian Hegelianism 783–4; Russian-Western contrast (Chaadaev, P.I.) 130 Hobbes, Thomas 357 conservatism 170;

contractarianism 175; ethics 357–8; first philosophy 357–8; geometry 357; rational choice theory 739; religious authority 756 Hobbs, Angela Antiphon 40; Callicles 119; physis and nomos debate 675; Thrasymachus 890 Hodes, Harold recursion-theoretic hierarchies 747; Turing reducibility and Turing degrees 903 Hodges, Wilfrid model theory 585 Hoffman, Frank J. Gandhi, M.K. 304





Howard, Don Duhem, P.M.M. 218; Einstein, A. 234–5; Le Roy, É.L.E.J. 474; Planck, M.K.E.L. 677 Howell, Robert fiction, semantics of 284 Howells, Christina Sartre, J.-P. 793–4 Hoyningen-Huene, Paul Kuhn, T.S. 446 Hrušovský, Igor 834 Huainanzi 363 Huayan (Flower Garland) Buddhism Fazang 274; Zongmi 948 Huby, Pamela M. Theophrastus 884 Huet, Pierre-Daniel 363 Hugh of St Victor 363–4 Hughes, Gerard J. prudence 722 Hughes, John A. experiments in social science 267–8 Hui Shi 495–6 Huineng Platform Sutra 677 Hull, David L. taxonomy 876 Hull, Monte mujō 603 Hulliung, M. Helvétius, C.-A. 344; Montesquieu, C.L. 591 human condition theology (Pascal, B.) 659 human nature 364 see also Dasein ; humanity; nature-nurture debate cultural identity 185; Cynics 186; evil 262; harmonious development (Comenius, J.A.) 151; ‘I-Thou’ mode (Buber, M.) 105; moralistes 598; psychological egoism 233; respect for persons (Kant, I.) 767; self-preservation (Spinoza, B. de) 857–8; self-realization 814; system of parts (Butler, J.) 116; unfinalizability (Bakhtin, M.M.) 75 human relationships East Asian Philosophy 227 humanism 365 see also anti-humanism Chinese Marxism 530; Masaryk, T.G. 534; pragmatic 365; Renaissance 365–6 humanity end of history (Kojève, A.) 443 Humberstone, Lloyd

many-valued logics 523 Hume, David 366 see also Hume’s law bundle theory of mind 575; causation 127; introspection 402; meaning and verification 548; morality 367; reason 366; science of man 364 Hume’s law logic of ethical discourse 500 Hundred Schools 137 Hungary 368–9 Lakatos, I. 449–50; Lukács, G. 512; Neumann, J. von 626; Polanyi, M. 686





Siger of Brabant 828 Ibn Sab‘in, Muhammad Ibn‘Abd al-Haqq 377–8 Ibn Sina, Abu‘Ali al-Husayn 378 common nature 220; epistemology 250; Ibn Kammuna 420; medieval philosophy 555; necessary being 619 Ibn Tufayl, Abu Bakr Muhammad 379 Ibn Tzaddik, Joseph ben Jacob 379 ideal language philosophy 704 ideal realism Lossky, N.O. 510 idealism 379 see also actualism; German idealism; Hegelian idealism; immaterialism; legal idealism; personalism Berkeley, G. 85–6; Burthogge, R. 115; McTaggart, J.M.E. 517; materialism contrast 682 idealizations 380 ideals 380 substantive/deliberative distinction 380 ideas archetypes 426; experience (Locke, J.) 493; Hume, D. 367 identity cultural 185; logical 381 identity theory of mind 576–7 identity thesis belief and knowledge 82 identity thinking negative dialectics (Adorno, T.W.) 5 ideology 381–2 totalitarianism 46 ìgbàgbó Yoruba epistemology 942 Iida, Shotaro Wônch’ūk 936 Ikhwan Al-Safa’ (Brethren of Purity) 382 Il’enkov, Eval’d Vasil’evich 382 Il’in, Ivan Aleksandrovich 382 illegality revolution 770 illness mental 564–5 Illuminati 383 illumination 383 epistemological 383; Neoplatonism 383 illuminationism 383 Bonaventure 96; Duns Scotus, J. 220 Illuminationist philosophy, Islamic 383–4 illusion Indian concepts of 253; sensory 665–6 ‘ilm al-kalam 411 imagery mental 384

imagination 384 Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome 384–5 immaterialism Berkeley, G. 85–6; Collier, A. 148 immortality desire for (Unamuno y Jugo, M. De) 906; infinity 394; Renaissance Aristotelianism (Pomponazzi, P.) 693 immutability 385 see also change impartiality 385





Mahāvīra 518; Nāgārjuna 608; Patañjali 660; Radhakrishnan, S. 735; Ramakrishna Movement 736; Rāmānuja 737; Śankara 792; Shah Wali Allah 825; Tagore, R. 875; Udayana 905; Uddyotakara 905; Vallabhācārya 912; Vasubandhu 913; Vātsyāyana 913 Indian philosophy 387 see also Tibetan philosophy Ābhidharmika Schools of Buddhism 106; awareness 70; Brahman 100; causation 128; cosmology and cosmogony 178; definition 197; duty and virtue 223; emptiness, Buddhist concept of 108; epistemology 250; error and illusion 253; fatalism 274; Gauḍīya Vaiaiiavism 306; inference 393; interpretation 401; Jainism 413; karma and rebirth 434; knowledge 441; language 453; Mādhyamika School of Buddhism 106; manifoldness, Jaina theory of 523; materialism 536; matter 544; meaning 549; Mīmāṃsā 574; mind 577; momentariness 588; monism 589; nirvāna 633; Nyāya-VaiŚeṣika 638; ontology 645; political 692; potentiality 702; Sānnkhya 792; testimony 882; Vedānta 913; Yogācāra School of Buddhism 107 indicative conditionals 391 indigenous peoples Latin America 463 indignation moral blame 600 indirect discourse 391 individualism in history and social science 359–60;

holism debate 359; methodological 580; methodological (MI) 570–1; Russian communalism (Mikhailovskii, N.K.) 572 individuals particulars 658 individuation continuous consciousness (Locke, J.) 493–4; Duns Scotus, J. 220 induction 391 see also inductive inference eliminative (Bacon, F.) 73; mathematical 52; problem of (Hume, D.) 367 inductive definitions and proofs 392 inductive inference 392–3 see also inference natural theology 615; structures of 392 industry capitalism 844 infallibility introspection 402 infant cognition 145 see also child development; developmental psychology inference causal (Hume, D.) 367; deductive closure principle 196; Indian theories of 393; instantial terms 729; Jainism 413; legal evidence 476; multiple-conclusion logic 604; naturalized philosophy of science 617; non-constructive rules of 635; non-monotonic 636; to the best explanation 394 infinitary logic 394 infinite being Duns Scotus, J. 220 infinite numbers 638 infinitesimals 638 nonstandard analysis 27 infinity 394–5 see also finitude and continuity (Henry of Harclay) 345–6 informal logic 289





legal hermeneutics 476; legal reasoning 478; radical 735 intersubstitutability 391 indirect discourse 391 introspection consciousness 167; epistemology of 401–2; Maine de Biran, P.-F. 520; phenomenal consciousness 168 intuition Bergson, H.-L. 85; justification relationship 403 intuitionism antirealism 403–4; ethical 403; logic 403–4; mathematics 402; meaning (Dummett, M.A.E.) 548 intuitivism cognition (Lossky, N.O.) 510 invention subversion (Certeau, M. de) 130 inverted spectrum argument 149 Inwood, Brad Epictetus 244; Hierocles 352; Marcus Aurelius 524–5; Musonius Rufus 605; Seneca, L.A. 819 Inwood, Michael Hartmann, N. 334; hermeneutics 348 Iqbal, Muhammad 404–5 Self 404 Iran al-‘Amiri 27; al-Dawani 193; Ibn Miskawayh 376; al-Juwayni 431; Mir Damad, Muhammad Baqir 582; Mulla Sadra 603; al-Razi, Abu Bakr 744; al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din 744; al-Sabzawari 790; al-Sijistani 829–30; al-Suhrawardi 870–1; al-Tawhidi 876; al-Tusi 903 Iraq al-Baghdadi 74; al-Ghazali 314; Ibn ‘Adi 372; Ibn Kammuna 375; Ibn ar-Rawandi 377; al-Kindi 438–9; al-Sijistani 829–30 Ireland Berkeley, G. 85; Boyle, R. 98;

Browne, P. 103; Burke, E. 114; Eriugena, J.S. 252–3; Hutcheson, F. 370; Richard of St Victor 771; Toland, J. 894–5 Irigaray, Luce 405 psychoanalytic feminism 276 irrationals thermodynamics (Meyerson, É.) 571 Irwin, Terence H. Aristotle 50 Isaac of Stella 405 Isfahan, School of 582 Islam Christianity comparison (Ibn Kammuna) 375; creation 127; fundamentalism 406; Judaism comparison (Ibn Kammuna) 375; mysticism 605–6; philosophy relationship 411; political philosophy in 692; resurrection 769; science 802; sin 831; theology 411 Islamic philosophy 406–1 ‘Abduh, M. 1; aesthetics 11; al-Afghani 13; al-‘Amiri 27; Ash‘ariyya 61–2; causality 127; al-Dawani 193; early history 406–7;





Archytas 45–6; Bartolus of Sassoferrato 76; Blasius of Parma 91; Bobbio, N. 91; Boethius, A.M.S. 92; Bonaventure 95–6; Bruno, G. 104; Cajetan 118–19; Campanella, T. 120–1; Cardano, G. 122; Cicero, M.T. 141; Counter-Reformation 412; Croce, B. 183; Damian, P. 189; Delmedigo, E. 199; Empedocles 239; Fardella, M. 273; Ficino, M. 284; Galilei, G. 304; Gentile, G. 309–10; George of Trebizond 311; Gerard of Cremona 311; Gerdil, G.S. 312; Giles of Rome 315; Gorgias 322–3; Gramsci, A. 323–4; Gregory of Rimini 325; Herrera, A. Cohen de 349; Hillel ben Samuel of Verona 353; Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome 384–5; James of Viterbo 414; Joachim of Fiore 424; Judah ben Moses of Rome 427; Machiavelli, N. 516; Marcus Aurelius 524–5; Marius Victorinus 526; Marsilius of Padua 527; Matthew of Aquasparta 545; Messer Leon 566; Musonius Rufus 605; Nifo, A. 632; Parmenides 658; Patrizi, F. 662; Paul of Venice 662–3; Peter Lombard 509; Petrarca, F. 669; Philolaus 674; Pico della Mirandola, G. 676; Pomponazzi, P. 693; Silvestri, F. 830; Telesio, B. 879–80; Tertullian, Quintus Septimus Florens 881; Valla, L. 911; Vernia, N. 914; Vico, G. 914; Zabarella, J. 944 iterative conception set theory 823 I-Thou relationship Buber, M. 105

Itō Jinsai 412 Ivanhoe, Philip J. cheng 134; Chinese philosophy of history 355–6; li 485; Mohist philosophy 586–7; neo-Confucianism 621–2; ti/yong 891; xin 939 Jackson, Frank Armstrong, D.M. 52; belief 82; identity theory of mind 576–7; indicative conditionals 391; mind, philosophy of 577–8; Passmore, J.A. 660; Smart, J.J.C. 834 Jacob, Margaret C. Illuminati 383 Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich 413 Jacobi, Klaus Gilbert of Poitiers 314–15 Jaina philosophy 413 cosmology 178; Indian and Tibetan 387–8; Mahāvīra 518; manifoldness 523; reincarnation 751; renunciation 223; salvation 791 James of Viterbo 414 James, Susan feminism 275 James, William instrumentalism 900 Jamieson, D. animal language and thought 37 Japan 415 aesthetics 12–13; Buddhist philosophy 110; bushi philosophy 115; Confucian philosophy 163–4; Dōgen 214; Fujiwara Seika 299; Itō Jinsai 412; Kaibara Ekken 432; kokoro 443; Kūkai 446; Kuki Shūzō 446; Kumazawa Banzan 447; Kyoto School 447; logic 497; Miki Kiyoshi 572–3; modern literature 492; Motoori Norinaga 603; Nichiren 628; Nishi Amane 634; Nishida Kitarō 634;

Nishitani Keiji 634; Ogyū Sorai 642; Shinran 826; Shintō 826; Shōtoku Constitution 827; Tanabe Hajime 875; Tominaga Nakamoto 896; Watsuji Tetsurō 925; Zeami 944 Jarka-Sellers, Hannes Liber de causis 485–6; Pseudo-Dionysius 722 Jarvie, I.C. Popper, K.R. 693 Jaspers, Karl 417 Jefferson, Thomas 417





Maimonides, M. 519; Mendelssohn, M. 563; Messer Leon 566; midrash 572; al-Muqammas, D. 604; Nahmanides, M. 609; Philo of Alexandria 672–3; pneuma (spirit) 684; Rosenzweig, F. 776; Saadiah Gaon 789; Shem Tov family 825; Soloveitchik, J.B. 849; strengths 419; voluntarism 921; weaknesses 418–19; Zionism 948 Jhering, Rudolf von 423 Jia Yi 423 jian’ai (impartial care) 587 Joas, Hans Mead, G.H. 546 John of Damascus 424 John of Jandun 424 John of Mirecourt 425 John of Paris 425 John of St Thomas 425–6 John of Salisbury 425 John XXII, Pope 931 Johnson, Alexander Bryan 426 Johnson, P.F. Alembert, J. le R. d’ 22–3; Condillac, É.B. de 160 Johnson, Samuel 426–7 Johnson, Dr Samuel 426 Johnston, Mark D. Llull, R. 493 joint action social action 835 Jones, Karen trust 899 Jones, Peter freedom of speech 296 Jones, Roger optics 646 Jones, W. Gareth Russian Enlightenment 242 Joravsky, David Bogdanov, A.A. 94; partiinost’ 659; Russian empiriocriticism 781; Vygotskii, L.S. 922 Jordan, Mark D. Augustinianism 65; Gerard of Cremona 311; Hugh of St Victor 363–4; John of La Rochelle 424–5; John of Paris 425; John of Salisbury 425; Neckham, A. 619–20; Pseudo-Grosseteste 723

Jori, Mario legal positivism 477 Jospe, Raphael Ibn Ezra, A. 373; Ibn Falaquera 374 journalism ethics of 427 Jubien, Michael Kripke, S.A. 444 Judaeo-Christian thought Philo of Alexandria 672 Judah ben Moses of Rome 421 Judaism anti-Semitism 41; family (Rozanov, V.V.) 779; Hasidism 334; Hebrew Bible 88–9; Islam comparison (Ibn Kammuna) 375; Kabbalah 432; Karaism 433; mysticism 432; philosophy relationship 418; pietism (Ibn Paquda) 376; pluralism 762; Rabbinic theology 884; resurrection 769; revelation 769; sin 831; state relationship (Leibowitz, Y.) 481 judgment common-sense philosophy (Reid, T.) 750; empirical knowledge (Lewis, C.I.) 484; mathematical (Kant, I.) 537 Jung, Carl Gustav 427 Jungius, Joachim 428 jurisprudence feminist 278–9; historical 428; liberal 279; Roman law/civilian tradition 774; sociological (Pound, R.) 703 justice 428–9 see also fairness; injustice; law; mercy conventionalism 428–9; corrective 428; crime and punishment 180; distributive 428; divine (Ash‘ariyya/Mu‘tazila) 61; equity and law 429; as fairness 429; Rawls, J. 743; as implicit concept in law (Villey, M.) 916;





fatalism 274; Indian conceptions of 434 Karma bKa’-brgyud (Kagyü) School of Buddhism 571 Karp, Ivan ethnophilosophy, African 259–60 Kasulis, Thomas P. Dōgen 214; fa 270; Japanese philosophy 415; Kūkai 446; Motoori Norinaga 603; Sengzhao 819 katharsis (purgation) 435 Katz, Steven T. Holocaust 360 Kaunda, Kenneth 15 Kauṭilya 388 Arthaśāstra 435; political philosophy 692 Kautsky, Karl Johann 435 Kawamura, Leslie S. Mādhyamika Buddhism in India and Tibet 106 Keat, Russell socialism 844–5 Keckermann, Bartholomew 436 Keefer, Michael H. Agrippa von Nettesheim, H.C. 18–19 Keil, F.C. cognitive development 146 Kekes, John evil 262 Kellert, Stephen H. chaos theory 131 Kellner, Menahem Duran, P. 221; Duran, S. 221 Kelly, Aileen Bakunin, M.A. 75; Herzen, A.I. 350; Russian philosophy 782–6; Signposts movement 829 Kelsen, Hans 436 Kemal, Salim Ibn Sina 378 Kemp Smith, Norman 436 Kennedy-Day, Kiki Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy 48; al-Kindi 438–9 Kenney, John Peter Marius Victorinus 526; patristic philosophy 661; Tertullian, Q.S.F. 881 Kenny, Anthony private language argument 711 Kent, Bonnie Bonaventure 95–6; Gerard of Odo 311–12 Kepler, Johannes 436 kerygma 113 Kessler, Eckhard

Cardano, G. 122; Telesio, B. 879–80; Zabarella, J. 944 Kettler, David Ferguson, A. 282 Keynes, John Maynard 437 Khin Zaw, Susan Wollstonecraft, M. 935–6 al-Khumayni, Imam Ruhollah 406 Kilvington, Richard 438 Kilwardby, Robert 438 Kim, Jaegwon reduction, problems of 747 Kincaid, Harold positivism in the social sciences 696 al-Kindi, Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub ibn Ishaq 438–9 ethics 259; Neoplatonism 625 kinds natural 612–13 King, Jeffrey C. quantifiers and inference 729 Kingdom, Elizabeth F. feminist jurisprudence 278–9





Page 989 Kinsey, Richard Renner, K. 765 Kirwan, Christopher Manicheism 522–3; Pelagianism 664 Kitcher, Philip mathematics 543 Klein, Martha praise and blame 705 Klein, Melanie 724 Klein, Peter D. certainty 129; epistemology 246 Kline, George L. Leont’ev, K.N. 482; Losev, A.F. 510 knowability paradox 656 knowledge 440–1 see also belief; epistemology; gnōsis ; justification, epistemic; moral knowledge; religious knowledge a posteriori 1; a priori 1; by acquaintance/description 439; adequate (Spinoza, B. de) 857; anti-scepticism (Saadiah Gaon) 789; archaeology of (Foucault, M.) 290; belief relationship 82; causal theory of 440; deductive closure principle 196; defeasibility theory of 441; evil relationship (Shestov, L.) 826; faculties (Ibn Sina) 378; genealogies (Foucault, M.) 290; geometrical method (Spinoza, B. de) 857; idealism (Burthogge, R.) 115; Indian philosophy 250; infant cognition 145; innateness of 397; intuitive 741; memory 562; misperception 665; naturalistic account 396; naturalized philosophy of science 617; observation sentences (Quine, W.V.) 732–3; perceptual 665; sociology 846; tacit 442; testimony 881; Tibetan philosophy 388; zhi 946 Knutzen, Martin 442–3 kogaku (Ancient Learning) Itō Jinsai 412; Ogyū Sorai 642 Kohlberg, Lawrence moral stage theory 593 Kojève, Alexandre 443 kokoro (‘heart’) 443

kokugaku (Native Studies School) Motoori Norinaga 603; Ogyū Sorai 642 König, Julius 175 Korea Buddhist philosophy 111–12; Chinul 138; Chông Yagyong 139; Confucianism 164; Han Wônjin 331; sirhak movement 832; Sôsan Hyujông 850; Tonghak 896; Ûisang 905; Wônch’ūk 936; Wônhyo 936; Yi Hwang 941; Yi Kan 941; Yi Yulgok 941 Kornblith, Hilary introspection 401–2 Korsgaard, Christine M. good, theories of the 321; teleological ethics 879 Kosso, Peter observation 641 Kotarbiński, Tadeusz 443 Koyré, Alexandre 443 Krabbe, Erik C.W. dialogical logic 209 Kramer, Matthew H. Holmes, O.W. 360 Kraut, Richard egoism and altruism 233–4 Kremer, E.J. 53 Kremer-Marietti, Angèle Comte, A. 158 Kretzmann, Norman Aquinas, T. 43; eternity 254–5; Kilvington, R. 438 Kripke, Saul Aaron 444 modal logic 501; private language argument 711; proper names 717; semantic paradoxes and theories of truth 815–16 Kristeva, Julia 444 Krochmal, Nachman 445 Jewish philosophy 422 Kroes, Peter technology, philosophy of 878 Kropotkin, Pëtr Alekseevich 445–6 Krygier, Martin common law/custom 152 Kuflik, Arthur moral standing 598 Kuhn, Steven T. modal logic 583–4 Kuhn, Thomas Samuel 446 incommensurability 387

Kuipers, Theo A.F. confirmation theory 162 Kukathas, Chandran Hayek, F.A. 335; Rand, A. 738 Kuki Shōzū 446 Kuklick, Bruce Paine, T. 653 Kumar, Shikha Arya Samaj 61; Brahmo Samaj 100–1 Kumazawa Banzan 447 Kvanvig, Jonathan L. epistemic paradoxes 656 Kymlicka, Will citizenship 142; political philosophy 690 Kyo Buddhism 138 Kyoto School 447 East Asian Philosophy 228; Miki Kiyoshi 572; Nishitani Keiji 634; Tanabe Hajime 875; Watsuji Tetsurō 925 La Bruyère, Jean de 599 La Forge, Louis de 448 La Mettrie, Julien Offroy de 448 La Torre, Massimo Fuller, L.L. 299–300; Radbruch, G. 734–5





Page 990 labour alienated 24; property 717–18; unalienated 936 Lacan, Jacques 448–9 Lacey, A.R. Bergson, H.-L. 85 Lachs, John Santayana, G. 793 Lacoue-Labarthe, Philippe 449 LaFargue, Michael Daodejing 190 Laine, Joy Udayana 905; Uddyotakara 905; Vātsyāyana 913 Lakatos, Imre 449–50 lambda calculus 450 Lambert, Johann Heinrich 450 Langermann, Y. Tzvi al-Baghdadi 74; Ibn Kammuna 375 language 455–8 see also communication; discourse; grammar; grammarians; ideal language philosophy; language of thought; legal discourse; linguistics; moral language; ordinary language philosophy; private language argument; reference; semantics; sense; utterances agreement ( Verständigung) 154; ancient philosophy of 451; animal 37; anthropology (Monboddo) 589; author relationship (Barthes, R.) 76; Buddhist nominalism 635; Chinese philosophy 495–6; compositionality 156; consumer culture (Baudrillard, J.) 77; conventionality of 452–3; conversational implicature (Grice, H.P.) 325–6; criteria 181; deflationary theories of truth 900; discrimination 490; fine distinctions in (Prodicus) 715; Frege, G. 296–7; gender 451–2; Indian theories of 453; innateness of 313; intention 153; knowledge relationship (Condillac, É.B. de) 161; logic and 502–3; logical analysis of 4; logical atomism (Wittgenstein, L.) 933; medieval theories of 454–5; Moscow-Tartu school 602; noematic meaning (Husserl, E.) 369; ontology of 4; pragmatics 703; private states 711–12; proper names 717;

Renaissance philosophy of 459; rhetoric 194; Sanskrit 389–90; self-presence (Derrida, J.) 203; semiotic-symbolic dialectic (Kristeva, J.) 445; social nature of 459; Tibetan 390; universal 907; use/mention distinction 909 language games Wittgenstein, L. 933; Wittgensteinian ethics 934 language of thought 455 Fodor, J.A. 287 la langue 794 Larmore, Charles E. Bayle, P. 78; right and good 772 Lashley, K. 906 Lasker, Daniel J. Israeli, I. 411 Lassalle, Ferdinand 459 Latin Renaissance logic 503 Latin America analytical philosophy 29–30; anti-positivist thought 40–1; colonial philosophy 460; existentialism 266–7; feminist philosophy 281; liberation philosophy 487; liberation theology 487; marginality 525; Marxism 533–4; phenomenology 671–2; philosophy in 460; positivism 697; pre-Columbian and indigenous thought 463 Latitudinarianism 463–4 see also Cambridge Platonism Laudan, Larry underdetermination 906 Lavine, Shaughan second- and higher-order logics 810 Lavrov, Pëtr Lavrovich 464 Law, William 472 law Chinese philosophy 465–6; civil disobedience 142; crime and punishment 180–1; as discourse 475; economic approach to 466; equity 429; historical theory of (Vico, G.) 915; as independent imperatives (Olivecrona, K.) 642; Islamic 466; justice 429; limits of 467; as male bias 278–9; morality 464;

postmodernism 844; and religion (Hooker, R.) 362; Roman 774; social theory 843; social utility (Jhering, R. von) 423 law of excluded middle (LEM) intuitionistic logic 403–4; many-valued logics 524 laws of logic 505; social 836–7 Laymon, Ronald idealizations 380 Laywine, A. Knutzen, M. 442–3; Swedenborg, E. 873 Lazaroff, A. Jewish voluntarism 921 Le Clerc, Jean 473 Le Doeuff, Michèle 473 Suchon, G. 869 Le Grand, Antoine 473 Le Poidevin, Robin change 131; continuants 174–5 Le Roy, Édouard Louis Emmanuel Julien 474 Leaman, Oliver Abravanel, I. 3; al-Afghani 13; anti-Semitism 41; Duran, P. 221; Ibn Hazm 374–5; Ibn Khaldun 375;





democratic-socialist (Renner, K.) 765 Legalist philosophy Chinese 478–9 legality equity 429 legitimacy 479–80 see also authority lei 11 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 480–1 individual essences 658; natural philosophy 480; necessary being 619; philosophical optimism 480; psychophysical parallelism 725 Leibniz’s Law 381 propositional attitude statements 719 Leibowitz, Yeshayahu 481 Jewish philosophy 422 Lenin, Vladimir Il’ich 482 see also Marxism-Leninism dialectical materialism 208 Lennon, Thomas M. Bernier, F. 87; Régis, P.-S. 749 Leont’ev, Konstantin Nikolaevich 482 Leopold, David Cousin, V. 179 LePore, Ernest Searle, J. 809–10 Lesbos Theophrastus 884 Lesher, J.H. Xenophanes 938 Leslie, A.M. child’s theory of mind 575 Leśniewski, Stanisøaw 482 Leucippus 483 Levi, Isaac Nagel, E. 608 Levin, J. qualia 729 Levinas, Emmanuel 483–4 Levine, Joseph colour and qualia 149 Levinson, H.S. Jewish philosophy, contemporary 422 Lévi-Strauss, Claude 484 postmodernism 699 Levy, Z. Baumgardt, D. 78; Ha’am, Ahad 328; Zionism 948 Lewis, Clarence Irving 484 Lewis, Clive Staples 484–5 Lewis, David Kellogg 485 li (pattern or principle) 485 see also i; ri li zhi (ritual) 465–6 liar paradox 656 Liber de causis 485–6

Libera, Alain de Albert the Great 20; William of Sherwood 932 Liberal Protestantism Unamuno y Jugo, M. De 906 liberalism 486 see also individualism Hayek, F.A. 335; metapolitical (Croce, B.) 183; moral judgment 464; political philosophy 689–90; religion 756–7; Russian 486; toleration 895





philosophy assimilation (Man, P. de) 194; scriptor (Barthes, R.) 76; Socratic dialogues 848; Tel Quel school 879 Lithuania Levinas, E. 483–4; Maimon, S. 518 Lloyd, Elisabeth A. evolution, theory of 263; models 585 Llull, Ramon 493 Locke, John 493–4 Bold, S. 95; Condillac, É.B. de 160–1; contractarianism 175; educational philosophy 231–2; faith 271; ideas 493; Molyneux problem 588; personal identity 493; Toland, J. 894 Loewer, Barry mental causation 564; probability theory and epistemology 712–13; supervenience of the mental 872 logic 503 see also Boolean algebra; combinatory logic; dialectic; first-order logic; formal logic; fuzzy logic; imperative logic; logicism; many-valued logics; mathematical logic; modal logic; predicate calculus; predicate logic; second-order logic; temporal logic; tense logic Abelard, P. 2; ancient 494–5; Aristotelian 494; China 495–6; deontic 202; dialogical 209; of discovery 213; eighteenth century 497–8; epistemic 246; of ethical discourse 500; is-ought question 500; universalism 500–1; free 293; higher- order 810; infinitary 394; informal 289; intuitionistic 403–4; Jainism 413–14; Japanese philosophy 497; laws of 505; linear 490; medieval 499–500; multiple conclusion 604; multiple-conclusion 604; naturalized epistemology (Quine, W.V.) 733; nineteenth century 498; non-monotonic 636; paraconsistent 655; Paul of Venice 662–3; pragmatic a priori (Lewis, C.I.) 484; provability 721;

quantum 731; reism (Kotarbiński, T.) 443; relevance 753; Renaissance 503–4; seventeenth century 497–8; tense 710; twentieth century, early 498 logic machines 499 logic of systems Comte, A. 158 logical atomism 504 logical consequence logical constants 504 logical constants 504–5 logical truth 504 logical empiricism chemistry 133; postmodernism (Hempel, C.G.) 344–5; Reichenbach, H. 749 logical form 505 logical positivism 505 see also logical empiricism; Vienna Circle Ayer, A.J. 72; logic of discovery 213; meaning and verification 548; metaphysics 570; philosophical analysis 29; science 804 logical realism property theory 718 logical truth logical constants 504 logicism 507–8 mathematics 539–40





Luik, John C. humanism 365 Lukács, Georg 512 Łukasiewicz, Jan 513 many-valued logics 523 Lunacharskii, Anatolii Nietzsche, F.W.: impact on Russian thought 631 Lundgren-Gothlin, Eva Beauvoir, S. de 80 Luper, Steven belief and knowledge 82; naturalized epistemology 616 Lushi chunqiu 513 Lusthaus, Dan Sānkhya 792; Yogācāra School of Buddhism 107 Luther, Martin 513–14 faith 883; justification 431; theology of humility 513–14 Lutz-Bachmann, Matthias religion, critique of 757; theology, political 884 Luxemburg, Rosa 514 Lvóv-Warsaw School 443 Lycan, William G. Dennett, D.C. 201; theoretical/epistemic virtues 884 Lyceum Aristotle 34; Strato 864 Lycia Diogenes of Oenoanda 212 Lynn, Richard John Yijing 942 Lyons, William Ryle, G. 787–8 Lyotard, Jean-François 514 Mac Lane, S. 126 Macadam, Jim Prichard, H.A. 709 McCarthy, Timothy logical constants 504–5 McCarty, David Charles combinatory logic 150–1; constructivism in mathematics 172–3; intuitionism 402; lambda calculus 450 McConnell-Ginet, Sally language and gender 451–2 MacCormick, Neil Frank, J. 291; Hart, H.L.A. 333; Hohfeld, W.N. 358; Llewellyn, K.N. 492; Pothier, R.J. 702; Pound, R. 703; Renner, K. 765;

Savigny, F.K. von 794; Villey, M. 916; Weinberger, O. 926 McCracken, Charles J. Johnson, S. 426–7 Macdonald, Graham Ayer, A.J. 72 MacDonald, Scott Grosseteste, Robert 326; illumination 383; medieval philosophy 552–6; natural theology 614–15; Philip the Chancellor 672; William of Auxerre 930





Copernicus, N. 177; cosmology 177; Galilei, G. 304; Kepler, J. 436 McNair, T. Tucker, A. 902 McNaughton, David consequentialism 169; deontological ethics 202; Ross, W.D. 777; Shaftesbury, Third Earl of 824–5 McPherson, Michael economics and ethics 230 McRae, John R. Platform Sutra 677; Zhi Dun 946 McTaggart, John McTaggart Ellis 517 Madaura Apuleius 42–3 Madden, Edward H. Common Sense School 152; Ducasse, C.J. 218; Stewart, D. 861–2 Maddy, P. 543 Mādhava 517 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 Madhva 517 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 Mādhyamika (Madhyamaka) School of Buddhism 106 Indian philosophy 389; Nāgārjuna 608; Tibetan philosophy 389 magic Renaissance 764 Mahāvīra 518 manifoldness, Jaina theory of 523 Mahāyāna School of Buddhism Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 70; Japan 110 Maher, Patrick inductive inference 392–3 Mahoney, Edward P. Cajetan 118–19; James of Viterbo 414; John of Jandun 424; Nifo, A. 632; Renaissance Aristotelianism 49–50; Vernia, N. 914 Maimon, Salomon 518 Jewish philosophy 422 Maimonides, Abraham ben Moses 519 Jewish philosophy 420 Maimonides, Moses 519 Abravanel, I. 3; Albo, J. 21; Dalalat al-ha’irin (Guide to the Perplexed) 519; influenced by (Ibn Paquda) 376–7; Jewish philosophy 420; prophecy 718; religious language 759;

resurrection 769 Maine de Biran, Pierre-François 521 introspection 520 Maine, H.S. 428 Maistre, Comte Joseph de 170 Maitzen, Stephen Tennant, F.R. 880 Majer, Ulrich Cantor, G. 121; Kronecker, L. 445 Major, John 521 Makin, Stephen Zeno of Elea 944–5 Makkreel, Rodolf Dilthey, W. 211 Malebranche, Nicolas 521 Arnauld, A. 52–3; occasionalism 521 Malino, J.W. Jewish philosophy, contemporary 422 Malinowski, B. 301 Mamardashvili, Merab Konstantinovich 521–2 Mandeville, Bernard 522





Marston, Roger 528 Marti, Genoveva sense and reference 820 Martin, M.G.F. bodily sensations 91–2; perception 664–5 Martin, Mike W. self-deception, ethics of 814 Martin, Rex rights 772–3 Martinich, A.P. metaphor 567; ordinary language philosophy 647 Marty, Martin E. Niebuhr, H.R. 629; Niebuhr, R. 629–30 Marx, Karl Althusser, L.P. 25; dialectical materialism 208; humanism 365; utopianism 910 Marxism adaptation of (Cabral, A.) 118; aesthetics and ethics 10; Bloch, E.S. 91; Chinese 529–31; Frankfurt School 292; Gramsci, A. 323; Hegelian (Il’enkov, E.V.) 382; humanism 365; Kautsky, K.J. 435; Latin America 462; liberation theology 487; Lukács, G. 512–13; Luxemburg, R. 514; orthodox (Kautsky, K.J.) 435; philosophy of science 532; religious policy 756; revisionist debate (Bernstein, E.) 87; Russian/Soviet 532; Slovakia 834; Trotsky, L. 899; Western 531 Marxism-Leninism 532–3 Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue 534 Czechoslovak Republic 188; Russian philosophy 786 Masham, Damaris 534 Maskit, Jonathan Bataille, G. 77 Masolo, Dismas ethnophilosophy, African 259–60 Mason, Andrew solidarity 848–9 Mason, J.H. Encyclopedists, eighteenth century 240 mass terms 534–5 count terms distinction 534 materialism 535 see also immaterialism; physicalism

Aristotelianism 851–2; Australian philosophy 68; death 195; eliminativism 535; human nature (Cabanis, P.-J.) 118; Indian school of 536; metaphysics 569; mind, philosophy of 535–6; reductionism 535; soft versus hard 535 mathematical logic early twentieth century 498; scientific theories 885 mathematicization Aristotle’s objections to (Speusippus) 856 mathematics abstract objects 4; analysis 28; astronomy (Eudoxus) 260; calculus (Leibniz, G.W.) 481; chaos theory 131; constructivism 172–3; Eudoxus 260; foundations of 536–4; geometric spirit (Pascal, B.) 659; infinity 394; intuitionistic logic 404;





scales of 550 mechanics Aristotelian 550; classical 551 mechanism Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika 639; vitalism 919 medical ethics 551–2 see also bioethics; genetics; Jewish bioethics; medicine; nursing ethics doctor/patient relationship 551 medicine 552 see also medical ethics Hellenistic methodology 342; Hippocratic 354; Renaissance (Paracelsus) 655 medieval philosophy 552–6 see also Aristotelianism, medieval ancient philosophy influence 35–6; ethics 558; heaven 335; historical development 553–7; language theories 454; logic 499–500; metaphysics 557; natural philosophy 558–9; perfect goodness concept 322; political 691; Russian 560; theology relationship 559–60; translators 898 meditation mahāmudrā (Mi bskyod rdo rje) 571 Megarian school 561 Meinecke, Friedrich 561 Meister Eckhart 561–2 Mejor, Marek Vasubandhu 913 Melamed, A. Alemanno, Y. 22 Melanchthon, Philipp 562 Mele, Alfred R. self-deception 813–14 Melia, Joseph possible worlds 697–8 Melissus 33 Eleatic monism 562; Parmenides 562 Mellor, D.H. Campbell, N.R. 121; events 261–2; Ramsey, F.P. 737 Meltzoff, A.N. infant cognition 145 memory 562–3 epistemology of 563 Mencius 563 Mendelian genetics 308–9 Mendelssohn, Moses 563 Jewish philosophy 422 Mendus, Susan

feminist political philosophy 280; pornography 694 mental causation 564 Brown, T. 103; dualism 218; functionalism 580; identity theory of mind 576 mental events anomalous monism 37 mental illness concepts of 564–5 mental imagery 384 descriptionalism 384; imagination 384; pictorial conception 384 mental representations criticism of functionalism 301 mental states adverbial theory of 565; analytic behaviourism 80; child’s theory of mind 575–6; consciousness 167; dualism 217–18; epiphenomenalism 245; functionalism 300–1; happiness 332; intentionality 399;





Page 997 other minds 650; qualia 729; unconscious 906 mention/use distinction 909 Menzel, Christopher logical form 505 Mercer, Christia Digby, K. 210; Keckermann, B. 436 mercy 288–9 justice 289 mereology 565 merit 205 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 565–6 Mersenne, Marin 566 Mesopotamia Manicheism 522–3 Messer Leon, Judah 566 Jewish philosophy 421 Messiah Hebrew Bible 88 meta-ethics 256 see also analytic ethics rationalism (Price, R.) 709 metalanguage Tarski, A. 815 metaphilosophy Mulla Sadra 603–4 metaphor 567 comparison theory 567; interaction theory 567; medieval language theory 454–5; speech act theory 567 metaphysics 567–7 see also categories; existence; experience; first philosophy; realism; speculative metaphysics; time the Absolute 3; being 81–2; conceptual role semantics 816; descriptive 570; essential properties 254; history relationship (Collingwood, R.G.) 148; idealism 379; infinity 394–5; introspection 402; materialism 535–6; monism 589; ontology 567–8; pluralism 683; quantum mechanics 807; science 569–70; supervenience 872; universals 908 method demonstrative (Wolff, C.) 935; Descartes, R. 203; eliminative induction (Bacon, F.) 73; geometrical (Spinoza, B. de) 857

methodological individualism (MI) 570 methodological solipsism 849 methodology ordo doctrinae/methodus distinction (Zabarella, J.) 944; of regressus (Zabarella, J.) 944; social science 839–40 Mexico colonial philosophy 460; philosophy in 571 Meyerson, Émile 571 Meynell, Hugo Lonergan, B.J.F. 509 Mi bskyod rdo rje (Mikyö Dorje) 571 Middle Stoicism Panaetius 653 midrash 572 Mikhailovskii, Nikolai Konstantinovich 572 Miki Kiyoshi 572–3 Milchman, Alan Blanchot, M. 90–1 Miletus Thales 883 Mill, John Stuart hedonism 909 Millar, John 574 Miller, Alexander objectivity 640 Miller, David desert and merit 205; nationalism 610–11; Pareto principle 657; political philosophy 687–9; social democracy 836 Miller, Richard W. Marxist philosophy of science 532 Milton, J.R. Bacon, F. 73; Chillingworth, W. 135 Mīmāṃsā Indian and Tibetan philosophy 388; Veda interpretation 318 mimēsis (imitation) 575 verisimulitude (Lacoue-Labarthe, P.) 449; adverbial theory of mental states 565; analytic behaviourism 80; anomalous monism 37–8; belief 82; bodily sensations 91–2; bundle theory of 575; child’s theory of 575; computational theories of 576; concepts 159; dualism 217–18; eliminativism 535; epiphenomenalism 245–6; as first cause (Anaxagoras) 31; functionalism 300–1; holism 360; idealism 379; identity theory of 576–7;

imagination 384; Indian philosophy of 577; intention 399; introspection 401–2; logical behaviourism (Ryle, G.) 787; memory 562–3; mental content 579–80; modularity of 586; naturalism 580; neutral monism 626; perception 664–5; philosophy of 577–8; property supervenience 873; propositional attitudes 719; reductionism 748; substance dualism (Brown, T.) 103 mind-body problem Descartes, R. 204; occasionalism 642; organic theory (Herder, J.G.) 348; sport 859 minima Epicureanism 244 Minogue, Kenneth Oakeshott, M.J. 640 Minor, Robert N. Radhakrishnan, S. 735; Tagore, R. 875 minorities marginality 525 Mir Damad, Muhammad Baqir 582 time 582





monism 589 see also atomism; dualism; materialism; pluralism anomalous 37–8; Eleatic (Melissus) 562; Indian 589; metaphysics 569 monotheism 590 see also God; polytheism reincarnation 751; salvation 790–1 Montague, Richard Merett 590 Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de 590–1 Montefiore, Alan responsibilities of scientists and intellectuals 768 Montesquieu, Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de 591 Moor, James Turing, A.M. 902 Moore, A.W. infinity 394–5 Moore, F.C.T. Bonnet, C. 96; Cabanis, P.-J. 118; Maine de Biran, P.-F. 521 Moore, George Edward 592 naturalistic fallacy 615; philosophical analysis 592; supervenience 873 Moore, Gregory H. axiom of choice 71; logic, early twentieth century 498; paradoxes of set and property 656 Moore, J. Carmichael, G. 123 moral agents responsibility 768 moral contractualism Scanlon, T.M. 176 moral development 593 see also moral education moral education 593 see also moral development role of examples 264 moral expertise 593–4 moral health Ibn Miskawayh 376 moral judgment 594 see also moral reasoning analytic ethics 28–9; emotivism 238; first principles (Reid, T.) 750; liberalism 464; practical reason 703 moral justification 594 see also moral reasoning epistemic justification contrast 249; intuitionism in ethics 403; praise and blame 705 moral knowledge 594 see also moral scepticism moral language

emotivism (Stevenson, C.L.) 861; meaning 238 moral laxism casuistry 125





Nietzsche, F.W. 631; power of the will (Gerard of Odo) 311; Rand, A. 738; religion 755–6; science relationship (Rousseau, J.-J.) 777; self-deception 814; suffering 870; supremacy of 600 Moran, Dermot Eriugena, J. S. 252–3; medieval Platonism 680 More, Henry 601 More, Thomas utopianism 909–10 Morgan, Charles G. fuzzy logic 302; many-valued logics 523 Morgan, M.L. Fackenheim, E.L. 270 Morrison, Margaret experiment 267 Morson, Gary Saul Bakhtin, M.M. 74; Dostoevskii, F.M. 215; Tolstoi, L.N. 895 mortality Heidegger, M. 340; meaning of life 489 Moscow-Tartu school 602 Moser, Paul K. a posteriori 1; a priori 1 Moss, Lenny life, origin of 489 Most, Glenn W. Epicharmus 244; Hesiod 351; Homer 361; katharsis 435; mimēsis 575 motion first philosophy (Hobbes, T.) 357–8; Moving Rows (Zeno of Elea) 945; paradox (Bergson, H.-L.) 85 motivation desire 205–6; Freud, S. 298; happiness (Tucker, A.) 902 Motoori Norinaga 603 Mouw, Richard J. religion and morality 755–6 movement trajectory distinction (Bergson, H.-L.) 85 Mozi 603 Mohist philosophy 586 Mues de Schrenk, Laura pre-Columbian and indigenous thought 463 mujō (impermanence) 603 Mulhall, S. Cavell, S. 129

Mulla Sadra (Sadr al-Din Muhammad al-Shirazi) 603 al-Sabzawari 790 Muller-Ortega, Paul E. Abhinavagupta 2 Mulligan, Kevin predication 708 multiculturalism 604 see also race; toleration multiple-conclusion logic 604 Mundici, Daniele primitive recursive functions 157 Munro, C.R. Bryce, J. 104 Munzer, Stephen R. 717–18 al-Muqammas, Daud 419 Murawski, Roman Tarski, A. 875–6 Murphey, M.G. Franklin, B. 293; Jefferson, T. 417 Murphy, Jeffrie G. forgiveness and mercy 288–9





war and peace 925 narrative aesthetics 9; Bible 297 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein mystical 605–6 nation 610–11 see also community; international relations; nationalism; state nationalism 610–11 see also fascism; nation; Zionism authoritarian 611; liberal 611 Native American philosophy 611 nativism 611 see also innateness; language, innateness language acquisition 313; linguistic (Chomsky, N.) 611 natural deduction 612 natural history evolutionary theory (Buffon, G.L.L.) 112; theology (Neckham, A.) 619–20 natural indication informational semantics 817 natural law 613 see also divine law Cumberland, R. 186; English law (Blackstone, W.) 90; procedural (Fuller, L.L.) 299; reason-faith relationship (Culverwell, N.) 186 natural philosophy mathematical science contrast (Mersenne, M.) 566; medieval 558–9 natural science empirical approach (Buridan, J.) 113–14; first philosophy (Hobbes, T.) 357–8; mathematics relation 542–3; miracles 582 natural selection Darwin, C.R. 192; evolutionary theory 263; sociobiology 845; Wallace, A.R. 924 natural theology 614–15 critiques of 615 naturalism anti-religious (Hume, D.) 366; contextual (Nagel, E.) 608–9; mind 580; reductive 762; social science 616 naturalized epistemology 616 naturalized philosophy of science 617 nature classification of (Linnaeus, C. von) 491; and convention 618; cycle of change (Empedocles) 239; divisions of (Eriugena, J.S.) 252–3; first principles of (Telesio, B.) 879–80; freedom relationship (Kant, I.) 432; mathematical principles (Alembert, J. le R. d’) 22–3; necessitarian theories 472;

sociobiology 845 nature-nurture debate genetic determinism 309 Naturphilosophie 618 see also German idealism Navya-Nyāya (New Logic) 389 see also Nyāya Gangeśa 305; Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika School 639 Neale, Stephen descriptions 205; syntax 873 necessary being ontological argument 619 necessary truth a posteriori 619; conventionalism 619; as knowledege of God (Norris, J.) 637;





Neoplatonism in Islamic philosophy 625–6 Neumann, John von 626 Neurath, Otto 626 neutral monism definition 626–7 neutrality political 627 New Testament demythologization (Bultmann, R.) 113; faith 271; sin 831 New Thinking Jewish philosophy (Rosenzweig, F.) 776 New Zealand Prior, A.N. 710 Newton, Isaac 627 see also Newtonian physics Bentley, R. 84; space 853 Newtonian physics divine action 757 Nicaragua 534 Nicene Creed 387 see also Athanasian Creed Nicholas of Autrecourt 628 Nicholas of Cusa 628–9 Nicholson, P.P. general will 308; state 859–60 Nickel, James W. discrimination 214 Niebuhr, Helmut Richard 629 Niebuhr, Reinhold 629–30 Christian realism 629; public theology 629 Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm 630–1 Christianity reconciliation (Merezhkovskii, D.) 631; morality 631 Nifo, Agostino 632 Aristotelianism 632 nihilism 632 see also moral scepticism cosmic 632–3; epistemological 632; metaphysics (Heidegger, M.) 340; moral 632; Parmenidian ontology (Gorgias) 323; political 632; Russian 633 Niiniluoto, Ilkka Wright, G.H. von 922 nirvāṇa 633 see also enlightenment; liberation Nisbett, R.E. introspection, psychology of 402 Nishi Amane 634 Nishida Kitarō 634 influence of (Miki Kiyoshi) 572; logic 497 Nishitani Keiji 634

Kyoto School 447 Nissenbaum, Helen information technology and ethics 395; technology and ethics 877–8 Nkrumah, Kwame 15 Nō 944 noema Husserl, E. 369–70 nominalism 634–5 see also conventionalism; Platonism; realism abstract objects 4; Buddhist doctrine of 635; classical empiricism 634–5; universals 908 nominalism, scholastic formalism conflict (Gerson, J.) 312; propositional logic (Buridan, J.) 113; universals 454; William of Ockham 931 non-constructive rules of inference 635 non-monotonic logic 153 nonstandard analysis 27–8 Nooruddin, Ubai Orientalism in Islamic philosophy 649 Norman, Wayne federalism and confederalism 275 normative concepts deontic logic 202





Nyāyasūtra 306 Vātsyāyana commentary on 913 Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika 638 see also Nyāya; Nyāyasūtra; Vaiśeṣika Indian and Tibetan philosophy 388 Nyerere, Julius K. African philosophy 15 Nygren, Anders 639 Nylan, Michael Dong Zhongshu 215; Jia Yi 423–4; Yang Xiong 941; Zheng Xuan 946 Nyman, C. anti-Semitism 41 Oakeshott, Michael Joseph 640 Oberdan, T. Schlick, F.A.M. 800 object intuitive cognition (Duns Scotus, J.) 220–1 object permanence child development 145 objectivism phenomenology (Ingarden, R.W.) 396 objectivity 640 see also intersubjectivity anti-realism 640; East Asian philosophy 226–7; non-cognitivism 640; pure (Fichte, J.G.) 283; quietism 640; subjectivism 640; theory-laden observation 641 objects abstract 4; continuants 174–5; Indian concepts of 197; intentional (Hervaeus Natalis) 350 obligation engineering ethics 241; to future generations 301; to the Other (Levinas, E.) 483; political 640–1; promises 716; supererogation distinction 872 observation 641 coherence theory of justification 439; indirect 641; information 641; operationalism 646; social sciences 886 occasionalism 642 Malebranche, N. 521 occasions actual (Whitehead, A.N.) 929 Ockham’s Razor Durandus of St Pourçain 222; ontological commitment 644; universals 908

O’Connor, David K. Xenophon 938–9 Odin, Steve Watsuji Tetsurō 925 Ogyū Sorai 642 O’Hear, Anthony conservatism 170; culture 185–6; tradition and traditionalism 897 oikeiōsis (affiliation) 352 Okrent, Mark being 81–2 O’Leary-Hawthorne, J. imagination 384 Olivecrona, Karl 642 Oliver, Alex facts 270; logical atomism 504; ontological status of value 912





Orenstein, Alex Quine, W.V. 732–3 Oresme, Nicole 648–9 organisms species 855 Organization of African Unity 654 organizations responsibility 768 Orientalism Islamic philosophy 649 Origen 649 Celsus 129 original sin 831 Niebuhr, R. 629; Pelagianism 664 Orphism 649 Orringer, Nelson R. Ortega y Gasset, J. 649–50; Unamuno y Jugo, M. De 906 Orrú, Marco Durkheim, É. 222 Ortega y Gasset, José 649–50 existentialism 266; phenomenology 671 Osler, Margaret J. Gassendi, P. 305 Oslo School 608 Oswald, James 650 Other ethical obligation to (Levinas, E.) 483; ‘I-Thou’ relationship (Buber, M.) 105; woman as (Irigaray, L.) 405 other minds child’s theory of mind 575; criteria 181 Otto, Rudolf 650–1 Outka, Gene situation ethics 832 Overton, Richard 651 Owen, Gwilym Ellis Lane 651 Owen, Robert 910 ownership socialism 844 Oxford Calculators 651–2 see also ratios Swineshead, Richard 651 pacification mental function (Freud, S.) 298 pacifism Erasmus, D. 252; Jainism 414 paganism banning of 33 Pagden, Anthony absolutism 4; Vitoria, F. de 919 Pagin, Peter intuitionistic logic 403–4 Pailin, David A.

Herbert, Edward 347 pain Epicureanism 245; utilitarianism (Bentham, J.) 83–4 Paine, Thomas 653 painting Chinese 11 Pakistan Vasubandhu 913 Palacký, František 188 Palestine Eusebius 261; Zionism 948





Montague, R.M. 590 particularism moral 595 particulars 658 see also universals metaphysics 568 particulate matter quantum field theory 286 Pascal, Blaise 659–60 see also Pascal’s wager Pascal’s wager 659–60 Pasnau, Robert Aureol, P. 66; Crathorn, W. 179; Holcot, R. 358; Olivi, P.J. 643 passions human nature (Hume, D.) 367; Hume, D. 367 Passmore, John A. 660 Patañjali 660 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 388–9; language 453 paternalism 660 pathé (subjectivism) Cyrenaics 187 Patočka, Jan 661 patristic philosophy 661 ancient philosophy distinction 35–6; Tertullian 881 Patrizi da Cherso, Francesco 662 Pattaro, Enrico Ross, A. 777 Paul the Apostle original sin 831 Paul of Venice 662–3 Pavlin, James Ibn Taymiyya 378–9 Payne, Steven mysticism 606 peace 925 see also pacifism Peckhaus, Volker Gentzen, G.K.E. 310; Zermelo, E. 945–6 Peczenik, Aleksander Olivecrona, K. 642; Petrażycki, L. 669 pedagogy humanist (Vives, J.L.) 920 Peerenboom, R.P. law and ritual in Chinese philosophy 465–6 Peirce, Charles Sanders fallibilism 271 Pelagianism 664 original sin 831 Pelletier, Francis Jeffry mass terms 534–5 perception 664–5 see also experience; misperception; sensation; sense perception; senses

autonomy from cognitive inference 586; bodily sensations 91–2; cognitive contamination of 586; conscious/unconscious distinction (Leibniz, G.W.) 481; epistemic issues 665; fallibility 666; Gestalt psychology 313; modularity of mind 586; Molyneux problem 588; noema (Husserl, E.) 369–70; secondary qualities 810–11; substance 869 perceptual beliefs empiricism 239–40 perceptual knowledge 665





definition 667 personality Akan philosophical psychology 19; property 717–18 persons 668 see also personal identity Akan philosophical psychology 19; East Asian Philosophy 227; fission problem 667; intentions (Sellars, W.S.) 815; respect for 767–8; self-respect 814; sociality (Il’enkov, E.V.) 382 Peru colonial philosophy 460 pessimism freedom 294 Peter of Auvergne 668 Peter of Spain 668–9 Peterson, Erik 884 Petrarca, Francesco 669 Petrażycki, Leon 669 Pettit, Philip desire 205–6; political philosophy 690; social laws 836–7 phenomena paranormal 657 phenomenal consciousness 167 see also qualia introspection 168; physicalism 168 phenomenalism 669 see also antirealism empiricism 240; physical object statements 669 phenomenology 670 epistemic issues in 670; Latin America 671–2; methods (Ingarden, R.W.) 396; perception (Merleau-Ponty, M.) 565; of religion 672; descriptive 672; existential 672; scientific 672; Shpet, G.G. 827 Philip the Chancellor 672 Phillips, David emotive meaning 238 Phillips, Stephen H. Aurobindo Ghose 66; Brahman 100; Gangeśa 305; monism, Indian 589; Vedānta School 913 Philo of Alexandria 672–3 Jewish philosophy 36 Philo the Dialectician 673 Philo of Larissa 673 Philodemus 673

Philolaus 674 cosmology 674 Philoponus 674 philosopher-rulers Plato 678–9 philosophes Helvétius, C.-A. 344; influence on Russian Enlightenment 242 philosophical analysis Moore, G.E. 592 Philp, Mark corruption 177; Godwin, W. 344 physical world idealism 379; knowledge of 402; panpsychism 654 physicalism parapsychology relationship 657 physics computability and information 156; determinism and indeterminism 206; divine action theories 757; optics 646; Stoicism 863 Piaget, Jean 675 moral development 593 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni 676 pietism 676–7





hedonism 336; sexual 824; utilitarianism 909 Plekhanov, Georgii Valentinovich 682 dialectical materialism 208; Marxism, Russian 532 Plotinus 683 ancient philosophy 33; necessary being 619 pluralism 683 see also cognitive pluralism; moral pluralism;multiculturalism; religious pluralism; substance-pluralism; value pluralism cognitive 146; culture 683; relativism 683 plurality Zeno of Elea 944–5 Pluta, Olaf Ailly, P. d’ 19 Plutarch of Chaeronea 683 ethics 684; first principles 684 pneuma (spirit) 684 poetry Chinese 11; Hesiod 351; Homer 361; Islamic philosophy 11; Lucretius 512; Parmenides 658; Philodemus 673; Timon of Philius 893; Xenophanes 938 Poincaré, Jules Henri 685 Poland 685–6 Ajdukiewicz, K. 19; Boehme, J. 92; Copernicus, N. 177; Heschel, A.J. 351; Ingarden, R.W. 396; Keckermann, B. 436; Kotarbiń ski, T. 443; Krochmal, N. 445; Leśniewski, S. 482; logic 686–7; Łukasiewicz, J. 513; Luxemburg, R. 514; medieval period 686; Meyerson, É. 571; Petrażycki, L. 669; Post, E.L. 698; Tarski, A. 875–6; Twardowski, K. 903; Wróblewski, J. 937 Polanyi, Michael 686 tacit knowledge 442 polemic anti-Christian (Celsus) 129 political authority 68 Marsilius of Padua 527;

religious authority conflict 756 political philosophy 687–9 see also government; law; politics; state Alighieri, Dante 24; anarchism 31; anarchism (Godwin, W.) 320; commonwealth (Hobbes, T.) 357–8; communism 154–5; communitarianism 155; confederalism 275; conservatism 170; constitutionalism 171; contractarianism 175–6; democracy 199–200; fascism 273–4; federalism 275; feminist 280; government (Kauṭilya) 435; green 324–5; history of 690–2; human nature (Arendt, H.) 46; Indian 692; interference with individual morality 464; Islam 408; liberalism 486; libertarianism 487–8; market economy (Smith, A.) 834; Mohism 587; Montesquieu, C.L. 591; moral pluralism 596; nationalism 610–11; nature of 693; religion 756–7; Renaissance 765; republicanism 767; revolution 770; social democracy 836; socialism 844–5; totalitarianism 896; value pluralism (Berlin, I.) 86; William of Ockham 931 political realism international relations 400 political representation 766 see also democracy; government; state political theology 884 politics art relationship (Belinskii, V.G.) 83; party (Burke, E.) 114 polytheism pre-Columbian religions 463 Pompa, L. Vico, G. 914 Pomponazzi, Pietro 693 Popkin, Richard H. Charron, P. 132; Montaigne, M.E. de 590–1;





revolution 770; social theory and law 844 post-structuralism 701 consumer culture (Baudrillard, J.) 77; in the social sciences 701–2 potentiality Indian theories of 702 Pothier, Robert Joseph 702 Potter, Michael D. arithmetic 52; set theory 823 Pound, Roscoe 703 poverty development ethics 206 power 703 see also authority republicanism 767 practical reasoning 742 ethics 703; expected utility theory 742; Game theory 742; motivational power 743; rational action 742–3; theoretical reason contrast 742; theories of 742 practice theory relationship 886 pradhāna (primal matter) 545 pragmatic a priori Lewis, C.I. 484 pragmatics 456 see also implicature; semantics pragmatism 704 see also instrumentalism American (Mead, G.H.) 546; conversational implicature (Grice, H.P.) 325–6; humanism 365; truth 900 praise 705 see also merit; moral luck; rectification; remainders prakṛti Sānkhya 792 praxeology 705 prayer 706 for the dead 726; ritual 774 pre-Columbian thought 463 Mexican philosophy 571 predestination 706 see also divine election; reprobation Calvin, J. 119 predetermination Islamic moral philosophy 259 predicate calculus 707 notation 707–8 predicate logic free logics 293 predicate operators adverbs 6 predicates

adverbs 6; modal operators as 585 predication 708 see also predicates manifoldness, Jaina theory of 523; property theory 718 prediction in the social sciences 843 preface paradox 656 preference rational choice theory 739 Preisendanz, Karin Gautama, A. 306; Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika 638 prescriptivism 708 presence logocentricity (Derrida, J.) 203 Presocratics 708 Alcmaeon 22; Anaxagoras 31; Anaximander 32; Anaximenes 32;





providence 722 process theology Holocaust 361 processes 714 see also change events 714 Proclus 714 Liber de causis 485 Procopé, John Hermetism 349 Prodicus 715 professional ethics 715 see also business ethics; engineering ethics; medical ethics; nursing ethics progress evolutionary theory 263; human nature (Condorcet, M.J.A.N.) 161 projectivism 715 promising 716 see also honour; trust pronouns reference 749 proof Lakatos, I. 449 proof theory 716–17 proper names 717 see also names; nouns descriptions 748; fictional characters 284; historical-causal theory 717; modal logic 501–2 properties aesthetic 8; essentialism 254; indiscernibility of identicals 381; numbers 658–9; universals 908 property 717–18 see also ownership anarchism 31; communism 154 property theory 718 see also properties prophecy 718–19 naturalistic 718; supernatural 718–19 proportion punishment 181; reciprocity 746 propositional attitude statements 719 see also propositional attitudes intensional logics 398 propositional attitudes analytic behaviourism (Dennett, D.C.) 201; phenomenology 671 propositional certainty 129 propositional S5 modal logic 583–4 propositions 720–1 see also intensional entities; propositional attitude statements; propositional attitudes prosaics

poetics comparison (Bakhtin, M.M.) 74–5 Protagoras 721 relativism 752; Sophists 850 Protestantism Calvin, J. 119; enthusiasm 243; Liberal (Unamuno y Jugo, M. De) 906; pietism 676; purgatory 726; sanctification 791–2 provability logic 721 providence 722 see also predestination Molinism 588 providentialism deistic (Voltaire) 921 prudence 722 cultivation of (Vico, G.) 914–15





actual sin 831; blame 600; censure 181; consequentialism 180–1; crime 180; purgatorial 726; retributivism 181; social control (Mozi) 587; soul (al-‘Amiri) 27; utilitarianism (Bentham, J.) 84 Pure Land Buddhism Shinran 826; Zhi Dun 946 pure theory of law Weyr, F. 927–8 purgatory 726 purification purgatory 726 Puritanism pietism 676 Purtill, Richard L. Lewis, C.S. 484–5 puruṣa Sānkhya 792 Putnam, Hilary 726 meaning 726 Pye, J. 737 Pylyshyn, Zenon cognitive architecture 145–6; modularity of mind 586 Pyrrho of Elis 727 see also Pyrrhonian scepticism Timon 893 Pyrrhonian Scepticism 34 see also Pyrrho of Elis Aenesidemus 6; Agrippa 18; Sextus Empiricus 823 Pythagoras 728 see also Neo-Pythagoreanism; Pythagoras’ theorem; Pythagoreanism school of 35 Pythagoreanism 728 see also Neo-Pythagoreanism; Orphism Archytas 45; Philolaus 674; school of 33

qi (material force) 729 see also ki qualia 580 see also phenomenal consciousness; sense-data colour 149; consciousness 168; functionalism 300 qualities secondary 810–11 quantification Herbrand’s theorem 347; inference 729 quantifiers 729–30

count nouns 535; generalized 730; substitutional/objectual 730–1 quantum logic 731 quantum mechanics Bell’s theorem 83; Bohr, N. 94–5; Copenhagen interpretation (Bohr, N. 94–5 Putnam, H. 726); Einstein, A. 235; field theory 286; interpretation of 731; metaphysics 807; religion 757; uncertainty principle (Heisenberg, W.) 342 Quayson, Ato postcolonialism 698–9 Queen, S. 215 Quesnay, Francois 839 questions 732 quietism objectivity 640 Quine, Willard Van Orman 732–3 analytic philosophy 29; radical translation 457; set theory 823; verificationism 548





Chinese classics 135–6 Rashdall, Hastings 738–9 ratio scales measurement theory 550 rational argument Anselm of Canterbury 39 rational beliefs 739 see also justification rational choice theory 739–40 see also decision theory; game theory democracy 740; game theory 739 rational justification Frege, G. 296 rationalism 740 Abelard, P. 2; critical (Popper, K.R.) 694; Mu‘tazila 411; nativism 611; thought experiments 890 rationality of belief 742; and cultural relativism 741–2; economics 230; practical 742; tradition 897 ratios language of (Oresme, N.) 648–9 Rawls, John 743–4 contractarianism 175–6 al-Razi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya’ 744 al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din 744 Read, Stephen relevance logic and entailment 753 realism 744 see also antirealism; critical realism; legal realism; logical realism; moral realism; nominalism; political realism; scientific antirealism; scientific realism; systematic realism bivalence 404; colour, theories of 150; ideal (Lossky, N.O.) 510; Nyāya (Vātsyāyana) 913; Prichard, H.A. 709; sophisticated (Ayer, A.J.) 72; universals 908 reality flux (Cratylus) 180; science, philosophy of 806–7 reason autonomy (Kant, I.) 432; development of (Ibn Tufayl) 379; Native American philosophy 611; scripture (Ibn Hazm) 375; theoretical-practical integration (Fichte, J.G.) 283; traditionalism 897; validation (Descartes, R.) 204 reasonableness ethical inquiry (Peirce, C.S.) 705 reasoning belief acquisition 742; epistemic relativism 246; holism 360; inductive (Broad, C.D.) 102;

medical 552; rational 739; role of imagery (Le Doeuff, M.) 473 reasons and causes 745–6 rebirth Indian conceptions of 434 Recanati, François pragmatics 703 reciprocity 746 recognition 746 communication (Grice, H.P.) 154; Hegelian historical development (Kojève, A.) 443; moral punishment 600





reincarnation 751 see also rebirth enlightenment 751; Pythagoreanism (Empedocles) 239; theosophy 886 relation ‘I-Thou’ mode (Buber, M.) 105; mystical union as aim of (Buber, M.) 105 relational theories colour, perception of 150 relations ontological commitment 644; particulars 658–9; property theory 718 relativism 752 see also cultural relativism; epistemic relativism; meta-ethics; moral relativism; normativerelativism; social relativism linguistic (Zhuangzi) 495–6; pluralism 683; scientific constructivism 172; truth 752 relativity theory general 308; philosophical significance of 807; special 752; time travel 893 relevance logic 169 reliabilism 753 cognition (Wodeham, A.) 934; Gangeśa 305; Nyāya 251; virtue epistemology 917 religion ancient philosophy relationship 35; asceticism 61; causes of (Hume, D.) 367; certainty (Sergeant, J.) 821; critiques of 757; culture 185; deism (Butler, J.) 116; enthusiasm 243; and epistemology 754–5; morality 755–6; phenomenology of 672; philosophy of 759; political philosophy 756–7; pre-Columbian America 463; science and 757; traditional African 17; typology 672 religious belief certainty 754; de facto/de jure question 755; evidentialism 754 religious epistemology 758 Calvin, J. 119; illumination theories 383; justification 758; physics 757 religious existentialism Shestov, L. 826

religious experience 761 mysticism 606; numinous (Otto, R.) 650–1; supernatural (Oman, J.W.) 643; visions (Hildegard of Bingen) 353 religious knowledge Calvin, J. 119; illumination theories 383; justification of 758; personal experience (Bowne, B.P.) 98 religious language 759 predicates 762; Ramsey, I.T. 737; terminology 762 religious philosophy history of 758–9 religious pluralism 762 remainders 746–7 see also rectification; regret guilt 747 Renaissance ancient philosophy influence 35–6; Aristotelianism 49–50; language 459; logic 503–4; philosophy 762–5; Platonism 681–2; scepticism 796 renaissance, Carolingian 124 Renner, Karl 765





eliminativism 236; folk psychology 287; language of thought hypothesis 455; mind, philosophy of 577–8; Skinner, B.F. 832; unconscious mental states 906 Ṛg Veda Brahman 100 rGyal tshab dar ma rin chen (Gyeltsap darma rinchen) 770 rhetoric 770–1 human nature (Campbell, G.) 121; Islamic philosophy 11; Renaissance humanism 365 Rhineland school of mysticism 873 rhizome Deleuze, G. 198 Rhodes Panaetius 653–4 Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. Eurasian Movement 260; Pan-Slavism 654 Richard of Middleton 771 Richard of St Victor 771 Richard Rufus of Cornwall 771 Richard, Mark compositionality 156; scope 809; substitutional/objectual quantifers 730–1 Richardson, Robert C. vitalism 919 Ricoeur, Paul 772 rights 772–3 feminist jurisprudence 279; justification 772–3; as legal relations (Hohfeld, W.N.) 358; natural law 613 Rigo, Caterina Hillel ben Samuel of Verona 353; Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome 384–5; Judah ben Moses of Rome 427 Riley, Patrick Fénelon, F. 281–2; Gerdil, G.S. 312 Ripstein, Arthur multiculturalism 604 risk 773 Risser, James Barthes, R. 76 ritual 774 see also sacraments ethical value 774; sacraments 790 Ro Youngchan Yi Yulgok 941 Roberts, Julian honour 361–2; Lorenzen, P. 509 Robinet, Isabelle Guanzi 327 Robinson, Howard

materialism 535–6 Robinson, Neal ‘Abduh, M. 1; Ash‘ariyya and Mu‘tazila 61–2; Ibn al-‘Arabi 372–3 Rochefoucauld, François, Duc de la 599 Rogers, G.A.J. Bold, S. 95; Charleton, W. 132; Glanvill, J. 316 Rohault, Jacques 774 Rohr, Michael David Rorty, R. 775 Roman Catholicism Aristotelianism conciliation (White, T.) 928; justification doctrine 431; killing of innocents 397; liberation theology 487; limbo 489; purgatory 726; Russia (Solov’ëv, V.S.) 849–50;





Russian religious-philosophical Renaissance 786; Shestov, L. 825 Rosenthal, David M. dualism 217–18 Rosenthal, Sandra B. Lewis, C.I. 484 Rosenzweig, Franz 776 German Idealism 776; Jewish philosophy 422; New Thinking 776 Rosicrucianism 287 Rosmaita, Brian Neumann, J. von 626 Ross, Alf 777 Ross, William David 777 Roth, H.D. Huainanzi 363; Yangzhu 941 Roth, Michael S. Kojève, A. 443 Rouse, Joseph Heideggerian philosophy of science 341 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 777 civil society 777–8; contractarianism 175–6; education 232; education 778; general will 308 Rowe, William L. agnosticism 17; atheism 62–3; deism 198; divine freedom 295–6 Rowson, E.K. al-Tawhidi 876 Royce, Josiah 778 Rozanov, Vasilii Vasil’evich 778 Ruben, David-Hillel explanation in history and social science 268 Rubenstein, Richard L. 361 Rudavsky, T.M. Ibn Tzaddik, J. 379 Ruge, Arnold 779 rule of law 779–80 judicial obligation 780; justice 780; socialism (Hessen, S.I.) 352 rule-following meaning 546 rulers philosopher-rulers (Plato) 678–9 rules sport ethics 858 rule-scepticism Llewellyn, K.N. 492 Rumfitt, Ian meaning and understanding 548; presupposition 708 Rummel, Erika Erasmus, D. 252

Runia, David T. Diogenes Laertius 212; doxography 216–17; Philo of Alexandria 672–3 Russell, Bertrand Arthur William 780–1 see also Russell’s paradox descriptions 205; Frege, G. 296; ordinary language philosophy 648 Russell’s paradox 656 Russia 782–6 see also Soviet Union; Ukraine Bakhtin, M.M. 74; Bakunin, M.A. 75; Belinskii, V.G. 83; Bogdanov, A.A. 94; Bulgakov, S.N. 112; Chaadaev, P.I. 130; Chernyshevskii, N.G. 134; Dostoevskii, F.M. 215; Eurasian movement 260; Fëdorov, N.F. 275; Florenskii, P.A. 287; Frank, S.L. 291; Hegelianism 339; Herzen, A.I. 350; Hessen, S.I. 351; Il’in, I.A. 382; Kojève, Alexandre 443; Koyré, A. 443; Kropotkin, P.A. 445–6; Lavrov, P.L. 464; Lenin, V.I. 482; Leont’ev, K.N. 482; liberalism 486; Russian philosophy 784; literary formalism 781; Losev, A.F. 510; Lossky, N.O. 510; medieval philosophy 560;





through Jesus Christ 760; limbo 489; monotheism 790–1; pluralism 762; predestination 706–7; purgatory 726 Samos Melissus 562; Pythagoras 728 saṃsāra (cycles of existence) scope of 434 Samuelson, Norbert M. Ibn Daud, A. 373 Sanches, Francisco 791 sanctification 791–2 see also justification, religious doctrine of Roman Catholicism 791 Sandu, Gabriel quantifiers 729–30 Śankara 792 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 Sānkhya (Sāṃkhya) 792 see also Sānkhya-Yoga Indian and Tibetan philosophy 388; puruṣal prakṛti 792 Sānkhya-Yoga substance-pluralism 545 Sanskrit pronunciation 389–90 Santayana, George 793 epiphenomenalism 246 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 793 metaphysics 568 Sargent, Lyman Tower communism 154–5; utopianism 909–10 Sargent, Rose-Mary Boyle, R. 98 Sartre, Jean-Paul 793–4 anti-Semitism 41; L’Etre et le Néant ( Being and Nothingness) 793–4 Sass, Hans-Martin Feuerbach, L.A. 282; Ruge, A. 779 satire Lucian 512 satisfaction Incarnation (Anselm of Canterbury) 39 satisfaction-preservation imperative logic 386 Saussure, Ferdinand de 794 structuralism 865 Savigny, Friedrich Karl von 794 historical jurisprudence 428 Savoy Gerdil, G.S. 312 Saxony Crusius, C.A. 184 Sayre, Kenneth M. information theory 395 Sayre-McCord, Geoffrey

moral knowledge 594 Scandinavia 795 see also Denmark; Finland; Norway; Sweden legal realism 477–8; praxeology 705 Scanlan, James P. Berdiaev, N.A. 84; Lossky, N.O. 510; Russian materialism: ‘The 1860s’ 782; Russian philosophy 786; Vysheslavtsev, B.P. 923 Scanlan, Michael J. Post, E.L. 698 Scanlon, Thomas M. contractarianism 176; promising 716





Page 1015 scepticism 795 see also Academic scepticism; certainty; doubt;fideism; moral scepticism; Pyrrhonian Scepticism contextualism 174; deductive closure principle 197; epistemology 248–9; fact (Frank, J.) 291; Greek 34; Holcot, R. 358; Oresme, N. 648–9; other minds 181; rational beliefs 739; reliabilist alternative 753–4; Renaissance 796; rul e(Llewellyn, K.N.) 492; solipsism 849; transcendental arguments 897 Schabas, Margaret Keynes, J.M. 437 Schaffner, Kenneth F. medicine, philosophy of 552 Schatzki, Theodore R. structuralism in social science 867 Scheler, Max Ferdinand Latin American phenomenology 671 Schellingianism 798 Scheman, Naomi linguistic discrimination 490 Schibli, Hermann S. Archytas 45–6; Neo-Pythagoreanism 626; Philolaus 674; Pythagoras 728; Pythagoreanism 728 Schlick, Friedrich Albert Moritz 800 Vienna Circle 800 Schmitt, Carl 800 theology, political 884 Schofield, Malcolm Alcmaeon 22; Anaxagoras 31–2; Antisthenes 42; Diogenes of Apollonia 212; Empedocles 239; Plato 677 Schofield, Robert E. Priestley, J. 710 scholasticism Alexander of Hales 23; historical development of 555–6; Iberian (Molina, L. de) 587; Olivi, P.J. 643 Schönfeld, Martin Fontenelle, B. de 288; Tschirnhaus, E.W. von 901 Schönfinkel, M. 150 School of Translators of Toledo 854 Schouls, Peter A.

revolution 770 Schrader-Frechette, Kristin risk assessment 773 Schroeder-Heister, Peter formal languages and systems 289 Schum, David A. legal evidence and inference 476 Schumpeter, Joseph Alois 802 Schütz, Alfred 802 Schweizer, Paul modal operators 585 Scibilia, Giovanni Lacoue-Labarthe, P. 449 science Alighieri, Dante 24; archaeology 44–5; Bohr, N. 94–5; Campbell, N.R. 121; chaos theory 131; chemistry 133; colour-perception conflict 150; computer 157–8; conservation principles 169; constructivism 171; Copernicus, N. 177; cosmology 177; critiques (Nietzsche, F.W.) 630; Darwin, C.R. 192; demarcation problem 199; determinism and indeterminism 206; Duhem, P.M.M. 218; ecology 229–30; Einstein, A. 234; electrodynamics 235; empiricism (Neurath, O.) 626; experiments 267; fallibilism 271; Feyerabend, P.K. 283; fictionalism 285; functional explanation 300; Galilei, G. 304; gender 307; general relativity 308; genetics 308; geology 310; Heideggerian philosophy of 341; Heisenberg, W. 342; Helmholtz, H. von 343; Hertz, H.R. 350; hierarchy of (Comte, A.) 158; Huxley, T.H. 371; incommensurability 387; information theory 395; Kepler, J. 436; Kuhn, T.S. 446; Le Roy, É.L.E.J. 474; Linnaeus, C. von 491; Marxist philosophy of 532; matter 544; Maxwell, J.C. 546;

medicine, philosophy of 552; metaphysics relationship 569–70; molecular biology 587; natural laws 472; naturalized philosophy of 617; Newton, I. 627; nineteenth century philosophy of 803; observation 641; operationalism 646; optics 646; Planck, M.K.E.L. 677; Poincaré, J.H. 685; quantum measurement problem 731; randomness 738; religion and 757; sociobiology 845; space 853; species 855; taxonomy 876; theories 885; thermodynamics 887; thought experiments 890; time 892; time travel 893; unityof 907; vitalism 919; Wallace, A.R. 924; Weyl, H. 927 science, philosophy of 804 French 297; postcolonial philosophy 698 scientific antirealism 808 entities 747; fictionalism 285 scientific method 808 experiment (Boyle, R.) 98–9; gender bias 276; logic of discovery 213; naturalized philosophy of science 617; theories 805–6 scientific philosophy feminism 307 scientific realism entities 747; Planck, M.K.E.L. 677; Putnam, H. 726; social science 809 scientists responsibilities of 768 scope 809 Scotland Aberdeen Philosophical Society 2;





Epicurus 245; Megarian school 561; Melissus 562; Parmenides 658; Presocratics 708; Stoicism 862; Zeno of Citium 944 Sefirot Kabbalah 432 Segal, Gabriel indirect discourse 391; methodological individualism 570 Segerberg, Krister dynamic logics 224 Seidler, M.J. Crusius, C.A. 184 seiza (quiet-sitting) 299 Selden, John 811 self cogito argument (Descartes, R.) 204; continuity of 812; disordered (Kant, I.) 812; efficient/appreciativeaspects(Iqbal,M.) 404; enduring 402; finitude (Fichte, J.G.) 283–4; indexicals 201; Indian theories of 812; postmodern critique of subject 868; pragmatism 704; self-control 812; symbolic interactionism 873 self-certificationalism Mīmāṃsā 251 self-control 812 see also akrasia self-cultivation Chinese philosophy 812–13; East Asian Philosophy 228 self-deception 813–14 ethics of 814 self-improvement introspection 402 self-interest rational choice theory 739 self-knowledge sport 859 self-realization 814 self-respect 814–15 forgiveness 289 Sellars, Wilfrid Stalker 815 Sellmann, James D. Lushi chunqiu 513 selves, community of McTaggart, J.M.E. 517 semantics 456 see also meaning; possible worlds; pragmatics;reference; truth-conditions adverbs 6; anaphora 30–1; bivalence 404; cognitive 457;

compositionality 156; concepts 159; conceptual role 816; descriptions 205; discourse 213; fiction 284; game-theoretic 816–17; holism 360; ideal language philosophy 704; indexicals 201; Indian philosophy 453; modal logic 584; predication 708; situation 818; teleological 818 semiotics 456 see also signification; signs literary theory (Barthes, R.) 76; Moscow-Tartu school 602 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus 33 sensation bodily 91–2; external world (Descartes, R.) 204; perception distinction (Bergson, H.-L.) 85; phenomenalism 669; qualia 729 sense perception fallibility of 628 sense and reference 820 see also meaning; sense cognitive significance 820; proper names 717 sense-data 821 see also qualia; sense perception; senses perception 665 senses Molyneux problem 588 sensory experience religious 761





Sheehan, Thomas Heidegger, M. 340 Shem Tov family 421 Shenxiu 677 Sher, R.B. Blair, H. 90 Shestov, Lev (Yehuda Leib Shvartsman) 825 religious existentialism 826 shi (authoritative power) 479 Shields, Rob Lefebvre, H. 475 Shijing (Book of Songs) 135–6 Shintō 826 East Asian Philosophy 228; influence of Japanese philosophy 416; Motoori Norinaga 603 Shope, Robert K. Gettier problems 313 showing meaning (Wittgenstein, L.) 933 Shpet, Gustav Gustavovich 827 Shrader-Frechette, Kristin risk 773 Shujing (Book of Documents) 135 Shun Kwong-Loi Wang Yangming 924–5 Sicily Empedocles 239; Gorgias 322–3 Sidelle, Alan necessary truth and convention 619 Siderits, Mark Nāgārjuna 608 Siedentop, L.A. Tocqueville, A. de 894 Sieg, Wilfried primitive recursive functions 157; proof theory 716–17 Siger of Brabant 828 signals information theory 396 signification imposition 454; linguistic rhythms (Kristeva, J.) 444; medieval theories of 454 Signposts movement 829 neo-idealism 786 signs demythologization of (Barthes, R.) 76; Renaissance theories of 459 al-Sijistani, Abu Sulayman Muhammad 829–30 Silverthorne, M. Carmichael, G. 123 Silvestri, Francesco 830 similarity species classification 855 Simmonds, N.E. Blackstone, W. 90; law and morality 464 Simmons, A. John

consent 168–9 Simon, Herbert A. introspection, psychology of 402 Simon, Lawrence H. rationality and cultural relativism 741–2 Simons, Peter identity of indiscernibles 381 simples logical atomism (Wittgenstein, L.) 933





Smith, Adam 834 Smith, Barry Gestalt psychology 313; Reinach, A. 751 Smith, Barry C. meaning and rule-following 546 Smith, George E. Newton, I. 627 Smith, G.W. limits of law 467 Smith, Michael emotivism 238; reasons and causes 745–6 Smith, Nicholas D. slavery 833; wisdom 932 Smith, Nicholas J.J. epiphenomenalism 245–6 Smith, Peter Broad, C.D. 102–3 Smith, Quentin tense and temporal logic 880–1 Snowdon, Paul F. Strawson, P.F. 864–5 Sober, Elliott innate knowledge 397; simplicity (in scientific theories) 830 Soble, Alan sexuality 823 social action 835 joint action 835 social arithmetic Condorcet, M.J.A.N. 161 social choice 835 aggregation 835 social contract equality condition (Rawls, J.) 743; Hobbes, T. 175–6 social control Mozi 587 social democracy 836 social epistemology 836 social facts holism in social science 359 social functionalism 301 social interaction sympathy (Smith, A.) 834 social justice liberalism 689 social laws 836–7 see also social theory definition 836 social norms 837 definition 837; reciprocity 746 social positivism Latin America 697 social psychology behaviourism in 80 social recognition

rights 773 social relativism 837 see also cultural relativism; moral relativism social revolution Marcuse, H. 525 social science 840 see also anthropology; society; sociology behaviourism in 80–1; contemporary philosophy of 837–8; development ethics 206; evolutionary theory 263–4; experiments in 267–8; explanation in 268; feminism 276; functionalism in 301; history of philosophy of 838–9; holism in 359–60; individualism in 359–60; methodology of 839–40; natural science comparison 842;





theories of 846–7 Socrates 847 see also Socratic dialogues; Socratic schools akrasia 20; influence of 33–4; self-knowledge 859; trial of 847 Socratic dialogues 848 see also Plato, Socratic dialogues; Xenophon background to 847 Socratic schools 848 ancient philosophy 34; Megarian 561 solidarity 848–9 solipsism 849 see also methodological solipsism; other minds; physical world, knowledge of definition 795; Wittgenstein, L. 181 solitude of philosophers (Ibn Bajja) 373 Solomon, Robert C. emotions 237 Soloveitchik, Joseph B. 849 Solov’ëv, Vladimir Sergeevich 849 All-Unity 784 Somerset, Fiona Dietrich of Freiberg 210; Gerbert of Aurillac 312; John of Mirecourt 425; Thomas of York 888 Sommerville, Johann P. Filmer, R. 286 Soni, Jayandra Jaina philosophy 413; manifoldness 523; Mahāvīra 518 Soper, Kate nature and convention 618 sophismata 500 Kilvington, R. 438 Sophists 33 Antiphon 40; dissoi logoi (twofold argument) 214; Gorgias 322; Hippias 354; Prodicus 715; Socrates 847; Thrasymachus 890 Sorell, Tom business ethics 115–16; Hobbes, T. 357 Sosa, Ernest foundationalism 290–1 soteriological exclusivism definition 762 Soto, Domingo de 851 Sōtō Zen Buddhism Zeami 944 soul 851–2 see also Physical Soul; psychē

body relationship 851–2; importance of (Socrates) 847; Islamic philosophy 851; Madhva 518; persons 668 South, James Renaissance Aristotelianism 49–50 Southgate, Beverley Sergeant, J. 821; White, T. 928 sovereignty 853 commonwealth (Hobbes, T.) 357–8; Erasmus, D. 252 Soviet Union (USSR) Asmus, V.F. 62; Il’enkov, E.V. 382; Mamardashvili, M.K. 521–2; Moscow-Tartu school 602; Vygotskii, L.S. 922; Vysheslavtsev, B.P. 923 space 853 spacetime 854 Spain 854–5 Abravanel, I. 3; Albo, J. 21; Arama, I. 44; Báñez, D. 75; Bar Hayya, A. 75; Crescas, H. 180; Duran, P. 221; Duran, S. 221; Generation of 1898 854; Halevi, J. 330; Ibn al-‘Arabi 372–3; Ibn Bajja 373; Ibn Daud, A. 373; Ibn Ezra, A. 373; Ibn Ezra, M. 374; Ibn Falaquera 374; Ibn Gabirol, S. 374;





Spirtes, Peter statistics and social science 860–1 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty feminist literary criticism 279–80 split brains 858 Sponberg, Alan Ambedkar, B.R. 26 spontaneous generation 489 sport 858–9 ethics 858; mind-body problem 859; self-knowledge 859; society 858–9 Sprigge, T.L.S. the Absolute 3; idealism 379; panpsychism 654 Sprintzen, David A. Camus, A. 121 örīsampradāya School of Vaishnava 737 Stack, George J. materialism 535 Stadler, F. Vienna Circle 915–16 Stair, James Dalrymple, Viscount 859 Stairs, Allen parapsychology 657; quantum mechanics, interpretation of 731 stakeholders business ethics 115–16 Stalinism Trotsky, L. opposition to 899 Stalnaker, Robert propositional attitudes 720 standpoints ( nayavāda ) manifoldness, Jaina theory of 523 Stanosz, B. Kotarbiński, T. 443 Stanwood, P.G. Law, W. 472 Stark, Cynthia A. self-respect 814–15 state 859–60 see also government; nation; obligation, political; political representation; politics; sovereignty anarchism 31; Islamic philosophy 408; libertarianism 487; morality 400–1; neutrality 627 state of nature war 925 statements 720–1 religious 761–2 statistical mechanics 887 statistics 860 and social science 860–1 Statman, Daniel moral luck 594–5 Stead, Christopher Eusebius 261;

Gnosticism 316; logos 508; pneuma (spirit) 684 Stein, Howard Dedekind, J.W.R. 196; logicism 507–8 Stein, Peter historical jurisprudence 428 Steiner, Rudolf 861 Steinkellner, Ernst Dharmakīrti 207 Stępień, Antoni B. Ingarden, R.W. 396; Poland 685 Sterelny, Kim reductionism, philosophy of mind 748; species 855 stereotypes discrimination 214 Stern, Josef Arama, I. 44; Nahmanides, M. 609





Boethius, A.M.S. 94; eternity 254–5 Sturgeon, Nicholas L. naturalism in ethics 615 Sturm und Drang 331 Styles, Scott C. Stair, J.D. 859 subject imagery (Le Doeuff, M.) 473; postmodern critique of 868 subjective colour 149–50 subjectivism objectivity 640 subjectivity Chinese Marxism 530; free (Fichte, J.G.) 283 sublime, the power of (Burke, E.) 114 substance 869 see also matter; properties; substance-pluralism conceptualism 869; essence distinction (Locke, J.) 493–4; extension (Descartes, R.) 204; ideas (Locke, J.) 493–4; medieval doctrines of 557; particulars 659 substance-pluralism Nyāya 545; Sānkhya-Yoga 545; Vaiśeṣika 545 substantia Trinity 898 substitution of identities, law of 398 subversion invention (Certeau, M. de) 130 Suchocki, Marjorie feminist theology 280–1 Suchon, Gabrielle 869 Suderman, J.M. Campbell, G. 121 suffering 870 Buddhism 870 Sufism al-Ghazali 314; Ibn Sab‘in 377 al-Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din Yahya 870–1 modern Islamic philosophy 410 suicide 871 Sumner, Claude Ethiopian philosophy 259 sun pre-Columbian religions 463 Sun Bin Sunzi 871 Sun Wu 871 Sungtaek Cho Buddhism, Korea 111–12 Sunzi (The Art of Warfare) 871 supererogation 871 supernatural

miracles 582–3; prophecy 718–19; religious experience (Oman, J.W.) 643 supervenience 872 of the mental 872 Suppe, Frederick Bridgman, P.W. 102; operationalism 646; scientific theories 885 Suppes, Patrick measurement, theory of 549 supposition theory medieval logic 500; Renaissance 459 surprise examination paradox 656 surrogacy 766–7 Suso, Henry 873 sustainability green political philosophy 325 Swain, Marshall defeasibility theory of 441





al-Farabi 272–3; Ibn Taymiyya 378–9; John of Damascus 424; Lucian 512; al-Muqammas, Daud 604; Nemesius 621; Numenius 638; Posidonius 696 systems theory in social science 874 Taber, John A. Mīmāṃsā 574 tableau systems 612 tacit knowledge Polanyi, M. 686 Tagore, Rabindranath 875 Taliaferro, C. 761 Talmud Rabbinic theology 884 Tamburrini, Guglielmo Turing machines 902–3 Tanabe Hajime 875 Tanner, Michael aesthetics and ethics 10 Tarentum Archytas 45–6 Tarski, Alfred 875–6 see also Tarskian paradigm; Tarski’s definition of truth Tarski’s definition of truth 876 Tasioulas, John justice, equity and law 429 Taub, Liba Eudoxus 260 Tauler, John 876 Tavuzzi, Michael Capreolus, J. 122; Silvestri, F. 830 al-Tawhidi, Abu Hayyan 876 taxonomy 876 see also classification; species Taylor, Barry Dummett, M.A.E. 219 Taylor, C.C.W. Democritus 200; eudaimonia 260; Leucippus 483 Taylor, Charles 877 Taylor, Jacqueline A. moral sense theories 597 Taylor, Kenneth A. propositional attitude statements 719 Taylor, Paul art and truth 54 technology 878 see also computer science; computers; engineering ethics; information technology ethics 877–8 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre 761 Tel Quel school 879 teleological ethics 879

see also consequentialism; hedonism; perfectionism; utilitarianism teleological semantics 818 teleology 879 see also teleological ethics justice 429 Telesio, Bernardino 879–80 Teller, Paul field theory, quantum 286 Temple, William 880 temporal logic 880–1 see also tense conditionals (Diodorus Cronus) 211 Ten Modes of Scepticism Aenesidemus 6 Tennant, Frederick Robert 880 tense logic 710 terms logico-linguistic signs 521





theosophy 886–7 Steiner, R. 861 thermodynamics 887 Thessaly Philo of Larissa 673 Thiel, Udo Overton, R. 651 Thielicke, Helmut 887 Thierry of Chartres 887 Thom, Paul ancient logic 494–5 Thomas à Kempis 887 Thomas of York 888 Thomas, Alan MacIntyre, A. 517; values 912 Thomas, Barry Smithalan axiology 71 Thomasius, Christian 888 Thomason, R.H. modal logic 584 Thomism 888 see also Aquinas, Thomas; Neo-Thomism Durandus of St Pouçain 221–2; John of St Thomas 425–6; Maritain, J. 526; Neo-Thomism 889; Roman Catholicism 888; Silvestri, F. 830; Soto, D. de 851; Suárez, F. 868 Thompson, J.B. Ricoeur, P. 772 Thompson, Kirill Ole Zhang Zai 946; Zhou Dunyi 947; Zhu Xi 947 Thompson, Michael Anscombe, G.E.M. 38 Thoreau, Henry David 889 Thornhill, Christopher historicism 355 thought absolute prepositions 148; addition to matter 95; animals 37; concepts 159; content 579–80; indexical content of 173; language 455; life relationship 270; mental language 931 thought experiments 890 Thrace Protagoras 721 Thrasymachus 890 Thucydides 890–1 ti (substance) Chinese philosophy 891 tian (Heaven)

Chinese philosophy 891 Tiantai School of Buddhism Zhiyi 946–7 Tibawi, A.L. 382 Tibet Mi bskyod rdo rje 571; mKhas grub dge legs dpal bzang po 583; rGyal tshab dar ma rin chen 770; Sa skya paṇḍita 789; Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa 901 Tibetan philosophy 387 Mādhyamika School of Buddhism 106 Tiles, J.E. pragmatism in ethics 705 Tiles, Mary E. Cantor’s theorem 122; continuum hypothesis 175 Tillemans, Tom J.F. Tibetan philosophy 891; Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa 901 Tillich, Paul 892 Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland Cheng Hao 134; Cheng Yi 134 time 892 see also change; duration; samsāra; spacetime abstract objects 4; continuants 174–5; eternity 254–5; metaphysics 568–9; multiplicity 198; sacred 235; trilateral conception (Mir Damad, Muhammad Baqir) 582





cultural relativism (Davidson, D.) 741; indeterminacy of (Quine, W.V.) 733; radical 735 translators 898 Gerard of Cremona 311 transubstantiation Wyclif, J. 937 triage Jewish bioethics 90 Trickster Native American philosophy 611 Trifogli, Cecilia Giles of Rome 315 Trinity 898–9 see also God; Jesus Christ Neoplatonic conception of 526 Tristán, Flora 281 tropes rhetoric 770 Trotsky, Leon 899 trust 899 see also promising; reciprocity truth a priori 1; analyticity 30; art 54; belief theory 737; coherence theory of 899–900; confirmation theory (Hempel, C.G.) 344–5; correspondence theory of 900; dao 190; deflationary theories of 900; game-theoretic semantics 817; Gandhi, M.K. 305; inference to the best explanation 394; logical 505; ‘metaphysics of presence’ (Derrida, J.) 203; mimēsis 449; relativism 752; religious 761–2; Tarski, A. 876 truth bearers 720 truth-conditions intuitionistic logic 404; language-world connection 458; meaning 547 truthfulness 900 deception contrast 900 truth-functionality many-valued logic 524 truth-preservation imperative logic 385–6 truth tables intuitionistic logic 404; æukasiewicz, J. 523 truth-value gaps Kripke, S. 815–16 Tschirnhaus, Ehrenfried Walther von 901 Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa (Dzongkaba) Mi bskyod rdo rje critique of 571–2

Tsouna, Voula Aristippus the Elder 47; Cyrenaics 187; Socratic schools 848 Tu Wei-ming Daxue 193; self-cultivation 812–13; Zhongyong 947 Tucker, Abraham 902 motivation 902 Tucker, John Allen Fujiwara Seika 299; Itō Jinsai 412; Ogyū Sorai 642; Tominaga Nakamoto 896 Tucker, Mary Evelyn Kaibara Ekken 432 Tudor, Henry Bernstein, E. 87; Kautsky, K.J. 435; Lassalle, F. 459; Luxemburg, R. 514 Tunisia Ibn Khaldun 375; Israeli, Isaac ben Solomon 411;





Ha’am, Ahad 328; Shestov, L. 825; Shpet, G.G. 827; Skovoroda, H.S. 832–3 Ulrich of Strasbourg 905–6 ultimate causes Liber de causis 485 ultimate reality emptiness 571; Nāgārjuna 608; religious pluralism 762 Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de 906 unconscious mental states 906 see also dreaming undecidability method of forcing 288 underdetermination 906 Duhem, P.M.M. 218–19 understanding common notions 347; meaning 548; mindlanguage connection 457; objective spirit 211 Ungar, A.M. Herbrand’s theorem 347–8; natural deduction, tableau and sequent systems 612 Unger, Roberto 182 Uniacke, Suzanne double effect principle 216 uniformitarianism geology 310 United Nations (UN) decade of the woman 281 United States of America Baumgardt, D. 78; Bowne, B.P. 98; Bridgman, P.W. 102; Cavell, S. 129; Chisholm, R.M. 138; Chomsky, N. 138; Church, A. 140; Critical Legal Studies 181; Davidson, D. 193; Dennett, D.C. 201; Dewey, J. 207; Dworkin, R. 223; Edwards, J. 233; eighteenth and nineteenth century 26; Einstein, A. 234; Fodor, J.A. 287; Frank, J. 291; Franklin, B. 293; Frei, H. 297; Fuller, L.L. 299–300; Hanson, N.R. 332; Hohfeld, W.N. 358; Holmes, O.W. 360; Jefferson, T. 417; Johnson, A.B. 426; Johnson, S. 426–7;

Kaplan, M. 433; Kripke, S.A. 444; Kuhn, T.S. 446; legal realism 478; Lewis, C.I. 484; Lewis, D.K. 485; Llewellyn, K.N. 492; Mead, G.H. 546; Nagel, E. 608; Nagel, T. 609; Native American philosophy 611; Niebuhr, H.R. 629; Niebuhr, R. 629–30; Nozick, R. 637; Paine, T. 653; Post, E.L. 698; post-structuralism 701; Pound, R. 703; pragmatism 704; Putnam, H. 726; Quine, W.V. 732–3; Rand, A. 738; Rawls, J. 743–4; Rorty, R. 775; Royce, J. 778; Santayana, G. 793; Searle, J. 809–10; Sellars, W.S. 815; Shütz, A. 802; Skinner, B.F. 832; Soloveitchik, J.B. 849; Strauss, L. 864; Thoreau, H.D. 889; unity of opposites 346; of science 907 Universal Grammar (UG) Chomsky, N. 139 universal language 907 universal specification, principle of free logics 293





value judgments in social science 912 value pluralism Berlin, I. 86 value theory personal identity 667 values 912 absolutism (Lossky, N.O.) 510; ascetic ideal (Nietzsche, F.W.) 630–1; axiology 71; sport 858 Van Gulick, R. Chinese room argument 138 Van Inwagen, Peter Incarnation and Christology 386; Lewis, D.K. 485; resurrection 769; Trinity 898–9 Van Norden, Bryan W. Mencius 563 Vargish, T. modernism 586 variability measurement theory 550 Varley, Paul bushi philosophy 115; Shintō 826 Vasubandhu 913 cosmology 178; Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 Vātsyāyana 913 Indian and Tibetan philosophy 389 Veda Arya Samaj 61; causation 128; interpretation 401; Mīmāṃsā 574–5 Vedānta Indian and Tibetan philosophy 388; Rāmānuja 737; Śankara 792; Vallabhācārya 912 vegetarianism Porphyry 695 Veitch, J. 123 Velazco y Trianosky, Gregory supererogation 871 Verbeek, Theo Geulincx, A. 314; Le Clerc, J. 473; Rohault, J. 774 Verene, Donald Philip Cassirer, E. 124–5 verificationism 548 Ayer, A.J. 72; critiques of 548; logical positivism 548 Vernia, Nicoletto 914 Verona Hillel ben Samuel of 353

Verständigung (agreement) language 154 vices evil 262; supererogation 872; and virtues 917 Vico, Giambattista 914 Vienna Circle 915–16 see also Ayer, A.J.; Carnap, R.; Lvóv-Warsaw School; Neurath, O.; Schlick, Friedrich; Wittgenstein, L. logical positivism 506 Villey, Michel 916 violence 916 virtú princely (Machiavelli, N.) 516 virtue human nature relationship (Butler, J.) 116; Indian conceptions of 223; knowledge (Spinoza, B. de) 857–8;





liberalism 486 Wales Price, R. 709 Walicki, Andrzej Chaadaev, P.I. 130; Chernyshevskii, N.G. 134; Hessen, S.I. 351; Lavrov, P.L. 464; Mikhailovskii, N.K. 572; Russian philosophy 786; Slavophilism 833; Solov’ëv, V.S. 849 Walker, Nicholas Hegelianism 338–9; Hölderlin, J.C.F. 358 Walker, Paul E. al-Razi, Abu Bakr 744 Walker, Ralph C.S. contingency 174 Wallace, Alfred Russel 924 Wallace, R. Jay moral motivation 595; moral sentiments 598 Walters, R.L. Du Chätelet-Lomont, É. 217 Walton, Douglas N. fallacies 271; formal and informal logic 289 Waltz, K. 874 Wang Chong 924 Wang Yangming 924–5 Wang, Zhouming 424 war 925 state of nature (Hobbes, T.) 358 Wardy, R. categories 125 Warnock, G.J. ordinary language philosophy 647–8 Warsaw school of logic 686–7 Washington, Corey use/mention distinction 909 Watson, J.B. scientific behaviourism 81 Watsuji Tetsurō 925 Watt, W.C. semiotics 819 Weale, Albert equality 251–2; needs and interests 620; welfare 927 web of belief mental/semantic holism 360 Weber, Max 926 Weier, W. 144 Weil, Simone 926 Weinberger, Ota 926 Weyr, F. 927 Weinstock, Daniel M. moral pluralism 596 Weithman, Paul J.

religion and political philosophy 756–7 welfare 927 see also interests; needs; wellbeing as capabilities 927; objective accounts 927; utilitarianism 909 wellbeing happiness relationship 332–3 Wellman, K. La Mettrie, J.O. de 448 Western philosophy Chinese philosophy comparison 136–7; East Asian Philosophy comparison 225–6; Orientalism 649





Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen 932 Berlin, I. 86; death 195; morality 600; virtues and vices 917 Williams, C.J.F. Prior, A.N. 710 Williams, D. Condorcet, M.J.A.N. 161; Voltaire 920 Williams, Michael doubt 216; Feyerabend, P.K. 283 Williams, Paul Mi bskyod rdo rje 571 Williams, R. Weil, S. 926 Williams, S.G. truth and meaning 547–8 Williams, Thomas Farrer, A.M. 273 Williamson, Timothy identity 381 Wilson, Mark field theory, classical 285–6; mechanics, classical 551 Wilson, T.D. introspection, psychology of 402 Winkler, Kenneth P. Browne, P. 103; Collier, A. 148; Collins, A. 148; More, H. 601 Winnie, John computer science 157–8 winning sport ethics 858 Wippel, John F. Godfrey of Fontaines 319–20; Siger of Brabant 828 Wiredu, Kwasi Akan philosophical psychology 19 wisdom 932 cultivation of (Vico, G.) 914–15 Wissenschaftslehre (theory of science) 283 witchcraft natural phenomena 316 Witherspoon, John 932 Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann 933 see also Wittgensteinian ethics facts 568; family resemblances 159; Australian philosophy 67; pragmatics 456; private language argument 711 Wittgensteinian ethics 934 Wodeham, Adam 934 Wokler, R. Buffon, G.L.L. 112; Diderot, D. 209;

Enlightenment, continental 241; Monboddo 589 Woleński, J. Ajdukiewicz, K. 19; Kotarbiński, T. 443; Leśniewski, S. 482; Łukasiewicz, J. 513; Twardowski, K. 903 Wolf, Susan meaning of life 489 Wolff, Christian 934 Knutzen, M. 442; method 935 Wolff, Jonathan libertarianism 487–8; Nozick, R. 637; political philosophy 690 Wollaston, William 935 Wollstonecraft, Mary 935–6





wrongdoing forgiveness 747; mercy 747 Wyclif, John 937 Hus, J. 369 Wylie, Alison archaeology 44–5; feminism and social science 276 Xenocrates 938 Xenophanes 938 Xenophon 938–9 Socratic dialogues 847 Xiaojing (Book of Filial Piety) 136 xin (heart-and-mind) 939 xin (trustworthiness) 939 cheng 134 xing (human nature) Chinese philosophy 939 Xunzi language theories 496 Yablo, Stephen essentialism 254 Yan Shoucheng, W.F. 924 Yandell, Keith E. Bowne, B.P. 98; Hastings 738–9; Inge, W.R. 396–7; Loisy, A. 508–9; Oman, J.W. 643; Otto, R. 650–1; pantheism 655; personalism 667–8; Ramsey, I.T. 737; reincarnation 751; salvation 790–1; Steiner, R. 861; Teilhard de Chardin, P. 878–9; Temple, W. 880; Thielicke, H. 887 Yang Xiong 941 Yangzhu 941 Yates, Robin D.S. Mozi 603 Yi Hwang 941 Four-Seven Debate 165 Yi Kan 941 Yi, Urho 139 Yi Yulgok 941 Four-Seven Debate 165 Yijing (Book of Changes) 942 Chinese classics 135; dao 190 Yili (Ceremony and Rites) 136 yin-yang 942 East Asian Philosophy 227; qi 729 yoga duty 223

Yoga self-realization 318 Yogācāra School of Buddhism 107 see also Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda School epistemology 251 yong (function) 891 Yoruba philosophy aesthetics 10; epistemology 942 Yosha, N. Herrera, A. Cohen de 349 Young, George M. Fëdorov, N.F. 275 Young Hegelians 338 see also Feuerbach, L.; Strauss, D.F. Ruge, A. 779 Yu Ying shi (Yü Ying-shih) Dai Zhen 189 Yukio Kachi Shōtoku Constitution 827