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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv CHRONOLOGY: A CONCISE HISTORY OF COSMIC DISCOVERY . . . . . . . 1 2800 BC to 1600 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1600 to 1700 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1900 to 2010 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 GLOSSARY WITH DATA TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 AUTHOR INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 SUBJECT INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
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PG1FHBTVT
(MPTTBSZ"
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BOUJQBSUJDMF BOEQPTJUSPO "OUJNBUUFS .BUUFSNBEFPGQBSUJDMFTXJUIJEFOUJDBMNBTTBOETQJOBTUIPTFPGPSEJOBSZ
NBUUFS CVUXJUIPQQPTJUFDIBSHFѮFBOUJNBUUFSQBSUJDMFPGUIFFMFDUSPOJTUIFQPTJUSPO PS iQPTJUJWF FMFDUSPOu "OUJNBUUFS IBT CFFO QSPEVDFE CZ DPTNJD SBZT TUSJLJOH BUPNT JOUIF&BSUITBUNPTQIFSF JOUFSSFTUSJBMQBSUJDMFBDDFMFSBUPST BOEEVSJOHëBSFTPOUIF 4VO8IFOBQBSUJDMFPGBOUJNBUUFSDPMMJEFTXJUIUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHQBSUJDMFPGPSEJOBSZ NBUUFSUIFZBOOJIJMBUFFBDIPUIFS QSPEVDJOHFOFSHFUJDSBEJBUJPODBMMFEHBNNBSBZT 4FFBOUJQBSUJDMF BOEQPTJUSPO "OUJOFVUSJOP ѮFBOUJQBSUJDMFPGBOFVUSJOP4FFBOUJNBUUFS BOUJQBSUJDMF BOEOFVUSJOP "OUJQBSUJDMF "QBSUJDMFFRVBMJONBTTBOENPTUPUIFSQSPQFSUJFTUPBOFMFNFOUBSZQBS UJDMF CVUPQQPTJUFJODIBSHFѮFBOUJQBSUJDMFPGBOFMFDUSPOJTUIFQPTJUSPOPSiQPTJUJWF FMFDUSPOu BOEUIFBOUJQBSUJDMFPGUIFOFVUSJOPJTBOBOUJOFVUSJOP8IFOBQBSUJDMFNFFUT XJUIJUTBOUJQBSUJDMF UIFZBOOJIJMBUFFBDIPUIFS QSPEVDJOHFOFSHFUJDSBEJBUJPODBMMFE HBNNBSBZT4FFBOUJNBUUFSBOEQPTJUSPO "QFSUVSF ѮFEJBNFUFSPGUIFMJHIUHBUIFSJOHMFOTPSNJSSPSPGBUFMFTDPQF BNFBTVSF
PGJUTMJHIUHBUIFSJOHBCJMJUZ "QFSUVSFTZOUIFTJT "UFDIOJRVF QJPOFFSFECZUIF&OHMJTISBEJPBTUSPOPNFS.BSUJO 3ZMF ¢
JOXIJDIBOBSSBZPGSBEJPEJTIFTJTDPOOFDUFEFMFDUSPOJDBMMZBOE VTFEXJUIUIF&BSUITSPUBUJPOUPTZOUIFTJ[FUIFSFTPMVUJPOPGBNVDIMBSHFSUFMFTDPQF 4FF"VTUSBMJB5FMFTDPQF .&3-*/ .VMMBSE3BEJP"TUSPOPNZ0CTFSWBUPSZ /BUJPOBM 3BEJP"TUSPOPNZ0CTFSWBUPSZ 7FSZ-BSHF"SSBZ 7FSZ-POH#BTFMJOF"SSBZ BOE8FTU FSCPSL4ZOUIFTJT3BEJP5FMFTDPQF "QPMMPBTUFSPJE 4FFOFBS&BSUIBTUFSPJE "QPMMP.JTTJPOT 4JY"QPMMPTQBDFDSBѫUSBOTQPSUFEUXFMWFIVNBOTUPUIF.PPOBOE
CBDLCFUXFFOBOEѮFZMFѫTFJTNPNFUFSTUPNFBTVSFUIFMVOBSJOUFSJPSBOE MBTFSDPSOFSSFëFDUPSTVTFEUPEFUFSNJOFUIF.PPOTJODSFBTJOHEJTUBODFGSPN&BSUI BOESFUVSOFEBUPUBMPGLJMPHSBNTPGSPDLTUIBUDPOUBJOFEOPXBUFSBOEIBEOFWFS CFFOFYQPTFEUPJU CVUXFSFVTFEUPEFDJQIFSUIF.PPOTIJTUPSZBOEQSPWJEFDMVFTUP JUTPSJHJOѮF"QPMMPBTUSPOBVU /FJM""SNTUSPOH ¢ XBTUIFêSTUIVNBO UPTUFQPOUIF.PPO GSPNUIF-VOBS.PEVMF&BHMFPO+VMZ4FF.PPO "QQBSFOU MVNJOPTJUZ ѮF UPUBM BNPVOU PG FOFSHZ QFS TFDPOE QFS VOJU SFDFJWJOH BSFBEFUFDUFEGSPNBDFMFTUJBMPCKFDUѮFBQQBSFOUMVNJOPTJUZJTFRVBMUPUIFBCTPMVUF
(MPTTBSZ"
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EFHSFFJTEFOPUFECZUIFTZNCPM "SD NJOVUF "VOJUPGBOHVMBSNFBTVSFFRVBMUPPOFTJYUJFUIPGBEFHSFFPGBOHVMBS
NFBTVSF PSUPPGBOBSDEFHSFFѮFSFBSFBSDNJOVUFTJOBSDEFHSFF"OBSD NJOVUFJTEFOPUFECZUIFTZNCPM BOEJUJTBMTPDBMMFEBNJOVUFPGBSDѮF.PPOJT BSDNJOVUFTBDSPTT "SDTFDPOE "VOJUPGBOHVMBSNFBTVSFFRVBMUP PGBOBSDEFHSFFBOEPGBO
BSDNJOVUF"OBSDTFDPOEJTEFOPUFECZUIFTZNCPM BOEJUJTBMTPDBMMFEBTFDPOEPG BSDѮFSFBSFTFDPOETPGBSDJOPOFSBEJBO BOEPSBEJBOTJOBGVMMDJSDMF PGEFHSFFT XIFSFUIFDPOTUBOUP+VQJUFSJTTFDPOETPGBSDBDSPTT "SDUVSVT ѮFCSJHIUFTUTUBSJOUIFOPSUIFSOIFNJTQIFSFBOEUIFGPVSUICSJHIUFTUTUBS POUIFDFMFTUJBMTQIFSF"SDUVSVTIBTCFFODBMMFEUIFi#FBS8BUDIFSu TJODFJUGPMMPXT 6STB.BKPS UIF(SFBU#FBS BSPVOEUIFOPSUIFSOQPMF BOEUIFOBNF"SDUVSVTEFSJWFT GSPNBSLUPT UIF(SFFLXPSEGPSiCFBSu"SDUVSVTJTBMTPLOPXOBT"MQIB#PÕUJT UIF CSJHIUFTUTUBSJOUIFDPOTUFMMBUJPO#PÕUFT*UJTBOPSBOHF,HJBOUTUBSBUBEJTUBODFPG MJHIUZFBST XJUIBOBQQBSFOUWJTVBMNBHOJUVEFPGmBOEBOBCTPMVUFWJTVBMNBHOJ UVEFPGm4FF,TUBS TUBSTBOETUFMMBSDMBTTJêDBUJPO "SFDJCP0CTFSWBUPSZ ѮFXPSMETMBSHFTUSBEJPUFMFTDPQFMPDBUFEOFBS"SFDJCP 1VFSUP 3JDP EFEJDBUFEJOBOESFTVSGBDFEJO*UTNFUBMSFëFDUJOHTVSGBDFIBTBTQIFS JDBMTIBQFXJUIBEJBNFUFSPGNFUFST GFFU
BOEGPDVTFTJODPNJOHSBEJPXBWFT UPBNPWFBCMFTUSVDUVSFQPTJUJPOFEBCPVUNFUFST GFFU BCPWFѮFUSBOTNJTTJPO BOESFDFQUJPOPGSBEBSTJHOBMTGSPNUIF"SFDJCP0CTFSWBUPSZJOUIFTSFTVMUFEJO BOBDDVSBUFEFUFSNJOBUJPOPGUIFBTUSPOPNJDBMVOJUBOEUIFêSTUDPSSFDUNFBTVSFNFOUT PGUIFSPUBUJPOQFSJPETPG.FSDVSZBOE7FOVTѮF"SFDJCP0CTFSWBUPSZJTVTFEUP TUVEZSBEJPFNJTTJPOGSPNBMMLJOETPGDPTNJDPCKFDUT TVDIBTQVMTBST JODMVEJOHUIF EJTDPWFSZJOPGUIF#JOBSZ1VMTBS 143 VTFEUPQSPWJEFFWJEFODFGPS HSBWJUBUJPOBMSBEJBUJPO BOEUIFEJTDPWFSZJOPGUIFQVMTBS143 XIJDI IBT BU MFBTU UXP &BSUITJ[FE QMBOFUT PSCJUJOH JU 4FF CJOBSZ QVMTBS FYUSBTPMBS QMBOFU
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*ULY *ULY .OVEMBER .OVEMBER -ARCH
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*ULY $ECEMBER
$ECEMBER !PRIL
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!UGUST !UGUST
*ULY .OVEMBER
.OVEMBER -ARCH -ARCH
0ATHOFTOTALITY
!TLANTIC/CEAN !NGOLA :AMBIA :IMBABWE -OZAMBIQUE -ADAGASCAR !NGOLA "OTSWANA :AMBIA :IMBABWE 3OUTH!FRICA -O ZAMBIQUE SOUTH)NDIAN/CEAN SOUTHERN!USTRALIA !NTARCTICA %ASTERN0ACIlC/CEAN %ASTERN"RAZIL !TLANTIC/CEAN 'HANA 4OGO "ENIN .IGE RIA .IGER #HAD ,IBYA %GYPT 4URKEY 2USSIA .ORTHERN#ANADA 'REENLAND !RCTIC/CEAN 2USSIA -ON GOLIA #HINA )NDIA .EPAL "HUTAN "URMA #HINA 0ACIlC/CEAN 3OUTH0ACIlC/CEAN %ASTER)SLAND #HILE !RGENTINA .ORTHERN!USTRALIA SOUTH0ACIlC/CEAN !TLANTIC/CEAN 'ABON #ONGO :AIRE 5GANDA +ENYA .ORTH!TLANTIC/CEAN &AEROE)SLANDS !RCTIC/CEANS 3VALBARD )NDONESIA3UMATRA "ORNEO 3ULAWESI (ALMAHERA 0ACIlC /CEAN 0ACIlC/CEAN 5NITED3TATES/REGON )DAHO 7YOMING .EBRASKA -ISSOURI )LLINOIS +ENTUCKY 4ENNESSEE .ORTH #AROLINA 3OUTH#AROLINA !TLANTIC/CEAN 3OUTH0ACIlC/CEAN #HILE !RGENTINA 0ACIlC/CEAN #HILE !RGENTINA SOUTH!TLANTIC/CEAN 3OUTH!FRICA !NTARCTICA 3OUTH)NDIAN/CEAN 7ESTERN!USTRALIA )NDONESIA 0ACIlC /CEAN 0ACIlC/CEAN -EXICO 5NITED3TATES4EXAS /KLAHOMA !RKANSAS -ISSOURI +ENTUCKY )LLINOIS )NDIANA /HIO 0ENNSYLVANIA .EW9ORK 6ERMONT .EW(AMPSHIRE -AINE SOUTHEASTERN#ANADA !TLANTIC/CEAN 'REENLAND )CELAND 3PAIN !TLANTIC/CEAN -OROCCO 3PAIN !LGERIA ,IBYA %GYPT 3AUDI!RABIA 9EMEN 3OMALIA 3OUTH)NDIAN/CEAN !USTRALIA .EW:EALAND 3OUTH7EST!FRICA "OTSWANA 3OUTH!FRICA SOUTH)NDIAN /CEAN SOUTHEASTERN!USTRALIA #ENTRAL0ACIlC/CEAN !LASKA !RCTIC/CEAN !TLANTIC/CEAN .IGERIA #AMEROON #HAD 3UDAN %GYPT 3AUDI!RABIA )RAN !FGHANISTAN 0AKISTAN )NDIA #HINA CONTINUED
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3EPTEMBER *ULY n$ECEMBER
$ECEMBER !PRIL
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0ATHOFTOTALITY
#HINA +OREA *APAN 0ACIlC/CEAN !USTRALIA .EW:EALAND SOUTH0ACIlC/CEAN )NDIAN/CEAN WESTERNANDSOUTHERN!USTRALIA .EW:EA LAND 0ACIlC/CEAN !NTARCTICA 3OUTH!TLANTIC/CEAN !NGOLA #ONGO 5GANDA +ENYA 3OMALIA )NDONESIA -ALAYSIA 0HILIPPINES 0ACIlC/CEAN 'REENLAND #ANADA 5NITED3TATES-ONTANA .ORTH$AKOTA 5NITED3TATES#ALIFORNIA .EVADA 5TAH #OLORADO +ANSAS /KLAHOMA !RKANSAS -ISSISSIPPI !LABAMA 'EORGIA &LORIDA (AITI $OMINICAN2EPUBLIC 6ENEZUELA 'UYANA 3URINAME &RENCH'UYANA "RAZIL %ASTERN"RAZIL !TLANTIC/CEAN .AMIBIA "OTSWANA 3OUTH !FRICA SOUTH)NDIAN/CEAN 3OUTH0ACIlC/CEAN #HILE !RGENTINA SOUTH!TLANTIC /CEAN .AMIBIA "OTSWANA )NDIAN/CEAN )NDONESIA 3OUTH0ACIlC/CEAN 0ACIlC/CEAN -EXICO 5NITED3TATES,OUISIANA !LABAMA &LORIDA 'EORGIA 3OUTH#AROLINA !TLANTIC/CEAN
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