Гидрология: Учебное пособие по английскому языку по специальности 020802 (013400) ''Природопользование''

Ф Е Д Е Р АЛ Ь Н О Е АГ Е Н Т С Т В О П О О Б Р АЗО В АН И Ю Р Ф В О Р О Н Е Ж С К И Й Г О С У Д АРС Т В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е Р С И Т Е Т

Г И Д РО Л О Г И Я У чебноеп особиеп оанглийском у яз ыку п осп ециальност и: П р ир одоп ольз ование020802 (013400) О П Д 020802

В О РО Н Е Ж

2005

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У т верж д ен о н а у чн о-м етод ическим совет ом ф а ку льт ета ром а н огерм а н ской ф илологии п ротокол № 1 от 21.01.2005

С ост а вит ели:С а ф он ова Н . В. Черн икова С.Н .

Пособие п од готовлен о н а ка ф ед ре а н глий ского язы ка ф а ку льт ет а ром а н огерм а н ской ф илологии Ворон еж ского госу д а рст вен н ого у н иверсит ет а Р еком ен д у ет сяд ляст у д ен т ов вт орого ку рса ф а ку льт ет а геогра ф ии и геоэкологии

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Да н н ое у чебн ое п особие п од гот овлен о н а ка ф ед ре а н глий ского язы ка ф а ку льт ет а ром а н о-герм а н ской ф илологии Ворон еж ского госу д а рст вен н ого у н иверсит ет а . Он о п ред н а зн а чен о д ля ст у д ен т ов вт орого ку рса д н евн ого от д елен ия ф а ку льтет а геогра ф ии и геоэкологии, обу ча ющ ихся п о сп ециа льн ости п рирод оп ользова н ие. Цель п особия –ра звит ие у м ен ия говорен ия н а осн ове чт ен ия т екст ов п о сп ециа льн ости. Да н н а я цель д остига ет ся в п роцессе решен ия след у ющ их за д а ч: совершен ст вова н ие у м ен ий чит а т ь ин оязы чн ы й сп ецтекст , исп ользу яра зличн ы е ст ра т егии чтен ия (п росм отровое, п оисковое, д ет а льн ое); ра звит ие лексических н а вы ков; ра звит ие н а вы ков д иа логической речи и п роф ессион а льн оориен т ирова н н ы х у м ен ий м он ологической речи н а м а т ериа ле т екст ов п о п роф ессион а льн ой т ем а т ике. Пособие сост оит из 8-м и у роков, ка ж д ы й из кот оры х им еет след у ющие ра зд елы : п ред текст овы е у п ра ж н ен ия; т екст ы п о п роф ессион а льн ой т ем а т ике; у п ра ж н ен ия, вы п олн яем ы е в п роцессе чт ен ия; п ослет екст овы е у п ра ж н ен ия, н а п ра влен н ы е н а п роверку п он им а н ия п рочит а н н ого; блок лексических у п ра ж н ен ий , н а п ра влен н ы х н а овла д ен ие п роф ессион а льн ой т ерм ин ологией ; а т а кж е блок у п ра ж н ен ий н а обсу ж д ен ие ин ф орм а ции, п олу чен н ой изтекст а .

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UNIT I

WATER: THE ELIXIR OF LIFE

Question Time Discuss the following question. “ What would our planet be like if it were not for water?” Time for Reading I. Read the text and choose the best answer (a, b or c). 1) Paragraph I is mostly about: a) the wonders of water; b) water as the most wonderful substance on the Earth; c) properties of water. 2) Paragraph II is mostly about: a) how water possesses a high heat capacity; b) how water has conditioned the Earth’s climate; c) how seas, oceans act as heat accumulators. 3) Paragraph III is mostly about: a) water gradually turns into ice; b) the cold of outer space penetrated into the Earth; c) the water vapor acts like a layer of cotton wool. 4) Paragraph IV is mostly about: a) the unique role of water in nature; b) water’s ability to form a strong surface film; c) how life originated in primeval seas. II. Find in the text the following information. 1) Water created life on the Earth; 2) water as a common thing on the planet; 3) water possesses a high heat capacity; 4) water’s latent heat of melting and evaporation is extremely high. THE SUBSTANCE TO WHICH OUR PLANET OWES ITS EXISTENCE (I) When an astronomer trains his telescope at one of the planets neighboring the Earth, he always wonders about the presence of water and oxygen there. His interest is quite natural: should they exist in any quantity on the planet life there might be expected somehow to resemble ours. It is water that brought our Earth into existence, developed it to its present state, and created life. Above all these, water is the most wonderful substance on the Earth and the more we learn about it the more we marvel at it. Hardly anybody has ever speculated on the remarkable properties of water, and no wonder: we encounter water everywhere; it is a common thing on our planet. Three quarters of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, with about one fifth of the land covered with solidified water (ice and snow); clouds of water vapor and tiny drops always shroud a good half of that land, where there are no clouds watervapor is always present in the air. That is how common water is on our planet: it

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constitutes as much as seventy-one per cent of the human body. And common things are never regarded as wonderful. Its very commonplaceness, however, is extraordinary. No other substance is more abundant on the Earth and none occurs in three states at the same time: solid, liquid and gaseous. (II) Water has conditioned the Earth’s climate. But for water our planet would have cooled long ago and all life would have disappeared. Water possesses a high heat capacity. When warmed it absorbs much heat, and cooling it loses it. Oceans, seas, and other reservoirs on our planet, as well as atmospheric vapor act as heat accumulators: in warm weather they absorb heat, and when it is cold they give it off, so warming the air and all surrounding space. (III) Nonetheless the Earth would freeze in the long run if it were not for another of water’s remarkable properties. It is common knowledge that almost all substances contract on cooling, but water expands. If it contracted, ice would be heavier than water and would sink. All the water would gradually turn into ice and the Earth would be left with a very light mantle of a gaseous atmosphere containing no water vapor. The cold of outer space would long ago have penetrated the Earth but for its warm coat. This coat is the atmosphere which surrounds our planet, the water vapor acting like a layer of cotton wool. Over deserts where water vapor is scarce the coat is full of holes. Thus unprotected, the Earth is fiercely heated by the sun in daytime and cools off completely overnight. That is why temperature fluctuations in the desert are so great. (IV) Water has one more extraordinary characteristic: its latent heat of melting and evaporation is extremely high. It is only due to this that life is possible in a hot climate. Only by evaporating water (i.e. giving off a large amount of heat) can animals and men maintain their body temperature several degrees lower than that of the ambient atmosphere. The role of water in nature is unique because life would be impossible without it. Life originated in primeval seas from the substances dissolved in them. Ever since then chemical reactions have been occurring in every cell of all animals and plants between the dissolved substances. Perhaps the least known among the remarkable properties of water is its ability to form an extremely strong mutual attraction of molecules in the upper most layers. Its surface tension is strong enough to support things which seemingly should not float. Did You Get It? I. Correct the following sentences. 1) Water constitutes as much as 70 per cent of the human body. 2) It is common knowledge that all substances contract on cooling. 3) Three quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by water, with about one forth of the land is covered by solidified water. 4) Over deserts where water vapor is scarce the coat is not full of holes. 5) Only by evaporating water can animals and men maintain their body temperature several degrees higher than that of the ambient atmosphere. 6) Life originated in shallow seas from the substances dissolved in them. II. Answer the questions.

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1) Who wonders about the presence of water and oxygen on the planets neighboring the Earth? 2) What brought our Earth to existence? 3) Why is water the most wonderful substance on the earth? 4) What part of the Earth surface is covered by water? 5) What percentage of the human body does water constitute? 6) Water occurs in three states at the same time: solid, liquid and gaseous, doesn’t it? 7) What substance has conditioned the earth’s climate? 8) What does water possess? 9) What reservoirs act as heat accumulators? 10) What substances on the Earth contract on cooling? 11) What is the coat of the Earth? 12) How does water vapor act on the planet? 13) Where is atmosphere full of holes? 14) Where is the Earth fiercely heated by the Sun? 15) What one more extraordinary characteristic does water have? 16) How can animals and men maintain their body temperature? 17) Why is the role of water unique in nature? 18) Where did life originate? 19) What remarkable properties of water do you know? 20) What forms an extremely strong surface film? Words, Words, Words… I. Complete the word combinations below by adding an appropriate noun from the box. Some can combine with more than one noun. • substance • state • coat • thing • capacity • fluctuations • water • accumulators • temperature • vapor • properties • reactions • drops • mantle • film • body • atmosphere • tension 1. heat ______________ 2. ambient ___________ 3. solidified __________ 4. remarkable _________ 5. warm _____________ 6. surface __________ 7. wonderful __________ 8. water _____________ 9. chemical _________ 10. body _________

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

atmospheric _________ common _________ human _________ light _________ liquid _________ tiny _________ solid _________ temperature _________ gaseous _________

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II. Find words in the text that mean the following. The number of the paragraph is given to help you. regarded as (I) dissolved in (IV) tension (IV) resemble (I) conditioned (II) contract (III) light heat capacity (II) exist in (I) scarce (III) III. Study the words and word combinations in the box. • solid • dissolve • abundant • vapor • surface film • constitute • originate • solidified • liquid • expand • evaporation • gaseous • heat capacity • chemical reactions Which words describe: a) a common thing on the planet; b) the properties of water; c) the role of water in nature. IV. Find the following in the text. 1) a noun meaning “being present in a place” 2) a phrasal verb meaning “send out” (smoke, vapor) 3) a verb meaning “be real” 4) a verb meaning “ be the components of” 5) a noun meaning “state of” 6) an adjective meaning “more than enough” 7) an adjective meaning “concerned with nature” 8) a noun meaning “warmth, hotness” 9) a phrasal verb meaning “become calm” 10) an adjective meaning “very small” V. Match up the words with their definitions. 1. property • particular kind of matter 2. surface • make or become larger 3. evaporate • take in (liquid, heat, light) 4. ability • the fact of owing or being owned 5. scarce • outside of any object 6. substance • capacity or power to do something physical or mental) 7. originate • remove liquid from a substance 8. capacity • have as a cause or beginning 9. absorb • possibility of holding, containing, learning 10. contract • take place, happen 11. expand • make a way into or through 12. fluctuate • make or become smaller or shorter 13. occur • not available in sufficient quantity 14. penetrate • move up and down Time to Talk

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I. Work in pairs. Discuss the following question. How has water conditioned the Earth’s climate? II. Think about your attitudes to such things as: a. the presence of water on the Earth; b. the characteristics of water; c. the role of water in nature.

UNIT II

WATER RESOURCES: A GLOBAL CRISIS? Question Time

I. Opinion Survey. In class organize a survey “ The world's biggest water problem in the future”. An interviewer: your job is to ask your group mates what the world’s biggest water problem will be. They should select an answer from the table below. Summarize the results of the survey completing the table below. Share the results with the group and the teacher. Drinking Water systems There won't Problem We will not Water will have be too water will (infrastructure) be major enough polluted be unsafe. will break water water down problems Student Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 etc. Total II. Discuss in pairs the following. Are there any signs of water crisis in the region where you live?

I.

Time for Reading Skim through the article from the on-line magazine and say under what headline the author: a. mentions the recommended basic water requirement per person per day; b. states that 97% of liquid freshwater is stored underground; c. predicts that by 2025 two-thirds of the world’s people will be facing water stress; d. describes diseases caused by dirty water; e. dwells upon the usage of water in the world; f. remarks that water is not distributed evenly over the Earth’s surface; g. touches upon a problem of water pollution; h. thinks that malaria is the biggest killer; i. doubts that there is any progress as far as water supply and sanitation provision are concerned;

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WATER CRISIS ALREADY HERE • • • • •

•

BASICS On our blue planet 97.5% of the water is saltwater, unfit for human use. The majority of freshwater is beyond our reach, locked into polar snow and ice. Less than 1% of freshwater is usable, amounting to only 0.01% of the Earth’s total water. Even this would be enough to support the world’s population three times over, if used with care. However, water – like population – isn’t distributed evenly. Asia has the greatest annual availability of freshwater and Australia the lowest. But when population is taken into account the picture looks very different. For instance, the Congo River and its tributaries account for about 30 % of the entire African continent's annual runoff, but the watershed contains only 10 % of Africa's population. Throughout much of the developing world the freshwater supply comes in the form of seasonal rains. Such rains run off too quickly for efficient use. India, for example, gets 90 % of its annual rainfall during the summer monsoon season, which lasts from June to September. For the other eight months the country gets barely a drop.

WHERE’S IT GOING? Our increasing thirst is a result of growing population, industrial development and the expansion of irrigated farming. In the past 40 years, the area of irrigated land has doubled. SIGNS OF STRESS • By the mid-1990s, 80 countries home to 40% of world population encountered serious water shortages. Worst affected are Africa and the Middle East. • In Metro Manila, capital of the Philippines, for instance, there was a time when the water agency issued a call for public prayer to ask Almighty God for the rains to come. Even during the rainy season, supply of potable water is still inadequate. • By 2025 two-thirds of the world’s people will be facing water stress.

People without access to a safe water supply, 2000 (in mil.) Region Rural Urban Total Africa 256 44 300 Asia 595 98 693 Latin America 49 29 78 and the Caribbean Oceania 3 0 3 Europe 23 3 26 North America 0 0 0 World 926 174 1,100 • The only ray of hope is that the growth in actual use of water has been

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The global demand for water will have grown by over 40% by then.

slower than predicted.

IN SICKNESS AND HEALTH Dirty water is the cause of numerous diseases, but improving hygiene and sanitation are equally important in order to curb water-related diseases. Parasites Diseases of contamination Insect-related diseases Cholera is only one of a Malaria, borne by water- Found in 76 countries, great many waterborne or breeding mosquitoes, is schistosomiasis kills some water-related illnesses. The the biggest killer, causing 200,000 people every year diarrhoeal diseases alone about 2 million deaths a After a peak in the late kill about four million year, including more than 1980s, guinea-worm people a year, of whom 80 a million young children, infections have been % are children. Just being a large proportion of them declining as water sources able to wash one’s hands in Africa. are better monitored. with soap and water can reduce diarrhoea by 35%. NEEDING AND GETTING Population using the least amount of The recommended basic water water requirement per person per day is 50 Country Liters of water used litres. But people can get by with about per person per day 30 litres: 5 litres for drinking and cooking Gambia 4.5 and another 25 to maintain hygiene. The Mali 8.0 reality for millions comes nowhere near. Somalia 8.9 By contrast the average US citizen uses Mozambique 9.3 500 litres per day, while the British Uganda 9.3 average is 200. Cambodia 9.5 Tanzania 10.1 People in rural areas are four times more Progress? likely than those in cities to have no safe Viewed in percentage terms both water supply of water. The urban poor are less supply and sanitation provision have likely than the well-off to be connected to improved in the last decade. mains water supplies and pay on average However, the actual number of people in 12 times more per litre. need has barely changed due to the rise in world population. TAPPING GROUNDWATER Some 97% of liquid freshwater is stored underground in aquifers. People, especially in rural areas, are increasingly dependent on groundwater –up to 2 billion people, a third of the world’s population, rely on it. Aquifers are most severely depleted Drinking Groundwater Region % of People served in parts of India, China, the US, North Africa and the Middle East. It drinking (millions) can take centuries for aquifers to water from recharge, so the world is currently groundwater

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Asia-Pacific Europe Latin America United States Australia Africa World

32 75 29

1,000 to 2,000 200 to 500 150

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135

15 no data

3 no data 1,500 to 2,000

running a groundwater overdraft of 200 billion cubic metres a year. Pollution is a major problem, resulting from human and farm animal waste, naturally occurring toxins, as well as the over 10 million different synthetic chemicals in use today.

Did You Get It? I. Match the beginning of a sentence in column A with an ending in column B to produce a statement which is true according to the text. A B (a) Saltwater (i) do not have access to a safe water supply (b) Water (ii) use groundwater as drinking. (c) The area of irrigated land (iii) is unfit for human use. (d) Dirty water (iv) use water for drinking, cooking and maintaining hygiene. (e) People (v) and many others are water-born diseases. (f) Cholera and diarrhoea (vi) has doubled in the past 40 years. (g) About 1,000 million people (vii) causes many diseases. in the Asia-Pacific region (h) About 300 million people in (viii) is distributed unevenly over the surface. Africa II. Answer the following questions. 1) Where is most freshwater situated? 2) How much of freshwater is usable? 3) What spheres do people use freshwater? 4) What parts of the world are considered as worst affected by water shortage? 5) How many people will be facing water stress by 2025? 6) What are the water-related or water-borne diseases? 7) What measures can reduce diarrhoea by 35%? 8) How much water can people get by with? 9) What country do the people use the least amount of water? 10) How many people in the world rely on groundwater? 11) Where are aquifers of groundwater severely depleted? 12) What are the sources of water pollution? III. Match the figures in column A with their corresponding explanation in column B. A B (a) 10 million (i) the amount of saltwater on the Earth (b) 2 billion (ii) people dependent on groundwater (c) 1980s (iii) the amount of water an average British uses per day

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(d) 97.5% (e) 80 % (f) 70% (g) 200

(iv) different synthetic chemicals in use today (v) a peak of the guinea-worm infections (vi) the amount of children killed by diarrhea (vii) the amount of freshwater used in agriculture

Words, Words, Words... I. Find in the text words and word combinations which mean the following. to check and to control; to make twice as great or as many; to meet or be faced with (something bad, esp. a danger or a difficult situation); to add water to an aquifer; the controlled application of water for agricultural purposes through manmade systems to supply water requirements not satisfied by rainfall; water that flows or seeps downward and saturates soil or rock, supplying springs and wells; large underground pipes carrying a public supply of water; happening every year or once a year; a poisonous substance; drawing upon groundwater; the water that is provided and treated for a particular area; exaggerated usage of groundwater; a smaller river or stream that flows into a larger river or stream; the land area that drains water to a particular stream, river, or lake. II. Complete the following table of the corresponding nouns and verbs. Use a dictionary if needed. Make sure that you know the meaning of each word. Nouns Verbs demand ? provision ? supply ? deplete ? requirement ? expansion ? infect ? use ? III. Match up the word combinations from the column A with their explanation from the column B. Use these expressions in the sentences of your own. A B • beyond one’s reach • to trust, to have confidence in; • to account for • to represent numerically; • to take into account • a very small bit of hope; • ray of hope • to manage to survive; • to get by • because of, caused by; • due to • impossible to reach; • to run off • to flow off, to drain; • to rely on • to give proper consideration to a fact, situation, when making a decision.

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IV. Fill in the numbered gaps with the words below. Caught between growing __(1)___ for fresh water on the one hand and limited and increasingly polluted ___(2)______ on the other, many countries face difficult choices. Finding solutions requires responses at local, national, and international levels. The challenge is how to __(3)___ the Earth's limited store of freshwater, conserve its use, and improve how it is managed. To do this, management decisions must be based on __(4)____ of the cycle of water. In an effort to spur action to __(5)___ the coming crisis, the UN General Assembly plans to proclaim the period 2005-2015 as the International Decade for Action, “Water for Life” . International co-operation is possible and practicable. In November 1999, for example, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan agreed upon a strategy for the __(6)___ development of the Nile water. Governments can develop national water management __(7)___ that help to improve supply and also to manage demand better. Key strategies include regulation of water depending on its end use, watershed __(8)____, and appropriate __(9)___. The nations must share technology, __(10)___ and goodwill to manage the earth's scarce fresh water so that deserts bloom, lakes do not die and wells do not dry. • meet • sustainable • supplies • demand • policies • understanding • pricing • protect • resources • management Time to Talk I. Expressing your opinion. “ If the world fought for oil in the 20th century, the war will be about water in the 21st century.” Do you agree with this statement? Using information from the texts, give reasons to support your opinion. Present 3-5 min. talk. II. Opinion Survey: How would you handle water crisis? In your group organize an opinion survey “What measures would you use to handle water crisis?” Complete the table below and summarize the result of the survey. Share the results with the teacher and the group mates. What measures are the most popular/the least popular in your group? Possible Answers Great idea, Pretty good Only a Bad idea, I I'd use it idea fair idea wouldn't use it Measures a) Mandatory restrictions on water use b) Find new water supplies (build a reservoir, new wells) c) Raise the price of

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water d) Cut back/stop new developments e) Encourage water conservation f) Buy water from another city/country Total

UNIT III

WHY WATER DOES WHAT IT DOES

Question Time I. Work in pairs. Here are some "maybe true/maybe false" water properties. See if you know the real water facts. • Water contracts when it freezes. • Water has a high surface tension. • Condensation is water coming out of the air. • More things can be dissolved in sulphuric acid than in water. • Rainwater is the purest form of water. • Sea water is slightly more alkaline (the pH value is higher) than most natural fresh water. • Raindrops are tear-shaped. II. Make sure that you know the meaning of the following international words. • elastic • to absorb • hydrosphere • film • organisms • planet • organisms • to regulate • topographic • phenomenon • cubic • effectively • gravity • neutral pH • kilometre • carbon dioxide • gas • substance • massive • sulphur dioxide • liquid • redistribution • physical • oceans • process • Celsius • energy • chemical • condensation • temperature Time for Reading Read the text and fill the numbered gaps with the sentences (A-J). A. This phenomenon also causes water to stick to the sides of vertical structures despite gravity's downward pull. B. Because water has a high specific heat, it can absorb large amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot.

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C. When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9 % by volume. D. This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy in the Earth's atmosphere. E. Most animals and plants contain more than 60 % water by volume. F. These properties are G. This range allows water to remain as a liquid in most places on the Earth. H. It is able to dissolve a large number of different chemical compounds. I. More than 70 % of the Earth's surface is covered with it. J. Water in a pure state has a neutral pH. PROPERTIES OF WATER We live on a planet that is dominated by water.____(1)____________. Scientists estimate that the hydrosphere contains about 1.36 billion cubic kilometres of this substance mostly in the form of a liquid that occupies topographic depressions on the Earth. Water is also essential for life. Water is the major constituent of almost all life forms._____(2)__________. Without water life would probably never have developed on our planet. Water has several other unique physical properties.____(3)_________: • Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance.______(4)__________. It also means that water releases heat energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat allows for the moderation of the Earth's climate and helps organisms regulate their body temperature more effectively. • ____(5)________. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor alkaline. Water changes its pH when substances are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic pH of about 5.6 because it contains natural derived carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. • Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. This fact causes large bodies of liquid water like lakes and oceans to have essentially a uniform vertical temperature profile. • Water exists as a liquid over an important range of temperature from 0 - 100° Celsius. ______(6)__________. • Liquid water is a universal solvent._____(7)_______. This feature also enables water to carry solvent nutrients in runoff, infiltration, groundwater flow, and living organisms. • Water has a high surface tension . In other words, water is adhesive and elastic, and tends to aggregate in drops rather than spread out over a surface as a thin film.____(8)_________. Water's high surface tension allows for the formation of water droplets and waves, allows plants to move water and dissolved nutrients from their roots to their leaves, and the movement of blood through tiny vessels in the bodies of some animals. • Water is the only substance on Earth that exists in all three physical states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Massive amounts of heat exchange are incorporated in the changes of state._______(9)________. In terms of heat

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being transferred into the atmosphere, approximately 3/4 of this process is accomplished by the evaporation and condensation of water. • The freezing of water causes it to expand.____(10)__________. Fresh water has a maximum density at around 4° Celsius. Water is the only substance on this planet where the maximum density of its mass does not occur when it becomes solidified. Did You Get It? I. Answer the following questions 1. How much of the Earth’s surface is covered with water? 2. What is the most widespread form of water? 3. Why is water so important? 4. Name the properties of water. 5. What is specific heat? 6. What role does specific heat play? 7. Is pure water acidic or basic? 8. When does water change its pH? 9. What chemical compounds does rain have? 10. What liquid conducts heat most easily? 11. Why does water exist as a liquid in most places? 12. Does water have high or low surface tension? 13. What is the importance of water’s high surface tension? 14. What are the three physical states of matter that water can exist in? 15. What happens to water when it freezes? 16. When does fresh water have a maximum density? II. Say what statements are true and what ones are false. Comment on the true statements and correct the false ones. 1. Water is the main element of almost all life forms. 2. Water has low specific energy. 3. Water in pure state is acidic. 4. Rain water has a naturally acidic pH of 5.6. 5. Large bodies of water have a uniform vertical temperature profile. 6. Water can dissolve a large number of chemical compounds. 7. Water tends to spread out over a surface as a thin film. 8. Water’s high specific heat is the cause of the formation of water droplets and waves. 9. The changes of state are incorporated with huge amounts of heat exchange. 10. When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by weight. 11. Salt water has a maximum density at about 4º Celsius. III. What do the following chemical formulas stand for? • H2O • O2 • CO2 • Hg • SO2 IV. What is the significance of the following numbers and statistics found in the text.

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a) 60 c) 0-100 e) 9

b) 5.6 d) ¾ f) 4

Words, Words, Words… I. Match up and explain the meaning. • specific • vapour • temperature • depressions • chemical • pull • surface • compounds • gravity • heat • groundwater • profile • water • flow • topographic • tension II. Match up the words or word-combinations with their definitions. 1. hydrosphere a. the great body of salt water that covers about ¾ of the earth’s surface 2. liquid b. characteristics 3. solid c. the physical part of the universe consisting of solids, liquids and gases 4. evaporation d. when warm water vapour or steam turns into small drops of water 5. properties 6. matter

e. mass of water that is found in, on and over the surface of the Earth

f. a liquid that is able to dissolve other substances 7. solvent g. a substance that stays the same shape whether it is in a container or not 8. condensation h. when a liquid changes from a liquid state to a gas state 9. ocean i. a substance which is not a solid or a gas, which flows, is wet, and has no fixed shape III. Complete the following text with the words below. Water has a very simple ____(a)_____. This structure consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one ____(b)______. The nature of the atomic structure of water causes its molecules to have unique ___(c)______. The hydrogen side of the water molecule has a slight ____(d)________. On the other side of the molecule a negative charge exists. This molecular polarity causes water to be a powerful ___(e)______and is responsible for its strong ____(f)_______. When water makes a physical phase change its molecules arrange themselves in distinctly different patterns. The pattern taken by water when it is frozen causes its

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volume ___(g)______ and its density to decrease. Expansion of water at freezing allows ice ____(h)________on top of liquid water. Water in the form of a gas is highly charged with ___(i)_______. This high energy state causes the molecules to be always moving reducing the likelihood of bonds between individual molecules from forming. • electrochemical properties • oxygen atom • to expand • positive charge • to float • solvent • surface tension • energy • atomic structure IV. Read and translate words with the same roots. To freeze –freezing –frost - frozen; to expand –expanding - expansion; to dissolve –dissolved - solvent; to conduct - conductor; to condense - condensation; to evaporate –evaporation - vapour; to solidify –solidified - solid. V. Match up the words with opposite meaning. • to release • to get cool • to contract • to absorb • to get hot • to spread out • to aggregate • alkaline • acidic • to expand Time to Talk Work in pairs. Discuss with your partner in what way water is different from other liquids.

UNIT IV

THE WATER CYCLE

Question Time I. Speaking. Using the information from the text below and the diagram, answer the following questions. 1. What reservoir holds most of the water supply? 2. How much is the freshwater supply? 3. Where is freshwater located? 4. How much freshwater do surface-water reservoirs provide? 5. What role does the hydrologic cycle play in the water supply of our planet?

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Water is a limited non-renewable resource. A fixed amount of some 1,400 million cubic kilometres exists on the planet, which can be neither increased nor decreased. Of all the water on Earth, only a small amount is available for us to use. It's true! 96.5% of the Earth's water supply is salt water and only 2.8% is fresh water! That 2.8% is divided like this: • 0.76% is groundwater (we can use some of this water) • 0.0132% is in lakes and streams (we can use some of this water) • 1.74% is in glaciers and icecaps • 0.001% is water vapour Considering so little of the water on earth is drinkable to people, it is amazing the supply has survived as long as it has. The hydrologic cycle continues to move water and keep sources fresh. It is estimated that 100 million billion gallons a year are cycled through this process. Without this process life on Earth would be impossible. We need it to sustain us and for all of our life processes to function. Without water life would not be possible on the Earth.

Diagram 1. Earth's Water Supply

II. Match up the words or word-combinations with their definitions. a) precipitation i. the volume of water that passes a given location within a given period of time, usually expressed in cubic feet per second b) aquifer ii. huge mass of ice, formed on land by the compaction and crystallization of snow, that moves very slowly down slope or outward due to its own weight c) runoff iii. water stored underground in rocks and in the pores of geologic materials that make up the Earth's crust d) infiltration iv. flow of water from the land surface into the subsurface e) transpiration v. rain, snow, hail, sleet, dew, and frost f) groundwater vi. that part of the precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation water that appears in uncontrolled surface streams, rivers, drains or sewers

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g) glacier

h) reservoir

i) discharge

vii. process by which water that is absorbed by plants, usually through the roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere from the plant surface, such as leaf pores viii. a geologic formation that is water bearing. A geological formation or structure that stores and/or transmits water, such as to wells and springs ix. a pond, lake, or basin, either natural or artificial, for the storage, regulation, and control of water

Time for Reading Read the text and put the paragraphs (1-8) in the correct order. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (1) Shallow groundwater is taken up by the roots of plants and is transpired from leaf surfaces back into the atmosphere. Transpiration is the movement of water through a plant to the atmosphere. Some water infiltrating into the ground goes deeper and replenishes aquifers, which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Over time, this water keeps moving, some of it reenters the ocean, where the water cycle begins or ends. (2) The hydrologic cycle is a model that describes the storage and movement of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere. Water on this planet can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. (3) Precipitation can be defined as any deposit in liquid or solid form that develops in a saturated atmospheric environment and generally falls from clouds. A number of different precipitation types are classified by meteorologists including rain, freezing rain, snow, ice pellets, snow pellets, and hail. In certain locations on the Earth, acid pollutants from the atmosphere are deposited in dry and wet forms on the Earth’s surface. Scientists generally call this process acid deposition. (4) Rising air currents takes the vapor up into the atmosphere, where cooler temperatures cause the vapor to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. (5) Not all runoff flows into rivers. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Infiltration is the movement of water from precipitation into the soil layer. Some of this water stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface water bodies and the ocean as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. (6) Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer

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climates often melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. (7) The water cycle has no starting point. But, let us begin with the oceans, since that is where most of Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans, which evaporates as vapor into the air. Evaporation is movement of free water to the atmosphere as a gas. It requires large amounts of energy. Water vapour in the atmosphere is commonly referred to as humidity. (8) Runoff is the surface flow of water to areas of lower elevation. At the global scale, runoff flows from the landmasses to the oceans. The Earth’s continents experience runoff because of the imbalance between precipitation and evaporation. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys with streamflow towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater seepage accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Did You Get It? I. Answer the following questions. 1. What is the hydrologic cycle? 2. What are the reservoirs water can be stored in? 3. Name the processes that move water from one reservoir to another. 4. Does the water cycle have a beginning? 5. What drives the water cycle? 6. What form does water evaporate into the air? 7. How much energy does evaporation require? 8. What causes the vapor to condense into clouds? 9. What is the precipitation? 10. Where can some precipitation as snow accumulate? 11. What happens to most precipitation? 12. What is runoff? 13. What season does melted water flow as snowmelt? 14. When can ground water emerge as freshwater springs? 15. What is infiltration? 16. What parts of plants take part in transpiration? II. Say what statements are true and what ones are false. Comment on the true statements and correct the false ones. Use the following words to express your agreement or disagreement. Agreement Disagreement I think so. I don’t think so. I believe so. I am afraid not. I suppose so. I hardly think so. That’s right. On the contrary. I agree. I don’t quite agree here. That goes without saying. Same here. 1. Atmosphere is a place where most of the Earth's water exists. 2. The force that drives the water cycle is the moon.

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3. Water in ice caps and glaciers can be stored frozen for decades. 4. The cause of runoff on the continents is the imbalance between precipitation and condensation. 5. Runoff and ground-water seepage accumulate and are stored in freshwater lakes. 6. All runoff flows into rivers. 7. Deep ground water is taken up by the roots of plants and is transpired from leaf surfaces back into the atmosphere. III. Complete the statements below according to the information in the text. a) The hydrologic cycle is the storage and movement of water between ___________. b) Water on the Earth is stored in the following reservoirs _____________. c) The processes that move water from one reservoir to another are _________. d) Water vapour in the atmosphere is called _________. e) _______ and _________ are the two processes that move water from the Earth’s surface to its atmosphere. f) Meteorologists classify precipitation as ____________. g) Globally runoff _____________. h) Some ground water finds openings in the land surface and_____________. i) Transpiration is the movement of water ____________. j) Aquifers store ____________. k) Acid deposition is a process when acid pollutants ____________. IV. Say what parts of water cycle the letters A-F on the arrows stand for.

ABCDEF-

Words, Words, Words… I. Match up and explain the meaning. 1) land a) vapour 2) groundwater b) caps 3) freshwater c) surface

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4) hydrologic d) currents 5) ice e) springs 6) surface f) seepage 7) air g) runoff 8) acid h) deposition 9) water i) cycle II. Find in the text words and word combinations expressing the following: • the top layer of earth, which plants can grow in; • the part of a plant that grows completely or partially under the ground; • the process when something changes from a solid to a liquid, usually because it has been heated; • a series of events or processes that is repeated again and again; • the amount of moisture in the air; • to crash violently; • a scientist studying the weather conditions; • frozen rain drops which fall as little hard balls of ice; • a substance that pollutes; • the natural force by which objects are attracted to each other; • height above sea-level; • the season between winter and summer; • a place where water comes up naturally from the ground; • to fill up again; • the direction of the current of water. III. Read and translate the words with the same roots. to deposit- deposits-deposition; to store- stored-storage; to move- moving- movement; to melt- melted- snowmelt; to seep- seepage; to transpire-transpiration. IV. Complete the following table. Positive degree Comparative degree Superlative degree deeper ? ? warmest ? ? shallower ? ? low ? ? cooler ? ? large ? ? drier ? ? wettest ? ? saturated ? ? V. Using the words below fill the gaps in the text. The hydrologic cycle takes place in the ___(1)______ which contains all the water in the atmosphere, in and on the earth. The ___(2)_______ is the movement of

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water through this hydrosphere. The process begins with condensation. Condensation occurs when the temperature of the air or earth __(3)_______. So when the air cools enough, water vapour has to condense on particles in the air to form __(4)______. As clouds form, winds move them across the globe, spreading out the ___(5)_____. When the clouds can't hold the moisture, they __(6)_____ it in the form of precipitation, which can be snow, rain, hail, etc. The next three stages: infiltration, runoff, and evaporation occur __(7)_____. Infiltration occurs when precipitation ___(8)______ into the ground. If precipitation occurs faster than it can infiltrate the ground, it becomes __(9)______. Runoff remains on the surface and flows into streams, rivers, and eventually large bodies such as lakes or the ocean. Infiltrated groundwater moves __(10)______ as it recharges rivers and heads towards large bodies of water. As both of these processes are happening, the power of the ___(11)______ is driving this cycle by causing evaporation. Evaporation is the change of ___(12)______ water to a vapour. Warm air __(13)_______ into the atmosphere and becomes the vapour involved in condensation. • liquid • rises up • hydrosphere • sun • changes • cycle • release • clouds • similarly • simultaneously • seeps • runoff • water vapour Time to Talk I. Note-taking and speaking. a) Read the text “ The Hydrologic Cycle” again and draw a diagram of the natural water cycle. b) Using your notes tell about the hydrologic cycle. II. Questions for further thought... 1. What would happen to the planet if the hydrologic cycle stopped functioning? What would happen to societies as the supplies of water diminished? Would our planet die? 2. What would happen if the polar icecaps melted and the hydrologic cycle couldn't keep water levels stable? Where would we go as water levels rose out of control? 3. Could we ever use the ocean to supplement or water once freshwater disappears? What ways could the oceans be used to provide us with a source of water?

UNIT V

WATER POLLUTION

Question Time Discuss the following question in groups. What do you know about water pollution in your region? Is it a serious problem? What is the water quality in the reservoir? Who is to blame as far as the situation with reservoir is concerned?

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Time for Reading Which of the following words and word combinations would you expect to find in a text with the title “ Water pollution: natural and manmade”. When you check your choices against the text, give paragraph references for any and make sure you understand the words. quality health water supplies colour problems to cause people-made nature river wild animals reservoirs law toxic safe fish construction pesticides earthquake facilities sewage WATER POLLUTION: NATURAL AND MANMADE (A) "Clean water", "pure water", "clear water" are some of the terms we use in describing water of good quality. But what do they mean? Pure water, two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen, is great in a laboratory but not for plants and animals. Scientists have found out that water from most streams in their natural state contains the proportions of dissolved minerals necessary for human. (B) Water is never entirely pure in nature. Water picks up a broad range of elements as it (i) moves through its cycle of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and percolation on its (ii) way back to stream, lake, or sea. From the air, water picks up dissolved oxygen and other gases. As water passes through the rocks and soil, minerals are dissolved into it. Some materials are filtered out, but others (iii) remain in solution and are carried along with the water wherever it goes. Generally the deeper the water sinks into the ground, the more minerals and other materials it contains. (C) Differences in mineral contents of water accounts for the way it (iv) looks, tastes, and smells. Sulphur compounds are a problem in the Bear Creek area of northern Alabama, giving water a bad odour at certain time of the year. At both Normandy, in middle Tennessee, and Bear Creek, the water naturally contains troublesome amounts of iron and manganese. This pollution, if not removed by the water treatment plant, causes colour problems in household water supplies. Natural occurrences, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides, can cause severe pollution of lakes and streams. Large populations of wild animals can also contribute to high levels of bacteria in a stream, under certain conditions. (D) The activity of people can be a source of pollution also. Just about everything people do causes some pollution. When fuels are burned, they (v) produce smoke and gases of various kinds. These gases and smoke eventually come back to earth and find their way into the water somewhere. There are also ashes or other residues from the burning process that become waste and can contaminate water supplies. Even the facilities designed to deal with wastes can become sources of pollution. Municipal wastewater treatment plants, industrial treatment facilities, septic tanks, landfills, and incinerators often are sources of water pollution. Accidental spills of toxic or hazardous material are another source of sometimes severe water pollution. Other sources of people-made pollution include pesticides and

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fertilizers used in agriculture, surface mining, forestry practices, and construction activities. The operation of dams and reservoirs can also cause problems when the water released from dams is low in oxygen content. This (vi) causes problems for fish and other aquatic life downstream. (E) Many millions of dollars have been spent on facilities that reduce the pollution caused by human activity. Plants have been built to make the water we drink safe, to cut down on wastewater pollution, and to clean up industrial wastes. Laws and regulations have been established to force cities and industries to clean up their (vii) wastewater before it (viii) is returned to a stream or lake. Still more millions have been spent to clean up polluted waterways in the nation. Did You Get It? Text Organization I. Choose a headline for each paragraph. Headline paragraph (a) What is done about water pollution? (b) What does water pick up from the nature? (c) Natural pollution of water? (d) Human activity as a source of pollution? (e) Does pure water exist at all? II. What do the following pronouns refer to in the text? (i) it (paragraph B) (v) they (paragraph D) (ii) its (paragraph B) (vi) This (paragraph D) (iii) others (paragraph B) (vii)their (paragraph E) (iv) it (paragraph C) (viii) it (paragraph E) III. Say whether the following statements are true or false and give the paragraph number to show where the information comes from. Correct the false statements. 1) Pure water consists of two parts oxygen and one part hydrogen. 2) Pure water is useful for plants and animals. 3) Water from most streams in their natural state contains the proportions of dissolved minerals harmful for human health. 4) Usually the water that sinks deeply into the ground contains many minerals. 5) Sulphur compounds in the Bear Creek area of northern Alabama give water a bad taste. 6) Natural occurrences and large populations of wild animals can cause severe pollution of lakes and streams. 7) Pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture do not pollute water supplies. 8) Many thousands of pounds have been spent on facilities that reduce the pollution caused by human activity. 9) The operation of dams and reservoirs causes problems for fish and other aquatic life downstream. IV. What facilities designed to deal with waste are mentioned in the text? 1) municipal wastewater a) an area designated to receive solid treatment plant wastes, such as municipal solid waste

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(household trash), construction debris, and sludge from sewage treatment and other processes; 2) industrial treatment facilities b) a tank used to detain domestic wastes to allow the settling of solids prior to distribution to a leach field for soil absorption; 3) septic tank c) an apparatus, such as a furnace, for burning waste; 4) landfill d) a facility designed to receive the wastewater from domestic sources and to remove materials that damage water quality and threaten public health and safety; 5) incinerator e) the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been contaminated by man's industrial or commercial activities prior to its release into the environment or its reuse. V. What elements are expressed by the following chemical formulas? • Mn • O2 • S • H • Fe VI. Read the text again and complete the following table. Sources of natural Sources of manmade water pollution water pollution 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. etc. etc. Words, Words, Words… I. Match up, give the paragraph number where this word combination comes from and explain the meaning. • pure • life • dissolved • occurrences • mineral • minerals • sulphur • contents • natural • water • volcanic • pollution • water • mining • accidental • supply • surface • eruptions • manmade • spills

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• aquatic • compounds II. Complete the following table of the corresponding nouns and verbs. Use a dictionary if needed. Make sure that you know the meaning of each word. Nouns Verbs solution ? to contain pollution ? occurrence ? to build ? to smell ? waste ? activity ? treatment ? to taste ? III. Find in the text words and word combinations which mean the following: a wall or a bank built across a river to keep back water; to make do something; the science of planting and caring for large areas of trees; a natural or chemical substance that is put on the land to make crops grow better; to make impure or bad by mixing in dirty or poisonous matter; things such as buildings, services, etc., that are useful or help to do something; material that is used for producing heat or power by burning or by atomic means; domestic; a sudden fall of earth or rocks down a hill, cliff, etc; to take action about; concerning a city, a town; a stretch of water, e.g. of a river, which ships and boats can move on; a living thing that has leaves and root, and grows usu. in earth, esp. the kind smaller than trees; a factory or other place where an industrial process is carried out; a smell, esp. an unpleasant one; what is left after some event, or process; water that has been used in homes, industries, and businesses that is not for reuse unless it is treated; the movement of water through the openings in rock or soil. IV. Complete the following sentences using the correct words from the box in the grammatical form required. (Note that there is one extra word.) human activity wastes use nutrients ways of living growth dumping untreated sewage water bodies discolouring unfit a. Every body of water - even ones not touched by any _______ - receives some ________. b. Bacteria ______ oxygen in the water to break down wastes and to turn them into ________ for other marine plants and animals. c. Most water pollution stems from advances in ________ and from the ______ of population. d. Years of _____ chemicals, traces of metals, _______, and heated water into water bodies have weakened water's ability to clean itself and to support life.

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e. In ________ with heavy pollution, another form of bacteria breaks down wastes, giving off bad smells, ________ the water, and generally making water ________ for living things. V. Use the words from the box to fill in the numbered gaps. The vulnerability of the White Sea __(i)______ is highlighted by the following fact. In the early 1990s, hundreds or may be even thousands of tons of __(ii)___ and other marine life were washed ashore at the Dvina Bay, forming an orange wall that extended for dozens of kilometers along the surf edge. Ecologists cited possible causes of the disaster: leakage of mustard gas containers that had been buried in the __(iii)___in the 1940s; the sinking of a __(iv)___ near the city of Severodvinsk in December 1989; a tanker accident in the Kandalaksha Bay; the fall of a rocket; radioactive or chemical ___(v)__ of the water area, and the dumping of __(vi)___. New studies showed that only one-tenth of starfish living in shallow water had been killed, which could not be described as an ___(vii)___ disaster. It was simply part of a natural maritime __(viii) ___ . The amount of starfish thrown on the shore by storm points to the richness of the marine __(ix)___. a) ecological f) submarine g) contamination b) life cycle h) ecosystem i) sewage c) resources j) starfish k) sea bed Time to Talk Prepare 3-5 min. talk about types of water pollution and measures the nations are taking to deal with it. Use information from the text and on-line resources.

UNIT VI

WATER USES IRRIGATION WATER

Time for Reading I. Read the text and find information about: a) the amount of water on the planet; b) a great variety of water uses; c) efficient use of irrigation water. II. What is this text about? Choose the best answer. a. water assumes a variety of forms; b. a very small amount of water can be used by man; c. the supply of water is not infinite; d. in a complex society water is put to a great variety of uses; e. storage of water in reservoirs may cause considerable losses through evaporation; f. water tends to be very consumptive; g. irrigation waters are of crucial importance. IRRIGATION WATERS

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The total amount of water contained in our planet is constant and invariable and can neither be increased or diminished. It assumes a variety of forms, such as the oceans, moisture vapour, fresh water, lake water of varying degrees of salinity, and ice. As most of this water is locked away in the oceans, snowfields, ice caps and glaciers, only a small proportion is available in a form readily usable by man. Moreover, a great deal of the water in and on the land is polluted by minerals or by industrial waste and so frequently rendered unusable. Of the water contained in the oceans, a very small proportion daily changes its form and composition and is moved to the land, where it can be used by man and from where it returns to the oceans. It is clear therefore that although a great deal of water is available for use by man, the supply is not finite. While it is likely that the quantity of usable water will be increased by such technological developments as desalinisation and the creation of artificial precipitation, it is certain that for some time to come by far the greater proportion of our water supplies will be derived primarily from surface run-off and to a lesser extent from subterranean sources. In a complex society, water is put to a great variety of uses: for irrigating crops, for the generation of hydroelectricity, for recreation, for canals and waterways, for controlling pollution, and as a source of food. In one way or other, all these uses are interdependent. For example, the construction of a modern dam promotes irrigation, the generation of hydroelectricity, flood control and recreation. Frequently, however, the uses of such natural resources as water may be to some degree competitive and mutually exclusive. Thus a choice must sometimes be made between one use and another. The diversion of water from a stream for irrigation or for drinking may impair navigation and power uses downstream by decreasing stream level and flow, and may create pollution problems. Individual excessive pumping of underground water supplies may cause a general lowering of the water table with inhibiting effects on other uses of water, while the storage of water in reservoirs may cause considerable losses through evaporation. Of these competing uses, water for irrigation is perhaps the most important, as it is essential for the survival of many people in many parts of the world. Unlike the other uses of water, it tends to be very consumptive. That is to say, it interferes substantially with the hydrologic cycle of evaporation, rainfall and run-off; this effect is mainly due to heavy losses by evaporation. In addition, the return flow of irrigation water to rivers and canals after use does not contain the same quality of water which was originally applied to the field. It is almost always altered by varying degrees of mineral concentration and organic matter and may be unfit for some uses without ameliorating treatment. For these reasons, efficient and effective conservation of irrigation waters are of growing and crucial importance. Did You Get It? I. Say whether the following statements true or false. Correct false ones. 1) The total amount of water contained in our planet is constant and can not be diminished. 2) A great deal of water on the land is polluted by man.

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3) The greater proportion of our water supplies is derived from subterranean sources. 4) In a complex society water is put to a great variety of uses: for generation of electricity, recreation and a source of food. 5) Individual excessive pumping of underground water supplies causes a general lowering of the water table. 6) Of all competitive uses, water for irrigation is perhaps the most important. 7) Water does not interfere substantially with the hydrologic cycle of evaporation. 8) Water is always altered by varying degrees of mineral concentration. II. Answer the questions. 1) What forms does water assume? 2) What proportion of water is locked away in the oceans, snowfields, ice caps and glaciers? 3) What part of water can be used by man? 4) How will the quantity of usable water be increased? 5) In what society is water put to many uses? 6) What does the construction of a modern dam promote? 7) What is the cause of decreasing stream level and flow? 8) What may cause considerable losses through evaporation? 9) Why is the water for irrigation essential for the survival of many people in the world? 10) Why does water tend to be consumptive? 11) Does irrigation water contain the same quality of water after use? 12) What water is always altered by varying degrees of mineral concentration and organic matter? Words, Words, Words... I. Match the words on the left with the meaning on the right. 1. constant a. vital 2. invariable b. man-made 3. available c. actual 4. usable d. accessible 5. artificial e. unchangeable 6. considerable f. stable 7. essential g. important 8. substantial h. marked 9. crucial i. fit for use II. What is the difference in meaning between the following: • proportion / part • fresh water / drinking water • complex society/advanced society • minerals / natural resources • contain / hold in • industrial waste / domestic waste • lock in / lock away • primarily / mainly • move to / move on • reservoir / body of water

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• stream / spring • apply to / apply for • flow / flood • unfit / unusable • water table / water level III. Find the following expressions in the text. What do they mean? Use them in the sentences of your own. 1. a great deal of 2. pollution problems 3. be used by 4. storage of water 5. technological developments 6. interfere with 7. be derived from 8. efficient use IV. Match up the words with their definitions. 1. precipitation a) level below which the ground is filled with water; 2. supply a) make or become different; 3. irrigate a) give or provide something needed or asked for; 4. diversion a) fall of snow, rain, etc.; 5. flow a) live or exist longer than 6. water table a) the act of turning something aside or giving it a different direction; 7. survival a) construct reservoirs, canals for the distribution of water to fields; 8. alter a) move along or over as a river does. V. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in brackets. 1) Irrigation in New Zealand is much more ______ than in Australia. (limited) 2) It is hoped that the scheme will eventually support a population _______ largely on agriculture. (base) 3) ______ agriculture is also very limited in Libya. (irrigate) 4) At present India’s _______ areas of irrigated land are in the Northern Plain. (large) 5) The project will ______ provide irrigation to 3-6 million acres annually. (eventual) 6) Four main types of irrigation are _______ used in China (common) 7) It is clear that careful planning ________ the success of a large-scale irrigation project. (ensure). 8) In Western Europe irrigation is very largely ________ in character. (supplement) 9) Egypt is an example of traditional peasant irrigation _______. (farm) VI. Complete the following text with the words below. Put only one word in each gap. 1. deprivation 2. irrigate 3. replenish 4. purely 5. shorelines 6. annually 7. fulfill 8. abundance When the Aral Sea was whole, its surface waters evaporated as much as one meter __(a)___ throwing up a volume of vapor that successfully deflected currents of

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cold air to higher altitudes where they drifted to the distant Pamir Mountain to __(b)_ its glacier system. And from these eternal glaciers rivers flowed. The Aral Sea was created by two important rivers, the Syr in the north and the Amu in the south. As long as man can remember, farmers on the banks of both have drawn off necessary amounts of water to __(c)___ their fields. But at no time did this __(d)__ lower the level of the great lake by more than three meters before seasonal rains could replenish it. Until its deliberate destruction commenced, the Aral’s __(e)___ remained firm and were surrounded by land sufficiently fertile to support one-fourth million hectares of forest. Reeds in great __(f)___ supplied all the material for the production of cellulose and carton. All of these advantages to the nation were to change or be lost in the early 1960s when a plan called for as much cotton production as the nature of the region could support, through healthy or unhealthy practices. “Cotton at any cost,” became the cry, and the wreckers went to work to __(g)___ it. To irrigate the massive area plowed for cotton, both the Aral’s rivers were heavily tapped. In ancient times they had been known for the __(h)__ of their waters, but this too would soon change. The cotton plan did succeed in increasing acreage from the customary 3,000,000 hectares to about 7,000,000. Time to Talk Work in pairs. Make up dialogues discussing: a. A great deal of water is used by man. b. The diversion of water from a river or lake may create pollution problems.

UNIT VII

GROUNDWATER

Question Time Speaking. Look at the diagram below and answer: • Where is grounwater used most? • What category uses the least amount of groundwater?

Time for Reading

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Read the text and say where you are likely to find a text like this. Prove your answer. • In a text book; • in a scientific magazine; • in an encyclopedia. GROUNDWATER (A) Groundwater is any water found below the land surface. It (i) is a longterm reservoir of the natural water cycle, as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water. It (ii) is naturally replenished from above, as surface water from precipitation, streams, and rivers infiltrates into the ground. The study of the distribution and behavior of groundwater is hydrogeology. (B) Groundwater is found in aquifers, in the pore spaces of rocks, in unconsolidated sediments, as permafrost, and as soil moisture. Groundwater flows to the surface naturally at springs and seeps and can form oases or swamps. It (iii) may also be tapped artificially by the digging of wells. (C) Groundwater is often contained in aquifers, which (iv) are layers of permeable material that channel the groundwater's flow. Aquifers can be confined or unconfined. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from a recharge zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it (v) flows. This can create artesian wells that (vi) flow freely without the need of a pump. The top of the upper unconfined aquifer is called the water table, where water pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. The region between the land surface and the water table is called the unsaturated zone. Within the this zone water is held to soil particles by adhesion and in pore spaces by capillary action. (D) Groundwater is a highly useful and abundant resource, but it does not renew itself rapidly. If groundwater is extracted intensively from water wells, as for irrigation in arid regions, it may become depleted. The most evident problem that may result from this (vii) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. Wells must consequently be deepened to reach the groundwater; in some places in India, the water table has dropped hundreds of feet due to overextraction. (E) A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as subsidence. The film of groundwater around particles of an aquifer of unconsolidated sediment actually holds the particles apart, and the removal of this water will compact the sediment. Thus the aquifer is permanently reduced in capacity, and the surface of the ground may also subside. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is actually below sea level today, and its (viii) subsidence is partly caused by removal of ground water under it (ix). In the coastal areas, a lowered water table may induce sea water to reverse the flow toward the sea. Sea water moving inland is called a saltwater intrusion. Alternatively, salt from mineral beds may leach into the groundwater. (G) Not all groundwater problems are caused by overextraction. Pollutants dumped on the ground or in landfills may leach into the soil, and work their (x) way down into aquifers. Movement of water within the aquifer is then likely to spread the

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pollutant over a wide area, making the groundwater unusable. Areas of karst topography on limestone bedrock are especially vulnerable to surface pollution. Did You Get It? Text Organization. I. Which paragraph contains information about a. saltwater intrusion? b. problems caused by lowered water table? c. types of aquifers? d. problems caused by spreading of pollutants? e. place where groundwater can be stored? II. What do the following pronouns and adjectives stand for? It (i) paragraph A that (vi) paragraph C It (ii) paragraph A this (vii) paragraph D It (iii) paragraph B its (viii) paragraph E which (iv) paragraph C it (ix) paragraph E it (v) paragraph C their (x) paragraph G III. Match the beginning of a sentence in column A with an ending in column B to produce a statement which is true according to the text. A (a) Groundwater (b) Aquifers, the pore spaces of rocks, unconsolidated sediments (c) An aquifer (d) In the water table (e) Hydrogeology studies (f) The water table in India (g) Movement of polluted water within the aquifer (h) New Orleans

B (i) the distribution and behavior of groundwater. (ii) has dropped hundreds of feet due to overextraction. (iii) flow freely without the need of a pump. (iv) is actually below sea level. (v) are the places where groundwater is stored. (vi) makes the groundwater unusable. (vii) is any water found below the land surface.

(viii) is a layer of permeable material that channel the groundwater's flow. (i) Artesian wells (ix) water pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. IV. Say whether the following statements are true or false and give the paragraph number to show where your information came from. Statement i. The top of the upper unconfined aquifer is called the water table. ii. Groundwater renews itself quickly. iii. Subsidence of New Orleans is caused only by removal of ground water under it. iv. Unnconsolidated sediments are known as permafrost and as soil moisture.

True/false

# Paragraph

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v. Groundwater may be tapped by the digging of wells. vi. Grounwater is a short-term reservoir of the water cycle. vii. Groundwater is a scarce resource. viii. Groundwater can form springs, oases or swamps. ix. They distinguish between two types of aquifers. x. All groundwater problems are caused by overextraction. xi. Within the unsaturated zone is held to soil particles by capillary action and in pore spaces by adhesion. xii. In arid regions groundwater is used for irrigation intensively. V. Using information from the text, complete the following table. Groundwater problem Caused by 1. Lowering of the water table. 1. 2. 2. etc. etc. Words, Words, Words... I. Match up and explain the meaning. • short-term • table • permeable • moisture • water • sediments • artesian • pressure • confined • reservoir • unsaturated • well • atmospheric • beds • mineral • material • unconsolidated • aquifer • soil • zone II. Find in the text words and word combinations which mean the following. Action in a particular way; to make a hole by taking away the earth; to direct; the state or action of sticking together or to something; (of land) having so little rain as to be very dry and unproductive; to remove, to take out; to get rid of, to abandon; a type of rock containing calcium and other substances; the main stretch of solid rock in the ground supporting all the soil above it; a very small opening; an area of land which is always full of or covered with water; a land that is permanently frozen to a great depth, even though the surface may slightly thaw in the summer; a place where water can be taken from underground; not protected, weak; having the air pressure inside not much lower than the pressure on the Earth; absorbent (adj).

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III. Complete the following table of corresponding nouns and verbs (most can be found in the text). Make sure you know the meaning. Noun Verb removal ? to extract ? distribution ? behaviour ? to channel ? irrigation ? to create ? pressure ? movement ? adhesion ? to subside ? IV. Find words and expressions in the text with the opposite meaning to those listed below and give the paragraph. Word or expression

Words or expression # paragraph meaning the opposite

a) bottom b) not very much c) artificially d) upward e) temporarily f) slowly g) rare, scarce h) rising V. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Note that one word is extra. A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other excavation intersects a flowing body of groundwater at or below the local water table, below which the subsurface material is __(i)_____with water. A spring is the result of an __(ii)____ being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land surface. ___(iii)___ may be formed in any sort of rock, but are more prevalent in __(iv)___ and dolomite. Water from springs usually is remarkably __(v)___. Water from some springs, however, may be "tea-colored." This is caused by ground water coming in __(vi)____ with naturally occurring minerals, like iron. Thermal springs are ordinary springs except that the water is __(vii)____ and, in some places, hot, such as in the bubbling mud springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Many thermal springs occur in regions of recent __(viii)__ and are fed by water heated by contact with hot rocks far below the surface. Also, warm springs can even coexist with __(ix)_____, as in Greenland. • saturated • icebergs • contact • clear • limestone • aquifer • warm • well • volcanic activity • springs

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Time to Talk Tell about groundwater, its usage and importance.

UNIT VIII

• • • • •

WATER STORAGE IN ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS

Question Time Try to guess the meaning of the following words. membrane • reactor • salt process • mechanical • atmosphere distillation • method • chemicals condense • presence • equilibrium mass • ion • transportation

• • • •

ocean direct potential pressure

Time for Reading I. Read the text and match the headings with the paragraph number. a) Precipitation water from the atmosphere. b) Methods of artificial precipitation. c) Method of producing fresh water. II. Give as much information as you can about: a) advantages of water contained in the oceans; b) transportation and distribution of water to places where it is most needed; c) the air upsets the equilibrium and causes precipitation; d) applicable methods of bringing about artificial precipitation. ATMOSPHERIC WATER AND OCEANS (i) Atmospheric water or water vapor has two major advantages over water contained in the oceans: it is to be found everywhere above the land surface and it is free of salt. For these reasons, it has been said that “he who finds the key to precipitating water from the atmosphere solves part of one of the most difficult tasks in supplying water to needing areas, that of transportation and distribution” . Unfortunately, no large-scale, successful, economic method has yet been devised to tap this water supply and direct it to places where it is most needed. Or a serious initial obstacle lies in the fact that clouds are not necessarily water-bearing and may be “dry” . If they do contain water vapor, one of two things may happen to it. It may either dry out or condense and fall as rain or snow. (ii) The most that we have been able to do is to cause a particular humid cloud - one that would almost certainly sooner or later have precipitated –to shed its moisture at a time and place of our choosing. This achieved in one of two ways. The first involves the “seeding” of clouds from aeroplanes or rockets with small particles of various chemicals, which under auspicious circumstances cause water droplets to

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form and precipitation to take place. The second method is to create artificial convection currents by heating a large air mass near the ground. The air thereupon rises rapidly into the cloud, upsets the equilibrium, and causes precipitation. Some local successes have been achieved by these methods, but both are expensive and both depend upon the presence of water-filled clouds, something which can not, as yet, be ensured. Other, more widely applicable methods of brining about artificial precipitation may one day be devised, but that day is still distant. (iii) The oceans remain by far the largest potential source of water and together with the inland seas contain 92, 7 per cent of the earth’s water. This water could be made potable if its saline content were reduced from about 35,000 parts per million to 500 parts per million or less. We have known for a long time that it is possible to produce freshwater by heating saltwater and so promoting distillation. It is only recently, however, that such processes have been developed on anything like a large scale. A number of processes are currently in use, of which the most promising are “flash” distillation and reverse osmosis. The former is based on the heating of brine and the reduction of pressure, which causes the liquid “to flash” into the steam. This process has been developed by British scientists, using gas-cooled nuclear reactors to supply the power, and it is generally agreed that for some time to come it will be the most economic source of desalted water. Reverse osmosis uses semi-permeable membranes which permit the passage of water but do not allow salt ions to pass through. Each of these processes depends upon the use of energy, which may be thermal, mechanical or solar. Did You Get It? I. Answer the questions. 1) What water has two main advantages? 2) What water can be found above the land surface? 3) What method has not devised yet? 4) What does a serious initial obstacle lie in? 5) What do the first and second methods involve? 6) In what way does the air cause precipitation? 7) Why are these methods very expensive? 8) What is the largest potential source of water? 9) How can water be made potable? 10) How can we produce freshwater? 11) What processes are currently in use? 12) What processes are the most promising? 13) How does reverse osmosis use semi-permeable membranes? 14) What does each of these processes depend on? II. Decide if these statements are true or false. 1) The first method involves “planting” of clouds from planes or rockets with small particles of various chemicals. 2) The second method is to create artificial convection currents by cooling a large air mass near the ground. 3) Clouds are necessarily water-bearing.

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4) 5) 6) 7)

I.

II.

III.

IV.

Atmospheric water is free of salt. The inland seas remain the largest potential source of water. It isn’t possible to produce fresh water by heating salt water. The most that we have been able to do is to cause a particular waterbearing cloud.

Words, Words, Words… Find words in the text that have the following meanings. 1) think of 2) take up 3) damp 4) to be suitable 5) to be disturbed 6) show clearly 7) hotness 8) subject matter 9) stream of water 10) ability to do or act 11) very small bit 12) free from the moisture 13) let fall Match up the words with their definitions. 1) promote a) give or provide something needed or asked for; 2) distillation b) flowering plant’s elements of life from which another plant can grow; 3) vapor c) making liquid into gas and then making the gas into liquid; 4) seeding d) making or becoming smaller; 5) solve e) find the answer to the problem; 6) contain f) a gaslike form of a liquid, such as mist or steam, often caused by a sudden change of temperatures; 7) supply g) have or hold within itself; 8) reduction h) give higher position or rank. Correct mistakes in the sentences. 1. This process which has no beginning and no end is been known as the hydrologic cycle. 2. This cyclical movement of water is divisible into the three main stages. 3. Each of these process suffer from the disadvantages that the cost of desalination is very high. 4. It is desalinated water used almost exclusively for drinking. 5. Some countries signed the agreement to undertake joint research into the possibilities of using the atomic energy to desalinate salt water. 6. This total global evaporation is exactly balance by the total precipitation. Find in the text the derivations of the following words. Make as many words as possible of the same roots. • atmosphere • presence • to achieve • salt • pressure • to reduce • success • ocean • to develop • economy • mechanics • to cool

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• rain • to precipitate V. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in brackets. 1. This process which has no beginning and no end is known as the _______ cycle. (hydrology) 2. It _______ a gigantic system operating in and on the land and oceans of the earth. (comprise) 3. This cyclical movement of water is ________ into three main stages. (divide) 4. It will be seen, therefore, that the hydrological cycle is completed in these ways; water which _______ in the oceans, sooner or later _______ to them. (begin, return) 5. In the second stage of the cycle the air masses _______ the water vapor are suddenly cooled. (contain). 6. It _______ that something like 80,000 cubic miles of water are evaporated each year from the oceans. (estimate). 7. These areas have a marked seasonal ______ of rain. (short) 8. This total global evaporation is ________ balanced by the total precipitation. (exact) VI. Use the words from the box to fill in the gaps. (A) Evaporation from the oceans is the primary mechanism supporting the ___(i)___ portion of the water cycle. After all, the large surface area of the oceans (over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by the oceans) __(ii)___ the opportunity for such large-scale evaporation to occur. On a global scale, the amount of water evaporating is about the same as the amount of water __(iii)___ to the Earth as precipitation. This does vary __(iv)___, though. Evaporation is more __(v)___ over the oceans than precipitation, while over the __(vi)___, precipitation routinely exceeds evaporation. Most of the water that evaporates from the oceans falls back into the oceans as __(vii)___. Only about 10 percent of the water __(viii)__ from the oceans is transported over land and falls as precipitation. Once evaporated, a water molecule spends about 10 __(ix)___ in the air. The process of evaporation is so great that without precipitation, runoff, and __(x)___from aquifers, oceans would become nearly empty. • surface-to-atmosphere • prevalent • precipitation • delivered • geographically • land • evaporated • provides • discharge • days Time to Talk Work in pairs. Discuss the following statement. The water cycle is the movement of water from earth to the air and back again to earth by the processes of evaporation, condensation and precipitation.

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С п исок исп ольз ованной лит ер ат ур ы Р есур сы И нт ер нет а: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/mearth.html http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8m.html http://www.peopleandplanet.net http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page http://www.unep.org/vitalwater/index.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/teachers/ks3science.shtml http://www.epa.gov/teachers/bkg-index.htm http://interactive2.usgs.gov/learningweb/explorer/topic_water_links.asp

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Сост а вит ели: ст. п р. Са ф он ова Н ин а Ва сильевн а п р. Черн икова Светла н а Н икола евн а Р ед а кт ор: Б у н ин а Т .Д.

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