Bats
63
also.BCIcanbe reachedat P.O.Box 162603' Austin, TX 78716; (512) 327-972I; (fax) (s12)327-e724.
A Last Word There are dozensof other speciesof wildlife that need to ioin the bat and the wolf as deservingof public respectand understanding.Thken one at a time it might be somewhile beforetheywill all be giventhese butbyusing an ecoqrstemapproach,we may make progressmore rapidly toward accepting the positi'revalue of all wild animals.
Additional Sources Frantz,S. 1986. "BatproofingStructures with Birdnetting Checkvalves."Pro-
andRabies BatHouse Bat housesand batshave smallPossisuchan incrediblY to the bilityof contributing to rabies potential for exPosure that effortsto Passordinances themareentirely prohibiting Notonlydo the unnecessary. speciesof batsthatinhabit housestendnotto be the in batonesthatareimPlicated of the to-humantransmission disease,but the overallrateof rabiesin batsis so lowthat is of Positive theirresidence value-insectcontrol.
consistof netting drapedwu-but \efi Figure 19. Bat checkualues bau' beingusedfo house-dwelling entrance bottnm-an the ot Wn Batswill exit,crawldoumthesideof thehouseandleave,but theywill rwtbe ableta retum.
ceedingsof the 12th VertebratePest Conference,University of California at Davis.260-68. French,T. W., J. E. Cardoza,and G. S. Guideto Jones.1986.A Homeowner's Problems. Bat and Bets Massachusetts Departmentof Fish and Massachusetts Wildlife, 100 CambridgeStreeLBoston, MAO22A2. Kern,W. H., Jr.,J. Belwood,and P.G. Koehler.1993."Batsin Buildings."Fact sheetENY-272.Florida Cooperative ExtensionServiceUniversitY of Florida. Lee,C., and F.R. Henderson.1992. "Bats: Urban Wildlife DamageControl." PublicationL-855. CooPerative ExtensionService,KansasStateUniversity, Manhattan, KS. Tuttle,Merlin D. 1988.America'sNeighborhood Bats.Austin: Llniversitybf Texas Press. Tuttle Merlin D., and Donna L. Hensley. 1993.TheBat HduseBuilder'sHandbook. Bat ConservationIntemational, P.O. Box 162603,Austin,\X 787t6.
Beavers
Distributed completely throughout Canadaandmost of the UnitedStates;absent onlyfromthe most aridregions.
Probtems inyards*nen'ii6bi' arecut down;flooding resulting frombeaverdamsis an issuein someareas. Spendthe entirewinterwith up to eightfamilymembersin a tinyenclosed chamberin the lodg*and withoutany bickering.
thatstandsinthe lGemlin'sRed
Henry Morgan,an Americanlawyerrecognizedasone ofthe founders of the field of cultural anthropology. His seminal work, Ancipnt Society,waspublished in 1877,fully nine yearsafter his natural history studyentitled TheAmqican Beauerappeared.Morgan'sthinking about the evolution of human societywas so highly admipgflby tfg6lMam ,MgS; and Friedrich Engelsthat their praiseof him led to cow. His monograph on beaversproduced no st to be creditedasa major influenceon rhe thinkiffi Ethology, the sciencethat focuseson the study oSS ""1 under natural conditions. Beaversare an example of a speciesnearly driven and making a comeback.At issuein that comebackis beaversand humans are in conflict over who getsto plains. We are only just recognizingthat while it is environmentally appropriatefor the beaverto build in
Beavers tions persistedin the most inaccessibleparts of the farWest, and hencemuch of the romantic lore concerning the "mountain man" becameassociatedwith the continuing pursuit of the species.A good deal of the uade and commerceof the early colonial period wasbasedon beavers-so much so that for a time their pelts were the standard currency.The economicviability of the early colonial period dependedto a large octent not only on beaverfur, but on the rich soils that surfacedwhen beaverdams were broken and agricultural land was created. In a sense,these animals gavebreath Classificationanil funge to early America twice: once through their is the largest lives and again through their land. The beaver(Cator canadensis) Ithas avery NorthAmerica. rodentfound in close relative in the Old World (CastorfiHabitat bu) thatsome taxonomistsregardasessentially the same species.In most of Europe Beaverslive in and around water and conand fuia, this Old World beaveris in criti- stantly modifr streamsby building dams cal trouble and may be closeto following and impounding flows to createponds, albeaverthat was though theywill also live by largeriversand its cousin,a late-Pleistocene extinction' Our lakeswithout building dams at all. Lewis into a bear, about the sizeof beavercanweigh more than 60 pounds,but Henry Morgan visited beaver impoundan averageadult is more likely to weigh ments iust south of LakeSuperior that had about 35 to 40. Including the trademarkflat probably been in placefor hundreds,if not tail usedasa rudder, construction tool and thousands,ofyears.Thebeaversweremostly communication device,the adultsareabout gone,but their lodgesand dams remained 30 incheslong and a foot high. When stand- asarchaeologicalevidence.The dam at Grass ing on its hind legs an adult beavercan Lake that Morgan describeswas 260 feet long over6 feettall and had obviouslybeen reachalmost 3 feet. Beaversare well adaptedto the aquatic the work of generationsof beavers.Still, it habitat that, for the most part, they design would be dwarfed by the dam measuredat and maintain. A beavercan submergefor an astounding2,160feetlong by EnosMills as much as fifteen minutes, during which in what is now Rodry Mountain National time it can carry tree limbs under water in Parkin Colorado. The beaverimpoundment providesa rich itss incisor teeth thanks to a specialflap of being environment for many animal and plant skin designedto prevent water from species.There is a regular cycle in land swallowed. Their densewaterproof fur was so cov- changeshabitat createdby beavers,providetedbythe coloniststhatbeaversin the East ing different valuesat eachstage.Ear$ beaver soon ponds, for example,createconditions attracwere nearly trapped out of e><posures is that so rare but Bears occupy a variety of habitats in areas record. the in humans are of where large enough blocks of undisturbed
Habitat
74
WTTO NPICHBORS
Problems and Their Solutions Problems Fortunately,bearsdo notmakedensin chimneys or attics.They will den occasionally under decksor porches,especiallyin summer houses or residencesthat are used sporadically.Theyraid gardensand getinto trash with a facility that aptly demonstrates their sizeand power.They also occasionally causesignificantdamageto beehives.
Solutions TornneNcn As with all of the animal issuesdiscussedin this booh toleranceand understandinghave a key role to play in how we approach resolving conflicts,even(or maybeespecially) with animals as large and formidable as bears.Largeanimals tend to be potentially more dangerousto peoplethan small ones, admittedly, but they also tend to be less common and tend to need a larger living area,or homerange,to sustain them. Thus, for the individual homeowrer, an encounterwith a bearmight be a once-in-a-lifetime event. The animal might be a youngster moving out of its mother's home range,or dispersingtolook for a suitablehome for itself, or it might be an adult that has come by the houseto investigatea smell or sound that attractedits attention. Once it has figured out that the attraction is relatedto humans,it is likely to headoverthe mountain and not be seenor heardfrom again. ExclusroN Where bearsare a seriousproblem and repeatedlycausedepredationon a specificresource(such as a set of beehives),electric fencingis the recommendedtool for useas a deterrent(seeChapter3). Suchfencingcan
also be used to protect campsites,refuse sitesand other areasthat might attractcurious bears. Henrrer MaNncEMENT Do not placetrashcansoutsideat night. If uash mustbe placedout at night, then an investmentin a "bear-proof" can is the way to go. A useful publication on this subject is Animal Resistnnt GarbageContainers ( 1995, USDAForestServicepublicationgl23 1205SDTDCby LesterSindair),publishedby the U.S. ForestServiceand availablefrom the Superintendentof Documents,Govemment Printing Office. Stockadeenclosuresthat will hold most bearsat bay can also be built. It is importantnot to try to keepan open compostpile in bear country especiallyone in which household refuseis dumped. Enclosedrecycling bins are advisedif refusemust be stored outside a secureoutbuilding. Even ruggedlybuilt bins may be broken into by determined bears, however.Burying compost is not advisedbecausebearswill easily dig it up if motivatedby enticingodors.Keep grills that are on back decksor closeto the housecleanand asfreeof drippingsaspossible. Preferably,move the grill well away from the housewhen it is not being used. MrNrurzrNc CoNTAcr As with other largeand potentially dangerous mammals,therearerulesabout encounters with bearsthat can help to minimize the possibilityof peopleputting themselves in danger.The rulesdescribedhereforblack bearsare,we caution, different from those for dealingwith brown or polar bears.These bearsare extremelydangerousin close encounters,while blackbearsarealwaysmore likely to withdraw than confront humans, even when surprised.Peopleare usually afraid of bears,and sometimesin thinking that they might be attackedor even eaten,
BlackBears will react to encountersin waysthat actually increasethe likelihood of injury. Nwer try to Wroach abear tn driueit off! Shouting bangingobjectstogether,making as much noise as possibleand looking as big aspossible(by spreadingyour anns,or better, coat outward) are all effeaive responses.The keyhereis to let the bearknow you area human. Runningawayfrom a bear is not saidto be dangerous,asit is with cougars,becausethe bear is usually turning in the opposite direction to run itself. Throwing things at the bear and evenhitting it in the rump if you can are orcellent ways to get it to move off. In the rare instancewhere the expertsadvise a black bearbluff charges, standingstill. The bear doesthis only as a waming and invariablyturns and movesoff after the display. EnneNr Bnens Young bears dispersingfrom the area in which they were born and in searchof a suitable home for themselvessometimes find themselvesin suburbiawithout a good idea of how to get out. Frequentlyenough this leadsto a perceivedcrisis,in which the beardimbs a tree,a telephonepole or anything it can reachto get awayfrom people, who only gather in larger crowds as word spreadsofthe curiosity.Confusionand uncertainty,coupled with inexperienceand a misconceptionof the threat such an animal poses,can often lead to fatal consequencesfor the bear.This doesnot haveto happen if a little foresightand planning are applied to make sure that qualified and properly equippedwildlife professionalsor veterinary assistancecan be called upon. L,eavingthe bearalone and giving it the opportunity to move offby itself is alwaysthe preferredsolution. Tranquilization and removal of the trespassingbearcan savea life or it can take one,becausethis procedureis alwayaa high risk for the bear.In forcedsitu-
75
ations, however,removal may be the best solution to protect both humans and the bear.
Repellents The pepper repellent that is marketed for repelling human attackershas also been used to repel bears.Much tested in parks wherepanhandlingbearsarea problem,the sprayhasbeengenerallyprovento work and to be effectiveat chasingbearsfrom campgrounds.The smarterbears,howevet leam the effectiverange (usually about 10 to 12 feet) and stand just beyond that when they encounterhumans whom they suspectof intending to usethe sprayon them.
A Last Word It is possiblethat human-bearencounters will become more frequent in the future. Peopleare increasinglyenteringbear habitat, and bears are returning to placesfrom which they had been previouslydisplaced. As serious as encountersbetween people and bearsmightbe the solution to conflicts will not be to managebear populations through hunting or deliberateactions intended to lower population density.
Additional Sources Kolenosky,G. 8., and S. M. Strathearn. 1987."BlackBear."In M. Novak,J.A. Baker,M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch (eds.),WiId Furbearer Management and Conseruation in North America. Ontario: Ministry of Natural Resources.443-54. Pelton,M. E. 1982."BlackBeaL"In J.A. Chapmanand G. A. Feldhamer(eds.). Wild Mammalsof NorthAmerica. Baltimore:Iohns Hopkins University Press.504-14.
Bobcats
The bobcat rangeswidely
throughout mostof the United StatesintosouthernCanada, but is mostlyreplacedby the lynxfarthernorth. Bobcatsarerarevisitorsto yards,butgenerally shun developed areas.
Trte BoBCATrs sMALLnnthan a cougarand larger than a housecatbut often confusedwith both. Like its cousins,the bobcat exhibitssexualdimorphism. This meansthat one sor (in this casethe male) is largeron averagethan the other. A largemale bobcat can weigh asmuch asa small femalecougar,and a small female bobcat can weigh less than many large house cats (hencethe causefor confusion).With a little orperiencean observercan soon come to know the distinguishingcharacteristics of all of thesecatsand will see that the larger-bonedand more muscularbody structureof the bobcat readily distinguishesit from house cats,and that the short tail tipped with dark fur is quite distinguishablefrom the long sweeping rear appendagecarried about by the cougar. Bobcatscausevery few problems for humans,the worst being their occasionalpredationon small animals.Generally,bobcatsareso retiring and secretivethat people neverevenknow they are there.
Onewildlifephotographer waitingin a blindto geta photograph of a bobcatwas aboutto takea picturewhenthe cat startledand boltedoff (ten minuteslatera hikerpassedon the nearbytrail).
Natural History Classificotionand Range The bobcat (Felisrufus) and its close cousin the lynx (F. lynx) are widely distributed throughout North America,with the lynx tending
Bobcats to havea more northerly distribution and the bobcat,a more southerlyone. Bobcats are distributed widely throughout the United Statesbut are absent from a large part of the Midwest. They are believed to havebeenextirpatedfrom theseareassoon after the first settlersarrived,but there is a debateasto how numerousthey might ever havebeen there.A number of unique anatomical featuresof theseanimals indicate clear$ that the lynx is a cold-climatespecialist, while the bobcat is built around a more generalfeline model that does well under many differentconditions.Malebobcatstend to be about a third largerthan females within the same geographicarea. Usually femalesare lessthan 20 pounds, while males averagearound 25 on a frame that is between30 and 36 inches.Females aslight as 10to 11pounds fall well within the housecat range.
Habitnt Bobcatsare adapted to a wide variety of habitatsasis obvious from their wide geographicdistribution. They do well in even small forestedareasand inhabit open grasslands as well as brushland and semiarid desertas long as some cover is available. canvaryenorTheareausedasahomerange being less from mously in theseanimals, than a squaremile to more than a hundred times that. Like many other mammalian carnivores,female home rangestend to be exclusive and those of males can overlap severalfemalehome rangesand sometimes eventhe rangesof other males.
Diet Bobcats are opportunistic carnivores who will take prey that range in size from just about the smallest animals (shrews) up to
the sizeof adult deer.The generalpreference for prey appearsto fall within size categories ranging from that of the cottontail rabbit (about 2 pounds) up to raccoon(about 10 to 15 pounds). Where an abundanceof rabbits occut,the bestdietaryconditions for bobcatsarebelievedto ocistalso.Largeprey may be partly hidden under leavesor other plant material and visited repeatedlyif it cannot be consumedall at once.
Reproduction Bobcatsare seasonalbreedersand become sexually active sometime in late winter or earlyspring.Male and femalerelationships generallylast only for the brief period of courtship and mating after which they go their separateways.The gestationperiod is
BobcatTracks
78
Wrrp NprcHsoRS
aboutsixtydqrs,roughlythe sameasforthe housecat.Littersizerangesfrom two to four on the average,and there is some speculation that femalesmight havemore than one litter ayear under optimal conditions.The young are usually independent by late fall or early winter.
Solutions
TorsRANce Traditionsdie hard, and in someplacesthe bobcat still carriesaround the imageof being a dangerous"varmint." Bounties on bobcatswereestablishedalmost assoon as land was colonized and remainedin place long after there was an economic concern Dens to protectthem. Clearlya betterunderstandThere is a general agreementthat rocky ing and more tolerant approach to these ledgesarecritical habitat elementsfor these animalsis still needed. animals. Theseprovide cover,shelter and den sitesthat are suitable for birthing and Hanlrer MeNecTMENT rearing young. The hollow trees and logs Feedinghouse cats outdoors should be that are favored by other animals, such as stopped-or never started.Elimination of raccoons,arealsooccasionallyused,but not the coverand food resourcesthat might atwith the great preference given to rock uact rodentsor rabbitscould help eliminate ledges. the attractiveness an areamight haveto bobcats.The typically large home range of a bobcat, however,more often means that Public Health Concerns sightingsand visitsby theseanimalswill be Bobcatsdo not causeany public health or relatively rare events. Only where roclqy safetyproblemsfor humans.Like all warm- ledgesare nearbyand wherethe possibility blooded animals,bobcatsaresusceptibleto of females using these to bear and raise rabies,but the incidenceof this diseaseis young arepermanentattractionslikely to be very low in theseanimals. an issue.
Problems and Their Solutions Problems Bobcatscausevery few problems for humans.As rareascasesof mountain lion predation on livestockare,the casesof bobcats killing sheepor other domestic stock are rarerstill. As opportunistic hunters,bobcats may occasionallytake house pets,this being the one way in which they cancomeinto conflict with people in developedareas.
REppLmNrs Thereareno repellentsregisteredto control bobcats.The varietyof productssold to deter house catsfrom using gardensor flower bedswill undoubtedly havesomeeffecton bobcats.
A Last Word Bobcatscan be an important, perhapseven a critical, part of the balanceof nature,even in areasthat are fairly densely settled by people.Their almostexdusivelycamivorous
Bobcats
79
habits and their preferencefor rabbits and Additional Sources rodents as prey mean that they can help to balancethe populations of theseanimals. McCord,C. M., and J.E. Cardoza.1982. "Bobcatand Lynx."In I.A. ChaPman That processmay be taking place alreadyin and G. A. Feldhamer(eds.),Wild the burgeoningferal cat populationsfound Mammalsof NorthAmerica,Baltimore: in many urban, and even suburban,areas, The JohnsHopkins UniversityPress. The bobcat which is another issueentirely. 728-66. may eventuallyeliminate some of the arguNewYork: mentssunoundingrtntby moving backinto Ryden,H. 1981. BobcatYear. 205 PP. Lyons $ thoseplacesfrom which it hasbeendriven. "Burfo-rd. ,. ,,:t'
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Chimney Swifts
Chimneyswiftsrangein summerthroughout the Midwestandeasternpartsof the UnitedStates,northinto southernCanada.
ONs wHo KNows rHESE BTRDS, with their cigarshaped bodies almost constantly aloft, chattering, sweepinginsectsout of the sky,will wonder why they are mentioned in a work on humane control of aniWillmakenestsin suitable problems.The reasonfor this is not becausethey mal chimneys, meaninguncapped cause any specialproblem for humans, but because clay-lined or mortered we have causeda problem forthem. Simplypul there structures. is a conflict betweenthe practiceof chimney-capping Voracious insect-eaters, these that animal damagespecialistsadvocateand the swifu, birdsarealwaysseenin the needfor roostingand nestingsites.This againreminds air,comingdownto roostonly us that everythingis interconnectedand part of a larger at dusk. picture, our living environment, of which this work addresses but one small part. There are severalspeciesof swifts in the United States,but the chimney swift (Chaeturapelagica) is the most common and widely disuibuted.BeforeEuropeansarrived,these birds nestedin the old giant hollow treesof the forest. Thesetrees were lost when the land was clearedfor agriculture.This might have had a devastatingimpact on swiftsonctreplicasof the nestingtrees.Today,many housesare built without chimneysor come with chimneysthat usesmaller metal flue pipes rather than clay liners. Thesemetal flues are special problems-they can sometimesbe a death trap for animals. Homeowners,increasinglyawarethat exclusionis the best practical method of dealing with unwanted intruders such as raccoons,are also cappingchimneysin largenumbers and thus denying nesting sitesto swifts. chimney swifts migrate betweenNorth America and peru, making a round-trip joumey of 6,000 miles gleryyear to be ableto pursue
ChimneySwifts their insect prey,which they take from the Although you may hearthe noisesof young air in amazing quantities. They are easily birds as they beg for food, these are only recognizedon the wing, with their gray temporary and should be tolerated. If a cigar-shapedbodies, constant wing beats chimney sweephasbeen hired and reports and distinctive vocalizations, but few the birds presentin the chimney, ask that peopleeverseethem at rest.Chimney swifu they come back later in the fall to complete are so specializedin their adaptationto the work. Professionalsweepsshould be clinging on vertical surfacesthat they can- well awarethat swifts are protected under not perch or stand on their legsin the way the Migratory Bird TreatyAct, and that fines that most other birds do. The feet of the and penaltiescould be applied to anyone chimney swift have four grappling hook- who knowingly destroysbirds or neststhat shapedtoeswith clawsthat can hold on a might contain eggsor young. Finally,chimroughened surfaceand partly support the neys lined with metal should always be bird while the stiffened tail featherswith capped,asbirds that enterthesecan easily exposedspiny tips bolster it aswell. These becometrapped. traits have servedto allow swifts to make the adfustmentfrom treesto chimneys. Resources Swifts not only roost in chimneys, but build nestsin them. Thesenestsare small Anyone interested in swifts and seeking cup-shapedstructuresconstructedof small more information about them can contact twigs and glued to the chimney wall with the Driftwood Wildlife Associationat the saliva.They are not a fire hazard,being far addresslisted in Appendix 1. The associatoo small, but should alwaysbe removed tion publishes a newsletter(Chateura)that afterthe birds haveleft in the fall. This also providesuseful information on thesebirds does the swifts a favor, both by removing and howto help conserveand protectthem. bird parasitesas well as the nest structure itself, which might be used by returning A Last Word swifts,but could be unstableenoughto colOne approachto dealingwith diminishing lapseduring the nestingperiod. If swifu are in a chimney during spring nesting habitat for swifts is being underor summerit is almostalwaysa singlebreed- takenby the DrifnrroodWildlife Association The ing pair. Varyrngsomewhat from north to and the U.S.National BiologicalSurvey. south, brooding and raising of the young North AmericanChimney Swift NestSiteRetakesplacebetweenluneandAugust.Asthey searchProject designsand tests alternate prepareto migrate south in the early fall, nestingstructuresfor swifu. The most elaboswifts congregate,sometimesin the hun- rate of these is an extra-largebirdhousedreds,to usea singlechimneyasa roost.The reallyan artificial chimney,12to 20 feethigh nightlyretum of foragingbirdsis impressive, and2x 2 feetin dimension.Monitoring and as they dart into the chimney at dusk with testing effiortsare still under way to perfect an uncanny qmchronization that must be an efficient, inexpensivestructure and to highly organized,evenif it looks confused. determine how best to place and maintain There are a few simple rules regarding them. Plansillustratingthis conceptand furswifts in chimneys.First,delaythe annual ther information on swifts are available deaning until afteryoung haveleft the nest. through the Driftwood Wildlife Association.
Chipmunks
Theoneeasternandmany westernspeciesof chipmunks arefound almostanywhere thereare woodsor evenscrub brushlands. Usually in stonewalls, underwalkwaysor patios or in theflowergarden. Theburrowof one chipmunk thatlivedto a venerable ageof sixwas accessedby at leastthirty different entrances overits lifetime. Psoprs wHo LrvE NEARA woooror of any size arelikelyto havechipmunksasneighbors.More obvious in the woodsthan outsidethem, theselittle ground squiirelsStill occasionallymake homes in yards (so long as they do not haveto dealwith their greatenemy,the housecat).Thesearecompletelyenjoyableanimals,and there'sa lot more to sayabout the pleasurethat comesfrom havingthem around than about any kinds of problems they may pose. A few quiet moments in the woods, sitting and watching,reveals one,closeby,then anothe! farther away,and anotherand sometimes evenmore going about their own business.It is clearthat theseanimals areawareof one another,and a disturbanceor threatthat frightensone spreadsrapidlyto the othersthrough the cascadeof scolding barks used to signal alarm. All become alert and, if the disturbance is real, disappearinto holes that are barely noticeableeven after having watchedthe animals use them. Then they come out,
Chipmunks cautiously,to resumethe seriousbusiness that was intemrpted.
NaturalHistory Classificatiananil Range Chipmunksarea memberof the samefamily of animalsasthe largertreesquirrels(the Sciuridae).There is one speciesof eastern chipmunk (Tamiasstriarus)and more than twenty speciesof western chipmunks (Eutomia.sspp.) spread throughout the United Statesand Canada.The easternchipmunk rangesthroughout New England,the mid-Atlantic regions of the United States and correspondingareasto the north in Canadathrough about the middle of the continent. The western speciestake up where the easternleavesoff and virtually coverthe rest of the continent. Chipmunks are commonlY distinguishedbythe broad stripesalongtheback. The easternchipmunk is largerthan most of the westernspecies,reaching10 inches (with tail) and weighing between 2-4 ounces.
Diet Chipmunksdependprimarily on plantsfor food, concentratingon seedsand berriesas well asacornsand other nuts.They alsoeat occasionalinsects,small amphibians and, in rare instances,birds. Like squirrels,their foraging is most intensein the fall as they gather food to store and use over the winter.Transportingfood to lardersis facilitated into which by the expandablecheekpouches quite a lot of materialcanbe crammed-as anyonewhowatchestheseanimalsforlong find outs. Chipmunks sleepthrough much
Tracks Chipmunk
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Habitat Chipmunks tend to favor deciduousforests with plenty of beech and oak trees.They may be most common around the edgeof woods where they can also forageout into other habitat to add to their larder.Chipmunks readily adapt to suburbangardens with natural landscapingand often digburrowsaround rock andwoodpiles,retaining walls and fallen logs.Theycan easilyclimb treesbut spend much of their time foraging along the ground. Chipmunks are active by day (diurnal).
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WTLO NPICHBORS
of the winter but awakeperiodicallyto eat stored food and may even appear out and about during warm spells.
Reproduction
Problemsand Their Solutions Problems
Chipmunks do not usually causeproperty damage although they sometimesare said to injure omamental plants as they harvest fruits and nuts. It is easyto attribute squirrel damageto chipmunks and, unless an offender is caught in the act, often impossible to tell which speciesis involved when both are present. Like squirrels,chipmunks occasionallydig up and eat spring flowering bulbs, such as crocus.Somepeople get annoyedwhen chipmunks burrow in flower beds or under Burcows sidewalks and porches, but the burrows almost neverare extensiveenough to cause Chipmunkburrows havebeenexcavated by a number of investigatorsto revealtheir in- structural damage.Chipmunks found in, ternal structure.TWotypes of systemshave doors are there accidentallyand will leave beendiscovered.The first is relativelysimple, as soon as the homeowner providesthem with one or two tunnels leadingto a single with a meansto do so. chamberthat is probably only a temporary home used by young their first winter. The Solutions othersare much more complex,with mul- TornnexcE tiple openingsand tunnels leadingto nest- Most peopleenjoywatchingtheseattractive ing chambers,food storageareasand as animals,thinking the enjoymentoutweighs much asa hundred feetoftunnel. Like many any nuisancethey may cause.We agree,and burrowinganimals,chipmunkswill usetree althoughwe will go on to mention a couple roots, rocks, sidewalksand any other firm of the common methods of excluding or object as support abovetheir errtenddamage far beyond the benefit of relieving damageto a spdcific resource.As we learn more about the role and function of individual specieliasimernbersof the communitiesof living thinpthat makeup we,lear.nhow interconentire ecosystems, nectedthings areto brreanOtherand to ourselves.Fortunately, many people have alreadynoted fhat wheniwe poison wild animals we are:,alsopoisoning ourselves, both literally und ngutativelY. '1' :: l .
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t.
- o
Addlttonal
t
Source
Tomich, P: Q,11982."Ground Squirr'els'" J. A. Chapmatt and G. A. Feldhamer (eds.),Witd Mammalsof NorthA@ca runiier. Baltimore:The Iohns Hopkin's sity Press.192-208
Rabbits
Widespread throughout the UnitedStates,but of limited distribution in Canada. Yardsand gardensare rabbit.hangouts Anywhererabbitsaboundis calleda warren-originallythe word meantthose places officiallygrantedby the English king for raisingrabbits.
"TIMID ASA RABBIT"peoplewill sayto characterize otherswho are not given to direct actions.This may not be that good an analogy,howeve[,consideringthat timid people don't haveto worry about being at the bottom of a long food chain. "Circumspectas a rab_ bit" might be more apt, becauserabbitsgo to extremes not to advertisethemselvesas availableto be eaten.Few animals are as content to sit unmoving for as long as rabbits ?r€,as thosewho keepthem aspets know. Thisjsnst,to say that rabbits don't let their guard down once in a while. The observant no#fu* may,if lucky,seerabbits on their lawn in the early morning or evening hours in spirited and spontaneouschasesof other rabbits, a playful nature that is rare in other animals. Rabbitsleadinterestinglives,undoubtedlyonesthat arefull of concern and fear,but sometimes of an apparentioy of living that we can envy.
Natural History
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Classificationand Range Rabbitsare commonly misunderstoodto be rodents,but actually belong to their own order and properly arecalledlagomorphs. The evolutionarysplit betweenrabbitsand other living mammalsprobably occunedabout thiny million yearsago.Lagomorphs arefound in both the old and New Worlds,with the New World forms distinguishedbetween true rabbits, belonging to the genus Syluilagus, and the haresor jackrabbitsthat belong to the
Rabbits genusLEus.It is the cottontailsthat areprimarilyproblemsinyards and gardens,while the haresand iachabbitsaremore problematic in agricultural and open-rangesettings' The couontails and their close relatives
bits are most activeiust at dusk and dawn' an activity pattern describedby the term crepuscular. RepfOdUCtiOn
',#: lfl.T'r."'"'::ii:*:'Y?Uffi;rilff:iT*L'ffi:i,. T,ff isabout
Gestation norrh rarther ly^Tfl,::.':?,*l.T:Jlil1i1l3f:i,::""1 ::::.' .. o;;::".",1;ffiffi1f",11il,ftff":i*;::::::,1 introduced been have tails young H:'ff;;,:uJ:::.l:*[
beuptoeight) can (ritte,,i,., Hfiliff:-1 vear helplessin a shallow depression
to makethe descriptor"eastern";#;;. misleading. cottontails vary t" ."at it"ffi gay ro brown and havelarge..r;;;
nr,no.ii':ffi;: feetandshortnuf&tails. tail speciesvary in size,.h.y .r.u;tiiuti;t uuo,-,i;';#; " small animals,averaging length and2to 3 poundsin -"ig;,.
Habitat Cottontails are generallyfound in brushy hedgerowsand the edgesof wooded areas with densecover,but they also do very well in suburbs and urban areaswhere lawns, gardensand shrubs meet their habitat requirements.Besidesthe plants essentialto their diet, rabbits need resting and escape cover.The briar patch is a real attraction to them becausethe denseprickly growth of raspberryor other thorny shrubs provides excellentprotection. The type of early successionalhabitat that rabbits favor is often characterizedbythe term oldfield.
X:t-oorn t::o with grassand mothe/s fur' but they rapidly and areweanedwhen lessthan f:,y mav cottontails
ll:'itli::':'-:^l:Iadult' t two yearsin the wild'
but where ll: live seldom they numerous predatorsare morethan oneyear'
Public Health Rabbits can be infected with tularemia, which may be transmitted to people if they eat undercooked, infected meat, handle a sick animal or allow an open cut to contact the infected meat of abutchered rabbit' They may also serve as a host fbr the ticks that transmit Rocky Mountain spotted fever'
Problems and Their Solutions Problems
Cottontail damage is usually the result of feeding activities. Flower and vegetable and summer and Rabbits feed on leafyplants duringthe grow- plants are eaten in spring fruit trees and ornamentals in the fall and ing season and the buds and bark of woody from plants in the winter. Both garden plants and winter. Damage maybe distinguished cleanly the by ornamentals can be damaged, and smaller that causedby other animals 22,p- 101)and trees, including fruit trees, can be dam- cutplant remains (seeFigure pea-sized aged significantly in bad winters or when the presence of nearly spherical area, or the around scattered droppings high numbers of rabbits are present' Rab-
Diet
150
Wlro NErcHsoRS
sometimesleft in small piles.Deerscat,al_ though similarly shaped,is quite larger.The easily recognizabletracks of rabbits may alsobefound in softsoil orsnow.Of course, the rabbits themselvesmay be seen;they tend to be active at dusk and dawn.
Solutions ExcrusroN The most effectivepermanentprotectionfor gardenssubiectto rabbit damageis a well_ constructedfence.Chicken wire supported by posts every6 to 8 feet is strong enough to exclude rabbits. Such fencesnormally needto be only about 2 feethigh. It is impoftant to make sure the bottom is either buried 6 to 8 inchesor stakedsecurelyto the ground to prevent rabbits from pushing their way underneathit. Somegardenerspreferto constructmovablefencepanels (seeFigure 24) that can be stored as sections (2 x 8 feet being one recommended size)and setout to protectthe gardenright after first planting, when damageis likely to be most severe.Someyearsthe panels may not be neededat all, giventhe ups and downs that occurwith rabbit populations. When their presenceis only sporadicor occasional,new plantingscanbe protectedby usingcommerciallysoldclochesor l-gallon plastic milk containersthat have the bottom cut out and are placed over the seed_ ling to provideprotection both from rabbits and late frost (seeChapter3). TnnE PnorscrroN Barrierssuchas commercialtreewrap (see Figure13,p. 37) maybe effectivein preventing bark damageby rabbits. Cylinders of hardwarecloth (usuallyself-supporring)or poultrywire (which may requiresomestaking) can also be used. Thesebarriers are placedaround the trunks to a height equal to the expectedsnow depth plus 18 inches.
Young treesand saplingsare more vulnerable than old trees with thicker, tougher bark. Low-hangingbranchesmay also be within reach of rabbits and should be induded inside the barrierif possible.Routine pruning done in the fall will providea decoy food sourcefor the rabbitsif trimmings are left on the ground. Rabbitsfind twigs and buds more desirablethan trunk bark and will concentratetheir feeding on these. REpeLrENrs If fencing is impractical, or damageis so slight that it is not costeffective,small plots and individual planrscanbe protectedwith chemical repellents.A variety of Thirambased repellentsare registeredfor use on inedibleplants,aswell asHindero,Ro-pel@, Shotguno,Rabbit-Scat@, Miller's Hot Sauce@ and Get-Away'"(see"ChemicalRepellents" in Chapter3). Careshould be taken not to use a repellent on plants that will be eaten (unlessit specifieson rhe label that this can be done). Many homemaderepellentsuategieshavebeen tried, with the usual varying resultsthat taunt anyonetrying to makereal senseout of them. Theseinclude soapand hair asrecommendedsometimesfor repelling deer.While we cannot endorseany of theseproceduresenthusiastically, they may be worth trying and certainly are an inexpensiveform of entertainmentif nothing else. Scann DEvrcEs Someclaim empty soda bottles buried up to their necks and placed along a garden perimeterrepelrabbitsby producinga windaidednoisethat scaresthem.What happens when it is not windy is unclear.Under some circumstances scaretape or balloons might frighten rabbits awayfrom an area.The pinwheelssold to repelmoles might provide a visual deterrentto rabbits aswell.
Rabbits
151
ot,n'r"
and placedarounda smalluegenbleor flown Figure24. simpteframedpanelsof chkkenwire or otherfencingmaterialcan be strungngether to sWort thepanels' at interuals in driuen be stakes can wooden If necessary, protection rabbiu. needs giaun that from
HestrAT MopIrtcATIoN with rabbit problems can be Somesuccess achievedthrough habitat management,but consideration must be given to the Potential impact of any suchactionson other desirablewildlife species,such as songbirds. Certainly, removing cover around gardens and orchardscan help reducedamagefrom rabbits.
Predators
A Last Word The English rabbit, cousin to our own cottontail, was introduced to Australia many years ago with the thought that it might make a profitable side industry as a food source.The resultswerea population explosion that resultedin maior changesin native vegetation.We are fortunate that our rabbits are native speciesand that no matter how much we alter our landscapesto favortheir populations increasing,the natural checksand balancesthat have worked for millennia seemto preventthe sorts of things that happenedin Australiafrom occurring.The moral of the story seemsclear: the more carefulwe areto allow natural ecoto worh the more controllogicalprocesses lable potential conflictswith animals will be.This is true even(perhapsespecially)in our cities and towns.
It is important to recognlzethe role that predationplaysin keepingrabbit numbers in balance.Hawksand owls play important roles as avian predators, and foxes, raccoons, skunks and opossumsas mammalian speciesthat prey on rabbits.Domestic cats and dogs take a toll on local rabbit populations aswell. Obviously,the role of predatorsis not to completely control prey populations,but to regulatethem at levels where other techniquescan be more effec- Additional Source tive in deterringthem from causingserious Lockley,R. M. L975.ThePriuateLife of the Rabbit.New York Avon Books.152 pp. damage.
Raccoons
Widespread throughout the United Statesand Canada,where theycontinue to expandtheirrange northward. Canbe foundin attics,chimneys, crawlspaces,outbuildings, yards,gardensandwherever elsehumansprovidesomething to peaktheircuriosity. WtrH THErRBANDTT'sMASKand ringed tail, rac_ coons are recognued by iust about everyone,even if not frequentlyseendue to their nocturnalhabits.Raccoonsareone of a veryfew speciesof wild animal that appearsto haveactuallybenefitedfrom contactwith humans, and they haveshown no troubre adapting to suburban and evenurban environments.such s,ynanthropes (aniirials able or evenpreferring,to live with humans) areusuallygeneralists, toleratingwidely differenthabitatsand eatingmany diffeient fooas. If the few studiesthat havebeenconductedon urban and suburban raccoonsare representative,then the densitiesthey achievein urban areascan be up to twenty times that typical of rural environments. This inevitably leadsto conflictswith humansbecauseraccoonsare smartenoughto defeatany but the most determineddefenseof gar_ bagecansor home gardens.It has also led to many cherishedmoments, as homeowners becameenthralled by a glimpse of these fascinatinganimals.Among those who know them well, there is a strong sentimentthat raccoonscould easilysharehonors with the bald eagleby being declaredour national mammal.
This"solitary" mammalhasbeen foundin winterdenscontaining morethantwentyanimals.
Raccoons
153
Raccoonsareat leastasintelligent ascats or dogs and possessfar greatermanual denNatural History terity. In fact their senseof touch may be as Range anil Classification fully or more developedthan their other name of the raccoon Raccoons (Procyonlotor) are truly New senses.The scientific "washing" behavior, once World animals,with only a debatablerela- refers to the and mandatory in tionship to Asiananimalssuchasthe giant thought to be instinctive truth, raccoonsdo not and red pandas.The fossilevidencesuggests these animals. In eat.They manipulate that essentiallymodern-looking raccoons wash everythingthey it when wateris soaking rangedcoastto coastthroughout the United food, dunking and to be washing it' Statesas much as a million yearsago' To- available,and so appear however,they day they are found in almost everymaior When water is not available in handling motions same the habitat (biome)throughout the forry-eight use much more acprobably contiguousstatesand havemade recentin- food, and the behavior axperiroads into southern Canadaaswell' There curately reflectsa need to tactually them' clean to it does than throughthings ence areseveralspeciesof raccoonfound out the Americas,someof them restrictedto small offshoreislands.Thereare more than Habitat living on the U'S' maintwenty subspecies Although they prefer mature woodlands, land, most being named back in the days there are raccoonsthat thrive along seawhen itwas more fashionableto"discover" shoresor that live in prairie grasslands' The new types of animals than it is today' rangeof this specieshas o<pandedquite reWhether there are real differencesbetween cently into parts of Canada and deep into any of them is somethingthatstill needsto the American Midwest, largely through hube determined. man beneficencein providing barns and The raccoonmay be as long as a small outbuildings as shelterand crops as nourdog (2 to 3 feet from noseto end of tail), ishment. Cities and suburbsprovide both but actually weigh much less.The average natural foods and abundant castoffsfrom adult male may weigh anywhere from 10 human tables. Sheltercan frequently be to 15 pounds and tend to be slightly larger found in unusedchimneys,in attics,under than the femalg who wilt weigh anywhere porchesor in outbuildings along back alinthe northfrom 6to L2pounds.Raccoons leys.Of course,the old standbyhollow tree larger,and be may em pafts of their range will be used if available,even if it is right 60 pounds,aswill animalsthat evene>rceed next to a busy street.All cities provide exhavebeenfed (or overfed)by humans.Coat tensivetravelcorridorsforraccoons,who are color variesfrom dark, almost black, to quite at home using storm sewerswhen sandy or pale. Although sometimesless theseare not too flooded. noticeableon pale animals,the mask and ringed tail are the hallmarks by which we Diet know them best. Raccoonsare probably color blind, although they have excellent The raccoon's diet is so highly varied that it night vision. Their tapetum (the layerof the almost seems easier to describe the foods eye that reflectslight) sometimesreflects they don't eat rather than those they do' Small pieces of tinfoil, newspaper and even tight in a greenishglow.
154
Wlro NrrcHnoRs
an occasionalcigarettebutt in raccoonscats ties,chimneysand attics,and underground testifrto the useof human refuse.The main_ in oldwoodchuckburrows,storm sewersor stays of the diet, however, are fruits, veg_ crawlspacesunderbuildings.When theyfeel etables,higtr-energymast foods, such as secureenough, raccoonsmay simply lie up acorns, and earthworms in early spring in thickets or swamps on open ground. when other foods are scarce.Fish and Unusual day beds range from squirrel leaf aquatic animals, such as crayfish,are eaten neststo log and brushpiles or, on occasion, when availablebut most urban streamsare evenlargebird nestssuch asthose built by no longer of high enough quality to sup_ magpies.Sharingof den sitesmay be com_ port these forms of life. Raccoonswill eat mon in suburban areasamong adult rac_ small animals such as birds, amphibians coons.Evenin rural areas,wintertime dens and mice on an opportunisticbasis,but are with more than twenty animals have been generallynot regardedaseffectiveor efficient found. hunters. Their appetite for foods such as grapes and sweet corn lead to frequent Reproduction conflictswith home gardeners. There is often a pattem to raccoonfeed- Breedingseasonsvary from north to south, ing activiry.In the mid-Atlantic states,for and in the far South breeding may occur example,an early-springdiet of insectsand y€ar-round.If a line were drawn, bisecting earthworms is followed by meals of mul- the United Statesfrom eastto west,raccoons bery', the first of the ripening fruits. Follow- north of it would generallymate from lanuing that, the summerdiet follows the order aryto March.Belowit raccoonswould mate of ripening fruits: blackberries,cherries, latet perhapsMarch through lune. Whengrapesand, last, the persimmonsthat mav ever breeding occurs,births follow about sixty-threedayslater,around the sametime not be availableuntil latefall. Betr,r,reen Sen_ ,, for a cat or dog. Occasionallate litters tember and the end of Decembe,,"..oor, gorgethemselveson whateverfruits remain occurin earlyfall, apparentlyto femalesthat and acorns,which are a dietary staple.fu fave lost a litter or had a failed pregnancy. In the North, theselate binhs placeyoung much as 30 percent to the ,,r*-., bodv weightcanbe addedbeforethe startofwin- raccoonsat a distinct disadvantage because in order to survive the winter, a certain ter,and makeup criticalfat reserves that the animals live on during the coldestperiods amount of weight should be gained.These oftheyear.In severecold orwh.r, deepsnows late-arrivingyoung havetrouble putting on are on the ground, raccoonswill remain in the weight in time. Litter size rangesfrom dens in a stateof generaltorpor for dayson one to seven,with threeto five usual.Young end.Theydo not, howeve4go into a stateof are weaned at about two months and may
true hibemation rike bears andwoodchucks ;,T,x'1,il:i,i}inTH,*:::f ,Hfi:i
of young that are moving out of the areain which they were born are formally known Raccoonsare usually active at night, al- as dispersion. Thesemovementsoften lead though along coastalareasthey will often to conflicts with peoplq as the exploring forego this to be active at low tide. By day, young breakinto garages, occupychimneys, raccoonsretire to denning or resting sites. get into the trash or engagein other behavDens are made above ground in tree cavi- ior that drawshuman attention. DenS Ond Sheltef
Raccoons 155 play themselvesif the ground is damp' On Public Health hard surfacesor in dry weathsr, flour' lime or other suitable powder can be used to Theraccoonis one of fourwild animals(inrecord prints. Raccoonsthat areusing attics cluding the fox, skunk and bat) considered or chimneysusually begin to make noise at to be primary carriersof the rabiesvirus in dusk and iust before dawn, while squirrels the United States,and classifiableas a rawill be active by day and quieter at night biesvectorspecies(RVS).Most of the east(exceptwhenthe lesscommon flying squirern United Statesis where raccoon rabies iels, which are nocturnal, are involved)' occurs.Racoonrabieswasfirst documented Even mice in or near chimneys can make in I977 in WestVirginia andVirginia,where considerableamounts of noise, and it is itwas apparentlyimportedalongwith a shipimportant to make surewhat the sourceof ment of animalsfrom Florida brought in to any unknown scratchingor tapping noises repopulatea hunting area.Raccoonrabies really is. One clue could be found in the hasbeenknown in Florida sinceat leastthe of raccoons,especially noisyvocalexchanges 1950s,and is now enzootic(presentat low are usually not to which family members, levels,but definitelywithin the population) be mistakenfor anYthingelse. there and in many easternstates'Raccoon rabies is spreading northward toward Solutions Canadaand west toward Ohio' involvA seriouspublic health concern TolnReNcn ing raccoonsderivesfrom the roundworm Aswith any human-wildtife conflict the first procyonis)that can infect hu- courseof action is to decidewhat level of (Baylisascaris manswho accidentallyingestor inhale eggs damageis occurring,how long it may be that are passedthrough raccoonfeces'Rac- likely to persist and whether the damage coons are also hosts for the zoonotic dis- requiresan immediate responseor can be easeleptospirosisand giardiasis' dealt with on a non-emergencybasis' Becausethey are generallysecretive,raccoons do not often alarmpeopleby their presence Problems and enough to causethem to seekimmediate control measures.A careful and calm apTheir Solutions proach to encouraginga raccoonto abanProblems don an attic or chimney is by far preferable first response Raccoonscan causeboth real damage,as to the excitedand demanding these discovering upon have when they getinto crops,or simplybe nui- people often the hand, other the On sances,as when they occupy the family animalsarepresent. crops to raccoondamage chimney or panhandle at campgrounds' first observationof demands an immediate corn sweet as such They are often blamed for more damage animal canbe opected the thantheyreallydo, while the neighborhood reactionbecause and to continue attackdogsor crowsthat havescatteredtrash make to revisit the garden ing the croP as long asit is available' off blameless. Short of actually seeing the animals themselves,tracksare one of the best ways ExcrustoN permanentmeansof copto identiffraccoon presence.In gardensthe Theonly long-term, hand and footprints will dis- ing with troublesomeraccoonsis to orclude characteristic
156
Wrro NslcHsoRS
them from areaswhere they are unwanted. Raccoonsare intelligent animals with rou_ tinesthat aredictaredby their needs;if they cannotgeta mealat oneplacetheywill look elsewhere,and they will remember where they can and cannot expectto have their hunger sarisfied.Tragically,unthinking in_ dividualswill feelthe only solution is to put out a live trap, catch the raccoon and de_ stroyor relocateit. Beforetoo long another raccoon moves into the area and the cvcle beginsall over again.
is alwaysthe chancethat one or moreyoung_ stersmay be abandonedin this process. Trappingand movingthe family will almost inevitablylead to separationand the prob_ able deathof the young.And invasivetech_ niques, including the use of smoke or fire to drive animals out of chimneys,can lead to the mothe/s abandonmentof the siteand death of young, who are physicallyunable to climb.
CHruNEys Raccoonswill use uncappedchimneysfor DserrNc wrrH ReccooN youNc denning and to give birth and raiseyoung. Many situationswith raccoonsin chimneys The fireplace flue, becauseit hasa horizon_ and attics involve raccoon families. Rac_ tal smoke shelf just above the damper, is coonsarebom blind and helpless,but noisy, usually preferred. All flues should be and frequentlythe first indication that rac_ checked, monitored and securedpreferably coons are presentis when thesekits begin prior to their everbeingoccupied.The steps to make noise.They are entirely unable to in inspecting and capping a chimney are fend for themselves for a long periodoftime describedin Chapter3. Because raccoonsare after binh and usually do not evenventure nocturnal,the besttime to userepellentsor out of the den until eight or nine weeksof frightening strategies to get them out of a age.For many weeksafter that the mother chimney is right before the animal would is the teacherand protector,and she must normally staft its nightly routine. Driving be allowed to remain with them. Like cats, an animal out of a chimney or attic during mother raccoonswill carrytheir young to a the day should be avoided.During the day, new den if the old is uninhabitable.In vir_ raccoonsaremore easilyconfusedand more tually all habitats,but especiallycitiesand vulnerable than at night, as well as more suburbs,raccoonshave alternateden sites likely to come into contactwith people or to which they will move if disturbed.The their petsshould they be eviaed. mother will moveyoung evenwhen not dis_ turbed; as they become mobile she takes Arrrcs them to new placesas part of their general The attic should be inspected to determine education. where accessis occurring,and the opening When a mother raccoonwith young is should be sealedoncethe raccoon is evicted present,the recommendedcourseof action or leavesthe premises. Whereraccoonshave is to leavethem alonefor the fewweeksthat longbeenin residence and feces(scats)have the young are helpless,monitor them to accumulatedin an attic or crawl space,care determine when they have moved on their must be taken to avoid exposure to the eggs own accordand deal with the issueof se_ of the roundworm described previously. curing or preventingentry and use of the Protectiveclothing and a dust maskshould chimney or attic afterthe family hasleft. In be worn and scatmaterialas little disturbed emergencies, gentle harassmentmay cause as possible until the raccoonshave left. the mother to relocateher young, but there Then,a thorough deanup is recommended,
Raccoons
I57
travigilanceat thesetimes (chasinganimals awayand usinglights or radiosto createdisturbances)-ay drive them off long enough to harvestthe crop. Single-strandelectric Ixstns tHs House can be used effectivelywhere damOccasionally,raccoonswill enter a house fencing and raccoonsare numerous' frequent through a pet door and be unable to find ageis their way out. Becausethey can causeconsiderabledamagewhen they arepanicked' P o t t p s increasingpopularity of ornamenit is advisableupon encounteringsuch a With the pondsin manyyards,problemswith racsituation to keepboth yourself and the rac- tal mounting. Naturally attractedto coon ascalm aspossible.Move slowly,if it coons are raccoonswill catch and eat can be done safely,closedoors providing water,visiting aquaticlife that a hometo otherpartsofthe house,openwin- fish, frogs or other access be trying to raise.They will furdows and doors throughwhich the raccoon owner may plants in searchof food and could orit and wait quietly for the animal ther tear up a messof most small ponds make to make its escape.If for any reasonthe ani- generally discoveredthem' Dependmal doesnot leave,call animal control for once they have pond, fish canbe proThe captureand handling of live ing on the sizeof the assistance. protection by using stacking raccoonsshould be attemptedonly by prop- vided with cinderblocks (the kind with the holes) ne"t erly equippedProfessionals. to one another in groups of three or four, sothatsheltersarecreatedorsinkpilingrock^s Yenos of the ceramictile that is usedto sections Besideseatingplants,tipping over garbage ing fish can take refuge cansand climbing on and around houses, line chimneys so that visits.Pondsshould be at raccoonscanalsodamagelawnsby digging when the raccoon placesin orderfor shelters in searchof earthworms and grubs' The least3 feetdeepat Disturbanceof plantsand most easilydamagedlawns are those that to work efflectively. can be detened in have been recently sodded. Becausenew other unwanted activities single-strandeleclawns have to be well irrigated, lots of extremecasesby erecting pond at anywhere the around worms and grubscollectunderthesod'This tric fencing (seeFigground attractsraccoonsand sometimesskunks' from 4 to 8 inchesoffthe Often they may simply reach under the ure25,page158). stripsand feel around for their meal, pulling out the grubs and worms without any ReccooNs AND disturbanceat all. Occasionally,they tear Dounsrtc ANtuels kill small animals up the sod and causesignificantdamage' On occasionraccoonswill and rabchickens as such outside, On a small area,an application of a hot housed scraps get into sometimes sauce(capsaicin)repellent(see"Chemical bits, and theywill cats as such Repellents"in Chapter3) may be effective. with dogs and even cats. Pets and dogsshouldnotbe let outunsupervised and, preferably,should be kept on a leash GenpnNs racRaccoonsoften causeconsiderabledamage and controlled. Encountersbetween serivery to garden fruits and vegetables,such as coons and pets should be treated grapesand corn. Attacks often occur iust ously, with consultation with the animal's officials before foods are readyto be picked, so ex- veterinarianand local animal control
describedin following the procedures Chapter2.
158
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Figure 25' This homeownerhu installeda single-strandelectric fmce tn deternightty visitsfrom raccoors.once the localraccoonshavebeett exposedtn it a time or nuo,thefenceverylihely can bedeactivatpduntil signs of new visitsiccur. A pite of roclu in the centerof thisponil also providesa refugefor the fish beingheptthere,which k always good a ideal
to ensurethat pets either haveproper pro_ tection or that follow-up proceduresto a potential exposureare adequate. When rabbitsor other small animalsare housed outdoors, proper protection is absolutelynecessary. Heavy-gauge weldedwire (seeChapter3) can be usedto protectrabbit hutches if it is firmly enough attached with metal staples.Finer meshwire should be laid on top of the welded wire wherever a raccooncould reach in. If possiblg pets should be brought into the house or a secure outbuilding at night to avoid any chanceof raccoonattack.
A Last Word The advantageand successwe have indirectly given raccoonsby changingthe landscapein their favorcomesat a costto them. Both rabiesand caninedistempertakea toll on urban raccoon populations. They currentlyhaveno protectionagainstcaninedistemper, other than the gradual processof selectionthat undoubtedly will favor animals that havesome degreeof natural immunity. There is a vaccine that can be deliveredto raccoonsin the form of fish mealbaitsthatwill immunize them against
Raccoons
rabies.It is being tried orperimentallyin a few places,but has not yet been considered for wide-scaleuse.The reason for this is partly economics,partly the sort of "who cares" attitude that exists toward urban wildlife and partlythat our resourcesin the field of public health are urgently needed elsewhereat the current moment. Again, it is likely that some naturally immune raccoons will escaperabies and that their populations will rebuild quickly. Several
159
future scenarioswilt tell where the interaction betweenthis wild animal and the diseasesmight go, but none of thesepredict the demiseof the raccoon.If any animal is here to stay,it is this one.
Additional Source MacClintoclqD. ipsr. A,NaturatHistoryof Raccoons. $py bU, CharlesScribner's Sons.1 a PB; : ,," r,i.: ' t-
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Rats
Widespread throughout North America,but mostprevalent wherehumansandtheirbuildings abound. Foundbothinsideandoutside buildings, at landfills, wastesites andin industrial areas.
Oun coNFLrcTS wrrH RATsare as old as civiliza_ tion itself. No animals have been greaterobjects:of Thesecondmostsuccessful vilification by more human culturespastand pi.r"rrt mammalon theplanetthan rats,and no animal has more successfuiyheld undoubtedly tryingfor first. its own in the face of determined attempts to'eradicateit. Membersof one of the most diverseand successfulmammalianfamilies,ratsarehardy,intelligent and (like humans) accomplishedin adapting ro changing erc"mstances.Unknowing carriersof diseaseand invadersof sior.a'Stji"r, rats do at times present real threats to humanity. Accordingl*, with damageworldwide running into hundredsof millions orao-ii"r, a.r, nually and countlessbillions of dollarsoverthe long term, it isarnaz_ ing that so few resourceshave been invested in the study of environmentally and ecologicallysound waysto deal with these animals. It's disturbing that the usual meansof controlling rat problems involvebrute force:trapping poisoning ot asis done periodicallyin parts of china, mobilizing thousandsinto a workforceto drive rats into the open and club them to death.The usual consequence of such actsis the return, shortly,to the condition that prevailed be_ fore, or one slightly worse.If nothing is done to addressthe root
161 and the tales of Norway rats ecologicalcauseof problemswith rats'then swimmers in toilet bowls afterswimming up wewiil foreverbelockedin a hopelesscycle emerging through plumbing, while rare,appearto be of short-t erm nonsolutions' true. The Norway rat is slightly larger than the black rat, averaging10 to 16 ounces' while its smallercousinruns between8 and Natural History 12 ounces.Blackratsaremore slenderthan Norwayratsand havemore pointed muzzles Classificationand Range and larger eyesrelative to body size' The There are severaltypes of animals people Norway rat'stail is shorterthan its head and commonly call ratsthat arefound in North body combined, while the black rat's is America, including woodrats and packrats longer. (Neotomaspp.) found mostly in the East and West and the cotton rats (sigmodon spp.) of the South.The two that most con- Habitat cem humans arethe Norway or brown (Rat- Norway rats are found almost everywhere andblack or roof (R' rattus) humans arebut aremost common in older fis noruegicus) rats, which were introduced from the Old densersettlementswhere food and shelter World. Both belong to the family Muridae' are abundant. Neither speciesapparently which comprisesfifiy-one species,includ- copeswell with naturalgrassor woodlands' ing seventhat are of economicconcernto where predatorsabound and competition humans. Black rats probably anived in the from native speciesis keen. In cities,NorUnited Statesas stowawayswith the first wav and black rats favor small municipal permanentEuropeansettlers.Norway rats are said to have first arrived in the New World around l775,when they startedtheir RatTracks own revolution by displacingtheir lessaggressivecousins (black rats) whereverthe two met.Today,the Norway rat hasbecome establishedalmost continent-wide while ffp &.f-# "m*&r' the black rat is mostly restrictedto coastal and areasof the southern, southeastern westernUnited States. Physically,rats do not appearmore imposing than many mammals,but they are ffi incredibly hardy and capableof physical f* q S"s -q f&1'P wdP * featsthatwould seembeyondthe ability of Mr' creaturesso small. An opening no larger ffip '%&4'# than a quarter is suffrcientto allow an adult ratto gainentryto abuilding andboth speciesclimb well enoughto usea pipe or conduit within 3 inchesof an outsidewall to S* gain accessat any level.Ratsarecapableof "\3Lf , verticalleapsof asmuch as3 feetand horizontal leaps of 4 feet They are excellent
\&s
,%
162
Wrro NErcHsoRS
parks where humans inadvertently leave food in refusecontainers.Older industrial areas,rail yards and back alleysprovide ex_ cellent habitat. The common Hollywood image of hordesof rats in sewersor aban_ doned warehousesis not realisticunless highly unusual environmental conditions exist, including superabundantfood re_ sourcesprovided by humans through im_ proper trashmanagement.
Diet Ratsare omniuorou.s-theywill eat a wide rangeof plant and animal foods.Adults re_ quire about I ounceof food a dayand need accessto somesupply of water.In the win_ ter,seedspilled from bird feederscan be an important sourceof food, as can pet food left outside. Norway rats tend to eat more animal matter than do black rats,and will consumeinsects,meat refuse,bird eggsand evenpounceon smallmammalssuchasmice.
and may be loosely closedwith soil or lo_ catedin densevegetationto foil easydetec_ tion. Themain entrances areusuallymarked by a well-worn path that leadsup to them. In buildings, Norway rats will live inside walls, under stackedlumber or other con_ struction material and anywhere human clutter is allowedto build up. Blackratsare accomplishedclimbersand arefound in the upper levelsof buildings more often than Norway rats.Theyoften build loosespheri_ cal nestsof shreddedmaterial in trees or vineswell abovethe ground.
Behauior
Ratsare wary of new objects (neophobic) in their environment, which makes them difficult ro trap. We are iust beginning to realue how complex the behavior and so_ cial organization of rats is. Little is known about their home rangepreferencesand the wayrsin which they utilize their habitats,but what we do know is intriguing. Nonrrayand Reproduction black rats utilize areasof about Z5 to 500 feet in diameter as a tFpical home range, Ras breedyear-round,although peakbreed_ although this might vary greatlydepending ing in parts of the country with dramatic on the location and availability of necessary seasonalchangesprobably occursduring the resources such as food. We know that Nor_ spring and fall. Breedingage is reachedat way rats will travel a half mile or more in a two to threemonths, and litter sizeaverages eight to twelvein the Norway rat and five to singlenight to usea reliablesourceof food. six in the black rat. One female can wean Blackratslive more offthe ground than do Norway rats, nesting in trees and other about twenty young ayear. structuresabove ground and using electri_ cal and telephonewires to move about as Dens,Bunows ond Shelter squirrelsdo. Both speciesare largely noc_ Norway rats prefer to live in burrows that turnal, although, as is true for other urban areusuallyaroundl8 inchesdeepand 3 feet species,this may largelybe a conventional long. Burrow systemsmay have multiple adoption of a behavioralroutine to avoid openingsthat, ifpossible areplacedso that humans. Ratsseenduring the day are said the entranceabutsa solid structure-build- to reflect a high population density, and ing foundation, sidewalk edge rock, tree usuallyarejuvenilesthat must takethe risk root or anyother physicallystableplatform. of exposurebecausethey cannot compete Someenffancesserveasescapeor bolt holes with adults.
Rats
Public Health
163
that can be spreadfrom Among the diseases rats to humans are bubonic plague salmonella,leptospirosis,hantavirusandtularemia'
Ratsare implicated as carriersor transmitters of more diseasesof importanceto humans than any other organism, except Problems and possiblythe mosquito. Physicalattacksin Their Solutions the form of rat bites exceedfifteenthousand annually in the United Statesand often in- Problems people' volveveryyoung,old or incapacitated Rats damage human food more through physician' Rat bites should be treated by a contamination with their urine and feces than by consumption, and can causestructural damageand disfigurementin many ways. Burrowing is potentially damaging although usually the problem is more cosmetic than structural becauseburrow systems are instinctively built to remain stable and to not allow water to enter. Gnawing can be a dangerousproblem when electrical wires areattacked.Ratscan and do gnaw 3/l blunt inch rat-average Norway through materials as dense as lead pipe, meaningthat most woods are not impedimentsto them at all.
d?6@
M@ $b
eF{p
ldentffing RatSiSns
It is important to recognizethe signs rats make and what the evidenceof their presencesaysabout their possibleabundance' -rr Inside buildings, rats may make their presenceevidentfrom droppings(seeFigure26)' 1IzinchPointed Roofrat-average Gnawed holes in baseboardsor at door frames up to 2 inches wide and smudge marks left from body oils when the rat rubs alongwalls are also signsof their presence' (Ratsarethigmotaxic-they feelsecurewhen .P: pressedagainstsomething and will move about a room pressedto the wall whenever possible.)In hearryinfestations,rats are often heard in walls and attics or observed lz inchblunt mouse-averagel House during daylight hours, and the excitement of a cat or dog can be the first sign of their and micecan helphomeoumers presence. of ra:"s or scats, Figure26. Droppings, Outside burrows arean indicator, nll whichis Present. although thesecould be confusedwith the
G/%
164
Wrro NprcHsoRS
burrows of other animals such as ground squirrelsand chipmunks.Sometimes,,bur_ rows" tum out to be iust holesin the ground put thereby someother source.Looselyfill_ ing any suspectedburrow entrancewith soil orleavesand checkingitwithin a dayortwo to seeif it is reopenedwill determinecur_ rent use.
Solutions The key to managingrat populationslies in reducingthe availability of shelter,food and water.It is problematicwhetherthis can be done without killing animals,but it is be_ yond a certainty that killing should neuer occur without ensuring that the chanceof ratsreturningto be aproblem is minimized and the killing occurshumanely.The prac_ tice of good sanitation,removalof coverand the exclusionof ratsfrom buildings ideally should occur beforethey invade structures or establish a presenceon properq, where they are not wanted. Direct removal by le_ thal meanscomesas the unfortunate con_ sequenceof inattentivenessand letting things go too far.
Ultrasound: Doeslt Work? Ultrasonic devicesarewidely advertised in aggressive presentations thatpurportto relievehomeowners of everythingfrommiceandratsto silverfish. TheHumaneSociety of the UnitedStateswillnot recommend thesedevices untilscientifically validstudies thatdemonstrate theireffectivenessin real-world situationsarepublished.
waddedand stufifedin openingsto deterrat entry.Caulkingorfoam sealantscanbeused to sealopeningsalso,but becausera$ can gnaw through them, they are best when combinedwith screeningor wire mesh.
HesrrAr Moorp,rcATIoN Proper sanitary techniquesconstitute the Excruslow most economic and effectivemethod to lim_ Ratscan accessbuildings through holes as iting rat presence. The following steps little as I inch wide-about the size of a should be followed to minimize attracting quarter.All suchholes and openingsshould or maintaining rat populations: be sealedwith heavy-weightmatenal (11+_ inch hardwarecloth orheaqr-gaugescreen_ Mow grassand clear debris close to ing is recommended).Heatingvents often buildings to reveal burrows as well as are overlooked as points of entry, and they openings that rats might use to get should be checkedto ensurethat access inside. through them by rats is nor possible.Any_ where electricalconduits,utility or air con_ Store food in rat-proof containers. ditioning lines enterabuilding the hole that Remember that birdseed, grassand hasbeenmade needsto be checkedfor gaps otherpotential foods stored in garagesand buildings frequently that will allow enrry'.Wire mesh (seeChap_ ter 3) canbe usedto plug openingsin walls attract these animals. and floors through which rats might gain Store and dispose of garbageproperly entry. Aluminum window screencan be so that rats cannot gain access.
Rats Do not leavepet food outside.If pets arefed outside,leavethe food out for twenty minutes and then removeit' Removeold wood or debrisPilesif ratsarea Problem-these arefrequent havensfor theseanimals.
165
A Last Word
The war between humans and rats will go on for sometime. The discoveryof effective and economicalternativesto the traditional short-termdisplaysof forceusedto control ratswill not occur spontaneously.Only by Where rat infestation has been and cona betterunderstandingof their natural histinues to be a problem around buildings, tory and their dependencyon environments the long-term solution to preventingburcreatedby humans arewe likely to discover rowing alongfoundationscanbe addressed wayrsof minimizing the damagethey do and by creating an L-shapedfooter of either the problemsthey cause. hardwarecloth or concrete.Bury the footer about 12 inchesand extendit from the foundation about artother12 inches(seeFigure Additional Source 11,p. 35).Althoughratsmaybeginto dig at Rafs.NewYork Allison the foundation, they will encounter this Hart, M. 1973. and Busby.712 PP. obstacle,dig down and, frustrated,give up'
Skunks
Foundthroughout almostallof NorthAmerica;absentonly fromthe far North. Conflictsoccurin yards andwhenskunkstake up residence under buildings. Chicagois a term derivingfroma Fox Indianword for "placeof the
skunk,"suggesting, for reasons unknown, thatthese animals wereonceabundant there.
SruNrcs, oF couRSE,AREKNowN to mostpeople asthe producersof an odor so powerful that it brings everything from elephantsto comic book characters to an abrupt and humorous stop. "Don,tmess with me" is the message theseanimalscommunicate.Their primary defenseis a complexchemicalsubstance that includessul_ furic acid and can be "fired."from either one of two independently targetableanal glands.A personor animal hit in the eyeswill experi_ encean intensediscomfort that reminds them long afterthe pain is gone that they have crosseda skunk. The efficiency of this defense meansthat skunksinherently will stand and face a threat rather than try to escapeit. This works when the enemy is another animal that can be dissuadedfrom completing an attack,but is uselessagainst nonrational contrivancessuchasautomobiles.consequently, Lany skunksdie on roadways,and their kind may possibly disappearentirelyfrom areaswith a lot oftraffic. This is unfortunate becauseskunks areplacid and retiring animalsthat uy hard not to get in harm,sway.
Skunks They deservemuch better pressthan they usually get and are beneficial to humans becausethey eat many insectpests'
Natural History Classificationand Range
t67
pear with offspring in tow' Skunks can be activeall year,although they remain in dens through the coldest spells in the northern parts of their range.
Diet
and of the Skunksareprimanly insectiuorous, skunks of fair numa kinds eat, general they There are four many kinds of insects memare mateAll plant found in the United States. ber arepeststo humans.Some termed bers of the grouP of animals rial is eaten,primarilywild fruits, and apples and martens weasels, includes mustelifuthat and corn are occasionaldietary items' In artd putorun) (spilogale badgers.The spotted winter and spring, skunks may consume the are suiped (Mephitis mephitis)skunks small vertebrates,suchasmice,and the eggs most widely distributed and most likely to of ground-nestingbirds. be involved in skunk-humanconflict situations. The hooded (M. macroura)and hog- Reproiluction nosed (Conepatusmesoleucusand C' is known about reproduction skunks are mostly limited to the Not as much lanconotus) speciesas is the striped skunk other in the southwestemstatesoffuizona, New Mexico skunh but apparenttyall skunksarecapable and Texas.Thereare,asfor many mammaof delayedimplantation, meaning that aflian groups,ongoing debatesabout taxoter matin& the female can store the male's nomic relationships.The spotted skunks sperm and delay initiating pregnancyfor may parseinto easternand western(S' Srasomeweeks.Breedingusuallyoccursin late cilis) species,and some who have studied winter or early spring (probably between skunksfeel the hog-nosedand spottedare Februaryand March for stripedand between essentiallythe same animal' Whateverthe MarchandApril forspotted).Gestationalso case,all skunksareabout cat-sizeor smaller variesin lengh, but averagesabout sixty to andhavelongfur, longbushytailsandblack days,meaning that young usuand white coloration that tells the viewer seventy-five are born in May or June.Secondlitters that this animal is, indeed, to be treated ally and late births do occur, and the western with respect. spottedskunk appearsto breed in fall and earlywinter but not give birth until the folHabitat lowing spring. Littersrangefrom three to as to is thought skunk In the East,the spotted many asten youn& who remain in the burhavea preferencefor agriculturallandscapes row or nest for about two months, after and spendsmuch of its life in or nearfarm- which they begin to follow their mother as yards, but the other speciesare adaptable she forages. to avarietyof open, scrub,wooded and developedhabitats.Normally, skunksdo not Densand Shelter engagein long movementsand havehome seemable to dig their own burrangesthat encompassa few hundred acres All skunl<s but when some other animal or huat most. Skunksale primarily nocturnal and rows, done the work for them, they usually solitary exceptwhen mothers ap- mans have
168
Wlrp NprcHsoRS
appearcontent with what is at hand. Favor_ ite den and restingsitesinclude abandoned Problemsand groundhogburrows,hollow logs,wood or Their Solutions rock piles, under buildings, stone walls, hay or brushpiles and (occasionally)trees Problems or stumps. A den may be used only for Skunks are usually announced more by brief periodsbeforethe skunk switchesto smell than sight,althoughifneitherofthese another. cuesgivesthem away,sometimestheir scat does.Thesearemoreor lessindiscriminately Public Health depositedand usually show high concen_ trations of insect parts that impart a dark Skunks can carry rabies,and one of the shiny appearance. Musk odor may lingerfor main strainsof this diseasein skunksoc_ daysin the areawherea skunk hassprayed. cursthroughout the statesof the Midwest. Persistent, faint musk smellsassociatedwith Skunks have also been known ro carry a 4- to 6-inchdiameterhole under a build_ leptospirosis. ing or woodpile indicatesthat a skunk may havetakenup residence. While foragingfor grubs,skunksmay dig many shallow holes in the lawn, similar to thosemade by both gray squirrelsand raccoons.Long black or white hairs or a faint skunlqyodor will sug_ gest skunks but not confirm them. Long_ haired cats can leavelong black or white hairs, and foxeshavea musky odor. Skunks occasionallyraid chickenhousesfor eggsor young chickensand all too frequentlyare encounteredwhen they becomeuapped in window wells.
Skunks
Solutions TolnnaNcn It may be hard for peopleto tolerateskunks onceit hasbeenfound that they are,indeed' living under the deckor piled in a communal den underneaththe old shedout back' But this is exactlywhat skunks have to do when they aremostvulnerable(during the winter and when raisingyoung)' The noctumal habits of skunks,their nonaggressive and retiring waysand the generallybeneficial role they play in consuming harmful insectsall givethem enoughcreditsto make itworth leavingthemaloneuntil theyhave moved on their own accord (which they readily do) or can safelybe harassedaway from an areawhere they are not wanted'
169
Doors 0ne-WaY doorin Do notinstalla one-waY Mayor Junewhentheremay be babiesleftbehindin the den' Thebabieswillstarveand theirspray discharge possiblY to this beforesuccumbing fate.Instead,either unpleasant to waitforthe skunkfamilY to moveor usemildharassment that Process. try to accelerate Themotherskunkwill,under carry the rightcircumstances' herbabiesto a newden.Do sealthe oPennot permanently undisinguntilthePlugremains nights. turbedfor several
Heurer MootPtcATIoN Occasionalskunk sightingsin a neighborhood neednot be causefor alarm' Preventive measures,such asremoving attractants from the vicinity of houses,will decrease the likelihood of an unpleasantencounter' Attractantsinclude garbageand petfood left out at night and convenientdenning sites suchaswoodand rockpiles,elevatedsheds' door sysopeningsunder concreteslabsand porches ment or eviction using a one-way tem is recommended. and accessto crawl spacesunder houses' Excrustol.t Discoveryof a den suspectedto harbor a skunk should first be checkedto determine if the occupancyis current. This may be done by looselyfilling the hole (or holes) with soil, leavesor material such as straw' If a skunk is present,it will easily push its way out that night and reopenthe hole' If the plug remains undisturbed for two or threenights (and it is not winter), it is safe to assumethat the hole is unoccupiedand can be permanentlyclosed.If a skunk (or any other animal) is present,either harass-
HenessMENT When it is safeto displaceskunks,mild harassmentcanbe very effective.This can consist of an approachas simple as repacking the hole it is using with the leavesor straw or other materialto seeif the skunk getsthe orusingmild and moveselsewhere, message repellents,such as ammonia-soakedrags, placednearor insidethe burrow to one side so that the skunk has to passthem in getting out. In all casessuchasthis, makesure the skunk is not closeby beforeplacingthe disturbing stimulus.
170
WrLn NsrcHsoRS
EvrcrroN SxuNx rN A WlNnow Wnrr A skunk may be evictedfrom an activeden If a skunk becomes trapped in a window by installing a one-waydoor over the en_ well (the basement window area),the best tranceto allow it to leavebut prevent reen_ method of freeing it is to provide it with a try (seeFigure 10, page33). Caremust be meansof escape.In the well, placea rough takento ensurethat the door canopen with_ board (or one with cleats)that is long out hitting an obstruction. Leavethe door enoughto act asa ramp to the top (seeFig_ in place for nvo or three nights to be sure ure 27). The board should lean no steeper that the skunk has left. Be surethat no new than a 45"angle.Theboard should be slowly holes appearnearby.Removethe door and and carefullyplacedby approachingthe well closethe opening as describedunder ,,Ex_ low enoughto be out of sight of the skunk. clusion"on page169. If possible,a secondpersonwith a vanrage Exclusionis also the only long-term so_ point high enoughto see the skunkcanwam lution to skunk predation on chickensor of any signsof its becoming agitated,indieggs.In this caseskunks must be excluded catedby the skunk raising its tail or stampfrom the chicken house,and the chickens ing its front feet. If this happens, an must be securelyenclosedin the coop at immediateretreatand reanalysis ofthe situnight. All openingsmust be repaired,and ation is recommended.Another method of fencingaround the coop should be ortended placing the board is to tie it to the end of a 6 to B inchesundergroundto preventskunks long pole and lower it by holding the opfrom diggingunderneath. posite end of the pole. Once the board is
rl \
Y
I ( , tt
,l
Figure 27. A ramp can help a trapped shunk out of a window well. lt's a good idea rlot tn let the family dog get involved in this procedure!
Skunks
WhatSmell? Skunkodoron Petsmaybe withliberalamounts neutralized of vinegaror tomatojuice.This willmakethe odortolerableit.A onlytimewilleliminate reporteddeodorantreciPefor skunkspraythatcan be used andclothesis on animals 1 quartof 3o/ohYdrogen peroxide 1/+cupbakingsoda 1 teaspoonliquidsoap (laundry or soaP) dishwashing
placed,keeppeople and petsawayfrom the areauntil nightfall, when the skunk should leaveon its own. To prevent this situation from reoccurring placeexit ramps or tightfitting coversat eachwindow well.
A LastWord
I7I
bleach,ammonia Chlorine products or commercial alPha neutroleum containing maybe usedon inanimate objects(donot usethison anylivingthing).Carbolic soapandwateraresafeto useon skin.Liberalflushing withcoldwaterwilleasethe discomfortof skunksPraYin the eyes.And at leasttwo productsare commercial (see"OdorControl" available in Appendix2).
someone'safraid of being sprayedis not known but is surelya largenumber. Hopefully, we will becomebetter educatedand more tolerant of theseanimalsin the futurg and recognizetheir role and placeaspart of the natural scene,evenin the town and city.
Additional Source
Peoplerememberencounterswith skunks, whether or not they are sprayed.It is com- Rosatte,R. C. 1987."Striped,Spotted, Hoodedand Hog-nosedSkunk."In M. mon knowledge among those who work Novah J.A. Baker,M. E. Obbard,and B. closelywith theseanimals that it actually Malloch (eds.),WiM FurbearuManagetakes a lot to get sprayed,although those in Nuth America. mentand Conseruation no sort of who do undoubtedly considerit Resources. Natural of Ontario: Ministrv honor. How many skunks are killed each 599-613. year in the United Statesjust because
Snaka
Snakesarewidely distributed throughout NorthAmericaandarefound in almosteveryhabitatexcept theArctictundra. Usually encountered in yards; occasionally enterbuildingsin searchof miceor insects. SNarss TNSTTLL sucH DEEp-RoorEDFEARin so people many that it may be the feeling is instinctive. In fact,manywild animalsclearlyrecognizesnakesas threatening,and some birds and monkeysevenhave specialvocalizationsfor soundingalarmwhen a snake is sighted.Smallmammalshavereasonto fearsnakes, and all but the very largestanimalswould do well to be cautious around the few snakesthat are poisonous.But the persecutionof theseanimalsand the acts ofviolence often committedwhen eventhe most innocuousofthem is sightedhavea lot more to do with societaland cultural prejudices than anything else.Learningto acceptsnakesmay take a while but learning to tolerate an occasionalcrossingof paths and to use the simple and expedientmethodsavailableto deal with any problems theseanimalsmight poseis currentlywithin our grasp.
Rattlesnakes willmovemore thana milein thefallto traditional hibernation dens sharedyearafteryearwith dozens,sometimes hundreds, of otherrattlesnakes.
Natural History Classificationand Range snakesare reptilesand belong to the group of animalsthat do not produce heat internally as mammals do but must rely on outside (ambient) temperaturesto reacha certainminimum beforethey can be very active.Thereare about 250 speciesand subspecies of snakes
Snakes in the United States,eachwith its own distinct markings, life history and habitat requirements. Snakesalways try to avoid contact with people. Of those that share human habitats, the vast maiority are harmless. TherearefourtFpesof poisonoussnakes in the United States:the copperhead,the coral snake,the rattlesnakeand the water arelikely to be moccasin.Only rattlesnakes of much concern in urban and suburban areas,and then only in parts of the West and Southwest.Reptilefield guidesand local nature centerscan tell you which poisonousand common nonpoisonoussnakes occurin your areaand how to identifi them.
Senses Snakescannot hear airborne sounds,but they are very sensitive to substratevibrations. They havewhat amounts to an auxiliary senseof smell by which they usetheir tongueand specialwedorgansin the mouth to detectchemicalchanges'Somepoisonous snakeshavespecialheat receptorsthat help them locate warm-blooded prey.Vision is poor in somespecieswhile good in others. All snakesare carnivores,eating small mammalssuchasmice,insects,small birds or evenother snakes.
Habitat Eachspeciesof snakehas a unique natural history and set of habitat requirements. Snakesmust haveaccessto cover,and many speciesprefertobe doseto standingand runningwater.Wood andbrushpiles,stonewalls and unmowed fields all provide snakehabitht. Becausefood draws most snakesinto contact with humans, placeswhere mice and insectsabound are most likely to be where human-snakeencountersoccur.
t73
Public Health Snakesare not known to transmit any diseaseto humans.Nonpoisonoussnakebites that break the skin should be treated like any puncture wound with a potential for infection, preferablywith the consultation of a physician.Victims of poisonousbites should stay calm and inactive if possible, and should seeka doctor immediately.Physiciansnow urge people not to administer first aid for a snakebite-proceduressuch as cutting open the bite sitesand bleeding the wound can do more harm than good. Snakebitesfrom poisonoussnakesarerarely fatal, and if transportto a hospital can occur quickly aftera bite is received,this is now consideredthe best responsepossible.
Problems and Their Solutions Problems Snakesdo not causedamageto structures or other property,nor do they eat any plant or crop foods that humans raise.On occasion, someof the largerspeciescauseproblemsaroundpoultryhousesand mighttake chicks or eggs,but, exceptfor the poisonous varieties, human pets are invariably more of a threat to snakesthan snakesare to them.
Solutions TornReNce Most encounterswith snakesare fleeting; people who enioy seeingsnakesare often denied for yearsthe satisfactionof this actually happening.The first rule for dealing with any encounterwith a snakeis to leave it alone,identiff it by speciesand then continue to leaveit alone as long as it is not
174
WTIO NEICHEORS
poisonousand isn't insidea houseorbuilding where not wanted.Virtually all outdoor encounterswith nonpoisonous snakes should be resolvedby letting the animal go its ownway.The chancesthatthe snakewill everbe seenagainare fairly small, and if it doesreappearthis only meansthat the mice or insectsthat attractit are still present,and it is doing the homeownera service.Poisonous snakes,on the other hand, should not be left in residentialyards.Encounterswith thesespeciesshould be takenseriouslyand the snakesremovedto ensurethat children, pets or even adults do not come to harm. Thisdoesnot meanthe snakehasto behilled. In many places,animal and pest control operators,and sometimesevenpoliceorfire departments,will removeand relocatepoisonoussnakesto placeswhere they are not likely to come into contactwith humans. ExcrusroN Exclusionof snakesusually refersto keeping snakesout of buildings. There are designspublishedfor snake"fences"that can be used to surround yards, gardensor any other outside area,but the need for such structuresis questionable.Snakesin houses fall into two categories:those that entered accidentallyand will be attempting ro escape becausethey find the habitat unsuitable and thosethat haveenteredto find prey or shelterand would takeup permanentresidenceif allowed.The former includesmost of the very small snakesthat may be considereduappedand will likely die from lack of food or moisture if not capturedand removed. Snakesthat may becomeresidents include rat, king and black snakesthat often follow mouseuails into buildings.Some snakesmay hibernatein older houseswith leakycellarsor crawl spaceswith dirt floors. The presenceof shedskin usually indicates that a snakehas been living in the house for sometime.
When a snakeis discoveredin a house, remain calm and avoid any act that might disturb it and drive it into hiding. It may be possibleto carefullyopena nearbydoor and use a broom to gently, but quickly, herd it out. O[, it maybe possibleto placean empty pail or wastebasketslowly over a small or coiled snakeand then put a weight on it to trap the snakeuntil an experiencedhandler can come to removeit (which should be as soon as possible,both for the snake'sbenefit and for the homeowner's peace of mind). If the snakecan be confined in a room or comerwith barrierssuchasboards or boxes,it will be availableto be captured when the expertarrives. Once the snakehas been captured,the homeownercanproceedto snake-proofthe property. Snakesusually enter a house or other building at ground level,the smallest individuals perhapsthrough a tiny crackor hole no more than l/s inch wide. An intensive inspection of the foundation for unsealedwire or pipe conduits or basement windows or doors that do not seal tightly will usually revealthe snakeentrance.All such openingsshould be sealedimmediately.The techniquesused to deter snakes from entering housesare exactlythe same usedto deterrodentsfrom entering. Residentsnakesmay be exremely difficult to locate and capture, even by an orpert, becausethey are capableof retreating for long periods (weeks)inside walls or in other inaccessible locationsin the building. Also, there may be more than one snakeinhabiting the samehouse.After the discovery of a snakein a house,the entirehouseshould be inspectedinside and outside to evaluate the situation.The interior inspectionshould be concentratedon the basementand first floor, butwithout neglectingthe attic (larger snakeswill often climb insidethe walls and emergein an unfinishedattic).The purpose of the inspection is not only to look for
Snakes snakesbut alsofor potential openingsthat allow snakesto enter into rooms. Next, inspectthe orterior of the house for possibleentrances,particularlyat or near ground level. Keepin mind the size of the snakethat was discoveredand look for any opening largeenough for the snake'shead to passthrough.Many snakesarealsogood climbers, so check for plantings that may give accessto the roof. A fieldstone wall or chimney may alsobe dimbed by a snake.If such accessis present,check for openings aroundthe eavesand roof.Anothercommon placeof entry is behind concreteporchesor stepsor where decls attachto the house. Once the entire exterior has been inspectedand one or more openings have been discovered,decidewhich opening is likely to be the main snakeentrance.To determine the snake'sroute oftravel, consider the size of the openings,easeof accessby the snakeand clearpenetrationinto the area of the house where the snakewas discovered. Sealall the openings arcept the suspected main entrance.On that opening, install a one-way door for snakesthat is made from a piece of aluminum window screenrolled into a cylinder about 10inches long and with a slightly largerdiameterthan the entrancehole. With the outlet end of the tube suspendedoff the ground, the returning snakewill not be able to find the opening and will be forcedto find another hiding place.It may be left in place for a month or longerto allow time for the snake to leave.If it is fall when the tube is installed, leaveit in placeuntil well into the following spring.After removing the tube peffnanently sealthe opening. Heurer MeNecnMENT Homeownerscan minimize the chanceof a snaketaking up residencein the yard by
175
making the area less attractiveto it. This meansremovingpotential hiding placesfor snakesand their prey,suchaspiles of rocks, wood or other debris,tall grassand undergrowth, cracksaround concreteporchesand sidewalksand storageshedswith spaceunder the floor. Petfoods and householdgarbage left outside overnight attract rodents, and, in tum, the presenceof rats or mice may attract snakes. RrpnLreNrs There is currently one commercially marketed repellent for snakes(Snake-A-Waf) (see "Chemical Repellents"in Chapter 3) and a long list of home repellents,ranging from sisalrope to sulfur,havebeenclaimed to be effective. To our knowledge, no scientific studies havebeen conductedto prove the efifectiveness of any product to humanely repel snakes.
A Last Word In addition to the persecutionthey experienceroutinely at human hands,snakeshave sufferedgreatlyfrom the habitat alterations we havecreated.Theyand their amphibian cousinsfare poorlywhen we breakup natural lands for urban and suburbandevelopment and isolateanimalsthat cannoteasily move acrossinhospitable terrain. Many speciesare either alreadygone or are rapidly disappearingfrom urban and suburban environments, and the issue of human-snake conflicts has essentiallybecome moot in many places.Whethersome speciesadapt to the changing conditions wrought by humans remains to be seen. Certainlythey will not do so aslong asour irrational fearsabout them dominate us so unmercifully.
Starlings
Widespread throughout allof NorthAmerica; commonin cities. Yardsandhouses;frequently buildnestswherepeopledon't want them. Starlingsong is quitecomplex, includinga seriesof whistling notes,chatterand a clearwolf whistlethat is somewhat scandalous.
sraRrrNcs wERETNTRoDUCED rNTo Nonrn AueRrcR in 1890, when an enterprisingNew Yorker named Eugeneschieffelin had about a hundred of thesebirds brought over from England to be releasedinto central Park.[t seemsMr. Schieffelinand a small group of like-minded friendshad a passionateinteresrin introducing into this countryall ofthe animalsmentionedin theworksof Shakespeare. Theystartedwith birds,but attemptswith typessuchasthe lark ended in failure. Not so with the starling.From the initial hundred, their population numbersare in the hundredsof millions now. Starlings join with native gracklesand blackbirdsat certaintimes of the year to form huge flocksthat can be seriousproblemsto agriculture.It is the built environmentsof citiesand towns that seemto be the ideal habitat for thesebirds, however.Therethey outcompetemany native birds and alter the balanceof natureso much that we reallv haveno ideawhat it might be like without them.
177
Starlings
Natural History Classificationanil Range The European starling (Sternusvulgaris)is about 8 to 8 1/zinchesin length,with a relatively short tail and a bold orange-yellow beak. Starlingsare membersof avery large (song) birds and diversegtoup of passerine found throughout the Otd World. The famity, which includesthe vocal mimics known as m)ma birds, has some strikingly beautiful members. In facr, a close look at starlings in their best winter plumage reveals them to be fairly attractivebirds (oncethe viewer getspast the learnedprejudicesthat dictate that all starlings are ugly). |uveniles are a uniform mousy brown color, but the adult plumage is a glossygteen and purple with white tips on eachfeather.During the winter, these tips wear away'rwealing the iridescent plumage below. The beak is brown in winter but tums brillant yellow with the coming of spring. Femalesand malesarequite similar,with the only good distinguishingmarkbeinga spotatthe base of the bill that is reddish in femalesand bluish in males.
Habitat Starlingsare adept at orploiting urban and suburban environments but also do quite well in agricultural settings.Their original habitat is lesswell known than someof the other introduced bird speciessuch as the house sparrowand pigeon. Currently,they are one of only a few birds that tolerate areasof high human densityand disturbance. Starlingsarefound in otherwisebarren human landscapesaround industrial areasand heavilysettledcommercialzones. Most of the spring and summer is spent by pairedbirds in nestingand raisingyoung. The iuvenile birds may collect in small
flocks soon after they fly from the nest (ftedge).Winter flocks of starlings create noisy roosts sometimesnumbering more than a million birds.
Diet Starlingshavewide-rangingfood tolerances, typical of most urban generalists'They are than housesparprobably more insectiuororu look at the bill close as a rows and pigeons, suggests.Spring flocks of starlingsoften descendon lawns,much to the dismayof homeownerswho feel they are doing damage. The truth is that they areprobably doing the homeowner a favor by consuming insect pests.They can do damage however,by eating fruits people are trying to raise,such as grapes,cherriesand raspberries.It is common to see starlingsaround dumps and landfills, and many seem to specializein
Tracks Starling
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picking through the open dumpsterscommon aroundapartments,grocerystoresand restaurants. Householdtrashplacedunpro_ tected at the curb is iust a snack compared to thesesteadysourcesof food, but can attract starlingswho think nothing of tearing bagsopen with their srrongbladelikebills. Starlingswill visit bird feeders,depending on their hunger and motivation, and will even consumesunflower seedswhen millet, suet or other preferred foods are not available.
Reproduction Starlingscourt and mate in the earlyspring and can evenbe heard in songat this time. Surely,most people do not find this somewhat strident and monotonously repetitious vocalizingto be true son& but to the staflFg it undoubtedly is. Anywhere from three to eight eggsare laid in each clutch, and a successfulpair of adultscan nestthree times in a year.The young fledgeat between two and three weeks of age,but it is not known whether they breed the first year or not.
Public Health The infectiousdiseases associated with starlings are much the sameas those found in pigeons and house sparrowsand include histoplasmosis, chlamydiosisand salmonellosis.As for the other urban species,thereis little directevidencelinking starlingsto diseaseproblems in humans, but the potential for this should not be dismissed.
Problemsand Their Solutions Problems
Outsideof the problemsthey causein agricultural settings,probably the biggestissue with starlingsin urban and suburbanareas hasto do with their nestinghabits.The potential problem with vents has been mentioned, but starling nests built into any house cavity can accumulatematerial that is unsightly and could representa firehazard. The nestsbuilt by thesebirds can be accumulativein that they do not remove material previously brought in but keep addingyearafteryearto what is there.StarNesfs lings also causecomplaintsby getting into Starlingsare cavitynestersand will exploit the trash,competingwith desirablebirds at any hole into a suitablysizedinterior cavity feedersand getting stuck in chimneys and to transpoft nesting material and set up metal flues.Largerenvironmentalproblems shop.An ideal nestingsitefor starlings,and occurwith flocks,which can involvetensof an important problem for peoplq aredryer, thousandsof birds. rangeand bathroom vents.Evenwhen protected by a metal flap, many starlingshave Solutions leamedhow to approachand hoveror perch while raising coversto these areasto gain TorERaNcE accessto the interior. The nesting material Much of the time, starlingscan be tolerated they packinto suchcavitiesnot only impairs by understandingthat their transgressions the function of the vent but could presenta are only temporary or that perrnanentsolutions can be carriedout once the timing firehazard aswell.
Starlings
179
Figure 28. Dryer vents or exhaust ventsfrom kitchen hoods are often inuaded by surlings who build nests in interior cavities. Screening may be one way to prevent this. Here, a rigid, heauy-gauge fi la inch) harilware cloth has been fitud around a dryer uent, leauing the botum open (about a 112-inch slot) so that lint can escape.Screening used around a vent should be checkedpniodically to make sure it is notbhckcd.
is right. One example of when starlings should be tolerated comes in the spring, when visiting flockswork over lawns,probing for grubs and cleaningup any insects found among the new growth. They undoubtedly perform a beneficial serviceto
the homeo\,vner.Nestingstarlingsshould be tolerated until the young havefledged.The nest site can then be cleanedand sealedto preventreuse.I^argewinter flod<sthat repeatedly reusean areato roost may not be tolerated but should not be dispersedwithout
180
wrro NprcHsoRS
using coordinated intervention strategies widely promoted as a frightening or flock under the guidanceof bird control orperts. dispersalagent,but is not recommendedfor the reasonsexplainedunder "Toxicants"in ExcrusroN Chapter3. As always,exdusion is the method of choice. Starlings that are discoveredearly in the HesrrAr MouprcATroN nestingprocess,beforeeggsarelaid, can be The availability of food and nesting cover evicted and the openings they were using are elementsthat can be modified directly sealedwith hardware cloth or metal flash- in placeswherestarlingsarea problem and, ing to keep them from being reoccupied. ultimately, are essentialapproachesto try Lighter material,such as plastic netting or to limit the numbersof thesebirds. Places windowscreening is rarelyeffectivein keep- whereroostingis occurringand found to be ing determinedstarlingsout of a cavity.With intolerable can also be addressedby practheir strongbill, they cansimply rearlighter ticesthat modiff the siteto make it lessacmaterialopen. Neststhat contain young can cessibleand/or acceptableto the birds. often be located by the sound of begging Refusecan be an important sourceof food nestlings or the characteristicfan-shaped for a local population of starlings,and both trail of smeareddroppingsthat spot a wall homeownersand businessesshould share below a corner joint or other siteswhere a in the obligation to control accessto cavity is present.Dryer and rangevents can dumpstersand household trash to prevent be screenedwith hardwarecloth as illus- thesebirds from gaining easyaccess.Maktrated in Figure28 on page179. ing sure that dumpsters are covered after trashis placedin them and arenot routinely ScenE DEvrcEs overfilled is a greatstepto limiting accessto Both visual and auditory frightening tactics food, and householdtrash in coveredconofferviableapproachesto solvingproblems tainers rather than in plastic bags placed with starlings.There are a variety of noise- along the roadway goesa long way toward making devicesas well as taped-recorded limiting starlingaccess. alarm callssold to frighten theseand other birds (see"Bird DisuessCalls" and "Acous- Roosrs tical Alarms" in Chapter3). Visualstimuli Liberaltrimming (removing at least ll3 of such as mirrors, pie tins, revolving lights, all interior branches)of treesat siteswhere colored flags,scaretapes and balloons starlingshave establishedroosts can help (see Chapter 3) can also be effectivein dispersebirds and may be especiallyeffecfrightening starlings awayfrom resources tive in conjunction with the useof frightento be protected. ing tactics and other strategies.Generally, largeroostsshould be controlled by orperiRnpnrrnNrs encedprofessionalsto ensurethat birds are Polybutenesare registeredfor use on star- effectively dispersedand remain that way. lings,but not recommendedbecauseof the Problems with starling roosts can be very dangerto birds from accumulatingthe ma- difficult (if evenpossible)to solveusing a terial on their feet and feathersto a point single method of control applied over a where it can incapacitatethem. Avitrolo is short period of time.
Starlings
A Last Word
181
spring,the adultbirds canbe seendiligently bringing food to nestlings,and at times, the clamor of theyoung can evenbe heardover traffic. No predator would everhave access to these nests.The great risk must come when theyoung arereadyto fledgeand take that first flight into the void. How many sunzivethis and how many fall into traffrc below is unknown, but enough survive to ensurethat starlingsappearunder no threat of diminishing in numbers.
Consider starlings for their enteftainment value.Many of us spend more of our lives than is good for us stopped at traffrc lights. The next time you are at a maior intersection, look around at the poles, transformers,lights and otherstructuresand seeifyou canfind the starlingsusingthem. Therethey are,sitting on the wires, flying from pole to pole and occasionallydisappearingaltogether after they land. Look closely and there are small Ports or accesshatchesthat Additional Source were left ajar or never closed in the first place,and which now make an ideal nest- Welty,I. E. 1975.TheLife of Birds.Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.623 PP. ing site for thesecavity-lovingbirds. In the
Tree Squirrels
Foundthroughout most of the UnitedStates, excepting the treeless GreatPlainsandGreat Basinareasandinto southern Canada. Commonly associated yards with and homes;will get intoatticsif giventhe chance. Squirrels willnotburyacorns withinsectparasites in themtheirsenseof smellis so keen thattheyrecognize theseas spoiledandrejectthem.
WHpng
pUBLIC opINroN
HAS BEEN poLLED re-
gardingsuburbanand urban wildlife, squirrelsgenerally rank first as problem makers.Where the;$on't hold this statusit is usuallybeenbecausethpieidrdno squirrels in that part of the country. Eventhen, itielmost seemsthat their reputation is good enough to putr{iidffi ut leasta fewvotes.Interestingly,squinelsalmostalwaysrankfir*tahong preferredurban/suburbanwildlife speciesaswell. Suchis the paradox they present:we want them and we don't want them, depending on what they are doing at any given moment. treelsduffis are certainly one of the most successfulmammals in aecommo$atingto :'' human-alteredenvironments. .,i,1;, Tree squirrels owe their successto a variety .thingp,not all of "f which makegood objectivesense.Because they havcbushytails and largeeyesrelativeto the sizeof their heads,squirrelspresentan image,or gestalt,that someanimal behavioristsliken to that presented by young animals,including humans.Put simply, they all look like babies,puppies,etc.The relativeneonatalappearance of squirrelsmay
TreeSquirrels unconsciouslywarmpeopleto them. Their close relative-the Norway rat-has a naked tail and small, beady eyesthat help evokea strong negativereaction in people. Of coursg there is more to it than that, and squinels havemany engagingand fascinating behavioral traits that help endearthem to us. Squirrelwatching can be an educational and enrichingexperience,and thanks to the fact that these animals are activeby day,an easything to do.
183
gestof all, and canbe asmuch as 15 inches with a tail almost as long and weigh up to 3 pounds.The coloration of fox squirrelsis as varied as that of the graysbut predominantly a rusty yellowish color with a pale yellow or orange'belty.In the Eastsome fox squirrels are astriking pure steelgray color.
Habitat
Both fox and gray squirrels traditionally depend on trees, especially oak trees, as placesto bear and raiseyoung, take shelter from the weather,find food and escapefrom predators.As part of their adaptation to human-wrought changesto the landscapa Classificotion and Range almost anything that looks like a tree can Thereare an astonishingnumber of squir- now be used,including the pilings around rels worldwide, and many are strikingly at- marinas,nest boxesset out for woodpeckuactiveanimals.In North Americathereare ers or kestrelsand many placeson and in severalspeciesthat are regardedas "tree" houses.Squirrelshavefluidly adaptedto the squirrels,in contrastto an evengreaterva- planted and landscaped"forest" of urban riety of "ground" squirrels.The fox squirrel and suburban parks and can usually main(Sciurusniger) and eastern(S. carolinensis) tain themselvesquite well there.They also and western (S. Srkcus)gray squirrels usu- do well in both urban and suburbanneighally arethe speciesinvolved in homeowner borhoods, although wherever they are conflicts. Northern and southern flying found, they rarelytum down handoutsfrom uolansand G. sabrinus) squirrels(Glaucomys people. near wooded in buildings may also nest sitesand canoccasionallybeproblems,but Diet not so frequentlyastheir largercousins.The easterngraysquirrel is about 8 to 10inches The diet of squirrelsvarieswith the seasons long and has a bushy tail that's almost the and the availabilityof the plant materialthat samelength. Frequently,squirrelssit with almostentirelymakesup their larder.Acoms the tail archedover the back allowing the and other nuts are both eaten and stored viewer to seethat it providesalmost com- underground in the fall and early winter, plete cover for the body. The gray squirrel with the undergroundstoragemaking up a can actually be highly varied in coloration substantialportion of thewinter diet. In the and rangefrom a rufous tint to almost pure spring the flowersand growingbudson the white, or even an all black or melanistic terminal ends of branchesare eaten,and it form. The western gray squirrel is a little is common to seesquirrelsbusily working and heavierthan the east- high in yet leaflesstreesat this time of the longeron average, ern gray,weighing almost I 314 pounds, year.In summer, fruits such as mulberry while the eastem form rarely weighs that raspberryand wild cherriesareeaten.Some much. The fox squirrel, though, is the big- feel that this is actuallythe hardesttime of
Natural History
184
wrrn NprcHsoRS
the yearfor squirrels,more than springwhen buds are a mainstay and fall and winter when mast is collected and consumed. Squirrelsdo occasionallytake bird eggsor nestlingsand may evenpounceon and kill small birds at feeders,much to the dismay of human witnesseswho might have assumed they were passivevegetarians.
REroiluction The easterngray and fox squirrels usually have two litters a year. The first breeding period usuallybeginsin Decemberor early |anuary with young born between February and April after a gestation period of a little more than forty days.A secondbreeding period beginsin earlysummer,with that litter born in Augustor September. Thewestern gray squirrel has only one breedingseason a year, and young are born between Februaryand Iune. Courtship is characterized by frantic chases,often with several males pursuing one female. After matin& the female drivesthe malesawayand raises the two to five young by herself.The babies areborn nakedand helplessand do notventure oqt of the nest for about sevenor eight weeks. They are weaned at ten to twelve weeks.The spring litter is usually driven away by the mother shortly after weaning and as the next breedingrycle begins.The fall litter may staywith the mother in the nest through the winter until well after the wintercourtshipseason.Flytngsquirrelsare suictly nocturnal, may sharea den with up to twenty other adults (particularlyin winter) and breedtwice ayearin a patternsimilar to that of the gray squirrel.
Densand Shelter Squirrels use two basic types of natural dens-tree cavitiesand leaf nests-and take liberal advantageof shelter provided by
humans in atticsand crawl spacesalongthe upper floor of buildings. Leafnests,called dreysin England,need constant repair and do not provide as much protection from weatherextremesas do tree cavities.
SeasonalActivity Both fox and gray squirrels are active during the day (diurnal). Fox squirrels may spend more time on the ground than grays and have been found to use larger home rangeareas(2 to 30 acres),while graysgenerallyusea much smallerhome range(less than 4 acres),but thereis a lot ofvariability to this. Squirrelsbecomeactiveat first light and usually rest in the middle of the day before becoming active again later in the afternoon. These patterns vary, however, dependingon weatherconditions and other factors.The most remarkable yearly event for graysquirrelsfrom a human perspective is the "fall reshuffle" during which the seasonally frenetic activity of collecting,eating and burying nuts is accentuatedby the dispersalof both adultsand juveniles,perhaps in searchof that "perfect"homesite.Automobiles kill many squirrelsat this time of the year.
Public Health Squirrelscan carry diseaseorganismsof potential consequence to humansbut rarely, if ever, are documented as transmitting these.Rabiescanoccurin squinels,asin any mammal, but squirrel-to-humantransmission of the diseaseis not documented.If anything, the value of squirrelsin regardto pubic health may be positive becausethey havebeenshown to be "indicators" of environmental quality in some studies,telling us when and perhapswhere harmful concentrationsof industrial by-products and
TreeSquinels
185
to espesticidesmay lurk in urban and suburban tent scratchingnoisesasthey attempt unsucare they if dying eventually and cape environments. cessful.Unpleasantodors and fly problems may ensue. Problems and Squinelsoften becomenuisancesatbird feeders,where they consume large quantiTheir Solutions ties of birdseedor gnaw feedersinto unusProblems able shardsof plastic. Squirrelscan also plants or fruit and nut Squinelscausedamageby nestingin build- damageornamental buds and fruits. ings, digging in lawns, eating ornamental trees by feeding on bark, and crocus, plants and bulbs and stealingfood from Spring bulbs, especiallytulips the plants or consumed and up dug be may bird feeders.The most serious problems flower. startto they as with squirrels probably involve adult fe- clipped and eateniust outdoor furmalesenteringa building to establishnests. Squinelsoccasionallygnawon trim on They will explore any likely looking open- niture, wooden decks and wood us, but to unknown reasons for ingwhile searchingfor a den siteand often buildings squirrels. enterchimnep or atticsthrough unscreened probably clearto the vents or openings left by loose or rotten boards. Squinels invariably enter a build- Solutions ing somewherehigh on the stntcture and TornneNce oploit an oristing hole, though they may Sometimesit is easyfor people to accept, enlarge the hole by gnawing. A home- tolerateand enioy squirrels,and sometimes owner's first sign of the squirrel'spresence it is not. No one is expectedto be pleased is usually the sound of scamperingin the when one of theseanimalsis loosein their attic or abovethe firePlace. house,and continuous visits to bird feeders Squirrels entering chimneys are often can likewise go beyond what normal paunable to climb back out and, if possible tience and endurancepermit. It is impormay emergefrom a fireplaceor follow a tant to remember, however, that these stovepipe to the furnace and get loose in animals are only doing what is natural to the basement.A squirrel found inside the them-seeking releasefrom enuapmentand living areaof a house probably enteredin looking for a meal at a time of the yearwhen this way and will characteristicallyseekwin- shortagesare critical and death is always dows to escape.Frustrated,trapped squir- imminent. The first approach to dealing relscan do a surprisingamount of damage with squirrelsis to establishlimits of tolto windowsills and furniture. erance,acceptthem for what they are and Squirrels nesting in attics will usually be patient enough so that if they need to gather insulation into a nest near the enbe excluded from an attic or prevented trance and may gnaw on adiacent boards from stealingbird food, this is done in a and electricalwires. Typically, people hear way that does them and their young no the squirrel during daylight hours as it harm. comesand goeson foragingtrips. Juvenile squirrels,and occasionallyadults,roaming ExclustoN-Arrtcs around the attic may fall into wall cavities Thoroughly inspect inside the attic to find and be unableto climb out, making persis- the opening(s), where the nest is and to
186
Wrro NElcHnoRs
determine whether there are any babies present.concentrate the searchin the area where noiseswere heard. If there is no accessto the attic, inspectthe outside of the eaves,vents and roof until the opening is located. If the nest can be seenand there are no immature squirrels,attempt to frighten the squinel outside by banging on the rafters insidethe attic,or wait until you aresureall squirrelshaveleft asthey usually do during the day.Then sealup the openingwith 1/aor rf z-inch mesh hardware cloth or sheet metal flashing securelyfastened.Extendthe metalpatchat least6 inchesbeyondthe hole in all directionsto preventthe squirrel from gnawing around the patch. Sealany other weak spots or potential entrancesin the sameway. Listen carefully for the next day or so to be sureno squirrelis uapped inside or has regainedentry. Watch closely to see if the squirrel is persistent in attempts to regain entry. Mothers will go to extreme lengthsto reunitewith theiryoung and can causeextensivedamage to houses when doing so. If, for anyreason,it cannotbe determined if the squirrelsare outside,do nat sealthe sntrance.Instead, install a one-waydoor(see Chapter 3) and leave it in place until no more soundsare heard inside the attic for severaldays.The door canthen be removed and the openingpatchedasdescribedabove. If the nest is inaccessibleor out of sight and there is the likelihood of babies (the squirrelhasbeenin the housefor more than a coupleof daysand it is Marchthrough May or August through October), wait until the young are grown enough to come out on their own. At that poin! a one-waydoor may be installed over the opening and left in place until no more sounds are heard inside the attic for severaldays.The door can then be removedand the opening patched.
In all cases,once the squirrelsareknown to be gone, the opening should be permanently sealedbywhatevercarpentryworkis necessary. This is simply good housekeeping and not only preventssquirrels from regaining entry at a future date but keeps weather and insectsout to help maintain an orderly house. ExcrusloNCHruNEy wrrH a FrnnpLAcE It can be assumedthat the squirrel heard scramblingin a chimney is trappedunless thereis dear evidenceit is ableto dimb out on its own. Do not try to smokea squirel out of a chimney-a uapped squirel or babies may be killed. If the squirrelis not uapped, proceedthe sameaswith a nestin the attic as describedabove. If the squirrel is above,or has accessto, the flue damper, a meansof escapemay be provided by hanging a 3l+-inchor thicker rope down the chimney. Be sure to tie one end of the rope to the top of the chimney before lowering the other end, and make certainthat it reachesthe damperor smoke shelf. If a rope is unavailable,a seriesof boards or sticks may be securelyattached end-to-end to sufficient length. Be careful not to lower anything into the chimney that cannot be easilyretrieved.The squirrelwill climb up the rope and escapeusuallywithin a few (daylight) hours.After it is certainthat the squirrel has escaped,removethe rope and screenthe chimney, preferably with a commercially made chimney cap (see "ChimneyCaps"in Appendix2). If a squirrel is down in the fireplace(presumably behind the fireplacedoors or screen),trytapping on the door and scaring it back up abovethe damper.If successful, closethe damper and proceedas above.If the squirrel cannot or will not leavethe fireplace,the next best option is to obtain a
TreeSquirrels suitable live trap, bait it with peanut butter and setitvery carefullyinsidethe fireplace' Normally,the squinel will retreatto a back corner of the fireplace as the doors are openedand staythere if the trap is placed, slowly and quietly, just inside the doors' Closethe doors and leavethe room to wait for the squinel to enter the trap. As a precaution, before opening the doors of the fireplace to set the trap, dose any interior doors in the room and open an exterior door or window in line of sight from the fireplace.In the eventthat the squirrel gets out of the fireplace do not chaseiU iust sit quietly, and itwill instinctivelyhead forthe light of the open door and go outside.After the squinel has been removed, screen the chimney as describedabove.
187
got in the houseand preventit from happening again. Look for tracks in soot or dust around the fireplaceor furnacethat may indicate that it came down the chimney, and checkthe attic for evidenceof a nest or entrancehole that may needattention. Hnntrer MINacEMENTBtnp Fsnpnns The agility of squinels makesit difficult to prevent them from reachingbird feeders. Varioustypesof specializedfeedersareavailable from witd bird supply centersor catalog salesthat keep olmostallsquinels at bay. Severaldesignsrespondto the greaterweight of squirrelsand largebirds by closinga metal cover over the birdseed when they climb onto the feeder.Thesefeedersare usually very effective,but costmore than uaditional feeders. One stepup in the battle is to keepsquirrels away from the beginning, when the feeder is first put oul Once a squirrel becomesaccustomedto finding food, it will persistently try to overcome any obstacles that are placed in its way. Feederson a pole can be riggedwith a baffler (seeChapter 3) that preventsthem from climbing. As long asthey cannotleapfrom a nearbytreeonto the feedeq,they generally have to content themselveswith whateverthe birds spill. Squirrels will have difficulty raiding a feeder hung from a tree branch on a wire that is more than 10 feet long. The feeder should be positioned at least 8 feet away from any limbs or structuresfrom which the animals might leap. If a squirrel doesslide down the support wire, a plastic or metal commercialor homemade umbrella-shaped baffle can be mounted over the feeder.
SeutnnEt, LoosE IN Housn Asquirrel thathasentereda househasdone so by accident and does not want to be there. If its exactlocation is known, close interior doors to limit its movement and open a window or exterior door in the room. The squirrelwill find the opening if it is left alone and itwill evenreadilyiump from a second'storywindow onto a lawn (not onto concrete)without harming itself. If for somereasonit is not possibleto give the squirrel an orit, set a baited live traP on the floor nearthesquirreland leaveit alone for a few hours.Squinelscanbe capturedin a blanket if trapping is not an option Approachthe squirrelwith the blanketcovering your body, so that it doesnot seea human form but rather a largeand indistinct mass' Drop the blanket on the squirreland roll it up, taking carenot to put too much weight or pressureon the animal. Then, take the blanket and squirrel immediately outside and unfurl it, letting the animal escape. Dnuece ro PreNrs Once the squinel has escapedor has been Squirrels rarely do significant damageto captured,it is important to discoverhow it plantings.So,when damageis observed,the
188
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Figure 29. Dwarf fruit treescan becoueredwith netting to preuentaccessto squinelsand birds while fruit is ipming. Localgarden centersand plant nursniesoftm carry thk netting, or it can beordereddirectlyfrom suppliers(see 'Netting" in Appendix2) .
first stepis to makesureit's not being caused by another animal. Squinels are only active during the day,so it should be possibleto obseryethe damage happening. Once a squirrel has been implicated, considerthe possibility of preventing accessto the affectedplant. Forinstance,one orseveralfruit treesthat areisolatedfrom surrounding trees maybe protectedbywrappinga 2-footband of sheetmetal around the trunk about 6 feet off the ground. Branchesgrowing below 6 feetalso may haveto be trimmed. Squirrels show a preferencefor ceftain varietiesof ornamentalplantsand leaveothersalone.Small fruit and nut trees can be protected by netting the entiretreefor the short period of time
when squinel (or other animal) damageis most likely to occur (seeFigure29). Rnpsrr,ENrs Thereareseveralcommercialrepellents(see Table2, pages48 and 49) that areregistered for use with squirrels. Some, such as the products with Thiram, can be used to soak bulbs before planting. Other are intended to be sprayedon ornamental plants squirrels are attacking.We have encounteredat least one product that usescapsaicin,with the recommendationthat birdseed be dustedwith it to repelsquirrelsbut not birds. The concept is that birds do not have the samesensoryreceptionof this chemicalas
TreeSquirrels
189
is to take mammalsdo-a questionableassumption' pletely frustrated by the struggle enemy. We do not recommendthis method of pro- another,closerlook at the animals to fascinating are Squirrels tectingbirdseedfrom squirrels. They make study. and photograph watch, themselvesavailablefor observation in a A Last Word way that few other animals do and have a of beThere are volumes written about squirrels, rich and comple:<enough repertoire exand novice someof which havefocusedentirely on the haviors to award both the squirrel-human warfare conducted every pertwith the challengeof decipheringwhat yearin our neighborhoods.In the spaceal- it is they really are about. For thosewilling located here, we can only suggestthe ex- to be patient, to learn and to watch, squirtent of some of the battles that have raged rels havea lot to offer. acrossthe American landscape,and we recommend that readersconsult advanced Additional Sources texts for details of the more complex maneuvers.The battleswill go on into the fore- Gurnell, l. 1987.TheNatural Historyof Squinels,New York: Factson File. 201 seeablefuture with humanity continuing PP. to win the minor skirmishes, while the AWildlifeHand' K. 1995.Squinels: Long the on sights their have to seem squinels Books. Colo.: Boulder, booh. Johnson All we victory. strategic,rather than tactical, pp. 181 can recommend for those who feel com-
Voles
Volesoccupyvirtually allof NorthAmerica.
/2
--
--
e*5tGG_
"\\
==Tractspeciesidentifications in situations where damageis occurring is important.
Habitat
Reproduction Like many small rodents, voles are shortlived but prolific breeders.In the wild, there can be four or five litters eachsummet and even more in warm climates where breeding canoccuryear-round.Dependingon the speciesand geographicregion, the average litter size varies from two to five young. Within three weeks of birth, females may beginbreeding with gestationa shorttwenty to twenty-threedays.Withthis kind of reproductive potential, populations rapidly expand. Populationsin commercialand home orchards can attain higtr concentrationsbecauseoptimal vole habitat is inadvertently createdby landscaping practicessuch as mowing (which leavesa protective layer of thatch) and by fertilization, which results in denseground cover.Vole populations are cyclical. During spansof about three to six years,vole populations experiencedramatic fluctuations.Yearsin which populationsgrow rapidly aresometimescalled "mouseyears."
With so many different tFpesof voles disuibuted throughout North America it can hardly be surprisingto find them in a wide varietyof habitats.Evenwithin a givenhabitat, different speciesof voles may overlap, avoidingdirect competition through separation into specialued niches.Severalspecies are maior agricultural pests, having moved into commercial fruit orchards, plantedcrop fieldsand Pasturesin easytransition from traditional habitats.The affinity of some voles for forest edgeswith moist loose soil high in organic matter easily Nests and Runutays brings them into residential areas and While all speciesof volesdo someburrowconflicts with homeowners. ing, certainspecialistssuch asthe pine and Oregon vole are almost entirely subterraDiet nean. Others,including the meadow vole, (plant-eaters) constructobvious runwayson the surfaceof Volesareprima rJ,\yherbivores and are not to be confused with moles. the ground, clipping and mowing in their
192
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own fashionto maintain a network of maintained trails partly coveredby overlapping vegetation.Nestsare usually well built and provide refuge from environmental extremes, as well as places to rest and raise young. Voles may spend the bulk of their day in these,coming out to feed for short periodsduring both day and night.
Public Health
Voleswill usemole tunnels to reachplant roots and bulbs and often causedamagefor which moles erroneouslyare blamed. Homeownersmay experiencedamagesimilar to agriculturalistsbut on a lesserscale.Fruit treesorshrubs suchasblackberriesand raspberries and occasionalgarden vegetables may be badly damagedor ruined. plants in growing frames and greenhousesmay be badly damaged,asmight certainshrubsand bulbs in the ornamentalgarden.
Volesare not consideredto be a significant sourcefor any infectiousdiseasethat canbe Solutions transmittedto humans,companion animals or livestock. They are known, however,to Hnntrer MoprrrcATroN be the hostsfor suchcommunicablediseases The control of damageby volesshould foastularemiaand bubonic plague. cus on the managementof the habitat to make conditions less favorable for these animals. Populations can be reduced Problems and through soil cultivation, a tactic that desuop Their Solutions burrows and reducesground cover. Frequent,closemowingwill reduceboth cover Problems and carying capacityfortheseanimalsand The worst damagedone by voles is associ- is an important part of an integratedapated with agricultural crops,and the opera- proach to population management.Ortors of largeorchardsaremost likelyto suffer chardsshould be mowed four times ayear: damage.Debarkingof fruit treesoccursun- after trees bloom, just before cropping der the coverof snow and can be fatal when limbs, prior to harvestand in late fall. treesarecompletelygirdled.Volesalsofeed Clearing vegetativedebris from grassy on the roots of fruit trees,primarily during areasadjacentto gardensand cropsis a usethe winter. This spurt in damagemay be a ful prevention measure.Clearingvegetation result of the diminished food supply dur- from a 3-foot radius around the baseof a ing this dormant season.Apple tree roots tree or shrub can force voles to relocate. contain more sugar and starch during the Howeve[,becausewoodland voles remain winter than any other season,possiblymak- below ground,this tacticmay not affecttheir ing them more attractiveto voles.Moreover, activities. In northern dimates snow may in winter voles spend more time close to provide cover for voles at the time of year their nests to avoid cold temperaturesand when plants are most likely to incur dampredators.Becausethe nestsare frequently age.Clearing snow away from the base of located near tree trunks, roots are a conve- treesmay be helpful when just a few need nient sourceof food. Typicalvole damage to be protected.Deepbedsof mulch alsoenoccurs within the first decadeafter an or- couragevolesby facilitatingtheir movement chard has been planted becauseas trees through tunnels createdbetweenthe mulch mature they are better able to sustain and and the ground. Reducingthe layerof mulch fend off damage. to 1 to 2 inchesmay discouragevoles.
Voles
KillThemAll? of anYanimal Theeradication is rarelY fromthe landscape possible,and in the few cases it is at besta it is achieved, Using remission. temporary propermethodsof wildlife damagecontrol,a ProPertY beownercancurbProblem havioror reducethe Problemto
193
Rnpu,rBNrs Volescancauseseriousdamageto ornamental flower beds by destroying the bulbs of plants such as lilies and tulips. Soaking bulbs before planting in one of the many commercialty available bittering agents containing Thiram (see "Chemical Repellents" in Chapter3) canbe effectivein limiting damageto new Plantings'
a tolerablelevel. Individual plants or flower beds can be partially protectedwith a subterraneanbarrier composedof hardwaredoth (l/+-inch mesh or less)buried 6 to 8 inchesinto the soil. By sinking the barrier to a depth of at least 6 inches,the property owner will assurethat animals do not burrow under the obstade.This tactic may offer the best permanent solution to problems with voles in the residential yard. A barrier of gravelon paths also discouragesvoles from moving around yards becausethey prefer to excavate soft soil. Tulips and hostas are favorite foods of volesand mayoccasionallysustainhigh damage.Homeownerswhose plants are repeatedly assaultedby voles should consider substituteplants,suchasdaffodil, which are lesspalatable.Crown imperial (Fritwrlaria spp.) is anothershowyplant that hasa reputation for repellingvoles.Plastic,metal or cloth barriers (see"TreeProtectors"in Appendix 2) may be wraPPedaround the trunks of individual treesto prevent voles from gnawing on their bark. Tar paper also is usedfor this purPose.
PREoeroRs Voles are an important component in the diet of many predatory speciesincluding foxes, bobcats, snakesand hawks' One of the best waysto ensurethat other forms of control work well is to encouragenatural predation. Predatorsdo not, of course, eliminate prey species.Natural predation, howevet canhelp keepnumbersof animals, such asvoles,down to a point where other managementstrategiesbecomefar more effective.Raptorscanbe particularly effective, and nestingboxesforbarn owls and kesuels can encouragetheir presence.It is alsopossible to atuact hawks and owls by erecting perchesconstructedof wood or metal and shapedinto a "T" thatwill serveasobservation poststo scanfields for volesand other small mammals.
A Last Word The averagehomeowner is unlikely to encounter problemswith voles of the sort that commercial orchardistsand agriculturalists do. On the rareoccasionsthey do, it is likely that the damagecomesasa resultof one of those cyclical periods when vole numbers are peaking.Certainly,protection of valued plants is merited at those times, but lethal control of vole populations is unlikely to yield any significant results, becausethe natural population cyclewill lead to reduction in vole numbers regardlessof the attemptsto eradicateanimals.
Waterfiowl
Foundthroughout allof NorthAmerica; increasingly commonin urbanareas. Mostconflictsarerestricted to openspaceandparklands, including corporate landsand golfcourses. Occasional problemsin privateyards. ,
ilw,nfi,l{!"(
t, ) Thesubspecies of Canadagooseso It commonnowin many citieswasthoughtto have beenextinctas recentlyas the 1960s. Fon es LoNG AS spRrNc has come forpeople it has I
liirfi I
been heralded by geesecalling overhead on their way north to breeding grounds. The opposite tum of season is signaled by their return voyage, which also in-
troducesthe newly arrivedmembersof the flock to the tradition of the group'sflight path. what the first humans on this continent saw werealreadyancientpatterns.What laterarrivalssawweredwindling numbersoverheadas more and more land wastakenthat oncdsupported an enormousvarietyof species. ,,i i.,, l Not so long ago it looked as if the sky migfurilot beroccupibdby migrantsat all. Strictlyenforcedlawsand, final$,some e{fortto conseryediminishing wetlandshelped bring them baikfqom *he btittk, but still the outcomefor m,.?ny speciesremainscriticai.in,the faceof the changeswe,i,mpolqdon them, somespeciesof waterfowlbegan to adapt in rernarkablewap. "Resident"ducks and geesehave becomenoticeabld,.only recently,and alreadyareone of the most controversialwildlifeissuesin rhanypartsofthe country.Booksmaybewritten about the human-watef,fowlc.piiflictsof thesetimes,the reasonsfor it
Waterfowl and the deepirony of what has happened' Thesebirds, so heavilyhunted for so long have not been driven to hide in some reTheyhaveliterally embraced mote vastness. humanity and settled underfoot in cities and towns throughout the country. Ironically, by only tryrng to adjust to the situation people have imposed on them, they havebeen declareda "Problem."
195
they conjure a mental image of a swan'The American coot(Fulicaamericata),or mudhen, is a small aquaticbird that is disuibuted almost nationwide. Many different speciesof ducks use urban and suburban ponds as stopoverswhen migrating. The mallard is by far the most com(Anasplatyrhynchos) is presentyear-round that mon and the one in many urban ponds.The brown femaleis drab in comparison to the male,who has a greenhead,white neckband and rustychest. The muscovyduck (Cairina moschata)is an introduced speciesthat is found in many Classificationand Range towns and cities as a result of intentional "Waterfowl" is a genericterm that applies It is a large bullcybird rangingfrom releases. to dozens of different types of birds. The blackish to all white; males are charactermain speciesthat are of concem in urban izedby the pronounced knob at the end of areas,and which areaddressedhere,include the bitl. Confusingthe issueof what duck is geese,ducks, coots and swans.Although what duck is the frequenthybridization of there are severalspeciesof goosein North mallardswith domesticspecies,so that a America, it is the Canada goose (Branta sometimes perplexing combination of that causesby far the maiority canadensis) wild and domestic ducks appearson our of problems in urban and suburbanareas. ponds. The large size,black head and prominent white cheekpatchofthis bird make identification easyfor most urbanites,asthe only Habitat other large bird commonly found on ur- Although traditionally associatedwith lakes ban ponds is the swan.At leastten subspe- and ponds, most waterfowl spend time on cies or racesof Canada geesehave been land and evennest some distancefrom waidentified, with the "giant" form (8. c. ter if the siteseemssafe.Artificial ponds and maxima)beingthe one that hassettledmost lakes,storm water impoundments and, escomfortably on a year-round residency pecially, the vast expansesof good gtazing among people.Theselarge birds (about surfacestypical of municipal parks, co{po12 pounds on average)were actually con- rate developments,golf coursesand other sidered extinct in the 1950s,only to be human-built environmentsare ideal habiin 1965.Sincethen,theirpopu- tat for geese,swansand ducks.This is the rediscovered steadilY. risen lations have main reasonthey havesettledin year-round The mute swan (Cygnusolor) is an Old residencyand have grown in numbers in World speciesthat hasbeenintroducedinto municipal areas. North America.Theseswansare common in many municipal parksin the East,always Diet standingout becauseof their greatsizeand the gracefulnessof the curve of the neck, Geesederive more food from terrestrial which is what most people think of when sourcesthan their more aquaticrelatives,the
Natural History
196
wrln NslcHsoRS
ducksand swans,although all seemto benefit from agricultural practices.Wastecorn and other agriculturalcrops are especially important for migrating flocks,which can be seen foraging in fields as migration progresses. Geeseare predisposedto use short grasslands,and thesehavebecomea major sourceof food that remainsavailable throughoutthe springand summerbecause we humans cut, water and fertilize vast areasof this sort.The human love affair with the lawn is, doubtless,the key element in sustaininggoosepopulations in cities and towns. Ducks can satisfythemselveswith a more aquaticfare,eatingsubmergedvegetation and aquatic insects,but, of course,are alwayswilling to take advantageof human handouts.
Reproduction Geesearesuonglymonogamousand do not usually pair until a rather advancedage(for birds) of about three years.Strong family attachmentscomplementthe pair-bonding ofthe adults;avigorousdefenseofboth nest and chicksis one characteristicofthesebirds leadingto conflictswith people.This defense is also characteristicof swans.Most waterfowl will make new nestsif a clutch is lost and the seasonis still early.Removalof eggs stimulatescontinuedlaying.Molting occurs in earlysummer(usuallybetweenlate Iune and mid-luly), and it may take up to a month to regain the ability to fly. Mallardsarerenownedfor their tendency to build nests in strangeplaces.Flower boxes,building alcovesand other areasfar from water are all used.Sprayingof the national Christmastree that standson the ellipse acrossfrom the White House is periodicallydelayedbecausea mallard is discoverednesting underneath it. Whether prompted by competition for favorablesites or just a natural inclination to testdifferent
sites,the hatchlings areusually led to water immediately,provoking many of the sorts of scenesimmortalized in Make Woy for Ducklings,a favorite childhood storybook.
Public Health Waterfowlarenot implicatedin anyserious public health threat to humans, although their droppings are increasingly cited as a causefor concernin controlling waterquality in municipal lakes and ponds. Some waterfowl speciesare primary carriers of chlamydiosis.Botulismoutbreaksin waterfowl involve a strain that is not uansmitted to humans.
Problems and Their Solutions Problems The primary conflict betweenwaterfowl and humans occursover maintained lawns (or lawnscapes)and is an aesthetic,cosmetic, convenienceand (somesay)sanitaryissue. The actual grazing done by geeseis seldom an issue becausethey do not disturb or physicallydamageturf. Most often, it is the fecaldepositsand the aggregationof numbers of birds that produce conflict. Droppings can accumulateat considerablerates, and on lawnsthat peopleusefrequently,this can be regardedas a nuisance.On a large corporate headquarterswith its acresof mown but unused lawn surface,geesemay not be a problem at all. Occasionalproblems occur with geeseguarding their nests. Protectiveresponsesare strong in these birds, and they are known to sometimes confront and even physically challenge peoplewho cometoo close.As rareasthese occurrencesare, they usually make news when they do occur.
Waterfowl
Goots Mostpeoplethinkof cootsas grumpyold men,but another sortof coot is a smalland memberof the bird retiring railsand familythatincludes cranes.Likeducksandgeese, cootsinhabitpondsaround andrecrehumanresidences ationalareasandcomeashore to forage.Cootscan be more thangeesewhen destructive grazingon lawnsbecausetheY alsoforagefor insectsand turfwiththe worms,damaging strongclawsof theirhindfeet. wherethesebirds ln California havelongbeenregardedas pests,manyare agricultural becausePeoPle shotannually to worktoward areunwilling solutions. nonlethal
r97
buttons. Geeseare intelligent birds who learn quickty and remember what they leam.With a little consistencyin ourbehavior, there is every reasonto assumethat if we impose "rules" on them, they will follow them. As with other urban wildlife species,compatibility and mutual benefitsare more the norm than the orception.It seems alwaysthe ortreme bird that comesinto contact with it. Alone or (evenbetter) in combination with other suategies,this product hasgreatpromise as a useful gooserepellent.
sult in the female simply laying another clutch. Destruction of older eggsmeansthe destruction of developedembryos and is consideredinhumane. Consultation with FWSand USDA APHIS-ADCstaff (seeAppendix 1) should occur prior to adopting any eggaddling program. A permitfrom the U.S.Ffshand Wildlife Satticemustbeobtained to addleeggs.
A Last Word The recentincreasein residentgoosepopulations is yet anotherindication of how decisions humans make regarding the managementof land caninadvertentlylead to changein other areas.Geeseare not to blame for occupyingthe optimal habitswe havebuilt for them-they aresimply following a natural pattern that their coursehad dictated long before humans were even present.Like all problems,there are many waysthat it can be settled.It will saymuch about not only our relationshipto geeseand otherwildlife butto the land itselfasto how solutions are craftedaswell as imposed.
Additional Sources
fohnsgard,P.A. 1975. Waterfowlof Norrtr America.Bloomington: Indiana UniverDnsrnoYING Eccs sity Press.575 pp. A more drastic,short-termand problematic .. Nielsen, S. 1992.Mallards.Stillwater, , .' is population the goose control to solution Minn.: VoyageurPress.143,pp. j processof shaking eggsto render them VermilA. 1978. WiW|,Ceesd M. tri unhatchable,known asaddling. Removing Ogilvie, S. Dak.: Buteopooks. 3$Qpp ,u.' eggsbefore they are two weeksold will re,,1?.*, '
ii:t
,
Woodchucks
The woodchuckis distributedthroughout the easternand mid- r westernparts of the . 7UnitedStatesand
mostof Canada.
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residence underoutbuildings, I patiosor decks. I Recentresearch suggeststhat I wouldnotchuck theseanimals I anywoodevenif theycould bythename I uo*t pEopLEKNow wooDCHUCKS chuck wood'
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"gro.rrrdhog,"and the two termsseemto be usedwith about equal frequency."Whistlepig" is also usedbut lessheard.It is, in fact,betterdescriptiveof theseanimalswho will apparentlyneverchuckwood and rarely
hog ground, but will issue a shrill whistling signal when taken by surprise. "Chuck" is another convenient name to use that doesn't take as long to say as the others. All of these animals are guaranteed to make the news at least once ayear on Groundhog Day. February 2 has been recognized as the day on which a representative of this species, resident of a small town in Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney, traditionally captures the attention of the country by prognosticating on the duration of the winter. Punxsutawney Phil, as the chosen chuck is known, is expected to emerge from hibernation to check whether or not "his" shadow is visible. If it is, we have six more weeks of winter; if not spring is on its way. Modem sciencecannot explain the reason for this event to be predictive of climate, reminding us that
-
Woodchucks there arestill many mysterieson this planet remaining to be solved.Aswith many other speciesof wild animals that enter into conflictwith humans,the woodchuckis one that has greatly benefited from human alteration of the landscape.In this caseit has been agricultural lands that provided benefits for this species,but where farmlands areconvertedto subdMsions, woodchucks have often made the transition from rural to suburbanaswell.
Natural History Classificationand Range Thewoodchuck(Marmotamonax)is a large bullcyrodent,weighing5 to 10pounds and measuring16 to 20 inches,with a short tail of 4 to 8 inches.Coatcolor rangesfrom light to dark brown. The severalrecognizedsubspeciesrange from New England, south through parts of Georgiaand Alabama and into the Midwest. Woodchucksare for the most part absent from stateswest of the Great Plains,but the speciesdoes range norththroughoutmuch of Canadaand into Alaska.Their rather odd distribution finds the speciesabsentfrom westernpartsof the United States,but presentin many colder climates.The close relative of the woodchuck, the yellow-bellied marmot (M. flauiuennts),rangesthroughout much of the areafrom which its largercousin is absent, and it is likely that a comparisonof the adaptationsof the two would revealwhythey occupy mostly separateranges.
Habitat Woodchucks are traditionally associated with agricultural areas where open fields and croplands provide food, woodlots and hedgerows needed cover. Suburban and even urban habitats are colonized when
203
open fields suitablefor their needscan be found in coniunction with areasof cover. Woodchucksoften establishtheir burrows along the grassysuips of land paralleling highwaysand can be seen grazingright up to the road'sedge.
Diet Woodchucks are herbivores and primarily eat grassesand forbs. (A forb is any plant, other than a grass,with growth that dies back after flowering and seedsset [usually
Tracks Woodchuck
204
wrrn NsrcHsoRS
over winterl to emergewith new aboveground growth when the next reproductive cyclebegins[usually in the springl.) Common forbs that are eaten by woodchucks include clover and dandelion. Although numerous types of vegetableshave been catalogedasfoods utilized bywoodchucks, there is a surprisingscarcityof studiesthat documentwhich nonagriculturalplantsare eaten.It is the tastefor vegetablesand fruits grown in home gardensthat leads to the battlesbetweenwoodchuclc and humansof which gardeninglegendis made.
multiple chambersoff of them. Complexity probably dependson the length of occupancy and the number of chucks in residence.The entrancesareoften structured around a largerock, tree root, wall or other structurethat providessupport and may discouragepredators from trying to dig their way in. Someburrow systemswill be inhabited for decadesby successivegenerations of woodchucks and may be occupied by many other speciesof wildlife both during and between periods of occupancyby chucks.
Reproduction
Public Health
Woodchucksbreedin Marchand April, and the usuallitter of four to sixyoung areborn about a month after mating. The young mature rapidly and areusually on their own by midsummer.Woodchucksaretrue hibernators and will sleepfor up to five months after the onset of cold weather.
Dens and Butrows The burrows that woodchucksexcavateare almost as good a sign of their presenceas seeingtheanimal itself.One main entrance is generallyusedwith the greatestfrequenqr and can be told by its open and well-kept appearanceand the fan of orclusively from animal shelters.
238
Wrro NplcHsoRS
LaboratoryAnimals
to animalsand assiststeacherswith humane Iessonplans.
The HSUS seeksto protect those animals now being used in researchfrom suffering and abuseand to end all unnecessaryand Field Seruices painfu I experimentation. The HSUSmaintains a network of nine re_ gional offices,coveringforry_sixstates,that Farm Animals carry out our national programs at the re_ gional level. Th.y also provide suppon to The HSUS is working with the farm com_ local humane organization$animal_control munity, aswell aswith stateand federalleg_ islators,to end cruel farming and livestock agencies,officials,educators,media and the rearing practicesand to promote humane general public through legislative,investigativeand educational activities. sustainableagriculture.
Education From its quarterly magazine,HSUS News, to its issue-orientedClose-IJpREor*, The HSUSprovidestools to help animals.The HSUStoucheschildren too, through its edu_ cational division, the National Association for Humane and Environmental Education (NAHEE), which urgesstudentsto be kind
,.:'r-:tr:l':I;j-.:t: f:
MembershipduesinThe HSUSareonly $10 peryear.To ioinThe HumaneSocietyofthe United Statesor for more information, pleasewrite us at 2100 L Street,NW, Wash_ ington, DC 2OO3T.
The HSUS Wildlife Land Trust: Shelterswithout Walls-
ProtectingLandfo, Wildlife The HSUSWildlife Land Trust existsto protect wild animals by preservingtheir natural habitatsand by providing them sanctnary within those habitats. Propertiesplaced under Wildlife Land Trustcareremain undevelopedplaceswhere wildlife is perpetually protected from human exploitation of anYkind. Anyone owning undeveloped wildlife habitat anywherein the United Stateswho would like to havethat land remain undisturbed should seriously consider placing some or all of it under the Wildlife Land Trust'sprotectivecare.Not only areanimals thereafter permanently protected by the Trust but there areconsiderabletax benefits to the donor aswell. Propertiessuitablefor sanctuarydesignation maybe protectedeitherby a transferof title to the Trust for perpetual care or by a transfer of a legally enforceableagreement to the Trust (called a "conservationeasement"). In the latter case,while landowners do not relinquish ownership, they
nonethelesslegally and perpetually Protect their propertiesagainstfuture development and other consumptiveuses. Countlessgenerationsof wild animals will continue to benefit from HSUSWildlife LandTrust-securednatural habitatsbecausethoughtful individuals who could contribute land or otherwise support the Trust did so and continue to do so. One of theseindMduals could be you. Ifyou arein a position to help but havenotyet become aTrust supporter,pleaseioin this important crusadeto effectivelyprotect the imperiled habitats of wild animals. It is their planet we share,and it is they whom, in fairness, we should be protecting more and destroying less' . "lij'i-i'-. For more information, contact The HSUS Wildlife Land Trust at 2100 L Street,NW, Washington,DC 20037. Or call the Trust toll-free at (800) 729-SAVE.
Glossory
Alien. A non-native plant or animal species.The starling and house spalrow areintroduced,or alien species.The term exottccan mean the samething. Arthralgia.
Pain in ioint.
Browse. Plant material eatenby herbivores. Carnivore.
Meat-eater.
Epizootic. A diseasethat attacks many animals in a region at the same time. Extinct. No longer present;sometimes refersto a given area,but more often (and appropriately)to a line or lineagethat no longer e>rists. Extirpated. Removedfrom an area;no longer occurring in a given region.
Coterie. A socialunit basedon familial affinity; usedto describeprairie dog groups, eachof which consistsof related indMduals sharing a territory.
E:mdate. Fluid that has escapedfrom blood vesselsand is depositedon tissues. High in cellular debrisand protein content, this fluid usually resultsfrom inflammation.
Dispersion. The movement of Young animals awayfrom the areawhere they werebom ("matemal home range") and the associatedwandering until they settle down in a permanent home range.
Forb. Annual or perennial Plants without woody stemsand that remain aboveground over winter. Friable. Looss easilydug-as in soil.
Ecosystem. The interaction of the lMng (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of the environment in a particular area,such that the exchange occursinside-not outside-the system.
Genus. In taxonomy,the term applied to a closelyrelatedgroup of animals that sharesone or more characteristics;falls betweenthe "family" and "species" rankings.
Encephalitis. Inflammation of the brain. Enzootic. When an animal diseaseis peculiar to a specificregion.
Gestation. The period of time between conception and deliverywhen a mother carriesyoung.
242
Wlro NsrcHnoRS
Herbaceous. Greenleafy materialthat regrowsannually. Herbivore. An animal that eatsonly or mostly plant material. Herd. A group of animalsthat live together. Home range. The areain which an animal spendsthe bulk of its life. Humane. The avoidanceof inflicting pain, discomfort and harassment. Hydrophobia. Fearof water; this term is also used as a synonym for rabies. Inanition. Starvation;an exhaustedstate due to prolongedundernutrition. Innoculum. Material that is introduced into the tissueof a living organism, usually asa diseaseagentor pathogenic organism. Insectivore. Insect-eater.
to acornsor nuts,while "soft,,mast usually refersto tree fruit such as cherries. Myalgia. Pain in muscle. Omnivore.
Meat- and plant-eater.
Scat. Animal feces. Septicemia. Diseasecausedby the spreadof pathogenicmicroorganisms through the blood. Species. A population of living organismsthat sharesa definable geographicareaand within which all membersare capableof interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Sylvatic. Literally means "found in the woods"; us€dto describea strain of diseasecommon to wild animals only. Territory. An areathat is defended againstothersof the samespecies; may be a part or all of a home range.
Integrated PestManagement. A practice that advocatesa comprehensiveapproach to solving problemswith pestspecies.
Translocation. The movement of animalsfrom one areato another.
Mast. Fruitsor nuts eatenby wild animals."Hatd" mast usuallv refers
Zoonosis. Animal diseases transmissible to humans.
Index
GarbageContniners(USDA, Animal Resistant Sinclair),74 Animal shelters,contactin& 4 Anti-cruelty laws,state,10 Animal and Plant Health Inspec Acornwoodpecket (Melanerpes formiciuorus), APHIS.See tion Service 209 54-57 os (Dasypusnouemcinctus), Armadill 38-3 9 Acousticalalarms/repellents, 4-6 Assistancqseeking prohibitions on, 10 Associations,listed, 219-220 sourcesof,228 Avitrol (4-aminopyridine),47, 50, 135, 180 ADC. SaeAnimal DamageControl Addling permits fot, 201 Wildlife Program (NWF), 219 BaclrPloders, I94-2Ol 190, Geese, Generalsupplies,sourcesof, 227 -228 Geomyidae,L37 GETAWAY 44, T5O Giardiasis (GiardiasPP.) described,16-17 sourcesof,66'67, L55 Glueboards,50 Golden-fronted woodpecker (Melansrpes aurifrons),209 Grackles,176 Graminivores,117 L07, Gray foxes (IJrocyoncinereoargentus),
drome Hibernation (Hibernacula),59 High efficiencyparticulate air filter (HEPA) masks,14, 18 High tensilewire/fences,31-32 sourcesof,23I Hinder, 46, I5O capsularum) Histoplasmosis(Histoplasma 18-19 described, of, 60, 95,134, 178 sources f Hog-nosedskunks(ConEarusmesoleucus 167 leuconotus), ConEatus Hooded skunks (Mephitismacroura),L67 Hostas,voles and, 193 Hot sauce,44, 89, LsO 112-115,190Housemice (Musmusculus), 191
109 Graysquirrels,184 Graywolves (CanisluPus),9I GroundhogDaY,legendsof,2O2-2O3 Groundhogs.SeeWoodchucks spp.), 144Ground squirrels(sperophilru L47, 164,183 GustafsonThiram 42-5,43 Habits,alterationof,4,6, 18 Hair,45 Hairy woodpecker (Picoidesuillosus),209 Hantavirus described,17-18 sourcesof, ll3,163 Hantavirus-7,described,17-18 Hardwarecloth, 32-33, 35 Hares,t48-1'49 Health concems,review of, lt.-24 Hemorrhagic feverwith renal syndrome (HFRS),17
--*
---
--,
l
116domesticus), Housespalrows(Passer 119,178 HSUS.SeeHumane Societyof the United States HSUSNews,238 Humane societies consultin& 10 wildlife law and, 7 Humane Societyof the United States
(Hsus) membershiP in, 238 products and,227 programs bY, 237 -238
248
Wlro NprcHsoRS
regional ofificesof, 220-221 ultrasonicdevicesand, 164 wildlife conrrol and, 4 Hunting/uapping laws,state,9-10 Hydatidosis(Echinococcns spp.), described, 15-16 Infections,ll, 12 Iniured wildlifu caring for, 4, 6 Insecticides,20 pestConIPM hactitionsr and CommonSense trol Quarterly,The(BIRC), 219 Imrptions, 136 Ivory-billedwoodpeckers,209 Ixodesdamini,2O Ixodespacificus,20 lxodesscapularis,20 Ixodid ticks, Lyme diseaseand, 20 Iackrabbits,148-149 Iaguar,86 fays,95
Liuingwith Wildlife (Califomia Center for Wildlife, Landau,and Stump), 217 Localagencies,contacting,4-s Locallaws,9-10 Lyme disease(Borelia burgorferi) described,19-20 sourcesof, 100, 113 Lynx (Felislryx), 76,22 SeealsoBobcats Magpies,95 Mallards (Anasplatyrhynchos), 195, 196 Marsupials,128 Martens,167 Marx, Karl: Morgan and, 64 MBTA. SeeMigratory Bird Treaty Act Meadowvoles(Minotuspennsyluanicus), ll 3, 191 muskrats and, 124
Key deer,99 Laboratoryanimals,HSUSand, 238 Ladder-backedwoodpecker (Picoides scalaris),209 Lagomorphs, 148 Larks,176 Leprosy,sourcesof, 56 LEnspira ictsrohemorhagiae, 12 Leptospirosis(LEtospirainterrogans) described,19 sourcesof, rss,163, 169 Lepus,149 Lethalmethods,4,6, B,4Z Levelers.SeeBafflers Lewis'swoodpecker, 209 Lights, 39 sourcesof,232 Little brown bat (Myotislucifugus),Sg,60 Livetrapping 7, 9, 46-47, 114,l8Z sourcesof,235-236
Methyl anthranilate,45, 2Ol Methyl nonyl ketone,44 Mexicancrow (Corus imparatus),95 Mice, 121 SeealsoHouse mice Microtus,l9O Migratory birds, 5 protecting,7 -8, 81,208 Migratory Bird TreatyAct (MBTA),7-B protection undet 8, 8l Miller's Hot Sauce,44, l5O Minimum accessareas,by species,34 (table)
Indor
Mole-Med,44, 122 Moles, 1..20-123,tgl Montane vole (Microfitsmontnnus),l9I Moose (Alcesalces),99, 102 Morgan, Lewis Henry: beaversand, 64, 65 Motion sensors,41 Mountain lion. SeeCougar Mountain vole (Microtusmontnnus),L9I Mudhen, 195 Mule deer(Odocoileushemionus),99 Municipal laws,10 Muridae, 161 Muscory duck (Cairina moschaa),195 Muskrats(Ondatrazibethecus),124-127, 198 Mustelids,167 Mute swan (Cygnusolor), 195 Mylar tape 41
249
t7, Il2, lL3, Norway rats (Rannsnoruegicus), 1 6 2 ,1 8 3 black rats and, 161 Nott's Chew-Not,43 Nu-film-l7 , 46 Nuisancewildlife control operators (NWCOs),contacting 5-6 NWF.SeaNational Wildlife Federation
Ocular larval migrans (Baylisascaris procyonis), described,14-15 Odocoileus,99 Odor control, sourcesof,233 Omnivores,117 One-waydoors,35-36, 169 sourcesof,233 Opossums,128-13L,205 Oregon vole (Microursoregoni),L9l Organizations,listed, 2L9-22O Ornithosis, 13 NAHEE.SeeNational Associationfor HuOSHA RespiratoryProtection Standard, Education Environmental mane and 18 Napthalene,45-46 National Animal DamageControl Associa Outtilitting Crittzrs(Adler), 218 OutatittingSquinels(Adler), 218 tion, 220 Enand Humane National Associationfor vironmentalEducation(NAHEE),238 Packrats(Neotomaspp.), 161 Pallid bat (Antrozouspallidus),59 National Wildlife Federation(NWF), 219 45- 46 Paradichlorobenzene, Timm, and ( H andboohHyngstrom, N ebraska Parrot fever, 13 Larson),217 mulncida,12 Pasrurella Negativeconditioning 25 -29 Pest control oPerator PCO. See 27 Nesting repelling, Pentachlorophenol,2I3 Netting 32-33, 35 Peppersprays,89 sourcesof,232-233 Periodicals,219 Newsletters,219 Permits,9 Nongameanimals, 111 addling 201 protectionfof 10 depredation,7-8 Nonlethal methods,4, 7, 8, 9, 47 federal,8 Nontargetanimals,poison baits and, 51 114 Peromyscus, North American Chimney Swift Nest Site Personalprotection,sourcesof, 235 ResearchProiect,81 Pestcontrol operator(PCO),contactin&5Northern flicker (Colaptesauratus),209 6 volans), Northem flytng squirrel (Glaucomys IO, l2O Pesticides, 183 classiffin& 8-9 Northwesterncrow (Corus caurinus), Physicalinjuries,concernsabout, Il-I2 95
250
Wlln
NElcHsoRS
Picidae,209 Pigeons,132-135, 178, 190 Pileatedwoodpecker (Dryocopus pilearus), 209 Pine vole (Microtuspinetorum),l9l Plague described,13 sourcesof, 146, 163, Ig2 Plant covers described,36-37 sourcesof,233 Plaster,37 Plasticwrap,37 Pocketgophers (Thomomys, Goemys, Pappogeomys), 136-139 Points of entry, closing 25-26 Poisons anticoagulant,51 nontargetanimals and, 51 Polarbears(Thalarctos mariatmus),23,24 Police departments,contacting 4 Polybutenes,50, 180 Polypropylenefencing sourcesof 231 Porcupines (Erethizondorsatum),l4O-143
Porcupine wire, 28 Prairie dogs (Cymomysspp.), 144-t4Z Prairie vole (Microttts ochrogaster),791 Prevention strategies, 17, 25 Products, sources of, 227 -236 Psittacosis,13
Publichealth issues,concernsabout, Il-24 Pyrotechnicdevices,39 -40 sourcesof,233 Quills, problemswith, 142 Rabbits,148-151,206 Rabbit-Scat,150
Rabies(Lyssavirus) concernsabout,9, 12,2L described,2O-2L sourcesoi 59-60, 23, zg, gg, 92, log, 1 3 0 ,1 5 5 ,1 5 8 - 1 5 9 ,L 6 g ,L 8 4 , 2 0 4 Raccoons(Procyonlotor), l12-l1g, 190 rabiesand,21 Rat-bitefever,12 Rats,160-165 Rattlesnakes, 173 Raven(Coruuscorax),95 Red-belliedwoodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus),209 Red-cockaded woodpecker(Picoides borealis),209 Redfoxes (Vulpesuulpes),106, lOZ, l0g Red-headed woodpecker(Melanerp es erythrocephalus), 209 Redwolves(Canisrufus),9I
Inde>r Reflectors,104 sourcesof,23l Rehabilitators,contacting 6 Reindeer,99 Relocation,T, 33, 46 evaluation of, 47 SeealsoTrapping Repellents,4 acoustical,10, 38-39, 228 for cats/dogs,44 chemical,25, 26, 42-46, 48-49 (table) EPAand, 42 for nesting 28-29 sourcesof,233-235 43, 150,188,193 Thiram-based, Rid-a-Birdperches,50 Rip-rap,69, 198 RMSF.SeeRoclqyMountain spotted fever Rockdoves.SeealsoPigeons RoctcyMountain spotted fever (Rickettsia rickensi)(RMSF) described,22-23 sourcesof, 13o, L49 Rodenticides,51 Roof nts (Fatrusratfits),Ll2, Ll3, 16l Ro-Pel(denatonium saccharide),43, 70, 119,150 Round-tailedmuskrat (Neofiberalleni), L25 procyonis),sources Roundworm (B ayliswcaris o[ 155 Safety concernsabout, ll-24 sourcesof,235 Salmonellosis( Salmonellaenteriditis) described,23 sourcesof, lL3, lL7, L34, t63, r78 Saprozoonosis,18 Sapsuckers,209, 2ll Scarecrows,39 sourcesof,23a Scaredevices,26, 38-41 sourcesof,230,235 Schieffelin,Eugene:starlingsand, 176
251
Sciuridae 145 Scratches,concernsabout, 12 Seoulvirus, 17 Shotgun,150 Sinclair,Lester,74 Sin nombre virus, described,17-18 Skunks,166-171,205 odor from, 171 rabiesand,2I,22
Snakes,172-t75 173, L74 poisonous/nonpoisonous, Soap,46 antiseptic,22 Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabriunus),183 Sparrows.SeeHouse sparrows Spirilliumminus,t2 Spottedskunks (Spilogaleputorius),167 Sprinklers,4l sourcesof,235 Spurge(Euphorbialathris), 122 Squirrels,206 SeealsoGround squirrels;Treesquirrels spp., 12 Staphylococcus Starlings,176-181 Star-nosedmoles (Condyluracrkuu), 12L
252
wrrO Ns,rcHsoRS
Stateagencies,contacting,5 Statelaws,9-10 Sticker-ortenders,46 acillusmoniliformis,| 2 Streptob streptococcusspp., 12 Strieter-Litehighway reflectorsystem,104 Striped skunks (Mephitk mEhitis), 167 Suburbanwildlift, books on, 2L8-2L9 Swallows,sparrowsand, 118 Swans,195 Swifts.SeaChimney swifts Syluilagus,I48-L49 152 Synanthropes, Thctics,animal control, 25-51 Thft,William Howard, 128 Thlapidae 121 Thiram-based repellents,43, 150,188,193 Thirteen-lined ground squirrels(Sperophilus beecheri),145 3-Chloro-4-methylbenzenamie hydrochlo ride 50 Thymol, 43 Ticks Lymediseaseand, 19 RMSFand,22 Tolerance,xr,25 Tools,animal control, 25-5L Townsendmole (Scalopus townsendii),12I Toxicants,47, 50-51 Translocation,7, 33, 46 evaluationof, 47 Trapping 33, 46-47 live,7, 9, LI4, 187 sourcesof,235-236 statelaws on, 9-10 SeealsoRelocation Trashcontainers,26-27 sourcesof,228,229 Treeprotectors described,37 sourcesof,236
Treesquinels (Sciuridae),83, 182-189
Tufu CenterforAnimals and Public Poliqy, 220 Tularemia (Francisellatularensk) described,23-24 sourcesof, 126,149,163,L92 Tulips,volesand, 193 Tuna,dolphin safe,237 Ultrasonicdevices,4I, 164 Understanding xi, 25, 215 Undulant fever,described,12-13 United StatesDepartmentof Agriculture
(usDA), s addlingand, 201 depredationpermits from, 7 United StatesFish and Wildlife Sen'ice
(usFws), s addling and, 201 flagsby, 200 MBTAand,7 regional offrcesof, 224-225 United StatesNational BiologicalSurvey, 81 UrbanNatureMagazine(Urban Environ ment),219
Index
253
Ilrban OpenSpaceManagerNewslettsr,The 219 (Urban Wildlife Resources), Urban wildlife, books on, 218-2L9 UrbanWildlife Neurs(UNESCO),2r9 220 Urban Wildlife Resources, USDA.SeeUnited StatesDepartmentof Agriculture USFWS.SeeUnited StatesFishand Wildlife Service
Lymediseaseand, 19 White-tailedprairie dogs,145 wildlife HSUSand,237 land for, 239 lawson, 6-10 Wildlife LandTrust(HSUS),239 Williamson'ssapsucker (sphyrapicus thyroideus),2O9 Wilt-Pruf, 46 Vapor-Gard,46 Wire Vectors,9, 11 bird, 27-29, 229 Vermin, killing 10 fence,3L-32,231 Virginia opossum(Didelphisvirginiona),r29 porcupine,2S Viscerallarval migrans (Baylisascaris woven,231 procyonk),describe d, | 4-L5 Wire cages,37 190-193 Voles,121, Wire mesh,37 sourcesof,236 Waterfowl, 194-2Ol Wire stuffing,described,37 -38 Watermoccasins,173 Woodchucks(Marmotamonffic), Weasels,167 202-207 Weaverbirds, 116 Woodlandmouse,114 Weldedwire, 32-33, 35 Woodland vole (Microruspinetorum), 83 spp.), (Eutamias Westernchipmunk 191 Westerngray squinel (SciurusgriseusJ,183 Woodpeckers,208-213 Westernspotted skunks (Spilogalegracilis), Woodrats,L6l t67 Wovenwire, sourcesof,23I Whistle pigs.SeeWoodchucks Wrens,sparrowsand, 118 Whistles,deer,105 uirginianus), White-tailed deer (Odocoileus Yardsupplies,sourcesof,23I 9 8 ,9 9 Yellow-belliedmarmot (Marmotoflauiuentris),203 Yellow-belliedsapsucker (Sphyrapicus uarius),209 Zincphosphide 51 Ziram (zinc dimethyl dithiocarbamate), 43 ZoonoticdiseaseL8,22 preventing, 11 sourcesof, 11,56, 155
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