Wheeled vehicles and ridden animals in the ancient Near East

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WHEELED VEHICLES AND RIDDEN ANIMALS IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST BY

M. A. LITTAUER AND

J. H. CROUWEL

DRA~GSBYJ.MOREL

LEIDEN/K OLN

E.

J. BRILL 1979

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LIST OF ABBREVIAnONS AA AA AS AASOR AfO AHw A lA AMI ANET

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A rchdologischer A nseiger A n na les archeologi ques arabes sy riennes A nnual of the A m erican Sch ools of Orien tal Research A rchiu fiir Orientforschung Soden , \ V. v on . Akkadisches Handuiorterbuch , W ies baden 1963 A me ri can [ourna l of A rchaeology Archaologi sche Mi tteilungen au s I ran A n cient N ear Eastern T exts relating to the Old T estament (ed . ] . B . Prit ch a rd ) Prin ceton 1955 Ancient Near Eastern Supplementary Te xts and P ictures (ed . ] . B. Pritch a r d ). Prin cet on 196 9 ] . B. Pritchard , Ancient N ear E ast in P ictures R elating to the Old Testament , P r incet on 195 4. A lter Orient und A ltes T estam ent. N eukirchen 1969Archives royales de M ari iTextes trans crites et traduitesi , P a ris 1950A natolian S tudies A nnales du S ervice des A ntiquites de l'Eg y pte Bulletin of the A mer ican Sch ools of Oriental R esearch B iblioiheca Orient alis B erli Her I ahrbucb f iir V or- und F riihgeschichte Bulletin of the Metropoli tan Museum of Art. N ew York British Mu seum Qu arterly . London Chica go Ass yrian D iction ary . Chi cago a nd Glli ckstadt 1956Camb ridge A ncient H istory . 3rd ed. Cambrid ge 1970Cahi ers de la delegation archeologique francaise en Iran Encyclopedic pho togra-pbique d'art. L'art de la M esopotam ie an cien ne au J1fusee du L ouvre, fas c. 5, 6 . Paris 1936 H arvard S emit ic S eries . Cambridge (Mass.) I rani ca A ntiqua I srael Exploration f ou rn al Illu strated L on don Ne ws

I st111 l A OS I A R CE I CS I dI l EA IFA I HS I KAF I N ES K UB KBo

I stanbuler Mitteitungen [ournai of the A m eri can Orien tal S ociety [ournal of the A meri can R esearch Center in Egypt [ournal of Cune iform S tudies I ahrbucb des deutschen archiiologischen I nstituts , A bteilung A then [ourna l of E gyp ti an Archaeology [ournal of Field Archaeolog y [ournal of H ellen ic Studies I ahrbucb f iir k leinasiatis che F orschung [ournal of Near Eastern S tudies K eilschriftu rku nden au s Bo ghazk oi K eilschrifttexte aus B oghazkoi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Liverp ool Annals of Art and A rchaeology Manchester Cuneiform Series Mitteilungen des deut schen archdologischen Lnstituts, Abteilung Kairo .M itteilungen del' deut schen Orient-Geselischaft Memoires de la delegatior: e1J P erse (including volumes with slightly different titles but numbered in same sequ ence). P aris M itteilungen des I nstituts fiir Orientforschung Metrop olitan M'u seum J ourn al. New York Neu e Folge New Series Oxford Editions of Cuneiform T exts Orient al Institute Commun ication . Ch ica go Oriental I nstitute Publication. Chi cago Orienialische L iteratur Ze itung Proceedings of the Prehistoric S ociety Prdhistorische Ze itschrift R evu e d'assyriologie et d'archeologie orien tale R evue biblique R ep ort of the Department of A ntiquit ies, C yprus Thureau-Dangin, F . R ecueil des tablettes chaldeen nes , Paris 1903 S ovetskaja A rkh eologija St udien zu den Bogazkoy T este. Wi esbad en 1965L egr ai n, L. Le temps des rois d'Ur : R echerches sur la societe antique d'apres des test es nouveaux . P aris 1912 ] estin R., T'ablettes sumeriennes de $uruppak conseruees au » Mw see de Stamboul , Paris 1937 Ur E xcavation Reports. L ondon-Philadelphia Ur Excavation Texts V orlaiifiger Bericht iiber die A usg rabungen in Untk- WaI·ka. Berlin D ie Welt des Orients W issens chaft liche V erofferulicbun gen.del' deuischen Orient-Gesellschaft Z eitschrift fur A ssyriologie urul uorderasi atische A rchiiologie Z eitschrif t fiir iigyptische Sprach e und A ltertumskunde

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION The present survey of the evid ence for transport by wheeled vehicle and on the ridden animal in the Near East covers Mesopotamia, Iran, the Levant, and Anatolia. Mat erial from Tran scaucasia , E gypt, and Cypru s is consid ered only when it compl ements or illuminates the ar eas of primar y interest . Chronologically, the study covers a period ranging from the later 4th millennium B.C., when wheeled vehicles are first attested in the Near East, to the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great, ca 330 B .C. This survey has profited gr eatly from work already done in t he field. The earliest still valuable studies were published mainly in Germany : Nu offer (1904), Studniczka (1907), Popplow (1934), H erm es (1936), P otratz (1938), Wiesner (1939). Des Noettes, in France, contributed the only attempt t o an alyse and evalua te ancient t echniques of driving and riding (1931). Aft er the Second World War, the work of Schachermeyr (1951) an d Childe (three important contributions: one in 1951 and t wo in 1954), as well as Hancar's comprehensive st udy (1955) appeared. Haudricourt made tw o attempts to trace the evolution of wh eeled vehicl es and harness (1948, 1955). The 1950'S also saw the publication of two books by A. Salonen on Near-Eastern t ex tual docu ment ation of vehicles and transpor t animal s (1951, 1955). Sinc e the beginning of the 1960'S, along with the discovery of much new ma terial, the literature has subs tantially increased . It includes a book by Kammenhuber on the Hittite t exts (1961) and relevant sections in work s by Yadin (1963), Hrouda (1965) and Madhloom (1970) that ar e devot ed primarily t o ot her subjects . A survey of chariots by Nagel (1966) and new studies by Potratz (1966-mainly on horse bits) and Wiesner (1968)-none of them confined strictly to the Near E ast-are also important. Piggott (1968a) has contributed a major st udy of wheeled vehicles in and around the Caucasus region. The most recent lit erature includes the exh austive work by Zarins (1976) on evidenc e for equids in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium B. C., a survey of t he ridden horse down to the Sarmatian period by Kovalevskaya (1977) and a n account by Spruytte of his experiments with types of anci ent vehicles and harnessing (1977). The present discussion is based primarily on archaeological evidence. As we are

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lNTRODUCTl ON

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not orientalists , text ual documentati on will be used sparingly end cautio usly . AlthoU«"h the ma terial is pr esented in chronological sequence, the- time divisions do not al ways correspond with clear ly defined ones in all parts of the Near East. The rela tive and absolute chronologies used Me based on t he revised C. mbriJge ArK u til H iUMy {197I'73~75} and on CM~ i,. Old WUTU A rcNuo! ogy (ed. R W. Ehrich . Chicago 1965), toge ther with refinements and corrections made in CItrOft.Okgie.s in Old Wor ld A rc!t&l)wg y , S Mnitl4r:s s:I Co/",mbia U ni t'nuty [ed. E. Porada in A/A 74. 1970 ; 75. 197I; 16, 1972; 77. 1973 ; 78. 1974 : So. I9i6 ; 81, ]9"77). The chronology of individual Assyri an kings follows tha t of Brin kma n (Il)64 : revisions 1976 ).

CHAPTER T\\'O

GLOSSAR Y N oU. For lack of precise equival ents, modem terms ar e often used here to designate ancient elements of harn ess or bridling . I t should be noted, however, that ancient and modern elements of similar functi on or appearan ce ar e seldom identical in every respect . and th at th e terms are somet imes used loosely.

A -fr<JmI cart, This cart has a tra pezoidal floor, tb e side timber s of which contin ue Iorward beyond th e floor unt il th ey meet . T his fonns a trian gular "draught pole" (q.v.), a t tbe ape x of which tho:yo ke is attached. the skelet on of th e whole resem bling a capitallette r A. A-P-Ok. A draught pole [q.v .] in th e Iorm of an elongat ed ca pital let ter A. tile yoke being attached at its apex. Axle. A rod passing underneat h th e vehicle floor. th e wheels revolving on it or it revolving ....-ith tbe wheel s ; in an tiqu ity, alway s of wood . B acki ng t lemeni . An d emen t of harnes s (q. v.) that tran smits backward (as cor npared to the usual forward) movement of th e dr a ught ani mals to th e vehicle• at th e same tim e preventing th em from backing out of ha rn ess. In antiquit y. this element is often lacking and. when present, is relati vely inefficient. In th e and millennium B. C. it is composed of a str ap runn ing either from lower yo ke-saddle [q.v.] end to lower yoke-sa ddle end or from lower outer end of yoke saddle to dr augh t pole {q.v.}- in eith er cas e passing beneath the belly . During the rst millenni um R C., thi s sys tem apparentl y changes to one th at combines a tru e girt h (q.v.) with a br eastb an d [q.v.} . B iJ. Bridle (q.v.) eleme nt for control of horse by th e mouth ; composed of mo uth piece {q.v .] and ch eekpieces (q .v.)- the latter often miscall ed pso2lia in th e literat ure. Primi tive bits ba d t hong. rope or gu t mouthpi eces and an tler or bone cheekpieces, t he latt er actin g as toggles to keep th e mouthpiece fro m slipping sideways out of th e mouth . ){et al bit s were compose d of single or compoun d (join ted) mouth pieces {s.v. can on) and a pair of cheekpieces. Th e latter were held in pla ce by di vi ded cbeekst ra ps (q.v.) and , on the earlier Near. Eas tern bits . th e ends of the mout hpieces passed t hrough the cheekpieces.

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Reins were attached either directly to the mouthpiece ends or t o some metal element connecting with th em. The action of these bits was closer to that of th e modem snaffl e than to an y oth er modern bit , since they exerted pressure GO t he corners of th e horses' mouth. Their cons rrucn on, however , was somewhat differen t, and those with jointed mouthpieces had an added action. unknown in modern bits. from the pressur e of th e cbeekpieces agaiMt the lower jaw . B JifJkM. An elemen t at tached t o th e cheekstrap (q.v.) of the headstall (q.v.), covering th e horse's eye and enabling him to see ahead but not to th e side. In an tiq uit y it pro bably served to pro tect t he eye in ba ttl e and/or to prevent harn essed st allions from bickering wit h th eir team ma tes or with oth er stallio ns ab reas t of th em . Boz . Used here to design a te the floor an d su pers truc t ur e of a vehi cle. B,.ustb4.nd. In antiquity, a stra p atta ched to th e front edges of a. saddl e cloth or pac k saddle and running across th e horse's chest. designed to hold these objects in position. Abo . on Assyri an chari ot horses of 8th and 7th cent. B.C., at tach ed to girt h (q.v .) a t sides . BmuJpl4k. In anti quity , prot ect ive or decorative element of metal and/or lea ther . hun g across horse's chest . Br udJi"f _ In an tiq uity, str ap attach ed to rear edge'S of saddle cloth or pack sad dle, run ning back alocg Ilanks of anim al and passin g aro und butt ocks , designed to hold cloth or saddle in position . Bridle . ),Iean s of coc trolllng horse by the head . Composed of headstall (q.v.) , with or without bit [q. v.], and reins (q. v.]. C03nMl. Youth piece of a metal bit , or each single element of a compound (" joint ed" or " broken" ) mouthpiece. Carl. Alwa ys two-wheeled, but with wheels of any const ruction (q. v.) : for carrying stabl e loads. i.e. goods or sea ted passe ngers . CiWalry . This term may only be properly app lied to moun ted troops when th ese are trained to th e degr ee where th ey can fun ctio n with precision as a unit--not only ad vancing on command bu t changing gaits, turning, d eployi ng an d reassemblin g in th eir proper positions in the ranks. During th e periods covered here they seldom, if eve r, fulfill th ese condi tio ns. Cat't1$OfS. Used here for a st rong , fitt ed headstall (q.v.}, to which reins (q.v.) were attached. CMm-fr()fJ. (see " frontlet " ). C~ . A light , fast , two-wheeled, usually horse-drawn, vehicl e with spo ked wheels ;

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GLOSSARY

CLOSS .-\RY

used for warfare , hunting. racing and ceremonial purposes. I ts crew usually st ood, C~'

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In antiquity, two pair ed elements of a. bit. in the fann of vari ously shaped pla ques or rods. Lying at the corners of th e hors e's lips. and a ttached to th e heads tall (q.v.) by :single or, more often , by multiple cheekstrape (q.v.), tb e cheekpieces held th e mouth piece in place, and might also exert pressur e on the outside of th e horse' , lower ja w. Chahtraps, Side straps of headstall (q.v. ), attached to the cheekpiecea (q.v.) of the bit and servin g to hold them in place. I n an tiquity commonly branched to tak e the cheekpiec e. Cruup. Tha.t part of the horse's bac k. lying over th e animal's loins and extending t o th e root of the tail . Crt:rrnlp-ieu. Part of headstall (q.v.} going from side to side over crown or poll (q.v .} of hOTSe '~ bead . C,...pper. In antiquity, strap attached to rear of saddle cloth or pack saddle and run ning back across cent re o( croup to pass Moun d root of tail : designed to help keep do th or saddle in place. DrrJ.uglsl pok. In antiqui ty, th e element that connected the vehicle to th e yoke (q. v.) of the dr aught anim als. There was normall y one pole, but during the r st millen nium B.C. two poles abo occu r, Fdktt . The rim of a wheel. int o which th e ou ter ends of th e spokes are mort iced. PrOttiJa (also nosepiece or chamfroo ). Pr otecti ve or decora tive element of metal or ivory and leather lyin g over Icrehea d and nasal bone 01 horse, sometim es cornbin ed wi th a poll crest (q.v.). Girlh. Ban d encircling the thorax of an animal or att a ched to lower edges of saddle cloth and passing und er belly . Goad. A long poin ted stic k, for proddi ng. Gqrgd . Smaller, higher-placed fonn of breastplate [q.v.], HQ/j1W !eband . See und er "n oseband." Halkr . Simple headstall (q.v.). used. for lea ding animal or for tying it up by the head . Harness. The aggregate of the various straps th at att ach an animal to the traction elements of a vehicle. In an tiquity specifically neckstrap (q.v.) and (ofte n) bailing elemen t (q.v.}, H~4dslall. Part of bridle (q .v.), made 01 stra ps or rope and designed to bold contr ollin g bit or noseband in place. Comprises crownpiece (q.v .) (going over

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GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

crown of head behind ears); cheekstrap s (q.v.) running down from this to noseband and /or bit ; throatlash (q.v.) ru nning from side t o side under horse's throat ; sometimes a browband run ning across th e forehead ; and a noseban d encircling the nose or mu zzle, or half noseband (q.v.) running across the nose an d joining t he cheekstraps. H ogged mane. Man e cut short . Hu b. See " nave." Lincb pin. Toggle pin passing through axl e end to prevent the wheel from slipping off the axle. M outhpiec e. The part of th e bit lyin g mainly inside the horse's mouth. I n primitive bit s (q.v.) it is mad e of organic mat erials ; in other bit s, it is composed of one or more canons (q.v.) . It was, accordingly , single an d solid or " jointed." T he ca nons might be plain or twist ed. At th eir ends they had loops for attaching reins dir ectly or by means of a met al conn ectin g element. N ave or hu b. Th e inner cylindrical element of a wheel, in which th e inner ends of the spok es (q.v.) ar e secured and through which the axl e (q.v.) passes. Ne ckstrap, Strap passing around neck and attached at either end to lower ends of yoke saddles or to yoke it self. Its purpo se is to hold the yoke in place. Nos eband. One of the straps of the headstall. It usually encircles the nose and jaw but, in th e form of a half noseband, may merely run across th e nose from cheekst rap (q.v.) to cheekstrap . Outrigger. Also less accur ately called " t race horse." In teams of thr ee or four horses ab reast (trigae and qua drigae), a horse not directly under th e yoke, bu t connected more loosely with th e vehicle. Pole horse orpoter. In anti quity, one of th e two horses that flanked th e pole (q.v.). P oll. Crown of horse's head. Poll crest or poll plu me. Decorati ve and/or prot ectiv e element on poll (q.v.), consist ing of plu mes, tassels or helm et crest with horse hair. " Psalion," Greek word for metal elem ent of bridl e, separate from bit an d having the effect of a mu zzle or a rigid noseband . Term oft en misused for th e cheekpiece (q.v.) of a bit . Pulled mane. Mane thinned an d evened off by hand pulli ng. R ein s. Straps running back from th e bit (q.v.) or cavesson (q.v.) to th e dri ver's or rider's hands. S poke. Radial timber of a wheel, set into th e nave (q.v.) a t one end and th e felloe (q.v.) at the other.

T erret. Rings through which lines or reins pass ; in an tiquity fastened to poleor ,.: ' yoke, or to a draugh t or harn ess element on the an imal 's shoulder. T hroat/ash. Strap or thong passing under throat or rear of jaw from cheekstrap to cheekstrap (q.v.) an d securing headstall (q.v.). Tilt. A ca nvas , wicker or wooden can opy or hood for a vehicle. Trace horse. See " ou trigger." Trapp er, trapping or housing. A prot ective or decorative covering for th e body of a . horse. T'yre. An outer eleme nt of t he wheel, pr otectin g the tread of the felloe (q.v.); in antiquity, of metal, rawhide or wood. It also helped to consolida te the wheel. W agon . Always four-wh eeled, usually a relat ively heavy vehicle. Wh eel Crossbar wheel. Wheel with a diametric bar, t hrou gh which the axl e (q.v.) passes. Lighter "c rossbars " r un at right angles to the central bar , between it and th e felloe (q.v.). Disk wheel. Also called " block wheel." Wheel of solid appearance mad e of one piece of wood or of several- then called "co mposite disk." Spoked wheel . Wheel comp osed of nave (q.v.), spok es (q.v.) an d felloe (q.v.), oft en wit h a tyre (q.v. ). W ithers. Most prominent area of an equid 's or a bovid 's spine, form ed by the vertebral processes and locat ed between the shoulder blade s. Th e h eight of an equid is measur ed from the ground to the highest point of the wit hers. Y oke. The wooden elem ent runni ng across the necks of t wo or more draught animals and connecting them with the pole (q.v.). Yo ke saddle. An elemen t for adapting the yoke to th e conformatio n of equids. Of invert ed Y shape, it s " ha ndle" was lashed to th e yoke and it s " legs" lay along th e auima l's shoulders Y-p ole. Composi t e draught pole (q.v.). form ed of two poles , one corning from either side of the vehicle, bent inwards and br ought t ogether a short dist ance ahead of th e box (q.v.), to run contiguously out to th e yoke.

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SOME GE NERAL CONSIDERATI ONS

CHAPTER THREE

SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEELE D V EHICLES

Much has been written about the origin of wheeled vehicles, t he so-called " sledge" and the " travois/slide-car" theories bein g the two most frequently cite d. Or a dual origin may be posit ed, with the sledge being considered ancestral t o the four-wh eeler and th e travoisjslid e car ancestral t o the two-wheeler." E ach th eory must be examined for its in herent f easibilit y, as well as in the light of the knowtl chronologies of wheeled transport and of sy stems of draught. In all cases, a roller placed ben eath th e vehicle is consid ered eventually to have suggested the axle and wheels. Prerequisites for thi s would be : I) th e necessit y to tr an sport material too heavy or bul ky to be carrie d by men or packed by ani mal s, and 2) th e recognition that a rolling suppo rt beneath th e carrie r would be ad vantageous. Th e sledge is essentially a horizontal platform, with or witho ut runners. Rollers placed beneat h it facilitate it s movement (particula rly over level ground), a minimum of two rollers being required under it at anyone ti me in order to keep th e platform horizontal and to permit the successive reposit ioning under the front of the rollers released at th e rear as the vehicle moves forward. To obviate th e const ant switching of rollers, th ese may be mad e " captive" by, for instance, placing them betwe en shallow cleat s fast ened beneath the platform. An effort to reduce th e running surfa ce would result in reducing the diam eters of the rollers except at their ends , where they exte nded beyond the platform, and thus would form a prim itive single-unit axle and wheels. The traooislslide car essentially consists of two sloping poles crossed in front of th e withers (q.v.) of an anim al or carried along its sides . The ends of these drag on th e gro und and the load or carrier is lash ed across the m beh ind t he animal. I t would be a physical impo ssibility to keep a loose roller under these ends ; it would ha ve t o be " cap tive:' whi ch would im ply alrea dy a secondary stage of development, 1 R ecent disc ussio n in Piggott 1968a , 29 2, 309 ££.; 1968b, 436ft. ; previ ou sly a .o. Berg 1935 ; H audricourt 194 8, 54£!. with fig. 14 (chronology a nd , as result, proposed sequence ofte n inaccurate) ; Childe 1951, 177, 1931. ; 1954a, z f.: 1954b, 204ff.; Kothe 1953, 74ft. ; H au dricourt and D elamarre 1955. 155ft. ; H ancar 1956. 436ft.; Nee dham 1965, 243ft • 304ff .

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requiring a primary one under some other vehicle. Nor, since th e roller's prime , fun ct ion is to facilitat e the movement of a large, flat surface over the ground , would . : it have any purpose under pol e ends. The pr acti cal likelih ood of the wheel developing from a (hypothetical) roller in use with a tr avoisjslide car is thus infinitely less th an its evoluti on from rollers placed und er a platform or sledge. Moreover, while rollers under platform s ar e still in use tod ay in th e moving of heavy objects, there is no evidence anywhere, at any time of a travois/slide car used with rollers. Whil e the tra vois/slide ca r, as the simpl est of vehicles, is sur ely of grea t antiquity in certain ar eas, there is no evidence to connect it at all with any of the earliest known wheeled vehicles-either four-wh eelers or two-wheelers. Th ese ar e first att este d in earlier 3rd-millennium B. c. Mesopotamia by figur ed documents and act ual remains (d. Chap . V). preceded in the lat er 4th millenniu m by pictographic signs showi ng sledg es and sledges on two rollers or (more likely) already four wheels, which point clearl y to a sledge-wi th- rolle r origin (d . Chap. I V). There is no evidence of an y travois/slid e car in thi s region and th e geographically closest document is only fn znd-millennium Tr an scaucasia. In tracing origins, the relevance of the typ e of draught associated with the basic travois/slide car is oft en overlooked. Th e two poles of thi s vehicle are essentially shafts. E xcep t when the se are th e very long poles of th e American In dian tepee, 2 which ar e carrie d at a sharp slope and crossed ahead of the withers so th at they will not protrud e ahead of the horse at a level to int erfere with other ani mals or people, they are dropped to the side of th e animal to reduce the angle of inclina tion ; they are held up by a support across th e ba ck and kept forward by a strap in front of the chest, which also tak es the pull . Such a system would soon have deve loped into shaft -and-breastc ollar harness, i.e. economical, efficient single dra ught . Th e latter, however, is first atteste d in me with wheeled vehicles only in th e 3rd cent ury B. C., in early H an China , nearly 3000 years after th e first ap pea rance of wheeled vehicles.! On th e other hand, the pole-a nd-yoke draught system associated with all wheeled vehicles up to the 3rd century B.C., is docum ented already by th e earliest representations and material rem ain s in Mesopotamia. Th e single, central draught pole would have originated with bovids under yoke, one on either side of the plough I E wers 1955 . fig . 18 an d pI. 5 : b ; Grin nell 1923, fig . op p . p . 96 ; Gr aybill and Boesen 1976,275 . • D es Noettes 1931. 83ft., 109ft. ; Needham 1965, 247, 304ft.; Piggott 1968a. 267 . F or modem shaft and breast-collar harn ess. a .o . 'Walrond 1974. 33 with figs. 127. 129 . • A.o. Perkins. D . Jr. 1969 . 177ft. ; 1973. 280; Bokonyi 1973a . 74; 1976, 2If.

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SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

beam that helped to k eep the share straight. Domest ic cattle had been known in Mesopotamia and other parts of the Near E ast for some 2 0 0 0 years," and the plough beam was there to be converted into the pole 'of a vehicle wh en the time carne." The pole could be attached asa separate element to the four-wh eeler, or it could be ~ raised over a single axle and given a saddle-like seat, as in the two-wheeled "straddle cars" (d. p . 21) that appear in the earl y 3rd millennium B.C., and that point unequivocally to the single pole. This paired draught traction system indeed had evidently become such a powerful tradition in the Near East that it was substituted for singl e draught with the travoisf slid e car when the latter was introduced into Transcaucasia (pr esum ably from the • north) apparently during the znd mill ennium B.C. The same may be said for the earliest slide cars in the Mediterranean region, whi ch ar e documented in the Ligurian Alps in the Early Bronze Age (ca 1800-1450 B.C.).6 In this respect it may be noted that the triangular, A-fr ame cart (q.v.), sometimes adduced as evidence of the derivation of the original two-wheeler from a tri an gular travoisfslide car to which rollers had be en added, is first firmly attested only in • later znd-millennium B.C. in Transcaucasia.' A triangular slid e car is indeed documented here possibly somewhat earlier, and the two converging arms of the triangular cart pole make a genetic connection between the two in this ar ea likely . But the cart uses the paired draught as well as the composite disk wheel that point t o Mesopotamian influence. Although its wide diffu sion t oday (from the I berian peninsula to India) has been taken as proof of its great antiquity," it is noteworthy that the A-frame is nowhere attested among the numerous early two-wheelers from Mesopotamia and the Levant, all of whi ch display the single central draught pol e, nor is it found among those of the Indus civilization, which show Mesopotamian derivation.P There are no known examples of Greek or Roman carts displaying this form. The dissemination appears to have been late. Childe postulated that the composite disk whe el was t oo complex a construction to have originated in more than one area.l" H e supported hi s contention that this 6 Cf . Smith. E . L . and Young. T . C. Jr. 1972, 47 ; F alkenstein 193 6, 56 with n o. 214 (Uruk IVa p ictographic sign); Sal onen 1968 (t extual a n d representational ev ide nce of pl ou ghing). 6 Karakhanian and Safian 1970, 44 with pls. 52. 96, 148 ; Bicknell 19 13, pI. III. 7 P iggott 1968a. 289 ff. with fig. 6 (d. also fig . 10 ) ; Littau er and Cr ou wel 197 6, 76ff . ; Littauer 1977. 260 with fig . 3 3· 6 Supra n . I; al so F enton 1973, 147ff. 9 Childe 1951 , 183; 1954 a, 10 . 10 Childe 1951, 193.

II

.area was Mesopotamia by a chronological chart of diffusion that has not, in its . ~a,sic lines, been refuted. This type of wheel was also accompanied by paired draught.

--';':.-",,>.

81

Cha.riot represe~tations consistently show breastwork braces/pole supports droppmg at an oblique angle from the top of the front railing, as already noted on some Syrian seals (d. p. 55; fig. 33). These consisted of leather thongs or slender wooden rods. When rigid, they provided a support for the breastwork and, of either material, reinforced the connection between pole and front floor frame and reduced the stress of separation between the two parts. The chariot seen on Assyrian documents (fig. 4 1 ) illustrates not only this type of pole brace, but a second element that ac~s as a reinforcement for the pole. This is a wooden rod or a thong running out honzontally from the top front rail of the chariot to the pole end.34 Elm, tamarisk and birch (bark) and, with less certainty, other woods, have been identified in the construction of various parts of chariots found in Egypt. 35 The fact. that neither elm nor bi~ch are native to Egypt has sometimes led to the suggestion that the type of chanot used by Egypt and her enemies did not originate in the Near East but further north-s-even north of the Caucasus, and that the use of bark from a tree found no further south than southern Armenia even indicated the route by which the "invaders" who brought the chariot came. Elm, however, ~ows in n?rthern Palestine and Anatolia and birch bark (the waterproofing properties of which must have been early recognized) is light and easily transportabls.es A development nearer to the centres of power and military activity in the Near East may be postulated for the war chariot. And indeed, what material evidence we have from Transcaucasia does not point to that area. Although the proportions of the two-wheelers buried at Lchaschen in the later znd mill. B.C. are, in many respects, similar to those of chariots from Egypt and (apparently) the Levant, the Lchaschen ones are not only much less sophisticated in their use of bent wood to achieve lightness and strength in box and wheels but-at least as reconstructedwould be impractical as fighting vehicles. 34 Also on .Ashur sealings, supra n. 14. A more complicated system seen on ivory gaming box from Eukomi (a.o. Vandenabeele 1977, pI. XXIV: 1-4; Orthrnann et al. 1975, pl. 47 2) where uPFser of two braces, instead of n;nning out horizontally, drops to pole shortly ahead of first. Western 1973, for Amenophis III wheel (our fig, 46: elm, tamarisk) and Tut'ankhamun whee~s and ~ther chariot par~s (fo~ latter also Lucas 1942, 144; Lucas and Harris 1962, 43 6, 454 f .. elm, birch bark) ~nd discussion of sources. Woods of Florence chariot (our fig. 4 2) have been analysed several times, the results never completely agreeing, but elm and birch bark were 1?rese.nt, Rossellini 18 36, 265 ; Schuchardt 1912; Schafer 1931; Dittmann 1934; Botti 195 1, 197 WIth fig. 2.

36 "Northern" theory, a.o. Lechler 1933; Wiesner 1939, 33; d. criticism, Clark 194 1, 5 0ff. For sources of elm, Western 1973, 93; Lucas and Harris 1962, 436.

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

82

DRAUGHT ANIMALS

Horse The sources indicate that chariot teams , were composed almost exclusively of horses. Valuable osteological information comes from Anatolia a~d Egypt. T~e ins (skull and leg bones) of an adult male buried at Osrnankayasi near Bogazkoy remai hi h . h t in central Anatolia yield a withers height of 1.40 m·-1.45 m., w c IS ~omew a smaller than the horse of similar type from Buhen in Nub.ia (d. p. 56~ estimated to stand 1.50 m. 37 It compares closely in size and type With the earb.er hors.e from the . from Egypt, buned beSIde . Osmank ayasl. (cf. P . 56) and with another horse Theban tomb of Senmut, an official of the earlier 15th centu.ry B.c., WhICh may have been a riding animal, since a saddle cloth was found on ItS back (d. p. 97)· This was identified as a 5/6-year-old mare or gelding." An incomplete skeleton of a ro-year-old male buried in an r Sth-Dynasty necr~polis at .Soleb in Upper Egypt stood 1.34 m.-1.38 m., and its size agrees better With the SIze calculated from the 39 yoke heights of extant Egyptian chariots, i.e. ca 1.35 m. These animals, as well as those identified among settlement refuse from Korucutepe in eastern Anatolia, all fall within the "larg e pony" or small"ho.rse r~?ge of today, and the majority have been attributed to the sam e so-called onental type. The same type of horse has been identified among settlement refu.se from. Tro y VI and VII, thus suggesting the prevalence of such a type over quite a Widespread . ' area during the znd millennium B.C.40 Unfortunately little is known about the horse skeleton buned at Godin Tepe and the horse re~ains recovered from the cemetery at .Marlik, in :vest-cent:al an~ northwest Iran respectively, as they either did not survive or remain unpublished.

31

Herre and R ohrs 1958 . 63££.; height corrected by Boessneck 197 0• 47 · F ind context~. Bittel

195 8. 3 8 Chard 1937' rec ently studied b y Boessn eck 197 0. 3a Ducos 197 1: Yoke height derived by us from Florence chariot and from reassembled ones of Tut'ankhamun . . d J/K) BI • 0 Bo essneck and von d en Driesch 1975 . 27, 29ff. WIth table 4 (levels I/J an . egen 1953 10 ' also Gejvall 1946 (Troy VI and VII) . . . u 'Y' T C Jr 19 19f.· also p ers onal com munication . Date of three t ombs at Marlik m oung, . . ' 69 , • . N hb 6 f . 196 - 3 10 :>' . ' N WIn each with horse t eeth and bit (no . ill) unce rtain, ega a n ~ 9 4. 14 . • P~ndi'ngr~i~al publication, the Marlik cem etery seem s to b elong primanly to later ~nd mill .• with som e continuity into ea rly r st mill ., d . N egahban 1965 , 326; 1977, esp. 102 . Moorey 197 1a• 23f.; also oral com m unica t ions Moorey and van Loon .

Most of the relatively few representations of equids from the Near East itself at this time depict horses.P Since we know from contemporary texts and figured documents that Egypt obtained horses from southwest Asia, we are justified in using the many detailed profile views of horses in Egyptian art to form a picture of these horses.v Indeed, a good number of those depicted are either being brought from the north as tribute or gifts or are seen pulling the chariots of Asiatic enemies. The animals-foreign and Egyptian alike-are characterized by small, fine heads that are carried high, by little or no withers, very little depth of girth, long bodies, slender legs, a high tail carriage and (probably) a fine, smooth coat. They are clearly the products of slective breeding intended to produce elegant as well as useful-for-the-purpose animals. Whether Egyptian or Asiatic, they often appear distinctly small by modern standards, and this is supported by the size calcul ated from osteological remains and from the extant chariots (d. p. 82). Egyptian representations show Egyptian hors es as well as tho se of their Asiatic enemies with roached manes (q.v.). An Assyrian fragm entary representation of this period, however, shows horses with pulled manes (q.V.) .44 Some of the more detailed Egyptian reliefs show Egyptian horses with slit nostrils (d. p. 000). Horses are frequ ently mentioned in cuneiform tablets from many parts of the Near East and from Amarna in Egypt.v These documents, whether explicitly or implicitly, often refer to hors es-denoted by the same terms as in the pr evious period-(d. p. 58£.) as chariot animals. While riding is-if only rarely-suggested (d. p. 96), the use of horses to pull goods vehicles or for pack is never mentioned. Horses were evidently too valuable and too prestigious for these purposes. This is illustrated, for instance, by the good wishes for their welfar e expressed in royal letters directly after references to the royal family.v' Selective breeding is indicated by lists of horses according to their sires. There are texts on horse husbandry and some, from Ugarit, on veterinary care." Surviving manuals from the Hittite capital at Bogazkoy and from Ashur are of great importance. Those from the former site 42 Unharnessed horses were p opular in Middle As syrian glyptics, a.o. Parker 1977, nos . 4 and 41 (Rimaah) . .3 Cf. Clutton-Brock 1974, 9 7 for some discussion of pictorial as well as osteological material. 44 Stone lid, supra n . 14. E sp. Salonen 1956 . For Hittite Empire t exts. Kammenhuber 1961, 29ff. 48 Cf. a .o. Kammenhuber 1961 , 8 with n . 15 (Tell el Amarna and Hittite letters) . A .o. Balkan 1954. I Iff. (Kassite texts from Nippur), 33f. (Nuzi texts); Wisem an 1953. 94f. (te xts 329-331 from Alalakh); Gordon 1942 (Ugarit).

.5 .1

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

include the famous Kikkuli text of the 14th century B.C. as well as a more fragmentary purely Hittite text; that from the latter-a Middle-Assyrian text-describes similar procedures. 48 The type of conditioning described is for endurance rather than speed, and implies use with the war chariot. The movement of horses over a wide area at this time, whether as royal gifts, loot, or in exchange, may be responsible for the similarities noted in the osteological as well as the representational

material."

.

Other animals Although there is osteological and other evidence for other equids-ass, mule and hemione-there is little that points to their use as chariot teams.50 Exceptions are two Egyptian representations of mule-drawn chariots-both in civilian con-

texts.P Mules, as well as bovids are shown drawing both the chariot-like baggage carts of the Egyptians and the commissary wagons of the Hittites and their allies at the battle of Kadesh (d. p. 73£.)· HARNESSING

Information is again furnished primarily by actual chariots and representations from Egypt. The slender two-horse yoke, with depressed center and sharply recurved ends, 8) and 48 Kikkuli text partially published by Hrozny (1931), completely by Potratz (193 Kammenhuber (196 1). For purely Hittite training text, Kammenhuber. esp. 47ff. . 263ff. (d. 186f. with n. 40b for single direct ref. to GISGIGIR in these texts). Important discussions, ~lso Sommer 1939 ; Guterbock 1964b; Kuhne. C. 1973 , II5 ff; Kovalevskaya 1977. 5 1ff. Assynan text. Ebeling 1951; d . Kammenhuber, a .o. 35, 37f. 49 Cf. request of H ittite king Hattusilis III to Kadasman Enlil II of B abylon for young stallions, to replace those sent by the latter's father which had become decrepit, esp ".Sommer 1939, 625ff.; Herre and R ohrs 1958. 61; Kammenhuber 1961 , 37f.; transl ., Oppenheim 19 67 , text 60 84· Cf. Herre and Rohrs 1958, 64ff. (ass skeletons from Osmankayasi; for earlier ass burials there, supra p. 57; Boessneck and von den Driesch 1975. 27. 35 ff. (ass and mules bones at Korucutepe); AI-Khalesi 1977. 14 with fig. 1I (hemione skeleton from sounding pit at Tell Fakhtar in E. Mesopotamia. possibly of this p eriod) . 51 Wreszinski 19 23, pls. 192 (Theban tomb 57; Khaemhet), 424 (unnumbered tomb; Porter and Moss 19 60, 4 65. n. I)' d. pls . 158, 160 (Nubian princess in bullock-drawn chariot, tomb 4 Huy). There is Hittite textual evidence for mules. possibly also mule and horse together, 0; pulling royal vehicles, Otten 195 8 , 13 8f.

85

was .set on the pole near the latter's end and held in place by lashings and perhaps a vertical yoke peg. 52 Scenes of unharnessed chariots, Egyptian and Asiatic (fig. 43) show yoke braces. These two leather thongs, branching out from the pole midway, or more or less, be~wee? box and yoke, ran to either arm of the yoke, to prevent the yoke from swivelling on the pole, thus helping to keep the animals in step, as well as distributing the areas of tractive stress on both yoke and pole.P The use of yoke saddles, post.ulated for the previous period, is now materially do~umented, as well as dearly illustrated on Egyptian walls (figs. 43-44). These objects have roughly the form of an inverted letter Y. The "stems" of the Y's are lashed at the front of each yoke arm, and the "legs" lie along the horse's shoulders. This "s~em" is not so tall as those assumed for the chariots of the earlier period (d. p. 6? ;fzgs. 31, 35) and terminates in a reel-shaped finial. Surviving finials are of calcite, as are some of the differently shaped finials that decorated the yoke ends. 54 The yoke saddles were kept in place on the horse by means of a crescentic band that lay acr~ss the front of the horse's neck and joined the ends of the two "legs ." Saddle pads WIth rectangular or rounded ends protected the neck from bruising and chafing (figs. 44-45). The saddles were a means of adapting the yoke (primarily designed for bovine anatomy, where the animal's withers rise prominently behind it) to equine anat amy. 55 Equid . qui s-e-particularly asses and mules and many small horses-have relatively. low withers unsuited to pushing against a yoke, and the higher head and neck carnage of the horse, especially when excited, would tend to throw the yoke back. The yoke-saddle legs, by lying along the animal's shoulders, transferred at least part of the pressure to this area, where the modern horse collar puts it. The chief d~fect of the saddle when compared to the modern collar was the fact that the pull still came from the top, which could tend to raise the neck band to an uncomfortably high position, while the lower pull on either side of the modern collar keeps it down in position. 52 .Cf. James 1974, 34, fi~. I (Carter's drawing of yoke and yoke saddles of Tut'ankhamun chanot 333. here. shown upside down). Yoke saddles in earlier ills . of Florence chariot (our j ig. 42) attached upside down. :: For~unc~o~ofyokebraces,Spruytte 1977, 25 with n . 3; Littauer 1977, 254 with pls. 18, 19. 65 P~SSIbl~ finials of yoke and yoke saddles from Palestine, James 1974; 197 8. DISCUSSIOn of yoke saddles and saddle pads, Littauer 1968 ; Spruytte 1977. 28ff .• 41 with esp. pl. 6: 10. 6S Experiments by Spruytte 1977, 18, 41; discussion, Littauer 1968a. 29f . with pl . V: a-b.

86

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

We now also have evid ence of a backing element (figs. 4I, 44-45). This is a strap, attached to the lower end of the outer leg of the yoke saddle and runni~g u~der the ith r to the lower end of the inner yoke-saddle leg or to the pole Just m front b 11 e y, ei e if th . al b k d of the yoke, where there is a small hole. Without such a strap, I. e arum s ac . e , there would be no way of transmitting the backing to the vehicle, t~e team m~ght back partly or all the way out of their yoke saddles and neck s~ra~s (since the thic~­ ness of an equid's neck diminishes towards the head) and their hind legs would hit the chariot. A backing strap that ran from yoke-saddle end to yoke-saddl: end uld prevent the team from backing out of its harness and would transmit the wo ent backward via the saddles and yok es to the pole. A backing strap that movem ff ti . k . th ran from the outer saddle legs to the pole end would be as e ec rve ill eepI?g e . al . their harness and would transmit the backward movement more directly ammsm . There i and efficiently to the pole, as has been established by practical expenment. ere IS no proof that the latter method was that actually ~mployed, but the fac~ that there is a difference in shape and angle between the mn er and outer holes in the saddle legs may be due to the fact that one of them gave passage to only one stra~, the other to two. Since the saddle legs run obliquely forward along the horse s shoulders, the strap, which runs from their ends back and down under the belty. would, were it tight, cut the horse under the elbows. Egyptian representations indeed often show it as very slack.56 . Chariot t eams normally consist of two animals. In certain texts, t eam s of three may be implied, the third horse being presumably a reserve animal. 57 CONTROL

Surviving complete bits from various parts of the Near East as well as Egypt and Transcaucasia are of bronze, although antler or bone cheekpieces that must originally have had organic mouthpieces also Occur in Anatolia. None of these with certainty antedate the middle of the millennium.se

~~

0:

Horses wer e controlled by a bridle, composed of reins (q.v.): a bit (q.v.) a cavesson (q.v.) and a h eadstall (q.v.). Cheekstraps (q.v.) depicted on Egyptian monuments are shown as dividing at the horse's t emple into two or-less frequently -three strands to hold the bit or cavesson. Th ere might also be a browband (q.v.) and (seemingly rarely) a throatlash (q.v.). . . Bits. Bits are depicted in Egyptian representations, where they may be recogmz.ed by their long flat cheekpieces that appear to be set into the noseband, t~~y ar e mentioned in certain texts, 58 and are most reliably documented by actual survlVmg examples. 67 Yadin (Sukenik) 1948; 1963 . 88f. ; Rainey 1965. 22. Possible t eams of thre~ a lso i,~ te~ts of earlier znd mill., supra p . 60, n . 55 . Note occasion al six rather than four rerns on White Obelisk", infra p. 113· . 8 68 Salonen 1956, II Sf!. ; for Hittite texts, Kammenhuber 1961, 155. n. e ; BIttel 1975. 30 , n. 21.

87

.~

. ..-

While the bits are, all of them, variations of the snaffle (q.v.), they may be classified according to the specific action primarily of their mouthpieces, but also of their mouthpieces in conjunction with the cheekpieces (q.V.).60 r. Bits with bar canon (q. v.) and discoid cheekpieces. Documented in the Levant (fig. 4 8), eastern Anatolia and Egypt, these have a single canon, the ends of which pass through holes in the centres of the cheekpieces and which t erminate in loops (som etimes in the form of clenched fists) or knobs for the attachment of rein s, either directly or by means of wire IOOpS.61 The cheekpieces are discoid, usually of pierced design, sometimes resembling a spoked wheel. They were h eld in place by cheekstraps fastened to a metal loop or loops on or near their edges or around the "felloe" (q.v .) of the " wheels." This is a relatively mild bit, but the severity of its directional control could be (and often was) increased by the leverage of a very long canon (corresponding somewhat to that of today 's "run-out bit") or by studs on the inner faces of the cheekpiec es (corresponding to today's "bit burr"). 2. Bits with smooth, jointed canons (q.v.) and discoid cheekpieces. Documented only in Transcaucasia, these have two canons linked in the middle, the ends of which pass through holes in the centres of discoid cheekpieces of pierced design.62 Th e canon ends are pierced or have D-shaped terminals to t ak e a rein attachment. Th e canons are relatively short, the cheekpieces lack studs, and the discoid form is less effective in combination with the jointed canons than the long, flat che ekpi eces (d. below). Both braking and directional control effect ed by these bits is relatively mild.

!;If

JJ

58 Bits from Tell el Ajjul (an cient Gaza) have often been dated as early as 17 th cent ., cf. recently Pi ggott 1974. 18. H owever , what is known of their find contexts need not point to a date prior to r yth cent., Stewart 1974 , 58; Moorey 1971a, 108 (also letter May 8, 197 8). W ear on tooth of -earlier- Buhen horse has been interpreted as po ssibly due to a bit, supra p . 56 . Probable metal chee kpieces from Ciscau casi a of later 3rd mill . are unique and unrelated t o earliest metal bits from Near East and were used with "soft", not metal, mouthpieces, su pra p . 61. 80 Most of material collecte d by P otratz 1941-44 and 1966. Important additions from eastern Anatolia. Bittel 1975. 66, figs . 46: a (Ugarit) and b (Tell el Ajjul; our fig. 48), pl . II5 (Tell el Amarna). 61 P otratz 19 Add Petrie 1933, 10 with pls . XVII, XXV: 221 (pair of cheekpieces, Tell el Ajjul); Bittel 03f. 1975. 3 , type B. A ver y few "Luristan" bits may date to later z nd r ather than t o earlier rst mill ., Moorey 1971a. s.v, nos. IIO -II 1; Potratz 1966, pls . II 8, II9. 62 From several sites. including Lch asch en tombs with ve hicles, Potratz 19 66, fig . 4 6 : d-f ; Martirosijan 1969 . pl. IX: 1-5 ; Piggott 1974 . 18 with pI. V : b (Lchaschen).

7

88

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

, in throu h one of the piercings in the disk. They were attached ~~ a cheekstrap p;~ g flat cZekpieces. Documented in western 3 Bits with smooth, jointed canons an g, J' link d in the middle.s" . d E t these have two canons e Anatolia, the Levant an gyp .eh 11 ed holes in the centres of the cheekpieces g The ends of the canons pass throu ct10 ar. attachments The studded cheekpieces . . . h dt .nals to tak e Ie rem and have D-s ape errm . b divided cheekstrap. The mouthpiece IS have slots at either end for suspension y a fbI) . milder, b~t t~e .action i: essentially t~el::mf::tt~:~~~~~.4go~U:~:t~d in eastern 4· Bits wtth [oinied unre canons a~ g d resumably also in Assyria, these have tg Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt (ff . ~9),. atn lPckI'ng in the middle and returning on strands 0 wire m er 0 d ft oilared holes in the centres of the cheekpieces.ss The canons compose 0 wo themselves to pass through c d t . als to take the rein attachments; on 1 h ve D-shape ermm . bettermade .ex~mp ~s a . a 100 for this purpose. The majority of cheekpieces others the WIre Itself IS r~lled mt~ and :100 on the upper edge at the centre to take a have an aperture near either en t bp tudded on their inner faces. The canons triple cheekstrap. They may or ~ay no he Sth r the edge of the wire is sharp or not. . re depending on wee are milder or more seve 1 rt d by the canon ends presses the long . ff t When both reins are pulled the everage. exe e . h 1 .awbones m a nutcracker e ec . t. e ower. J t d nl in Anatolia (fig. 50), no earlier . cheekpieces . ad agamst ,I' '(lame materials. Documen e 0 y 5· Bits m e OJ orb th . of rope thong sinew or gut, and also than 1450 B.C., ~hese had soft ~ou p~~~~ taperin~ towa:ds one end. 65 They were crescentic cheekpIec~s .of antler k~~;aor and ;he mouthpiece ends passed through or suspended from a divided c~ee e cheek ieces at right angles to the holes for the were attached to apertures m t~ ild P uld have been similar to that of types cheekstraps. The act~on, alt~o~gh m b e:~ :~orded from central and eastern Europe Bits e . B .C. and after,66 but also, it is claimed, 3asan d 4·dating of not orgaruc well, onlymatena to the zns dav~ m enruum 63

. '. . Potratz 1966, pI. 110 (Miletus), fig 45. f. (Egyp t) . Petrie et aI. 195z, 15, z8 with pI. XVII:

(Tell el Ajjul). 66 fi 5' e [Gezer ; d . fig . 45 : c-d from Tell el 02f u Bittel 1975, 3 ., type. AI~z; Pot;:t~ )19pls' I!; ~~r f ig. 49; Tell el Amarna), 108 (Egypt) , Ajjul, where type of mouthpiece ISunce am , to these other bits suggests dating in later znd possibly also 106 (Ashu~; close resem blance . z09-ZIO

rather than earlier fi I 0 Mozolics 1960, 127ff . with fig. I , paIr from 67, 1St mil!.). . 65 Foltiny 19 16ff. WIth fig. 5 (ou~ ~g. 5~~ ~th fig. 6 (fragms.; Alaca Hiiyiik); Boehmer 0- 1300 . B' .J, k" B " iikkale level IVb); von der Osten 1937, Beycesultan, level III, ~a 145 1972, nos. 2114-2II6 (parr and fr~gn:" ogaz oy, uyu , 2: fig . 27 1960; d 1580Smirnov (f:agm.,1961, AhS~~\ti 67 22ff.', Kozin 1970; Littauer and Crouwel 24366 with Cf. Mozolics 0 ny 19, 1973d (discoid exs.); also supra p. 70, n. 92 .

89

as early as the 4th millennium (material from Russia, d. p. 25). It seems very likely that these inspired the all-metal bits that first appeared in the Near East in the 15th century B.C. "

~. '

Some Egyptian representations suggest that the cheekpieces of bits were incorporated into the noseband, while others may point to the use of bitless bridles, or cavessons (q.v.) 67. In the latter case, the reins would have been attached to either side of the noseband. For such a bridle to have optimum effect, the noseband should be placed low enough to press on the soft and sensitive tissues below the ends of the nasal bones, and this is indeed where we most frequently see it at this period. The position, in fact, corresponds to that of the strap muzzles shown with equid draught in the 3 rd millennium, and may have ultimately derived from them (cf. 1 p. 3 ) . Such a cavesson-particularly if the noseband is rigid and/or reinforced by studs on the under surface, has considerable braking effect but, when strongly applied, interferes with the animal's breathing (the slit nostrils shown on some Egyptian reliefs may well indicate futile attempts ro remedy this defect). Its directional control is also weak. That it was eventually generally replaced by the bit is understandable.

'I

I,.'

I ..

~.

Ancient cheekpieces were essentially toggles to keep the canons from slipping too far through the mouth when a single rein was pulled. At the same time, they also served the important function of enforcing directional control. When a single rein was pulled, the opposite canon end pressed the far cheekpiece against the horse's jaw on that side. This effect might be (and often was) reinforced by the presence of stUds-sometimes quite sharp-on the inner faces of the cheekpieces, as noted above.

:

Reins (q.v.). These were attached either to the canon ends (directly, or indirectly by means of wire loops) or to th e noseband, and were carried back through leather loops or terrets (q.v.) on the horse's shoulders near the yoke-saddle ends. This not only helped to keep slack reins from dangling, but may have had a certain pulley effect, since it broke the straight line of action to the driver's hands-and in his favour. Few representations are explicit enough to indicate the disposition of the reins. The decoration on the chariot box of Tutmosis IV is a notable exception. 68 Here the four reins clearly cross before being tied around the pharaoh's hips-both right reins going to one side, both left reins going to the other. For efficient direc67 For wh at follows, Littauer 1969a , 291ff. with pI. XLI: b (Tell el Amarna relief, showing slit nostrils, for which see also Littauer Ig6gb); also Anderson 1961, 45, 4 . 8 68 Supra n . 17, no . 3; ills ., Yadin 1963,192-193. For reining of bigae, Spruytte 1977, 19ff., 4 1.

90

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C .

tional control, a similar disposition would be desirable also when they went to the driver's hands. Possible exceptions to four-rein control are suggested by five extant bits of type I, one from Ras Shamra (Ugarit), two from eastern Anatolia, and a pair from Tell el Amarna.P On these, the two canon ends differ, one end terminating in a loop and the other in a flattish knob. A possible explanation for this would be that the inner canon ends that faced each other were joined by rods or straps-a practice documented in 7th-6th century B.C . Cyprus (d. p. 125;fig. 59). This halves the number of reins and may help to keep the animals in step. . ~ridle

accessories Blinkers (q.v.) are oft en represented in Egypt with Egyptian and Asiatic chariots, and also shown on figured documents from elsewhere, including Assyria and Cyprus. In addition, Egyptian tombs have produced several actual blinkers of thin wood, covered with gesso and gold leaf. The decoration of some of these imitates scale armour and, indeed, it is probable that blinkers were originally devised to protect the horse's eyes. A second function may have been to help prevent stallions harnessed together from bickering with each other or with those of other teams running abreast of them;" Other bridle accessories include a possible strap divider of bone from central Anatolia, with European parallels." and the "brow cushion" and poll decoration illustrated on the " Whit e Obelisk" (d. p . 126f. ; fig. 41). Chariot use Military Figured and textual documents-particularly those of the 15th century B.c. and later-from both our primary area and Egypt, point to the active role of chariots (in addition to infantry) in warfare in the Near East. The vehicles beSupra n. 61. Frequently sh own in Egypt from time of Tell el Amarna r eliefs onwards, a. o. Littauer 1969a, pI. XLI : b; Yadin 1963, 214-21 7 (p ainted b ox of Tut'ankhamun} , 231 (hor ses below). Als o seen on Assyri an ston e lid and Enkomi gaming box, su pra nn . 14, 34 . Blinkers p erhaps already in Mari t ext of ea rlier znd mill., a.o . Sasson 1969, 32. Actual exs., Carter 1927, 60, 63 with pI. XLIII : A (tomb of Tut'ankhamun ; those of scale design, object nos. 122 : j-k, not illustrated); po ssibly als o Daressy 1902, nos. 24124-27, 24144 (tomb of Amenophis II). 71 Bandi 1973. 46ff. (55 with fig . 16 : ex. from Alaca Hiiyiik). Autopsy of sever al exs. in Budapest (courtesy of J. Stanczik) shows that areas of wear on these obj ects do not co nfirm their role as strapdividers. 89

70

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

91 come increasingly effective, combining a hi h de e .. . The strong and light construction of both ~ ~ e of mobility WIth fire power. t ibi an spoked wheels, the wide wheel base, and the rear or near rear axle all Cont.rol-both braking and directi;nal--:~:t~t~~to the m~bility of the chariot. chanots were now put to was . db ' portance III the strenuous use met~l ones with studded ~heek~:~:~~e y the Illtroduction of bits, particularly of FIrepower, as before, was primarily su lied b 72 now attached to the outside of the h ~Pt b Y th~ ~ow, bowcases and quivers c ano ox providing th h . arms, and the location of th e axl e off' hi e arc er WIth reserve ducins rm a more stable platform from which to shoot, while at the same tim turns (fig s. 4 1, 43-44). e re UCIllg the effects of centrifugal force on fast Besides the bow, offensive weapons . for thrusting-fixed near the rear of th:~~O\: also l~~lude a s.ingle sp:ar-probably from the time of Seti I onw d . (f: 4 1).. EgyptIan chariots, however, ar s, carry pairs of Javelin xili ~he thrusting spear appears to have been the . s as au ary arm~ (fig. 44). their Anatolian and Levantine alii t th b main weapon of the Hittites and es a e attle of K d h ( th II), as there is no indication of q . b a es 5 year of Ramesses . mvers or owcases on thei hari (fi' chanots are also exceptional in that th err c anots zg. 45). Thes e more usually seen two-man crew' a h .eYldcbarrya comp!ement of three instead of the . . . s ie earer standing b id th dri WIth the spearman behind them.teSI e ever III front, all . . Sn: shields of. varying shape, but always with a sin le han ned III the EgyptIan chariots hi h h g d gnp, are seen car. , w c ave a two-man cr f d . and also III some Asiatic chariots Th E . . . ew 0 river and archer, and some other battles is seen h ld ~ gyptian shi eld III the chariots at Kadesh into battle but, during the actua7fi ~f. III t~~ hand of the inactive archer advancing teer (fig . 44). Th e latter th en wi& ~~g, I hIS transferred to the hand of the charioreins, which are ti ed around the arch I~ ~ er hand, a?pears ~erely to guide the er s ps , and against which the archer leans.

g:

72. Cf. a ctual. composit e bows of this time f E rom. i5Y?t, McL eod 1970. Su ch a bo w already d epi cted at Mari in ea rlier 3rd mill Y di 73 Spear, also seen on Ashur sea li a III 197 2, WIth fig. I and pl . 17. and Megiddo ivory (Loud 1939 no )'gs (s~tpra ~. 14), a Kassite or Elamite seal (supra n 10) U Ramesses II's acces sion d~te I'S'2 es on.m to ea rlier rst mill., infra p . 128. " st"llcam 6 6 . h I uncertam cf rec tl B' b' 197 . WIt n. I. Single spear (not two to f .' en y ier ner 1975, 109££. ; Brinkman 147f. with nn, 24-25 ) clearly marked b . . ~ur jave ins as often stated, d . a.o. Littauer 197 2 Y m ClSlOn on sev eral li f W . . , 8 8 6 3- 4, 9 -9 6a , 100-101 169 170' cf R . re e s, reszmskI1935 pls 20-21a " . " . . t f ' " . amey 1965 22 ("I III ext rom Uga ri t) . Three-m an crew at K ad nfa?ce CIted among chario t equipment 19 63 , 90 with n. 112 . es IS co mned by Egyptian texts, Schulman

i.

h'

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

Thus, both crew members are able to use the reins to prevent them from falling out of the rear of the backless chariot. 75 The purpose of these shields seems to have been to protect the face, since helmets were apparently not regularly worn in chariots and, when they were, were open-

moving chariot since. apart from the difficulty of taking aim, there would have been no time to withdraw it once it had struck home, and the user would have lost his weapon. Thus, if the thrusting spear was the only weapon, as seems to have been the case with the chariotry of the Hittites and their allies at the battle of Kadesh, the vehicles would seem to have been used rather as transports for spearmen than as firing platforms, although unfortunately neither the texts nor the illustrations make their role clear.79 . The battle of Kadesh on the Orontes, between Ramesses II and the Hittite king, Muwatallish, and his various allies, is of great interest to the history of chariotry. It is the only battle of this time in which the tactical handling of chariots is documented in some detail, thanks to Egyptian texts and reliefs, despite the fact that these present only the Egyptian side and are biassed.P" At Kadesh, Muwatallish launched a large chariot force, said to number 2500, across a river ford in a direct attack on an Egyptian division made up of infantry and chariotry. The attack, however, was not against a well-prepared enemy, drawn up in battle ord er, but against the unprotected flank of an enemy on th e march, who was taken completely by surprise. Later in the battle, the sam e Hittite chariots, having broken through th e Eg yptian division and pursued its remnants into their camp, proved helplesseven when reinforced by an additional 1000 chariots-against a counterattacking, freshly arrived Egyptian chariotry. The reason for this failure, to judge from the vivid scenes on temple walls, seems to have been th e difference in armament (i.e. the Hittite thrusting spear vs. the Egyptian bow), with the Egyptian chariotry, drawn up in battle ord er, forcing the advancing Hittite one to an abrupt halt with volleys of arrows, and driving them back into the Orontes river. Several qu estions remain unanswered, such as why the Hittite infantry-said to comprise 37.000 men 81-was not brought into battle, why their chariotry did not use th e bow, in what manner it crossed the Orontes before attacking and exactly how it manoeuvered, which would have required not only extensive open ground. but also consid erable skill, in view of the large numbers.

92

visaged.i" Besides shields and helmets, chariot crews might be protected by long corselets of leather or metal scales. Such armour is well documented in the Near East and Egypt, not only in texts and representations, but also by surviving meta~ scal.es: . Similar sources incidate that horse trappers and even chanot SIdings might be armoured with scales." Horses might also wear head protection, including blinkers, . although the latter appear to have been worn also in non-mili~ary con:e.xts. Although concern for protection indicates that the chanots antlCI~ated commg within reach of enemy fire, they remained too vulnerable and too fragile to be used in the manner of modem tanks, i.e. as a shock force against a well-prepared, unbroken enemy line. How then would these vehicles, which were limited in their field of action to reasonably level and open t errain, have been used in warfare? \Vherev~r they. carried the bow as did several of the Near-Eastern and all of the Egyptlan military chariots illustrated, they must have been essent ially elevated mobile firing .platforms, playing a fast, flanking and pursuing role, provided the t errain ,:as smta~le and allowed sufficient space in which to manoeuvre.I" Where the chanots carried both bow and thrusting spear, the latter would have been h eld in readiness should it be necessary to fight either from a standing vehicle or dismounted. Indeed such a spear-in contrast to javelins-would have been impossible to use from a fast76 Littauer 197 2, 146f . with nn . 13-14 . Egyptian t exts also su ggest that ch~ote:r .and shi eld bearer could be the same p erson, Schulman 1963, 88f.; 1964. 67f. A defect of this reinmg .s~stem is that it was bound ultimately to harden the hors es' mouths a nd make the~ less sensltt:re to control. Asiatic two-man chariots with shield shown on cha riot box of Tuthrnosis IV and painted box of Tut'ankhamun, supra nn. 68. 70 . 76 Helmets worn by Asiatics on ch ariot box of Tuthmosis IV. 1, ~30f. 77 Scales in texts, esp . Speiser 1950. 47ff.; Oppenheim 195 0• 19 1ff.; Salonen 195 (chariot box) ; 195 6. 139££.; Salonen E . 1965. 100ff . Scales shown on chariot box of Tuthmosis IV (with chariot boxes, crew and horses) , on Enkomi gaming box (with crew and hors es', swpra n 34) and apparently also on Kadesh reliefs (with crew and horses; only traces of p aint are n~w l~ft, Wreszinski 1935, a .o. pIs. 100-101 , 169-17°) . F or . actual scales, esp. Boehmer 197 2 ; K arageorghis and Masson 1975. Discussion and ills .. also Yadin 1,963. 8{f ., I 9~f. 8f.. 2 78 So als o Powell 1963. 159. 165f.; Schulman 1963. 85f. WIth n . 69; Littauer 197 • 14 I.nf. "Shock force" interpretation has been repeated time and time again, d. a .o. Goetze 1963 , 125 ; Macqueen 1975, 9 8f.

/-

93

~.

c.

!

79 For us e of sp ear, Littau er 1972, q 8f. Cf. Yadin 1963. 109, 250 for possibl e use of threem an ch ariots as transports of infantry sp earmen in Hittite and Philistine armies. the first illustrated in battle at Kadesh , the latter in Ramesses Ill's battle against Sea Peoples (Yadin 1963 . 336-337) . 80 Texts, esp. Kuentz 1928; Gardiner 1960 . Representations, Wreszinski 1935. pls . 16-25 (Abydos), 63-64. 81-8 9 (Luxor). 69- 70 (K arnak) . 92-106 (Ramesseum) , 169-178 (Abu Simbel). Re cent dis cussions of battle. esp . Yeivin 1953; Faulkner 1958; Yadin 1963, I03ff.; Helck 1971. 194 ff. 81 Gardiner 1960, 41f. (18,000 and 19,000 men); these numbers accepted by Helck 1971, 205 .

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

94

teer-a much more practical arrangement althou b exneri ' a harness team can be controlled by reins ;ied aro~ expe~me~t has proven that degree-particularly in guiding th . al B d the hips, If only to a limited e amm s. ut even with t dri could devote his entire attention to the team h ti f a separ~ e nver, who been possible only on chosen level terrain .' un mg r?n: a chanot would have

th Surprisingly large numbers of chariots appear as early as the first half of the 15 century B.C., 894 chariots being taken by Tuthmosis III after the battle of Megiddo against a Levantine coalition, and Anienophis II bringing back to Egypt, from two campaigns in the Levant, chariots numberi'ng 730 and 1092 respectively.82 While stressing the importance of chariotry in warfare, texts, lik e representations, yield little other information on actual military use, an exception being a document from Ugarit which refers to chariots employed in patrolling and blockading the

~:~hP~~~:~l;h::::\:~~;t~~~::~,:~::o1~~;E;~~:~.:n:r:;:;~;::~~:;;.;~; lin:e;~~~::~:~~~~~;n~~~s:~;:r:)u~;~~ :~~i.~;e~h~~pt~·e~r~~ab~y

:h;riots, .fo.r travelthe tomb of Tut'ankhamun in E t' . c ano s surviving from looked lik e.88 Hittite texts refer t~ffgIvetuts some l~:a of. what royal vehicles 1 . eren ype s of chanots" sometimes a

access routes of enemy forces." Chariotry probably also played the important psychological rol e of an elite corps, functioning at a different level from the ordinary infantry rank and file and adding

~~~~:~e;':h ~e;~:r;:~:able) throne, used byroyaltyduring culti~ activities. Oth~~

fanfare and colour to the armies of the time." Near-Eastern texts, augmented by Egyptian texts and representations, yield some information on the highly complex organization of the chariotry, the training of the horses, construction and maintenance of the veh icles, and the personnel involved in these activities. 85 Civil. The use of the chariot in hunting, already attested in the preceding period (d. p. 63), continues to be documented in the Near East and now also appears in .Egypt. As before, we sometimes see a hunter alone in his chariot , the reins tied around his hips . In addition, we have several repr esentations from the Near East (figs. 39, 41)-although not from Egypt-where the hunter is driven by a chario-

' f th g .roya~ f~nerary ntes, mention effigies of the dead in " chaone 0 ese vehicles IS Illustrated 89 Still th . with cult, horse racing-probably with Chariots ratOh etrhtexts mhenhon, in connection E " er an on orseback 90 riots" N .

suite at Amarna use chariots in

;roc:::ion:~ta:~~eTh~~h:he r~yal family

A~hEgypti~n ov.erseers visitedthefieldsunder thei~ ~are i:;h~~O~~ ~ther

and ~heir occasions ,

e peculiar light two-wh eelers from Lake S . T . . between the categories of chariot an e:,an m ranscaucasia seem to fall op en front seem to point to th . d cart, their shallow depth. closed rear and err use as passenger carts, in which people sat with 86 Cf. Littau er and Crouwel 1973c with chariot s in Egypt. Deck er I I ' par. 45 (Tigl ath-Pileser I ). 97 ,

1965, 73 (800 of Kaska). 83 Ugari t t ext, N ougayrol 1968. 69ff. (RS 20 .33); Rainey 197 2. Importance of chariotry well illustrated by Tell el Am arna letters mentioning urgent requests by Levantine v ass al states for 63. specified numbers of them (running into tens) as well as inf antry, d. Schulman 19 83 with nn . 45-47 . Standard expression for Near Eastern a nd Egyptian armies of this time was simply " infa ntry and ch ariotry" , cf. K ammenhuber 1961 , 33 with n . 13 1; Schulman 19 63 . 84£'; Rainey

.~.

1

may~~~:nb::~ P;~::~:~e~si~vi:~ s~nes ~ chariots in other peaceful co~texts which

8Z Wilson in ANET 237 (Megiddo). 246, 247 . Hittite t exts some t imes refer to sizea ble numbers of chariots in armies of An atolian p eoples. H elck 197 1• 20 5 Cloo of Azzi-Hayas a) ; von Schuler

1965. 17 · raises matter of maryannu, a n important class at this time in various N ear E astern 84 This 0; kingdoms, frequently but not always associated with ch ariots, d . esp. O'Callaghan 195 Rainey 2 81ff.; 1, 1965. 19; de Vaux 19 67, 485. 488; Di etrich and Loretz 1969; H elck 197 4 R evi v 19 7 . Indo-European origin of word has re cently b een questioned , d. Kammenhuber 1968. 222f.; Diakonov 1972• I 14f . with n . 9 1; cautiou sly. Mayerhofer 1974, 16 with n . 24· 6 85 Training and hippiatric texts. supra nn . 47-48 . Organization, esp . Salon en 195 ; also 63 Rainey 1965. 17 ff. (Ugarit) . Egyptian t exts, esp . von Deines 1953 , 6££.; Schulman 19 and 19 D ecker 1971. 127ff. Important are also Egyptian reliefs of army camp at Kadesh (con 64; veniently. Yadin 1963 . 10 7- 109). Remains of actual stables are claimed to h ave b een identified , 1 ff but this interpretation is som etimes op en to question, cf . Sch aeffer 193 8, 3 3 . (Ugarit) ; 2££. 1 Lloyd 197 2 , 15f£. (Beycesultan) ; P endlebury et al . 195 , 13 (Tell el Amarna).

95

.3 of · R ep resent a!lOns, . .W reszinski 193 2 . Ro yal hunting 3 8f£. (texts and ills. }: in Assyrian t exts. Grayson 1976 .

87 Travelling, Kuhne C 1973 ff ( . 477f. (Pap. Anastasi I ; ~ls~ Yadi~a;963 u;~~)~ngers lTIhT.ell ~l Am arna letters ) ; Wils on in A NET, f of ;;lalakh). Cult, Salonen 195 1, 70 f. ; La~bert 19~~e~ e;;u m ANET Sup-p], 557 . (King Idrimi .Supra n . 17. nos. 6-7. d . also highl decor t ~5and-d . . chanots were ex changed between kings ycf K a rawn chanot, no . 4 a nd n. 21. Such esp. 22). ' . nu tz on 19 15 (Tell el Amarna letters 14, 16 and

Jd

89 Esp. Otten 1971. 20f£. GlShulttka n ntt hi I .. . Assyrian texts. d . also Kamme~huber I (, a ve rc e to Sit m , already m earlier Hittite and Old 9 3 10 , 3 £.; Kuhne, C. 1973, Ill , n. 54 (otlhe~Ot n . 2 ), ~~1- ~upra p. 64, n . ~o);.Guterbock 1974, 12 0 1 9~o8, e:p. 129; Gurney 1977, 6If. erms . 19Ies of the dead m chario ts " , Otten

-~

23; 1f.; Guterbock 1964a 63£" Kuhne C I 6 3 . F or probl em of interpretation ' 'n'+'r·a 973. 10 , n . 5 Otten 1974, esp. 14 Gurney 1977 691 F ' ' :1' n. 9 2 . ' 05 or processions D avies de G I X etc .; 19 , pl . XIII etc .; Smith, R. W . and R edford 197 pl . 12' a nd co~er . vo·n1~0~, p . 6, 57). 4 (no tomb no. ). eme s 1953. 14 (texts) . For ove rseers, Wreszin ski 19 23, pis. 192 (tomb 24

96

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

their feet hanging over the front edge, a practice seen on many light Elamite carts of the following period (d. p. 101). . RIDING

Information from the primary area is limited to rare repres:~t~ti?ns and relatively few texts, most of which refer to horses or asses as mounts.. RIding on do~eys . also mentioned in an Egyptian t ext d escribing how, after their defeat at ~IegIddo in Palestine, the local rulers rode away on asses, their chariot horses having been • 93 taken by the Egyptians. . .. Egypt furnishes most of the figured evidence for the penod. ASIattcs. ~n horseback in r Sth-Dynasty battle sc enes, with rare exceptions appear only a.s fugitive m.embers long, . t cre ws , mounted on horses cut loose from o f c h ano . .their chariots, . . as their 0 . I mailed charioteers' tunics, which require them to SIt SIdeways, mdicate. ccasl~na Egyptian military personnel, wearing short kilts, mounted bareback. and astride, . a w hip and sometimes a bow , are clearly not fugitives, but couners carrymg . . or scouts. h From Egypt we also have several r epresentations of apparently ~~n-ml1it~ry ~rse­ back riding, which suggest that it was not uncommo~ ther e: Egy,ptt~n :lders continue to use the "donkey seat," common in the precedmg period, WhICh mdicates . . . . a still primitive stage of equitat ion . . I I cases the rider in Egyptian representations IS the West Semitic godd:ss, . ittina SI sideways b ~ t f aCI ng n severa Astarte. She is sometimes shown ast ride and somettmes sitting forwards m ounted bareback or (once) on a saddle cloth. She may carry slu el.d. and bow or s~ear; these reflect h er own martial nature, however, rather than military Re resentations, Parker 1977. no. 23 (sealing; Rimaah); Lecl~~t 1960. 6~~f. ~ith pI. I: B p . iddl Ass ian text referring to "master of the riding horses, King 1912, 33 (seal no 59) prov .). Mi 19.:> e -6. yr ' w 8-.:>, 8 s.. v pethalltt (lin s; 58 ' Salonen 226 ,' AH .· Hittite t ext with messenger H ' . t ontshorse. ittrte ex may I 8 2I),. K"I U me. C. 1973. 107, n . 526 . A few other b ek H I k.1963 89 (1111es r:f~r' to ~~g him~elf on horseback during cUI~ic activi~e~; here, as i: passag~st~he~~:~~::,a~~ mentioned (supra n. 89). interpretation -riding ~: driving- depen s on \~n e O:rhors~back in "horses" [st and for a (draught) t eam or not, c~. G~terb~ck ~ 9 74 . 3 II (pro ki Iff a du licat e KUB VII 25 I 6ff.; Otten 1971,21. n. II (pro king III vehicle III KBG VIII II9 ., P of KUB X 3 I II); also oral communicati on J. de Roos. 93 Wilson in ANET, 238; also a.o. Leclant 1960, I, n: 2. ". rs": Wreszinski n f. 9t Material collected by Schulman 1957, d. ::67 Wlth(E . 3~ (ene7t!taryn~i~ers'. Wreszinski I 6 - 6 57 107 and 1°9, 169), 267 WIth n. 27 gyp an m . ~ . 1935, P s. 3 ,45 94,172'6a '11' li f of battle at Kadesh; captions sometimes describe riders as 1935. pis. Schulman, 64, 16 In I re e63.4 s 8 .. Gardiner 1960" 38} 263ff.. (non-military riders; good ex. "scouts", 2 7;asoI9 Yadin 1963, 220f.). 92

f

97

riding or any participation of mounted troops in battle.v In fact, neither in Egypt nor in the Near East is there any conclusive evidence of any kind for riders taking part in combat, individually or in special mounted units at this time. 96 The cloth on which Astarte is sometimes seated would protect the rider from the animal's sweat, and might give a more secure seat. A probable saddle cloth was found on the back of a single horse buried near the 15th-cent. B.C. tomb of Sen Mut at Thebes in Egypt. 97 SUMMARY

Wheeled vehicles

Wagons and carts, when pictorially documented, are small and light, with spoked wheels. They are mule or bovid-drawn and mostly belong to the commissariat. This period witnesses the supremacy of the light, fast , horse-drawn chariot, which is best documented by surviving examples from Egyptian tombs and by detailed representations, also from Egypt. The vehicle is characterized by a very wide wheel base (providing stability at fast turns) and by a low-sided box, open at the rear and wide enough for two men to stand abreast. In Egypt it is very shallow from front to rear. The chariots of the Hittites and their Asiatic allies depicted in the famous Battle of Kadesh were sufficiently deep to permit a third man to stand behind the others. The floor often has aD-shaped frame and a flooring of interwoven thongs. The framework of th e box is of bent wood, the siding may be solid, partly open or entirely open. Wh eels revol ve on a fixed axl e, located usually at th e rear of th e box, immediately beneath the floor. The usual number of spokes is initially four, then six, while eight or mor e spokes are exceptional. Two types of wheel construction are materially documented at this period. In one type (attested in Egypt), th e spokes are composite and also form part of a composite nave ; in the other (attested in Transcaucasia), the spokes are single and the nave is a simple one-piece cylinder of wood. Both types of wheel have felloes compo sed of overlapping sections of bent wood. Rawhide tyr es are often indi cated. 95 Material collected by Leclant 1960. d . doc. 7f. with fig. 22 (saddle cloth); identification of rider sometimes debatabl e, ct . a .o. doc. 8bis (pharaoh, possibly Tuthmosis III, according to Schulman 1957. 264). ct . Decker 1971, 135ff. Connection of deities, particularly Pirva, with horses also in Hittite t exts, Otten 1952-53; Kammenhuber 1961. 36, n. 142; Gurney 1977, 13. 9B Despite repeated stat ements t o the contrary. Examples: Decker's "cavalry" in Egypt (197 1, 136 with n. 912) is unsubst anti ated (d. Schulman 1963, 84 with n. 57), and so is Melchert 's in a Hittite text (1 978, 17, s.v, KBG III 4 II 43; instead of "cavalry " should be read "chariotry"; d. Kammenhuber 1961. 33, n. 131 for term ANSE.KUR.RAMES; also personal communication Ph. Houwink ten Cat e). Salonen's translation in another Hittite text of "100 (military) riders" (1956, 226, s.v. simdi sist in KBG 15 IV 21) should be corrected to "100 t eams (of chariot horses)" (cf. CAD 16, S.v. simdu A2; AHw II02, S .V. $imdu(m); also personal communication on W. van Soldt} . 97 Horse, supra n. 38; cloth made of linen and sheepskin with t apes for neck strap and girth, Chard 1937, 317; also personal communication V. Burton.

98

LATER SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

The draught pole passes directly beneath the floor of the chariot, its rear end fixed under the rear edge of the floor. The pole is lashed to the vehicle at the front edge of the floor frame where, as it emerges from under the floor, it describes a shallow, double curve. The area of attachment of pole to chariot box is strengthened by leather thongs or wooden rods that run from the top of the front railing to the pole a short distance in front of the box. When of wood these elements also serve to brace the front of the box. Draught is by two horses under a slender yoke, the latter being adapted to equine anatomy by the use of yoke saddles (q.v.). Yoke braces keep the yoke at right angles to the pole, so that the horses pull evenly, while also helping to distribute the pull on the pole and yoke. There is a backing element (q.v.) passing beneath each horse's belly. Although the chariot horses may sometimes have been controlled merely by a cavesson (q.v.), there is now material evidence of bits (q.v.) of bronze or organic materials, both with snaffle action. The metal bits have a bar or jointed mouthpiece, passing through holes in the cheekpieces which act as toggles across the comers of the horse's mouth and are often studded on the inner surface. The reins are attached to the ends of the mouthpiece. Chariots play an important role in warfare at this period. Although concern for protection-shields, helmets and scale corselets for the crew and trappers for the draught teamindicate that the chariots anticipated coming within range of enemy fire, they remained too vulnerable and too fragile to be used in the manner of modem tanks, i.e. as a shock force against a well-prepared, unbroken enemy line. (This is true for all military wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East, with the exception of the scythed chariots of the later rst millennium B.C.). Two-man Asiatic and Egyptian chariots, carrying an archer, are used chiefly as mobile firing platforms and playa fast, flanking and pursuing role. The threeman chariots of the Hittites and their allies in the Battle of Kadesh, with spearmen, must have served chiefly as transports. Chariots are also used for non-military purposes, including prepared hunts and ceremonies.

CHAPTER NINE

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C. (ca 1000-600 B.C.) WHEELED VEHICLES

Evidence ~s extens.ive-particularly for chariots-in the period down to the fall of t~e Assyrian ~mplre (612 B.C.). The detailed and reliably dated Assyrian reliefs (which are essentIally .contemporary chronicles) are of primary importance. Besides other v~uable Assynan material, including texts, we have figured documents from vanous parts of the Near East, including Transcaucasia. The remains of actual vehicles from Cypriot tombs (dating from the mid-8th to the 7 t h cent. B.C.) ~nd terra-c.otta mo~els (from the 7th and 6th cent. B.C.) from Cyprus also furnish Important information Four-wheelers

~vidence of these is very rare, and true wagons are never depicted. Assyrian reliefs show a few flat cars for heavy transport, mounted on spoked or disk h 1 Th I '11 w ee s. . ey a so I ustrate battering rams mounted on low trolleys that may have u to SIX, spoked wheels. I p

Riding

Horses are mostly ridden astride and bareback, though there is now some evidence of saddle cloths. Most horseback riders are still shown using the "donkey seat", which points to a widespread, if largely undocumented, practice of riding asses and mules for travel and other purposes. Horseback riding in military contexts is confined to couriers or scouts, or to members of defeated chariot crews fleeing on animals cut loose from harness. These horses are bridled in the same fashion as chariot ones.

Two-wheelers

Carts

~thou~h the humble cart is seldom represented elsewhere, Assyrian reliefs offer a fairly nch documentatio~, chiefly of the carts of conquered peoples, including Chaldeans from Mesopotamia, Levantines from the city of Lachish and Elamit )21 .. , rtes r: (Jzgs. 51-52. n addition, what seem essentially to have been carts have been 1 Flat ca:s, Barnett n.d., pI. 1~7 (Shalmaneser III); Botta and Flandin 18 49-5 , pI. I 0, 0 (Sargon II), ~Iso van Loon 1966, fig. 18: E2-3 (Urartian sealings). Battering rams Madhlo~m 1970, 33ff. WIth pIs. XVI-XVII. ' 2 Fr~gmentary obelisk of Ashurnasirpal II (Nimrod; London, BM 118800' this relief unpubi othe.rs m Gadd 1936, 128f. with pI: 6); Barnett and Falkner 19 63, pIs. V ~VI (Tiglath-Piles;; III), Paters~n 191~, pIs. 7 1-73 and mfra n. 4 (Sennacherib); Barnett 197 6, pI. XXIX and infra n. 7· Add NImrod IVOry, Mallowan and Davies 1970, pI. XXX: no. 106.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C. EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

100

identified among the remains of actual vehicles buried at Salamis in Cyprus, and there are terra-cotta cart models from the island (possibly of the 7th-6th cent. B .C.}.3 In general, the carts in Assyrian reliefs' have central or nearly central axles, suitable for stable loads; the floors, probably of planks to support heavy weights, are set low over the axles. They may have low side rails, but are open back and front, where they often extend beyond the wheels. Traction is provided mostly by bovids or mules under yoke or, in the case of Assyrian carts, by men. The wheels are usually spoked, with six, eight, twelve or even sixteen spokes (the latter on the Elamite carts), and very rarely discoid. In addition, several of the Assyrian handdrawn carts and some of the ordinary carts shown with Chaldean captives have heavy wheels with very deep felloes and, in lieu of spokes, two wide planks crossing each other at right angles. This type of wheel, requiring no nave, would have been fixed on a revolving axle, and the rectangular axle end sometimes clearly shown confirms this.' Such an axle is held in position beneath the floor by a pair of blocks, concave on their under-faces, one just inside either wheel. They may be protected against wear by a IT-shaped iron liner. Such a bearing shoe for the axle is apparently depicted in a badly effaced wall painting from Til Barsib, showing a hand-pulled cart. This bearing shoe resembles actual IT-shaped iron axle bearings found with the remains of several carts buried in Cyprus.! Since the bearing is open, the cart floor and pole (usually inseparable) may be lifted off the axle at any time for convenience. The iron shoe is an improvement designed to protect the corresponding wooden fixture from wear by the turning axle. The Til Barsib painting and the Cypriot remains are our earliest evidence of this feature, still in use today on many carts with revolving axl es. Although Cypriot carts with revolving axles-like those illustrated in Greek and Etruscan art 6 usually had the floors raised on blocks over the axle bearing and a pole running out horizontally from the floor, oriental carts show a pole that curves or slants upwards from a low-set floor. 3 Actual carts, Karageorghis 1967 , esp . 1I8f.; 1973 a, esp . 75 ff. Terra-c~ttas, Karageor~his 19 figs . 21-22 (used as hearses); 1973a, fig. 17 (tilt cart) ; also Karageorghie and des Gagmers 67, 1974, no . II. 4 (vase painting; cross-bar wheels) . 28; Sen4 Paterson 19 15 , pls. 25, 29, 31 (hand-drawn; d. multi-spoked ones, pls. 25, 27nacherib) : Solid-disk wheels on Ashurnasirpal II ob elisk, swpra n . 2. . . 5 Karageorghis supra n. 3 ; for bearing shoes from three different vehicles, 1967, 35 WIth pIs . XLIX, (no . II; tomb 3) ; 1973a, 34£., 44f.. 61, 67 with pls. CIX, CX, CCLX (nos . 221/,p, 7 and pls . LXXIII, CCLII (nos. 416/25, 42) (tomb 79). Til Barsib, Thureau-Dangin and Dunand 6) 193 6, pl. XLIX; Parrot 1961, pl. 1I7· 6 Lorimer 1903 , esp. figs . 4-6, 8 .

cxxn

. ;:-"""--:.-''''

101

The Elamite carts depicted under Ashurbanipal differ from the others in several res?ects and are ~ore ~laborate (figs. 51-52). Open back and front, they often show a single, arched sI~e rail. The wheels, although with twelve to sixteen spokes, are of the same construction as contemporary eight-spoked Assyrian wheels and, like them, ~ay show decorate~ axle ends. The poles assume an upward slant or curve directly m front of the vehicle, and may be sheathed in metal, like Assyrian chariot poles. These carts are usually drawn by mules-exceptionally by bovids or horses . U~arnes~ed carts usually show a straight, two-animal yoke with neck pegs prima~y SUItable for bovids, and such is illustrated on harnessed ones. Harnessed equids, however, show a wide neckstrap holding a possibly padded yoke in place, and battle scenes show a few four-horse fitted yokes, like contemporary Assyrian chariot yokes (fig. 52).7 These eq~ds are us~ally c~ntrolled without reins, the driver using a long stick and the ammals weanng a SImple headstall, composed of single cheekstrap and n~s~ban~. Some of the mules and horses, however, wear a complete bridle, indistinguishable from those of contemporary Assyrian horses. In Assyria~ reliefs, b~vid-drawn carts of conquered peoples are shown carrying booty or captives and their goods. 8 The hand-drawn Assyrian carts appear exclusively in scenes of .t he erection of monuments; they carry ropes and stakes. The equiddrawn Elamite .carts are shown chiefly in the role of troop transports, moving at speed and ~arrymg four men. ~hese often sit on thick quilted mattresses, fringed at the ends (fIg. 51). It seems possible that these fast carts were designed for passengers rather than goods even in peacetime. Chariots

The widespread use of these is amply documented. Assyrian fieured evidence apart from palace reliefs," includes a provincial relief, wall painti;gs, glazed tile~ t·

7 El~mite carts, Barnett 1?76, pls. XVII, XX, XXV, LXVII-IX (yoke with p egs; boviddra:vnl. 1975, ~ls . 137 (our fzg. 51), 147, 149 , 151, 155, 160 (our jig. 52; cart flo ating in river UI:I) , 1~4 (equid-drawn), d . 139 (collapsing t eam of four horses, bridled as Assyrian ones). . Vehicles (carts or wagons) carrying goods also in Neo-Assyrian texts CAD 4 296f s erzqqu; AHw 23 8, s.v, ereqqu(m). ' , . .v . 9 Basic editions of reliefs in Budge 1914 (Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud; add Barnett and Falkner 1962, pIs . CXVI-II ; also Canby 1971, for chariots among cloth patterns); King 1915 (Shalmaneser I~I, Balawat bronze gates); Barnett and Falkner 1962 (Tiglath-Pileser III); Botta and .Fl ar:? I ~ 1849-50 (Sargon II, Khorsabad; add Loud 1936, fig . 79); Paterson 1915 (Sennachenb, NlI~lVeh ; ~o~ comp:ehen.sive and including several exs, of Ashurbanipal) ; Barnett 1976 (Ashurbanipal, Niniveh ; his reliefs from Sennacherib's palace are not included). Useful selec-

102

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

and cylinder seals.P Chariots appear on Neo-Hittite reliefs (figs. 57-58),11 and on Levantine ivories and metalwork, which had a wide distribution.P Figured ivories and metal objects also come from Iran 13 and metal ones from Urartu as well.14 Cyprus yields the remains of actual chariots as well as representations, including terra-cotta models (fig. 59),16 a few of them found in the Levant (fig. 60).16 tions of ills., esp. Barnett n.d ; 1975; also Encyclopedic 5 and 6; Yadin 1963; Strommenger and Hirmer 1964; Orthmann 1975. Discussion of chariots, esp. Yadin 1963; Hrouda 1963; 1965; Nagel 1966; Madhloom 1970. 10 Provincial relief from Arslan Tash, S. E. Anatolia, Thureau Dangin et al. 1931, pl. VIII (time of Tiglath-Pileser III). Wall paintings from Til Barsib, Thureau Dangin and Dunand 1936, pls. XLIX, LI-III; Parrot 1961, ill. p. XV, pIs. 128, 345 (dating disputed). Glazed tiles from Ashur, Andrae 1925, pls. 7 (recent ill., Orthmann 1975, pl. 196) and 9: h (Tukulti-Ninurta II, 888-884 B.C.), pl. 6 (presumably Tiglath-Pileser III, d. Fridman 1969). Seals, a.o. Porada 1948, nos. 659-663; Wiseman n.d., no. 84; Legrain 1951, no. 6II (Ur; shield at rear of body; not Middle-Assyrian as stated by Nagel 1966, caption to fig. 37, but Neo-Assyrian or rather Neo-Elamite, according to E. Porada, oral communication). 11 Comprehensive coverage, Orthmann 1971; chariots in pIs. 9: a, II: bod (Halaf), 25: a, c-f, 37: a-b (Carchemish), 41: a-b (Malatya; b = our fig. 57), 51: c (Sakcagozu: our fig. 58), 52: f (Tainat), 57: a (Zinjirli). 12 Ivories, Barnett 1957a, nos. SI, 29: a-c, 50; Mallowan and Davies 1970, pls. XVI-XX (many exs.); Mallowan and Herrmann 1974, no. I, panel 9 (all Nimrod); Andrae 1943, pls. 71-72 (several exs.; Zinjirli). So-called Phoenician metal bowls, a.o. Studniczka 1907, 175ff. 13 Ivories, said to be from Ziwiyeh, N. W. Iran (better "Ziwiyeh", d. discussion of their pedigree in Muscarella 1977), Godard 1950, figs. 83-85; Wilkinson, C. K. 1975, figs. 15-16. Metal objects, Porada 1965b, 96ft with figs. 63-64 and pl. 23 (famous gold bowl; Hasanlu IV, destroyed ca 800 B.C.), II3f. with pl. 28 (silver vessel; same prov.); Amiet 1965, with fig. 2 and pIs. XVI-II (vessel; no provo but presumably N.W. Iran); Calmeyer 1974, 65 with pl. 15: I (fragm. quiver; "Luristan"), Chariots on these metal objects, except for Hasanlu silver vessel, closely similar, possibly indicating contemporaneity; an early rst millennium date is quite possible in all cases, although Porada attributed Hasanlu gold bowl to later znd millennium, d. Muscarella 197Ia, 264f.; 1974a, 210. 14 Listed by Calmeyer 1975, 12f. with nn. 19-21; add Tasyiirek 1977, figs. 13-16. Cf. also van Loon 1966, fig. 18: E5 (sealing); Calmeyer 1974, 55££. with pls. 10-12 (stone relief). 16 At least six chariots were buried at Salamis: Dikaios 1963, 152££. (tomb I); Karageorghis 1967, 49ff. (tomb 3),77££. (tomb 47); 1973a, esp. 78ff., 86 (tomb 79; 2 exs.). Terra-cottas, Gjerstad 1935, pls. CCXXXIV (no. 3 = our fig. 59)-CCXXXV; 1963, 3££. with figs. 9-15 (all Ayia Irini); Young and Young 1955, esp. 228f. with figs. 15-17 (Kourion; also later exs.). Many other models and profile representations discussed by Wilson 1972. Vase paintings, Karageorghis and des Gagniers 1974, 15ff. and nos. II 1-3, 5-6 (no. 5 also in Karageorghis 1973b). 16 Our fig. 60 from necropolis at Marathus (modern Amrit) in Phoenicia, d. Heuzey 1923, no. 187 (Louvre S 7); Studniczka 1907, 168, no. 17. Two others of exactly same type were said to come from Phoenicia, de Ridder 1909, no. 187, and Catling 1971, no. 99 (now Oxford, Ashm 1974-349); Poulsen 1912, 62f. with figs. 60-61 (Paris, Bibl. Nationale 5912). Cypriot manufacture is suggested by exs. of similar style found there, a.o. Ohnefalsch-Richter 1915, 54ff. with pl. IX (Frangissa near Tamassos); Littauer and Crouwel 1977a, 7f. with figs. 3-6 (Ovgoros).

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

103 Chariots under Ashurnas' al II (88 8 . B.C.) ~ppear to be identical (fi;: 53-54). ?~19 ~~C.~and Shalma?eser III (858-824 box WIth a solid siding that dips somewhat to~ards~hown as haVl~g a low, shallow top rear corner thus differing fr th e front and IS rounded at the , om e rectangular fil f . chariots. The rounded front corners and th . pro es o earlier Assyrian e manner m which th e crosse d quiver oui bowcase are shown in this and area suggest that these h . t h d . c hari: saD-shaped floor plans, so well documented on later znd ill -m enmum c anots (cf 6) T no~ally carry a crew of two abreast; sometimes a third . p. 7· hey behind these, occasionally clearly shown h ldin b crew member stands forward. 17 0 g on y a loop handgrip placed well

Box.

. Lion-head-bossed or toothed shields are often seen in of these chariots (jig 53) but it l' t 1 profile as hung at the rear . ., s no c ear on what they h . .are ung and, If hung against the rear edge of the thin-walled sidin the to this problem is probably furnished b d g, Y would SWIVel loosely. An answer Th . . Y ocuments from Cyprus d th L ese, consIstmg of actual chariot remains from Salami . an e evant. and numerous terra-cotta models from C s (mid 8th-7 th cent. B.C.) nd cent. B.C.), show that chariots in those : : sh: a f~w from :~e Levant (7th-6th front to back down the middle of th b I d upnght partifiong running from hoop 0.50 m. high was fixed at thee re~:' o~ ::e case .o~ one actual chariot, a metal show the central partition with ahoo I'de pa~tItIOn. The terra-cotta models models from the Levant shows a li -h or so 1 upn~ht at its rear, and one of the at its rear (fig. 60). We may ventu~:t eadt-bosseld shield hung across this partition ate backwards and t th e 9th-century Assyrian chariots with 0hiexldrapo h 0 suggest that A Cypriot terra-cotta shows the hoop s e sl ung at rear also had such a partition. . . use d a so as a handgn' . . partition would provide a wall against hi h th P III mountmg. 1S The w IC e crew could br their i on turns; it would prevent them from' tli ace err InsIde legs ened the fabric of the box. JOS mg each other, and it may have strengthActual Cypriot chariots show continued use of h flooring of interwoven thongs materially attested in ~he D-sh~ped fl~or plan and the e suppose that the Assyrian chariot also had th 19 A prevIOUS pe~IOd, and we may em. spear, slantmgbackwards is UFloor plan, Littauer and Crouwel 197 c, 28' I ' . 6 f. 14, 25;. Barnett and Falkner 1962, pIs. CX~I- VIi. , ;4 Loop handgnp, Barnett n.d., pls.

91

Gjerstad 1935, pl. CCXXXV' 3 DI's . 'fa so . ~rrot 19 61, pl. 345 (Til Barsip mural) 6' '. CUSSlOn 0 partition 10 d hi I ' . 147, 197 , 221 WIth figs. 18-19 20 (our jig 6 ). Lrrta ' op an s re d, Llttauer 1972 Act~a.l loop, Karageorghis 1;73 a, 73 willi °pis I C ue~ a~CdXCrouwel 1977c, 69 with pI. XXV: partition here too). . an LVIII (tomb 79, chariot beta' UKarageorghis 1967, 49££. (tomb 3, chariot B). ' 18

.

8

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B .C.

104

tt hed outside towards the rear on the right-hand side of the chariot box, as on :ar~~r Assyrian chariots (d. p. 91 ; jig. 41). A tassel, depending from the floor at the rear, suggests the presence of a carpet. 20 • ., When, after an interval during which we -have no cha~ot repr~entatIons III the major art of Assyria, they reappear on palace walls under Tlglath-Pileser III (745-727 B.c.), there is considerable change (fig. 55). A rectangular, rath~r than aD-shaped, floor plan is suggested by the profiles of these and, although a shield (or a rear h?op) appears to be shown at least once, the humps at the upper rear con:er, sometimes augmented by handgrip tassels here, may represent substitutes .for, onmp.rovements on, the central standing handgrip. Quivers, now placed vertically at. either f:ont corner, indicate a higher siding. A spear fixed aslant towards the rear IS som etimes still shown. The continued us e of a carpet is suggested by tassels at the rear of the floor. 21 . 68.1 Chariot boxes depicted under Sargon II (721-705 B.C.) Sennachenb, (704B.C.) and Ashurbanipal (668-630 B.C.), do. not see.m to depart greatly from this formula except that they appear to become, If anythmg, larger-probably to accom modate a complement of four men, first shown under Sargon II, an~ more ~ften under Ashurbanipal (fig . 56) 22. The size of royal chariots, :lOwever, IS sometimes dearly exaggerated. Even those not exaggerated may-to Judge by the. men a~d horses-have had wheels as large as ca 1.40 m-1.50 m. in diameter'23whi~h ar~ in fact the estimated dimensions of som e actual wheels from Cyprus. ThIS height might require a step at the rear and perhaps the carpet tas~els there conceal one from view. On royal chariots of Ashurbanipal, a strap crossing the upper p~rt of the siding from the rear and fastened by a toggle , sug~ests a means of closing a rear door, such as is also documented in the succeeding penod (d. p. I~6) . . Enemy chariots shown under Ashurnasirpal II, except f~r their wh eels being eight - rather than six-spoked, appear to be identical to Assyrian ones. In the later

20

Su ch as was found in chariot no. 120 of Tut'ankhamun, d. H . Carter's notes, on file in

Oxford Griffith Inst. . ' B tt 21 Floor plan, Littauer and Crouwel, supra n . 17. Sp ear and possibly shi eld at rear, arne and F alkner 1962, pl. IX. I IV ' 22 Sargon II, d . Botta a nd Flandin 1849-50, pl. 58 (= Madhloom 1970, p . .

infra n . 109·

I

).

,

I

a so

. B tt pls 65 ISennaDikaios 19 63 , 159 (Sal amis, tomb I) . Royal chariots, a . ~ . arne 1975 , . : \ ib 1°3- 109 II6-II 8 168 (Ashurbanipal). One chanot of Sennach enb is clearly ar~h:Zi~g ?:'sev eral d~tai1s of tr'action and h arnessing, Paterson 19 15. pls , 74-7 6; W olff 193 6-37. 23

h

105

8th and 7th century reliefs, Levantine and some Elamite chariots are indistinguishable from those of their conquerors.P Of chariots appearing in profile view on non-Assyrian documents, only a few on Neo-Hittite reliefs and Urartian bronzes seem to be identical to their Assyrian contemporaries. Others, depicted on similar objects, on ivory plaques and metal bowls and on Iranian ivories, while generally resembling Assyrian chariots, often display features of the latter from different periods. This could be due to regional differences. But whether these representations always show the actual chariots of a particular time and place is doubtful; they may simply depict fictive chariots that combine elements of different date and provenance. Features unknown on Assyrian chariots may also appear. Thus, documents in different media, including Neo-Hittite reliefs (fig. 57) and a silver vessel from Hasanlu, may show the side screens of chariots with an entirely horizontal upper edge, unlike the Assyrian screens of the 9th-7th cent. B.C., while a box of this type belongs to one Elamite chariot shown on a relief of Ashurbanipal. 25 Other chariots, unlike Assyrian ones, have an open handgrip at the rear upper corner. Sometimes this is reserved in a raised corner (fig. 58), or in screens with horizontal upper edges.!" As in Assyria, chariot crews normally consist of two or no more than three men, one st anding behind the other two. The few terra-cotta models from the Levant including that with lion-headed shi eld at rear (fig. 60), and one north Syrian iva; from Nimrud, show a crew of four, as seen on reliefs of Sargon II and Ashurbanipal. 27 Axle. The location is usually fully to the rear, as predominant in the previous period. In a minority of non-A ssyrian representations, where the axle appears to be central or nearly central (fig. 57), the location may have been dictated by limitations of space (d. p . 78).28 Chariot axles were fixed and carried revolving wheels. From 24 A .o . Barnett n.d. , pis . 24, 25 ; Barnett and Falkner 1962, pl. CXVI (Ashurnasirpal II); Pater son 19 15, pi s . 71-73 (Sennach erib ; captured ex . fr om Lachi sh, Pal estine) ; Barnett 1976, pl. XXXV (Ashurbanip al; Elamite exs .). 25 Also Orthrnann 1971, pls. 24 : a , c-f , 37 : a-b, 42 : a-c 57 : a ; P or ada 1965b, pI. 28 ; Barnett 19 76, pl. LXVI. • 26 Supra n: 13 (H as anl.u gold bowl a nd unprov. metal vase); Barnett 1957a, no. S 50 (Nimrud iv ory) . Urartian stone relief (supra n . 14) m ay show stand ing loop at re ar. documented in Cyprus. 27 Supra n. 16; Mallowan and H errmann 19 74, pI. III (Nimrud ivory no . I, panel 9; d . al so Li;;auer a nd Cro u wel 1 ? 7~ C ; da~ed t o time of Tiglath-Pileser III by Winter 19 76,52 wit h n . 108). A.a . other Neo-Hittite reliefs, Orthrnann 1971, pIs . 42: a, 57 : a ; silver vessel, H asanlu, supra n. 13.

106

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

the time of Sennacherib on, the axle ends on royal chariots are shown as decorated with a rosette, which suggests a metal axle cap. Even ends that appear plain and show no linch pin may have worn undecorated caps, like an actual bronze cap, extending back over part of the nave and inscribed with the name of the Urartian king, Sarduri II (764-735 B.C.). This cap is very similar to ones used with Iron-age (late Hallstatt) European wheels, where they frequently conceal.a~ inconspic~~us linch-pin head.F' This may explain why linch pins are so seldom VISIble on Assynan reliefs. That they were in use in Assyria is documented by a 0.135 m-long bronze example from Nimrud. Extremely long (0.56 m.) and elaborate linch pins, piercing ornate bronze axle caps, were found with a buried chariot in Cyprus.P? Wheels. Ninth-century reliefs of Assyrian chariots show the six-spoked wheels predominant in the previous period (figs . 53, 54): while ~ few e~emy chariots appearing on them show eight-spoked ones." By the tIm~ of Tiglath-Pileser III ~744.-727 B.C.), the Assyrians themselves have adopted the eight-spoked wheel, WhICh IS to remain standard on all subsequent Assyrian wheels (figs. 55, 56).32 Elsewhere, the number of spokes appears to vary from six to ten, with a tendency to become fixed at eight (figs. 57, 58). On those actual Cypriot chariot wheels where the number of spokes could be calculated, it was eight or ten. 33 Direct information for the size of chariot wheels is furnished by some Cypriot wheels, which are estimated to have measured ca 0.85 m., 0.90 m., 1.05 m. and 1.40 m./L5o m. in diameter. Assyrian reliefs show wheels of native ~hariots of the 8th and 7th centuries as distinctly larger than 9th century ones, WIth some royal chariots having the largest of all. We may, however, somewhat discount the size of some of the latter wheels, since the king and even the horses here are over-sized. We have seen that four- and six-spoked wheels of the preceding period in Egypt 29 Barnett 1975, pls. 65, 92, 103ff., n6ff., 168. Tasyiirek 1975, 154 with pis. XXXII: d and XXXV: a-b (Urartian cap) . Drack 1958, f~g. 29 (Europ:an ca?s). . . . 30 Mallowan 1966,208f. with fig . 142 [Nimrud ex.); Linch pm VISible on relief, Barnett 1976, pI. V [Ashurbanipal, royal chariot). Karageorghis 1973a, esp. 80f. with pis. CI-V, CCLVI-II (tomb 79, chariot beta). . . . 31 Barnett n.d ., pis. 24, 25; ten-spoked wheel shown in Layard's drawing of a lost relief IS doubtful, Barnett and Falkner 1962, pI. CXVII. Suggestion of eight spokes in case of our fig. 54 (Assyrian chariot in boat) is due to co~f.usion of .artist. . 32 Exception : six-spoked wheels on archaizing chanot of ~ennachenb, supra n. 23. . 33 Karageorghis 1967, 49f. with pI. CXXI (tomb 3, chan ot B: 8 spokes); 1973a, 68 WIth n. I and figs. 10-II (tomb 79, chariot beta: 10 spokes). Four-spoked wheels on a .few small-~cale ills . may not be realistic, Moorey 1971a, 104 with n . 4 ; Muscarella 1971a, 264 WIth pI. 63 : fig . I (fragm. ivory; Hasanlu) .

. . _-- -:.:. ,

';;'

.~

:;.-. ,',

.

107

were of a peculiar construction, unlikely to be suitable for wheels with a larger numbe.r of sp?kes (d: p. 79). The latter would have had independent cylindrical naves into which th~ inner ends ~f the spokes were morticed, and soil impressions of such naves. were mdeed found m Cyprus. According to this reasoning, Assyrian 9th-century six-spoked w~eels ~ight also have been made in the "Egyptian" manner. In this case,. the slight thickening of the spokes for a short distance beyond the n~ve c~ul.d be mterpreted as indicating the rawhide binding material that o~cuples a similar area on Egyptian wheels. This feature is found, however, on later eIght-spoked Assyrian wheels (d. fig. 55) and even on Elamite cart wheels, where the number of spoke~ would certainly preclude such a construction. It appears too on several non-AssyrIan ~oc~ments, e.g. on the six-spoked wheels of a fragmentary bronze model.f~~m Gordion m. central Anatolia (find context dated ca 700 B.C.).34 Another possibility presents Itself: that this was a cylindrical nave but metalsheathed, with short metal sockets through which the spoke ends passed before being morticed into the wooden core of the nave. Such a construction is in fact attested in Iron-age (late Hallstatt) Europe.3s The felloes (q.v.) of Assyrian wheels are depicted as if composed of two concentric elements-a beaded inner one and a wider, flat outer one. (Whether the outer one ~s technically a felloe or a tyre would depend on whether the spoke ends penetrate It or not.) A few reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II reveal that the outer element is not single, but composite. Sometimes it is shown as made up of six butt-ended segments, and at le~st ~nce as of t~r~e bevelled and overlapping ones (fig. 53, d. 54).36 This cons~ructlOn IS not surpnsmg wherever we find a heavy wheel. There is a direct relation between the dimensions of the cross-section of a piece of wood and the degre: to which it may be heat-bent to form a felloe or wooden tyre: the thicker the piece, the less the degree to which it can be bent. Hence, to achieve depth, the deep felloe must be made in two parts-inner and outer-or there must be a felloe and a \:o~den tyre. Even then, these elements are often made in segments. While the majority of. extan~ EgyPtian wheels of the preceding period (15t h and 14th cent. B.C.) are light, WIth smgle-Iayered felloes, we have one heavier pair from th e rath cent. B.C. (d. p. 79; fig . 47) and a single, also six-spoked, heavier wheel proba-

3~ ~lso a.o.Barnatr n.d., pI. 121 (re-spoked Elamite-cart). Gordion model Littauer 1976 223 WIth fig . 24. ' , 35 Decheletts 1913, 750ff.; Drack 1958, fig . 33. . 38 AI.so a . o. Barnett n.d., 17. Cf. Spruytte 1977, pI. 33 : 3-4 (reconstructions). Important diSCUSSIOn of European, Cypnot and Assyrian wh eels, in Kossack 1971.

P:.

108

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

bly from the 1St millennium B.C.37 These had felloes made of overlapping segments, with wooden tyres in butt-ended segments, flush with the felloes and lashed to them. It would be very difficult, however, to hold a flush tyre firmly in place merely with bindings-particularly in rough going . One solution to this problem might be a tongue-and-groove construction, in which a tongue on the inner surface of the outer felloe or tyre lies in a groove in the perimeter of the inner felloe. Such a construction has been suggested for wheels from Salamis in Cyprus.i" A very few wheels under Ashurnasirpal II show faint traces of binding on the inner part of the felloe in areas flanking the outer ends of two opposite spokes (fig. 53)· The only conceivable purpose of such bindings may have been to secure the mitred overlaps of two sections of heat-bent felloe. It may be relevant that in the later Egyptian wheel, which has an inner felloe in overlapping sections, the overlaps lie across the spoke ends, and the latter may have been supposed to have had the effect of pins in holding the two sections together. Bindings on either side of the spoke ends further secured the spoke ends. The problem of the 9th-century Assyrian wheels lies in how the outer felloe or wooden tyre was secured in the absence of any clamps or bindings shown crossing it. vVe know from actual remains that the Egyptians used rawhide tyres (d. p. 79). These are put on wet and, in shrinking, consolidate the whole construction. In Assyria such a tyre would have helped to hold the parts of the composite felloe together. By the time of Tiglath-Pileser III two pairs of large metal clamps are shown joining both parts of the felloe and confirming the tongue- and groove construction (figs . 55-56). The wh eels of royal chariots from the time of Sennacherib on are shown as studded with hobnails." The only wheel-base dimensions obtained from actual remains are those of chariot beta from tomb 79 at Salamis. Here the track was ca 1.68 m., which falls within Egyptian track dimensions. Naves must have been long, as were all wooden ones (d. p. 79), but the only dimensions obtained from actual remains are from two tombs at Salamis. Thes e at 0.68 m. and 0.70 m., fall far outside any other known lengths for antiquity, with Egyptian naves varying from 0.31 m . to 0-44 m. (d. p. 79) and Hallstatt ones 31 Wilkinson 18 78 , 234f. with figs . 66-67; Littauer and Crouwel 1979 (in press; this wheel. ca 0.9 6 m . in diam ., presently in Brooklyn Museum) . 88 Kossack 197 1, 155ff. with fig . 34; also Karageorghis 1967. 49f . with pl . CXX . 39 A.o. Barnett 1975 . pIs . 65. 92, rojff., 168. A metal tyre, such as was used on Halstatt wheels (Kossack 1971, 157, 159), is possibly indicated beneath hobnails on an Assyrian mural from Til Barsib, Parrot 19 61, pI. 345 · ; "- ". . -e-,

,-

rog

from 0.39 m. to 0.44 m. 40 The latter may offer the safest parallels for Assyrian wheels. Draught pole. In contrast to the preceding period, when a single pole and a twohorse team were standard, we now find three different types of poles, as well as teams of two, three and four animals. Remains of vehicles buried in Cyprus and Cypriot terra-cotta models furnish the most explicit information. Buried bigae had single poles running back under the box, while quadrigae had two poles, each pole running out from the side of the box to a reportedly single, four-horse yoke. The terra-cotta model quadrigae, including those found in the Levant, show two poles too, but more often with two two-horse yokes (figs. 59-60).41 A Cypriot model biga and some other models in other materials from the island and from the Levant that probably date to the next period (d. p. 147; jig. 83) document a different type of pole. 42 This is the so-called Y-pole (q.v.), formed by bending the two side poles inwards in front of the box-not to merge, but to run contiguously out to the yoke. Something similar is suggested by the profile views of chariots on Assyrian 9th-century reliefs (figs. 53-54). Here, the pole, as it rises from the chariot floor, impinges on the lower side of the box nearest the viewer, as a central pole never would. Moreover, on several reliefs, the outline of a second pole appears ben eath the first (fig. 53), indicating the presence of a comparable element coming from the other side of the box, the two joining to run forward as a Y-pole. This type of pole is shown as rising abruptly before curving forward, which suggests that it did not continue back along the sides of the box or beneath it, but rose from what look like metal sockets at the front. 43 The same pole appears to continue through the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III and into that of Sargon II, although with a differently shaped chariot box (fig. 55) . 40 K.arage orghis 1967. 50 (tomb 3. chariot B); 1973a. 68. 70 (tomb 79. chariot beta); Drack 1958, fig , 26 . n Definite bigae .(not to be confused with single-poled carts, supra n. 3), Karageorghis 1967, 49f~. ~tomb 3. ~hanot. B): 77££. (tomb 47, rst burial) ; 1973a. 74f.• 86 (tomb 79. chariot delta). Definite qu.adngae. Dikaios 1963. 156ff. {tomb I, znd burial); Karageorghis 1967, 77ff. (tomb 47, z nd bunal); 1973a. 78ff. (tomb 79, chariot beta). Terra-co ttas, infra n . 62. :: For.Y-pole, Littaue: and Crouwel 1976, 76ff:; 1977a. Iff. with figs. 3-6 (Ovgoros model). While those ~ew r~lIefs of unharnassed ch ariots of Ashurnasirpal II (our f ig. 54) do not show a pole of this design but what appears to be a single one. the foreshortening needed to render su ch may have been beyond capacity of artistes) . and deductions cannot be safely made. Independently, Spruytte has also come to conclusion that these Assyrian chariots had a Y-pole ' cf. Littauer and Crouwel 1977a, 5f.

110

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C. EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C .

In the 7th-century. Assyrian reliefs suggest a return of the single, central ~ole, as. in the znd millennium, and this is supported by views of unharnessed chanots ifig«. 56, 61). This pole runs forward from floor le~el in a mild upward curve towards the new, four-horse yoke. . . Assyrian reliefs show poles rectangular in section and usually remforced WIth patterned metal sheathing (figs. 53, 55-56, 61). .. . , . A pole supportfbreastwork brace is a constant on AssYJ?an r eliefs. Unlike earlier examples (d. p.8I), it appears to be a metal rod that nses close .t o the box a 44at nearly vertical angle, and forks near its attachment to the pole ifig«. 53-55). On 9th-century and som etimes on 8th-century reliefs a pea-pod-shaped elem~nt, often decorated is seen running forw ard from the top of the front breastwork (ftgs . 53-55) as did therod or thong pole-end brace on earlier Assyrian chariots (d. p. 81; fig. 41). One purpose of this new element, which may still have conc ealed a pole-end brace, may have been to carry a bow, as its shape suggests.v Non-Assyrian documents also frequently illustrate the vertical p~le. supp.ort/ breastwork brace, as well as the " p ea-pod" brace (fig. 58). Some Neo-Hittite relie.fs, however, instead of the latter, show the simple rod or . thong like that of earlier Assyrian chariots (fig . 57}.46 DRAUGHT ANIMALS (AND MOUNTS)

Horses Horses continue to b e used extensively in harness, and there is increasing evidence of their use as mounts. The fullest osteological information comes from eastern Anatolia, where earlier evidence was also found (d. p . 41). Two stallions and a mare were buried in a chamber tomb at Norsuntep e (7th cent. B.C.)-all between 5! and 6 years old.t? The males stood 1.40 m.-1.45 m . at the withers, one of them being slightly bigger and heavier than the other. The mare, at 1.25 m ., was the smallest , but the most thick-set. Paterson 1915, 108f.; Littauer and Crouwel 1977c, 70f. . . "Pea p od" later shown on arch aizing chariot of Sennach erib, supra n ', 23. Bo,,:case interpretation supported by Neo-Assyrian bronze bucket in Teheran (unpubI.; mfor:nahon U . Calm eyer-Seidl letter Feb. 15 , 1977) , where a "pea pod" is seen lying on ground in battle scene involving chariot (with "pea p od") and horsemen. For other interpretations, a.o. Nagel 1966, 5d. with n . 156; Madhloom 1970, 16f . (stressing function as pole support). 46 Also Orthmannrozr , pls. 9: a , II: b-d, 42: a. . 41 B oessneck and von den Driesch (report forthcoming ; copy provided b~ B~essneck) . Find circumstances, Hauptmann 1972 , royf. with pl. 59 : 1-2; also per sonal commu ni cati on , u

45

III

Regrettably, very little is known about other skel etons reported from the Near These include the burial of several horses at Gordion (7th cent. B.C.) and of smgle horses at Baba Jan (Sth-zth cent. B.C .) and War Kabud (both in Luristan) 48 ~t Hasanlu in northwest Iran, four skeletons were excavated by Iranian archaeologists, apparently in connection with a tomb; four other skeletons were found on a floor of Building V and a skeleton and skull found in Building VI of period IV (destroyed ca 800 B.C.). From nearby Dinkha Tepe comes a fragmentary skeleton of an animal that stood ca 1.50 m .49

~ast.

M~~an levels at Nush-i Jan near Hamadan gave a wid e range of sizes, from

ponies

o~ mImat~re horses ~h~t stood 1.05-1.10 m. to horses standing over 1.50 m. at the WIthers, WIth the rnajorrtv standing 1.35-1.37 m ., and variations from light to heavy Comparative dimensions furnished by the skeletons of harness horses from ~y~not tombs also show a wide range, from 1.32 m. t o 1.53 m. 51 Such variations III SIZe and type may well indicate selective breeding. Horses are very frequently depicted-primarily in harness, but increasingly as mounts. !he r~lative. size of Assyrian horses may be deduced from the very circumstantIal reliefs (ftg. 53, 55-56, 62, 76-78). Ninth-century horses appear smaller than 7th-century ones, when larger, heavier chariots a nd the increased use of mounted troops . probably cr eated a demand for bigger horses. Assyrian horses under Ashurbampal are shown as strong, well-built, well-muscled animals, with lon~ canon bones, large hooves and "breedy " heads. Som e 8th-century reliefs seem to illustrate the small pony cit ed above.52

type~. 50

6 48 Yo~.ng, R. S. 195 , 266 with pI. 96: figs . 56-57; 1964a, 55 ff. with pl. XV: I (Cordionj , :.lso Ozgu~, T. and Akok 1947, 80 (hor se burial, tumulus n ear Ankara); Goff 19 69, 123ff . with Ig·. 7 (Baba Jan) ; V~nden Berghe 1968, 120 (War Kabud) ; al so Moorey 197 1a , 103 (hor se t eeth st~~ned ? y bronze bits reported fr om ot he r t ombs in Luristanj , Ghlrshman 19 64a , 24ff . with fig . 131 ; D yson 1965 , 208ff . (Hasanlu tomb)' 1973 195 ' f 19 75, 1.81 (Has~nlu bUildings) ; Mu scarella 1974b, 67, 78f . with n . 16 (Dinkha T~pe) ' ~Iso i~~ formation provI.ded by Bok onyi, letter March 2, 1974. Horse burials fr om Kalouras d ear S.w. corner of CaspIa? (unpubl. d. H akemi 1968, 67), and p ossibly also horse teeth from n earby cemetery at Marlik (suPra p . 000), may d ate to early rst millennium . 50 B OOk " . c o onyi 1973 : 13?f.; .1 97 8 , ~sp. 28; also letter, March 2, 1974 . Horse remains, from 7th cent. levels at Urartian SItes in Iranian Azerbaijan, belong t o a nimals standing at ca 1.34-1.45 m ., Boessneck a~d ~auss ~973, 128 (Bastan;. earlier horse .m a t erial t oo); also Boessneck 1973, 98 5~Zendam-I-Sulelman), for Skeletal matenal from Kanmr Blur (early 6th cent.), infra p. q8 . 67, J?ucos 19 esp. 157 . (table) . Cf. .also. three ~orses, including a ca 18-year-old stallion standing at ~a 1-48 m., buned a t some time m 1St mill. B .C. in m astaba near pyramid of Un as Saqqara, QUlbelland Olver I 916 ; Vitt 195 2, 201ff. ' 52 Good ills. of horses, Barnett n .d . ; 1975; 1976. For sm all ponies Littauer 197 26f with pis. VII : a-b. ' . 1,

IIZ

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

Treatment of mane and tail . This is primarily elucidated by Assyrian reliefs. . . Manes. No distinction seems to be made throughout between th: manes of nding or harness horses. Up to the time of Ashurbanipal, manes are consistently left long . Only enemy chariot horses under Ashurnasirpal II sho",: manes hogged (q.v.) or perhaps pulled (q.v.) and braided into knots. The forelock IS left long but evened ~ff, until the time of Tiglath-Pileser III, when it is largely supplanted by a brow c~shlOn (d. p. 1z7). Under Ashurbanipal, the mane is sometimes hogged, b~t agam ~he forelock is occasionally left long. Under Sennacherib we first see a peculiar ~endenng of the mane, which is to continue under Ashurbanipal.P This shows a hangmg ma~e but, above it, what looks like the centre of the mane which had been. hogged. (fzg. 6z). More likely, it is a wa y of indicating a thick mane that was parted m the middle and fell on both sides. Tails. Throughout the period, tails may be left long, merely evened off at the ends and tied by a cord at the middle (figs. 53, 55, 78). On mounts ~nder Ashurnasirpal II (fig . 76) and Shalmaneser III, they may als o b e shown WIth the lower half looped back in a "mud knot. " This fa shi on appears ~nly on mounts u~~er Tiglath-Pileser III (fig. 77), but the paucity of document~tlOn m~kes gen eralities impossible. Under Ashurbanipal, the lower hal~es of the tails of dnve~ ho~s es may be braided before being ti ed up, and the nbbons of royal horses tails have "streamers'I." Horses are frequently m entioned in the voluminous Neo-Assyrian t ex~ s : administrative documents, letters and reports of military expeditions . They ar e hst edoften in large numbers-among booty collected or tribute receiv ed . The demand for horses to replenish the chariot a nd mounted corps may even have acted as an inc entive for the Assyrians to undertak e military expeditions ~o the north, whe~e the rich pastures of Azerbaij an and Urartu were noted for their hors es.P There IS no r eference to them as pack animals or in .slow dr aught. T ••• As previously, classific~tion of horses IS. by se~, a~~ ~~lour. No sp ecific SIzes are given, but horses are occasionally ch aractenzed as big". Barnett n .d .• pls. 24. 25 (Ashurnasirpal II) ; 1975. pI. 65 (Sennach erib);, . Discussion, Madhloom 1970, 22 f.; h e did not r ecognize "mud k nots on Ashurnasirpal II's mounts. Barnett n .d. , pls, 57-59 (braiding). 55 A .o . Salonen 1956, 31ff .; J ankowska 1969 , 266 with fig. 5; Moor ey 1971a, II5££. Lo cal texts confirm importance of horse breeding in Urartu, a .o. Hancar 1956. 185.££. . 56 Sal on en 1956, 34 . White horses ap pare ntly especially priz ~ d , a~ i.n e~rher te x ~s , d . W eidner 195 2 159 R emains of actual stables are claimed to have b een Identified III Palestine•. d . La~J.On and Shipton 1939, 32ff. ; Y adin 1976 ; d . al so J;reu sser 1954. 5?f. (AshurZ' But, as III ?reVIOUS p eriod (supra p . 94. n. 85), this in t erpretation IS op en t o question. cf. Pritchard 1970 , H erz og 53

54

Im ·

=~

II3

Other animals Although there is osteological and other evidence of asses, mules and hemiones, their appearance with chariots seems confined, like that of bovids, to mythological scenes, involving divine drivers.f? Ordinary carts, however, are usually shown as drawn by mules or bovids (d. p . IOO). HARNESSING

Traction in Assyria through the 9th cent. B.C. continues to be by a pole attached to a two-horse yoke similar in sh ape to the ones known from Egypt in the preceding period. Similar Y-shaped yoke saddles are in use, and som ewhat shorter yoke braces (d. p. 85; fig. 43)· This is clearly illustrated on r eliefs sh owing unharnessed chariots of Ashurnasirpal II (fig . 54). Similar harnessing may be assumed for the chariots of Shalmaneser III, although it is less explicitly shown. In profile views one or both yoke-saddle finials may sometimes be seen and also, in distorted p erspective, the sharply r ecurved yoke end id entified by its animal-h eaded t erminals (fig. 53).58 Although only two horses were under yoke befor e the 8th century, and no more than three horses are ever shown , there are indications of two-, three- and four-horse teams, the latter t aking over completely towards the end of the 8th century. That bigae and trigae existe d side by side already at the time of the "White Obelisk" is su gg ested by the rendering of both four (fig. 41) and six rein s on it. While til es of Tukulti-Ninurta II (888-884 B. C.) sh ow two pairs of reins, the consiste nt , careful r endering of six (fig. 53), and occasionally of eight reins under Ashurnasirpal II indicates both trigae and quadrigae. A fragmentary bronze model from Gordion illustrates a quadriga composed of two yoke horses and two outriggers (q.v .), as in Greec e." 57 Ass . cf. esp. sk eletons found with and without vehicle burials in Cyprus, Ducos 19 67 (standing at 1. 05-1.32 m.; d . 18I: "horses" from tombs 2 and 31 are in fa ct asses). Mule, d. esp . its u se as p ack animal, inf ra n. 142 . Hemione, d . esp. famous hunting reliefs of Ashurbanip al; since these show foal being cap t u re d alive. a nimals m ay al so h av e been used t o get hybrids, a .o. B arnett n .d ., pI s. 103-104 . Mythological scenes, supra n. 13 (H asanlu gold b owl, related m etal v essel wit hout prov ., fr agm. "Luristan" quiver ). B ovids a lso on an Neo-Hittite reli ef sh owing a rc haic type of t wo-wheeler with p entepartite disk wheels, driven by d eity, Orthrnann 197 1, pI. 4 1: f (Malatya). These scenes recall ea rlier on es and texts from Anatolia, su pra pp. 56, n . 33, 74 , n. 9, 80; discussion, also Mellink 1966 . 58 Di scu ssion, Littauer 197 6a , 21 7ff. Sg Gordian m odel, supra n . 34 . Six re in s seem rarely in d icated on "Whit s Obelisk", U nger 193 2, pI. VIII (reliefs B6-7); Madhloom 1970, 10. F or tiles, Andrae 1925 , pI. 7. Eight reins on Ashurnasirpal II's reliefs, Barnett n .d .; pis. 24-25 ; 1975, pI. 37 ; quadrigae m ay also be

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

The 8th century seems to be a period of transition and experiment-both artistic and technical in Assyria. Chariots under Tiglath-Pileser III may show six or eight reins with two horses (fig. 55). Artists, who had tried to show all three horses of a triga under Ashurnasirpal II, but had baulked at a fourth, were now experimenting with reducing the number until, by the 7th cent. B.C., we shall find a single horse representing a team of four (fig . 56). While a provincial relief of the time of Tiglath-Pileser III , from Arslan Tash, depicting a triga, still shows the yoke saddle and the pad beneath is, the terrets 60 (q.v.) are no longer situated on the horse's shoulder, but on the yoke itself. The reliefs of this king from Nimrud, however, seem to indicate another technical change -a new type of yoke that is explicitly illustrated only with unharnessed chariots (Assyrian, Levantine and Chaldean) under Sargon II, Sennacherib (fig. 61) and Ashurbanipal." This new, long yoke, which is shaped into bays-clearly paddedfor the horses ' necks , instead of fitted with yok e saddles, is only shown on these reliefs as a four -hors e yoke. But some reliefs of Tiglath-Pileser III, suggest that a two-horse form of it was used in triga hitch with an outrigger (fi g. 55). This new yoke was still sharply recurved at the ends. The terret rings-eight to a four-horse yokeinstead of being fixed on the shoulder, as earlier in Egypt and in oth-century Assyria, were now fixed on the yoke in the indentations between the .bays and near the still sharply recurved end s of the yoke (figs. 61, 62). Their higher position helps explain the very garbled rendering of the yok e under Tiglath-Pileser III as an unsuccessful attempt to depict this new, fitted yoke from the side, and the absence of yoke-saddle finials on these reliefs confirms this interpretation. Yoke braces, an important harness element used with earli er yokes (cf. p. II3; jigs. 43, 54), may well have continued with the new fitted type. Although not illustrated with the unharnessed chariots under Sargon II, Senn acherib and Ashurbanipal, they do appear with the long, four-bayed yokes of Elamite carts shown floating down the river Ulai (fig. 52). deduced from two p airs of horses being swum aft er single chario t transported by boat. Barnett n .d .• pIs. 18-20; 1975. pIs. 25-26 . Presen ce of trigae much debated : pr o. esp . Hrouda 1~63. 156; 1965, 9 6, 15 1 ; Littauer 1976a. 219, 222ff. (referring t o trigae in Gr eece a nd Etruria}; contra , esp. Na gel 1966. 53££. ; Madhloom 197 0. 15H . . . . 80 Thureau-Dangin et al. 1931. pI. VIII; Littauer 1976a, 218f. WIth fig. 17 (detail) . 81 Littauer 1976a • figs. 21 (Sargon II) , 22 (our f ig . 61 ; Sennach erib) ; P ater son 19 15. pIs. 7 1-73 (same king ; chariot cap t ure d at Lachish, !,ale:~n~); Barne~t 197 6, pI. XXXV (~hu~­ banipal ; captured Elamite ex s.). Four-h orse yok e implicit in harnessing scen e of Ashurbampal s royal quadriga (our f ig. 63 ; Barnett n.d ., pI. 59 ; 1975, pI. 9 2; 197 6, pis. V and A). . :"" ";':"'-: :: ..

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

lI5

The existence, from the 8th cent. B.C. on, of quadrigae with all four horse~ under .yoke, and not only the two pole horses, is confirmed by Cypriot chariot remains and t erra-cotta models from Cyprus and the Levant, although the latter do not date before the 7th-6th cent. B.c. But in contrast to Assyrian documents, these always show two poles, with either a single four-horse yoke (fig. 60) or two two-horse yokes (fig. 59)·62 Bigae seem to be indicated on several Neo-Hittite reliefs, where no more than four reins are illustrated (fig. 57) and where a yok e saddle is still sometimes shown, and on some other documents.P A fan-shaped object appears in the yok e area on several Assyrian reliefs, sometimes seeming to project across two horses' necks (fig. 53). To judge from unharnessed chariots depicted und er Ashurnasirpal II (fig. 54), there was one such object fixed to the centre of the yok e (possibly as finial to the yoke peg) and facing forward. These objects were restricted under Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II to royal chariots or to those of officers, and under Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal to certain royal chariots only. They might have figured decoration, as did two actual bronze examples found at Zinjirli.v' On a few royal chariots under Ashurnasirpal II, the fan-shaped object is shown as surmounted by a decorated disk, which may represent a sun disk, as did similar objects on earlier Egyptian pharaohs' chariot poles ." The exact manner in which the three- and four-horse teams were harnessed is difficult to reconstruct from the strictly profile views on Assyrian reliefs. The numerous and complicated straps under Ashurnasirpal II (fig. 53) and the summary execution of the Balawat Gat es of Shalmaneser III make the 9th century especially hard to interpret . So long as yok e saddles were in use they must have been held on by neck straps attached to the ends of their legs and crossing the horse's neck in • 82 Four-horse y~ ke apparentl~ pn~sent on two buried quadrigae, Dikaios 1963, 159f. with fig . 4; Karageorghis 1973a, 79 WIth figs. IO-II (tomb 79, cha rio t beta); details of reconstruction of yoke, poles and body of latter may be questioned. Littauer 1976b. Terra-cottas with fourhorse yoke, a .o. Littau er a nd Crouwel 1977 c, 71 with pI. XXV; others with two two-horse yokes, a.o. Gjerstad 1935, pI. CCXXXIV: 5 (good ill ., Karageorghis 1967, fig . 5) ; Young and Young 1955. 216f. with figs. 15-17 . 83 Orthmann 1971, pI. 24: a, c-f (yoke saddles). Actual bigae and t erra-cottas from Cyprus, supra nn. 41-42 . 64 Andrae 1943. 79ff. with figs. 90-91 and pI. 40 : cod (Zinjirli exs ., ca 0.68 and 0.803 m . in width); Botta and Fl andin 1849-50. pis . 56-57) (Sargon II) ; Barnett 1975. pIs . 65, 168 (Sen na ch erib and Ashurbanipal); discus sion, also H rouda 1965. 96 ; Madhloom 1970 , 14. 16. 66 Barnett n .d ., pIs . 26, 27. Cf. Carter 1927, 60. 62f. with pI. XLIV (actual exs .; tomb of Tut'ankhamun) ; Yadin 1963, 192-193 , 213-217, 333-337 (Egyptian ills .) ; discussion. Littauer 1976a, 219 .

II6

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

front, as they did earlier in Egypt (d. p. 85). The horses nearest the viewer on Ashurnasirpal II's reliefs are presumably outriggers, as no saddle legs are visible on them." The neck strap, which widens to spread the pressure on the front of the neck, runs back to an open, thumbnail-shaped element, of the same form as the saddle pad, and obviously deriving from it, and which must be connected in some wayan the far side with a yoke horse. The terret ring is placed on the horse's shoulder in a position similar to that which it occupied in Egypt, but since there would beno yoke saddle on an outrigger, there is no saddle end to which to attach it and it is perhaps held down by one of the straps that passes under the horse's belly. A second strap that passes under the belly just in front of the first forks as it goes up over the shoulder and its ends connect with a strap encircling the horse's neck above the saddle-pad strap. This may be a backing element (q.v.), although an outrigger would not seem to need one. It also might represent a second, more secure means of attaching an outrigger to a yoke horse. This is suggested by the fact that no traces are shown running to the chariot box on these very detailed reliefs, although traces are consistently depicted in the much less realistic Greek vase painting of quadrigae, where only two horses are under yoke." The conclusion is that the outriggers must have been conn ect ed 0I11y to the pole horses or to the ends of the yoke, although not being under it. With this type of harness, a horizontal strap is worn across the chest below the neck strap. The fringe that hangs from it, besides being ornamental, probably also serves to keep off flies (already seen on the "White Obelisk," fig. 41, and even in th e 3rd millennium, d. p. 30; figs. 3. 6, 8). Harnessing of later Assyrian chariots. from Tiglath-Pileser IlIon, when the fitted yoke had come into use, appears to have been simpler, involving fewer straps (figs . 55-56). The neckstrap, now attached to the yoke itself because the yoke saddles have disappeared, is still a constant and essential feature. The other strap, placed below it and crossing the chest, continues to be shown-often still with a hanging fly fringe. Only one strap that apparently passes under the belly is shown . Under Tiglath-Pileser III (fig. 55), this single strap seems to be attached to the end of the yok e. In the absence of any other visible backing element, it probably fills this role. Whether there was any connection between it and a possible similar strap on the next horse (not marked on the chariot models), is unascertainable. Sometimes under Sennacherib and consistently under Ashurbanipal (figs . 56, 62), th e single 88 87

Littauer 1976 a, 218£. For harnessing, also Hrouda 1965, 98f .; Nagel 1966 , 58. A.o . Simon and Hirmer 1976, pIs . XIII, 55-56, 94; discussion, Littauer 1976a, 223.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

II7

belly strap, instead of being attached to the yoke (i.e. infrant of the withers) appears to cross the back (behind the withers like a true girth, q .v.) and widens in its upper half. Its only visible connection is with the horizontal band that goes around the chest and that, since under Ashurbanipal it no longer carries a fly fringe, seems to have little practical purpose except to keep the "girth" in place. Neither of these straps seems elaborate enough to be purely decorative. Two practical roles may be postulated for this girth: 1. a connection might exist between it and a similar girth on the next (pole) horse, helpful in keeping the four horses properly aligned under o?: yo~e; 2. i! co~nected by a strap running from beneath the horse's belly (in:,sIble In profile VIew) and up between its forelegs to the n eckstrap of the yoke, It would help to ~eep the yoke from riding forward over th e horse's head in backing. It would be an Improvement over the earlier form of backing elem ent, one of th e defects of which was that, unless slack, it could cut the animal under the elbows (d. p. 86). In the absence of any other visible backing element, it is difficult not t o interpret this girth as such. Another harness element is a discoid shoulder ornament that is standard in Assyria from Tukulti-Ninurta II to Sargon II (figs . 53, 55). It appears later only sometimes on Assyrian royal chariots, but is still used by the Elamites with cart harness (fig. 51). Actual examples have been found vvith Cypriot vehicle burials-two to a team. Of repousse bronze, and hinged to bronze tongues with suspension loops at the top, these disks are clearly too small to have afforded protection. They may perhaps have served to weigh something down, their fringes also helping to keep the flies away. 68 Assyrian reliefs throughout indicate that harness straps were often decorated with appliques of discoid, banjo, or other shapes, which also decorated the breastbands (q.v.) of ridden horses (fig s. 53, 55, 62). Numerous bronze examples, particularly from outside Assyria proper, suggest a wide distribution of such obj ects." Non-Assyrian chariot representations, when showing harness in any detail, 88 Something similar is already shown with some royal Egyptian cha riots , Yadin 1963, 334, 337 (Ramesses III) . Madhloom (1970, II) suggests presence also on "White Obelisk" . Actual e::-:s . from Cyp~s, Karageorghis 1967, 49 (tomb 3, nos. 23 . 114 ; t otal length 0.52 m . ; diam. dIsk. 0 .2~ m.) .wlth.pl.. CXXVIII; 1973a, 76, n£., 83££., 86 with esp. pIs. CCLXXII-VI (tomb 79). Their weight indicates that they could not have be en suspended fr om ou tside r ein as su gg ested by Karageor ghis (1967, 49) a nd Madhloorn (1970, 12, 17 with n . 5) ; d . Littauer I97 6a, 220f. 89 A.o. Boehmer 1965. 802f£. (material esp . from cemetery B, t omb 15 at Sialk on Iranian plateau); Calmeyer 1969, group 48; Moorey I97Ia, 128 and s.v. nos. I5 I- I52a.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

EARLIER FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.

lI8

are bent in opposite directions. The canons are occasionally so long that the bits are the extra length protruding gives added leverage to a directional pull. Directional control is also emphasized by the studs on the inner faces of the cheekpieces, as on many earlier examples (d. p. 89). . The cheekpie~es are sometimes still discoid, but are usually in the form .of pierced plaques of varymg shape-frequently zoomorphic-and have loops to take a twopart cheekstrap.:" T~at t~e.bit.s were actually used-the most elaborate ones perhaps only in ceremonies-c-is mdicated ~y the w~ar on some of them-in one case even to the breaking through of the cheekpiece hole in the area where it was reinforced." . ~he emphasis on directional control implied by the studded cheekpieces probably mdicates that these were primarily driving bits. 2 . Bits u:ithjrn,nted wire c~nons. Firmly documented at Ashur (fig. 66) and in Cyprus, these bits basically continue a type established in the preceding period (d. p. 88; type 4).74 The canons are composed of two strands of heavy metal wire, looped through ea:h other in th: middle and twisted back on themselves to pass through the cheekpieces and end m loops to take the reins or a rein attachment. The cheekpieces are long and roughly rectangular and carry two or three loops for attaching the che:kstraps. Studs are lacking on the majority of them, including the rather narro~ Iron ones found with vehicle burials in Cyprus (mid 8th to 7th cent. B.C.). The WIre canons are more severe than the plain bars, and the joint in the centre produces a "nutcracker" effect on the corners of the horse's mouth when both reins ar: pulled. I~ the canons are very long-as they often are-this joint could press pamfully against the roof of the horse's mouth." In the case of one such bit found on Samos, the cheekpieces were in the form of galloping horses and clearly influenced

depict it as resembling that seen on Assyrian r~liefs: A good example is. a NeoHittite relief from Sak-s I

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