Water for Food in a Changing World (Contributions from the Rosenberg International Forum on Water Policy)

Water for Food in a Changing World

There is not enough water globally for all the things humans need and want water to do for us. Water supply bubbles are bursting in China, the Middle East and India with potentially serious implications for the global economy and for political stability. Even the United States is depleting groundwater on average 25 percent faster than it is being replenished. Our thirst for water grows with our population, EXWWKHDPRXQWRIIUHVKZDWHUDYDLODEOHRQ(DUWKLV¿[HG,IZHDVVXPH³EXVLQHVV as usual” by 2050 about 40 percent of the projected global population of 9.4 billion LVH[SHFWHGWREHIDFLQJZDWHUVWUHVVRUVFDUFLW\:LWKLQFUHDVLQJFOLPDWHYDULDELOLW\ being predicted by global climate models, we are likely also to have more people without adequate water more of the time, even in water-rich regions. Irrigation productivity rose dramatically over the past 40 years as a result of the Green Revolution. However, even if we disregard the environmental impacts caused by that revolution, we are no nearer to achieving global food security than ZHZHUH\HDUVDJRDVHYHU\WLPHZHFRPHFORVHWR¿OOLQJWKHIRRGSURGXFWLRQ gap population growth and ecosystem decline associated with water diversions to human purposes set us back. Our natural and agricultural ecosystems are trying to tell us something. This book pursues these overarching themes connecting to water and food production at global and regional scales. The collection offers a comprehensive discussion of all relevant issues, and offers a wide-ranging discussion with the aim of contributing to the global debate about water and food crises. Alberto Garrido is Professor of Agricultural and Resource Economics at the Technical University of Madrid, Spain. He is the Director of the Research Centre for the Management of Agricultural and Environmental Risks, a research centre of the Technical University of Madrid, and serves on the Advisory Committee of the Rosenberg International Forum of Water Policy. Helen Ingram is a Professor Emerita at the University of California, USA, and a research fellow at the Southwest Center at the University of Arizona, USA. She is also a member of the Advisory Committee of the Rosenberg International Water Forum.

Contributions from the Rosenberg International Forum on Water Policy (GLWHGE\+HQU\-9DX[-U

1 Managing Water Resources in a Time of Global Change 0RXQWDLQVYDOOH\VDQGÀRRGSODLQV Edited by Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar 2 Water for Food in a Changing World Edited by Alberto Garrido and Helen Ingram

Water for Food in a Changing World

Edited by Alberto Garrido and Helen Ingram

First published 2011 by Routledge 3DUN6TXDUH0LOWRQ3DUN$ELQJGRQ2[RQ2;51 Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 7KLUG$YHQXH1HZDFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\@ %20 D  Murray-Darling Rainfall Deciles: 1 February 2006 – 31 January 2007, $XVWUDOLDQ%XUHDXRI0HWHRURORJ\&DQEHUUDRQOLQHXVLQJGDWDRSWLRQVDYDLODEOHYLD ZZZERPJRYDXMVSDZDSUDLQLQGH[MVS>DFFHVVHG2FWREHU@

Modern agriculture under stress 49 %20 E  Murray-Darling Basin Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly: 1910 – 2007, Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Canberra, online, available at: www. bom.gov.au/cgiELQVLORUHJFOLBFKJWLPHVHULHVFJL"YDULDEOH WPHDQ UHJLRQ PGE VHDVRQ >DFFHVVHG 2FWREHU@ %URZQ $ 'UXP ) +DVHOWLQH & DQG /DZUHQFH /   Australian Crop Report: February 2007, Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics, Canberra, RQOLQH DYDLODEOH DW ZZZDEDUHFRQRPLFVFRPSXEOLFDWLRQVBKWPOFU FUBFUBIHE SGI>DFFHVVHG$SULO@ &DL:DQG&RZDQ7 (YLGHQFHRILPSDFWVIURPULVLQJWHPSHUDWXUHRQLQÀRZVWR the Murray-Darling Basin, Geophysical Research Letters,/ &ODUN 6   8QFKDUWHG ZDWHUV &KDSWHU  LQ 'DQLHO &RQQHOO HG  Divided Power, Co-operative Solutions&DQEHUUD0XUUD\'DUOLQJ%DVLQ&RPPLVVLRQSS± )DXONQHU$DQG6WDSOHWRQ-  *UDSHYLQHVXJJHVWVTXDOLW\DQGTXDQWLW\The Australian,0DUFKS *RHVK7+RQH6+D¿$7KRUSH6/DZVRQ.3DJH6+XJKHV1DQG*RGGD\ 3 0XUUD\'DUOLQJ%DVLQ±HFRQRPLFLPSOLFDWLRQVRIZDWHUVFDUFLW\Australian Commodities – March Quarter 08.1 $QGUHZ :ULJKW HG  &DQEHUUD 7KH $XVWUDOLDQ %XUHDXRI$JULFXOWXUDODQG5HVRXUFH(FRQRPLFVSS± 3LQN %   :DWHU DQG WKH 0XUUD\'DUOLQJ %DVLQ ± $ 6WDWLVWLFDO 3UR¿OH Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra, online, available at: www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ ausstats/ VXEVFULEHUQVI&(')'($)%&$$$)LOHB  ±WR±SGI>DFFHVVHG2FWREHU@ 0LOOV 6   Maintaining Production when Water is Scarce, Australian Bureau of $JULFXOWXUH DQG 5HVRXUFH (FRQRPLFV 2XWORRN  &RQIHUHQFH &DQEHUUD RQOLQH DYDLODEOH DW ZZZDEDUHJRYDXLQWHUDFWLYH2XWORRN¿OHVGD\B 0LOOVB,UULJDWHG$J SGI>DFFHVVHG$SULO@ 0XUSK\ %) DQG 7LPEDO %   $ UHYLHZ RI UHFHQW FOLPDWH YDULDELOLW\ DQG FOLPDWH change in southeastern Australia, International Journal of Climatology ± 9LFWRULDQ*RYHUQPHQW±'HSDUWPHQWRI6XVWDLQDELOLW\DQG(QYLURQPHQW Sustainable Water Strategy: Northern Region Discussion Paper, Melbourne. Also available online, DYDLODEOHDWZZZRXUZDWHUYLFJRYDXSURJUDPVVZVQRUWKHUQGLVFXVVLRQSDSHU

4

Integrated watershed management Towards sustainable solutions in Africa Akissa Bahri, Hilmy Sally, Matthew McCartney, Regassa Namara, Seleshi Bekele Awulachew, Barbara van Koppen, and Daan van Rooijen

Introduction Water is a critical input in agricultural growth and pivotal in agrarian livelihoods. However, most sub-Saharan African countries are faced with economic ZDWHU VFDUFLW\ ODFNLQJ WKH KXPDQ ¿QDQFLDO RU LQVWLWXWLRQDO FDSLWDO WR DGHquately develop and use their water resources. Underinvestment in water infrastructure, including provision for maintenance of existing facilities, is often compounded by poor governance and ineffective institutions, especially in poorer countries. A study by the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA) (2007) points out that improving land and water productivity is a critical contributing factor to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with regard to poverty, hunger, and environmental sustainability. The potential contribution of integrated land and water resources management to reduce poverty and food insecurity holds particularly true for semi-arid Africa, where more than 80 percent of rural livelihoods depend on land and water resources. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) has called for a 6 percent annual growth in agricultural output if the continent is to achieve food security by 2015. Furthermore, the World Bank and other development organizations recognize broad-based agricultural development as the engine of economic growth (FAO 2006a; IFAD 2007; World Bank 2008). Fortunately, renewed and vigorous responses to water scarcity, including investments to develop water infrastructure, intensifying agricultural production and improving its productivity, together with the associated institutional reforms, are increasingly driving Africa’s water agenda. Innovative methods for managing land and water are therefore crucial in the face of growing economic and physical scarcity of water, compounded by rising costs of new developments, climate variability and climate change, increased prices of food and energy, and the imperatives to respect critical social considerations and ecoloJLFDO IXQFWLRQV WR VXVWDLQ VXFK GHYHORSPHQWV 7KLV FKDSWHU ¿UVW SUHVHQWV WKH land, water, and livelihoods challenges facing sub-Saharan Africa; it then develops the trends and challenges associated with seeking sustainable solutions to integrated watershed management, illustrated by selected examples of

Integrated watershed management

51

collaborative, interdisciplinary research carried out to support decision making regarding integrated land and water resources management. Finally, some policy implications are proposed to accompany implementation of some of the lessons learned.

Land, water, and livelihoods challenges in sub-Saharan Africa Overview Water scarcity, poverty, land degradation, low agricultural productivity, poor KHDOWKFDUH IDFLOLWLHV ZDWHU TXDOLW\ HQGHPLF GURXJKWV DQG ÀRRGV DQG WUDQVERXQGDU\FRQÀLFWVLQZDWHUPDQDJHPHQWSRVHVHULRXVGHYHORSPHQWFKDOOHQJHVLQ sub-Saharan Africa. This region is also the poorest in the world (40–60 percent of sub-Saharan Africa population is below $1/day) – and getting poorer (NEPAD 2003), a consequence of population growth outstripping the growth of both overall and agricultural GDP (World Bank 2007). Sub-Saharan Africa’s population is predominantly rural (70 percent), and 33 percent of its people are undernourished with a constant low average calorie intake per person of around 2,000 kcal/p/d. Between 40 and 50 percent of the population has no access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, and very high rates of infant mortality, malaria, diarrhea, HIV/AIDS, and child malnutrition remain a major concern. Seventy-seven percent of the human population lives in the 63 transboundary river basins in Africa, which contain 93 percent of the total water, and cover 61 percent of the surface area. This implies very high water interdependence, accounting for the fact that integrated planning and management of international river basins has seldom proved straightforward in Africa. Developing these basins requires agreements, institutions, information sharing, and human resources (Wright et al. 2003). Rainfall variability and water infrastructure Africa has very high spatial and temporal variability in rainfall as compared to other continents (FAO 2003; UN Millennium Project 2005; Walling 1996; :RUOG %DQN   7KH FRHI¿FLHQW RI YDULDWLRQ LQ DQQXDO UDLQIDOO UDQJHV IURP 200 percent in desert areas to 40 percent in semi-arid areas, and from 5 to 31 percent even in humid areas (Africa Water Task Force 2002). In several African countries, there is a strong correlation between GDP growth and the country’s KLJKO\HUUDWLFUDLQIDOO)RUH[DPSOHWKHÀRRGVKDYHFRVW.HQ\DDERXW ELOOLRQ86'*UH\DQG6DGRII DQGUHFXUUHQWGURXJKWDQGÀRRGPDGHPLOlions of people in East African dependent on food aid. The amount of water withdrawn in Africa for agriculture (85 percent), water supply (9 percent), and industry (6 percent) amounts to only 3.8 percent of LQWHUQDO UHQHZDEOH ZDWHU UHVRXUFHV D UHÀHFWLRQ RI WKH ORZ OHYHO RI ZDWHU

52 A. Bahri et al. resources development, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Per-capita water withdrawal in sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest of any region in the world, at just one-fourth of the global average. Africa also has the lowest levels of per-capita storage (Sadoff and Grey 2002); thereby highlighting the fact that provision of storage infrastructure should constitute a vital element of the water development agenda in sub-Saharan Africa. Water infrastructure is needed for providing services to urban, industrial, irrigated, and rural areas, and to cover all aspects of water resource development – ranging from storage (rainwater harvesting systems, dams, and ponds) to abstraction, conveyance, distribution, sanitation, to reuse/recycling, and disposal. Development of hydropower, especially when FRPELQHG ZLWK RWKHU VHFWRUV VXFK DV LUULJDWLRQ ÀRRG SURWHFWLRQ DQG GURXJKW resilience, can enhance returns on investments in water infrastructure. However, in developing infrastructure and modifying hydrological regimes, great care is needed to protect the interests of the poorest and most vulnerable in society whose well-being is often intimately linked to the natural resources and services provided by aquatic ecosystems. The potential negative environmental and social impacts of large capital-intensive schemes are well documented but currently too often neglected in planning. Agricultural water management Agriculture, which provides 60 percent of all employment, constitutes the backbone of most African economies. In most countries, it is still the largest contributor to GDP; the biggest source of foreign exchange, accounting for about 40 percent of the continent’s hard currency earnings; and the main generator of savings and tax revenues. Agriculture thus remains crucial for economic growth, poverty reduction, and food security in most African countries (NEPAD 2003). But agricultural productivity is low and stagnant in sub-Saharan Africa. SubSaharan Africa is the only region in which per-capita food production has fallen over the past 40 years. More than 90 percent of food crops in sub-Saharan Africa are grown under rain-fed conditions, which renders its agriculture vulnerable to rainfall variability and, in turn, affects the livelihoods of the poor and also the national economy. At the same time, sub-Saharan Africa has a large untapped potential of irrigation. FAO (2006b) has reported that only a small share of its potentially irrigable area of 39.4 million hectares has been developed. Overall, 183 million hectares of area are under cultivation in Africa, of which 5 percent or about 9 million hectares is under water management, and 7 million hectares are equipped for full or partial irrigation. Only about 70 percent (5 million hectares) of the equipped area is operational (World Bank 2007). The current phenomenon of rising food and energy prices should also lead us to rethink approaches to agricultural land and water management in sub-Saharan Africa. While its agricultural growth in the past has been mainly achieved through area expansion and provision of irrigation facilities (the use of “blue”1 water), there is growing realization that the reliability of agricultural water supply can also be assured by improving land and water management on rain-fed

Integrated watershed management

53

areas (i.e. by harnessing more “green” water) (Falkenmark and Rockström 2008). Low-cost technologies, such as rainwater harvesting and soil moisture conservation, can help stabilize and increase crop yields and farmer incomes in rain-fed agriculture by encouraging hitherto risk-averse farmers to invest in inputs (organic and mineral fertilizers, traditional and locally developed improved varieties) and adopt improved management practices. Promoting awareness about and access to such technologies can also help unlock the potential of smallholder farming and uplift rural livelihoods. In this regard, it is worthwhile highlighting that in sub-Saharan Africa, women are in charge of up to 80 percent of food production (FAO 2003). More than elsewhere in the world, gender is central for equity and productivity in agriculture and agricultural water management. However, women farmers often remain excluded from public support, even in areas where women make the majority of farm decisions. Women’s rights to the (irrigated) land they cultivate are often secondary, which negatively affects their incentives to invest in higher land productivity (World Bank 2008). Furthermore, many NGOs and enterprises for technology development, dissemination, or sale fail to target women farm decision-makers. Additionally, few women own low-cost and affordable agricultural water management technologies, like treadle pumps. For productivity and equity reasons, it is important that all farm decision-makers, whether men or women, are included in programs of public support and investment. Irrigation development will also have to play a major role if the ambitious NEPAD targets for agricultural growth on the continent are to be met. Irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa has suffered from declining investments over the past two decades, due to results falling short of expectations and disappointing returns. The hydrology and pedology are partly responsible for that, but there was also a popular view that irrigation projects in sub-Saharan Africa are more expensive than elsewhere. However, a recent analysis (Inocencio et al. 2007) of more than 300 irrigation projects worldwide showed that irrigation is not uniquely expensive in Africa. The way water is developed and managed has social, economic, and environmental consequences. Integrated approaches to the development, management, and use of water resources will help foster a more balanced and inclusive approach to water decision-making that emphasizes social equity, environmental VXVWDLQDELOLW\DORQJZLWKHFRQRPLFHI¿FLHQF\

Integrated approach to watershed management: ideal and reality Historical river basin development in Africa In Africa, the river basin concept goes back to ancient civilizations such as those along the Nile and the Niger that have long supported diverse populations of farmers, herders, crafts people and traders, and that are the cradle of some of the earliest civilizations – the Sudannic and the ancient Egyptians. Indigenous

54 A. Bahri et al. irrigation systems, some based on complex gravity canal irrigation systems, have been developed in Northern Africa, West Africa, in the Nile Valley, and in the (DVW$IULFDQ5LIW9DOOH\LQ.HQ\DDQG7DQ]DQLD$GDPV 7KHPRVWH[WHQVLYHDQGFRPSOH[WUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIULYHUÀRZVDWLQWHUQDWLRQDOVFDOHLQ$IULFD on record were on the Nile, mainly in Egypt and Sudan. Four decades ago, a few countries like Nigeria, Ghana, and Egypt reactivated the idea of river basin development to restore equitable balance between rural and urban economic development. National and international river basin authorities were established in the 1960s, and their most important products were the construction of dams (Aswan on the Nile, Akosombo on the Volta River, Manantali and Diama on the 6HQHJDO 5LYHU  DQG LUULJDWLRQ VFKHPHV *H]LUD LQ 6XGDQ 2I¿FH GX 1LJHU LQ Mali). In some cases, these developments have had some negative impacts on livelihoods and ecosystems (loss of land, endangered livelihoods, social disturbances, KHDOWKULVNVGHFOLQLQJFODP¿VKHU\GRZQVWUHDPRIWKHGDPLQWKHORZHU9ROWDLQ Ghana). McCartney and Sally (2005) argue that past experience shows that construction of large dams without full understanding of the social and environmental consequences can have devastating impacts for the livelihoods of many poor people. Siltation from land degradation, resulting from intensive biomass exploitation in upper watersheds, can lead to storage depletion and to environmental and socio-economic impacts downstream. Degraded watersheds exacerEDWH WKH ULVN RI H[WUHPH HYHQWV GURXJKWV DQG ÀRRGV  DQG ELRGLYHUVLW\ ORVV Among other potential negative effects of dams and irrigation schemes is intenVL¿HG WUDQVPLVVLRQ RI PDODULD DQG VFKLVWRVRPLDVLV UHVXOWLQJ IURP FKDQJHV LQ environmental conditions that increase vector abundance. Negative impacts often arise as a result of lack of foresight and because water infrastructures are planned and managed in isolation from other developments occurring in a river basin. The large majority of water users on the continent use water “informally” for both domestic and productive uses. Most central governments lack even basic data about large-scale users, let alone the millions of small-scale users. In rural areas, indigenous natural resource management arrangements around traditional DXWKRULWLHVFRQWLQXHWRKDYHDJUHDWLQÀXHQFHRQODQGWHQXUHEXWDOVRRQWKHZD\ in which: a b c G

individuals are authorized to engage in new water uses; groups come together to jointly invest in communal infrastructure like wells, dams or river abstractions; priorities between uses and users are set and enforced during droughts; and SROOXWLRQLVSUHYHQWHGYDQ.RSSHQ et al. 2007).

Trends and challenges of integrated watershed management Historically, water management was equated with the development and operation of water systems and structures, largely for irrigation. From the mid-1990s, water management was placed into the overall context of river basins and to examine

Integrated watershed management

55

the interlinking hydrologic, socio-economic, and environmental aspects of water PDQDJHPHQWDWPXOWLSOHVFDOHV,WLVZLGHO\DUJXHGWKDWZDWHUFDQEHHI¿FLHQWO\ managed within a river basin or watershed/catchment2 area, and that this approach helps to achieve a balance between resource use and protection (Ashton 1999). Watershed management and river basin management concepts have evolved in parallel. Watershed management has evolved from a narrow soil and water conservation-focused perspective, aiming at stopping land degradation, improving agriculture and natural resources management, and securing downstream water-related services, towards a more holistic approach that explicitly recognizes the importance of the human element and the interconnection of ecosystems (CA 2007). The watershed area became the appropriate spatial integrator unit for managing land and water resources, and to take into account the upstream-downstream relationships. A variant of the concept emerged in the 1990s as “participatory integrated watershed management,” with a more complex mix of strategic concerns (German et al. 2006), and aimed at promoting sustainable development of water and land resources, building partnerships with communities on the ground in a search for equitable and environmentally sustainable change. Several closely related concepts have been proposed to develop and manage natural resources. These include Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM), Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM), Integrated Watershed Management, and IntegUDWHG &DWFKPHQW 0DQDJHPHQW ,&0  ,:50 LV GH¿QHG E\ WKH *OREDO :DWHU Partnership (GWP-TAC 2000) as “a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land, and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.”3 IWRM and IRBM are complementary and interrelated concepts, but they differ in the sense that some policy decisions can be taken only at the national level (Jønch-Clausen 2004). Clarifying in detail the similarities and differences among these concepts is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, these concepts have the following common features: they are holistic, integrated, and participatory in their approaches; and they are based on hydrological and bio-geophysical units rather than politico-administrative units with the overarching goal of developing and managing different sources of water – rainwater, surface water, underground ZDWHUUHWXUQÀRZVUXQRIIGUDLQDJHZDVWHZDWHU WRVHUYHWKHQHHGVRIPXOWLSOH users for multiple purposes (agriculture, industry, drinking water, sanitation, SRZHUJHQHUDWLRQQDYLJDWLRQÀRRGSURWHFWLRQDQGWKHHQYLURQPHQW  Implementation of these approaches is still a challenge, especially with regard to the institutional arrangements that have to be put in place at different scales, and the need for coordination across scales and institutions. A key requirement for success is the existence of institutions that accept the principles of integrated natural resources management taking into account the multiple objectives of the society. The challenge is also to achieve a balance between values, such as HFRQRPLF EHQH¿W HTXLW\ VXVWDLQDELOLW\ DQG SXEOLF SDUWLFLSDWLRQ ZKHQ LQ SUDFtice there are often trade-offs among them.

56 A. Bahri et al. Integrated watershed management in Africa At present, almost all African countries and more particularly those with large inland drainage systems have agreed to engage in watershed management and in IWRM, i.e. to establish river/lake basin development units as multipurpose use systems and to manage their water resources at the basin level rather than within the administrative and political boundaries. Relevant actors and stakeholders will be involved in the planning, development, and management of water-related activities through various partnership arrangements among riparian countries in the continent’s major river basins, and among local communities within the basins and watersheds. Some countries, such as Tunisia, have moved to a statewide approach, in some cases after going through a river basin development and management stage. Despite the formal commitments by many countries to the ideas and principles of sustainable development after the 2002 World Summit, the implementation of policies and strategies that manage water resources for people, while PDLQWDLQLQJIXQFWLRQLQJHFRV\VWHPVKDYHEHHQFRQIURQWHGZLWKVHYHUDOGLI¿FXOWies, particularly in water-stressed basins, or when administrative or political boundaries differ from the watershed limits, or when there are competing interests. The issue of how much water should be allocated to agriculture and other uses, and how much should remain for environmental uses is still a subject of debate and should probably be resolved on a basin by basin basis (Molden et al. 2007). According to AfDB (2007), eight of the continent’s nine largest international EDVLQV KDYH EDVLQ DXWKRULWLHV WKDW KDYH EHHQ UDWL¿HG E\ WKH VWDWHV VKDULQJ WKH river basin. However, the Senegal River Development Organization (OMVS) is among the very few effective international basin organizations in Africa, most of WKHRWKHUVEHLQJ³EHVHWE\EXUHDXFUDWLFLQHI¿FLHQFLHVDQG¿QDQFLDODQGFDSDFLW\ constraints” (AfDB 2007). In addition, as they are not always able to keep up with science-based water management innovations, basin authorities lack key techniques for water allocation, development, and distribution. Furthermore, issues of treaties/agreements regarding the use of international waters remain largely unresolved, and national interests tend to prevail over shared interests. Differences in countries’ needs and development stages should also be considered, such as in the case of the Incomati River which is shared among South Africa, Swaziland, and Mozambique. Some countries are focused on how to attain the MDGs (reducing poverty, hunger, diseases, and environmental degradation, including halving the number of people without access to water and sanitation) while others can afford to have a stronger focus on environmental protection and restoration. The question of how an integrated watershed managePHQW FDQ KHOS UHFRQFLOH GLI¿FXOW WUDGHRIIV LQ WKH DFKLHYHPHQWV RI WKHVH JRDOV has still to be worked out (Jønch-Clausen 2004). The Nile River Basin is a good H[DPSOHLQZKLFKVKDUHGFRPPRQUHVRXUFHVFDQRQO\EHKDUQHVVHGWREHQH¿WDOO stakeholders and interested parties through effective transnational cooperation.

Integrated watershed management

57

Case studies The examples presented hereafter illustrate the approaches adopted and the tools XVHG LQ FDUU\LQJ RXW LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ FROODERUDWLYH ZRUN DFURVV VFDOHV ¿HOG watershed, basin, and transboundary), involving researchers, basin or watershed organizations, farmers’ organizations, local communities, NGOs, and governPHQWDJHQFLHV7KH¿UVWFDVHVWXG\DQDO\]HVWUDGHRIIVEHWZHHQZDWHUDOORFDWLRQV to different sectors in determining river basin water management plans, taking into account customary arrangements and promoting stakeholder dialogue in the Great Ruaha River in Tanzania. The second example examines up- and downstream implications of rural-urban watersheds development in two cities in subSaharan Africa: Accra and Addis Ababa. The third case study assesses the results of attempts made to create institutions for developing and managing an international transboundary river, using the Nile Basin as an example. Balancing inter-sectoral water demands In situations of growing water stress, there is a need to improve water resources PDQDJHPHQW WR VHFXUH DQG PD[LPL]H WKH EHQH¿WV IURP ZDWHU WR GLIIHUHQW XVHUV LQFOXGLQJWKRVHGHSHQGHQWRQHFRV\VWHPVHUYLFHV:HWODQGVIXO¿OOFULWLFDOHFRORgical functions and also make important contributions to sustaining rural livelihoods in Africa through a wide variety of uses, such as crop production, livestock rearing, domestic water use, brick making, and harvesting plants for crafts and PHGLFLQDO SXUSRVHV .DVKDLJLOL   0DNLQJ RSWLPXP XVH RI WKHLU SURGXFWLYH potential while minimizing adverse ecological effects, requires management strategies based on an understanding of a range of issues such as hydrology, climatic variability, availability of labor and other inputs, customary arrangements for land and water access, and the existence of a sound policy and institutional framework. The contribution of multidisciplinary research to support decision makers to develop strategies and intervention packages that strike a balance between production and protection will be illustrated through the following example of the 8VDQJXZHWODQGORFDWHGLQWKH5X¿ML%DVLQLQ7DQ]DQLD Tanzania, in compliance with current widely accepted notions of best practice, and in common with many other African countries, has focused largely on the development of more integrated watershed-wide approaches to water management. The New National Water Policy (MWLD 2002) provides a framework for integrated management of water resources. Adopting the river basin as the principal unit for management and regulation, it is based on the Dublin Principles, with the environment as the second priority in allocating water, behind basic human needs. It embraces concepts such as full-cost recovery, water rights and water fees, and stakeholder participation in water resources management 0XWD\REDYDQ.RSSHQ et al. 2004).  7KH5X¿ML%DVLQLVRQHRIWKUHHEDVLQVLQ7DQ]DQLDIRUZKLFKWKHQHZSROLF\ is being pilot tested. The Great Ruaha River (Figure 4.1), a major tributary of the 5X¿ML LV RQH RI 7DQ]DQLD¶V PRVW LPSRUWDQW ZDWHUZD\V 7KH ZDWHUVKHG

58 A. Bahri et al.

Figure 4.1 Map of the Great Ruaha River.

(83,979 km2) contains one of the country’s main rice-growing areas, 50 percent of the country’s installed hydropower capacity, as well as an important National Park and wetlands. Since the mid-1990s, the Great Ruaha River, which in the SDVW ZDV SHUHQQLDO KDV FHDVHG ÀRZLQJ LQ WKH GU\ VHDVRQ HYHU\ \HDU 7KLV KDV occurred because water levels in a large wetland, located on the Usangu Plain (near the headwaters of the river) have dropped below a critical level and outÀRZV IURP WKH ZHWODQG KDYH FHDVHG 7KLV GU\LQJ LV ODUJHO\ D FRQVHTXHQFH RI diversions to rice irrigation upstream of the wetland. It is estimated that up to 95 SHUFHQWRIKRXVHKROGVOLYLQJRQWKH8VDQJX3ODLQVEHQH¿WLQDGLUHFWZD\IURP the wetlands. Upstream water withdrawals are causing considerable environmental degradation of both the wetlands on the Usangu Plain and the downstream National Park. Between 1970 and 2004, irrigation on the Usangu Plain, increased from 10,000 ha to 45,000 ha. Over a six-year period (2002–2007), a multidisciplinary study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of the new water management being implemented LQWKH5X¿MLDQGVSHFL¿FDOO\WKH*UHDW5XDKD%DVLQ7KHVWXG\ZDVXQGHUWDNHQ by a team of both Tanzanian and international scientists and comprised analyses of technical, economic, institutional, and social aspects of water management in WKHEDVLQ.H\FRPSRQHQWVRIWKHVWXG\ZHUHWRGHWHUPLQH

Integrated watershed management   3 4 5

59

WKHÀRZUHTXLUHPHQWVGRZQVWUHDPRIWKH8VDQJXZHWODQGDQGKRZPXFK ZDWHUQHHGVWRÀRZLQWRWKHZHWODQGWRPDLQWDLQWKLVÀRZ WKH VFRSH IRU LPSURYLQJ LUULJDWLRQ HI¿FLHQF\ DQG SURGXFWLYLW\ LQ RUGHU WR UHOHDVHVXI¿FLHQWZDWHUIRUGRZQVWUHDPXVHV the role that economic valuation of different water uses should play in determining water allocation in the watershed; if the formal water management systems being introduced would be effective LQUHWXUQLQJWKH*UHDW5XDKD5LYHUWR\HDUURXQGÀRZDQG how different types of decision-support systems could be best used to improve water management (McCartney et al. 2007).

Utilizing hydrological and water resource models, the study found that HQYLURQPHQWDO ÀRZ UHTXLUHPHQWV WKURXJK WKH *UHDW 5XDKD 1DWLRQDO 3DUN (located downstream of the wetland) require an average annual allocation of 635 Mm3 (equivalent to 22 percent of the mean annual runoff) and an absolute PLQLPXPGU\VHDVRQÀRZRIP3V.DVKDLJLOL et al. 2007). To maintain the GU\VHDVRQÀRZVUHTXLUHVDSHUFHQWUHGXFWLRQLQFXUUHQWGU\VHDVRQDEVWUDFtions, from 4.25 m3/s to 1.50 m3V $OWKRXJK WKHUH LV VLJQL¿FDQW SRWHQWLDO WR LQFUHDVHZDWHUXVHHI¿FLHQF\LQWKHLUULJDWLRQVFKHPHVZKLFKZRXOGIUHHZDWHU IRU WKH ZHWODQG DQG GRZQVWUHDP ÀRZV FXUUHQW PDQDJHPHQW V\VWHPV DUH largely failing to reduce diversions. Modern irrigation intakes, built since 1996 to improve water control, were rarely utilized as intended and rather than reducing abstractions tended to increase them. Although the introduced water rights and fees system was meant to provide economic incentives to reduce water waste, it was found to be largely ineffective in the absence of ways to monitor and enforce compliance. Some withdrawals were found to be up to twice the legal water rights and, even where water rights were not exceeded, considerable volumes of diverted water were wasted (Mehari et al. 2007; Rajabu et al.  7KLVFRQWUDVWVZLWKH[SHULHQFHLQ6SDLQZKHUHLQUHFHQW\HDUVVLJQL¿FDQW LQFUHDVHV LQ LUULJDWLRQ HI¿FLHQF\ KDYH EHHQ DWWDLQHG WKURXJK LPSURYHG management combined with the application of new technologies, introduced to IXO¿OO (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ UHTXLUHPHQWV DQG IRU HQYLURQPHQWDO UHDVRQV *DUULGR and Iglesias 2008). In the Great Ruaha, average values of water for irrigated paddy were estimated at $0.01 and 0.04/m3 for abstracted and consumed water, respectively. For hydroelectric power, the values were higher ($0.06–0.21/m3 for gross and conVXPHG ZDWHU UHVSHFWLYHO\  7KHVH ¿JXUHV SURYLGH DQ LQGLFDWLRQ RI WKH UHODWLYH value of water use in the two sectors. Consequently, if based simply on criteria RI HFRQRPLF HI¿FLHQF\ ZDWHU ZRXOG EH DOORFDWHG DZD\ IURP LUULJDWLRQ WR WKH downstream hydropower schemes. However, paddy production from the Usangu area alone contributes about 14–24 percent to national production and supports about 30,000 agrarian families in Usangu with average gross income per family RI86SHU\HDU.DGLJL et al.  ,QGHFLGLQJDOORFDWLRQVWKHVHEHQH¿WV need to be considered, including equity and pro-poor returns, as well as the implications for national food security.

60 A. Bahri et al. At local levels, efforts have been made to organize water users into WUAs (water users associations). In some places, these have built upon traditional water allocation approaches based on water sharing (i.e. Zamu). As a consequence of improved scheduling (though never a reduction in overall abstractions), this has resulted in improved village-level water management and UHGXFHG LQWUDVFKHPH FRQÀLFWV 'HVSLWH WKH PDQ\ FRPSOH[ SUREOHPV LW LV FOHDU WKDW WKHUH LV VLJQL¿FDQW SROLWLFDO ZLOO DQG GHWHUPLQHG HIIRUWV DUH EHLQJ PDGH WR ¿QGSUDJPDWLFDQGHTXLWDEOHVROXWLRQVWRWKHPDQ\ZDWHUUHODWHGSUREOHPVLQWKH Great Ruaha Basin. The research conducted in the study highlighted many important aspects of water management that are relevant to similar situations of growing competition for water, set against a backdrop of accelerated rural growth in Tanzania and elsewhere in Africa.  7KH¿QGLQJVXQGHUOLQHWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIDQDGDSWLYHPDQDJHPHQWDSSURDFK EDVHG RQ VRXQG VFLHQWL¿F XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI ZDWHU XWLOL]DWLRQ ZLWKLQ WKH FDWFKment. Enhancing community involvement in water management through, for example, WUAs is necessary. However, currently, the effectiveness of WUAs is OLPLWHG E\ WKH ODFN RI D ZHOOGH¿QHG DXWKRULW\ VWUXFWXUH WKDW FDQ WDNH RYHUDOO UHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUUHVRXUFHXVHDQGGLI¿FXOW\LQIRUPDOHQIRUFHPHQWRIZDWHUUHJulations arising from lack of monitoring. Because of the large size of the basin, there is also limited understanding of downstream water needs. For example, WUAs in the upper part of the basin, primarily engaged in allocating water for irrigation, may not appreciate the differing needs of pastoralists and hydropower requirements. For these reasons, WUAs are currently largely failing to address HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQFHUQV%HQH¿WVKDULQJPHFKDQLVPVPLJKWEHRQHZD\RIFUHDWing methods for farmers to release water to downstream users, including the hydropower plants. For poverty alleviation, consideration should also be given to the promotion of enterprises that use relatively small amounts of water but have relatively high returns (e.g. brick making). 7UDGHRIIVDQGFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQFLWLHVHQYLURQPHQWDQGDJULFXOWXUH Though not immediately evident, cities and urban areas also form an integral part of the watersheds. They are not only subject to the effects of developments DQGSUDFWLFHVRXWVLGHEXWDFWLYLWLHVZLWKLQFDQDOVRLQÀXHQFHZDWHUDYDLODELOLW\ (quantitatively and qualitatively) in other parts of the watershed. Urban population growth and economic development may exacerbate intersectoral competition for water and have effects on drinking water quality, wastewater, and stormwater management. Urban development is changing the quantity and TXDOLW\RIZDWHUÀRZVWKDWH[WHQGEH\RQGWKHXUEDQZDWHUVKHG&LWLHVJHQHUDWH increased volumes of wastewater and other wastes whose disposal has a negative impact on a wider range of ecosystems. Poor sanitation facilities and lack of ZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQWKDYHFUHDWHGZDVWHZDWHUÀRZVRQWRDJULFXOWXUDO¿HOGVDQG into surface water bodies. On the other hand, if properly treated and managed, these wastes may promote different water uses and users across urban-ruralenvironmental gradients. These interactions of cities with non-urban uses and the

Integrated watershed management

61

environment are explored through analyses of two cities in sub-Saharan Africa, Accra and Addis Ababa, focusing on three distinct issues: intersectoral competiWLRQ RYHU ZDWHU ZDVWHZDWHULQGXFHG SROOXWLRQ DQG XUEDQÀRRGLQJLQGXFHG health risks. In urban watersheds, competition between urban water demands and those for agriculture and industries is increasing, due to urban expansion and political priority given to cities. Fast growth of cities in sub-Saharan Africa and rises in livelihoods standards are exerting more pressure on water and land resources. With the political and economic centers of gravity located in the cities, urban water use tend to be prioritized over other users and other regions (Molle and Berkoff 2006). Northern Ghana and Burkina Faso stand in competition for water resources with the urbanized society of Southern Ghana (Giesen et al. 2001). The foreseen increases in water use in cities in sub-Saharan Africa will intensify their dependence on water abstracted from rural areas, but it will also put more stress on water DYDLODELOLW\IRUDJULFXOWXUDOXVHDQGPD\DIIHFWHQYLURQPHQWDOÀRZUHTXLUHPHQWV Cities are generating large volumes of wastewater that are a source of health risks and pollute the environment when the scale of treatment is low. The near absence of actual treatment of domestic (5 percent or less in Addis and Accra) and much less industrial wastewater is putting a burden on the environment as well as posing a risk to human health. In Accra, of the total volume of water used (excluding 25 percent physical losses) about 80 percent or 80 Mm3/year returns as wastewater. Another fraction is collected from septic tanks by trucks and dumped into the ocean or released into ponds with possible connections to the ocean. The various pathways of microbiological infection from wastewater to humans are posing a daily risk to many of Accra’s inhabitants (Lunani et al. 2007). Wastewater (raw or mixed with underground or storm water) is being used for irrigating mainly vegetables in Accra and Addis, which entails a health risk to irrigators within and downstream of the cities. In the case of Addis Ababa, heavy metal-polluted river waters from various factories are used to cultivate vegetables that pose serious health hazards to producers and consumers. Untreated or poorly treated domestic wastewater poses health risks to irrigators within and downstream of cities (Weldesilassie et al. 2008; Obuobie et al. 2006). Consumers of raw vegetable crops that are grown in the city (61 percent in Addis and 90 percent in Accra) are exposed to the risk of getting sick as well, when these food items have not been properly disinfected. The Accra and Addis Ababa examples tell us that the way in which cities dispose of their wastewater has a direct impact on both the sustainability of peri-urban farming and the quality of the aquatic environment in and downstream of these cities.  6HDVRQDO ÀRRGV SRVH KHDOWK ULVNV GXH WR WKH PL[WXUH ZLWK ZDVWHZDWHU 7KH construction of roads and buildings in previously unpaved areas is driving a gradual conversion of permeable areas into build-up areas, which will further increase the release of polluted stormwater into the environment in and around urban watersheds. This typical feature of urban development can have a rigorous LPSDFW RQ WKH ZDWHU F\FOH DQG ZDWHU ÀRZV LQWR DJULFXOWXUDO DUHDV DQG WKH environment downstream (van Rooijen et al. 2005).

62 A. Bahri et al. Research on the urban-rural linkages in terms of food, nutrient, and water ÀRZV LV SURYLGLQJ NQRZOHGJH RQ KRZ FLWLHV LQ $IULFD VWDQG PRUH DQG PRUH LQ interaction with their rural hinterland (Awulachew 2007; Drechsel et al. 2007). Since these interactions are fundamental and important for national economies, XUEDQUXUDO EHQH¿WV VKRXOG EH HQODUJHG ZKLOH PLWLJDWLQJ QHJDWLYH LPSDFWV RQ agriculture and environment. Perhaps the biggest opportunity lies in wastewater recycling. Most of the nutrient-rich wastewater volume generated in cities is now lost to the environment and is impairing it, but could instead be reused as an input of water and nutrients for irrigated agriculture. Empowering end-users to “add” their knowledge and perception of progress to the process, as is the case of the SWITCH project, in which local stakeholders are brought together to jointly discuss, learn, and set priorities for improvement of all aspects of urban water in their city may help reaching a more sustainable urban water management. SWITCH represents a network of researchers and practitioners that work directly with civil society through “learning alliances” in each city. This European Union cofunded project, which is carried out in Accra, among nine other global cities, aims to bring about a paradigm shift in urban water management away from existing ad hoc solutions to urban water management and towards a more coherent and integrated approach. In the previous sections we have discussed the ways in which expanding cities in sub-Saharan Africa behave as drivers for the dynamic interactions that exist with agriculture and the environment. Negative side effects from these interactions should be addressed with research and policy development in support of effective integrated urban water management on the ground. The increasing repercussion of water linkages between cities, agriculture and the environment emphasize the importance of WDNLQJDEDVLQSHUVSHFWLYHZKHQDGGUHVVLQJWKHVSHFL¿FQHHGVDQGLVVXHV The Nile – an example of multi-national water management The management of the Nile is unique in Africa for its long history, great techniFDOFRPSOH[LW\DQGLWVLQWHUQDWLRQDOVFDOH7KH¿UVWV\VWHPDWLFPRGHUQDWWHPSWV to understand and make plans about river basin development were on the Nile (Waterbury 1979; Collins 1990). Until the twentieth century, the only major K\GURORJLFDO GHYHORSPHQWV LQ $IULFD ZHUH FRQ¿QHG WR WKH 1LOH 9DOOH\ ,Q VXE 6DKDUDQ $IULFD WKH *H]LUD 6FKHPH LQ 6XGDQ EXLOW LQ  KDG EHHQ WKH ¿UVW ODUJHVFDOH LUULJDWLRQ VFKHPH 7KH EDVLQ LV LGHQWL¿HG DV D FULWLFDO UHJLRQ ZKHUH the interconnections among water, food, poverty, international politics, and urbanization are enormous. The basin countries face a multitude of problems that are biophysical, hydrometeorological, socio-economic, socio-political, and institutional in nature and WKDW FRQVWUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW 7KH LQFLGHQFH DQG VLJQL¿FDQFH RI WKHVH SUREOHPV differ between upstream and downstream countries. The upstream of the Nile Basin is characterized by high population pressure, inadequate water infrastructural development, overdependence on rain-fed agriculture as a means of livelihood, low productivity and expansion of agricultural lands into marginal areas,

Integrated watershed management

63

such as steep slopes causing deforestation and inducing erosion, civil strife, rampant unemployment, and energy crises. The downstream countries of the Nile Basin also share some of these problems but are further constrained by physical water scarcity, excessive drawdown of groundwater resources, and unsustainable irrigation infrastructure. Problems or actions in the upstream often exacerbate the downstream problems. For instance, poor land use practices in the upstream of the basin enhances erosion and increases the sedimentation load of the Nile water causing silt accumulation in reservoirs. The Atbara and Blue Nile contribute 53 percent of waters and 90 percent of the sediment in the Nile (Tessera 2006). Since 1925, the Senar dam in Sudan lost 660 Mm3 of water (i.e. 70 percent of its original storage capacity) due to sedimentation. Removal of sediments in Sudan’s reservoirs and related irrigation schemes account for half of the operation and maintenance budget (Ahmed 2000; Conway 2000). Thus, there is a need for Nile basin wide cooperation.  6DGRII DQG *UH\   KDYH LGHQWL¿HG IRXU SRVVLEOH FRRSHUDWLRQ W\SHV RQ international rivers ranging from cooperation solely focusing on improving the environmental and ecological conditions of the river to cooperation intended to integrate regional infrastructure, markets, and trade. Whittington et al. (2005) KDYHDWWHPSWHGWRTXDQWLI\WKHEHQH¿WVRIIXOOFRRSHUDWLRQDPRQJWKH1LOH5LYHU riparian countries. They showed that Nile basin-wide cooperative development of hydropower and irrigation system would generate US$4.94 billion annually PRUHWKDQWKHWRWDOHFRQRPLFEHQH¿WVUHDOL]HGIURPWKHVWDWXVTXRFRQGLWLRQVIRU the whole basin (Figure 4.2). Recognizing the importance of the Nile River and the increasing pressure on its use, efforts have been made to create legal instruments for the equitable and sustainable use of the basin’s water. Fifteen bilateral treaties and agreements dated from 1891 to 1993 are available (Adams 2001). However, all of these legal instruments were negotiated on a strictly bilateral basis and the one party to the treaty was always Great Britain, except in the case of the 1959 Nile Water Agreement signed between Egypt and Sudan. The treaties neglect the interests of other riparian countries and therefore many are unrecognized by one or more of the riparian countries. Hence, there was a demand for formulating basin-wide treaties or agreements to facilitate cooperation among riparian countries.

Figure 4.2 Economic value of cooperation: status quo versus full cooperation.

64 A. Bahri et al. In 1999, the World Bank took an active role in promoting cooperation in the Nile basin by helping to establish the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). The NBI represents a transitional institutional mechanism, an agreed vision and a basin-wide framework, and a process to facilitate investments in the basin to realize regional socio-economic development. To translate the shared vision into action, the NBI has launched a Strategic Action Program, which includes two complementary components: a basin-wide shared vision program creating a basin-wide enabling environment for sustainable development and subsidiary action programs. There are two Subsidiary Action programs: one for the Eastern Nile region and the other for the Nile equatorial lakes region. The Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program (ENSAP) currently includes the countries of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan. The long-term program objectives of ENSAP are to: D b c d

HQVXUHHI¿FLHQWZDWHUPDQDJHPHQWDQGRSWLPDOXVHRIWKHUHVRXUFHVWKURXJK HTXLWDEOHXWLOL]DWLRQDQGQRVLJQL¿FDQWKDUP ensure cooperation and joint action between the Eastern Nile countries seeking win-win goals; target poverty eradication and promote economic integration; and ensure that the ENSAP results in a move from planning to action.

To realize these objectives, at the moment there are many planned and ongoing development projects worth several hundred million dollars (NBI 2008). These projects (as detailed below) address issues such as watershed management, irrigation and drainage, integrated water resources development, hydropower development, power transmission interconnection, water conservation, and institutional strengthening. The watersheds of upstream Nile basin countries, especially those of eastern Nile basin countries, are prone to severe soil erosion, due to anthropogenic factors (Figure 4.3) engendering substantial downstream impacts, including siltation and sedimentation in rivers or reservoirs, decreased hydropower producWLRQGHFUHDVHGLUULJDWLRQHI¿FLHQF\DQGORVVRIFULWLFDODTXDWLFKDELWDWV The watershed management project aims to encourage community participation and extension to promote land and water conservation practices, promote forestation and vegetative land cover (Figure 4.4), promote appropriate crop cultivation and livestock grazing practices, identify and demonstrate technologies for rain harvesting, and promote proper use of agrochemicals to reduce water SROOXWLRQ7KHUHJLRQDOVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKLVSURMHFWZLOOEHHURVLRQFRQWUROOHDGLQJ to a reduction in the adverse downstream impacts listed above, an overall increase in land productivity, and thereby enhanced food security and poverty reduction. One of the anthropogenic factors contributing to degradation of land resources is the unchecked removal of forests for fuel purposes (Figure 4.5). The regional power trade project launched in May 2003, will substantially reduce the demand for forest-based fuel sources, establish institutional means to coordinate the

Integrated watershed management

65

Figure 4.3 A river with a high sediment load a few minutes after torrential rains in Tigray, Ethiopia.

development of regional power markets among the Nile Basin countries and build analytical capacity, and provide technical infrastructure to manage Nile basin resources. The project is expected to enhance individual and institutional capacity to manage and develop basin-wide hydropower resources, and to derive large EHQH¿WVLQEXLOGLQJLQWUDULSDULDQFRRSHUDWLRQWKURXJKFRRUGLQDWHGSRZHUV\VWHP operations. Reliable provision of low-cost electricity is critical for economic development, employment, and poverty alleviation. In all basin countries, except Egypt, development of the power system and access to electricity are

Figure 4.4 Terracing and reforestation to halt erosion in the highlands of Tigray, Ethiopia.

66 A. Bahri et al.

Figure 4.5 A site of extreme land degradation in Eastern Nile.

OLPLWHG6LJQL¿FDQWRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUSRZHUWUDGHDQGFRRSHUDWLYHGHYHORSPHQW of hydropower and transmission interconnection exist in the eastern Nile countries, namely Ethiopia and Sudan. There is substantial untapped hydropower potential in Ethiopia, while Sudan has thermal capacity. Capturing thermalhydro complementarities in the region could prove cost-effective. Export of thermal power from Sudan to Ethiopia during unfavorable hydrological conditions, and export of hydropower to complement Sudan’s thermal generation is a promising proposition. Access to affordable and reliable electricity supply SURYLGHV VSHFLDOO\ EHQH¿FLDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU ZRPHQ ZKR EHDU D GLVSURSRUtionately high burden.

Conclusion and policy implications Integrated watershed management in Africa, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, is a process that is presented with a range of challenges: intersectoral competition for water, dealing with trade-offs related to developmental and economic objectives on one hand, and equity and conservation considerations on the other; integration across scales; and reconciling hydrological boundaries with administrative and political boundaries. Addressing these issues not only requires knowledge, skills, and expertise, but also a political and institutional FOLPDWHFDSDEOHRISURYLGLQJWKHWHFKQLFDO¿QDQFLDODQGRUJDQL]DWLRQDOVXSSRUW to deliver meaningful solutions. Integrated watershed management in sub-Saharan Africa should include a balanced portfolio of measures for managing water scarcity. The portfolio should include interventions meant to:

Integrated watershed management a

b c d

67

minimize farmers’ vulnerability and improve food security (water infrastructure development and management, soil and water conservation technologies, inter- and intrabasin water energy transfers); increase the productive use of water in different agro-ecosystems (irrigated, rain-fed, and wetland); enhance the integrated management of urban watersheds and the rural-urban linkages; and identify effective policies, institutional arrangements, and management strategies that both protect vital ecosystem services and reduce poverty at different scales, and that foster cooperation among riparian countries and EHQH¿WVKDULQJIURPLQWHUQDWLRQDOULYHUV

Integrated watershed management is very much about decision making in a multiple-use and multiple-user context to improve water productivity and derive RSWLPXP EHQH¿WV IRU DOO UHOHYDQW VWDNHKROGHUV 7KH WKUHH FDVH VWXGLHV KDYH shown how water management needs vary depending on the context and why different pathways have then to be pursued to address these needs.  7KH¿UVWFDVHVWXG\KDVLOOXVWUDWHGWKDWZDWHUZLWKGUDZDOVDUHYLWDOIRUOLYHOLhoods and poverty alleviation, however, managing trade-offs between different ecosystems is necessary. Such trade-offs need to be based on a detailed understanding of the consequences of water management decisions for ecosystem services and their role in supporting livelihoods; such decision making can be enhanced using tools that promote stakeholder dialogue and take into account existing local-level traditional arrangements. The second case illustrates the need for comprehensive understanding of the entire urban water system, including application of an integrated urban watershed management approach that takes into account various levels and modes of interactions, such as watershed spatial scale, upstream-downstream and socioeconomic domains. Innovations and investment interventions should encompass technology, institutional change, and sociological learning. The third case argues that transboundary coordination can foster major winwin opportunities by adopting promising management practices and technologies within the watershed to overcome constraints to up-scaling and ultimately UHVXOW LQ VLJQL¿FDQW SRVLWLYH EHQH¿WV IRU ERWK XSVWUHDP DQG GRZQVWUHDP FRPmunities, reducing win-lose scenarios. Policies for integrated watershed management should aim at: 1 2 3

integrated management of all sectors of the watershed in order to optimize EHQH¿WV integrating rural and urban development; and involving stakeholders in the development and management of the watershed/river basin from the planning to implementation stages.

In conclusion, we offer the following principles to guide sustainable integrated watershed management (in sub-Saharan Africa):

68 A. Bahri et al. ‡

‡

‡

‡

‡

‡

7KH PXOWLSXUSRVH XVH FRQFHSW LQ LQWHJUDWHG ZDWHUVKHG GHYHORSPHQW DQG management may provide the most equitable option on which watershedwide plans may be based. *RYHUQPHQWVH[SHUWVDQGRWKHUVWDNHKROGHUVVKRXOGWKLQNPRUHLQWHUPVRI agricultural water management rather than (separately) about irrigated or rain-fed agriculture. It is necessary to improve management capability and skills/capacity of all role-players, including farmers and water-user associations. :DWHU ZDVWHZDWHU QRQSRLQWVRXUFH SROOXWLRQ DQG ZDWHU UHXVH VKRXOG EH managed in an integrated way. Policy makers should start recognizing and acknowledging urban development processes with their demographic and socio-economic causes and implications for watershed management. Better legislation for health risk reduction can make wastewater irrigation downstream cities more acceptable. ,QZDWHUDOORFDWLRQGHFLVLRQVFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIHTXLW\IRRGVHFXULW\SRYHUW\ reduction, and development needs should be taken into account. Sustainable water resource management requires that water is treated as both an economic and a social good. 7KHUHOHYDQWERXQGDULHVIRULQWHUYHQWLRQVDUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\WKHK\GURORJLFDO boundaries, in rural or urban watersheds. While a hydrological watershed would be most relevant for addressing water quantity and quality problems, and applying pollution control and monitoring measures, both watershed and administrative or social/cultural boundaries will need to be considered. ,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRGHYHORSDQDGHTXDWHDQGHIIHFWLYHLQVWLWXWLRQDOIUDPHZRUN to manage and develop watershed resources. Nested institutional structures should be set up to manage large-scale upstream-downstream interactions. A special challenge would be to create a framework that includes the large numbers of informal small-scale water users. Adopting a pragmatic mix of new and existing management arrangements through active consultation can KHOSWRLPSURYHVHUYLFHVDQGUHGXFHFRQÀLFWV

Notes 1 The freshwater resource is the sum of blue and green water. The blue-water resource is the water in aquifers, lakes, wetlands, and impoundments. The green-water resource is WKH PRLVWXUH LQ WKH XQVDWXUDWHG ]RQH 7KHVH UHVRXUFHV JHQHUDWH ÀRZV DV JUHHQZDWHU ÀRZIURPWHUUHVWULDOELRPDVVSURGXFLQJV\VWHPVFURSVIRUHVWVJUDVVODQGVDQGVDYDQQDV  DQG EOXHZDWHU ÀRZ LQ ULYHUV WKURXJK ZHWODQGV DQG WKURXJK EDVH ÀRZ IURP groundwater (Falkenmark and Rockström 2006). 2 According to the CA (2007: 47, 587): river basins are the geographic area contained within the watershed limits of a system of streams and rivers converging toward the same terminus, generally the sea or sometimes an inland water body. Tributary sub-basins or basins more limited in size (typically from tens of square kilometers to 1,000 square kilometers) are often called watersheds (in American English), while catchment is frequently used in British English as a synonym for river basins, watershed being PRUHQDUURZO\GH¿QHGDVWKHOLQHVHSDUDWLQJWZRULYHUEDVLQV

Integrated watershed management

69

3 River basin governance functions include (CA 2007; GWP-TEC 2008): planning water resources development, collecting data, allocating water between competing uses, preYHQWLQJ ÀRRGLQJ PRQLWRULQJ DQG HQIRUFLQJ ZDWHU TXDOLW\ VWDQGDUGV FRRUGLQDWLQJ ZDWHUUHODWHG GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ DPRQJ VHFWRUV DQG PRELOL]LQJ ¿QDQFLQJ WR VXSSRUW basin development and management activities. Social, economic, environmental and cultural values and institutional and political factors need to be taken into account as well and should support water management decisions.

References $GDPV :0   ,QWHJUDWHG ULYHU EDVLQ SODQQLQJ LQ 6XE6DKDUDQ $IULFD LQ $. Biswas, and C. Tortajada (eds.,) Integrated River Basin Management: The Latin American Experience, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 31–51. AfDB (African Development Bank) (2007) Natural Resources for Sustainable Development in Africa, African Development Report series, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Africa Water Task Force (2002) Water and sustainable development in Africa: An African position paper, Pretoria: IWMI. Ahmed, S.E. (2000) Environmental impacts of the alluvial nature of the Nile on irrigated agriculture in Sudan, in Comprehensive water resources development of the Nile Basin: Priorities for the new century, 8th Nile 2002 conference proceedings, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, June 26–30, pp. 390–402. Ashton, P. (1999) Integrated Catchment Management: Balancing Resource Utilization and Conservation, African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU), online, available at: www.awiru.co.za/pdf/astonpeter.pdf. Awulachew, S.B. (2007) Rural urban linkage in Ethiopia: Implications on water, in G. Zeleke, P. Truttman, and A. Denekew (eds.), Fostering New Development Pathways: Harnessing Rural-Urban Linkage (RUL) to Reduce Poverty and Improve Environment in the Highland of Ethiopia, Proceedings of Global Mountain Program, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 29–30, pp. 133–140, online, available at: www.cipotato.org/publications/pdf/004291.pdf. Cawood, M. (2005) An Initial Rapid Appraisal of Flood Damages along the Blue and Main Nile Rivers in Sudan, report prepared for the World Bank and Africa Region, Nile Coordination Unit, Washington D.C.: World Bank. Collins, R.O. (1990) The Waters of the Nile: Hydropolitics and the Jonglei Canal, 1898–1988, Oxford: Clarendon Press. CA (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture) (2007) Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, Molden, D.J. (ed.), London, Earthscan, and Colombo: International Water Management Institute. Conway, D. (2000) The climate and hydrology of the Upper Blue Nile River, The Geographical Journal 166(1): 49–62. Drechsel, P., Graefe, S., and Fink M. (2007) Rural-urban food, nutrient and virtual water ÀRZVLQVHOHFWHG:HVW$IULFDQFLWLHVIWMI Research Report 115, Colombo: International Water Management Institute, online, available at: www. iwmi.cgiar.org/publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/PUB115/RR115.pdf. Falkenmark, M. and Rockström, J. (2006) The new Green and Blue paradigm: Breaking new ground for water resource planning and management, Journal of Water Resource Planning and Management, 123(3): 129–132.

70 A. Bahri et al. Falkenmark, M. and Rockström, J. (2008) Integrating Agricultural Water Use with the Global Water Budget, paper presented at the Rosenberg Water Policy Forum, Zaragoza, Spain, June 2008, online, available at: http://rosenberg.ucanr.org/ documents/I%20Falkenmark.pdf. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2003) World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030, an FAO Perspective, J. Bruinsma (ed.), London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2006a) Food Security and Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Building a Case for More Public Support PDLQ UHSRUW E\ :HOGHJKDEHU . 0DHW] 0 DQG 'DUGHO 3 5RPH FAO, online, available at: www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0627e/a0627e00.htm. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2006b) Demand for products of irrigated agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa, by Riddell, P.J., Westlake M. and Burke J.J., FAO Water Reports, 31, Rome: FAO. Garrido, A. and Iglesias, A. (2008) Lessons for Spain: A Critical Assessment of the Role of Science and Society, paper presented at the Rosenberg Water Policy Forum, Zaragoza, Spain, June 2008, online, available at: www.zaragoza.es/contenidos/ medioambiente/cajaAzul/GarridoACC.pdf. German, L., Mansoor, H., Alemu, G., Mazengia W., Amede, T., and Stroud, A. (2006) Participatory Integrated Watershed Management: Evolution of Concepts and Methods, African Highlands Initiative, Working Papers, 11, online, available at: http://idl-bnc. idrc.ca/dspace/handle/10625/38147. Giesen, N., Andreini, M., Edig, A. and Vlek, P. (2001) Competition for Water Resources of the Volta Basin. Regional Management of Water Resources, Maastricht: IAHS Publ. No. 268. Grey, D. and Sadoff, C. (2004) Sink or swim? Water security for growth and development, Water Policy, 9(6): 545–571. GWP–TAC (2000) Integrated Water Resources Management, background paper No 4. Global Water Partnership – Technical Advisory Committee, online, available at: www. cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsarg/i/fulltext/tac4/tac4.pdf. GWP-TEC (2008) Developing and Managing River Basins: The Need for Adaptive, Multilevel, Collaborative Institutional Arrangements, Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Issue Brief 12, online, available at: www.iwmi.cgiar.org/ DVVHVVPHQW¿OHVBQHZSXEOLFDWLRQV'LVFXVVLRQ3DSHU&$B,VVXHB%ULHIBSGI IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) (2007) IFAD Strategic Framework 2007–2010, Rome: IFAD. ,QRFHQFLR$.LNXFKL07RQRVDNL00DUX\DPD$0HUUH\'-6DOO\+DQGGH Jong, I. (2007) Costs and Performance of Irrigation Projects: A Comparison of SubSaharan Africa and Other Developing Regions, IWMI Research Report 109, Colombo: IWMI, online, available at: www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_ Research_Reports/ 3')38%55¿QDOSGI -¡QFK&ODXVHQ7 ,QWHJUDWHGZDWHUUHVRXUFHVPDQDJHPHQW,:50 DQGZDWHUHI¿ciency plans by 2005. Why, what and how? TEC Background Papers, No. 10, Mölnlycke: GWP, online, available at: http://hqweb.unep.org/civil_society/GCSF8/pdfs/ ,:50BZDWHUBHI¿FLHQF\SGI .DGLJL50-0GRH16/DQNIRUG%DQG0RUDUGHW6 7KHYDOXHRIZDWHUIRU irrigated paddy and hydropower generation in the Great Ruaha, Tanzania, in B.A. Lankford and H.F. Mahoo (eds.), Proceedings of the East Africa Integrated River Basin Management Conference, March 7–9, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, pp. 265–278.

Integrated watershed management

71

.DVKDLJLOL --   &XUUHQW XWLOL]DWLRQ DQG EHQH¿WV JDLQHG IURP ZHWODQGV LQ WKH Usangu Plains, RIPARWIN Report HRPWET3. .DVKDLJLOL--0F&DUWQH\030DKRR+)0ELOLQ\L%3