Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing: Multimodal Literacy 5 - 11

Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Eve Bearne and Helen Wolstencroft Paul C...

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing

Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Eve Bearne and Helen Wolstencroft

Paul Chapman Publishing

© Eve Bearne and Helen Wolstencroft 2007

First published 2007 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. Paul Chapman Publishing A SAGE Publications Company 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 33 Pekin Street #02-01 Far East Square Singapore 048763 Library of Congress Control Number: 2006933136 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-978-1-4129-3033-8 ISBN-978-1-4129-3034-5 (pbk)

Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed on paper from sustainable resources Printed and bound in Great Britain by The Cromwell Press Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire

Contents

List of figures Acknowledgements Introduction Section 1 What are multimodal texts? Defining and describing multimodal texts Writing and multimodal texts Affordance and design Showing and telling What children know about multimodality Activity: Finding out what children know about multimodal texts Developing a vocabulary to describe multimodal texts Classroom account: Planning and making picture books with Years 1/2 Activity: Talking about words and pictures Popular cultural texts and writing Summary The classroom as an environment for visual and audio-visual texts Reviewing provision Activity: Surveying multimodal text provision Activity: Evaluating multimodal texts Raising the profile of multimodal texts Activity: Surveying the profile of multimodal texts in the classroom Teaching multimodality Activity: Reviewing multimodal teaching Provision of digital resources Activity: Evaluating digital texts Reading and analysing visual texts Activity: Reading picture books analytically The environment of possibility Summary

ix xiii xvii 1 1 3 3 4 6 12 13 13 18 18 20

Section 2

22 23 23 24 25 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30

v

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Section 3 Planning and teaching multimodal and written texts Using the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence Familiarity with the text type Capturing and recording ideas Planning and structuring Drafting, revising and proof reading Presenting Teacher modelling Using the sequence flexibly Classroom account: Designing and writing non-chronological reports in Year 5 Summary Section 4 Narrative Pictures in the mind Activity: Writing pictures Using word and image: becoming familiar with text types and capturing ideas Classroom account: Making illustrated play scripts in Year 2 Starting from the visual: planning narratives Activity: Mapping narrative structures Flexible planning using pictures Activity: The backstory Activity: Developing character and dialogue Activity: Creating atmosphere and narrative tension Activity: Shaping ideas into episodes Activity: Heroic adventure stories Writing and film Pacing narratives Activity: Using frames to pace a narrative Classroom account: Making picture books for younger readers with Years 3/4 Summary Section 5 Non-fiction What is non-fiction? Composing non-fiction texts Designing information Classroom account: Making information leaflets with Years 3/4 Activity: Analysing design Activity: Gathering information from words and images Scaffolds for non-fiction Activity: Making frames from websites

31 34 34 35 35 35 36 36 36 37 44 45 45 47 47 47 54 56 56 58 58 59 60 60 63 65 68 69 76 78 78 79 80 80 92 92 93 98

Contents Research from observation Classroom account: Researching in the school environment with Years 1/2 Activity: Researching the environment Persuasive presentation texts Classroom account: Design presentations in Years 3/4 Summary Section 6 Poetry Narrative poetry: starting from images Classroom account: Using images for writing narrative poetry in a special school Activity: Narrative poetry using images Activity: Writing from illustrated narrative poetry Using film to inspire poetry Films without words Activity: Using a film sequence for poetry writing Poetry across the curriculum Classroom accounts: Poetry based on close observation of the natural world from Year 1 to Year 5 Activity: Poetry across the curriculum Sound and image Classroom account: Presenting pictures and poetry with a Year 6 class Activity: Making poetry presentations Writing about poetry Activity: Adding backgrounds to poetry Activity: Writing from poetry and image together Activity: Tempting others to read poetry Summary Section 7 Making progress in multimodal composition Writing development Differences between assessment and describing progress A framework for describing and assessing multimodal texts Examples of different combinations of modes Activity: Describing and assessing multimodal texts Activity: Discussing examples Example 1. Making a picture book: a multimodal text maker in the early stages Example 2. Writing a picture book drawing on a favourite film: an increasingly assured multimodal text maker Example 3. Writing an information book: a more experienced and often independent multimodal text maker

vii 99 100 103 105 105 112 114 115 118 124 124 125 125 127 127 127 133 135 135 136 138 140 141 141 141 142 142 143 145 145 146 147 147 150 153

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Example 4. Writing a collaborative picture book: two assured, experienced and independent multimodal text makers Example 5. Making a collaborative presentation and writing individual stories: assured, experienced and independent multimodal text makers Reflecting on progress Moving multimodal learners on Activity: Moving children on as multimodal text makers What does progression in multimodality look like? Activity: Progress descriptors for multimodal composition Summary Whole-school policy for multimodal teaching and learning National developments Planning for classroom and school development Reviewing current practice and provision Innovating and developing Embedding and extending Describing children’s progress Summary

156

160 164 165 166 166 166 167

Section 8

177 177 178 179 182 182 187 189

Resources

190

Author Index

193

Subject Index

194


List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5a Fig. 1.5b Fig. 1.5c Fig. 1.5d

Showing: Adam’s No Smoking poster Telling: Adam’s persuasive written piece Television is bad for children George’s responses to the multimodal texts survey Ben’s responses to the multimodal texts survey Chameleon, cover Chameleon fifth double-page spread Chameleon sixth double-page spread Chameleon final double-page spread

7 8 10 16 16 17 17

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6

Survey of available texts Evaluating multimodal texts Surveying the profile of multimodal texts in the classroom Review of teaching multimodality Evaluating digital texts Analysing picture books

24 25 26 27 28 29

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2

The Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence The Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: non-fiction Non-chronological planning skeleton Plan for presentation

32

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2a Fig. 4.2b Fig. 4.2c

Fig. 4.3a Fig. 4.3b Fig. 4.3c Fig. 4.3d Fig. 4.3e

Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: play scripts Background to illustrated play script by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James: the stegosaurus is scared of other dinosaur Background to illustrated play script by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James: the one with the horns is dead by the lava Background to illustrated play script by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James: the triceratops was scared it saw the T Rex so ran as fast as he can and ran and ran the T-rex was faster than it The Dinosaur Friendship cover page The Dinosaur Friendship p. 1 The Dinosaur Friendship p. 2 The Dinosaur Friendship p. 3 The Dinosaur Friendship p. 4

5

38 41 42

48 51 51

51 52 52 52 53 53 ix

x

Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Fig. 4.3f Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18 Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.20

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3a Fig. 5.3b Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7a-b Fig. 5.8 Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10 Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13 Fig. 5.14 Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16a Fig. 5.16b Fig. 5.16c Fig. 5.17a Fig. 5.17b Fig. 5.17c

The Dinosaur Friendship p. 5 Narrative structure: fantasy quest Narrative structure: soap opera ‘Homeless’ grid IWB page: cropped image annotated IWB page: Cropped image with speech and thought bubbles IWB page: mid-image annotated IWB page: whole image of station Flowchart for planning episodes or paragraphs Some ingredients of heroic adventure stories Frames for graphic stories Hannah’s draft graphic narrative George Snowberge’s Holiday, extract from Carly’s graphic narrative Lydia’s notes after consulting her Year 2 reader Lydia’s story plan Lydia’s notes and sketches about her central characters Lydia’s plans for page layout and paragraphs Lydia’s draft opening pages with her teacher’s comments. Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: information leaflets Annotating leaflets Information from images: noting opinions Information from images: noting opinions First draft of Maddie’s leaflet Second draft of Maddie’s leaflet A3 leaflet design Joe’s leaflet design What is this text telling the reader? Chart for gathering information about the Tudors Identifying areas for further research Overlapping ideas How? What? Why? jotter Sequencing frame Pyramid planner Making frames from websites Rabbit placed on Ashbeach Common Cat placed on Ashbeach Common Snowflake placed on Ashbeach Common Sophie’s observations on Ashbeach Common Alfie’s observations on Ashbeach Common Katie’s observations on Ashbeach Common

53 55 55 57 58 59 61 61 62 62 66 67 69 70 71 72 73 75

82 84 85 85 86 87 89 90 93 94 95 96 96 97 98 99 100 101 101 102 103 104

List of Figures Fig. 5.18 Fig. 5.19 Fig. 5.20 Fig. 5.21 Fig. 5.22a Fig. 5.22b Fig. 5.22c Fig. 5.22d Fig. 5.22e Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7 Fig. 6.8 Fig. 6.9 Fig. 6.10 Fig. 6.11 Fig. 6.12 Fig. 6.13 Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.15a-b Fig. 6.15c Fig. 6.16 Fig. 6.17a Fig. 6.17b-d Fig. 6.18 Fig. 6.19a Fig. 6.19b

Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2a Fig. 7.2b Fig. 7.2c Fig. 7.2d

IWB page of children’s notes about electricity Children’s summary of what they had learned about electricity Letter from Councillor Brightlights Guidance for the playground presentation Lighting it up screen 1 Lighting it up screen 2 Lighting it up screen 3 Lighting it up screen 4 Lighting it up screen 5 Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: narrative poetry IWB grid to capture ideas for narrative poetry Michael’s and Joe’s rhyming couplets Harry the Dragon first rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon second rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon third rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon fourth rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon fifth rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon sixth rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon seventh rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon eighth rhyming couplet Harry the Dragon final rhyming couplet Light and shadow poems stimulated by science observations Weather poetry by Georgina and Jordan Year 4 Brown Trout poems by Oliver and Katy Year 4 Brown Trout poem by Courtney William’s poem ‘People with Wings’ Digital images of wasteground Digital images of wasteground ‘Nowhere to Go’ by Corinne, aged 11 Opening lines of ‘Sea Fever’ with ocean background image Opening lines of ‘Sea Fever’ with urban background image Framework for describing progress in multimodal text making Chloe’s book cover Chloe’s first double-page spread Chloe’s second double-page spread Chloe’s third double-page spread

106 106 108 109 110 110 110 111 111

116 119 120 121 121 121 122 122 122 123 123 123 128 131 132 133 134 136 137 138 139 139

146 148 148 149 149

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Fig. 7.3a Fig. 7.3b Fig. 7.3c Fig 7.4a Fig 7.4b Fig. 7.4c Fig 7.5a Fig 7.5b Fig 7.5c Fig. 7.6a Fig. 7.6b Fig. 7.6c Fig. 7.7 Fig. 7.8 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3 Fig. 8.4

The Lion King Alex’s book cover The Lion King Alex’s first double-page spread, frames 1 and 2 The Lion King Alex’s second double-page spread, frames 3 and 4 Discovering Space Katy’s p. 1 Discovering Space Katy’s pp. 2 and 3 double-page spread Discovering Space Katy’s pp. 4 and 5 double-page spread The Last Goodbye cover by Lauren and Hannah The Last Goodbye first double-page spread The Last Goodbye second double-page spread Dr What: Adam S.’s story plan Dr What: part of Adam S.’s written story Dr What: screens 4-7 of the presentation Development in aspects of multimodality Progress descriptors for multimodal composition Two-year development plan for multimodal teaching and learning Action plan from audit of provision Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence Format Review of using the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence

151 152 152 154 155 155 157 159 159 160 161 163 168 173

180 183 185 187

Acknowledgements

We thank Mark Elvin for his design of the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence model. We also thank the following: • Andrea Blythe, Cann Hall Primary School, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex • Sally Brittain, St Helen’s School, Bluntisham, Cambridgeshire • Jane Brooks and Catherine Phillips, Rickling Church of England Primary School, Rickling Green, Essex • Dorothy Cheetham, Fredericks School, West Midlands • Di Cooling, Ramsey Spinning Infant School, Ramsey, Cambridgeshire • Anna-Claire Cunningham, The Ashbeach School, Ramsey St Mary’s, Cambridgeshire • Martin Dawe, Somersham Primary School, Somersham, Cambridgeshire • Peter Fifield, West Lea Special School, Enfield • Jane Granby, Edward Francis Junior School, Rayleigh, Essex • Heather Hann, Highfields Primary School, Manningtree, Essex • Alison Hart, Upwood Primary School, Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire • Hazel Lambert, The Ashbeach School, Ramsey St Mary’s, Cambridgeshire • Jo McNab, St Helen’s School, Bluntisham, Cambridgeshire • Ben Reave, Fredericks School, West Midlands • Christine Robinson, Ramsey Spinning Infant School, Ramsey, Cambridgeshire • Charlotte Savage, Hamford Primary School, Frinton, Essex • Viv Sharpe, Richard de Clare Primary School, Halstead, Essex • Dorothy Slatter, Hazelmere Infant and Nursery School, Colchester, Essex • Louise Timmins, Ramsey Spinning Infant School, Ramsey, Cambridgeshire • Alison Tollington, The Ashbeach School, Ramsey St Mary’s, Cambridgeshire • Karen Wells, Ramsey Junior School, Cambridgeshire.

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About UKLA UKLA is a registered charity, which has as its sole object the advancement of education in literacy. UKLA is concerned with literacy education in school and out-of-school settings in all phases of education and members include classroom teachers, teaching assistants, school literacy co-ordinators, LEA literacy consultants, teacher educators, researchers, inspectors, advisors, publishers and librarians. The Association was founded in 1963 as the United Kingdom Reading Association. In 2003 it changed its name to the United Kingdom Literacy Association in order to reflect more accurately its wider range of concerns. Through the work of its various committees and Special Interest Groups, the Association is active in a wide variety of areas, both nationally and internationally. UKLA works with a range of government and non-governmental agencies on issues of national interest. The Association is also committed to the funding and dissemination of high-quality national and international research projects that include practitioner-researchers. UKLA provides a forum for discussion and debate, together with information and inspiration. We do this through our wide range of conferences– international, national, regional and local – and our publications, which include a professional magazine, ‘English 4–11’, and two journals, ‘Literacy’ and the ‘Journal of Research in Reading’. This series of co-published titles with Sage Publications complements our range of in-house publications and provides a further opportunity to disseminate the high quality and vibrant work of the association. In order to find out more about UKLA, including details about membership, see our website: http://www.ukla.org

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Introduction

At the heart of this book lie two convictions:

that children have a great deal of experience and knowledge of multimodal texts which deserve to be valued and extended in the classroom that an integrated approach to teaching which takes account of all the dimensions of text will help children achieve in writing and in multimodal composition.

The classroom accounts and activities show how using visual approaches – and audio-visual and drama – can build on children’s knowledge of a range of multimodal texts. There are examples of teaching sequences using film, drama, real-life observations, presentation software and the interactive whiteboard (IWB). We have included references to a selection of useful background texts and websites, but since these are constantly changing, we have been selective in our references. The book is based on the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence, which has grown over several years. Many teachers have contributed to its development, taking risks with their classroom practice. This book is a tribute to their commitment. Many children have also been generous in their time and efforts, and we would like to acknowledge them here, too. In printing their work, we have corrected for spelling but kept their punctuation as far as possible. We have also, with their permission, used their own names rather than pseudonyms. Examples of children’s work within the text are in monochrome, but since colour and movement are important elements of multimodality, the CD-ROM has their work in colour. Also on the CD-ROM are:

downloadable formats and activities for use with colleagues downloadable IWB files downloadable presentation software files downloadable image files.

We hope that in using this book and CD-ROM, you will also contribute to the development of the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence, adapting it to suit your own needs. Eve Bearne and Helen Wolstencroft xvii

Section 1 What are multimodal texts?

In this section: • • • • • • • •

defining multimodal texts writing and multimodality affordance and design: using different modes and media texts that show and texts that tell surveying what children know about multimodality developing ways of talking about writing and multimodality Classroom Account: Planning and making picture books with Years 1/2 popular culture and writing.

Defining and describing multimodal texts Digital technology has brought significant changes to writing over the last 20 years or so. In everyday print-based communications like newspapers, information leaflets or advertising, words are now almost always accompanied by photographs, diagrams or drawings, and the print is enhanced by a variety of font sizes and shapes. Screens are much more familiar in shops, workplaces, schools and homes. Mobile phones transmit images and words as well as sound. Many everyday texts are now multimodal, combining words with moving images, sound, colour and a range of photographic, drawn or digitally created visuals. But multimodality is not new. People of all cultures have always used a range of ways to represent ideas and communicate meaning through speech, writing, image, gesture and movement, music and sound. The ‘newness’ is the way that messages are relayed and distributed through different media of communication. Communication is possible not only through the traditional means of paper, in picture books, magazines, novels or information books but now also through the 1

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing computer, as Internet information, emails and presentations, and via sound and visual media – radio, television, videos and DVDs. Even the most familiar and everyday communications are made up of complex combinations of modes. Talk, whether in face-to-face meetings or viewed on screen, is accompanied by movement and gesture; print is often accompanied by pictures; and films and television programmes rely on sound effects and music to add atmosphere and effect. Any multimodal text might combine elements of: gesture, movement, posture, facial expression images: moving and still, real or drawn sound: spoken words, sound effects and music writing, including font and typography. These elements will be differently weighted in any combination of modes; for example, there is usually no verbal dialogue in ballet, and novels are predominantly made up of words alone. Children grow up in a highly multimodal environment. In the street, home and school, they are surrounded by texts on screen and on paper which merge pictures, words and sound. They expect to read images as well as print and, increasingly use computers in seeking information and composing their own texts. In school, developments in publishing mean that they are familiar with a wealth of picture books and information books presented in well-designed double-page spreads. These books and the texts children read on screen influence their compositions, acting as models and examples of possible ways to express ideas and information. This has implications for teaching. The texts that children are familiar with – including computer games and hypertext – often follow a different structure from sequential narrative, instruction or explanation. Presentational software and websites extend possibilities for hypertextual composition, and digital technology, with its facility for importing pictures and manipulating text, means that presentation of writing can be more varied, involving design features that paper-based writing does not allow. However, the expansion of types of text does not mean that writing will become a thing of the past. Far from it. In fact, text messaging, emails and blogging may already have contributed to greater everyday experience of writing. As far as classroom writing is concerned, although handwriting will not disappear, there will be much more on-screen writing. It is also likely that the process of composing, editing and revising will expand to include screen-based presentations as well as writing. One of the advantages of on-screen production of texts is that children will more easily see themselves as authors, with the responsibility to proofread and craft their writing. The use of interactive whiteboards (IWBs) in classrooms means that it is much easier for a group of learners to view a piece of writing and jointly discuss editing improvements. At first it is likely that they will read the work of published authors, considering use of language to create specific effects and analysing how an experienced writer crafts a piece of writing. From there it is a short step to reviewing their own composition with an analytical eye, examining their own use of

What are multimodal texts?

3

language, style and sentence structure. A group of children composing on screen can readily amend work, so that composition benefits from collaborative support and the facilities of the computer. All of this experience forges strong examples of how an individual can gain satisfaction from crafting a piece of writing until it does the job the author wanted it to do. This process of apprenticeship to reading with a critical eye, editing and revising is equally relevant when children are writing or composing multimodal texts on paper and on screen.

Writing and multimodal texts This book looks at writing both as part of multimodal texts and in its own right. Including multimodality in the literacy curriculum means learning to decide when to communicate in writing alone and when to use a multimodal form. The term ‘text’ is used specifically to describe any communication made up of an interwoven combination of modes. It is just not accurate to describe a designed leaflet, the double-page spread of an information book, or a screen displaying information on the Internet as ‘writing’. Each of these is made up of a combination of image, word, layout and sometimes sound. They are, in fact, multimodal texts. To avoid any confusion, we distinguish throughout this book between multimodal texts, which we term ‘texts’, and writing. Decisions about whether it is better to use a combination of modes or a single mode are related to purpose and audience. If a message is to have maximum effect, it is important to choose the best form of communication. This will be influenced by the writer’s view of what the reader or audience will need to help them understand the meaning. For example, it may be better to use charts, pictures and even gesture alongside words to help explain a complicated process; on the other hand, creating a short story with words alone serves a different kind of purpose. The author selects particular combinations of modes for the job in hand. Similarly, specific media are better suited to certain types of communication: a novel is more easily read on paper than on a screen, and an IWB, with its facilities for moving text and images about, can be more helpful than paper when explaining a process in design technology or science.

Affordance and design In teaching about choices of modes and media, children need to consider what different modes and media afford for making meaning. This is often tied up with the material of the medium. Reading a story in a printed book affords a different kind of experience from watching a television or film narrative. The fact that a book is made up of pages – the material of the book – which are easily turned by hand, makes it possible to skip descriptive passages, vary the pace of reading, and return

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing to earlier pages to check details or recapture the narrative flow. With television or a film, ‘skipping’ or returning to earlier parts of the story is not possible unless it has been pre-recorded. Even with a recording, where it is possible to review and fast-forward, it is difficult to pick up on detail without considerable effort. The screen, disc or videotape afford a different set of reading possibilities from a magazine or book because of what they are made of and how they work. Affordance is also related to differences in messages according to whether they are presented in writing or in words-plus-images. Writing is necessarily chronological – sequenced according to time: this event happened, then this, then this … Instructions similarly obey the dictates of time sequence, since they are presented in a non-chronological order: for this process you have to do this, then this, then this. If they are not given in order, instructions are not likely to be very useful. Writing is organised according to time – what you read first – and from top to bottom of the page (in Western languages) as the writer tells the story or gives instructions. On the other hand, if events or explanations are presented in a combination of words and images, and sometimes sound, they may have elements of sequencing but will certainly be organised spatially. The maker of the text shows the reader. In information books, for example, with double-page spreads for each topic, the designer deliberately places words and images, as well as arrows, shading, text boxes, and font type and size, to emphasise particular ideas. There may be a strong central image to draw attention to the key idea, and then, through the shape of the central image or by the use of arrows or simply the placing of white space, the reader’s eye is directed to different aspects of the spread. In this way, the designer displays the ideas or information, inviting the reader’s eye to travel a range of pathways around the page. Composing a multimodal text, then, involves an element of design, where modes are combined to get the message across.

Showing and telling1 Two persuasive texts by the same writer, Adam (Year 6), one multimodal; one written, illustrate the difference between showing and telling.2 The text structures of his poster and persuasive piece of writing, with cohesive devices specific to each form, demonstrate how authors, of whatever age, use design to get the message across. In Fig. 1.1, No Somking (sic), the weight of the message is carried by the strong central image as a direct appeal to the reader. This is mirrored by the words in the thought bubbles, which contain facts about the effects of smoking. The layout gives a steady pace to the design, contributing to the force of the message. The centrally placed lit cigarette and the repeated cigarette motifs punctuate the spaces between the thought bubbles. The eye is led either to or from the central image by the thought bubble tags, which are visual connectives linking statement and consequence with a pictorial version of ‘and so …’. And as the eye roams the white space surrounding the central image, it collides with the reminder of the banned cigarette. In the same way that the

What are multimodal texts? Figure 1.1

5

Showing: Adam’s No Smoking poster

lighted cigarette acts as a repeated linking device, the thought bubbles (and their content) are repetitive, giving force to the implied argument: if you persist in smoking (image of cigarette), this is what will happen (factual statement). Adam uses thought bubbles, not speech bubbles, inviting the reader to think things over, where speech bubbles would act as direct commands. There is no

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing obviously persuasive language – just an opportunity for the reader to consider the link between smoking and illness in a measured presentation of image and word. The patterning of this text shows deliberate design in selecting content – images and language – to convey the message to the reader. However, the idea of design is not restricted to multimodal texts. Writing is also designed. Any piece of writing has ‘design’ in that the writer has taken some deliberate decisions, some of them unconscious, in constructing the writing (Sharples, 1999). It goes through the same stages of developing a concept that a car designer or an architect might: generating ideas to address a specific purpose; sketching them out; selecting, rejecting and organising them; producing a prototype (or draft); trying it out; reviewing and adjusting; and, finally, moving to a finished product. Some parts of this process will be unconscious and others conscious and deliberate, as the designer works out how to use the material as effectively as possible. Fig 1.2 shows a written piece completed by Adam after a series of classroom discussions and debates on the proposition, television is bad for children. The writing follows a sequenced structure, dependent on time. If we tried to read Adam’s piece from the middle or the bottom first, it just would not make sense. In this piece of persuasive writing, the weight of the message depends on the cumulative effect of the different paragraphs. Even though it is a written piece, it is also designed. It is visually symmetrical – short, long, long, short paragraphs – as part of the pacing of a balanced argument. The content is equally designed to carry an argument in a specific order. Adam begins by giving the reader the context and then places the television companies and the parents in opposition, concluding with his own opinion. Adam’s two texts illustrate the differences between showing and telling, how the affordances of space and time work in different modes. At the same time, however, his poster and writing show that composing multimodal texts and written texts are both acts of design, relating to purpose and a sense of audience.

What children know about multimodality The separate chapters of this book give examples of teaching multimodality to develop a range of different types of text. However, so that teaching can be geared towards building on children’s experience, it is worth finding out just what they do know. The survey in Fig. 1.3 is designed to discover their experience of multimodal texts and what they understand about how these texts work. (There is a blank copy of the survey form on the CD-ROM.) As part of a project on making picture books, Andrea Blythe, a Year 1/2 teacher, used the surveys to help her to plan. She interviewed the children before and after the project. Fig. 1.3 shows George’s survey responses scribed by his teacher. His initial views are on the left of the questions, and his ideas after the project are shown on the right. George clearly likes visual texts with moving images and is experienced with computer games and television. In answer to question 4, he says, ‘Moving pictures are more interesting to me.’ His least favourite text type was:


Telling: Adam’s persuasive written piece, Television is bad for children

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Figure 1.3

George’s responses to the multimodal texts survey

(Continued)


(Continued)

9

10


Figure 1.4

Ben’s responses to the multimodal texts survey

(Continued)


(Continued)

11

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comics and magazines because they don’t have very much excitement, they only have little square pictures with lots of them and words to read. However, before the project, he saw words as more important than images: when you get too interested in the pictures it stops you reading the whole book. His answers to questions 2 and 3 about the specific functions of words and pictures show some understanding of the affordances of the different modes, but in question 5, he says, ‘Oh no, you can’t read the pictures.’ After the project he still retains his liking for moving image texts and is able to articulate the differences between the modes used in multimodal texts and picture books, identifying the fact that films have dialogue, sound effects and music, but still pictures do not. He has also shifted his ideas about the role of images in reading when he says, ‘You don’t get as much information … . when you just read the words.’ Ben (Fig. 1.4) also prefers visual texts, but again, before the project, he sees writing as more important because pictures tell the reader what the words are. He does not regard reading moving images as reading at all. In response to question 4, he says: You have to read the book and don’t move around. Videos tell you the words and it goes a lot faster, you don’t have to read it. After the project he feels confident to say that he prefers reading pictures but thinks that words and pictures have equal weight. In response to question 2, he says, ‘Both give you the detail.’ He has also developed a more assured vocabulary to talk about what pictures contribute to meaning. He now sees pictures as adding to what words can tell the reader: extra things like in the background, dark or light, different colours.

ACTIVITY: FINDING OUT WHAT CHILDREN KNOW ABOUT MULTIMODAL TEXTS Colleagues might use the Survey of Children’s Experience of Multimodal Texts in Fig. 1.3 to find out about children’s existing knowledge and preferences. The first questions can be answered without any prior work, but it may be worth planning a teaching sequence which includes multimodal texts before asking for responses to question 6. (There is a blank copy of the survey form on the CD-Rom.)


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Developing a vocabulary to describe multimodal texts The surveys and responses before and after the project show that children bring a good deal of multimodal text experience into the classroom and that they are capable of making choices about their preferences. However, this raw experience deserves building on so that they can maximise their knowledge and experience. Andrea Blythe’s account of her classroom work explains the process.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: PLANNING AND MAKING PICTURE BOOKS WITH YEARS 1/2 My Year 1/2 class had already had some experience of reading film and before I started the three-week unit on picture books I reminded them of the moving image work we had done. I chose Anthony Browne’s books as a basis for the picture-book project because they offer strong models of how words and pictures work together to intrigue the reader. I used Shape Game as a starting point because I was sure it would engage the children as we looked at the text in detail. This book requires the children to spot differences in the illustrations and focus on how the visual text communicates meaning to readers. I followed this up by reading Changes and Gorilla to help the children see that the same author can use pictures and words in different kinds of combinations. Changes shows how themes and the storyline conveyed in the visual text influence a reader’s feelings. With Gorilla, I wanted to draw attention to how the style of the visual text works on the reader’s emotions. I particularly focused on Anthony Browne’s use of colour to communicate sadness and the size and placement of figures on the page to carry messages about relationships. In independent sessions, we spent time on drawing and drama to help the children explore the messages in the book. While we were planning the picture books, I modelled storyboarding, talking through making choices of what to include in my book, how I was going to use pictures and words to complement each other. I reminded them about how camera angles, close-ups, mid- and long shots, colour and placing of pictures can influence the reader’s (or viewer’s) feelings. The children used dictaphones to record their ideas before beginning their storyboards so that they could get ideas together instantly without worrying about the secretarial skills of writing. It also helped a lot with redrafting. The children worked with their usual editing/ response partners. I had allowed a couple of sessions for the children’s planning process, but as we were working, it became clear that the children would need an extended period of time to complete their plans if their ideas were going to be properly developed. They were so involved and engaged in the work that I was happy to take the time for them to complete the stories to their satisfaction.

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I also had to adjust my plans for the sessions completing the picture books. As I was modelling planning for layout, I returned to the books we had used for shared reading, hiding the written text and asking the children to decide what Anthony Browne could have written to add further meaning for the reader. At this stage, I focused in more detail on the contrast between the written text and the visual text in Browne’s books. I asked four key questions to prompt the children’s thinking: Do the words say what the characters are feeling? If not, why not? How/what information do the pictures give the reader? How does Anthony Browne make the words and pictures give some different messages to the reader about the same story? We returned to the questions throughout the drafting and presenting processes to keep the children focused on the ways they wanted the different modes to work to make their own stories engaging for the reader. They chose colours carefully, both for the pages of their books and for the pictures themselves. As Reece’s example shows, their final books drew imaginatively on the Anthony Browne books we had studied. I had wanted the children to ‘become authors’ during this unit of work, and I was pleased that they felt so much pride in their work. They took a great deal of time and care over their work, as real authors do. One thing I discovered was that the planning and thinking process needed as much time as the writing and making of the book – and from their response to the surveys after the work was finished, it was well worth the time! When we returned to the survey, I asked the children to explain their choices of pictures and words. I was impressed with the way that all of them were able to reflect on and talk about their books. For instance, George talked about perspective and colour as well as about his writing: I chose big bold pictures with lots of detail for my reader. I have used close-up shots as well. I used yellow and white colours to make it stand out. I was careful to put full stops in the right places. I made some points sad by using grey and black colours. And Ben was very clear about how he wanted to reach the reader’s emotions: Yes, I wanted it to turn out funny but sad as well. At the end I gave my baboon a guitar to cheer him up and some other pictures were sad. I used some close-ups because I thought my reader needed to see close detail. Reece does not find writing particularly easy, but his ‘Chameleon’ story was a real triumph for him (Fig. 1.5a). He certainly shows how he, like Ben and


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George, latched on to the idea of using different layout and colour to create mood and get the reader involved. He also shows choice in framing, as sometimes he opts for a full-page image and at other times uses small frames (cut out and stuck on a coloured background). Equally, he is careful about the placing of the words in relation to the images, designing his whole book with varied layout. The whole of Reece’s book is shown on the CD-ROM. Some pages are included here. He is not very confident about writing but got very involved in making his book. His story begins: Harry was playing a game. It had a chameleon in it. It was catching a fly. His second page is a full-page spread which is almost entirely black with Harry in the middle, suggesting the character’s gloom. The words on the facing page say: Harry told his dad that he wanted to go to the zoo. He places this bald sentence centrally and illustrates it with a dark, gloomy image, telling the reader that, like Hannah in Anthony Browne’s Gorilla, there was not much chance that Harry’s father would take him to the zoo. On the third page, Reece turns the page to a portrait with a centrally placed picture of the chameleon and the words: Harry went to bed. He was so excited because it was his birthday. The fourth double-page spread has the words: Harry got a toy chameleon but Harry wanted a real chameleon and after it grew bigger. The image on the facing page shows three small frames with images of a toy chameleon getting bigger in each frame. For the fifth spread, Reece returns to a single page with an image of Harry lying down with the speech bubble ‘Well’ and a large chameleon beside him. Underneath are the words: Harry was amazed and the chameleon was so big (Fig. 1.5b). Again Reece varies the layout, as in the sixth spread he places the words between two trees with the chameleon and Harry climbing the righthand tree to get into the zoo: The chameleon and Harry climbed to the zoo and the chameleon got to the zoo first because he was the better climber (Fig. 1.5c). The final page is again presented as a portrait with a small image of Harry and his father (who has not appeared in the picture text before) and the words: ‘Hooray’ said Harry we are going to the zoo and this is a secret we are going again!! (Fig. 1.5d). This last page is particularly clever because Reece is signalling that although Harry’s father has agreed to take him to the zoo, the reader and Harry share the secret that he is ‘going again’ because the chameleon had already granted his wish and taken him to the zoo. Reece, like the others in the class, has become a successful author who can suggest subtleties of meaning through the multimodal text. Andrea Blythe, Cann Hall Primary School, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex

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Figure 1.5a Chameleon, cover

Figure 1.5b Chameleon, fifth double-page spread

What are multimodal texts? Figure 1.5c

Chameleon, sixth double–page spread

Figure 1.5d Chameleon, final double-page spread

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ACTIVITY: TALKING ABOUT WORDS AND PICTURES Andrea’s questions (adapted here) can be a good starting point for readers of any age to tackle the way a complex picture book works: Do the words say what the characters are feeling? If not, why not? How/what information do the pictures give the reader? Does the author make the words and pictures give different messages to the reader about the same story? How?

Popular cultural texts and writing Andrea Blythe’s Year 1/2 class shows how children can draw on models of published picture books to help them explore their own combinations of words and images. However, as the surveys indicate, many of the multimodal texts that children prefer to read, view and play are those they enjoy at home. They are part of the popular literacies which children have available to enhance their classroom learning (Marsh and Millard, 2006). There are some problems, however, about using popular cultural texts in the classroom. First of all, teachers may be unaware of what children do read and view at home. Then there are tensions about bringing children’s home text experience into the classroom: these are, after all, their personally preferred texts, providing a special type of pleasure which is distinct from the satisfactions of classroom learning. There is no doubt that teaching multimodality should be firmly based on what children know. However, their text experience drawn from home is necessarily implicit. They may know how texts work to engage and entertain them, but at a subconscious level. Building on their implicit knowledge of modes, media and affordances and what they offer for composition and writing means explicitly discussing how texts work to express ideas. The following examples from a Year 3/4 class show how children’s knowledge of computer games encouraged them to be more adventurous in writing stories. Over the course of five afternoon sessions, the class used what they knew about computer games as a basis for retelling the story of Little Red Riding Hood.3 After they had written these stories, they used images captured from a Lara Croft computer game to plan another story. The following extracts show how the children drew on their knowledge of some of the features of games to write inventive accounts of Red Riding Hood’s journey to her grandmother’s house. Millie uses the familiar choice of pathways: …and suddenly I came to a fallen tree. I looked inside the fallen tree and found the key to grandma’s house and I crawled out the other side. Then I came to the place where there were three paths. 1 was a bumpy path and a winded path and a squared path I chose the winded path….


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Sylviana includes collecting, another familiar feature of computer games: …Little Red Riding Hood set off. Granny’s house was on the other side of the wood. First of all she came to the woods and saw some jam tarts so she picked them up…. …About 5 minutes later she saw 3 strange, different paths. They had numbers on them. 1 was curvy. 2 was straight. 3 was a zig-zaggy path….. John puts obstacles in the way of Red Riding Hood: Once upon a time there was a girl called Little Red Riding Hood or Ribon for short. Ribon’s grandma was very ill. So she decided to take a basket of cupcakes to grandma. So Ribon took cupcakes to her grandma and she met some obstacles on her way. There were spider webs, paths, woodpiles and stiles. But the most dangerous of them all was a BIG BAD WOLF! Ribon met the wolf and the wolf chase Ribon into his trap. Fortunately for Little Red Riding Hood the wolf had dropped the key…. The Red Riding Hood stories were enlivened by the knowledge of game patterns, but after using pictures to plan their stories, almost all the class wrote in a distinctly different way, including movement and sound as well as familiar computer game features. Millie begins in the third person but moves into first-person narration as she becomes more involved in the story. She describes action, movement and space to take the reader with her: One day Jenna was crouching by a very tall building. Then she slowly jumped up and quietly walked off to this huge drain pipe. That went to the top window of the building that she was crouching outside of before. Then she went inside hanging from the railings and hiding from the two guards that looked very serious. Then when the guards looked straight ahead I snook past the guards and I found myself in this dark gloomy room with a blue laptop that opened an oval door when you press special buttons…. In contrast with the subdued use of verbs in her Red Riding Hood story, Sylviana’s story is also full of strong movement: One day Lizzie Lovet went on an adventure. She was crouching on top of the highest building in the world (that’s in

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing New York). She had a long thick rope in her back-pack which was very very heavy. Lizzie yanked out the rope and slung it on the next building’s chimney. She held on very tightly and jumped off the building and crashed with a big BANG! … After using pictures from a real computer game to plan narratives, many of the children gave the reader the ‘backstory’ as an introduction. John tells the reader: After escaping from Lumcet’s killer bunny factory our hero has landed on a roof top in China. She must go through the local museum and on the way avoid patrols. Lara slipped into the museum. She found a laptop by a door. She used the laptop to open the door and there in front of her were some lasers. These examples suggest that children can use their knowledge of popular cultural texts, including computer games, to good effect to enliven their writing. Although they are presenting a written form, children draw on other modes – movement, sound and pictures in their minds – to add zest to their narrative writing. This book explores the potential of multimodal texts to enhance children’s composition, offering classroom accounts, planning frameworks and digital resources to help make the most of what children bring into the classroom from their everyday multimodal experience.

Summary Multimodality involves the complex interweaving of word, image, gesture and movement, and sound, including speech. These can be combined in different ways and presented through a range of media. Children are surrounded by multimodal texts so that it becomes imperative to teach multimodality if they are to realise their potential as communicators in the twenty-first century. In teaching children about language and literacy, including reading and writing on screen as well as on paper, it is worth finding out just what they know about the texts they encounter inside and outside school. Maximising children’s potential as writers and multimodal authors means explicitly: • • •

teaching about how texts, modes and media work, separately and in combination helping children to become selective in matching mode and media with purpose and in making appropriate choices for specific audiences using children’s home experience of texts and technology in the classroom, and developing critical awareness of how to read images, sound, design, posture and movement as well as words.


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Notes 1 This distinction was made by Gunther Kress in Literacy in the New Age (2003). 2 Adam’s text and poster first appeared in an article by Eve Bearne, ‘Rethinking literacy: communication, representation and text’ in Literacy: a journal of the United Kingdom Literacy Association, 37 (3) November 2003, pp98–103. We are grateful for permission to reprint these images. 3 For a full account of the work, see Bearne, E. and Wolstencroft, H. ( 2005) ‘Playing with possibilities: children and computer texts’, in Marsh, J. and Millard, E. (eds) Popular Literacies, Childhood and Schooling. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Section 2 The classroom as an environment for visual and audio-visual texts

In this section: • • • • • • •

reviews of provision of multimodal texts in the classroom and school issues of quality: evaluating multimodal texts raising the profile of multimodal texts teaching multimodality provision of digital resources reading and analysing visual texts the environment of possibility.

Developing the school and classroom environment to encourage visual and multimodal literacy requires a fresh look at the range and type of texts available. Resources need to include print and visual texts in a range of forms to support children in their understanding and development. Teachers and practitioners have a broad knowledge of picture books, as well as chapter books, and these provide an ideal starting point for reviewing text provision for multimodal teaching. Many of the teachers who have contributed to this book, both through classroom accounts and in trialling the progression framework, began their work on multimodal literacy with picture books already available in the school. The repertoire has now expanded to include graphic

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The classroom as an environment for visual and audio-visual texts

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novels, computer-generated texts, DVDs and CD-ROMs, and any review of the environment for multimodality needs to take this wider range into account.

Reviewing provision Access to and immersion in texts prior to any teaching is essential to ensure the children can create their own written or designed multimodal texts. As Section 1 shows, surveys of children’s knowledge of multimodal texts can inform the teacher about useful starting points. There have also been informative research projects which identify children’s knowledge and experience of multimodal texts in the home (Marsh et al., 2005). This information can help shape future learning. However, surveys of provision in the classroom and school can equally inform planning for teaching (Fig. 2.1). There is space for the addition of other kinds of text, such as presentation texts via data projectors, or texts on IWB files.

ACTIVITY: SURVEYING MULTIMODAL TEXT PROVISION Surveys of provision can highlight gaps but what really matters is whether the texts are good quality and what use teachers make of them. All the texts in Fig. 2.1 can vary in their type and quality. Picture books can range from those where the images are incidental with priority given to the written word, to those where the meaning can be gained only by paying attention to both the visual and the written text. This is not to suggest that books that are mainly word-based are to be set aside in favour of picture books or screen-based texts. Novels, biographies, and any books that are entirely composed of words have their important place in the classroom, and encouraging children to write sustained or extended texts is essential. These aspects of teaching, however, are taken for granted much more than multimodal texts. The main consideration in choosing multimodal texts has to be whether the text still retains its full meaning for a reader if one mode is taken away. Good quality texts often rely on the authors combining modes where the words and images provide different information or alternative perspectives. A scene in a film is never as tense if the musical score is taken away because the director will have chosen sound, image, movement, perspective and colour for particular emotional impact.

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Figure 2.1

Survey of available texts

Survey of classroom and school multimodal text provision

Text type

Classroom

Foundation Key Stage Stage 1

Key Stage 2

Picture books Comics and graphic novels Magazines CD-ROMs Internet sites Leaflets and adverts DVDs and videos Non-fiction designed books Audio texts Art work, maps . . .

ACTIVITY: EVALUATING MULTIMODAL TEXTS A key to evaluating multimodal texts is to consider whether the combination of image, movement, sound and words do their job in representing or communicating ideas. Do they fulfil the intended purpose? Do they reach the intended audience? Section 1 begins with an outline of multimodal texts, and this might be used in conjunction with Fig. 2.2 in evaluating chosen texts. This can be carried out individually or with a group of colleagues. Selecting a range of different texts of one type – for example, picture books, designed information books or DVDs – can help in establishing views about quality.


Figure 2.2

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Evaluating multimodal texts

Which modes are used in the text to communicate meaning for the reader? Text type

Image

Movement

Sound

Print

Picture books

Leaflets

Designed information books

Websites

DVDs

CD-ROMs of books

• What does each mode communicate to the reader? • Would the text lose meaning if one mode were removed? • Does the text use a range of page/screen layouts and designs? • Do the texts use a variety of different graphic cues to organise and emphasise elements of the text, for example: size, shape and style of written text colour size and shape of images arrows and lines space and place on a page/screen?

Raising the profile of multimodal texts Quality provision and access to texts in the environment of the school is only half the equation. Homes and school work together to give value to the texts they think are ‘good’ for children. To be confident readers and producers of multimodal texts, children should be conscious of the value of those texts, so further questions might be:

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Do all colleagues in the school, including those who teach upper Key Stage 2, understand the purpose and place of quality multimodal texts in the classroom? How are parents and carers encouraged to support their children’s reading of a range of texts, including multimodal texts? No matter what the range and quality of texts provided, if reading and writing multimodal texts is given low status by adults, similar attitudes are reflected by the children. The most challenging questions that may have to be asked will be about the status of the texts once they are established in the school. Subject leaders and senior managers therefore need to evaluate how the texts are being used across the school through monitoring and surveys carried out with children and colleagues.

ACTIVITY: SURVEYING THE PROFILE OF MULTIMODAL TEXTS IN THE CLASSROOM Fig. 2.3 offers some review questions to assess the profile given to multimodal texts in the classroom. This activity might be carried out individually, in year-group or agephase meetings. Discussion with colleagues can help to share good practice and identify ways forward. Figure 2.3

Surveying the profile of multimodal texts in the classroom

The profile of multimodal texts in the classroom

• How are multimodal texts organised and displayed? • Is there easy access to multimodal texts without adult support? • Do displays change to reflect school and home literacies? • Are the children involved in displaying and collecting multimodal texts? • Are children’s own multimodal texts displayed? If the answer to any of these questions is ‘no’ or ‘sometimes’, the next question is: What can be done to change the situation?


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Teaching multimodality Although children often have a great deal of knowledge and experience of multimodal texts from home, it is by no means uniform and cannot be taken for granted. Also, if children are to produce their own texts – whether written or multimodal – they need opportunities for analysis and discussion of how they are structured. This means deliberate teaching of multimodality. Section 3 provides a planning model which gives step-by-step guidance for planning and teaching multimodal texts, but before beginning detailed planning, it is worth reviewing the current situation.

ACTIVITY: REVIEWING MULTIMODAL TEACHING Fig. 2.4 offers some initial review questions to identify specific areas for development. This is probably most usefully carried out as an individual activity. After that, the conclusions might be taken to a year-group, age-phase or wholeschool discussion.

Figure 2.4

Review of teaching multimodality

Do teaching units allow time for immersion in multimodal texts accompanied by extensive discussion before producing outcomes on page and screen? • How long is usually spent on reading and discussing texts before writing or composing multimodal texts? • How does this compare with time spent on writing/composing? How are group and class discussions used to develop children’s understanding of multimodal texts? • Does guided reading involve multimodal texts? • Does guided writing involve multimodal texts? • How are speaking and listening planned into units of work leading to multimodal text composition? – – –

in whole class teaching? in paired discussion? in presentations?

• How are drama and role play included? Are choices in design, layout and use of different modes on paper and onscreen taught explicitly? • In literacy sessions? • In other curriculum areas? • Does this include time for children to discuss their own work and that of others, referring to choices of mode, layout and design?

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Section 8 integrates the reviews in Figs 2.1–2.4 within the structure of wholeschool policy.

Provision of digital resources The increase in types of text available through digital technology has brought great opportunities for reading and producing multimodal texts. However, the ready availability brings its own tensions, such as concern about children getting access to materials that are unsuitable in content. This implies the need for teaching critical reading before composing or writing texts that draw on computer sources. Reviewing provision of computer-based resources includes consideration of how the texts are mediated in the classroom.

ACTIVITY: EVALUATING DIGITAL TEXTS Fig. 2.5 provides some starting points for discussing the teaching critical reading of computer-based texts. Discussion of these points might be helped by first carrying out the survey of Children’s experience of multimodal texts (Fig. 1.3).

Figure 2.5

Evaluating digital texts

What kinds of digital texts are used in a week’s teaching in all areas of the curriculum? (e.g. DVDs, CD-ROMs, websites…)

What experience of digital texts do children have during a week (generally)?

What approaches are used to analyse the content of digital texts used in the classroom?

If there is not much to say in response to the last question, a further prompt might be: What might be done to develop critical approaches?


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Reading and analysing visual texts There are suggestions in Section 5 for reading and analysing non-fiction multimodal texts, and Section 4 includes a framework for analysing graphic narratives. There is also extensive guidance from the British Film Institute (BFI) and Film Education to support critical analysis of moving image texts (see Resources Section). These include looking at the director’s intentions in film-making, as in the use of particular camera angles, perspective, colour, movement, dialogue and sound. Picture books often use techniques similar to those of film makers, but they are static texts and can be browsed over in a way that films cannot, so their structures and effects are different. Fig. 2.6 gives some prompts that can be used to analyse narrative picture books.

ACTIVITY: READING PICTURE BOOKS ANALYTICALLY The questions in Fig. 2.6 can be used by teachers or children. If they are used with very young children, they may need to be rephrased or explained.

Figure 2.6

Analysing picture books

What is this book about? How do you know? Did you find that out from the words or the pictures or both? Or perhaps the end papers? Choose a double-page spread that you particularly like. • What are the pictures telling the reader? • How are the pictures drawn? (for example, swift lines or fully drawn images) • What effect does this have? • What do the words tell the reader? • Is this a different message from the pictures? • If there is more than one picture on the page, how are they arranged to help get the message across? • If a character or an animal is depicted, what does the posture tell the reader? Do the words tell you about this as well? • How does the colour add to the atmosphere or action of the episode on the double-page spread? • How are perspective and close-up or distance used to help tell the story?

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing These questions open up areas for discussion about paper-based multimodal texts and can guide the use of picture books as models for children’s own work.

The environment of possibility Creating an effective environment is not just a matter of classroom or school provision; there must also be an environment of possibility – that intangible area of teachers’ expertise which informs planning for activities which will both challenge and support multimodal composition and writing. Section 3 offers a comprehensive guide to the process of teaching for multimodal or written texts. Implicit to the planning model is the assumption that teachers will provide support for high achievement in composition. However, there has to be some sense of how multimodal text composition can be fostered and developed, and Section 7 offers a framework for seeing the possibilities for young writers and text makers. It also has examples of how children’s multimodal texts can be described and assessed.

Summary The environment of the classroom is a very good indicator of the ways in which teachers and practitioners view multimodality. Surveys of provision and quality of texts can help to identify how the environment might be enhanced to support children’s development as writers and multimodal text makers. In some classrooms and schools, the profile of multimodal texts needs to be raised, and parents and carers reassured about their children’s experience of multimodal texts. Once some background information has been established, a more coherent approach to teaching multimodal texts can be implemented. In view of the increases in numbers and types of digital texts, it is important to consider how these can be critically evaluated, both by teachers and children. Equally, paperbased multimodal texts need to be critically analysed as part of the vision of how best to develop multimodal text makers.

Section 3 Planning and teaching multimodal and written texts

In this section: • • • • • • • • • • •

research which supports planning integrated and extended units of work the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence the process of writing and the process of multimodal text construction becoming familiar with the text type: reading and analysing capturing and recording ideas planning and structuring ideas drafting, revising and proofreading presenting teacher modelling using the sequence flexibly Classroom account: Designing and writing non-chronological reports in Year 5.

Recent research in teaching multimodality has highlighted the importance of longer-term integrated approaches to planning and teaching (Essex Writing Project, 2002–2005; PNS/UKLA, 2004). Great gains have been made in children’s writing through teaching which combines the visual, print texts, drama and talk with the more usual teaching of reading and writing. The research has also shown that achievements in reading and speaking and listening also increased. Both of these research projects, and others1 used the same model of an extended teaching unit (Bearne, 2002). This model has informed the development of the planning model in this section, but the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence (Fig. 3.1) has 31

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Figure 3.1

The Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence.

Familiarity with text type Develop understanding of multimodal texts • Read and categorise texts • Show how different modes combine to create meaning • Explain how design, layout and organisation of texts create effect • Discuss how to compose texts according to audience and purpose • Draw on reading to design text models • Demonstrate expressing personal responses to texts

Capture ideas Note and develop initial ideas • Explore ideas for texts using: – drama techniques, role play, puppets, small world play – digital photo manipulation software – digital audio manipulation software – musical instruments – dance • Record ideas through drawings, story maps, note making • Capture ideas through digital audio, digital still images and moving images

Teacher modelling • Read multimodal texts noting how modes combine to create meaning • Discuss text conventions associated with each mode

Children’s independent learning • Read multimodal texts and express preferences • Collect examples of text conventions • Create own text models

Teacher modelling • Demonstrate capturing ideas using different strategies • Model taking risks to generate ideas • Show how to record ideas

Children’s independent learning

Plan Develop, record and structure initial ideas • Demonstrate how to choose the modes which are best for the task • Model designing layouts using desktop publishing, word processing software, drawing, sketching and sticky notes • Annotate skeleton plans, maps, digital images and drawings • Show how to collect and arrange ideas using graphic organisers, lists, story boards

Draft Develop ideas from the plan into a structured text

• Decide which strategy to use for a particular purpose • Use note taking approaches appropriate to text type and age of pupils

Teacher modelling • Combine models from shared reading and captured ideas on planning formats • Evaluate different planning strategies

Children’s independent learning • Explore design options to create possible layouts • Decide on the impact of a mode or combination of modes for the task

• Demonstrate how to use models and plans from shared reading to support drafting to texts and design choices • Model using presentation software, digital video and audio editing software to combine modes • Demonstrate making changes to the text, adding or removing elements to clarify meaning • Show how to use drawing and typographic choices to engage the reader

continues on next page

Planning and teaching multimodal and written texts Figure 3.1

(Continued)

Teacher modelling • Explain how choices of mode will communicate the overall meaning of the text • Discuss how to maintain cohesion across the text through design, colour, sound effects, editing, typeface etc. • Refer back to examples from shared reading to inform text design choices


Revise Alter and improve the draft • Refer back to models drawn from shared reading • Ask response partners to assess and review texts using agreed criteria • Demonstrate adding or removing elements of the text to clarify meaning • Show how to use computer software options to re-organise sections of the text • Model adding notes to paper based texts to prompt changes at presentation stage

• Apply decisions about which mode will best communicate the intended meaning of the text • Use shared reading and own personal reading to inform authorial decisions • Choose from a range of cohesive devices to maintain text cohesion

Teacher modelling • Model using success criteria to inform revisions and improve the draft • Talk through making decisions about re-organising elements of the text to improve design, cohesion and meaning

Proof read


Check design and layout, spelling and punctuation

• Work with response partners to make decisions about the effective use of modes to communicate meaning • Apply understanding of design and text construction to clarify meaning

Demonstrate how to check: – visual text for content, colour, cropping of images, effects, layout and composition, image placement and visual emphasis – moving image for fades and edits, cropping, timing of clips, visual effects – auditory text for timing, editing, sequencing, volume, fades and edits, sound effects – non-linear text to ensure hyperlinks, action buttons and animation sequences work – written text for spelling, punctuation and paragraphing

Present Prepare and present a final copy to a reader/audience • Talk through decisions about final presentation including choice of materials • Model how to evaluate final copy • Publish texts: – on paper as books, graphic novels, posters, advertising leaflets, newspapers and magazines – on screen as video podcasts, digital videos of news and television broadcasts, animations, websites, – through live performances of shadow puppets, dance, plays – through presentations by children using paper and presentation software – on web-based forums to share texts with wider audiences

Teacher modelling • Demonstrate proof reading for accuracy of individual elements of the text and overall design • Explain how to check cohesion across elements of the text

Children’s independent learning • Proof read for accuracy and consistency • Check cohesion

Teacher modelling • Demonstrate offering constructive feedback about content, design and use of modes to communicate successfully with the reader • Support children as they identify their next steps

Children’s independent learning • Use available resources to present texts • Evaluate own final copy • Identify next steps as multimodal text maker

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing been expanded by the addition of elements of the process of writing. It is a flexible framework which can be used to plan for written outcomes as well as multimodal outcomes.

Using the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence The planning sequence is divided into seven sections. These fall into the three main phases of the process of composing a multimodal or written text: becoming familiar with the text type, capturing ideas and planning drafting, revising and proof reading presenting. Each section of the sequence supports the development of visual and multimodal texts. Planning a unit of work following all three phases will lead to the children having a published outcome on paper or on screen. The sequence should be used flexibly to meet the demands of the classroom. The age range of the children, type of text and the children’s familiarity with its key features all have a bearing on how long a unit will take. Poetry, for example, may require only one or two weeks while persuasive advertisements, shot on digital video cameras may need four to five weeks to complete. While the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence would usually be followed in the order shown in Fig. 3.1, the flexibility of the process means it is not always essential that each of the three phases is undertaken in any great detail. There will be occasions when it may only be necessary to work through the first phase of the sequence. Creating storyboards of a missing scene from a film, for example, may only require teaching the first three sections: familiarisation with the text type, and capturing ideas as the work progresses, with the final outcome a detailed storyboard plan. At other times, some texts and children may require more active introductions to a unit of work. In this case, the first and second sections might be swapped around so that the children begin by capturing ideas before becoming familiar with the chosen text type.

Familiarity with the text type This section is an important basis for teaching the specific elements of a chosen type of text. Children will be involved in reading and talking about several texts, deciding on their purposes and categorising them as narrative, procedural, persuasive and so on. With more experienced multimodal readers, teachers might

Planning and teaching multimodal and written texts

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want to take this further to analyse types of narrative: adventure, fantasy or traditional tale, for example, or to look at the differences between drama, book and DVD in a particular story. Categorising procedural texts might include comparing and contrasting recipes and instructions. Whatever the text type chosen, discussing its purpose and structure will help to develop children’s knowledge of the range of types of text. Encouraging personal response to texts enhances and extends children’s understanding of audience features.

Capturing and recording ideas The pressure to ‘get work done’ can sometimes squeeze out an important stage of composition – generating and capturing ideas. This phase might be developed through activities in any area of the curriculum through drama and role play, or notes made in different media and captured by children or adults in the classroom. Some ideas need to be recorded to be referred to later, and this is where digital technology is a great advantage. Children can store and record their own individual ideas, and the IWB and digital cameras also allow the teacher to support the recording process.

Planning and structuring Once initial ideas have been generated and recorded, children will need support in choosing those which best suit their intentions in making the text. This might be a matter of selecting and sequencing imaginative ideas for narrative, drawn from watching a DVD, or from drama or role play. Or it might be a matter of categorising facts found in non-fiction sources. Modelling will be important in showing children how to present their first ideas coherently for their audience.

Drafting, revising and proof reading Teachers are very familiar with this phase of text construction for writing. Drafting and improving a multimodal text may be less familiar. Teaching might involve selection of colour, typeface, font size and layout, and decisions about pacing a text which will be shown on the screens of a presentation or as a graphic narrative. The proof reading stage might include checking transitions in a presentation or continuity in image-based texts, as well as the more traditional aspects of spelling and punctuation.

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Presenting Presenting texts is again a very familiar area of classroom work, so that one of the key elements of this phase is to support children’s decisions about their presentations. Equally important is the expectation that children will evaluate both the texts they have produced and the process they followed in making them. The framework for describing and assessing multimodal texts (Section 7) includes a section about reviewing presentational features.

Teacher modelling At all phases of any process of teaching and learning, the principle of modelling responses, choices, attitudes and behaviours is essential. It is too easy for readers to take for granted the elements that work to create multimodal and visual texts. In order to make conscious decisions as they create their own texts, children need adults to make design and composition choices explicit. Consequently, the planning sequence is designed to flow in the same way as a series of literacy sessions. The main hexagonal boxes (Fig. 3.1) contain what needs to be addressed at this phase of the process during shared sessions with examples of what this might involve. How this is to be approached is noted in the divided hexagonal box leading from it. The top half of the divided hexagonal box, ‘teacher modelling’, indicates some of the things a teacher might do to achieve the objectives. The lower half of the hexagonal box, ‘children’s independent learning’, suggests approaches for enabling children to investigate, use and apply what they have learned. Here, ‘independent learning’ implies that the children would be working without adult intervention or support and engaged in individual, paired or group work.

Using the sequence flexibly Each phase of the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence will require a different number of sessions. Practitioners and teachers who trialled the sequence commented on the need to invest time in allowing children opportunities to talk and capture their ideas in a variety of ways. Trying to rush this phase of the process meant that the children were uncertain when they came to planning and drafting their ideas. For younger writers who are creating less demanding texts, the first phase will be the most important and require longer. It is in these three sections that the children acquire the language models and confidence to experiment with new ideas. For more experienced children, this section of the sequence is no


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less important, but it may be necessary to plan for the drafting and revising phases to continue over five or six sessions for the children to feel they have composed their texts to the best of their ability. Time to present and reflect on completed texts motivates the children and enables ownership as authors and designers of texts to be recognised in a supportive environment. The classroom accounts in this book reflect this flexible approach to pacing teaching and learning. Some sequences may require only one to two weeks, while others may need longer to give children time to plan, write, produce and edit their text. The best plans for units are only plans. They can and should change to meet the learning needs of the children and the chosen objectives. Dorothy Cheetham describes how she used the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence to develop non-chronological report writing. (The specific aspects of her teaching are highlighted in Fig. 3.2) Linking literacy and other curriculum areas can be very productive but often means juggling time and careful planning. This ambitious four-week project drew together several curriculum threads, including ICT. Dorothy wanted the children to understand which modes can be used to present information to a reader and organise ideas about a topic into clear sections and subheadings.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: DESIGNING AND WRITING NON-CHRONOLOGICAL REPORTS IN YEAR 5 Background to the planning In planning the unit of work, I had to think about certain factors. My medium-term plans for literacy had non-chronological reports allocated for this part of the term. Normally I would have linked the work to a history or geography topic we were doing in class. However, the children have recently been excited by the school’s focus on healthy eating and their school council discussions about changes to the lunches. We have used our PSHE time to explore the issues further, but I wanted the children to have a published outcome that could be shown to parents and others in the school. I decided that if we worked towards a presentation the children could use the information they had found out during PSHE, extend their research skills on the Internet, and apply ICT skills. The presentation would be able to have hyperlinks, and therefore the text would work like a CD-ROM or website, with the children able to move back and forward between sections of information. I also needed to think about how long the children would need to research, design and construct their presentations. We had done some research earlier in the year. Looking back, I realised that I had not allowed the children to explore

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Figure 3.2

The Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: non-fiction















(Continued)






Proof read




• Demonstrate how to check: – visual text for content, colour, cropping of images, effects, layout and composition, image placement and visual emphasis – moving image for fades and edits, cropping, timing of clips, visual effects – auditory text for timing, editing, sequencing, volume, fades and edits, sound effects – non-linear text to ensure hyperlinks, action buttons and animation sequences work – written text for spelling, punctuation and paragraphing






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the texts they were using, and the quality of the information they retrieved had been limited as a result. The school has only just moved to teaching longer units of work over three to four weeks, and we have learned to make our planning flexible, but the planning works best when we have had a clear timeline in mind.

Familiarity with the text type Selecting the texts for the first phase of the unit (four sessions) was an initial challenge. In the past we have mainly used books and the overhead projector. This time I wanted the children to create an electronic text with written text, and moving and still images. If I wanted the children to understand how these elements combined to make meaning and how to organise a layout, I was going to have to use models other than those in books. I decided to use the British Museum website (see Resources Section) alongside our non-chronological, paper-based texts during shared reading. The website has the information about each subject organised clearly with pictures and words alongside each other. I planned to project the site onto the IWB so I could annotate the texts and save the notes to refer to when we were writing. I was worried that the children may not understand how to organise ideas in a non-chronological report from website materials alone, so I decided to use books from the school collection and a non-chronological planning skeleton (Fig. 3.3) to make the structure of the text type clear. I wanted the children to follow the shared reading by actively investigating texts to develop their own planning models based on the non-chronological skeleton. I planned for two eventualities. If we could have laptops, we could repeat the annotation activities on screen, using other websites, and use sticky notes to annotate books. If the laptops, were not available, I would print off screen captures from websites, slip them into plastic file wallets, and let the children annotate them with drywipe pens. We would use the plenaries to collate our ideas as well as assess the children’s progress. This pre-planning helped as we embarked on the work.

Capturing ideas Before we went on to plan the presentations, I made sure we had time to gather ideas and information. We have access to the Espresso website (see Resources Section), from which it is easy to download images, video clips and written information. Previously I would have just let the children research, make notes and download information at random, but this time I decided to focus the children’s attention by using the skeleton plans. I allowed three sessions for this part of the work.


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Non-chronological planning skeleton

Just as in the previous sessions, I thought it would be best if the shared sessions were followed by independent sessions where the children tried out the ideas we had introduced as a class. This has been a successful approach in other units. The children know what they are doing and so have been able to take risks and find out how they can use what we have been learning as a class, including saving their downloads! In case some of the children struggled with the research, I made a general file of downloads of my own for the children to have access to. It meant I could preselect material that might be difficult to find with search engines and use it in the shared writing sessions.

Planning We used the skeleton plans from the reading and ideas sessions to plan the presentations. I wanted to make sure the children understood how the presentation would be constructed as well as how they wanted to organise the ideas, so I adapted the skeleton plan to show how it related to the slides on the presentation. This part of the process took four sessions. Fig. 3.4 shows the plan for the presentation with slide numbers and colours to help identify where the hyperlinks would take the reader. Because the original skeleton

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Figure 3.4

Plan for presentation

slide 3

slide 2

slide 1

slide 4

slide 5

plan had circles to outline each section, I used squares so the children could see the difference between their planning skeletons and the plan for each slide of the presentation. Slide 1 would be the main content page of the presentation with each of the following slides hyperlinked to it and dedicated to one aspect of the theme: healthy eating. Once I had made the IWB slide, I transferred the headings from the original skeleton onto the revised plan and modelled decisions on what information was going to be on each slide. We discussed whether the information was best if it was in writing; shown in photographs, drawings or diagrams; or shown by a video clip, and how to plan what would have to be expressed in writing. The children worked independently in pairs to make their own decisions about how they wanted their text to be organised. I printed the plan off for the children so that they would be able to write their ideas onto it directly.


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Drafting the presentations The children used the wipeboards for their drafts before transferring ideas onto the computer. They built up the first draft of the presentation step by step, using the wipeboards and then typing the text onto the slides of the presentation. The children had used the software before so I did not need to repeat sessions on how to add written and image text to the slides. In shared writing sessions, I focused on the grammatical skills and vocabulary we had been working on. The children had been finding it hard to connect their ideas in their writing, so this was a priority across the sessions. I took five sessions for this part of the work, three to write the text and two to decide on the still and moving images that would also be needed. I decided not to use modelled writing much but to use shared and supported writing more. I really needed to get the children to be more independent in their generation of ideas and changing these ideas into writing. Therefore I used talk partners to think of ideas, refer to the notes from the shared reading to add the right vocabulary, and write the ideas down a couple of sentences at a time. The children then reread their paragraphs and checked that the ideas linked, discussed how the images and film would add extra information to the written text, and decided which images and film would be most appropriate.

Revising the draft Working on the IWB, I took two sessions to model revising the layout of the presentation and the written text we had been making in the shared sessions to make sure that it was in the formal written style of a non-chronological report. These were followed by the children working on their presentations to make their own changes based on ideas and comments from their response partners as well as issues raised as a whole class.

Hyperlinks In the following session, I modelled how to add suitable pictures that could be hyperlinked, choosing images from the shared bank or clip art. To avoid confusion, I also showed the children how to add labels to the images and make the content behind the buttons clear for the reader. To make sure the hyperlinks were working for the reader, the children swapped response partners in the plenary, asking them to test the links and make sure they were easy to navigate.

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Presenting In the last session, of the four-week unit, the children presented and reviewed their work before the presentations were shown to other classes in the school. They were pleased with their work, although some were quite self-critical, but from my point of view, by the end of final sessions, they had created successful non-linear presentations on healthy eating. We have yet to discover whether these have made a difference to the school diet! Dorothy Cheetham, The Fredericks School, West Midlands

We have not been able to include any of the presentations here for copyright reasons.

Summary Classroom research has shown the value of planning for integrated and extended units of work. A more coherent approach raises standards of achievement and contributes to enhanced motivation and assurance. The Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence offers a flexible process which can lead to written or multimodal outcomes. It moves through three phases of text production: becoming familiar with the text type, capturing and recording ideas and planning; drafting, revising and proof reading; and, finally, presenting the finished text. Teacher modelling and a flexible approach to planning are key elements for successful multimodal teaching.

Note 1 See, for example, Advisory Service, Kent (2006) Between the Lines: Raising Achievement in Boys’ Writing. Kent County Council.

Section 4 Narrative

In this section: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

writing from pictures in the mind using the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence for narrative how words and images work together to create stories Classroom account: Making illustrated play scripts in Year 2 visual prompts for flexible planning mapping narratives telling the backstory developing character and dialogue creating atmosphere and narrative tension shaping ideas into episodes structuring heroic adventure stories writing and film pacing narratives with graphic frames the whole story Classroom account: The full story: making picture books for younger readers in Years 3/4.

Pictures in the mind Many children use their experience of visual texts to give them inspiration for writing. Picture books, film, still images, graphic novels and computer games can be a rich source for imaginative writing, offering models of settings, character and plot as scaffolds. Sometimes, however, the images can stay within the mind’s eye and not be translated into a coherent narrative that makes sense to a reader. Thomas, who is eight, seems to be drawing on experience of films like 45

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Crocodile Dundee or his knowledge of the frames of a comic-book narrative as he writes his story ‘The Mummy’: One day a little boy called William was going past a pyramid and he heard someone talking to him. He thought it was a god but it was not. It was my best friend Sam trapped in that old pyramid. He screamed. I scrambled to the pyramid. I lifted the brick and a door opened. I saw a mummy coming towards me. I made a run for it but this whole place is like a booby trap. I fell into some quicksand. I noticed then I was with Sam. A giant spider was right next to Sam ‘So that’s why he screamed’ I thought and got my penknife out and stabbed it and a Frankenstein riding on a sphinx. The sphinx bit Sam’s leg… Unfortunately, this seems incoherent. It shifts from third-person narrative to first-person and gives the reader no idea of setting or the preamble to the incidents included. However, if it is seen as a series of subheadings for images and sound track, like a film, it begins to make more sense: 1 One day a little boy called William was going past a pyramid and he heard someone talking to him. 2 He thought it was a god but it was not. It was my best friend Sam trapped in that old pyramid. 3 He screamed. 4 I scrambled to the pyramid. 5 I lifted the brick and a door opened. 6 I saw a mummy coming towards me. 7 I made a run for it but this whole place is like a booby trap. 8 I fell into some quicksand. I noticed then I was with Sam. 9 A giant spider was right next to Sam. 10 ‘So that’s why he screamed’ I thought and got my penknife out and stabbed it and a Frankenstein riding on a sphinx. 11 The sphinx bit Sam’s leg… Thomas orients the narrative by showing William in a specific setting (line 1). Then in the second ‘camera shot’ (line 2) the focus shifts to Sam, showing him trapped. The next line (line 3) suggests a close-up of Sam’s face as he screams. The action then returns to William like a series of images or camera shots as he scrambles up the pyramid and finds the secret opening (lines 4 and 5). The action then shifts (or pans) to the first of a series of frightening threats that William and Sam have to encounter and escape from (lines 6 to 11). Reading ‘The Mummy’ as a series of subheads for images, either moving or still, shows that Thomas has a good sense of narrative action and setting but that he is not making this explicit to his reader. His narrative includes sound and movement, but he has not successfully translated his ideas from the inner modes of sound and image to the required mode for this story – writing.

Narrative

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If children’s visual experience is genuinely to act as inspiration for their own imaginative narratives, the differences between the modes need to be made explicit. Children also need experience of composing both written and multimodal texts so that they can come to identify the differences between them.

ACTIVITY: WRITING PICTURES Both versions of Thomas’ narrative, his own continuous text and the lineby-line version, might be a useful starting point for colleagues to consider whether ‘writing pictures’ might explain apparently confused narratives written by children in their own classes. A selection of children’s stories which seem not to be coherent would make a good discussion topic.

Using word and image: becoming familiar with text types and capturing ideas Narratives need not always be continuous prose. The following classroom account shows how Viv Sharpe built on earlier extended units of work, using Anthony Browne’s picture books and a popular children’s film as a route to writing play scripts. Through discussion and explicit teaching, the children learned how to read still and moving images, recognising the director’s intent behind the use of camera angles, colour, sound and settings. The two-week sequence making illustrated play scripts using digital photographs took place during the summer term.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: MAKING ILLUSTRATED PLAY SCRIPTS IN YEAR 2 Familiarity with the text type and capturing ideas for planning (Fig. 4.1) I used shared sessions to model what I wanted the children to learn about dialogue and about making settings with digital images. They then worked independently in small groups, applying the ideas. Before starting on their play scripts, we reviewed what they had previously learned about camera angles and how these are used to communicate with a viewer or reader. We discussed how camera angles can create mood and effect, and the children were given time to experiment with digital cameras, Small World play figures,

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Figure 4.1

Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: play scripts














Narrative Figure 4.1

(Continued)




Proof read Check design and layout, spelling and punctuation • Demonstrate how to check: – visual text for content, colour, cropping of images, effects, layout and composition, image placement and visual emphasis – moving image for fades and edits, cropping, timing of clips, visual effects – auditory text for timing, editing, sequencing, volume, fades and edits, sound effects – non-linear text to ensure hyperlinks, action buttons and animation sequences work – written text for spelling, punctuation and paragraphing

Present Prepare and present a final copy to a reader/audience



Children’s independent learning • Work with response partners to make decisions about the effective use of modes to communicate meaning • Apply understanding of design and text construction to clarify meaning



• Talk through decisions about final presentation including choice of materials • Model how to evaluate final copy • Publish texts: – on paper as books, graphic novels, posters, advertising leaflets, newspapers and magazines – on screen as video podcasts, digital videos of news and television broadcasts, animations, websites, Teacher modelling – through live performances of shadow puppets, • Demonstrate offering constructive feedback dance, plays – through presentation by children using paper about content, design and use of modes to and presentation software communicate successfully with the reader – on web-based forums to share texts with • Support children as they identify their next steps wider audiences


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and soft toys brought from home, developing story lines. Once they had experienced the range of available angles and effects they could produce, I introduced background settings. I asked the children to find settings that would be appropriate to their chosen characters and record their ideas with annotated drawings of specific settings. These drawings were later laminated and used as the final backgrounds for the digital photographs and performance. Fig 4.2a–c show one group’s work as they built their illustrated play script. Fig. 4.2a shows a distance shot of the erupting volcano with cycads, and dinosaur detritus and footsteps; Fig 4.2b moves to a closer shot of the volcano with dinosaur footsteps leading up to it; and Fig. 4.2c puts the volcano on the left of the picture so that the group could add the details of what the scene looked like after the volcano had erupted. The children kept the dinosaur footsteps and bones of the first background for narrative cohesion.

Drafting, revising and proof reading With settings and camera angles secure, the children composed oral narratives. To help recall the narratives, one child in each group took on the role of group scribe. I showed the children how to refine their original ideas to develop a written narrative, which they would need because some of the story would not be shown in the pictures. Then we worked on the dialogue. Throughout the unit of work, I used shared sessions to model and discuss the roles of the different modes, to make sure that the children were getting images and words to work effectively together. The children reviewed and evaluated their plays, and I reminded them of what they had learned in previous sessions to help them redraft their pictures and writing. I encouraged the children to analyse the impact of the camera angles to convey mood, and to think about how they could improve their oral dialogues, for example, in intonation and pacing. They took digital photographs of their completed visual compositions as a prompt for final performances in front of a video camera. Finally, I modelled the layout of the written text, and the trainee teacher who was working with me at the time, the Teaching and Learning Assistant and I supported the children as they worked towards the final draft accompanying the still images (see Figs 4.3a–f on CD ROM).

Presenting The children brought together the narration, dialogue and camera angles as a live performance recorded on a video camera for the final presentation of the text. I was as pleased with these multimodal presentations as I was with the writing the children had produced, as they showed a good sense of how to adapt and develop texts to engage and keep the interest of the audience. Viv Sharpe, Richard de Clare Primary School, Halstead, Essex

Narrative Figure 4.2a Background to illustrated play script by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James. Their annotation reads: the stegosaurus is scared of other dinosaur

Figure 4.2b Background to illustrated play script by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James. Their annotation reads: the one with the horns is dead by the lava

Figure 4.2c Background to illustrated play script by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James. Their annotation reads: the triceratops was scared it saw the T Rex so ran as fast as he can and ran and ran the T-rex was faster than it

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Figs. 4.3a–f show the final draft of The Dinosaur Friendship, the background story created by Thomas, Joel, Zach and James. Each took responsibility for one page of the book.

Figure 4.3a The Dinosaur Friendship, cover page

Figure 4.3b The Dinosaur Friendship, p. 1. The T-rex and the long neck is fighting and the T-rex bit the long neck but it didn’t die. Here the group have chosen a long shot to accompany the long shot of the background. The camera angle is slightly below the level of the dinosaurs to emphasise their height.

Figure 4.3c

The Dinosaur Friendship, p. 2. The T-rex doesn’t know the baby long neck is behind him. The long neck is sneaking upon him. he wants to make him jump!!! This mid-shot introduces the triceratops into the visual image but does not mention him in the written part of the text.

Narrative

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Figure 4.3d The Dinosaur Friendship, p. 3. The big dinosaur is by the lava. It is going to bite long neck’s neck off. Long neck is going to charge. But in the end he is not. The volcano is going to erupt. The angled shot gives a better view of the potential for the T-rex to bite the long neck’s neck. But the dinosaurs get away in time. In the end the volcano blows up.

Figure 4.3e The Dinosaur Friendship, p. 4. The T-rex, long neck and the triserotops are fighting. The T-rex is doing a lot of damage so they hid. Moving in closer and closing the angle so that the viewer is behind the triceratops emphasises the closeness of the dinosaurs as they ask if they can be friends. The long neck then came and hit the T-rex. He hid then came and asked if they could be friends.

Figure 4.3f

The Dinosaur Friendship, p. 5. They are all friends in the end. The move back to a long shot echoes the sense of ending the narrative.

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Starting from the visual: planning narratives There are sometimes problems about planning longer pieces of writing. As Thomas’ example showed, children may have very complicated scenarios in their mind’s eye which would take a whole novel or feature film to narrate. Others may not know what to write. Starting from images can help generate ideas for uncertain writers and give focus to those who have vast landscapes of possibilities seen as pictures in their heads. Planning certainly gives shape to a narrative. However, planning need not be formulaic. Some stories – great epics or soap opera, for example – do not follow the ‘beginning, middle, end’ structure of western fairy tales. There are many different structures, and one starting point can be to read short stories by particular authors and map out the shape and structure.1 It is equally possible to map out the structure of an animated film or a favourite television soap opera and to discuss the differences. Many children will have seen films like Finding Nemo or Monsters, Inc., both of which are fantasy quest stories. In essence, someone or something gets lost and someone has to find them. The structure might be something like this: The characters are introduced first, and the setting is established, including what the difficulties and constraints will be in carrying out the search. The searcher finds a companion and off they go, encountering a series of problems on the way. Tension is built towards the end where the lost one is glimpsed and nearly rescued… but… and then there is some kind of resolution (see Fig. 4.4). In television soap opera, however, there are several plots and subplots. The setting is realistic and local. Characters are familiar, and the dilemmas they have to deal with tend not to require great journeys. Narrative tension is built through relationships and misunderstandings, or secrets and revelations. A conflict may appear to be resolved but may reappear later. Rather than having a clear beginning and end, the different storylines merge into each other and continue, potentially endlessly (see Fig. 4.5). The structure might look something like this: Three interwoven plot lines surface at times in the continuing narrative. One takes precedence for a while and then disappears, to be replaced by another crisis, which in turn goes underground to resurface later. Comparing soap opera structure with the structure of a quest narrative helps youngwriters see that for a short story there can be any variety of structures. The important point is to decide what text type the outcome is supposed to be.


Narrative structure: fantasy quest

? eroic character ost character ob ect

?

Companion to hero

?

Figure 4.5

Narrative structure: soap opera

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ACTIVITY: MAPPING NARRATIVE STRUCTURES Any story can lend itself to this kind of visual representation. After modelling, perhaps using one of the examples from Figs 4.4 or 4.5, on the CD-ROM children can start from a known story and draw their own ideas about the structure. An activity like this means that, given support, children can discuss the differences in the architecture of stories in picture books, films or written stories that they know. By doing this, they are prompted to think about planning for their own narratives.

Flexible planning using pictures A storyboard is a familiar, useful structure, but the number of boxes may mean that children think they have to write a certain number of episodes. A more flexible structure, at least to start with, can get away from that formulaic approach. Fig. 4.6 shows a picture of a derelict shelter, which can be used as a starting point for a story, ‘Homeless’. Since it is a photograph, it signals that this will be a realistic story of a particular kind. The story will probably feature a person who is in difficulties. The setting is given: urban wasteland. The challenge to the writer is to imagine who is living there, how they got there, why they are homeless, and then what happens to them. The story generated is likely to be largely about characters and relationships, rather than epic journeys. Choosing a picture like this can help focus planning on a specific aspect of narrative; in this case, the ‘backstory’, or orienting the reader into a narrative. Thomas’ story at the beginning this section is an example of a writer jumping straight into narrating without giving the reader any idea of how the characters found themselves in the situation or setting. Using a picture can help generate and capture plenty of ideas, which individuals can then adapt or select from to make their own backstories (see Section 6 for an account of the teaching sequence this comes from).


‘Homeless’ grid

Who?

Why?

How?

What happens?

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ACTIVITY: THE BACKSTORY Fig. 4.6 can be downloaded to an IWB or presentation software, or printed on paper so that groups or the class as a whole can annotate the image with ideas about what happened before the specific scene shown here: Who lives here? How did they get there? Why did they get there? and What happens from here? Other images from the photofiles on the CD-ROM or downloaded from the computer can also make good starting points for generating the backstories for narratives. Section 6 shows how the ‘Homeless’ image and others led to some moving poetry composition.

ACTIVITY: DEVELOPING CHARACTER AND DIALOGUE Fig. 4.7 shows a cropped image from a larger photograph which has been imported on to an IWB. One of the characters has been circled and a few prompt questions and ideas have been added (the CD-ROM shows these in two different colours). The annotations can be deleted and added to. The images themselves are included in the photofiles on the CD-ROM so that different annotations might be added or the images printed on paper for paired or group discussion. Fig. 4.8 has the cropped image with added speech and thought bubbles so that the story can be written from first-or third-person perspective. This character could be hot-seated to add details to the story of why he is there and who he is.

Figure 4.7

IWB page: cropped image annotated

injured leg - why? playing sport operation car accident

what’s in the bag? camera medical supplies secret document

what is he looking at? an argument a sign a shop window

who is he? footballer spy teacher


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IWB page: cropped image with speech and thought bubbles

ACTIVITY: CREATING ATMOSPHERE AND NARRATIVE TENSION The image in Fig. 4.9 shows a little more detail of the setting, and descriptive words about the atmosphere have been added in response to What can he hear? What can he smell? How does it feel? The further question: What can he see? Can be answered by reading the whole image in Fig. 4.10. (It may be better to look at this image on the CD-Rom where the detail can be seen more clearly.) Fig. 4.10 shows the full picture with lines to draw attention to particular aspects of the picture, for example, that the time is four in the afternoon, not lunchtime. How might the time affect the possible story? Would the atmosphere be different? There are two police officers on the gallery – might they be significant? Would their presence affect the narrative tension? There are queues of people on both sides of the picture – what do they add to the atmosphere? The character’s gaze seems to be focusing on something outside the picture – what is he looking at? How might this add to narrative tension? Annotations can be added to the IWB.

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Using an image like this has many possibilities. Any character can be selected. A group of children might take one character each and discuss how their stories might be interrelated. Alternatively, they might role-play a scene with several travellers, developing a storyline between them which can lead to writing dialogue. The cropping tool is very useful in introducing how to build up a narrative from character, but the activity need not start with a cropped image. The large, detailed picture requires close reading, which could be used for descriptive, rather than narrative, writing. Other kinds of images can be cropped to focus on a specific area. The photofile on the CD-ROM has pictures of rooftops with lots of buildings and windows – who is inside the buildings? Who is behind the windows? Alternatively, images can be scanned from picture books or magazines, or downloaded from computer image sources.

ACTIVITY: SHAPING IDEAS INTO EPISODES Generating and capturing ideas on a photo grid or a cropped image will not, on its own, ensure clear planning. Initial ideas need to be shaped into episodes or paragraphs. A flowchart, as in Fig. 4.11, can help to guide ideas into a sequence. There is an IWB file on the CD-ROM so that the number of episodes can be adjusted to allow flexibility in story planning. The boxes and arrows can be moved to suit any story sequence.

ACTIVITY: HEROIC ADVENTURE STORIES Many traditional stories, legends and folk tales have a central heroic character who goes on a journey and undergoes a series of ordeals, sometimes finding and fighting monsters, to confront a problem which has beset the community. Beowulf, Frodo, Hercules and Mulan are such heroic characters who have more than one adventure in their journeys. Their stories often follow a similar pattern, and film or written versions are good places to start familiarising the children with the complexities of these sequenced stories. Fig. 4.12 shows some of the ingredients in heroic adventure stories. The accompanying IWB file, Adventure Narrative Plan, on the CD-ROM has a flexible planning structure using the ingredients of heroic adventure stories.


IWB page:mid-image annotated

station summer food smells busy confusing hot lunchtime crowded noisy announcements mobile phones

Figure 4.10 IWB page: whole image of station

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Figure 4.11 Flowchart for planning episodes or paragraphs

Figure 4.12 Some ingredients of heroic adventure stories

Thrilling escape

Final ordeal

et closer to pro lem

Comment on adventure

eroic Adventure tories

ourney to confront pro lem

eet characters

atisfying resolution

dentify pro lem

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Writing and film As the introduction points out, using film in the classroom should not be seen as invariably a starting point for writing. The opposite can be the case. Sometimes writing and drama can lead to reading a film attentively. Feature films like Lord of the Rings; full-length animations like Shrek, Princess Mononoke or the older Disney animations; or classic film adaptations can be the basis for extended teaching sequences. In the journey towards writing, drama, drawing and digital images might be used to capture ideas throughout the process. Francesca’s teacher, Sally Brittain, planned an extended teaching sequence on fantasy lands, using the video of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe; the Narnia books; and a good deal of thinking, discussion and drama about fantasy worlds. The children all wrote books for the class library. Francesca’s story aptly blends fantasy with real-life drama, reflecting elements of several stories she has met in film and books:

Jessica was a pale skinned girl with short, dark, brown hair which shone like a star in the light. Mum and Dad had split up after a lot of shouting and arguing. She had moved into a very small cottage with her Mum. The cottage was very uncomfortable and it smelt funny. Jessica hated the old cottage and decided to leave for somewhere where it was peaceful and quiet. The very next day she left and found some snowy woods. Jessica was extremely pleased that she had found a silent place to be. The snow under her feet felt cold and as she walked she could hear the snow crunch under her feet. Jessica felt very curious so she started to explore the cold woods. She began to shiver because she was so freezing cold. Jessica tip toed carefully because she didn’t want to wake any animal that might be hibernating (that is if there were any animals at all living in the silent wood) and because she had a feeling something bad might happen any moment.

a visual introduction expressed in story language

an elegant but simple sentence drawing on written or narrated language

her journey through the wood is visually captured; movement and sensation derived from drama and watching film

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Suddenly she saw two huge, sparkling mountains standing tall and grand. Jessica hesitated for a moment to decide whether she would stop and find a small spot to rest against a tree or somewhere but she stopped herself. Jessica carried on walking through the mountains. To Jessica’s surprise a bright light broke through the glistening mountains as she walked through the crunchy, cold snow in between the mountains, Jessica had just walked through a magic mountain into a summer field with beautiful daisies and daffodils, graceful birds flying over her head cooing quietly and peacefully. ‘Wow’ thought Jessica as she began to skip and dance happily among the flowers and trees.

Hours passed by and Jessica was still playing hide and seek with the animals. All of a sudden Jessica remembered life at home with Mum and Dad. Jessica loved her Dad so much she dreaded to think of him back at home all alone and Mum back in the horrid smelly cottage. ‘I must get back home to Mum’ she thought. ‘Bye everyone, I’ll come back again some other day’ cried Jessica. But Jessica never remembered about her furry friends back there through the magic mountains in the snowy woods. (Francesca aged nine)

visual references to mountains and resting against a tree

draws on audiovisual experience, including sound as well as movement

birds flying overhead and animals playing are familiar aspects of Disney animations

language drawn from written or narrated story

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Francesca organises her episodes in a four-page book, with a page for each paragraph. She draws on the idea of a ‘magic portal’ for the fantasy element of the story, but the starting and end points of the story are set in unsentimental realism. Families do break up and sometimes we cannot keep promises. Her film experience helps her to describe movement and sound: a bright light broke through the glistening mountains; the crunchy cold snow; graceful birds flying over her head cooing quietly and peacefully. But some of the writing is very much modelled on the language of books: found a silent place to be; she had a feeling something bad might happen; to Jessica’s surprise and, particularly, she dreaded to think of him back at home. Francesca’s story shows how film can be part of the repertoire that children draw on as they shape their own narratives.2 However, long films need not be the only source of inspiration, and teaching sequences need not always end in writing. The British Film Institute (BFI) has produced several DVDs of short films, commissioned specifically from a range of designers and directors.3 These can act as inspiration for children’s own narratives, on paper or on screen.

Pacing narratives Heather Hann spent considerable time with her Year 6 class reading a range picture books and graphic novels to identify the narrative conventions of visual and written texts.4 Heather followed a carefully structured teaching sequence, familiarising the children with the text type, discussing and modelling how the size and shape of frames changed the pace of a narrative, and using graphic frames to plan narratives. The learning objectives were to continue to develop visual comprehension; to look at framing in graphic novels; and to look at frame size, shape and dialogue in multimodal texts. Heather asked the pupils to compile personal lists of key features as part of the planning process for their own composition of a graphic narrative. Hannah’s ‘Top Tips for Reading Multimodal Texts’, accompanied by drawings, were:

Read text and pictures Look at Mode Look beyond image → think themes, ideas, choices Look for clues about characters’ expression, gesture, dialogue See how pictures/text work together

Hannah’s notes in Fig. 4.13 show different frame sequences and their effects on pace.

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Figure 4.13 Frames for graphic stories

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After reading the graphic novel of A Christmas Carol, Hannah notes:

Close-up gives more details of who he is Scrooge is selfish, greedy and gives no money to poor A lot of frames are just characters Characters disappear once we’ve done with them and they never reappear Sentences explain story

The carefully structured sequence of lessons included opportunities for the class to review their work. When interviewed after the sequence of lessons, Hannah clearly showed that she understood the stylistic devices used to create visual and written narratives using the frame sizes to build tension or slow the pace of the story. Fig. 4.14 shows Hannah’s draft graphic novel. The CD-ROM allows you to look at it in more detail. The opening wide panel on the left-hand page shows two climbers waking up at base camp on a mountain range where one of the glaciers has a jagged crack. Hannah intended this as a deliberate visual hook for the reader, hinting at the climax and jeopardy of the narrative. She explained that she chose to show the reader rather than use a narrator’s box to tell the reader about the crack in the glacier:

Figure 4.14 Hannah’s draft graphic narrative

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Because I didn’t want the reader to know straight away that there was a crack. I wanted them to build up, so the little things matter a lot. Carly uses a similar visual device for a different purpose in her story about George Snowberge’s holiday. Fig. 4.15 shows the final page of her graphic narrative. (The colour and detail can best be viewed on the CD-ROM) Carly uses specific framing to create narrative tension and climax, beginning with quick frames to build up the number of difficulties George experiences on his holiday. She orients the reader by the understated narrative in the written panel: On his skiing trip George Snowberge is not having much luck, and follows this with seven small frames with speech bubbles and depicted sound effects: ‘Oh no, hailstones’ accompanied by boing; ‘That silly rock’ and bang as it drops on his head; and ‘I wish I hadn’t fell over in the snow’ with a picture of George as a living snowball. The next line of frames is headed by George is getting fed up and shows him skiing up to a crack in the ice and losing a ski. Carly relaxes the tension by using a larger frame, as George declares ‘I’m skiing’. The word panel in the following frame reorients the narrative, hinting at the crisis in the final, largest frame with the word panel The mountain cracks and George has to run before the snow gets him, hopefully he will get away, and the reader is left in suspense. The full-width frame draws out the sense of a cliffhanger, depicting George, having lost both skis, stranded as the mountain cracks.

ACTIVITY: USING FRAMES TO PACE A NARRATIVE The five different graphic narrative frames on the CD-ROM can be used to discuss narrative pace and create graphic narratives. The teaching sequence used by Heather is a good model, starting with picture books that use frames and graphic novels or comics as a basis for discussing the ways in which framing creates the pace of a story. They also show how word, image, font size and shape, and graphic effects can be used to engage and maintain the reader’s interest. Once children have experience in choosing frames to increase narrative tension, this can be translated into pacing written narratives.

Narrative Figure 4.15 George Snowberge’s holiday extract from Carly’s graphic narrative

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: MAKING PICTURE BOOKS FOR YOUNGER READERS WITH YEARS 3/4 Planning and creating a story for a specific audience can focus the mind. Catherine Phillips, working in Jane Brooks’ Years 3/4 class, planned a teaching sequence for making books for younger readers.5 One of her learning objectives was for the children to familiarise themselves with the key features

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of picture books and to plan and write a storybook, including layout. This built on the layout planning work the class had done for writing information. (See Section 5.) They consulted their readers in Year 2 about what they might like stories to be about, and throughout the process Catherine reminded the writers about making the content suitable for the audience. Fig. 4.16 shows Lydia’s notes after her discussion with her reader.

Figure 4.16 Lydia’s notes after consulting her Year 2 reader

From these first notes, the children began to plan the structure of their stories. Catherine provided visual planners (Fig. 4.17). The layout supports the structure of a story which begins with establishing setting and character, builds to a climax with the main event, and then explores possible consequences and solutions before reaching a resolution in the ending. The A3 planner has a space in the middle for the children to illustrate their central characters. When she modelled with the planner, Catherine emphasised that the structure could be altered to suit each child’s story, and Lydia chose to reverse the sequence of consequences and solutions. She also notes that she will have a twist at the end.

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Figure 4.17 Lydia’s story plan

Once the children had established what the book would be about, Catherine encouraged them to think in more detail about the central character or characters. Lydia chose to write about a tiger cub called Stripy and a leopard cub called Spotty. Fig. 4.18 shows how she began to capture her ideas about the differences between the two in notes and sketches. At this stage the children needed to think about the sections of their stories and how they would arrange the pages. Fig. 4.19 shows how Lydia planned the pictures and the words together. Her notes show that she is adding visual detail to enhance the story, as on p. 4 the two are ‘thinking and playing’, and on p. 5, ‘Spotty with a light bulb on his head’ indicates that he’s had a bright idea. On p. 8, she splits the written text to insert drawings. The faint ticks on the pages indicate Laura’s systematic revising and proofreading as she put her book together.

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Figure 4.18 Lydia’s notes and sketches about her central characters

Narrative Figure 4.19 Lydia’s plans for page layout and paragraphs

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The children drafted their texts and Catherine read and responded to them as they worked towards the final product, encouraging them to add details (Fig. 4.20).

Page 1. Deep in the heart of the emerald green jungle. Years before now, at exactly midnight when it was raining hard, two squeaky yelps could be heard coming from the dens of a family of leopards and a family of tigers. Page 2. The yelps came from the mouths of a newborn tiger called Stripy and a newborn leopard called Spotty. The parents of them were shocked when they were born, because Stripy and Spotty were born as dull as a rainy day! They were grey all over. No tigery stripes or leopardy spots. Just grey. Page 3. As they were newborn they had their eyes shut but as they grew up they opened and that was when the trouble began. By the end of the third page, the reader is hooked: what trouble? What will happen about their lack of stripes and spots? Lydia develops the story by telling how the two went to a clothes shop run by Monty the Monkey, who ‘knew a lot’: Page 7. When Stripy and Spotty left the shop they were laden with bags of different clothes, enough to last them for a year! Stripy put on a bright yellow set of clothes with pink zigzags and green wavy lines. Spotty wore a faded blue set with orange spirals and red polka dots. The two consult the other animals one by one about their clothes and discover that everyone has a different opinion:

Narrative Figure 4.20 Lydia’s draft opening pages with her teacher’s comments

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Page 10. The hearts of the two animals were heavy and every day seemed like a test. Their parents were worried because Spotty had gone off his food (very unusual). The anxious little brains of the tiger and leopard racked all hours to find a way of pleasing everybody. Eventually, they follow some footprints and meet a ‘lady human wearing clothes painted orange with black stripes and gold with black spots’. The following page reads: Something in the cubs heads went ‘snap!’ and they knew that was what they wanted to look like. This looks like a resolution, but Lydia had noted that there would be a twist at the end, and her final page reads: When they were dressed word soon got round and there was a big party. Stripy and Spotty were happy – for the moment! Lydia’s well-told story reflects the value of spending some time supporting children in a sustained multimodal/writing sequence. All the children in the class presented beautiful picture books, which the Year 2 children loved when they were read to them. Catherine’s careful planning and structuring, and the fact that she and Jane Brooks allowed four weeks for the completion of the sequence, resulted in high standards of writing and increased understanding of the ways in which words and pictures can be effectively combined in creating multimodal texts.

Summary Children often draw on their visual experience and imagination to inspire narrative writing. However, sometimes they do not remember that their readers cannot see the images in the author’s mind’s eye. This means that teaching has to tackle the differences between visual and written stories explicitly, discussing the different roles carried by each mode. Sound and visual prompts can be used to help children structure narratives, but it is important that any planning

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structures should be flexible enough to give support but allow for individual pathways to narrative telling. Getting the backstory in place; developing characters, setting and atmosphere; and pacing narrative telling can all be stimulated and supported by still and moving images and framing. Visual approaches can also include planning structures, ideas can be captured and noted by sketches, and pictures can accompany extended written texts. Throughout the process, explanations and opportunities for individual decisions to support and enhance children’s development in making multimodal narratives.

Notes 1 For two earlier, but still very relevant and useful references about story structures, see Lewis, M. ‘Developing children’s writing using story structures’, in The Literate Classroom. Goodwin, P. (ed.) London: David Fulton, 1999, and Grainger, T. Traditional Storytelling. Leamington Spa: Scholastic, 1997. 2 Film Education provides useful resources for teaching with feature films. Visit their website www. filmeducation.org 3 Visit the BFI website for details on www.bfi.org.uk 4 This work was included in the United Kingdom Literacy Association(UKLA)/Qualifications and Assessment Authority (2005) More than Words 2: Creating Stories on Page and Screen. London: QCA. To download a copy, visit the UKLA website www.ukla.org 5 As the books were presented to the Year 2 readers, we cannot include any of them here, but we have Lydia’s planning and final written draft.

Section 5 Non-fiction

In this section: • • • • • • • • • • •

what is non-fiction? the complexities of composing non-fiction texts analysing design in leaflets and information books Classroom account: Making information leaflets with Years 3/4 scaffolds for non-fiction research and composition making non-fiction frames from websites non-fiction based on ‘the world around us’ Classroom account: Researching in the school environment with Years 1/2 multimodal texts in the environment persuasive presentation texts Classroom account: Design presentations in Years 3/4.

What is non-fiction? It seems rather strange to describe something by its opposite: ‘non-fiction’. It is particularly strange when there are so many types of text included in the category. Perhaps the lack of a more positive description is itself a clue - that such forms of text may not be easily divided into separate types and that often there are overlaps between, for example, information and opinion, or explanation and persuasion. What is more, technology offers greater access to new forms of text making. It may be that there will soon be different ways of describing the mass of non-fiction encountered every day: environmental print of all kinds, including advertising and presented in a range of media; reference books and other material; specialist information books, films, videos and CD-ROMs; photographs; reports in

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newspapers, magazines and business material; biography and autobiography; persuasive texts – often presented on television or radio; instructions and explanations in leaflets, manuals, guidebooks and cookery books; maps and their keys; diagrams, tables of figures and charts; and analysis, commentary and reviews.1 Many non-fiction materials are made up of a combination of words, images and design layout. Explanations, persuasive pamphlets, information leaflets and books all use multimodal approaches to get their messages across. In the classroom, designed information books use the affordance of the double-page spread to display information in images of different kinds – photographs, diagrams, drawings and charts. All of these non-fiction texts provide children with a wide repertoire of multimodal text experience.

Composing non-fiction texts Non-fiction composition is a complex business. It is very tempting for young learners to copy chunks of undigested material into their own work as they research information sources. Helping children turn information into understanding is a perennial concern for teachers and now seems more of a headache with the vast number of Internet information sources available. There are other problems. Since young people have a wide experience of designed non-fiction texts, they want to use their knowledge of layout and presentation in their classroom work. This is not as straightforward as it may seem. Graphic designers spend years learning their craft and skill, and there are many decisions to be made when designing multimodal non-fiction texts: how will the words and images interrelate? What is the main force of this particular text – so what should be emphasised by layout and typographical features? Then there are choices to be made about the medium that will be used. Is paper the best way to get this message across or would it be better as a screen-based presentation? All of these decisions depend upon issues of audience so that using the visual as part of non-fiction writing can mean paying explicit attention to what the reader or viewer needs to know. Thinking about the audience also means having an eye on the way the text will have to be structured to explain, inform, persuade or comment. It also means assembling and categorising information from a range of sources and understanding it, so that presenting to others will be done with the secure and convinced voice of someone who knows what they are talking about. The process of putting together non-fiction texts may involve: drawing on the styles and structures of other non-fiction texts – on paper and on screen taking information from a range of non-fiction texts and re-presenting it understanding and using the typographical and layout features of different non-fiction texts

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing assembling the text … and sometimes expressing a personal and analytical view. Since children are surrounded by designed texts it is worth finding out what they know before starting on the process of teaching information texts.

Designing information Jane Brooks and her Year 3/4 class were working on information texts with Catherine Phillips, a trainee teacher. As preparation for a later project, the class learned how to draft and plan leaflets. As Fig. 5.1 shows, the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence was not taken through to final product, as it was a practice run but specific aspects of teaching are highlighted in the figure. To add reality to this exercise in planning, the children decided that their practice leaflets would be designed to tell people about their school. The class considered how words, images and layout work together to give information. They started with looking at some leaflets advertising local leisure attractions.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: MAKING INFORMATION LEAFLETS WITH YEARS 3/4 The children designed their leaflets over three sessions. The first session was planned to assess, discuss and share the children’s understanding of environmental multimodal texts. We used leaflets about local attractions picked up from the station and local council offices. The reading focus of the first session directed the children’s attention towards how much they knew about text design and layout and how such elements impact on a reader. Building on this, the second session asked the children to track their reading pathways through the layout of leaflets and explain their choices to a response partner. In the third session, the children applied their understanding of how image and word work together to create meaning by designing the layout for a leaflet to promote their school to new pupils or parents. The sessions began with modelling the process of reading designed texts, and then the children worked in pairs and small groups. Differences of opinion were encouraged; children shared their ideas backed up with evidence based on their own experiences and elements they had discovered in the texts.

Familiarity with the text type We scanned a range of local visitor attractions leaflets into the computer and inserted them into IWB software so that we could annotate the texts during

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shared reading. These showed different balances of visual and written text to help the children compare and contrast. With the children we identified the elements of the leaflets which were word- or image-based and discussed why the designer might have chosen to use words or images for each element. We also talked about choices of colour and typography. In discussion pairs, the children annotated the leaflets (Fig. 5.2). They drew round the areas they had identified as word- or image-based on the IWB. Annotating texts like this helped discussion about how the text layout balanced the placement of words and images across the A4 page. The children came up with the following points. Their own language is shown in italics: the layout was split into sections or paragraphs a logo was used to identify who might have composed the leaflet emboldened words or phrases tell the reader to go to the attraction persuasive phrases may or may not be true blocks of text give information to readers pictures provide extra details to the readers pictures hook the reader in and act as bait large photographs or images on the front page with little writing imply that the attraction is not boring. These comments show how the children are critically aware of the way in which the written and visual texts worked together to convey meaning. They were also able to identify and discuss the different forms of information afforded to a reader through multiple modes. At this stage in their development, the children were not using specific technical vocabulary to explain their understanding of the relationship between word and image, but they were able to demonstrate their understanding through text annotation on the IWB. Some children were more aware of design features than others. For example, Joe, who had opened the discussions about extra details contained in visual images, demonstrated his understanding by circling elements of the main photograph. He went on to explain that using a photograph meant that readers were given extra detail about an attraction. He pointed out where it was positioned and suggested that such information would not be possible through words alone or at least would not be as tempting to the prospective visitor. Having discussed leaflets as a whole class, the children worked in pairs to examine other leaflets and identify what information was provided by the images. We gave the children different attractions leaflets and sticky notes for them to record their opinions. Where there were differences of opinion, we encouraged the children to share their ideas as a positive affirmation of the different reading pathways and responses to texts available to a reader. The children were clear that their findings would later support design decisions they would be making in session 3.

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Figure 5.1

Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: information leaflets














Non-fiction Figure 5.1

(Continued)






Proof read




• Demonstrate how to check: – visual text for content, colour, cropping of images, effects, layout and composition, image placement and visual emphasis – moving image for fades and edits, cropping, timing of clips, visual effects – auditory text for timing, editing, sequencing, volume, fades and edits, sound effects – non-linear text to ensure hyperlinks, action buttons and animation sequences work – written text for spelling, punctuation and paragraphing

Present Prepare and present a final copy to a reader/audience • Talk through decisions about final presentation including choice of materials • Model how to evaluate final copy • Publish texts: – on paper as books, graphic novels, posters, advertising leaflets, newspapers and magazines – on screen as video podcasts, digital videos of news and television broadcasts, animations, websites, – through live performances of shadow puppets, dance, plays – through presentations by children using paper and presentations software – on web-based forums to share texts with wider audiences





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On the sticky notes, the children not only identified extra detail in the photographs or illustrations but also went on to explain what these extra details told the reader. Figs 5.2 and 5.3a and b show the children annotating their leaflets and noting opinions about the layout of the text.

Planning and drafting Figs 5.4 and 5.5 show the first and second drafts of Maddie’s leaflet designed during the third session. Both show how the class took to the task of designing the layout of a leaflet. When we analysed the children’s designs, we noticed that they had used different-size image panels and page folds to organise ideas on a particular theme. They also placed their text and image boxes carefully, using the space within sections of the text and across the leaflet as a whole to reach the audience and achieve the purpose of the text. Maddie and the other children in the class discussed and commented on their own text layouts in the same critical manner they had reacted to the professionally produced texts. What is more, they were transferring knowledge from their reading as they decided on the structure of the text and the effect this would have on the content of the leaflet.

Figure 5.2

Annotating leaflets

Non-fiction Figure 5.3a Information from images: noting opinions

Figure 5.3b Information from images: noting opinions

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Figure 5.4

First draft of Maddie’s leaflet


Second draft of Maddie’s leaflet

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Reviewing her first draft, Maddie wrote: The big picture on the front is to make it show out from the rest. I used circles to make it more jazzy and lots of pictures for young people. She understood that photographs can draw the reader in, making it stand out as it jostles for attention on a display. She also refers to a recurring theme for the children: whom the leaflet should appeal to. During reading and designing sessions, the children commented on the need for leaflets to appeal to specific groups of people. As well as understanding the role of the visual text, the children were able to divide the space on the page between visual and written text. The first drafts showed where the children thought the word and image should be positioned on the page. On the second drafts, it was more obvious how the children decided to divide the transfer of information between word and image. Many of them decided to reorganise blocks of text and image as they redrafted, and several decided that they had crowded the pages and so deleted some boxes. Maddie used the text boxes to give background information, saying that a photograph alone would not be able to do this. Maddie was able to show a wider variety of content with her fourfold/eight section layout. She also decided to keep the functional content of the leaflet to the final section. In keeping with the structure of leaflets, she placed the application form and contact details where the reader would expect to find them and where they would not interrupt the persuasive and descriptive content of the text. The ideas were also organised into logical sections. Between the first and second draft, Maddie clarified her leaflet by judicious editing. She simplified the image and text boxes to use the space between the folds more effectively and selected particular issues to highlight within the boxes. The kitchen, for example, has a section all to itself as an indication of the priority healthy lunches have been given recently in the school. She prioritised staff and the playground on the first pages, keeping the information about the different classes on the reverse of the leaflet. Joe used large images at the top of the page with text boxes underneath. He explained: I put the pictures at the top to catch people’s eyes. I put the writing here (points to bottom of page) to make them listen after the pictures. A large number of the texts available to children in school contain the main body of information in the written text and use visual text to illustrate the content. Joe chose to do the opposite. He wanted the reader to look at the visual text first and then read the written text to illustrate the content of the image in more detail. Joe’s layout plans replicated his view of good design. All the leaflets read by the pupils in the initial sessions had been A3 in size, folded into four sections (Fig. 5.6).


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A3 leaflet design

During the reading sessions, the use of the space across the page had not been discussed and yet the initial and redrafted leaflets show that the children had noted the use of the space and the final presentation of leaflets. Instantly, on being given access to paper, the children debated and questioned their options for folding the page. It was instinctive. The children knew that the page had to be divided in some way. Most children followed the same fourfold pattern of the leaflets they had investigated. Joe did not. Joe designed a leaflet with only one fold and, unlike the other pupils, he left larger spaces for word and visual text (Fig. 5.7 a and b). He kept within the frame created by the fold and the edge of the page, clustering his content according to the section of the document. Page 1 is allocated for the title and an image of the whole school. On the double-page spread in the centre of the leaflet, Joe separated his content into two themes divided by the fold. He chose not to spill content over into the other sections and strictly kept to his allocated space.

What the children knew The children’s drafts shown here are representative of all the designs. The texts were individual in design and content. The children used and adapted models from the shared sessions, keeping elements they considered successful design or valuable in reaching a specific audience. They were able to

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Figure 5.7a

Joe’s leaflet design

evaluate and author/designer revise their leaflets in the light of findings from shared and paired reading, and were confident in using their own knowledge and understanding of the text type to alter the structure of the text to suit their needs as an author/designer, the content of the text, the needs of the reader, and the potential of written and visual images used in combination. The open dialogue about the shared texts had contributed significantly to the children’s decisions. We did not plan the sessions to deliver a set concept of how

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Figure 5.7b (Continued)

a leaflet should be designed. Instead we wanted to draw out a list of what the group considered successful options for communicating with a reader. Individual investigation of contrasting leaflets enabled the children to add their own personal preferences to the options available for a composer/designer of leaflets and encouraged the children to apply their findings when working independently. Jane Brooks, Rickling Church of England Primary School, Essex, and Catherine Phillips, trainee teacher, University of Cambridge Faculty of Education

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ACTIVITY: ANALYSING DESIGN Leaflets are an ideal starting point for analysing layout and design in order to discuss reaching an audience. They are also useful when discussing with the children how information and persuasion can often be combined for specific purposes. Leaflets might encourage people to go to a local attraction or to take care of their teeth. Key questions are: What is the purpose of this leaflet? What are the images telling the reader? What are the words telling the reader? How does the layout help to get the message across? What do colour and typeface add to the purpose of the leaflet? When the children are familiar with the text type of a persuasive information leaflet: how the words and images combine to carry the messages and how the layout affects the impact, they might design and make their own, explaining their choices.

ACTIVITY: GATHERING INFORMATION FROM WORDS AND IMAGES Multimodal non-fiction texts are designed so that some information is carried by the images and some by the words. Before children compose their own non-fiction texts they need to be aware of the information load of each component of the sources they might draw in their research and reading. Designed information books are an ideal starting point but the questions can equally well be answered from an internet source or CD-ROM. Working individually or in pairs, they might ask themselves the questions in Fig. 5.8. Questions can be selected and adapted for older and younger, more experienced and less experienced multimodal researchers.


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What is this text telling the reader?

• What information does this text give • ist the different kinds of pictures in the text e.g. photographs, video sequences, drawings, diagrams

• What do the pictures tell the reader • What different kinds of word text can you spot explanation, facts, opinions

e.g. labels,

• What do the words tell the reader •

ow do the typeface, colour, movement, font size and variety add to or detract from the information given

• Do you think this is a successful multimodal text Why

Scaffolds for non-fiction Flexible planning frameworks have the advantage of allowing children’s different text experience and preferences to be used to the full. Frames and other graphic forms of scaffolds are fine as long as they genuinely do offer flexibility. They also need to be selected to support the outcome that is planned for. Some graphic frames are best for capturing initial ideas; others are intended to help organise thoughts once they have been generated. Any type of graphic organiser

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing can be helpful in shaping research notes, ideas from discussion or personal jottings, but the shape of the frame should fit the purpose of the task. Charts, grids or tables can help in gathering and then comparing or contrasting ideas. They can help identify whether the information is coming from existing knowledge or is to be sought from other information texts – or both (Fig. 5.9). Very often, information-gathering activities in the classroom ask children to make mind maps or list ideas and then to use these to identify areas for more research. Frames like that in Fig. 5.10 help in the business of transforming knowledge into understanding by summary or synthesis.

Figure 5.9

Chart for gathering information about the Tudors

ource personal knowledge/ ook/we site

here learned this or source title

Page no e address


Page no e address


Page no e address


Page no e address

hat food they ate

hat their houses were like

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Figure 5.10 Identifying areas for further research

uestion

Next uestions

Categorising ideas may not always be easy, and sometimes there are overlaps. Using an organiser, as in Fig. 5.11, can signal that the teacher expects that some decisions will not be clear-cut. The ‘maybe’ conclusions are entered in the central, overlapping space. In feedback, these can be a focus for further discussion. A simple How? What? Why? jotter may be best for more open-ended tasks intended just to get ideas going (Fig. 5.12). Once initial ideas are developed, they can be gathered and ordered in any sequence. The flowchart in Fig. 5.13 helps to move children’s first thoughts towards a more organised sequence. The pyramid planner (Fig. 5.14) gives a more structured frame for planning ideas for a longer piece of work. (There is an IWB file of this planner on the CD-ROM to help model how to move from research notes to plans for writing.)

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Figure 5.11 Overlapping ideas

Definitely

Definitely not

ay e

Figure 5.12

How? What? Why? jotter

ho

hen

hat happened

hy

ow

Non-fiction Figure 5.13 Sequencing frame

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Figure 5.14 Pyramid planner

ain dea

u headings

Details

ACTIVITY: MAKING FRAMES FROM WEBSITES Familiarising children with the features of non-fiction texts is the best starting point for their own composition. A frame can, of course, be made from any double-page spread in a designed information book or leaflet, but a frame from a website is less familiar. It is possible for children to make their own websites about a non-fiction topic, but a similar effect can be achieved by making screen presentations. The website for research will have to be chosen as a model for the text type the children will be asked to compose, and either displayed on a data projector or imported to the IWB for annotation. To construct the frame, children might be asked to look at the website screen by screen, noting the different features. Fig. 5.15 has suggestions for prompts. A group working together could each design one page of a hyperlinked non-fiction presentation. (See Section 3 for an example of an IWB file for planning. This is also on the CD-ROM.)

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Figure 5.15 Making frames from websites

ook at the website a screen at a time.

ow is the information set out on the screen Sketch the layout, including: • • • • • •

labels arrows and other direction devices use of colour type of still image photograph, diagram, etc. : what does each image contribute to the text video clips: what do they contribute where are the longest stretches of print text n your sketch indicate what each block contributes to the text e.g. interesting facts, explanation, opinion .

What does sound contribute

Compare two or three pages. ow are they different What do they have in common

Redraft your frame to make your own website or presentation page.

Research from observation With the many sources of information now available, it is easy to forget that ‘the world around us’, whether in the classroom, the street or the school environment, can be a stimulating place to gather ideas for non-fiction texts. A few minutes’ close observation of the school corridors can generate a list of a range of different types of non-fiction texts. Similarly, a short walk down the street can be the source for noticing the local building materials, the layout of roads or the provision of lighting or leisure facilities. Using the visual as a starting point for writing non-fiction can sometimes mean looking at the real world to find information.

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing The Ashbeach School in north Cambridgeshire has its own extensive wildlife area. The teachers often use this space to blend literacy with work on the environment. Alison Tollington planned a research unit for her Year 1/2 class based on observing and describing the natural world. The stimulus was changing the known environment of Ashbeach Common into a strange new world. The children had read some of the Dr Xargles books (see Resources section), and their research was carried out in role play as describing what they observed to ‘the Chief Alien’. They had talked about the fact that they would need to describe things very carefully for someone who knew nothing about ‘our world’.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: RESEARCHING IN THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT WITH YEARS 1/2 Figs. 5.16 a-c – show some of the items Alison put in different parts of the common for the children to find and describe.

Figure 5.16a

Rabbit placed on Ashbeach Common

Non-fiction Figure 5.16b

Cat placed on Ashbeach Common

Figure 5.16c

Snowflake placed on Ashbeach Common

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The children set off looking carefully in different directions. As the information was non-chronological, they were able to note their findings in the order they found them. Alison reminded them of the work they had done previously on the language of procedural accounts, and they incorporated first, next, later and finally into their notes. The children were very excited by the activity, and Alison found that they were prepared to extend and explore their descriptive vocabulary as they talked about how they would need to describe their observations to someone who did not understand this world at all. Alison created two frameworks for the children to record their ideas. Those who were not yet fluent writers could draw their observations (Fig. 5.17a). The more fluent and assured writers had plenty of space to capture all that they had found (Fig. 5.17b and c). They used descriptive phrases and repetition to emphasise their delight in the objects they had found. Because they were working in a role, writing for an alien, their descriptions were precise and detailed. The children’s examples show how the combination of careful planning, imagination, adventure, writing in role and the natural environment gave life to the process of researching and writing information.

Figure 5.17a

Sophie’s observations on Ashbeach Common

Non-fiction

Figure 5.17b

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Alfie’s observations on Ashbeach Common

ACTIVITY: RESEARCHING THE ENVIRONMENT The environment of the school, street, community or home can be a fruitful source of information, whether it is information about texts or information about a specific topic. The ‘world around us’ is a rich reservoir of multimodal texts. Children might be asked to research the different kinds of writing they see about the school, on the street or in the home – from notices, shops or television. For example: the ways that shop notices and signs try to persuade people to buy. How is language used for effect? What about pictures, colour or typeface? the range of types of non-fiction text about the school. Do they inform, explain or persuade? what street signs and symbols tell us the different types of text on food packaging how television advertisements use colour, sound, image and words to persuade or inform how news is presented on radio and different television channels. In television news, what do the printed words add to what the newscaster is saying?

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Figure 5.17c

Katie’s observations on Ashbeach Common

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Persuasive presentation texts Working in role can be a powerful means of helping children transform knowledge into understanding. Role play or simulations can be particularly effective when the literacy outcome is persuasive text, giving the children the chance to shape language which will genuinely influence their audience. Catherine Phillips, working with a Year 3/4 class, decided to combine her literacy, science, ICT and design teaching. She planned a sequence of work concluding in a simulation where the children would work in groups to design and construct the model of a playground for the local community, using their knowledge of electrical circuits to provide the lighting for their models. This was part of a challenge where the children would present their work in role, attempting to ‘sell’ their ideas to an adult, also in role, who would interrogate them in the style of the television ‘hiring and firing’ reality show.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: DESIGN PRESENTATIONS IN YEARS 3/4 I suppose it was quite an ambitious project, but it made sense to combine all the different curriculum areas. It meant that the information the children learned about electricity could be put into practice in a realistic context and that they would have a recognised audience for their presentations. The final session where ‘Councillor Brightlights’ (of whom more later) came to judge the playground designs was an excellent assessment opportunity, for the science learning, the children’s understanding of design concepts and their ICT ability. Finally, their presentations allowed me to assess their speaking and listening in a formal setting. The science learning objectives were: to to to to

understand how different electrical items work use electricity safely draw circuit diagrams make complete circuits.

I showed these to the children as I outlined the work with the IWB (see IWB file Electricity on CD-ROM). We discussed the differences between mainsoperated and battery-operated equipment and then asked the children in pairs to discuss the differences between a battery and a mains radio, which they then noted on the IWB (Fig. 5.18). In this session, we also looked at electricity safety rules, and the children summarised what they had learned during the session on another IWB page (Fig. 5.19). I saved this as the starting point for the following session.

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Figure 5.18

IWB page of children’s notes about electricity

Figure 5.19

Children’s summary of what they had learned about electricity

Non-fiction

In the next session, I showed the class a letter from ‘Councillor Brightlights’ (Fig. 5.20) explaining that she wanted to commission a playground on Rickling Green. I gave them the brief for designing an outdoor playground with sufficient lighting, and explained that they were going to make a prototype in a shoebox. I told them that Councillor Brightlights would be coming in to look at their designs and that they would make a presentation about the whole process. Each group was going to be a ‘design company’ working together on their playground, the lighting circuits and the presentation (see IWB file, The Playground Project, on CD-ROM). About five pupils in the class had used presentation software before this project, so the majority of the class had no experience of using it. I spent an ICT lesson showing the pupils how to use presentation tools and explained the different techniques that can be used. I asked them make a trial PowerPoint presentation in groups so that they could familiarise themselves with the program. The pupils did not spend any time designing this presentation before making it, as my aim was just to enable them to experiment with the software. I organised the groups so that at least one person in each group had used PowerPoint before. Once they had finished the prototype of their playground, the ‘companies’ were given the task of making a PowerPoint presentation of their design and making process (Fig. 5.21). This also gave them the opportunity to begin to evaluate their work. The pupils were given time to plan their presentation on paper, making decisions about what information was going to be presented on each slide and the relationship between text and images. Planning the presentation before making it enabled the pupils to focus on their ideas and encouraged them to stick to the task in hand. The lesson spent familiarising the pupils with the presentation tools was very worthwhile. As the children knew how to use the program, they were able to focus on presenting their ideas in an appropriate way. During the whole project, I had taken digital photographs of all of the groups and downloaded them onto the school server. I showed the pupils how they could import photographs from a file into their presentations. All the groups decided to enhance their presentations by using photographs and annotating them, and these looked very impressive when the groups presented their work. If I were to do this project again, I would encourage the pupils to take their own photographs so that they could take complete ownership of their work. I was particularly impressed with the PowerPoint presentation Lighting it Up!!!!! produced by ‘Hammers and Spanners Inc’ Fig. 5.22 a–e (best viewed on the CD-ROM for full effect). This group clearly showed that they had begun to reflect on their work. They gave reasons for the decisions they made and explained why they had made changes to their original design. The presentation did not provide huge amounts of information but gave a brief overview of their ideas which they were able to expand upon when they presented their work to Councillor Brightlights. They had clearly thought about which images they were

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Figure 5.20

Letter from Councillor Brightlights

Councillor rightlights Central ighting Department Council ouse ulb Street rightville West ightshire R4 D

The Super Scientists Class 3 Rickling Church of England Primary School Rickling reen Essex

Dear Super Scientists

I need your help The town council has decided to build a new playground on RIckling reen. Could you and your team design the perfect playground

Think about: • • • • •

Who is going to use the playground and what they might like to use it for. What equipment you are going to have in the playground. ow the equipment and paths are illuminated. ow you are going to control the lighting for your playground. ow to create a model of your design.

nce you have designed and made a model of the playground, you will get a visit from me and you will be asked to present your ideas to me. I will very much look forward to hearing your ideas and seeing your designs. ood uck Councillor rightlights

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Figure 5.21 Guidance for the playground presentation

ighting it up PowerPoint

n your PowerPoint presentation you should include the following things The design stage – – – – –

what decisions did you make company name what materials to use what purpose the materials have why did you make the decisions you did

The scale diagram – why was it needed The making stage – did you follow your plan did everything work as you wanted it to what do you like best what would you change Why do you think Councillor rightlights should choose your idea

going to use and how they would relate to the text. They used persuasive language and gave a lively presentation. All of the pupils learnt a great deal about PowerPoint from this project as well as all the science learning objectives. They took great pride in showing the Year 5/6 class what they had learned and taught them how to use PowerPoint. I asked the children to evaluate their work, commenting on the presentation design, their spoken presentation, and the way they had worked in their groups. Their comments showed what they had learned from the process but also gave me some pointers for the next time I embark on a project like this:

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Figure 5.22a

Lighting it up, screen 1

Figure 5.22b


Figure 5.22c


Non-fiction Figure 5.22d


Figure 5.22e


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Note: The animation and other special effects in the presentation cannot be captured on paper. The CD-ROM shows the full sound and movement on each screen.

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I chose some good backgrounds and I spoke like I was presenting something. I was pleased with how I explained it. (Toby) We all had ideas but I showed people how to do the effects. (Abi) I enjoyed talking to the class and putting all the pictures and making it all move around. It might have been better if I could have learnt my words a bit better and rehearsed a bit more. (Claudia) I think the screens were excellent and the presentation was OK. When I spoke to everyone I felt a bit shy. (George ) We weren’t very good at the talking but we got on OK with the ICT. Each member designed and presented a page. We all combined our ideas. I taught people to do animation as I was the only one who had done it before. (Lydia) It was great fun because we all took part. I think if I made another one I would use sounds. (Lily-Maeve) Catherine Phillips, working in Rickling Church of England Primary School, Rickling Green, Essex

Summary Non-fiction can be a tricky area for writing and multimodal composition because of the wide variety of types of texts which come under the umbrella heading. In addition, composing non-fiction is quite complex because children have to gather information from sources other than their imaginations or experience in order to retell information, explain, persuade or argue a point. Reaching an audience is central to everyday forms of non-fiction. However, since children are surrounded by non-fiction multimodal texts of all kinds – on screen and on paper – they start with some experience of design, layout and effects. Frames and scaffolds are important in helping children analyse text types before composing their own, but these need to be flexible and focused to support different aspects of researching, gathering and re-presenting

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information. It would be easy to see non-fiction as divorced from the imagination, but writing and presenting in role can be very powerful in helping children get to grips with the content and form of non-fiction.

Note 1 Section 7 includes an annotated non-fiction text.

Section 6 Poetry

In this section: • poetry and multimodality • narrative poetry: starting from images for writing • supporting less fluent writers • Classroom account: Using images for writing narrative poetry in a special school • writing based on illustrations of poetry • using film to inspire poetry • poetry across the curriculum • Classroom account: Poetry based on close observation of the natural world from Year 1 to Year 5 • poetry, sound and image • Classroom account: Presenting pictures and poetry with a Year 6 class • writing about poetry • adding backgrounds to poetry • writing from poetry.

Poetry is probably the perfect multimodal text, combining all the dimensions of representation. It is made up of sound, depending on the arrangement of sound in space. When spoken aloud, it involves gesture, movement and expression of face and voice, its rhythms, emphases and cadences being carried in sound waves. Sometimes it tells a story; sometimes it captures a moment of

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experience. In its written form, a poem is a designed text: the lines, punctuation, placing and spacing act like visual choreography, showing how it should be read. In print, a poem is both a verbal and a visual text, but it also evokes the visual through images. Experience and enjoyment of poetry often start with hearing it, perhaps as song or rhyme, feeling the rhythms in the bones by bouncing on an adult’s knee, or skipping or joining in with others in subversive, rude or cheeky rhymes. Home experience of poetry often means hearing rhymes on television, DVDs, CD-ROMs and audio tapes, computer games and mobile phone ringtones. From their very first encounters with poetry, children know that it is multimodal.

Narrative poetry: starting from images Many people remember narrative poetry with great warmth. Alfred Noyes’ ‘The Highwayman’ paints pictures of a tragic love story set in a haunting landscape. Tennyson’s ‘The Lady of Shalott’ similarly tells a story of sacrifice for love. Both of these and the heroic epic Beowulf have been powerfully illustrated by Charles Keeping, and children’s own interpretations may be made explicit by discussing his interpretations of the characters and the setting. The Pre-Raphaelites drew inspiration from Tennyson’s ‘Morte d’Arthur’ and ‘The Lady of Shalott’, among other texts, and their paintings have often been used as discussion points for the poetry. On the other hand, some people feel that children should be asked to create their own images, in the mind and on the page. In many ways, word, story and image interrelate. Asking children to write narrative poetry can be demanding, however. Because this kind of poem tells a story, it needs to be reasonably lengthy. Like any other story, a narrative poem needs to introduce characters, set the scene, introduce a dilemma or conflict, and let the story unfold until it reaches a resolution. For young writers who are not fluent or assured, this can be an overwhelming challenge – one that teachers may decide is too much to ask. Using images, however, can allow part of the story to be told by the visual. Characters, setting and dilemma can be drawn or captured by digital cameras, downloaded from the Web, or scanned from books. Peter Fifield used images with his Year 6 class in a special school, creating the images himself as a prompt for the children’s narrative poetry. His account of a short teaching sequence is a reminder that children’s compositions do not necessarily need to be taken through all the stages of the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence. For some composition, it is enough be become familiar with the text type, generate and capture ideas, and, with support, move straight to presentation. Fig. 6.1. highlights the specific aspects of his teaching.

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Figure 6.1

Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence: writing narrative poetry

Familiarity with text type Develop understanding of multimodal texts • • •

ead and categorise te ts how how different modes combine to create meaning plain how design layout and organisation of te ts create effect • iscuss how to compose te ts according to audience and purpose • raw on reading to design te t models • emonstrate e pressing personal responses to te ts

Capture ideas Note and develop initial ideas •

plore ideas for te ts using drama techni ues role play puppets small world play digital photo manipulation software digital audio manipulation software musical instruments dance • ecord ideas through drawings story maps note making • apture ideas through digital audio digital still images and mo ing images

Teacher modelling •

ead multimodal te ts noting how modes combine to create meaning • iscuss te t con entions associated with each mode

Children’s independent learning • • •

ead multimodal te ts and e press preferences ollect e amples of te t con entions reate own te t models


emonstrate capturing ideas using different strategies • odel taking risks to generate ideas • how how to record ideas


Plan Develop, record and structure initial ideas •

emonstrate how to choose the modes which are best for the task • odel designing layouts using desktop publishing word processing software drawing sketching and sticky notes • nnotate skeleton plans maps digital images and drawings • how how to collect and arrange ideas using graphic organisers lists story boards


•

ecide which strategy to use for a particular purpose • se note taking approaches appropriate to te t type and age of pupils


ombine models from shared reading and captured ideas on planning formats • aluate different planning strategies

Children’s independent learning • •

plore design options to create possible layouts ecide on the impact of a mode or combination of modes for the task

•

emonstrate how to use models and plans from shared reading to support drafting to te ts and design choices • odel using presentation software digital ideo and audio editing software to combine modes • emonstrate making changes to the te t adding or remo ing elements to clarify meaning • how how to use drawing and typographic choices to engage the reader

continues on ne t page

Poetry Figure 6.1

(Continued)




Proof read Check design and layout, spelling and punctuation • • • • •

emonstrate how to check isual te t for content colour cropping of images effects layout and composition image placement and isual emphasis mo ing image for fades and edits cropping timing of clips isual effects auditory te t for timing editing se uencing olume fades and edits sound effects non-linear te t to ensure hyperlinks action buttons and animation se uences work written te t for spelling punctuation and paragraphing




Children’s independent learning • Work with response partners to make decisions about the effective use of modes to communicate meaning • Apply understanding of design and text construction to clarify meaning


Children’s independent learning • roof read for accuracy and consistency • Check cohesion



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CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: USING IMAGES FOR WRITING NARRATIVE POETRY IN A SPECIAL SCHOOL Familiarity with the text type, and capturing ideas I teach in a school for children with complex needs. The eight children in the Year 6 class who wrote Harry the Dragon are not yet fluent writers, and would be assessed at P levels for literacy. There are several children with autism and some with communication and other learning difficulties. Narrative poetry is one of the text types chosen for literacy this term, but writing individual longer poems was likely to be very demanding for this class. However, although the class find writing difficult, they have plenty of ideas for stories, so I decided that using images would be a good way to help them construct a whole-class narrative poem. The children were familiar with narrative poems from this term’s poetry focus, and from previous work they knew something about rhyme and rhythm. I prepared a series of IWB pages telling a picture story based on a three-foot soft toy dragon. I had already had an idea for a story about a lost red scarf that used digital photographs taken during a spring holiday in Scotland. At the time I had not thought of a central character in the narrative. I took a series of pictures in woods and by streams, in one of which the scarf was shown hooked on a bush in a wild wood. Back at school, I happened on the dragon. He seemed to be the ideal central character, and I took another series of pictures of him in different poses, with and without the scarf. As it was to be a story of loss and rediscovery, I photographed him crying, in despair and elated. Using the IWB tools, I cut out the dragon images and superimposed them on the desolate landscapes I had taken in Scotland.1 This teaching sequence was planned for three sessions of an hour each, and two Learning Support Assistants helped the children in each session. As well as the images of the dragon story, I had prepared a grid on the IWB to note the children’s first ideas about each page As a starting point, I introduced the class to the toy dragon and we talked about what name he could have. Although we agreed as a class on the name ‘Harry’, one child was very keen to give him another name and was upset that we did not use his idea, so if I did this again, I might try to cater for different choices of name. To establish the sequence for the narrative poem, we looked at the images of Harry with his scarf walking through a wood and then without his scarf, sitting sadly on a tree stump, starting on his quest for the scarf, and finally finding it and being joyful. I asked the children what was happening in each picture and we noted ideas on the grid in Fig. 6.1. Using the children’s contributions, I modelled telling the story of Harry and his lost scarf. I explained that the planning grid shown in Fig. 6.2 (p. 1 of the IWB sequence on the CD-ROM) had a square for each page of the story. I reminded them that they knew poems that were like stories because they were

Poetry Figure 6.2

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IWB grid to capture ideas for narrative poetry

familiar with ‘The Pied Piper of Hamelin’ from earlier work. We recalled that these stories rhymed, and in one colour we recorded a key word for each picture on the grid, so that later we could find rhyming words to help the children make their own parts of the poem. I asked the children to think of rhyming words for each keyword, wrote them on the grid in a different colour, and saved the file.

Drafting to presenting In the following session, I opened the file on the IWB and reminded the children about the words we had gathered. We looked at the pictures again, and I explained that they were going to have a picture each to write two lines as part of the poem. I then modelled making a rhyme for the first page: Sitting one day by the side of a stream, Harry the dragon started to dream. I had printed copies of each screen on separate pages so that the children could work on a page each, supported by the adults. The grid was displayed on the IWB so that they could refer to the part of the story represented by each page. The children drafted their two lines or composed while an adult scribed for them. Fig 6.3 shows two of Joe’s added lines scribed by me. At the end of this session, I showed the pictures again, reading each child’s lines. I decided that for this activity it was not necessary for the children to redraft their writing. For some of them, capturing their ideas by themselves in writing

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Figure 6.3

Michael’s and Joe’s rhyming couplets

Poetry Figure 6.4

Harry the Dragon, first rhyming couplet

Figure 6.5

Harry the Dragon, second rhyming couplet

Figure 6.6

Harry the Dragon, third rhyming couplet

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Figure 6.7

Harry the Dragon, fourth rhyming couplet

Figure 6.8

Harry the Dragon, fifth rhyming couplet

Figure 6.9

Harry the Dragon, sixth rhyming couplet

Poetry Figure 6.10 Harry the Dragon, seventh rhyming couplet

Figure 6.11 Harry the Dragon, eighth rhyming couplet

Figure 6.12 Harry the Dragon, final rhyming couplet

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had been quite an effort. For others, their words had been scribed by supporting adults, so that individual redrafting would not add anything to the writing experience. What was important for them was the publication of their work as a visual presentation, so for the final session, I typed their words on each page of the IWB file. We read the poem as a shared text, with some of the children reading their own sections aloud. After reading it a few times, I asked the children what they thought about their poem. Mahmoud said, It’s a sad story, but Michael interrupted, saying, No, it’s a happy and a sad story because he found the scarf. Liam said, What you’re trying to say is it’s a sad film with a happy ending. All of them were very pleased with their poem. Finally we presented the narrative poem Harry the Dragon to the junior school assembly. Peter Fifield, West Lea Special School, Enfield

ACTIVITY: NARRATIVE POETRY USING IMAGES The CD-ROM has a template of the dragon images as an IWB file with just the pictures and no words. These can be used to support individual or group narrative poems, and the children’s own text can be added to each page.

ACTIVITY: WRITING FROM ILLUSTRATED NARRATIVE POETRY Artists’ interpretations of narrative poetry can spark speculative discussion and writing. Charles Keeping’s illustrations of Beowulf are particularly muscular, using line to create movement and narrative strength. Children might rewrite part of the poem from the point of view of Grendel’s mother, who, however grisly he was, has lost her only and greatly loved son. They might speculate about how the Lady of Shalott came to be imprisoned in the tower or how Tim the ostler feels about Bess’ tragic death in ‘The Highwayman’. Younger readers enjoy the varied and colourful illustrations in The Oxford Treasury of Classic Poems, the spiky images by Nicholas Bentley of T.S. Eliot’s Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats, the different illustrated versions of Robert Louis Stevenson’s A Child’s Garden of Verses, or Quentin Blake’s energetic drawings accompanying Michael Rosen’s poetry.

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Using film to inspire poetry Films may not seem the most obvious texts through which to introduce poetry. They are usually lengthy, with plots, characters and action that might lead to narrative poetry, but not, perhaps to poetry, which captures feelings, a moment in time, or the atmosphere of a place. There are some fine short films, however, which evoke atmosphere and can be very powerful sources of inspiration. Il Caminante British Film Institute (BFI) (see Resources Section) is a wordless animation set in a hot village on a festival day and accompanied by guitar music. A traveller comes to the village, performs a daring feat and then leaves. Colour, line and perspective create a haunting atmosphere, and the ending is wistful and poignant. After watching the film, discussing the who, what, where and why of it, and capturing initial ideas, Steve wrote: Childhood memory I remember that day. I was so young, excited, jigging about Calling for my friends, running and shouting. He came from nowhere And caught us in his spell. We watched him walk the tightrope, nearly fall Then slowly reach the end. But then he left And we pretended we could walk the high rope. Long ago. [Steve, aged ten] Steve captures the action of the children, shown evocatively in the film and uses the length of his lines to create the sense of tension as il Caminante nearly falls.

Films without words Films without words can be particularly powerful for descriptive, imaginative or narrative poetry writing. Disney’s Fantasia compilations, inspired by different kinds of music, offer strong support for writing a range of poetry. For example, the story of The Sorcerer’s Apprentice, with Dukas’ strong rhythmic music, repetitions and changes of mood, is ideal for narrative poetry. The powerful, jagged music of Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring, accompanied by swirling bright images, inspires descriptive, muscular writing. While short films can inspire poetry, selected sequences from longer films can be equally effective. Jo McNab at St Helen’s School in North Cambridgeshire used the beginning of The BFG video with her Year 3/4 class, who word-processed their poems. After watching the opening sequence from the film, they talked about how the director had created atmosphere and compared

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing this with the different ways poets use imagery and descriptive language to represent dark and light. The children thought about being in their own rooms at night, noting the sounds and drawing pictures of the moon and trees in the dark, thinking about how the light might look. Three poems represent how the children combined personal reflection and images from the film for their poems: The Night At night when it is dark I hear a crack on the staircase. At night when it is cold The moon glistens on the trees. At night I hear a little baby cry. My brother is playing in my bedroom. At night I hear the toys crashing And the slamming of the door.

(by Alex)

The Night At night I try to go to sleep But instead hear the bang of a rifle People are hunting I hear the rattle of the dog gate I hear the bark of the dogs I hear the squeak of the dog gate When Mum and Dad let the dogs roam

(by Nicky)

In my room at night At night when it is dark I see… A strip of light so I can see Stinky Pete on my Toy Story 2 I see a toy Buzz Lightyear that flies round in circles But in the dark he looks like a bat! I see my books falling over on my Book shelf I see my curtains move They whoosh and swoosh All over the place I see a light reflecting off My door handle I see my toys Fly about my bed When I wriggle and wiggle. (by George)

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The first poem mixes sight and sound, the second concentrates largely on sound, and the third is visually patterned. Although the stimulus was visual and the prompts to memory were about sound, the children have written from their own inner world, choosing the most evocative mode for their own imaginative writing.

ACTIVITY: USING A FILM SEQUENCE FOR POETRY WRITING A film sequence which creates a particular atmosphere – for example, sections from the DVD of The Iron Giant or the flight through the woods in Disney’s Snow White – can be used as visual stimulus for atmospheric poetry writing. Analysing film sequences for how atmosphere is created can be accompanied by looking at poetry that evokes a particular mood to compare visual and verbal effects. Michael Rosen’s Under the Bed collection, illustrated by Quentin Blake, and the children’s ‘At Night’ poetry offer good opportunities for discussing the differences between image and word in creating poetic effects.

Poetry across the curriculum Visual approaches need not be confined to looking at pictures in books or on screens. Close observation of the natural world can be the source of fine poetry writing. As part of a project on creative approaches to the curriculum, a group of schools in North Cambridgeshire took a cross-curricular approach to writing poetry. They focused on ‘the visual’, particularly concentrating on close observation of nature, both in reality and in pictures.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNTS: POETRY BASED ON CLOSE OBSERVATION OF THE NATURAL WORLD FROM YEAR 1 TO YEAR 5 Joe, aged seven, brought some of his seven-day-old chicks into class. He had been giving the class daily reports about their progress since they first hatched. Their teacher writes: The children knew the chicks were coming and welcomed them with tremendous anticipation and interest. They showed awareness and responsibility and

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Figure 6.13

Light and shadow poems stimulated by science observations

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approached the chicks with great care and hushed voices. Joe introduced his chicks and answered questions. All the children had a chance to sit alongside the pen, to listen, watch and hold if they wanted to. I recorded their first verbal responses to the chicks’ movement, appearance and individual characteristics for future reference. The children were involved in a range of first-hand activities: drawing, painting, modelling, concentrating on a whole chick, a group of chicks or just a part – like a feather – that had caught their attention. I asked the children to discuss what the chicks might think about a visit to the classroom and what they thought about the children. We read and discussed a series of poems about chicks, noticing language (alliteration, similes, adjectives, onomatopoeia, etc.) and structure, and we then extended the initial list of impressions. Two of the poems show the wealth of writing which came about by close observation and attention to sound and touch. Look at me! I have beautiful eyes A tiny small chick Ssssssssshhhhhh Don’t make a noise I look at you with my big eye WHAT A NOISE!!! Cheep cheep I am as cuddly as a pillow Look at me! (Shannon, aged seven) Soft, yellow, round, spotty pom poms They are tiny and cuddly They look at us and think we are BFGs Their thin, bony legs look as if they are on stilts Their long, scratchy toes are so so thin They stare at us with their eyes wide open All cheep, cheep, cheep Their little wings flapping like mad, trying to fly Tiny little chicks ready for a nap. (Jack S., aged seven) Christine Robinson, Ramsey Spinning Infant School, Ramsey, Cambridgeshire Karen Wells from Ramsey Junior School used science work on light and shadow to inspire poetry writing with her Year 3 class. Fig. 6.13 shows poems by Jay and Lee (aged eight) after close observation of the effects of light and shadow. Their

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing tightly written poems, using alliteration and assonance, demonstrate not only that they have learned about crisp poetry writing but also that they have grasped some important science concepts about light and shadow. At Upwood Primary School, Alison Hart, the Year 3 teacher, combined literacy and geography. The learning focus was the weather, and the work was planned to create a class book of weather poems. The children used mind maps to capture choices of vocabulary, concentrating on adjectives and verbs. Visual sources included photographs of weather from the Met Office free CD-ROM imported to the IWB for group discussion and sharing ideas. The children talked about what the different images of weather looked like, what it might feel like, the colours, movement and sensations. They read poems on the weather and discussed how the words represented the different kinds of weather shown in the photographs. The poetry writing helped the children grasp details of weather formation that might previously have been expected as an information-learning task. Fig. 6.14 shows two of the children’s designed poems for the class book. Both have captured the sensations associated with weather, and decorated their poems to emphasise the mood. Anna-Claire Cunningham, Year 4 teacher at The Ashbeach School, also chose geography as a focus for poetry. Our topic was rivers. The class had already written explanatory texts about the flora and fauna of a river, and we then embarked on a module of poetry writing related to the same topic. We read a book for children about the life of a brown trout published by the Salmon and Trout Association, illustrated with paintings of the river and sea. We looked at video clips of trout and alevins swimming, feeding and breeding. The children had general experience of poems, so I wanted them to have more experience of poems of specific types – rhyming and free verse, funny and serious. After we read a range of poems, I asked the children to choose the style of poem they wished to write. Having chosen the type of poem the children then made word lists, created writing frames, drafted lines, experimented with different choices and finally redrafted after editing (Fig. 6.15).

The poems show the extent of knowledge the children gained about the habits and habitat of brown trout and their developing repertoire of different forms of poetry.

Poetry Figure 6.14

Weather poetry by Georgina and Jordan

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Figure 6.15a

Year 4 Brown Trout poem by Oliver

Figure 6.15b

Year 4 Brown Trout poem by Katy

Poetry Figure 6.15c

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Year 4 Brown Trout poem by Courtney

Martin Dawe of Somersham Primary School describes one boy’s poetic response to a three-dimensional art project: William is known as a fine creative poet. This poem was written in response to viewing a sculpture project by Years 3/4 pupils using wire mesh and titled ‘People with Wings’ (Fig. 6.16). The sculptures were 30 flying figures, hung throughout the school corridor, giving a very dramatic feel on entry to the school building. William’s choice of language aligns the dimensions of sculpture with the dimensions of poetry – each using space, balance and design to reach their audience. As these examples show, any area of the curriculum can offer visual stimulus for poetry writing. However, poetry does not just create itself. Children need experience of listening to and reading a wide range of poems as models and examples of what they might – and might not – want to do themselves. They also need opportunities to discuss how poems work, on the page and on the tongue. The key to success for the North Cambridgeshire schools was the amount of close observation of the visual – whether images or the natural world – alongside the experience of a range of poetry and scaffolded discussion of how to capture impressions in words.

ACTIVITY: POETRY ACROSS THE CURRICULUM Literacy work can often be carried out in parallel with other curriculum areas. It is relatively easy to incorporate explanation or information texts in planning for geography, history or science. Opportunities for poetry are less obvious, but in planning it is worth looking for ways of using visual sources as a basis for poetry writing. The gains are not only a way of making creative connections, but also an enhancement of children’s understanding of the subject under scrutiny. The poetry collection The Works: Poems on Every Subject and for Every Occasion, compiled by Brian Moses and Pie Corbett, is a useful handbook.

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Figure 6.16 William’s poem ‘People with Wings’

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Sound and image Poetry is essentially about how words sound, and children gain a great deal from hearing poetry read to them and from reading poetry aloud. They do not often get the chance to read their own poetry to a large group and can be selfconscious about ‘performing’ in front of others. Ben Reave wanted his Year 6 class in a West Midlands school, to have some experience of performing poetry but was aware of the need for sensitivity.

CLASSROOM ACCOUNT: PRESENTING PICTURES AND POETRY WITH A YEAR 6 CLASS My class were not particularly backward at coming forward but could become very self-conscious when asked to read their own work aloud to others. I have always tried to encourage them to write for different audiences, but in poetry this has meant making printed anthologies or word-processing poetry for display in the public areas of the school. They had never had experience of presenting their poetry. We had been using visual stimuli for writing for some time, and the class were used to drawing ideas from film and picture books, but I had not thought of using digital photographs as a stimulus. The potential of presentational software and the advent of the IWB meant that I was able to do this, and I found that using images can be a very rewarding class experience, giving the chance to share ideas before the children write individually. As post-SATs work, which we always make as ‘secondary-like’ as we can, I planned a unit of work based on Robert Swindell’s novel Stone Cold – a challenging book but one that I felt the class could cope with. I linked my planning to PSHE work and wanted the class to have a chance to write imaginatively. There is a waste patch near the school where the local ‘environmental decorators’ had sprayed graffiti. I took a series of digital photographs from which I chose some for this activity (Fig 6.17a-d). Before starting on reading the novel, I introduced the topic of homelessness by showing the images and talking with the children about how it might feel to be homeless. I explained to the class that we would be writing poetry and using presentational software to capture them reading their own poems associated with the images. By this method, we could share some of their poems in the leavers’ assembly, which is attended by parents. I had no problems with getting this work going, as the class had plenty to say about the topic of homelessness and made some very sensitive comments. We gathered ideas from the whole class, but then the children worked individually, with the support of their response partners, to write their own poems.

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I asked them to match their words to each of the images in any order that they chose. As they wrote and redrafted their poems, we began reading the novel, and they were drawn into it by the realisation that their own ideas were very close to the situation of the central character. Corinne’s ‘Nowhere to Go’ (Fig. 6.18) is just one of the very moving poems the class wrote, and although she is quite reticent, she read it aloud to great acclaim – and tears - as a presentation for the leavers’ evening. See Section 4 for one of the planning devices I used to start narrative writing with one of these images in ‘Nowhere to Go’. Ben Reave, Fredericks School, West Midlands. There is a sound file of Corinne reading her poem on the CD-ROM

ACTIVITY: MAKING POETRY PRESENTATIONS The template file Nowhere to Go on the CD-ROM can be used to discuss multimodal poetry making. There is a word file of Corinne’s poem arranged screen by screen so that children can consider the decisions she made about pacing her presentation and discuss how it works as a multimodal text. Do the images add to the words? Do the words add to the images? Alternatively, the template can be used as a stimulus to children’s poetry (or narrative) composition.

Figure 6.17a

Digital image of wasteground

Poetry

Figure 6.17b,c,d

Digital images of wasteground

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Figure 6.18 ‘Nowhere to Go’ by Corinne, aged 11 Nowhere to Go Look at this Bare Dirty. This is no place to be. Among the metal Plastic Rubbish. Is anybody there? I can sit here Think Cry. Nowhere else to go. Someone’s been here before ASBO Outcast. Just like me. Who are they, this crew Bozar Kerm And Shak? Where are they now? This is where I’ll sleep Cold Hungry What else can I do?

Writing about poetry Links between the visual and poetry need not always end in writing poetry. There is scope for reflecting on poetry, stimulated by the combination of images with poems. Pat Anderson developed her Year 5 class’s analytical responses to poetry by superimposing chosen poems on background images. Figs 6.18 and 6.19 show contrasting backdrops for the opening of John Masefield’s ‘Sea Fever’. The children were asked to comment on what the different backgrounds contributed to their understanding of the poem. They talked about the point of view of the person saying, ‘I must go down to the sea again’, and whether the images made a difference to how they thought about the poem. They discussed their ideas in groups and then chose to make one short individual written comment each which best represented their views. Some of their comments were:

Poetry Figure 6.19a

Opening lines of ‘Sea Fever’ with ocean background image

Figure 6.19b Opening lines of ‘Sea Fever’ with urban background image

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing In the sea image, the grey sea makes me think that if he does go back to the sea it will be dangerous but in the rooftops one with the hot colours and the sun he seems to feel trapped in the city and needs the freshness of the sea. (Alice, aged ten) He’s remembering what he used to be able to do. The city image is where he is now. He can’t go back to the sea and he’s cut off from life because he can only look out over the rooftops. The sea image is his memory, and he can hear the sound of the waves crashing on the shore. (Harry, aged ten) Both these images and the poem make me feel really sad. The old man can’t ‘go down to the sea’ but he wants to because there aren’t any people there. He says it’s lonely and the idea of the sea and the sky make me think of space. He seems to be stuck in the city with lots of people when all he wants is to be alone. (Karim, aged nine) Adding contrasting backgrounds can prompt children to think more carefully about the theme of a poem. Interpreting poetry can be difficult for young readers but these children got into the heart of the poem by being asked to think about how images and words work together. Using contrasting images can act as a scaffold to analytical thought, and asking children to select from their own first thoughts encourages them to be critical readers of their own writing.

ACTIVITY: ADDING BACKGROUNDS TO POETRY The Internet has a wealth of photograph files from which to select images as backgrounds to poetry. Images of works of art can be accessed from sites such as www.tate.org.uk. Children can search for images which they think will provide contrasting backgrounds for poems of their own choice, or a poem chosen by the teacher, and discuss and write about the effects of the different images on the meaning of the poem. As a starting point, the two images of ‘Sea Fever’ are provided as images and in a presentation software file on the CD-ROM.

Poetry

ACTIVITY: WRITING FROM POETRY AND IMAGE TOGETHER Mystery stories have always intrigued children – and adults. ‘Flannan Isle’ by Wilfred Gibson is an old established poem, but the haunting and demanding picture book The Mystery of Eilean Mor, written by Gary Crew and illustrated by Jeremy Geddes, tells a similar story, and the poem and the picture book can usefully be read together as a basis for imaginative writing. Children might write the vanished lighthouse keepers’ log, planting clues to what has really happened, or they could record jottings from the investigator’s notebook, leading to an oral report in the coroner’s court about what has happened.

ACTIVITY: TEMPTING OTHERS TO READ POETRY Presentational software offers good opportunities for children to create a ‘trailer’ for a poem, using extracts of the poem and adding images and commentary to tempt an audience to read the whole poem.

Summary Poetry is the perfect multimodal text as it sings and dances off the page. It begins with sound and often ends in print. It sets out to evoke images and paint pictures with words. Visual approaches to poetry can involve writing narrative poetry based on images or writing from illustrations in printed books. Films can inspire poetry, and there are many opportunities for writing poetry in different areas of the curriculum, using pictures or close observation of the natural world. Combining published poems with different images prompts analysis of theme; and writing in response to poems, extending some of the ideas, provides opportunities for the imaginative leaps which poetry offers.

Note 1 See CD-ROM for file with instructions for cutting out images on IWB.

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Section 7 Making progress in multimodal composition

In this section: • a review of writing assessment • formative and summative assessment of writing and multimodality • examples of children’s multimodal texts from the early stages to experience, assurance and independence • a framework for development in aspects of multimodality • progress descriptors for development in multimodal text making.

Writing development Although there are national criteria for assessing writing, there is no comparable nationally agreed set of guidelines for multimodal composition. Describing progress in writing means paying attention both to the writing itself – the end points or products – and the process of becoming a writer. In terms of assessing writing products, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) writing assessment strands provide nationally applicable categories to assess writing products: composition and effect; text structure and organisation; and sentence structure and punctuation. There is, however, no agreed national framework for describing what ‘becoming a writer’ involves as a progressive process, although there is likely to be consensus that it would include: growing ability to select, adapt, synthesise and shape the content of writing developing conscious attention to shaping texts to suit personal intentions as a writer 142

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increasing awareness of how to engage and hold a reader’s attention developing assurance in expressing a personal view in writing extending the repertoire of the styles and structures of writing as models for one’s own composition increasing facility in choosing language to create effects growing adeptness at handling the technical aspects, design and conventions of different kinds of texts increasing ability to read one’s own writing with a reader’s eye developing judgement about when to collaborate over writing and when to work independently. These characteristics include the QCA writing assessment strands but have a wider scope. They take into account the fact that making progress in writing is not just about writing products, but also about becoming more discriminating in the processes and behaviours related to writing. These descriptions might be a good start in considering what progress in composing multimodal texts might look like. However, they need to be augmented if they are fully to cover the ground.

Differences between assessment and describing progress Describing progress is part of record keeping. It is likely to be part of a longerterm record of how an individual is getting on. Assessment is more usually associated with a single judgement about the place that the individual has reached. Of course, the two can be used together, but the intentions are different: while describing progress gives a full account over a long period of time, assessment offers a snapshot of a particular moment. Not only is describing progress different from assessment, but there are different kinds of assessment. The two most familiar are often described as summative and formative assessments. Summative assessment usually takes place at the end of a period of learning, as in SATs and end-of-year tests. It usually depends on material being taken away and assessed at a different place and time from the classroom in which it was written. It can be described, commented on and annotated at a distance. The QCA writing assessment strands and focuses are intended to help teachers make end-point assessments, whether at the end of a year or a phase of education or at the end of a sequence of work. Formative assessments can take place during the process of writing or at the end. In this respect, they might be similar to summative tests, but the difference lies in what is done with the outcomes of the assessment. Formative assessment is intended to do just that – help teachers shape future learning as they appraise children’s learning and evaluate their own teaching. Recently, formative assessment has been aligned with assessment for learning (AfL), which aims to use

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing teachers’ professional judgements to move learning forward. Some characteristics of AfL are: providing feedback that helps pupils to identify how to improve both the teacher and pupils reviewing and reflecting on pupils’ performance and progress pupils learning self-assessment techniques to discover areas they need to improve. (QCA, 2006) This section considers both end-point (summative) assessment and formative assessment of multimodal texts. One of the challenges for summative assessment of multimodal texts is the lack of an agreed vocabulary to describe those texts. Since summative assessment tasks are generally nationally set, marked, moderated and verified, the development of such a nationally agreed vocabulary for assessing multimodal texts is likely to be some time away. However, the material in this section is designed to help make some end-point judgements, whether summative or formative. Two recent research projects, More than Words 1 and 2, have used the QCA assessment strands for writing to see how far these, as part of an existing nationally agreed assessment framework, might accommodate multimodal texts (UKLA/QCA, 2004, 2005). The research reports include examples of children’s work annotated according to the assessment strands, showing that in terms of composition and effect the strands are broadly applicable to both paper-based and screen-based multimodal texts. However, there were constraints associated with the strands text structure and organisation and sentence structure and punctuation. The researchers found that paper-based multimodal texts could be described using both these strands but that the categories needed expansion to take into account screen-based multimodal texts. There were two other factors identified as constraints in using the strands to give an adequate description of multimodal texts. One was associated with the fact that a printed publication cannot capture a multimodal text fully: The screen-based texts which we chose to analyse were mostly presented using presentation software. Although it has been possible to describe such texts in this booklet, we have noted that the annotations can only be partial since they do not take into account the spoken and gestural aspects of the presentations. In one case the pupils had added sound, both as dialogue and sound effects, introducing a further layer of complexity when describing such texts in a booklet. (UKLA/QCA, 2005: 35) The second was more associated with the difficulty of disentangling an individual contribution from the group’s work: One of the key features of the screen-based text production was the collaborative nature of the work. This raises implications for assessment. The partial


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nature of the presentation software texts presented here also suggests that a single assessment may not be the best way to evaluate screen-based multimodal texts. (UKLA/QCA, 2005: 35) The report concluded that although there was some scope for using the writing assessment strands for end-point description and assessment of multimodal texts, there was greater promise in using them for formative purposes. However, it emphasised that the strands would need expansion if they were meant genuinely to take into account all the features of multimodal texts.

A framework for describing and assessing multimodal texts As children represent their ideas and communicate what they want to say, they choose content and structure texts to engage readers; they also deploy technical features for effect – echoing the writing assessment strands. However, providing an adequate framework for describing multimodal texts means taking into account the possible combinations of writing, image, gesture and movement and sound.

Examples of different combinations of modes The texts analysed in this section represent a range of different combinations as well as covering the age range from 5 to 11. Examples 1–4 are paper-based because of the constraints of presenting texts in a book, but example 5 has both a presentational text, analysed here but presented on the CD-ROM, and a written narrative of the same story. The first three are single authored whereas examples 4 and 5 are collaborative productions. Example 1 is a predominantly image-based narrative picture book with spoken (scribed) commentary. Example 2 is also a picture book but combines word and image equally. Example 3 is an information book in which words are more predominant than images. Example 4 is a complex picture book which combines word image and design. Example 5 includes an extended screen-based narrative and a written story.

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ACTIVITY: DESCRIBING AND ASSESSING MULTIMODAL TEXTS This activity could be used by individuals or a group of colleagues. The framework (Fig. 7.1) can be used to consider any multimodal texts or presentations. What might be added or amended?

Figure 7.1

Framework for describing progress in multimodal text making

Progression in multimodal text making is marked by increasing ability to: Decide on mode and content for specific purpose s and audience s • choose which mode s will best communicate meaning for specific purposes deciding on words rather than images or gesture music rather than words • use perspecti e colour sound and language to engage and hold a reader’s iewer’s attention • select appropriate content to e press personal intentions ideas and opinions • adapt synthesise and shape content to suit personal intentions in communication tructure texts • pay conscious attention to design and layout of te ts and use structural de ices pages sections frames paragraphs blocks of te t screens sound se uences to organise te ts • integrate and balance modes for design purposes • structure longer te ts with isual erbal and sound cohesi e de ices • use background detail to create mood and setting se technical features for effect • handle technical aspects and con entions of different kinds of multimodal te ts including line colour perspecti e sound camera angles mo ement gesture facial e pression and language • choose language punctuation font typography and presentational techni ues to create effects and clarify meaning • choose and use a ariety of sentence structures for specific purposes Reflect • e plain choices of modes s and e pressi e de ices including words • impro e own composition or performance reshaping redesigning and redrafting for purpose and readers’ iewers’ needs • comment on the success of a composition in fulfilling the design aims • comment on the relati e merits of teamwork and indi idual contribution for a specific project

These five examples represent a range of types of multimodal and written texts.2 They are examples of the kinds of multimodal texts which might be produced by children at different levels of assurance with multimodality. However, the brief annotations cannot adequately do justice to the complexity of the texts. Used as the basis for professional discussion, they yield a great deal more to discover, describe and discuss.


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ACTIVITY: DISCUSSING EXAMPLES Any of Examples 1-5 might be used for staff discussion to consider what else might be added to the analysis of these multimodal texts

Example 1. Making a picture book: a multimodal text maker in the early stages Chloe is five. Her story was completed after a three-week unit of work on making picture books with clues in them. As a starting point, their teacher, Dorothy Slatter, used Anthony Browne’s book Knock Knock Who’s There?, in which each picture gives a visual clue about what will be on the next doublepage spread Chloe’s teacher scribed her comments about each page. Chloe’s book is best viewed on the CD-ROM for full colour.

Deciding on mode and content for specific purpose(s) and audience(s) Chloe has chosen a princess as her central character, depicted wearing a crown on the double-page spreads. The happy smile, eyelashes and heart designs on her clothes indicate Chloe’s intention to make a story which ends with a pleasurable surprise. The princess is presented facing forward on every page as a direct connection with the reader. The cover design, the following pages and the end of the book show that she has adapted and synthesised two Anthony Browne models for her own book: Zoo and Knock Knock Who’s There?. The narrative is designed to intrigue the reader. Chloe comments on the cover that the princess ‘is going to a different place’. She gradually builds the narrative by introducing different animals until the end of the story, where she reveals: She’s at the zoo. Chloe mainly uses a series of images, rather than words, although she does write the word ‘zoo’ on the final spread. Her scribed commentary was not part of the original composition. The book works without the commentary, except for the clue given in her commentary on the cover. Chloe maintains the viewpoint for the reader by designing the pages with images placed at the bottom of the page and the leading edge. She varies this with the monkey image, which is centrally placed in the final spread. She uses colour sparingly and realistically overall, although she does not use colour as a cohesive device for the princess’s dress.

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Figure 7.2a Chloe’s book cover

Figure 7.2b Chloe’s first double-page spread

Making progress in multimodal composition Figure 7.2c

Chloe’s second double-page spread

Figure 7.2d Chloe’s third double-page spread

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Structuring texts The design pays attention to the layout of Knock Knock Who’s There?, placing the images on the pages to lead the reader through the narrative. The central character acts as a cohesive device, although Chloe seems to have given her different clothes and hairstyles on different pages. She organises the narrative with the ‘hint’ at the leading edge of the right-hand page to suggest the animal that will appear on the following page. There is no background detail.

Using technical features for effect The images show detail in the markings on the animals, the stripes and the carefully drawn bananas. The princess’s happy facial expressions create the effect of pleasurable anticipation. Chloe has used only one word for the verbal part of the text, written in bold capitals in a key position on the right hand of the final spread, suggesting the importance she attaches to this as the surprise ending of the narrative. Chloe’s spoken and scribed commentary is consistently spare, simply telling the reader what the images depict.

Example 2. Writing a picture book drawing on a favourite film: an increasingly assured multimodal text maker Alex is six years old. His book The Lion King 4 Nala Come’s Back (sic) was made after a teaching sequence planned by his teacher, Viv Sharpe, using film as a basis for making picture books. The extracts in Figs. 7.3a–c are part of an eightpage book in which Nala leaves to go to a new home, Simba follows her and is helped by other animals to find her. Alex’s book is best viewed in full and in colour on the CD-ROM.

Deciding on mode and content for specific purpose(s) and audience(s) Alex has chosen characters from a favourite film as a basis for his own story, specifically focusing on the theme of friendship. He draws on experience of film texts, varying the perspective to lead the reader’s eye through the story. He uses a mid-shot for the cover to show the


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relationship between the two central characters, a longer perspective for frame 1 where the two lions part from each other, mid-shots for frames 2 and 3 to show the characters and their thoughts (the clouds which passed by), and a long shot in frame 4 to show Simba being helped on his journey by other animals. He adapts the film characters, the setting, and the theme of ‘leaving and returning’ to suit his own intentions. Alex has chosen to use words mostly for action and dialogue. The pictures provide the setting and mood, and mostly the thoughts and emotions of the characters. The language and dialogue in the written part of the text are direct and engaging.

Structuring texts The choice of frames was made by his teacher, but Alex has divided the narrative into episodes. The pictures and words are balanced within the format provided. The colour of the characters and their movement from left to right of the frames create the forward drive of the narrative, except for the title page where Simba and Nala are facing each other, summarising the theme of the book. The final image similarly presents the characters facing each other, reunited after Simba’s journey, creating a beginning-middle-end structure through the images. Figure 7.3a

The Lion King: Alex’s book cover

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Figure 7.3b

The Lion King: Alex’s first double-page spread, frames 1 and 2. Frame 1: I’m sorry to say but I’m moving away said Nala. The two friends said bye bye sadly. Frame 2: I miss Simba said Nala don’t be sad and they were off to their new home.

Figure 7.3c

The Lion King: Alex’s second double-page spread, frames 3 and 4. Frame 3: Please come back Nala said Simba. The clouds past by. Simba ran after her. Frame 4: Simba thought about Nala he was very very very very sad. He saw some animals on the way.


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Alex shifts the setting from the background detail of the forest on the cover to the sun, blue sky and shadows of the plain on the following pages, as Nala leaves and Simba follows her. The images of Simba and Nala as thoughts in frames 2 and 3 create mood, depicting the emotions of the characters.

Using technical features for effect Alex uses line adeptly to distinguish the characters, drawn with clear outlines, and their thoughts, drawn with wavy outlines. He uses facial expression to show emotion, particularly the contrast between Simba’s determined look and the dropping tears of his thought image in frame 3 and the thought bubble in frame 4 that indicates that Simba is still thinking of Nala. He varies the perspective to support characterisation and narrative action. He does not vary the font style or size of his written text. In the pictures he uses speech and thought bubbles to clarify the meaning of the narrative, but his punctuation is not consistent in the written part of the text. In the written part of the text, Alex generally uses, but does not always mark, simple sentences and does not mark the dialogue.

Example 3. Writing an information book: a more experienced and often independent multimodal text maker Katy (aged eight) chose to write an information book Discovering Space as part of a cross-curricular project on science planned over four afternoon sessions by her teacher, Jane Brooks. The books were intended for the class library. On the back of the book, she wrote the blurb: Space is a wonderful place to be. It is full with loads of planets, and thousands of stars. Fig. 7.4a–c show some of the pages. Katy’s book is best viewed on the CD-ROM in colour.

Deciding on mode and content for specific purpose(s) and audience(s) Katy’s class was given free choice of science topic. Although many of her classmates chose to write about mammals, birds or insects, she chooses to make a book about space, which clearly fascinates her, as her written text

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing on p. 5 shows: if your in space it would (be) really nice, because it’s a small speck (if you was in heaven) She selects information from books and the Internet to give her view of the attraction of space, as on p. 3: The moon is a good place to go to, because there is a lot of experience to actually see. She combines personal views with factual information. Katy chooses to use words more than images to give the level of information and the personal connection with the readers in her class. She engages the reader through a question at the top of p.1 and maintains a personal voice throughout, occasionally directly addressing the reader.

Structuring texts Katy provides a list of contents with page numbers at the beginning of the book, a large image of the sun with a smaller image of the moon on the cover, and an inviting blurb on the back (none of these shown here as she chose black paper for her cover). The pictorial elements of the text are sparely but consistently placed underneath the words, with the blue background on each page offering Katy’s view of the vistas of space with isolated planets.

Figure 7.4a

Discovering Space: Katy’s p. 1

Making progress in multimodal composition Figure 7.4b

Discovering Space: Katy’s pp. 2 and 3 double-page spread

Figure 7.4c

Discovering Space: Katy’s pp. 4 and 5 double-page spread

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing She designs an integrated text using colour, images and words to capture a sense of wonder and to give information about the immensity of space. The planet images act as cohesive devices in the visual text. Verbal consistency is maintained largely through noun and pronoun references, as on p. 2: … Sun spots. They are … The spots appear Above the sunspots … as is usual for information texts. The background colour depicts the distances of space, which are also expressed in the words; for example, p. 1 reads: The sun is so big and so hot, it gives heat and light to the Earth about 150 million kilometres away.

Using technical features for effect Katy uses colour sparingly but appropriately to create the effect of space and the differences between planets. She uses capitals on page 1 to hammer home the message: YOU MUST NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE SUN! IT’S SO BRIGHT IT WILL DAMAGE YOUR EYES! She uses commas, exclamation marks and brackets to emphasise her meaning. Although sentence endings are not always marked, the grammatical structure gives clarity. Katy follows a statement with an explanation in a consistent pattern; for example: The sun is a star. Then she uses a longer sentence to give information: Stars are huge balls of hot gases spinning in space.

Example 4. Writing a collaborative picture book: two assured, experienced and independent multimodal text makers Lauren and Hannah’s teacher, Jane Granby, planned a sustained teaching sequence that would use information books and the Internet to gather information about World War II. The girls wrote from the perspective of children in Germany. The sequence culminated in pairs of children composing complex picture books. Jane used Rose Blanche by Ian McEwen, illustrated by Roberto Innocenti, as a starting point. Fig. 7.5a–c shows the cover and two double-page spreads from The Last Goodbye by Lauren (illustrator) and Hannah (author), both aged 11. These are best viewed on the CD-ROM for full effect of the colour.


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Deciding on mode and content for specific purpose(s) and audience(s) The author and illustrator collaborated on decisions about the words, pictures and design. They have chosen to write about a girl, Lilly (sic), and her friend being sent on the Kindertransport to escape the Nazis. They focus on the emotional impact on the central character. They have drawn on a range of sources, adapting and synthesising them to create their own view of what children might have experienced in Germany at the beginning of World War II. They have chosen to echo the action and emotional content through both words and images. However, at times, they have cleverly included elements of the narrative in the images which they do not repeat in the words. For example, Lilly’s new friend Sarah is introduced at the top of the right-hand page of the first spread but is not mentioned in the verbal text until the bottom of the left-hand page of the second spread. The third-person narrative with dialogue allows Hannah to draw the reader in by giving the historical setting and family details. Lauren uses the train image at the top of the first spread and the picture of Lilly on the extreme left as hooks to engage and hold the reader’s attention, prompting the inner questions: Where is the train going? What will happen to Lilly? Figure 7.5a

The Last Goodbye: cover by Lauren and Hannah

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Structuring texts Lauren and Hannah have designed their text with great care, using page spreads, blocks of text, images and layout to pace the narrative. For example, the first double-page spread moves from Lilly’s arrival at the station on the left-hand page to the train moving off on the right-hand side. As visual support, the text block at the top right hand of the first spread is encircled by train images. The text is fully integrated. Lilly’s name and her image, with plaits, lavender top and soulful eyes, are used for verbal and visual cohesion. The words and images are carefully planned to complement each other. For example, the train image, first of all with the sun behind it, and then with stars, acts as a temporal cohesive device with no indication of time needed in the verbal text. The backgrounds on the cover are used effectively to show Lilly’s thoughts of leaving home – the things she will miss on light yellow and the future a darker brown. The double-page spreads have light-patterned repeats of red streaks, gently interrupting the background white space to indicate movement, while the blocks of texts have faintly coloured backgrounds to indicate mood: paler for a sense of loneliness, darker as on the left of the second double spread, to indicate heightened emotion.

Using technical features for effect Both author and illustrator handle the technical demands of a complex picture book with skill. The line, colour, gesture and facial expression complement the language, which focuses on Lilly’s emotional world. Hannah does not vary the typography of the verbal text, but the design includes some words to give clues about the action. For example, just before the page turn of the first spread, Lauren has included the screech which Hannah introduces in the written part of the story on the following page and labelling to help the reader understand about the hidden compartment. Hannah uses mainly extended sentences at the beginning of the story to suggest sombre emotions but shifts to short sentences in the dialogue, indicating urgency.

Making progress in multimodal composition Figure 7.5b

The Last Goodbye: first double-page spread

Figure 7.5c

The Last Goodbye: second double-page spread

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Example 5. Making a collaborative presentation and writing individual stories: assured, experienced and independent multimodal text makers Adam S., Jack and Adam H. composed their narrative presentation as part of an extended teaching sequence in which they planned the story, created sound effects, recorded dialogue, drew the screens, and wrote the story. Their teacher, Charlotte Savage, discussed the differences between a fully multimodal text and a written story. Fig.7.6a and b give examples of Adam S.’s story plan and part of Figure 7.6a

Dr What: Adam S.’s story plan

his written narrative, indicating the screens of the presentation. Fig. 7.6c shows the screens which match the first two paragraphs of the written story. The full presentation, with sound effects is on the CD-ROM.

Deciding on mode and content for specific purpose(s) and audience(s) The three boys agreed on the content of the narrative but created their individual written stories. They drew on a familiar popular cultural text, Dr Who, adding their own brand of humour in naming the aliens Galeks, spelt by Adam H. as ‘Garlic’.


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They chose to include extra screens for the presentation to give the backstory, which is not included in the written versions. The soundtrack of the presentational text hooks the audience into the drama of the invasion. The dialogue in Adam S.’s opening paragraph has the same effect of engaging the reader’s attention. The varied perspective, change of colour, sound and filmic effects maintain the narrative interest. In the written text, the dramatic tension is maintained by phrases like burst down the door and the fast changes of scene.

Figure 7.6b

Dr What: part of Adam S.’s written story

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Structuring texts The planning sheets show attention to layout and design using presentational techniques and to the structure of the written versions. Separate screens and paragraphs are used to pace the narrative. The written stories and the presentational text integrate setting, dialogue and action. The boys structure the extended presentational text with sound and filmic effects; for example, long shots and close-ups. Variations in timing between screens create ‘filmic’ effects; for example, the pulsating image of the Tardis as it lands. They use shifts of place and time to structure the written stories. Adam S.’s story begins It was a summer’s day, giving the verbal background which is paralleled by the detail of the spaceship moving through space in the screen-based story (screens 2-5 of the presentation ‘Dr What’ on CD-ROM). The first few screens are in black and white, shifting to colour as the action in the written narrative begins.

Using technical features for effect In the presentational text the boys handle the technical demands effectively: importing their own images, visual and sound effects to create an exciting story. Adam S. uses language with assurance to tell his story. On screen, the boys use spoken language, font size and shape to punctuate the narrative and inject humour (screens 18-20). In the written text, Adam S. uses punctuation accurately to evoke an atmosphere of fear and excitement. Adam S. paces the narrative by varying description, action and dialogue.

Making progress in multimodal composition Figure 7.6c

Dr What screens 4–7 of the presentation

Note: the CD-ROM gives the full presentation with sound effects, film effects and dialogue.

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Reflecting on progress Inviting children to reflect on their own work gives the teacher a window into their learning. However, just as importantly, reflection helps them to review their own learning, skills and strategies. Their ability to comment will be related to the vocabulary they have available. This means not only the technical terminology of writing and multimodal texts, but knowing how to express things as conditional or possible. The teacher can be a strong model for this, talking things through and speaking their thoughts aloud; for example: I might try to adapt this section… I wonder if writing in the first person might be better… I decided to use shading here to create the impression of… Used habitually as part of the working plan, these reflections help children to become attentive and critical readers of their own texts.

Explaining choices and improving own composition or performance Children in Andrea Blythe’s Year 1/2 class (see Section 1) were asked about the decisions they made in composing their picture books:

I used lovely bright green and pink to make my reader feel happy. I used bold words to go with my pictures. There’s lots of colours for the border as well. (Annie) Lots of detail, happy and sad parts so the reader gets those feelings. I’ve used a zig-zag frame around my picture to surprise them. (Sophie) I would have used a bit more detail in the sad picture because it doesn’t have a lot of background. (Poppi) I wanted to include more long shots on the end with extra words but I didn’t have time. (Ben)

Commenting on success in composition and teamwork Jane Brooks’ Year 3/4 class (see Section 5) reviewed their design work including the presentation. They had worked in groups and pairs as well as individually and commented on whether they preferred to work in groups or alone:

I think the screens (of the presentation) were excellent because the animation was good. (Niall)


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Good but we had one problem – the special effects and music. In the talking I was a bit nervous but I got over it. (Joe) It might have been better if I could have learnt my words a bit better and rehearsed a bit more. (Claudia) I thought that we did an OKish presentation because we discussed it all through what we were going to do on each screen. (Megan) I like working with other people because then you have more ideas. If you work together you can change your ideas around and make it better. (Claudia) I prefer to work in a pair because if you work in a group there might be lots of ideas and you might not be able to use yours. (Charlie) It depends on what type of work we’re doing. Science, for example, should be ideal working in a group. (Megan) I like working on my own because I almost burst with ideas and I don’t have to listen to other people. (Lydia) I like to work in a pair because you can consider your ideas together. (Toby) Reflection and review can make a powerful contribution to progress. However, just taking children’s first thoughts as a guide to their overall thinking can at times be misleading. Comments like these can be a good starting point for discussions with groups of pupils about identifying their successes and areas for improvement, both in their texts and in the ways they work.

Moving multimodal learners on The five examples given in this section give a flavour of the dimensions of progress which might be expected of a multimodal text maker. Of course, these depend on the teacher introducing children progressively to those dimensions and providing opportunities to experiment, discuss and present multimodal texts. The descriptors in Fig. 7.7 (pages 168–172) reflect the examples, but they are not simply based on this small sample but on many multimodal texts.3

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ACTIVITY: MOVING CHILDREN ON AS MULTIMODAL TEXT MAKERS The chart in Fig. 7.7 (pp 168–72) can be used to compare the aspects of multimodal composition which might be expected from children at different levels of experience in multimodality. When planning for progress, the categories can help focus on a specific aspect of multimodality. For example, if children know how to vary perspective and colour to evoke a particular reader/viewer response, the next move might be to focus on how sound and language can contribute to engaging and entertaining an audience. Or, if very inexperienced multimodal text makers tend not to use background detail, a teaching sequence about the use of visual backgrounds and language used to describe settings would move them forward.

What does progression in multimodality look like? Fig. 7.7 (pp 168–72) provides an overview of what might be expected of a group of children at different levels of experience as multimodal text makers. However, it is sometimes useful to keep individual records of progress in order to inform decisions about differentiation or to report to colleagues, the children themselves and parents. The descriptors in Fig. 7.8 (pp 173–76) provide a way of describing an individual child’s experience and expertise in multimodality. The progression can also form a useful document for passing on as children move from one class to another. The separate descriptors can be highlighted to indicate the child’s achievement at the end of a teaching sequence, term or year. They also serve as a useful checklist. If a number of children in the class have not got to grips with using pages, screens or page layout to structure a text, that can be a hint for a future teaching sequence.

ACTIVITY: PROGRESS DESCRIPTORS FOR MULTIMODAL COMPOSITION The progress descriptors in Fig. 7.8 are designed to identify what children can already do as multimodal texts makers and how they might progress, as a means of recording an individual child’s progress over a term or a year. They can also form a basis for discussion with colleagues about the work of a specific child, group or class of children.


Summary In the UK, there are nationally agreed standards for writing assessment. However, there are no agreed criteria for assessing the processes of writing or what ‘becoming a writer’ might involve. Equally, there are no agreed criteria for what becoming a multimodal text maker might entail. Research has taken the QCA writing assessment strands as a starting point for describing and assessing multimodal texts but has also indicated the need to expand and augment them to take account of the dimensions of multimodality. Descriptions of multimodal texts can help in summative and formative assessment, and five annotated examples suggest the range which needs to be taken into account when assessing multimodal end products. However, for formative assessment, or AfL, it is important to have descriptors which include the processes of becoming a multimodal text maker, including elements of reflection on learning. This section ends with a descriptive progression of what might be expected of multimodal text makers of growing levels of experience and expertise, and suggests how this might help to identify ways of moving children’s multimodal text making on and keeping records of their progress.

Notes 1 These descriptors have been reached by discussions with teachers and analysis of texts with them, notably teachers in Essex. 2 With thanks to Dorothy Slatter and Chloe, Viv Sharpe and Alex, Jane Brooks and Katy, Jane Granby, Lauren and Hannah; Charlotte Savage, Adam S., Adam H. and Jack. 3 Both Helen and Eve were members of the research teams for the UKLA/QCA research and for the UKLA/PNS project, Raising Boys’ Achievements in Writing. This provided them with a large sample of texts on which to base this progression.

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Use perspective, colour, viewpoint, sound and language to engage and hold a reader s viewer s attention

In narrative, chooses a central character characters who reflects personal preferences rather than taking account of listeners readers viewers interests

In narrative, creates own characters and settings

In non-fiction, researches about personal preferences and asserts a personal point of view

In non-fiction, draws on familiar sources

Uses perspective, sound and language to hint at events and character motivation to engage and entertain a listener reader viewer

Usually makes secure choices of modes for specific purposes and specific listeners readers viewers

(Continued)

In narrative, creates a range of characters with positive and negative qualities to represent personal ideas

aries content for known and unknown readers

Uses implication to suggest character, mood and theme and intrigue the reader viewer

Integrates chosen modes to create interest, humour, narrative tension and atmosphere

Selects impersonal personal tone according to personal intentions and with audience in mind

Usually chooses an appropriate style for writing purpose and readership

A more experienced and An assured, experienced and often independent independent multimodal text multimodal text maker maker

In narrative, chooses characters and settings from known texts

aries perspective and colour to evoke reader viewer response

Uses descriptive language and characterisation to engage and entertain audience and for imaginative expression

Shows some awareness of a listener s reader s viewer s needs when composing

When given free choice remains with one or two modes

Uses direct and unvaried perspective and direct and often explanatory language

Increasingly makes independent choices of mode s

An increasingly assured multimodal text maker, growing in experience

Teacher usually decides on mode s

A multimodal text maker in the early stages

Development in aspects of multimodality

ake decisions a out mode and content for specific purpose s and audience s Choose which mode s will best communicate meaning for specific purposes deciding on words rather than images or gesture music rather than words

Figure 7.7


Composes written narratives Chooses and uses with character event, different frames and beginning, middle and end camera angles for narrative interest or informational focus emphasis

Shows knowledge of text conventions when making books or films

Draws on selected supportive evidence when presenting a point of view

Distinguishes between fact and personal point of view when using sources

Selects and orders information and events into paragraphs

(Continued)

Constructs coherent non-fiction texts in different modes

Tries out different layouts In writing, develops plot with and designs, using known clear events, complication and software as appropriate resolution

Uses different narrative perspectives within a text

Imaginatively extends content from other sources

Uses frames, sections, episodes, pages and screens to structure texts

Draws on own imaginative world for expressive texts

Uses pages, screens or layout on page to structure text

Adapts, synthesises and expands ideas from a range of sources

Chooses particular forms of non-fiction for own purposes

tructure texts Pay conscious attention to design and layout of texts, uses structural devices pages, sections, frames, paragraphs, blocks of text, screens, sound sequences to organise texts

ollows own interests in non-fiction and poetry

Draws on familiar story content in independent composition

Uses models and information from books, film, television and the Internet

(Continued)

Adapt, synthesise and shape content to suit personal intentions in communication

Figure 7.7


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Use background detail to create mood and setting

Structure longer texts with visual, verbal and sound cohesive devices

Uses diagrams as well as words in information text

abels pictures in information text

Includes little background detail

aries background detail to create changes in setting

In written and oral narratives adds background detail to heighten interest

aries detail of background in visual text

Independently uses aries sequencing e.g. includes sequenced plans or notes flashback for narrative interest to help map out development of narratives or non-fiction

ccasionally varies connectives and is becoming more adventurous with sentence structure

(Continued)

Uses white space on a page, pauses in oral presentation or gaps in narratives for pace or emphasis

Selects from a range of planning techniques for specific purposes

Uses layout to enhance poetic expression

In pictorial text maintains consistent colour cohesion for character and setting

Uses specific, clear and relevant descriptive detail for information, analysis or explanation

Sustains narratives incorporating setting, character and dialogue

Represents information pictorially in sequence

Creates cohesion through sequence, place and time

Maintains cohesion in all modes

Makes considered decisions about when to write in words alone

Uses a variety of pictorial graphic styles for specific purposes

inks events together when In narrative, uses drawn, Usually maintains telling or re-telling stories written or enacted character cohesion in chosen as a cohesive device modes

Sometimes chooses to write in words alone

Uses complementary modes Decides on layout and at times balance of modes for specific communicative intentions

Presents the same or similar ideas in each mode used e.g. words echo pictures

A more experienced and An assured, experienced and often independent independent multimodal text multimodal text maker maker

Integrate and balance modes for design purposes



(Continued)

tructure texts

Figure 7.7


(Continued)

Chooses language for specific effects, e.g. to express emotions or create mood

Chooses some descriptive language to express emotion

ccasionally marks sentence endings

Includes some dialogue but may not always punctuate it

aries form of sentences

With support, locates typographical features from computer sources and begins to use them for specific effects

Makes discriminating choices about use of colour, lighting, sound effects

Sequences sentences to extend ideas logically

Uses some complex sentences

Manipulates software to create a range of effects

Deliberately selects sentence structure for clarity of communication

nows when effects may not be needed

Makes discriminating decisions about font and typeface according to tone of text and readership

With support, creates and Chooses from a range of records sound effects presentational techniques on paper and on screen Chooses language carefully to create In writing, experiments with narrative tension, evoke simple and ornate language for mood and describe setting different purposes and characterisation

Chooses from a range of technical features to create specific effects

ccasionally varies font and Uses an increasing range of Experiments with an typography and attempts punctuation, font and extended range of some punctuation typography to enhance punctuation in written text meaning

Uses animated and descriptive spoken language, facial expression and gesture

In pictures, uses unvaried aries line, colour and line, colour, perspective and perspective in visual text character depiction In spoken and dramatic Shows some variation in presentations varies voice, creating sound effects and pace, gesture and spoken dialogue for expression for different atmosphere and character purposes

Choose and use a variety Writes sentences of similar of sentence structures for length and structure specific purposes

Choose punctuation, font and typography to create effects and clarify meaning

se technical features for effect andle technical aspects and conventions of different kinds of multimodal texts, including line, colour, perspective, sound, movement, gesture, facial expression and language

Figure 7.7


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172 A more experienced and An assured, experienced and often independent independent multimodal text multimodal text maker maker

Comment on the relative merits of teamwork and individual contribution for a specific pro ect

Specifies successful aspects of composition and identifies areas for improvement Explain why team members contributions have been positive or negative

Describes work shared with Identifies successful and partners or group members less successful aspects of teamwork

With guidance, improves Comments on own presentation or performance presentation or performance

With support, makes changes in presentation or performance

Comments on elements of Comments on overall success story, for example, and achievement characters or items in nonfiction texts

With guidance, redesigns and redrafts for clarity

With support, makes changes during planning

Makes suggestions about how groups may work harmoniously

Chooses to work individually or in a team

Defends selection of content and evidence

Makes independent decisions about revising and improving own text, presentation or performance

Uses reader response to help guide revisions of own text


Improve own composition or performance, reshaping, redesigning and redrafting for purpose and readers viewers


Explains language choices ustifies choices of modes, made for precision, poetic language and effects for a range or narrative effect of communication purposes

(Continued)

Reflect Asserts and describes Explains choices of effects Explain choices of modes choices and preferences and language to create and expressive devices mood and engage audience including words nows that different modes have different effects

Figure 7.7


Making progress in multimodal composition Figure 7.8

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Progress descriptors for multimodal composition


Makes decisions about mode and content for specific purpose and audience • when given free choice remains with one or two modes teacher usually decides on mode s • uses direct and unvaried perspective and direct and often explanatory language • in narrative, chooses a central character characters who reflect personal preferences rather than taking account of listeners readers viewers interests • draws on familiar story content in independent composition • follows own interests in non-fiction and poetry • uses models and information from books, film, television and the Internet.

Structures texts • uses pages, screens or layout on page to structure text • shows knowledge of text conventions when making books or films • presents the same or similar ideas in each mode used e.g. words echo pictures • labels pictures in information text • links events together when telling or re-telling stories • represents information pictorially in sequence • includes little background detail.

Uses technical features for effect • in pictures, uses unvaried line, colour, perspective and character depiction • shows some variation in creating sound effects and spoken dialogue for atmosphere and character • uses animated and descriptive spoken language, facial expression and gesture • occasionally varies font and typography and attempts some punctuation • writes sentences of similar length and structure • occasionally marks sentence endings • chooses some descriptive language to express emotion.

Reflects • • • • • •

asserts and describes choices and preferences knows that different modes have different effects with support, makes changes during planning with support, makes changes in presentation or performance comments on elements of story, for example, characters or items in non-fiction texts describes work shared with partners or group members.

Continued

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Figure 7.8

(Continued)


Makes decisions about mode and content for specific purpose and audience • increasingly makes independent choices of mode s • shows some awareness of a listener s reader s viewer s needs when composing • uses descriptive language and characterisation to engage and entertain audience and for imaginative expression • varies perspective and colour to evoke reader viewer response • in narrative, chooses characters and settings from known texts • in non-fiction, draws on familiar sources • chooses particular form of non-fiction text for own purposes • adapts, synthesises and expands ideas from a range of sources.

Structures texts • • • • • • • •

uses frames, sections, episodes, pages and screens to structure texts composes written narratives with character event, beginning, middle and end uses complementary modes at times uses diagrams as well as words in information text in narrative, uses drawn, written or enacted character as a cohesive device creates cohesion through sequence, place and time in pictorial text, maintains consistent colour cohesion for character and setting occasionally varies connectives and is becoming more adventurous with sentence structure • varies background detail to create changes in setting.

Uses technical features for effect • varies line, colour and perspective in visual text • in spoken and dramatic presentations, varies voice, pace, gesture and expression for different purposes • chooses language for specific effects, e.g. to express emotions or create mood • uses an increasing range of punctuation, font and typography to enhance meaning • with support, locates typographical features from computer sources and begins to use them for specific effects • varies form of sentences • includes some dialogue but may not always punctuate it.

Reflects • • • • •

explains choices of effects and language to create mood and engage audience with guidance, redesigns and redrafts for clarity with guidance, improves presentation or performance comments on overall success and achievement identifies successful and less successful aspects of teamwork. Continued

Making progress in multimodal composition Figure 7.8

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(Continued)

A more experienced and often independent multimodal text maker

Makes decisions about mode and content for specific purpose and audience • usually makes secure choices of modes for specific purposes and listeners readers viewers • uses perspective, sound and language to hint at events and character motivation to engage and entertain a listener reader viewer • in narrative, creates own characters and settings • in non-fiction, researches about personal preferences and asserts personal point of view • draws on own imaginative world for expressive texts • imaginatively extends content from other sources • distinguishes between fact and personal point of view when using sources.

Structures texts • tries out different layouts and designs, using known software as appropriate • chooses and uses different frames and camera angles for narrative interest or informational focus emphasis • selects and orders information and events into paragraphs • decides on layout and balance of modes for specific communicative intentions • sometimes chooses to write in words alone • usually maintains cohesion in chosen modes • sustains narrative incorporating setting, character and dialogue • uses layout to enhance poetic expression • independently uses sequenced plans or notes to help map out development of narratives or non-fiction • varies detail of background in visual text • in written and oral narratives, adds background detail to heighten interest.

Uses technical features for effect • chooses from a range of technical features to create specific effects • with support, creates and records sound effects • chooses language carefully to create narrative tension, evoke mood and describe setting and characterisation • experiments with an extended range of punctuation in written text • manipulates software to create a range of effects • uses some complex sentences • sequences sentences to extend ideas logically.

Reflects • • • • •

explains language choices made for precision, poetic, dramatic or narrative effect uses reader response to help guide revisions of own text comments on own presentation or performance specifies successful aspects of composition and identifies areas for improvement explains why team members contributions have been positive or negative.

Continued

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Figure 7.8

(Continued)

An assured, experienced and independent multimodal text maker

Makes decisions about mode and content for specific purpose and audience • • • • • •

usually chooses an appropriate style for writing purpose and readership selects impersonal personal tone according to intentions and with audience in mind integrates chosen modes to create interest, humour, narrative tension and atmosphere uses implication to suggest character, mood and theme, and intrigue the reader viewer varies content for known and unknown readers in narrative creates a range of characters with positive and negative qualities to represent personal ideas • uses different narrative perspectives within a text • draws on selected supportive evidence when presenting a point of view.

Structures texts • • • • • •

in writing, develops plot with clear events, complication and resolution constructs coherent non-fiction texts in different modes uses a variety of pictorial graphic styles for specific purposes makes considered decisions about when to write in words alone maintains cohesion in all modes uses specific, clear and relevant descriptive detail for information, analysis or explanation • selects from a range of planning techniques for specific purposes • varies sequencing e.g. includes flashbacks for narrative interest • uses white space on a page, pauses in oral presentation, or gaps in narratives for pace or emphasis.

Uses technical features for effect • • • •

makes discriminating choices about use of colour, lighting, and sound effects chooses from a range of presentational techniques on paper and on screen in writing, experiments with simple and ornate language for different purposes makes discriminating decisions about font and typeface according to tone of text and readership • knows when effects may not be needed • deliberately selects sentence structure for clarity of communication.

Reflects • ustifies choices of modes, language and effects for a range of communication purposes • makes independent decisions about revising and improving own text, presentation or performance • defends selection of content and evidence • chooses to work individually or in a team • makes suggestions about how groups may work harmoniously.

Section 8 Whole-school policy for multimodal teaching and learning

In this section: • • • • • • •

national developments in curriculum development and multimodality classroom and school development frameworks for review leading to action adopting the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence embedding and sustaining development describing children’s progress in multimodality towards a policy for multimodal teaching and learning.

Developing policy seems to be a never-ending process – and in a way it should be. The trick is to continue development but maintain stability. The best kind of policy development happens on the ground, when teachers, practitioners and headteachers work together in continuing professional development to pursue a vision of what they think will be best for the school community: children, parents, teachers and governors. Policy needs to be seen in practice.

National developments A range of recent initiatives influence how schools go about describing their vision: among them new Ofsted advice and arrangements, DfES policy and directives, and the revised Primary Strategy. School self-evaluation is an 177

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing increasingly important aspect of management, and any review of policy for multimodality will come within that process of self-review. However, although individual teachers may often lead the way in innovative practice, policy can be genuinely embedded only if the headteacher and management team give a structure for implementation. A recent Ofsted report is explicit about the role of heads and senior managers in leading curriculum development. Successful school self-evaluation leading to improvement was observed where:

Leaders had devoted considerable time to explaining, discussing and developing their ideas with colleagues, and involving them closely in implementing them. … Staff were encouraged to be frank and honest in expressing their ideas and were confident that their contributions were valued, regardless of their status or length of service in the organisation. (Ofsted, 2006: 3) There are imperatives, too, in the renewed Primary Framework, since it now includes speaking and listening and has expanded the reading and writing core to include reading and writing on paper and on screen, and the Primary National Strategy website materials support the teaching of multimodal texts. The QCA booklets More Than Words 1 and 2 describe where the writing assessment focuses can be used to describe multimodal texts and where they would need to be expanded to take account of all the dimensions of multimodal text production. There is a general move towards including multimodality within literacy teaching and across the curriculum. The materials in this book and on the CD-ROM will help in expanding the repertoire of teaching to take account of these developments.

Planning for classroom and school development Policy development is likely to follow the sequence: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

reviewing discussion and planning innovating and developing reviewing embedding and extending sustaining children’s progress reviewing and establishing.

The suggestions in this Section will contribute to the process of review, discussion, planning, innovation and renewed review. Of course, self-review is only valuable if it leads to managed development. Trying to do too much too quickly almost inevitably results in failure and can be damaging to morale. On the other hand, complacency can lead to lowered expectations. The teachers

Whole-school policy for multimodal teaching and learning

179

who were involved in the research and intervention projects which saw the beginnings of the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence found that they needed to focus for two full terms on classroom innovation and then review it in the third term. They used the model to plan for one extended teaching sequence in each of two terms, varying the type of text they worked on, and then used the third term either to undertake a third sequence or to evaluate their teaching in the light of what they had found successful. In the following year, they were able to embed the good practice that they had identified, repeating and refining their work and involving more colleagues. Successful school development was most likely where two teachers worked together in the first year of innovation so that they could share ideas and problems. When two colleagues work in tandem, they can share innovation; for example, by one focusing on fiction and one on non-fiction, using multimodal teaching in areas of the curriculum other than literacy. It is possible, of course, for a teacher working alone to develop multimodal approaches, but collaboration can be important in handling the highs and lows of innovative practice. In the second year, staff expertise and subject knowledge can be maximised by collaborating over observations with the whole staff and identifying two more colleagues to come alongside and use the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence. The second year is also a good time to try out a whole-school project and share it with the community and to begin using the progress descriptors with small groups of children. Fig. 8.1 suggests a timetable for development. Throughout the two-year cycle, where whole-school review takes place alongside classroom innovation, progress is more secure.

Reviewing current practice and provision Just like any other learner, teachers are more likely to develop if they build on existing good practice. This should be the approach as the school starts on a programme of self-review for teaching multimodality. Section 2 has a range of formats to support staff discussion and development, and these formats can be printed from the CD-ROM. Most of them can be carried out quite quickly to establish a snapshot of the present situation and a place to start thinking, but the member of the leadership team in charge of curriculum development will need to select those that will be most appropriate and to plan a programme of discussions over the year. The survey of multimodal text provision (Fig. 2.1) establishes what is available for use in the school and what the gaps in provision might be. There is likely to be a good number of quality multimodal texts in the school, and the format evaluating multimodal texts (Fig. 2.2) will help to identify those which are of the best quality. Any of the reviews might be carried out individually and brought to a full-phase or whole-school meeting so that issues arising from the reviews can be part of an open forum. If the reviews suggest that the profile of multimodal texts needs to be raised, then the format surveying the

180

hole school

Classroom

First year

Figure 8.1

rofessional de elopment meetings to raise profile of multimodality

hare multimodal literacy skills with whole school rofessional de elopment meetings to look at children’s work using the ramework for escribing and ssessing ultimodal e ts

dentify key classroom issues for de elopment

each second unit linked to other curriculum area applying skills to create an outcome

egin to de elop staff e pertise and subject knowledge

se ultimodal lanning and eaching e uence for a unit of literacy on a chosen te t type specifically including

pring Teacher

hare unit and obser ations with colleagues

se ultimodal lanning and eaching e uence for a unit of literacy linked to other curriculum area

se ultimodal lanning and eaching e uence for a unit of literacy on a chosen te t type e g narrati e poetry non-fiction

pring Teacher

e iew pro ision of multimodal te ts

Autumn Teacher

Autumn Teacher

Two-year development plan for multimodal teaching and learning

lan for working with colleagues in the following year

lan for working with colleagues in the following year

dentify two more colleagues to work collaborati ely ne t year

ntroduce the ultimodal lanning and eaching e uence to whole staff

hare findings from re iews with whole school

e iew crosscurricular teaching to identify what worked and what needs to be de eloped further

ummer Teacher

e iew teaching to identify what worked and what needs to be de eloped further

ummer Teacher


hole school

Classroom

econd year

Figure 8.1

epeat as for year one refining and impro ing on pre ious year’s units dentify new area of challenge e g digital film making

lan for meetings with new colleague to discuss problems and pleasures

epeat as for year one refining and impro ing on pre ious year’s units dentify new area of challenge e g digital film making

lan for meetings with new colleague to discuss problems and pleasures

lan for whole-school project to produce a range of multimodal te ts

se professional de elopment meetings to share skills and continue building colleagues’ subject knowledge about multimodality

each isual multimodal skills to all classes

Autumn Teacher

Autumn Teacher

(Continued)

hare work with school community including parents go ernors and community members

hildren from classes in ol ed in the pre ious year to support other children

hole school project to create a range of multimodal te ts based on a theme e g picture books in the style of nthony rowne comics animated short films

ontinue working with new colleague

egin to use the progress descriptors for a focus group of children working on non-fiction

egin to use the progress descriptors for a focus group of children working on non-fiction and poetry

ontinue working with new colleague

ork on second more challenging unit

pring Teacher

ork on second more challenging unit

pring Teacher

ontinue using progress descriptors

eet with new colleague to re iew teaching and identify what worked and what needs to be de eloped further

ummer Teacher

lan for using the ultimodal lanning and eaching e uence across the school

hare reflections on using progress descriptors

ssess impact of whole school project

ontinue using progress descriptors

eet with new colleague to re iew teaching and identify what worked and what needs to be de eloped further

ummer Teacher


181

182

Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing profile of multimodal texts in the classroom (Fig. 2.3) can be used by individuals and then brought to larger group discussion. Similarly, if the time is right, the format evaluation of digital texts (Fig. 2.5) can feed into planning for development. Although these formats may not generally take a great deal of time to complete, the review of teaching multimodality (Fig. 2.4) will need to be carried out over a period of time. It supports a crucial stage in identifying areas for development. The format in Fig. 8.2 will help groups of colleagues identify the next steps after completing reviews. It is divided into sections to help stage developments. After establishing the school resources, in terms of both books and equipment and teachers’ professional experience and expertise, it is worth establishing the resources that the children have in terms of their knowledge of multimodality. The survey in Section 1 (Fig. 1.3) provides an in-depth review of perceptions and experience. Children may not be able to answer the last few questions if they have not composed any multimodal texts recently, but the first section will provide useful information which can feed into planning for multimodal teaching.

Innovating and developing While the reviews of provision and children’s experience will help development of forward planning, there may need to be some professional development about the texts themselves. A group session using a range of picture books – fiction and non-fiction – and the format analysing picture books (Fig. 2.6) can be a good starting point for working similarly with the children. Sections 4, Narrative; 5, Non-fiction; and 6, Poetry; offer activities with prompts for analysing different text types. Decisions about which of these activities might be useful will depend on what is discovered as colleagues review provision. As the two-year development plan indicates, secure establishment of multimodal teaching will be supported by pairs and groups of teachers planning and teaching with the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence described in Section 3. Following this model, colleagues can plan their own extended units of work, using the blank planner in Fig. 8.3.

Embedding and extending Initiatives can easily founder if we do not have time to embed them into regular practice. For that to take place, there has to be some sense of what developments have been successful and areas that still need attention. Fig. 8.4 offers a format for colleagues to review their teaching with the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence.

Provision across the school

Action plan from audit of provision

icture books omics and graphic no els aga ines s nternet sites eaflets and ad erts s and ideos on-fiction udio te ts rt work maps

ow are parents encouraged to alue multimodal te ts?

ow do teachers gi e multimodal te ts a high profile?

re te ts easily accessible and gi en high isibility across the school?

o the te ts use a range of modes to communicate with the reader?

o o o o o o o o o o

s there a range of te ts in school a ailable for teachers and pupils? ncluding

hat te ts do the children ha e access to at home

Figure 8.2

vidence

Next steps

(Continued)


183

184

valuating use of texts across the school

(Continued)

re choices in design layout and use of different modes on paper and on screen taught e plicitly? • in literacy sessions? • in other curriculum areas?

ow are drama and role play included?

• in whole-class teaching? • in paired discussion? • in presentations?

ow are speaking and listening planned into units of work leading to multimodal te t composition?

ow are group and class discussion used to de elop children s understanding of multimodal te ts?

o teaching units allow time for immersion and discussion in the te ts building towards outcomes on page and screen?

Reviewing multimodal teaching

re the children in ol ed in displaying and collecting te ts?

o the displays change to reflect school and home literacies?

s there easy access to te ts without adult support?

re te ts well organised and displayed?

Figure 8.2

vidence

Next teps


Whole-school policy for multimodal teaching and learning Figure 8.3

Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence Format

Familiarity with text type Develop understanding of multimodal texts

Teacher modelling

Capture ideas


Note and develop initial ideas

Teacher modelling


Plan Develop, record and structure initial ideas

Teacher modelling

Draft


Develop ideas from the plan into a structured text

continues on ne t page

185

186


Figure 8.3

(Continued)

Teacher modelling


Revise Alter and improve the draft

Teacher modelling

Proof read



Teacher modelling

Present Prepare and present a final copy to a reader/audience


Teacher modelling


Whole-school policy for multimodal teaching and learning Figure 8.4

187

Review of using the Multimodal Planning and Teaching Sequence

nit completed in

term

Class

over

num er of weeks Teacher

iteracy learning o ectives

Cross curricular learning o ectives if appropriate

uccessful curricular outcomes

uccessful pupil outcomes

Pro lems

Possi le solutions

Aspects for further development

mplications for resourcing time, materials, training

Describing children’s progress One of the challenges of developing multimodal teaching lies in establishing a shared professional vocabulary about what achievement in multimodality might look like. Section 7 outlines a framework for progression in multimodal composition (Fig. 7.1) which gives details of what multimodal text makers might be expected to achieve at four stages of development. It summarises the

188

Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing categories used in this framework and is a starting point for discussion if teachers are not experienced in discussing multimodal texts. Progress in multimodal text making is marked by increasing ability to:

Decide on mode and content for specific purpose(s) and audience(s) choose which mode(s) will best communicate meaning for specific purposes (deciding on words rather than images or gesture/music rather than words) use perspective, colour, sound and language to engage and hold a reader’s/ viewer’s attention select appropriate content to express personal intentions, ideas and opinions adapt, synthesise and shape content to suit personal intentions in communication.

Structure texts pay conscious attention to design and layout of texts, use structural devices (pages, sections, frames, paragraphs, blocks of text, screens and sound sequences) to organise texts integrate and balance modes for design purposes structure longer texts with visual, verbal and sound cohesive devices use background detail to create mood and setting.

Use technical features for effect handle technical aspects and conventions of different kinds of multimodal texts, including line, colour, perspective, sound, camera angles, movement, gesture, facial expression and language choose language, punctuation, font, typography and presentational techniques to create effects and clarify meaning choose and use a variety of sentence structures for specific purposes.

Reflect explain choices of modes(s) and expressive devices, including words improve one’s own composition or performance, reshaping, redesigning and redrafting for purpose and readers’/viewers’ needs


189

comment on the success of a composition in fulfilling the design aims comment on the relative merits of teamwork and individual contribution for a specific project. Section 7 also provides annotated examples of children’s multimodal texts, showing how the framework can be applied. Developing a professional vocabulary to talk about multimodal texts may lead to considering how best to respond to multimodal texts. The Progress Descriptors for Multimodal Composition (Fig. 7.8) can be used to track how children develop as multimodal text makers. They also provide a way of talking with colleagues, parents and carers about how children can be supported in making progress. Section 7 explains how they can be used to keep records, but they can also help indicate areas for more focused teaching. As part of the regular assessment of writing, these progressions can be accompanied by assessed annotated examples of work, as shown in Figs 7.2–7.6.

Summary Embarking on a process to develop policy and practice in multimodality involves establishing some agreement about: the school as a supportive environment for multimodal learning and teaching multimodal resources within the school children’s knowledge and experience of multimodality the profile of multimodality in the school involving parents and governors in developing multimodality describing children’s progress in multimodality assessing multimodal texts. Notes and materials gathered under these headings will build towards a policy for multimodality.

Resources

References and recommended texts Bearne, E. (2002) Making Progress in Writing. London: RoutledgeFalmer Bearne, E. (2004) ‘Multimodal texts: what they are and how children use them’, in Evans, J. (ed.) Literacy Moves On: Using Popular Culture, New Technologies and Critical Literacy in the Primary Classroom. London: David Fulton, pp 16–30 Department for Education and Skills. Ofsted Review of Good Practice in School Self-Evaluation. www.ofsted.gov.uk. (accessed 12 July 2006) Essex Writing Project (2002) More Than Mulan: Using Viedo to Improve Boys’ Writing. Chelmsford: The English Team, Essex Advisory and Inspection Service Essex Writing Project (2003) Visually Speaking: Using Multimedia Texts to Improve Boys’ Writing. Chelmsford: The English Team, Essex Advisory and Inspection Service Essex Writing Project (2005) Remote Control: Learning Through the Lens. Chelmsford: The English Team, Essex Advisory and Inspection Service Evans, J. (ed.) (2004) Literacy Moves On: Using Popular Culture, New Technologies and Critical Literacy in the Primary Classroom. London: David Fulton Kress, G. (2003) Literacy in the New Media Age. London and New York: Routledge Kress, G. and van Leeuwen T. (1996) The Grammar of Visual Design. London: Routledge Marsh, J. and Millard, E. (eds) (2005) Popular Literacies, Childhood and Schooling. London: RoutledgeFalmer Sharples, M. (1999) How We Write: Writing as Creative Design. London: Routledge United Kingdom Literacy Association/Qualifications and Assessment Authority (2004) More Than Words: Multimodal Texts in the Classroom. London: QCA. This can be accessed at www.qca.org.uk/9054.html United Kingdom Literacy Association/Qualifications and Assessment Authority (2005) More Than Words 2: Creating Stories on Page and Screen. London: QCA. This can be accessed at www.qca.org.uk/15953.html United Kingdom Literacy Association/Primary National Strategy (2004) Raising Boys’ Achievements in Writing. Royston: UKLA

190

Resources

191

Websites The British Film Institute (BFI) provides a range of resources for using film and television in the classroom, including: Look Again! A Guide to Using Film and Television in the Classroom Starting Stories, teaching guide and DVD, Key Stage 1 Story Shorts, teaching guide and DVD, Key Stage 2 Show Us a Story: Feature Films, teaching guide and DVD and a range of documentary film for use in other areas of the curriculum. For the full range, visit www.bfi.org.uk/education/teaching/primary.html Learning and Teaching Scotland have materials from their project ‘Moving Image Education’ www.admc.tv/mie.htm British Museum website: www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/education/index.html Espresso website: www.espresso.co.uk Film Education offer free resources to support teaching with recent cinema releases. For the full range, visit www.filmeducation.org/resources.html Qualifications and Assessment Authority: Assessment for Learning www.qca. org.uk/7659.html (accessed 5 June 2006) Qualifications and Assessment Authority: Writing Assessment Focuses www. qca.org.uk

Children’s books mentioned Anthony Browne, Knock, Knock, Who’s There? Harmondsworth: Picture Puffin Anthony Browne, Gorilla. London: Walker Books Anthony Browne, Zoo. London: Walker Books Charles Keeping, The Lady of Shalott. Oxford: Oxford University Press Charles Keeping, The Highwayman. Oxford: Oxford University Press Charles Keeping, Beowulf. Oxford: Oxford University Press Michael Rosen and Quentin Blake, Under the Bed: The Bedtime Book. London: Walker Books Brian Moses and Pie Corbett, The Works: Poems on Every Subject and for Every Occasion. Basingstoke: Macmillian

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Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing Tony Ross and Jeanne Willis, Dr Xargle’s Book of Earthlets. London: Andersen Press Tony Ross and Jeanne Willis, Dr Xargle’s Book of Earth Weather. London: Andersen Press Tony Ross and Jeanne Willis, Dr Xargle’s Book of Earth Hounds. London: Andersen Press Tony Ross and Jeanne Willis, Dr Xargle’s Book of Earth Tiggers. London: Andersen Press Tony Ross and Jeanne Willis, Dr Xargle’s Book of Earth Relations. London: Andersen Press Tony Ross and Jeanne Willis, Dr Xargle’s Book of Earth Mobiles. London: Andersen Press Robert Swindells, Stone Cold. Harmondsworth: Puffin The Oxford Treasury of Classic Poems. Oxford: Oxford University Press T.S. Eliot, Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats. London: Faber and Faber Robert Louis Stevenson, A Child’s Garden of Verses. Harmondsworth: Penguin Popular Classics

Author Index

Bearne, Eve 21, 31, 190 Bentley, Nicholas 124 Blake, Quentin 124, 127, 191 Browne, Anthony 13–14, 47, 147, 191

Masefield, John 138–9 Moses, Brian 133, 191

Corbett, Pie 133, 191 Crew, Gary 141

Rosen, Michael 127, 191 Ross, Tony 191

Eliot, T.S. 124, 191 Evans, Janet 190

Sharples, Mike 6, 190 Stevenson, Robert Louis 124, 191 Swindells, Robert 135, 191

Noyes, Alfred 115

Geddes, Jeremy 141 Gibson, Wilfred 141

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord 115

Keeping, Charles 115, 124, 191 Kress, Gunther 21, 190

Willis, Jeanne 191 Wolstencroft, Helen 21

Marsh, Jackie 18, 21, 23, 190 Millard, Elaine 18, 21, 190

193

Subject Index

affordance 1, 3–4 assessment 142–147 summative 143–4, 167 for learning (AfL) 143–4, 167 formative 143–4, 167 audience 3, 23, 79, 88, 112, 135–6, 150, 153, 157, 160 audio-visual 22, 135–6, 160–5 backstory 56–8 British Film Institute 29, 65, 125, 190 character 56–8, 115 classroom environment 22–30 collaboration 144–5, 156–9, 160–5, 179 computers 28, 79 computer games 2, 18–20, 45 cross-curricular work 37–44, 105–12, 127–34, 141 design 1, 3–6, 36, 79–92, 105–12, 115, 133 dialogue 47–54, 58–9, 160–1 Department for Education and Skills (DfES) 177–8, 190 differentiation 102–3 digital photography 35, 47–50, 107, 116–17, 118–23, 135–8 digital technology 28, 30, 35, 78–9 disney 125, 127 drama 27, 35, 58 environment as a resource for writing 100–4 environmental print 78, 80–1, 103 Essex Writing Project 31, 190 evaluation by pupils 44, 50, 107, 109–12, 164–5 by teachers 25–8, 182 film 23, 54, 60, 63–5, 125–6, 135, 141, 150 conventions and techniques 13–15, 46–50, 63–5, 162–3 Film Education 29, 191 genre see text type

194

geography 37, 130 graphic novels 22, 45, 65–9 history 37 hot seating see also drama 58 Information and Communications Technology (ICT) 37, 105–10, 117 information texts 80–93 Interactive White Board (IWB) 2, 39–43, 58–60, 80–1, 105–7, 118–19, 130, 135–6 Kent County Council Advisory Service 44 multimodal planning and teaching 27–8, 32–3, 38–9, 48–9, 82–3, 116–17, 185–7 multimodal texts 1–21, 23–6, 31–44, 147–64 multimodality 6–12 narrative 45–77 frames 15, 65–9, 119, 151–2 pace 65–9 structure 54–6, 59–62, 70–76 tension 59–60 National Strategy 177, 178 non-fiction 78–113, 153–5 Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) 177, 178 perceptions surveys 6–12, 182 Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE) 37, 135 picture books 13–18, 22, 29, 47–8, 69–77, 147, 156 planning planning frames 23, 41–2, 54–55, 93–100, 112 see also narrative frames picture planning 19–20, 56–60 visual planning 71–3, 84–9 presentations (PowerPoint™) 107–12, 116–17, 135–8, 141, 160–5 playscripts 47–54

Subject Index policy, whole school 177–89 poetry 114–41 narrative poetry 115–24 responding to 138–41 popular culture 1, 18–20 progression 143–5, 165–6, 168–76, 187–9 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) 142–5, 167, 178. 191 reading 31, 34–5, 80 critical 81–4, 140, 164–5 guided 27 pathways 81–8 resources 182, 183–4 response partners 80–90, 135–6 reviewing 50, 67–8 see also evaluation Role play 27, 35, 105–10 see also drama scaffolds 93–9, 112, 133 see also planning School self evaluation (SEF) 178 Science 105–12, 128–9, 153 Soap opera 54–5 Sound effects 23, 107–12, 160–5 (Several of the presentation texts on the CDROM have sound effects) speaking and listening 31, 178

195

story heroic adventures 60–62 traditional, 60–62 storyboards 34, 116–17 story maps 56, 116–17 teacher modelling 13–15, 35–6 television 54, 103 text 3 structure 150, 151, 158, 162 type 34–5, 115, 133 typographic features 79, 93 United Kingdom Literacy Association 21, 31, 144–5, 190 vocabulary 102, 128, 130 websites 98–9, 115, 190–1 writing drafting 14, 84–5, 119, 135–6 frames 100–4, 130 see also narrative frames information 80–92 in role 102–3, 105–10, 113 non-chronological 4, 37 process 31, 34–6, 43–4, 50, 69–77, 142–3, 167

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