Visconti: Explorations of Beauty and Decay

Viseonti III Ihis "Iudy. dlt' firsl ill the EII!-.di"h lallgllagf' 10 ("olIsidt'r Luchillo Vi"("olIti·,.; t'lIlin' W'U\T(, . Hellry HacolI t'xalllill(,S dlt' tilms of 0I1t' of Ilaly'" pn't'lllillt'lIl filmmakt'rs. agaillsl tilt' cultural. hi"lorical. alld biographind t'ollft'xh ill which dlt'\" Wt'rt' madt'o The author funlSt'''' 011 tllft'(' fUlldalllt'lllal tlH'IlIt',; of \'i,;('OIlIi"" cillt'malic OU'l"lt: hi" varyillg ;,Iyllory and the dWnlclt'rs SI \' 11' and I ht'IlJ(';; TIIf' It ilch BlIl'lled ,tlil'(,

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Im ... ic as"llluptiuns being that the maker of the fuurtel'n featurl'-Iength

awl thn'l' short films tiiscussed ill this volume is to a meaningful extent Luchiuo Yiscollti allfl that his celltral role IIll1st be taken into account to fully. understand the l'OIlJlt'ction Iwtwet'n his films allti the socil'tv. anti tlH' ideolugical cOlllext from which Ihey emer~ed. This is not to i~nol'l' the contribution of all tilt' other peoplt' ill\"oh-ed ill making t1w~t' film". llor tlw eeOllOlllic. social. ami practical faetor~ that influenced their production. Tht' point is. it was Yiscomi who organized this process and ~athl'red round him a leam of faithful collahorators whose efforts would add up 10 a single artistic whole. He taught his collaborators not only to n'cognize what he wanted LHIt also to cont rihutt' actiYt'ly to the creatiw process and to eXlI'ud their limits in doing so. "'ithout the "worbhop" that he insti~all'd. his la ... 1 film. The IflIwrenl. would probably not han' heen cOlnplt'led with Ihe 100'in~ care Ihat il dl'served. and LLldu'ig would certainly nol haw been posthumously re~lort'ti 10 its full four-hour heauty. The slrenglh of Yi,,('onti"s visioll can lit' seen also in his ahility to coax his aclors to give Ihe hest perfOflnanl'eS of their lives. This has often been IlOtl'(1. for exalllpll'. of Alida Yalli anti Farll'Y Gran~er in St'IIIW (known in Ihe l'niled State" as The 1I'([nloll ('onle.~s((). Helmul Bt'r~er in Lwlll·ig. and Launt Al\tonl'lIi in The Innocellt. Ralher than follow a "trict ('hronolo~il'al ordl'r. I han~ grouped \'is(,OIIIi's films al'cording to IIH'ir most inlt'n'sting and rele\'aul characteri:-;Iics. This datisificatioll is by 110 lIU'allS "1'111'1'." of ('UurSI~, For exampll'. 1110 ... 1 of \' is('owi' S fillllti are adapt a tious. To \'aryill~ dt'~rees. I haw Irealed Ihem as su('h. although I deal spl'('ifi('ally with \'i,,('onli's reialiollship with lileratllfl' ouly iu ('omwctioll with Ihe Ihree filllls diseussl'd ill tilt' lasl chapter. The treatnlt'lIl of the films withill eadl dwpter follows Ihl' orell'r of their lIIakill~. Because till' first chapter Ilt'als with neo('l'aiislIl alld till' :-econd with the RisorginwJllo films. the disCllstiiou follows \'isCOli Ii's early carel'r dlI'UllOiogically all till' way lip 10 Sellso. \lallY Ilt'o!,lt, haw ew'ouraged alld helped JIle ill "hapill~ my idea~ awl local ill~ matl'rial for Ihis stlldy . .\1lI01lg Ihelll are Dlldlt,y Alldrew. Peter \'011 Ba~ll. Peter BOlI(ialwlla. FnIlH't's('o BUllo. Salll K yi.isola. SalU Laa\,;SOl1t'II. Lillo \liccidIP . .IanJlo \liiellpaa. allti Elilla SlIolahli. 11I!t'rviews with (;lIielo Aristar('o. Ciall Piero Bnllwtta. Suso Cecchi D' .\mico. awl Ellril'o \ledioli. ill particular. have hl'lpeu mt' gaill all IIl1uerslallding of how \'i"COllli' s works t'\'oIYed anel how tllt'V. re/aiI'd to Italian society. at till' tilllt' uf t1H'ir making. Thi ... sludy ll1i~ht 1101 hm'e ('01111' ahout had I lUll lWI'll iuviled 10 I,,'I'selll

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a pap"r at till' enormuusly inspiring C'ulI/'egllu illlenw:,t'ullale cli sll/{/i l'iscollliall; held in ROllle in Dec('mber 1 q complexities of cinematic stylf' all(\ an apprt'ciatioll of the artistic possibilities of stylization. both of which were later to pJ'Ovid(' a vital counterpart to tilt' IHm'Iy docuIllt'ntary illlpuls(' to rt'cord tilt' surface of war-torn Italy,"~;l ;\notllt'r illlportant deVt'loplllt'nt o('curred among the radicals who had gadwred around Cint'lI/a magazilH', They severely criticizt'd the white tl'leplume Wm,., for lwing lIlen' escapist elltertairllllt'llt. Cianni Pu('cini. Ciust'ppt' Dt, Santis, and l\Iichelange\o Antonioni argued that Italian cill1'lIla should go to Verga allll otllt'r turn-of-tlw-celltury wristic writers for tlwir inspiration, At the tilllt'. this wa" quite a rl'volutionary idea. 1I0t ollly in t enlls of cinellla bur Italian cult IIral history in gt'neral. ~~ Verism was tilt' Italian version of French IIaturali"m, Verga was its greatest lIIaster ami Luigi Capuana its major theoretician, The aim was to describe objl't't iwly thp life of peasants and other poor and oppressed people in ort!I'r to I'licit a 1II0ral response in the rpader, (:apuana also explort·d psychological pJ'Ol'esses t hrollgh de:;cript ions of external.. objecti\'e things, This was a kind of positivism that oftI'll degenerated into fatalislll, as tIlt' desniptions of realilY eOIlVt'YI·d a "eWie of sOlllething unbearable and imnllltaull'. dictat('d by naturt>, :\c('onlin~ to C, \1. Car:;aniga: "To be 'defl'alt'd by lift>' is a natural subject for I)tHlr~eois l'erislI/o, , , , [l']nable to free hilllsdf from his class idt>ology alld to ullderstand and exprt>ss reality. the I'f'rista can achie\'1' Jlothing lIIore significant than to ('elebrate cIIIlsciow,ly atlll conscienliollsly his own ddl'at by I'hronil'iilll! thl' defeat of his charactl'rs, "~,-. Ilow('\,er. :-.Olllt'Olle like V t>rga did not rest rict himself to IIl1'fI' sudan' realism and was ahle to circulllvent the pessimism, In allY ca:;I'. tht> l'J'itil'i,,1JI deliVt'red by the vt'rists was sharp ellough to generatt> fil'J'\'I' oppositioll amollg the representativl's of "ofticial Italy." who were loath to adlllit that sllt'h s'Iualor as descrilwd first by the vcrists at tilt' tum of the CI'lltur\" alii I 1 hI'li by tilt' 11I'0l'\'l:liisb a half CI'nltll'\" laler actually . . . . t>xistl'd. Yet till' n'ri~ts WI'I'\' IlIwb'" to hold the alll'lltioll of tilt' n'adin~ public for wry lOll!!, ami soon JIIany of tht'lIl chang,'d directiOlI. ;\lthou!!h they I'ontinlll'd 10 pur:-.IIt' a l'l'rlain d"gn't' of realism, they also sought I!n'att'r popularity t hWII!!h IIlt'lodrallla spic,'d wilh of'f-color material. \eon'alisJII wa,.; also to folio\\' a similar patll'J'll of dl'\('loltllll'nl in thi,., J't'SI)l'I't.~" Thou!!h hOlh tn'lllls \\'('1"1' n'lati\'ely ,.,llOrt-liwd. tllt'y pW\'t'd III haw all illllllt'nse ('fl'e('1 ill ITt'atin!! a \\,110'" lit'\\' CltlU'l'Plioll Ill' what an ('ould Ill' alulIl" III tilt' \'il'\\' of ('if/I'I//(/ cOlllrilHltllr:; ill tllf' ('al'l\- ftlrti('~ ill ad-

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dition to tllt'ir sucial commitment. tilt' verists pro\"ided all aestht:'ti(' idt:'al. It was seven years Lefort' Vis('oJlti had an opl'ort unit y to start rt'alizin~ his ideas ahout adapting Vt'r~a in his La lam Irt'flllI (TIlt' earth treIIIhies), although Iit' had Iwen lookillg for JIImlels "\"1'11 t:'arlil'L Ill' wrote ill his essay "Trar/i=iol/t' (' illl'('II:;iol/l'" (Traditioll alld in\I'lItioll): It lIIay sOUlui obyiow; but I ha\l' oft('I1 asked IIIyS('If'. as 11 WI'« , is a ~()Iid lilt'ran· traditioIl whit-h ill IIlnuln'd~ of nm·C'I,.; awl storit's has realiz(,d in fantasy sw'h I!C'IlIIinl' and pun' "tmths"' about human life, why ~hould the ('iIlt'lIIa, which in it~ more ('x!t'rior atTes,.; to life could al'llIall~ 1)1' dOt'lIlIH'ntary, cOIllplacently act'lhtom the audit'(u'(' to petty plotting and POIlIl'0US mdodrama thl' ml'('hanical IOl!ic of whidl PI'OIt'«'" tlu' spectator from tht' ri~b of whim and illvention, III SUdI a ~illlation it I)t'conl('~ nalllral for tho~(' who sint'l'f('ly bdil'\(' in tilt' I'iIH'nIa to turn their ('y!':; no~tal!!inlll~ to thl' I!raud narrative stnlt'tun'~ of European literature ami to think of tlWIII a~ tilt' true~t :;ourn' of inspiration of our tinlt', It i~ Wltulto hmI' lilt' ,'OUI"a1!1' to ,ay "tnH'~t"' I'VC'U thoul!h ~01Ilt' I1t'0pl(' mil!ht labl'l it as imI'O!t'IH'(' or at lea~t as a lack of ciu('IIlatic purity ,~7

,\r this stagl' \'iSCllllli al'pan'lIt1y aln'ady had a dl'ar idt'a of Iht' kiwi of rilll'IIIali(' n'i.t1islII hI' was aftl'r, Ill' took as his starting pOill1 tilt' abilily of thl' film 10 creUle all illusioll of a fictiollal world, BUI Iit' was also awan' that ill ordl'r tu lIIakl' a statl'llll'lIt about J't'alil\'11t' lIeedl'd a firm lIarrati\'(' ",tl"llCtUI't', TIlt' way thl' story t'volv('s ami the dIanteters de\t'lop wu" 10 play a major part ill CJ'('atillg the all-importallt St'IISI' of \'t'ri~imilitlldt' ill hi!> film,,;, To a('hiew all thi", tll4' a('tillg had to lH' d""ply ft'1t alld I" peripht'ry of tht' foreground actioll: life. to put il brit·tJy - lift' which nllllillued flowing 011 it:; OWII. wilh it:; daily cadt'lIn'~ ill ~pile of tilt' tragic fet'lillt(~ expn's~t'd by tilt' at·toni .... Tht, JIlajor achit'HlI1t'llt of ow' who pr('sidt'd 0\('1' Ihb ta~k COIhi"tt'd of forcillg tilt' hackgroulld 10 play a rolt· of ... Jllllt ....l'oillt so as 10 obtain a killd of vi"ual alld allral cOIIHi,·t yit,ldiut( a di"agn·t·alol .. .,fre,·1 but Ollt'. w'\"('rtllt'lt's". which gmt' tilt' "ll('clator a "PIISt' of lift' a.' lin·d and tllI .....,.Of(· a ,,!'[bt' of tI ... "01111'11':\ n'ali~IIl "nact"d ill frout of tI ... (·(I ••

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'1'111' contra,,1 wid. cOlllt'lIIporary Italiall cillt'lIIa. which had w,ilht'r IIIll("h Iwckgroulld lWli"ity lIor allY ,"ocial or historical depth. wa" cowiidt·rablt'. ()ssf'ssioIW may 1)(' compan·d wilh two olher major Italiall lilms mad,· at tll(' ('lid of the Fasl"ist pt'riod: Blasf'tti"" ()I/ollm passi/,'({ If' I/I//"o/f' (Four

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steps in heaven, 1(42) and De Sica's I bambini ci gllardmw (The childfl'I1 are looking at us, 194:3), In OHt' way or anotiwr, all IIm'e treat the dissolution of the "sacred institution" of the famil\'. Bul wlU'reas the other two films look hackward aesthPlically and hang 011 to I'ollvenliollal morality, Visconti's films prl'::wnl an Opt'lI challell~t' on all It'veh.. To a considerahle extt'lIt. thanks to the thoroughly assimilalPd inllllt'lIce of ReIloir and other contemporary French directors, Visconti was able 10 dt'viatt' from certaill standard patterns of represelllatioll that characterized Italiall cinema of the time. In \Iicchich~'s wonls: "As fI'gards sex till' ('then'al spiritual sublimation hecame a dell se physiological camality; as regards the family the cell of society became all inhuIllall prison: as regard,.; riit' people, the beautified unity challgt'd illto the sour solitude of all aggregatt' of illdividuals: as regards tlw world of pea";Hllb the silt, of unity hecame a site of fragmt'lItatioll; as regard,.; the lalHlIicape the idyllic backdrop lwcallle a turbid ::'I'enery'" It wa,.; a film that would destroy "all till' I-Xisting stereotypes. "~,(I The charring of a certain human ,.;ituatioll had lwcolIU' at It-a,.;t as important as the tdlillg of a story, actioll had hecome le,.;,.; dett'nnilled by plot requirements than, say, in das,.;ieal Hollywood cinema or its Italian equi\'alt'lIt of the Fascist era. On the level of tilt' shot,.;, in Cilles Deleuze"s words, "Objt'Cb and ,.;ettings [milif'IJ.l·] take 011 an alltOllomOIlS. material reality whieh give::. them an importance in themsdw,.;,'·:;\ Aftt'r Ciovalllla and Gino makt' lo\'e. for example, slH' tells how she ended up as Bragalla"s wife. Gilw's attention. howcyt'r. i,.; fOl'useu on a sea shell. which he prcs,.;c,.; against his ear. The ge,.;ture reyeals hi::; lack of intert'st in Ciovanlla's ,.;tory. which moti\·ates his actions in what follows. :\cwrthdl's,.; tilt' gt'stun- appt-aI's randolll and fret' from any dircl't plot fUlIct ion, Such lingt'rillg on ~cenes as if to t'xplort' how till' characters behave in a giyt'n situation - spatiotemporal. historical. social, psychological. and existential - became one of the ideals of nt'orealisUl and started a lille of development that led to the films of Hossellini ill thc 1950s, those of Antoniolli in the {'arly 19bO::., alld through thelll to the l\ew Wave in France. III a slightly differt'I11 way. it also becalllt' ont' of tlH' lIIost cl'llcial elements of risconti's own style. In Ossessiolle the situation the protagollis!S find thclII,.;elves in iIllposes ('I~rtain o.cven-Iy limiting nmuition,.; 011 them. Their passion is pitted against their intellectual limitations and inability to conceiye any viable alternatives for themselves, This st'vere realism keeps the lIH'lodramatic gestures under striet control withollt.. howen'r. even ";0 lIIuch as subduing it. On the contrary. the realistic framework t'n,.I\l·t''' t hat tilt' JIIelodraIlla aplwars IIlt'uningful and relevant.

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a" a way of evoking reality in its flesh awl blood with maximum emotional and t'xistcntial illtensity. Such meludmlllulic realism in ewr differing patkms is one of the distinguishillg features of \'isconti's an. The call1Pra work in OssessiulIl' is fairly restrained, maintainiug just a slight seuse of detachmellt aud observatioll rather than thorough iuvolvemeut with the chara('ters. as iu couvelltional fillll lIIelodrama. At times. howcver. the camera plays a Cfuciall'Ole in conveying feeling and passion. The best example is Gillo' s entrance to the kitdlt'n described earlier. 1111mediatt'ly afterward tllC erotic tension betweell Cino and Gio\'auna remaius stroug. as they allllost playfully compt'te for coutrol over the situatiun and ex('hauge looks 1'\'('1)' time Uragaua turus away. As the positiolliug of the camera is often quite surprising - for (,xample. holdly tlauuting the ISO-degree rule - it is at times difficult to follow the 1Jl00emt'lIts of the ('haracters in the small kitdlt'u. Later on. after Gino decides to stay in tilt' trattoria, the lowrs emhrace as Uragana goes out to kill a howling cat. Tlwre is a dramatic Clll that throws the camera to their opposite side, suddellly reversillg their left and right positions. Because then' are ouly a few shots defining the differeut rooms of the trattoria as a whole, it is difficult to get a dear picture of the layout of the huilding. All altogether w'w view opens up even at the end of the film as a little girl is uuexpectedly seen iu a corridor that presLUnably leads to lilt' bedroOlns above the trattoria.':! All this enhan('es the atmosphen· of claustrophobic disorientation. It reaches its peak in the scene in whieh Giovanna ami Cino retufll to the trattoria after the invcstigation: the movements of the camera surround them and make Cino·:,. anxious wallderin~ arollnd appear like the paeiug of an animal in its cage. Then' is a full range ot' camera work from cOIIH'ntiollal shot!t-oUlllt~r­ shot ses. as tlw)" had Jotlt' Iwfore and everywhere else in the world. TIlt' significance of n('on~ali;,m sprang largely from the ae;,thetic and ethical ideal it provided. as \\"1'11 as the theoretical debate that it prompted. These lIIade it a crucial pan of fillll history.

Theory and ideals Ft'w nlOVt'nlt'IIts or trt'lHls in tilt' hi!>!tory of cillt'Jlla Iravl' ~in'lI rise to a!>! !IIuch theorizillg alld explallatioll 1.1:-; Ilt'0reali:-;1II has. "tallY lists have bet'lI t'OIl1piled of tht, hasit' criteria of lIeon'ali~JII. but tllt'r\' is 110 t'onst>lIsu:-; a:> to whit'h of tllt'st' would dj·fine its e:-;sent'j'. Ilanlly any filJlls thought to lit' Ilt'orealistic 1lJ(:'t't all tlH' critt'ria. Tog"tllt'L the"t' criteria silllply characterize in a general fashion the direction t'ertaill Italiall diret'tors took after the waL~': The fOlllHler of Hiaflciu p I/('m lIIa~azilw alld it!>! long-tilllt' editor. Lui~i Clriarini. has defined four c1raraclt'ri:>ties of tire 1II00Tlllellt: (1) IIIt'II deriH'd from the alldit'lIn'~' OWIl rt'alilY replacl'd riit' pn'-collct'ivt't! chara,'lt-r" in cOIlH'llliollal Ilarrali\t'" of riit' pa"l: (~) riit' chronic/t' (if Wt~ call eall il I hal). t'\Tllb allt! fae'" clIlI"d from lilt' daily exi~It'Ilf"t' of 1Ilt'1I. n'phwt'd I he fahricalt'd atiwnllln-, of 1I0Vt'l, alld cOlllt'dit's: (J) IIIf' Ihrohhillg pholographic tlOt"tIIllt'1l1 n-plact'd pit-Iorial and tigtlnnin virlllo,ily: (-t) Ihe cilit'~ and eOlllltl'Ysidt'. wilh peoplt, t'ffeeliwly living Ihen'. replat't'J riit' p((pil'r-IIU/c/tl; ~n'lIl'ry of I he pa"t.,-·H

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Chiarilli abo thought that neoreali~m was born out of all inner need to express thoughts and sensat ions that were Ilot tied to cOllceptual systems but that Hrose fwm reality itself'. h depicted the social reality of lllan as \\"1,11 as his relatiollship with ··nature. his inulIediate environJlH'nt. and society:';'" TIlt' veracity of representation was to be fllrtlll'r enhanced by the use of real people frolll the ;,treeb to play roles that were supposedly close to tllt'ir own lives. This uever becallle conllllOn practice. however. De ~ica wwd uonaetors for tilt' leading roles of TIll:' Hi(ycle Thief awl llJ/!Jertu U (19;j~). but Viscollli"s La /erra /relllu (19-+8) was the ouly lillll iu which the eluire east C()u~isted of "urdinary people. ,. Eveu in tlu'se cases the directors succeeded in plllling Ollt great performances from their actor,.; within a strong narrativ(' structure. \lost tilmmakers awl theorist,.; saw Ileoreali,.;m e,.;sentially a,.; a moral stand rather than an aesthetic position. Acconling 10 theoretician and screenwriter Ce,.;are Zavaltini. the goal of Il('orealislll was to prolllote the love and understanding of others as they actually are. This JllI'ant mainly 1'001' people. as "misery ... is one of the most vivid realities of O!lf tillle:' This was to be achieved in large part by eliminating plot. at It'ast ill the conventional sense. Zavattini did not mean that then' should he no narrative structure at aiL but rather that a lillll ~ho\lld nlllct'ntrate 011 ~itu­ atiolls wken dirpctiy from the live~ of ordinary peoplt· ...o The crucial poillt was that ordillary [It'ople should recogllize thelll~dv('" ill a film instead of idt'lItifying with the charactt'rs of escapist falltasy. AI't"ordillg to (:hiarilli. the audielll'e~ of tilt' lirst lIeurealisl fillll~ saw Oil the "ereI'll their OWII tragedy: ":\0 10llger followillg a lIIere story. but history, tilt' audi"nct' saw lif" n'tIect!'d Oil the ~("feell:'hl These objecti\"t's wen' rooted ill the idea that the lIIediuIII of lillll elljoys a privilegt~d ("t'lation"hip to reality. The major lilies of Iilm tllt'my UlHil about the early 19()Os call lit' roughly divided into reali"t awl formative traditions. The fornlt'r elllphailizes the way that the (:iIlt'matic apparatus call lit' uSl'd tu regist!'r awl ClJllvey all image of the phellomt'nal world l'hoto-Ilwdlanically: till' latter fOI'II,.;e~ Oil Iilm as all artifact. a COllstructioll of imagt's a lit I soulld". (:olltro\"t'rsy raged as to ,,·hich is tilt' tnlt' vocatioll of ("illemallluilalllOn.balallced view emerged ill tilt' work of scholars ~Il('h a" Jeall \Iitry. who ill his 1II01lullIt'lllal "tudy E~/ht>ti(Jlw 1'/ p.~H·I/()lugie dll eilthllo (1 9();{-:») fu!">"d tIll' extremes. \Iodel"ll film theury elllt'rged as approaches ::.lIch as stru(,turalislll. "t'miotic~, and certaill hralll'hes of the so("ial sei"lIn',.; alltl psychology led "dlOlars to pOS(' Ht'W que::.tioll~ oftI'll far remO\'ed frolll the ,'arlit'!" t'sselltialist Iht'orit's. But iwfon' alllhis. III'0realislll was set'lI by IIHllIy as the "twllg,>,.;t IIIHllift'"tatioll

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and vindication of cinematic realism. To some of the more extn'IIW of it!"> proponents, cinematic apparatus provided a way of apl'roachill~ r('alily to the point of diss()lvin~ all the cOlIstrainh of tht' medium. Fdix A. Morlion, for example. claimed: :\I,o-realism's thesis i~ that the SI'I"('I'n i~ a ma~!i(" window whi("h opell~ Ollt 011 to the "real"'; that eilH'I1Iati(" art i~ thl' art of retTeatin/!. through tilt' I'XI'ITiM' of frel' choi!'t' upon tht' material world. tht' luost intt'nSt' vision possibl" of the iuyisible rt'ality illlwrt'nt in till' moveml·Ilts of the milld. The ha~is of eVl'ry good work of art i~ Ilot what pt'o]lll' thi"k ahout f(·ality. hut what reality actually is. Through a shared \'ision of I'xi~tellt·t'. hoth arti~t~ alld audil'llI"l's forget with plt'a~url' tiUN' artistic inH'ntiolls which nlt'rl'h ",'r\I·d as I1Ieans for tilt' tTI'atioll of that llt'Wbont thing ..... TIlt' nl'o-rt'alist SdlOOI ha~ takl'lI a great ~1t.1' forward. It has forswom nlllity to f('at'h till' tflle aim of ("ilH'IIW: to expn'ss reality."" :\ \"I'sti?!c of positi,ismcan Iw Sel'lI ill this rather nai\"(' idl'a that n'ality call Iit' captun'd a!"> it "aclllally i,~'-' r\ phenomellological approach madl' the idea of cint'matic n'alism far mon' resollanl. Frellch film critic :\l1dr~ Bazin. in particular. piUI'd what ht' thought was the tfllt', "pht'nonwnolo?!ical"' realism of cillt'ma agaillst "till' tradit iOllal dnllllatic systems alld also [again"t] tilt' \ariolls other kllOWII kinds of realism in litl'ratun' and tillll with whidl we are familiar'-' III his opillioll. "aliall nt'oJ"eulism diffl'red froJlJ natllralisJlJ allt! Vt'rislIl ill that it n'jt·clt'd ·'analysis. whether political. llIoral. psyclwlo?!ical. logical. or sl)t"ial. of lilt' dlaral·ters alld tlwir actiolls'-' Ili,; goal was to look "011 reality as a whole. not illt'OIllpn·llt'lI,.;ibl,'. certaillly. IIIIt illSl'parably Ollt· ... "\ (:t'rtaill cillt'lIratic IIlt'all~ '\"t'n' lIIort' cOIHluci\'I' to this visual ('xploratioll thall otllt'rs. Bazill comJIIPlltlt·d riit' dt·ep fllt'lIS and lOll;! ~hots. which. ill tilt' films of' :-'01111'0111' likt' \\'illiam Wyler. Ilt'lped to achil'\"(' "a cilwlllatowaphic ulli\t'r~e. Ilot ollly ri~orously cOllsistellt with n·ality. 11111 al,;o as liltll' Illodilil'd as possible by tilt' optics of riit' call1t'ra.-·(d Such IIwall~ aIlO\\"I·1I reality 10 "shim'" throu;!h tht' t·illelllatic apparatlls. :\Iso Bazill would likt' to haw dOllt' away with till' plot. as it is alway~ likely to diwrt tilt' lillllIllakl'r from rl'ality. Ill' poilltt·d out that "n'dllt't'd 10 tilt' 1'101. t1lt'y [llt'orealisl tillll";] an' of II'll jusl moralizillg lIwlodnHlIas. IlIlt Oil tilt' scn't'll ('wrylllldy ill tilt' film is owrwlwlmill;!ly n·al." Ill'. too. thought Ihat tilt' chil'f IIlt'rit of tlIt'SI' lilm,., was thl'ir dt'I'p Illllllallislll."-' Ht· t·lIlphsibilities. lIIotivations. and cOllseqw'IICt':o. of 1IIIIIIall action: ··a (('nsioll is rn·l·all·t! at till' n·rv. heart of millJt>sis.lwIWt'en the ~\Illmi~:o.ioll to ft'alit,-. - to humClIl action - awllh!' ITI·atin' actioll which is ptWlry as such .... TIlt' creativI· dillll'll~ion i" ill"I'parable from thi;; refen·nlialm()\'{'lIIellt:·'·'· III tlw nht' of him. thi" illlplit''; the IWI,d for u cow·eptual ;;eparatioll hetwel'n Ihl' illdexical relatioll"hil' the I·illelllalic illlagl' ha,., with the profilmic ",·elll and tht' organizalioll of the cilH·matic discollr:o.(· ill tl'rlll,; of mimetic cOllfiguratioll. that i,.,. ,,101. The illdt'xicality awl inlllic tplali ty 7t1 of Ihe photographic imit!!t' ill Cilll'lIIl1 d,>rin's it:; IIwalling frolll its conlext.

since it is incOIvorated into a lliscours('. usually a narratin'. Thi,; in turn has its plaee in the rea/Ill of lIarratil'es, that is. all the accounts iJoth factual and fictiunal through which the human world is rendered for a given COI1lIlltlllity in its historical allll social conditionness. In this sphere the daim of realism of a giwn film narrat ive is negotiatl·d in respect of and possihly in contradiction to tilt' prevailing codes uf realism in that communit\".71 Ricoeur·s conception of mimesis cOllllecb with the notion of classical realism in fiction. the ideal of which is to capture the ('sseIW(' of reality through t'mplotlllent guided Ly tht' laws uf necessity and prohability. Reality is understood as a dynamic process that human action might hdp tu mow in a better or a worse direction. ~aturalism. 011 the other hand. which arose in France in tllt' nineteenth century in the wakt' of positivism, seeks to presellt reality objectiwly without taking any kind uf moral stand. The ideal there is to relate holl' ratlH'r than Il'hy things happen as they do. In practice howt'\"t,r. the Fn'nch naturalists no more than the Italian verists in t1l1'ir best works did not adhere rigorously to the prindple of detachment. Similarly. when the group that gathered round Cinema magaziJlt, in tht, 19-+0s turned to the \'eri~b for inspiration in their pursuit of a new kind of Italian. ami-fascist. and humanist film. tllt'y w('ft'looking for a socially committed narrative tradition rather than a posit ivbt modt' of objective obsen'atioll, As Giuseppe Of' Santis ami \Iario Alicata lIoted:

..\t allY ralt', it is Ilt't"essar\" 10 make dear that the cillt'ma tind,., its IlI'st direction in the realist tradition IlI'callsl' of its strict narrati\'t~ natllre; as a matll'r of fact, J"I'alislll b tilt' true and eterllalmt'aSllrt' of I'very narrati\"!' "ignitil'alllT - realism intelldetlnot as tilt' pa,sivt' homage to ano"jectiw, ,tatic truth. hilt as tilt' imaginative alld creativl' power to fashion a story cWllposeJ of rt'al dlaracters and eVI'IllS, It rt'mains evidl'lIt that when till' dlll'ma Iwgan 10 IT('atl' characters. and 10 examille the change in men's souls ill ft'lation,.,hip to tllI'ir t"WIITI'tt' e/lvironment. il was 1H'I't'ssarily intlut'nl'ed hy \'illt,It'(,lIth CI'II111ry Ellropt'an r('alism,'~

The writers end lip :'lImlllunin~ Vt'r~a, who ··miraculously stark and n~al, , .. cOllld gin' inspiration to tIll' imaginat ion of our cinellla which looks for thillgs ill the space-tillll' of reality to redt'elll itself from tilt' ('asy su~­ gestions of a moribund bourgeois stat""· Visctlllti realiz('d this drl'am of translating \'t'rga to till' s("reen ill his s(,Ctllld f"atuft' fillll. La tt"T(I trelll(l, Ht' Iwn'r t'lIIbnll'ed the mosl farrt'aehing idt'als of Italian neon'alislll. ('vt'n if his OSSl'ssioll1' Gill bt' ("011!>id('red an important precursor of that movement. as ("all his La terra

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Irl:'lIIl1 a~ i", I",uk. He certaiIlly had no ue~ire to uo away with the plot. t'Vt~lI if in hi~ later filllls the dramatic tempo could slow down considerahly. III the last instance. Vi~colltj"s reali~m is based not ollly on his celebrated meticulolls (re )construction~ of setting;, but also onusillg the plot as a means of lIlodeling hUlllall Iwhavior in gi\'ell circulllstances. La Terra Irefllll is a primt' examplt' of how to articulate ~ocial criticism by meaIlS of t ragie lIIyllws.

LA. TEIlIlA T/lEMA

Realism after the war In 19... ;~ Italy hecame a hattleground. ~lussolilli wa~ depo~ed in JUlle awl a govcnllllent headed by Mar~hal Pietro Badoglio took over. After tilt' Allies made a suecessfullal\(lillg ill Sicily ill July and August. Badoglio sought to sign an arlIli~tict' with theIll. But by thell tht' Cerman~ had OITupied the country and were in control t'verywhere t'xI·ept ill area~ the Allies had not yet reached. At the same time. an allti-fa~dst partisan moVt'lIlellt that tran~('ended all party boundaries had sprung up and was growing rapidly. Among thost' as~i~tillg the parti~aw; was Visconti. who offered them shelter ill hi~ apartmellt ill Rome. But he was disappointed whell they would not accept him for activt' duty awl give him a chalice to Iw a ht'ro in battle. The Illaill n'asoll was prohably that he was wdl known and thert'fore thought to Iw of 1lI0re USI' as a eolllact person. It is also likely that his aris(ocrati,· background alld kllown hOlllosexual tt'lItiencies had built up some prejudice against hilll. In l\lareh 19++ Iit' was imprisolled as part of a retaliation for the f'xplosioll of a partisan bomb that killed thirty-two and woulIded IIlallY members of a German detaeiullent. He was beaten and loekt'd in a filthy lavatory without food for twelve days ill order to I/Iake him talk. but he remained silent. lie was rdt~ased shurtly bt-fore the Allies arrived ill Rome. Later 011 he would exaggerate his expnit'III'es ill tilt' resistallce movemellt, hut at least he hau beelllllore actin' thall lIIost ltaliall illtellect uals. Aft,'r Italy was liberated. Yi::.conti helped film Ollt' of tit(' few Italiall dOl"ulllelltaril';' iliadI' illllllt'diatdy after the war, Ciomi di gloria (The dap of glul'Y, 1 last Iwo I'pisodes wOllld Ilot l,e shot, La 11'1'1'(( Irel//o bpt'ame the Iwmt' of tilt' :;ingle t'pi",oJe that was filll It'd , And eWIl this part wenl Ihrough mallY changes ill the :;eripl stage, Alllollg tht' original idt'as was that a big motor trawler would t'xl'loit the fish ft'SOUt'!'!"'S alld tht'rel,y ('()(htitute a

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threat to the whole traJe. But for the sake of dramatic l'Ollcentration and in orJer to make the social cOmlllt'llt more pointed, the wholesalers wen' made the principal OppOllt'Ilt:; of tilt' prota~ollists. The second episode would have told about miners who form a cooperative in order to excavate an ullused sulphur mine. When the will gives out. their enterprise seems dose tu failure, but tlwy find a lIew vein and are able to continue. Evell so. life remains hard. The third episode would have beell the must optimist il'. It was to show a ~roup of peasants wait ing for a mall who is tu instruct them in cultivating previuusly ullused lalld. t:pon his arrival Iit' is shot Ly the Mafia. Lefore he even has a challct' to get started. Howewr. he is replaced by a man who leads tilt' peasant:; illto battle against tIlt' selllifeudal ordt'r. III a show of 11IIity awl power. they organize a l'ooperatiH'. TIlt' \Ialia tries to frig-hten them by firin~ machille-guns at them at an open air festival. but the funeral of the victims becomes a mighty display of solidarity. The I't'asallb take OWl' the lalld aJl(lnH'et official resbtaIH'e. but workers from towns ami cities arrive to support tltem. Victory is finally tlwir;; when fi;;lwrmen. farlll lallOrer;;, and industrial workers join together to oppose the exploitation and repres;;ioll. Bh The first epi;;ode would thus ha\'!' ended ill defeat. tilt' second ill a stalemate between the exploiters awl the exploit(,(!, alld t he third ill a triumph of solidarity of the oppressed. The three stories would ha\"(' proceeded ill parall('1 ill four I'ha;;('s. This would 110 doubt have ellhalll't,d by turns both the optimistic alld the pessimi~tic asp,'cts of each story. There would also have bet'lI a fourth story. which Lillo t\li('cidH~ ha" l'alled "the t'pisode of the city." fIllllling through till' thn'(' maill el'isodt's. It would haw helped t'mphasize that urball alld lIonurban workt'rs IlI't,dl'd to joill together. But as the weight of the "episode of tile sea" illl'J'east'd ill its asso('iatioll wit h Verga. the n'mainillg plalls were gradually aballdolled. This. of ('ours(', had a substantial effect 011 the impli('d political cOlltellt of the film: illstead of elHling ill miraculous victory. tlH' film ('olldudes 011 a notl' of resigllt'd def('at. It is 1I0t ewn dear whetlwr Vist'llllti uct ually illtt'lHh,d to realizt, the elllin' proj('ct. Fnlll\:('s('o Ho:;i. who was all assi:-.tallt dire,·tor. tog('tllt'r with Frallco Zl'flirelli. has stated that "Llwhillo always kllew that we would make only Ollt' of tilt' tilrl't' ('pisodl's."KLa i{,/HI il't'IIUl ('all be divided illto a I'rologlH'. tlln't' maill phases. and all epiloglll'. The pl'Olog,H' illtl'Ot/u('es the :;ocial structure aJl(1 eC(JnOlnic I'llllstraillts surroullding the dlaraf'ters. celltral relatiollships. alld till' gelleral atlllO"pllt'rc ,,·ithill the (,Ollllllllllity as a whole allt! withill tilt' \·alastro family. TI\f' fir~t pltas(' tells of tilt' ii!'iheflllcll's attcmpt to impl'Ow tlH'ir

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C('OllOlIIi(' cirnllllstanees. Led by 'Ntoni. the t'ldest son of the VaIastro family. th .. y dellland a bettt'r price fmm the wholt'salers for the fish they ea(ch. Tlw attt'mpt l'I1ds in a hrawl duriIlg which ·Ntoni. in a powerful rhetorical gesture. throws a pair of scales into the sea. In Millicent Marcus's wonk "Whell 'l'toui seizes the scales and liSt'S them as his call to anus. lw counteract:, the wholt':,alt'n;' bet rayal of justice aIld reinvellts the origiIlal iCllography [of the scales as the traditioIlal symbol of distributive j ustin-] by COIlst~!TatiIlg their symholism to the fisherllleIl' s caust'. "Ha 'J\toni and his colleagues are illlprisoIled. hut the whole"alers. realizing that IIl1'ir profits have plullIllleted. argue that the fishermeIl are of 11101'1' use at sea than iIl the prison and have thclIl released. ':\toni, howt'W'r. now tries to get the others to forlll a cooperative. When they rt'fuse, the Valast ms dceide to try to do it on their own. Th!'y have to mortgage their ('ntire ancestral honw. hut since the first catch is big. their prospects look good. TIlt' sequence ellds in a festive mood with tilt' villagers joining the Valastms in salting tht' fish. III IIw secOll(1 phase. the vuhH'rahility of tilt' Valastms' entt'rpri"e IwcOllles apparent. Being heavily in deht. they have to go to sea even in storm" and cnd up losing all their fishing equipment.II'I The wholesalers and ('H'n some of the fishermen mock them, now more convinced than eH'r of lilt' illllllutability of the pn'\'ailing social order. During tht' third "ha,,(' of 1he fillll. tilt' sodal and p:,ychological const'lJuences of the Valast ros' aUt'lIIpt to change things an- gradually revealed. :\0 one wallts to gin~ them work. and the wholesalers arc abll' to s('1 tht' price for their fish. They lo~e their home . and the family's unity breaks down: the grandfalht·r dit's (as so oftI'll happt'ns ill Visconti" s films, the father died even ~wfore tilt' :;tory Iw~ins); 'Ntoni's hrother Cola leaves to seek his fortllllt' on the l'olltillt'llt; their sister Lucia loses her reputation by yielding to the temptations of \Iarshal don Salvatore; 'Ntoni starts drinkillg, Ollly the elder sistt'r \Iara relllains strong. although she loses all hope of e\'Cr gelling married. Fillally. in the epilogue, 'Ntoni swallows his pride and n'turnli with his two younger hrothers, Vanni alltl Alessio. to work for tlH' wholesalt'rs. who in their prosperity ha\'f~ bought I1I'W hoats alld nt't,d all the lahor they can gt-t. TIlt' tilm draws on \'t'r!!u' sI .\Ja/ul'o!{/iu ill a sOlllewhat ('omplex way. III his 19... 1 essay "T'mdiziolle e illl't'lIziulI!'." Viscollti descrilwd the impa," that \' t'rga' s wurks. partil'ldarly I.l/u/w·u!{lia. had had on him. HI' "lIIphasiz('d its at'stllt'til' value alltl deslTilwd its suggt'stiw power as )wing supported hy "all internal alii I musical rhythm":

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Pt>rhaps tht> kt>y to a ciIlt'matographic rendering of I J/a/ul'oglia is to attt'mpt to

fed again ami to catch thp magic of the rhythm, of the vaglH' ypaming for the unknowll, the realization that things are lIot right or that they could Iw bettef. which i, the Jloetie suhstaJlce of that play of destinies whil'h I'ross ... without ever eJlcolllllt'ring [0111' ilIlOther ]."0

A cOllple of years latt>r Viscollti spelled Ollt lIIon' preci::wly tilt' kind of film he wanted to make. emIJhasizing tI\I' role of the adors and their inneflnost t.{lIalities. which he felt shollld be the SOIlfCt' of the characters they portrayed. so that the ··actor-person" and tlH' "characlI'r-l'ersoll" (1'1101110attore e r lIoIllo-personaggio) would 1Ieconlt' one. The first sh'P was to gl't rid of all the acclIIlIlIlated acting dich~s ami to uncover the instiuctive expressive aLility of the actor. Only this. a gelllline humunl're::wllce . cOllld animate allll poeticize a fihn.'" But this wa:. jllst oue sidt' of the coin. Viscollti also wanted to show how lIatllre and socil,ty control the way 111'01'11' liH' their lives. Visconti·:. wartime ('xperiences and his involvement in the ,;ubsefJuent political struggle waged uudt'r t he aegis of marxislII gavl' form to his id('as ahout how ··gt'lIIlillt' human I'n'scllt'!'" is ('OJl(Jitioned by a given l'nvirOIllIlent anti social ,;itllation. All tllt's{' itit'a" played a crucial role ill the way ht' used IlJaterial from I J/a/w'of(lia to dewlop a story lillt' and a gt'J11lilll'ly cilH'lIIatic at'sthetic stratl'gy for his La terra I rell/a. III Verga's novel tilt' 1'\"I'lIt,; are structured around tht' character of the grandfatlwr. He believes that fat .. has delt'fIllilled tilt' ('oursl' of things. alltl that the social hierarchv in which Iit' find:; himself is a din'ct cOlltinlIatioll of the natural ordt·r. This also appears to Iw the messa~e of the (in S.. ymollr Chatmall' s lent IS) implied a lit hor.":! Jlowt'wr. V I'rga' s social allaly~i:; does 1I0t SlOp then'. A singlt' slorm is a catastrophe for the Malavoglia" as they los(' tilt' load of bealls they haw I.ollght 011 credit. bllt this probably only adds to tilt' fOJ1ulles of old Cippola. who elm afford to kt'ep his boa I safely ashore. During lIlt' t'Oluse of tilt' II0V .. 1. Ihl' IIll'llllwrs of Ihe \lalavoglia family I'xllt'riell('e a st'ril''; of Illisfort lilies. mallY of which aft' a direct result of their ewr-illcrt'asillg l'0n'rty. They lose not only their wealth bllt also Ilwir "ocial statlls. En'nluallv ';\jtoni loses his faith ill hi" I'rospt·I·t:; ill lift' a" wI'II. He start:; drinkillg alltl soml gains a bad reputation. III utlt·r dt',;!wrarioll. he thillks of joining a band of ,;Illuggl('r:i but is ollly too aware of tilt' dangers involvt'd: ..\nd dlt'n thert' was I hat odwr 0111 raw'. whit-It IIwaIl1 t hat to land foft'il!lI I!0od,. you had 10 pay a tax. and dOll \Iidlelt' alld hi" policl'mt'1I had to slick their 1I0"I'S

-tll

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ill! Tllt'y ,'ould lay tllI'ir hand 011 {'\,{'~,thillg, alld take what they wanted: but tllf' otiwrs, if they riskt'd their liws t~'ing to lalld tlwir f1;oods. wl'rl' regarded as thil'\"~, allll wel'l' hunll'd down worst' than wokes with pistols amI rillt,s.'>:!

As for the othl'l' villager", tllt'y ('aJlJlot think of a Ot'!ter n~ason for duties and taxes than "to pay the soldiers. who ('ut such a dash with their ulliforms, alld we'd de\'our each otlwr like wolves if we didll't have soldiers,""" TIlt' Italiall kill~d(Jm is such a remoll' cOII('ept to thest' peoplt' that it cOllld welllw a part of tilt' natural order. There is not the "lightest hopt, that thillg" could bt· any differellt from what t1lt'y have always been. alld it seen.", tilt' only way to achil'w' Iwrsonal prosperity is through marriage, I" sut'h fatalist ic circulllstances. rei,dlioll against 011{: s ('ondit iOIl i" nothing tIIon' than the illahility of a wt'ak character to accept the basil' fach of life, rather thall a heroic strugglt, to lIIake thillgs betlt'r. Again and again ':\tolli vent" hi" hitterness, At one point when the grandfather aC(,lIses Ilim of loitering. Iit' responds; You lot don't know thl' world. allll you'rl' like kittells wilh your I'yt'~ slill do~ed, Do you I'al Ihe lish you catch? Do you know who you'rt' wurking for. frulll \Ionday 10 Saturday, worn away 10 such a stall' that 1I0t {'\'I'II Iht' hospilal would wanl your You'r!' workillg for people whu dOll't do anything, awl have lIlolley by thl' spadt'ful!'C,

Yet the grandfatlwr':; cOllst'rvat i\'t, fatalism does not prc\'t'/lt hilll from t'lIgagillg ill tillatll'ial speculation, which Iwgim a chaill of ewnts that lead to the famih"s ruill, \'is('ollti·,.; La ler,.a IreITw can Iit' taken a" a modern critical n'adinl! of \ t'rga's now\. The lilm lwgiJls with the words: The 1'\"'lIb rqm'st'lIted ill thi~ film take plan' ill Italy, or to Ilt' /lIOI'!' pret'i~t' ill Sicily, tilt· \'illage of At'itrezza. hy the IOlliall Sea a lillll' di~talll'" frolll (:atullia, The ~tol'y which the film tells is the same all 0\'1'1' the world and i" rqwalt'd t'wry year I'wrywhl'rl' Ihat people exploit otilt'r peopl,', TIlt' hOIlSt'S, thl' streets, tht' boats, tht' sea un' those of :\citrt'zza, .\11 thl' aclors hav!' heell s,'let'red from amollg the illhahitallb of thi" cOIJlltry: fi~hl'r~, girb. labon'rs, hril'klaY"rs, ",holt'sulers, TIIt'~,· p""pl(' kno", 110 otllt'r lallgllagl' thall Sicilian to t'xpn',~ their r..tlt'llioll, ,O/TOWS, hlll"''', TIll' ltaliall lallguag" i, JllIt the laJlgmtgt· of till' poor.

:\,.; ,\li,'Cicllt~ has poilllt'd out. each of tllt'st' stalt'JIIt'lIt~ lJIakes explicit u poetic choict' and iJllplit~s a tllI'oreticul position that coillcidt,,,; with till' lJIaill ideals of nt'(H't'alislIl, Thl' lirst stalt'llWllt plan',; tilt' 1'\'t'lIts ill a "'1'1'rilic locatioll alld clJIl'hasiz,'s represefltation: tilt' SI'('olld alllloulICt·s that

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the s/u')" to ue told ha~ univen;al validity. The third aud fourth statelllt'lIb indicate that the locatiolls art' authentic and that nOllprofel"il"iionul actors are beiug ul"it'd to play parts that could be lifted from tllt'ir wry own livt'~. The lal"it two statt'mt'nb stn'l"i" the autht'nticity of tht' languag,' of the 11/111 ami illdicatt' that its Ul"il' can IH' takt'n al"i a form of l"iociul protest ." .. Although the fillll transft'r,; the I'H'nb to the coutelllporary world, as iudicatt'd by detaib such al"i n'ferences to the Fa,;cist era that has just ended, thil"i has Hot Ht'(,t'ssitated 11lany ('hall?!!'s in the story 11laterial: life ill the villag" of Ad Trezza ha~ challged but little Iwtwt'l'u the tinH' that Yt'rga wrote his veristic uovel and that Yiscollti shot hi,.; Ileorealistic film. BUL for the purposes of cOllceptual darity awl lIarrative concentratioIl, tht' !">tory line hal"i uet'n silllplified. certaiul'WUtl"i have beell cOlllbilH'd with others. awl their narrati\'e and thelllatic fUIldioll has been changed. Only the characters doseh' relatt'd in Ollt' wa\' or another to till' \'alastro" have Ilt'ell pi('kl'd lip from t ht' lllOtll'y nowd of till' novel. TIll' dowllfall of till' Yalastros. in particular. is dt'picted with lllarwlous dramatic I'conom)" ill a series of SCt'IU'S ill which olle ('\'('nl. ont' blow, ilH'Xorabh' follows another. Just as ':\wlli is ahout to enter the tavl'nl wlll'n' tilt' ·'mall with .\merinln cigan'ttl's" is talking Cola inlO leu\'ing for tht' comineu!. \'armi ,'Ollles to tdl him drat the rt'l'rl's('ntati\','s of tht' bank han' arri\'l~d to t'xallliIH' (and t'H'lltually tak,' o\'l'r) their alICI'!">tral hOlllt'. After thi,; Cola i" ';(,I'n lea\'illg, graudfathl'r fall,; ill aud is takt'1l to a hospital. awl Lucia briugs shame 011 Ilt'rself by "ecomill~ dUll Salvator',.; mist n',;,;. We lIever It'arn what happt'lb to thl'm: ollt' by one. all thrt'" simply disapl't'ar frolll tilt' story. As oppo!'led to YI~rga' s gO!'l!'lil'ing awl bickl'rillg villag,'rs. Yil"icollti' s charactt'rs display 11 stoic lIohility that giw,; ';'I;tolli's full tilt' di~nily of tragedy. Ht'llOir's TOfti COIlIt'~ dost'r to Yerga in this n~spt'ct. La /(',.,.a trt'flUl is struetured around ':\toni' s couragl'(Hb attt'1I1l't to ehauge tilt' fortunes of his family. I It- fails. but it is not Ill'cau!'lt' of SOil\(' imlllutal,le fate or because the laws of lIat un' an~ aguin!'lt him. lit' kllOWS he is fightiug against all opprt'ssin' social alltl t'('oIl01l1ic ordl'r. This IW("(HlH's apparent particularly ill tilt' SCI'IIt' ill which tilt' \'alastros art' forced to sell their li!'lh to Ihl' wholesalt'r!">: tIlt' lalll'r kllow the family is ill troubh' allll that tllt'y ,'all dictate thl' prices of fish. Gradually ':'\itoni ht'comt's aware that tilt' "ocial order is 1I0t a fixed entity. It can be changed. hut ollly through collectiw aetioll. This poillt is mad .. t'xplicit whl'll, close to tire end of thl' tillll, ':\toni r('ct'iws sYlllpatllY froIll a little girl. and Iit' tt'lIs hl'r that challge ('all ouly takl' plact' when all the lisllt'rs art' ready to unitl' ill a collet·tin' effort. ,

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In the film. ecol\omic factors dt'tenllille the way most human relationship;; are structllred. For a brif"f momellt it appears that 'Ntoni will be ahle 10 reach his belmwl :'-iedda. the daughter of a rich family. hut as his fOrlllnf"S change. he call1lot eV\'1I get to see her. Toward the end of the film sIll' is seen in tilt' arms of the successful wholesaler Lorenzo. Mara' s beloved :\icola feels that as a poor bricklayer he is not worthy of her after her family launches a private ellterprise. Aftt'r thf" \' alastms' downfall.. !\Iara in I urn ft'cls that since she is a woman wilhout a dowry. she is no IOllger a suilahle candidate for marriagt·. TIlt' Valastros' struggle against the prnailing social etmdiliolls alltl I'rI'judices also leaves them at the mercy of nature. Because the community lives in close contact with nature. the two are not wry far from each olhpr. The \' alastros' attempt to introduce change is ill effecl all attempt to impose a linear concept of time as opposed to the prl·dominantly cyclical time that gowrns life in the village of Aci Trezza. III I he present sdwrne of things. the only way the inhabitants can escape the wheel of cyclical lime is to leaw Ihe village. as 'Ntoni's brother Cola doe .... Linear time manifests itself only in wear alld tear. in growing old. in the loss of possihilitit·s. Pal11y ht'cause of the voice-over ("'As always tilt' day in Aci Trezza hegins .. "", "Every night the boats leave .. "'). Ihere is a strong iterative sense at the beginning of Ihe film. hut it quickly becomes what Chard Genf"tte has called "pseudo-iterative" in that although something is pre~:jf"nted as itf"rative, it displays details that are unlikely to occur rept'atcdly. When we first St't' Ihe Valastro gids. \Iara and Lueia, the latter is looking at the family photo~raph and the memories it evokes in her serve as an f"xposition of the falllily"s past. The act itself is obviously Hol likely to occur too often. and Ihus it helps 10 change from iterati"e to singulative. from general (the fishermen of Aci Trezza and their morning routint:') to the panicular (the Valastros Oil the mOffling when the story starts). Soon the chain of ewnts that fonns the backhOllf" of the film begins with the singular en'nl of '''toni's rebellion. As Marsha Kinder has poillted out. ill many neorl'alisl films. the "slippage" from itf"ratiw to "singulalive" mode sugge ... t;; that lire singular events are rI'presentalive awl typical rath .. r than sOllletltillg exceptiollal t'ntergillg frolll ordinary life. What Iraplwns to the Valastros is. of course. extraordinary. but the itt'rative aspt'ct of I he hegilllling t'mphasizes that they are ordinary pt·ople sf"eking a solution to the basil' problems of their IiveS."7 A,-; things grow worse for them. Ihe rI·lies of stability gain new signiticaIlCt'. Millicenl ;\lan'us Iras fo('ust'd on how the family photograph ~wen

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in passing at crucial moments during the film serves as an image of continuity and family unity. Yet because the pil'ture is slrougly eharacterized by studio artifice, it also emphasizes the illusory lluality of stahility. OIlCl' the family has eho:;en a path of dlange. In ils sI illness, the photop.-raph is an image of escapist fantasy outside the realities of lillt'ar tillle.'/1I At tht' end of the film. as the men once again leave for the St'a. Mara in a sad gesture of hope hangs thl'" picture 011 the wall of their nl'"w home, The weight of the opprl'"ssiw conditions is felt strongly also oeeausl'" the camera never leaves Aci Trezza. excl'"pt in the seenes at sea at the hegiuning and end of the film, The outside world appears only indin'l'tly when '~toni is taken off' to prisOl!. when tilt' family goes to sign a contract with the bank, when a strange IIlan offering Americall cigarettes appl'ars to tempt lilt' youngsters to IIlO\'t' to the continent. and whell lilt' old harouess hunol's the inauguration of the IIt'W boats with her presen('e, '1'111'1'1' al'e also allusions to modt'm Italian hi:.tory, All image of a hamlller allll sickle ean oe SI'I'U 011 the wall of the n'staurallt. Hailllollllo. 0111' of tht' wholesalers. says: --The COllutry is full of cOllllllunism!" And his eollt'ague all:;wers: ., Haimondo is always right." in Cl parody of th ... Fas('isl slogan. "11 DuCt, is always right.·· AI 1111' end 41f tllP fillll. a fadt'd t('xl ('an lit' ~;eI'J1' hehind Raimondo: "Co with (it-tt'J'Iuinutioll toward the pl'oplt" MII!;"olini, ...... ':\toni ha:, lived 011 the ('olltillellt for some time, awl apl'an'lltly that is when' his mind has heen opl'lIed 10 lIew thoughts, He is IIUW ill I'hal'~(' of the family because his fathel' has died al s('a alld his gralldfathl'r is old, 'i\wui feels that he bl'lou?!s to Aei Trl'zza, that Ihis is wht're lw has to fi~ht his haltles, His thoughts takt' shape gradually. mainly in IhI' 01'('11 air. at work, Cola dOt~s 1I0t ha\'(' such a strollg rt'latiOlbhip with his work or lIalurt', awl, aoon' all. Ill' is nol n'''IHllbiblt, for the family, lit' call I'SCapl', Ill' is sel'lI takill~ It lIuJIIlwr of photographs oul of ':\"tonj"~ Il'unk, images from Ihe bi~ world OUbidt' A('i Tn'zza, III 0111' of Ihl' lillll's \'isually alld psychologically lIIosl cOlllplex S('I'III'~, the b)'(lllll'r~ an' Sl't'lI ill 1'1'0111 of a lIIirJ'llr 011 which Cola Iws pilI a photo~raph of ';\toni ill his army IIniforlll alld which refll'cb his 11\\"11 fan'. The IIt'xt shot l'ap1ll1'I's till' pllOtugraph alld ':\"toni's imagl' ill tilt' JIIirror ulltilllll' t'allll'm pall'; 10 ':\tolli'~ sad fal'l' ill till' lighlesl do~l'-up of tllt' I'wire lillll, as Ill' says: '·E\"t'rywlll'l'I' ill Ihe world tlH' walt'r is salty. if WI' go lH'yolld the Fal'agliolli [tilt' J'lwb ill 1111' "I'a Ihat ~lIard tht' pOl'1 of Aci Tn'zza], the ('111'1'1'111 ('all I'arry liS away," '1'111' dinl'n'II1 iJllagl''; - phulugraph. lIIirJ'tll'. tlH' Cillt'lIlalit' imagl' ibelf - n,l1t'('1 alld 1'1'111"1'';1'111 till' past. tilt' PI'I'SI'IIt. alld Ihl' fUlul'l'. tilt' tellsioll 1)('1\\"1'('11 illlllHlIlt'llI't' alld aspiral iOIl al tlH' 1'411'1' of \" is('OIlI i' s art. 100

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As ':\toni proct'eds on his I'ia du/orosa. he exhihits almost a toueh of saintliness. Wht'1I he and his brotllt'rs \' allni alld Alfio bow their heads allll approach the wholesalers for work. they takt' the :,tin~ out of Lorenw' s 1II0ckilll! laughter with tilt' ;;illlplt' dignity of t heir start'. And earlier OIl. wlwlI tilt' whole~alers offt'f a ridiculuusly low prict' fOf the \' alastros' eatch of tish. as i" so often the caSt' in nt'ort'alist tilllls. t he faces of tilt' childft'n re~ister alllazt'nlt'nt at tIlt' cnll'lty of the adults. which in this narrativt' cOlltext can almost be sel'll a~ tlw tin;t sil!ns of awakening 1'011sciuu~Ilt'ss. Similarly. just when ':\toni i,.; ahout tu ft'cognize the trut' caust' of tile problt'JII~ of his kind awl hi" c1as~ and see tire need for collective action. tilt' sympathy shown by the liult, girl Rosa helps him m'en'omp Iris pride and ,.;el'k work from the wholl'salers as a day lahorer. TIll' ~;rll,.,e of lIobility is t'nhallced by the \'isual style. a crucial ft'at urt' of which is the ust' of fadt',., to ;;('varate alld mark transitiolls from ont' main sequence to anothel' and Ji;;,.,olves to 1'00l11ect/separate subst'qut'w't's with/from ont' anolhl'r. In his liscuflti p i/ !VpurealislI/o. Lino ~lit"('ich~ Ira,., made a thorou~h study of tilt' USt' of fadt's allJ dis"olvt's (as wl'lI a" allllost t'very other cOllceivablt, formal aspect) ill La terra trema and d(,lIIollstratl'tl how they too have a definite fUllction in creating a distinct narrativt' rhythm in the tilm. FurtlH'1"I110fl'. Iit' poillt,; out that this cillt'matic strat('~y has a pn'ct'dt'lIt in \'I'rga's !.1lallll'oK/ill. In tt'n cases out of fourkt'n. a IIt'W chal'tf'r IJt'~ill'; witlt the salll" subject alld "ometinll';; allllost a paral'hrast' uf tilt' la"t ,-;elllt'nc,> of tire lu·t'\·ious chapter. as can Iit' St"'11 at thl' ,>nd of chapter 1() alld tiff' be~illllilll-! of chal'lt'r 11: "Collle que! . '\jtolli ~Iala\"0l-!Iia lil. 1"11(' va gin'lIolli a qllt'st" ora 111'1 pa,'st'!" a lit I "l'lla volta ':\Ioni \\alavo,glia. alldando l-!in'lIolli IlI'I papst'" (I.ih tlrat ':\tolli \Iala\0I!Iia tllt'rt'. loiterillg rolllld dlis beautiful cOlllltry!/OIH"t' ':\tolli \\ala\0l!lia. loiterill,!! rOlllld till' Iwautiful ('oulltry ... ). Similarly. Witllill tilt' dlaptt'rs \'er~a'~ naJTation rullS tltlt'ntly from Ollt' topit' to anotlH'r.101 :\ Ilalllt' mil!llt elllt'rgl' ill tilt' ("ourse of tilt' dialogllt' and tlrt' Ilt'xt parawaplr will It,ll sUllwthing about that illdividual and wlrat IH' or "Iit' IHlp\,,'l\s to Ill' doillg at tlrat tillH': .. , ha\(' IlIlI 1'11111101 a hll"l.alld." "1llIslt'in's lIIolltagt' technique. 10"> This is a slight exaggt'ratioll as the shot:; art' not arrangf'd ill the killd of counterpoint that Eisl'lblt'ill thought to Ill' tIlt' pssl'nce of mOlltage. but the pact' of t'diting is at its highest and ("t'rtainh-. r('millisc('nt of tilt' Russian styli, . of the 19~Os ..\flt'r tilt' downfall of the Vala"tl"O,; llas Ilt'gulI. tht'rp is a hrit'f returll to rapid lIIolltagt' t'ditillg as a sprit'S of shob of tilt' fac(,s of the 1IIt'llIlwrs of t Iit' family - IIlt'n alld WOlIlt'II. of thrt,t, gt'lwrations - t'lnl'ha"izes tllt'ir silent d('sl't>mtion as t1lt'ir fish are Iwillg "old at all ahsurdly low price. But howeH'r 10llg the shots. tilt' illlages. with tllt'ir careful {"olllpositions alld ("Olllra"t of light a lit I shadow. hoth give tht' lIIiliplI alld till' fatt's of tilt' chamctt'rs a St'IISt' of "erplIp heauty and a lIIythind aunt. Theft' is a COIIII('ctioll with tilt' heroic

i.

proletarians of early Soviet film:;. hut hen' the iIlla~e:; evoke pity rather than admiratioll. A vast majority ofthe shot~ are no dose I' Ihan IIwdium ~hor:,. According to Min'iehe's count. one-fifth of the :;hob are medium long :;hot:-; and three-fifths range from full shots to mediulll shot:-;. The rt'st tt'lId to 1)(' long shots. There are only ahout a dozen dose-ups. Only in olle shot is the framin~ tiglu. though not yet all extrt~me dmw-up. nanu·ly. the scene in which ':'itoni tries to assuage Cola's hUrIling dt'sire to lean:, Aci Trezza. Appart'ntly this style was chost'n in part IWl'allse of the use of nonprofessiollal actors. who could nut he t'x!wl'ted to al't with the prt'ci"ioll required hy a more I'haracter-centered caJl\('ra style. In any I'ase. the charaett'rs muw around within their "pan' as if guided Ly a spontallt'ously invented choreography. Already in hi~ second film Viswllti showt,d himself to Iit' a mash'r of mise-l'Il-SI'Plle. hm'ing an impeccahle :-;ellse of how ohj('l'ts and character:; need to he distrihuted in space in ordt'r to achie\'t' maxi1Il11111 clarity of expression. TIlt' impression is that tilt' people and Ihe thingil are then' 1I0t for tlw camera and for the plot. hut Iwcawit' they belong theft'. \'isconti could adli{~Vt' this effel't hecaus(~. as I"haghpour has pointt'd out. he "think:; in tt'nns of scellt's. as opposed to Mumau or Eist'nstein who thiuk of the take or montage." Wh The use of a call1era style that keep:; the spectator at a slight distallce frolll the character:; awl event:-; is hOlh au at':;thetic and an ethical choi('('. a ge~ture of respect for tht' life of lhe peopl{' of Aci Tr{'zza. Togetlwr with the ealm pace of the film. it prevents the ideological ohjet'tive and till' need to fonnulatp it as a stury from taking over the do('ullwlltary or allthropological aspect of the fillll. Totwther with the ("t)1ll1llt'lItat'Y' this makes \'iscollti's narratin' strategy IIlw·h lIlon' d{'tadwd thall Verga·:;. which. with it;; abundalJ('(' of direct and free iJl(lirel·t discourse. gives Illuch more of all ill;.ide view of the life of tlw villagers. Vist'onti gin'S ;\('i Trezza and its people enough span' to establish tlwir illdividuality awl their particular :;it uat iotl. as opposed to tilt' ulliversalizillg aspecI of the plot. '1'111' two have to Iit' ill halam'" so that all "n~lIt call 1Jt' apprecialf'd hoth ill ih uni'lut'IIt'ss alltlulliversality. Ceorg Luk.lcs would han' approved of the way Vist'ollli tn'ats his suhject Illattl'r. A" Cuidu Aristan'o ha:; poilltt'd out. ":\aturalislll slOp" at desnihing phenolllt'na ill the presl'lIt: realislll of pl\t'II01l1l'lla f{'veals tilt' essellt.·... it illdicates Ihe 'frolll where' aJl(1 the 'wllt're to: "1Il7 III otllt'r wun!;; - as was argued earlier ill t'OIl1ll't·tioll with the theory of lIeorealislll - cint'lIlatic J"t'alislll i:; nol just a tl'lt'stion of reprOdllt'lioll. it is al:;o all

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attempt to penetrate beyond the superficial to the underlying structures. Tht' most effective meam tu do so is, in the Lukacsian sense, through a typical as opposed to an an'ragt' dmractt'r .. a figure whu embodies some of the relevant (,ontradietiow; of his age. An average eharacter can be used in descriLing situations. but through types it is possible to analyze those situations allll embody the relt'vant social, moral. and psychological oppositions of a giwn historical situation. \011 Pursuing this line of thought, one llIay ~ee in La terra trelllll a movelllent "from chronicll' to history, from pht'II01l1etta to their es~wnce. from the average to tilt' typical." However. Lukacs' s idea cannot be separated from the narrative Illode ~H' is discussing. III his The Historical N()l'el he writes that "both drama and large epic, to give a faithful image of human life. llIust reflect correctiy the dialectics of freedom and J1t·cessity." Aecordillg to Lukac~. drama focuses on individual illitiative, alld thus "it is only in tht' collisioll and its COli sequence that the human deed is shown to be restricted and limited. to be socially and historically detennined. ,. In contrast, the vast t'pic emphasizes necessity, "those general objective forces which are necessarily strollger than the will and resolve of the individual.·' III La terra trema. Visconti appears to steer between these two form!; of Ilarrative. Oil the olle hand. individual initiative does ()('cupy the foreground: 011 the other hand, "the circumstances which ... give rise to thi~ initiative" art' indicated more than just "in their general outline" and "the element of necessity is present and prevalent throughout,"' as is typical of the epic. So although ill tenns of cinematic tradition La terra trf'lfla can conveniently be classified as an epie - primarily because of its It'ngth. leisurely pace, and cydic features, which together create the feeling of time passing solemnly, irrespective of all human activities - tht're is also a sense in which the film has a distinct dramatic quality. namely. the tight organization of the plot. The dramatic and epic features. together with the purely cinematographic, give the film a rich sen!;e of Loth the natural and the social environment, as well as an aesthetic qualiry that is ill pt'rfect harmony with the underlying social analysis alld psychological sensitivity. Within this schemt' Visl"onti also realized his ideal of that "iJllernal and lIIusical rhythm" that already in 19... 1 he thought would be the key to adapting Verga for the screell. He and Willy FeITt'ro took the nondi'~getil" lIlusic from Sicilian folk melodies. 011 the whole music is quite "pan;!' in the tilm. LUl it illtTeabl'S toward Ill(' end to emphasize the fate of the Valastros. There is all abundance of dil·getic music in the funn of sOllgs. don SalYatore whi,.,t1iJlg tlltH'S from operas. and lh,· poi~'Hl/It mel-

owes played by unde l\iulIzio OIl his oboe. Furthermore, the soumls of the wind ami the sea, of ships returuing to the harbor. cries from the streets, and the musicality of tilt' Siciliall dialect create their own archaic atmosphere. Much of the deLate surroundiug La terra trl'lIlll has celllered on the questiou of its realism with respect to its considered aesthetic quality. Millicellt Man'us quotes Visconti"s "TradiziOlw (. illl'eIlZiofw": if it is Iht' lIIu~it'altrl'atJl1t'1II that will t'lt'\"uIP Iht' ~Iory from Iht' le v'" of "pt'a~allt chrOllidt'" to thal of allcie/ll lra~t'dy. we realize how far wt' an' from a critical realist pt'rspe('tiw whose Illl'anS would be rigoroll~ly intellectual. and whose I'/HI would be the cineIllatic equivalent of the hi~torit'al /lowl. as Luk,lcs ""fillt,,, it. 10"

But the film does haw a critical realist per~pt'!'tive. and evcn the wordless passages can lw seen not as illerI' aesthetic indulgence or dot'umental'Y description, Lut as llleditation~ 011 time aud spat~e. The point is that here time aud space t'lllphatically constitute the euvironllu'ut that the characters inhahit. Whereas iu Alltonioni"s films the desolalt' urhan SllITllundiugs call lit' seeu as a metaJ-lhor of alieuation and spiritual t'lIIptillt'SS. in La term trelllo the characters live in very dose relationship with lIat IIn~. In the storm sequence they almost hecome oue with it as the wOllwn are seen in their black ganueuts among the equally hlack rock:; anxiously gazing at the sea. waiting for signs of their mellfolk n'turnillg from llature's vehement emhrace. The tone alld atmosphere of the scene is stuic alld unsentimental. The indexicalpotelltial of film, its capat'ity for"phellomellOlogical realism" within a nan-ative structure. is t'xploitt'd tu the full to make a profouud alld movillg :;tatemellt about the st'vere (·tIIulitiulls imposed by nature on those who have been o:,tracized from their COlIlmUllity. ;\ature is strollgly present iu the images while the relationship of the characters to the eonlIllullity is shown through the plot. Some confusion has arisen iu assessing this film owing to the use of the voice-over t'ollunentary. which was addt·d after the film was l'omplt'wd. Apparently even Visconti himself thought of it as a compromise. Nevertheless, it serves to make an important point. regarding the film's opening statcmelll ahout Italian uot heing ""the lallguage of the poor." Sin!'1' the commentary is in ltaliall. it reminds us that the allalysis has beell provided and tht' film has been conceived hy non-Sicilians, foreigners from ahroad. 110 But the comllwlltary also has important narrative and thematic fUllctiollS ill the ullfolding of the story. The poetic quality of the voice and the words are a part of the classical unity of till' film. The COlllmt'lItary n'pf'ats or rt'slImt';; -;ome of tlJ(' dialoglw - paI11y for the

\ ISCO.,\TI

llt'ndit of most of the Italian audiell('p. to wholll the dialect is incompreIwnsiLle - but it also mediates hetween the particular and gem'ral spheres hy pointing out the factors that ~o\"Crn the Iwha\'ior of the characters and the cOIIIIllunity as a whole. particularly its traditions. III The commentary i:; thw; a crucial part of the stl'llctllre. which in \licciche' swords "deterlIIine[s] the greattlt'ss of this film ... the perfect fusion bNween anthropological discoVt'ry. lyrical nllltemplation. ideological enunciation and narrati\"(, practice."II:! TI\pr.. is .vet another. ('ven more basic reason wh\". La tl:'r,.a trelll(l can Iw called a realistic work. Visconti has often been aCt'ust'd of Letraying his ideal:; in making this film. :h already lIIentiont·d, t he film wa:. at one point going to Le a docu1l1elltary about Sicilian fishers. The idea lIIay have been to show that Italy was in a revolutionary situation in the marxist sense and that a film about the poverty of the sout.h IIlight make people more aware of the contradictions hetween the south and the north. The way tht' film turned out retIects. or at least is curiollsly parallel with. the changed political circumstances in Italy. After tht· defeat of the left in the election of April 19-.8. the prospects of a socialist revolution (or evolution) probably secIlled increasingly utopian. Visl'onti's an is anything but utopian. Making the film was a continuous interaction with the subject matter at hand. and thus reality imposed its own conditions on the film. The poor of the south were not prepared to ri:'>e against t he prevailing order. and the ollly prote:.t they engaged in was to support reLt'ls such as the bandit Sah-atore Giuliallo. Thus Visconti could not depict collective action according to the marxist ideal without blatalltly distorting the actual si tuation. I1.1 This callnot be set'n as a betrayal unless loyalty to all ideolu~y is undt'rstood to J't'quirt' blind dogmatism. Viscollti could hardly he accused of di:.tort ing reality and its richness by sticking to an ideologically burdt'ned intnpretation of it. For him marxislIl was 1I0t a way of l'xplailling tilt' world in its t'lItirety. as it was for many of its supporters ill the heat of the ('old war. Tu Visconti. it wa:; more of all ethical stand and a way of analyzing certain features of socicty. In La terra tn:'ftUl the )'t'aSOIl!:i for the Valastros' failure are carefully slwlled out ill the narrative structure. which dt'arly portray:, econolllic relationships a:, the all-illlportant factor gO\'t'fIIing the activities of individual:, and the cOllllnllnity as a whole. The subjl'ctivt' poilll of Yit~W ('Ollvl'yl'd through tilt' characters ellables t hI' spectator to experiellce tilt' human signilicalH'l' of the social relationships dqlicted. La te,.,.a trellUl offen'd \', 'j'j,"rlllllity for O(lI't' to sidt' UII-

\ ISeO\ TI .\'\ I> \ LOHE.\ LlS:\1

equiv(wally with his characters. As YOtlssel' Ishaghpollf puints 0111. it is olle of the few lilms in tilt' history of eillt'ma in which"povcrty is neither a degradation nor tIlt' SOIllTt-' of miserablellt'ss madt' ('omfurting by lwstowing on it tht' halo uf salll"tity:'IH Iw;tt-'a(1. as Vit'iconti had already hinted ill his essay "/1 cinema (LfltropumOlfico··. the at-'stlwlic quality uf the film. its poetic formalism. the allt'itere lIeallty of its images. and its solemn tempo giw the charactt'rs the quality uf HUIllt'ric heroes. To some extent. this miglll appt-'ar to slIhslTiile to the fatalistic notion of humall affairs. but at least man is shown to have had a hawl in shaping his destiny. The at-'slllt'lic - as well as tllt' passionate and IIwlodramatic quality in Vis('unti's films is always hpt in check by Ihe umlerlying analysis and ideological commit llIt'nt. La te,.ra t,.elllll was H'ry poorly rt-'C('ived when il pn'miered at the Venice 61111 festival. A group uf protesll'rs pronoulH'ed it an artistic fail 11ft'. Zt'ftirelli becanlt' enraged and got into a fistfight with thelll. II~, The shouts. whistle". and fights were in r('spollse not only to the film. but also to till' political scent'. The Christian Dt'nlOcralie gO\l'nllllel1l had jusl lalllH'lwd an attack against the t-'ll1ire nt-'oreali:-.tie IIlOH'lIIt'lIt. alld the bourgt'ois audit'lIce at Ihe festival wa:-. probahly strollgly prejudiced against tht' holIlosexual COllllllllllist ari:-;tocrat who. 011 top of n"erything. dart'd to din'cl films. Fllrthenllore. lIlallY leftist critics accust'tl Vis('ollti of fonnali:-;m and of intlul~ing in aestheticislll. To~liatti. for example. ('oultlllot uuder:-;Iaud why \'i"collti":; film had uot depicted till' activilit':-; of Ih(' pUI1y aut! till' trade IllliOlb. \"ist'ollli n·l'lied: "Tlwn' are 110 parties. lIot to 1Ilt'lItioll trad,' ullions [ill A,~i Trezza):' 011 the wholt>. Italian ("filiI'S rt'lIlaillt'd cool. alld it was ollly afll'r Ih,' prellli,'n':; ill Paris. I ,olldoll. allll :\,'w York that tIlt' film bel!an 10 Iit:' al'pn'cialt'd. 11h

BELLlSSBIA

In search of a style.' Aflt'r \-isl'ouli cOlllpl"I,-d IAI te,.,.(( In'III((. Ill' n'"ullwd hi,., ("art','r as a tllt'atl'r director. 'Iow Iit' wallted 10 1T,'alt' "ollll'thill!! !!J"alldiost-'. 10 lak,' :-;ollle di:;lall('e fro/ll n'ali,,1l1. III a prodlll'tioll or.l~ l()ll Like i/llt' "xplol"ell Ihealrind pos:-;illilitil''' to rllI'ir full,'"'' l/to ,bk,'d Sah"ador Dali 10 (It',,i!!" till' "ph. till' rococo-slyle I"O;;IUIIII'". alld riit' lil!htiJl!!_ TIH' IllllSic for Shak,'"pean:" It'XI:; was by ThOlllas \lor/,'Y' 11"llry Pun'"ll. Tholllas AnII'. alld ""il/iam Hoyct'. \'is"oJlti Itill.,..elf d,'scrilll'd Ihl' productioll as "a fallla"y. " .1..,':1111" a ,. " 'i \ Iillt," ,'arialioll" from tilt' tllI'lII" of 10vl'." The

- .} .)-

\I~(.()"TI

alldiencl:' loved the production. but so III I:' leftist cfitics accusl:'d Viscollti of hetraying I1t'oreali:;1I1. III feply. Viscollti protested that neorealism should not Iw reduced to "H COIlIiIlt'lIlt'nt. a law'-' but that it should Iit' ulI(lt'r~tood as "a IIwtllOd. all approach'-' Ht' called fur "lIeither realism 1I0f lIt'o!"t'alislII, but falltasy, cUlllplett' liberty of display'-"': \'iscollti"s lIt'xt pruductioll, Tt'l1llt'ssee \\illialll~'s...t Streelcar SWlled /)esire, was t~asit'r fOf the propllllt'lIh of reali~1II tu stomach. alld it was favorahly feceiVt'd. Ac,'ordin!! to ('fitil' Silvio (L\.lIIi,'o, \'iscollti 1I0W slH't"l:'ed,'d ill l'Olllllillill1! his "ultra realist it"" alld hi!"> "l:'xis\('lItialist" approaches. Ciulllli HUlldolillo recalled tllt'se productiolls ill his ~tudy 011 Viscollti: "The 'Tude!">t lIaturalisllI was tralls/igured into a dramatic tellsioll that llIade tilt' !'>I'ectade 1I0t ollly a "lice of life but U gralld lIIetaphor of hUIlHlI1 t'Xistt'lIt'e.-'IIH \'ist'ollti's lIext projl:'cts werl:' \'ittorio Altieri's Oreste alld Shakespeare's Troillls alld Cressida at tilt' ~Iaggio ~Iusit'alt' festival. which gave him allotllt'f chalice to producl:' gralld spectade~. Although lllallY of his productions at this tilllt'. particularly the gralld sp('ctadt's. were successful and help!'d Viscollti Iwcollw illlt'J"IHltiollally kllOWII, they wert' an artistic dead-elld, Despitl:' his love of fantasy alltl his skill in creating it on stage, his true strl:'ngth lay ill chartillg the hUlllall sodal and spirirual conditioll through lictiollal characters studit·d as the agt'llts of can'fully cOllstructed plots St't ill lIIf'ticulously (fe )collstrut'ted t'lI\'irolllllt'lIh, This kiJlt I of t'mphat ically lIIillH't ic approach pro\'es awkward ill tlw t1watt'l" a~ l'olllpan~d with tilt' Cillt'II1., £lilt I the barber are comic episodes that illuslrate how lIIuch money awl efforl can go into ereating a superficial effect. Yel Ihese are ml'J't> bagalelles compared with Iht' trick thal Annonlzzi plap 011 Maddalt>na. SI le gives him money to ll~t' his "inJlllence" to help Maria gt't the part. It soon he comes clear thal Iit' has spent tht' lIIoney Oil a W'W motor scooter amI 011 enlertailling his girl friend. This dot's llot upset \Iaddalena to any great extenl sincl' lwr plans appt'ar to Lit' proceeding in till' right directiun anyway. An alleviating faclor i" 110 doubl Anllovazzi\; charm. Lo which ~laddaJella is ct'rtailllv 1101 illlmUllt'. He consid"rs her a desirable WOlllall awl starts flirting with her. It looks as though she might even be slH·culllbing. but then lie starts talkillg about not wanting to have ilIusion~ and disappoinlII)('lltS ill lift' and pits Ihis against the ideal of livillg for the 1I101llelll. Ill' is inadVt'rll'lIt1y guidillg Maddalt'na toward a llIon' lllatun' altilllde IowaI'd lift'. ;,Olllt'lhill;! Ileyolld tilt' pursuit of hOlh illusiolls and plt'a"un>. \Iaddalt'na I'ast's ht'l'self oul of till' situalion with a Iwarty laugh. alld Allllovazzi makl's all ('Illbarnl,;!"il,d J't't J't·at. As hl' It'a\'t'~. Iit' sugge;,{,; thal ~laddall'lta should vi"il hi" friend Iris who is working at Cin('cilta. SIlt' could show tilt' "crl'I>1I 11',,1 that wa" lIIadl' of \Iaria. Iris lurw; out tu he a fril'wlly youllg woman. and \laddall~na 1'1>1'ognizes her as the slar of Castdlalli's fillll Sottu if solt' di RUfII(t (L'n-

\1~C()\Tl\\\)

\EOHE.\L1::;.\1

der tIlt' :;1111 of Home. t 9-+S). Iri:; - play I'd by Liliulla \1allcini ht'rs('/f bllt going ullder the mUl\(' of the dJamctl'r in Castt'lIalli' s film - tt'lIs ~laddalt'na what ha~ hapP"llI'd to her SillCt' that film was lJIad,'; after aCling ill a couple of films. she had 110 lJIon' rol('s oITert'd to h(,1". tilt' illusion wore off. alld she ('lId(,d IIJl a:; an onlinary 1'lJIploy('(' at tilt' film studio (whidl was rollghly what act ually happeIH'd to \Iant"ini). Maddal('na i:; shll('ked but lIt'vert hdt'ss SII('('(,l'ds ill I't'rsllading Iri;; to let lH'r amI \Iaria into tilt' projection roOIJl as Bla;;etti and his a:-.si;;tants an' watching the !:">('J"t't'1J tests. TIlt' tt'st fillJl :-.lIow;; \\aria burst illg illto t,·ars. and JlwllllH'rs of the film crew Iuul!h crtH'lIy. Only Blasetli !'I'maills calm and al'l"'ars slightly alllloY"d hy thl' n'actiolJ of hi:-. assistants, In the projection roolll. \laddalt'lIa is dt'va~tated. TIlt' monlt'nt is particularly touching IWC'i.lllst' her cryillg fat,(, is tie,'1I ill do:;,'-up. tllt' OIlIY . om' of tht' t'ntin' film. From that mOIllt'nt 011. sht' will not tr\". to substitute tln'allls alld illusions for n'al life. Perhaps an "\"I'll murt' important t1WIlIt' in nt'lIissilllll t hall tilt' conflict bt'I\H"'1l illusions alii I a sellSI' of the rt'al world is tilt' notioll that tilt' practin':; of tilt' fillll illdustry lead to thl' misus,' of I','opl,'. III tilt' t'1I(\. \Iaria is offert'd the part ill Blasetti\ film. Lut \laddall'lIa n,fll:;(,:-' to acc('l't it. evell thoul!h it tlll'llS out that .\Iaria has made all impJ"l'ssioll I)('caus,' of her lIalUrallwhavior alld lIot tht' IIJallJlt'ri:-.llb cllltinlled ill acting and dancing lessons. Life with Sl'artaco may not 1)(' particularly ,'xciting. but Iit' repn'seuts tht' st'curity and IlIlJnan warJllth without whidl lift' wOllld be meaningless. Tht' t'ndillg. with its reafJirmation of family IIlJity. i:; unique amollg Yis('ollli" s film,.;, 1:11 Bellissillla can altio bt' illlt''l''·t't t·d as a crit iqllt' of tilt' IIS(' of nonprofessiollal actor:; ill nt'ort'alist films - Lilialla \Iancini" s fatt' wa:; ill 110 wa\" exceptiollal. /,(1 .l/a{!,"fI(lIIi in the I,>adillg rolt, was a major slt'l' away froJII this policy. Ilt'r ~trollg pn'sew't' gin's Maddalella· :-.Iint'. ··1 too. could have become an actress. had I walltl'd to'-· a deli/!htflllly irolli('f1a\"oJ'. Equally cumic is the illstrut'tioll sIit' gin's to her daught.·r. "'1'0 Iw('ollle all artist 0I1t' mu,;tll' t '"'llt'ak HOJllallt's('o."· whil,> \Iagllalli"" OWII torn'lItial spl'edl lIuws throllghout in this Homall dialect. 011 Ihe wllOl,'. ~Iagllallj aJIIl'ly d"IIIOJlst ralt'" how t hea t ri('ali t .\" alld "t .dizat iOJl 1'ought to ('n~a\(' the eHect of candlelight of the periud.;!~ In the origillal do:-.illg scellt' Ihat wa,; actually shot. Livia. aft('r having Ill'tntyt'd Frallz by informing his military ~111)('riors about his false doc-

HI E H 1~ 0 H C 1'I L :\"1 () I· 11. \1 :-'

tor's eertifieatt\ walks amollg the .twllkl'll Austriall"; CI'lebmt ing tllt'ir victory. According to Vis('ollti: One left Franz 10 his OWII affair~: we Ihn'w away Frallz·., story! It did 1101 maller whether he died or 1I01! 0111' Il,ft him after till' ~n'lH' ill the apartlllelll dllrin~ which he showed how repugllllllt h(' i,.;. Then' wa~ 110 (loilll ill ,.;el'illg him eXI'I"lI !t'1 I. So we wen' II'ft with her who rail to dellClUlwe hilll alld ru;;hed 10 the ~ln'I't. SIH' passed allHlII/! whort's allll Iwcallll' a sort of laM IlI'r,.;df. going from ont' soldier to allother. Then ~he lied sho\ltill~ ·'Frallz! Franz!" alld we p/llllled 011 to tlH' young soldier. symbol of thosl' who paid for the \·jctories and really ITied. slll'd hot tears while shouling: '·Long live :\lIslrja!··~·-'

Lux thought this "IHling was too

-·dan~erolls'·

It was replaced by the sCt'W' in which Fnmz is

and hunlt'd lht' Ilt'gatiw. t'xt'cllted,~"

In the editillg stage tilt' I'rodut't'r slIggested aitogPlher jiftl'en cub. and Viseollti had to light fit'n:ely to pres('rH' the ullity of his tillll. TIlt' /"I'IIIII',.;h wen' apparelltly Illade to avoid cell"orshil' alld to cut riit' fillll to a COIIImercially suitable lengtlL rather than to IWlld to ideological or lIIoral serul'le~. Yiscol1ti. however. stres,.;ed the 1II'l,d to mailltaill the narrative clarity and colu'rellce of his IiIIlL ~7 \lany of tlwSl' challges rdlt'cted till' film's political ,'xplosiH'lIess: Hisorgiml'llto was a sore point for official Italy. alld its annv. . Hi~orgimento a~

history ami mythology

OIl!' of the lirst artidt~;; to discll";s the "I'lIsorill~ of .""I'II.HJ was aptly titled '"TIII' Fear of I tistory"'~1I AlIllatiolls mytllOlo~izt' tllt'ir pa"t. particularly their birth alld fOrJllalioll. UenUl!>e ltaliulI unili('ation took plaC'!' at a time of fairly advanced historio~raphy. an outri~ht di"lortioll of ('vents was Ileed.. d to make possihl,' a natiollalistically /"I>spt'ctahl .. hi,.,tory of tilt' birth of the Killgdolll of Italy.:!" III tHoU. after Italian unification wa~ mon' or It,,.,s coml'll,lt'd. tilt' IIl'xl tar~ellll'caml' the ullllexation of '·t'lIin'. which at that ,;ta~I' was still part of till' AII~lriall EJIIl'i/"l·. :\I'goliatioll" with Pnb.~ia w('("(' slarted. Bismar('k· s ailll was to ~lIaralltl'I' Prussiall hl'gl'llIOIIY ill tilt' C,'nnall an'as alld k""I'\u"lria ollhide tilt' Ct'rtllan IIl1ioll Ihat was wilt' forllled ill tlH' lI .. ar fUllln'. '\"ht'lI tilt' :\1I,.,triall,., /"I'aliz .. d Ihal Ihey W(,I"I' caUl!hl h.. t\\I,,'1I a IWJlllllt'r alld all all\i!. tlwy offt'/"I'd to ("t'de \"('lIit'" ill t'xchallg(' for 11t'1Itrality:'" Blit tilt' Italialls walltl'd to will \"Pllict, I,,·. mililary. IIl1'al.". Stall',.,1I1H1I Fmllt't's"o Crisl'i d .. li\"l'n'd a sl"'t,,'h ill Par/ianlt'lIt alld n'n'ivt,d a I n'1III'IIdolls ovalioll wlwlI Iit' dt'lIlalHled tltal tilt' IIf'W horll killgdolll Iit'

\

I~U)\II

baptized ill Illood. Ct'IIt'ral :\ino Hixio. a IIwIIlLt'r of Par/iament at that tillle. a"surt't1 till' lIation that it» arlllY was spll'lIdid. tilt' navy incontestably superior. alld Italiall eOmlllorgilllt'lIto \\,u" Iltl\ a tnlt' peopl .. ',.,

TilE HbOIlLI\IE\TO F11.\1:-i

will and activity of tilt' pt'oplt' "as silllply Ullt nit', III IIIaIlY pro\'illcl'~ tilt' Iwopll' actually n',.,ist,'d Iwill~ sul,jl'c·tt'd

ItJ

tilt' Pil'dlllollh',.,,' killp:: tilt' ollly

~ro\lp:; n'ally illt"I'l'sh,d ill tilt' IIlIilication wcn' tilt' indu,.,trialis\S alld tilt'

illtell"ctuub, \\'ho for 0111'" had foulld a 1'0111111011 illlt,!'t,,.,t .'1" Cralllschi's ideas took root afll'r t Iit' Fa~('i,.,t pt'riod, \\'h"1I Italialls kit a gn'at lWI'd to affirlll tlwir Iwtiollal idl'ntity alld to Sl'ttlt' thl'ir an'llIlIIb with till' past.

0111'

re",dt of th,' "lbUillg dt'balt' "a" tw,''''e filllls, iliadI' ill

19... 9-,") .... ill "hich tilt' Histlrgilll"lIto fl'atuI'I'd in ont' "ay or anotllt'r. \\o,.,t

of tht'1II p:anwrt't1 linl" attention. \'i"COllli'" ,';CIIS() \\'U,., all "XCI'IJlioll, TIlt' dirt'ctor hilll,.;elf told of tht' difiiculJil.'''' hi,., fillll l'III'ollllt"I'I'd wilh till' officials: wa~ lily ol'i~illal !!uidl·lirw, I "\1'11 \\'Hlllc·d 10llalllC' il ('IIS/0='1I ill al'C'onlarlC'(' wilh lite lIIajor Italiall (ltofl'al. BUI tltc're' \\a" art uproar: I.IIX, dw l\lilli,;tI'Y [of Defl'use], the c','rb"r,." ' , , TIlt' haltl,· \\a, ori!!irtally "uppo"ed 10 Iit' 1I1lI1'1t 1II0re' irllpOl'lUll1. \Iy idea wa' 10 cTt'alt' art 0\ c'rall piclllre' of Iwliart lti~lol'~ from which Ihe illtii\'idllul 'IOI'~ of I.i\ia SC'I'piC'l'i ari,,'s, a (:Olllllc',.,,,, \\ho i" basic'ally jusI a repre'''t'rllali,,' of a cerlaill cia"", \\hat illlt,!'t"It'd lite' \\a, to tdl a "Iory about it lIIiSlllalla!!C'd war. fou:.:11I by a ,ill!!lc' ..la,,, alld 1'lIdill:': ill a di"aslt· ... lc

TIlt' hi"lorinll ""I)I'c'l

Ahholll,dl IIHlIly uf tilt' ,.,n'llI', Ihat w,'n' related to hi~lorical 1'\'('11'" had actually heen dro),p"" ill tilt' ,.,nipt ~tap:t'. th,' n''';1I1t "a,.; 11I'\l'rtlll'll''';''; political dYllalllit'" Till' politi,'al Hip:ht (C11I·i,.,tiall Dt'IIIIHTah alld tilt' lih) ucclI,.;ed \'isconli of ~Iin'ill~ up tilt' du"tl,ilh of hislory, "hilt· till' Il'flisl t'rilit-s (hut 1101 tilt' C('lIIll1uni~1 party) cOIII)'laillt'd hittl'rly OIlCI' agaill abollt whal Ihl'\' cOlIsidl'l'I'd I,..tra\'al of III'olTali,.,1I1. .\lId tilt' al'lll\. was . , gn'atly off"lIdt,d to sl'e ih (It'f,'ab. C'\"'II if allllOst a c"'lIlury old, 011 ),lIhlic' di"play, Perhaps tilt' lIlililary al,.,o f,,1t Ihat ,,(HilI' of tI ' ,'\'1'11(,.; \'i~('OIl1i depict!'d had a l'Olllwctioll wilh

11101'1'

n'('I'1I1 "\"'lIb,'H\

\\'hell fi~htillg brokt' 0111 ill Italy IowaI'd Ihe 1'lId or LII' SI'i'Olld World War. Ihl' Allil's rl'fll",,'d to hu\(' allY official cI,'alill;!s wilh lilt' part i,.;a 11 " , Itblead. they IIt';!oliatl'd all a;!I'I"'lIlt'lIt wilh till' Iligh (:0111111111111 of till' haliall al'llH'd 1'01'1"',.,. Thi,., prol,'c·tl'd tilt' lIlilitary - "hidlhad liltl\' 10 "ho" ill tile' "ay or Slte'c '!',.,,, I'll I actioll or politil'al illlc'!!rily - frolll havillg to fan' po"t,,·ar Iria\"', \01 ollly wa,., tilt' n'"i";latlc·C' 1110\"'1111'111 i!!lIon'cl. "offi('ial Italy" had 011('1' a!!aill ('hall!!I'd ih allq!iaw'" al all 01'),01'111111' 1II01llC'III. ,\lthough allli-f,b('i,,1 \alllc'" \\"1'1' illC'lIrl'"rall'd ill official rllt'toric' at tilt' 1'lId of tilt' war, tilt' parti"atl 1110\1'1111'111 had as 111111'11 diflinlhy gaillill)! polilic'al recogllilioll. Ih''''pilt, ih roll' ill tilt' lilH'ralioll of Italy, as ltad CarilJUldi alld hi,.; 1111'11. dt'''l'ilt, tllI'ir roh' ill tilt' O\('rt hrow of tilt' BOllrboll

\ 1:-. t. ():\I 1

t'i\ iI ",'ITall!,; of lilt' Fa",'isl period l'OlllillUl'd ill oflin' as if uOlhiug had happt'11t'11. TIlt' AUli-Fa,,('isl Sall('li,1J1 (:oulluitt ..t' was ~O()I1 disbaudt'd awl its lask" Iralhf"ITt'd 10 onlillary l'tIllrt" ('haired IJY tilt' salll" 1111'11 as ill th,' Fas('isl ,wriod,!" .\ltllOul!h tilt' (:OIIlUIIIUist party had participated iu Ihl' (;Ollllllilll'" of :\aliollal Lilwratioll allt! ill tilt' ,'abillt·( aft"J' the fall of Fa"I'i"ul. part y (,ooperatiou ,'alii" Iu all elld aft"r tilt' 19.... X el('ctioll, wheu Christiau D"lllotTali(' Prillw \Iillist,'r De Caspi('ri fOrlllt'd a IIt'W cabiu!:'t witlwul iucludiug (:UlIlllllllli!'lh or Suciali"b, Th!' t'utin' Ll'ft ft'1t it had bl"'1I Iwtntyed, Its 1111'1111)('1'" had fou~ht al!aiusl Fa"ci"m alld helped eslab/i"h lilt' n'IJllbli,', bUI 1l0W the fruits of tllt'ir \'i('lOrit'" \\'t'f(' takell 1'1'0111 tllt'ir hallt"''''' \ t'I ,.,,1111" would ,..ay that "illlplc ,'olllparisolb "llOuld lIot Iit' drawll 111'1\\""'11 tilt' Hisorgill\t'1I1tl alld tilt' Ik,.,i",taw't', Smll" It'hist illtelll't'tuals. for "xalllplc, s,'e tilt' lillt'nltiou ill larg" part a" a pl'opl,:s rnolulioll. lu (;uido Arislal'l'o' S opilliou. 100. Ihnl' is all ,',.,,.,'>1 11 ial difft.n'IIt'" Iwtwl'l'lI tilt' 1\\'0 "\Tllb: lilt' Hi"or1!iIlIt'II10 wa" a 111(/\ ('11 It'll I of lilt' dilt,. lilt' l'arti"alllllo\'t'III,'1I1 was TIlt' l'arli"a11S "alllt' 1'1'0111 alll'arli,'''. illdlldillg lilt' (:hri"liall D,·IIHltTat.-. TIlt' Hi"or1!illl"1I10 111'\"'1' had -11"" 1'''l'lIlar .'III'I'0r\. h i- a pari of a ,·,·rtaill r1l1'lorj,- to "'ai 11 I thal lilt' \\ hilt-

a g"lIl1illl' p,'op":,, 1110\"1'1111'111. which i,.. "'Ollll'thill!! qllilt' diff... n·IIt,

I'ani"all" w,' ... ' a """011.1 Hi"or1!iIlIt'II10 1110\"1'1111'111."1

\\'11t'1'I' tilt' 1\\'0 an' silllilar is tllUt ill bOlh nb'·,., Itah' 10,,1 tilt' opportuuity c1wlIg,' ,."wial si nIt'll Irt'" IlI'l'au",· th,' rulillg clas" or party was primarily illlt·J't·sll'd ill """urillg ih OWIl ,'('olltlJllil' aud political powel'. :\Ild iu bOlh I"h'·,., lilt· gO\'t'I'II1Ut'llt alld tilt:' anlll'd forl'!'s. dt'spit" lIlt'ir ('olll'l'it alld a rrogUllI"'. had slwI,t',·dl'd ollly ill fllrtlll'r d,·~troyillg tilt' t'olllllry whilt, \\'illllillg hollm\ allll Illltil'''''r\'t'd polil it'al vi,·lori,·,,;. SlblJ (:"'Thi ,I' .\lIlil'o, \\·11t'1I a"k"d wllt'IIwr ,.,111' alltl \i"I'Ollli I'olll'"i\t'd tllI'ir lihll a." a "01111111'111 Oil Ihl' politi('al ,.;illlalioll ill Ill(' lal,· war alld po"l\\'ar ~,·ar.-, ,;Iall·d: "I d01l'1 Ihillk s,), .. , \\" J't'ally Ihollght alll))1I lilt' slol'\ i",,·If·,"·~ \\·hal,·\ .... 1111' lilllllllak"I< illlt'lllioll, tilt' IIlilitan. \\"", 1101 p ... ·pan·d 10 al'I"'pl thal killd of 'Tili,·i"'lIl. al It·a,.,t 1101 frolll a "Olllllllllli,,1 t'1'Jt.III'ity, III lilt' filial \,,·r,.,ioll of Ih""'Tipl for ,'-"('/lSII, dlt'l't· i" a "",·IIt· ill \\'llit'h l ""olli oIT.... " lilt' al'llly lilt' 11t'1" of tilt' \ 0111111,·,·1'" Iit' ha" n·tTllil,·d. 11,· ... ·llIilld." all oflit'l'r dHlt all Italial'" ha\,' 111"'11 "IIIIIIIIOlIl'd 10 allla"" a ('oll""li,,' dforl for lilt' fatlIt'r1alld, Tilt· of/in' I'. hO\\,·\,.·1', dailll" Ihal ,.:\pt'ri"III'" ha" ,,1111\\11 \Ollllll"!'r" 10 Ill' of lilll,· I"'" 10 tilt' l'I'glllar al'llly. Billt'l'ly di"ap/,oilll,·.1. I ""olli rqdi.·" Ihal tilt' '·lIli ... · . :b tlH' pt'rfOrIlI illto al'plaut>e awl pat rio." 011 tlH' balcollY begin to shout their "Iogau~. Suddenly the air it> tilled Wil h ~n·.·JJ. white. aJl(I red propaguJlda I.'alleb awl bOllqllet:-. of flowers ill tlw ,.,mlle colon;. TIlt' "... ·n'· Iw:-. a d.·lillilt' ba",i" ill hi,.,tory iJl that opera IItH",e,; w,'n' the IJIosl iJllporlUlI1 silt·" of d"1Il0Ihlratioll,; ill IIltluy of tilt' p"uillsllla's eight "talt·" Iwfon' the ullilicatioll. Foreign ru!t'rs w,'f'(' of tell IInabl,' to (,lIrb hurst,.; of Ilatiollali,.,li.· ;'(,lItiJllelll ill pnfonuauc,'s of tlH' iu"piriug works of ('OJllpO"n" ,.,lIeh lb \'.·nli. En'lI hi" lIallH' be('alllt' a slogulI of tilt' royalist slIpporter" of tlte IIl1ili('atioll: I itlorio L:.lumalllu·1. H.· /)i Italia (\'ictor EmmUlluel. lhe killg of Italy). Highl froJ\J it:-. premi .. re. " trol'utvr., Iw('alllt' OJH' of \'erdj'" JIIO:-.t poplllar opera:-. d(..~pilt· i", eOllfu:-.ed libn·tlo. Hegardillg i h (,Ollt radict iOlls. \. i lWI'll t Codd'roy Ita" aptly COllllllt'lIlt'd:

S.·.·

III E H I~()I{(,I \11-.\ TO F 11. \1~

BUI a

SOrl

hi:;wrieal

of oh:;cllrily d,,('~ IH'l"\'ad(' Ihi~ (1)('1'11. pari" h('cawi(' il ~l'(,III~ 10 1)('

yl'I il is 1101 lilt, hislory w(' an'

rl'l'fe"('III('d hy

tall~11I al ~dIOOI: alld I'arlly 1)(,1"l11l"(' ill

jll~1 (',lahli"IIIIIl'1I1 alld a ~dfi~h rel)('lIioll

law alld ord('r an' tlU' harilollP villaill. whilt- tI\(' Il('roi(' 1('1101' i" 011 tll(' ~idt' of Ill('

ils dash IWIWl'('1I

11

tl'OlIble 11 lal.; ('1',... ~o w(' ~l't a tOI'''y-IIIJ'\'y I'i('tllrt, of t.'\"llt", 0111' loyalti('" an' IIli~­ directed: 0111' (,Ollll'rt'h"lIsioll IlIisl(,(!. <x

TIlt' prola~olli,.;ts of "ituatioll

ib

:)I:'IISV

appt'ar 10 Iw a,.; l'Ollfll,,('d abolll Ihe hi"lorical

the pw;"illllalt' dlantl'tt>r,.; of" //'Ora/f)re. But thl' poilll i" 11111

,.;illlply that tlll'y art' pn,,.;t'lItt'd a" IIlt'lodntlllatic Iwrol';' ill ('ollflit't wilh reality. Tht' world of 0pI'm alld of"

//'(/1'(//01'('

ill parlit'ldar ";0011 1)('1 '011 It'

parts of tilt' \\'l'11 of nH'taphor,.; throu~h which till' politil'al alld Ih .. "Iwial upheaval i" depicted.

As tht' perfonllallt't' of lilt' 0pt'ra n';'Ulllt''';. it turll" out thal l',;"lIl1i ha" (,Ildt,d up ill jail- just like \Iallrico at Iht' 1H'~illllilll-! of Al'l of of Iht' opl'ra. Thu,; Iht' I'OUlllt'flH1rt of the Ill'roit' 1t'llor ill thi,.; fillll i" 11tH Frallz. tll(' cOlllely 10\1'1". IllIt this hotheaded idt'alist. :\o\\' Iit' hih I-! 0 I hilll"t'lf illlO troublt' hl'Catht' Iit' rt'('kle,;sly challell~I'd Frallz to a dllt'l aftt'r IIt'ari Ill-! his (,Ollllllellt about Italians: "This is Ihl' killd of war Ihal "lIilS tlH' Italialls: sho\\'I'rs of cOllfetti to tilt' soulld of lIIalldolil."." .\" a It'a"er of tllt'patrioh. l',;:;olli ha" 110 hllSilIt'S" I'xposill;!! hilll"I'lf' to

till' t'1lt'lIIy ..\;, \Iillit't'llI \Iar-

t'lb has poillted out. tilt' 1'\'I'lIt "n'I"'I>St'lI(:-; ill a !!t'nllillal form. tilt' militar~ fUlure of thl' t'ntin' "ton': Frallz will tlt't' cOlllllat latt'('

Oil

whil,' l',;solli

will seek nut bard,' agaillst all lIIilitary-blln'alllTatic odds."~" !.alt'r 011. l s"olli'" heroic,.; 011 tht' haltlt'lit'ld of (:ustoza prm'(' wilt' a:; \Iallrico-likt, a,.; hb opt'lIin;!! folly. Tht' fact tllUt " /ro/'(//Of't' Ilt'lpt'd hoosl lIaliollalistic St'lIlilllt'lIl ill Italy lJt'fort· tht' Bisor!!illH'IIIU I-!iw" tilt' irollY yt·t a fllrtllt'r t wi"t ..-.0 l.ivia allll Fnlllz hr,,1 1II!'!'t aft('r tilt' pt'l'fOnllallt't' Iw.- fillally n'slllllt'd: Oil

"tal-!(·' \Iallrico'~ Iwltl\'(,d Lt'ollora i" sill~illg ill 1'1'0111 of Ih .. jail \\'1lt'I'I'

\Iallri .. o i" awailillg t'Xl't'lIIiOIl. For a IIltlllll'lIl. Li\·ia. Fl'Hllz. alld Lt'ollora art' "'('t'lI Ihrolll-!h a mirrol". tilt' fralllt' of whit'h di"apl't'ar" Ilt'yolld tilt' frallll' of tilt' ";ITt·('1I a" tilt' nllllt'ra Il'('d 10 (t'nlliwllt' tllI'ir aHair. Frallz kllll\\,s Li,'ia'" IlI't'd,.; 1)('lIt'r Ihall "II(' 11I'1'"t,lf allll is 11111 illll'J't's,.,t,d hy ,,"dl !alk. Tlwir rdalillll,;hip is 't'ry ",illlilar 10 dral of Cill,all/la alld Cillll ill ()ss('ssiIJ/It, ill Ibal il ,,11t"''' lilt' \\('avillg Ill' a web Ill' llt'lm~ als alld ,.,,,If-dt'(·('pliolb. \\hat Li,ia - likt, ,.,11 lIIitlly Ill' \'i"c(lll1i·,., dramclt'r" - wlluld I't'all~ likt' 10 do is III ";It'p 1111 ",idt, limt'. hi,.,llIry. alii I all of lif'to·,.. n'''IHllbil,ililit'''', SIit' "ay,,: ·'11' I 'Ub lold: 'YolI ha\'!' IIl1ly Ihi,.. 111011 It'll I. 1111 IIIIIIOITO\" I wOllld ft,t,l as if a doctor had lold lilt': 'YOII an' abouI 10 dit·. you'Vt' gol ollly a ft'W 11101'1' hllllr,., ID lin': I kilO\\, il i" Inlt'. \\·t' ha'·t' 011" Ihi" IIIOIllt'1I1. 1111 l(lJlI(lITO\\· ... -·~ III otllt'r wllrd,., . ..,I ... "'lld"

lit E IlI:-- () Il (. I \11"," I () I' It. \1 :--

,

,)

likt' to Iit' likt' all opentlil' Ilt'l'Ililh' ,.,iIIgiIll-! all aria. sl'paralill;': Iwr,.,I,lf frolll all al'lioll alld tilt' t'xlI'mal world ill ordt'l' 10 t'OIH't'lIlralt' 011 Ilt'r ft'l'lillg,." Livia is l-!i\'t'1I pn'ciolh ft,,,, IIIOIlIt'IIIS of Ihis killd, l :",,,,olli has scanTly bl'('1I IUl'lwd 0111 of \'I'lIict' ",Iit'll Ilt'r affair ",ilh Frallz IlI'gilh, .\lId tlli,.; affair dot'''' 1101 lasl 1011;': I'itllt'r. ,\fll'r 1101 Ilt'arillg

1'1'0111

hilll for a ft,\\, day,."

she gOt'''' 0111 10 tilt' sln't'b of \'l'lIil'I' 10 lilld him, SIit' faik Fillally. hmillg retllrlled hoult' ill a slalt' of I'XhaL.,.,lioll. ,.,11t' rt't'I'in',., all aIlOIl\IIH1I1S IIIt'S,;agt' "1'1'0111 a yOllllg IlIall" I/'"iug Ilt'r 10 ('Oillt' 10 a t'l'r1aill plan', III Ilt'r excilt'IIlt'1I1 ,.,11t' 11,11" her dUIIlIllI'l'IlIaid sht' illlt'lIds 101('(\\'1' Ilt'r hll,.,halld aud ru,.,lws 10 tilt' IIWt'lillg phll't' - witlt (:011111 St'rpit'ri followillg Ilt'r alld catchillg her jl.,.,' a"

,.;11t' klltH'''''

011

tilt' door of tilt' IlIel',illl-! plal't" l.ivia

cOllfl''''''/''' Ilt'r adllht'fy alld ,.,\\"t'ar,., silt' will It'ml' St'rpit'ri for her lo\'t'!'. Tht' door Opt'II~. allt! Ihl' tilm rl'adll'''' ib lin;! irollil' dillIUX, for il IlInt,., OUI Ihal tilt' Ilwssagl' ha,; t'WIIl' from l :sslIlIi. who has :;I,tT/'IIy r!'llIl'Ilt'd from exilt-, Serpit'l"i thillks Livia ha" simply Iried 101'1'011'1" lilt' palrioh. alld I't'rl'ei\'illg all opl'orlllllily Ill'gills III Ilt'goliall' will, tlWIIl ill o/'dl'r 10 st'I'ure hi" positioll ill l'a,.,I' 1111' halialls should Will, Thallks 10 lilt, lIIisImder"talldillg., Li\"ia',.; lIIuhiple IWlrayal is 1101 I'Xlltls/'tl. alld a Iaq!t' ,.,11111 of 1II0llt'y tltal lilt' palrioh hav/' t'ollt,(,It,d for IIwir call"t' i,., Idl ill Ilt'r saft'kt,t'l'illg, Togelllt'r wilh Ilt'r hll"halld. sht' :;ioll ill ,\ldt'llO. She Ihill""

1110\'1''';

It) ""'ir ('olllllry lIIall-

,,11t' ha,., n't'oH'n,d from Ilt'r ft,t'lillgs ,,"Iit'll Frallz sllddt'lIly

appt'ar" alld successflllly n'killdlt'" Ilt'r 10\'1:', Ili,.; aim.lumt'n'r. i" to ohlaill mOIl('Y fromllt'r ill ordt'r 10 bribe a dOt'lor 10 forgt' a I'erlitical(' dtal wOllld rclint' him uf military. dill\'. . Full\'. ('tJIIs('iolls of lilt' I'Xt!'lIt of Ilt'r I11'1 I'a\'al. . Li\'ia halld,~ lilt' I'alrio"" 1I1OIII'y o\"t'r 10 Frallz, Lalt'r 011. ih 11", 1'01'1 11 11 I'S of war appI'ar 10 "I'pamlt' tllt'm. siit' aballdoll,., Ilt'r hl.,.,I"lItd. Ilt'r frit'llds, alld her ,.;lalll" ill "ot'il'ly alld gOt'S 10 \'t'rtlua 10 Iit' ",illt Frallz, SIll' tillds a dirly. drullkt'lI IIlall who has 10,.,1 all hi" ,.,t,lf-n''''III'''1. an'olllpallil'd by a pn'''y yOllllg I'rtI,.,t il lilt'. Clam. TIlt' S('t'llt' tTI'alt',., \i\'id 1'llIlIrash wilh lIlallY I'arlit'r Oll/'S ill thl' tilm, For I'xalllpll'. Frallz Il'arillg Ihl' veil frolll I.i\'ia'" fat'!' is ill t'Olllra,,1 10 all early ,.,('('W' of IIwIIl 10gl,lIlt'r ill whidt Ill' ;':t'llIly lifb Iwr \'t'il. Frallz Iyillg lilt' lan'" of (:Iara·,., ('or"l'ln't'alls all l'arlil'l' "n'llt' ill whit'h Iit' I it'd Li\"ia'" ('orst'l ill IIlI'il' Im I' 111''';1. AI"o, Li\'ia'" blu('k dn'",.. i,., ('olllras\t'd ",idt ollora dOl'''' al 1111' 1'lId of" /rol'll/O/'(', Frallz i" illllllt'dialt'''' arn,,,tl'd alld ('XI'I'IIII'd. l.i\ia is 1('1'1 ill tilt' ,.,In't'h ('ryillg hi,.; ltalllt'. TIlt' 111",.,1 illtlllt'di,II" "ff,'('1 "I' ;llldi,,\ i-lIali"ill!!

HII\

fil'~l-pl'r"olllill'rary

\ I:,U)\ 11

lIarratioll i;; dwt it OP"lh up all the character,; ";0 alldi"III'''~ call ~et' allll a,.,:;t',.,~ dWIII for th,'IlI,;"I"",;. The "xpn'~siow; 011 Farlt'y Crall~t'r':; fan' ha\"t' " particularly illlpOrlalll flllwtioll. IlOt ju:;t ill Wlllldilll! out hi:; dlUnlClt'r hut ,,1,,0 in nJll\"l'yill~ tlH' dlt'lIle:; of tht' tilrll. :\or call Li\"ia tillll refllge IH'hilld Iwr narration and cOlltrol tilt' ulltiipWT'" illlpn'';'';ioll of her. The dHlII~I' i,., fllrtht'r I'mpha~izt'd by the fat't that Alida Yalli":-; appparallt'e alld perfontlUlln' depict a totally differelll killd of IH'r"OIl frolll Ihal ill the 110\"1'11 .... She look" IlIllcb older Iban her IW,'lIfy-lwo-y,'ar-old lilerary cOllnt,'rp ... rt. She i,., ~till beallliful. hUI Ilt'ill~ marri,'d 10 a "ollu'wllHl le;;~ dlall dwrtning opporlullisl "IH' ha;; little hope of WlIlallce ill her life. Tbll"; Ilt'r romantic aspiraliolls easily ~aill al "'a:;t ";01111' "ylllpalhy frolll the "pl'clator. Tbis i" ellhallced by h"r \"oic,'-o\"er. whid) for il,., part din','b dlt' audit'III'I' 10 idemify wilh her. As Li\"ia's aClion" LW('OIllI' ill('rea,;ill~ly ~radllally disappear. III Ihe lillll. Livia' s 10\'1' affair i:; 1'111 inlo pI'r:;p"l'li\t' hy her ,.,iding with Iht' paLriOb at tilt' Iwgillllilll! of Ihl' fillll. 11t-!' helrayal uf Ihl'ir cau,.;1' ,,1'1:; till' 10111' of Iwr story anti cn'al('~ tilt' lIIajor IIlt'laphor of the hislorical illtl'rpn'lalioll thal i~ Lwill!! 1'"1 forward. J-It'r betrayal of t1lt'ir ,'(lu"e i" al lir:;1 "ollly" 1Ilt'Iaphorical - she falls ill lo\'!' wilh all ellelllY soldier. \\'110 ha" jll"l had a I'IHlfrolllatioll with a patriot. thl' pn'\"iolls ol,j,~ct of IlI'r adllliraliotl. This Il'ad" her alollg a path of lit's. \\'hidl 1'lId,., "l' ill tllt'literal IIt'I rayal of tilt' patrioh \\'lwlI sill' hallds tllt'ir 1I100H'y on'r 10 her 11e\\·lo\",'r. TIlt' \\'ay Illany of tilt' set'W',; han' 111'('11 "hul gin'", fllrther irolli,' 1'111plw,.;i" 10 die gallle of I,etrayab tilt' prola;!Ullish play. Sf'IIS{) do,'''; !lot 1"I\'e IIHllly ,;llOl/n'\'('r:;I,-"llOt ~t'qllt'IH'I'~. Durill;! tire mu,,1 illlporlallt dialo~lII'''' the illt"r!O('lllor,; cHt' sl'ell logt'lIlt'r ill 1II0,;t of tlJ(' shut,;. Oflt'!l tllt'y do 1101 fat", ,'adl olllt'r Inll ill,.,tead ofkr Iht' Llutiit'lIce a pri\'ile;!t'd vie\\' uf tilt'ir facial exprt':-.,.,ioll';. Abo\'e all. i!l the Ald"lIo ;"et'llI' Frallz',; fa,',' n~\t'al" hi,.; Inlt' fl"'lill;!", 10 tilt' "pl'('lator as Iit' gradually ('oaXl'" Li"ia (0 gi\'t' hilll the 1l101H'y .. \" Iit' spl'ak,.;. he dOl'S 1I0t look al Li"ia: al 1II0Sl. Iit' ;!Ialll'/':-' al Ilt'r 10 du,t'k \dlt'tllI'r hi,.; \\'(Jl'fl,., an'ha"ill~ Ihe desin'd I'Ht't'1. .\" Iit' tillally eli"i", fro 11 I Ilt.'r the su~gl''''lioll of bribillg a dot'tor. Frallz a~k,;: "Do you Ihillk I ('Ollld do "Ollll'llrill!! "0 dt'''picabl,'(·:.:I ,:1'111' "'pe('wlllr allllO,..1 ".\P''I"IS Li\'ia to all»\\'l'r: ·-Y .. "." TIlt' .. xpn's"ioll 011 Frallz·,.; fat'1' ";1I!!g"",,,, Ihat Ill' IlIi;!ht \\'1'11 atTl'pt thi" as tilt' ril-dJl all";\\'l'r. TIlt' \\a~ \'i"nlllli tt'lb thi" story n'II"t'(S IH,dl a ;!l'lluillt'ly "Ylllparilt'lic alld a "t"'l'r"ly lTili('al \'i,'\\' of l\r .. pWla!-!olli,,(S alld is ulldoulllt'dly 1'11111I1'(,tt'd with hi,., 11H('k;!l'Olllld as a IIlarxi,,1 of UI'i.~I'l('rali(' d(':-'/>"II1. H,' had

It Iit''' I iOllahle. I he \"oice-oVt'rs

a IIl1iqul' ability 101'1'I''''l'lIt a,., III1,lt'r"lallllal,1t- alld 10,'al,l .. "\t'1I tlIO"" dlal'a('I!'I''; \\,ho'i(' ~('lfi-III\(,"" 1"'11'''' ;.1 ,,,,d "'pl"ilatioll of otlWI'- '1('1' tllf' I ..

Till,: H b 0 H (. 1\I E " T () I, 1I. \I :--

p:et,; of lIis 1Tltlt'ISIII. Livia alld Frallz's IWlrayab an' paralll'l(,d by lilt' n'\'l'lalioll IlIal lilt' \'alw'" dwy an' "lIppoSl'd 1o Ilt' fip:hlillp: for - lIaliollal pride, lIIilitary ~.dtlry - 1111'11 0111 (() I,,' fal";I', All Ihi,.; "Yllil'i,,1II is 1'01111'1,,mt'lItl'd by, I ht' " IOn, , ,., alldiovi"lIal fl'aIIlH'", 011 0111' In'l'l. 1111' 1'1"'01 \:-;1 1'111'lioll of a hi;;torical era sl' ..n's a,., all ,'\I'IISe 10 [t'\'I,1 ill 1111' "IIt'I'r "ealllY of

tilt' illlagl'''', till' p:lowillp: color,." alld tilt' gOl'gl"HIS lI11bil'. all of which an' ti~dltly illtl'grated illto tht' overall di",,'our,.,t', You",.,t'!' Ishap:hpour ha,.; "lIg-

gbteJ that for \'iSCOllli, "0101' i" "a way of 'TI'alillg a differelll world alld rewalillp: its 'lIa,'o\lJ'.' ib illlt'l'IIaIIOllalily,"-'~ TIlt' Illllsic ill Ihl' filII!. extracts frolll lilt' lir,.,1 alld s('colld 1110\'1'1111'11'" of BI'Ill'kner's Sevellth Sylllpholly, 1'lIlpha,.,iz,'" Li,'ia',.; ft,t'lillp:,.;, TIlt' 01'1'11illg of tht' symphony is hl'ard as sht' walb through lilt' \'l'lIi('I' lIighl wilh Frallz hOI 011 her ht'l'J,;. The Ih"IIIt, Oil tilt' I-'n'llI'h hoJ'll, ri"illg fro 11 I a sIring t"l'lIlolo, leads 10 lilt' lIlaill 1I1t'1I1t' of thl' sylllpholly, a warlll, 1"'011.1 melody Oil the cl'lIos, Sl'lISUOlh alld 1'1111 of 101lgill/-!, TIlt' saillt' e,xI ra,'1 is Iward at lilt' t'lId uf Ih .. \'ellil'" Sl'qlWIICt', a" a gl'lItly irollic

('011111 It'll I Oil

Li\'ia'" romanl'e as l'""olli "ay"': .. \\" han' 110 righl", Li"ia, ollly dUlies, We han' to forgel ollrsl'h,''''' Li,ia, I do 111)\ Iwsiwtl' 10 sOlllld pOlllllt llb, ,b Ita'" is al war, It is our war, ollr n'\'oltllioll."~'~' First whl'lI Liyia decide" 10 lean" 111'1' IlIIslwlld allll agaill "hl'll sht' d,'cid"s 1o forget abolll till' palrio!;; - al Ihe t'lId of Ihl' \"'Ilic,' alld lilt' Aldl'llo "e'llwllcI'S - a dralllali .. passa!!,' frolll Ihl' dl"l'lol'lII('11I sectioll of tilt' fir,..1 1l1O\'t'1I1t'1I1 call Iit' IlI'ard, startill!! wilh lilt' ill\'('I'siOIl of 1111' 0Pt'IIill!! bar,.. alld I('adill!! 10 a turllllkllt tn'alllll'Il1 of Iht' mall'rial of tlw maill 11 It'1I It', III 1111' \'l'lIi('l'';''''I)(', a,.. ,..11t' alld Ihe 1'011111 ('1111'1' tilt' palrio1;;' hidill/-! plac,', lilt' nllhi .. dil''; oul ,'omplelt'ly, Ilt'r fl't'lill!!,.., Wo, Ilavl' died - or ,,0

,.,11t' Ihink", OtlH'r ('xlraCh from lilt' fir,,1 1II00('nll'lIl of tilt' "'YIIII'IIOII)" an' ubo Iward ill ~Cl'III'~ ill whil'll Li,"ia i~ alolll' wilh Ilt'r fl,t'lillg,.., ,\fll'" siit' Il'uYes Aldello for !!oOlI alld Iran'''' ill Ilt'r dos"d I'arria/-!t' Ihrollgh lilt' military lillt's, 11 ,.;t'ril's of "llOn I'Xlral'b i" IlI'ard, whil'h 1'0111.1 I)t' illll'rprt'lt'd

,lOo

all ('xprt's"ioll of h,'r ~Ialt' of lIIind - allllOlI!!h lilt' fra!!"lt'lIlalioll

IIli!!hl jll"l Iit' a 1'01"'1'(1'11'111'1' of 1111' "Xlt'l",i\I' \'Illlill!! lilt' film "uH('n',1. Tht, n:lracb frOlIl till' ,..(,I'olld IIIO'Tlllt'lIl of Bnll'klll":" sYlllphollY art' ('WIIII'I'I\,d almo,,1 (',xd",.;i, ('''' wilh tilt' 1110111,'111" tlwl l.i\ia alld Frallz ha,"" 10gt'tllI'r. TIll' fir"t is IlI'ard ill tilt' "lIi,dll ill \ "lIin:' ,.."1'111', aft('" IIlt'y 1,,1\(' ('",'apt'd bt'ill)! 1I01il'l,d I,y 1I1t'\1"'lriulI gllard,.;, TIlt' 1'01lllil'I IIt'IW"t'1I tilt' lIol,ility of tilt' lIIu"ic alld tilt' d"l'nl\'(,d 1II0Ii",,, of till' jtl'lllagollish i,., Oil" of tilt' lIIajor "lrtll'llIral "OIIlPOIII'lIb of tilt' fil III , TIlt' IIlIlsil' brill!!~ 0111 Li,ia',.. ft,,'lill/-!'" alld Iit'll''' thl' ,"inn'r idl'lIlify wilh 111'1' 1'lllIlallli,. 101l!!illg, Tht' 1('lbiOIl IH'I'\I'''I' flit' 11I'1,!!i.'. ;)11" .Ill' dt'''l'nd:tlioll l'I'a.-l ... " il,.. pI'al.: ill

· ii

\ ISUlY!!

tilt' "1'1'111' ill .\ldl'lIo. 0/11' lIighl Frallz suddellly appears ill Livia's bedroOIll allll gradllally si art,., sl'dllcillg 111'1' again. The gently can~ssillg lIlusic, 10gl·tllt'r with the rolllantic settillg, evokes ft·t'lillgs that for Livia appear to offn a gl'llllilW altl'rtl tht' rip:ht dling for a llIall of his cltarllls to do . .\t the elld uf tI\I' fillll. Iwvinp: n'linqui"hed the cude of honor uf hi" dass alld milk ami hm'ing pro!>titllted him!>elf.lw has lost hoth his social standillp: and his "t'lf-n'''IH'ct as 11 nlall. l'nlikt' Li\·ia. he i!> unahlt> tu hid!' his dl'gratiatiull frolll hilllself. Durillg his last hours. however. Frallz at lea"t appears to understand the l~ntirt' historical :;ituatiull. He poillt:; out to Li\'ia tltat the victory of his (,OIJllt rylllt'lI at Custoza is futilt' as ··tltey will lose till' war anyway. And llot only the war. III a few yt~ars. the wholl' of Austria will (,Olllt' to an eIld. :\ml an entirt' world will disappt'ar. the 0111' ill which you alld I LdOII/!. " h i In t1wir dinen'llt ways. IlIlth Franz aIld Livia haw alll'lIIpll'd to "h'P olltsid,' hi"tor\'. awl to !lliwl t1H'lIbe!n'" moralh·. l'ither h\' decisioIl or . . dl'ceptioll. to till' way t1wy exploit lIdwr 1'1"01'11' in dedicating tlwmsl'lw" to hedonism 011 hi!> part. to romantic fanta",il':- on hers. Paradoxically. tltis shanwll''''; I'ur!>uit of "elf-illten'",t t'pitollli.le" the n'ry lIature of till' Iti,,(urical evellts illt'xoral,ly IlI0Vill/! along in the l,al·kgruulId. On dw strengtlt of this metaphorical t"II:-ioll. tlte fil/ll tnlll!>Cl'luls both the hi,.,torical context it depicts awl that of it;, /IIakillg and opens the possihility of \'il'\\'ill!~ it frolll 1'\'('1' IIt'W Itorizoll.~ Ill' ,'Xlwctalillll.

TilE Il I ~ () H C I \I L :\ I () I· I I. \I

~

tI 1

l's,;olli is ill IllallY \nlY,; Frallz' S cOlllllt'rpart ill thi,; pallt'J"Il. III hi" rolIIalltic idealisJII alld lIatiollal s,'1I1 illH'llt. Ill' J"('l'rt':i"lIb a risillg tiJI' ill EUl"Ol'eall history. Ihe hllal Sla!!" of Iht' forlllatioll of Ih,' lIatioll-stalt's ht'fore tilt' First World War. Blit till' ra!!illg war i" abolll a IIl1l1'h lIIorl' acutt' strugg!t' for I'0w,'r alld ,'collolllic illt"("l'Sh. l',;solli' s "lII'rgy cOllld w('1I s,'rn' as a drivillg forc!' Oil Oil" :-idl' or till' oth!'r ill this ("(JIIt1ic\. W{,!"t' it 11111 for hi:; hlilld idl'ali:illl. which lea\"(',.; hiJII wilhollt 1'0\\"1' rfll I allies. \-llleh lik,' Li\"ia. Ill' filld,; hi,; acliolb I'atlll'tically at "arialll'" wilh till' factors thal ultilllalt'ly go\"c .... till' "iluatioll. Thu,.; the olll\" OIW who ,;uryin',.; Ihl' hi"torind "\Tllt" IIIbcatlll'd i,., COIIIII Sf'I'l'il'l'i. III till' lH'gillllillg. Ill' i" ,,""11 1'01l1'Iillg Ihl' l"ayOl' of till' .\II"triall rlllers: ,'\idt'lIt1y Iit' i" a ("('slll'ctl'd 1111'111111'1' of Iht' ,',.,lahli"IIIIII'1I1. \\'111'11 Li\'ia accidt'lllally I,'ads hiJII to tilt' patrioh. Ill' ha" a III'W challc,' to rl'\"t'al his II"Ut' nature. III blatalltly opport IIl1isl fa"hioll. Iit' ,;Iarts 10 IlI'gol iall' a deal wilh l'S"IHli shollld \'t'lIil'l' aClllally 11I','olllt' pari of Italy. 1I is It'ft to the ";I't'clator tu J"('ly 011 hi" or 111'1' kllow!t'dg" of history 10 p;rasl' tilt' full irullY of till' settill!!: Irn',,()I'ctin' of till' I'fforh of Ihl' idt'alists. a III'W Italy \\ill Ill' fUl'lllt'd for the IWlwht of opporlullist,.; slIch as SI'l'l'it'l'i. Likt' tilt' polilil'iall" of his "Ollllll'y. Ill' illtelld,; to sil 011 tht' ft'lIc(' IIlltil till' Willlll'l' el1l1'q.!6. Illwl"estillgly "lIollgh. Ihollgh Iit' i" a cnll'ialfi!!II("(' fl'oJII tilt' poillt of \'i"w of Ihe histori,'al iJltt'rl'n·tatioll PUI fonnll'd ill tl ... fihll. his rol,' i;; fairly "lIIall- Yisl'ollti \\a,., al"'ay" 1110('(' illtl'l'('stl'd ill tilt' \'HIIlJllisllI'd thall ill tI ... \.ictorl'>, .. ~ The jllxtapositioll of tilt' two 1I ... lodnllllali,' dWnlclt,l's. Liyia alld l'ssOlli, reH'aI" that Ihe great tIollrish Hi,.;orgilllelllO was I'Olldllt'tt'd w('n' like Sel"pieri and the \'8llity of tht, "illt'lIIati .. III ea 11:. Cralll~chi' s \i,'\\'

alld tilt' Walld gt'"IIII'I';; with which tlH' a 1111'1'1' \"t'il 0\""1' tilt' aYaricl' of "I'oplt' IlIilitary, It i" a way of arliclllalillg by I hal tilt' Hi,;orgillH'lIto wa" a takt'oVl'r

by all "Iitl'. not "y riit' IlI'oplt', III tilt' ,.,,','11" hl'hilld till' lilll':' durillg Ihe "attlt" peasall(,.; an' ';1'1'11 workillg d""pilt, thl' lIIilitary IIHIlIt'II,"!'I"" lakillg pial'!' around thl'lII, Accordillg to (;uido :\ri,.,larco, thi~ ~JIIall detail i,; ,'xln'IIH'ly sigllificalll: "Politi,'" of powt'r nHllillUt' hilt it dot'Sll'1 bOlher Ihl'lII, It is a~ if tlH'y Wt'n' sayill!!: 'You do whal YOII wallt. gt'IIt1"lJIt'lI: il do,'" 1I11! cO/lt'enl I.,." It i" Iltl! our war,' "h.1 Cuido .\l'i"wn'lI was Oil" of SI'IIS()'" 1110,,1 ard"1I1 ';111'1"111,,1''' ill tilt' d,,I,atl' ill whil'h \'isl'ollli \HI:- al"'I.,.",d of lH'tI'Hyill!! 1I,'on'aIi,,1I1. TIlt' story \\"a" 1101 tak"1I frolll ,'olll"lIIporaI'Y n'alily, alld tilt' fillll \\"a,; audim'isually "pll'lIdid, particularly ill 1'''lIll'al'i~1I11 wilh IIl'orl'alisl filllls, Ll'ftisl illll'l"'I'tllab "Iill a,.;",wialt,d Ili"tori ...d Ih"IlIt',; alld op,'rali,' lIIalllH'rislll" wilh F.1~,'i~1 .. ill"llla. ~""lf'dlill!! dl;ll 1H'III't'ali,,11I had i'\III't'~,..h "lIlf!!hl 10

\ 1:-;(.():\1I

(I. )

0_

I·Olllltt·r. :\ristal,(,O ar.!!!II·d that Se/Iso wa" all illstalll'l' of lIt'on'ali~1II lil'velopillg illto l'I·ali,,1l1. with sllrfal'l'" d,·t'\)t·lIill~ ill to allalysi,.;. Blit IH' was IIIWhll' 10 t'OIl\'iIlCI' Ihe 1110,,1 vocal critics of lhi" \'it'w., ",;pel'ially (;psarl' Zayall illi alld Luigi ( :hiarilli. '1'111' 1'01'111('1' daillled Ihal ollly cOIllt'mpomry alii I ,;ocially rt'It'\'all! "ubje"h could I·ducatl' the publi,' alii I stir il!i political l·oWiI'iou;,IH·";". The lall"r lhoughl that all t'xl·I.',;,;in' Cillt'1llatic ;,t)'l(' would dro\\'I1 out allY political or IlIoml 1I1I'!'i,;a~,' a fil1ll lIlight Iif' l'Oll\'t'yilll!'''~ Thnl' i;, a d"gn'" Ill' 1I\0mli!'illl ill till'SI' argullu'l\ls: failh ill asCI'! ici,,1ll as a pn·!'I·lJui"itt· of fi,klily 10 rl'alilY. 13uI .....·Pl/SO. which i!'i rt'aliy a lIlereiles!'i nit iqul.' of IIl1'lodl'alllati(' gl':iltln'~. is effl'clin' pl'l'ci"dy IJI'nlll!'ie tin' !'il)l"'talOl'. too. g"h 10 shan' till' lun' Ill' f"l'lillgs alld ",·IlSatiolls.

TilL LLOPAHJ)

Heassessing

tlll~

HisOl"giuu.'nto

Dt':ipill' till' I'lltllllSiu";lI\ for IIl1ificatioll ill I'('rtailllJuarters. il wa" 1101 ,',bY 10 achil'H' a political alia "ocial ullioll of till' t·ight. hi~hly diwrsl' slate" of tilt' Italiall pl'llin,;ula. Their "tag"" of ,.;ocial,Jt.n·10(l1l11'1It nlried fl'tllll till' fairly achalll't'd lIorth 10 tilt' basically t't'udal Bourboll goVt'J'JI1I1"lIt of tilt' h:illgdolll of Ihl' Two Sil'ili,·s. Territorial c1ai1lls. a" well a,; the "olllpl"'xity of ethllic backgroulI(k gUH' ri,.;t' to ('lldl,'ss debates abollt whidl an'a" Iwlollgt·d 1o a ullili,·d Italy. TIIt'I'I' were al,.;o dis(llll""; alld pn'judi('e,; alllOllg till' pa/'lwhial-lIIilldl·d pro\·iIH·e,.; ...·-· \losl of lwrtllt')'IJ Italy joilll'd thl' Pit'dnwllll',.;1' h:illgdolll ill IHhO as a /'I'SIlIt of till' ilhlll'f'l'l·tiIJII~ "parkl'd by till' war Iwtwl'l'lI Fmlwl' awl :\u"tria Iht' pn'\'iOlb yl'ar. Tht' d,'ci"in' ('Y"llb Il'adillg to cOlllplett' llllificatitlll hegall wlll'lI Ciu",'pP" (~urillUldi. with SOillt' tlwll"allll Illell kllOWII a" till' H"(J"hirt,,. lallded ill Si"ily ill W(IO. Thollgh humble. perhaps ,'WII qui I,' :;irnl'it-. thi" dHlri"IIIHlil' "HIli was abh· to rai",' all army that dllrillg its brief l'Xi"t"lu't' was allllosl im'illt'iblt·. Caribaldi'" fit-ry spirit lIIip:itl haw It-d to 1"'1'1 11 HI It'll t /'t'"IIIt!'i had the Pi,·dllloJlII·,.;t· I'rillll' lIIilli"II·1'. COUIII (:alllilk (:"'0111'. IItl1 rorgl'd tllt,,,t' rt'pllblit'n' lilt' bi;! lalld()\\lIer,., - ilItT,'a,.,illl-\ly tilt' bOllr~I'oi,., - alld tilt'

lilOI'('

st'lIior I'i\il sl'l'\allh. :\lthough SOliit' of lilt'

IIH",I gloriolls yictori('s of Iht, Hi,.,or~illlt'lrto had 11('('11 worr by pl'Hsall1 folk rdH'llillg a~aillst the lalldowllt'r".

1111' IH'W political sitllalioll was solidi/it'd

by s,'curirrl! tilt' 1'0\\'1:'1' of tilt' lalldowlH'rs. III tilt' south. pO"I'rty was a,.; rampallt a,., (',,('r ami ('roded tilt' ,.,ell,.,1' of lIatiollalullity jlbl as il had dOllt, dlll'ill~ thl' Bourboll n'~illlt'."a III fac\. I'\'('ll at tilt' b('~illllill~ of tilt' lI)h()s

- illdt'('d. ('\,ell toda\' - tht' di\'isioll l,elw!:'t'lI tilt' lIorth alld tilt' south was slill as del'p as it had ht't'lI at the lillle of tilt' Hisor~illlt'IIIO. Sicily',., lalld rt·form of till' lI):)Os had failed. alld lIIon' alld IIlon' Pt'OP'" wt're lIIo\'ill~ from rural an'as

10

riit' cilit's. frolll tilt' ,.,olllh to tilt' 1I0rlh. alld frolll Itah'

10 other ('olllllri!:'".\1I thi,., tTeall,d ('n'r IIt'W social prohl!:'IIIS."" \\'halt'\er tilt' IHI,.;I or tilt' ClIITI'lI1 probl(,lIIs mi~hl han' bl'l'll. BolH'rto HO""'I'llilli was COli 1111 i,.,,.,iollt'd to lIIakl' a fillll t't,lt'hratill~ tilt' first c{,lIll'lIary of tilt' Hisor:!iIlIt'IIIO. Alld so. tlloul-!h I it'll ri/alia (1 ()()O) l'OIlIailb SOIlIl' 1,11'11\1'111:; lTitit'izill~ lilt' way lilt' 1'0111(111',,1 of Sit'ily tllrlu'd Oil\. I'0lilind f'wltrml'r"it'" an' laclfully ~id""'I"I'IH'd I,y IlIytllOlo~izillg CarillUldi. pn'~t'lItill!! hilll ,,11110,.,1 a~" (:hri"I-lik,'fil-!lIn'. Ilf'hallds 1IIIIIII"t'ad Oil it 11101111taill. Iit' di"l'lay~ 1'lIdll'''~ lllldl'rslalldill~ alld IlIf'n'y. tllf' I'l'asall'" \'f'llt'rall' hilll. 11I"lt'ad of f(lIt''''liollill~ or dl'I'oll,.;tnlt'lilll-! tllt',;t' fl'atllrt'''. tilt' lIarratioll k"('lh a n'''IH'('lflll di"larlt't' frolll hilll.-" III 1111'11. \'i"'('ollti'~ 711f' 1-1'11/)(11"11 nlll IH' "1'1'11 bOlh a" a ('rilit'iSIII flf tilt' ofii('ial \it'w "f till' Hi"'or'!illlt'lIltl painful IlIt'lIlories ill tht' two Spill~lt'r:->, 111'1' JIlarriagt' 10 TawTt'di has St'J'\,(,tJ it,; ~tJcial fUIlt'liOIl, but t'lIlotiollally awl physically it dit,d IOllg bdon' TalltTt'di, TIlt' Iltalllb.... il't "-a,, cOllll'ielt'd ill I all'l"IIlO i,; wa;!,·d stn·l·t Ily ,;In·c·l. till' ft'rntr of ball I" on'n'OIlI('" all lIolth-r ill"tillt'h. Itrlltal \'iolt'II(,t' rt'iglh. alld :-.llIIlIlIary t'Xt'l'utiolls takt' plan' Oil both ,.,idc'". Lradually tll(' Rt'«(";(lirts will tilt' day.

The ",p('('ladt'

of war prm'ides a st'lIsatioll of illllllt'diH(,y, of till' lif" alld dl'ath of illtlividllal,; Iwillg al tll(' 1I1t'1"I'Y of dlalWt'. a.~ 0pp0';I·d to till' illl'\italtility wilh whil'h tlH' IIl1ificHlioll will takl' shal't" Partly hecatb(' 110111' of the maill I'hanw!t'r,; aplwar IIl1lil tilt' \"('ry t'lId of tilt' ,wqIll' 1It't'. tilt' ('n'lIb call he SI't'lI 10 ,;lalld for all tht' Imllks lakillg plal'l' durill;! thi,., "ta~e of tht' Hi"orgillH'lItO. Ollly at tilt' \Try 1'lId do WI' gt·t a glillll'::il' of TalltTt·di a"

11

dashillg yOllllg lH'ro. \Vitlltlllt this \'it'w of hilll. his blilld 01'1'0rlulli"lIllatl'l" 011 wOllld al'l'c'ar IIII'rl'ly d(·spical,I,': this way. tlWI"t' is a ,.,ad feeliIlg of YOllthflll I'xllltt'rHlH'I' lost. a "YIII·cdol'ilt' "'"g:ge~Iillg the o\"l'rall iIlterprt·tat iOIl of tilt' Bi"orgilllf'1I10 Iwill/-! 1'"1 forward ill tilt' fillll a,., a whole. TaIHT(·di i" .~olllt'what 1"I'lIIilli,,(,t'lIt of JlIlit'lI Son·l ill 'I'lw Hf,(j (/w/ tIll'

IJ/al"k. 011 11\1' CIlIt' llUlld. \\Tilt·s DOlllillil'k La{ :apnl. "hi,., illlll'r. privatI' s"'f is l·ll·\·alt·(1. poelic·. ";I'0lltalll·oll";. pa.~,.,iOlIUIt'. idl"tli,.,ti('.

('\"1'11

t'xlllwl'-

all"" Oil tilt' otllt'r IWlld. "his IIHlllllt'r i" ("aklllatillg. a lit I il Opt'rall'''' "lll·(·wdly to aC'hi('\t' worldly "lIt·I"(',.,"; alld pllblic aC'dailll. "liB TIH' diffl'l"t'IIt'I' i,., thal WIIt'I"t'ib .I1l1il·1I i,., a IIHIII "CIII tilt' makt· ... TallCTt·di i,., lIH'n'ly Iryillg to :-,('1'11)"(' what lit' takt·" Wilhollt a dOlld of doultl 1o Iit' his lIalllral ri~III". This alllHt,;I dlildlikl' altility to ('oll";lalltl~ dWII!!t· hi,., 0\\"11 horizoll of I'XpI·t"lUlioll alld 10 forgc'l aholll lilt' \'it'''''' IH' Ill'ld ollly a linll' "hill' ltt'fun' 1l1i1kc'" lli,., upport 11 11 i,.,1I I ap!'I'ar allllo,.,t dlilrlllill~. \\llI'n·a,.; TmItT.. di·" portrayal i" IIUlhillg if lIot niliC"al. IIH1t uf lilt' (,rillt'c' i.~ Clllil" lilt' oI'IHI-.ilt·. and till' hip with Taucredi, lit· is all t'mbodillleJlt of allthal i~ supposedly good ill tilt' aristoeracy, alld iJl his ligun' this class is n·d(·t·lIlt'd ill tilt' hi~wricall't'rspt'ctiw thal is "('iJl!! 1'"1 forward ill tilt' lilm - or iJlti('l'(1. as thi" fillll, \\'hilt' Iht' history ('vol\"l''' as a dialt'ctic Ill'twt't'JI I'haJl~l'!:> Ihal to a !!reat ('xlt'JlI an' illusory awl perJllallt'lwI' Ihal is ~Iowly Iwill!! t'rodl,d, tilt' prillcl' t'III'lHllltt'fS tilt' ultimat!' '1lJ(·~tiolls of tellll'oralily iJl hi~ OWII prinHe sl'ht·rt·. 1I1' is au o(,serVt'r alii I 11111 a l'articipaJlI. 1101 ollly IIt'Call"I' of hi~ ~llt"ial s\aJldill!! bllt al~o IlI'nlll:'e of his agt': Ill' i~ awan' of hi" OWII apl'roadlillll dt'ath alld pn'IHlre" for his "'1I1'I'I·ssioll ill TawT(·ui. Ill' ,.,oars hi!!h aboH' alllhat is ,.,ordid aJl(1 dc('n'pil ahollt his class alld socit·ty. alld ill tilt' la,;t illstHllt'e it i,., hi,., approadlill!! death. ratlll'r thaJl hH\'iJl~ 10 accl'l't a dOli (:alo!!t'n, ur a (:010111'1 Palhl\"icillo iuto hi;,!!1 "'llt"il'(Y' that add::- a touch of sorrow to tilt' St'lbt' of ilTt't rit'\al,'" loss. The deatll "t'I'IIt' of lilt' "rillt'l' has IIt't'JI olllitt"d frolll till' lillll allll tilt' Hlt'ditatiOlb 011 d!'ath llIadt' sllOrtt·r. 1.111 tilt' portrayal of havill~ to ('Oillt' to terub with till' tillillldt, of lif" i" 110 II'ss al'l'an·1I1. III till' film alld till' book alikt'. the l'rilll'I' is wt,1I t'll'lil'l'l'd to SIII'I'I·I·d ill this. Ilis illt('n'st iJl aSlwuOlIlY is Hol ollly a lIlt'tHl'llOr for hi" alooflle,.,s 1,,11 also for his awart'Jlt'S" of tilt' I'a""illl! of t illlt' alld tilt' trallsit'llt't' of IIlIIItall I'lIfSllih alld COIICt~rtl". III \likw·1 Ellckt'lI' swords: "Th!' dt,,.,t·t'llI Ita,., lwguJl alld call Iit' an't'l'lt'd with sorrow a" Ill' kuows Ihal tllt'rt' an' lo\"('d sw'ct'sson; as wt·1I a" admired I'n't1!'t't·,.,,,ors. Thi,., ill"i!!h\. which ill\'ites hlllllility. al~o !!i\"l's II:' tilt' capacity to I'efct'in' WitllOUt ulIsurpa"sablt' hitlt'rJH';,s tilt' limits of our OWII t·xi,.,tt'w·e alld faclllti,·!'i.""" 11i,.,loP.-. Hi('(lt'lIr ha,., ",aid. i" "COIIst rtH'lt·d Oil I hI' fnll'llI n' lillt, 1Jt'1 Wt~I'1I pht'llollwllol0l-!ical t illw allt! a,.,troIlolllind. physical.. alld I,iolol-!it'al tilllt· ... ·'" 011 Ih!' o lit , halld. tlWrt· is tt'lllporalily as ,.,III,jt't·ti\ity: Oil tilt' other halld. tllt'rt' i" tilt' ilwxoral,lt' lIlarl'i1 of ol'jt'('li,,' (illlt'. BOlh fa('llIal alld lit·titioll'" atTOllllts of history lI1t'diate (,I'IW"('II tilt' two. \arrati\t's afe Oil tilt' wholt' allt'llIpts to lIlap Ollt tilt' t'"'II''' of tilt' I'a,.,t ill Iheir filII I1111 lIal1 ,.,il-!lIilinuH't'. Tlwy alT fOl'llh of ,'xplaillill;! alld IlIldt·rslalldill;!. ways of lIlakill!! :Wlbt' of tilt' ('\'idt'IIIT It·ft I'Will tilt' pas\. I3l1t whiJt. allllarrali,,'s "X lid" a St'IISt' of I will!! a ,.,1 nwlun·d lait- alltJlII till' pa"t. ill t'illt'lIla thi,., feat lire is t'ollll,illt'd with a slWII;! ft't'lill!! of alldiovi,.,lIal n·IJI·t·,.,t·lItalioll alway,., Iwillg ill tilt' I'n·";t'lIt It·II,.,". I'rt '"t' 11 I ill;! 11,., with tilt' "t'lI"atioll of all illllllt'dialt' \'it·w of a dit'I-!('li,' n'alilY, III 'I'lli' /,l'lJj)(lf'{/. tilt' rii'll It'\ltln' of tilt' alulio\'isllal n'collslnwliolll'ro\ id.,,, lilt' ,!!rotllld f"r n'l'n'''''Jllill!! it ("'('(Hill killd of Iwill!!-ill-tllt·-\\"orld.

\ I:-;U):\II

lill' illt·.'\orahly tl'lIIporal dlaraeter of which is lIIade appart'lIt ill tht· prillcl:" awakl'lIill~ illto awarellt·s" of hoth trallsit'III'I' alld conlillllity. tht' dlla I lIa III 1'1' of t illlt' a" tilt' crl'a 101' Hlld dt>YOIIJ't'r of li It' phcllolllcllal world. This ilbil..d1l ,·lIal,II·,., hilll to 1'01111' 10 It·nll:. wilh Ihe hi~IOril'al process that 1'01."III1I1·S and tarlli,.;lws I'\'erythillg Iit' hilll"elf repretil'lltti, tht' world that Ill' so flllly 1·IIII,odie,.;. as wI·ll as with his approaching death. Hi,; final addn'''''' to tilt' "tar til>"; together tllt',;e litelllt',;, bllt the yeJ'y lasl s('elle" with TalllTt'di, ,-\lIgl'linl. alld dOli Calogt'ro discussillg ill a dt'tal'hed manller thl' t>x"cutioll of Caribaldi's nlt'll. is a relllillder of th,' hUlllall costs CIIwill'd ill till' crl'Ulioll of tht' Ill'\\" historicalcircuJlIstHllt't>s. Ollt' of t hI' rt'lbOlb for the ptiycholugil'al rl'"OnaW'I' of Tlu' Leopard i" IIl1dollbtl·dh, till' fact that tlH'rt> is "0 1I1111'h of \'isconti hilll::it'lf ill both dOli Fal,rizio alld TUllt'I't'di: 011 I hI' Olll' halld, lilt'rt, is tilt' aristocrat vil'willg ""H'i"ty with a I't'rtaill detachllll'nt: 011 tilt' otlwr halld. till' allllosl 1111"1"'lIplllou,~ pOIt'lItial fast·is!. It is also illtert't-ling to notil'!' thal thollgh tht' fihll call Iit' "1"'11 to rdlt>l·t cI'naill social alld l'colltllllic ('OIlCl'nlS of the I'ar!,, 1I)()()S," , tllt'rt' art' hardlv, all\', ,.,t·lf-I·OIISCioll" rt.fen'IH't>" to tilt' flltllre frolll tht' poillt of "it'\\' of the lictiollal en'II(;;, sllch as Franz',; "i"ion of tilt' (k,.,1 rtlt'tioll of tilt' .-\Ibtriall t'lIIpirt' tuward till' ('lid of Sellso. \\'(' 1IH1)' "I't> ill nll'iol"" detail,; "iglls of the bottolll"',.,'; IlIirt' of cOlllprollli"e,., and opponllllislll illlo which tilt' Italiall killgdolll will ,.,tart 10 ,.,illk illllllt'diatt'ly aftl'r ih I,inll. 11111 alllOlIg the chaml'tl'r.., ollly tilt' prilH't' i,; t'\'t'n \'aguely aWHn' of tilt' illllsory dHlntcter of tilt' n~\'ollll iOI\ takill~ place . .111,,1 a,., ill .'iN/SO, althou~h aehit'H'd by a slightly differellt cillelllatic styit-. tilt' dialt,(·tic Iwt\\'t'(,1I idl'lltilicatioll ulld outside pt~r,.,pt'cti\'t' IIwtliatt'" IH'I\\t'I'1I tllt' I'a,;t dt'piClt'd ill tilt' filw awl 0111' OWII tilllt'. Tllt'n' is l'olbidt'ral,lt' alll'\'iatioll of tilt' irollic "taIlCt'. alld tilt' audit'IlI't' i,., ClIl'd to a,.,tilllllt' a far It',.,,.; 1IIIt'qUi\"Jt'ul attitude loward the cltaraclt'r,.,. Tilt, charal'lt'r,., an' 1I0t cb illclillt'd to 1Ilt'lodralllutic I!l',;tllrt''' a" ill tilt' t'arlit'r Hisorl!illlt'lIto fihll. alld thlls tilt' Vil'WIT is 1101 ill\'itt'd to idt'lIlify quitt' as stroll~ly wilh tllt'ir '·lIlOtiolls. ;\01' an' the diameter" dt'l'i('\t'd frolll dif1'1'1'1'111 1"'r"lw"lin''; or ill difft'rellt IIIlHlt'S. III"tead, tht'~ an' sho\\'1I li\'illg their lin'''' ill ,,,,If-'';lIffieil'IIl'Y alld t'\'t'1I call1l. eOIl"idl'rillg tilt' pt'rlllrhilll! ('\'I'llh takillg pla('" ill Iht' bal·kWOlllld. Thollgh tllt'rt' an' 10l\g ,;llOt/n'\'I'rst,-,.,IIOI ""''1II1'IH'''''', tllt'y do 1I0t particularly draw tilt' "1H'l'lator illltl tilt' dil'W'lil' "pan', \,·\,I·rtht'II·",,,,, tilt' dit'gt'lic span' "ppI'ar,; to l'Olltillllt' illdt'fillill'ly Ilt'yolld allY fra III i Ill!, alld this. log"tllt'r with tilt' J't·lutiw 1"lIgth of tilt' ,.,hoh. Iit'll'''' 10 t'I't'ah' Cl Sl'lhatioll of tll".,t'l'\'ill~ tilt' "\'t'lIh 1'1'0111 a ,.,Iight di,.,tall(·.·. TIlt' \'i,.,lIal ,.,1\,11' i" dO,"'I·h, J't'la!t'd 10 tilt' fat'1 thal tlwn' i~ 11/1 ';,,1" '>!tll

T 1\ E H 1~ () H (, 1\1

~,\

I U 1 11. \1

~

deyeloplllt'lIt. which ill turn COlTt'~pol}(l,; to it rt'sigllt'd t'lt'~iac attitudt, toward history, :\ot ollly was tht'n' It,ss 1H't'd to lIIake a political poillt thall at liH' tilllt, of lIIakill~ ,";eIl.W, hilt "iscollti apparelltly di~co\'t'red IIIw'h of his I)WII nitical attiLllde toward RisorgillH'lIto ill the hook, \'t'ry little rt'ligurillg uf the plot or rt't hillkillg of tht' dWnll'It'I< lIIot iws wt'n' Heedt't!. All he had to do ",a~ n-foclIs ~onH' :o.t't'llt's alld slightly challgt' the eIllphasis, III tilt' earli('r Risorgilllellto /ilm, tlH' tunt~ ill tht' historical draill of ,'V(,lIts had iIllllwdiat" t'fft'cts Oil tilt' dwraclt'rs allt! tht'ir d"t'isiolls, without thelll n'ally IlI'illg aid" \0 ulld,'rstalld the "itllatioll" or truly exploit tht'1II to their advalltage - with the partial exn'ptioll of (:OIUII St'rpit'ri, of ('ourst', :\ow lIIajor t'\'t'II(;, art' takillg plact' ill till' hat'kgrolllld a" if autolllatically. and mallY of tlH' characlt'r" silllply It'l tlH'lIht,h-,'''; Ill' carried hy tilt' ri:-;ill~ tidt', III Ishaghpollr's won/,.,; "Pt'oplt' do not rt'\'('al tilt' wurld thruu~h tlwir actiolls allY lIIon': it is tlH' world ",hidl t'xplaill" the pa,.;sivity uf t1lt'ir existellt'(',""~ 1111' Leopard is all illlpol1allt milestolle ill \'ist'Ollli·,.; cart't'r. For tilt' first tillle. a llIon' or It'ss IOJlely. frustrated youllg mall is n'plan'd I,y a IOllely. r{'siglled ('Iderly llIall as tilt' lIIale lead. AI"o tilt' portrayal of till' falllily is of t'tJllsiderablt' illlt're:;t from tilt' poillt of vit'''' of \'is('ollti's eillt'matic O('UH(' as a wholl'. Though thi" family tllrtl,.; out to Iit' fairly hollow. it is lIe\'l~l1helt's" a factor that ket'ps P('oplt- alld tilt' "ocit'ty togt'tllt'L Problem" with tht' family Wt'n' tTlwial ItJ \'iscollti'" p,'rsollality, alld Iit' idt'alizt'd hi" OWII family alld yuuth dt'spilt, lilt' kllowJI facts. ,\1though Iit' t'xl'rt',.,,,ly dellied it. e\'ell 11U' Lt'()lmrd is a killd of id,'alizt'd \'er~ioll uf his 0"'11 family. The tt'lIlporal di,,\aIH'" t'lIabled him to gin' it all aura of IlOstalgia, III all hi:-; film::. ill ('Olltt~lIIllOrary sl'ltillg~ apart frolll Bt'IIissill/u. the ralllilie" an' ill a state of disilltegratiol\.

The Family and Moderl' Italian Soeiety

VlSCOi\TI'S TWO FA:\lIUES LlIdlillo \'i,;('ollti wa" born Oil '\o\"l'mllt'r~, 19()h. tilt' fourth child of (:a.-la Erlm alld Ciu';PPIIt' \'i,;('ollti. dukt, of \lodl'OlIp, TIlt' \'i~colltis \\"I'/'(' di"talltly related to the IIwdi,'\'al dllk,'" of .\Iibll. Thl'OlIldl this ,'011lwctioll. IIwir lill,'ag!' ('all 1)(' tra(,,'d to Dt',;id('rills. tilt' la,.;t 1'II1,'r of the I..:illp:dolll of LOlllbardy ami tilt' fatlwr-ill-Iaw ofCharl,'magllt'.11I tilt' pie\,Pllth ",'lItury tllP family acquin·d tht' Iwn'ditary titlt· of \'is('olllll. which (,\"I'lIll1illl\. IIt'C'tllllt' tilt' lIalllt' of IIw familY ih,·If. Craduall\' tilt' \'i~nllllis . , t'xpalldt'd t1lt'ir domaill ulllil it ('owJ'('d lIIost of 1l0rtilt'J'Il Italy. It is illdicatin' of tllt'ir lllight Ihat Pop" .101111 \\11 ('x('omlllullintt"d tllPm alld prpadlt'd of tilt' Ilt'C(',;"ily uf a crll"ade a/!aillst Ihem, I TIlt' llIalt- lillt' uf tilt' \'i"('ullti,, "lId,·d ill tlIP liflp{,lIlh ("{,HllIr\'. bUI tlll'OlI/!h t1lt'ir fpmal,' 1Ilt'llIll('r" tilt' family IwC'tllllt' rplated 10

"Oillt'

of Ihe

IIlo"t illlportarll royal hOll",'" ill Ell 1'01'1': Ihe \'aloi", tllP Ilapsbllr/!s. alld tilt' TlIdor,.;, III tilt' lIillt'le{,lIth ("t'lItllr\', a di"talll Itnllwh of thp fami'". a,.;"llIllt'd tlw IHIIIW alld tTe,,1 of tilt' \'i"(,Ollli". TIlt' title of dllk,' of .\lodl'Ollt' wa" grarll,'d by "apult'oll. alld gradllally tilt' family ""('Im'd it,; I'O"ilioll allloll,!.( tilt' I,'adillg lIobll' falllili,'s ill Italy. III .\Iililll the lit'\\' \'i"(,Ollti,, IlIailltaillPd tllt'ir high statu" IJY Iw('omill!! pat roll" of Ihl' arh. parlil'lllarly opna, LlwhillU \' i"COllt i'" pan'lIh, dOli Cill"I'plw alld dOlllla Cm·la, ht'101lgt'd to tilt' ('ird(, of I..:ill!! \'i('lor ErllllHllllwl III alld (,)IIt'1'1I 11e"'11. DOli Cill"l'pP" IWl' of fatlH'rs. TIH' ollly truly positiw fatlwr fi~lIn' appl'ar~ ill Bl:'lIissil/UI. awl eH'1I IH' has a fairly ,.;mall /'(lIt'. Tllt'n' i,.; till' prillce of Salina. of ('ours,'. hut Ill' prt'ft'r~ his IwplH'w to tilt' poillt of nt'~lect ill~ hi~ OWII childn'll. In La lel"ra 1'"I:'IlIa. tilt' father is dead alld till' ~randfatlH'r has a considerably slllaller roll' thall ill \"t'r~a's lIowl. III The J)al/lIl1'd. l\.ollstHIItill has no t'olllH'ction with his SOli Ciinther. rt'pn'sellb tilt' \\'or~t ei"lllellh ill sot"il'ty (or t'\"I'1I ill IllIlIIHnity). ami is hrutally killed. Crandfather .Ioachilll i:, lllurdl'n'd early ill tilt' fillll. and his SOli. fatlwr of till' celltntl dwractt'r. :\Iartin. is aln'ady dt'ad wllt'lI the story Iwgin:-i. In 11w /I/I/O(,l:'ul. tilt' author Filipl'0 tL\rhorio i,.; tilt' biolo~ical fathn of tilt' bahy horll durin~ tht' IiIllI. hilt hi,.; roll' i~ mar~inal. and Iit' dil'~ Iwfort, dw hirth of tilt' child. Tullio. till' pro1U~olli~t of tilt' tillll - who~t' fatlwr is dl'ad as"lIlllI':o. patt'rnity. blll ollly to kill tht' ··intrudt'r." 12 In /{o("("o um/ llis HroI IIl'I"s. SUf/(/m. alld LlIdll'ig. till' fatlH'r,.; of tlH' n'lati\'t'ly yOIIl.~ prota~oni"h Iwn' dit'd Iwfon' tilt' film" Iw!!ill. III tlH' COIlI'/!I"suliou I)i('('('. tilt' OIll' real father IIIelltiOlwd nt'\'t'r appear,.;; tlw yOIllI~,.;ter" hm't' dearly 111'COil It' totally alil'lIalt'd froIII hill!. alld the I'roft's~or' S attt'llIpt to pose as a father end~ ill patlwtic failurt'. \Iother" n't'l'iw ollly sli~htly Ilt'ttt'l' tn'allllt'll\. III /Jellissillla alld /(0("('(1. lon.hle hut on'ITarin~ IIlOtlll'r" alIllost "uppn's:o. tht'ir childrell by "in('t'l't' attt'llIpts to secure their "lIt't'I'''''' ill life. III :-;([//(/1"0. tilt' lIIotlwr i~ Sl'\'t'rely dist IIrhl'd alld hatl's ha dlildn'll. III The Jhlfflflt'd. t ht' illflllt'IWt' of Sophit, 011 her ~Oll \Iartill ~ro\\'~ illto 1I101I,.,troll" proportiolls alld dlt' fillll eIH(,., ill lllatricide. SIlt' is cOllllterhalaw'l'd by Elizalwth. till' 100'ill~ IIlOtlwr of two lit tit' ~irb. but tllt'y alll'erish in tilt' powl'r stru~;,dt' Iwtwt'l'lI difft'n'lIt :\azi factiolls that ~Ulllt' of tlw otllt'l' family lIu'llllwl's n'pn'~t'lIt. III /.II(/lI'ip;. lilt' II10ther of tilt' ytlllll~ kill~ appears to IH' illten·"It'd ollly ill tilt' polit ic'al role his ~ollIIa" to play. :\eitllt'r dOI'~ the II1utllt'r ill tilt' COIII'('r,wlioll !lien' appcar to Ill' partic'ularly i.I\t'rt'~lt'd ill Iwr l'hildrt'll's act i\'it ic,.;. Fillully. two It'lIdt'r I1IollH'r~ appear ill Tlw IIIIIOCI'III. but their relatioll"hip with tllt'ir t'hildn'lI i" 1I0t at a nilit'al sla~t', III allY t·ast'. Cilllialla lost',., Ilt'r I,al,y will. ill luolHI." of hi" birll!. alld Tullio'" p~ydlOlo~i('al "roblt'lIh an' all ol"ioll" illdicatioll of IIl1n'~o"I'd childhood prol,II'III". TIlt' IhydlOlo~ic'al illlpliC'atioll" of tilt' al,s('lIn' of falllt'r~ frolll \i,,t'ollti'" lilm" lIlay Ill' c'olllwt'!t'd 1I0t ollly \\"ill. I.i" 1'1 '1':0.0 lIa1 hi"tory IHIt. 1I1on' illft'n,,,till~I~, with lilt' 1Ilt'lodralllatic' IlIodl' of 1·:\I"·t',,~itll. ill \\ hid. lilt' din'ctor ,,0 oftt'lI illdlllgt'~. Throll!!h ih IOllg history. IllC'lodrallIa ha,.. 111'1'11 IlIaill". a t'OII"t'n'ati,c 1'01'111 of art; ih fllllctioll ha~ 1I~lIalh-· IWt'1I to

\0:2

\ IS(.O:\TI

ib puw('r ,;Inu'tun'. III this ('Olllt'XI.. il uV('/"t'mphasizt',.; tilt' illlt'l'IIal rt'lalioll" of Iht' falllily. whidl COlllt'" to n~pn''';t'lIt sociely illlllldt'II";. TIIP :;wry oft('1I c1imax(',; ill till' r('~toratioll of famil, ullity alld the 1II0ral order it rqlrt':;t'lIh. 110\\T,·('r. 11101"(' perc"pti\l' writer,; cOllld ill\l'rt tilt' t'lItir!' patlI'nl. III Balzac. family rt'latioll"hip:; 1t'lId 10 lit' I,a" .. d 011 t'Xploitatioll .. \ h01l1t' I'n'"enled al fir"I ill all idyllic light IurtI~ 0111 to Iit' distorled by illl'~rIIalll'l),;iolb alld n'prt':;:;"d c(ml/iet:;. Tlwl"(' ,,0011 t'merg",; all illl"rplay of fon','".

,.;tlllIt'

ullifyillg alld other,.; It'ari/lg tilt' family apart. TIlt' family

i" I'n'''('1I1,'d a" a din'el oUlgrowth of tilt' ctIIltliliolh Ihal culture alld ";0eiel y iJllpo,;t' 0/1 illdi,idual". Yi"conli got'''; ('\"1'/1 Ilt'yond Ualzac ill dt'piclillg tilt' falllily a" as";lIrt·d Ilocco of tremendOlls IlUx-unit"!· ";11I'(·t',.;,.;. I"

Sodal and litt>rary hat'kground Hoc("o Iwcallll' tilt' ligurt'llI'ad ill tilt' battle for tilt' frt'eti()1ll of expression largely 1H'l"1. III Betwt't'lI tilt' years 1951 alld 196 L abollt 1.?;) million people. that is . about 10 pern'lIt of the populatioll of the south. emigrated. III the 1960s tilt' lIux eV1'1I illlTeased. Some IIIoved abroad . bUl 1Il(J~t of theIII found tlll'ir way 10 the illdw;trial centers of the lIurth. which were SOOIl surrOlllHkd lly grl'y housing an'as deprived evert of Lasic sel'yices. III lIlallY places thl' iIIIllligrallts lived ill shallt)10wns. BUI despite tht' oftell appallilll-! ('olldiliolls. tilt' peoplt' did lIot wallt to rt'tum to their former hOllle,.;. To IIIakt' multer,.; \\'01''';1', they ellcoulltered prejudice ami wt're U('Clbt'd of l'ausill~ all po,.;sible social probleIlls. They were thought to cOII~titlllt' a threat to the value!:> of tht' 1I0rth . wht'n"a:, ill fa('t tht·\' were IlIo"t !'ul-!t'r to illlt'gratt' a/l(l to IwnlllH' part of urball society. I" TIll' facl that 1II0"t iIllIlli~rallt,.; had 110 wi"h to retllrll ,.;urprised al"o \·i,.;('ollti alld SIl~O C('cchi {i':\micu ill their illterviews of southenwl"" who had IIH)\'t,d to i\lilall . ..\m()lI~ tho"e tlll'y spoke to was lhl' famous H()~aria '1' .. all illlllli~rallt IlIotiwr who. by s'IlIattilll-! alld haras,;illg ci\'il st'r\'allb . had ,;1I1,(",t~dl'd ill acquirillg basil' st'(,lIrity fur her family. SIIt':-u dl'li~hted Vi"('ollti that I... Illtldt'lt'd illIIllIllllWd till' llIotllt'l' ill hi~ him "t'lI": .... "

TilE F.\ \111.)\:\

J)

\IOOLH:\ IT .\1.1.\:\

~()(J

LT \

III additioll 10 Ihis ill-dpplh illw,.,li/-!atiulI of social rpality. sl'Y\'rallill'''ary sOllrcps illlllH'III'l'd thl' makill/-! of 1l()('C(). '1'111' lIallW of till' lilm i" a cOlllhinatioll of the title of Thoma,., ~lallll':; luseph (/11(1 his Uro/lwrs (19:3:3) alld tlw nalll!' of Hucco Scotellaro. a plwt who~I' worb I'xpn'ss"d the fl'l'lillt!s of the pI'lballh of t he soul h. Pa /'t iClllarly his ( 'oll/adilli del swl (Pea:;allls of till' ,.,0111 h) ilbl'in'd thl' ,.,('J'I'I'II\\Tiler:; of Ilo('('o. as did cl'rtaill otill'r worb relatl'd to tilt' :;outh. SllI'h a" Carlo Ll'\'i·,.; ('ris/o si (~./i'''''/(l/o (/ El)()li (Chri~t ,.,topP"d al Eboli).~1 Thl'y fOlllld mon' dirp,'tly IIsI'fUllll1llt'rial ill Cionllllli Te"tori·,., 1'01Ierlioll of ,.,loril',.,.III)()II/e del/a (,'/,i.w(lil (Thl' brid/-!I' of Chi"olfa. 19;)X) .. \hh()lI~d. Tt'stori',., Catholic faith a!H1 illlt'n'st ill spiritllal qlw,.,tioll:-i \\·1 ...(' llot particularly diN' 10 \'iscollti's Iwart. '1\,,.,tori',., illlaW' of till' IIr1WII j1ll1t!II' Ihat had t!J'OWII lip ill \liIall IlIadl' hilll "'1.'1' his lIatin'city with III'W I'~l'''',~~ Thl' l'oll('('lillll was till' fin,t pari ofTI'.~tori·s sl'rit,,, I sep:re/i di .Ifi/w/() ('1'111' S('ITl'ts of \litall). IIt'piClill/-! 1111' world of londy WOIIWII. pro,.,litutl's. buddillt! artis"'. alld di"illllsiolll'd bowr,.,. III one of tilt' ,.;toril's. Cu,w/ai, .";ill(//r(/~ tht'n' is a scelll' Iwt\\T('1\ two brotlwrs alld a prostitllte who I'ar/il'r "lwloll;,?:I,d to" 1111' ddI'/' hrotlwr. TllI'sl' charaell'r,.; Iwca1l1t' tht' IlIO(it,ls for SilllOIlI'. HOITo, alld 'iadia ill till' fillll. Tile relatiul\"hip l)('tw('t'l\ RuCI'o alld Sill1011l' aJ"o pandl,'\"; tllat 111'IWI'I'II Prince \lyshkill alltl Hu~ozill ill Do,.,toy,'\sky's Tlw Idio/ (1Sh8). Just a,., \Iyshkill alltl Ho~ozinlHJth fall ill Ion' witll 'iasta"ya Filil'po\'lwya. both brothl'r,; fall for 'iadia. For her. RO('I'o rppresl'lIh goodllt'ss and raitll in life. in tlw 111tic on'nOlll'S bq.dll to re\'('J'lwratt' a,.; the III'otlwr" C()lItilllle strikillg each other ill tlu' dark. dt,,,olalt' city. In allowillg hillbt'lf to Ill' hUlIliliatt'd in thi,., way. Ho('('o S"I'lIb a \Iy,.;hkin-like "holy idiot": ht' refust',., to t'olHleJIIll SiIlWIU'. aCt'I'plS hi,; c1ailll to ~adia. alld a,,";Ulllt'S all guilt. Ill' IIll't'(,., \adia at till' top of \Iilall (:atlll'drat allll tell" her to n'lllnl to SiIllOIl". who "callllot Illalla!!t' without Ilt'r." SIit' doe" ,.,t). hlll 0111, to acn'kralt' his - a,., \n'lI as 111'1' OWII - dowllfall. Hocl'o',; attitudt' ,;tl'llI,., partly from hi,.; "ell,.,t' of !!lIilt. partly frolll a d"I'pseat,'d a,.;,.,ociatioll with tilt' role 1Il0tlt'l,.; of tlw ,.;ollth, Ili,., appan'lIt I!oodnt's,.; tun", 0111 to Iit' d",.,tnll'ti,·,' for tilt' tlIH'" of thl'lIl. By pl'rslIadilll! '\adia to returJI to Simolll'. Ill' ,.,anifi"I's tllt'lII all 011 tilt' altar of allacllrolli,.,tic t radit iOI"'. :\adia i" a" IIll1dl a ,·il,tilll (If tilt' tra~t'dy a,.; ,.,ht' is ih cataly"t. Whell ,,11t' fir,." ap!,par" ill tilt' "tory. siit' is a .,;hn'wd slIn·inlr. SltI' i:-; "yllind alld !!"anJ" Ilt'r illtiqlt'lUj..III'I' j,'alously. \VlwlI 1t'lIilll! SilllOllt' allllut Ilt'r childhood. ,,11t' a, "id" I!i,·illl! too 11I11t'1r of 111'1'..",11' by IlIakilll! Ill' ct'rtaill dI'tails. Ollh HO"I'o·" idl'ali"llI alld faith ill 1IIIIIIall illlt'ractioll lIIak .. ,., Iwr 1'0111" out of 111'1' slwll. "lIahlilll! Iwr to n'l'('in' alld to ,'xPJ't's,.; t"III/{'I'II1'.';";. :\adia·" id,'ali,.,1II i. . ,.,ltort-lin'd. ItO\\"'!'r. as it c1a"lw,.; Ilt'ad 011 with SiIIlOIll:'" 1111"'l'ilt'""I~ "I!0i"lic 1"1",,,,,',,,,i,TIII'S.,,,. It 1111\\· Iras a ,.,Ilattt'rill~ df""t 011 Iwr. for it IItlerly dl'",u'oy" Iwr ability to tilld jlly alld 1111111'. For t11I1' hrid·III11I1I"IIt. !. .l- 01,1· .• ,. '·'1 " ... i"IIO''' "''''Il,'.hill n llf 'rIl", :d,1I' '1'111' rl'tllrn I" 111'1' old

11 u

\I:-;t:o:\rl

lift' sigllab Ilt'r elltry illto a spirilllul \'al'UIIII\' :'\iow :;111' :;til'b pw\'ocatin-Iy 10 Sill1011l' alld Sl'ttlt-" dowlI ill till' hOllsc of his 1II0ther, Hosaria (Katillu Paxillou), TIH' motllt'r-whort' oppositioll i:; tlllI~ brought under the same roof. Hu~aria does 1I0t dare throw tlH' girl Ollt as sht' fears losin~ SimolH', :\adia filial", It'a\t,~ aftt'r Simolle makes all utter IIIt'SS of his life bv, stealillg fwm ~(orilli, Ihe boxilll! mallager. The SilllOlH'-\(urilli n'laliollship has ~adolllasot'histit' O\'ertones a~ well. WIlt'II they hrst 1IH'I'1. "Iorilli cxalllillt'S SiIllOIlt' as if he were all allimal. .\ lit tit' latt'r. \Iorilli loob illtt'lIt",, at SilllOlll' awl Hol'cO as tht'y. an' having a sIIOWI'r. Toward tht, t'lId of the film, Silllont' cOllies to beg for 1I101H'y from him, bill hm"illg lost hi~ mon' ("hanllillg lIIasculilw appeal. till' rapidly dl'leriorat illg boxl'r i~ IIl1abll' III pI'rsllaoe tilt' rich lIlall to ht'lp hilll. The ~l't'Ilt'. shul ill a dark room, i" gi\t'1I a ~urn'al 101ll'h by the tt'll'visioll ill tlH' ba("kgrolllul. whit'h i~ ~howillg iIllU~t'" of divillities by Ihe Ht'IIUi";sUIH't' paillter. 11 Ciorgiont" The ollly ~olllld 10 Ill' heard is till' quiet., ~I rangt' lI11bit' float illg frum the Idevisiull. TIlt' t'on\'el"sat iOIl 111'1 Wt't'lI :\101"illi alld SilllOlll' t'ould allllost 1)(' a comllll'lltary 011 tilt' program: "Whell I first saw YOII. you wen' like Apollo. a n'al Apullo," ~ay~ \Iorilli. Ill' goes 4111 to It'll SilllOllt' how IlIut'h Iit' 1I0W de,.;pise~ him, The de"perate boxer 1H'I'omt'~ aggn',.;"ivt'. klllwks him dowlI, and sll'als 1I100lt'y from hilll.'u To ~IOp \(orilli from goillg to till' pulin'. HOtTO ofl"t-rs to cOllll'ellSalt' for e\t'rytllillg. hilI 10 do ,,0 he has to sigil a tt'lI-year t'olltracl. Ju~t a" HOITO i:; prel'arillg for his fir,.,t inlt'matiollal lIIatdl. SilllOlle lH'ar~ Ihal :\adia i,.. rccei\'illg cliellts ill a park area Oil tilt' outskirl" uf the WWII, Ill' gll('" 10 1IH't'1 her. but "llI'." too. ~ays silt, 1I0W dt'spist'~ him. Slie IIHlke~ a I"'il,r ulIellll't 10 I'~t'upe - HIIl"-o is "eell ill till' rillg, SilllOl\l' i:; 1I0W I.. "ill!! hi,.. l'olllut'I wilh lift' u:; il IIII'/IS 0111 thal :\adia 110 IOIl~l'r ha:; tlw will 10 lin', .\,.; if ill a dn'ulIl. they yield to tlwir fatl', Their bodie:; lllllllwlllarily f.. nll a l'ro,,~ as :\adia lift:; her anI.", a" if to pilI tllI'lll a roll lid

SillllllH' - HOITO kllo .. ks dowlI hi" OppOIlI'IIt. III a d,'atltly t'lllbrat't'. SilllOllI' alld :\adia 1'lIga!!I' ill :-;adollla~ol'hi,;tic wrilhill!! Oil Ihl' Illlld of Ihl' ri\'I'r Ilallk, I\(' n'lH'al,'dly .~Iri\.;l'~ 111'1' hody with hi" kllifl',"· SIll' fillally dil'~,

,b

alld SiIlIOI\(' 1'''I'apI'''' - tI\(' alldil'llI'l' arolllld tI\(' rill!! ,..ITI'alll" l'I'';lalit'ally, TI\(' pantll,·1 ,1I'Iioll 11('1\\"1'1'11 tI\I' IlIllrdl'r alld tI\I' IlIal..!1 i" 1'I'lIlilli"I'I'1I1 or tilt' filial "'1'1'111' of BiZt'I'" ('(/"'1/1'11, ill \\llidl .I0~I: "Iahs CanlH'1I jll,..1 ,b !-:"I'alllill .. Irilllllph,.. ill tI\I' 1IIlllrillg, H.. hdil' I'olllpal'l'" tI\(' l'u,.."a!!I' willt tI \(' I'l'l h,,- ... 1I1 ill!! pa It 1'1'1 b of tI\(' la,..t -Ill i 11 11 \(' 1'1',..1 'Ill' I'a",..agl',.. or I radi I iOlla I IIwlodrallla, TI\(' irollY or il i,.., or 1'11111'''''. Ihal ill I hi,.. l'a,..I' tI\I'l'I' i,.. 110 hop\' or a hl,..l-lllillllll' 1'1'''1'111', TI\(' I\('ro i,.. 1101 ollly IIlla\\"an' of :\adia',; lH'ril. 11111 till' \\",(\ Ili,.. 1.1,,\\,.. ill tI\(' I'ill~' .11'1' ... 110' ;11101 illll'l"'1\1 "itll ~illlolll"'"

blows to Ilt'r body actually ,.;u~~(·st:-. his (,o/llpli"ity: ht'. too. i:-. all a~"lIt of her d(·ath.:/~· Paradoxinllly, Hoc('o':, sailltlill('ss ,.;t,·/II:-. ill part frolll hi:-. allility to discharge his ag~n'ssiolls ill t Iit' ring, Hatp has iliadI' him a ('halllpioll and iliadI' hilll oh:,;pssivply pllrsu,· family ullity, It is hi" :;piritual ('ent(·r. IHlt it also implips all illability to al'('(>pt the fa(,ts of lif... to 1l1U\'t' ahead to what might Iit' a I"s:; I'lt'asant hut at lea,.;t a f"a"illlt' future, III thl' party arrallw>d to celt·bratp hi" vi('tory. he ~iv,'''; a I'oigllallt sllt'l'clt ahout tI\(' south - with the falllily photograph Ilt'hind hilll. of cour",· - which lIIak(',.; tht' otllt'rs, who ill tlwir Iwarts ha\"(' betray(·d tilt' sout h, look allllo"t ,'111barrassed, Ho,'('o's all-t'lIIltral'ill~ ('ravill~ for IIl1ity f'('al'lws it" dimax wllt'lI SimOlw n·tunb to tI\(' family as a IIlIlrderl'r, Ho('l'o wants to Iit'll' alld prott'(,t him. to (Iut family ti,'s h"fore thl' 1111mb of tilt' social "11\ irOllllWl1t tlwy lin' ill, \\'h"1I II(' n'aliz,',,; whal has hal'l"'II("1. Ill' alld SiIllOII", brotllt'r,.; ullit('d hy a paill that (IiI'IT!'''; tlwir I'lItirt' Ilt'ill~, "/IIhnll'!' ill a statio of 1I\,,.;tl'ria,/h There is atl illlt·n·,,fillg allalo~y III'IWI'(,II Ho('co alld tI\(' I'rota~olli"t of Mallll':,joSt'ph (11/(/lIis Hml/wrs, although it oc('urs throu~h all illwr,.;ioll. Wllt'rt'as ill tilt' lIowl the hrotl\('rs ",·11 .I("""ph to get rid of hilll. thll"; illadwJ'It'IIt1y ,.;t'r\'ill~ a di\illt' plall, in tilt' fillll Hocco's a,'t of ,.;e1f-,.;acrifin· for till' IWllelit of the fa/llily i,.; flltil,' alld d"slnwtiw, TIlt' point i,.; lIot ju"t that Josel'h live" ill a world ~tI\"nl('d hy divillt, Pro\'id"IIf"', wll('l't'as ill the lIIodem urball world Cod would lit' dead or :;illll'ly ,.;il'·IIt. [\Ianll'" .Ios"l'h has a l't'lllarkabk ability to liw in the 1'1't·:;t'1I1. to ltav!' 110 rp~I't'ts uf tht' past. alltl to n·,lt'h toward the futuft· st,'1' hy step, Bpillg illlllllillated by God. Iit' i,.; ahl(· to cUlu'pin' of tilll" I'a"sillg lIIaj,'sti('ally OWl' sillglllar p\'('lIts alld illdividual liw". includillg hi" OWl I. lie i,.; ab'" to (,IIt'Ollllt,'r tillw ullproblpmatiealiy, 11,' is, ill Kierkq!Uardiall terlll:-., a dlild of hot h time aJl(I (·t,·rtIity, TIll' 1t>lIder. "iml'l,' Hoct'o i,; 1I0t a lIIall of su('h spirit: Iit' is a lIIall of tilt' pas!. lie 11a" tilt' illnOC"IH't' of a purl' fool. but ht, is at dlt' IIlt'rt'y of tilllp, I It' ('all brill~ lIlolllt'lltary t'llIIsolatioll to :'Iiadia. hut Ilt'n\ll~" ..;he ypants for a pt'nllallt'1It drall~" ill Ilt'r lif.. , a diff"""lIt kiwi of futlll't" dH' t1 .. ,·till~ 1II01l1l'IIt of hop,' alld happillt·~s with hilll It'ad:-. 111'1' to 1'\1'1' d""Ilt'r "piritual d"slwratioll alld dt'~tnJ('tioll, 011 thl' "epic" It'wl of tilt' fillll, whilt' hi,; p,bsiOllalt> dd,·/' brotltt'rs havl' IWl'1I ti~hlill~ ,heir way thro\l~h lift', Ciro has 1Jt't'olllt' a :;killt'd lallon'r al :\Ifa HOIIII'o factori",;, SilllOllt, sinks illto a crimillallif,' alld puts all that Ciro ha~ adli,~\'t·d illto jt'0l'anly, Wllt'ft'a:; Ho,'('o ('lIIltra('t's SiIIlOIlt' ill (',',,1,lIil' for~i\t'llt's", Ciro nl"hes Ollt to :;a\'(' tilt' falllily by d"II01l1lt'illg hilll, 11 .. 1'11041"'" tll "",,1'01'111 to sO"i"ty illsl,'ad of p ... ·", ...\ill~ falllily ,.,olidarity,

I I :2

\ 1~ dost' to .'olltaminatillg them all. Ciro a('kllowledges Boel'o"'; :;aillllillt'ss 11111 poillls Ollt that ill a malllIlade socit,,, IIwn' i,., 110 room for saillts. Ciro Iw" started a falllil, alld forllled a cirde of frit'III\"'. That his hrotlH'r ha~ IlIl'1wd out to Iw a lIlurdt'rer willl'mbahly 1I0t jeopardizt, hi" positioll Wi this is o/'f:;{'( hy tlw illtel'llatiollal SUtTt'SS of the other "mtller. III the words of lilt' director. Ciro might lwt'ollle "a Iwtit bourgeois. perha!," .'\'('11 a haut!' bourW'ois. ";1':- His life will 1)(' 1Il0re even ami boring than Hoct'o' s alld Simolle' s. bllt at It'ast lIP i" as"ured of "Ollle kind of family l'OlIlillUity. At the wry elld of the film. Luca shoub to hilll. inviting hilll to ,i"it IIlPir old IIIHlIt>. The cOllllict Iwtweell old and lIew is not elltirely alltagonistit'. Whereas tilt' Iivps of t he three 1111'11 arc used to explore the differellt st ratt'git,,; of adaptatioll. the two lIIaill female characters. 1lI0tl}('r Rosaria awl j\adia. ellllHldy the dangers of the past allll tlw prt',.,ellt. respectively. SOllle scholar" view the two as destructive forces.;ul It would be lIIore t't'in'd frolll SilllOIIt'. '1'111' tlll'IIIt' al'l'l·ar,., ill 1',,11 for Ihe lir,.,( lilllt' ill tlll' IIt'XI "1'1'111'. ill which Silllflllt' alld HII(TtI an' lalkillg ahtllll \ildiil. Ih hI'

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the musl illlportallt IlJa11 ift'"'tat iOIl of tilt' tlH'lIlt' is Ilt'ard whell \adia alld Hocco talk aflt'r ,~IH' has Iwt'lI rt'it'ast'd frolll pri",oll: tilt' lirst half appt'ars in ib li~htt'r wrsioll. aftt'r which tilt' IIIwiic St't'lIh to ;!t'IIt1y slwkt, off it;. chains alld he('ollle all ('xpressioll of hopt" This Ii~ht n'rsion !'t'a!,p!'ar,; wht'1I Iht' nt'w cOllpll' in lo\'t' an' Sl't'lI t nl\'din;! wgetllt'r on a Iralll throll;!h \Iilan. and it i", d"xtt'nlll~ly cOlllhillt'd with the jazzy HUll' jll"'t 1II!'ntiOllt'd, :\ liltle latpl'. tilt' dark wr",ioll n'tlll'll" awl is wO''I'n into tilt' telhioll-hllildillg lIIu~i(' to ",U;!W'st SiIIlOlIt" s lIIali('p a" he crt'Pps toward tilt' lon"r"" Aftt'r Iit' has rapt'd ,l\adiLI. tilt' tllt'lIlt' 1'1'tunls in it,.; t'nlirt'ty. now iufiuitt·ly sad: tilt' 1I11ISic of hop(' Iw", bt'('oml' a poigllallt !'xpressioll of hOl't' lo;"t. The tht'lIlt' i~ heard a couplt' of tilllt's ill tlris IIHHIt· alld fllllClioll. most dralllatinllly wllt'lI Hoct'o rpjt'('\;; \adia al tilt' top of the \ Iilall Ca t Iredral. \\ Iit'll SimOl It' 1I1t'('\;; Ilt'r at Idroscalo. tI It' light wrsioll is Ireard dlallgill~ illto tilt' dark Ollt'. Hilt! fillally it "Ian's fort It ill it;. most maguific"lIt alld tragic rt'lIditioll, just as sht' "ll('cllml,s to his knife - only to disHppt'ar with IIH' ('ut 10 tilt' ho.xillg rill;!. The tllt'lIle i", heard for the last tilllt' wht'1I (;iro 1'1 1",1 It'S off \0 rq,ort SimOlIt' to tilt' polict', Despitt, it;; audiovisual n'finl'lIwllt. it;; ca"I of illtl'matiollal "'tars alld all it:; melodramatic qualitit's. H()('('() (llId lIis Umtlwf's SU;!;!I'"'It'd a killd of rt,tUI'II to [It'oreali,,lII. TIlt' way ill which tilt' shoot ill;! (ill black alld white) capllll't'd the n'latiollship IwtwI,t'1I lilt' characft'rs alld IIlt'ir "ocial ell\'inllUlwllt was remilli"ct'lIt of tilt' 1-!rt'at postwar Italiall cillt'matic traditioll, Almost all uf Ihe t'OIJ1radi(,tions of JH'on'alism call also II(' found in it. In some quartt'rs Ihe film wa" praised for it,; accurate d('pictioll of social realily: ill othel's il was dt'llollllcI'd for doing tilt' very oppo"ilt" There w('n' thost' who ",aw ill H(J('c() "i;!lIi1inlllt "ocial criticism alld all t'xpn'"sioll of clas" stnl;!!-dt,: olllt'rs "aw in il a 1I1t'I't' triallgl!' drallla tlrat was all ill"ult to Ih .. workl'rs who had t'lIIip'atc'd frolll tile' ,.,OIlth,:;·' TIlt' difl'cl't'/It't'S uf opilliolJ W!'/'t' clost'ly ('011111'1'\('uggt'Sh that Iit' is able to capturt' oldy tilt' ,~lIrface of thillg" - ill t·olltra,.;t to Cialllli. \\,ho has writtt'lI a book Ihal i,.; appan'"t1y full of n,f(,rt'IICt',; 10 ntitllre alld tilt' pa,.;t. Thi" illlpn'""ioll is stn'lI!!tllt'lwd by pop IIl1bic Iward from the trall"i"tor radio ill tlw ntllll'ra SCl'lIt'. 111 tilt' tirsl ,.,hot of Sawlra t hrollgh Alldrew' s viewfilldt'r. ,.,Iw i,; SI'I'II "1 IITOII III !t,d h\" a black frallle - whit'h forllls a vi:",al parallel wilh till' tir,.,1 shol of Cialllli.~eell throllp:h Ihe grid of tilt' gardt'lI !!att'. Salldra·,., IlIlI'a,.,illt',;s alltil'ipatl's Iwr "lIbselllll'lIt III1WillillP:IIt'SS 10 Il'l Alldn'w forlll all ol'jl'I,ti\'t' \il'W of Ilt'r pasl alld IIIt'diall' a recolwiliatioll III'IW('I'II Iwr alld IlI'r ,.,lIpp0,.,I,d ellt'lIIie". It i" a~ if Salldra WIT(' 1I0t truly willillg 10 ban' Ihillg" recorth,d with allY dl'Wet' of objl,t'li\'ity. as if she fean,d Ihat tilt' "'1I"pil'iolb "Iit' pn'f,'rs to /'lItl'11ailllllight 1I0t Iw cOlltinlled. III 011(' way or allotilt'r. il appear" to Iit' ill 1'\"t'ryOllt'·,.; illtl'/'t':;t 1I0t to haw Ihe old di"plltes ft'ally ,;ortt'd out. This 1Il'l,d to mailltaill alllbiguity i,.; I,dlllt'd ill the ""IIt1) ,'lIipticalllarratiw styit- of tilt' tillll ibl,lf. It is It'ft l"wlt-ar how IIl1lt'h tilt' charactl'r" kllow ahout ollt' allotllt'r at allY gin"lI poillt ill the liltll, \\1' are 1101. for exalllplt'. privy to what CiJardilli tell:; A"drew ahollt what Iit' thi"k" has happt'lIed IJI'tw1'1'1I tilt' sihlillp:s. bllt this is IlIadl' apl'an'lIt loward till' elld of tilt' tillll. \\hilt, tilt' t'tllltlit'(s IlI'twt'('1I tilt' dJanlt'lt'r,., fllrtlwr t'olllplicate t1wir rclatioll~ltip~ witholll brilll!illl! allY clarity to tht' ,~il\la(ioll. /'itllt-'r for 1IWill or tilt' "Iwt'talor,~. illll'ft',.,t fot'lI:;I''; 011 tilt' way Salldra alld Cialllli atlt'llIpl to ('0P" with tilt' pa,,1. whil'h tllrll" Ollt to Iit' det't'ptioll of ,'ariol'" kiJld~. Cialllli iHTlI';I',., Salldra of dri"illp: their IlIotlwr Iliad tlll'OlI!!h Iwr 01,';t',.,~i()1I with tilt' 11 It'll It,..\" of dlt'ir fatill'r. E\t'1I ,b ,.,11t-' ('olltiIlW'" to alTU~t' tllt'ir 1II0tilt'r of Itt'lrayill!! tllt'ir fatllt'r. "hl' Ilt'r,.,df 1lt'(,I""I'~ t'IIII1I""llt,d ill dt'n'ptioll . .\.,., a dlild. "Iit' alld Cialllli Itad fortllt'd all aJliallt'I" lI!!ailb( tllt'ir IlIotiwr alld Cilardilli. IHIl Iltat rt,laliollSltip \\a,., ht'lra~ I,d. Iit' fl'pls. wllt'lI "ltl' IIl1lrrit'd .\11.11'1'\\. III a ~I'I""I'. botlt IIIt'II 1'01111)(,(1' for Ilt'r a" a WOlllall, IHIl lIIon' illlportalll to tilt' tillll"" di"I'olll''''I' i, wlrat tilt'~ "'~'1I11JOlize for Iwr. TIlt' rdatiollsirip wilh Cialllli "igllitil'''' a pIlll'miaJly rt'!!n',.,,,i\'(' tllmill!! to tilt' 1' go" n'llI'all'd agaill alld agaill - carrit's ullrealistically far. This. logl'lhl'r wilh tllt' ,.,OIl11d of tilt' willd. giw,., tilt' gardl'lI ";I'elll' a ,.;Iightly \11I1'alllly quality, Thi,., i,., whell Cialllli first appear,.; ill tht' fillll. just as tllt' ,.,illgl'r rl'adlt's Ihe wonk "1 wallt YOII to {"Olllt' back." The church 1)('11,., hm't' a sOlllewhat diH"n'lIt flllll't iOlI. TIIt'\. too. "1'1"\(' as a relllillder of tlll' "rl'ar' world - particlllarly as tlwy an' Iward twin' throllgh di"gl'tic pop II111Sil' - hilt of I'our,.,(' tllI'y also ",'rn' as a "ymhol of tillleles,..III''''''' They are fir~t heard at lIight. wht'1I Alldrl'w COIIII'''; to till' gardell wllt'J"1' Salldra alld Cialllli ha\l' jllst 1111'1 alld "llIllI"Ilt'ed ill a SOIlIt'what slIggestin' lllallll,'r. TIll' Iwlb pt'al agaill wll('1I Alldn'w alld Cialllli n'turtl from their 1I0clurllal sights("'illg tOllr. whell Salldra locks IlI'r door. alld whl'lI ('ach is S(','II Iyillg alolll' alld awak,' ill hed. '1'111' hll,.,llt'd words of a ";Ollg an' 1I0W abo Ilt'ard ill till' hackgrolllld: "10 dlt' 11011 ,in) ";"lIza It," (I who nlllllot lin' wi tlltlll I YOII), Alld agaill tilt' IIIl1"ic 1101 1III1'qlli,ocally di"gl'tintlly 1II0Iinlt",\. Fillally, at tllt' 1'/11101' tilt' filII!. tlw dlilllillg bl'lI,., un'olllpallY Salllh'a',., "pllrifil' tIlt' power to drive Oil" iliad. The a""o('iatioll" af'Ou;,t'd hy tilt' llIu"ic amI tilt' poelll. ("(Jlllitilled with the po""ibility of iw'e,;t. all pn'st'nt a IlIrrtillg inward, away frolll tilt' world. ill to a "Iwlr('n'd nook of ullt'o/bcious fallta"y ill the depths of prilllal family ullity. TIlt' \'i"ual realizat iOIl. bot h ill terllls uf llIi,,('-t'II-";C('/1t' a lit I Call1t'fU work. l'nridlt'" this tiglu'at i\t' progn':-isioll. The fillll i" "hot ill hlack alld whit", 01'11'11 with l'xtn'lIIl' cOlltra:-i\s bt'lw,'en light and darkness. III :\ow... ll-Slllitlt·" apl expre;."ioll. "The light dazzle~ alld the darklles~ oLscun's. TIIt'/'I' i" 110 middle tenll. 110 po:-isihilil y of IlltalH'e ill ass('~~illt! Iht' "Cl' 11 l' . ",,2 TIH' pull of the pa:;\ is repeatedly JIIallife;.ted whl'llt'n'r Salldra ,'lIter,; the dark roOllb (If 11t'r 1Il0tllt'r'" apartmt'llt. ill mw,\ t'lIl'Olllltl'rS with Cia/llli arolllld their childhood Itolllt'. a lit I ubmt' all ill Ilt'r desc(,llt illtu tlH' ,,-olllblik,' ci,.,t,,1'II wlwn' site is to ml't't him. '1'11('",' an' all ,;ltadm\"\. "'TIIt'S_ al\\"a\s . ac('ollll'allinl hy Fralwk'" ""oculi\'(, III1\"ic. In ('Olltra,,\. Salldra alltl :\11dn'w ""Iwlly 1IH"'t ill \\'t'II-lit "lIlTOlllldillt!,.;. III 1-!t'IH'ral. tilt> tillll /II0H'S 1'1'0111 darkll""''' to lit!lt\. frolll a "illkillg illto IIwlllori('" to tilt' n',.;olult' tit'nial of tlto",' 1Il1'1I10ri,'''; alld all tltal tI)(',- Ita"(' "tuod for. TI\(' cOlltrasl Iwtw"I'1I tiarkl\('"" alld lit!ltt i" partit'ltiarly t'vidl'lIl ill IWo of tlte hllll'" IIIOSI "Irikilll-! ,.;110(,;, OIH' of tilt'"" ,.;ltows Salldra I!oilll-! to lite park for tilt' fir,;t I ill\(-', Whitt' c10tlt ('O\Tr,-; Ihe ,,;talllt' of Ilt'r fa tI H'r ulld tilt' tn','" around il an,lit frolllllt'lo\\. It i,~ lIil-!hltilllt'. T(I~,(t'tllt'r wilh tI\(' ,,,'"lIId Ira('k. tilt' illlil!!(' ('("('alt'" a "trail!!!' allllo"I'I\('/'(" TI\(' otlWI' "hot 111 Ih,' "lid

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of the him, shows the sallle plal't~ durillg: dlt' daytill)(, alld ill fllll sUlllighl. but with I he pt'oplt- hiddl'lI alllollg I he shadows lIlId('r I hI' I n·I''';, Pnhap!"> because of the cOlHrasl with the earlier. IlOctllnwl shot. Ihis illwlo(l" loo, has a dist urbillg quality, TIlt' colltrast betweell black alld white also app,'ars ill the r\olllillg Salldra alld her lIIother wear, At tillH"S, the "aY Salldra dn'sses dOl'S Ilot lit tilt' situalioll, At the diplolllati,' ren'ptioll she al'pl'ar~ 10 Ill" tilt" ollly WOIIHlIl ill black, III lIlosl of Ihe film silt' \\Tar!"> a 1,lack-alld-whiu' dn'ss topl't'd witll a wide brinllllt'd 1,lack hal Ihat oft"1I leaws her fan' ill shadow, III",ide the palace siit' oft!'1I wraps a large white shawl aroulld her sllOlIld,'rs, easily associall'd wit h t he dot h co\'t'rillg her fa tI It'r' s stalllt", The shawl gaills in sigllificallc,' as Cialllli n'llt'aledly fOlldles it. III tlu' dillllt'r scelle Sawlra is agaill drt's"I'd ill Llack, whereas ill riit' dt'dicalioll cerelllollY, as if to demollstrate her lIew resolutioll (abolll which 110 Oil(' prest'lIt kllows allylhillg), sill' Wt'ars white whereas l'verYOIH' el,.", is ill black, III SUI/(/,.a Viscollti elllploys cillematic devict's such as the zoo III ill a mon' prolloullct'd way thall ill allY of his other films, The zoom, ,.,ays SlIzalllle Lialldrat-Guigues, alllltlsl sel'IIIS to r!'pn'selll tilll!,: "TIlt' ::'OIJfII 'Iraces' a ,'!'('tor of telllporalizalioll allll gives a ,.,ellsible dq>lh to Ihe shot. It millll's all illh'rior jOUI'IlI'Y through a thil,kllt',.,s of tilllt',"":l Thi,., applies parI icularly to Ih!' crucial ZOOIll hack wlll'lI Salldra !'lIlers tht' roOIllS ill \\'hich her 1II0ther uSl'd to live ami to the two zooms to the Alllor alld Psydle sWIUt', AI",o. the quiet zoom to Gialllli alld lilt' ,.,uddl'lI. slrikillg zoom away from hiJll whell Iit' first rl'H'als he i~ writ iug a hook basl,d 011 his childhood JIleJllories (awl is fondling Sandra',; shawl) sugg!'s(,.; Ihl' gravilational pull of Ih" past. r!'1 Liandrat-Guigut';;·,; ClCcOUIlt is sonlt'what unsatisf'twtory ill t'xplailling at least OIle of the most prolllin('1I1 lI,.,t'S of thi,.. devil't'. llanlt'ly, till' six ZOOllb Lack and forth within the singl!' ,.,hot showillg Salldra pUllillg oul the light;, alld lockillg ilt'r door to k,'ep Alldrl'w out. If allythillg, this SI'I'IIIS to exprl'ss Sandra's IIlln'rlaillty about Ilt'r ft't'lillgs for ,·\ndrew (alld 1'('1'haps for hoth IIII'n) ..-\ liltit' laft'r. tilt' nwkillg 1l10H'1Il!'llt conlillllt'S ill tilt' Ihn'l' shots of tilt' three characlers lying awake ill tllt'ir I1t'1Is: luward AIIdr!'w. awa\' frolll Cialllli. IowaI'd Sandra. l!t'rt' Ihe ZOO/ll ,.,,'I'IIlS III ('ITalt' IlIllh a parallel alld a t'Olllrast III'IWI'I'II the two JIlt'n ill Salldra·" IlIilld. Thuo. tilt' dt'vi('1' i", tbI'd throughollt tilt' film for various t'xl'rt'ssiv,' pllrpose,." IIlClinly cOllllt'clt'd wilh character ,.,uIJjt'ctivily. 11tH always \,'itll a ('ou,.,idl'ral,\t, degree of alllhiguity,

1:)()

illlt ... pn'till~ ,..,'wu/m, Tlw ralllifyillg 1'IIltllral 1'1,1','1'1'111'"" thinly buried UIId,'r ih ';lIrfac!' poillt to sllppn's"l'd psychological pmhlems. patholo~ical hllmall n'lations. auel the inability to 1'01111' to tpnns with till' past. BUI all ill all. till' fillll i" ~o packl'd with \'a~II"l'lIltllral n-l'l'rl'llI't's that tllf' Ill'tworl. tllI'y fOl'ln i" IllOn' "ignitil'llllt a" a wholl' than art' tilt' individllal n,f,'rellt't" a" ""I'h. Lialldrat-ClIigll,',; ha" aptly I'olllpan,d Ihis to Piern' BOlllez·,. w'stllt'tic: "'1'111' slllwrilllpo"itioll" an' at ,','rtaill nWlllI'lIb ,,0 d"w;p that th,'y allllihilate "ach other and prodlll"t, a global illllll·t'"sion.""" Liandrat-Clligllt,,, 111'" ""ggl',,ted that tilt' key to SUfI(/m i" till' nOliull of "",'illtillatioll." Thi" tl'rtll l'ill'tlll't'" till' idt·a,.; of "lllOditil'atioll uf intell"ity or IlIllIillO"ity. Ji,.;tatll',' traYt,It-J ml'r \'aryill~ Iwriod" of tillll'. appl'arall"c alld ol,litt'ralion. tilt' illt"I'\'allwtwl't'lI t'lIlis"ioll alld pen'pption. tilt' ';"Il,.,atioll of ";OIllt'thillg aln'ady di,.;appt'an'd. sllch a", tht' pt'rl't'ptioll of tilt' li;,,dlt of stars aln'ady IIt'ad.""~' IlIdel'd. it captlln'" pnft'l'tly the tollt' of thl' lillll alld twilit'" tilt' IIIl1ltiplicity of ih IIlt'laphor,.,: showing how truly diffi ... dt it i" to d('tenllillt' to what ".\\t'lIt the di~tallt past illtlu,'II('t's tilt' pn',;t'llI: alld to n"'ogllize tilt' va!!lIt'IIt',.;,.; allll tilt' rl'lati\'ity that elll too 01'11'11 limit hlllllall pt'n"'ptioll alld IIl1d,'rstalldill!!.

TilL' 111'1'('11 Ut R.\EIJ ,ILII J; ,\I'l,'r Safl(/ra. \'isl'ollti had lllallY idca:-; for otllt'r lilllls. amOIl!! them all adaptation of Holwrt \11I,.;il's JOIl/IP: Tiirlt'ss. Howt'\,,!'. hi,., Ilt'xt work for th,' ";1'1'1'1'11 was all I'pisode ill thl' fillll Lp stl'Pp:ht' (TIlt' witdlt's. 19()(»). TIll' din,,'tors of tilt' ot hl'r I'pisod!'s w,'n' \lalll'O Bologllini. Pit'r Paolo Pasolilli. Franl'l'sco Hosi. alld \'ittorio De Sil'a. \'i",'ollti',; Le ,~tl'PW' bf'llcia/u l'il'(J i" abollt a film star. Cloria (Sil\'ana \Iallgallo). \\'ho \i"ih Ilt'r frit'lld \'alt'ria at tilt' ,\lIstriall holiday n',.;orl ~itzl,iihl. Tllt'rl' ,,111' al,.,o lIIt't~h \'alt'ria' s hllsballd. Paolo. alii I sOllle gtll'sh. III rill' c\'cllillg Cloria dn's"t's ill a glillerillg gowll Ihal J't'''''lIlblt's g()ldl'lI arlllOI'. Th .. ,'all H'ra adorillgly follows Cloria'" "edllcti \'t' dallce 1111lil "Iit' ,,"ddl'lIh raillh, TIlt' Wlllllt'lI withdraw. LllIria i" fn't,d from ht'r arlllo!'. alld it IlIrt'" 0111 that ,,1 ... i,., I'n'gllallt. Cloria i,., "llIliIlSi,"'li,'. bill wllt'lI ,.,he ",lis 111'1' I'rodll('t'r hllsballd tilt' IIt'WS ill a lrallsatlullti,' 11'ic-1'11I1l1l' l'oll\'l'rsatiOlI. lit, n'milld~ Ilt'r that siit' i,., ",'Iwtilllt'd t() makl' a film SOOIl. SIit' tries to P()stl'0lll' tilt' ,.,llOOlill!! ,,0 that ,,1 It' !'all ha\(' tilt' haby, Blit Iit' n.fu"t',.;. alld Clol'ia gi\'t's ill. 0111 of Iwr anllllr, "I ... i-.; :, "·lIllIall. hili IlII'" "hl' '-l'lIh it Oil" a!lain ;''l'' I'!"'III:I"

TilL

~.\ ~III.

\

\,

I)

\1 () IH. H' I I \ 1.1\' :- () LlI I \

(/It' role or a diva. The lIt'xt 1I1OJ"lling. ';III"1"OIIlIlIl,d by a H'lI'k of jOlll"llali"h.

Gloria lea\'t'~ Oil a IlI'licopl,'r. Ikillg a di\·a IIl1'allS Iwing a part of a highly orgalliz"d as""lIIbly lill,'. At a party ill tilt' t'\(,lIillg. all old illdlblriali,;1 "ays 10 lwI': ··YOII ar(' a prodllct. A "III,lilllt' prodllct. I'xlraordillary "'lIrt'ly. 11111 a product. ... If you dOIl·t lIIailltaill YOllr qllality. havt' till' saillt' lIavol'. th(' salll!' calori,'s. YOII

hav(' a tnw alld a pr0I'I'r di,.,a.~II'r Oil YOllr llallll" .... III lily I'alllll,d

lIIeat I al"ay~ Ibl' tilt' "allll' illgn'dit'lIh. I alii n'ry ~l'I'lIl'ulolls. Il"lw aS~lIn' yOIl. 0111' 1II11"III·t jl'opardizl' all illdllslry.·· Lat('1'. Iit' adds: ··YolI arli,.,b are a p,'ndiar brallch of illdll"try ... prl'cariolls. IIl1lik,'ly. all il lak"" I" a drafl or a 10\"1' affair alld all tht' capital gol'''; lip ill "lIIok(' .. ·..'·

011 o lit' halld. \Ioninl St irlillg sllggl'"b I hal \. i,.,,·Ollti "1'1'" tlw "1'1"1'1'11 actress a" lIot jw;t an erolic sYlllbol. bill as a killd of wilch who call inlllll'llt'l' Iwople by playing 011 thl'ir "IIIOlioIlS. Alld lik" a witdl "h,' I'isb, losillg her SOli I. ,,~ Oil till' ot her ha lid. IJt' sI n'~(/ IIaS 111'1'11 S,','II as ,. i~,'oll t i·" ('OIllIll('lIt

011

tilt' roll' of WOIIII'II ill

,,0, 'it'l v

a" a whole: .h \" is, 'Ollt i· s fril'lId

S'hO Ct"Thi IrAmico ha" 1I01I,d: ··Ollt' Ihillg whidl ollly a ft'w kllow alld which hardly aIlYOIII' IHI,; Imlllghl Ill' i" that Lllt'hillu· S COIII'I'pt of tlw family w·as cOlllpl"tely patriarchal.·· '·isI"tHlti him,.,,'''· ha" J"t'IIH1l'kt,d: ,\ \\0111tta alld SIt·fallo say, I\:ollrad al II'a,,1 Iril'" 10 ~i\'t, ti)(' iIllI'J'I',.;,.;iolllhat the lH'alill~ had a IIlt1n' illlportallt. P('rIlal''' I'olilit'al. COllll{'CliulI, III allY t'us(', tilt' n'a"OIl for Ihe IIlUg~ill1! i" 11t'\'t'r IlIadl' dl'ar l'itiH'J' to titl' prof,>,;sor or 10 tilt' audit'lIt't" Dt',;pil" Ihl''';I' "Iril,t lillli.", tilt' pro 1'1',.,,.,111: ,; n'lalioll,.;!Jil' wilh I\:ollrad offer" hilll it 1'11s alld she might be hurt. but they are ~till hl'U1l1iflll people uttl"acted to t'ach olher. It is ollly a IluestiuII of time Iwfort' tllt'y will reach "Olllt' :;011 of rt'l'orleiliut iOll - as the sernUlts. who obviou"ly kllow their masters bt'tll'r thall tlwy do thl'lIIselw". are well awart'. Pupc realizes that tllt're is a professioll slH' can take up: the same olle pral'til't'd hy tht' Wlllllt'lI Iwr hllsballd recelltiy "employed." By enterillg illto a similar arrallg"lIwnt with Pllpe. the COUllt will lIot have to pay "\ladame" 1III0la allY mon·. At first. the COllllt is takell back by this proposal hilt lllt'n tillds tilt' illt'a quilt, appealillg. Then' is y,'t allotlwr t,'lt'phorlt' ('all fWIII Pupt" s father. but silt' refuses to takt' it Oil the t'XCUSl' that sIll' is jllst ahout to start ill her lIew job. She has WOII Iwr bet. bllt it is a sad victory. This de('cl.Hin'ly drarmillg. hiltt'r~we('t fillll elll/:.; with the di:-;cOlll't·l·tillg illlage of a husband approul'hillg his wift: s bed with a dWI·k ill his halld. Thi,,; fillll has ~Olllt' alllobiogl'aphi"al el"lIwllts. the 1II0,.,t ohvious of whidl i" the l'olmless '" Iwt lIallle. Pupe. which \'iscollti had liSt'" for tilt' low of hi,., YOllth. Irllla \\'iIldisl'h-Criitz. Thell. too. tilt' 1'0tlllt is ill part

l-H

\ (:oiU)YII

an iwni.' ~elf-p()rtrait of \'i~('onti as a young mat I., while lhe effons of Pupe's father to control t~\'ents from afar parallel those of h-ma's father_ who did whatever Iit' cOllld to prevent her relation::;hip with the Italian aristocrat from Jt'\'t'lopill~ into a serious affair, \'i::;conti ha::; even ::;aid that the Austrian Homy Schneidt'l" bore a slight rest'mblance to the real Pupt' of his youth. The lilm is wry much a vehicle for Sdllwider; poor Milian ha;; little ('hanct' of matching the performance of his exuberallt leading lady. III hi" ('ustomarY fa;;hion. Visl'tlJlti ('rl'ated a luxurious milit'u down tu the slIlalle"t glamorous detail. The film's producer wa~ Carlo Ponti. who pointed out that although the epi;;ode was shot in a single al'al1ment, it was the most eXpt'lbin> epi"ode of the entire lillll. Tht, "Inuptuous setting furnishes the Ilt'rfect contt'xt for S('hneider' ~ llt'lightful. glittering. champagne-like pt'rformance. All the action takt,;; plal'l' in the count's palace. in which Pupe has built her uwn feminine i~laIHI. Whereas the ('ount's enonuous dogs ruam aruund the other pan::; of the palace. Pupe'" roums are inhahited uy inuumeraule eab. PUP(" s entire existt,JIt'e appears to be tied to the objl'('ts around her. for she is newr seen anywhere el~e and all tilt' elllphasis is on Iwr ft'line ahility to t'lljOy the comforts that slllTounu allll dominate her. The idea of having to reliulluish tllt'St' wouderful objects is a threat to her very Lwiug. She ha;; to own in ordt'r to exist be('au~e she ('an only ('xi~t in high awl glamorou~ stylt· - and to do that. she needs an aristocratic hl",l,alHl. A~ in most of \' iscollti';; Iilms. sexuulit y and lllaterial flOs~e"sions are depicted ill a hopele~~ tangle, a:; they are. for example ill the relationship betwet'lI Allgelil'll alltl TawTt"di in 71U:' Leopard. But thi~ tillle even the illusion of love i:; shattered. perhaps because Pupe has almost al'citielltally fallen ollt of love. Her lIlH'ontrolled laughter toward the end of the film is tellinw at ~Ollle It'vd she has groWll aware that her life is shallow alltl that her /uwlt'-bulIIgt'uis lllarriage is ba~etl 011 petty bOllrgt·ois cOlllmercial valul·s. 1'111" (,OUllt has 110 ;;ul'h problem::;. Since all that he wallt~ is what mont>y nlll buy. he has lIothing tu lo~e excel't his illt'ome frolll hi~ father-ill law.

THE JJ,UJAf-'JJ

The inverse side of Germany After tIlt' Seeolld \Vodd War. Thomas dt'lt'l'ioration in Cermar1\':

~Iallll

iallll'ult·d the "piritllal

\ IS (: () :\ T I .\:\ ()

l.~,

H \1.\ :\ ,

There an' 1101 two Ct'rlllallil's. a good alld all ('viI. hilt ollly a ~illgll' Ollt'. whil'h tufllt'd it~ hest hy dt"'ilry illto bad, Evil (~enllally, thal is the good whil'h has festered. the ~oO(I ill misfnrtlllll'. ill gllilt Hlld declille, For Ihis n'asoll il is so impossible for a Ct'rtIllln-bortl milld 10 disowlI tilt' evil. gllilt -Iadell C"rtllaIlY alld to dedare: "1 am the goo.!. the lIohle. the righlt'olls CermallY ill whilt'. the I'vill lean' to YOllr t'xtt'rtllillatioll'" :\othillg of that which 1 han said to YOII abolll GermallY or tried 1It'I·tillgly to poillt 0111. I'alllt' frolll kllmdt·d!!I' dissol'ialt'.1. 1'001 or IIl1illHllwd: 1 have it also ill mt', I hav.' expI'ri(,llf'ed it ill my OWII hody,"

The nmllict that \Iann knt'w so well both ill hilllself awl in Cennullv ill gt'lwral was fallliliar to \"isl'ollti. too: it was a dl'eply Idt uwJt.rstulldilll! of the destructiw force,.; that un' part alld parcel of I,oth the hUlllallmilld and society as a whole. n/(' /)alllllcd is a descriptioll Ilot ollly of a diabolical power ,.;tnlggl!' bllt also of the lIli,;appJ'Opriatioll alld utter 1lt'l!atioll of Cerlllan cllltllre. The /)(llIIlIed was prodlwl'd by the Itallloleggio. a "tatl' al!l'IH'y (Teat!'d III dw 1'lixtil's to distribute films with limited release possibilities. III thi" casl'. it had to resort to internatiollal cOopl'Httion. Agaillst Yi~colltj"s wishes. thl' fillll was giwll the English title nu' /)ulIlIlI'd I,,'(,(Ill:;t' the Allwricall producers thought that it would attract a wider audil'I"'!' thall TIll:' Tll'ilif{hl (~fllll' Gods. III any cmit'. The Ihlll/lled IlI'collle both a critical alld a poplllar "lilT!':;";. alld it i:; tilt' ollly '·i"(,OIl1i film that I'veI' Iliad\' a ~igllifi('allt profit. It broke box-offin' 1'I','ords ill IIHlIly lIIajor Italiall cities alld also I'lIjoyt'd considl'rabl" "IWI't',,:; ill the l·lIitt'd Statl'S, TIlt' l't'USOIlS wt're ol"·iou,,ly 1I0t ollly art i"t ic, Thl' 11I1I1lt'rOlls IIlllrdt'r,;. tilt' at lIIosl'hl'l't, of I't'rn:'r"ity. uud tilt' ,,"{'Ill' of tlH' lIight of tilt' IOllg klliVf's attral'tt'd a large alldi .. IH't'. alld the film was followed I.y a waYI' of films abollt :\azi,,1I1. III '\hell "isl'ollti wu" asked whv Iit' wallll'd alld 1I0t ahout Fascism Iit' Hlhwl'r.. d:

to

make a 111111 ahollt \azislll

Iknllht' or tilt' diffl'I'('III'I' hl't\\""1I tral!t'dy alld t'Olllt'dy, Of l'OIIl'~" Fa:;('i,,1I1

W<J"

a I rag,'dy ill lIIil1ly. lIIallY I'as,'" ... 11111 a_ till' IlI'rf"1'1 ardll'1 HlI' of a gin'lI his-

toril'al "illlalillll thal I.'ad" 10 a I'l'naill typ .. IIf lTilllillalit~. \azi~;nl ""l'lIl1'd to 1111' trag,'d~ that. lik .. a hid,'ollS blood"taill. "'qll'd .w.'r till' whok world .... 0111' ,'olrld IlIakl' thol/".tlld" of film" abollt Italiau Fa"d"lu, , ,ahollt \Iatteolli , , , \11I ..;solilli·s H"llItI.li,' of Salt., , . th .. d,'ath or (;ralll",'i ... hilt \azislIl St'I'lIb to nit' to n'VI'al mol'(' abollt a historil'al rl'\('r.;al or ,·allfl'';, I1

III I... 11101'1' ,'\(',uplary -11I','all".' it wa" a

.\ltllOlIgh Suso CI'cchi ,i'.\mico had ollly a ,;nudl halld ill till' lIIakillg of tilt' (: .. rlllall trilo!!y. ,.,11t' h,'lp,'d /'Ol'llllllall' the idea of TlU' /)wlIIlI'd:

[t h'i/!illully,] \w wallted to lIlake u ~ort of Mw·beflt. placed illllloJefll times. Thefe was at the time the Profumo ,;(·.allJal ill Ellglalld. and that gave us the milieu fOf tlu' story hased 011 :Hacbetlt. And wht'll we wert' wfiting it ... [I saw] in a magazine a hi!! article with Iwautiful photo~ about the Krupp family. And so I called Ludlillo to ~ay that 1 thou!!ht it offered a mw·1t bettef milit'u thun the one we had thou/!ht about. :\1111 so he ,.,tU/wrl to fead abollt the Krupp family. I~

!\evertlu,\e,.,,.,. something of till' origillal idea remained. The story of Alfred l..:rupp mt'n'ly illlt'llsilied tht'st" traits in the snipt allll gan' tllt'lII tilt' perfect setting. llilll'r had placed tlw e('ollomic organization of the war in Krupp' s hawk. allll he was the olle who masterminded the IIse of forced labO/" ill IIIillly of his OWII a,.; well as ill otller factories. The youngest of these pri,.,oner,.; were six-year-old children. It is said that toward the end of his life l..:rupp - like Macbeth - suffered frightful hallucinations. 1;1 Yi,.,t'ollti "Totl' tilt' script together with :\icoia Badaluceo and Enrieo l\letiioli. He had for some time toyed with the idea of filming a family chrollide alollg the liues of ~talln's Bllddel/brooks. Originally. he had plamlt'd to St't it ill !\Iilau. but thi,.; would probably have brought the subject too dost, to home. Ill' also begall to feel that the subjeet was more do,.;ely t'ollul'cted with Gl'l"lIlauy. It was as if he wallled to treat till' lovehate rdation,.,hip both ill his family background and in Cermany iu the sallle film. Ju,.;t as Hllddenbrooks is dearly about \Iallll"s family. The [)wllIled rellt'l't,.; certain featul"l'''' of Yiscontj",.; owu family bal'kgrouwJ as if Sl.'t'U through a grotes'Ilwly distorting lIlirror. In addition to Shakespeare aud \Iallll. the illtiucllt'e of Dostoye\"sky, MusiL and \\"agller call be detel'leu iu Ihis film. Yi"collli also reau lIlas,.;es of literallll"(, about Ihe :\azi leadt'r,;. Ihe ,'·jtumwbtt'ilulIg (SA). and the Scliiit;;staj}i'1 (SS). \\'illialll L. Shirer's The Rist! awl Fall oI the Third ReiI'll tunlt'd out to be a particularly important stllll"ce of iuformation. as ujd Lorrain l..:t'lIIp"ki·,.; 11O\"('!. 71U' Sight oI the LOllg J... llil'l's. I~ Yi,.,collti det'ided to I'OI\('l'utratl' Oil the phast' iu which the :\azi,., ,.,eiz('d ('olllrol of the gOH'fIImt'llIal in,.,titutiuns of Cermauy. Thl' lilm bq~ill:. on Februar'y '27. 1!);~:3. wht'u the Heichstag buildiug bumI'd down in BI'rliu. The Nazi,.; Ibed t hi,., t'n'ut a,; a propaganda w('apolI aud all eXl'use for tht' pt'r,.,(,t'ulioll of tilt' COlllmuui,.,t,;. Durillg Iht' saillt' ""riug. tllt'y pllq.wd tilt' Ct'nUall gowrtlnlellt awl ,.,twit,ty of atlti-:\azi group,., awl liquidalt't! all delllOtTal il' and dt'CI'IHralizing insl it ul iou!i. Tht' lir!'il cOllet'nl ra I ion call1ps ,nTe fouuded. I.-, \ow lwgan Iht, lasl gn'al illtl'rual ,.,Iruggle for tilt' I'tllllrol of thl' :\azi puny. Thl' wen' two maiu factioll". 0111' of Ihl',.,e was Ihl' S.\. whil'h wa,; fOUlltlt,t! ill 1:,!

\ I:-;C()\II

(/1/(/

/lis I/rulhef"l;. or

nu:' IA'ojJllnl.

Yet already tht' quality of tll1ll aboullhl' IIt'W vista" Ihal ,.,cit'lItific all(ltl,dlJlical d"\'I'loPIII"1I1 appeared 10 opell for 11l1ll1U1I pursuits: hili tlWJ'I' was al,.,o Ihl' ft'ar of Ihl' t1e:-.lnJctioll of ntitllre, tilt' n'r\' 1' As NO\wUSmith ha,.; also ~uggest('d with 1II(,l'cilt's~ irony: "\layLe this tNchy old lIIall has a m(,lItal alltl fanlasy lift~ richer and 11101"1' intelligiLle than call he d.'duel'd frolll IIIt'r('ly watching hilll Iech aft('r a plIIJt'sl'elll Loy ill a pru\'ol'll! in' bathing cost UlIIl'. "~ .. SOIll/'Olll' reading slll'h COIllIlIt'lIt:. before st't'illg the film and thus expecting to sel' a "foolish dirty old man" "Iech after a puLescent boy ill a pro"ol'ative I'ostullle'" ·'a pretty little tease'" would sun'ly Iw sU'l'rised. The \'igor of these attacks awl tlwir moralizill/! tOlle ~uggest that Vi:.1'0111 i' s fillll ha:; at lea:;! lWI'll profoulldly disturbillg. But tllt'se writer,. makl' lill It, IIlt"lIt ion of tlw ~plendid audiovisual realizatioll of the tilm. and n011t' of thelll discus~ tilt' extraordinary use of 'Iahler'" music. First of all. it should Iit' noted that the rich audiovisual n'l'on~tnH·tioll has Illt'rit ill ibelf. \'iscollti was ('ollsciou"ly rl'creatillg sl'ellt'rie" alld situat iOlls from his OWII youth. wllt'lI hi:; family used to spelld their holidays at tht' I -ido. 11., was. ill effect. 0111'1' agaill doillg ill audiovisual tt'rIlIS what Marc!'1 Proust had dOli I' ill words: gi\'ill/! the peoplt, alld t'1I\'irOIlIlH'nts of his past a IIt'W least' 011 lift' ill a work of art. Ami altholl/!h in the space of a sillglt, lillll - or evell a ft'\\' fillll'; - \" isCOllli ('ould lIot po:;sihly achieve the lIlollulllt'lItality alld tht' wealth of the telllporal cross-relations of La rf'dlt'I'dlt'. tlH' \"alut' of the shear alltlH'lIticitv of the audioyi"ual renm:;tnlctioll call ollly 1)(' III'gll'cll'd from a puritall YiewlJOillt that IIIt'asures I'll It ural achieH'llwII(;; :-iolet" . ill terms of literary, \"allles. It should abo Iw 1I0tl'd that ('yell audiU\'isualizatioll a~ S\H·h i,.; lik .. l\· to ha\"!' philo"ophical implieutiollS. Despitt, till' :;plemlor of tilt' film. paradoxically. at It'a~t ill Ollt' illlportallt S .. I.".'. cOllsidi'rahl .. ft'straillt ha,., 1It'I'II f'xercis('d: there is wry little illdulging ill tilt' pictllrt',;qlll' aspI'c(;; of \"1'11ict'. Ilardly allY of i", distillgui~ht'd mOIlUlllellts an' ";1'1'11 dllrilll! the tilm. III"tt'ad. \'1'lIin' is llIrIwd illto a IIlt'taphor for \\· .. "tl'm cultUrt' at tilt' tllm of tilt' cI'IJtury. Its glorious alld ";I'IISUOIIS arti,.,tic adli.,\'t'mt'II'" hast'd on rutltlt'~s IIlUtt'rialislIl an' hllllllemorie~ of tilt' past. a lit I tilt' city is rt'legated to a glorious leisure re:.tll'l. I", labyrillth" are exhaustillg. alltl it appears to Iit' dyillg of its OWIl lilth: y.'t it is \dwn' earth. "I'a. alld ';1111 Ilw.'t to

\ 1S (. () .'\ Tt \ '\

J)

1.1 H 'I \.'\ \

Itd

form a uniquely intoxicatin/-! mixlure - all this splendidly ('aplul"I'd Ily Pasqualillo Dt, Santis"s ,'xqui"itl' l'Ullwra work, In addilion, the filIIIl'ontains its OWII \\"I't. of cullllrul J't'fl,I't'IH'I'S, lar~wly independenl of Ihl' lIowl bUI ill a ITucial way related 10 i\. TIlt' prola/-!onis" S cOlllwcl ions hOlh wilh cerlain ~Iallnian lict in' chanH'tl'rs a,., w,'1I as wilh \Iahll'r are IlIad" fairly evidl'lIl in lIint' lIashba('ks. alt IlOu~h apprel'ialill~ Ihe"e allusions does n'(Juin' ('llII,..id,'rablP back/-!rolllld knowled~e. The \Iannian Ihenlt's 1'lIwr~I' maillly in tilt' ~;t'cond. Ihird. fourth, and fifth lIashbacks. whilt, Iht' lir,,\. fiflh. and lIilllh lIa,~hbacks rI'fer 10 the ITi"t,,, \lahler t'Xlwri,'n, 'I,d in his Iif(, al'tlllIlIl 1()O? .. ~ Jlis ddt'/' dall/-!h Ier died of scarlel fewr alllllw hiJllsl'lf was dia~w"",'d 10 hme a \\Tak heart. After prolrat'll'd lJuarrels alld displllt',.;. Iit' 10,.;1 hi,.; POSilioll a,., tilt' dil'el'lOI' of' Iht' Vit'nlla Slall' Opera, AI tilt' sanlt' lilllt'. fJubli,' rt'co/-!lIilion ('ollliIllWd to elude him as a "01111.)('''''1'. Pcrhaps IIIort' so thall allY olher "IIIIlPO",'/'. \lahll'l' Iltarkpd till' 1>lIdillg poilll uf a certain chaplel' ill tilt' history of W,'slpfII mu,.,ic, Ill' llrou/-!hl lhl' c1assical-rolllalllic SYlllpllllllic lradilioll 10 i", Iwak ill 11'1'111,., of /-!ralldeur of I'll 1'111 , hanllollY. awl Ol'dWSIHllioll, III duill/-! so, Iit' provided hi,., sll/dl'lIh wilh Cl slUrtill/-! poilll 1'1'11111 which 10 totally n'lww Ihal lradilioll, Thi" WWi a,'coIllplisllt'd lIIaillly by ,\l'IIold Sdli;lIlwrg alld hi,., ,.,111111'111,., AIlIOII Welwl'Il alJ(l AIlIUII BI'r~. SchlIit'd till' "OIlIIt"'lioll alld "IIII'''asizl'd I"al Alfn'd ,.,llOuld Ill' IhOIl/-!hl of ~illlply as .·\sdll'lIl,Ht'h·~ alll'r "go.~:: Allt! 11'111' "llOlI?!h. ,\I fret!· ,., diat rilli'''; cJI'arly art il'ltial (' .\";I'''''III'a('h' S OWII dOllb", alld ft.ar~. Fllrtllt'l'Il10rl'. Ihl' ('olln""liol"" III'IW"('II tllt' l'I'al-lit't- "OIIlI"IS('rS alld tllt' dlanwl,'r,., ill tllt' lillll an' IIll1ddll'd 11\ till' ,'011\ ,'r,.,alioll'" ,\.~dll'lIbadl a III I .\lfn'd "av(' ('ollc('ruillg al'l alld IIllbil', TIll' dialo?!lll' 11 oeauty. alJ;;ollll!' st'H>rity, purit y uf form. perfl-etioll. tile ab"t raetion of tile se'be"." '., l ~llfortull"lely. tllOlIgh this miglll ulIICt'i\'allly Iit' said about Schollberg"" IIlllsic. it ab"ollllt-Iy dOI-"; Ilot apply to \lahlt'I:". lit' ('ollld he intoxicated by tilt' IlI'auty alld c/lUrtll of uatun-.. blll Iit' wa~ al"o aware of it,.; comical. wotesqul'. and terrifyillg aspects - alld all this he ~ollght to expre~s ill hi" lIlusic. III hi" Third SymphollY his ailll wa" to captun- Bt-illg in all it" lIlultiplicity. to "ellllml('l' the wholt- world." Accordillg 10 his OWIl state1l1t'1It.. the I"ir~t nlOVelllt'Jlt t'xpn's~es till' panic horror of a mid,;ulIllller nooll that had struck him ill hi,; solitude ill tlw stillJless of a :-ollJlIlIlt'r's day. The fourth 1Il0VI'IIIt'nt. st'! to Friedrick i\it,tzsche' s text and kllowlI a" Zara/hus/m:~ Sigh/SUI/g. is about wakelling into humanity .• 10wl:'\"t'r. \Iahler was abll' to I'xercist, Apollolliall re';t'I"\·t'. \00. PI'rlIaP" 1\1' could not alway" be botllt'red 10 do so. but it is t'('rtainly apparellt ill thl' :\dagil'lIo of the Fifth SYlllphony. It has ol"'iou"ly ht't'1I IWCI's"ary 10 di"WIIl't' tilt' protagolli,,1 from the I"I-al \lalIJt.r ill mdl'r tOlllaintaill Ihe basil' pat tent of tile 1I0\"l'lIa. :\11 erotic rt'action I'n>cipitilrl'd II~ the al'"tht'tic COlllt'llIplalioll of tilt' Ilt'auty of a young boy cOllfust''; :hdll'llbal'h. who al'pan-Iltly IIa" lIl'n'r ht'l'll aLII' to n'collciJt. "I'iritllality alld sl~llslIality. Ilis dl'ci"ion 10 It'a\"t~ Veil ice is followed by a lia"hllHck in which .\Ifn·d "IITII"e;i hilll of IIt'illg alil'lIated aJld lackillf! ft'l'lill~";. A('I'tmlilll! to till' yOllllg clIlIl>aglll'. Iwaltl .. particularly that of till' "I'iril. i" dry alld sterile. Ht'ferrillg to "l'irilllality ill art. A~­ dlt'lIbach "ay" tlIal "J"t'ality ollly dislracts ami dewade" u,," allll that "the tT('atioll of Ileauty is a spiritual al·t." Bill Alfred £1",,111'1''; hilll that "beallty belollf!s 1I0t to tlw ';t'lIse. only to till' sellst',.,." To hilll. art i,.; ba"ically delllonic. III Iryilll! to n'al'h ,,01111' 1'.\1/"I'llIt' pllrily. art lo"e" it" cOlllact with J"I'ulfifl' alld III'('ollll''' ,,(,If-sufticit'lIf. :\lId at "'ast ill hi" o\\"n J"t-collt'ctioJls. :hc/lI'lllnlt"h'" alll'llIpl to COIIVI'Y "piritllal Ilt'allty to hi,., alldit'llI'l" ha:; fa i Jt.d , III till' prt'''I'1I1 of thl' fillll. hi" old illt-als appl'ar lit-ad 10 hilll. Ihl'y flUVl' II'd hiJII to all illll'as"t'. Thi" faillln' 11a" IWt'1I ('ollll'll'lIl1"lItl,d IIY thl' dealh of hi" dall~htl'r alld apl'an'lIt1y ,,1,,001' hi" "ifl-. The t'tlll\l'r"alitllh abollt al,,,t1wlic,, 111'1\\1'1'11 :\"c/lt'lIllHch alld Alfred art' al lillH'''; allllo,,1 t'"lharra""illl!ly 1'J"t'lt'lItioth alld facik. III Ihi" tht'y art' ill ill"cord wilh tht' 1I0tiOIl\"dwIIIJHd .. till' allthor. IIlakt'" ill tilt' 110\1'1 aftt'r illdlllgillg ill al',.;tlwli(' "11I'1'lIlalioll" whilt- hm"ill!! hi" fir"l dillllt'r al tllf"

\1:;xample. ",llt'n the ooy alld the man pass each other in tilt' nocturnal scelle, Asciwnbach hardly stops. Tadzio slows down ollly slightly. and the glance they exchallgc is hilt a lieeting Ollt'. 011 tilt' whole. Tadzio certainly does not app('ar to be a "pretty little tew;e," Ewry now alltl tht>n he simply turns tu fa('e the gaze he realize:; has lWI'll fixed 011 him for SOliif' time. The ollly poillt at which Iw looks at Asclwllhach in the film. but 1I0t ill tilt' IlOwlla. is wlll'lI I... It'aH's the lift fairly ('ady on. In the film. he st'ems to Iit' starillg directly at :\schelloach: in thc lIon~lIa. he leaves "with his eH' cast dowlI ... ~,,) From :\scllenbach's poill1 of view, it is apparent that looking is not so Illllch leching as it is a sad ackllo",ledgnlt'nt of the distance that must remain oetweell his desire alltl ih object. of his inability allt! perhaps evell fundamelltalunwillillgIit'S" to OH'I'COIlIt' his dt·tadlmt'lIt alld his aliellatioll. He is doomed to experiell('(' the tantalizing ecstasy of forbidden, impossible. and unre({lli lI'd IOH' . \101'1' generally. tilt' canlt'ra work has a subtle role in expressing charackr sllbjectivity. The ,.,cene in the lounge uefore the first meal after Ascht'lIbal'h has arriH,d is a tOllr de force of call1era work producing an illtriguing play of poillts of view. Pasqllalino de Santis's pall-and-zoom style of shooting is at i." most elaborate and expre;;~ive. First the camera pans extrt'lIwly "Iowly 1'1'0111 right to left. reaching AschenlJach ahout midway ali(I following him to the extreme left and then agaill acl'Oss the lounge to the right. after which the camt'm stops 011 hilll for a brief moment. The same take contilllw" with a slight zoom backward and a movemellt toward the left. III the second shut. A,.;ehelliJach·!:i gaze catches the Polish falllil\,. . alld ill the third tilt· ('alllera mow,.; frolll olle farnilv. member to another alld ('nd" on Tadzio. Thi" shot can be tak"1I a" !:iubjt,(,tivt'. that is. from tilt' point of view of ..\~chellhach. as it is frallled by shots of Aschellhach looking. There is a shot of the !:ialoll urchestra alltl a IH'W shot of Aschenbach. He interrupts his readillg. and his gaze wanders IIntil it is fixed on the Polish family again. Tlw next shot beg ills from Tadzio. alld at first it appears to r('preSt'lIl :\schelliJach'" visual point of view. hut n~ till' call1PnI pall~ ;rl'llt"· it ",,01, "l' ~ho\\'in!! hilll. Still /;d;l'! i !!,. '::.1'

\bCO"]] \\J) CEH\J.\'\\

sceue. there is a ~hot that agaiu al'pt'Hrs to Iit' frolll hi~ I'oiut of view. IllIt the slow ZOOIll (possibly ('olllbillt,d with trackillg) back n'wal" ..bcllt'I1bal'h frolll hehiutl uIItil it is Lwyoutl what ('au be properly ('ousitlen~d all aetualpoiut -of-,'it~w shot . ..\1 poillt:; ill Iht' loullgl' scem'. it appear:,; as if the dl'grl'e of :"lIbjet'livity of the shots depellded 011 how altelltiw ..\:;chellhach hal'l't'lI" to Iit'. TIlt' ohjel'livitY/:';lIhjet"tivity of the "hob b at tillles left ambiguous. so that tilt' poillts of view of tht' "pectator alld of :brllt'I1badl I'oall':;(,(' alltl :"eparatt' seamll'""ly. This ambiguity extellds to the It"'dof on-rail lIarratioll. As already I'0intt't\ out. it i,; 1I0t e1t'ur whl'ther tilt' Ila:,;hba('k,; show t'Vt'lIh frolll "\"cilt:'lIlmch' s life "as it rt'ally hal'l't'JIt'tl.·· or wlwtllt'r tilt' lla"hbat·b an' at lea"t to SOliit' UIlddilll'd dl'!,~rt't' dislortt,d 1I1t'1II0rit'';. Silllilar allll)iguily appear,; whl'lI a clerk al a tran'l agt'lH'y It'lIs .\st'hl'lIIHlt'h about tilt' epidelllic aJltll1t' i,; "t'l'lI wamillg till' Polish falllily. TIlt' sPt'('wtor lIIight at libt a,..:-oullle thal thi" is "n'ally" takillg 1'1111"1'. hut a III'W shot of :bchellba('h back at the trawl agellcy rt~'Tals thal Iit.' has ollly Iwt'lI illlal!iuiug what his uext at't lIIight be. The most tiiscoucertiug fea t ure about all a udiovisuul adapt a I iOll of lJeath ill I ellice is that a story aboul lookill,!! allll rell('t'liou illl"'itably lWl'OIll{,,, IIII1t'h 1II0re a discourse OIl lookillg Ihall 011 n'lll't'tioll. Tht' attentioll of the literan'. :hclwlIbadl t'Olbtallt ".. ost'illatt~s lll't \\'('(~lI hi" \"t'tlectious 011 beauly. lIIoralilY. or whalt'\'I'r. 011 thl' o lit , halld. alld Iwillg aware of hi" iIlllllt'diate SlIITOlllldiugs alltl tilt' Ollt' objt,t't t1lt'rt' thal rt'ally iuspin'" hilll. OIl tilt' other. III"tt'ad. tilt:' visualized .\sdlt'lIbadl. till' COIIIp0,;er. beiIlg Sl'eIl iu hi,; physical t'u\'irolllllt'ul appI'ars IIIllt'h lIIon' tit~d dowll to t'arth. Ulllcil lIt'an'r to the objel't of his d""irt'. This bl't'oltlt's t'oll,;pil'uOUS ill the ,;CI'III'S iIl which .\sdlt'ubadl follows Tat!zio aut! his family thrull~h thl' \'euetiall labyrillth with all lit" passim} aut! elll'rgy Iit' ha~ It'ft ill him. Fillally. . Iit' is oVt'rwhellllt'd by. t'Xhallstioll. lIIixed witlt a growillg awarelles~ of the IOwu ';lIffot'atillg ill dirt. TIlt' t'xperit'lIce of the ~plelld()r of Ihe glitterillg ,;ea ali(I tilt' I'olorful lift, 011 the Iwal'h havt' 111'('01111' illextri('ably illtt'rtwiIlt'd with Ihl' ('olt! allt! lII1l1alllral hitit' alld whilt' hut'" of the ,;In'et,; alltl ('haullt'l,; of \·euin'.-'-

'1'111' rallge frolll splt'I1dor to "'1"alor "eh tilt' Io lit , for :\,;eilt'I1bat"lt· s allra('lillll toward Tadzio. It is wlllal.tit'lolIgiug for sOllwthiIl~ sufiit"ielltiy idealized uud alllhiguOlb as Iw,'t'r 10 IIt' 1'01l';llIlIl'd. 1I0t (,\t'lI ill fall Ia"y. BUI tilt' ('lIl11billatioll of "pirilllal alld phy,;ind I'xhaustioll has \t·ft .\sdWllhadl loo weak to ('Opt' with (,VI'II a "park of ,;polllaut'iIY. It killtllt'" a lin' ill hilll tltat at first lIIakt,s hilll glow a lit I thell t"Olhlllllt'~ hilll .. \11 ;1111'1111'1 to t'';'-''I'" "". illi"il illll'"I,,'

III

1",1\"- ,"'ni'·t'.

fnil~ alIlIO,,1

by dt'-

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sigil - a "happy:' 1lI311il'ulated Coillcidellce - alld Aschenbach is left with all ('XC use to stay dose to his temptation, But internalized codes of morality rapidly !:Itart corrodin~ tilt' attempt at pun' contemplation of th ... object of forbiddt'JI lo\"t~, :hdlt'llbadl is destroyed by the mere temptation of shakillg off his constraints. In tilt' st'qllt'nce aecolllpaJlit'd by ZUIU/llIlslm's Si!{h! SUflg,JH the musk ('reat('s all almost magical eH...ct as it emerges t'ver so gradually from tll ... sou lids of tilt' lJt'ach. It is full of that :,aJlw exasperated sensuality that the late sl'xual reawakening together with tilt' s;rarc() wind has induced in AM'hellbadl. There is a shift to tilt' limits of consciou"nt'SS where perceptiolls and sen;.ations he come inseparablt' from dream" and meJllOries, On this I('\"I'L the boy ft'preseIlt" desires and Ileeds bcyolld the erotic allu evell the aesthetic, SOlllewhat like the professor ill CUfll'enm!iull Piece. Aschenbadl trit's to awaken from a det'p sle,'p that is alienating him from thc world and his fellow mcn. And very Illuch likt' tilt' proft'ssor. Asehenbaeh di:;con'rs that he has been awakl'llt'd by all angel of death in the form of a IJeaUliful youth. Tatizio stirs in Aschenbadl ct'l1ain ::.piritual aJld sensuous processes that lead him to all abyss. on the other side of which all that is worth pursuillg appt'ar~ to Ill' locatl,d. Toward the t'lId. AsdwlIbach It,ts Itim~elf bt· made up to look young. but he ollly limb. himself t'H'r more poinlt'(lIy incapabl(' of [hrowill~ himself illto the stn'am of life . .-\" the barber inudwrtently aptly ,;ay~. "In the eno we are jllst as old a~ our milld alld heart feel tlte), are:' Once more, Asdlt'nilal'il follow:; the Poli~h family through the stn'ets of Yt·nice . but eVt'lItually Iit' fall" down by a foulltail1 ill helpless. almost hysterical laughtt'r. '1'111'1'1' follows the last tlashback . which is really a dream. a nightmare. which stands for Doth the lIightmare and the soliloquy on eras awl ethos in tilt' novel. A ('ol1('crt Asehenhat'h has jllst ('(JIldllt'ted l'lIds in whistling and booing, Ila\-ing sur\'iwd tilt' aIHlit'lIt't"s howl,.;. Iit' is illl1lll'dialt,Iy attacked by Alfred allnoullcing him tilt' t'lId of "wi"dom. truth, humall dignity" alld tt'lIing hil11 that "now then' i,; 110 reaSOll why you shouldn't go to your grave with your lllll,.;it','· Aftt'J" wakillg "I' (JlH't' l11ort'. still ulleasily tJ"yin~ to keep UJl his new appt'arallt't', :\"c1l1'lIbach rt'tul'll~ 10 tht' desolat(' Iwadl. There Iit' sl'es a gro"p of H"",.;iall tourist,.;. Ollt' of tlWI11 singillg \lw;,.;or~sky·" ,Vel/ia. a nadlt' sOllg. :\"t'llt'nbach's arrival is seell from high lip. from an "i11l(lossihk" allglt' to whidl the ('allleJ"a n'tunts ill tilt' wry I,ht :;hol of tIlt' film, Ilere tilt' pn'tt'II;'I' behilld :\sciwlIiJat'h' S IIt'W app,'arallt'e Iw,'ol11es (,\·t'n mort' evident than in tilt' llOn,lIa. TIlt' sln'am of blat'k dyt' rUllnillg dowlI

1-:"1

Aseht'lIbach's dlt'«,k 011 the hot beach is likt' plltrefied blood: it's all a~­ onizin~ illlagt' of the life force fillally expiring. In his finalmolllt'llh. ;hehellhach tuntS his atlt'lltioll to Tadzio allll his frielld. who have a fallillg Ollt alld hegill to fight. Fillally. Tadzio sW'Ct'('ds iu gettillg rid of hi:; friend and. rl'fllsill~ a gest lire of rt'cOIlciliatioll, walb into the ~t'll. The :;hocked .\sdlt'llhach st'!':; him just as a distant figure amid the «'Iements. raisillg his arm toward the SIIII. Like a stiff PUPIH'L Asdlt'nbadl n'lH'ats his w'stlll'e bllt thell collapses. \tany COIllIIH'ntaturs haw bet'1l rl'milHll'd of a poem by .\lIgust yon Platen. lillt's that \hulI\ oftell IIst,d to quote: "Who has obst'rwd Iwallt)" «'yt' to t·y«·/ Is aln'ady dt'dicatt'd to death:'-;" YOllssef I~haghpour \\Tift's: Thi~ alladllllt'lIt to thl' \i~iblt·. to tilt' st·/lsiblt· apl't'arallt't'. to tilt' I'hy~ical ~1.tt·lI­ dOli I' of lift' which Jot's /ltll lillll cOlllplt'\t'lIe"s ill lift' itself. «'a~ily briug" about a ,wparatioll belWt'(,1I lift' awl forlll . .-\~ the lit' lJt'tw«'t'lI apl'eanlllC't' alld id«'a. 11{'t\\'t't'lI body allll "oul. "Ilt'auty" readl!" Wi through tilt' "t'lbt'~ but i" not ~ol('ly "'lbUUlb. ;\,.; tht' ft'lIlinillt' n'lIIailb ti«'d 10 tilt' rl'l'rotiuctioll of t'Xi"lt'lIn', "10\'1''' of beauty 1"'t'OIlIl':; guilty ill n'''I't't·t of lif". ,,;olllt'thillg Ibdt,~". :il,'ril«'. IIHlllrllflll: till'. tilt' ill\t'r\'01\"t'1I1t'1I1 (If I'ro~ a/lt I deat h ill I'a,~ioll. dOIll ilia I"S \' iseoll Ii'" ,It'U Ht' . .-\IIJ evil. illllllorality. ,kat!.. attadlt'd to Ihi" I'a,,~ioll for Iwalll),. call 1I0t 1)(' [1'dt't'IIIt'd ('Xl't'pt by bl'auly ibt'lf. ~atTaliLt'd by tilt' I"'t' for work~ whidl ha\'!' bl'colllt' a lit'\\" n'ligioll: art a" olht'r thall life ill tlu' t'xi~tt'IICI' of a bOllrgt'oi" arli"t. alltl art ill Ihl' lift' of tilt' dt't'adc'lIt. COlll'c'r,mlioll PiI'Ct,. /)I'u/h ill I f'llicl'. Llldll'if{ "«'lIt«'r t'lIlirt'ly roulld tht' r..ru~al-n't'tlgllilioll of htllllo~l'xual dl'~in' allll ih relatiollship 10 arl: tht' \\ay of d,·ath.""

AschellLach projects 011 the ohjpct of his visioll ... what ~ T.II' ollly cut' the filll\ provides i~ the Adagiettu. It is si~Jlifil'allt that tht' thrl't' lOll!! strt'tche:; of tilt' Adagit,tto that 1H'~ill whilt' tilt' story is aln'ady ulld"r way art' COIIJlt'cted with a fart'well: as AsdwIILach eUCOlllllI~rs Tadzio. just whl'1I prt'parin~ to lean' \'Pllin': with tilt' lIa"hback of tilt' cof/ill of his dau~hlt'r: whell he se«'s Tadzio !!t,ltiJlg iJlvolwd iJl tilt' light awl SIWCllIllbs to death. III all tilt's!' illstallces. it is a~ if the IlIllsic broughl cOllsolatioll at a 1Il0ll\ellt of satllle~s awll'aiu. ht'lped to IIwk«'lif«> appear worth livillg (it'''pitt' the iUl'vitaLle los"e,; awl frustratiou,;. '>\'l'1I d('spitt· tilt' tntllsit'II(,(> of lift' itself. The lIoIldieg"tic music. thallks to the ('olllleetioll ,'stahlisht'd with tilt' prutagolli:;(. al tht' 1I111111t'1I1 of his tll'ath Iwcolllt's a "YllIhol of tlw trallst'l'lldt'lIIal puwer of art. If olle takt's illto lU,(,Ollllt tilt' audiovisual llIerits of Iltl' film. "tartillg from tht' cOllsidered use of tilt' \Iahler Adagielto - itself 1111 t'pitolllt' of Ihis l\Iiraclt' of rehurll II/II"III"lraillt if allY alld madt' "llIpllHtic hy Iht,

\"",)

\ Iseo" TI

lIIillimal IWITat in' tt'lI~ioll" which creates the ~ellse of attemptillg to stop time, O\'en'ollle dt'atII alld old age by slt'ppillg Ollt of time illto the ett'mal spheres of bea IIty uf furms - /)!'ath ill I el/ice does indeed achieve a kind of spuntalleity of t'xpn'~sioll "deriwd ill paradoxil'al fashiulI in and throllgh cull lire alld art." Then' is a truly Apollolliall halalll'e ill the way the Diollysiall st'Ihllality i~ illdulg(·d ill while Iwillg cOllstantly kept in c11t'ck by till' presell('e of death alld (It'cay, The gelluille achievements of dw spirit throllgh tilt' lTt'atioll of beallty an' coullterlwlanced by the decadelH't' that ~et'ms to 1)(' eroding the ba~is of the ci\'ilizatioll that Ita,; produl'l'd it, Blit \\'hiJt. t he ~pirit may l'ulltillue to exi~t ill wurks of art. biological ami social corl'llptioll illl'\'itai)ly takl"' their toll. Tht' cOlltrast Iwtwl't'n the tragt·dy of Asl'iIt'lIhuch' s illability to accept this alld tht' way his story i~ relldert·d through the sl'n'w' alld selhUOIlS splelldor of the film hecomes a metaphor for the basil' paradoxt,,; of 0111' relatiollship to art alld tu life: iIU1SIIIuch a,. art call IH' a way of trall~ct'lIdillg the cOlltillgencies of life alld e\7('1I O\t'I'('omillg its fundalllt'lItal tJ"all"iellce. illasmuch as art call be a path toward re"igllatioll. it al~() rull~ tlte ri~k of becoIllillg alit'1I to life. Art a,., till' I'un'~t a III I trllest lIIallife~tatioll of tilt' humall ~pirit call1lot be s"Ilarated from the t'xploitatioll of art as all t'scal'e. withdrawal. illusion,

L (1) "-/G

The battle for LlIllu';g \"i~collti

first got the idt'a of lIIakillg a film allOlIt LlIdwig 11. King of Banu'ia. whell Iit' wa" hUlltillg for locatiolls for The /)wllllt'd. III 19?1 all t'\'I'1I I!J"aIllier project lIe wa~ workillg 011., adaptillg RellIt'II/Orall"!' of Thillgs IJlIst for the ~creeIl. was postpolled for fiIlallcial reasolls. aIld \'i:;conti thought tlH' timt' was ripe for Llldtrig. Both tiw \\ittt'lsbachs. the UIlt'iellt rulilll! hOlls!' of Bavaria. alld tht' Ba\'ariall civil sen'ict' lIlrIlt'd out to Iit' wry Ilt'lpflll. Ht, got I't'rmis~ioll to ~h()ot ill all tilt' royal palaces Iit' wun(('d alld to uS(' tlw falllily trt'a,;un'~ to neatt' tilt' ril!ht ~t>ttillg. But after the shootillg of Lwltrig had lWI'll t'oIllpleted oIl July:!? 19?:!. \'isI'Ollti SlIfft'rt,d a ~t'\'l'rt' Iwart attack whilt' Iit' was dillilll! witII (:el'l'hi tL\.mico aIllI a nHlplt' of prodlln'rs ill a n'"taurallt ill Home ..,1 Durillg hi~ cOllvalt'scellce. Visl'ollti was ~l'lIt to KaIltoll,;sl'ital ill Zurich. tilt' samt' hospital wlwre Thomas \Iallll had died 011 JlIIlt' 1:!. 1 Jl1iOIl i" ('ollsidt'['('d. :\('tuall~. thl' director him"l'lf had aln'ady I'ut "n'I\('" durillg the "hootillg: a SITIIt' ill which Ludwig'" t'abillt't "t'tTt'tary fiHd" \\'agllt'r alld halld" hilll tilt' royal gift of a I'IIl,y riug: Ludwi~ list,'uiu~ to a privatI' pl'rfoJ'lllalll'l' of Trill/all lIIul I,wlde: \\'a~IIt'r's death ill Vellin' alii I his I'll IIt'ra I cortl'W' throll!!h \Iullich. a(,l'olllllHllied hy tilt' f'"H'rallllarcilt's frollt Bt'cthov('II'Oi i:i'oic(l alld \\'agllt'r's OWII Til'iLigh/ (~(tlll' (,'ods: a sn'JIl' ill w/lich Elizabeth hear" ahout Llldwig's dt'ath alld ('rit':;: '-Tllt'y han' kill,·d hilll! Traitors! .\"S interests of tlw wiuH'S;;t's. Through them. the sad end to I.udwig" s aspirations, the collapst' of the world of romantic illusiolls. is preselll right from the begillnillg. e\"l'n before the coronation scene. This makes the film appear less tragic and emphasizes its melalldlOly amI elegiac elemellts.-:O~ Furthennore. the colllrast between the two narratiw lewls gradually reveals Ludwig's alienation froJlI political and social reality. History proceeds on its ilH'vital,le marcll and is given a voice through till' lIlouths of lIlt'ssengers. as if ill a Greek tragecly. A IIt'W political order is beillg forged in Europe - a system that will almost de!>troy tllt' world alld culture Ludwig has cht'risllt'd and patrollized. TIll' film Iw~ins with a scene in which Ludwill (1ldmut Berger) confesses to the family priest his detenllinatioll to make his court a center for till' art~ and scient'es. This seellt· introducl's one of the leading motifs of tilt' film. namely. Ludwig's relationship to n'lillion (awl tht· church). the ~talt·. and his OWll responsibilitit's. The first statement is followed by the coronation ,.;ce/II', filled with all the pomp that ean be lIlustered by both mU/Himlt' alld spiritual institutions. It is 0111' of "isconti's most splendid recolIstruetiolls of a historical era. A new statelllt'lIt opells a sequence showing the rdatioll,.;hip between Ludwig awi Elizallt'th (Romy Schneider) de\'elopillg ill the wintery landscape of Bad Ischl. Ludwig's youthful. I"Omalllic ~t'II"itivity is immediately eolltrasted with Elizabeth's mature sell se of resl'0llsibility. thillly disguised untier a veil of gentle irony alld hUlllor. A search for a politically opportullt' spouse for Ludwi~ continues. but Minister Pforz-:O:l states that at It'ast the meeting with the Russiall tsarilla did not help to make lhe king forgt·t hi", dear \\·agner. The next s('e/ll~ confirms Pforz's aenlsatiolls: Wagner appears totally unsefupulous in exploitillg both tbe king ami the young conductor Ilans VOII Biilow. whost, wife Cosima is aln'at\\" \'""~~I"T'~ \(lwr (,\lfl\\"i~, ill \II\' \Wa\,illll'. trk" ill

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vain to elicit iu Elizabt,th SOIIII' l'utllllsiasllI for \Va~lIer·:; art. !lut .~Ilt' grows 1II0re ami more distallt frolll hilll and t'lldeavors to illterest hilll ill her little si;;lt'r So tie . The kill~ prefers to :.t'ek cOlllfort ill ar!. Acc()rdill~ 10 the /lext statl'lIlI'll1. the premiere of Tris/al/ II//(/ /.w/de cost the state a fort lint'. Llldwi~ colltiuut':; \0 try 10 win Elizabeth OWl' to tilt' splt'lIdors of opera. ano ElizaLeth to COIl\·illt"t' Luowig of tilt' lIIadlless of \\' a~llt'l: s projt'ct. She understulltls that the solt- purpose of the royalty is to parad,' Iwfort, the pllhlic alld that their attt'mpt:; to illterfere ill :;tate affair~ mi~ht \\1,11 lead to tlwir a:;:;a:;sillatioll. BUI Llldwig still dill~s to his romauti(' idt'als ahout the role of the kill~. \Vagller alld Cosillla do IHlt hl'siwtl' to ask for evell greater ;;UIIIS frolll Ludwi~ ill ordl'r to tillaJlt"t' their SUlllpt 1I0llS way of life. Ouly wllt'll Ludwi/ ~ polict' bl"iu~ him a host of evidellt"t' a~aiu"t \\·agut'1" awl the Blilow,.; dot':; he Cl'lbt' to hetray hilwwlf alld siglls till' order to expell thelll frolll !\lulli('h. Durillg tlw war of 18bb. Ludwig "tays ill !wclusioll ill the castle of BI'rg. refu;;ing to ren'in' allY mt'ssa~t'S from the I,attldields. Ht' agrees to ,.,1'1' ollly hi,., dear brother Otto. bllt I'WII Iit' fai\'" to Iwrsuade Llldwig to all 1'11.1 to hi" killgly dutit':'. :\flt'r this ('OIlH'rsation. Ill' goe" out for a IIIlt'tunwl walk alld l'Il(,OUIlIt'r,., hi,.; nliet setTt't1y takill~ a ;;willl. Ill' i,., lIaked. alld thi:. appt'ar" to makt' Ludwi~ 1II1t'a:.y. Aftt'r the \alt-t has gOIIl'. Ill' prays: "Help 1111'. help 1IIl'~·· There follows a IOllg COIIH'rsatioll with his tru~ted (:0101\('1 Diirkllt'illl. alld tht'1I a s(·.ellt' in which Ludwig tt'lls hi" 1Il0tllt'r that he illtt'lIds 10 lIIalTY Sophil'. Tht' motllt'r imlllediatt'ly starts tht"It'('essary preparatiolls. The falllilit'S of t Iit' bride alltl the groolll art' .Sl't'lI ill a IIIt't,tillg ill whi('h ElizaLI'lh abo part i('ipatt's. stealill~ tilt' show from hl'r si"t('r., as it \H'n'. Later. ill a short alltl otllt'rwisl' wonile:.s s('ellt'. Sophit, is at tilt' piallo. h('r yOlln~ ,·oice stllmblill~ lhrou~t. Eisa· s aria. "Einsalll ill triilwlI Tag('"·· (Lollt,ly ill troubled days) from LO/II'IIW·ill. Llldwig·s tortun,d fan' illtli('alt's that lht' chasm \'l't\\"('t'lI reality alltl id!'aJ" in his mind i" dI'I'Pl'lIill~. The Iwxt statelllt'lIt is about the Irt'lIIt'lIdous ""St of buildillg thl' killp:·" castles alltl a patllt'tit' aUt'lIIpt to illstntt:t Ludwig ill t raditiollal ht'tt'rtJ"t'xllal Iwhavior. Ludwig ol,,·iOlbly tilltl,.; thi" arraugt'd 1Ilt't'tinp: with a ,,(wit'ty prostitutt' repubivl'. aud"o tilt' pro"Pt'l't,., for thl' union with Sophit' Iwgill to look t'\"t'1I worsI'. Ludwig introdw·('tj Ilt'r 10 Wa~lIer alltl dai"", that ;;Iw like" to "illg his lIIu"ic. Thi" i:. a ITIII'I irony. and the rdatioll"hip ht'twt't'lI Llldwig alld Wagllt'r "ppt'ar,.; to II(' IIl1lt'h warmt'r thall that IwtWt't'U Lutiwig £lilt I Sophit'. Tht' nt'xt S(,('III' with tht' valet, Homig. illll'lit'" 1I,at 1 IId"i:.:: i,.. i\ltT('""ill!!h ,,(,('kill!.! tilt' l'olllpallY of lIIt'lI.

\bLO'\fI

Suphie ('olllplains to Elizalwth abuut Ludwig·s illdifferellce. out lhe litd!' advict' she call give ('miles too late and would probably have heen of nu IIse anyway. In the Ilext seClle, Ludwig anllounces ill his eonfes~ion t hat Ill' will nut marry Sophie. As we hear the elld of tl1l' eOllfessiUlL Ludwig is seell clltering a room wlwre Homig is sleeping. Ludwig ki""e" him. The III'Xt statelllt'lIt is about till' hreakillg of tilt' !'Ilgagelllellt, the in('urahll' lJIental illllt'ss of OUo. aml the Queen ~Iother· s embracing of lht' Catholic faith. '1'111' war agaillst Frallce i~ reaehillg its eml. alHl Ludwig. Ull lhe eXl'use of havillg a toothadlt'. 011(,1' agaill withdraws illto seelusiun. Count von Holllsteill intrudl'!> alld demands that he sign a letter addressed to the killg of Prussia askillg him to hecollle the eml'l'ror of the unified GeflllallY. An allllost hysterical I .udwig tries to refu~e. but Ill' must yidd to hit; fatl'. He visib Otto. now a radng malliac. ill a mental institutiun alld SII(TI'I'ds ill cUllllillg him dowlI. As a cOlltrast to tire sad meeting of the brolht'rs. tire lIext sct'lIe shows Wagller bestowing a Christmas present 011 Cosillla. who Iras by this time become his wife: tire Siegfried Idyll, played by a filII orchestra on the stairs of Wahnfrit'd. their new home. The lIext two statl'lIIellts relate to the expenses incurred in building the castles and tire gifts that Ludwig has bestowed on beautiful valets and artists. TIll' actor Kainz is Ludwig" s Ilt'west protege. The sequellCt' showillg their relatiulIshil' is olle of the most eudlalltin~ ill Visconti's entire cinematic output: LuJwi~ glides in his ,;wan boal throu~h the "Venu,; Grotto'· at I Ire palm'I' of Lilldt'rhof accolllpauied Ily Wolfram· s soug for the I'wlliug star from \Vagner· s TUflllhiiusa; the castle its.,1f is magnificent. with its vasl Lwdroollls allll tables that siuk through the tloor and dowu tu tilt' baselllt'llt so servants can dear and refill them: then' is a magical sleigh ride throll~h the wintery laudscape: the enchantillg noctllfllal tran'l ,;eellls eudles,;. TIll' sequence is followed by t wo further statements. tire first of which reports what ,;ubsel/uelltly happt'lIed to Kaiuz; the second is oun' again abuut buildillg tht' castles. III the next se,!ul'nCl' Elizabeth is "t't~II I'xamiuillg the palaces Ludwig has had llllilt. startillg with the nwoco-stylt' Lintierho!". cOlltilllling to tire Versaille:,-likt' 11t'ITelldlielllsl'I'. and finally elldillg at the mock-medieval :\eu,;chwalbtl'ill wlwn' Ludwig rt'sides. 011 tilt' eXI"b.' of illlless, he refuses to 1IIt'I't her. But tlH' pain that tuflllt'I1ts him i", not primarily physical. In yet allot her stalt'men\.. Ollt' of thl' st'rnllllS tells Ib titut Ill' heard dre kiug wet'piug behiJld a itwkl'd door awl f'('IH'utiug the IHUlI(' of Elizabeth. Till' "n'IIe ellds with a shot of Elizalll'th drivillg away ill lu'r curriagt'. :\11

t'IIlOtioll"liy ,,\rod,; jll!!

1"1/1

I.'ads to a ~hot of IlId,,·j!!

!lOW

plr~·sj .. :dl~·

\ 1S C (I \ 11 .\ \ () \, L H \1.\ \ \

dett'rioratillg, with a ball(lagt' owr hi~ ey('~. fooling around ill a Bavarian illll. TIlt' S('t'IIt' impli('s OIwe again that Iit' is giving ill to his hOlllosexual tendt'lIcit's (the sl't'II" i~ dbturbingly n'mini!'>('t'ltt of tilt' SA rn'('lry in t1w The /Jelllllwd). ~lt'allwhile the gownlllH'1It is aln'ady plarlllillg to deIH)~t' him. and their represt'lltatiws are ";t~ell asking !'rillC(' Luitl'0ld to act as regent. Tlw last statellH'nt follows. Proft'!'>,;or VOIl Cuddt'n'!,> lillal diagnosis that Ludwig is suffering from illcurable paranoia alld is tlIllit to rllle. The last seqlll'lwe relatt~!'i most of what is actllally kllown about Llldwig's last day alld night: " and raill, twu bodies an' fOllnd tloatillg ill tilt' lakt'. abollt the t>trellgth uf these I'0~sible callsal lillks. If tilt' illfol'lllatioll givt'1I ill the statt'lltellts had bet'I1 J"t'JI(kred by voict'overs. they would han' n'~t'lIIbll'd tilt' ollllliscit'lIl narrator of a Balzac 110\'1'1. III stead. the stalt'lIwllts al'pt'ar allllo!'>t suhol'dillalt' to the I'llaclt,d part of the narratioll. Though their factuality is lIot questiolll'd, tlwy an' :;howll to he r"ducti'I' and igllontnt of or illdiffert'lIt to the hUlllall trag(,dy as wt'1l as the C1lltural alld spiritual valtlt's at is,,llt'. 011 thl' otllt'r halld. dIP "tatelllt'lIh reciprocally put tilt' lIarrati\t, illlO fonts. a~ tllt'y n'l1lilld tllP audil'w'e of th!:' politit'al alld !'Iocial l'OIbtraillb that ultilllately dt,tt'rmille tire king'" fate. Thu~ the crucial tht'ml' of tilt' lilm is actually huilt illlO il~ lliIlT:lli\t' ,~tnwturt'. I.fulll'll.!: is a "ton alHHIt all illdi\'itillal \\'ho~t' uo\'t'I~'"

IHO

\hU)\TI

kingly ,.;Ialll"; makt>s it po~,.;iblt> 10 magllify Ollt of all propoJ'tion ('('rtain idiosnlCral i!' traits ami to realize ('('rtain ex('t'ssiw ideas, But it i::. al,.., ahollt a SPlIsitiw and artistic personality made distraught by an oppre,,sin' cllltllre alld soci(,t\', As tlH' Ilarrator of Thomas Mallll's f)octor FuusIllS oilst>J'\'('S abollt tilt> real killg: of I'(lyal ('xi:;ll'lIt'l', "hie-h i~ ,"'('n'i~1I allll ';111'1'111111111'(/ by greal a lar~!' t'Xlell1 rn'l" froJll ('J'ilit'i~1II alltl 1'f',;puII,;ibility. the display of nohle ,Wtll, ha, Itt't'OIll!' a ,tylt, IIlIlilt' allythill~ t'\'1'1I Ihe ridll'st privatI' per,oll t'UII illdlllgt, in - royalty ~iv!'s tilt' w'rnHIS dl':;irl':; ami alllipalhy of ils I)('arl'f ct'rlain 1I"Tra~t', tilt' pl'OlId alld t'(JIllplt,It, ('xploitalioll of which lIIay easily appear lilt' lIIatillt"S,'C, Bill Iu till'

1'01'111

re~pl'l'l. 10

Lndwig i,.. fn'(' of the ('OIlStraillb Ihat ordinar\' illdi,'idual,.; fact' ill their dail\', live:-., Ordinary, mortal:; IIse these cOIbtrainls as all ('XI;U:-.(' for not tryillg to n'aliz(' their aspiratiolls, At fir:-.!. Llldwig's royal status deludes him illto thillkillg that Iit' ('all fill/ill his dreams - but Iit' quickly discovers the limils sl'l I,y politi('ialls, ci"il sernlllb, alld IIlLilllately by Bismarck':; Rf'(I/po/ilik, illlplelllPllted with tilt' aid of inm alld hlood, Wheft'as in Sf'IlSO tilt' story of a fl'w illdi"iduals sern-d as all allegory of historical eWlIts, 1l0W tllP ,.,wry of tllP king llecolllt's a lIlallif(,~tation of tilt> ahy,.;:; between havillg to liw ill historical tillle, withill tlH' sl'n'n' ('ollstraillts of the real world, alld tilt' diftintlty of experiellt'illg lif(, w; sOlllt'thillg lIleallillgfuL mailltaillillg faith ill the dignity awl "altH, of hUlllall aetivity, IlIstead of lIlelodrama, the pn'domillallt lIIode of t'xpn'ssioll i" IIOW ('olllt~mplatioll awl illlt'riorizatiotl. TIlt' /!tI\'Prllillg tlIt'IIW of /,wbl'ip: - the perverse oppo:-.itioll of life awl art - cOllfol'llb witll the historical situatioll well (~lIou!!h for tlw tht>lIIt' to servt' 1I0t jll"t a,.; a gt'lIeralized metaphor but also as a eOllllllt'nt 011 a spe!'iJic cultural alld historical situatioll depicted through the fate of all extraordillary illdi,idllal ill a hi~hly privile~t'd positioll, ~o otlWf t'haraclt'r rise,., to play a tTuciall'Ole ill Llldwig's draJlla, This n'lIe!'\'; the kill!!' S \'l'lItral probl('m: 1\1' i" ullable to illleract with otllt'r Iwopll', 1I0t to IIWlllioll tlw world at largt', To hilll the reality rt'prl'"ellted by his lIIi 11 i"tl'r,.;, ci,il S('lTalll,.., alld ordillary peopJt. al large i,., allchorl'll ill ('Yllil'islII allll I,anality, Ye1. for all his ('fforh to t'scap" to a 11101'1' beautiful n'ality. by builditlg fabulolh t'il"tie" alld "lIb"idizillg art of IIl1pn'l'l,dt'lIted proport iOIlS, Iit' is unable 10 realize hi" deqwsl dl',.,ire", jllst ,b Iit' i,., IIl1abl(' to kt'('p "l' hi:-. pllbli(' rol(', To (tchil've tilt' forlller. Iit' wOllld hU\'e 10 illtt'nH't wilil his fellow 1111'11: to aciti('\'l' tilt' latler, Iit' wOllld han' 10 submit to tilt'

Ig I

\'I:;COYII .\\0 (,I',H\L\\\

Ludwig is doolllt'd Ilt'wr 10 IIIUIIII'I', Ill' dings dt'slwralt'ly 10 his ide£ll" and bl'COIIII'S illlTt'£Isingly alil'llalt'd frolll realily, IIl1lillh£ll l"I'ality rl'fllsl'" to tolt'rate him anymore, 1_ll(lwig's SlIppI'I'ssed hOlllost'xllal dri\'es appear

10

I", a parlial causl'

of his idealizt'd lo\'f' for Elizalll'lh, " is a sarI' 10\'1' for Ludwig, whit'h grows ~Irollgt'r Ihl' more impo~"ihk il is, For a IOIlI! lime. Iit' is afraid of his hOlllot'l'Otic It'ndencies, alld till' 1'lIgagellll'lIt wilh Sophi,' i~ oh\'iou"ly an Htlt'lIIpl to d"ny Ihem, Bill. ill 0111' way or allolher. all WOlllt'1I disappOill1 Ihe kill/!, Ilis 1'I·lalioll,;hip wilh hi,; IIlOtllt'r i:-. cold alld dl'ladll'd, Elizahelh is hopelessly IIl1a\'ailal,It" and Sophit· hy far loo muilublt" I_udwig yt'ams for idealized, rallH'r thall rl'al. relalioll:-.hips wilh WOIIH'II. Homot'l'Olicism offl'rs Ludwig all 1'\'1'11 IWlII'r ol'porlllllily 10 slIhlimatl' his dt·:-.ires, 10 realizl' al "'a:-.I parlially his rolllalllit' dream,.; hy spolIsoring all, Hi,; rt'latiollships wilh \\'agnt'r alld Kaillz art' paralll·led hy his 1'1·1£1tioll"hips with Elizalwlh alld Sophie. /'t'sllI't'liH'ly, Bill e\'I'1I with IIH':->I' IIIt'lI he is 1101 illlt'rl'sted so lIIuI'h ill Ihe li\'illl! I'I'rsoll:-> as ill Iht' differelll mylhical figures Ihey (TI'all' alld, ill Iheir dif'fel'l'lIl. IIltilllUll·ly ullsalisfactory ways, elllbody, 11It'\'ilably, Ihey, Wo, disappoilll him, bul £11 It'a,,1 tlll':->t' rt'laliollship:-; It'ad to till' production of wOllderfll1 art. LlIIlwi/!'s lall'r relation"hips wilh slablt, hoy:-; alltl ntlt'ts appear 10 subdllt' till' frll"lraliolls eallst'd bOlh Ln, st'XualilY, and its slIblilllaliOlI. Forhiddt'1I a" Ihest' affairs are, Iht'y abo Iwcollle a prolesl a!!aillsl 1111' prt'nlilill!! 1101'11"" of socil'ly and tht' :ilrail!hljackel Ihal royalty WritS oUI 10 Ill', Bill Ludwig is ullahll' to shake off thost' 11 01'111 S. ami tilt'\' . 1'\l'lIluallv, I'I'II:->h hilll. Ludwi/ s IlI'an'sl altl'mpl 10 0\'('1'('01111' his illl'lillal iOIl" alld 10 Iwar his rt'"polIsibili Iit's as u k ill!! follows a CO 11 H'/'"u I iOIl with (:010111'1 Dii rk IlI'i III £II'll'/, tht' ts(){) war, ,\ st'rnllll Il'lIs his k illW 'Iy Lord Ihillh hl' has mad,' a hra\'!' dlOit't" 1'(,('II'lIlb 10 hilll~t'U'lhal Iit' t'all lilld hal'pilll'ss olllsiOt' Ill(' mllTOW I'lIlt's illll'o"t'd 011 1111'11. lit, who !'I'ally Ion'" lift', YUlll' \\ajl'''IY, ha" 10 t'Xl'I't'isl' Ih!' !!1'l'alt'~1 t'an', Also a IllOlIal't'h, Thl' IllOlIan'h's ~I'l'al I'0\\t'r i" lilllill,t\ alway" I,y riit' 1IIIIIIall t'OllllllllllilY 10 whit'h Iit' hilllsdf lH'lolI!!" , , ' 1)0l'"II'1 a ~J('rsoll who ha.; life Ilt'fon,hilll \\alll 10 lilld for his I'Xi"lt'lIt't' SOliit' Olht'l' 1'"l'l'tbl'( A hllllllll!', l'xaSpt'ralill!! I"II'I'0SI', ill a I'l'al t'OIl1l11l1l1ilY allltlllg sillll'lt, Ilt'tll'''' - ho\\t'\'t'l' IIII,diot ...I', 11 dt'IIHllld., gn'uI t'tHlnt!!t' fl'OIH .'01111'Ollt' who h'b !!I'l'al a~pil'aliolh \\ hidl an' 1101 frollllhi" world 10 an'l'pl 1II1't\iot'riIY, I kllow it. HlII il i" riit' ollly \\ay 10 "a\t' OIlt'SI'U' of a lilrll~ solilUdl',

Tht' "1'1'111' i~ 0111' of rill' 1II0~1 lIlovillg ill till' 1'lIlifl~ hllll, awl il forlll:-> 0111' of il:" illlponalll IIl/,llill!! poillts, 1I is followl'd by till' ;;1'11'1('111'1' ill whit'h

I IIdwi!! Iril'"

to

"";Slllllf' hi" n'sl'''llsiloililit,,, alld 1II'I't,"I1'''; l'II!!"gl,d 10 So-

1 0V·) _

\I:-oCU:\11

phie. The ".",(lWIll'.· elliolitudt,. Trisfwllllu//suld ... Ihat e.'stati., celebratioll

of night. is t'lIIiJlelltly suited to portray this lIoctuntallllelltality. this turning away from the world - a COllllect iOIl lIIade earlier by Thomas ~lallll in his famous essay. TIlt' SorrulN and Grwu/t:'ur (~r Ridwrd /JclgTlt:'r . ill which Iit' compares tilt' romalltic thought anti st>nsihility. so well I'pitolllized in Trislwl. with Lindt'rho/'. Lu Because the killg prefer:-. to live for sOlllethillg Iwlter thall historical reality. tlH' tl"l'lIIt'IHJolls politit'al t'Wllt that is takilll! plan', tilt' formatioll of the German Empire, is dl'lIit'd t hp Sl'lIse of buntillg imlllt'diacy, or e\'l'lI of glorificatiun: there are no hattle :-.(,('lIes. vit,tory L'elt'hratiolls. or ('\'1'11 lengthy dialo!!ues or medilatiolls on the historicalpl"O(,('ss Ihal is takillg place. The tone is somlwr alld reflects a tolal disillusiollmelll with lIationalistic fen'ur. with any kind of polilit'al activity, in fact. This allows this story of a singular individual 10 grow into a IIlt'taphor for the psydlOpalhulogicalcollditiow; of Europ"1.I11 ci\"ilization, III Visconti"s ('arlit'r film TIt(' U(lIllTlt:'d. the gap betwel'II cultural aspiratiolls alld political r('ality led to a total perversion of spiritual \"alu('s. '-w/lI'ig retnH'es ow' critical phase ill the de\"e1opment of Europeall culllln' that h'd to that situatiun, By heill!! relieved of the petty w'cessities of everyday lift' . a killg is granted Ihe power to completely substitule art for n'ality alld ignon' the necessily of transforlllin!! aSl'iratiollS 10 aClioll. It'SI they Iw r(' Ludwi~ dllring till' 1X{){) war. tlw nlll~ic issues fOl1h 1'1'0111 a 11](>challical IIIl1sic llOx. whilt, allot her dt'vice proj('cts tilt' lIighl sky 011 Iht' ct'ilill~. AI tilt' end of the film. Ludwig lislt'lIS for a mOlllent to I he sallle musical box. The Iherne is also heard. a~ain ill all illstruIIH'ntal adaptatioll. when first Kaillz allll thell Elizabeth visit the VellllS ~rotto al Linderhof. Here till' lIIusic is quasi diegt,tic. the orcheslra is not ~;t'ell bill presumal,ly tilt' cham('ters do hear it. ,7 The thellle is heard also as I.udwig and Kainz travel 011 a sleigh Ihroll~h Ihe dark. snowy lal\(jsl"alll''';. In this ,,('t'llI' IIIl1sic i,.. oh, iou-" lllllldil'!!,'ri,', This alllhi~!llity IwlWt'('1I dil'~t'lit'

"11'

\

I~(.O.'

n

and 1I00Hliegt'tic lIIusic fon'shadows tilt' way the Liebesll(lcit/-mu"ic CUlltinues over a statemt'nt Ly 0111' of tlw \'al('(:; whell Ludwig refuses to Illeet Elizabeth. who has (,Olllt' tu see him at ;\;t'uschwanstein. III this iustaw:(C". the way the lIIusic lwcollles manifestly ill dependent of the different dit'getic levels prodlll'('s a particularly strong t'motional effect - only to ht· shockingly contrasted with tht' trallsitioll to tilt' drunken revel. Durillg tilt' lTt'di.". the spectator Iwars a ran' unpublisllt'd pieee. reputed tu 1)(' a ('olllpositioll dedicated by Wagner to Cosima,7!l1t moVt's in the harmonic :;plll'!'t, of Tris/wl alld it appean; at times on the piano. at limes a:; an ordle"tral adaptatioll by Frauco \Iaunino (who has also eOIldUl'ted all the orcliestral music). Durillg the film it is first heard when Wagller re(Tiw:-< the killg's ktter expressing his n'grPl for havillg to exile him frolll \Iunich, :\ext il is hrielly heard iu its orchestral Vt'rsion when Ludwig aliums Sophie with some of Ihe crown jewels. Toward the elld uf tilt' film. the piece is heard. a1'1l'r Colouei Durkheim has made his la" .. u"dess. dfort to san' his king, Finally. il appears in the lasl scene as the Lodies are n~trit'ved fwm the lake. and from here on the lIlusic contiuue" uninterruptl'd unl il the final lTedits. during which it changes from the piano to Ihe orclw"tnti \"I'l'sioll. The poignancy of this Illusic s('1S Ihe tone fol' the emire film. One mure (lien' by \fagner is heard, lIamely. Siep,fi'ied /(6-11. which Wagller prl'sl'nts as a gift to Cosima alld their baLy SOIL Siegfrit'd. played hy a strillg ordwslra to awakell them 011 Chri:--tmas morllillg. Sc1lumaJlII' s ki,ulers::,ellell is first lu-anL presumably as diegetil' music. early Oil ill Ihl' film. when Elizalwth is practi(:illg riJillg. The association betwel'1I the Illu,.,ic alld Iu-r is emphasized by a ,.,traiglll I'ut from Ludwig's face awl Ihe Luhellgrill overture to her aud her llIusic. Later. tilt' kinders:;t'fII'lI ullbic appears in other scenes in which silt' is al the center of evellb - again there is a seamless 1ll0Vemellt toward Ihe nondiel!(·lic. The tone of tilt' music in this contpxt is not too st'rious. alltl thus it has the effect of nllll'killl! Ludwig:' s passiml for Elizalwlh - parlicularly whell it i:i heard just a,., a dlallllll'f1naid 1I'IIs him that Elizabeth will not go fur a ride with him. The :--c('nt' witll the pro:ititule i,., hack I'd by Offenbach' s on'rlure tu La periclwle. awl in ullolher scellt' \Vagner plays all extract from an operetta Ly the :;aBIt' ('ompos('r, La ['it' purisieflfw. The securely Cennan composer "ays in dbgusl: 'Thi~ i,., what the Cennans likt'. not lily music." In addition to these brit"!' passage". then' is SOllll' diegelil' BUbi\.' sUl'h a" bold bras:; music ill the ('orollalioll :--('elH' and folk mu:--i\.· ill Ihe !'t'\el scene,

\ ISCOYll\ \ D C ElOI.\.\ \

Lluhl'if.{ hu:; lWI'll ac('u:;l,d of lH'ill~ a cnld fillll la('kill~ ('1t~Hr illlt,lIl'ctllal structure, a vi:;ioll of hi~tOl'Y. alld l'lIlOtiollal drin'.-" It ha~ also beell ;;1'1'11 a;; a symptom of auto"io~raphi('al I'xistplltial ('J'i~i",.XO 1'111'''''' a,.,,.,t',.,sIJIt'lIh havf' b('ell made 011 tilt' basis of the ~hort \"er~ioll of the film. which dOt'~ not COIIH'y \"iscollti·,., historical. ,.,ocial. cultllral. awl psychological ideas. xl There are so few stateIllI'lIts ill this \"ersionlhat thl'" do not stalld out ill dear COlllltt'qHlillt to the J"t'st of the fillll. TIlt'y do not e\"t'lI properly guide the "'pectator through till' lIarratiw. Either ('OIlIplt,tt'ly Jlli,;,.,in~ or sf'\"erdy IIlut ilated are ;;uch tTucial :;t't'III';; as Diirk Iwim' ~ alld tilt' prit,t·,., sp,~eche~ to Ludwi~. a scellt' J"t'colllltin~ tilt' t'Vpnb that han' takell placl' within tht' royal family. alld the IIlt't~tillg Iwtwet'lI Luitpold. Diirkheim. and certain lllini~ters of state, There is t'\'t'n sOIllt'what les,., music than ill the four-hollr wrsion. alld it i,., liSI'd ill a differt'llI way, TIlt' "So :-il iirlu'n wir" theIlle is not hl'ard at all. and it is rt'placed by a IIllll'h more lyrical - alltl ill this cOlltext It'ss t'ffectin- - extract frolll tilt' '.ielJf'slI(tchllllllsic. There is also all extrelllely intt're~tillg dit'fI'J'('IIt't' IwtW('I'1l H'r~iOIl~ dubbed ill different lallguages, III the :;hort EII~lish lall~ua~1' n-rsion. (lllasi-"forei~II" acct'nts rl'~;ult ill tilt' typically silly effect this practict' ~o easily produces. whereas in at It'ast the Italian four-hour versioll tilt' language is beautiful alld IIl1l'rett'ntiolls. ,\Ild what is qllitt' sta~~wrillg i,., tilt' differel\('l' Iwtw!'t'1l IlellIlllt Bl'rger spl'akillg hi!-> own lilles ill EIl~lish aJl(I Giallcarlo GiaJlllilli ~i\"illg Ludwi~ his Iwalltiful Italiall voiel'. TIlt' form!'r lllakes tilt' killg al'pI'ar bickt'rillg alld IInsyml'atlwt i(': tilt' la Iter',., interprt'tatioll make" Ludwig sound It'llth'r alld vlllllerablt:'. The difff'n>Ill't' Iwtwl't'll the short wr~ioll~ alld th!' ('olllpl!'tl' film t'lIler~es abo ill tilt' t'dilillg alld rhythm. TIll' ~ht/rt \t'rsioll~ an' j'~rky alld Illleyell. allt! tilt' t1a"hbat'k ~trllctllrt· ollly muddl!',.; tilt' t,'mlloral orgallizatioll of the fillll: tilt' 10llg ",'rsi"'ll!'h tilt' two-tif'r:-;tnll'tllJ"t'lIllfoldcalnlly alld Illajestically, :\gaill. tilt' 1' \\allrois ha" writteu ahout ProU,,1 applie" equally \\"t·1I to Viscollti: "Proll,.;t 10\"l'd 10 "tudy ... the hi"torical forlllatioll of variou" social t'llvin)[IJIH'llh. awl tilt' way ill which they gro\\' old alld WOl"lIl-ea(('11. IIl1til al last they brt'ak dowu altogNher.": 1 Blit tlltTt' is 11 10 n' 10 tilt' lilerary hackgrouud of \'i"l"ollli"" ae"lhetic" thall ju"t Prou,,(. III (;uido ,-\ri"tan'o's view_ Vi,.,('Ollti i:; tilt' ollly 1illllllHlker who ha" Irllly "IlI'('('t,dt'd ill ptTl)('luat illg litt'rary Iradit iOIl of the t'igh[(,t'lIth aud uillt'lt,t'ulh ('t'lIll1ri(''', For \'i"t'Ollli, il \HI" to a ~n'al t'xtt'llI a questioll of adlit'\illg it ('erlaill kiwi of /'t'uli,,1I1. TIlt' lIillt'(('('IIt1I-('('lIll1ry 110\'1'1 offt.n,d a II10dl'I for workillg Ollt plo'" ill 1('l'Ilb of I hI' lIIotinllioll" of tilt' ('ham('t('r" ('ollditiollt'd I,y lIulllral. "twial. idl'ologinti, alld p"ydlologintl fa('tor", :\('('()J"dillg 10 F, \\ . .I. I It'll 1I11iII!!":

I" T EHI' H 1,1 L H () F El H () P E ,\ ,\ I. IT L H ,\ Tt H L

:\ feelillg for hi"lOry, ill its broadesl st'llSt', is a fet'lillg for tilt' ..!Iallgt'" that tilllt' brings about: and for thost' who. likl' Slt'lIdhal. had ht'l'lI honlt' 011 tlu' 1'\1' of tilt' Frellch RI'\olulion alld Wt'l"t' in IIliddlt' agt' wllt'lI tilt' rolllall1ic rnolutioll W,h subvt'rtillg alltltl' old li1erary callolls. 1I0thillg was II10n' t'\'idt'lIt 1hall that t'vt'ryIhillg wa" subjcct 10 l'hallgl'. A "t'lI"t' of tht' t'lIlirdy I'rovisiollal lIalllrt' of law", custom". alld sllt"ial illstilutiolb. of tilt' imptTIIHIlIt'Ilt'(' of nH'II's 1110,,1 dlt'risllt'd belit'f" allt! mo,,1 st'ttled cOllvil·tioll". IlIarkt'd Ihe rolllalllic gt'lltTalioll as il had 110 previous olle. i Tht' llillt'tl't,llth-('t'llIlIrY realisl aUlhor could Ihillk of hilllst,lf as a t"ollst'rvatiollisl. \\'Illltill/-! to presprn' somt'lhillg of the lift' of Iht' t"ol/lI1/uI/ity threalt'lIed with PXlil/l'lioll. From thi" arose lilt' lilO/'(' cnlt'ial I"t-allln' of the way realism was IIIltll'r"wod. IItll us imiwl iOl/ of n'alily as "llt'h. hut as so('iulcriticislII.

Of Iht' grt'ul aUlhors of Ihl' I/illl'I(,t'llIh t'I'I/tllry. J)ostoYt'\'"ky prohubly IlUd Iht' lIIos1 ill/lUl'IICe 01/ \'ist'ol/ti's arti"tit" ith'uls - altholl/-!h of all his worb \'is\'ollli udal'tt'd ollly tilt' 11 0\'\'11 a 11 hi/(' .Yip;ltls. TIll'/'(' is aI/ I'I/ormOll'; lensiuII ill tilt' olltl'lIt of this artist. a n'\,olutiollary tUI"IH'd t"tHls('rYati"p. sU,;lwllded Llt'tw!'t'1I tilt' t11'"in' 10 dlUI//-!df."I~ :b poillted oul l'arlit'r ill COIIIH'ctioll wilh .'·;l:'flSU. IIwiodrama ill Yi,,('oJlli'" fillll" i" lIot aholll coillcidt'IIl'f' or olher lIarralive dC\'in'!'> that would ('0111111'" tilt' ail11 of l'0nrayill~ charactcrs a,.; hi"torically ami socially de1t'l'IIlilll'd illdi\'idllak Ht· did 1101 ,.;t·ek to "('hall/'nw' thl' ('oIl\TlItion;, of rCl're"{'lltatioll awl illt('lIi~ihility"; lit' was w'n'r illlt'I'l'sled ill followiu/! tlte "In'alll" of Ihe ilHlIlt ganle. Whilc ,kall-Lw' (;odanl ,.;oul:dll 10 shatter lraditiollal illu,.;ionist form~ of cillt'lItalic l'l'pn,,.,t·lIlalioll a!'> a lllallifestatioll of hOllrgt'oi" idl"ology by radically IIt'W cillt'lllalic IlteallS. \'i:;('ollli adhered 10 IlliIlU";,.,i.'; alld cillelllatic H'ri..;illlilillldt'. I It- walllt·d 10 I'cl'J){'tuate the \\'estel'll Iwrrati\'(' traditioll - all t'l11l'ltalically Illillletic lraditioll - in tht, IIIO"t ,.,pll'lIdid fashioll cOllceivable. a III I ill "OIllt' rl"";I',·('I". al 11',.".1. thi:-ilw\'ililbly I11l"alll IlUldillg fa:--t to cenaill anJltin'd fOl'1n,., of repn·selllatioll. \\·a..; Ihi,.; adllt'rt'llI'l' to lllillle:;is alltl refllsal 10 addn',.,,; Ihe LJ"e:;tiolls of l'!'pn's,'lltat iOIl ill work:; of art Ih,'m,.,eh",'" all iwlicat iOll of sW"'III11Ling to till' "fatllt'r'" \oin''':- Did tilt' ti~lIn' of ti ... fatl ... r. which Yi:;collti had so careflllly t'radicall,d frol11 allllo,.;t all of his fillll,." hold il~ OWIl by IIt't'oming Ihoroll~ltly illl"ntaliz('d illlo tilt· di,,('our~.·::b Ihl' on'rtly ,,(It'ial e1I'IIWlll ill Yi:;(,Ollti'" lilllb n·('I·dl'd. il wa" replaced by a 11101'1' illlt'rlluliz"d 1IIldt'rstallllin~ of growing old awl of the transilorine,.;,., of all Ilt'illgs. TIlt' l11ain characters of tilt' last fOllr fill11,; are all 101 ... 1Y 1111'11. who ill t ht'ir variolls \\"ay~ an' "ll1l'hatically lIOt. or are no 101l~"r. fatilt'r". Illa"lIlllcil a,.; tlwil' alt"l11l'ts to gaill or 10 Illailllaill the slalll"; of tilt' fatl ... r fail or have fail,·.!. Yist'ollti i!'l al!'>o qUI":itiollillg patriarchy alld till' "ultllrl' il ho;.t:;. Thll:i althollgh Ileither tilt' Irillity of CodFatlwr-:\rti,.,t 1101' Ihl' "a,.,it' faith ill tilt' pO:i!'lihilily of rl'pn'"elllillg realily is ulldel'lllillt'd Oil tilt' 1('\"1,1 of di,.,('our,.,e or I'xl're",.,ioll. at !t·a,.,t Ihe power uf Ihl' fatl ... r i" dtallellged as if frolll withill. Like \'i,,"Ollli hill.,.,(,If. Ihe l11ale dtarat'II'rs of hi" films do 1101 fail a" falh"I',,; a" a 1'1111' thn fail ill ht'COlllillg fa tI 11'1',.,. Likl' ('hildn'll. they "'I'ek comfort hy l'';''apillg illlo the spllt'n'" uf art or Illad {'.\ag~eratioll of tilt' I'go. a" if It) n'gaill al I.. ast ';Yl11l101ically thl' ~rolllld tilt'y hm'" 1.".,1. .\,., a 1"I'"ull. tilt·\" "IIIt'r illto all ('\'('1' dl'qH'1' solitude.

1:\ T EH P H r·1 L H

(J

1 El H (J P E.\ '\ LITE H.\ Tt HI.

The prolJlt.'lIls of adapting John Ellis has delined adaptatioll as ··a proep~~ of redlll'in~ a prpexi:;teJlt piece of writill~ to a st'rit's of fllnctioll:;: citaraett·rs. loeatiolls. costtllllt'S. actiolls allll strin~~ of lIarrati\"l· .. ·I:1 Obviously. a lilnary work in which these fllllctiolls or a~ent:; are set Ollt fairly clearly. that i:;. a work that could Lw cla!'isitit'd as a classical realistic tt'xt. is llIon' sllsct'ptiblt· to adaptatioll than a Ilovel ill which literHl~· dt'vict's are foregroullded. Thi~ kind of maillstrealll adaptillg i,.; gon'l"Ilt'd to a cOllsidl'rablt' exlt'lIt hy el"OIlOlIIic aJl(I social cOllstraints .. \ filmmaker is likt·1v to Ill' nllll'h 11101"1' dl'pelldt'nt 011 his audiellce and t Iit' goodwill of a producer in gett illg his ideas I't'alizt,d thall all artist working in almost any other sl'llt'rt·. This has its int'vitable eOllsequelll'es. (:aroIYII :\lIderson. writillg ahollt tilt' relalioll:;hips betwcen literalllre alld film. das,;ities the typical change:; that oCl'ur wlH'n fiction is adapted to fillll Wi a "colldt'nsatioll of plot ami charaeft'r: clllphasi:; 011 dialogue 1·111YlIIl'hOlli(' IHWlIIs. ill which till' lish'llt'r is illvited to ellhanct' thl' listt'lIilll! eXl'l'rit'llI'p I.y "baskilll! ill a (·t'rtaill pre-e:->Iablisllt'd prl'sew·t· ... III SOIIl(' (·a,.;('s a 1'£111('1'11 ratlwr Ihall a ddillitt' 1)/'PC('(\I'lIt ('all Iw p('I'Ct'in'd ill thi,; prt·S('IH'(,.:!1 The ('ollcept of illtersectillg 1'0\'('1'''; all tllO,,(' adaptatiolls ill which "lIl1iquellp:,s of thl' origillal text is prp:-.t'J'n,d 10 ';lIch all extelll thal il i,.; illh~lItionally le 1'1 lIIH1ssimilatl'd ill adapt al ion:' .\ IIdrew 1I11'lIt iOlls as all example Bn's:-,oll' S adaptalion of B('I'I HI 110< ~ Iwn·1 /)iwy (~( ({ (·Ullllt,.y Prie.~t. which ill :\1H1f't~ Bazill',; WOi'll,.; pn',.;t'lIl,.; Bertlallo,,; "as ,.;t'l'lI by tilt' Cillt'IIHI." hi other word,.;. till' din'ctor ha,.;. ill a S"II";('. "n,flls(,d 10 adapt"

and pre~('rYl'd tilt' disti/H'ti\l'lws~ of the oril!illal. tllt'J't'by. at'Cordilll! to Alldrew. "illitiating a dialt·(·tical illlt'rplay Iwtwt'('1I th,' al'stlll'tic forllls of Ollt' ppriot! with cillpmatic forms of 0111' OWII IlI'riod:' TIlt' sllldy of ";llI'h adaptatiolls I'e'luire,.; gi\'illg "all('lItioll to th .. sl)('('iji('i~l' of tilt' origillal wilhill till' spl'cijici~l' of ciw'lIIa. ":!:! Fillally. jidf'lity (if trall.~/(JI'IlIiflg illlpli('''; "till' rqlf'(Hluctioll of ";olllt'thilll! I's";{,lItial about all origillal It'xt.":!:! III addilioll to tht' eklllell\"; Elli" lish - c\wracl{'rs. lo(,atiolls. (·O"tllIlIt'S. aClioll~. and ,.;trillgs of narrati\"(' - .\lIdr('w poillts 0111 that 1II0ti\·atioIlS. cOIlSt'qlll'nct's. COIlIt'XI. \·iewpoilll. imaw'ry. and otlll'r "Iwh dt,tails call Ill' prodllct'd ('qllally ill two worb. Thlls "if a 1I0W(' ~ story i~ jlldgt'd ill ";01lH' way ('oIllIHlrablt' to ih lillllic adaptatioll. tllI'lI tlH' ";Irictly ~"IlUratl' hUI t'quintlellt I'I'O('('"S('S of illlpli('atioll which prodllt'l'd tlJ(' lIarrative ullits of that "tory throllgh word~ alld Hudio-yi"lIal "i~lh. n'''IH'{·tin'ly. 11 III "t Ill' studi(·d."2< III1

l\evet1hele"s. to express the experieIH't' of IlIt'aninglesslless and lack of IlIotivation, Call1u,, IIIl!;,t ('all 011 a structur!' in which molivatioll and IlIeanill~ would normally he important. namely, the narrative. According 10 McCarthy. all three of (:allllls' S 1I0W\" appear to be "allelllpls to tell a story while it'aving out an t'sst'ntial part of it.'· In The Strwlf(er ht' succeeds in "writing from Ihe viewpoillt of this emptiness instead of merely writillg about it. "~>:! It was obviously lIaiv!' to a"sunlt' that the excellelll'e of Ihe novel ('ould be translated to allot her medium by adheriug faithfully to ib -'characters, locations. l'ostLIlUes. al'tiolls . and string~ of narratin'," YiSl'Ollti l'ould not help but lu:;e tilt' eiu"ive e"senl'e of the original becaust' he was uuable to explore ('iul'matic equivalents that would have had the same .. ffel'ts as the literary dl'vices used by (:amus. Yet it is diftil'uh to envisage pre('isely how Iit' would han' tackled the philosophintl a:-,pe('h of th .. novel evell if he had had the liberty to proceed as he "··i,,hl'd, llis cilwlIlatic style i~ charal'tt'rized by objel'tivity. a kind of olllui,,"i"JII narration that is almost tOlally l'ulltraJ'Y to the iJllplil'ations of CaJllll~'" IImeL partit'ularly ill it,; lir~t half. which paved the way for Ihe flOllI'('(1/( mlllall of .-\Iaiu Hobhe-Crill('t. :\lidll'l Butor, C1aude SiJllolI. and other;,. Thl' idt'a of doing away wilh Ihl' killd of literalurt' Ihat sought to reject tilt' COIIH'lIliollal a,.,pt't'b of the novel foulld its cinelllatic equivalent ill thl' IiIJll~ of kau- Lilt' Codard . .-\1aill He~lIai~. alld etu-is \Iarker, 10 mention bUI a few. 011 lilt' 01 her halld. 011 t hl' t'\'t' of 'tay 19()~ adapting

I ~ T I:: H Pin. T E H () F El H () P E.\:\ LITE H.\ Tt HE

The Stmflgl!r was not exactly a rt'volutionary choice - tllt' young radicals thought of Call1us as an --illlpostor" and a "blt'ating boy scout"' - but Visconti might haw i'dt all affinity with Cal/lIls's illsistellce that It'ft-willg utopias ollly too Oftl'lI serve as prt'It'Xb for bloodslwd.'-;;l In any case. beillg forced to copy tilt' nO\'I'1. Viscollti was Iph with very little scope to ,'xplort' new llIodes of adaptil/g, As "isconti's :.tatl'llwnt about giving a face to Call1us' s creation suggt'stt',L tilt' fillll is about till' fatt' of all individual ratllt'/" than about an existential condition as such. l\IastroianIli as :\Ieursault is as sYlllpathetic as ('\'er. tenderly nH'landlOly and lovablt' t'ven in his indifference. His fate is touching and sad: something irretrievably valuable is lost when this illliividual is eXl'cutt'd. The audience is dellied the luxun', of detachlllent. Also. the wa\' Mastroiallni ::.peaks his in!l'malmonologut's suggests that his condition is lIluch more of a problelll for hilll than it is for his literary cOlllltt'rpart. And wht'rt'as the wa\, that the \-Ieursault of tilt' book rendt'rs tilt' court SI'I'III' is full of subtle irony. in tilt' film the oVl'rdont' gestures and statenll'lIts by the judge and thl' melllbers of the court an' se('n as if from IIn objt'ctivt' point of \;ew and appear excessively melodramatic ami grotesqul', One could. of course. clailll that this scene is rendered frolll \Ieursaul'-s point of view, but it is nut cut'd to be so, !lather. every now and then tht' camera also oLsl'rves his reactiolls by quickly zooming to his face. Meursault would appear to fit quilt' well the gallel~' of characters ill Yiscollti" s films. From ()ssessiuTle's Gillo to Tullio in Th(' IIlIW(,(,llt, Viscontl's maill characters are in one way or allother 10llely wolves, "kt'epers of dis\alll'es'" to use Alfn'tJ's admonitioll to A::.chellbach ill Death ill J'ellire. ~It'ursault is all t'xtremt' case, however, ill that on the psydlOlogieal level he allllost succeeds ill tearing himsdf from tilt' collt'l'tive cOlIseiousIless of his sol'it't)'. Lllfortunately. tht' lilm dot'S not quite succeed ill portraying the benigll existelltial detachment that .\Ieursuult of the Look assuJIles in the face of death. '\leursault's ponderings ill the film appear unt'ollvillcillg in their assumt'd illdifferelll't'. Takell simply as a film in its OWII right. TI/{' Slrallgl!l" can be st'en as a fairly suLtle, sellsuous. alld ullpretentious fillll. Its controlled beauty. the mainly ~n'y-blue. white. and browll-I't'd color !'!chemt', the atmosphere of tortuous tt'lJsion (Tt'ated by Piero Picl'ioni' s lIIusic. the opposition 1)('twet'1J the "uffocatillg blaze of the SUI) and the rt'freshmt'nt offl'red by water - thl' brook and thl' sea - (Teait' the settillg ill which \It'ursault lives alld elljoys lift,. sWI·ats. and t'xhHust~ himself. All this I",comes a vihrant mHnift'stalioll of a certain experil'lIce of life. of a lift' that has to ,

\t~CU\

11

t>lId Llt'caw;c of Cl chance at'culIlulatioll of uw'ollw'cted cau~e~: thert' i" Cl ~cn~t> of tragedy awl lo~~ in tilt' 1iIIIl, tilt' absellce of which was n'all~ the gi~t of tht' nOH'I.~>-t

1it.:.lIEMIJIIA.W'L' OF TIII,HJS PAST In the prefal't' tu the prillted snipt for Relllelllbrance v/Things Pusl, Cccdli O'AlIli('() rt'call~ dlUt Yis('(mti u"t'd to say that adapting Lu rechcrcllt' for tilt' S(Tet'n would he hi,; last tillll project. According to her. the director wa" haUlllt'd by all allllo~t superstitious fear of this project. ViSCOllti",; otlH'r I'rill('ipal s('l't'enwriter, ElIri('o \Iedioli, ap't't's,. hut thin\,;", it was also a qllt'stioll of lIIH'ertaillt y: Su~o

lit' kllt'W \t'ry Wl'lI, that Ollt' I'ollltlllot l'0""ibly Illakl' Proll"t illlo a fillll, Becau~t', ImeaJl, 1I1I1,'~s YOlllllakl' thirrt't'lI or hft{'(,1I t'pisodf's, , , . E\t'1I a lillll of 1'0111' hour, wouldll't ('orrespolld to the \ollllllt's of Lu r('cherche, YOII wouldn't have the lefllJls perdll. whidl i" so fa"t'illatilll-( ill thl' 110\1-1: ~Oll M't' tht' charadeI' YOII ha\(' nlt't at th(' Ilt'l-(illllin~ "lIl1ll'l(,tt'ly tralhfonn .. d by (illlf' at the I'lId of this work:"·" Vi~t'ollt i' s

dn'alll of lIlaking his Proll~t tihu canll' dosest to realizat ion ill 1{)71. TIll' righh Iwlonged to lhe Fren('h product'r \i('olt> St(:phane, She originally Walllt'l! He/lt~ (:Ielllt'llt to direct it. hut Yiscomi slll'ceeded in persuadillg Ilt'r that Iit' awl no Ollt' else should direct Proust's colossal work, (:en'hi 0' AlIlico prepared the snipt that had liwd in their minds fur long, \'iseollti spent weeks hulltillg for locatiow; in Paris alld in ;\;ol'lnandy, The prospectiw ('a~t was breathtaking: Silvana Mangano as Oriane de Cllermalllt·,,: Alaill Oeloin or Oustin Hofi'man as \lal'ceL the narrator; llellllut B('r~('l' a,; !\Ion-\; Charlotte Ramp ling as Alhel'tilH': ~larie B('II as la Benna: ~Iarlon Brando or Luurcnce Olivier as Charlus; Simolle Signoret or Allni(' Cirardot as Madallle V(-nlllrin, Ac('ording to tilt> 1I10St excit illg l'IllllOr. Crt'ta Carbo, thirt y years after ha \'in~ left tilt> ';lTel'n, had ('onsidert>d a('Ct~ptillg tlte part of th(' queell of :\aples, \lany actors were l'nthusia"li(' about tlte idea of participating in tilt' filtn, awl sumI' e\'ell cOlllacted Vis('onri 10 o/'fer their s('r\"i('('~,~'" But then trouLh' Iwgan, \rllt'n the filial budget tIIrtled out 10 Lt' ellOrmous, Stephalll' asked Visconti to postpow' the shooting for four 1ll001lhs so that she could find lllore 1ll00H'Y' Blit tilt' impatit'ut Yi';('Ollli had to start working Oil something, So, to allow hilll"df to do Llld/rip; tirs!. he deI'1;\I\,It,d that tilt' Prousl p .. oj('t't should Iit' ptHIHIIl(-d ('\'('1) I'I1 .. tllI'l'. S((;-

1\ T l H I' H L 11-. H () F El H () I' L.\ \

LIT L H.\ It Hr

:.!1I(j

phane Iholl~hl Vis(,(lIlli had It'l IlI'r dowlI alld slIed him. III Ilt'r fllry. she ordered a III'W ~tTipl from Ilarold Pilller ami illvill'd Joseph Lose;.' to direct it. To lIlake lIIaller~ wor~e. ViscolIl i' ~ heart altack aft('r tilt' shool illg of the LlI(/lI'i!! left him ilH"apablt· of a~~lIIl1ill~ lask,.; Oil this scale. 13111 for various re'bOIlS. I,osey did 1I0t gt'l to do his film. I·illte!". Tllt're was still not ellouglt 1II01lt'y for tlw I'\"t'r 1II0re /'xpI'llSin' projl·ct. tllt'n' W(·!"t' illllllmerable per"ollalily cOlltlich. SI~pltatH' had dOllbls abollt Pilltl'r' s script. Losey wOllld haw din·l·tt'd ill Ellglish.-·: \'iSCllllli wOllld haw ~tarll·d his fillll from the ~I'colld \"01 11 lilt' of tilt' lIovel. :t /'ulIlbrp des jell/It's filiI'S cfljll'lIrS alld madl' SIJdo1ll1' 1'1 Goltlorrhe the Ilodal poillt. In this scheme. tilt' total length wold haw hl'('1l ahollt four hOllrs. Accordillg to \'i"collti himself. Ire "'allied 10 adapt ProuSI as if he were Balzal'. to treal Ihe challge" ill Fn'lIdl soci,·ty l)I:'fol"l' Ihe Fir:,1 "'orld \\"ar alld lean' Ihe questions of rilll!' alld m('lIIory ill tlw backgrollnd. A,; lIIallY critics haw' poillted Ollt. it is qllt'~tionable whelher slll'h a tillll cOllld have heell callt'd a tnw Prollst adaptatioll.,-·II P('rhaps Viseonti would han' SIII'('t'eded in Itamessing this slIbject 10 serve his OWII arti:,tic and philosophical vi"iOlL This might have hapP('lwd ht'callse of rhe dt'ep affilialioulll' ft·" with tllt' alllhor. III all (':;~ay focllsillg mainlY 011 TIlt' /flflucPIII. \likat'1 Ellchll "Titt',;: ~lIfferilll! and onllalilY as pft·I"t'lJlIi"ilt'~ for 11'll(ll'l"Iu'';'' alltl Yl'arllillg t'OIlIIlTh Vi"collti'" ol'lI,;uality to that of Proust'" .... Vis,'ollti alld Prol"l dislilll!ui"h a fealure whit'h tlwy set' ao Iypical of tlwir IlIaill dlUrat't .. rs· ("t'laliollships \0 till' bdov.-J alld III lift' ill 1!I'Iwral. lIalllely their 101'1 IIn~d alld I in'less '111t',,1 fOI'I't'rf"t'1 ~aft'ty. to !!"e eocmUlters give the impet us to the workings of his Illemory. hO The crucial idea of the novel is really a literary device: that is . the fin.l persoll narrator is simultaneously ~larcel experiencing these events and Mareel relating these ('vents with the advantage of hindsight. He is !>eeJl experiencing life in all its intoxicating. frustrating inuneiliaey, Lut ib meaning is rI'waled to him only in retrospect. Proust uses the distance Detweell tlH'SI' two poillts of view to work out a Lalance between the spontaneous reactions of the protagonist and to focus on thelll from a distance. Finally these two .. r' s join when the novel comes to its end. () 1 This fusioll signifies the regailling of time. for just as Man'e1matures and is aLout tu begin his work, the narrator is finishing his. Time has been conquered a" the past is seen in all its richness from the point of view of the present. when menlOries have been harnessed to serve art. when death has Leen overcome hy taking OIW' s life fully into possession. The two Proust scripts differed Iwt only in their Lasic approaches and narrative structures but also to !>ome extent in their handling of tht' characters. Because Cecchi O'Amico' s script does uot Legiu until the second part of the 1I0vel. Charle!> Swauu. Odette. aud their daughter Gilberte remain fairly marginal characters ... 2 Along with them. a great many of \larcel' s childhood memories and his youthful love for Gilbertc are left aside. Iustead. Morel and his homosexual relation!>hip with Baron de Charlw; is fluite prominent. The script euds with a scene at the time of the First World \\' ar. ill which ~lorel. llOW a descl1er. is sent Dack to the front Iillt'. After this . ~larcl'l he~ills to write his book. and childhood lIIemories retllrtl to him. A yisit to the Prillcl'ss de CUertnallte!"J. which Pintcr ust's as a frame in his yersion. is absent. The scrip\!' are so differellt that IJOth could haw had a plaC!' ill film history. III fact. the), would have complemented. explained. and enriched each othl'r. Illasllludl as the interplay of time aIHlmclllories would have heell realized in Pinter' s version, (:ecehi I)" Amieo' s snipt would have enabled \'iSl'ullti once again to recreate a by~olle era; to dramatize people's fixity in time. plan~. class. historical and social situation: awl show them ill tlH' I't'lwtratillg yet tender light of crilical llostalgia. The two takcll togelher would ha\'!' created a kind of analogy with the tensiOll between Proust's two ··r·s. Although \' i!"Jcollti llt','er made his Proust film. there are mallY traces of the French author ill his worb. The hall scent' in The Leopard. heach life in Death ill I ellice. alld the COIII'(,11:; ill TIll' 1"'lUcellt probably give s011le idea of what \'is"ulIti',; I,a recherche would haw het'll lik". Oil 11.1'

I:\TERPRETER OF El ROPE.\\ L1TER.-\Tl RE

:! t I

whole, perhaps ewn more than allY of the f'arlier tilms. his la:;t work. 1111.' In"ocenl .. i:; a similar nostalgic hut critical evocation of things past. as i:;

Prou:;t's masterpi,·ce.

THE I:\"XUCE.\T

D'Annunzio and Visconti as decadents In 1973. after haying colllpleted ('olll'ersalioll Piece. Visconti. (:eechi D' Amico. and ~ledioli ::.tarted to explore the po:;:;ibilitil's of adapting one of CaLriele I)" Anuunzio \; noyels for till' scn·ell. Beea lIse tilt' rights for

11 piacere had already Iwen sold. they began working 011 I. 'iIlIlOCefll('. Gabriele I)" AlIllullzio (ISh:3-1 /rl/lUcelll at the time he was facing his own death (he died 011 March 17, 1976 . just when the film was in its editing stag!'). III it. Yiscollli reconstrtlcted Ihe era and the class into which he had lwt'lI hom - as he had already £lOBt' in Death ill T"enice. Adapting D'Allllullzio' s IIOVel implied a retum to something familiar, remembered with bitter nostalgia and detachmellt. with all awart'ness of its weaknesses and evell depravity. So whereas D'A1I111l1lzio epitomized the transition from v"rism to decadentisrn, with The IllIwceflt Viseonti 1"011nded out his career in the cinema by completing his own trajectory from JI('on'alislll to his OWII critical brand of d!'t"adentislll. which really serves a,.; a vehicle for giving expression to certain psychological COIl("ems. Accurding to Enckt'lI: The Illl/ocellt" ~ fa"adt' i~ dominated hy erotic compli.. ations, triangle patterns in a painfully heavy. brutal and at the same time on'r-cuhi,"ated, baro4ue-like frame. The mort> t.he spectator goes into the film and into hi~/her OWIl cOlllplelIlelltary reactions 10 it. the more obvious it hel"0I1H's that Visconti" s last work is rather an expres~ioll of deep sorrow than thost· t'venb which appear to dominate its surface. 71

I i\ T E It P It E T E H 0 F El It 0 I' L\:\ Ll T E It .\ Tl It E

The power of adapting During the opening credits, Visconti"s OWII hand is seen tuming the pages of O'Annunzio's L'iruwzellte. A beautiful society woman, Teresa Raffo (JeIUlifer O'Neill), it; blackmailing Tullio (Giancarlo GiallIlilli) ill order to persuade him to t;how more attelltioll to her ami to igllore his wife. He decides to give in and openly tells his wife, Giuliana (Lama Antollelli), that he is going to do so. SOOIl after, Ciuliana meets the author O'Arborio (Marc Porel) at a small dinner party arranged by Tullio"s brother. Federico (Oidier Haudepill). Later they notice each other at a concert just as a soprano is singillg the aria "Che faro senza Euridice:' from Cluck's opera Olfeo ed Euridice. a song about the pain of losing a beloved through death. Tullio appears but does not realize what is going on for his only cone en} is to attract Ciuliana's attentioll to fulminate about Teresa's infidelity. Against this background. Giuliana's adultery can be seen as a justified attempt to claim for herself the sallle rights that her husband has assumed. Tullio begins to suspect that something has happeued when he hean; Ciuliana sing "Che faro seuza Euritiice." He happens to sec a book by D'Arborio 011 her table with a dedieation to her. A casual conversation about his literary talents appears 10 lead Tullio's thoughts in the right direction. But it is uot until Teresa mildly mocks Tullio about the affair his wife is having that he actually faees the fact. He meets D' Arborio in a fencing hall and they eugage in a match - olle of the ever-occurriug "duels" in this film. His discovery of the affair It'ads Tullio to leave Ten'sa alld return to Giuliana. She has retreated to the countryside, to her mother-in-law's villa. and Tullio follows her - there is a striking cut here from luscious red, black, and gold to wOlult'rful green alld white. Nothiug illcites Tullio's love as ulUch as the fear of losing the object of his love to someOlw else. Now he calls Ciuliana "my wife. my sister. my lover." She invents an excuse as to why they should have separate rooms, but whell her husband begins his attempts to rekinJlc her love she finds it difficult to resist his approaches. But we Bever really know at which point her possibly renewed love becomes a strategy with which to protect hen;e\f allJ the child she is earryiug. Antonclli" s acting is loo subtle to permit allY simple interpretations. Finally, Tullio' smother ren-als to him that Ciulialla is pregnallt. I11Iwever much he pretends to allow his wife the same liberties he enjoys himself. he seems to have all almost illfantile fear of oeing left alone. heing I'xdutied fmlll till' splwf(, of love alld caring. This fear is actually justified

:.!10

\1~Cll\ll

and illl'reasl'd hy his own inability to n:perielll'e such fedin~s toward others. Perhaps it is tilt' idea of a IIlOther's love for her baby. doubly alieD to the lIIan who has furced his wif,' to seek low and earin~ from allutlwr lIIall . that lIIakl's Tullio s(,t' the bahy a,.; his archenemy. This fear gr1l1l"~ illto hatt'. which has the effect of makillg the objects of passion and IOH~ truly IIllapproadlahle. Tullio is IInahle to lIIeet his belu\"t~d 011 e411al terms alld tellds tu experie'H"e hlllllan relatiollships as I"IlIlfwlltatiolls. Ill' projects his uwn auxietil~s 011 otlwrs. ;\t Ollt' point. whell dis("lls"illg the situatioll with Ciulialla. he sllddenly Ilt'ars a Hlice dralll'nging him to another match. lie Will,. aruulld and tu his 11111'1' alllazt'lIlt'llt sees a man in a white fellcing "lIit with a visor owr his face - jllst likt' I)" Arhorio wheu Tullio first laid eyt'!' on him. But it is not Cillliana' s knight ill "hinillg white armur. it is Tullio'" brother. FI~dt'ri("o. They have a lIIatch. which pillS Tullio in a state uf ra~w. as if hl' werl' l'ugagt'd iu actual cOlllbat. Both I)" Arhorio aud Federieo are Tllllio'" eOlllpetitors ill love. the Ollt' ill n'lation to hi" wife. the other to his IllOtilt'r - and 1t'lIin~.dy enOllgh. wllt'n the lath'r appear" at the gym. Tullio IUllge,; furiously at FI,derico. as if 111' W{'!'t' tighting for his life. Ellckell sllgp:t'st;; that "till' lIIasked alltagollist is not ollly a livillg rival. Ire is in this. \·i,.,conti·:. last lilm. also a ';\"lnLol of death. that vietoriou" cUlllpetitor who o\'el"l'ollles lb all allll forever deprives us of all that we dlt'rish. "7~ I)'ArLorio dies of a fever before Tullio has had a dlalH"t' to exact his rewnge. When Gilllialla dot's not yield to his atheistic It>mptations to ··cancd tht' results of our errors. be independt'nl of Ihe condition" of our existence. of the uncertainty. caused by. anxiety. alld Ill""es:' wlll'n she refuses to ~t't rid of the ··illtruder . ·• Tullio is left alOlle. The only course Iit' sl'es for himself i,., to destroy the enemy thal appears to take his place in tilt' splwre of lo"p. \\"Ilile the others are attenwng tht' (:hristmas mass in the family dlHpel. Tullio exposes tile child to the willtPr air. Tht' parallel with the (:hri:.t child is made Plllphatic and poignant by the parallel editing alld till' music of the sl'rvice being carried to till' room wlll're Tullio is waitillg for tilt' baby to catch his death. But killing the innocent lIIerely seals Tullio·,.; fatl': expulsion. Ciulialla linally renoulII','S the "holy"' sacramf'lIt of lIIarriuge that ha,.; hound thelll: :\01 for a 111011 It· 11 I - li"It'1I "ardully - did I wallt 10 ht' fn'" of il [th .. ("hild]. \ut ill onler to follow tilt' rtIl,'~ of lily "oll~("iou~II"~~ hilI 1,..("111",' I Im'I'd it. 111\ poor little ("r('ullll·p. wholll I dplli .. d a Iholl~alld lillll''' ill lily word,.;. Ht'~I)f'("1 for tilt" laws "I' rdi!!ioll and 1\lllrnlilY which 1 III1W ,'lIrs" !, "" hrollghl 1II1·I.ad, III "11" '1'\,.

I" T E R P R L I I·. H () I· Lt H () I' L.\" I 1rI-. H \ It HE

:!! .

sacrament of marriagt'. What holines.-; ,'all thne be in tilt' disgllstiIlI-! tit'~ that hm" kept us tog!'ther dllrilll-! these last f('w lIlollth",? I cannot explain it. Yet it ha" happeIled IlI'causl' of that salTanwnl. lit-nil',,!, .. fit I hU\(, slIfft'ret\ allll ,'ailSI'd pain .... What folly ... what folly!

Later. Tullio cOllft'sses to Ten'sa Haffo what Iw has done. ('lIdillg his slll/"y with the words with which his litl'l"ary counterpart Iwgills. dailllillg that no trihunal 011 tlw earth would know how to judgt' him. Ten'sa fails to be impn'sse,l. howevt'r. and poillf:.i Ollt that throllgh death Tullio's 01'ponellts ha\'!' now become truly inviw·ible. Finally. sIit' says: "On the day whell I could convillce myself of beilll! the only judgt' of lily life. I would like to be worth it. Lt'1 mt' go'" Having killed Ihe iIllIOCt'1I1 ITt'aIII n'. Tullio ha~ pro\l'd to himself that he really is ahle to lin' up to his total amorality. He calli lot but fact' the spirilllal void Iit' has lTeated for hilJls,·lf. By posinl! as Ihe sole judge of his morality alld t'thical eonducl. by ("("('ating his owll solitary spher(' of right and \\Tong. lo\'(' and hatt'. he has excludt·d him:'it'lf frolll the ('0111pany of his ft'lIow human beings. Human Iif(' is esst'lltially about illteraction with other people. and ha"illl! deprived hi IIIsel f of il. Tullio J"t'aliz('s he has no future. Ht' ends hi:; lift' withoul much funllt'r ado. although lIot withoul a IIwlodramatic gesture: he dot'S il ill Teresa's pn'sell('t'. III a sense. this feawn' makes it. as Viscollti poillled oul. a truly I)" Allllllllzian additioll to the book. The a('lllal plot has heell altered ill many ways partly he("all~t' of narrative el..'onomy. For example. the early SI..'t'Ilt' ill the hook dealillg with Gilllialla":; illne:;s has been olllitwd. alld the relatiollship between the couple is reudered ill a cOllvt'rsatioll ill which Tullio delllHllds Giulialla'~ cUllIplicity against tilt' society that would cOlldellln hi:; relationship with thl' oeallliful Teresa Rafl'o. Blit by far more important is the J"t·thillkillg of tlH' 1Il0tivalioll~ of tlw character ill the seWit' that Balazs ddilled as tlw (>ss('lltial fealurt' of good adapting. Tht' very audiovisualizinl! of the litt'rary te.xt as sllch poinls tlH' way to this. First of all. Tultio has lost his POSilioll a:-, the Ilarralor - IH' is not e\"l'll l!iwll the IWIle/it of prt':;('lItilll! his owll views through voic('o\"er lIarralioll. B('caus(' all the dlaractt'r~ are actually S('('II hy till' SIIl'I'tator. their appearanct's alld lH'havior an' 11111 cOlllilled to Tullio' s poilll of ,·it'w. They hay(' l"'('ollle full. roulld".! ('hal" a form of literary criticism in the way l\eil Sinyard has suggested. And whereas Death ill I Pllice. because of the difference in the two media, could not explore thl' ,;ame range of thought and sensibility as the novella, the film made on the basi::; of IY Annunzio· s novel penetrates right into ib moral and intellt'crual core and turns it upside down. Thus the novel a" well as the period, society. and culture it reflects are put into a critical pt'rspective. A new. remarkable "coherence and inner consistency·' is imposed on the diegetic material as it is rt'!igured in term!i of the motivation of the characters and the point of view from which it is told. The innocent is one of Visconti" s most beautiful tilms. Its peacefully evolving plot awl the gentle mOIltage create a quiet and degiac atmo!ipllt're. TIlt' eault'ra work is designed tu show as much as possible of the sumptuous settings. hut Viseonti does not hesitate to cut and even to zoom to close-ups. The eolor scheme has an importaIlt role in giving accents to the milieu. Intensive red and luscious gold. together with some black and whitt" dominate most of the interiors in which the high society of Rome residt's. In colltrast. Ciuliana':; boudoir, as well as Federico· s apartment.. have delicate pastl'll"Olon; awl shades. The villas in the countl:·side. amid their greenery. are mainly creaIllY yellow and pure white. In each case the colors corn'~p()11I1 to tilt' sen;;itivity of the person to whom the place is principally related. In addition to the lIlusic in the concerts - wheft· so Illany in the audience., as ill lilt' lIIusil'al "oir~es Proust describes, cannot Le bothered hy llIusit: - three killd!i of IlUckgroulld m\l~ic by Franco Mannino are ht'ard. Quiet, poignant lIlusic mainly on tilt' piano aecolllpanil's tilt' scenes with TlIllio awl (;iulianH tll~t't1\t'r. It i:-; gradually 1"\'"lacl'. SS. ()uotl'd in (ht'rlwy. ,"prill{!lilllf' ill It(j~l·. p. :!9. ;)h. BOlldalldla. ItaLiulI Cirtelf/a ji'ulII .\"f'urt'al/slIl tu thl' Prl'sf'lIt. p. :3;:). ;)7. Set'. t'.g .. \owdi-Slllith. Lllchino Iisc()lIli. 1" J2. 5H. (:hiarini. "Tradisn' il lIeorealismo." ('int'rtlu nU()l"(). ,,);). \Iart'h 25, 1955. PlliJli"lwd a~ "\t'o-Ht'ali~1lI Betrayt'd'-' in Overl..wy. Sprin{!timt' in Ita~r. p. :!OH. :le). Ibid .. 1" 201). hO. Zantttilli. "A The"i~ 011 :\t'o-Healislll." Published ill O\erhey. Sprillgtime in It{/~)". p. : I. ot. (:hiarini. "J)i"cO!"sn slIllIt'orealislllo.-' Hiwlc() f' lIau. XII, Juiy :, I!);) t. Pubibiwd a~ .. A Discollrs(' on 1\1'0- HeaiislII.-' in Overhey. :)pringtifllf' ill Ita(r, p. 1-+3. o:!. \Iorlioll. "i.t' ha,i hiosolieilt' dt'llIcort'aiislllo eillt'matogralit'o italiaw I." PuLli"lwd as 'Tht' Philo~ophit'ul Basis of :\eo-HeaiislII'-' ill th-t'rbl'y. Springtirtlf' ill I/((~\·. 1" I:! 1. It ~hould lit' Hoted that whell .\lorliun >-il't'uks of "a magic willdow whit'h 01"'IIS to tilt' n'al." he is. of t'ourst'. spt>akillg IIl!'taphorieally. The nit it's 1.11' realisnl in f"int'1I1a huw olliy too oftt'1I pickt,d 011 sUl'h phrast's to t'oll~tnlt"t an t'asy targt't for tilt'ir t'ritici,lII. t>:3. Bazill. 11 hat I,~ Cillf'IIIU? \01. 11. p. 1)7. h-t. Bazin. "William \\"ylt'f. or tilt' JallSl'lIisl of Inist' I'll ,d'lIe.-· PublislH'd III Willialll, (l'd.).Il,'((Ii.~1II ulld thl' ('illl'lI/(/ p. -t-t. ()S. Ibid .. 1" :! I. ho. Bazill. "Dt' Sit'a t't Ho~,t'lIilli'-' PlIbli~llt'd in i3azin. VII ','s/-n' 1/"1' le cillema? vol. 1\'. p. II-t.

\()TL~

_ _ .J

07. Al"l'ordinp: to Ilf'ofol"malist tl'rminolop:y. the ~pe("tator may justify a p:iwlI tl'xtllal 1>lt'lIlt'lIt ill tl'fllIS of f01l1" ("ah'p:orit's of lIIutil'utioIlS: n>levun('c in tl'I"IIIS of story IIl'l"c~,ity is (,()lIIpositiolllllmotivatioll: plau,ibility. a(,(,OI"duIII'/' with one's I"ont"t'ption of till' real world. is rl'lltisti(' motivatioll: n'l'op:llitioll of a typical way of pn'S('ntatiou snch a~ p:elln' 1"0nventi()lI~ is trllllste.1·tllalmotivatioll: aud artistic motivation ill turn justilies tilt' forq.(fOlludillp: of SOIllI' I"omponent of the work of art for its own sake (Bordwcl!. '\"llrratioll ill llll' Fiction Film. p. :3b). oS. Rinwur. Tillll' and .\"urmtire. p. h7. 69. Ricoeur. Thl' HILII' o/Metaphor. p. :N. 70. III the s('miulop:y of C. S. PI'inT. a ~igll is I>itlwr all imll (it rt'sl'lIIble~ tllf' objt'ct it refers to). all i,ull'.r (it has SOIlW killd of existt'lItial l'OIlIH,(,tioll with the oLje,·t: e.p: .. tht' photop:raphi,' imag,> has a photodwmical (,Ollllt,(·tioll with tlte obje('t). or a S,Hflbo/ (it refers 10 sOlllt,thing through ('stablished ("011\1'11tiou). The~t' ("ut"gories an' usulllly lIot cOllsidcred to 1)(' mutually exdu~iw (Peirct' was somewhat ambigllous 011 this point). but their n'leHIIl(,('. say. for the study of I'inema migln vary uI'nmiillg to tilt' poiIlt of view. III Peter Wollt'n' S opinioll ... It is this uwan'lI(,ss of owrlapping which 1'lIabll'. 1:!?

1·, _0. 1·!C).

all allthorial pn's('lw\' that pat(,l'IIali~ti('ally lIIalliflllla\l'~ the rqlr(,~t'lllalioft frolll abo\t' alld pn'"lIIlH" to illtl'l'prt'l it for u~·· (\\urclIs. Filll//llllkilll£ In the /lU(}k. p. ~(»). Agaill. why illtrusiv('. why allticillelllatic. and aho\\.' all. why alltireali~tic (a" \\urcu" also lahels it) ( Though the dl'vice dot's de\ ialt' from tllP 1II0st lIain' idt'ab of III'ort'ali~1I1 (or of what Bill :"IiidlOls has called obsl'rnlt iOllal 111(11 le of dOl'III11t'lItary film). i.e .. the id/'a of capturillg reah[~ ulllllI'diat('d hy all authorial ~IILj/·ct. tilt' liSt' of \oin'-on'r COIIIIIIl'ntar: .." such call hardl~ Iit' uec('pt('d a~ a nitt'l'ioll of rt'ali"lIl. \Iic·(·idl':. LII lam In'/llIl di LIlCliill(} I is('(mli. p. 'H. :\ow('II-SlIlith ~,'C'S thi~ i"~lI/' diff,'n'lltly. if Ilot ('xactly till' otht'l' \\ a\ arolllld. Ill' thillk,.; the "lyrical ('xaltatioll" dot'S \iol('IWt, 10 the .. dc ...·u11I('llIary" a"pt'Ch \"iM'ollti \\a" illitially aftt'r: "lli~ inilial ,,('ellarios ha\r all idc·ological darity awl purity abollt Iht'1II \\ hidl i" tht'1l "ystl'lIIaticall~ betrayed ill the lillal t'laboratioll" (lisc()lIti. p. --to). Thl' n'sulting hlmal'l' illdl"'d c·lahoraled ill 1'1'''1)('('1 of the origillal ,,('('Ilarios. but I do Ilul ".. t· thc·ir darity Iwillg bt,trayed C'X\'\'pl illa"mudl a" the process of dul,oratioll brillg" illto fon!:; thl' w,'akllt·",.;('''; of till' original cmwt'pt. I\eilh.. r do I ",'t· what :\owl'lI-SlIlitll "all" thc' "colH·t'JJllwl" (tlu' voice-over comIIH'lItary) alld riit' "PIII't'" (pictorio-lIll1,.;ic·al) .. It·IIU'lIb to h(' in all\' wa, ill cOlllli ... witll t'adl othl'/'. J"hagpou/'. I is(,(lIIti. p . .'):!. Zdlin·lli. Illlouiogmpliy. p. HH. J3nllli. Ihl\·id. "La forllllla nitica d .. 1 fillll" lall a'Tollllt of tht' tTitical 1'('('('ptioll of till' fillll lip to tht' \)(),,). Pllblisllt'd ill \Iiedd •.:. La /t'rru IrclI/(J (11 LI/(·hillo I is(,()lIli. p. 17: HOlldolillo. \"i,,·ollti. pp. ~ 19-:W. \"iscollli. "Sul lIIodo di II1t'1It'f(' ill ,,(,('IHI IIlIa cOlllt,dia di Shakt·"peun· ... llillllscitll. din'lIlhn' 1\)i3. parallel ('veIl without kllowill!! Of bl'iIl!! abl .. to follow tlw word" ~ht' i~ ~ill~illg; . .')2. Cavallaro (I'd.). SCNSU. p. 10'1. ;")3. Ibid .. p. 171. .')-t. Ishaghpour. I i"scullli. 1'. 7-t. bhaghl'ollr b I'Ullllill!! with tht' mt'allill~~ "color" alltl "f1a\or" in tlw Fn'lIch word ('ullll'lIf'. lit' ('\('11 go.. s so far a~ to claim that "LlIl'lIillO Ii'scuflli n'lIIaill" ill tht' Ili~torv of .-int'ma a" tilt' ('('{'ator of colour film: befofe thefe wel'l' ollly 'mlouft'd' lilllls" (p. 7;)) . .),,). Ca\"aUafo (I'd.). Senso. p. 121. .')h. \ajdt'''' Zdzi~law. "Jo""ph (;0111'1\(1' s Ihe ~t'tTt't .\gt>lIt or tht' l\\t·lodrallla of Reality." Prilltt'd in Ct'rottld ( •.• 1.) . .HdtJIlmlllll. p. 1110.

5:.lbid .. pp.l:;>-b. ;)8. Bl'rtnl'l. ,\IIJt'ft. "Where '1 .. lodrallla 'I('t·ts Fan·.· ... P ..illlt·d ill Ct'rould (t·d.). J/elodmlllli. p. 17 -t. ;")4. bha!!hpour. I i'sl'ullli. p. 7(J, 00. Dalle \"a.-dll'. ill ha Tht' /J()I(\' ill lilt' Jlif'rof'. dt·1Il01l~I ..atl's tI ... illflllt·llt·t· of tilt' /JIIIIII' I~/ (·lIslo::.a (l8':b-l)) alld .·tTtaill otl ..... pailltill!!s by (~iovalllli

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71. 7:!. 73.

7 .... 7':>.

Fallori 011 dll' way dlt' hal dp ~n>lII> ha~ heell sho\. Tilt> illt\uelll'e is nol I'lIrd~ visllal hilI ill\"olVt's also Ihe way people in dleir different tasks arc l'aptured ill tlw illlages (TIlt' JJl)(~I' ill Ihe Mirmr. pp. 103-12). Viscollti him"elf ha" t'xpre"sly d"lIied havillg copied the pailltillgs and suggt'sts that similarillt'~ arise frolll a l'01ll1ll01l pursuit of tfllth (Oouiol- \'alcrozt' 6: Domarehi. "[11' tr('lit'1I awe Luehillo \'isrollli," p, ... ), 11IIIuelll't' might takt' place ullinlt'lIIiOllally, of ,'ourse, \Iit'cil'ile also ml'utitllb several other "rd'crellccs" to pailllings by Francesl'o Hayez, SilH'~lro Lega. Tdelllaco Signorini (Luchill'-' I is(,(JIIli, p, 8 ... ), AI tinlt'~, \'ist'ollti 1ake~ the risk of hm illg 0I1t' of hi" characters adually "1)1'11 out the moral of the ~lOry: ':\IOlli', ""I'eel'h" {() the little girl at thc end uf La lerm 11'1'111((. Ciro'" self-justifinllioll al tlw (,lid of Ruc('u. don Fabriziu'", pOllderillgs in TIlt' Lcopard, awl ,,0 011. They art' usually sawd from appt>arilll! o\'('rtly dida,'li., oel'au"e the idt'a ha" b""n worked mll amI elaborated lIalTali\"t'h, in it \\'11\, Ihal is far ridlt'r tlWII tilt' "laU'lIIenb IIlt'lIlselves all.1 thus il "ern'" 10 ('olltextllalizt' Ihem - 1101 lIel't'ssarih ,,0 as 10 make thelll appear rt'ali~til' bill ralher hy prt'selllinl! Ihelll ju"t as threads ill a compln \\'t'" of lIIeallilll!'" A" poillwd oul (·arliel'. the roll' was already redul'ed befon' the film wa", r'·[bun·,t \'ist'tHlti has slalt·d: "I alwap pn·ft·r to Idl about (It·feats, to describe lilt' \ietillb, destilli,'s tTlIsllt'd hy ['t~alily" (illler\"i,'w with \'iseollli, ill \Iit'l'ichf, ;\Jurlt' a It'Ilt'zia. p. I:! ... ). Aristarl'o. illlt'['\'iew widl the author. Marl'us. Ilaliall Fillll ill Ihf' Li!{hl uj'.\eurt'alislIl. pp. 17:!-;{. Ma.-k SllIilh. Illl(r. pp. H-9, I;~- H. ILid .. pp. W-:!O, ;N-t:!. o1.r-7. Ibid .. pp. 5 .... 71-;~. Clark. :liodern /106'1.')7'1-11)..,2. pp. W. :!I): \la .. 1.: SlIIilh. Italy. pp. :!-t. KOl!all .. 1 Pu/ilimlllisluI)' ()f llu~r. pp. 1;P_I). Ihid .. p. J:U. Thib i~ a d,·batable i~~IIt'. COlllparill1! I il'll /'IllI/ill to earlier film" f"alurilll! Garibaldi. Jose Luis Cllarnier tllillk~ ,ha I Bo~"ellilli has demy~tili .. d hi~ figun' (Cllamier. Roberlo j{usst'lIi"i. p. !) I). Stirlilll! .. 1 .slTt''''' u/ Tilllt'. pp. lld-.... Bt'[lt'ivt'lIl1i. !,uchiIlU I iSClIllli. p. So: Slirlilll!.1 :)(.,.('('11 (d·hlllt'. 1'. Ill;). Stirlilll! .. 1 Scrf''''' o/Ti11l«'. pp. 170. 177. Pio Bald .. lli ha" crilicizt'd tilt' '"p)lo~ed r .. ali,,1I1 of the film Oil lit .. groun"~ Ihal \'i"COllli. a~ oppos,>" to LamIwdll~a. Ita~ 1101 takt'1I illto a'-COlllIl tilt' "habl.ill .. ss of Ihe Sit'iliall pro\'indal ari"IOtTa,'y (Balddli. 1,lU'ltillu liscullli. p. :!:!I)). S,·nadio. l,u('hiIlO I iscullli. p. I7H. Vlloled ill Hohdi ... "Tlw :\lIglo-Saxon B"SI'"lht' III /I !{lIl/uplln/u." PuLli,hed as ,," gilldizzio dt·lla critica anglo"as","I!'." ill \Iicchidlf. /I f!al/upardu, p. ~ I H. l'lIfort IIl1alt'ly. tlli" pit"'" uf sdlOlar,hip dedical .. d (0 Ihis single film did not app,~ar ulltil aft"r I had l',J11lpl .. h·d lily mallll"ITipt. Theft·fort> I was unable to makt' full u"e of il. apart 1'1'0111 Bohdi,::; artid ... Ih .. ElIl!lish \1'['SiOIl of whi,'1t I happt'[wd to recei\'e ill . 2::1. \Iedioli. illtl'rvit'w with tilt' aUlhur. Collaboralioll IWIWI"'1l ,('veral

~tTC'I'II­

writ('r~.

29. :Hl. :~ 1.

:t!.

:~:~. :~i.

:ti. :~().

wilh 11101"(' or I.·~~ all of tllt'lII ..... ·dill'd. i~ a fairly .·0111111011 pra .. lin· ill haly. wllt'r('as ill Ilollywood for ,·.\alllpl ... tllt'rt· i~ a It'II(I''lIe~ to en·dit ollly '1I1t.· or IWO ~""""II\\Til"r, al till' 1II0~t. irn·'I,,·elivt· of tilt' IHIIIl"t'r of .. ollahorators ..\ceordill~ to (:n·.·hi n· :\III ieo. il do.·s 1101 ilia"' ... if Ollt· of till' wrill'r, has cOlllrillllled 1II0n' Ihall tilt' OIht'rs. for wilhin till' illduolry ~lIt'h thillg' an' fairly ..0111111011 k lIowl.·d~l'. :\ristar.. o ~ Carallcilli. Hocco t'I i SIluiji·u/l'l/i. p. i;). SI't'. e.~ .. Ce ... ·hi 1)";\lIIi.. o. iIlH·n·it'w wilh Ihl' pn'~"1I1 aUlhur. Ori/!illally. Ciro wa, 10 haw had alllu .. h hig:,!!'r role. As a lradc' ulliolli,t. Iit' wOllld havt' r"ltrt·"·Iil.·d a ,oeialisl vil'w alld a I""il in' das, 1'01l~.·ioIlSIIt'SS. At SOIll(, ~Iag.· of writ ill).! tilt' "Tipt. il \\·a~ plallllt'd thal Iit' would h"cI/III(' all t'lItn·pn·lIt·ur alld sIart trallsportill~ oli,·.· oil frulll LunUlia 10 \liIall (Ari.,tarco ~ Ca nll ... ilIi. Hocco 1'1 i slIoi ji"tlle/li. p. ill: .\ow .. Il-SIlIilh. LII('ltilll/ liscullli. p. I(H: illlt'rvil'w wilh \"i".·Ollli ill '-;c/lI'r11li. 1)""(,IIII)('r 2tl. ) tillle was I'elbored iu Russia. Blit wherea~ Tihon. to wholll Stavrogiu I'ouft'sse" his ("riult'. n'prt'seuh at I,'ast ~onlt' kind of possibility of salvation . .\scht'nbach . with whom \Iartiu dist'lI~se" tht' t'ons!"IIlt'Ilt't'" of the dt'ath of the little girl. leads his \it'tiIII into a frt'e fall iuto the hell of ;\azi atrtJt'ities. :!:t Tht' way they have beeu ~hot. with SOp hie staring ahead and UnIl'kIllan lifeless ou the coul'h. corresponds to a dt'"cription of Eva Bralln ant! Ilitlt'r after they had wlIIlllitted "lIicide aftt'r their wedding (S,·hifarlO. I is("(mli. p. i07: TOlletti. Lucitillo li·scullli. p. U"7). :.!i. Lllkucs. Tit/' JIi.~loriCllI .\(}I'd pp. lOb-"7. :.!5. \lic('icIll;. for t'xample, writes: "the \azi sett in/!. ratilt'r thaIl detl'f1niniIlg the dimate of the family disiIltegration Ll('("()Ill(,~ a proi,'ction of it: all iIl all. rather than proposiIlg a historicizatioll of psychology it proposes a p~)Thol­ ogization of history" (\Iicl"i('he. "Visl'oIlti t' le sut' ragioni.·' puhlisllt'd iIl \Ii('ei('hf. priIltt'd bcript of Jforle 11 f i'lIe:;iu. ". 5i). :.!h. \"iscoIlti', original intention had IlI't'Il to liS" \Iahl,'r. .Ial"!"!' wa" forced OIl \'is(,OIlti by the produ!·er:;. aIld he was IlOt very happy abollt it: "Uruckmilnn tht' [,,,enbel'ks and .\"'henilach haw llothing to dn with [Doctor) Zhinlgo:' hI' said to Franco \Iallnino. "and .lane',; music pnw"t'ds t'xdllsivdy on thos,' line~." \Iannino. I i"scollli e /a fIIusic(J. 1'. i:l. :!7. IIa1lnll Salllli ha~ poilltl'd Ollt that oW' of the ways iIl which a film is ('odl'd to Iit' hi,toril'al i, through tht, liSt' of lOll/! ,hoh that n'n'al "id" laIld,,·alll".

\(111'

2H.

29.

:W. :~

I.

:12. :i:i.

:3-t. :3S. :ib.

:P. :18.

:N. -to. -t 1. -t2.

11l1!!" ~"t~. "r lIIa~~,'~ of p""l'le - tilt' Ilt'rot'~. the hi~tori,'al actur,. are tI..-n pick,'" out ill clo~e-lIp~ (Sahlli. Hokumja his/oria. pp. 225-h). It is lI()tahl~ that ill The l)wlIIlI'(/ Yis('onti ha, 10 a ~n'at exlt'1I1 relin4ui~hcd ~udl ~I>t".·­ la(,lIlar d"IIIt'lIb. C('org" Slt'ilwr ha" addre,,,,,d thi~ qllt,~tioll ill the t('lcvisioll program "\\ilh Care alld D,'sp,'ration" (produced hy :\OS-llolland): "What happens is tllI~: The cry of I\:illg LeaI' becolll"" louder alld lIlon' real allllmlll'(' importalll tllall till' cry ill the sln','t. If your hraill. your lIer\"ous ~ysteIll. your imagination. your ~ell"ibility. your prof"",iollal skills art' (,ompletely alld deeply in\"l'~tt'd ill tilt' gn'at art~ of the illlagillatioll alld ill ahstrw,t thought. "peculatioll. ill"tead of Lwt'ollling IlIon' hUlllllll. youlllay. uIII""s you an' terribly carrful. h.. COIIIl' le,,, hUlllall .... l'III"s, w,' filld a wa\" to traill tilt' heart -I dOIl't kilO'" how eis,' to put thi~ - to hUlIlanize the Iwart also. we lIlay han' this paradox of Hry hi!!h ci\"ilizatioll. which is feedillg illside itself th,' hUllger for barhari"llI 011 the Oil" halld awl the illtliff,,)"t'IIt'e to barbarislII 011 the other. So 11)('gall tryillg to ullder"tand how a lIlall who tortured ill a (;"stapo cellar ill till' aftenlOoll or 1lt'II't'd 10 filii :\u"dlwitz or BetsI'll. .:ane· and PsydlUanaly~is'-' p. ;33. (:ecchi I)" .-\mico. inlerview with Ihe author: Stirling_ .1 Scrt't'lI u/ Tilllt', pp. I Jo-7. Stirlin!!_ .1 Sat'!'1I 0/ Tillle. p. U-+. Ihid .. pp. I :2:3_ US. B.'nl"ivt'J1ni. LW'hill/) iis("(Jflti. 1'. -+ I. The l't'rfonnallCt' is Iwant lJt'ginlling fronl HosiJla' ~ lillt': .. :\ow Ii~Ien. huw collld I !!,'I a IIlt's~a!!e throll!!h 10 Lindoro'-' .-\ slight hllrsI of lallghler at Ihe eml of tilt' (filmic) ,.·,'ne indinl1t'~ thal Hosilla ha~ taken Ollt th .. leH!'r sht' has wrill,'n. The line '1lIotl'd ill thl.' non,lIa occllr~ jllst befort' thi:;. :\ow,'II-Smith. LIIChillo I iscollti. p. 1:!7. It is illlt,ft'~ling to comparl' \" i"conlj' ~ interpretalion to Brl.'s"on· s adaplation of tilt' If hite .Yights. (hwtre fluits du 1111 rt'I'!'lIIlr (1 (71) is placed in modem Pari" and ih "Iyit- i" plain and ~lI!!!-(l'~IiH'. Till' I!irl. nalll!'d :\larlhe. i:; y"iel and ~tahlt· in l'olllpari"on with :\atalia. Thl' "llIaJIII'"'''' of I\('r lovl' lies in hl'r stubbortlllt',,, ralhl'r Ihall in rumanti,' illu~ions. \'i' hen ~hl' rl'encounters the tt'nant and forsake, Jat'ljues. the effl't't. in ils .'n-rydaYIH'''s. i~ It,,;s poignant than in \" i"cont i' ~ version. Jat'yw':; b nlOre willlllrawn aJl(llllore of a drealll!'r Ihan \!ario. III Bres~oll- ~ film. fe('linl! I'mergl's throll!!h an extraordinarily lacitunl and IhllS super/Jly ~en:;itiw slyll' of actin!!_ It I('an-" a lot of scope for Iht' 'p.-clator to a"sI'S, till' ,illlaliun and to project hi:; or her own feelings iIllo it. \\'hil" \ist'olili tak,'s hold of Do~tlJyl'v~ky' s ~tory by fantastic :;tylization_ Brt's~OII dOI'~ ,,0 Ihrollgh restraint. Canllb. nit' Strwlw'r. p. 9(). Ihid .. pp. S2-:~. Ihid .. pp. :.)-tl. III till' ft'al Fn'lwh :\I!!l'ria. il b ulllik,'ly thal a Europ"an would han' 111'1'11 ~t'lItt'lw,'d \0 dealh for killill!! all Arah. particularly a" il I'ollld han' IW"II .'xpJailll'd a wa y a, ".-If-,lt-f.'lbt'. (\It-Carthy. Calli 11 s. 1" \()o: Thody . .. l/b!'rt C(lIIIIIS. p. -+ 1). (;alllu,;_ The ...,·trangt'/'. p. J:>-+. \It-CartlIY. ("WUIlS. p. :0: Thody_ .tllwrt CII III liS .. PII. W-J<J. The opiniolls "xpn's~l'd aft'. rt'sl't,,·ti\l'ly. from lA' Fiw,ru IJillhnire . .Il1ly 17. 19-+:2; .\"UII1'1'111' /let'IIt' Fnll/("lIisl'. (ktol ..... 11)-+:2: alld IJ '\n-lw 19-+-+. I>.:l'de. Frellch Ldstl'lltialist Fictiun. I'p. :~:2. 78.

-+S. I, ·tsjJrl'ssIJ. '\oVt'lIllwr 7. JI)():i. Houlc-Renoir. \larillt'lIe Catiix COSIIIIIII'S:

LUl'hino \'isl'omi

,\lusie: Jost'ph 1\:0sIIIa Prudllctiofl ('OTllPUflY: PalldlC;lHl PruciuCI'r: Pierre Braunlwrg Actors: Syh-ia Batailll' (I klll'il'lIe). CI'orges Sailll-Sai'lIs [C,'or/.(I':; Darnollx

1

(lIf'nri). Jal'yuI's Boft,l [JanJllt's B. Bfllllius 1(Rodolpllt'). JealllW \larkl'lI ('Iadalll(, Dllfllur). CaLriello (\Ionsil'ur Oufour). Paul Telllps (:\lIalole) First Pt'TjiJrTIIlllu'l': Francl'. \lay H. II)'H) Leflglh: I.:.!:t! III IJuratiofl: -to lIlin lA TOSC,J IJirl'ctor: ].-all Helloir. (:arl h:ol'il ().lwhiIlO \'i"t'ollti) SO/lrn': \'il'turien Sanlou' s pia\'.

fAI

Tu,w'u

IlL \1 () C H _\ I' 11 \

:';;cripl: .Jeall Ht'lloir, Carl Kot'h, LuchiIlo \'i,;eollli IJire('/ur u/Phllto!4nt/J/iy: l'baldo Arala Edilur: Cillo 8ft'loll\' ,HIlSic: CiHl'UIIIO Puct'illi: Adaplalioll: l'lIIlwrto ~lalldIli Per.1ill'lllI'l's: \Iafalda Fan'rn, Ft'lTllccio Ta;..:li,-illi Productiun ('lIfllpllny: Scall'ra Fillll :lelors: IlIIpt'rio :\r/!t'llliIla (To,;ca), \lidlt'l Sillltlll (Snll'pia), Ro,;saIlo Braai

(Ca ,aratiozzi), Carla Calldilli, J lIaIl Caivo,\driallo Hillloldi. :\icholas Pt'rchit'ol Firsl Pl'rjimnllfll'I': Pari~, ,\II;":II~l :W, IIH:!

Direclor; LllchiIlo ri~('tJIIli .hsistllflf lJireclors: Cill~t'ppt' Dt' Santis. :\IItoIlio Pit'tralll!eii JaJllt'~

.'lUll rcI':

Script:

L.

\1. (:aill',; IIme!. The Poslnl/lfI A/II'(I,I'S ilifl!4s TlI'ice

ri~('OIlli,

\Iario :\lieala,

C;ill~t'Plw

De Salllis, Gialllli Pllt't'illi

lJirec/or (~( P/wl0!4,.,lph.I': Aldo TOllli. Domt'lIico Scala D/ilor: \Iario St'ralldrd S('('nt'f~ ':

Lillo h'illlzi

C()slllflllis: \Iaria Dt' \Iallt'i~ J/(lkellp~

.\lIwrlo Dt' Ro~~i

J/llsic: Cillseppt'Rosali PI'rj'onnprs: Ft'l'Ilalldo Previlali. bar' ~ SymphollY OJ't'he~lra Prodll('(ion C()fllp(lny: IIItllI~lri{' Cillt'uHiwgraliclil' ltaliallt' (ICl) Producer: LilJt'w Sularoli -I('(ors: {:Iara (:alalllai (CiO\lIllIla Bra;..:ana). \Iassilllo (;irolli (Lino ( :osta). Juan

De La1111a (CillSt'PIIt' Bral!ana), Dhia Crisliani (Allila). Elio \Iart'u~o (LoSpagIllltllo). r i llorio Du,,(' (pia indol hes polit'emall). Midlt'll' HiccartliIli (don ReIII i;..: 0 )~ \lidlt'lt, Sahara, Firsl PerjiJrrtIIlfU'I': Ft-rrara. ltal~. \lay 1,?, Il)i:j Lenglh: ':~,I):!:3 Dum/iun:

III

t:G lIIill (I:!i lIIill)

(;IOII..YI [)J GLOmI (IH \'S OF GLOHY) If'elmica/ ('lIun/irmliuu: \lario Serant.in'i, Ciusl'Plw

De

SilIIli~

Directors: \lan't'lIo Pa;..:lil'\'O (Fo,,,e .\rt.it'aliIle). LlIt'hillo ri,collli (Ihe IYIIchin;..:

of earn-tla alltl tilt' trial alltl (-XI'ClltiOIl of Caruso) l'llIiwrlo (:alo,so, l'miwrto Bad.ar". ('ofllfllenl(//~': l'lIllwrto (:alo~~o IJirec/or (~/P//()I()~TI/phy: Dt'lIa ralll'. Of' \\'(', .. Di Yt'lHtlIZ" . .Iallllan'lIi, La,lri('ofllff/eflt(/f~' 1'1',1'/:

FII.\\(H.H.\PII ,

cati, ;\lavaI'm. Pllcci. Heed. Terz1.I1I0. Yelltillli/!li1.l. \\t>rdit'J". Yittoriallo. \11.I1IIio. {:aloz allo the tedlllicalpt'rsolllwl of tht, !\lilall CL:\" I,'ditor: 'tario St'J'alldrei. (:a.-lo Allwr\o (:hil'sa Music: Costalltillo FelTi Production ('ompany: TitallllS Producer: Fllhio Hieci First Pt'fi0rtl/w/ce: Italy. (kto!!t'r 19-t,) I,ength: l.1J;)() III

LA. TEHll.t TII1--]IA. / THE EARTH TREMBLES 1Jirt'ctur: LIIChillo Y i~collti Assistant /Jirectors: Frall(,l'~('O RIl~i. Frallt'o Zl'ffirelli Suurce: Ciovalllli rl'rl!a'~ IImt'!. I,HIl/lIl'ogli(l Script: LIIChillo \" is('olll i Commentary Ti:'.J:t: Luchillo Yi~collti. Alltollio Pit,tl'aIl;!..Ji ('ommt'lIlary: \lario PislI /Jirt'clor of P/wtownpliy: c. H. Aldo [.\Ido Craziati] Editor: \Iario St'ralldrei Coordinatiun (d'J/u.~il': Luchillo Y is('Ollt i. \\. ill~ Ft'ITI'rO Production (·ompan.,·: l'llin'rsalia Producer: Salvo D' AIl/!elo Acturs: Thl' Iwol'le of A('i T n'zza First Pt'fiOrtlUlIICt': reil in' Ft"tint!. Italy. SI'ptl'lIliH'r l. 19-tB Lt'n{!lh: -t.5:2:~ III /Juration: 10 mill

/Jirt'ctur: LuchillO Yis("(lIlti .4ssisl(/lIl/Jirt'clors: FralH'l'sco Ho~i. Frallco Z.'ffirdli Script: SII~O Ce('chi D'Amit'o. Fralln'~co Hosi. Llldlillo ri~collli /Jin'ctor o/P/lOlogmphy: Pi.'ro POrlalllppi. Palll HOllald Editur: \lario Seralldrl'i SceTlery Cialllli Polidori ('oslumt's: Piero Tosi J/akeup: Alberto De Hos,i Music: Frallco \Iallllillo 011 till' tlWIIl(''; of I, 'LIisir d~4f11()r(' bv Caetano DOlliz('1I i PI'rformers: Frallco Ferrara alld till' SymphollY Ordwstra of tilt' HOI/I(' Opera Ilou~l' IOgt,thl'r with tlH' ordll',tra alld choir of HAI Producti()TI CompaTlY: Film Bt'!lis~illla Product'r: Saho LY AII;!t'lo .-telors: :\lIlIa \la;!lIalli (\Iaddalella (:t>t·('Olli). \\·altt'r(:hi1.lri (.\lIwrto.\llllonlzzi).

:2 .) ()

Ft L \\ () CH.\ P 11 \

Tilla Al'icdla (\Iaria Cl'ccolli). :\It>s~andro Hla~I'lIi (a~ himself). (;a~lOlIl' H.'n· zl'lIi (Spartaco Ct'CI'uni). Tee/a Scarallo (actiug teacher), Lola Bracl'i.lli .tilt' wife of the photographer) ..\rturo Bragaglia (photographer). Lillda Sini (\bm· IIl1'tta). \'ittorio Clori (as hilll~elf), Iris (Liliana \Ianicini). GI'O TapllCelli la" himself). \Iario Chiari (as himself). Filipl'o \It>n'ati (a,; him,;eJf). :\ora lUn·l. Vittorio Bell\('lIuti. Ciu~l'lla \Iollaldi. ;\malia Pellegrilli. Teresa Battagli. Ludana Hicd, Ciusepl'illH Arena First PerfOl'lIlIl1//'I': Italy. Dt'ct'mber 28. 1931 Lellgth: :3.1 ():! III Dumtioll: II;{ mill DO('l .tIE \TO .tIE,\SILE .V. 2. APPt·.H1 .'It . I :V Ft TTU DJ ('/IO.\:.4C4 (1\IO!\TIILY REPOHT I\.~, :\OTES 0:\ ..\ ;'totjEWS ITE1\I)

Director: LIIt·hiuo \'i~collli ('omflU'lltwy: \'a~ ..o Prawlini Produc!'r: \ial'l'o Fl'rn-ri. Hiccardo Chiollt> First Pe,fum,wu'l': Itak 1951 .'iIAJJ() Do.\~\·E ! WE TilE W01\lEI\,

t'p. "\Nl\A 1\I..\G1\..\1\I Distrihuted in the LTnitl'd Statt-S as all additioll to the lilm (jul'sta Lift- ami Low Dirl'ctor: Luchillo \'iscollti Assistaflt Directur: Frallco !\last'lIi Script: Su~o (:t'c('hi IL\mico. Cl'sare Zavattilli Directur (!f Phutogmphy: Gahor Pogany Editor: \Jario St>randn-i Music: :\1l'S~alldro (~icogllini Productioll ('UfllPllflY: Titanus Producer: .\Ifr.. do CUHrilli Actors: :\IIIW \Iagnani (a~ ht'rsl'lf) First Pl'rjom/(IfICt>: Italy. Octoi)!'r }cilia. Lucrt>tia \\'I'sl (colltralto) Pruduction Company: Alfa CilwllIatogralinl. ROlllt' / Produt'tion Editions Cinematographi'lut>s Frall('aj,(,s. Paris Pmc/llc('/': \Iario Callo .lctors: Dirk BogarJe (Custav \011 :\"d\('lIoa('h). Romolo \' alii (llIanaW'r of tl1(' hotd). :\ora Ricci (Tadzio'~ govel'llt'ss). Bjiil'll Antlers('1I (Tadzio). Silvalla Mallgallo (Tadzio's 1I10thl'r). 'lark Bul'lls (.\lfrl'd). \Iarisa Ikn'nsoll (.\sdl('nbach's wif(')' Carolt· AIIJrr (Et-1I1t·rt'lda). L('~lie Frt'nch (derk of the trawl agl'lIcy). St'f/.!io Carfaglloli (Ja~t"ill). Ciro Cristofolt·tti (dl'rk at tll(' hotd). '\11IOllio .\pin·lIa (tramp). RrllllO Rosct'tti (dt'rk of tilt· railway station). Fnuwo Faorizi (barlwr). Luigi Rallaglia (old mall 011 tile hoat). DomillilJul' Darn·1 (tht' ElIglish tourisl). 'lirella Pompili (customer al tht' ooartiillghousl'). '\Ia"ha Per.lit (a Russian lourist) First Perj'orlllw/cf': Londoll. l·. K.. \Iart'h 1. Iq? 1 L{'T/glh: :U)88 m /Jum/iofl: 1:35 mill

IIVWIG /)in'('lor: I.uchillo \'iscollti :tssistuflt IJirectur: Albino Cot't'i ....·('('ipt: Enrico \It>dioli. Lllcllillo \' i~(,ollt i: (:ollaborator: :-iu,"o (:(·t·dti I)' AlIIit'o /)irf'ctor u/Plwtu!{mphy: ArlllalHlo :\allllllzzi Editur: Buggero \Iastroialllli Scellt"~': \tario Chiari. '\Iario St'i"t"i Costumes: PiI'm Tosi: Collaborator,,: Cahrida Pl'~nlt't"i. '\tarill Farlt'lIi ,1I(lkt'llp: .\Iberto D" Hossi J/usic: Rol>!'rt SdlUlllalll1. Richal'd \\'agnn ..hlt'qllt'" Offt'lIhadl PI'I/imllers: Franco :\Iannillo and tI\(' ()rdlt'~t ra of tilt' At'adt'IIIY of Sallta (:t't'ilia: Piallo ~olo: Frant'o "allIlillo Pruductioll ('OIl/f)(lIlY: !\11'~a Fillll. BUlIlt' / (:illt:lel. Pari" / Dietl'r (;t'i~~It'r Fillllproduction. Di\illa-FiIJII. \liillt'llI'll .-leturs: Ilt·hllllt Bt'r!!t'r (1.1111\\ i!!). Trnor Ilowanl (Bidtard \\a!!lwr). Sihalla !\lan!!allo ( :osillla \011 Biilow). Cnl Frul ... (Falllt'r Ilofflllall). I Id 111 11 I Crit'llI

0) -

u

F 1 L'\I () C IU I' 11 \

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(Diirkht'im). lsalwlla T(-Iellzynsleill (lilt' ()Ut'('1I \lolher), l'mllt'rto Or~illi (Couut \"011 IloIIISIt'ill). Jolm \Ioulder BrowII (Prillct' (110), Souia PelfO\'I1U (Sophie). Folker BoluH't (Joseph ~aillZ), Ileiuz ~loog (Professor Gudden) .. \driana ASli (Lib \"011 Buliowski). :\Iarc Pore! (Richard Homig). ~ora Ricl'i (Collllle~s Ida Ft-n-nczy). \Iark BUflls (Ilans von Biilow), Maurizio Bonuglia (\Iayer). Homy Schneider (Elizaot'lit of Allt>lria). Alexander A1lersou. Ben Bloch. \Iallrret! Ftm;1. ~1II'1 Cros,kurl. :\ulla \Iaria Ilallsdtek. Cerhanl Hefler. .Ian Liuharl. earla \laucini. GefllOf \lohuer. C1ara \loustawcesky. Alain :\aya. :\lessantiro p(-....('lIa. ~arl Ilt'illz Peters. Wolfram Schat-rf. Hennig Schliiter. I klmut Stl'fll. E\"a Tavazzi. Louise Viucent. CUIlnar Warner. Karl Heillz WilHlllOr,,1. Rayka Y urit First Pe/jimllllflce: SOllll. Fednal HepuLlic of Cermany. Jauuary W. 1973 Lellf.ilh: 5.1?() m /Juratiun: :!-t.) mill WICPPU /)J n.lIl{;L1A I.V I

~V 1.\"1'1:-11.\0

I COl\V[HSATI()l'j

PIECE /)irl'rlur: Luchino Vit>l'onti /)irl'c/or: ;\ILino Cocci Source: Ellrio-o ~II-dioli' S origillal idt-a "';crip!: Suso Ce('Citi O' .\mico. Euril'o \ledioli. Luchillo VisculIli Director o/Plw!of{raphy: Pastlualc De Santis Editor: Ruggl'ro \lastroiallni: Collaborators: Lea \lazzot".-ili. .-\lfl"t'tlo \lellchilli Scene/y: \Iario Carbuglia Costumes: Vt-ra \larzot: Silvalla \lallgallo's costunws: Piertl Tosi :l1akl'llp: .\\I)('rto Ot- Hossi. Eligio Trani Jlusic: Franco \Iunllillo; alw Wolfgang Amadt-us \lozarl. "Vorn-i spit'garvi, 0 Diu!" allt! Sinfonia COllcertallle. E Flat \lajof. 2d \loHulelll Pe/jormers: Fralwo 'lanJliuo; \lozarl exlra('b: Emilia Havaglia (soprauo). Prahall (:hamlwr Ort'hl'~1 ra. JosefSuk (\"iolill). Josei' Kodout>ek (viola) Productioll ('(Jf1Il)(III.\~ Hu~coni Film. ROIllI'I GaumOlIl Inlefllational. Paris Producer: Cio\"allJli Bt-rtolu("t'i ,·ktl)f·s: Bur. Launt~ter (profe~sllr). Sil\"Hna \lallgallll (Bial\('a BruIIIolll), I kllllut Serger (~"nrad). C1audia \larsaui (Li(·tta). Stt'fallo Patrizi (Stefallu). Elvira Cortest- (Enninia). Philil'pt- lierst'nl. Luy Trejan . ./t-all-PieITe Zola. 1'1lI1wrto Haho. Ellzo Fienllont,-. ROlllolo \'alli (lawyer). Ct-urge Clatot. \'alelllino \lac('hi. Vittorio Falltolli. Lon-Ilz Pialli. \largherita Hurowitz First Pt'/jiJl"lll(/IICt': D(-"t'llIlwr 1O. 1()?-+ Lellf{th: :l.:l;{() III Durati()n: 1:!() mill .Is.~istant

L n:VOCI:.ATt' / THE INNOCENT / THEINTRUIlER

Direl'/or: Luehillo \'i~conli Assislallt LJirectors: Albillo Cocci, Cior~io Tn'H'~ Sourre: Cabrit'lt' D' :\lIl1tlllzio\ lIon'l. t'illlloCt'lIte ScniJI: Suso Ct'c('hi I)' Amico, Enrico \It-dioli, Lucliillo \' iSCOlI1 i Dirf'ctur of Photo!!raph.\~ Pasyualt' Dt' Sallti~ DJitor: Hug~t'ro \Ia~troialllli: .\';sislallls: Lt'a \lazZIll'chi. Alfredo \It'lwiIilli SCt'"e/~': Mario Carhllglia Costumf's: Pit'ro To"i Mllkf'up: Coff'rt'do Rocdll'tti, Cilbl'rlo Pro\'t'lIghi, Llligi Esposito Musir: Franco \Iannino: Frl'dl'ric Chupin: "Bern'lIst'" alld "\"alzt''': \volfgall~ Amadt'us \lozaI1:"Turkish \Iardl": Frans Liszl: "Ciochi d'acqua a \'illa trEstt''': Chrisloph WiIIiliald \'011 Cluck: "UIl' farl) st'lIza Euridict''' from (hji'o I'd Eilridicf' Pe/j'urmers: F ralll'O \lal1l1illo and tilt' Orcht'sl ra of tilt' Academy of Santa (:t'l'ilia: piano accompanilllt'lIt and solos: Franco \Iullnino. Bt'llt'detta Pt,,·hioli (soprano) Pmductioll ('ompaIlY: Rizzoli Film. Homt'/l.e,., Film" .lac'lut'~ l.t'ilit'IIIIt', Paris / Societe Imp. Ex. Ci" \icl' / Franl'llriz Productioll. Paris Pmducf'/~ Cioyalllli Bt'rt.olllcd Artors: Giallcario Ciallllilli (Tullio IIt'rmil). Laura :\lItollt'lIi (;iulialla). kllllift'r O'\t'ill (Tert'sa Raffo). Rilla \lort'lIi (Tullio·,., motllt'r), \lassimo Cirotti ( :OUIII SIt'fano Egallo). Ditlier Haudt'pill (Ft'deril'O IIt'flllil). '1urit' Dllhois (prillt·t'",s). HllbeI1a Paladini (\lrs. Ehirt'tta). Uaud,' \Iallll (Prill('t,). \Iar(' Pon,l (Filippo IL\rborio): Philippt' IIl'rst'lIl. E!vira Corle"t', Siria Bt,tti, Ellzo 1\1u~'''1I''l'i Crel'l), Alessandra (:onsorti. Filippo Pt'n'~o, \largllt'rila Ilo/'OwilZ, Ricl'Urdo Sattu First Pl'lji)m/w/('(': (:alllll's Film F,',.,linll. FralH't', 'lay I.'), lInt> LI'II~IIt: ;3.:')iJ III /)umlioll: 1~H) JIIill

Stage Produetiol's

For fuller (Tedib. "'1' Calt'rilla If :\mico dt· (:analho (ed.) IIlIIiu It'alro - LIlChillu 1iscullli. or HOlldolillu. 1i.w·ullli

TIIE:\TEH ('lIritIIIllOlldw/(l. Ciallllino .\lIlona Tra\,t'J'''o IJirt'c/or:

H. (:alt', and H. SilllOlIi

St'/s (If/(I ('US/IlIIII'S: LIWhillo Yi"t'ollli Tilllt'

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11 dolCl'

PiaCl': s la ChillI' /4jier Ihe Fall. Arthllr \Iiller lJireclur: LlIChillo \'i~(,ouli Tillll' and Place: Paris. Th.;all't' dll (;\I1II11IS.·. 19():) I giardinu (!t'i ciliegi / I i.~IIt·;I:lj Sad, :\U\OII (:I1t'khov Dirl'c/or: Ludliuo \'iSl'Ollli Sels al/d Coslullles: LlIchiuo \·i~couli. Fndillautio ~t'arliOl\i Tillle and Plan': HUllH'. Tt'alm Vallt'. 11)();j L'glllol/I, Johanll "'olfgallg \OU Cot'lhl' J)ireclur: LlIChillo \'isconli Tillle m/(! Place: Flnn'w',', iuuer ('ollrl vanl of Palazzo Pill i. IlJb? La IIIOl/w'a cli IIIUIl=.a. Cio\"allui Tt'~lori /)irec/or: LlIchiuo ViSCOll1 i Tillll' alld Place: Cesaua. Tt'al .... BOII"i, ICJ(); (tir~1 I't'rfol'Jll- cOlllplf·!t·d by anllt/wr diret'tor. Ihl' ~cript might 1101 havf' been the O/lt· reft'rn~d 10 herr. \Iaiu "ourct': Roudolillo. I i,R'Ollti. L 'wllaflle di W'allliWIII (Gram(U:fUl S Lo/'er. I. 1992. Dt·aglio. Enrico "Ritorno ad Acitn'zza - Luchino e le sorelIe." La Stampa. Septeml.)t'r 1. 1990. Deleuze. Gilles ('if/ema:! - The Time lfT/af{/'. Trallslated by Hugh TOIllIiIlSOIl allll RoLt'rt Caleta. Londoll: Athlolle Pres". 19H9. De Santis, Ciu!>t'ppt' "Vi"conti's Interpretation of Caill's Setting ill ()s,~essiune'" Translated by I.ueialla Bohllc. Film ('ri/icism, "(11. IX. 110. 3 (Spring

19H5). DOlliol- "alt-ruzc & Domarchi. JI'all "Emrt'tit'n avec LIIChillo Visconti:' Cahiers du Cifll'ma, nu. 9:l (\Iarch 1(57). pp. 1-10. Durgllant. RaYllIOlld Jean Relluir. Berkeley: l'niwrsity of California Press,

197i. Edgerton. Gary R. (I'd.) Film aT/d Ihe :lrts ift .~\'fl/biusis - .4 Resuurce Guide. :\ew York: Greeuwood Press, 1988. EHis ..lolUl "The Literary Adaptation - An Introductioll." Screefl. vol. 23. UO. 1 (~Iay/Julle 1(82). pp. :3-5. Enckell. Mikat'1 .. 'Citizen Kane' alld Psydloanalysis" - Film alltl Psychoanalysis (Ill). The SC(Jf/(lillociaft Psyl'iw(lfla(}'lic Rel'iell'. vul. 8. no. 1 (1985). pp. 17-~H. Eko oc//(llerskeft. Ekt'nas: Sijderstrillll & C: o. 1979. Spe[!elskrift. Ekt'nas: Sodt'rstrolll & C: o. 198i Cllaruier. ,Ios~ Luis Rolwrlo /lossellilli. Tran,;laled by Elisabeth Call1l'rlln. :\ew York: Praeger. 1970. Ilay. Janws The Passillg oItl/(' /lex - Poplllar Film Cllllure ift 11(/(\' ift Ihe Fascisl tra. BloolllillgWII: IlIdialla l;niversilY Press. 1987. I~haghpollr. You"sef I i'scollli - Le seflS 1'1 riff/age. Paris: Ediliolls de la differellet'. 198i. Kinder. Marsha 'The Subwrsive Potelllial of the Pseudo-Iteratin'." Film Quur/er(r. \'01. i:t 110. 2 (Willter 1989-40). pp. ~1-16. Lialldral-Cuigue,. :-lUZalllle Le,~ Im(l[!t~s dll tefllps darts Vaghe SIdle dl'IrOn;a de l,ucltiflU Ils('uflli. Pari,: I"' . Wieht'. Rogt'f E. "Of Art and Deatit: Film and Fiction V('r~iolls of Ut'llth ill I enice." Litt'ratllrelFilfII (jwlrt"r(L vol. 1h. no. :J (1988). pp. ~ 10-1 S. Williallls. Christoplwr (ed.) He(lli.~ffl and the Cint'ftlll. LOllllolI: ROlltlt'dW' & Kt'gan Paul. 1980. "·indder. Robt·rt Burt Lancuster. LOJl(\oll: (:Olllt·1. 18-+. "·ollell. Pt'h'r Signs am/.Ht'w/ing ifl the (·illema. I ,olldoll: St'ckt'r awl Warburl!. ill a;;~ociation with Briti"it Film III~titute. ( 1t)61/ice and Other Stories. London: A Landmark Edition. 198;3 (1'>71) 1 B.uloglio. Piel ro. ;32

Balazs. B~la. 1'1 ... 217 Balddli. Pio. :15. 2321173. 2".Jn .. 7 hall.·!. .')1 .... 2. H2 Balzat·. Hontlrr .1.-. 102. 179. 191 .... 2.20'1 BarhareUi. (;ior/-.';o (!,s{,lId. Ciurgiune). 110 Barbaro. l·mberto. 11,5:1 Barber uf Se/·ille, The. 200 Ba,sani. Giorgiu. h+-;'). 8 .. Buul.. "fCllslo;:u. 2:i2noO Ballleship Polelllikill. 227nl 05 Balldclaire, Charles. 211 Bazin. Andre. 27. 29. 195 Bealllllarehais. PielTl'-Augllslill Caroll dc, :H Bct'lhuven. Ludwi!( van. 10h B.{01'l' the Re/'ulllt;OIl. 2:1(1JI .. 9 Hellissillla. 5i....5 . .')7 ....B. 00, 97.101. 189 Bd!. Mane. 120. 208 Bdlon:io. !\tan'u, 2:1011 .. 9 Benziwlllli. Alessantlro, 191:\. 2:l811b9 Bt'rg. Alhall. Ib:l B.·rger. 1It>IlIIut.", I::\:i. 17h. 187. 2UH B"rglllall, IlIgrid. 58. bb. 1.. 8 B"r1ill. Isaiah, I tjo Benne!. Albert. 78 Bt'nuUlos. Gcorges. 195 B,·rnsteill. HellT\'. h B,·rlOhll'ci. Bern:'rt!n. 2Jbll .. tJ B'·yl... "Iari.. -Henri (pseud. SWlIIlhul). hO. IHtJ. 190. 2:lll1 .. h Hiwu'u (' "('rv, 10, 27 Ili,:n·l., 11/i,j. The, 27 .... 1:\ Bislllurk. 0110 \nll. 17 ......5. 1110 . IH .. Bixiu. (; .. rolulllo. h8 Bizt·l. (; .....p',. 1 10 l:Ui.J;-,t'lti~ AIt·S!"lallUru. :!:!. r)~-5. 57 IJor('","';" 70. H2 BClgurd.·. Dirk. HI). thl BClhmlulII1. Ilursl Paul (p"·U(1. 11111',( 1'. HO"I). u. HO Huil0. ArriJ-to. hi BuilO. (:allliIlCl. h-+ .... "' BCllogllilli. \1auro. J:lO

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Bntllll. Eva. :!::l'JII:!:\ Bre"u,\. Hol ... ". PI:). :!-+-+II:r: Brook. 1'•. , ..... :!-+flllfl:! Bn ... kllt"r. AlltOIl. " Bnllll'tta. Ciilll Pi.,ro. -+. I')t) Hw/dl'llbrooks. H:!. 1-+(>. 131 Btlljud. Lui,. () Butur. \\i.·h .. L :!Oh Cain. Janll·'. H. I b . 14;;. :!:!:~II-+:) (:ilhi ...., du (:i",'lIlil. :Ih Calill/lai. Clara. 13. :!O I t:alclw .. 11. Erskint". :H (:alla,. \Iaria. ():~. 1:11 Call1ll,. AII ... r1. :!():!. :!O.')-':'. :!-+.'i1l-+7 (:al/llls. Fr.u ... i' .... :!O;; (:allalt·tto. :\IItollia. :!:1711.'):\ (:apnl. hallk. 11 (:apIlHna. Llli;.d. I:! (:ardinaJ.·. (:llIlIdia. 3'J. I:!O Car.. y. Jo~ct" (1"l'1I01. \Iallury Jay). ridlt' (Co .... ). lJ. (:hal'i ..... 11'·IIri. fl:! Charit'llla)!II'·. 1111 (·harl,·'-/wus,' u( Partlla. n",. :!:II 11-+11 Challllall. St"·I;"'U ... 'I. :1') Chl'khm. Alii 011. flO-:!. :'1. lOO Ch .... al. Pi'·IT!·. 1-+. :!:!:!II:1:1 Chiarilli. Lui)!i. 10. :!,-11. II:! ('hi"'''''1I .-\1''' l,ouk;II.1! (/1 { .'. 1/11'. :!:I Chri,tiall D"IIlotTali .. Parf\. :!h-: . .'i I. .-,:1. h'J70. 10-+ (·hr;.,1 .'ilul'I"''' U",/i. 10;,

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(:illlaro"L I)ollwlli .. u. hO (:imillo. I\lichat"1. :!:!ollllh Cinl'cilliL I\, 5-+. 5;:-)-(). 197. :!:!:!II:N Cillt'lIIa.9. I\. H-5. :I\. :1:3 C;/lt'lIIa lUllmpul/wrjicu, 11. 1-+. :lO. ;)1 Clark. \\artill. 10 Ut-Illell'- Ht'lIe. :!Oll COI'II''''I. Jt'a, .. O. :H CU/l"'d;,, hl/lI/u;/lt'. P) I CUllllllunist Par,,'. :3-+-:;. h'l-70 Co//(I('II/III'c/ uj-tiIOIW.

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t'olltil(urill)!/collfiI(IIratitlll. :10. I HI (',,"lwl;lI; slid. 10;, CUIll'ers(/lioll P;n' .. (I}raz). ):\:! COlll'l'rsul;UIl P;('c(' (Vis...",!i). \0 \. t:1:!-:1. 133.137.170-1 ('0.", fili, .~·;/Ullm." HI;') (:rai)!. Euwanl (;onloll. 159 Crai)!. \\it'ha,'1. 1:!0 Cri:-,pi. FraJ1t·t·~(·o. h: (:ri,taldi. Frallt'o. 11 <J ('1';1;(' ur Po," of /),,('(ul"IICt,. :! 1-+

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Dali. Salvad .. r. :i I I)' .\lIIi..... F('dd,·. :!-+:lll 711 1)'.\lIIi,'''. SiI\'O ..,:! /)(/1111 ...". Th('. \o1-:!. 107. t:~5. HO. I-+:!. 1-+.-,-0. HIl. I;;O-\. 15-+-5. I':!. 17'l. 11l:1-4 D' Allg"I". Saku ..')-+ DWli,:Ii. bUlIlll ..,)Il IL\lIl1ullzio. Cabri..!e. :! 11- \.,. :! IIl-I'l. :!:~Illl() I l)a.'·;1l lIlt' COl/llln·• .-t. K H /)mlh ill 1"Il;n' (\Iallll). 15;;--:'. 1511. IIlI. Ih9 0('(/111 ill Il'llin' (\'i,'·Ollti). 107. I-+:!. \.,0. 1,-,5. lo\' IIlK 171-:!. IIl-+. )117. :W:. :!\O. :!I-+. :!11l. :!-+III;-':1. :!-+:!1I57 /),,(/Ih ura Jml .\Iall. nll'.9:! t1 .... ad,·,;.·,·/d .... at1.·II'- hI. IJ:!. \''i-+. 1:;9. 1-:'1:!. :!O-+. :!II-:!.:!H D,' Ca'l'i,·ri. :\kitl,'. 70 D,' Lallfl·lItii,. Dillo. I:I:!. :!O;, D,'It'IIz('. (;i1II',. :!:~ D.,loII. Alaill. 'JO. 10:. :!O.). :!Oll D.· \\illl·. C,'dl BoO :!:!:!II:!O /)"mier IUIlr/HIIII. L". H. :!:!:!II:lJ D.. H"b.,rto. F"d"ri ..... 3., D.. Sallti,. (;i .. ".'I'I"·' 10. I:!. 1-+-:;. :!:!. :11. :!:!:!,dh. :!:!JII-+O 1>'- :-iallli,. i'a''1"alillu. I 0:1. I hll D,· Sica. \i"ori ... :!7 ..,):1. hO. 1:10. :!;loII-+'J D,·sid .. ri,,,. 'Ill 1)"I'I1's f,;II'O\·.,. I'll.,. 11 Dia~hilt·\ _ S"'rgl'i \'011. j:.! /);w" III (/ (·()/IIIII,. Pr;"sl. 1'1.; Di,·,;·i .. il. \Iarlt'/Il': u. H'I 1)11('101' /-',1/1.\111.\. 1-+ I. I t.:l. 1110. :!-+ I 11:;-+

L\DE\

Dolet· I'illl. La. Htl Do" Curlu.•. b:!-:l. :!;I(m'HI DOlliz,·tti. (;al'tallo. 5i Do,ton·Ysky. F\"Odor. I OS. I i(1. I:> I. HN . . 11)7~.iO(). 231)1122 Due Foscari. I. 02 Durl!"ant. RaymolHL 7 D\I\"iyi.. r. Juliell. H

Eill,;lI·in. AlIlI'n. J:i9 Eis~nst~in. Sergei. b. i7 /:J,·clra. I:W /:Jisir d·ol1wI"I·. L '. 5+-:> ElIis. Johu. 19:1 [bacsser. Thoma.. 1 17 Ellck,.l!. \likae!. I. 95. 99. 1'17. :!Ol). :! H. 219 Ent .. \aziollal .. Irlllustrie Ciut'mato!!ralidll'lI.· (E\Ie). 10 Erha \'isconti di \lodrone. Carla. 85, 98--1) Eroica. 17:-1 EsperlmPlllo. or lire. 8 ""isll~utialism/t'"i,tl'lltial. 20. 2:1-i. ~12. Iltr 7. I:W. 125. Ul. 187. 2(}2. 2(H. 207

Chioll-7. :l:l-i. i:l. 53-i. h8--70. 81. lOi. H5. 222u:-I9. 22iu5i Fattori. Giovauni. 2:12nhO Ft·lIini. F.. d .. rico. 10:3 hltrint'lli. Cian~ria('Omo. IH hm·ri. \lar('O. 60 F..rr.. TU. \\" ilh. i8 F..sto Campa·uil,.. Pasquale. IOh Fifth CO[UI1/I/. The. :n Fifth .~l""phuII.l· (\Iahler). lhi-:>. 2i 1n5:3 Fisl ill His Puckd. 23hni9 Foreas. Spiros. 107 Furs,' '1ue si forsI' '111/' 110. :!:18nh I Ford. john (playwright). 237n5i Ford. Johu (lilm dirt'''tor). 11 FUllr Sights uf a Drl'''lIIl'r. 2iin:17 1'0111" Steps ill Ifl·w·I'II. 22 J/JUrth Spllp}WII.1' (Mahlcr). Ih7 Francioliui. Giaulli. 58 Fralll'iosa. \lassilllo. IOh. Franl"k. C':,ar. I. 120. 120-1:1. :!:17n5:1 Fn·lId. Si!!mUIIII. 1S9 J11 r i:1ISl., 1hh

idiol. The, \05

(;ar"o. Cr .. tu. 208 Garhu!!lia. \Iario. 17::1 Carfi,.ld. JollII. 222n33 Carihaldi. l;iIlSt·ppe. 08-1). 82-5. 88. 'Ii. 'Ih Cuml'l!. Ta,'. 22:!n2:3. 22;ln45 Gerburl der' Tru!!odie "US dem G..IS/I· dt'/" .HII.fik. liO Cent'tw. (;,·ranl. i:!. 91 C,·or!!... St .. fall. 211

Industri .. CiIlt'lIIl1tograliclll' Italian.- (I. C. I.). 15 Ingrao. Pi.·t ro. 10 hIlWCI'II/. Tht'. 101. 1.,0.207. :!09-12. 2H. 211)-2() hlllOl'''II/'·. L·. 211-1:! III/emll/iollal, 711t'. ;H /0 ("he /lOll [';1'0 St'IlZt, 'f', 1:!: bhllghpour. You",.f. 2. W . .-,1. 77. 79. '11. 97.1)9.171. 17'1. 19h. :!:I1 n;,h

Hall'\". Hill. 200 lIaud~pill. Didi .. r. 2 I;) Haul'tmllnn. Cerhllrd. 211 Hawks. Howard. SS Hay. James. 11. Hllwz. Frwlt:t'.cu. 2:1211hO Ilehhel. Friedrich. PH Ht'ill!'. Hl'illrieJl. 7i Ht'mingwuy. Emt'st, :l:l. 22;'1175 Hl'llIming •. F. W. J., 188 Ht'nz.·. I{an,; W'·rller. HO lIt'raditus. 12"7. 2:1111159 Ilintlt'nIHlg. Paul VOII Bt'IIl'ekendorf ulld VOII. H7 Hit)'· ... Adolf. HO. H7-8. H9, 18:1, 2;19n2:1 H"ffmilll. Dustill. 208 Hull' .-;illller. The. 172 IIn~s!. Horst P.• see Bohnllllllll. Horst Paul Hous" 0f.4mIUIW/·. 151 House I '"d"r /hl' Medial" Tree. The. :35. :3119. 23ill2i Huysmuns. Joyis. 211

I:\DEX Jam'. '-Iauri ... ·. I ;:;:t :!:l Lann.,I.·r. H"rt. HI>. n:1. I T:O l..aU~t· . .It·~:,inL :!:!~1l3:l

I.anuada ..\Ib,·no. :!() Lawn·II.·t'. D.II .. 1;)1> Lt·ga. Si,,"',1 nI. ~;I~II()O L,'op""'/, TIlt' (Toma,t) di Lall'llt·du,a). Hi Lt'''p,,,.,I. TI.,. (\"i,,'Ollli). h:!. H;I. K)-h. . :!;I":'n:;H. :!:IHIl34. :!3l\nh I Lit'/wSII(lchl. I H:i. I H7 /.it'II .. IH:; Lifa ... S,·rg... h LoIIt'IIWi". 17~. IKi Lollohrigida. Cina. ;-li LOlllhartlo. (;offrl'do. 10:1 I.olldoll ..Iack. I.-li Lurt'n. Solia. lif'" Sdcolollt·. Solia Lo,ey. Jo"·ph. :!Ol) Loui, IX. 17i L"Hi, .\\"1. 17i L"chain·. (:ori"II". :2:2:211:3:1 tm/wip;. IO\. t:l:!-:I. 1;-)0. I:;i. 171-;1. 17;'. 17'1-HO. IH:I---+. :!OH-tl. ~i;)II;)" Llldwig 11. 1":':!-5 Luill'0ld.17:; Lukae,. C.'orf!. ;10. i 7-H. () I. 1\.,. '10. I;' I.

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.\Iahl,'r. (;U,I",·. (.")(,. I h:!-;'. I ()"7. :2;I'III:!h. :2iO,,:;O

F"m"I,'. ~~~II:!O 'Iallarrne. Slrphan!'. :! 11 !\Iallory. Jlly. SI'I' .Io)"cc Cllrcy !\ialtill. L.. ollard. ~~5n54 Mallcini. Liliana. 57 Mangallu. Silvana. no-I. I;n ;\Ianll. H.. inrich. 1;:1'1. 15~. 150 ;\Iallll. Kalja. 15h 'Iallll. ThU"H.,. ~. ;,~. 10.,. 11 I. LI'I--i~. IH-(). lih. \;,1. \')i-7. 151J-()1. Ib;J. Ib5 . 171-2. IHO, IH;J, l'Jb. 197, :!II .\tauuiuo. Fra/lt"o. 5:!. (;~7. Ii:!. 17::1. 185-0. :!18. ~i;III":'H 'Iarai,. J,·all. 1'1'1 'Iareu,. !\liili .. "nr. 5. ;~H. i:!. ib. i'l. :!~71111~. :!;WII~ I ~;J;IIlH;1 .l/flr;" flllt! Ihe .I/a!(;('iwl. :;~. H~ .llar;" ,. if .Illlgo. Ii~ Mark,-r. Chrb. :!Oh .l/flrri,,!(,· of Fi!(llru. 111t'. ;H 'Iar,alli. (:IUllllia. I;H 'Ian. Karl. I ~o 'Ias-illt'. L",mid ... :;:2 \la,lroiauni. 'larn-lIo. I '1!l. ~05. :207.

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.\la:-,troiHnlli. HIll-'~(-'ro. 1-;;i. :!~:!IlJ;)

'Iallt·oui. Gia("tllllo. I i5 'Iaupassall!, (;uy ,I !'-I,·dioli. Ellri..... ~. 1Ot;-"7. \3~. lib. ~OH ;\I"ga Film. 1"7;.\ 1II,·lo,rrallla. 1:!-I:;. ~:2---+. ~7. ~'1. :15. 51. hl-:!. 7H-HI. 101-:!. IOh. 115-1'1. I'I~

'I,-Iru-( ;oldw\"ll-'I", .. r. I ":';~ '1.,yt-rhol.1. \··SI'mlnd. 159 .Ilia sulilllllilll' sl'i Ill, La. 1:.13 'lical ... (;iu,,,PI't'. 1~8 'lieci"h,'. Lillo. i-5. :! I. :!;I. ;P. ~ll. 44-3. i7. :;0. Ii~. 2illl-+7. 2~511~7 ;\liliau. Thumas. I ~;.I .. lill,·r . ..\nhur. 1O~). :!;PII;'j() lIIiUlI'si,. ;IO-~. 15:!. 191-~ \Iilllwlli. \"ill,·,-ult'. 117 \Iirullda. ba. SI'" Saml'it'lro. 111," 'lim. Jt'atl. :!H 'Ior~via .. \IIlt'rto. Ii. hO 'Iort-ili. Hilla. 'Iort!'\', Thomas. ;, I 'lorli;1I1. Fdix .\.. :2'1 'Iorri""tt,·. Rn" .... :!();j 'Iomr!. \rolfgallg ..\lIIad,-"s. ()O. 1:15 'I"IVI'\'. Lauru. :! I 'l"rn~'1. F. \\" .. i7 'hbil. Hollt'rr. \:10. 1:11). lill 'lu" .. lilli. Ht'lIilO. 'I. 10. :12. i:1. \i.-, 'lu""lilli. \"inorio. \0-11. I;)-Itl \llI . . . . nnT . . k" \1.111.· ... ,. l()h. I'""'()

J:\DE'\

Natoli. Dario. L!7n 105 Ilatttralism. nat ItrHli,ti". :31. -+7. (l1.'). 212 "'ajder. Zdzislaw. 78 Nannuzzi. :\rmanuo. 17:3 .\"I'I,ia. 10h. 170 lIeo-fas('ist. \U3-f. J:32 neurealism. 11. 2:>-:H. -+7. 52. S:3-f. 81-:3. 21-+ .Yibdullf!,"fI :jaga. 19-+ \it·hols. Bill. 228111 12 :\il'hols. Jack. 222n3:3 .\ighl uf tilt' LUllf!, A·lIi,·".,. '111. :11. J:3. ;):1. 7i. 189.207. 22:3n-+:3. 22in.;-+ 0/('1/0 (\·enli). h-+ Otto.17S Our 11 umm. 51l Paest'mio.ll-+

P"u,i.27 Par.. /Ils laribl('s. i.es. 3J-f Pari!!i. StefaHia. :~() Panri HO'"t'illilli. H"b,'rl ... 2:l. 27. ;-,:t :;11. hh. 11:1. 2:121170 HO~:"'Iini. CiiU'OIlIO :!OO H.. la. \ill". '10. I H H"tll. ,1""'1'11. Ll'I H"IUIIU ... (;i,h'·I'I .... hh H"dllihl.,. blln,allllt'l 11""lId. \1,,11 Ha~). h Hiihlll. E,.,hl. 1-+: ~(dllli.

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I:\OEX Salllpi'·lro. It ...s (p,,·IIC!. Miralld" ba). :3:,\. 51l Salldra. I. IOI-:!. I:!:;. I:!C). 130. 1;\1.1. :!ti. :!IIJ Sal'ln" kall·Palll. :li S,·a~Ill·lIi. Aid ... I h S.·h.. IL Maria. I till Sdlt'IIt'r. Swn·lI. :!i;",5i Seltill,'r. j .. hallll ChrislOph Fri.,.iridl \'011, 1;)7 S.·hir..... Willia/ll L.. I ih S.·hliiJldorf. \" olkl'r. :!itmh:! S.. hu .. id.,r. HU/ll\'. s .... Hoot'/IIarit' AU,aeh· Hell" ' Sehop"lIha;I('r, Anltllr. lIli Sdllllllallll. Ho1)('rl. lilt) Sdlollherg. Arnokl. 15t1. lu:3-+ Sehiinhals. Alliredn. HIl S.. ieolou.·. Sulia (p"t'II.1. Suphia Lon'II), ~Ji S.·tI1 .. lIaro. HIX·.·o. 105 S('W"'i tli .\lil",lO. 105 S.'lha. :\Iario. :!h S"nsu (Boilo). t>i-i SI'IISU (\"isl'ouli). b:!-i. hh-:. t>'1-:' I. 7:3. :h. 71l.1l1-:!.1l5-7.1l'1. %-7. 1:3-+,150. IllO. 1Il:\, IIl'l. J!I:!. Illt,...7. :!J!/. :!:!7111O;3. :!i:!II:;7 a",i hll S,·mlldr.. i. :\\ario. ).;. :{:!. :!:!:!II:\:; S.. rvadio. Caia, ht>. 9'1. 100. HO S.,,·,'lIlh .~\·lIIpllO".\' (Bnlt'kllt'r). 77 Shak.·'Ilt'm·... Willialll •.) I-:!. tih. 1:;0--1. IIlIl Slta\\,. (;,'orgt' B,'mard. 15i Sltir.... , Willialll L. Hh Si('gfri"d Ic~rll. 18h Si1-{lIon·t. SllllOIlt'. :!UH Sigllorilli. T.,le",a(' ... :!:\:!lIhO Si 111011. Cia II.!C , :!()h

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):3;; Sill\ard. :'IieiL I'-,:;-h. 19:3. :! I Il. :!i 11153 Sirk. DUlIgI",. 11 '7 S",IIIIII Will (,'olllormh. 8;; Sodl"".' ('I (;III1W,.rlW. :!OIJ SlIpru il ,.ill'll/lo tli 111/(/ bellt, dOIll/(/ sell/pito "'" 11/01111/""1110 sl'Po/,.r"/t' della IIIt·d,'sill/(/. I:!II Surd, j,·all. I:!O ....,'()rn/ll's find (;'rUIlt/('IlUr of HichllrtJ 11 (l!!"pr. Thl',IIl;\ Sl'al(lIl1olo. Canll..i .. , IO:! SpOlllilli. Ca'l'a,..·, Id SIt'ill., ... C.'or~.·. l'lh, :!iOIl:!1l Stt'",lltal. SI'" Bnlt'. \Iarit··llt'lIri St .. pl"",,,. :\il'ol.:. :!Oll-", :!ihllh:! Stirlillg, :\Iolliea, 'Ill. L!1. :!i.;lIi7 Slo,.i" degli (1IIIi,'hi po/w/i il,,/i(lIIi. I:!ll Slmll/!.'..r. Th" (Call1l1'). :!O:!. :!Oi-: Slmllf.f,t'r. Th" (\"b.· ..... i). I:!IJ. :!07. 2i,-",.',i ~..;,!.I\;II·I.~

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Slr!'('Iniu Vt·r!!a. (;im'amli. :-Il. I:!. 1;\. :H. :3;;-+1. ii. it>. ill. Il;;. 10 I. 1%. :!:!3in:!i ' .. ri,m. IL;l1. :!I:!. :!Ii " .. rlant'. I'alll. :! 11 ".,rI.,\. H.·lIallt!. I ia ',·slai,·. La. t>:l \'iet"r EII1IIHlIlllt·llIl. 'nl Vidulazzi. Hu.'('". 107 "idor. I\:illl(. I I I i,' !'uri.si!'",,,'. La. I Xh I i('/I' (mill Ill