Virgil's Aeneid: Cosmos and Imperium

Virgil's COSMOS Aeneid AND PHILIP CLARENDON R. IMPERIUM HARDIE PRESS 1986 • O X F O R D Oxford / trsUx Pr...

Author: Philip R. Hardie

276 downloads 2308 Views 51MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

Virgil's COSMOS

Aeneid

AND

PHILIP

CLARENDON

R.

IMPERIUM

HARDIE

PRESS 1986

•

O X F O R D

Oxford

/

trsUx Press., Walton Street. Oxford OX2 Oxford

Delhi

Bombay

New York Calcutta

Nairobi

Toronto

Madras

Kuala Lumpur Singapore

Karachi

Hong Kong

Dar es Salaam Melbourne

6DP

Cape

Tokyo

Town

Auckland

and associated companies in Beirut Berlin

Nicosia

Ibadan

Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford Published by Oxford

University

Press

in the United States

University Press,. New

© Philip

R. Hardie

York

ig86

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,;, mechanical, photocopying,

recording, or otherwise,

the prior permission of Oxford

Univirsiiy

without

Press.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise without the publishers

circulated

prior consent in any form of binding or cover

other than that in which it is published and without a similar

condition

including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser British Library Cataloguing

in Publication

Hardie, Philip

R.

Virgil's Aeneid: cosmos and Imperium 1. Virgil. I 873'. 01

Aeneid

Title PA 6825

0-19-814036-3

f

Bayerisch»

]

I Staatsbibliothek | I

Mün

) n

J

Set at the University Press, Oxford Printed in Great Britain at the University Press., Oxford by David Stanford, Printer to the University

Data

Acknowledgements I A M g r a t e f u l to the President a n d F e l l o w s o f C o r p u s C h r i s t i C o l l e g e , O x f o r d , for e l e c t i n g m e for f o u r y e a r s to the P. S. A l l e n j u n i o r R e s e a r c h F e l l o w s h i p , w i t h o u t w h i c h this b o o k w o u l d not h a v e b e e n c o n c e i v e d a n d w r i t t e n . R o b i n Nisbet a n d D o n a l d Russell g a v e g e n e r o u s l y o f their time a n d s c h o l a r s h i p in r e a d i n g t h r o u g h d r a f t s o f the w o r k ; I also p r o f i t e d f r o m the c o m m e n t s o f Denis Feeney, Stephen Harrison, Elizabeth R a w s o n , N i c h o l a s R i c h a r d s o n , Bert S m i t h , a n d M i c h a e l V i c k e r s . J o h n S w a n n e l l a n d J u l i a S w a n n e l l read t h r o u g h the c o m p l e t e d t y p e s c r i p t ; their c o n t r i b u t i o n s were n o t limited to points o f style. F i n a l l y , I o w e a m o r e g e n e r a l intellectual d e b t to J o h n B r a m b l e , a scholar o f rare insight, w i t h o u t w h o s e t e a c h i n g and c o n versation o v e r the y e a r s this w o u l d h a v e been a v e r y d i f f e r e n t book. Parts o f c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 a r e a r e w o r k i n g of m a t e r i a l first p u b l i s h e d in Hermes, 1 1 1 (1983). P.R.H.

Contents

n A r a t u s

see p p . 332 ff., ' L e S e n t i m e n t r e l i g i e u x d u M o n d e d a n s A r a t o s ' . 12

O n C l e a n t h e s ' v i e w s o n the a d e q u a c y 1 o f verse npo* rrjm àXrfiâv

deujpiaç see C l e a n t h e s fr. 486 S VF.

r r j i rcôv SeioJV

io

V I R G I L ' S AE.NEID:

COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

c h a p t e r s o f this w o r k will return r e p e a t e d l y to e x a m i n e V i r g i l ' s e x p l o i t a t i o n o f this politicized c o s m o l o g y . A l e x a n d r i a n interest in c o m b i n i n g p o e t r y a n d a s t r o n o m y is also m a n i f e s t e d b y the epic p o e m Hermes o f E r a t o s t h e n e s , w h i c h , in the w o r d s o f R u d o l f PfeifTer, drew old mythical tales about the birth and precocious cleverness of the god from the Homeric hymn to Hermes and combined them in a unique way with the cosmology of Plato's Timaeus and Eratosthenes' own geography; when the god ascended to the heavenly spheres of the planets, where he became one of them himself, he perceived not only their harmony and their identity with the âpôv(a [harmony] of his own lyre but also the live zones into which the earth was divided according to Eratosthenes' geographical theory. 13 E r a t o s t h e n e s ' o w n l i t e r a r y - t h e o r e t i c a l position, w h i c h limited the f u n c t i o n o f p o e t r y to e n t e r t a i n m e n t , m i g h t l e a d us to see in the Hermes a m e r e jeu d 'esprit, w e r e it not for the fact that he w a s seriously interested in P l a t o n i s m , w h i c h d i d p l a c e a religious v a l u e on a s t r o n o m y . 1 4 In R o m e the e a r l y history o f c o s m o l o g i c a l p o e t r y is n a t u r a l l y the history o f the t r a n s l a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n o f G r e e k m o d e l s . E n n i u s ' Epicharmus w a s a L a t i n version o f a w o r k ascribed to the f i f t h - c e n t u r y Sicilian c o m i c w r i t e r o f t h a t n a m e w h i c h d e a l t w i t h n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l themes, i n c l u d i n g the t h e o r y o f the f o u r elements. M o r e interesting is the e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t E n n i u s d r e w o n n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l topics in his d r a m a t i c w o r k s a n d in the epic Annals; in the next c h a p t e r I shall consider h o w far E n n i u s m a y h a v e b e e n a source f o r the V i r g i l i a n int e g r a t i o n o f e p i c a n d c o s m o l o g i c a l themes. I h a v e a l r e a d y all u d e d to the R o m a n fashion for Aratea; o t h e r m o d e l s o f scientific p o e t r y w e r e also b e i n g tried o u t in the m i d d l e o f the first c e n t u r y B C . W e h e a r o f Empedoclea b y a Sallustius, a n d o f a De Rerum .N'attira b y an E g n a t i u s . 1 5 It is p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t the first poet in R o m e to p r o d u c e a g r e a t w o r k o f scientific p o e t r y in w h i c h c o s m o l o g i c a l , social, 13

R . P f e i f i e r , History of classical scholarship from the beginnings to the end of the Hellenistic

age ( O x f o r d , 1968), p p . 168 f. T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the five z o n e s in t h e Hermes is the m o d e l for Geo. 1.233 ® 14

O n E r a t o s t h e n e s ' c o m b i n a t i o n o f scientific c o s m o l o g y a n d p o e t r y in the Hermes

see F. S o l m s e n , ' E r a t o s t h e n e s as P l a t o n i s t a n d p o e t ' , TAPhA

73 ( 1 9 4 2 ) , 1 9 2 - 2 1 3 , esp.

2 i i AT. 15

See H . B a r d o n , La Littérature latine inconnue i (Paris, 1 9 5 2 ) , p. 335.

POETRY AND C O S M O L O G Y IN A N T I Q U I T Y

11

e t h i c a l , a n d religious c o n c e r n s are closely i n t e g r a t e d should be L u c r e t i u s , a n a d h e r e n t o f the sect most d e e p l y o p p o s e d to just t h a t ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y P l a t o n i z i n g a n d S t o i c i z i n g ) c o s m i c religion w h i c h h a d e n c o u r a g e d the Hellenistic synthesis o f scientific c o s m o l o g y a n d m y s t i c a l religion. T h e p a r a d o x is eased s o m e w h a t b y L u c r e t i u s ' p e c u l i a r tactic o f g e t t i n g inside his o p p o n e n t s ' positions a n d then e v a c u a t i n g t h e m o f their prior c o n t e n t to refill t h e m w i t h E p i c u r e a n d o c t r i n e ; the e m o t i o n a l a n d aesthetic a p p e a l o f a C l e a n t h e s is p a r a s i t i c a l l y d i v e r t e d to the ends o f a n areligious m a t e r i a l i s m . B u t L u c r e t i u s a c h i e v e s a yet fuller i n t e g r a t i o n o f c o s m o l o g i c a l w i t h o t h e r t h e m e s t h a n this P l a t o n i c / S t o i c m o d e , b y g o i n g b a c k to the p r e - S o c r a t i c , a n d specifically E m p e d o c l e a n , u n i o n o f p o e t , scientist, a n d p r o p h e t . A s w e shall s h o r t l y see, this L u c r e t i a n pose is an i m p o r t a n t p r e c e d e n t for that A u g u s t a n ideal o f the ' i n t e g r a t e d ' p o e t to w h i c h is a t t a c h e d the l a b e l votes.

(b) Images of the primitive poet in antiquity W h e n the G r e e k s , a n d the R o m a n s after t h e m , c a m e to t h e o r i z e a b o u t the c u l t u r a l history o f m a n k i n d , they n a t u r a l l y took as a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t the earliest s u r v i v i n g l i t e r a r y d o c u m e n t s (or w h a t w e r e t a k e n to b e s u c h ) . F r o m these a n u m b e r o f things w e r e clear: that p o e t r y a n t e d a t e d prose, that the earliest poets had s u n g o f the gods, a n d that a m y t h o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y h a d p r e c e d e d scientific p h i l o s o p h y ; b u t also that the t h e o g o n y o f a H e s i o d w a s r e c o g n i z a b l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the s a m e p r o b l e m s as scientific c o s m o g o n y a n d c o s m o l o g y . 1 6 T w o f u r t h e r factors o f a less e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e c a m e i n t o p l a y : firstly, a t e n d e n c y , p r e v a lent in m a n y ages, to a s c r i b e to i m m e m o r i a l a n t i q u i t y a w i s d o m in n o w a y inferior, a n d o f t e n superior, to the science a n d l e a r n ing o f the present d a y ; a n d s e c o n d l y the self-interest o f poets (and o t h e r s w h o lived b y a l i t e r a r y culture) in m a x i m i z i n g the prestige o f p o e t r y in times w h e n the social a n d financial d e p e n d e n c e o f the p o e t w a s all too o b v i o u s . 16

F o r a discussion o f the links b e t w e e n p o e t r y , r e l i g i o n , a n d p h i l o s o p h y in G r e e k

t h o u g h t t h a t is at m a n y points r e l e v a n t to m y discussion, see F . M . C o r n f o r d , P r i n c i p i u m s a p i e n t i a e : the origins of Greek philosophical thought ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 5 2 ; . C o r n f o r d is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the actual r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these d e p a r t m e n t s in the e m e r g e n c e o f G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y ; I a m h e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p s that later a n t i q u i t y posited in its r e t r o s p e c t i v e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

io

V I R G I L ' S A E . N E I D : COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

A n e x t r e m e position c l a i m e d that p o e t r y w a s the origin o f all c u l t u r e , t h r o u g h its effects in c i v i l i z i n g m a n ' s p r i m i t i v e h r u tishness; the first poets w e r e i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n g o d s a n d m e n , a n d the sole source o[ sapientia. T h e most f a m o u s a n c i e n t exposition o f this is found in H o r a c e ' s Ars Poetica (391 I T . ) , 1 7 b u t it represents a t r a d i t i o n t h a t goes b a c k to the g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f h u m a n arts b y the G r e e k sophists; the p a r t i c u l a r pretensions of the technë, o r a r t , o f p o e t r y h a d to b e d e f e n d e d a g a i n s t the rival c l a i m o f r h e t o r i c to be the p r i m i t i v e force o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h e sophists a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o d e v e l o p e d this sort o f c u l t u r a l history w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y interested in the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n their o w n métier a n d the p o e t r y o f the e a r l y stages o f c u l t u r e . P r o t a g o r a s , in a c o n t e x t n o t entirely serious, is represented b y P l a t o as c l a i m i n g that the a n c i e n t sophists conc e a l e d their art u n d e r o t h e r n a m e s , for e x a m p l e ' p o e t r y ' in the case o f H o m e r , H e s i o d , a n d S i m o n i d e s , a n d 'rites a n d oracles' in the case o f O r p h e u s a n d M u s a e u s ( w h o a r e also, o f course, poets). 1 8 B u t it w a s Aristotle w h o first c o n s t r u c t e d a w e l l - a r t i c u l a t e d d o x o g r a p h y in w h i c h the first p h i l o s o p h e r s , t h o u g h c l e a r l y dist i n g u i s h e d f r o m the e a r l y c o m p o s e r s o f m y t h i c a l t h e o l o g y , w e r e also r e g a r d e d as their n a t u r a l successors. P a r t i c u l a r l y imp o r t a n t for the present discussion is the c o n s e q u e n c e that, j u s t as c o s m o l o g y is the c e n t r a l interest o f the first philosophers, so it is m y t h o l o g i c a l c o s m o l o g y that these p r e - p h i l o s o p h i c a l theologoi d e a l in; a n d these theologoi are o f course the poets, such as H e s i o d a n d O r p h e u s . 1 9 F r o m A r i s t o t l e ' s dispassionate o b s e r v a t i o n that p h i l o s o p h y g r e w o u t o f a poetic m y t h o l o g y it is a short step to the c l a i m that the p r i m i t i v e poets w e r e in fact the o r i g i n a l philosophers, as w e find it, for e x a m p l e , in the p r o e m o f D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s , 17

S e e B r i n k ad l o c , , w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y . O n the S o p h i s t i c o r i g i n s see F . H e i n i m a n n ,

' E i n e v o r p l a t o n i s c h e T h e o r i e d e r re^t'jj'. Mil

18 ( 1 9 6 1 ) ,

105 30. O n

the c i v i l i z i n g

p o w e r o f r h c t o r i c see F. S o l m s e n , Hermes 67 ' ) 9 3 2 ) . 151 ff.; note esp. C i c . De

Or.

1.8.32 f. IS

PI. Prt. 3 1 6 D. C f . also D i o g . L a e r t . 3 prol. 12 o n the use o f wmîaraC to d e n o t e

rroirjrai. ooos a n d aotf>Îa are also m o r e g e n e r a l l y associated w i t h p o e t r y : see Nisbet/ H u b b a r d i, p. 13. !9

Metaph.

i o o o a 9 [on àpâi] 01 . . . vepE 'Halobov

1 0 7 1 b 27 01 dfokoyoi

OL ¿TE VVKTOÇ

YEWDIVTCS",

kat rravreç 5a01 dtoXoyoi;

ibid.

cf. also i b i d . g 8 3 b 27 fT. T h e c o l l e c t i o n o f

p r e - S o c r a t i c f r a g m e n t s in D i e l s / K r a n z b e g i n s w i t h a g r o u p o f t h r e e figures u n d e r the h e a d i n g ' K o s m o l o g i s c h e D i c h t u n g der Fruhzeit1 (Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides}.

POETRY AND C O S M O L O G Y IN A N T I Q U I T Y

13

w h o p r o c l a i m s that p h i l o s o p h y first b e g a n a m o n g the G r e e k s , w i t h the Theogonia a n d Sphaira o f M u s a e u s , a n d the w o r k (or works) o f L i n u s o n c o s m o g o n y , the p a t h s o f the sun a n d m o o n , a n d the g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s . 2 0 O r p h e u s is n a t u r a l l y e x p e c t e d in such c o m p a n y , b u t D i o g e n e s has to find excuses to get r o u n d the d i f f i c u l t y that O r p h e u s is not G r e e k b u t T h r a c i a n . T h e reports v e r y likely g o b a c k to a t h i r d - c e n t u r y - u c source. 2 1 F o r a m o r e friendly v i e w o f O r p h e u s the p r i m i t i v e wise b a r d w e m a y turn to A p o l l o n i u s o f R h o d e s , w h o , as a s a m p l e o f the p o e t r y o f O r p h e u s , puts into his m o u t h a s o n g w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h a p u r e l y p h y s i c a l c o s m o g o n y , before t u r n i n g to the e a r l y history o f the gods. 2 2 O r p h e u s a n d M u s a e u s , a n d to a lesser extent L i n u s , c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r as the poetic c u l t u r e heroes f r o m the fifth c e n t u r y BC on, as b o t h religious a n d p h i l o sophical innovators.23 A f u r t h e r step m a k e s the p r i m i t i v e p h i l o s o p h e r - p o e t s sup e r i o r to their prose successors. I n P l u t a r c h ' s On the Delphic Oracles, Philinus has to d e f e n d the a b a n d o n m e n t o f the verse form a g a i n s t the A t h e n i a n S e r a p i o n , w h o w a s himself a p r a c titioner o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l verse: W e d o n o t d e s p a i r o f p h i l o s o p h y as t o t a l l y n u l l i f i e d a n d c o r r u p t j u s t b e c a u s e e a r l i e r p h i l o s o p h e r s , s u c h as O r p h e u s , H e s i o d ,

Parmenides,

X e n o p h a n e s , E m p e d o c l e s , a n d T h a l e s , published their doctrines a n d a r g u m e n t s in p o e m s , w h e r e a s later p h i l o s o p h e r s s t o p p e d using verse, a n d , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f y o u r s e l f , still r e f r a i n f r o m d o i n g so. 2 4

T h e line o f p h i l o s o p h e r - p o e t s here specified t o t a l l y ignores the A r i s t o t e l i a n distinction b e t w e e n t h e o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y , proj e c t i n g the truly p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r e o f writers such as E m p e d o c l e s b a c k on to poets like O r p h e u s a n d H e s i o d . S t r a b o ' s d e f e n c e o f p o e t r y in the first b o o k o f the Geography is 20

D i o g . L a e r t . 1 prol. 3 IT.

21

L o b o n Fltpl

rioiTjTihv; see W . C r ö n e r t , ' D e L o b o n e A r g i v o ' , in Xáptres

F.

Leo

dargebracht (Berlin, 1 9 1 1 , , pp. 123 45; M . L . W e s t , The Orphic poems ( O x f o r d , ig83)^ p p . 44, 56, 60. C o s m o l o g i c a l w o r k s w e r e also a s c r i b e d to o t h e r m y t h i c a l poets, e . g . a Koap.oyév€ta

to T h a m y r i s ; a Koaporroiia

to P a l a e p h a t u s . C f . also the p r o b a b l e c o n t e n t

o f the s o n g o f E u r i p i d e s ' A m p h i o n , fr. 1023 N a u c k (J. K a m b i t s i s , / . ' A n t i o p e ¡f Euripide ( A t h e n s , 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 30 ÍT,). 22

Argon.

23

O r p h e u s a n d M u s a e u s h e a d the list o f p o e t i c b e n e f a c t o r s o f m a n k i n d at A r . Ran.

1030 AT. O n

1.496IT. the R e n a i s s a n c e t r a d i t i o n o f O r p h e u s as p o e t , religious t e a c h e r ,

p h i l o s o p h e r , see I). P. W a l k e r , The ancient theology ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 2 ) , ch. 1. 24

De Pyth. Or. 402

and

i4

V I R G I L S A Ii XIi ID: COSMOS

AND

IMPERIUM

d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t the v i e w s o f those w h o , like E r a t o s t h e n e s , held t h a t the a i m o f the poet is solely to e n t e r t a i n , not to instruct; S t r a b o ' s a r g u m e n t a p p e a l s to the need to b a i t h a r d l e a r n i n g w i t h the c h a r m a n d d e l i g h t o f p o e t r y in o r d e r to a t t r a c t the childish m i n d . 2 5 T h i s easy (and c o m m o n ) division o f the utile a n d the duke, w h i c h is also f o u n d , for e x a m p l e , in L u c r e t i u s ' self-justification at De Herum Natura 1.921 IT., is not really v e r y f l a t t e r i n g to p o e t r y , w h i c h b e c o m e s s i m p l y a m e a n s to an e n d . S o m e a c c o u n t s o f the p r i m i t i v e u n i o n o f p o e t r y a n d p h i l o s o p h y p l a c e d a far g r e a t e r v a l u e o n the poetic art, or r a t h e r on the m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o n c e p t o f mousike, as the v e h i c l e o f a p r i v i l e g e d insight i n t o the d i v i n e secrets o f the u n i v e r s e . S t r a b o himself preserves such an a c c o u n t in a digression on the C u r e t e s at Geography 10.3, w h i c h describes the religious origin o f music in the expression o f a n inspired c o m m u n i o n w i t h the g o d s (10.3.9 f.). It i-s for this reason, S t r a b o says, t h a t P l a t o a n d P y t h a g o r a s c a l l e d p h i l o s o p h y "mousike '. T h i s i d e a o f a p r i m i t i v e a n d p r i v i l e g e d u n i o n o f m u s i c , religion, a n d p h i l o s o p h y possibly derives from Posidonius. 2 6 A similar a c c o u n t is f o u n d in Q u i n tilian's discussion o f musie at Institutio 1 . 1 0 . 9 f., w h i c h deserves to be q u o t e d in full: nam quis ignorat musicen . . . tantum iam illis antiquis temporibus nun studii modo verum etiam venerationis habuisse, ut iidem musici et vales et sapientes iudicarentur (mittam alios) Orpheus et Linus; quorum utrumque diis genitum, alterum vero, quia rudes quoque atque agrestes animos admiratione mulceret, non feras inodo sed saxa etiam silvasque duxisse posteritatis memoriae traditum est. itaque Timagenes auctor est, omnium in litteris studiorum antiquissimam musicen extitisse, et testimonio sunt clarissimi poetae, apud quos inter regalia convivia laudes heroum ac deorum ad citharam canebantur, lopas vero ille Vergilii nonne 'canit errantem lunam solisque labores' [Aen. 1.742] et cetera? quibus certe palam confirmat auctor erninentissimus, musicen cum divinarum etiam rerurn cognitione esse coniunctam. H e r e w e h a v e the s a m e p r i m i t i v e u n i o n o f music, religion, a n d w i s d o m , w h i c h last turns o u t to be, a b o v e all, k n o w l e d g e o f the 25

S t r a b . 1.2.8.

2S

See K . R e i n h a r d t , ' P o s e i d o n i o s ü b e r U r s p r u n g u n d E n t a r t u n g ' , Orient und Antike

6 [1928) = Vermächtnis der Antike2

( G ö t t i n g e n , 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 402 60, esp. p p . 4 2 5 ff,; f o r a

m o r e c a u t i o u s s u r v e y o f v i e w s o n P o s i d o n i u s ' t h e o r y o f e a r l y p o e t r y see G . L i e b e r g , ' D i e " t h e o l o g i a t r i p e r t i t a " in F o r s c h u n g u n d B e z e u g u n g ' , ANRW

i.q. { 1 9 7 3 ) , 63

115.

POETRY AND C O S M O L O G Y IN ANTIQUITY

26

d i v i n e l y o r d e r e d w o r k i n g s o f the cosmos. A s a n e x a m p l e for a R o m a n a u d i e n c e o f the idea! p r i m i t i v e p o e t Q u i n t ilia 11 a d d u c e s the V i r g i l i a n b a r d l o p a s . S u c h a v i e w o f e a r l y p o e t r y c o u l d also be r e a c h e d by a n easy e x t e n s i o n o f the c o m m o n v i e w that the first poets s a n g the praises o f the gods. F o r A r i s t o t l e h y m n s , hymnoi, are o n e o f the first poetic forms; 2 7 in the p r o b a b l e p r o e m o f his de poetis S u e t o n i u s described the use by p r i m i t i v e m a n o f the h e i g h t e n e d l a n g u a g e o f p o e t r y to praise the gods. 2 8 W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen that the A r i s t o t e l i a n c a t e g o r y o f the theologos refers to poets w h o w r o t e w o r k s b o t h t h e o l o g i c a l a n d c o s m o l o g i c a l . T h e versified w o r k s o f true p h i l o s o p h i c a l thinkers like F a r m en ides or E m p e d o c l e s w e r e later referred to as hymnoiphysikoiP T h e idea t h a t the e a r l y poets c o m b i n e d religion a n d p h i l o s o p h y points to a real c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o w h i c h c o n t i n u e d even after the a p p a r e n t e m a n c i p a t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y f r o m pre-scientific m y t h i c a l w a y s o f t h i n k i n g . 3 0 G r e e k cosm o l o g y and t h e o l o g y w e r e n e v e r d e c i s i v e l y s u n d e r e d , a n d in the Hellenistic p e r i o d , as w e h a v e seen, tended to m o v e e v e n closer t o g e t h e r w i t h the rise o f a ' c o s m i c religion'. W e shall shortly see the i m p o r t a n c e o f this u n i o n o f science and religion for V i r g i l ' s o w n aspirations as a poet. T h i s discussion has stressed those v i e w s o f the p r i m i t i v e poet w h i c h tend to the g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f the w i s d o m a n d d i v i n e insight c o n t a i n e d in p o e t r y . T h e r e w a s o f course a w h o l e r a n g e o f o p p o s e d v i e w s in a n t i q u i t y ; s o m e o f the positions d e s c r i b e d a b o v e w e r e indeed d e v e l o p e d as conscious rejoinders to those w h o belittled the v a l u e o f p o e t r y . A n i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e o f a c o o l e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the w o r t h o f p o e t r y from the p e r i o d o f the late R o m a n r e p u b l i c is p r o v i d e d b y V a r r o , w h o uses an o l d e r s c h e m e o f a tripartite t h e o l o g y , d i v i d e d into the ' m y t h i c a l ' t h e o l o g y o f the poets, the ' p h y s i c a l ' t h e o l o g y o f the p h i l o sophers, a n d the 'civil' t h e o l o g y o f the p e o p l e . 3 1 F o r V a r r o a m

Poet. 1 4 4 8 " 27.

28

Isid. Etym. 8.7.

29

M e n . R h . 3 3 3 . 1 2 ff.; 3 3 6 . 2 5 IT. ( w i t h Russell a n d W i l s o n a d l o c . ) . S u c h

m a y , o f c o u r s e , be in prose, b u t M e n a n d e r says t h a t t h e y suit p o e t s b e t t e r

hymns (ibid.

336.29 f.J. P h i l o d e m u s seems to refer to E m p e d o c l e s ' /7ept rjai,

¿•rriary]p.r] T€Kf.L~qpar€ rraaav aoioi]v.

Hail Muses, most gentle every one of you: answer my prayer that I may rightly tell of the stars, and guide all my song. P a r t i c u l a r l y close is the e c h o in 'dulces a n t e o m n i a ' o f ¡jLeiXixtai V i r g i l , as w e shall see, d e v e l o p s in his o w n w a y t h a t e x t e n d e d use o f religious l a n g u a g e w h i c h in A r a t u s is

fiaXa

4

7Taocu.5

diKy: Phaen. i o o ff. T h e A r a t e a n echoes in these lines a r e a s s e m b l e d b y B u c h h e i t ,

Anspruch, p. 61 11. 252. 5

C f . also the ' d u l c e s C a m e n a e ' o f Catal. 5 . 1 2 ; p e r h a p s there is a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t

n o w V i r g i l sees the possibility o f c o m b i n i n g p h i l o s o p h y w i t h the sweetness of t h e M u s e s t h a t w a s t h e n seen o n l y as t o t a l l y a l i e n to the seriousness o f t h e f o r m e r .

io


COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

d e t e r m i n e d b y the fact t h a t the c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p e a l or p r a y e r to the M u s e s is i n c o r p o r a t e d in the s t r u c t u r e o f a h y m n . S o far w e are presented w i t h a simple o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the themes o f c o u n t r y life a n d the p u r e scientific themes o f Arattis, a n o p p o s i t i o n e n g i n e e r e d t h r o u g h the r a t h e r artificial i n t e r m e d i a r y o f A r a t e a n Dike, B u t lines 4 7 5 7 also c o n t a i n i m p o r t a n t L u c r e t i a n echoes. Before e x a m i n i n g these it is c o n v e n i e n t to ask w h y the s e q u e n c e o f t h o u g h t in lines 458 74 should lead to the discussion o f specifically Lucretian scientific themes. A n a n s w e r is p r o v i d e d b y the clear s t a t e m e n t a few lines l a t e r o f the i n t i m a t e c o n n c c t i o n b e t w e e n L u c r e t i u s ' n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n q u i r y a n d his b a n i s h m e n t o f the bogies o f the U n d e r w o r l d ( w h i c h for the E p i c u r e a n is closely linked to the d e n i a l o f d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n in the w o r l d ) . T h e v a n i t y o f the fear o f the g o d s a n d o f d e a t h is i n c l u d e d in the a r g u m e n t o f the p r o e m to b o o k t w o o f the De Re rum Natura w h i c h , as w e h a v e seen, is the central m o d e l for lines 4 5 8 - 7 4 o f the second Georgic. It is V i r g i l ' s a w a r e n e s s o f the c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n L u c r e t i u s ' f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f his d i a t r i b e topic a n d the p o i n t at w h i c h he h i m s e l f has a r r i v e d w i t h ' s a c r a d e u m ' at line 473 w h i c h b r i n g s u p the w h o l e q u e s t i o n o f the c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f the t h e m e s o f L u c r e t i a n n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , on w h i c h the rejection o f religion is b a s e d , a n d the v a l u e s o f the R o m a n countryside. T o return to lines 4 7 5 if., the most o b v i o u s L u c r e t i a n e c h o is in line 4 7 6 , ' i n g e n t i percussus arnore", w h i c h a l l u d e s to L u c r e tius' d e s c r i p t i o n o f his o w n poetic inspiration at 1.922 if.: sed acri percussit thyrso laudis spes magna meum cor et simul incussit suavem mi in pectus amoretn musarum. T h e f u r t h e r extension o f the list o f n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l subj e c t s a f t e r ' c a e l i q u c vias et sidera' o f line 4 7 7 is also o b v i o u s l y L u c r e t i a n in c o n t e n t a n d l a n g u a g e . 6 But even lines 4 7 5 a n d 4 7 7 , w h i c h seem to be p u r e l y A r a t e a n , c o n c e a l L u c r e t i a n allusion. T h e 'sweet' M u s e s c o r r e s p o n d to A r a t u s ' 'gentle 8

L i n e 478: cf. L u c r . 5 . 7 5 1 'solis item q u o q u e d e f e c t u s l u n a e q u e l a t e b r a s ' . 4 7 9 f.:

6 . 5 3 5 ' q u a e r a t i o terrai rnotibus exstet', 6 . 5 7 7 ' n i a g n i c a u s a t r e m o r i s ' ; 5 . 1 0 0 2 f. ' f r u s t r a m a r e s a e p e c o o r t u m / s a e v i b a t l e v i t e r q u e m i n a s p o n e b a t i n a n i s ' . 482: 5.699 f. ' p r o p terea n o c t e s h i b e r n o t e m p o r e l o n g a e / c e s s a n t ' .

C O S M O L O G Y A N D H I S T O R Y IN V I R G I L

37

Muses',

b u t L u c r e t i u s also describes sweetness as the c h i e f gift o f the M u s e s in the c e n t r a l p a s s a g e o n his inspiration at i . 9 2 1 IT.; note especially line 947: et quasi musaeo dulci contingere melle. 7 T h e a s t r o n o m y o f l i n e 477 is also a c e n t r a l c o n c e r n o f E p i c u r e a n science, p a r t i c u l a r l y as a w a y o f s u b v e r t i n g the A r i s t o t e l i a n a p p e a l to the a r g u m e n t f r o m design; celestial p h e n o m e n a are o n e o f the c h i e f sources o f false belief in the g o d s . T h e l a n g u a g e o f line 4 7 7 c o n t a i n s a n a m b i g u i t y t h a t points directly to L u c retian models: [Musae] accipiant caelique vias et sidera monstrent. O n the surface this is a n a p p e a l for the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n on m a t t e r s a s t r o n o m i c a l , b u t , g i v e n the u n d e r l y i n g t e n d e n c y in this w h o l e passage to i d e n t i f y the l a n d s c a p e o f the poet w i t h that o f his s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , it is easy to read this as a request for directions on literal ' p a t h s to the sky' ( r a t h e r t h a n 'the p a t h s o f the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s ' ) . Monstrare f r e q u e n t l y has the sense o f ' p o i n t o u t ' a p a t h to be f o l l o w e d . 8 T h e i m a g e o f f o l l o w i n g a p a t h is c o m m o n l y a p p l i e d to the ' p a t h ' to p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d s a l v a t i o n , a n d is especially p r o m i n e n t in L u c r e t i u s . 9 A close p a r a l l e l in G r e e k for the i m a g e o f a p a t h to the skies in a c o n t e x t w h i c h c o m b i n e s the p o e t i c a n d scientific in a religious setting, as in V i r g i l , is f o u n d in H e r a clitus' Homeric Questions 7 6 . 1 : Homer, the great hierophant of heaven and the gods, who opened up the paths to heaven which till then were inaccessible and barred to human spirits. In a L u c r e t i a n c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , the i m m e d i a t e m o d e l for "caelique vias' is E p i c u r u s ' 'flight o f the m i n d ' in the p r o e m o f b o o k o n e o f the De Rerum JYatura, a j o u r n e y w h i c h ends in v i c t o r y o v e r the c o n v e n t i o n a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f the h e a v e n s . T h e 7

C f . also dulci, 938; suavem, 924; suaviloquenti, 9 4 5 .

8

TLL

viii. 1440.82 ' d e m o n s t r a n d i s viis'. T h e

figurative

p a t h to t h e sky that the

a s t r o n o m e r f o l l o w s is v i v i d l y d e s c r i b e d in O v . Fast, 1 . 2 9 5 if. (a p a s s a g e h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d to Geo. 2 . 4 7 5 ff.), s u m m e d u p at 307 'sic p e t i t u r c a e l u m ' . 9

e.g. C i c . Fin.

1 . 1 4 . 4 6 ' s a p i e n t i a m q u e esse s o l a m , q u a e . . . o m n i s m o n s t r e t vias,

q u a e ad q u i e t e m et ad t r a n q u i l l i t a t e m f e r a n t ' ; cf. L u c r . 6.27 ' v i a m m o n s t r a v i t , t r a m i t e p a r v o I q u a p o s s e m u s a d id r e c t o c o n t e n d e r e c u r s u ' . P o e t i c a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l viae a r e closely l i n k e d in L u c r e t i u s , a s i g n i f i c a n t fact for V i r g i l ' s use o f the i m a g e .

io


AND

IMPERIL!M

c h i e f d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n this p a s s a g e a n d Georgics 2.475 ff. 1S t h a t E p i c u r u s ' ' j o u r n e y ' is the result o f his o w n u n a i d e d p o w e r s o f m i n d , w h e r e a s V i r g i l must rely on the success o f a n a p p e a l to the d i v i n e M u s e s . 1 0 It is n o w time to e x a m i n e in m o r e detail the n a t u r e o f the religious c o n c e p t i o n b e h i n d these lines. B u c h h e i t 1 1 a n d others take line 4 7 6 to i m p l y a c o n f i d e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the p o e t as a Musarum sacerdos, and this e n c o u r a g e s a n e x t r e m e l y positive e v a l u a t i o n o f the c l a i m s m a d e b y V i r g i l in the recusatio. J . K . N e w m a n , in his discussion o f the sources o f the vates-concept, illustrates w h a t he takes to be the i m a g e here f r o m the P o s i d o n i a n d e s c r i p t i o n o f the C e l t i c vates as hieropoioi (priests) a n d physiologoi (inquirers i n t o N a t u r e ) ; 1 2 Posidonius' e t h n o g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t o f the p r i m i t i v e poet, w h i c h is v e r y possibly related to his historical r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the origins o f music (discussed a b o v e , p p . 1 4 - 1 5 ) , m a y well h a v e been a p a r t o f the i n t e l l e c t u a l a t m o s p h e r e o u t o f w h i c h the A u g u s t a n »«^¿"-concept e m e r g e d , b u t the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n it a n d V i r g i l ' s self-portrait here is n o t as e x a c t as N e w m a n c l a i m s . T h e sense o f lines 4 7 5 7 m a y b e best elicited a f t e r discussion o f the religious b a c k g r o u n d o f the rest o f the p a s s a g e , starting w i t h line 483: sin has ne possim naturae accedere partis. Accedere h e r e picks u p the poetic initiation o f L u c r e t i u s ( 1 . 9 2 7 ) : iuvat integros accedere fontis. B u t for the poetic f o u n t a i n s o f H e l i c o n V i r g i l substitutes the t o p o g r a p h y o f L u c r e t i u s ' p r i m a r y s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , rerum natura. C o n i n g t o n c o m p a r e s L u c r e t i u s 3.29 f.: quod sic natura tua vi tam manifesta patens ex omni parte retecta est. T h e l a n g u a g e o f r e v e l a t i o n h e r e is h e a v i l y religious; L u c r e t i u s (with E p i c u r e a n p r e c e d e n t s ) is e x p l o i t i n g the A r i s t o t e l i a n ( a n d 10

T h e i m a g e o f a j o u r n e y to the s k y is d e v e l o p e d at l e n g t h b y M a n i l i u s in a n -

n o u n c i n g his a s t r o n o m i c a l t h e m e ( I . I ff.); t h e w h o l e p a s s a g e is c o n s t r u c t e d o u t o f Lucretian and Virgilian fragments. 11

B u c h h e i t , Anspruch, p p . 68 f., l i n k i n g it to the wz/w-concept.

12

S t r a b . 4.4.4; discussed in J , K . N e w m a n ,

(Brussels, 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 16 ff.

The concept of v a t e s in Augustan poetry

39


c o m m o n Hellenistic) i d e a o f the c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f the universe as a n a l o g o u s to the s h o w s o f the m y s t e r i e s . 1 3 T h e a c c o u n t o f E p i c u r u s ' m e n t a l f l i g h t in the p r o e m to b o o k o n e o f the De Kerum Natura m a y also e c h o the l a n g u a g e o f the mysteries. 1 4 T h e l a n g u a g e o f religious initiation a n d r e v e l a t i o n is p i c k e d u p in the makarismos o f lines 490 ff. T h e makarismos is a f o r m that w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t i c u l a r l y at h o m e in the l a n g u a g e o f the mysteries, a c o n g r a t u l a t i o n on the benefits c o n s e q u e n t o n religious k n o w l e d g e or e x p e r i e n c e . 1 5 It also b e c a m e a c o m m o n w a y o f c o n g r a t u l a t i n g the wise m a n or p h i l o s o p h e r o n the fruits o f his w i s d o m ; 1 6 initially the blessings o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l insight w e r e set u p as a conscious a l t e r n a t i v e to the t r a d i t i o n a l insights o f .religion. I n the case o f E m p e d o c l e s the religious a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l aspects a r e especially close (B 132): oXßios, èeiAoç

oç

ß^TTÜI'

mpamiSutv

S ' , aï oKoroeooa

Oeœv

¿KTTJOCLTO

IT épi

TTXOVTOV,

S o £ a ¿¿eju/rjAev.

Happy the man who has acq uired a wealth of divine understanding, but wretched he whose mind is filled with shadowy opinion about the gods. 17 13

S e e A . J . F e s t u g i è r e , La Révélation d ' Hermès Tnsmégiste,

ii (Paris, 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 233 il.,

' L e m o n d e t e m p l e d e D i e u ' , d r a w i n g o n I. B y w a t c r , Journal of Philology 7 ( 1 8 7 7 ) , 7 5 F o r a l a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f this v i e w o f N a t u r e see S e n . Qffat.

1 prol. 3 'rerum naturae

g r a t i a s a g o , c u m iliarn n o n a b h a c parte v i d e o , q u a p u b l i c a est, sed c u m s e c r e t i o r a eius i n t r a v i . . . nisi a d h a e c admitterer\ also i b i d . 7.30 (the secrets o f N a t u r e c o m p a r e d to the E l e u s i n i a n m y s t e r i e s ) ; S e n . Ep. 90.28 t.; cf. R e i n h a r d t , RE 22.806; A . D . N o c k , Essays on religion and the ancient world, ed. Z . S t e w a r t , ii ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 796 f. ( ' t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l use o f m y s t e r y t e r m i n o l o g y ' ) ( = Mnemosyne 5 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 184 ff.). 14

C f . R . M . J o n e s , CPh 21 ( 1 9 2 6 ) , 1 1 2 f., esp. 1 1 3 n. 2. C o m p a r e A p u l . Met.

11.23

(the i n i t i a t i o n o f L u c i u s ) ' p e r o m n i a v e c t u s e l e m e n t a r e m e a v i . . . d e o s inferos et deos s u p e r o s accessi . . . e c c e tibi r e t t u l i , q u a e , q u a m v i s a u d i t a , i g n o r e s t a m e n necesse est'. 15

See D o d d s on E u r . Bacch. 7 2 - 5 .

16

T h e f o l l o w i n g is based o n B. G l a d i g o w , ' Z u m M a k a r i s m o s des W e i s e n ' , Hermes

95 ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; 4 0 4 - 3 3 17

I n t h o u g h t a n d l a n g u a g e this is close to E m p e d o c l e s B 129, w h i c h is said to b e in

praise o f P y t h a g o r a s , a n d w h o s e t e r m s a r e s i m i l a r to those in w h i c h L u c r e t i u s praises the u n i v e r s a l insight i n t o the n a t u r e o f t h i n g s w o n b y E p i c u r u s , a n d h e n c e also s i m i l a r to the t e r m s o f t h e V i r g i l i a n makarismos. O n e w o n d e r s w h e t h e r V i r g i l is d e l i b e r a t e l y e x p l o i t i n g a n E m p e d o c l e a n p a s s a g e ( w e h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n a l e r t e d to the possibility o f E m p e d o c l e a n m o d e l s in line 484) in a discussion o f o n e o f E m p e d o c l e s ' c h i e f heirs, Lucretius, with an intention both c o m p l i m e n t a r y

( V i r g i l praises L u c r e t i u s in the

l a n g u a g e t h a t E m p e d o c l e s h a d used o f his h e r o P y t h a g o r a s ) a n d c r i t i c a l ( V i r g i l implies t h a t he has the c o r r e c t So£a a b o u t the g o d s that E m p e d o c l e s d e s i d e r a t e s ) . P. B o y a n c é , RA 5 m e sér. 25 ( 1 9 2 7 ) , 368 ff, uses the E m p e d o c l e a n m o d e l to a r g u e t h a t P y t h a g o r a s is the i m m e d i a t e o b j e c t o f V i r g i l ' s makarismos.

On

the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f religion

and

p h i l o s o p h y in E m p e d o c l e s B 132 see G l a d i g o w , a r t . cit., p. 4 1 9 : ' D i e A u f n a h m e u n d U m f o r m u n g des M a k a r i s m o s des E p o p t e n d u r c h E m p e d o c l e s m a n i f e s t i e r t , dass d e r

V I R G I L ' S A EN E ID: COSMOS

40

AND

IMPERIUM

T h e m i x t u r e o f the religious a n d the p h i l o s o p h i c a l is still present, or p e r h a p s it w o u l d be better to say r e v i v e d , in Georgia 2.490-2: the k e y w o r d cognoscere points to the c l a i m o f both the mysteries a n d o f p h i l o s o p h y to b e a t i f y t h r o u g h knowledge:™ E p i c u r e a n k n o w l e d g e here serves the r e d e m p t i v e f u n c t i o n o f „. freeing m a n k i n d f r o m the f e a r o f d e a t h . This is p a r t i c u l a r l y p o i n t e d since the makarismos o f the E l c u s i n i a n mysteries seems t r a d i t i o n a l l y to h a v e d w e l t 011 the benefits to b e g a i n e d in the next world t h r o u g h i n i t i a t i o n . 1 9 V i r g i l thus p l a y s L u c r e t i u s ' o w n g a m e o f using the v o c a b u l a r y o f religion to express an antireligious p o i n t o f v i e w , before t u r n i n g this v o c a b u l a r y b a c k into its p r o p e r c h a n n e l s at line 493: f o r t u n a t u s et ille d e o s q u i n o vi t a g r e s t i s .

L i n e s 490- 2 are a tissue o f L u c r e t i a n reminiscences. 3 0 It does not m a t t e r v e r y m u c h w h e t h e r w e take the p r i m a r y s u b j e c t o f felix to be L u c r e t i u s or E p i c u r u s , g i v e n that L u c r e t i u s consistently presents his o w n p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d poetic c a r e e r as an i m i t a t i o n o f the t r a i l - b l a z i n g e x p e d i t i o n s o f his master. T h e c e n t r a l L u c r e t i a n passages a l l u d e d to in these lines are, firstly, the p r o e m to b o o k three, a sustained a t t a c k on the fear o f d e a t h , w h i c h , as w e h a v e seen, links up w i t h the c o n c e r n s o f the p r o e m to b o o k t w o on w h i c h the initial praise o f c o u n t r y life w a s based; a n d , s e c o n d l y , the a c c o u n t o f the ' f l i g h t ' o f E p i c u r u s in the p r o e m to b o o k one: c o m p a r e especially Georgies 2.492, "subiecit p e d i b u s ' , w i t h L u c r e t i u s 1.78, 'religio p e d i b u s subi e c t a ' . W i t h this t h e m e o f v e r t i c a l d o m i n a n c e w e are thus b r o u g h t b a c k in a ring to the s p a t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n (also L u c r e t i a n in origin) o f ' c a e l i q u e vi as' in line 4 7 7 ; a n d w e a r e n o w in a position to e v a l u a t e those o p e n i n g lines m o r e fully, in the light o f the l a n g u a g e o f initiation a n d r e v e l a t i o n that d o m i n a t e s the rest o f the passage. T h e g e n e r a l religious setting o f lines 4 7 5 if. is, as w e h a v e seen, A r a t e a n , b u t the specific c o l o u r i n g o f accipiant a n d monE r l ö s u n g s g e d a n k e d e r M y s t e r i e n in d i e " P h i l o s o p h i e " ü b e r n o m m e n w o r d e n ist. V o n n u n a n tritt d i e P h i l o s o p h i e in K o n k u r r e n z m i t d e n M y s t e r i e n . ' 18

e.g. E u r . ßacch.

72 IT. d> / paxap,

OOTLS

euSaifj.a>v

J

reAfras

Otojv (I&(1Jv, like

a t t e n d a n t s o f m y s t e r i e s w h o s t a n d o u t s i d e the d o o r s a n d w h o are n o t t r u e initiates, b u t w h o m a y g e t an i n k l i n g o f w h a t is g o i n g o n inside). 22

G . E. M y l o n a s , Eleusis and the Eleusinian mysteries ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 6 1 } , p. 298, w i t h a

list o f p a s s a g e s r e f e r r i n g to this a c t o f showing. F o r h e l p in e l u c i d a t i n g the r e l i g i o u s b a c k g r o u n d to Geo. 2.476 f. I a m i n d e b t e d to D r R . C . P a r k e r . 23

¿TToSexo/u-ai: SIG 1 0 2 3 . 1 4 ; IG I P 1 2 8 3 . 1 7 . C f . LSJ

s.v. OftopoSoKos. N o t e also Ae.n.

1.289 f > ' c a e l o • • • a c c i p i e s ' . 24

C f . Aen. 5 . 5 9 f „ 9.86, 1 2 . 1 3 ;

at

6.809 a n d 8 . 8 5 sacra ferre is used o f n o n - s a c r i f i c i a l

o b j e c t s b o r n e b y a priest. In g e n e r a l , t h e c a r r y i n g o f s a c r e d o b j e c t s need i m p l y n o t h i n g v e r y e x a l t e d a b o u t the status o f the b e a r e r ; cf. PI. Phd. TTOXXOL,

jSa/fôi Se Tt rravpoi.

69 c 8 f. vapd-qKofapoi

p.ev

42


AND

IMPERIUM

and D i a n a o p e n d o o r s a n d purses to their d e v o t e e s , A t lines 45 ff. O v i d a p p l i e s these v a r i o u s a n a l o g i e s to his o w n case: en ego pro sistro Phrygiique foramine buxi gentis luleae nomina sancta fero. vaticinor moneoque. locum date sacra ferenti. non mihi, sed magno poscitur ille deo. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the O v i d i a n a n d V i r g i l i a n c o n c e p t i o n s is that in O v i d the b e a r e r of sacra is a l r e a d y a n a c c e p t e d d e v o t e e o f his c h o s e n g o d , a n d uses the sacra to g a i n admission or m o n e y f r o m outsiders, w h e r e a s V i r g i l bears the sacra o f his goddesses in o r d e r to g a i n admission to the c o m p a n y a n d secrets o f those s a m e divinities. A closer a n a l o g y for the idea o f admission to a p l a c e o f religion o r mysteries is p r o v i d e d b y the sixth b o o k o f the Aeneid. A t line 109 A e n e a s asks the S i b y l to s h o w h i m the w a y (iter) to his father's s h a d e in the U n d e r w o r l d . T h e S i b y l tells A e n e a s t h a t this is o n l y possible for o n e w h o carries the sacred o b j e c t o f the G o l d e n B o u g h . O n l y a f t e r successfully del i v e r i n g this to the g a t e w a y o f P r o s e r p i n a c a n A e n e a s be received b y his f a t h e r (accipio, 6 9 3 ) , w h o then p r o c e e d s to r e v e a l (0stendere, 7 1 6 ) to A e n e a s the f u t u r e heroes o f R o m e . 2 5 V i r g i l ' s request for initiation m a y c e r t a i n l y be linked to the old i d e a o f the poet as priest, b u t he d o c s not h i m s e l f a c h i e v e the status o f priest until the b e g i n n i n g o f b o o k three o f the Georgics, w h e n he builds an e a r t h l y t e m p l e h i m s e l f as a substitute for the celestial t e m p l e s w h i c h he m a y not enter; in this t e m p l e the gifts t h a t he bears (dona feram, 3.22) a r e sure o f a w e l c o m e . B o t h O v i d a n d the S i b y l r e g a r d the b e a r i n g o f sacra as an a u t o m a t i c a l l y e f f i c a c i o u s g u a r a n t e e o f admission, a n d it is in the n a t u r e o f such rituals t h a t w h i l e they m a y d r a m a t i z e the anxieties that a t t e n d h a z a r d o u s religious passages, they are n o r m a l l y r e g a r d e d as i n e v i t a b l y o p e r a t i v e if p e r f o r m e d in the c o r r e c t fashion. In V i r g i l ' s case there seems to be a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n his religious d e v o t i o n a n d e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t |amore, 4 7 6 ) , w h i c h are not in d o u b t , a n d his i n t e l l e c t u a l cap a c i t y to u n d e r s t a n d , as expressed in the p r e - S o c r a t i c physiological l a n g u a g e o f l i n e 484. T o d e s c r i b e his possible i n a d e q u a c y to w r i t e scientific p o e t r y V i r g i l uses the l a n g u a g e o f such p o e t r y ; 25

O n possible allusions to the m y s t e r i e s in the D e s c e n t to the U n d e r w o r l d in Aen. 6

see G . L u c k , ' V i r g i l a n d the m y s t e r y religions', AJPk

94 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 147

66.


43

m o r e specifically h e alludes to the theories of E m p e d o c l e s , o n e o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t m o d e l s for L u c r e t i u s h i m s e l f (484): frigidus obstiterit c i r c u m p r a e c o r d i a sanguis.26

T h e l a n g u a g e suggests the coldness o f f e a r o r o f the f a i l u r e o f will, b u t the E m p e d o c l e a n allusion i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h a t is really at issue is a failure o f intellect, of nous. W h a t should b e stressed is that V i r g i l uses this physicalist e x p l a n a t i o n of c o g n i t i o n to suggest an a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n to w h a t for L u c r e t i u s w o u l d be p u r e l y a m a t t e r o f reason, ratio. V i r g i l n o w turns to the a l t e r n a t i v e to the lofty secrets o f N a t u r e , the retreats o f the c o u n t r y s i d e . L o v e for the M u s e s (amore, 476} is r e p l a c e d b y love for the rivers a n d w o o d s [amem, 486); this love is to be w i t h o u t f a m e a n d h o n o u r (inglorius, 486). T h i s is a d i s a v o w a l o f the L u c r e t i a n laudis spes magna ( 1 . 9 2 3 ) , as B u c h h e i t points out; 2 7 n o t e f u r t h e r t h a t L u c r e t i u s closely associates this a m b i t i o n for g l o r y w i t h the love o f the M u s e s (simul, 924). V i r g i l effects a d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n laus a n d amor, a n d also displaces the o b j e c t o f amor, f r o m the M u s e s to the countryside. T h e recusatio r e a c h e s its c l i m a c t i c a n d most c l e a r - c u t form u l a t i o n in the d o u b l e makarismos o f lines 490 4 ('felix . . . f o r t u n a t u s ' ) . B u c h h e i t sees h e r e the d e f i n i t i v e rejection o f the L u c r e t i a n / E p i c u r e a n w a y to s a l v a t i o n in f a v o u r o f an altern a t i v e o f religious gnosis in the service o f t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n values. But line 490, 'felix q u i potuit r e r u m c o g n o s c e r e c a u s a s ' , seems to c o n t a i n no i r o n y ; it is an a d m i s s i o n t h a t such a m a n has f o u n d the truth a b o u t the universe, 2 8 a n d is thus q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m the usual rejected a l t e r n a t i v e in a recusatio, w h i c h is a l w a y s a p a r t i a l a p p r o a c h to reality. T h e p a r a t a x i s o f ' f e l i x . . . fortunatus h e r e refers to a truly u n r e s o l v e d d i c h o t o m y , i n the in the e x t a n t f r a g m e n t s

of

E m p e d o c l e s , the c o m b i n e d e v i d e n c e o f this line, E m p e d o c l e s B 105, a n d H o r . Ars

P.

26

Although

the d o c t r i n e i m p l i e d h e r e is not

found

46", m a k e s an E m p e d o c l e a n s o u r c e m o r e t h a n likely: see C . O . B r i n k , ' H o r a c e a n d E m p e d o c l e s ' t e m p e r a t u r e : a r e j e c t e d f r a g m e n t o f E m p e d o c l e s ' , Phoenix 23 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 138 42. 27

B u c h h e i t , Anspruch,

p. 62. It m a y b e r e l e v a n t t h a t the h e a r t , cor, is the seat o f

L u c r e t i u s ' a m b i t i o n ; it is in the r e g i o n s r o u n d the h e a r t , praecordia, t h a t V i r g i l feels t h e chill. 28

B u c h h e i t talks of t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n by V i r g i l that L u c r e t i u s ' is not ' d i e w a h r e

Lehre'

(Anspruch, p. 76), b u t t h e r e is no d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f this in L u c r e t i u s '

i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t terms.

own

io


COSMOS

AND

IMPERIL!M

first s t a t e m e n t w e are presented w i t h an intellectualist exp l a n a t i o n o f the w o r l d a n d the g o d s , w r a p p e d u p (in L u c r e t i a n m a n n e r ) in the n o n - i n t e l l e c t u a l ist l a n g u a g e o f religion; in the second s t a t e m e n t w e are g i v e n a t r a d i t i o n a l religious f o r m o f confession, in w h i c h novit c o r r e s p o n d s to a v e r y d i f f e r e n t form o f k n o w l e d g e f r o m the cognoscere o f line 490. V i r g i l is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h an i r r e c o n c i l a b l e clash b e t w e e n F a i t h a n d R e a s o n ; he opts for F a i t h , b u t w i t h a full a w a r e n e s s t h a t this i n v o l v e s a n a b n e g a t i o n o f the ( L u c r e t i a n ) certainties o f R e a s o n . B u c h h e i t ' ! a r g u m e n t rests l a r g e l y on a c o m p a r a t i v e analysis o f the recusatio in o t h e r poets. It is true that the recusatio frequently conceals a conviction of superiority beneath a display o f m o c k - m o d e s t y (cf. inglonus h e r e ) . B u t there is n o real p a r a l l e l to w h a t V i r g i l does here. T h e n o r m a l recusatio justifies a decision not to write in a g e n r e o t h e r t h a n t h a t chosen, a n d is p r o v o k e d either b y critical hostility to that o t h e r g e n r e ( C a Hi m a c h us) or by the need to ease oneself o f internal or e x t e r n a l pressure to w r i t e in the o t h e r g e n r e (the R o m a n elegiac and lyric recusatio). V i r g i l , h o w e v e r , is t a l k i n g a b o u t d i f f e r e n t levels w i t h i n the same g e n r e . H e c e r t a i n l y does represent himself as u n d e r the pressure o f a n internal u r g e to w r i t e the o t h e r kind o f d i d a c t i c , b u t this is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m the n a g g i n g g u i l t that r e m i n d s the elegists o f their ' R o m a n ' duties. 2 9 B u c h h e i t p r o d u c e s as his t r u m p - c a r d H o r a c e ' s a c c o u n t o f his r e l a t i o n s h i p to L u c i l i u s , a poet w r i t i n g w i t h i n the s a m e g e n r e , b u t this is d e t e r m i n e d b y the need to establish both a p r o p e r respect for a n d d i s t a n c e f r o m a p o e t w h o m H o r a c e has set u p as the inventor o f his g e n r e . B u t there is, in f o r m a l terms, no such b o n d o f necessity b e t w e e n L u c r e t i u s a n d V i r g i l , w h o r a t h e r holds u p H e s i o d as the g r e a t o r i g i n a l o f the Georgics.m B u c h h e i t takes the h y p o t h e t i c a l sin o f line 483 as a f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n that V i r g i l feels his s u p e r i o r i t y in the fact t h a t he m i g h t well, a n y w a y , be a b l e to w r i t e scientific p o e t r y . 3 1 T h i s T h e pressure o n V i r g i l is w e l l c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y W . W i m m e l , Kallimachos in Rom ( 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 1 7 3 , ' e i n e a n d e r e B e d r o h u n g , eine g e f ä h r l i c h e r e , w e i l sie a u s d e m e i g e n e n W i l l e n k o m m t . Sie liegt im e i n g e b o r e n e n m e t a p h y s i s c h e n S t r e b e n n a c h d e m u m fassendsten S t o f f , d e m V o r w u r f d e r g a n z e n N a t u r , d e m W e l t g e d i c h t g l e i c h s a m . ' W i m mel g o e s w r o n g , in m y v i e w , in f a i l i n g to see t h a t the pressure o n V i r g i l is v e r y s p e c i f i c a l l y related to his p r e d e c e s s o r L u c r e t i u s , 29

30

2 . 1 7 6 ' A s c r a e u m q u e c a n o R o m a n a per o p p i d a c a r m e n ^

31

B u c h h e i t , Anspruch, p p . 66 f.


45

i n f r i n g e m e n t o f the c o n v e n t i o n of the r ecus alio w h e r e b y a d e cisive b r e a k is set b e t w e e n w h a t the p o e t will (or c a n ) a n d w h a t he will not (or c a n n o t ) d o is m o r e r e a s o n a b l y i n t e r p r e t e d as a sign o f V i r g i l ' s real desire to write such p o e t r y , as suggested b y the l a n g u a g e of line 4 7 6 , Mngenti percussus a m o r e ' , 3 2 w h i c h is a w o r l d a w a y f r o m the polite s p a r r i n g o f H o r a c e Satires 2.1.12 f (adduced by Buchheit): cufndum, pater op time, vires

deficiunt. T h e r e are t w o o t h e r c u r i o u s features a b o u t V i r g i l ' s recusatio. Firstly, he has a l r e a d y s h o w n elsewhere in the p o e m his interest in c o s m o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , for e x a m p l e in the o p e n i n g w o r d s o f the g r e a t i n v o c a t i o n at the b e g i n n i n g o f the first b o o k , w h e r e the gods are a s t r o n o m i c a l r a t h e r t h a n m y t h o l o g i c a l

(5 vos, o clarissima inundi lumina, labentem caelo quae ducitis annum. I n the first b o o k o f the Georgics V i r g i l h a n d l e s E r a t o s t h e n i c a n d A r a t e a n a s t r o n o m i c a l m a t e r i a l in a q u i t e u n e m b a r r a s s e d w a y . Eclipses a n d v i o l e n t f l o o d s figure p r o m i n e n t l y at the e n d o f the first b o o k , a l t h o u g h in a c o n t e x t not n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l . T h e first line o f the s e c o n d b o o k defines o n e o f the t w o m a i n subjects o f the p r e v i o u s b o o k as 'sidera caeli'. T h e recusatio at 2.475 if. is thus not e v e n strictly true to the n a t u r e o f the p o e m as w e h a v e it. S e c o n d l y , the terms in w h i c h the a p p e a l to the M u s e s is f r a m e d m a k e it a p p e a r that w h a t is at stake is not m e r e l y their willingness to reveal the secrets o f the h e a v e n s , b u t their willingness to receive V i r g i l tout court; this is the i m p l i c a t i o n o f ' m e . . . M u s a e . . . a c c i p i a n t ' . T h e f a i l u r e to e m b a r k on scientific p o e t r y a p p e a r s also to entail the a b s o l u t e failure to m e e t the M u s e s . It is p e r h a p s significant that this (at almost the m i d p o i n t o f the p o e m ) is the first m e n t i o n of the M u s e s in the Georgics. T h e r u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e to scientific p o e t r y seems d e l i b e r a t e l y to e s c h e w the M u s e s ; the G r e e k m o u n t a i n s o f lines 487 f. are not the h a u n t s o f the M u s e s , a n d the final term o f the w h o l e p a s s a g e It is ' d u l c i s a m o r ' t h a t is t h e c e n t r a l a n d a c t i v e d r i v i n g - f o r c e o f V i r g i l ' s p o e t r y at Geo. 3.291 ff.; cf. b e l o w , p p . 165 f. 32

io


AND

IMPERIL!M

is the r e c o g n i t i o n o f the N y m p h s , ' N y m p h a s q u e sorores', in line 494, w h o thus b a l a n c e the a p p e a r a n c e o f those o t h e r sisters, the M u s e s , at the end o f the first line o f the passage, 4 7 5 . W e c a n n o w suggest a n a n s w e r to the q u e s t i o n o f w h y the M u s e s m i g h t n o t a c c e p t V i r g i l a n d initiate h i m i n t o the mysteries o f the universe. T h e p a s s a g e starts f r o m A r a t e a n allusion, a n d is a p a t c h w o r k o f reminiscences o f scientific d i d a c t i c , inc l u d i n g also allusions to L u c r e t i u s a n d E m p e d o c l e s ; w e are g i v e n a c o m p o s i t e p i c t u r e o f the w h o l e r a n g e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l p o e t r y . 3 3 B u t , j u s t as w e h a v e seen that u n d e r l y i n g the superficial A r a t e a n s e q u e n c e o f t h o u g h t l e a d i n g into lines 4 7 5 IT., a d e e p e r c o n c e r n w i t h L u c r e t i a n themes connects the apparentlyd i s p a r a t e subjects o f c o u n t r y life a n d n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , so it is L u c r e t i u s , l u r k i n g even w h e n o t h e r m o d e l s seem to be prim a r y , w h o directs V i r g i l ' s r e a c t i o n to this c o m p o s i t e picture. T h e tensions a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s c o n t a i n e d in the p a s s a g e m a y be read as the p r o d u c t o f the p e c u l i a r l y i n v o l v e d m i x t u r e o f a t t r a c t i o n a n d repulsion t h a t V i r g i l feels t o w a r d s his R o m a n predecessor: a t t r a c t i o n for the g r a n d i o s e cosmic a f f l a t u s t h a t p e r v a d e s the De Rerum Natura, intellectual a t t r a c t i o n to the r e s o u n d i n g certainties o f the L u c r e t i a n w o r l d - p i c t u r e ; but repulsion f r o m the a c c o m p a n y i n g d e m a n d that the e m o t i o n a l ties to R o m e a n d I t a l y , a n d p e r h a p s to i r r a t i o n a l i t y itself, must be cut o n c e a n d for all. This is w h y V i r g i l chooses, to express his d i s t a n c i n g f r o m L u c r e t i u s , a p e c u l i a r l y r e c o n d i t e piece o f science, w h i c h a l l o w s h i m to state i n t e l l e c t u a l f a i l u r e in a l m o s t a f f e c t i v e terms. S o m e such p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d a p p e a r to b e necessary to e x p l a i n the b l o c k a g e w h i c h leads V i r g i l to misrepresent his o w n t r e a t m e n t o f scientific m a t t e r w i t h i n the Georgics, a n d m a y also h e l p in the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the e m o t i o n a l o u t b u r s t o f lines 486 9, in w h i c h V i r g i l longs for a G r e e k l a n d s c a p e w h i c h is c o n s p i c u o u s l y not that o f the I t a l i a n 33

O n t h e e c l e c t i c n a t u r e o f this p a s s a g e a n d also o f the c o s m o g o n y in the S o n g o f

S i l e n u s in Eclogue six see Z . S t e w a r t , HSPh

6 4 ( i g ^ y ) , 185. T h e e c l e c t i c i s m o f s u b j e c t -

m a t t e r is m a t c h e d b y t h e e c l e c t i c i s m in t h e religious f r a m e w o r k o f the p a s s a g e , w h i c h c o m b i n e s P i n d a r i c / C a l l i m a c h e a n i d e a s o f the p o e t as priest, w i t h e l e m e n t s o f a H e l lenistic c o s m i c m y s t i c i s m ( p a r t l y m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h L u c r e t i u s ' p e c u l i a r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f this c u r r e n t ) , a n d (bacchata,

487);

the m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y L u c r e t i a n i m a g e r y o f B a c c h i c

the

philosopher image.

E m p e d o c l e a 11 ¿illusions

also s u g g e s t

the

inspiration

pre-Socratic

priest-


47

f a r m e r ; this d r e a m - l a n d s c a p e seems to f u n c t i o n as a n o u t l e t for the tension w h i c h V i r g i l feels with r e g a r d to L u c r e t i u s . O b session w i t h L u c r e t i u s m a y also e x p l a i n w h y V i r g i l here a p p e a r s to be o b l i v i o u s to the possibility o f a n o n - L u c r e t i a n t y p e o f n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i d a c t i c , possibly S t o i c , P l a t o n i c , or P y t h a g o r e a n in affiliation, w h i c h could a c c o m m o d a t e V i r g i l ' s R o m a n a n d I t a l i a n a t t a c h m e n t s . S a m p l e s o f such p o e t r y c o u l d be f o u n d , for e x a m p l e , in C l e a n t h e s , a n d (to s o m e extent) in A r a tus himself; a n d , o n c e m o r e , V i r g i l here ignores the fact that he gives a s p e c i m e n o f such p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i d a c t i c w i t h i n the Georgics themselves, at 4 . 2 1 9 ff. (on the d i v i n e n a t u r e o f the bees). T h e r ecus a do m a y often be a m e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y , b u t it w o u l d seem foolish to d e n y that in the elegists, for e x a m p l e , it s o m e t i m e s acts as a v e h i c l e for the expression a n d release o f sincerely felt anxieties. A n x i e t y is c e r t a i n l y a w o r d t h a t c o m e s to m y m i n d in the c o n t e x t o f V i r g i l ' s r ecus alio here. 3 4 T h e choices at the end o f the second Georgic are presented l a r g e l y in t o p o g r a p h i c a l terms, a n d p o i n t us t o w a r d s the c o n v e n t i o n s o f poetic g e o g r a p h y ; the recusatio m a y be i n t e r p r e t e d in terms o f the o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n h i g h a n d l o w p l a c e s o f p o e t r y , as f o u n d n o t a b l y in the sixth Eclogue. T h e h i g h p l a c e o f p o e t r y is d e f i n e d initially in terms o f the h e a v e n s as the present a b o d e o f lustitia, w h i c h is to be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the g r o u n d - l e v e l o f the c o u n t r y s i d e t h a t she leaves b e h i n d (lerris, 4 7 4 ) . 3 5 T h e sky (caeli, 4 7 7 ) then b e c o m e s the p l a c e to w h i c h V i r g i l aspires as scientific p o e t , f o l l o w i n g in the steps o f L u c r e t i u s ' E p i c u r u s ; the f u r t h e r L u c r e t i a n echoes d e m o n s t r a t e that the ' p a t h s o f the h e a v e n s ' are also a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f L u c r e t i u s ' own p o e t i c h i g h p l a c e , H e l i c o n ( L u c r . 1.921 ff.). W i t h these celestial regions a r e c o n t r a s t e d the rivers a n d w o o d s o f the c o u n t r y s i d e . 3 6 A s a p l a c e 34

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f V i r g i l to L u c r e t i u s p r o v i d e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e o f w h a t

H a r o l d B l o o m , using p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l s , has called ' t h e a n x i e t y o f i n f l u e n c e ' . 35

W h i c h in t u r n is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the n e g a t i v e l y e v a l u a t e d h e i g h t o f l u x u r i o u s

c i t y - d w e l l i n g s : 460 f. T u n d i t humo f a c i l e m v i c t u m iustissima tellus; / si n o n i n g e n t e m fori bus d o m u s a'Ua s u p e r bis'. 36

It is t r u e t h a t V i r g i l g o e s o n to talk a b o u t m o u n t a i n s in the c o u n t r y s i d e , as h e

h a d p r e v i o u s l y c o m e d o w n to e a r t h a n d sea in the n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s o f the p r e v i o u s lines; this m a y s e e m to w e a k e n m y a r g u m e n t . I w o u l d r e p l y (i) t h a t the v e r t i c a l c o n t r a s t is p r o m i n e n t in the first lines o f e a c h p a r t o f the o p p o s i t i o n , a n d thus d e t e r m i n e s o u r response to t h e w h o l e f r a f / s q u e vias et s i d e r a ' , 4 7 7 ; ' r u r a . . . et rigui . . . in vallibus a m n e s ' , 485); (ii) t h a t this g e o g r a p h y d o e s not s e r v e solely the f u n c t i o n o f finding

a p o e t i c level, but is also a v e h i c l e for the c o n c r e t e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r of the p o e t .

N a t u r a l s c i e n c e i n c l u d e s the i n q u i r y i n t o parts o f the u n i v e r s e o t h e r t h a n the s k y ;

48


AND

IMPERIUM

o f p o e t r y this last is reminiscent o f the l o w e r o f the t w o p l a c e s o f C a l l u s ' p o e t i c a c t i v i t y in the sixth Eclogue (64 f ) : turn canit, errantem Permessi ad flumina Galium Aonas in mentis ut duxerit una sororum. E p i c u r u s ' / L u c r e t i u s ' v i c t o r y o v e r the skies is a l l u d e d to a g a i n at line 492, 'subiecit p e d i b u s ' , T h e rest o f the e p i l o g u e to the second

book

plays

itself o u t

at

the

ground-level

of

the

countryside. B o o k three also begins w i t h the w o o d s a n d rivers ('silvae a m n e s q u e L y c a e i ' , 2), b u t the poet n o w p r e p a r e s himself for a n o t h e r a t t e m p t to l e a v e the e a r t h (8 ff.): temptanda via est, qua me quoque possim 37 toll ere humo vie torque virum volitare per ora. primus ego in patriam mecum, modo vita supersit, Aonio rediens deducam vertice Musas. B u c h h e i t a n a l y s e s well the c o m b i n a t i o n in line 9 o f themes from the g r a v e - e p i g r a m o f E n n i u s a n d , in the w o r d victor, f r o m the t r i u m p h a n t f l i g h t o f E p i c u r u s t h r o u g h the u n i v e r s e at the beg i n n i n g o f the first b o o k o f L u c r e t i u s . 3 8 It m a y be a d d e d that the c o m b i n a t i o n o f E p i c u r u s a n d E n n i u s is itself a l r e a d y g i v e n in L u c r e t i u s , w h o c l e a r l y treats the t w o as p a r a l l e l sources of, r e s p e c t i v e l y , p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d p o e t i c inspiration. E p i c u r u s a n d E n n i u s are also j o i n t begetters o f the next w o r d s in V i r g i l ; in L u c r e t i u s e a c h c l a i m s p r i m a c y in his sphere {primum o f Epicurus, 1.66; primus o f Ennius, 1 . 1 1 7 ; like b o t h , V i r g i l too wishes to be primus, Geo. 3 . 1 0 ) . T h e b a l a n c e d primum . . . primus is also t a k e n o v e r b y V i r g i l , for primus here picks u p primum at Georgics 2.475. T h e n o t i o n o f b r i n g i n g d o w n the M u s e s f r o m H e l i c o n is m o d e l l e d in the first p l a c e o n L u c r e t i u s 1 . 1 1 7 f.: Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam. B u t the substitution oideducere for deferre points to the t r i u m p h a l m o u n t a i n s are a n i n e v i t a b l e p r e s e n c e in the G r a e c o - R o m a n r u r a l w o r l d , a n d V i r g i l is n o t s e t t i n g o u t to climb these m o u n t a i n s . 87

N o t e the v e r b a l e c h o e s o f the p r e v i o u s b o o k : ' c a e l i q u e via.t', 2 . 4 7 7 ; ' p o s s i m ' , 2.483.

38

Tollere in Hue 9 m a y also g l a n c e at tollere, L u c r . 1.66 ( E p i c u r u s the first m a n to

try to rise f r o m m a n k i n d ' s o p p r e s s i o n ' i n terris', 63).


49

v o c a b u l a r y w h i c h L u c r e t i u s applies to E p i c u r u s , a n d w h i c h n o w b e c o m e s the c e n t r a l a r e a o f i m a g e r y for V i r g i l . 3 9 T h i s f l i g h t f r o m the earth/ascent to H e l i c o n , e x e c u t e d in the l a n g u a g e w h i c h L u c r e t i u s applies to the ascents o f E p i c u r u s , E n n i u s , a n d himself, is, as it w e r e , V i r g i l ' s second a t t e m p t at take-off. 11 is also his second a t t e m p t to w i n the M u s e s (as it is the second m e n t i o n o f the M u s e s in the Ge orgies), a l t h o u g h h e r e in the m o r e v i o l e n t f o r m o f l e a d i n g t h e m o f f in t r i u m p h r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h the respectful a p p r o a c h o f the religious initiate. L i k e the first a t t e m p t , this too is e n v i s a g e d in the c o n t i n g e n t f o r m o f the recusatio, a l t h o u g h here processed in futures r a t h e r t h a n s u b j u n c t i v e s . 4 0 T h e M u s e s are still t h o u g h t o f as c o m p a n i o n s o f the f u t u r e ; w h e n V i r g i l returns to the themes o f the c o u n t r y s i d e at line 40, it is to the c o m p a n y o f N y m p h s that h e resorts, j u s t as at 2.494. B u c h h e i t is o b v i o u s l y c o r r e c t in s a y i n g t h a t the m i l i t a r y a n d nationalistic t h e m e s a r e in some w a y a substitute for the L u c r e t i a n themes aired at the end o f the p r e v i o u s b o o k ; p a r t i c u l a r l y p o i n t e d is the a l m o s t a u d i b l e din o f A c h e r o n at the e n d o f the ecphrasis o f the poetic t e m p l e (37 f f . j . W i t h r e g a r d to the r e s t a t e m e n t , at the v e r y end o f b o o k t w o , o f the evils that beset a m a n k i n d that has fallen f r o m the i n n o c e n c e o f a G o l d e n A g e , the r e m e d y is f o u n d to lie in the historical a p p e a r a n c e o f a t r i u m p h i n g s a v i o u r r a t h e r t h a n in the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n q u e s t o f N a t u r e a n d h e n c e o f himself. It is also true, as W i m m e l stresses, t h a t the self-doubt o f the end o f Georgics b o o k t w o is absent f r o m the p r o e m o f b o o k three. T h e f u t u r e resolution o f the p r o b l e m o f w h i c h poetic path to take seems assured: the Epicurean/ natural-philosophical imagery of Lucretius merges into L u c retius' E n n i a n / p o e t i c i m a g e r y , w h i c h n o w d o m i n a t e s a n d leads into an ' E n n i a n ' s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . T h e c h o i c e o f nationalistic t h e m e s also a p p e a r s to close the g a p b e t w e e n the h i g h a n d l o w 39

O n deducere see N i s b e t / H u h b a r d i, p. 4.20. F o r the t r i u m p h a l l a n g u a g e in V i r g i l

see B u c h h e i t , Anspruch, p p . 102 f.; n o t e esp. Geo. 3 . 1 2 ' r e f e r a m ' , m o d e l l e d o n L u c r . 1 . 7 5 ' u n d e refert nobis v i c t o r q u i d possit o r i r i ' . T h e r e is p r o b a b l y also an allusion to t h e statues o f the M u s e s t h a t E n n i u s ' p a t r o n , M . F u l v i u s N o b i l i o r , l i t e r a l l y b r o u g h t b a c k in t r i u m p h f r o m A e t o l i a . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f this t e m p l e m R o m e w a s possibly d e s c r i b e d in t h e o r i g i n a l c o n c l u s i o n to the Annals', if so, this e p i s o d e will h a v e b e e n o n e o f the m o d e l s f o r V i r g i l ' s poetic t e m p l e . See S k u t s c h , p p . 18 ff. 40

I t a k e the ma o f lines 8 ff. as closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h the ' e p i c ' m a t t e r o f the p o e t i c

t e m p l e . F o r a s u r v e y o f the a r g u m e n t s o n b o t h sides o f this n o t o r i o u s l y v e x e d q u e s t i o n see L . P. W i l k i n s o n , 7 h e G e o r g i c s of Virgil ( C a m b r i d g e , ¡ 9 6 9 ) , a p p e n d i x I I I .

61


AND

IMPERIUM

places w h i c h h a d initially been o p e n e d u p b y the f l i g h t o f the goddess lustitia f r o m e a r t h ; V i r g i l ' s poetic t r i u m p h will b r i n g d o w n ( ' ^ d u c e r e ' ) to the g r o u n d - l e v e l o f the I t a l i a n c o u n t r y s i d e those o t h e r goddesses w h o d w e l l in h i g h places, the M u s e s . T h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f H e l i c o n will be led to the b a n k s o f the river M i n c i u s , c e r t a i n l y a l o w - l y i n g p l a c e o f p o e t r y , in the s a m e region as the rivers a n d w o o d s o f the end o f the p r e v i o u s book. F u r t h e r m o r e , the failure to g a i n a d m i s s i o n to sacred places in b o o k t w o is n o w c o m p e n s a t e d for b y the p o e t ' s o f f i c i a t i n g at the t e m p l e that he himself has b u i l t . 4 1 B u t , if m y analysis of the n a t u r e o f V i r g i l ' s desires a n d anxieties in the earlier recusalio is c o r r e c t , w e c a n n o t s i m p l y see the R o m a n themes o f book three as a c o n f i d e n t l y asserted r e p l a c e m e n t for the rejected a n d s e c o n d - r a t e themes o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y . R a t h e r , the end o f book t w o a n d the b e g i n n i n g o f b o o k three are to b e seen as coinp 1cmentary explorations of two alternative ways of taking flight in the g r a n d m a n n e r . A s here presented t h e y seem to be m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , a n d the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the U n d e r w o r l d at Georgics 3.37 -9 i n d i c a t e s the reason w h y . But o n e should note h o w e v a s i v e a c o u n t e r b l a s t to the L u c r e t i a n a t t a c k on religion this m y t h o l o g i c a l p i c t u r e o f the U n d e r w o r l d is; V i r g i l takes that p a r t o f the t r a d i t i o n a l religious w o r l d - v i e w w h i c h the e d u c a t e d R o m a n f o u n d most self-evidently fictitious, a n d f u r t h e r attenuates its reality b y h i n t i n g that it is no m o r e t h a n an all e g o r i c a l prison for a P i n d a r i c or C a l l i m a c h e a n Phthonos. W i t h i n the Georgia themselves there are hints at h o w a synthesis o f the t w o types o f p o e t r y , the c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d the nationalistic, m i g h t be a c h i e v e d , e v e n if it is a synthesis that sidesteps the c e n t r a l p r o b l e m s raised b y L u c r e t i u s w i t h r e g a r d to religion. T h e e n c o m i u m o f O c t a v i a n in the p r o e m to b o o k three deals entirely in historical, l e g e n d a r y , a n d m y t h i c a l themes; s i g n a l l y a b s e n t is the c o s m o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f rulerp a n e g y r i c as d e v e l o p e d in an o b t r u s i v e m a n n e r in the o p e n i n g i n v o c a t i o n o f b o o k o n e , w h e r e O c t a v i a n ' s p o w e r is seen not in terms o f historical victories o r o f the f a v o u r o f the t r a d i t i o n a l gods, but in terms o f his c h o i c e o f d o m i n i o n f r o m the three g r e a t divisions o f the cosmos, e a r t h , sea, a n d sky. T h i s itself is y e t a n o t h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f L u c r e t i a n m a t e r i a l : O c t a v i a n in effect replaces, as cosmic o v e r l o r d , the V e n u s o f the p r o e m to 41

C o m p a r e Geo. 2 . 4 7 6 ' s a c r a jero\

w i t h 3.22 ' d o n a ferarn .


51

b o o k o n e o f the De Return JVatura, w h o s e p o w e r is a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h reference to these three m a j o r world-divisions. T h e int e g r a t i o n o f the ruler into the s t r u c t u r e o f the cosmos is p o w e r fully restated at the o p p o s i t e end o f the Georgics, 4.560 ff.: C a e s a r d u m m a g n u s ad altum fulminat E u p h r a t e n hello victorque volentis per populos dat iura viamque adfectat O l y m p o . 4 2

T h e m y t h o l o g i c a l a n d c o s m o l o g i c a l are skilfully c o m b i n e d : fulminat refers to the g o d J u p i t e r , lord o f Olympus (562), a n d suggests such m y t h s as G i g a n t o m a c h y , b u t it m a y also be u n d e r s t o o d o f c o n t r o l o v e r the physical processes o f the w e a t h e r , p i c k i n g u p 1.27, w h e r e the a p o t h e o s e d O c t a v i a n is i m a g i n e d as ' t e m p e s t a t u m q u e p o ten tern'. T h e p a t h to O l y m p u s a l l u d e s to f u t u r e apotheosis, b u t it is also the final r e a l i z a t i o n o f the n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l / L u c r e t i a n a s p i r a t i o n to caeli vias ( 2 . 4 7 7 ) , w h i c h V i r g i l himself w a s u n a b l e to fulfil in the Georgics. In c h a p t e r 5 I shall e x a m i n e h o w , in the Aeneid, V i r g i l d e v e l o p s this synthesis o f the c o s m o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l t h r o u g h his imitation o f L u c r e t i u s .

II. N A T U R A L P H I L O S O P H Y

IN T H E

AENEID

C o s m o l o g i c a l themes are the explicit s u b j e c t o f t w o passages in the Aeneid, the S o n g o f I o p a s at the e n d o f the first b o o k (740 6); a n d the first p a r t o f the S p e e c h o f A n c h i s e s in the sixth b o o k (724 5 1 ) , in w h i c h c o s m o l o g y leads i n t o e s c h a t o l o g y . In b o t h cases the explicitness m a y be a s c r i b e d to the p r i v i l e g e d status o f a s p e a k e r h a v i n g access to k n o w l e d g e n o t a v a i l a b l e to the o r d i n a r y i n h a b i t a n t o f the h e r o i c w o r l d : in the first case the s p e a k e r is the epic b a r d I o p a s , a n d in the second the s h a d e o f A n c h i s e s , w h o n o w d w e l l s w i t h such p r i m i t i v e sages as O r p h e u s a n d M u s a e u s . I n m y analysis o f these t w o passages I shall p l a c e p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on the w a y s in w h i c h they c l a r i f y the r e l a t i o n s h i p , in the V i r g i l i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f his o w n epic, b e t w e e n n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d H o m e r i c epic. 42

T h e s e lines c o n t a i n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t L u c r e t i a n e c h o e s : the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f victor

w i t h the p a t h to O l y m p u s s u g g e s t s the s a m e r e f e r e n c e to E p i c u r u s ' t r i u m p h a l flight as victor a t Geo. 3.9; in ' p e r p o p u l o s d a t i u r a ' w e h a v e a p a r a l l e l to L u c r e t i u s ' p a n e g y r i c o f the a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e ' d e u s ' E p i c u r u s , 5.20 f. 'ex q u o n u n c e t i a m per m a g n a s didita gentis I d u l c i a p e r m u l c e n t a n i m o s s o l a t i a v i t a e ' .

io

VIRGIL'S

AE.NEID:

AND

COSMOS

IMPERIL!M

(a) The Song of Iopas (Aeneid 1.740-746) cithara crinkus Iopas personal aurata, docuit quern m a x i m u s Atlas, h i e e a n i t e r r a n t e i n i u n a m s o l i s q u e la b o r e s , u n d e h o m i n u m g e n u s et p e c u d e s , u n d e i m b e r et i g n e s , Arcturum pluviasque Hyadas geminosque Triones, q u i d t a n turn O c e a n o p r o p e r e n t se t i n g e r e soles hiberni, vel q u a e tardis m o r a noctibus obstat.

V i r g i l , like H o m e r , i n t r o d u c e s a n u m b e r o f h e r o i c b a r d s i n t o the a c t i o n o f his epic, b u t it is I o p a s ' song, and his a l o n e , w h o s e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r is retailed as he p e r f o r m s in the epic. 4 3 T h i s l o n e l y p r o m i n e n c e in itself gives I o p a s a n e x e m p l a r y c h a r a c t e r ; this, it is i m p l i e d , is the kind o f t h e m e t h a t c o u l d be e x p e c t e d at the feasts o f the g r e a t in the e p i c w o r l d . B u t it is not the kind o f t h e m e that the H o m e r i c aoidos ( a p p a r e n t l y ) sings a b o u t ; this f u r t h e r rouses o u r curiosity, for it is q u i t e o b v i o u s that I o p a s is m o d e l l e d in g e n e r a l on the H o m e r i c aoidos, a n d o n the P h a e a c i a n b a r d D e r n o d o c u s in p a r t i c u l a r . A c l e a r e r i d e a o f w h a t V i r g i l is a b o u t e m e r g e s w h e n w e e x a m i n e the w a y s in w h i c h the a n c i e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s i n t e r p r e t e d the role o f the H o m e r i c aoidos, a n d t w o m a i n lines o f i n q u i r y seem to h a v e b e e n p u r s u e d : firstly, w h a t is the status o f the aoidos a n d w h a t a r e the themes s u i t a b l e to that status; a n d s e c o n d l y , h o w far are the H o m e r i c descriptions o f aoidoi i n t e n d e d as essays in self-portraiture. W h e n w e reflect that in the S o n g o f I o p a s V i r g i l i n c l u d e s d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n f r o m the list o f n a t u r a l questions in the v e r y personal recusatio at the e n d o f the second Georgic, the last line o f i n q u i r y b e c o m e s o f especial interest. 4 4 A third q u e s t i o n , t h a t o f the f u n c t i o n o f the S o n g o f I o p a s at this p a r t i c u l a r point in the Aeneid, m a y b e a n s w e r e d b y a d i r e c t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the f u n c tion o f the songs o f D e r n o d o c u s w i t h i n the e i g h t h b o o k o f the Odyssey. H o m e r , in his d e p i c t i o n o f heroic society, presents at the s a m e time m e m o r i e s o f a far earlier a g e a n d facets o f his o w n 43

A t Aen. 9 . 7 7 7 w e are told o f the h a b i t u a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f the b a r d

Cretheus,

b u t o n l y as a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e in a n o b i t u a r y notice: ' s e m p e r e q u o s a t q u e a r m a v i r u m p u g n a s q u e c a n e b a t ' , i.e. the t r a d i t i o n a l m a r t i a l t h e m e s o f e p i c . 44

The

ancient

tradition

of H o m e r i c

criticism

is used

to i l l u s t r a t e

the

auto-

b i o g r a p h i c a l a s p e c t o f I o p a s by T . T . D u k e , ' V e r g i l - a bit p l a y e r in the Aeneid ?\ 45 & 9 5 ° ) ; I'H

CJ


53

a g e ; c o n t e m p o r a r y reference is p a r t i c u l a r l y strong in the H o m e r i c descriptions o f the aoidos, a m o u n t i n g at times a l m o s t to self-description, o r at least description o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y class o f singers. 4 5 T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y so in the Odyssey, w h o s e p o e t a p p e a r s to be c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e self-conscious t h a n the p o e t o f the Iliad. O b v i o u s hints o f the poet's close s y m p a t h y w i t h his fictional c o u n t e r p a r t are c o n t a i n e d in the a c c o u n t s o f the aoidos left b e h i n d b y A g a m e m n o n to take c a r e of C l y t e m n e s t r a , a n d the s p a r i n g o f P h e m i u s in the s l a u g h t e r o f the suitors. H e r m a n n F r ä n k e l suggests that the p e r s o n a l interests o f the p o e t m a y e v e n be seen in o t h e r parts o f the Odyssey in the s y m p a t h e t i c t r e a t m e n t o f the h e r o as h u m b l e w a n d e r e r ; a n d O d y s s e u s h i m s e l f p e r f o r m s at l e n g t h as a n aoidos for the P h a e a c i a n s . 4 6 T h i s self-referring process m a y be o b s e r v e d , for e x a m p l e , in the w o r d s o f O d y s s e u s to D e m o d o c u s (Od. 8.487 ff.), in w h i c h h e praises the p o e t for a n earlier s o n g , a n d requests the story o f the W o o d e n H o r s e (496 if.):

at

K€v

8T'I

avTLK

¡XOI

eyto

cl>s apa

rot

Tavra -rräoiv

Kara

¡.loipav

pLuOrâo (j,ai

7rp6pu)v

0eo>

(ovaot

KaraXe^YG,

avOpwvoioiv Biamv

aoibrjv.

I f y o u tell m e t h e t a l e o f t h e s e t h i n g s in d u e o r d e r , t h e n f o r t h w i t h I s h a l l tell all m e n t h a t t h e g o d f r e e l y g a v e y o u t h e g i f t o f i n s p i r e d s o n g .

It is in fact the f u n c t i o n not o f the h e r o , b u t o f the p o e t , to ensure universal f a m e t h r o u g h the u n i v e r s a l f a m e o f the s o n g itself; 47 for a m o m e n t O d y s s e u s b e c o m e s the poet, a n d his w o r d s are self-fulfilling, in t h a t b o t h t h e y a n d the r e p o r t o f D e m o d o c u s ' s o n g w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y follows are a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the ' p a t h o f song' o f the Odyssey. T h e fictional aoidos a n d H o m e r also c o i n c i d e in the n a t u r e o f their s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , the w a r s a n d w a n d e r i n g s o f heroes a n d the d o i n g s o f the gods. W e shall p r e s e n t l y h a v e c a u s e to e x a m i n e a n i n s t a n c e in w h i c h this c o n g r u i t y o f poetic t h e m e is put to w o r k w i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e o f the Odyssey. 45

O n H o m e r ' s i d e a s a b o u t p o e t r y see W . M a r g , Homer über die Dichtung

antiquus

11, Münster,

1 9 5 7 ) ; H . M a e h l e r , Die Auffassung

des Dichterberufs

(Orbis

im frühen

Griechentum bis zur £eit Pindars ( H y p o m n e m a t a 3, G ö t t i n g e n , 1 9 6 3 ) . 46

H . F r a n k e l , f a r / ? Greek poetry and philosophy, t r a n s . M . H a d a s a n d J . W i l l i s ( O x f o r d ,

'975)5 pp. i o f f . 47

Od.

8 . 7 3 f. Mova

ap

aot&ov avrjKev deiSep.ivaL

a pa «'Aeos ovpavov evpiiv iKnve.

wAea ai'öptüi', j Oiftys

rtjS' TOT'

io


AND

IMPERIL!M

O f the v a r i o u s aoidoi w h o a p p e a r in the Odyssey, o n l y t w o , P h e m i u s a n d D e m o d o c u s , are g i v e n a n a m e a n d a l l o w e d to p e r f o r m in their o w n right; o f the t w o , D e m o d o c u s is g i v e n the g r e a t e r p a r t , a n d m a y to s o m e e x t e n t be taken as the ideal aoidos, b o t h in his o w n p e r f o r m a n c e a n d in the status w h i c h he e n j o y s at the P h a e a c i a n c o u r t . P h e m i u s is in a less f o r t u n a t e position; he is forced to p e r f o r m for the suitors a n d risks o f f e n d i n g P e n e l o p e w i t h his s o n g o f the nosios o f the A c h a e a n s (Od. 1.326); b u t b e c a u s e o f his troubles he m a y be a m o r e realistic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the true-life aoidos. T h e ancient tradition of H o m e r i c biography, both by virtue o f the i n n e r tendencies o f the g e n r e o f artistic b i o g r a p h i e s 4 8 a n d , it is to b e s u p p o s e d , in the a b s e n c e o f a n y s u b s t a n t i a l b o d y o f h a r d fact, n a t u r a l l y t u r n e d to the p o e m s for e v i d e n c e on the life o f their a u t h o r . T h u s the aoidos P h e m i u s is c o n v e r t e d into the t e a c h e r o f H o m e r , i m m o r t a l i z e d in g r a t i t u d e in the Odyssey.49 O n the p o i n t o f H o m e r ' s blindness the L i v e s d o not refer e x p l i c i t l y to the blindness o f D e m o d o c u s , b u t it is at least p r o b a b l e that this detail w a s p r o j e c t e d o u t o f the Odyssey on to the person o f H o m e r himself. T h e link b e t w e e n the blindness o f D e m o d o c u s a n d that o f H o m e r is e x p l i c i t l y m a d e in the c o m m e n t a r y o f E u s t a t h i u s , 5 0 a n d it is in E u s t a t h i u s that the richest m a t e r i a l on the c o m parison b e t w e e n H o m e r a n d his fictional c r e a t i o n s , D e m o d o c u s a n d P h e m i u s , survives. O n Odyssey 8.43 E u s t a t h i u s c o m m e n t s on the d e s c r i p t i o n o f D e m o d o c u s as a ' d i v i n e aoidos' (theios, o n e o f the m o s t f r e q u e n t epithets o f the aoidos): s i n c e h e sings n o t o n l y o f t h i n g s h u m a n , b u t also o f t h i n g s d i v i n e

(in c o n t r a d i c t i o n , be it n o t e d , to w h a t the n e x t line o f the H o m e r i c text implies a b o u t the m e a n i n g o f theios), a n d b y this d e f i n i t i o n H o m e r m a y also be called theios.Eustathius then runs t h r o u g h the epithets a n d a t t r i b u t e s o f D e m o d o c u s to s h o w his s i m i l a r i t y to H o m e r : b o t h are erieros ( ' l o y a l ' ) , penklytos ('fam o u s ' ) , Mousais philos ('a friend o f the M u s e s ' ) ; b o t h a r e the recipients o f b o t h g o o d a n d evil, in the f o r m o f w i s d o m a n d 4 8 See M . R . L e f k o w i t z , Homer.

The lives of the Greek poets ( L o n d o n ,

48

Eust. 1 4 0 4 . 1 6 , g o i n g b a c k to E p h o r u s {FGrH

60

Eust. 1584.50.

61

158449-

70 F 1).

1 9 8 1 ) ; p p . 12 f. o n


55

blindness. 5 2 F i n a l l y b o t h sing of the story o f T r o y , w h o s e f a m e (kleos) r e a c h e s h e a v e n . I n s u m , 'he p a i n t e d the p i c t u r e o f D e m o d o c u s , using himself as it w e r e as the o r i g i n a l m o d e l ' . Elsew h e r e E u s t a t h i u s talks o f H o m e r as m i r r o r i n g (enoptrizein) h i m s e l f in D e m o d o c u s ; like the latter, H o m e r is the p u p i l o f no m a n , b u t o f the M u s e s a n d A p o l l o . 5 3 A s to the contents o f the songs o f the H o m e r i c aoidos, w e h a v e seen h o w E u s t a t h i u s e x t r a c t s f r o m the e p i t h e t theios, ' d i v i n e ' , a n allusion to the a b i l i t y o f the poet to t r e a t o f m a t t e r s b o t h h u m a n a n d divine; the i m p l i c a t i o n o f this is spelt o u t in his c o m m e n t s on the w o r d s o f P e n e l o p e to P h e m i u s at Odyssey

1-337 f -

Virgil's Aeneid: Cosmos and Imperium

Imperium and Cosmos: Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius

aeneid

Aeneid

aeneid

Aeneid

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Cosmos

Cosmos

Cosmos

Cosmos

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Cosmos

Virgil's Aeneid: Cosmos and Imperium

Imperium and Cosmos: Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius

aeneid

Aeneid

aeneid

Aeneid

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Cosmos

Cosmos

Cosmos

Cosmos

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Imperium

Cosmos

Recommend Documents