USAAF Aircraft Markings and Camouflage 1941-1947: The History of USAAF Aircraft Markings, Insignia, Camouflage, and Colors

US ARMY AIR FORCES AIRCRAFT MARKINGS AND CAMOUFLAGE 1941-1947

The History Of USAAF Aircraft Markings, Insignia, Camouflage, And Colors

Robert D. Archer Color Illustrations by Victor G. Archer

...__,__........."T • ARCHER

u

ARMY AI FO CES

AIRCRAFT MARKINGS AND CAMOUFLAGE 1941-1947 Color Illustrations by Victor G. Archer

The History Of USAAF Aircraft Markings, lnsignia, C 0 tlage, And Colors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Research on this history of the USAAF Aircraft .Camouflage, Markings and Colors started in the early 1960s, and received official help 1965 onward, from the US Air Force. Maj. Larry Brown, Col. C. V. Glines, Maj. Paul K. Kahl, Lt. Col. Mary Mackie, and Lt. Col. Robert A. Webb, all gave the support needed to get the research going and obtained many of the required photographs. At the USAF Museum, Dayton, Ohio, Royal D. Frey provided facilities to copy the huge number of documents to support the research. Other personnel providing help at the various government agencies included A. Essenpreis, Virginia Fincik, John W. Gross, Raymond K. Loberg, Wilber J. Nigh, Gary D. Ryan, Edward Shirley, and John E. Taylor. Many photographers and collectors helped to provide the large number of black and white photographs and color slides seen in this volume. These include the late Col. Robert L. Baseler, USAAF, Maj. Jack M. Elliott, USMCR (ret); Gene Gilmor who g~e me the

run of the March AFB Museum files; Harry Gann; Gerry R. Markgraf who provided a large number of color slides from the collection of R. B. Starinchak; William L. Swisher, who also sent many others taken by F. Schertzer, Peter M. Bowers, and the late Gordon S. Williams; Paul Talbott of Delta Air Lines; and Nick Williams. Of these, Harry Gann, William L. Swisher, and Paul Talbott, all responded to urgent last-minute calls for many photographs needed to fill out the coverage required. Many friends provided the necessary support to keep this work alive over such a long period; they include the late Richard L. Sloan, William B. Larkins, Terry R. Waddington" Harry Gann, Gerry Markgraf, Walter M. Jefferies, Jr., and Greg Krasel. None of the above help would have prevailed without the total support of my wife Patricia, and my son Victor, throughout the last many years. Special thanks to Victor for his color graphic illustrations that have helped to make this work a really accurate and colorfulone. To each and everyone of you, my thanks.

Book Design by Ian Robertson. Copyright © 1997 by Robert D. Archer. Library of Congress Catalog Number: 96-71971 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any forms or by any means - graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or information storage and retrieval systems - without written permission from the copyright holder. Printed in Hong Kong. ISBN: 0-7643-0246-9 We are interested in hearing from authors with book ideas on related topics.

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CONTENTS

Introduction

~

6

Chapter 1

1941 Formation of the USAAF and response to attack in the Pacific

10

Chapter 2

1942 The first full year of combat..

56

Chapter 3

1943 The struggle for Air Superiority in Europe, North Africa and the Pacific

109

Chapter 4

1944 Air Superiority is gained over Europe and the Pacific

179

Chapter 5

1945-1947 The war is won and the USAAF returns to peace

243

Chapter 6

Combat Aircraft Distinctive Markings, Invasion Stripes, and Unit Insignia

293

Chapter 7

Standard Color Shades, Development and Usage, and Color Chips\

318

Appendix A

Aircraft Designation System

334

Appendix B

Aircraft Maintenance Markings

338

Abbreviations

341

Index

343

Introduction

This volume covers the history and development of how and why the US Army Air Forces finished and marked their aircraft, between 1941 and 1947. The US Army Air Forces was formed out of the earlier unsatisfactory command structure, when in March 1941, the Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, directed that action be taken to place the existing Air Corps and Army Air Force Combat Command (which had replaced the earlier GHQ Air Force) under one command. Shortly after this, he revived the office ofAssistant Secretary of War for Air; the new secretary, Robert A. Lovett, proceeded to promote increased aircraft production and to streamline the Army air arm. The resulting reorganization created the new Army Air Forces (note the plural form of the title) on June 20,1941 with General H. H. Arnold appointed as its Chief, directly responsible to the Army Chief of Staff. The new AAF was superior to the Air Corps and the Air Force Combat Command. Under Arnold, Maj. Gen. George H. Brett, the new Chief of the Air Corps, and Lt. Gen. Delos C. Emmons, commanding general of the Air Force Combat Command, were made responsible for service and combat functions, respectively. However, it soon became apparent that there were still defects in the new organization, but it was not until early in 1942 that these were finally rectified by making the AAF a virtually autonomous force within the War Department. These changes bad been made possible by official recognition of the major part airpower had played in the Nazi conquest of Europe, and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. As a result, a new War Department Circular, No. 59, was issued on March 2,1942, effective on March 9,1942. This abolished the Army GHQ, and placed theAAF on the same level as the ground army, if not as that of the Army itself. The earlier Office of the Chief of the Air Corps and the Air Force Combat Command were abolished. Despite this new directive, Gen. Arnold still obtained most of his authority, as head of an all-but independent air force, from being a member of the American-British Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) and the American Armed Forces Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), formed in February, 1942. However, this new command structure did get theAAF a position commensurate with its growing size and power. This resulted

in Gen. Arnold and the AAF assuming a role in the war effort far greater than that prescribed in War Department Circular No. 59. This finally reached a point where the AAF reached a quasi-equality with the Army and Navy, as compared to its actual legal status of equality with the Army ground and service forces. Very rapid growth of the AAF resulted in the formation of no less than sixteen separate Air Forces world-wide. First of these were the Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest Air Forces, within those areas of the continental USA. These soon became the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Air Forces. The Fifth, Seventh, Tenth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Twentieth Air Forces served in the Chinese-Burma-Pacific theaters; the Eighth, Ninth, Twelfth, and Fifteenth in the Europe-Mediterranean theaters; the Sixth in the Panama Canal Zone, and the Eleventh in Alaska. The Eighth Air Force was re-deployed to the Pacific theater in 1945, after the end of the war in Europe. Other specialized commands were eventually formed, including the Technical Training Command and the Flying Training Command (these were later merged into a single Training Command), Air Corps Maintenance Command, and the Air Corps Ferrying Command (this eventually became the Air Transport Command). At the peak of its strength, theAAF had no less than 2,411,294 men in service, and 78,757 aircraft in its inventory. There were no less than 243 active groups in service by April 1945, and 224 of these were overseas. After the end of the war, the reduction in strength was very rapid and only 303,600 men remained in the service by May 1947. Less than four months later the AAF was replaced by the new, independent, US Air Force, on September 18, 1947. Planning for this event had actually begun in 1943, but it took all of this time before the Air Force finally became an equal partner with the Army and Navy. To make the subject matter of this volume more manageable and understandable, it has been broken down into seven chapters and two appendices. Chapter 1 covers 1941, Chapter 21942, Chapter 3 1943, Chapter 4 1944, Chapter 5 1945-1947. Each of these chapters fully covers, in chronological order, the development of standard aircraft color schemes and finishes, development of camouflage color schemes and finishes, evolution of the national insig-

6

Introduction nia, the markings for airplanes and airplane parts, unit insignia and tactical markings, and the evolution of standard color shades. Chapter 6 covers briefly the development of the colorful Combat Aircraft Distinctive Markings for the Eighth Air Force in England, the special SHAEF "Invasion Stripes, and Unit Insignia". Chapter 7 covers the development and usage of the standard USAAF aircraft color shades. Appendix A covers the aircraft designation system used throughout the life of the AAF, and Appendix B covers the various aircraft maintenance markings used. Photographs and color drawings have been included in each chapter and appendix, where applicable, to illustrate the application of the requirements to aircraft. Some photographs also illustrate mistakes or incorrect application of the requirements. With the vast number of aircraft used by the AAF, it is only possible to display a representative selection of their photographs, and the reader should also make use of the large number of titles published on the AAF for further reference. However, much incorrect or misleading information has been published on the subject of this book; readers are advised to use their discretion and make use of the official information contained in this volume. All of the data in the text has been extracted from a huge variety of official documents, specifications, technical orders, memorandum, etc. produced by the AAF during the period covered by this volume. The AAF used a logical, uniform numbering system for all of its specifications, and all of the earlier aircraft ones fell into category 98-XX or 99-XX. The official nomenclature has been used throughout, including the various changes it went through. To save space, the reference "Specification Number" has been shortened to "Spec.". In contrast to many other publications on this specialized subject, the author has given the full text of the main official documents. This allows the reader to follow the requirements laid down for USAAF personnel to follow, and those levied on the huge number of manufacturers involved during the war. In many of these requirements, the needs of our Allies also had to be considered and, indeed, there were many joint committees formed for just such needs. Most of the time, the new USAAF cooperated very closely with its chief ally, the older British Royal Air Force, to their mutual benefit. However, as one reads the history of these events, it becomes apparent that there were two areas in which there appears to have been a degree of unwarranted chauvinism on the part of certain USAAF personnel. The first one was the tremendously slow effort to use white camouflage on the Anti-Submarine Command's aircraft, like the RAF Coastal Command had been using very successfully for some time. In fact, the white scheme was not adopted until just before the USAAF handed over this duty to the US Navy. The second area was the paint and colors to be used on the USAAF long range, high flying, Lockheed F-5 reconnaissance aircraft. Much effort was expended on the so-called haze paint schemes, but in the end various synthetic blue colors were used. This was despite the existence of well-developed color schemes in use by

7

the RAF for the same duties. The discrepancy in this area is heightened by the later use of totally undocumented blue colors on various Consolidated F-7 (B-24 modified) aircraft for use in the Pacific. These color discrepancies were all the more surprising in view of the existence of the joint Army-Navy committee that issued the joint ANA 157 and 166 color bulletins. However, such events were very unusual, and contrary to the normal cooperation in effect until the end of the war. To avoid confusion, all dates have been converted to the month/ day/year format. Some of the official nomenclature may seem strange, such as the use of the French word "cocarde" for the "starin-circle" insignia in Specification 24114 of October 1940, but this was the official term used until the issue of the joint Army-Navy Spec. AN-I-9 in 1943. To fully understand the use of the official documentation, it is necessary to realize that specifications were mandatory for use by both contractors and the service, while technical orders and technical instructions were only applicable within the service. However, waivers or deviations could be obtained by contractors in specific situations, when agreed to by the service. Although all of the specifications, etc., are dated, it did not necessarily mean that the requirement went into effect immediately, unless a mandatory compliance date was included. Effects of this lag in applying requirements are called out in the text, where known. To clarify and coordinate the mass of data generated between 1941 and 1947, charts covering the specifications, technical orders, color specifications, etc., issued during each year, will be found near the front of Chapters 1 through 5. These charts allow complete correlation of all of the service marking and color requirements for any given period, as detailed in each of the Chapters. To make it easier to find specific references in the text, many sub-headings indicate the more important data in all chapters. To save space, and endless repetition, several have been used in the captions to the photographs; these will be found in the list of abbreviations. The publisher has decided to print the numerous standard USAAF color shades, rather than using inserted color chips. Every effort has been made to make the printed color shades as accurate as possible: those whose needs require the highest possible accuracy in color shades are requested to contact the author, via the publisher. The author is aware that it has not been possible to include all of the available data in this volume; for example, it was found that the data for the section on the very colorful Combat Aircraft Distinctive Markings was so extensive that, after consultation with the publisher, it was decided to publish it later, as a separate work. Nevertheless, the author believes that this work covers a subject long demanding this kind of attention and has done his best to satisfy the objective; any errors that may be in this volume are his responsibility. He hopes that the reader will enjoy the volume and that they will inform him of any corrections or additions that may come to light.

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

8

USAAF

TIME LINE

NATIONAL STAR INSIGNIA

1941 USAAF Established June 20,1941 Lt.Gen.H.H. Arnold, Chief Pearl Harbor December 7, 1941

Insignia Spec. no. 2411 02-K July 20, 1941 to May 28, 1942

1942

Allied invasion of North Africa November 8, 1942

Insignia Spec. nO.24102-K Amend. #3 May 28, 1942 to June 29,1943

1943

Italy surrenders September 8,1943

Variation with 2 inch yellow outline, 8th AF. op. memo no. 9, October 1, 1942 Also used in North Africa.

1944 D-Day June 6, 1944 Paris liberated August 25, 1944 Battle of the Bulge December 16, 1944

1945

Insignia to AN-I-9a June 29,1943 to August 14, 1943

Germany surrenders May 8,1945 Japan surrenders August 14, 1945

1946 Gen. H.H. Arnold retires

Insignia to AN-I-9b August 14, 1943 to January 14, 1947

Gen. C.A. Spaatz takes over February 9, 1946

1947 USAAF becomes US AIR FORCE September 26, 1947

Insignia Spec. no. AN-1-9b, Amend.#2 January 14, 1947 to September 26, 1947

Robert D. Archer

Robert D. Archer spent his early years in Bristol, England. He kept extensive notes on the color schemes and markings to be seen on the huge variety of aircraft at Filton Airfield from 1936, until the outbreak of war in 1939, beginning a life-long interest in aircraft color schemes. He entered the aircraft industry as a design engineer in 1942, working for Napier's on the Nomad, Naiad, and double-Naiad engines: at English Electric on electrical control systems; and at Supermarine on the Swift series, and Types 525 and 545. He was elected an Associate Member of the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1954, and was active in the Air Training Corps and the Royal Observer Corps of the Royal Air Force until he left England in 1954 to join Canadair, Canada, on the CL-28 program. He was brought to California in 1956 by Northrop and worked on the T-38, F-5, Lockheed Electra and the McDonnell F-4 prototype. In 1964 he joined Douglas Aircraft at Long Beach, initially in military advanced design. He worked on the control systems of the KC-10 and MD-80, made a special review of the F-15 flight control system, and completed his service as a manager on the fly-by-wire control system of the C-17. For a brief period he worked at Lockheed Aircraft, as a project engineer on the WP-3A and NKC-121K programs. In 1966, the USAF granted him the then necessary secret clearances to research all of the files concerning the subject of this volume. He was the only non-service person granted this privilege. This has ensured the accuracy and depth of the material presented herein, much of it for the first time. Over the years, he has contributed to various publications, such as Interavia, Flight International, Space/Aeronautics, Jane's All The World's Aircraft, and the American Aviation Historical Society Journal, and wrote a book covering the development and service use of the Republic F-105 Thunderchief. He was a founding member of the American Aviation Historical Society, serving for many years on the editorial board of the Journal, and was a director for a short time. He

is a member of the Air Force Association and is also a founding member of the US branch of the International Plastic Modelers Society, and contributed scores of articles to several scale model magazines. After 49 years in the aviation industry, he retired in 1991. His most recent work was the Monogram U.S. Army Air Service and Air Corps Aircraft Color Guide, a definitive reference work covering the period between 1908 and 1941, published in 1995.

9

1 1941 F ormation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific The USAAF was formed after the war in Europe had been underway for more than twenty-two months, and it became obvious that it was only a matter of time before the USA became involved. By then, Nazi Germany had conquered Poland, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Denmark, and France, leaving only Britain to fight back alone. Unable to defeat the Royal Air Force in the summer of 1940, Hitler abandoned his plans to invade England and began an all-out bomber campaign to force the British to come to terms. Meanwhile, he planned a huge offensive in eastern Europe against his erstwhile partner, the Soviet Union and finally launched this on June 22, 1941 (this was two days after the formation of the USAAF). However, Gen. Arnold, commander of the new USAAF, had foreseen the need for a huge expansion of the air forces and planning for just this had been taking place for several years. A great

Fighters Heavy bombers Medium bombers Light bombers Reconnaissance Transports Trainers

Grand Total

1,018 120 611 292 415 144 4,124 6,777

deal of cooperation had taken place with the British and many Air Corps aircraft had been sent to Britain though, obsolete as they were, their only effective use was in training. More importantly, a small force of B-17 heavy bombers in the RAF saw action over Germany and revealed many shortcomings. Re-design of the type into its B-17E version turned it into an effective heavy bomber which was to become the mainstay of the air war against Germany for the next four years. Among the most important plans laid by Gen. Arnold was those for a huge training effort at all levels, resulting in a disproportionately large number of trainer aircraft to combat types. He also pushed the small American aircraft manufacturing base into a huge expansion of new plants all over the USA. The results of this are seen in the table showing the strength of the USAAF. When formed on June 20, 1941, it had the following totals of the main types of aircraft:

(P-35, P-36, P-38, P-39, P-40, P-43) (B-17, B-24) (B-18, B-25, B-26) (A-20) (0-46, 0-52, etc.) (C-33, C-46, C-53, etc.) (BT-9, BT-13, AT-6, PT-13, PT-19, PT-22, etc.) (above plus miscellaneous types)

Despite Arnold's best efforts, the USAAF suffered grievous losses when the Japanese made their surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, and these continued when the Japanese bombed the Philippines, prior to invading on December 10,194l. Thus, at the end of 1941, the USAAF had only suffered defeat, but 1942 would prove to be a different story, laying the foundations for the buildup of the biggest air force in history, reaching a peak strength of 79,908 aircraft in July 1944, only three years later.

All of these original USAAF aircraft were painted and marked in accordance with the latest versions of the applicable specifications evolved by the Air Corp and the GHQ Air Force. As described in the author's earlier volume, covering the development of these specifications and requirements from 1908 to 1941, these two predecessors of the USAAF had arrived at very complete requirements for painting their combat and training aircraft. OPPOSITE: Bell P-39Cs of the 31st PG, in May 1941. They are finished and marked to Spec. 24114 and carry the latest GHQAF designators on the fin. Propellers are camouflaged black; the squadron insignia has not yet been added to the new aircraft. Aircraft numbers 22, 23, and 30-31P are visible. These are typical of the aircraft taken over when the AAF was formed, incorporating the Air Corps and the GHQAF. (USAF)

10

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific Spec.No.

Jan. Feb.

Mar. Apr.

May June

Jui. Aug.

Sep. Oct.

T.O.07-1-1 Markings, Insignia, &

Nov. Dec.

i

Camoufla~e

Bulletin 41 Colors for Camouflage Finishes A-N Porcelain Color Plates Spec. 3-1 Color Card 24102·K National Insilmia 2410S·P Markings for Airplanes 24113-A Color for Anny Air Corps Airplanes 24114 Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft

USAAF formeu

3

I

4

5

I I

i

US Army Air Forces specifications in use, revised, or issued, by date and version, during 1941. Includes earlier versions issued by the US Army Air Corps, until formation of the USAAF. The letters indicate a letter revision of a spec., such as T.O. 07-l-1A. The numbers indicate an amendment to an earlier version of a spec., such as Amendment No.6 to Spec. 24114.

11

12

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES *** Existing Orders in Effect for Aircraft Marking, Insignia and Camouflage when USAAF was formed, June 20,1941.

The principal War Department, Headquarters of the Army Air Forces, Washjngton, document for finishing requirements was Technical Order No. 07-1-1, entitled:

DOPES, PAINTS, AND RELATED MATERIALS, GENERAL· AIRCRAFf MARKING, INSIGNIA AND CAMOUFLAGE. The latest applicable issue of this T. O. was dated April 8, 1941 and incorporated many references to other specifications. Relevant details from each of the referenced specs. have been provided at the end of the T. O. This information appears under the following headings: Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft (Spec. 24114) Colors for Training Airplanes (Spec. 98-24113-A) Markings for Airplanes and Airplane Parts (Spec. 24105) Standard Insignia (Spec. 24102) The T.O. read as follows: This technical order replaces Technical Order 07-1-1 dated May 15, 1940, and all previous instructions on airplane camouflage in conflict herewith. NOTE: The camouflaging of airplanes directed herein will be accomplished as soon as practicable by Service Activities having the necessary equipment, or if necessary, at Depots as arranged with the Control Depot. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Camouflaging of Airplanes. 2. Color of Painted Surfaces of Training Airplanes. 3. Identification Numerals for Training Airplanes 4. Colors for Alaskan Department Airplanes. 5. Marking of Airplanes. 6. Standard Insignia. 7, Organization Insignia. 8. Organization Identification. 9, Command Recognition Stripes. 10. Names of Combat Crew. 11. Paint to be used.

Curtiss P-36A, aircraft no. 5 of the 51st PG, at Oakland Airport, California, in 1941, shows the dark olive drab No. 41 and neutral gray No. 43 camouflage and markings to Spec. 24114. The GHQAF designator is in black on the fin. Note how the dark olive drab swept up to the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer. (Gordon S. Williams via William L. Swisher)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

13

CAMOUFLAGING OF AIRPLANES g. Types of Airplanes to be Camouflaged: All U.S. Army Air Corps and Federalized National Guard airplanes will be camouflaged in accordance with AC. Spec. No. 24114, with the following exceptions: (1) Training types of airplanes. (2) Airplanes of other types regularly used for training purposes by Training Centers. (3) Airplanes operating in the Alaskan Department or in any country having similar climatic and terrain conditions. (See paragraph 4.) h. Application of Camouflage materials over existing protective coatings: Specification camouflage materials in kind can be satisfactorily applied over existing protective coating on airplanes, that is, specification camouflage lacquer over existing enamel finishes and specification camouflage dope over existing doped finishes. 1.

Lockheed P-38D, aircraft no. 96 of the 26th PS, 51st PG, from March Field, California, in November 1941. It is finished to Spec. 24114 and T.O. 07-1-1 ofApril 8, 1941. Pilot was Lt. Chuck Dunning, who was to win a silver star. He was killed in action flying P-40s with the 51st PG in 1941. (peter Bowers via William L. Swisher)

P-36A of the 36th Pursuit Group. Group Headquarters Markings 1940.

P-36A of the 51 st Pursuit Group 1941. © Victor Archer

The colorful appearance of the USAC aircraft changed drastically with the introduction of camouflage in 1940, as seen in these two Curtiss P36s of the 36th and 51st Pursuit Groups.

14

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES £. Appearance of camouflaged airplanes: Due to the highly pigmented content and dull finish of camouflage materials, camouflaged airplanes will not present as pleasing an appearance as the highly polished Alclad or glossy painted airplanes of the past. No attempt should be made to secure a polish or high gloss, as this will tend to defeat the purpose of the camouflage. Q. Maintenance of camouflage surfaces: Camouflage materials may have neither the adhesive nor the colorfast quality of specification paint materials used heretofore. It is anticipated that there will be minor chipping of the camouflage materials at the leading edges of airfoils, particularly if the airplane is flown through heavy rains. This chipping may be somewhat unsightly, but as long as the material affords a reasonable coverage of the surface, the finish should not be touched up, as the chipping effect is not objectionable from a camouflage standpoint and the additional weight derived through the continued touching-up process might become objectionable.

Lockheed P·38D, aircraft 65-1P, of the first unit to use the P·38. Standard camouflage and markings for 1941. (USAF)

~ Types of Camouflage materials: Paragraph E-lb of AC. Spec. 24114 permits the use of two types of camouflage materials on metal surfaces. Either of these types may be used, subject to provisions of subpara. b. It will be noted that the use of enamel, camouflage, Spec. 14109 on metal surfaces requires the use of but one (1) coat of enamel and that no primer coat is necessary. Results of tests indicate that the least effort that is made toward exactness in the application of camouflage materials, other than the satisfactory spraying on of the prescribed number of coats, offers the best results from the standpoint of camouflage value.

f. Use of special color of camouflage material: The basic color of camouflage material for the top surfaces of all camouflaged airplanes will be dark olive drab, Shade No. 41, AC. Bulletin No. 41. However, to meet requirements where airplanes are operated over a terrain which is predominately green, the use of one coat of medium green, Shade No. 42, AC. Bulletin No. 41, is authorized to supplement the top surface camouflage finish. &. Identification Markings: (1) All identification markings, insignia, designators and squadron and flight command stripes on camouflaged airplanes will be of specification camouflage materials and of colors conforming to the color shades outlined in AC. Bulletin No. 41.

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

15

Bell P-39Cs of the 40th PS, 31st PG, being refueled during the 1941 annual maneuvers (the last prior to US entry into the war). The white cross is for identification in the maneuvers. (USAF)

Curtiss P-40C of the 77th PS, 20th PG, at Oakland in 1941. It is camouflaged to Spec. 24114, but does not have the fuselage cocarde. The designator is in yellow, as are the spinner and the wheel covers. (Peter Bowers via William L. Swisher)

16

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES (2) Airplane designators for camouflaged airplanes: (a) The designator used on the wings will be as specified in Paragraph 8 Q, with the location and size as specified in paragraph 8 f. Insignia blue, shade No. 47 camouflage material will be used. (b) The designator used on the vertical stabilizer and rudder will be as specified in paragraph 8 Q, with the location and size as specified in paragraph 8 f. Black, shade No. 44 camouflage material will be used. (c) Other identification markings, insignia, and organization identification will be as specified in paragraphs 5,6, 7, and 8. h. Camouflaging of Propeller: The camouflaging of propellers as required in paragraph "E-5" of A.c. Spec. No. 24114 should be accomplished by spraying each propeller blade in the horizontal position and retaining the propeller in this position until the camouflaging materials have set, after which it will be necessary that the propeller be checked for balance.

Curtiss P·40C of the 65th PS, 57th PG, at Oakland in 1941. It is finished to Spec. 24114, but has a yellow designator. The marking on the nose is in yellow, with an olive drab spinner. (Peter Bowers via William L. Swisher)

© Victor Archer

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

17

Tests indicate that one (1) coat of camouflage material on propeller blades offers adequate coverage. It is anticipated that this finish on propeller blades will chip and become unsightly after a period of time, however, no attempt should be made to touch up the surface of the propeller blades at any time until the propeller is overhauled, at which time the assembly will be repainted and balanced. ..i Because of the magnitude of the work involved, and the emergency conditions now existing, all service activities will make every effort, before contacting the depots, to accomplish the camouflage work specified herein with equipment and facilities already on hand or that can be made available locally. When climatic conditions permit, the work may be accomplished out of doors, or in the lee of hangars or other buildings when partial protection from excessive wind is necessary. It should be borne in mind that essentially all paints, dopes and lacquers are of a toxic nature and inflammable; accordingly, precautionary measures should be exercised in handling and application. 2.

COLORS FOR TRAINING AIRPLANES Advanced Trainers: Aluminized finish except all-metal types, which will be natural metal finish. Q. Primary and Basic Trainers: Yellow and blue as required by Spec. 98-24113.

.1h

3.

IDENTIFICATION NUMERALS FOR TRAINING AIRPLANES a. The use of field numbers and the painting of ring cowls (or combination thereof) for identification purposes of Training airplanes at activities of the various Army A. C. Training Centers and Civil Flying Schools is authorized. Designation of these identification numbers and ring cowl colors for activities within each Training Center will be the responsibility of the respective Commanding General thereof. The identification numbers will be of a contrasting color, preferably block type, and will be applied to each side of the fuselage approximately midway between the vertical projections of the trailing edge of the wing and the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizers. The height of the identification numerals will be approximately three fourths of the projected height of the fuselage at this location.

Six Curtiss P·40Cs of the 18th PG over Oahu, Hawaii, on August 1, 1941. The group consisted of the 6th, 19th, 44th, 73rd, and 78th PS. All, except the 44th PS, were caught on the ground on December 7,1941. Aircraft seen are numbered 41, 47, 51, 53, 54, and 43. (USAF)

18

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES 4. COLORS FOR USE ON AIRPLANES IN ALASKAN DEPT. OR COUNTRIES HAVING SIMILAR CLIMATIC AND TERRAIN CONDITIONS. .\!. To provide a color scheme offering marked contrast for spotting forced landings, etc. for airplanes operating in Alaska or in countries where like conditions prevail, the use on the top and bottom surfaces of wings of camouflage materials, of the shades covered in A C. Bulletin No. 41, to best meet the conditions of local terrain color is authorized. Since the distribution of airplanes is not known at the time the respective manufacturers are camouflaging the finished airplanes, airplanes will necessarily be furnished with camouflage in accordance with AC. Spec. 24114. It will therefore be necessary to apply any special colors where such special distinguishing colors are authorized. It will not be necessary to remove the original camouflage coating to apply the special colors. However, lacquer camouflage material cannot be applied over a previous coating of enamel camouflage material. h.:. When tactical requirements demand, airplanes operated in these locations will be maintained in a camouflaged condition as follows: (1) Lower surfaces will be camouflaged as prescribed in AC. Spec. 24114. (2) Upper surfaces will be camouflaged with such shades of specified materials as best blend with the local terrain. 5. MARKINGS. - a. Each airplane and each lighter-than-air aircraft will be marked in accordance with Spec. Nos. 9824105 and 99-2050, respectively. b. The code markings specified therein are the means by which the number, identity, and age of protective coatings of the airfoils, fuselage, etc., and other pertinent data relating to the aircraft, are determined. Therefore, in no instance will such marks be omitted or placed where they can not readily be seen when the aircraft is completely assembled. c. Markings required by specifications will neither be altered nor effaced, except as required by repairs or refinishing operations, in which case the markings will be properly replaced, nor will they be transferred from locations designated in specifications. d. There being no military reason for the use of individual names, the practice of naming airplanes after states, municipalities, or other localities will be discontinued. However, each airplane will have the name of the horne station, in a contrasting color, placed on the left side of the fuselage immediately above the technical data legend using letters approximately one inch high, with the top of the letters toward the leading edge of the wing. These markings are to be centrally located with respect to the wing outline. The letters are to be of the vertical type, 24 inches high and with strokes four inches wide.

Lockheed P-38D, S-IP, showing the red cross used in the 1941 Louisiana maneuvers. It carries the name "Snufl" on the nose in white. Note the unpainted propellers. (USAF via Gerry R. MarkgraO

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

19

,

Curtiss P-40E of the 79th PS, 20th PG, Hamilton Field, at Oakland on December 6, 1941. This is the Flight Leader's aircraft, A Flight. The nose band and command stripe are in yellow no. 48. Propeller is still not camouflaged black, as ordered in May 1941. Fuselage cocarde is covered with a maneuver cross. The personal insignia on the rudder is a major exception to USAAF practice at that time. (F. Shertzer via William L. Swisher)

6. STANDARD INSIGNIA. - Air Corps standard insignia will be placed and maintained on each aircraft, as prescribed in Spec. 98-24102, or Spec. 24114 (camouflaged Airplanes). 7. ORGANIZATION INSIGNIA. - il. Definition. - Organization insignia are those designs, markings, etc., that have been approved by the War Department for use by an individual organization. Q. Rules governing Design. - The following rules govern the designs of Air Corps organization insignia: (1) They will be simple and, where practicable, will depict some historical significance associated with the organization. (2) They will be dignified and in good taste. Fantastic designs may be characteristic and "funny" but have no permanent value. (3) Each design will possess the clearness required to make it distinguishable at a distance of at least 150 yards. (4) They will not containNumerals The letters "U.S." The Air Corps insignia. The United States flag. The United States coat of arms or any part of it. The complete coat of arms of any state or country, although devices may be taken from them when applicable. Outlines of geographical maps. Foreign decorations (e.g. Croix de Guerre, Fourragere). Campaign ribbons. ~. Submittin~ Samples for Approval. - Before placing a new design on equipment, three 8 by 1O-1/2inch sample copies will be prepared on good quality paper and submitted, for approval, to the Adjutant General through the Chief of the Air Corps. The samples will be colored with water colors or wax crayons in the colors intended for the insignia when placed on the aircraft. Blends of color may be used when essential, but much better results are obtained when blends are not employed, as it is difficult to match or keep them uniform in shade or tint in each of the paintings on the several aircraft. The "poster" type of design and "block" coloring are recommended. A brief outline of the historical development or significance of the design will accompany the sample copies when submitted for approval. No variation from an approved design will be permitted without authority from the Adjutant General.

20

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

North American B·25A on test flight over Los Angeles in pristine camouflage: note the red warning stripe in line with the propellers. (USAF via Gerry R. Markgraf)

Q. Rules Governing Use. - The following rules govern the use of organization insignia on aircraft: (1) Each aircraft assigned to a permanent organization, including U.S. Army A.c. schools, but not including Civil Flying Schools under contract, will bear the insignia of that organization. For example: Aircraft assigned to a squadron will bear the insignia of that squadron. Aircraft assigned to a headquarters of groups, wings, etc., will bear the insignia of such headquarters. (2) No aircraft will bear organization insignia other than that of one organization. (3) The placing of organization insignia on aircraft will be a responsibility of the organization to which the insignia pertain. Depots will not be required to reproduce insignia or other markings peculiar to an individual organization. e. Location, Size, and Application for Airplanes. (1) It is impossible to specify a standard location for organization insignia on all airplanes; therefore, no specific locations are mandatory. However, the sides of the fuselage midway between the wings and tail surfaces are the most desirable and should be used whenever conditions permit, so that the insignia on the majority of airplanes will be in the same relative location. The spaces selected on the two sides of the fuselage should be as nearly as possible opposite each other, and should have smooth surfaces unbroken by fittings, lacing, fasteners, steps, joints, openings, etc. When avoidable, insignia will not be placed on cowling. (2) In no instance will the size of an insignia exceed three fourths of the depth of the fuselage at the point at which the insignia is applied. Otherwise, the size will be governed by the most suitable spaces available, provided that such spaces are not too small or unfavorable for other reasons. If the available spaces are too small to provide visibility, as described in paragraph 7 b (3), or is unsuitable due to fittings, lacings, fasteners, etc., or corrugated metal, each insignia may be painted on a sheet of aluminum or suitable alloy of the desired shape and area and not more than 1/32-inch thick. All sharp corners and edges of such sheets will be rounded off. The sheets will then be secured to the sides of the airplane with screws, washers, and nuts, or by other suitable means, in a manner permitting ready removal when necessary. Each sheet will be secured at a sufficient number of points to prevent it being torn off in flight, and to prevent vibration that would cause it to crack or to wear the fabric or other parts. Whenever practicable, it will be secured to rigid members of the airplane. When necessary to attach such a sheet to fabric, the fabric will be adequately reinforced with tape securely attached by doping, and, if required, by stitching. In addition, suitable reinforcing strips of sheet metal or wood will be used next to the inside face of the fabric to receive the inside ends of the screws or other securing parts. Insignia on like models of airplanes in the same organization should be uniform in size. f. Location. Size. and Application for Lighter-than-Aircraft.

(1) Organization insignia will be placed on each-side of each lighter-than-aircraft. The locations for observation balloons will be on each side, halfway between the greatest diameter and the leading edges of the horizontal lobes. The locations for spherical balloons will be at points in line with and three feet from each end of the wording "U.S. Army." (2) In no instance will the size of lighter-than-air insignia exceed nine square feet. The insignia placed on each craft assigned to an organization will be uniform in size. However, this does not require that insignia of different organizations be of the same size. (3) The insignia for alllighter-than-aircraft will be painted on two-ply envelope-fabric, Code No.lOl, and securely attached to the envelope with rubber cement. Each sheet of fabric will be neatly trimmed to the minimum size

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

21

Republic P·43 (41·6674) of the 55th PG at Oakland in 1941. It was not camouflaged yet, because it was considered to be an interim type, not suitable for combat use overseas, The nose cowl is painted white. (F. Shertzer via William L. Swisher)

required, and, to insure adhesion, corresponding areas of the aluminum finish will be carefully removed from the envelopes with suitable wire brushes. g. Decalcomania Insignia. - Where personnel are not available to paint organization insignia in a satisfactory manner, the use of decalcomania insignia on airplanes is authorized. Owing to the local nature of their usage, however it will be necessary for stations desiring to use these transfers to obtain them by local purchase. Their application does not require skilled workmen, and when coated with clear varnish after being applied, they are about as durable as the average painted design. The cost varies with: (1) Size (2) Design (3) The number ordered (4) The number of colors and to some extent the colors themselves Instructions for applying decalcomania are furnished by the manufacturer. Until used, the transfers should be stored in a dry place where they will not be exposed to temperatures above normal. 8. ORGANIZATION IDENTIFICATION. - as a means of identifying airplanes, allairplanes will be marked as outlined herein. These markings (paragraphs 8, 9, and 10) are in addition to the standard markings, insignia, and technical data prescribed in paragraphs 5, 6, and 7, and will be applied by the organization to which the airplanes are assigned. a. Squadron Recognition Colors. - A suitable depth of the front portion of engine nacelles will be painted as follows: (I) Pursuit. Attack and Bombardment Squadrons. - The cowling will be painted one solid color: red, white, blue or yellow. The assignment of colors will be made by the group commander except where, as a citation for distinguished service, an individual squadron may be authorized by higher authority to use other recognition markings. (2) Group Headquarters and Headquarters Squadrons. (a) 3-SQuadron Group. - The cowling to be divided by longitudinal lines into three equal segments; one segment to be painted red, one white, and one yellow. (b) 4-SQuadron Group. - The cowling to be divided by longitudinal lines into four equal segments; one segment to be painted red, one white, one yellow, and one blue. (3) Reconnaissance SQuadrons.- The color or color combinations for painting the cowling to be specified by wing commanders. (4) HQ. Squadrons of Wings. Air Bases and G.H.Q. Air:Force. - No recognition colors to be employed.

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

22

o

o

Pursuit, Attack and Bombardment Squadrons. Assignment of Colors in Group.

Group Headquarters and Headquarters Squadrons.

o Squadron Command Airplanes

o 'A' Flight Command Airplanes

o

o '8' Flight Command Airplanes

o

o 'C' Flight Command Airplanes

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

23

Republic P-43s of the 1st PG at the August 1941, Carolina maneuvers. Aircraft numbers 70, 73, and 74 of the group, they have tinally been camouflaged, and carry the usual maneuvers red fuselage cross over the cocardes. (USAF)

Republic YP-43, Curtiss P-40B, Bell P-39C and the second Lockheed YP-38 show the aircraft that had been selected in the Air Corps 1939 competition. The YP-38 and YP-43 are in natural metal and the P-39 and P-40 are camouflaged to Spec. 24114. In the event, all of these types proved to be disappointing performers, only the P-38 surviving in front line service until the end of the war. (USAF via Gerry R. Markgrat)

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

24 !:!. Airplane Designators.

(1) Each airplane will have a distinctive designator assigned, which will consist of a combination of letters and numbers except airplanes on loan to civil flying-schools engaged under contract to train student Army pilots. The system of assigning the designators will use first the wing, group, squadron, corps area, or other unit identifying number, wherever applicable. This number will be followed by a letter or letters designating the type of equipment, as "B" for bombardment, "P" for pursuit, etc., or if not applicable, the assignment of the airplane as "W" for wing, "AB" for air base, "OR" for organized reserve, "AD" for air depot, etc., followed by a number which will be assigned by group and station commanders or by higher authority to designate a particular airplane. The following outlines the lettering system to be used,

Colorful lineup ofapproximately 20 North America BC-Is. The nearest aircraft is marked 557 over 53ED on the fin. They are finished in theAN gloss true blue and gloss orange yellow colors. (USAF)

*

Activity Air Base Air Depot Air Officer Bombardment Group Communication Squadron Headquarters Instructor (miscellaneous) Materiel Division Miscellaneous National Guard Observation. Organized Reserve Photo Pursuit Group Reconnaissance School Staff Technical Supervisor Transport Wing Weather (Observation)

Symbol AB AD AO B C HQ 1M. MD M NG

o OR PH P R ED S TS T W WO

(2) The following are examples of complete designators: Activity Headquarters Squadron, GHQ Air Force Headquarters Squadron, 2nd Wing 5th Air Base Squadron

Designator HQl to HQ2Wl "2W5ABl " 5AB-

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USfAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

*

5th Bombardment Group. 20th Pursuit Group 41st Reconnaissance Squadron 4th Composite Group 5th Transport Squadron Fairfield Air Depot Middletown Air Depot Southeast Air Depot San Antonio Air Depot Sacramento Air Depot Panama Air Depot Hawaiian Air Depot Phillippine Air Depot 2nd Corps Area Air Officer 1st Communications Squadron National Guard Instructors 154th National Guard Observation Squadron54NG1 Materiel Division 22nd Observation Squadron, Air Corps 1st Photo Squadron 8th Corps Area Organized Reserve 63rd School Squadron 1st Staff Squadron Technical Supervisor 2nd Weather Observation Squadron Miscellaneous

25

9B1 "9B20P1 "20P41Rl "41R4MB1 " 4MB6T1 "6TFAD1 "FADMAD1 " MADSEAD1 " SEADSAAD1 " SAADSAD1 "SADPAD1 "PADHAD1 " HADPHAD1 " PHAD2A01 "2AO1C1 "lC1M1 "lM" 54NGMD1 "MD2201 "2201PH1 "lPH80R1 "80R63EDl " 63ED1Sl "lSTS1 "TS2WOl "2WOM1 "M-

* NOTE: Not inducted into Federal Service - All National Guard Squadrons are Observation, and with the NG symbol used it is not necessary to add the 0 symbol. Since all National Guard Units bear a squadron number between 100 to 199, the hundred designation will be dropped in the interest of brevity. After induction into Federal Service - Federalized National Guard squadrons will use designators as specified for Air Corps Observation Squadrons, including the 0 symbol and the complete squadron number. (3) In the case of a composite group, the airplane designator will consist of the group number, followed by the letter "M" for miscellaneous, a second letter to indicate the type of equipment, as "B" for bombardment, and the designating number of the particular airplane. c. The letters and figures composing the airplane designators will be of the vertical block type, the width will be 2/3 of the height and the strokes will be approximately 1" wide for every 6" of height. The distance between the letters is equal to 1/2 the width of a letter. In consideration of the varied sizes and configurations of airfoils and fuselages of A.c. airplanes, it is impractical to specify a standard height of letters that will meet the requirements all airplanes. In general, however, the height of the letters and figures will be as specified in the following paragraphs and uniformity should be maintained for airplanes of similar types at a station. The airplane designators will be painted on in a centrally located position in the following locations: (1) For airplanes not camouflaged. - The designator will appear on each side of the vertical stabilizer. Where more than one vertical stabilizer is used, the designator will appear on the left exposed side of the left hand stabilizer and on the right exposed side of the right hand stabilizer. The lettering will appear in two lines with the individual airplane number on the top line, and the unit or organization designator on the bottom line and reading from left to right. For example, 12 indicating number "12" airplane of the 31st Pursuit Group. The letters and airplane numbers will be of sufficient height as to make the designator readily discernible from a distance of approximately 150 yards. (2) For camouflaged airplanes. - The designator will be as specified in paragraph 8 f (1) for uncamouflaged airplanes, except that the necessary area of both the vertical stabilizer and the rudder be utilized. (3) On the upper and lower sides of the left wing only (upper side of the left upper wing and the lower side of the left lower wing in the case of a biplane). The lettering will appear all on one line, with the top of the letters toward the leading edge. (a) The upper surface markings will be centered on a line at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, and passing through the center of the Air Corps insignia. The height of the letters will be 1/5 of the chord of the wing, as measured at a point 3/4 of the distance from the fuselage to the inner edge of the Air Corps insignia.

26

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

Rare photograph showing AAF Douglas A-20Cs and British DB-7Bs at Santa Monica, with the only Douglas B-19, 38-471, in the background. Visible are A-20C-DOs of the 41-19088/41·19462 batch, and DB·7B W8256. (Harry Gann)

(b) The lower surface markings will be ahead of and parallel to the word "Army." The height of the letters will be 1/3 of that portion of the chord from the top of the letters composing the word "Army" to the center of the leading edge of the wing, as measured at a point 3/4 of the distance from the fuselage to the inner edge of the Air Corps insignia. (4) In addition to the above, the airplane identification number (squadron, group or station) "12" in example cited in paragraph 4 £. (1), will be painted on the engine cowling, or on the forward portion of the fuselage, so as to be visible from the forward hemisphere. The variation in size and contour of the locations available for these identifying numbers will necessitate that the exact location and size of the numbers be determined locally for each model of airplane. (5) The following colors will be used for these identifying markings. (a) Black against a light background. In the case of camouflaged airplanes black, shade No. 44, Air Corps Bulletin No. 41. (b) Yellow (Shade No.4 for uncamouflaged airplanes· Shade No. 48, A.c. Bulletin No.41, for camouflaged airplanes) against a dark ground.

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

27

Douglas A-20C-DO, 41-19210, in formation with another. This was the AAF version of the RAF Boston Mk.III and was finished in the standard RAF day bomber camouflage of dark green and dark earth over sky. 808 were built at Santa Monica and 140 at Boeing, Seattle. (USAF)

9. COMMAND RECOGNITION STRIPES. - Command airplanes, except as noted in paragraph 9 £, will be identified by painted stripes 5 inches wide, encircling the fuselage immediately back of the rear cockpit. These stripes will be of the same color as the squadron identification color, except that black will be used instead of blue on blue or camouflage fuselages, and instead of white on unfinished aluminum alloy fuselages. The number of stripes and their position on the fuselage will be as follows: f!. Squadron Command Airplanes. - Two stripes, five inches apart, encircling the fuselage in planes at right angles to the axis of the airplane. Q. Flight Command Airplanes. A flight - One stripe encircling the fuselage in a plane at right angles to the axis of the airplane. B Flight - One stripe encircling the fuselage at a 45° angle from the horizontal with the uppermost part of the encircling stripe inclined toward the front of the airplane. C Flight - One stripe encircling the fuselage at a 45° angle from the horizontal with the uppermost part of the encircling stripe inclined toward the rear of the airplane. £. Command identification stripes will not be employed by headquarters squadrons of Air Bases, Wings, or the G.H.Q. Air Force.

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

28

10. NAMES OF COMBAT CREW. - g. Door Type Airplanes. Names of permanently assigned members of the combat crew will be posted on the inside of the door. For a this purpose, a metal holder with celluloid cover, size approximately 5" x 7", containing a typed list of the combat crew will be utilized. Q. Cockpit Dpe Airplanes - Names of permanently assigned members of the combat crew to be stenciled or painted on the forward portion of the left side of the fuselage; letters to be approximately 1/2" in height; white, and on a black rectangular background of suitable dimensions. 11. g.

...Q.

PAINT TO BE USED. On airplanes not camouflaged. - All painted insignia, organization identification colors, etc., enamel, Spec. 3-98, insignia colors in oil, Spec. 3-120, or lacquer, Spec. 3-158, will be used. On camouflaged airplanes. - The only paints, regardless of the purpose for which used, that will be applied to the exterior surface of camouflaged airplanes, will be Air Corps camouflage materials, (Spec. Nos. 14105, 14106 or 14109) and of colors covered by Air Corps Bulletin No. 41. Primer, metal, zinc chromate, Spec. 14080, will be used wherever a primer coat is required.

Douglas DB-7B, RAF Boston III (RAF serial number W8311) at Oakland in 1941, showing the RAF day bomber camouflage of dark earth and dark ~reen over sky. 836 of this version were supplied to the RAF. (William L. Swisher)

Bell Airacobra Mk 1 for RAF, AH621, running up, shows its incorrect application of RAF fighter camouflage. The Dark Earth and Dark Green should come down to lower edge of nose and fuselage, not brought up to the center-line as seen. Sky was the underneath color. (USAF via Gerry R. Markgraf)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

29

Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft (Specification 24114) A new Air Corps Spec. 24114 "Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft", was issued as a result of the Air Corps Study No. 42 on camouflage of combat aircraft. Dated October 24, 1940, it also introduced Air Corps Bulletin No. 41, "Color Card for Camouflage Finishes", (see Chapter 7) which established the new Air Corps matt colors for permanent camouflage paints. The key requirements of this specification were: ApplicationOne coat of zinc chromate primer, Spec. 14080, shall be applied to all exterior surfaces. This shall be followed by two coats of camouflage lacquer, Spec. 14105, applied as follows: all upper surfaces except for insignia shall be coated with dark olive drab, Shade 41 of Bulletin 41, camouflage lacquer. The olive drab coating shall extend downward on the sides of the fuselage and all other similar surfaces in such manner than none of the neutral gray coating is visible when the airplane is in normal level flight attitude and is viewed from above from any direction within an angle of approximately thirty degrees from vertical lines tangent to the airplane. The location of the color boundary line in accordance with the foregoing shall be subject to the approval of the Procurement Agency. All under surfaces, except for insignia and markings, shall be coated with neutral gray, Shade 43 of Bulletin 41, camouflage lacquer. Masks shall not be employed to separate the two shades. The lines of demarcation shall be eliminated as far as possible by blending the colors at the junction line by over-spraying. Finish of Fabric Covered Surfaces: Apply at least three brushed coats of yellow or cream semi-pigmented nitrate dope. The dope shall not be thinned for brush application. Apply at least one spray coat of yellow or cream semi-pigmented nitrate dope, thinned as required for spray application. Apply at least two spray coats of dark olive drab or neutral gray fully pigmented nitrate camouflage dope as required.

DouglasA.24 at OakJand in 1941. Three inch high letters on the tail show that this an SBD·3A (forArmy) taken off the Navy line. Aircraft lacks the Navy arresting hook and has a pneumatic tire on the tail wheel, rather than the solid Navy tire. It is finished in dark olive drab and neutral gray, per Douglas finish drawing. (William L. Swisher)

30

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

Boeing B·17D, aircraft 13 of the 7th BG, Hamilton Field, at Oakland, in 1941. This is one of the aircraft which flew into Hawaii on December 7, 1941. Finished to Spec. 24114, the aircraft of this period were some of the drabbest looking in the long history of the USAF. (F. Shertzer via William L. Swisher)

Propeller Blades and Hubs to be black, May 1941 Steady progress in the development of new camouflage finishes and requirements inevitably led to continued amendments to Spec. 24114. Unfortunately, Amendment No.2 has been lost (therefore there is no exact record as to what was said in it). Amendment No.3 dated May 9, 1941, specified that all propeller blades and hubs should be painted matt black on all surfaces. Paragraph E-5 required that: All external surfaces of airplane propellers and hubs, after the provisions of Paragraph E-1a have been complied with, will be sprayed with one coat of zinc chromate primer, Specification No. 14080. The final finish shall consist of one light coat of cellulose nitrate camouflage lacquer, Specification No. 14105. The color of all external surfaces shall be black in accordance with 14080. The final finish shall consist of one light coat cellulose nitrate camouflage lacquer, Specification No. 14105. The color of all external surfaces shall be black in accordance with Shade No. 44, Bulletin No. 41. Mter the propeller and hub have been camouflaged and prior to installation, the propeller assembly will be checked for balance. This was to be the last amendment to Spec. 24114 issued by the Air Corps, later ones being issued by the Army Air Forces.

Boeing B·17B of the 19th BG, March Field, shows the standard "U. S. ARMY" marking under the wing. The two underwing cocardes were replaced by a single one under the right wing in Spec. 24114. (March AFB Museum)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

31

Boeing B·17E-BOs, 41-9141 and 41-9131, Dying near Seattle are in two different finishes. The nearest one has been repossessed from an RAF batch and is painted in dark green and dark earth over deep sky, with an RAF fin Dash, while the other one is in dark olive drab and neutral gray. 512 of this version were built and were considered to be the first real combat-ready B-17. (USAF)

Colors for Training Airplanes (Specification 98-24113) Colors for Advanced, Primary, and Basic trainers were called out in Spec. No. 98-24113-A, dated September 9,1938, and the applicable portions follow (with the colors corrected to the new Army-Navy Porcelain Color Plates of September 1, 1938):

Stearman PT-17, Painted and marked to Spec. 98-24113-A September 9,1938.

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

32

Spec. 98·24113-A, Color for Army Air Corps airplanes

Exterior (Exposed) Surfaces.

Primary and Basic

Advanced Trainers

Training Airplanes

Ailerons-both surfaces

Oran,ge Yellow

Aluminum (1)

Cowling

True Blue

Aluminum (1)

Elevator-both surfaces

Orange Yellow

Aluminum (l)

Fins-both surfaces

Orange Yellow

Aluminum (1)

Flaps-both surfaces

Orange Yellow

Aluminum (l)

Fuselage

True Blue

Aluminum (l)

Fairing, fuselage-wing

True Blue

Aluminum (l)

Horns, fittings, etc.

Color of surface to which attached

Aluminum (l)

Rudder balanced section

Orange Yellow

Aluminum (1)

Rudder aft of rudder post

Standard rudder insignia

Standard rudder insignia

Skis

No added finish

No added finish

Spinners

True Blue

Aluminum (l)

Stabilizers-both surfaces

Orange Yellow

Aluminum (l)

Struts-landing gear

True Blue

Aluminum (l)

Struts-win,g

True Blue

Aluminum (1)

Struts-wire braces

True Blue

Aluminum (1)

Struts-fairing

True Blue

Aluminum (l)

Step-plates

Black

Aluminum (l)

Tail Wheel Fork

True Blue

Aluminum (1)

Walkways

Black

Black

Wings-both surfaces

Orange Yellow

Aluminum (l)

Wheel Cowling

Aluminum

Aluminum (l)

Highly Reflecting Surfaces

Flat Bronze Green (3)

Flat Bronze Green (3)

i. e. The fuselage decks forward of . the pilot's compartment and the inboard side of engine nacelles.

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

Interior

(Enclosed)

Surfaces

Wings and Control Surfaces,

including

Primary

and

Basic

Training

Airplanes

Advanced

trainers

Optional

Optional

Optional

Optional

Yellow Green (2)

Yellow Green (2)

ribs,

spars, and all interior structures Fuselages, excepting compartments personnel,

for

luggage,

and

cargo Cockpits for pilots and observers which

are

open

or for which sliding enclosures

provided

are

Closed cockpits, the top and Floor and sides to tops of

Floor and sides to tops of

sides of which form part

windows: Flat Bronze Green

windows: Flat Bronze

of the fuselage

No.9 (3).

structure

Seats and upholstering for seats

caroets

draoes

Luggage, cargo and

Sides above

Green No. 9 (3).

Sides

windows and ceilings:

above windows and

aluminum

ceilings: aluminum

Flat Bronze Green No. 9 (3).

Flat Bronze Green No.9 (3) .

etc. Yellow Green (2)

Yellow Green (2)

bomber's comoartment NOTES: (1) Parts and surfaces fabricated from the following aluminum alloys and corrosion resistant steels are used in the natural metal finish without paint coatings, except anti-glare coating: Aluminum covered Aluminum Alloy, Specification No. 11067. Aluminum Alloy, Specification No. 11072. Aluminum Alloy, Specification No. QQ-A-359. Aluminum, Specification No. 57-151-1. Corrosion Resistant Steel, Specification No. 11068. Parts and surfaces manufactured from other metals or fabric shall be finished with aluminum, enamel, lacquer or dope as specified. (2) Yellow Green is prepared by mixing: Zinc Chromate Primer, Specification No. 14080 -1 gallon. Black Enamel, Specification No. 3-98 - 1/10 gallon. Aluminum Powder, Type B, Specification No. TT-A-476 - 4 ounces. Toluene, Specification No. 50-11-38 -1 gallon. (3) Flat Bronze Green is to match color chip No.9, Color Card Supplement Specification No. 3-1. The lacquer or enamel shall produce a matt appearance of minimum gloss.

33

34

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

Douglas XB-19, 38-471, in flight over Santa Monica with an AT·6. It first flew on June 27,1941, in natural metal finish, and was the largesl aircraft to enter AAF service until the B-36. (Nick Williams)

These requirements covered primary and basic training airplanes finished in the true blue and orange yellow color scheme, together with advanced trainers finished in aluminum or natural metal finishes. This spec. also covered the interior yellow-green color; this was not matched to any specific color chip, but was prepared by mixing zinc chromate primer, black enamel and aluminum powder, as specified. Thus, just prior to entry into World War n, the Army Air Forces had no less than three standard trainer aircraft finishes; (1) the orange yellow and true blue scheme; (2) aluminum paint finish; and (3) natural metal finish.

Markings for Airplanes and Airplane Parts (Specification 98·24105) Under para. 5., T.O. 07-1-1 called out Spec. Nos. 98-24105 and 99-2050 for airplanes and lighter-than aircraft, respectively. Spec. 992050 will not be covered here as the AAF had no airships and very few balloons of any kind at this time. Interested readers will find full details of this spec. in the author's work on the Air Service and Air Corps. Spec. 98-24105-P was the current version of the spec., entitled "Marking for Airplanes and Airplane Parts", issued on August 11, 1936. It covered very extensive requirements for markings on external and internal surfaces and parts of all airplanes. These included: (1) Name plate to be placed in each airplane (2) Serial number of the airplane (3) Letters and numbers designating the manufacturer of the airplane (4) Code markings giving a record of the materials used in the finish (5) Date of manufacture of covered airfoils (fabric covered - author) (6) Strut numbers (7) Data card

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

35

The Douglas XB-19 was quickfy camouflaged at the end of 1941, prior to flying to Wright Field on January 23, 1942. It was to be the largest aircraft ever to be finished in dark olive drab and neutral gray. (Harry Gann)

Bell Airacobra Mk 1, AH621, in flight, shows how the Sky underneath has been brought too far up on the fuselage sides. (USAF via Gerry R. Markgraf)

36

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

Consolidated Model 32 Liberator II was one of 165 to be ordered by the RAF, with RAF serial numbers ALS03/667. Ninety two of them were transferred to the Air Corps and used on the first trans-Atlantic transport service. Finished in the standard RAF night bomber scheme of dark green and dark earth on upper surfaces and night (black) on lower surfaces. It carries the Air Corps Ferry Command insignia on the rear fuselage. The USA flags denoted its neutral status. The number "76" on the fin is a shortened form of the RAF serial number, ALS76. (USAF)

The following paragraphs cover the main external markings required on all AAF aircraft: A. Color and style of markings. - Arabic numerals and letters made with black dope or black color-in-oil were to be used. Where black would not provide sufficient contrast, white was to be used. B. Fuselage Markings - The following technical legend was to be stenciled on the left side of the fuselage, forward of the front cockpit. If the cockpit was in the nose of the fuselage, the markings were to be placed to the rear of the cockpit. U. S. ARMY - (model designation) AIR CORPS SERIAL No . Crew Weight... ........lbs. The letters and numbers for the first two lines were to be not less than 3/4 inch, nor more than 1 inch high. All other lettering was not to be less than 7/16 inch high, nor more than 1/2 high. C. Lower Wing Markings - the marking "U.S.ARMY" was to be painted on the lower surface of the lower wing or on the lower surface of the wings of monoplanes. The letters "U.S." were to be painted on the right wing, and the word "ARMY" was to be painted on the left wing, with the top of the letters toward the leading edge of the wing. These markings were to be centrally located with respect to the wing outline. The letters were to be of the vertical type, 24 inches high and with strokes four inches wide. No substantial changes in these marking requirements occurred until camouflage was called out for all combat aircraft in Spec. 24114, "Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft", dated October 22, 1940. Their markings were to conform to Spec. 98-24105-P and amendments, except that the marking "U.S. ARMY" on the under surface of the wing was to be applied with blue, Shade 47 of Bulletin No.4!. All other exterior markings were to be applied with either red, black or blue, Shades 45, 44 and 47 of Bulletin No.4!.

STANDARD INSIGNIA (Specifications 98·24102 and 24114) The T. O. called for standard insignia to be used as required in Spec. 98-24102, or Spec. 24114 for camouflaged airplanes. Spec. 98-24102-K was issued on November 1, 1935. As it so happened, this was also the last letter issue on this specification prior to World War II. Although the design of the insignia on both wings and rudders remained exactly as before, several detail requirements were changed. For insignia on the wings, a new requirement was added that when the wing covering was both fabric and metal, the available chord length was to be that of the metal covered portion only. This requirement was caused by the newer aircraft that were coming into service, which had metal covering over the forward portion of the wing and fabric on the aft portion. The effect of this was to effectively reduce the size of the national insignia as a proportion of the total wing chord, and this can be seen on many aircraft of the period. The requirement for the size of the available chord and maximum diameter and positions, remained exactly as before.

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

37

Consolidated B-24C on a pre-delivery test flight in late 1941, shows the standard AAF camouflage to Spec. 24114. (Convair)

#

l

Stearman PT-l3 in gloss A-N True Blue and gloss A-N Orange Yellow finish was one of the AAFs most important trainers, particularly in the early phases of the huge AAF training program. (Harry Gann)

38

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

D

Inner circle tangent to the lines as shown.

39

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

40

/

Not less than six inches

.. 3/4 AC

Available Chord (AC)

Metal Covering

1--

Joint Line

=:.....--------1---

Fabric Covering

Standard wing insignia on both wings to Spec. 98-24102-K

~

W/3

--~~

W

~I+--

!+-

• • • lII(

Maximum width of rudder aft of the rudder post.

13 alternate stripes of equal width, seven red and six white. Parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane.

Standard rudder stripes to Spec. 98-24102-K © Victor Archer

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

41

Stearman PT-13A at Randolph Field was one of ninety-two PT-13s and was used by the Stage Commander. Finished in the then standard trainer finish to Spec. 24113-A, it was nick-named the "Gray Ghost" or the "Washing Machine", presumably as it was used when trainees either passed or washed-out in their primary training course.(USAF)

/

Fairchild PT-19s of an unidentified school squadron at Oakland in 1941. They are finished in the gloss True Blue and Orange Yellow trainer aircraft scheme per Spec. 24113-A. (William L. Swisher)

Ryan XPT-16, 39-717, at Wright Field for evaluation. This is the first XPT-16, powered by a 125hp Menasco C4 inline engine. It was originally registered commercially as NC18907. Natural metal finish with insignia to Spec. 24102·1(. This was the first monoplane primary trainer ordered by the Army.(Harry Gann)

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

42

For wings without ailerons, the requirements were changed so that the insignia was to be located on the metal covering tangent to the joint between the metal and fabric covering on wings where both fabric and metal were used for the wing covering. The rudder design remained as before, with be seven red and six white stripes. It was also required that the surfaces of devices attached to the rudder, such as trim tabs, should be finished to blend with the adjacent surfaces of the rudder. Amendment No.2 to Spec. 98-24102-K, dated February 9, 1939 changed the insignia colors to conform to the new A-N Aircraft Color Standards (See Chapter 7). Major changes were made in 1940 to the national insignia positions and placing, as a result of the decision to camouflage combat aircraft. Spec. 24114s requirements for insignia stated that one cocarde was to be applied on the upper surface of the left wing and one on the under surface of the right wing of the airplane. The design and dimensions of the wing cocarde were to conform to Spec. 98-24102. One cocarde was to be applied on each side of the fuselage midway between the vertical projections of the trailing edge of the wing and the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer. If transparencies were located in this area, the cocardes could be moved forward or to the rear as directed by the Air Corps Procuring Agency.

Insignia for wings: one cocarde on the upper surface of the left wing and one cocarde on the under surface of the right wing. Design and dimensions of wing cocardes to be same as Spec. 24102-K.

Note: No rudder stripes.

Insignia for fuselages: one cocarde on each side of fuselage, midway between vertical projections of the trailing edge of wing and leading edge of horizontal stabilizer. Diameter of cocardes to be three-quarters of fuselage height. Design of cocardes to be to Spec. 24102-K. Amendment NO.5 required that diameter of fuselage cocardes was not to exceed 48 inches (121.92 em).

Spec. 24114, October 22,1940. Amendment No.1, December 18, 1940. Amendment No.5, September 16, 1941.

Note: if transparencies are located in this area, move cocardes fore or aft, as directed by the Air Corps.

Colors to Air Corps Bulletin No. 41. Fuselage Cocarde - One Point of star to be up. Maximum diameter of fuselage cocarde to be 48 inches (121.92 em). © Victor Archer

Ryan PT-20A·RY, 40-2416, with a Kinner R-440·1 engine. This was the last PT·20A·RY of a batch of 27 re-engined PT·20s. Natural metal finish to Spec. 24113-A. (Harry Gano)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

43

Ryan PT-21-RY, 41-1881, the first one of 100, at Wright Field for evaluation. This was the result of the AAF discarding the Menasco engine and replacing it by the Kinner R-440-3 engine. All subsequent PT-21s had the radial engine. Finish was the same as the PT-20A. (Harry Gann)

The diameter of the circle for the fuselage cocarde was to be three-quarters of the length of the projection of the fuselage side. The design was to conform to Spec. 98-24102. All vertical tail surfaces, including the rudder, or rudders, were to be camouflaged and were not to have any insignia. Insignia were to be applied with camouflage lacquer Spec. 14105 to metal surfaces, or with fully pigmented camouflage dope, Spec. 14106 to fabric surfaces. The colors were to conform to Bulletin 41 (see Chapter 7). Thus, the newly camouflaged combat aircraft of the service had a completely revised placement of the national insignia. This was the first time that the service had used only one cocarde on the top and bottom of the wings, as suggested in McCook Field Report No. 1305 of 1920. (Although several more changes were to be made in the design of the national insignia in subsequent years, their positioning has remained basically the same to date). All non-combat aircraft, i.e. those which were not camouflaged, retained the cocarde and rudder stripes as specified in Spec. 9824102-K and amendments. Thus, the USAAF entered World War II with its combat and non-combat aircraft bearing national insignia in different positions. This was to be duly changed at a later date.

Consolidated LB·30A, aircraft AM259, was the second one produced, and is seen running up at San Diego, California, in December 1941. It is finished in the then current RAF heavy bomber scheme. The colors were Dark Earth, Dark Green and Night (only on bottom of fuselage).

(USAF)

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

44

-

.

North American BT-9 trainer of the 46th SS, aircraft no. "292", in the standard trainer finish of gloss A-N True Blue and Orange Yellow. (USAF)

*** CHANGES AND REVISIONS TO AIRCRAFT MARKING, INSIGNIA AND CAMOUFLAGE AFTER THE FORMATION OFTHE USAAF

Radio call numbers replace aircraft designators, August 1941 A major change in USAAF markings for its aircraft introduced the now familiar radio call number painted on the vertical tail surfaces. Shortly after the revised April 8, 1941, issue of T.O. 07-1-1 came out, the Air Corps Inspection Division recommended that the specified airplane designators should be replaced by the airplane radio call (i.e. the aircraft serial number). It was suggested that this should be painted in large figures in a conspicuous place on the airplane, such as on the fin or the side of the fuselage. Meanwhile, the Training and Operations Division had also recommended that the number should be painted on the vertical fin at the factory, as this would be easy and the number would also serve as the manufacturer's identification. Both of these recommendations were approved by the Chief of the USAAF in a teletype to Maintenance Command on August 22, 1941. The radio call number was made up of the last digit of the fiscal year of procurement, followed by the Army Air Force serial number. For example, Boeing B-17E, serial number 41-2393 would have the radio call number 12393 painted on the vertical tail. Another change was that the new designator was to be painted on by the manufacturer at the factory, whereas previously, airplane designators had been painted on by the service units concerned. Each Army Air Force airplane (including training types), regardless of whether equipped with radio, was to be identified. The call numerals composing the airplane designator were to be of the vertical block type, the width two-thirds of the height and the strokes approximately one inch (2.54 cm) wide for every six inches (15.24 cm) of height. The distance between the letters was to be equal to half the width of a letter.

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

45

Vultee BT-13 trainer on a test flight prior to delivery in the blue and yellow trainer finish. The initial Army order for 300 of the type was the largest placed for basic trainers at that time. Production of the famed "Vibrator" eventually ran to no less than 9,228 of all versions. (Harry GaDD)

Radio call number added to vertical stabilizer. Height of numbers to be such that the radio call tail designator will be readily discernible from a distance of approximately 150 yard (137 m). Designator to appear on each side of the vertical stabilizer. If more than one vertical stabilizer, the designator is to appear on the left exposed side of the left-hand stabilizer and on the right exposed side of the right-hand stabilizer. On camouflaged airplanes, the designator will use the necessary area of both the vertical stabilizer and the rudder. If there is insufficient area in these positions, the numerals can be placed on the side of the fuselage. Black numerals to be used against a light background or yellow against a dark background.

TO 07-1-1A, October 28,1941. © Victor Archer

46

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

North American BT-14 was an updated version of the earlier BT-9 trainer, having a metal covered fuselage and tail surfaces of the same shape as the BC-l (later the AT-6). 251 were built, finished in the True Blue and Orange Yellow scheme per Spec. 24113A. (March AFB Museum)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

47

Three North American BT-14s show the underwing markings, with the two cocardes and "U.SARMY" lettering. (March AFB Museum)

Due to the varied sizes and configurations of Army Air Force airplanes, it was impractical to specify a standard height of letters that would meet the requirements for all airplanes. In general, the height of the numerals was such as to make the designator readily discernible from a distance of approximately 150 yards (137 m). The numerals comprising the designator were to appear in one line painted in a centrally located position. For airplanes not camouflaged, the designator was to be on each side of the vertical stabilizer. If there was more than one vertical stabilizer, the designator was to appear on the left exposed side of the left-hand stabilizer and on the right exposed side of the right-hand stabilizer. On camouflaged airplanes, the designator was to be the same as above, except that the necessary area of both the vertical stabilizer and the rudder was to be utilized. If there was insufficient area on the vertical stabilizer or on the vertical stabilizer and rudder combined, the numerals could be placed on the sides of the fuselage. Black numerals were to be used against a light background - in the case of camouflaged airplanes, black Shade 44 of Bulletin No. 41. Yellow was to be used against a dark background, A-N orange-yellow for uncamouflaged airplanes or Identification Yellow, shade 48 of Bulletin No. 41, for camouflaged airplanes. (These radio call numbers remained in use throughout the life of the USAAF and continue to be used by the USAF at time of writing).

OPPOSITE: Boeing B-17E on its acceptance night. Note the lack of designator on the tail. It is finished with black wing walkway markings, and camouflaged to Spec. 24114. The first B-17E was accepted by the AAF on September 27, 1941. (USAF)

ABOVE: Three Vultee BT-15s show off their school numbers on the fuselage. They seem to correspond to the aircraft serial numbers (4110280/10409) for the second batch of BT-15s. This was a variant of the BT-13 with a 450 hp Wright R-97S-1l engine in place of the R-98S-AN engine. (Harry Gann)

48

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

Beech AT-7 navigation trainer (the Army's first) was an adaptation of the C·45 transport. First ordered in 1941,577 of this variant were built. Natural metal finish to Spec. 24113-A. (USAF)

The recommendation to have the radio call number painted on by the manufacturer was carried out by an order issued to contractors by the Prod. Eng. Sect. in November 1941. This specified that the airplane designator was to be painted on the aircraft prior to delivery, providing only that there was to be no additional cost to the government or delay in delivery of the aircraft.

Yellow tips added to propellers, August 1941. Amendment No.4 to Spec. 24114, dated August 28,1941, added the use of camouflage enamel to Spec. 14109, specifying that only one coat of enamel need be applied versus the two coats of lacquer required, the resulting thickness being about the same for both types. There was also a change to paragraph E-5, headed "Camouflaging of Propellers", which stated that the tips for a distance of four inches from the ends of the blades were to be yellow in accordance with Shade No. 48 of Bulletin No. 41.

Fuselage Cocarde maximum size established, September 1941 The Air Corps Board, having completed most of the work on their camouflage studies, took issue with the size of the cocarde specified on the fuselage of camouflaged aircraft, because they felt that a cocarde which was three-quarters of the length of the projection of the fuselage side, would be entirely too large on some of the heavier aircraft the entering service, such as the Consolidated B-24. It would also possibly furnish an excellent bull's-eye to an enemy at long ranges. They, therefore, recommended that the requirement be changed so that the diameter of the circle for the fuselage cocarde should be three-quarters of the length of the projection of the fuselage side. However, the diameter was not to exceed forty-eight inches (121.92 cm).

CessnaAT-8, 41-5, was the first prototype, seen at Wright Field. Thirty-three of this version were built. Aluminum finish, with Material Division markings and Wright Field arrow on fuselage. (Harry Gaon)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

49

Douglas Boston Mk. II, AH435, aircraft No.6, with the short-lived tall fin stripes of 1940. Black propellers with yellow tips. The RAF camouflage is Dark Earth, Dark Green and Night. (USAF via Gerry R. Markgraf)

This recommendation was duly incorporated into Amendment No.5 dated September 16, 1941, to Spec. 24114 and was the last change to be applied to the national insignia prior to World War II. All non-combat aircraft, i.e. those which were not camouflaged, retained the cocarde and rudder stripes as specified in Spec. 9824102-K and amendments. Thus, the US Army Air Forces entered World War II with its combat and non-combat aircraft bearing national insignia in different positions. This was to be duly changed at a later date.

Curtiss AT-9, one of 791 built, was an all-metal transition trainer for light bomber trainees. Regarded as a "hot" aircraft, it proved to be more difficult to fly than the service aircraft it was training crews for: as a result it was phased out of service as more versatile trainers became available. Natural metal finish to Spec. 24113-A. (Harry Gann)

50

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

Beech AT·ll Kansan bombardier and gunnery trainer also evolved from the C·45. 1,582 were built. Natural metal finish to Spec. 24ll3·A. (USAF)

T.O. 07-1-1A revision issued on October 28,1941. The last revision ofT.O. 07-1-1, before the USA entered the war, was issued on October 28,1941, and incorporated the changes discussed above, in three main areas: 1. g. Identification Markings: (1) All identification markings, insignia, designators and squadron and flight command stripes on camouflaged airplanes will be of specification camouflage materials and of colors conforming to the color shades outlined in A.c. Bulletin No. 41. (2) Airplane designators for camouflaged airplanes will be as specified in paragraph 8 c. (3) Other identification markings, insignia, and organization identification will be as specified in paragraphs 5, 6, 7, and 8. h. Camouflaging of Propeller: The camouflaging of propellers as required by Spec. 24114 should be accomplished by spraying each propeller blade in a horizontal position and retaining the propeller in this position until the camouflaging materials have set, after which it will be necessary that the propeller be checked for balance. Tests indicate that one (1) coat of camouflage materials on propeller blades offers adequate coverage. It is anticipated that this finish on propeller blades will chip and become unsightly after a period of use, however, no attempt should be made to touch up the surface of the propeller blades at any time until the propeller is overhauled, at which time the assembly will be repainted and balanced. 8. b. Airplane Designators: (1) Each Air Corps airplane, (including training types) regardless of whether equipped with radio, will be identified by a designator consisting of the radio call numbers for that airplane as specified in A.c. Circular 100-4. These designators will be painted on the airplanes as directed in paragraph 8c. herein.

CHAPTER 1: Formation o/the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

51

Douglas Boston Mk. III, W8--, aircraft No.17, is shown with the later short fin stripes. The camouflage is Dark Earth and Dark Green, plus Sky underneath. It is seen at Floyd Bennett Field prior to delivery. (USAF via Gerry R. MarkgraO

(2) Where insignia to denote rank or office of an individual is to be used in addition to the designator, the official insignia will be of a size in accordance with A.C. drawing No.41D658 and located and installed in accordance with A.c. drawing No. 41A656. The materials used in painting the official insignia will be restricted to the use of standard Air Corps specification materials and standard colors or blends thereof.

North American BC-lA, aircraft no. "I" of the 123rd OS, Oregon G at Oakland in 1941. Natural metal finish to Spec. 24113·A. The white "line" on the rudder blue stripe is actually the dope code markings for the fabric. (F. Shertzer via William L. Swisher)

52

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

North American BC-lA, aircraft no. 15 of the 120th OS, Colorado NG at Biggs Field, Fort Bliss, Texas on October 18, 1941. This aircraft has a beautiful unit insignia on the fuselage. (USAF)

Two Beech F·2·BHs of the 1st Photo Group over Alaska in 1941. These were photographic reconnaissance aircraft, fourteen being modified from Beech B-18 commercial aircraft. Finish was to Spec. 24113-A, natural metal with large orange and green "Alaska" visibility panels on the wings, fuselage, and tail surfaces. (USAF)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

53

Infra-red reflectance paint tested in Florida, November 1941. A paint having high infra red reflectance was being subjected to an exposure test in Florida to determine its desirability. Aerial photographic tests had indicated that this paint offered definite advantages to prevent detection of ground camouflaged parked airplanes. Spec 24114 "Camouflage Finishes For Aircraft", Amendment No.6, December 12, 1941. This spec. was revised only a few days after the United States entered the war and made the following changes: Application.- One coat of zinc chromate primer, Specification AN-TT-P-656 was to be applied to all exterior surfaces. This was to be followed by one of two types of camouflage finishes as follows: (1). All exterior surfaces, except for insignia and markings, were to be coated with two coats of camouflage lacquer, Specification No. 14105 or with one coat of camouflage enamel, Specification No. 14109. The lacquer was to be thinned by mixing approximately two parts of lacquer with one part of lacquer thinner. The enamel was to be thinned with approximately four parts of enamel to one part of enamel thinner. The enamel was to be so applied that a coating of approximately 1 mil thickness was obtained.

,

Vultee Vengeance Mk. II,AF841, runs up at Northrop Field, Hawthorne, California. It is camounaged in Dark Earth, Dark Green and Sky. (via author)

Vultee Vengeance Mk. II, AF841, from front view, shows a total lack of underneath markings and the characteristic cranked wing shape. (via author)

54

U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

I

Taylorcraft YO-57, 42-452, was one of four obtained in 1941 to evaluate its use as a liaison and observation aircraft in close support of Army ground operations. Finish to Spec. 24114. (USAF)

(2). The entire airplane was to be coated with either lacquer or enamel. In no case was lacquer to be used for the upper surface and enamel for the lower, or enamel for the upper surface and lacquer for the lower. (3). All upper surfaces except for insignia were to be coated with dark olive drab, Shade 41 of Bulletin 41. The dark olive drab was to extend downward on the sides of the fuselage and all similar surfaces in such manner that none of the neutral gray coating was visible when the airplane was in normal level flight attitude and was viewed from above in any direction within an angle of approximately 30 degrees from vertical lines tangent to the airplane. The location of the color boundary line was subject to approval by the AAF. (4). All under surfaces, except for insignia and markings, were to be coated with neutral gray, Shade 43 of Bulletin 41. (5). Fabric covered surfaces, regardless of whether or not the finish of the metal surfaces was lacquer, or enamel, camouflage, Specification No. 14109, were to be finished as follows: (see original spec. issue of October 1940 - author).

Aeronca 0-58, one of a batch of twenty, ordered after four YO-S8s were obtained at the same time as the Taylorcraft YO·57, for the same purpose. The 0-58s were upgraded with wider fuselages and more window space. Finished to Spec. 24114, with the 1941 maneuver markings on the fuselage. (USAF)

CHAPTER 1: Formation of the USAAF and Response to Attack in the Pacific

55

The following new paragraph was added: Camouflaging of Propellers.- All external surfaces of airplane propellers and hubs, after being cleaned, were to be sprayed with one coat of zinc chromate primer. The final finish was to consist of one light coat of cellulose nitrate camouflage lacquer. During the finishing process, and until the final coat had set, each propeller blade was to be maintained in a horizontal position. The color of all external surfaces, except the tips, were to be black in accordance with Shade No. 44, Bulletin No. 41. The tips for a distance of 4 inches from the ends of the blades were to be yellow in accordance with Shade No. 48, Bulletin No. 41. After the propeller and hub had been camouflaged and prior to installation, the propeller assembly was to be checked for balance.

Civil Aeronautics Administration issues requirements for Flight Test Areas, Flight Procedures and Aircraft Markings, December 15, 1941. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. west coast was very apprehensive of being attacked by the Japanese. To cut down flying in the Los Angeles area, the CAA, in conjunction with the Fourth Interceptor Command, AAF, issued a memo to aircraft manufacturers and test pilots prescribing flight test areas in the San Diego and Los Angeles Metropolitan area. Flight plans were also required; all flights had to have the flight plan approved by the CAA before each flight was made. All aircraft flying in these areas had to be marked with the standard U.S. insignia on the upper left wing and on the lower right wing. The diameter of these insignias was to be 36, 48, or 72 inches, using the largest practical size. In addition, the letters "U.S.", in the largest possible size, and in a contrasting color to make them easily seen, were to be painted on both sides of the fuselage. These markings were to be in addition to the standard CAA civil markings. On December 17, 1941, a clarification was issued by the CAA, stating that the letters on the fuselage should have a width of at least two-thirds of their height. The width of each stroke was to be at least one-sixth of the height, and the space between the letters was also to be not less than onesixth of the height. The letters were to be painted in a solid color and kept clean.

*****

North American Mustang Mk 1, AG345, the first production aircraft, shows the correct application of RAF Dark Earth, Dark Green and Sky finish (compare with the first Bell Airacobra). (via author)

2 1942 The First Full Year of Combat

The beginning of 1942 was not much better for the USAAF as the Japanese pushed deeper into the Philippines, most of the US aircraft being destroyed on the ground or overwhelmed in the air. The islands were finally overrun in May, but a short while before, Gen. Doolittle led sixteen B-25 medium bombers on a daring raid on Japan, made from the deck of the US Navy carrier Hornet. This was a real morale booster at a time when it was badly needed. The battle of the Coral Sea in May, followed by that of Midway in June, marked the turning point of the war in the Pacific, and finally allowed the new Eighth Air Force to be sent to England to commence operations against Germany. On the eastern front the Russians had launched their first major winter counter-attack at the beginning of 1942 against the German Army around Moscow, causing its first major retreat of the war. Later in the year, in North Africa, British Gen. Montgomery's victory at El Alamein, Libya, in October started the final Axis retreat across North Africa and paved the way for the Allied operation "Torch", under Gen. Eisenhower, the invasion of Northwest Africa on November 8, 1942. At the end of 1942, the German Army got mired down in Stalingrad, paving the way for more Russian winter offensives. The USAAF emphasis on production and training began to show results and by June, its strength had more than tripled to a

56

total of more than 21,000 aircraft, including more than 12,000 trainers. More than 140 aircraft were lost in combat over Europe and North Africa, while nearly three times as many, 341, were lost in the war against Japan. During 1942, the results of combat experience resulted in the following major changes in the marking and camouflaging of USAAF aircraft: Anti-submarine white camouflage evolved. Blue haze paint tested for use on F-4 reconnaissance aircraft. "U.S.ARMY" underwing markings deleted from combat aircraft, May. Red center removed from cocarde, rudder stripes deleted from combat aircraft, May. Medium Green patches added to wing and tail surfaces of combat aircraft, July. Camouflage colors standardized for all USA produced Allied aircraft, July. Red center dot removed from cocarde and rudder stripes deleted from all aircraft, July. Blue and yellow finish for primary and basic trainers deleted, September. Yellow outer ring added to fuselage cocarde in Europe and North Africa, September. "U.S.ARMY" underwing markings deleted from all aircraft, October.

CHAPTER 2: 1942-The First Full Year a/Combat

Spec.No.

T.O.07·1·1 Markings, Insignia, & Camouflage

Jan. Feb.

Mar. Apr.

May June

Jul. Aug.

New Issue

i i

I

Bulletin 41

Nov. Dec.

A

1

I

Colors for Camouflage Finishes

Bulletin 48

Sep. Oct.

57

I

Issued May.

Colors for Temporary Camouflage Finishes

A·N Porcelain Color Plates

Spec. 3·1 Color Card

24102 National Insignia

24105 Markings for Airplanes

24113 Color for Army Air Corps Airplanes

24114 Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft

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US Army Air Forces specifications in use, revised, or issued, by date and version, during 1942. The letters indicate a letter revision of a spec., such as T.O. 07-1-1A. The numbers indicate an amendment to an earlier version of a spec., such as Amendment No. 6 to Spec. 24114.

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Curtiss P-40-CU used as a training aircraft by the 54PG, at Hamilton Field, California, in early 1942. It is interesting to note that the cocarde under the left wing and the old designator markings have been painted out, though very thinly, and that the neutral gray paint sweeps up to the horizontal stabilizer, identifying this as one of the original camounaged P-40s. (USAF)

***

AAF Eastern Theater Of Operations orders camouflage paint to be applied immediately on all aircraft, January 1, 1942. Gen. Krogstad, commander of the First Air Force, requested that the First Bomber Command, Langley Field, VA., take immediate action to have the prescribed camouflage applied to all of its aircraft immediately. This memo went to the 34th Bomb Gp, Westover Field, MA, the 43rd Bomb Gp, Bangor, ME, the 13th Reconn. Sq, Bangor, ME, and the 2nd Bomb Gp, Langley Field, VA.

White and Haze Paints tested on Pursuit Aircraft, January 1942. Exp. Eng. Sect. (WF), investigated the method for camouflaging pursuit aircraft which were being used in studies of photographic installations. Two kinds of paint were used for the tests, namely: (1) Cabot Haze Paint, which was a colloidal dispersion of zinc oxide in oil. The plane had a bluish appearance (sky) when the paint was applied in a thin coating over a black background. (2) A pinkish white and a micaceous paint procured from the Lowe Bros. Paint Co, Dayton, Ohio (hereafter Lowe Bros.) The tentative conclusions were that a flat white camouflage paint was most suitable for camouflage against clouds and the haze paint was preferable for blue-sky conditions. Exp. Eng. Sect. stated that further tests would be conducted to ascertain satisfactory results.

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North American B-2SA-NA, one of forty built before production shifted to the improved B-2SB-NA version. The beam and ventral gun positions of the B-2SA were replaced on the B-2SB by dorsal and ventral gun turrets with two 0.5 inch guns each. (March AFB Museum)

Permanent Camouflage Paints tested in Florida, January 1942. Suitable finishes for permanent camouflage of aircraft were discussed in a report prepared by WE Laboratory tests of applications and removal, adhesion, durability and optical reflection characteristics were included in the investigation. WF concluded that, after five months of Florida exposure, permanent materials, of low gloss, color retention and satisfactory adhesion, had been developed. A method of measuring the specular gloss of camouflage finishes had also been developed.

Six of the sixteen B-2SB-NAs on the deck of the USS Hornet. Only visible radio call number is 40-2283. (USAF)

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Two of the B·2SB·NAs of Col. Jimmy Doolittle's Tokyo strike force on the deck of the carrier USS Hornet, on April 18, 1942. The right aircraft is 40-2282. Note how crammed the aircraft were on the deck. (USAF)

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Nose art on one of the Doolittle B-25B-NAs, appears to be painted in white. This attack achieved little in damage to Japan, but it came as a tremendous morale booster at a sorely needed time, and showed the Japanese that they were also now susceptible to attack by US forces. (USAF)

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Douglas B-18B-DO, 37·530, in Theater 5, the Caribbean and British West Indies area. It is fitted with a very early MAD (Magnetic Anomaly Detection) boom, which appears to have its cover installed upside down. Although it has the post May 1942 cocarde without the red center circle, it is still in dark olive drab and neutral gray finish, despite the drive for a white anti-submarine aircraft finish. (USAF) Request by the RAF for standardization of B-17E camouflage, January 28,1942. The RAP requested that the lAC make another effort to standardize the camouflage being applied to B-17Es at the modification centers, commenting that the previous differences of location of operational units of the two countries did not now apply, so it should be possible to find a common camouflage scheme for each class of aircraft. Under the aircraft allocation pooling then in force, it was difficult to paint different patterns at the manufacturing plants. Technical Sub-Committee On Camouflage decides that the AAF basic camouflage scheme and the U.S. Navy basic camouflage scheme be accepted as the production standard for all aircraft produced in the U.S. March S, 1942. The Technical Sub-Committee on Camouflage met on March 5, 1942, to discuss the problems raised by the British Air Committee requiring that British camouflage schemes be painted at the factory on all aircraft destined for the RAP and FAA. This was to be applied

A Curtiss P-40E, '585', being towed in Alaska. It has the famous Aleutian Tiger markings, plus white stripes on the fuselage and rudder. Note the blue and gray PBY in the background. (USAF)

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Convair B-24E-DTs on the new production line at the Douglas 1\1lsa plant in 1942. Ten B-24Ds and 167 B-24Es were built on this line before shifting to the later B-24H version. This photo is a graphic reminder of the enormous production capacity of the US aircraft industry, built up by joint planning between the AAF and civilian industry. More B-24s were built than any other US aircraft in World War II, but it was taken out of service almost overnight at the end of the war. (Harry Gann)

either before the aircraft left the U.S. or after it reached the British theater of war. The British also stated that it was impossible for them to accept the U.S. camouflage schemes operationally. The Sub-Committee decided that it was impracticable to adopt the British schemes as standard, because that system was based on the Service being able to anticipate the aircraft's operational theater or role while it was being completed at the manufacturer. They then considered camouflage schemes which could be used as a basis for all aircraft and could be converted to other services requirements with the least difficulty. It was agreed that this consideration could be converted into two standard basic schemes, (1) camouflage for land based aircraft, (2) camouflage for ship based aircraft, this to also include flying boats. The British representative stated that 70% of the British camouflage schemes used a "Dark Green," which was very similar to the Army dark olive drab, thus they could accept this in lieu of the Dark Green throughout the camouflage programs. For ship based aircraft, the British stated that the U.S. Navy colors would be acceptable. The current policy of pooling all aircraft production was given as a very strong reason to accept the two basic camouflage schemes, and this was accepted by all present. It was also recommended that the requirements for insignia and markings of a particular Service be accomplished as follows: a. When the allocation of aircraft was determined before production was complete, the insignia and markings of a particular Service would be applied at the factory. b. When an aircraft was diverted from one service to another, the change of insignia and markings would be made at the modification centers. In conclusion, the British representatives at the meeting agreed to submit the U.S. Navy camouflage system to the authorities in Great Britain for a decision as to whether or not it was acceptable. It was also agreed that the British would submit to the U.S. Army their specific requirements for camouflage on all types of Army aircraft in production in the US.

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One North American B-25C-NA, 41-12848, with two B·25Ds, operating in the anti-submarine role. B-25D-I-NC, 41-29917, has no ventral turret, while B.25D-20-NC, 41-30583 has both ventral and dorsal turrets. The latter aircraft were the Kansas city built version of the B-25C. Note the white anti-submarine finish on the B-25C. (Harry Gann)

Responsibility for Aircraft Camouflage development defined, April 1942. At this time, the Chief of Engineers was the War Dept. Agency responsible for the development of protective coloration and camouflage of all items of equipment, supplies and materials except aircraft. The Air Corps Board had held that responsibility for aircraft since 1940, while the Exp. Eng. Sect. (WF) was responsible for the material necessary for the camouflage. The Director of Base Services (Washington) on April 2, 1942, recommended that; The Air Corps Board continue their responsibility for the development of means and methods for the camouflage of aircraft in flight and on the ground.

North American B-25G-I-NA, 42-64809, was the eighth B-25G of 400 built, all at the North American, EI Segundo, plant. It was armed with one 75mm cannon and two 0.5 inch guns in the nose, plus the turrets. Note the three P-5IAs, two Mustang Mk. Is, and 13 B-25Cs in the background.(March AFB Museum)

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A training unit Curtiss P-40A, 39-1804, from Luke Field, Arizona, as designated by the X-804 on fuselage side. The band under the nose and the aircraft field number are yellow. (USAF)

Chief of Engineers continue development of all materials for camouflage of aircraft on the ground. The Dir. of Mil. Req. (Wash.) be responsible for the approval and execution of camouflage schemes. The Dir. of Mil. Req. pointed out on April 8, 1942, that the Air Corps Board had been inactivated as such, and functions were being handled by the AAF Proving Ground Command, Eglin Field, Florida, operating under Dir. of Mil. Req. That Directorate would now be accountable for the approval of camouflage schemes for aircraft developed by Material Command or Air Service Command. (Note: this points out how difficult it had been for Gen. Arnold to get a complete grip on the responsibilities and authority of the recently formed USAAF). Gen. Arnold directs that "summer" camouflage be put immediately on all aircraft leaving U.S., March 14, 1942. Gen. Arnold caused some confusion by directing that "summer" camouflage be painted immediately on all aircraft leaving the U. S. He ordered that machinery was to be established so that camouflaging would be automatic as soon as it was determined for which theater the plane was destined. Brig. Gen. Fairchild, Dir. of Mil. Req. (Wash.), on April 7,1942, pointed out that there was no summer camouflage, but that the Joint Aircraft Committee (JAC) had approved the following camouflage for all land-based aircraft produced in the U.S.: a. Surfaces seen from above to be painted the Army olive drab; surfaces seen from below to be painted a neutral gray. For night operations, a flat black color was to be used. Prior to this, on March 19, 1942, the Eng. Sec.(WF) had been told ofArnold's order by the Prod. Eng. Sec., Washington. They replied on March 25, 1942, that after Study 42 had been conducted, it had been decided that all tactical aircraft should be camouflaged with a uniform design and color. They therefore recommended that all aircraft leave the country with the standard camouflage finish and that the special colors be applied in the combat zone to suit the particular terrain. This recommendation was based on the difficulty presented by the ever changing military situation. White paint tested for use on anti-submarine aircraft, April 1942. On April 9, 1942, tests were run at Halifax, Nova Scotia, to check the visibility of PBY aircraft used for anti-submarine patrol low over water. One PBY was painted flat white, the second was unpainted and the third was in blue-gray finish. It was reported that the test proved unquestionably the effectiveness of white paint on aircraft used for anti-submarine work on sunny days. As a result, HO, 1st Bomber Command recommended that camouflage specs. should be changed to provide for the painting of the undersurfaces of anti-submarine aircraft with oyster white lacquer. The necessary materials should be provided to Bomber Command. This recommendation was supported by both the British and American submarine officers. Further tests were run on April 21, 1942, and it was concluded that a glossy paint might improve the effectiveness, and that de-icer (boots) along wing and tail surfaces also needed to be white. (Note: the request for a white anti-submarine camouflage led to a long, footdragging, contest and caused a lot of hard feelings. Not until June 1943, did Material Command issue a final report on further tests of the white finish. By that time, it was immaterial, as responsibility for anti-submarine coastal patrols had been handed over to the US Navy. Full details of this can be found in the following pages).

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Martin B-26B-l-MA, 41-17707, aircraft number 76, was the 164th B·26B of 1,883 built. It is seen painted in the final Sea Search scheme of neutral gray upper surfaces and white lower surfaces. ote the white leading edges of all surfaces. This cherne was developed at Eglin Field. (USAF)

North American XB-28-NA, 40-3056, was developed to replace the B-25, but it was not adopted. It made its first flight in April 1942. The prewar AAF markings are shown on the rudder, together with a very polished natural metal finish. (March AFB Museum)

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Three Douglas 8-188s on anti·submarine patrol in the Caribbean area in the dark olive drab and neutral gray finish. Note how different the color appears on the fabric covered surfaces to that on the metal areas. 80th were the same color, but the metal finishes were either enamels or lacquers, while the fabric covering finishes were dopes. This difference in appearance can be seen in photographs throughout the war. (USAF)

Request for Sand, Shade No. 26, to be added to T.O. 07·1·1, May 6, 1942. On April 24, 1942, Gen Arnold issued a directive ordering the use of Sand, Shade No.26, on the upper surfaces of aircraft operating on sandy or desert terrain. WF ordered initial shipments of ample quantities of the water paint, brushes, buckets, etc.. Dir. of Mil. Req. (Wash.) does not object to anti·submarine tests of white paint, May 8, 1942. The Dir. of Mil. Req. stated on May 8, 1942, in a letter to the CG, Material Command that a series of tests over several years had proved that a neutral gray was the best color for camouflage under ordinary conditions. However, there was no objection to the Coastal Patrol aircraft being furnished with oyster white paint for testing. If this shade proved superior, Specs. and Technical Orders should be so revised. Mat. Com. (Wash.) should forward to 1st Air Force any appropriate paint material found.

A training unit Curtiss P-40A, 39-1804, in formation with a natural metal North American AT-6C-NT, 41·32161. The AT·6 has a red stripe on the nose cowl and black number 376 below it on the cowl. Note that the AT-6 has the fuselage insignia star upside down! (Compare it with the P-40 fuselage star.) (USAF)

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Lockheed B-34A-LO, RAF Ventura Mk.II, AJ165, was one of a batch of 487 built, of which many were transferred back to the AAF under reverse lease-lend agreements. Seen at Wright Field, it was used by the AAF for over-water patrols, primarily in the Caribbean area. (Harry Gann)

Gen. Arnold requests changes to application of camouflage, May 8, 1942. Brig. Gen. Fairchild also wrote another letter to Material Command on May 8, 1942, requesting that revisions be made to Spec. 24114 and T.O. 07-1-1, covering the application of camouflage toAAF aircraft. These had been requested by Gen. Arnold as a result of watching paint being applied to aircraft at the Douglas Company. The changes requested were: (1) Spec. 24114 be revised to change the demarcation line between the upper and lower surface camouflage colors as necessary to prevent appearance of a definite, even and continuous boundary line. Masks will not be employed to separate the two shades. The lines of demarcation shall be eliminated as far as possible by blending the colors at the junction lines by overspraying. (2) Spec. 24114 should also provide for the use of "haze" paint on special photographic aircraft. (3) Training Aircraft of wood and fabric covered aircraft to be painted with aluminum-pigmented dope. (4) T.O. 07-1-1 to be revised to include the use of Sand Shade No. 26 for the upper surfaces of aircraft operating over sandy and desert terrain. Also trainers to be painted as in (3) above. Trainers would only be camouflaged as directed by Theatre of Operation Commanders, Training Center Commanders, or Commanders of posts or chools with the necessary authority. (5) Variations in the basic aircraft camouflage would permit the use of Medium Green Shade no. 42 instead of Dark Olive Drab when the aircraft operate over terrain so predominately green that the darker shade proves to be unsatisfactory. Sand Shade No. 26 could also replace the Dark O.D. over desert type terrain. (6) Along the leading edges, tips and trailing edges of the wing, vertical and horizontal stabilizers and rudders, splotches or patches of Medium Green No. 42 were to be allowed to break the continuity in appearance of the wing, stabilizers, and rudder outlines. The size of the splotches or stripes were to extend inward from the edges at various distances ranging from zero to 20% of the wing, stabilizer, or rudder chord. If the aircraft was definitely going to a desert or sandy region, the Dark O.D. might be replaced or painted over with Sand Shade No. 26. The above modifications in the basic camouflage scheme were probably going to have to be made at modification centers or at staging points after the aircraft left the production line. Use of haze paint for special photographic aircraft camouflage was also suggested. Mat. Com. was asked to initiate necessary action for these revisions. Technical Instruction TI-1111, was issued on May 15, 1942 to initiate the requested action. All of the above changes were duly added to revised versions of Spec. 24114 and T.O. 07-1-1.

The same aircraft, B-34A-LO, AJ165, from a rear view shows its RAF camouflage of dark green and dark earth over sky. Note the shine from the decals used for the insignia; these were commonly used throughout the war. (Harry Gann)

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Lockheed Vega B-37-LO, 41-37485, number 16 of a batch of 18 built for the AAF.lt was originally intended to build 550 ofthese as the 0-56-LO, but the remainder were canceled. Note that the cocarde only consists of the white star in the fuselage position, without the blue background; this was not to specs., but it is possible that it had not been completed at the time the photo was taken (Harry Gann)

Change in Serial Numbers and

omenclature, May 11, 1942.

Due to the change in nomenclature of the Air Corps to Air Forces, Material Command directed the following change in identifying USAAF equipment: a. Lettering on trucks and trailers is to be changed from "U. S. Army Air Corps" to "U. S. Army Air Forces". Also name plates and records with reference to serial numbers of airplanes and engine, are to be changed from AC. to AF.

Responsibility for the development of, and requirements for aircraft camouflage defined in Material Command Office Memorandum 0.42-16, May 12, 1942. (1) The Air Proving Ground Command (Eglin Field), under the Dir. of Mil. Req., was charged with the development of camouflage colors, designs, markings and insignia for the concealment of aircraft on the ground and in the air, for both day and night operation. (2) The Corps of Engineers was responsible for developing the use of nets, drapes or other coverings for concealing aircraft on the ground. (3) The Material Center (WF) was responsible for preparing specifications for paint materials recommended by the Air Proving Ground, for approving materials and processes used by aircraft manufacturers in camouflaging aircraft, and for investigating new materials and processes as directed by the Dir. of Mil. Req .. (4) The Air Service Command was responsible for the publication of instructions, and the procurement of necessary materials for the maintenance of camouflage on service aircraft.

North American BT-14- A, 40-1305, basic trainer was a development of the BT-9. It is seen here without the rudder stripes and the red center to the cocardes, but is still in the true blue and orange yellow trainer finish. That color scheme was deleted in September 1942 in favor of an allaluminum finish. (Nick Williams)

u.s. ARMYAIR FORCES

70

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1.

Af 746

-Vultee Vengeance Mk.II, AF746, seen unfinished except for the anti-glare panel. This was the second MidI built by Northrop out of a batch of 200 aircraft. Most of these were sent to the Burma front as close support aircraft. ote the BT-13s in the right background. (Convair)

Red center removed from insignia, rudder stripes deleted on combat aircraft, May 12, 1942. War Department Circular #141, dated May 12, 1942, stated: Markings of Military Aircraft. - 1. The red circle in the center of the insignia as used at present will be eliminated. The new insignia will therefore be a five-pointed, white star within a blue circle. 2. The red and white tail marking will be eliminated. 3. These changes will apply to all combat aircraft of the Army and Navy after May 15, 1942.. The circular did not state any reason for this drastic action, but it had ltrisen as a result of extensive combat action in the Pacific area against the Japanese. The Japanese national insignia was the red hinamoru circle and, in the heat of combat, USAAF and Navy pilots tended to fire at any aircraft with red in its insignia. (Note: red was to return briefly in June-August 1943 to the US National insignia, then it disappeared completely until after the end of the war. It returned as the color of the center stripe of the current US insignia in January 1947).

Vultee A-35A-VN, 41-31156 (the eighth A-35A built). This was the AAF equivalent of the RAF Vengeance, and like many of those, these were nearly all converted to target towing aircraft. (USAF)

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U.S. ARMYAIR FORCES

Vultee A·31·NO, RAF Vengeance Mk. II,AF769, in AAF markings over the RAF dark green, dark earth, and sky finish. This was a repossessed aircraft, the twenty·fifth of the type built by Northrop. The aircraft number "69" is the last two digits of the RAF serial. (USAF)

Top view of A·31·NO AF769 shows very clearly the unusual cranked wing planform and the standard RAF camouflage with the AAF cocarde markings. (USAF)

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Southeast AAF Training Center, Maxwell Field, AL, revises marking and insignia for its trainer aircraft, May 20, 1942. Maj. Gen. Stratemeyer issued General Orders No. 54, revising the marking and insignia requirements for the Training Center's aircraft to the following: 1. Aircraft in this training center will be marked with identifying numbers as follows: A. Basic and Advanced - Aircraft belonging to Basic and Advanced Schools will be marked with a code group consisting of an identifying letter or letters for both schools as shown below, plus a digit or digits from 1 to 999, the numbers to be assigned by the station commanders. The letter and number combination will be consecutive with no dash or space between them. The following identifying letters are assigned: Gunter G Shaw S Augusta - A Turner T Columbus - CO Craig CR Napier N Eglin E Cochran C Greenville - GR Tyndall - TY Tuskegee TV MO Maxwell M Spence SP Moody b. Primary - Primary aircraft will be identified by a number only. Numbers may run from 1 to 999. c. Four-Engine Schools - Four-Engine Schools will not use an identifying letter but will use an identifying number of not more than two digits. 2. All identifying letters and numbers will be placed to the rear of the rear cockpit. They will be proportioned and placed in accordance with Para 3, T.O. 07-1-1, dated April 8, 1941. 3. The radio call letter designator will be placed on the vertical fin of all aircraft in accordance with Para. 8 c. T.0.07I-lA, dated October 23,1941. On the primary training aircraft the designator will be placed diagonally on the fin, Le., from the lower left to the upper right corners on the left side of the fin and from upper left to lower right corners on the right side of the fin. Designators will not be placed on the fuselage of any training aircraft. 4. The distinctive insignia of this 1 raining Center will be centered on the fuselage, just forward of the trailing edge of the lower wing. 5. If desired locally, the identifying letters and/or numbers of single-engine aircraft may be placed on the nose cowl for aid in identification. They may also be placed on the nose of twin-engine training aircraft.

... Lockheed Hudson Mk. V (LR) AM898, repossessed and numbered 42-980, as an A-29. Finished in the standard RAF dark green, dark earth, and sky scheme, it retains its RAF serial numbers on the fuselage and under the wings. However, it also has its AAF radio call number on the vertical tail. (USAF)

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Bell P-39D being used as a training aircraft. It has the red center overpainted on the cocardes, but retains the "U.S.ARMY" markings under the wing, These were ordered removed from all combat aircraft in May, 1942, but not removed from trainer aircraft until October 1942. (USAF)

Permanent Sand Camouflage requested for 98th Bomb Group project, May 27, 1942. On May 27, 1942, the Prod. Eng. Sect.(WF), teletyped the Prod. Eng. Sect. (Wash.) that: In reference to requirements for application of Desert Camouflage to aircraft for 98th Bomb Group project, it is intended to apply permanent camouflage enamel conforming to Air Corps Spec. 14109 of the same color as water color Sand, Chart No. 26. It is also intended to apply this enamel in a solid color coat over the existing Olive drab camouflage and that the under surfaces will remain neutral gray as they are at present. In-as-much as present instructions at the Material Center concerning camouflage of this type are not definitive, this information is furnished in order that the proper authority may be informed. (Note: the 98th Bomb Group (Heavy) initially consisted of 35 B-24Ds. They were sent from Morrison Field, Florida, between 17 and 30 July, via the southern ferry route to their Middle East base at Ramat David, Palestine. They went into action on August 1, 1942). Application of Haze paint to F-4 aircraft reviewed, May 27,1942. The Exp. Eng. Sect. (WF), reviewed the painting of eight F-4 aircraft of the 5th and 9th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadrons at Felts Field, Spokane, WA. They found that experienced painters, even if unfamiliar with the principal of haze paint application, could quite easily accomplish the work, under proper supervision. Deletion of "U.S. ARMY" from below wings ordered, May 28, 1942. The AAF directed that the lettering "U.S. Army" be removed from the bottom of wings of camouflaged airplanes then in service and those being produced. All manufacturers were notified that the lettering was no longer desired, and the Material Center was ordered to eliminate the requirement from appropriate specifications. Spec. 98-24102-1{, Amendment No.3 changes insignia requirements, May 28, 1942. The design of the insignia was now changed to reflect the requirements of the War Department Circular of May 12th. The following now applied:

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Lockheed P-38F, showing the new insignia to 24102-K, amendment no.3, on left wing. Note the condition of the paint on booms aft of the turbosuperchargers, caused by their exhaust. (USAF via Gerry R. Markgraf)

Lockheed P-38F, shows its black number "86E" on nose of cowls, and the red cowl bands behind propellers. It can be seen where the red star was painted out on the fuselage insignia. ote that the insignia is missing from the top of the left wing. (USAF)

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Bell P-39F (or later; it has the small dorsal tin, but retains the four wing mounted guns) shows how few markings there were on the top of wings at this time. Only the fuel tiller caps and the cocarde are to be seen. (USAF)

Design: (1). Training Aircraft. . The design of the insignia shall be a red circle inside of a white five pointed star, inside of a blue circumscribed circle as shown in Figure 1. The circumference of the inner red circle shall be tangent to the lines forming a pentagon made by connecting the inner points of the star. (2). Combat Aircraft. . The design shall be the same as that described in para a. (1) for training aircraft except that the circle inside of the five pointed star shall be eliminated and the entire star shall be white. The colors were to conform to the A-N Aircraft Color Standards. For rudders, the spec. now read: (1). Training Aircraft. . The insignia on the rudder shall consist of one blue stripe parallel to the rudder post and 13 alternate red and white stripes parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane as shown in Figure 2. (2) Combat Aircraft. . The rudders of combat aircraft shall bear no insignia.

Mil. Req. Policy No. 15, Supply. 1, defines standard basic camouflage, May 29, 1942. A supplement to Mil. Req. Policy No. 15, dated May 29, 1942, set forth the standard basic camouflage for all operational aircraft produced in the U.S. Manufacturers were to apply the olive drab paint to top surfaces and neutral gray to lower surfaces of the aircraft and all lines of demarcation were to be eliminated as much as possible. A memo issued by the Material Center, WF, on June 8, 1942, further stated that haze paint for special photographic aircraft would be provided if desired and that all training aircraft should be camouflaged as directed by Theaters of Operations. In order to avoid confusion as to the term operational aircraft, JAC approved on June 12, 1942, limitation of this term to apply only to USAAF land based aircraft, with the exception of amphibians.

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Boeing B-17E-BO, 41-9102, is seen flying over Topeka, Kansas in 1942. Note the medium green blotches on the vertical tail and top wing and stabilizer surfaces, per the order of July 1942. (March AFB Museum)

Major Revision ofT.O. 07-1-1 issued, June 1, 1942. Amajor revision of TO. 07-1-1 was obviously required to cover all of the major changes made since the issue of TO. 07-1-1, dated April 8,1941 and TO. 07-1-1A, dated October 28,1941, and this was released on June 1, 1942. The changes were underlined in the original document, and read as follows: NOTE; The work directed herein will be accomplished as soon as possible by service activities with the aid of sub-depots, if necessary; however, a red diagonal on AAF. Form 41 will not be required in this case. 1. Camouflaging of Aircraft. .!!,. Types of Aircraft to be Camouflaged. - All United States Army Air Forces aircraft will be camouflaged in accordance with Army Air Forces Spec. 24114, with the following exceptions: (2) Training types of aircraft.... These aircraft may be camouflaged by direction of Theater of Operation Commanders, Training Center Commanders, or Commanders of posts or schools to whom such authority may be delegated . .12.. Application of Camouflage Materials Over Existing Protective Coatings.....Temporary camouflage materials, i. e., Paint, Water Dry, Army Air Forces Spec. 14057, as outlined herein, may be applied over existing permanent camouflage finishes when required and as directed by Commanders in the Theaters of Operation. Q. Maintenance of Camouflage Surfaces. - ......Touching -up of permanently camouflaged surfaces is authorized if required when the permanent camouflage has been partially destroyed by brushing action in removing the temporary camouflage outlined below. !