Up Your Grades

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Up Your Grades Proven Strategies for Academic Success Ann Hunt Tufariello

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VGM Career Horizons a division of NTC Publishing Group Lincolnwood, Illinois USA title: author: publisher: isbn10 | asin: print isbn13: ebook isbn13: language: subject publication date: lcc: ddc: subject:

Up Your Grades : Proven Strategies for Academic Success Tufariello, Ann Hunt. NTC Contemporary 084424189X 9780844241890 9780071405317 English College student orientation--United States, Study skills-United States, Test-taking skills--United States. 1997 LB2343.32.T84 1997eb 378.1/98 College student orientation--United States, Study skills-United States, Test-taking skills--United States.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tufariello, Ann Hunt. Up your grades : proven strategies for academic success / Ann Hunt Tufariello. p. cm. ISBN 0-8442-4189-X (alk. paper) 1. College student orientationUnited States. 2. Study skills United States. 3. Test-taking skillsUnited States. I. Title. LB2343.32.T84 1997 378.1´98dc20 96-8126 CIP Published by VGM Career Horizons, a division of NTC Publishing Group 4255 West Touhy Avenue Lincolnwood (Chicago), Illinois 60646-1975, U.S.A. © 1997 by NTC Publishing Group. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of NTC Publishing Group Manufactured in the United States of America. 6 7 8 9 ML 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Up Your Grades Proven Strategies for Academic Success Ann Hunt Tufariello

Printed on recyclable paper

VGM Career Horizons a division of NTC Publishing Group Lincolnwood, Illinois USA title: author: publisher: isbn10 | asin: print isbn13: ebook isbn13: language: subject publication date: lcc: ddc: subject:

Up Your Grades : Proven Strategies for Academic Success Tufariello, Ann Hunt. NTC Contemporary 084424189X 9780844241890 9780071405317 English College student orientation--United States, Study skills-United States, Test-taking skills--United States. 1997 LB2343.32.T84 1997eb 378.1/98 College student orientation--United States, Study skills-United States, Test-taking skills--United States.

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Contents About the Author

vi

Preface

vii

Chapter 1 Why Strive for Top Grades?

1 2

Admission to graduate school 3 Obtaining a good job after graduation 5 Transferring to another university after freshman or sophomore year 6 Pleasing your parents 7 Pleasing yourself 8 What if your studies are not your top priority? Chapter 2 Selecting a College Major

11 12

Choosing a major 14 Should you choose an "easy" college major to boost your GPA? 14 Should you double major? 15 Should you pick a minor? 15 Switching majors 16

Transfering to another school within your university Chapter 3 Choosing the Right Classes

18 18

Selecting professors 22 What if the course you really want to take is filled? 23 Meeting core requirements

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Fulfilling requirements for a major 26 Choosing electives Chapter 4 Classroom Strategies

27

Chapter 5 Studying Tips

35 35

Before you begin to study. . . 38 12 guidelines for more efficient studying Chapter 6 Test-Taking Strategies

45

Chapter 7 Study Groups

51 52

Advantages of study groups 53 Disadvantages of study groups 54 If you choose to study in a group. . . 55 Creating the ideal group of study partners Chapter 8 Group Projects

57 59

Choosing group members 61 Conducting group meetings 62 Positions within the group

63 Completing the project 66 Making a group presentation 67 What if the group project does not run smoothly? Chapter 9 Writing Papers

70 71

Before you write the paper. . . 73 General suggestions 79 Writing specific types of papers

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Chapter 10 Oral Presentations

87 88

Writing the speech 89 Creating visual aids 91 Giving the presentation Chapter 11 Juggling Coursework

93 94

General guidelines 97 Budgeting time: A hypothetical case 101 What if you have other commitments? 102 What if you cannot study unless you are under severe time pressure? Chapter 12 Borderline Strategies: Securing the A when you are on the margin

103 103

Visit the professor 105 Do extra credit assignments 106 Don't let solid A's slip 106 Dispute your grade Conclusion

109

Appendix: Sample Calendar

111

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About the Author Ann Hunt Tufariello has been an A student throughout her academic career. She was ranked number five in her high-school graduating class, and graduated fourth in her class at Georgetown University in 1989. After receiving her bachelor's degree, Ann took a position as a financial analyst with Chase Manhattan Bank. She served in that capacity for three years and then decided to pursue a master's degree. In 1994 she graduated with honors from the Columbia Business School. Ann lives with her husband and two children in New Jersey.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank all of the students I interviewed for sharing their college experiences with me. I would also like to thank my husband and family for their patience and support.

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Preface Allow me to make a bold statement: Most students can get good grades! In many cases, however, they don't because they waste a great deal of time studying the wrong things. Because their valuable time is spent unproductively, they never seem to do as well in school as they would like. This was true of my classmates in high school, college, and graduate school. What these students don't realize is that you do not have to be a genius to earn good grades in school, you just have to concentrate your efforts on the right things. Before I sat down to write this book, I spoke with several current or former honor students. Some of the students attended small colleges, while others graduated from large universities. Their fields of concentration included the humanities, natural sciences, social sciences, and business. I spoke with a diverse group of students to ensure that the strategies offered within the book would not be biased in any way. I deliberately chose not to speak with university professors and deans because I wanted to write the book from the perspective of the college student. I believe that it's the honor student, more than the professor, who can best explain to another student exactly how good grades are achieved. I learned a great deal from talking with other honor students. No two individuals use exactly the same strategy in pursuing academic excellence. Not surprisingly, there were some common traits and some glaring differences among the interviewees. For example, while every student agreed that faithful class attendance is crucial to maintaining high marks, no one could agree upon the issue of study groups. About half of the students advocate study groups, while the other half strongly opposes them. In chapter 7, I present both sides of the argument so you can decide. I have incorporated into each chapter many of the studying suggestions and anecdotes offered by the students I interviewed. I believe that you will find their stories helpful. In chapter 1, I answer the question, "Why strive for top grades?" I hope that by the time you finish reading the chapter, you are convinced that aiming for top grades is well worth the effort. In chapters 2 and 3, I discuss the importance of selecting the right professors, courses, and major field of study. These choices can and will impact your grade point average. You shouldn't make these decisions arbitrarily.

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In chapters 4 through 10, I cover the nuts-and-bolts of how to do well in college. Chapter 4 focuses on strategies to help you learn more in the classroom. Chapter 5 explains how to study efficiently by focusing on the right material. In chapter 6, you will find guidelines to help you perform better on exams. Chapters 7 and 8 explain how to work better in groups, both in studying for exams and in completing group projects. In Chapters 9 and 10, I cover how to write college papers and give oral presentations. I believe that you will find the suggestions in each chapter to be a tremendous help. Chapters 11 and 12 will help you put it all together. Chapter 11 explains how to balance your workload so that you will be able to do well in all of your courses, not just in one or two. Finally, chapter 12 covers strategies for getting the A or B+ in a course when your grade is on the borderline. While this book is written for the college student, you do not have to be in college to benefit from reading it. Many of the suggestions apply to high school, as well. In fact, if you are still in high school, you can profit more from this book because you can practice some of the techniques now. You'll be a pro by the time you enter college. I hope that you will enjoy reading this book as much as I enjoyed writing it!

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1 Why Strive for Top Grades? While most students would like to earn good grades, many do not have the motivation to accomplish this feat. Other students believe that they do not have the scholastic ability to excel in college and, therefore, do not put forth a solid effort. Because of these reasons, many students do not achieve up to their academic potential. Throughout this book, you will find suggestions and guidelines that will help you improve your grades. These ideas may help you make the Dean's List or they may help you raise your grade point average (GPA) from a 3.0 to a 3.4. In either case, if you follow the guidelines set forth in this book, you should be able to raise your GPA by a significant amount. Why strive for top grades? By the time you finish reading this chapter, you will undoubtedly be convinced that aiming for academic excellence is well worth the effort. There are five solid reasons for earning top grades in college: To improve your chances of being admitted into a top graduate school To help you land a terrific job after graduation To transfer to another university after your freshman or sophomore year To please your parents (they may have put a great deal of pressure on you to succeed in college) To please yourself

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Admission to Graduate School Whether you aspire to become a doctor, lawyer, professor, investment banker, or other professional, acceptance to a good graduate school may be critical to your future success. If you are just beginning college or are still in high school, graduate school may not be your immediate concern. Don't fool yourself into believing that you can have fun for a few years in college and then buckle down. If you wait until your junior year, it may well be too late. Every year graduate school admissions committees review thousands of applications. Working with very limited information, admissions officers must distinguish between average students and superstars. In an attempt to put all applicants on a level playing field, they will look at an applicant's class rank as well as GPA. (The average GPA may be higher at one college than at another, suggesting that there is more "grade inflation" at the former. For this reason, class rank is an important criterion.) While criteria for acceptance vary from school to school, in general, admissions officers consider: Undergraduate transcripts (GPA, class rank) Standardized test scores (GRE, LSAT, GMAT, MCAT, etc.) Essays Extracurricular activities Personal recommendations Interview feedback A close examination of this list reveals that only college transcripts and test scores are objective criteria. The remaining four are much more subjective. One admissions officer may prefer a particular essay style or favor students who participate in varsity sports, while another may place more emphasis on interview results (if the school requires an interview). The only two admissions criteria that theoretically place all applicants on equal footing are undergraduate grades and standardized test scores. If you do not perform particularly well on standardized tests, you have all the more reason to excel academically in college. How else are you going to impress the admissions committee? Other applicants will have well-written essays and glowing personal recommendations. (No student would ask someone to write a recom-

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mendation unless he or she were sure it would be a rave review.) Admissions officers know that applicants can and sometimes do ask other people to write their personal essays. They also know that extracurricular activities can be embellished. Some schools do not require interviews, eliminating your chance to impress the admissions staff with your winning personality. Transcripts and test scores are objective, and this is precisely why they are so important in the admission committee's decision. Your undergraduate transcript really says something about you. Think about it. If you have top grades, admissions officers can assume that you are a conscientious, hard-working student. This is exactly the type of person they want to admit into their school. Why would they want to take a risk with an average student if they could admit a top student? Graduate schools have an ulterior motive for admitting students with high GPAs prestige! Universities compile and report statistics on the students they accept. These statistics are used, in part, to determine which schools are the most prestigious in subjective rankings. The higher the average GPA of an incoming class, the more competitive and prestigious the school appears to be to the outside world. Given the importance of undergraduate grades in determining graduate school acceptance, you should strive to do as well as you possibly can in college. At this point in your life, you may not want to get a master's or doctorate degree. But what if you change your mind later and decide to go back to law school or business school? Why not achieve the most you can in college now? You certainly don't want a poor college transcript to prevent you from achieving your dreams later in life. Obtaining a Good Job after Graduation Chances are that if you are not attending graduate school immediately after college you are planning to work. Some students travel for a year or do volunteer work after graduation. Yet even if you plan to take some time off, you will still need to find permanent employment eventually. For this reason, if for nothing else, you should try to do your best in college. In general, employers like to see good grades. To illustrate this point, I reviewed the New York Times Sunday ''Help Wanted''

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section under the "College Graduate" heading on July 11, 1994. I counted a total of eight employment advertisements which stipulated a minimum GPA or required a strong academic record. Four of the eight employers were offering an entry level annual salary of $30,000 to $35,000, considerably more than the $18,000 to $25,000 advertised by those employers who did not require a minimum GPA. Occasionally you will meet a potential employer who places little or no emphasis on academic achievement. Maybe the interviewer performed poorly in school and therefore does not think that grades are important. In most cases, however, your college transcript will be one of the primary factors considered in the employment decision. Some firms may not request a certified copy of your transcript. If your resume does not highlight your grades, the interviewer may simply ask you how you performed in college. Don't assume that you can lie! You will need to answer the interviewer's questions truthfully, because you can be dismissed at a later point if the firm learns of your dishonesty. You may ask, "Why are grades so important to future employers?" While it is true that there are numerous people in history, such as Einstein, who performed poorly in school yet went on to accomplish great feats, these people are the exception, not the rule. Employers value top grades because they have very little else on which to judge you. They cannot accurately assess your motivational level in an interview. You could be a great communicator but a lousy worker. Top grades demonstrate to the employer that you work hard and are a good indication that you will work diligently for them. As an honor student, you will have a competitive advantage over a B-average student with equal work experience. In today's job market, you need every advantage you can get. A strong college transcript can help you when you don't have much work experience. You may have waited on tables at a restaurant, worked as a camp counselor, or travelled every summer, and therefore have no professional experience. As a college graduate, you are competing with other students who may have some experience in the field that interests you. Each summer, when you were canoeing at camp, your counterparts were working in banks and hospitals. If you earned high marks in college, you will be able to compete better in the job market. In general, a strong college transcript can only help you. Keep this in mind as you complete your four years of college. A recruiting manager at the firm where my sister is employed explained why

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he prefers to hire top students. He commented, "How can I go wrong with an honor student? Either she is brilliant or works very hard or maybe it's a combination of the two. I just can't lose." Transferring to Another University after Freshman or Sophomore Year There are countless reasons why you might decide to transfer to a different college after freshman or sophomore year. Perhaps you were not accepted by your first choice initially. Maybe you are unhappy at your current college or unable to afford the tuition. Whatever the reason, if you plan to transfer, you will need solid grades to do so. In general, the admissions committees evaluate transfer applicants using the following criteria: College transcript(s) SAT scores Personal recommendations Interview feedback Extracurricular activities Personal essays High school transcript(s) Because your college transcript is a crucial factor in the admission decision, you cannot afford to do poorly in your freshman year. Do yourself a favor and start off on the right foot! If you hope to transfer after your freshman or sophomore year to a university that rejected you initially, you will probably need a GPA well above a 3.0. In promotional literature, the university may state that it evaluates all transfer applicants with a minimum GPA of 2.5 or 3.0. Don't let this statement fool you! If the university refused to admit you once already, it probably will not accept you as a transfer applicant unless you can prove that you're a serious student. I know students who transferred to Georgetown University as sophomores or juniors with 4.0 GPAs at community colleges.

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Based on their SAT scores and other criteria, these transfer students had little chance of qualifying for admission to Georgetown as freshmen. They were accepted as transfer students because they demonstrated their commitment to academic excellence in college. If you do extremely well your freshman year in college, you may be able to transfer to a much more competitive university. So, if you think you might want to transfer later, you should set your academic goals high right from the start. Pleasing Your Parents Many of the honor students I spoke with when researching this book told me that they achieve straight A's for their parents. They don't want to disappoint their mother and father with poor grades. Students may feel guilty about the tens of thousands of dollars their parents are spending on tuition, plus those room and board expenses. This guilt motivates them to study hard, particularly if paying college expenses has placed a heavy financial burden on the family. If, like these students, you would like to excel in college because you want your parents to be proud of you, that's reason enough to read this book. Other students are less fortunate because they don't have a choice. Their parents either expect or demand top grades! This is really not fair and I don't condone strong parental pressure of any kind. In fact, I think it can be counterproductive in many cases. But what can you do? If your parents expect you to excel either because they live vicariously through your achievements or because they only want the best for you in life, you are still in a tough situation. You don't want to disappoint them, but you may not know how to achieve top grades. If you follow the guidelines in this book, you will do better in school. Hopefully your parents will realize that you are working hard and will ease up on the pressure a little bit. Sometimes they forget how difficult it can be to concentrate on academic performance, given all of the distractions associated with the collegiate life. Rather than making excuses for your less than stellar performance or getting angry at your demanding parents, focus your energy on improving your grades. You'll be surprised at how well you can do in school if you put your mind to it and focus your efforts on the right things.

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Pleasing Yourself All of the above are good reasons for pursuing academic excellence. The funny thing is that none of these reasons really occurred to me until I was halfway through college. Indeed, I believe that I graduated fourth in my class at Georgetown because I did extremely well my first semester of freshman year. From that point forward, I had a high academic standard to maintain. If I had done poorly my first semester, my academic goals would not have been set as high. I would not have had the drive to keep studying and, as a result, may not have graduated with honors. I entered Georgetown University with no grand illusions. Although I graduated fifth in my high-school class, I did not expect to perform as well in college. I based this belief on the fact that I attended a public high school (an unfair assumption that later proved to be incorrect). I knew that I would be attending classes with students from world-famous prep schools, and I honestly believed that I was somehow at a competitive disadvantage. During the first few weeks of class, I was intimidated by my fellow classmates. I assumed that they had read more classic novels, had studied more calculus, and were generally more prepared for college than I was. As a result, I overcompensated during my first semester in college by studying harder and longer than I ever had or ever would again. I wanted to prove to myself that I could keep up with these prep school students. As it turned out, I was as prepared as anyone for Georgetown. I had acquired good studying habits in high school that remained with me throughout college. At the end of my first semester, I surprised myself and my parents with a 3.9 GPA. I continued to do well in college because I did not want to disappoint myself or my parents. I had too much pride to allow my GPA to slip. I could not very well get a 3.0 for the spring semester after having achieved a 3.9 in the fall. Over the next three and a half years, maintaining my GPA and class ranking was the strongest motivational force for me. This sentiment was echoed by a Boston College student I interviewed.

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Although Brian D. graduated in the top 10 percent of his high-school class, he was never a straight A student. In high school he participated on the varsity wrestling team and therefore was unable to devote all of his free time to school. When he started at Boston College, he had no idea that he would graduate with a 3.93 GPA and become the valedictorian of his class. Brian did extremely well during his first semester and made school his top priority for the remaining three and a half years because he did not want his class ranking to drop. Brian's good studying habits paid off after graduation, when he accepted a position with a Big 6 accounting firm. For many people, once they have achieved Dean's List status, basic pride will motivate them to continue to excel. If you are still in high school, I recommend that you begin college as if you are trying to maintain a 3.9 GPA. Start with the belief that you can accomplish anything your heart desires. If you excel in college, your academic achievements will help build your confidence for other challenges in life. There is a personal thrill in setting high goals and then accomplishing them. What If Your Studies Are Not Your Top Priority? The strategies described in this book, while not requiring every waking minute of your day, assume that your studies are your number one concern. Nevertheless, there may be a reason why you are unable to dedicate a significant portion of your time to school work, including participation in collegiate sports, work commitments, illness, and family problems. Even if you cannot make schoolwork your top priority, you can still pick up many helpful pointers from reading this book. Participation on Athletic Teams Many college students participate in varsity sports. Because of their commitment to the team, academic performance may not be their top concern. Early morning and late afternoon practices interfere with their ability to study for exams. In addition, these students must go on road trips to take part in "away" games and events, which hinders their ability to study on the weekends. In fact, an

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athlete will probably spend more time with his or her teammates than in class or in the library. Nonetheless, the college athlete can still learn something from this book. He or she can learn how to study for exams more effectively and how to use the limited free time more productively. He may even graduate with summa cum laude honors, as Joanne K., a graduate of Villanova University, did. Joanne accomplished the seemingly impossible she earned a 3.91 GPA while competing on the nationally ranked track and field team. Her academic and athletic accomplishments include: Division I Academic All-American, member of NCAA Champion relay team, and Big East Scholar Athlete. The secret to Joanne's athletic and academic excellence is discipline. I will elaborate on her studying strategies in chapter 11. Work Commitments Some students must work 20, 30, or even 40 hours per week to pay for their college education. Count yourself lucky if you are not in their position. Students who must work, like athletes, are unable to devote a great deal of time to academic studies. Work responsibilities may prevent them from studying for exams, writing papers, or even attending class. Nevertheless, these individuals, whether part-time or full-time students, can improve their academic performance by reading this book. For example, even if you are forced to work more than 15 hours per week, try not to miss class. As you will learn in chapter 4, attending class is absolutely essential to performing well in school. If you have flexibility in your work schedule, take advantage of it. You may be able to work more hours per week at the beginning of each semester, before your academic workload becomes too demanding. If possible, take time off from work during exam periods. If you do have to work during college fir financial reasons, try to secure a job in the field in which you'd like to start your career. You will obtain valuable work experience that will place you at a competitive advantage in the job market after graduation. Illness and Family Problems Unfortunately, there may come a time during your college career when illness or family issues interfere with your ability to concen-

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trate on schoolwork. You cannot predict these untimely events, so you must make the best of them. Hopefully, you will never have to contend with these problems. If you are unable to dedicate the time necessary to achieve top grades because you are seriously ill or because there is a problem in your personal life, do not worry about school. Instead, speak to the deans at your college and ask for permission to take a leave of absence. You'll be surprised at how understanding they can be. If you decide not to withdraw from all of your courses, don't be afraid to accept an "incomplete" grade in a few classes. You should wait to complete the classes, rather than rush through them, because you will perform better if you do. You can make up the work later, when you are better able to focus on your studies.

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2 Selecting a College Major Have you already chosen a college major? If so, on what factors did you base your decision? I recommend that you avoid the temptation to select an "easy" major just to boost your GPA or minimize your workload. Your choice of a college major is important because it can have an impact on your career. Therefore, you shouldn't take the decision lightly. On the other hand, if you don't have an intended major when you enter college, don't worry. You have plenty of time to decide. In this chapter, I answer the following questions: What factors should you consider in choosing a major? Should you choose an "easy" college major to boost your GPA? Should you double major? Should you pick a minor? Should you switch majors? Should you transfer to another school within your university? Most universities require that college students take at least 10 courses in a major field of study. Fortunately, students usually do not have to declare a major until the first semester of their junior year. During the first two years of college, you will take primarily liberal arts courses to fulfill your core requirements. Your exposure

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to a broad array of liberal arts courses may help you choose an area of concentration. While there are hundreds of majors from which to choose, no university can offer every possible major. If you think you may want to concentrate in a particular subject area, you should make sure that the college you plan to attend offers it. Otherwise, you'll have to transfer to another university. Table 2-1 lists 50 popular majors in alphabetical order. This list is only a sampling of the majors you can choose. Choosing a Major I would suggest that you initially select a major based on your career goals. You can always change it at a later point, if you are struggling or unhappy with it. For example, if you would like to become a doctor, concentrate in one of the natural sciences. You'll be much better prepared for the MCAT (the standardized test for medical school) and medical school itself if you choose a premed major in college. This does not mean that an English major cannot be accepted to medical school. She very well could, assuming that she took the required number of premed courses at the undergraduate level. But why major in English when you can major in biology? Similarly, if you would like to pursue a business career, you should select a business concentration such as marketing, finance, or economics. Many of the commercial and investment banks, as well as consulting firms, prefer students who have some prior business knowledge. These firms may even stipulate that all applicants have a concentration in business or economics. Of course, some history majors land terrific jobs in business without any prior knowledge of the subject. But if you know you want to work on Wall Street, why take a chance majoring in history? You will be at a distinct disadvantage in the job market compared to your classmates with business concentrations. In addition, if you were exposed to business concepts at the undergraduate level, you'll be much better prepared for your first day of work. You can always choose to minor in history, if the subject matter really intrigues you. Those of you who want to attend law school have much more freedom than students seeking careers in medicine or business. You can major in anything from philosophy to psychology and still be well-prepared for law school. There really are no preferred undergraduate majors for students applying to law school, which leaves

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Table 2-1 Popular College Majors Accounting Hotel/Restaurant Management African Studies Women's Studies American Literature Industrial Engineering American Studies International Relations Art History Italian Asian Studies Japanese Biochemistry Latin American Studies Biology Linguistics Chemistry Marketing Chinese Mathematics Civil Engineering Nursing Communications Pharmacy Computer Science Philosophy Economics Physical Therapy Electrical Engineering Physics Elementary Education Political Science English Psychology Fashion Merchandising Public Aministration Finance Russian Fine Arts Social Work French Sociology Geology Spanish German Speech Pathology Health Services Management Statistics History Theology

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you free to choose a major that you will enjoy. In all likelihood, you will perform better in a concentration that captures your interest. Here we have touched upon only a few possible career choices. The bottom line is that the selection of your undergraduate major is an important decision. Think long and hard about what it is you want to do with your life and choose a major which matches your career goals. This book will give you the techniques and skills needed to perform better in college, no matter which major you select. Should You Choose an ''Easy'' College Major to Boost Your GPA? You have probably heard people say that certain college majors are easier than others. This may be true to some extent, depending on the student and the university. A 3.3 GPA in an organic chemistry or engineering concentration may be more difficult to achieve than a 3.6 in a sociology concentration. For some students, it is easier to do well in a quantitative concentration such as mathematics, accounting, or engineering. Other students perform better by majoring in the arts or humanities. Because each individual is different, in terms of academic strengths and weaknesses, an easy major for one student may prove quite difficult for another. Whether or not your intended major is considered to be difficult should not be a factor in your initial decision. You really don't know how well you'll perform in a certain subject area until you have taken a few college level courses in it. Perhaps you have always done poorly in quantitative classes precisely because that is how everyone (including your parents) expected you to perform. If you want to become a doctor, don't avoid the sciences just because you fear mathematical equations. Give it a try! You may surprise yourself. Your choice of a major should be based on your long-term career aspirations and personal interests. Should You Double Major? Whether or not you choose a second major depends on whether you prefer a broad-based education or a more narrowly focused one. Because you will have to complete up to 10 more courses in the second major, you will not be able to take many electives. On

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the other hand, you'll have two areas of expertise. Perhaps you are more interested in majoring in both theology and philosophy than you are in taking a number of unrelated electives offered by the university. By all means, concentrate in two areas if you think you will perform better in school, be more prepared for your career path, or be happier by doing so. For some careers, a double major makes more sense. For example, if you want to teach both French and Italian at the undergraduate level, you should concentrate in both languages. Do not feel pressured to choose two majors, however. You can always fulfill the requirements for a minor in one of the subjects. Should You Pick a Minor? Often students who like a particular subject will choose to minor in it, rather than select it as a second major. The advantage to earning a minor is that you will have the opportunity to take other electives. A minor concentration usually requires only six courses. Sometimes students become interested in a core requirement and then take several electives in that subject area. Before they realize it, they have completed the requirements for a minor! As I emphasized at the beginning of the chapter, your major and minor concentration(s) should reflect your goals and interests. Don't worry about how difficult the subject matter is until you have taken several courses in it. Now is your chance to push yourself to the limit! Switching Majors If you are completely miserable after taking three, four, or five classes in your intended major, change it. You may have completed enough courses already to earn a minor in your original concentration area. If you do not have to transfer to another school within your university, changing your major should not be too difficult because the core requirements will remain the same. Many students enter college without an intended major and then change it at least once before they graduate. Nothing is written in stone. You must be careful about the new major you choose, however, because you don't want to change majors more than once. If you

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switch two or three times, you may have to spend an extra semester or two in college. This is quite expensive and a waste of time! Again, focus on your long term goals when selecting a new major. Transferring Into Another School Within Your University Most universities are comprised of several undergraduate schools, each of which specializes in one or more academic disciplines. For example, a university may include a School of Engineering, a School of Commerce, a College of Arts and Sciences, and a School of Nursing. In table 2-2, you find a list of 16 general academic disciplines. Table 2-2 Sample List of General Academic Disciplines Agriculture Home Economics Art Humanities and Languages Business and Commerce Interdisciplinary, Area, and Ethnic Studies Communications Life Sciences Computer Science/Information Mathematics Technology Education Phyisical Sciences Engineering Social and Behavioral Sciences Health Sciences and Services Theological Studies Often, high-school seniors applying for admission to a university must apply to one specific school. Each school within the university maintains its own admissions procedures and standards. As a result, it may be easier to be accepted by one school than by another within the same university! You may want to keep this in mind when applying to college as a high-school senior.

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If a student wishes to transfer out of the school in which he is enrolled initially, he must apply to the new school. A minimum GPA may be required for an internal transfer. Bonnie M. was admitted to the School of Nursing at Georgetown, but later decided that she wanted to become a doctor. During the second semester of her freshman year, she applied for admission to the College of Arts and Sciences. Although she was allowed to transfer, she had to spend the summer taking core courses because many of the nursing classes she took during her freshman year did not satisfy the requirements of the College of Arts and Sciences. Because Bonnie was determined to graduate with a concentration in biology, she didn't mind sacrificing her summer. As you can see from Bonnie's experience, transferring into another school is not as easy as changing majors within your school. Nevertheless, if you believe that transferring is the best thing for you, you should not hesitate to do so.

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3 Choosing the Right Classes As a first semester freshman in college, you will probably choose your classes during orientation week. In all likelihood there will be a number of core requirements to fulfill. Faced with countless choices, you may be tempted to select courses based on the time of day they meet or their proximity to your dorm room. Do not make this big mistake! You should know something about the professor and her teaching style before enrolling in a class. Colleges usually schedule a week at the beginning of the semester during which students can add or drop classes. You should never feel pressured to remain in a dreadful course just because you are registered for it. You are paying a great deal of money for your college education you should not have to suffer through a horrible class. Selecting Professors Why is it important to choose the right professors when deciding on your schedule? Every professor is the same more or less, right? Wrong! It's important to select your professors carefully, because a professor can transform a boring course into a pleasure or turn an interesting course into a nightmare. Let's face it professors are only human. The question is not whether the professor knows the subject matter. After earning a doctorate degree, I am sure he does. Instead, the question is

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whether or not he can convey the information to the class effectively. As you would expect, some professors can speak well in front of audiences and have a real gift for teaching. Others are not good teachers or public speakers, unfortunately. These are important considerations in your scheduling decision. Brian D., one of the honor students I interviewed, mistakenly registered for a core course with a professor who could not communicate well. He did not learn much in the class because he had difficulty following the professor's lectures. In preparation for the final exam, Brian studied the textbook and his class notes thoroughly. Still, he could not be certain that he was fully prepared for the exam because he couldn't understand some of the material in his lecture notes. Unfortunately, the final exam contained many of the concepts that Brian never fully grasped. He did not receive an A on the exam or, as a result, in the course. If Brian had taken the required course with a different professor, he might have learned a great deal more and might have performed better. What can you learn from Brian's mistake? First, you should choose the best professors in order to get the most out of your college education. You want to graduate with a broader knowledge base, not just a sheepskin. For this reason, if for no other, don't waste your time in the classes of professors who cannot teach well. How are you going to earn an A in a course if you cannot stay awake? In addition, do not select professors whose teaching or grading style does not meet your needs. If you prefer cozy discussion-oriented seminars, try to avoid large lecture classes whenever you can. I realize that in some universities, many of the courses are taught in auditoriums, with very little opportunity for class discussion. Still, once you have completed the core requirements for your major, you may be able to choose electives taught in the seminar style. As a freshman, you may ask, "How am I supposed to know whether the professor is a poor communicator or a bore?" This is a good question. Certainly, it is difficult for freshmen to make wise choices during the first semester, but it is not impossible. There are several actions you can take to improve your chances of selecting the right classes. Ask students on the orientation staff for feedback about the professors and classes in which you are interested.

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You may also know some upperclassmen who can help you select the right classes. Keep in mind, though, that one person's poison is another person's treasure. Just because an upperclassman did not like a course does not mean that you have to avoid the professor. If you have any doubts, get a consensus of opinion on a professor. Ask the orientation staff whether the university publishes student course evaluations each semester. In table 3-1, you will find a sample course evaluation form. The student evaluations can be extremely helpful in eliminating the really poor professors and courses. I have found, however, that student course evaluations are not very useful in helping a student distinguish between an average professor and a slightly above average one. I think that students tend to fill out evaluation forms quickly and are likely to give average marks to all but the best and worst professors. Therefore, do not base your choices solely on published student evaluations. During the first week of school, attend every class in which you may want to enroll. By visiting numerous classes, you will get a feel for different professors and their teaching styles. Does the professor hold your interest? Is she well-organized? Does she ramble endlessly or follow a lecture outline? You will also have the opportunity to review course syllabi. Each course syllabus should outline due-dates for written assignments, the dates of exams, and the weights of assignments, papers, projects, and exams in determining your final grade. Use this valuable information in deciding your course schedule. Enroll in classes in which you think you can do well. For example, if you are an extremely poor test-taker, try to avoid courses with several exams (unless you have no choice). Often, different professors teaching the same course will use completely different criteria in determining final grades. For example, two professors taught the same finance course at Columbia during the Fall 1993 semester. Professor A did not give any exams; the final grade was based on six written cases. Professor B required three written cases, two exams, and six homework assignments. Several students who were squeamish about taking tests transferred into Professor A's class once they saw Professor B's course syllabus. Do not postpone taking a class when a great professor is teaching it. If you identify a good professor, be sure to reg-

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Table 3-1 Sample Course Evaluation Form Course # Professor Strongly Strongly Disagree Agre Section A: The professor 1. The professor was well-organized and prepared 1 for each lecture. 2. The professor taught all of the material on the 1 course syllabus. 3. The professor handled classroom discussions 1 effectively. 4. The professor was able to explain difficult 1 subject material to students. 5. The professor was available to students outside 1 of class. 6. The teaching assistant was effective in his or her 1 role. 7. Overall, the professor met your expectations. 1 Section B: The course 1. The course was intellectually stimulating. 1 2. The amount of assigned reading and homework 1 in this course is about average compared to other courses. 3. The exams were fair in testing only material that 1 was adequately covered in the course. 4. Overall, the course met your expectations. 1

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ister for his class that semester. If you postpone taking the class, you may never have the opportunity to take it again. He may go on sabbatical, teach a different course, or leave the university next semester. Therefore, seize the opportunity and at least try to get into the class. After the first semester of college it will become easier for you to choose classes. You will be able to ask fellow students for advice in selecting courses and professors. Undoubtedly, you will have heard a few horror stories about certain professors and their teaching or grading methods. Make a mental note of every comment made about individual professors, particularly if you plan to take the class in the future. What If the Course You Really Want to Take Is Filled? Being "closed out" of courses is a frequent complaint made by college students. It's frustrating, especially because you are paying so much money to go to college. It doesn't seem fair that you cannot register for the classes you really want to take. The problem is that the school's computer system is programmed to admit only a certain number of students into each class 25, 50, or 75, for example. And priority usually is given to upperclassmen in filling the classes. What should you do if you identify a great professor but are unable to enroll in the course because it is closed? First, try begging the professor to let you into her class. Sometimes professors are flattered by their popularity and are quite lenient in admitting students. Other times, the decision is not up to the professors. She simply cannot accept any more students than the stipulated number. Do not give up hope! Some students currently registered for the course may drop it. If you are excited about the class, be patient and continue to attend the lectures until you know you cannot "add into" the course. Whatever you do, do not take the same course with a second-rate professor simply because you were "closed-out" of your first choice. Instead, try to register for the class with the top professor next term. Remember, you'll gain seniority in the computer system with each passing semester. If you are desperate, particularly if you are a senior, try asking your dean for permission to enroll in the

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course. If you are graduating, the dean may make an exception and permit you to enroll in the class. Meeting Core Requirements Over the four year college period, the typical student takes 36 to 42 classes. This number varies according to the university and the chosen major. Usually, students first complete a core curriculum and then satisfy the requirements for a particular major. After taking all required courses, the student could have 10 or 15 free electives available. In this chapter, you will learn how to make the most of the classes you take. All courses are not created equal, as you have seen in the previous section. You have much more liberty in devising your schedule than you think. Take advantage of it! To understand this point, consider the example of a Boston College student majoring in history. A student admitted to the College of Arts and Sciences at Boston College must complete 38 courses to graduate. The student will take 14 core courses (table 3-2), complete at least 10 courses in a major area of concentration, and demonstrate a language proficiency. Given a list of core requirements, the student will need to decide when to take each required course and with which professor. As you can see from the core curriculum shown in table 3-2, the student has some liberty in fulfilling the 14 requirements. For example, if he dreads taking two English classes, he can wait until his sophomore year to complete the requirement. Perhaps he prefers literature or poetry to writing and grammar. Maybe he hates reading novels. If this is the case, he can wait until many of his peers have completed English courses, and then ask them which professors are most compatible with his needs. In addition to asking peers for feedback on professors and courses, the Boston College student should attend two or three different English classes during the first week of school. Exposure to several classes will enable him to determine which professors require fewer reading assignments, papers, or exams, depending on his preference. The point is that he should not just enroll in an English class without putting some serious thought into the decision. The course bulletins of many universities state that students should complete all core requirements before their junior year.

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Table 3-2 Core Curriculum of Students Enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences at Boston College * 2 courses in English * 2 courses in European History * 2 courses in Philosophy * 2 courses in Philosophy * 2 courses in Theology * 2 courses in Natural Science (Biology, Chemistry, Geology/Geophysics, Physics) * 2 courses in Social Science (Economics, Political Science, Psychology, or Sociology) * 2 courses in Mathematics or 1 course in Fine Arts and 1 course in Communication and Theater In addition, the student must demonstrate proficiency in a foreign language or classical language at the intermediate level. This may or may not be true. The advantage of postponing difficult courses is twofold: First, you will have the opportunity to speak with other students about the professors who teach the course. Second, you will be more confident with three or more semesters under your belt. For example, if you are not comfortable with mathematical equations, you certainly would not want to take a calculus course in your first semester as a freshman. You may also have some other options in satisfying a difficult core requirement: Night Classes Some universities offer night classes, which are usually geared toward individuals who work full-time. As a result, these courses may be less demanding than similar ones offered during the day. This is not necessarily the case, however. You should consider taking a night class if there is a required course in which you do not believe you can do well. Ask other students whether the night professors are less demanding before enrolling in one of these classes.

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Summer School You can also opt to take a core requirement during the summer, either at your university or at another one. Summer classes are often shorter and, therefore, may be less demanding. On the other hand, they may be more grueling because of the severe time constraints. Ask fellow classmates whether the summer course you plan to take is easier to complete. In addition, review the summer course bulletin to ensure that the class you need to take is listed. If it is not offered at your university over the summer, you may want to take it at another university or community college. Before enrolling in a class at another university, make sure that the credits will transfer by obtaining permission from your dean. In all likelihood, the letter grade you obtain for a course taken at another university will not be included in the calculation of your overall GPA. This may be another reason to fulfill a core requirement at another university. I am not implying that you should take the easy road in completing all of your requirements. I am simply stating that if one or two required classes intimidate you, consider taking them over the summer. You will be able to concentrate on your studies better during the fall and spring terms if you do not have to focus all of your attention on one difficult course. Fulfilling Requirements for a Major Let's go back to the history major at Boston College and assume that he has completed most, if not all, of the core curriculum. Although he must also satisfy the requirements for a major in history, he has a great deal of freedom in choosing his classes. A history concentration at Boston College requires the following: a two-semester sequence in post-Renaissance European history; a two-semester sequence in American Civilization; two courses in non-Western or pre-1500 history; and six additional upper division courses. Sound confusing? Don't worry. You will soon master the intricate details of fulfilling requirements for a major. In the case of the history major, the student does not have to enroll in any one particular history course offered by any one specific professor. In satisfying the European post-Renaissance requirement, for example, he can take a cultural, political, or economic history course. He also has a wide variety of professors from which to choose. Therefore, the student should not feel pressured

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to take any class that he will not enjoy and in which he does not believe he will excel. The requirement for six additional upper division history classes could be satisfied with courses in American, Asian, Latin American, European, and African history. As you might guess, this student should be selective in picking his classes. There is simply no need to take any class that is not being offered by a great professor. Choosing Electives Assuming our history major is proficient in a foreign language (at the intermediate level), he will take 14 electives. If he is not proficient, he will probably use at least four of his electives completing the foreign language requirement. Let's assume he earned a high score on the French achievement test in high school and does not need to enroll in a language course. Which electives should he choose? Should he take classes in the natural sciences, fine arts, social sciences, or business? The best route would be to enroll in electives that complement his required courses each semester. For example, if he is taking two history classes that demand several written papers and a great deal of reading, he should take electives that require exams and very little reading. In other words, you don't want to take five classes that each require three or four papers and volumes of reading. If you must take two or three qualitative courses, balance your workload by taking quantitative electives, unless you absolutely hate homework problems and exams. A balanced schedule should be easier to manage and probably more enjoyable. Keep in mind that some classes are worth more than three credit hours and will therefore have a greater impact on your cumulative GPA. For example, many intensive language courses meet every day and may be worth up to six credit hours. You need to pay special attention to classes that are weighted more heavily in your cumulative GPA.

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4 Classroom Strategies Many people mistakenly assume that good grades are achieved through studying alone. The common misperception is that only those students who spend 12 hours a day in the library graduate with honors. This is simply not true. While studying is critical to success in college, it certainly is not the only important factor. This chapter focuses on another critical success factor the student's classroom behavior. A college student taking a full courseload spends no more than 15 hours per week in class compared to a high school student's 30 to 35 hours in the classroom. If you make the most of those precious 15 hours, you can significantly improve your GPA. In this chapter, I discuss six guidelines for more productive use of class time: Sit in the first two rows of the classroom Always attend class Arrive to class on time Listen attentively Take meaningful notes Participate in class as much as possible

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If you take these suggestions seriously, you will become a better, more focused student. You may even be able to reduce your studying time by learning more of the subject matter in the classroom. Sit in the First Two Rows of the Classroom to Maximize the Learning Experience This may be difficult to do in large, auditorium-style classes, but you should try your best to sit toward the front. If you are sitting as close to the professor as you possibly can, you'll be able to concentrate better on the lecture because you will not be distracted as easily by fellow students. Students in the back rows tend to talk more, pass notes, and doodle. In the front of the class you will also be able to see the board and hear the professor much better. As a result, you should be able to take better notes. Mary M., a graduate of George Washington University, believes that sitting close to the front forced her to become more active in class. She felt as if the professor was speaking to her oneon-one, because she ''tuned out'' everyone else. Also, Mary could not doze off or daydream with the professor only ten feet away. Sitting in the front offers another, more subtle advantage. Professors tend to learn the names of the students whom they can see clearly. If you sit near the front, the professor is more likely to learn your name and make a mental note of your class attendance and enthusiasm. This is the type of competitive advantage you need when the professor is deciding on final grades. Always Attend Class I simply cannot stress this point enough. It is hard to understand why any college student would skip class when class attendance requires only 15 out of the 168 hours in a week. There are very few legitimate reasons for missing class. Some college students get into the habit of skipping class to finish papers and homework assignments. These students procrastinate until the morning that the paper is due and then foolishly spend the hour and a half of class time finishing the paper in their dorm room. As you can probably guess, these students do not

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have time to think about what they are writing, much less proofread their work. After writing a quick conclusion to the paper and printing the final copy, the students stand outside the classroom and wait until the lecture is over to submit the paper. Does this make any sense? No, of course not! Do not put yourself in this position by procrastinating. (More on this in chapter 11.) I asked every honor student interviewed if he or she had any secret strategies to ensure good grades. Over and over again, these honor students echoed the same refrain, "I always go to class." Faithful class attendance offers many advantages. For example, the professor may take your attendance into account when deciding on your final grade. Some professors have seating charts, while others make a mental note of who attends class regularly. Greg B., a student at Columbia, practically never attended his Business Strategy class. He didn't think he had to go. The course required several long written reports, but no exams. Greg concluded that, because there were no exams, he could get away with poor attendance. Although the professor passed around an attendance sheet at the beginning of every class, Greg was not intimidated he just asked a friend to sign his name on the sheet. Greg figured that he would ask another student for the lecture notes before he began writing the required papers. He planned for everything or so he thought! One day Greg was in the sandwich line at the cafeteria. The Business Strategy professor said hello to him and asked him why he had only attended her class once or twice. Greg froze. He thought to himself, "How can she know my name? There are over fifty students enrolled in the course and I never go to class." What could Greg say to his professor? Evidently, the professor had made it a point to find out who the "ghost" student on the attendance sheet was. Greg did not realize that she prided herself in learning the name of every student in her class. Needless to say, Greg did not get an A in the course. Even if the class is so large that the professor cannot possibly know who is in attendance for example, a lecture with 250 students, you still have a great deal to lose by skipping. If you actually hear the professor give the lecture, you will absorb much more information than if you read someone else's notes. During an exam, you may remember something obscure that the professor mentioned during a lecture and get an extra multiple choice or true/false question correct. The question could be the difference between a B+ and an A- on the exam.

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I know from first-hand experience that it is extremely difficult to learn very much by borrowing another student's notes. Although I can count on one hand the number of classes I missed during my four years of college, one class I skipped cost me an A in a course. I missed an Accounting class during the last few weeks of my senior year because I had an off-campus interview with a Maryland bank. I seriously debated canceling the interview, but chose to go ahead with it at the last minute. I weighed the odds that I might miss something important against the fact that I still did not have a full-time job offer. Before taking the final exam, I asked a fellow student for the notes from the class I had missed. At the time, I thought I understood the information well enough for the exam. As it turned out, approximately 30 percent of the final exam was based on information taught during the class I did not attend. The notes I had borrowed were unable to convey all of the information taught during that one class. Although I was able to do fairly well on the exam, I did not get an A. Even more frustrating was the fact that I did not receive a job offer from the Maryland bank! If you absolutely must miss a class due to an illness, religious holiday, interview, or other emergency, ask the professor for a copy of her notes. These notes will be more complete than those of another student and will include any information that the professor deems important. You will not have to rely on a fellow student's ability to distinguish between important and insignificant information. In addition, the professor will know that you did not skip the class without a valid reason. Arrive to Class on Time There are two reasons why you should try not to come to class late. First, you might miss something critical. Often, the professor will make an important comment about an exam or assignment during the first two or three minutes of class. He may extend the due date or change the focus of an assignment. If you arrive to class just five minutes late, you won't have any idea that such a comment was made. Secondly, it is inconsiderate to disrupt the class by strolling in the door after the lecture has begun. The professor may see that

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you arrived late and hold it against you, particularly if you do it frequently. Also, by coming late, you will be forced to sit in the back of the room, assuming there are open seats remaining. Avoid these problems by getting to class on time. Of course, if you have a choice between arriving to class 20 minutes late and not attending at all, it is still best to go to class. Occasionally, some unforeseen event will prevent you from getting to class on time. If this occurs, quietly slip into the back of the room and ask other students for their notes once class is dismissed. Listen Attentively in Class Don't doodle, sleep, pass notes, work on the crossword puzzle, or talk during lectures. If you have trouble paying attention or tend to daydream in class, try to concentrate on taking good notes. Sitting in the front row will help you ignore any distractions. Remember that if you are trying feverishly to keep up with the lecture, you will not have time to daydream or doodle. Under no circumstances should you do homework assignments for other courses while in class. It's rude as well as unproductive. The professor may see you and get irritated, or worse, hold it against you when determining your final grade. You won't be able to focus on either the assignment or the lecture, so why bother? Instead, make sure your homework assignments are completed the night before they are due. Take Meaningful Notes in Class This may seem like an obvious point, but it's not. Unless you have mastered the art of shorthand, it is nearly impossible to get down every word the professor utters. Fortunately, you don't need to copy down every word, because professors often tell stories or get side-tracked in giving a lecture. A good student is able to distinguish between critical and irrelevant comments. This may take some practice, but here are a few guidelines: Copy down every single word that the professor writes on the blackboard. A professor will not go to the trouble of finding an eraser and a piece of chalk if the material is not important. Do not let the professor erase the blackboard until you have copied down everything.

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In quantitative classes where problems/examples are given, make sure that you write down not only the complete answer, but also the entire question. If the question is unclear in your notes, you will have trouble deciphering it later. Ask the professor to clarify any step in the problem that you don't fully understand and then write explanatory comments in the margins. These comments will help you make sense out of your notes when you are preparing for the final exam. Concentrate on the important when taking notes. Write down anything that the professor appears to be emphasizing. If you are uncertain, ask the professor whether it is important that you remember this material. Of course, you should not take this suggestion to the extreme. If you constantly raise your hand, you will annoy the professor and your fellow classmates. Try to use some discretion. Invent your own version of shorthand for rapid note-taking. This can be helpful if the professor speaks quickly. Abbreviate words and phrases whenever possible to save time. You don't have to write in complete sentences, because no one but you will be reviewing your notes. If the professor speaks too quickly, you may want to bring in a tape recorder. I don't recommend, however, that you skip class and have a friend tape-record it. A tape recording is not a good substitute for class attendance, because although you may be able to hear what was said, you cannot see what was written on the blackboard. Furthermore, if the sound quality is poor, you may not be able to hear the lecture very well. When you return home after class, consider rewriting your notes. Although I never did this in college, several of the honor students I interviewed told me that they always rewrite their notes in the evening. In recopying your lecture notes, you will begin to learn the material sooner. Also, if there is a concept you don't fully grasp, you will realize it sooner than if you had waited until the week before the exam to review your lecture notes. Make a copy of another student's notebook and compare notes to ensure that yours are complete before studying for an exam. You may have missed some key points. Also, you may have a better understanding of concepts that were unclear to you after you read someone else's notes.

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Participate in class whenever possible.Active classroom participation offers both direct and indirect benefits. If the professor grades on a curve, you will have a competitive advantage over other students who do not participate. Many professors give class participation a weight of at least 10 to 20 percent in the determination of final grades. Other professors do not explicitly state that participation is important; however, if you speak in their class regularly, they may give you the benefit of the doubt in determining your final grade. In general, taking part in class discussions and asking questions can only help you (unless you are overly obnoxious). Amy, a student at Columbia, received a C in a course although her test scores added up to a solid B. She confronted the professor and learned that he lowered her grade because she never spoke in class. Amy did not realize that participation accounted for a significant portion of the final grade. After the semester was over, it was too late for her to begin participating. She vowed that she would never make that mistake again in future classes. There are several indirect benefits to participating in class. Speaking in class requires that you come to each lecture prepared. Because you must do the reading and complete the homework assignments on time, you will be better prepared for the mid-term and final exams. In addition, you will retain the information long after the exams are over, having learned it gradually. It is quite difficult, if not impossible, to recall material memorized in the 24-hour period before an exam. You may be thinking, "How can I speak in class when I don't know what to say? I'll sound foolish." or, "I can't participate because I'm afraid to speak in public." While these are valid concerns, you should not allow a fear of public speaking to prevent you from doing well in a class. Try to conquer your fear of public speaking while still in school, when the stakes are low. What could possibly happen if you say something incorrect in class? In all likelihood, the professor will say that the answer is not exactly right and call on another student. No one will remember what answer you gave. No one really cares. It is a mistake to assume that all of the students who remain silent know the answers. They probably do not and will admire you for having the courage to participate in class, even when your answers are wrong.

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You can begin to overcome your fear of speaking up by making a comment in the course in which you are most comfortable. It may be a class where you know many of the students or a class where you are familiar with the subject matter. Give it a try! If you begin to participate in that class, you will boost your confidence and may well be speaking up in other classes before too long. If you sharpen your public speaking skills while in college, you will be more confident the first time you are asked to make a speech at work. Don't graduate from college without having spoken in class. It will only become more difficult to conquer your fear as you get older.

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5 Studying Tips When trying to accomplish anything, there is no substitute for hard work and perseverance. Olympic athletes certainly know this. As you will see in this chapter, earning good grades is no exception to the rule. There is no secret formula that allows you to bypass studying and still do well in college. In fact, if there were such a formula, I am not sure you would want to use it, because you would be cheating yourself out of an education. The recommendations made in this chapter are intended to help you use the time you spend studying in the most productive manner. You should not waste hours of precious time on subject matter that will not improve your performance on an exam. Simply memorizing words and formulas will not help you become an honor student. In order to do well in college, you must be able to do more than regurgitate the information. This chapter offers recommended actions to take before you begin to study, and tips to help you study more productively. There are four actions you should take before you begin to study: Ask the professor to describe the types and weights of questions he will ask on the exam Ask the professor what material will be covered on the exam Request copies of old exams Make sure that your notes are complete

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Ask the professor to describe the types of questions he will ask on the exam and the weight of each type of question. For example, the professor may indicate that there will be 20 multiple choice, 5 short answer, and 4 essay questions. In order to study better, you need to know whether the multiple choice questions will account for 10 percent of the total exam points or 60 percent (the multiple choice questions could be worth 1/2 of a point or 3 points each, as seen in table 5-1). Similarly, the short questions and essays may or may not account for a significant portion of your test grade. Table 5-1 Test A Question type 20 multiple choice (1/2 point each) 5 short answer (6 points each) 4 essay questions (15 points each) Test B Question type 20 multiple choice (3 points each) 5 short answer (4 points each) 4 essay questions (5 points each)

Total Points 10 30 60 100 points Total Points 60 20 20 100 points

It may happen that the professor has not finalized the exam yet. Yet even if she has not written out the questions, she may have decided on the format of the exam. Many professors are more than happy to tell their students exactly what types of questions are included on the exam and their respective weights. Depending on the test format, you should modify your studying technique slightly. For example, with multiple choice and true/false questions, there is no partial credit given. In order to receive any points, you must know the answer or guess correctly! When preparing for

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this type of exam, make sure that you study the smaller details of every concept. The difference between the correct choice on a question and an incorrect choice may be one or two words. Unfortunately, you may not receive an A on a test because of a few incorrect multiple choice answers. In contrast to multiple choice, you have some leeway when answering essay questions. In all likelihood, you will receive partial credit for questions you did not answer in full. Do not assume, however, that you can deceive the professor with long-winded, meaningless essay responses. Professors see through this antic and will give credit accordingly. In preparing for an essay exam, focus on the big picture. Try to draw parallels between the various topics covered in class. Professors are fond of asking students to compare and contrast concepts and issues on essay exams. Ask the professor whether the exam will cover only new material (class notes after the last test or exam). The answer to this question is very important, because you do not want to waste time poring over old material if it will not be covered on the test. On the other hand, if the information from the beginning of the term is included on the exam, you certainly don't want to overlook it. If the exam covers all the material taught since the beginning of the semester, ask whether a greater emphasis will be placed on the more recent material. For example, if the professor gave a midterm exam, he may not want to test his students again on topics covered during the first half of the course. Other professors want to be certain that the students haven't forgotten the previous material and will place an equal emphasis on both the pre- and postmidterm lectures. Even if the professor states that certain topics are not included on the exam or that the exam is not cumulative, you should still skim these topics when studying. By briefly reviewing the old material, you will increase your overall understanding of the course. The professor may ask a question that requires knowledge of previous concepts not directly covered on the exam. You should also be aware that some courses are cumulative by nature. That is, each new topic builds on material taught previously. In these courses, although the professor may indicate that the test will not be cumulative, you still need to review everything thoroughly. For example, in a foreign language course, vocabulary words and grammar rules are cumulative. You will not do very well on a Spanish test if you have forgotten the vocabulary and gram-

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mar taught during the first few weeks of class. Consequently, you must review every lesson before taking an exam. Ask the professor for copies of old exams, if possible. Some professors will distribute exams from previous semesters with the answer keys. Others refuse to do so. If the professor cannot give you a copy of an old exam, perhaps he can give the class a comprehensive study guide with sample questions and answers. Reviewing previous exams will help you focus your studying efforts on the most relevant topics. Do not assume, however, that the test you take will be exactly like previous ones, with a few words or numbers changed. If the professor agreed to distribute an old exam to the class, he probably intends to ask completely different questions. Why would he give you a sample exam in advance if he didn't plan to change the questions? Don't fall into the trap of only studying concepts and problems covered on previous exams. Make sure that your notes are complete. Often, an exam will emphasize material covered in class lectures more than textbook readings. Therefore, you cannot afford to have incomplete notes when preparing for tests and exams. In chapter 4, I described how to take meaningful notes in class. If you missed a class, came to a few classes late, or misplaced some of your notes, make photocopies of the missing pages from other students' notes. Don't study until all of your notes are complete. After you have a good understanding of what will be covered on the exam, it is time for you to sit down and begin to study. Below I outline twelve suggestions to help you study more efficiently. Do not cram for exams Study in a quiet place Begin studying as soon as you can Complete all of the required reading well in advance of the exam Do not review old exams until after you have studied all of the material Ask the teaching assistant for help Take advantage of peer tutoring, when available Be over-prepared for the first test or exam in each course Attend all exam review sessions

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Be well-prepared for open book exams Spend a significant amount of time preparing your answers to a take-home exam Be well-prepared for an exam that will be curved Do not cram for tests! Of course, for many students this is easier said than done. While cramming may allow a student to pass an exam, it probably will not result in an A. Cramming is not advised for the following reasons: You may not realize how much material you have to cover until you begin studying. If you do not open a book until the eve of the exam, you may be surprised at the volumes of information you need to learn over the next 12 hours. Unfortunately, on the night before the exam, it is too late to start again. Don't put yourself in this unfortunate position. You may have unanswered questions at three o'clock in the morning. What can you do now? If you had begun studying the week before, you would have had plenty of time to ask the professor, teaching assistant, or another student for help. At this late hour there may be no one around to assist you. You will have to hope and pray that the information you don't understand is not on the test. If you crammed the night before, it is extremely easy to panic during an exam. Your brain has not had a chance to digest the information, and as a result, even a slightly difficult question can cause you to freeze during the test. What if you cannot answer an essay question worth 25 percent of the exam grade? If you didn't get much sleep the night before, you will be extremely tired while taking the test. Even if you pump your cloudy head full of caffeine, it will be very difficult to concentrate. Yet good concentration is exactly what you need to perform well on an exam, particularly a quantitative one. You will remember very little, if anything, after the exam. What is the point of spending four years in college and tens of thousands of dollars, if you are not going to learn anything? Future employers pay a premium for college graduates because they assume that these individuals have a broad knowledge base. If you cram your way through college, you

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are truly doing yourself disservice. In contrast, if you studied diligently the week before the exam, you may be able to close your books on the eve and relax. You will perform much better with a good night of sleep. Pick a quiet place to study. Some of the students I interviewed prefer to study in the library, while others favor a dorm room atmosphere. Whether you choose to study in a library carrel, a vacant classroom, or in your dorm, make sure that the room is quiet. If you study in a noisy environment, you will absorb very little of what you are reading. Although there shouldn't be any noise in a library, college students know that the library can be the most distracting place on campus. A trip to the library is a social event for many students, even during exam week. If you cannot resist the urge to talk with friends in the library, study somewhere else. Avoid the temptation to socialize until you have finished preparing for your exams. Begin studying as soon as you can. If you learn the material over a number of weeks rather than in a few hours, you will retain more information for a longer period of time. Take advantage of the lighter load in the first few weeks of every semester and begin studying. If you have a free afternoon, catch up on reading assignments required for the mid-term exam. (In chapter 11, I will elaborate on how to juggle your exams, papers, and homework assignments.) Read all of the relevant chapters, articles, and books well in advance of the exam. As you read your textbooks, take notes in an outline form. The outline will serve as your study guide later. With a well-written summary you will avoid having to read assigned chapters three and four times. This can be a big time saver! After reading and outlining all assigned material, review your class notes. Compare your notes to your outline and confirm that there are no discrepancies. Pay special attention to information emphasized in your class notes, ensuring that you fully understand all of the concepts. If there are any topics which you have not fully grasped, reread the relevant chapter. Resist the temptation to review old exams or study questions until after you have studied all of the material. You should attempt to answer every question on your own

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first in order to determine which concepts you have grasped and which ones you need to study more. This is particularly true in preparing for quantitative exams. It is one thing to be able to understand a problem by reading through the answer key. It is quite another to be able to complete the problem unaided! For example, I know students who have performed poorly on calculus exams despite having studied old tests. These students never attempted to complete a problem without the assistance of the solution key. Because you will have to answer questions on the test without any study aids, you should practice now. If initially you were unable to complete a problem before reviewing the answer key, do not assume that you understand the problem now. You may be able to answer the question unaided only because you inadvertently memorized the solution to that specific question. If the numbers or wording were changed slightly, you would not be able to solve it. To combat this, I suggest that you review several textbook examples and problems from your notes to confirm that you understand every concept. Utilize the teaching assistant's services. In most large classes the professor has at least one appointed teaching assistant (T.A.). The T.A., usually a graduate or doctoral student, is being paid in the form of tuition credits or wages. Part of her job, in addition to assisting the professor with research, is to help students who have questions. Often, the professor will instruct the T.A. to teach a weekly or bi-weekly review session. While attendance is voluntary, I strongly urge you to attend as many sessions as possible. During the weekly sessions, the T.A. reviews homework problems and answers general questions. In addition, T.A.s usually have regular office hours during the school week. If you encounter any difficulties in completing homework assignments or in studying for the exam, contact the T.A. I don't suggest that you ask her what will be covered on the exam because she may not know. Ask the professor, instead. If your university sponsors a peer tutoring program, take advantage of it. Some universities pay students to tutor other students who are having difficulty with a particular course. In most instances, the tutors have taken the course previously and have done well in it. Tutors are particularly helpful in science, mathematics, foreign language, and economics courses. If you think you may need assis-

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tance with a difficult course, inquire about peer tutoring. Unfortunately, there is usually a limit on the number of free tutoring hours you can obtain. If you still need more assistance after your free tutoring hours are exhausted, hire an outside tutor. Be sure to meet with the tutor well in advance of the mid-term or final exam. There is very little he or she can do for you 24 hours before an exam. ''Overstudy'' for the first test and then refine your studying technique in preparing for future exams. Always err on the side of conservatism. What do I mean by this? When studying for the first test in a course, make sure that you know every minuscule detail. That is, read every article and chapter, know every concept and vocabulary term, and be able to do every single problem. This may appear to be overkill, but it has always worked for me. (Hopefully, you will not have two exams on the same day.) During my first semester in college, I was enrolled in an introductory sociology course. I had no idea what to expect on the mid-term exam because the professor had not explained the types of questions that he would ask. As this was my first exam in college and I was somewhat intimidated, I decided to "overstudy." When I walked into the exam, I could define every vocabulary term and concept in the book. My hard work and diligence paid off and I received one of the few A's on the mid-term exam. Other students assumed that the exam questions would be more general, and as a result, they were not adequately prepared. After you take the first test and receive your grade, you will have a much better concept of the professor's testing and grading style. Was he extremely thorough in designing the test? Did he ask questions that required that you remember minor details? Did he emphasize major concepts? Did he grade the test leniently? If you determine that you "overstudied" for the first exam, modify your technique for the final exam. Attend all exam review sessions. For those of you who are unfamiliar with the term, a review session is given usually two or three days before an exam by either the professor or the T.A. Sometimes the professor prepares sample questions in advance and explains them in detail during the session. In other instances, the professor has no agenda. He holds the review session as an open forum, discussing only the topics on which students have questions.

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Before attending the review session, you should study the subject matter thoroughly. Come to the review with a list of questions and prepared to take good notes. Do not expect to learn a semester's worth of material in two hours. The review session is designed to help students who are having difficulty with certain problems or concepts. If you attend the session without having studied the material, you will become intimidated as you listen to other students ask detailed questions. It is quite frustrating to sit through a class in which you understand very little of the discussion especially if the exam is in two days! Do not assume that only the material covered in the review session will be included on the exam. Professors often let the students' questions guide the points covered during the review. There may be several topics not mentioned in the review session that will nevertheless be included on the exam. If you are uncertain about the format of the exam, be sure to ask the professor to go over it again. Do not assume that an open-book exam will be easy. Some students make the mistake of believing that they don't have to study for open-book tests because all of the information will be at their fingertips. Given the time constraints of an exam, this belief couldn't be farther from the truth. Open-book exams are often much more grueling than closed-book ones. Because the professor allows the students to bring in the textbook, he will not be asking you to regurgitate information. Instead, he will expect the class to be able to apply the concepts or formulas. This requires more indepth knowledge than you would need for a closed-book exam. In order to utilize the time allotted for the exam in the most efficient manner, place tabs throughout the book to indicate where the formulas and key definitions are (depending on the type of exam). Use a yellow marker to highlight the formulas and key equations. You do not want to waste time flipping through the book while taking the test. Study for an open-book test as if the test were closed-book. Given the time pressures of an exam, you will be surprised at how infrequently you refer to the textbook. A two-hour period is not enough time for you to read the book and answer the test questions. Spend a significant amount of time preparing a take-home exam. Usually, when the professor designates the midterm or final as a "take-home" exam, he expects you to answer the

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questions with the help of your notes and textbook. In most instances, however, you will not be permitted to discuss the exam with other students. If you have any doubts about whether you are allowed to speak with other students, ask the professor. As with open-book tests, a take-home exam often requires more in-depth knowledge than a closed-book test given during class. The professor will not give you multiple choice questions or ask for the definitions of terms. Instead, the exam will probably consist of essay questions that test your ability to apply the information taught in the course. You will need to assimilate all of the knowledge you learned over the semester and succinctly respond to the questions. This is much easier said than done. With a take-home exam, you have much more time to formulate your responses than if the exam were given in class. The professor will hold the class to a higher standard when grading the exams, precisely because it was a take-home exam. Therefore, don't rush through it in two hours! Other students in your class will spend hours and hours completing the exam. Don't place yourself at a competitive disadvantage! Give a great deal of thought to each essay question before answering it. What is the professor really asking? Write an outline of your initial response to each question and then elaborate on the points made in your outline. Be sure to proofread all of your answers before you turn in your exam. The exam should be completed on a word processor, not written out by hand. Do not, under any circumstances, speak with other students in the class about the take-home exam unless you have been given permission to do so. This is usually considered cheating. If the professor suspects that you cheated, you certainly won't get an A in the class and you well may fail it. If an exam will be graded on a curve, do not put yourself at a disadvantage. Some students mistakenly conclude that if the professor is curving the exam grades, they do not have to study as much. This is definitely not true! A bell curve can work for or against you, depending on the performance of your classmates. A grade of 85 could equal a C in a course where the class average is 90. Similarly, an 84 could be an A on a particularly difficult exam. Keep in mind that you still have to study the course material thoroughly, whether or not the professor chooses to use a curve.

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6 Test-Taking Strategies Do you get anxious the night before a big test, even though you are thoroughly familiar with all of the material? If so, you are not alone. There is something very intimidating about taking an exam. Maybe it's the fact that you don't quite know how you'll react until you open the test booklet. What if you freeze after reading the first question? What if you cannot finish the exam in the allotted time? Do not fret! There are several actions you can take to increase your odds of acing an exam. Don't let test anxiety prevent you from achieving high marks. Most honor students have mastered the art of test-taking and you should too! In this chapter, I discuss the following test-taking guidelines: Eat before you begin the test Arrive ten minutes early to the exam Bring sharp pencils, an eraser, a calculator, and a watch to the exam Skim through the entire exam before answering any of the questions Don't panic if your mind draws a blank on a question Ask the professor to clarify anything you don't fully understand

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Don't read too much into true-false and multiple choice questions Respond to "short answer" questions with at least two or three sentences Write succinct essay responses Never leave a question blank After you complete the exam, check over your work at least once Make sure that you have eaten something before taking the test. You will probably perform better with some food in your stomach. It is difficult to concentrate during a two- or three-hour exam with a grumbling stomach. On the other hand, you don't want to eat too much, lest you become lethargic during the exam. Sometimes students are able to leave the test room and use the facilities or purchase something to eat. Don't assume that you will be allowed to do so or that you will have the time to take a 15 minute break during a test. If you are running to the exam and haven't eaten, put a granola bar or a bagel in your backpack. Aim to arrive at the exam 10 minutes early. Arriving early will assure you a good seat and give you time to relax for a moment. Should you encounter unexpected delays, you will have the comfort of a 10-minute time cushion. Try to avoid arriving at exams late the added time pressure can be quite nerve-racking. Use the extra 10 minutes to rest your mind. You won't gain much by feverishly flipping through your notes once more. In fact, if you believe that you are not as well-prepared as you should be, you may become more frantic. Instead, close your books and relax. Bring a few sharp pencils with good erasers, a working calculator (if needed), and a watch. I have been in exam rooms in which a student forgot his calculator or his calculator battery suddenly stopped functioning. Try to avoid these fiascos by coming to the test prepared. I suggest that you bring a watch in the event that the classroom clock is not working correctly. You will then be able to pace yourself throughout the exam.

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Before you begin to answer any test questions, skim through the entire test first. On the night before a major history exam, Michael S. watched television. He had studied the material thoroughly and didn't think that a few more hours of cramming would add to his exam score. The next morning, Michael went to the exam, convinced that he would do well. He opened the test booklet and began to answer the first 10 questions, each worth five points. He did not read through the whole exam and, therefore, did not know that there were two 25-point essay questions at the end. Because Michael never looked at his watch during the two-hour period, he wasted too much time answering the 10 five-point questions. With only 15 minutes remaining, Michael read the first essay question and tried to formulate an answer quickly. He was unable to write a satisfactory essay response because of the severe time constraints. With five minutes remaining, he still had one more essay to write. Although Michael received full credit on the first 10 questions, he got only partial credit for the two essays. Michael was frustrated because he knew the answers to the essays, but did not have enough time to respond. His exam grade was a 74. What can you learn from Michael's unfortunate experience? To ensure that you have enough time to complete each question, you must read through the entire exam first. As you read each question, try to gauge how much time it will take you to complete it. Hopefully, the professor will indicate the point value of each question, enabling you to concentrate more on those that are worth a significant percentage of the total exam grade. These are the test questions which you must answer first. In order to be sure that you complete the important questions, you should try to answer them first. Michael lost 26 points on a history exam because he did not have enough time to complete the last two essays. He was extremely frustrated because he knew the answers, but did not have time to respond. Don't let this happen to you! Throughout the exam, you should look at your watch to check that you are answering the questions at a quick enough pace. If you cannot complete a question after five or ten minutes of serious thought, move on to the next question. Do not let a question worth 5 points prevent you from answering one worth 20.

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Don't panic if there is a problem or question you cannot answer, even if it is worth 25 percent of the total grade. I once froze while taking a quantitative exam in college. It was not a pleasant experience, but I think I learned something valuable from it you have to remain calm! There were a total of four long mathematical problems and 20 multiple choice questions. Although I had read through the entire exam first, I did not realize how complex the problems were until I started to solve them. The first problem was not difficult, so I felt confident as I began to analyze the second problem. I quickly realized that I couldn't solve it, so I moved on to the third question. Within 30 seconds, I concluded that I couldn't answer the third one either. Suddenly, I panicked. I was not able to solve two problems worth at least 40 points. I would surely fail the exam! For 30 seconds I was paralyzed with fear It felt like an hour. My heart raced as I tried to figure out what to do next. I kept saying to myself, "Relax. Think clearly." I seriously considered feigning illness and asking the professor for permission to take a make-up exam (I am quite certain that he would not have given me permission.) I finally calmed down a little bit and flipped the page to the fourth problem. Methodically, I worked through it, trying to put the other two questions out of my mind. I was running out of time when I returned to the second and third problems. Somehow I wrote down enough information to begin solving them. Ironically, I received almost full credit for the second and third problems, but answered most of the multiple choice questions incorrectly. If I hadn't finally relaxed, I would never have been able to solve the two difficult problems. The key to performing well in an exam is remaining calm. If you cannot answer a question, flip through the exam until you find a question you can answer. There may be a word or a phrase in one of the remaining questions that jogs your memory. For example, you may be asked in an English exam to cite passages from a novel that support a theme. Let's suppose your mind draws a blank. If you move on to the next essay, one of the remaining essay questions may contain a clue that jogs your memory. You may suddenly remember a relevant passage from the novel. Even if you don't, at least you will have completed the remainder of the exam. If you are unsure about an exam question, ask the professor to clarify it. Most exams are monitored by a proctor,

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not the professor. The professor, however, usually returns to the exam room every 20 to 30 minutes to answer students' questions. If the professor is not in the room, you may be tempted to guess at the intended meaning of the question. Resist this urge and wait until the professor returns. In the interim, you should answer all of the questions that are clear to you. When answering multiple choice and true-false questions, try not to read too much into the question. With multiple choice questions, eliminate all of the incorrect possibilities first. If you still cannot distinguish between two possible choices, go with your first instinct. (Your subconscious may remember something from a class lecture.) You have a fifty-fifty chance of answering the question right, assuming the choices you eliminated were wrong. When completing "short answer" questions, write at least two- or three-sentence responses. Although the question is classified as "short answer," don't assume that a two-word reply will suffice. In all likelihood, the professor will not give you full credit for an answer shorter than 15 or 20 words. Keep this in mind when responding to "shortanswer" exam questions. Try to write concisely when answering essay questions. The professor does not have time to read long-winded essays. He will quickly lose patience with you if your responses are too verbose. Furthermore, you don't have time to write long responses, because you need to move on to the next question. Keep it short and simple. Never leave a question blank. Try to give at least some response to every question on the exam. You have a fiftyfifty chance of guessing true-false questions correctly. You have a 25 percent chance of circling the right answer to a multiple choice question, assuming there are four possible options. If you attend class regularly, you might have some knowledge of the question stored in your memory. Take a stab at it! If you cannot answer an essay question as well as you would like, write down everything you know about the subject as succinctly as possible. You have nothing to lose by taking a stab at the question and you may surprise yourself with your knowledge once you begin to write. If your essay response touched on the right

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answer, you could receive partial credit. A few extra points may boost your test score half a grade! After you complete the exam, check over all of your work at least once if you have the time. There is nothing more frustrating than being penalized for careless mistakes. A few sloppy errors can mean the difference between an A and a B on a test. When reviewing quantitative problems, recalculate all mathematical functions. It is very easy to make addition and multiplication mistakes. If you copied your work into an exam book, make sure that you did not make any transcription errors. Reread essay and short-answer responses to make sure that you have not omitted anything. It is easy to omit key words or sentences under the time constraints of an exam. Your brain can think quicker than your hand can write. If you discover that you answered an essay question incorrectly, don't panic. If you don't have enough time to write another essay, write your answer in an outline form. Try to include all of the key points in your response, because partial credit is better than no credit. The professor will be grading you on content, not style. With quantitative exams, it is more difficult to correct mistakes quickly. If you miscalculated a mathematical function at the beginning of a problem, it could take you 10 minutes to recalculate your answer. Go ahead and try, even if there is only a minute remaining. If all of the students haven't finished the exam, the professor may extend the exam period by 5 or 10 minutes.

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7 Study Groups Do you like to study with other students or do you find you learn more on your own? I've included a discussion of study groups in this book because many of the honor students I interviewed are strong supporters of them. Although I rarely study with other students, I realize that there are some benefits to group study sessions. Cathy H., a George Washington University student, prefers to study in a group rather than alone. She believes that studying with other students significantly reduces her total exam preparation time. Cathy told me that before she meets with a study group, she reviews her class notes to ensure that she has a basic understanding of the subject matter. In addition, whenever possible, Cathy meets her group in the classroom where the exam will be given. Reviewing sample problems on the blackboard in the same classroom helps her remember details during the actual exam. If she has trouble solving a problem on the exam, she glances up at the blackboard and tries to remember the solution to a similar problem from the study session. Study groups can be beneficial to the individual student. In this chapter, I discuss the advantages and disadvantages to study groups in general, the circumstances under which you may want to study with others, and some general guidelines for picking the right students to participate in your study sessions.

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Advantages of Study Groups Those who advocate the use of study groups cite the following reasons: To share knowledge and insights To confirm their understanding of the subject matter To increase their motivation to study Sharing knowledge and insights. The major benefit to group study sessions is the sharing of knowledge and information. Each student may know more about a specific topic than any of the other group members. Theoretically, if all of the students share their insights, each member will learn more than if he had studied on his own. (The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.) You have to keep in mind, however, that students who are studying for exams do not have the time to teach other students. Every group member is essentially selfish hoping to learn something from the other students without spending a great deal of time teaching others. In the ideal group setting, every student is well-prepared and able to contribute to group discussions. Unfortunately, it is usually difficult to create the ideal group, but I will give you some guidelines to accomplish this at the end of the chapter. Confirming your understanding of the subject matter. Another possible reason for studying with other students is to confirm your opinions and understanding of the subject matter. As you explain the course material out loud to your peers, you confirm in your own mind that you really are prepared for the exam. If you find yourself becoming confused as you try to teach others, you have more studying to do. Increasing your motivation to study. Some students use study groups as a motivational tool. If participating in a study group inspires you to begin studying before the eve of the exam, then, by all means, study with others. I must warn you, however, that one common trait among top students is strong self-motivation. I am not sure that you will be able to perform well in college if you must rely on others to urge you to study. Your primary reason for joining a study group should be to increase your knowledge, not your motivation.

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Disadvantages of Study Groups While there are benefits to study groups, there are also several drawbacks. The key disadvantages include the following: Group members may become distracted Students may not be well-prepared for the meeting Group opinions are subject to ''groupthink'' Group members may become distracted. Studying with other students may not be the best use of your time if members in your group are easily distracted. Some students find it difficult to resist the urge to socialize when surrounded by other students. Remember, one rotten apple spoils the bunch. If there is even one group member who cannot focus on the subject matter, you run the risk of wasting a great deal of time by remaining in the group. Students may not be well-prepared for the meeting. Another disadvantage to studying with others is the risk that some students may not be prepared for the group meeting. These unprepared students are hoping to get a free ride by listening in on group discussions and contributing very little. You may find yourself explaining the subject matter to these freeloaders, instead of learning from the group. You may be able to overcome this disadvantage if there is only one group member who is not well-prepared. Unfortunately, many groups include several students who have not studied at all. Group opinions are subject to "groupthink." A third drawback is the fact that group opinions may be subject to "groupthink." Groupthink, first defined by Irving Janis, occurs when group members are unable or unwilling to criticize the opinions of their peers. Because the group emphasizes conformity, individual members do not want to voice opinions contrary to those of the group. As a result, the group may make unwise or risky decisions. Of course, groupthink is not as dangerous in an academic setting as it would be on a battlefield or even in a corporate environment. Nonetheless, students can fall prey to groupthink if they begin to believe that all of the group's opinions are correct. The pressure to conform is powerful, as those who have been exposed to peer pressure surely know. In a study group, you should never

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be afraid to discuss an opposing viewpoint. For example, nearly everyone in the fifteenth century believed that the world was flat. Because the world appeared flat to the naked eye, people assumed it was. Fortunately, Christopher Columbus was willing to voice an opposing viewpoint. Where would we be today if Columbus succumbed to peer pressure? The lesson is: Listen to your fellow classmates, but remain skeptical. If You Choose to Study in a Group. . . There are times when participating in a study group is more productive than studying independently. In a quantitative course, such as Statistics or Calculus, a study group may help you understand the last few problems you could not solve on your own. Ideally, fellow group members will be able to explain the problems you don't fully understand and you can return the favor by solving problems for other members. Of course, there may be a few questions that no one in the group can answer. You will have to contact the T.A. or professor in those instances. In a qualitative course, such as Philosophy or English, a study group can help broaden your perspective. Each member will have a slightly different interpretation of the readings. Hopefully, you can learn from your classmates. To protect yourself from the pitfalls of groupthink, however, you should read all of the assignments before meeting with the group and form your own opinions on the issues. Do not assume that other members are correct. They may have misinterpreted the information. You should clear up any discrepancies with the professor. Before meeting with other students, it is imperative that you study the material on your own. There are two major reasons for this: You will become confused and anxious if you meet with your classmates before you have had a chance to review the material thoroughly. Imagine not having reviewed a chapter in your Calculus book and then joining a group of students who are busy discussing logarithmic functions. It could be intimidating! You must have a firm understanding of most of the topics on the exam in order to feel confident in a group setting.

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No one has time to teach you the course. Other group members will become angry if they think that you are trying to "piggyback" off their knowledge and hard work. If you are known as a freeloader, you will never be asked to join the group again. You cannot expect to learn a semester's worth of material in a two-hour review with other students. Creating the Ideal Group of Study Partners Throughout the chapter, I have made several references to the "ideal group." You may be asking, "What constitutes an ideal group?" This question is difficult to answer because it is highly subjective and situation-specific. However, you should keep the following suggestions in mind when choosing group members and when conducting your study sessions: In general, an ideal group consists of a handful of students who are all at the same level, more or less, in terms of their knowledge of the subject matter. If some students have studied a great deal more than others, the disparity in knowledge will result in wasted time. In attempting to create the ideal group, do not select your close friends as study partners. The temptation to socialize is much too great. You should choose students who are as diligent about studying as you are. Try not to let the group get too large. A group with more than four or five students will be difficult to manage and will be unproductive. If additional students want to join your group, divide into two groups. Choose a group setting that is conducive to learning. If you fear distractions, do not study in someone's dorm room or apartment. The temptation to watch television, take a nap, or eat may be too strong. Pick a quiet, sterile environment, such as an empty classroom, to conduct your group meeting. Pick a group leader before you begin the study session. The leader should be responsible for leading the group discussion

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and/or choosing the problems and examples which will be reviewed. Without an appointed leader, the members may be unfocused in their studying efforts. Remember, you want the group study session to increase your knowledge, not waste your time.

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8 Group Projects During my junior year in college, I had a traumatic group project experience in an Organizational Behavior class. Every possible thing that could have gone wrong, did. I started the project at a distinct disadvantage because I walked into the first class five minutes late. Everyone in the class had selected team members already and, as a result, I was placed in a group of seven students who had absolutely nothing in common. There were no other honor students in this group. In fact, the group consisted of primarily C-average students who, as it turns out, only wanted to pass the course. I didn't panic yet, but I was not thrilled with my fellow teammates. The assignment was somewhat unusual. The professor asked each group to create a 10- to 15-minute video that could be used as a management tool in an organizational setting. At first, the project seemed simple enough. I actually looked forward to filming the video footage and putting the tape together. Little did I know the nightmares that were yet to come. Our group chose to do a video tape on "Stress Management in the Workplace." (Stress management is the operative phrase, given the stress we would endure later.) We initially planned to interview one or two industrial psychologists specializing in employee stress. We also planned to speak with corporate executives about the stress they encounter on a daily basis. On paper, the project still seemed easy at this point. Things quickly turned for the worst. First, no one in the group had a videocamera or knew how to use one (this was in the mid-80s before videocameras

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became extremely popular). We finally located a videocamera we could borrow, but of course it was not available at the time the industrial psychologist could meet with us. In addition, at the last minute, two interviewees canceled and we were left with no taped interviews and only a few weeks to complete the project. We thought our luck was improving when we finally convinced a renowned psychologist from Arlington, Virginia to speak with us. And we found a student who would allow us to use his videocamera for the day. The interview was perfect the psychologist elaborated on all of the major points that we wanted to cover in our tape. In addition, she was an extremely articulate speaker and quite funny. We couldn't believe our good fortune! For some unknown reason, we not only videotaped the interview, but also made a cassette recording of it. I think we were afraid of not operating the videocamera correctly. A week later we interviewed a graduate school professor at Georgetown who specialized in industrial psychology. A student who worked in the audiovisual department on campus recorded the interview for us. This interview was much less informative and much more boring than the first. Afterward, we decided that we weren't going to use more than a two- or three-minute clip from the interview with the professor. When we put the tape into a videocassette recorder, we realized that the second interview was taped over the first. At this point, I honestly felt like strangling someone. There was nothing we could do and no one in particular to blame. It was just a series of unfortunate circumstances. We knew we could not ask the Virginia psychologist to speak with us again. She was much too busy and it was our fault that the interview had been erased. Luckily, we still had the taped recording of her interview. We carefully listened to the tape recording and tried to visualize images that would correspond with the psychologist's words. By now we only had a week to complete the tape. Several group members had become disinterested in the assignment, given the setbacks and frustrations we had encountered. Perhaps they assumed that other students would complete the tape without them. In the end, two other team members and I finished the tape. We created visual slides that outlined the points made by the professor. We also spliced in comedic stress scenes from movies. Of course, we were forced to use much more of the interview with the boring professor than we had originally intended. We stayed up 48 hours straight splicing the tape and trying to perfect the relationship between the sound and the video footage. Because the remaining three team members worked together, we were able to finish the tape on time. (The professor had already refused to give us an extension so we didn't really have a choice!) Surprisingly, the final copy of the tape was quite informative. More importantly, we received an A on the project. Needless to say, I learned a great deal from our mistakes.

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In this chapter, I make several suggestions to help you avoid many of the mistakes we made, including: How to choose team members How to run more productive group meetings The different roles group members play in completing the project Sixteen step-by-step instructions for producing an A-quality project Tips for dealing with unforeseen setbacks Selecting Group Members Completing a group project on time is difficult enough, without the added pressure of trying to get an A. As a group member, your grade hinges on the efforts of other students. This can be frustrating, because you have no direct control over the actions of your peers. Choosing the right partners is critical to your project's success. If you select your team members wisely, you have already won half the battle. In some courses, however, the professor assigns students to groups. In an assigned group, you are forced to cooperate with other members, no matter how divergent your interests and backgrounds are. If the professor assigns you to a group of unmotivated students, do not despair! There are several actions you can take to help guarantee the success of your project. These are discussed later in this chapter. Fortunately, in most classes the professor asks students to select their own team members. Usually there is no clear advantage, from the professor's point of view, to creating assigned groups. There are seven guidelines for choosing group members, assuming you are given the option. Select hard-working and conscientious students. You may not know many students on the first day of class, but even if you only know a few people, avoid anyone you consider to be lazy or unreliable. If you have worked with some students successfully in the past, immediately ask them to be in your group.

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Choose students who also want an A on the project. Again, a quick glance around the room may not tell you which students are motivated. Nonetheless, by the time you are a sophomore in college, you should be familiar with at least the names, if not the faces, of other students on the Dean's List. If you ask at least one other honor student to be in your group, you will greatly improve your chances of getting an A on the project, even if other team members are only average students. Ask a close friend to be in your group if, and only if, he or she meets at least one of the two above criteria. The one advantage to working with a friend is that you get along well. The main disadvantage is that group meetings can become social events if both of you are not disciplined. By including a hard-working, studious friend in your group, you enjoy the best of both worlds. Try to assemble a group of students with varying talents, skills, and contacts. Ideally, your team should include at least one member who writes well, one who is adept at computer graphics, and one detail-oriented person. You may also need one or two students who are good public speakers, if a group presentation is required. If you are not too comfortable with the course subject matter, be sure to include at least one student who is. Five English majors may have difficulty earning an A on a Finance project. Try to limit the group size to four or five students, if possible. Some professors will mandate that groups consist of a certain number of students. Others will not object to groups ranging in size from three to six members. I prefer to work in groups of no more than four students because larger groups are more difficult to manage. In large groups, sub-groups tend to emerge, making it difficult for the group to make any decisions. Also, six or seven students may not be able to agree on meeting times. Realize that students have different motivations. Some are perfectly happy with a straight C average, while others go the extra mile for the A. There are also students who take advantage of hard-working team members in group situations. These individuals may slack off once they realize that other group members will do the work for them. Unfortunately, if you become well-known as a

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straight-A student, the leeches in the classroom will seek you out. Avoid them whenever possible. Choose your team members on the first day of class. Once the group project is announced, students immediately pick teammates. You must quickly select your team members or risk being placed in a group of unmotivated students. To mitigate this risk, glance around the room during the first five minutes of the first class and identify potential team members. In the event that the professor announces a group project, you can immediately ask the students you identified to be in your group before anyone else has the opportunity to do so. Conducting Group Meetings After you have joined a group, your team will have to meet to discuss potential topics. There are two basic types of group meetings: brief five- or ten-minute sessions held after class, and longer meetings scheduled in advance. In a well-organized group, students will complete large sections of the project on their own, reducing the need to meet with the group outside of class. In fact, the group may only have to meet two or three times during the semester if each member carries his or her weight. Group members can be updated on the status of the project during quick, five-minute sessions held immediately after class. Your group will be most likely forced to schedule a formal meeting at least twice during the semester. The location of the meeting is important because you want your time to be spent productively. Try to avoid conducting meetings in dorm rooms or apartments to minimize the temptation to socialize. Some students are distracted easily by the television, stereo system or even the refrigerator! Your team should reserve a classroom, office, or library room in advance; you don't want to waste time searching for an empty room after you meet your teammates. Toward the end of the project, you will have to meet at a location equipped with a computer and printer. This meeting will probably take place in student's apartment, particularly if it is difficult to reserve computers on campus. In order to make sure that these formal meetings are productive, the group should always have an agenda. Your group will be

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less inclined to waste time if there is a written plan. For example, the first meeting may be arranged after each member has researched his section of the paper. The following objectives might be included on the agenda: Discuss each member's research and determine if additional research is needed Draft an outline of the project, based on the information available Assign a section of the paper to each member Set preliminary deadlines for the first draft, final draft, presentation, and so on Working off an agenda will allow you to better estimate how long the meeting will take. For example, you will be able to schedule the rest of your day if you know your group meeting will last approximately two hours. In general, scheduled group meetings should be short and infrequent. Be sure to have an agenda. Without one, it is easy to lose track of time and waste hours debating issues with your group. Positions Within the Group With most group projects there is no appointed leader. Your group may decide to select a leader, however, if you think that the project will be more organized if it is under the control of one student. Possibly no one in your group will want to accept the position, because it will entail additional work without any reward. Occasionally, professors will either designate a leader in each group (particularly if he assigned the groups) or will require that each group elect a leader. The professor may want to have a point-person representing each group for topic discussions or meetings. In most group situations, there is no appointed leader; however, an implied leader may emerge by the first or second meeting. The implied leader is a student who naturally assumes leadership responsibilities without being named the group leader. This student may be the person who suggested the topic that was chosen for the project. The student becomes a quasi-leader because he or she has some familiarity with the topic, has contacts with potential interviewees, or has a keen interest in the subject matter. The

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implied leader could also be the student who is most determined to do well on the project. He or she may want to take control of the reins in order to minimize the risk. You do not need to appoint a group leader even if your group does not appear to have an implied one. Some group projects work better under democratic leadership if everyone is willing to do his fair share of the workload. When there are disagreements within the group, a diplomatic group member may act as the arbitrator. The advantage of a stated or implied leader is better project organization. The leader can assign tasks and act as a liaison between the group and the professor. If, however, the appointed leader is unreliable or a procrastinator, the group project may suffer. Your group will have to decide whether to appoint a leader based on the personalities and motivations of your fellow teammates. While you may not need a leader in every group situation, you do need to designate an editor. Obviously, a student who does well in English class is a good choice for this crucial position. The editor will review each member's written contribution to the project and ensure that the paper is written in one voice that there are no grammatical or spelling errors, and that all redundancies are removed. If an oral presentation is required in addition to a written paper, your group will have to choose speakers. Usually one or two students who enjoy speaking in front of an audience will volunteer to present. Your group should try to choose students who are able to field questions well. Completing the Project One of the disadvantages associated with group assignments is the potentially large time commitment required to complete the project. Nevertheless, there are a number of guidelines that will ensure that your completed project is a success. As you might have guessed, the secret to a successful group project is teamwork. Choose group members on the first day of class, if possible. Follow the tips on picking students for group assignments. You won't have your choice of top students if you hesitate in selecting team members. Do not leave the first class without having assembled a competent group of students for the project.

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Make sure that your team understands the assignment before you start the project. On the first day of class, the professor will probably explain the project and give the deadline for submission. Ask the professor to clarify any points you or your team members do not fully understand. You don't want to waste time on a subject that does not satisfy the professor's requirements. Begin the project early in the semester before the demands of other courses start to interfere with students' schedules. Meet with group members briefly after the first or second class and choose a primary and alternate topic. At least one or two members should research the two potential topics to determine whether either of them is viable. There may not be enough information on a particular subject to complete the assignment. You may need to research a third and fourth topic, if you did not have much luck with the first two. Ask the professor to review your topic and preliminary outline before your group continues the research. Don't waste time on a subject until it is approved. After the professor returns the project outline, try to gauge his enthusiasm by the types of comments he made. If it appears that he is not enthusiastic about your project, present him with the alternate topic. Your goal is to choose a project that appears to interest the professor. If he is excited about the subject matter, he may help your group locate sources and may grade the project more leniently. Remember, you are fighting an uphill battle by doing a project that the professor does not like. Arrange a group meeting after the professor has returned the preliminary outline with comments. During the meeting, each group member should be assigned a section of the project to research. Depending on the assignment, students may have to research secondary sources and conduct interviews with individuals knowledgeable in the topic area. Try to utilize each team member's skills and personal contacts when allocating research sections. Before the meeting is adjourned, the group should decide on preliminary deadlines for the completion of the research, the preliminary draft, the final draft, and the presentation. To provide some cushion, strive to have the final draft written at least three

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days before the project is due. You cannot imagine the number of things that can go wrong in a group project. Group members should remain in contact with each other throughout the research phase of the project. Try to identify problems before it's too late to turn back. You may be able to meet with your teammates after class. If any member is having difficulty locating sources or contacting potential interviewees, your group may want to change the scope of the project. After all of the research is completed, schedule a second group meeting. During the meeting, each team member will be assigned a section of the paper to write, preferably the section he or she researched. The goal of this meeting is to draft a revised outline based on the information that group members obtained. The outline may be considerably different than the preliminary one approved by the professor. Schedule a brief meeting with the professor to discuss the project. Only one or two members need to attend. During the meeting, ask the professor for feedback on the revised outline. He may feel that the scope of the project is too broad or too narrow. Write down all of the professor's suggestions and attempt to incorporate them into the paper. The more your project reflects what the professor wants to see, the better your chances of getting an A. Schedule a third meeting after each member has written his or her assigned section. To facilitate the editorial process, each student should bring both a hard copy and a disk copy of his or her section to the meeting. Also, a computer with a printer should be available at the meeting site, whether it's a dorm room or a campus computer lab. At this stage, group members will merge their sections and print out a preliminary draft of the project. Each student should read through the entire paper to determine which sections are redundant and which sections are not covered adequately. Certain team members may need to do additional research or rewrite their sections. After the revisions have been made, the designated editor should read through the entire project to ensure that all sections are written in one uniform voice. Students have different writing styles. Some write in a formal

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manner, while others write colloquially. Depending on how varied the writing styles are, the editor may have to spend hours rewriting the paper. Another student should do the appendices, graphs, charts, table of contents, bibliography, and so on. If one member of the group is particularly adept at computer graphics, he or she should complete this task. Illustrative charts and graphs can often make the difference between an A and a B on a project. For very little extra effort, you can greatly improve your chances of receiving an A by including a few well-designed appendices. One team member should be responsible for putting the final project together. Ideally, a detail-oriented member will volunteer for this task. The student will read through the text to ensure that there are no careless errors, spelling mistakes, or grammatical errors, and confirm that every parenthetical reference is correct. For example, the text may incorrectly state ''Refer to Appendix 2'' instead of "Refer to Appendix 4." These careless mistakes, if left uncorrected, give the professor an excuse to deduct points. The student should also go to the local copy shop and have the paper bound. The professor will view your group project in a more favorable light if it is presented in a professional manner. Of course, the content of the paper is the most significant factor in determining the project grade, but don't discount the importance of the little extras. (The student may also want to make copies of the project for all of the team members.) Making a Group Presentation Often, a group presentation is required in addition to a written paper. Professors make oral presentations mandatory because they want the entire class to benefit from each group's research. In fact, it's quite rare to be assigned a group project that does not include some type of oral presentation. To allow enough time to prepare for the presentation, the written portion of the project should be completed at least three days ahead of schedule, particularly if the presentation is a significant portion of your grade. In some courses, the group presentation accounts for 50 percent of the total project grade.

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The team should choose one or two good speakers to represent the group. There is no need for every member of the team to speak, particularly if some students are intimidated at the thought of speaking in front of the class. The professor and the class will remain much more attentive if the project is presented by articulate speakers. In some courses, the professor requires that every team member speak in front of the class. If everyone must take part in the presentation, each group member should speak about his or her own section of the project. Team members should practice reciting their parts on their own before meeting with the group. The presentation should include visual aids, such as overhead transparencies, flip charts, videos, and slides. As you will see in chapter 10, there are two key reasons for this: Visual aids help speakers remember their lines Visual aids keep the professor and other students interested in the project Try to keep the presentation short and exciting. The group should practice the entire presentation at least once to identify any problem areas. During the rehearsal, you may want to ask a friend or other outside observer to listen to the presentation and critique it objectively. Time each speaker at the rehearsal. The group may decide to eliminate some sections if the dry-run presentation takes longer than the time allotted. It is often difficult to tell one group member that he is an ineffective speaker. Imagine how you would feel if everyone in your group commented that your section is boring. Nevertheless, you should not let one poor presenter destroy your oral project grade. Try to lengthen the sections of the more articulate presenters and shorten those of the poor speakers. What If the Group Project Does Not Run Smoothly? Up to this point, I have assumed that your group project is proceeding without any major setbacks. This is probably not a realistic

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assumption, given my own frustrating experience. In school, as in life, things will go wrong. What do you do if you only have 72 hours to complete a project but you don't have enough information? What if a group member refuses to do his fair share of the work? What if the entire project was saved on a corrupted disk? These questions are probably better answered on a ease by case basis. However, there are some general suggestions for crisis management. For example, you may find yourself in the unenviable position of having only a few days to complete a project, but not nearly enough information. Possibly someone promised to send you data, but the package has not arrived. You might have scheduled an interview with someone very knowledgeable in the subject area, but the interviewee canceled at the last minute. There are any number of reasons why you don't have the information you need. That's not the issue. At this point, you need to move forward and complete the project. I suggest that you change the scope of the project immediately. Of course, this may be easier said than done. Still, try not to waste any more time researching the same sources if your efforts have so far proved fruitless. Review the outline and cross out the sections for which you don't have the necessary information. As a group, try to come up with ways to expand the remaining sections. You may be able to interview another expert in the topic area who can assist you or give you leads. Alternatively, the professor may be able to help you locate additional sources of information. Inevitably, if you participate in enough group projects you will eventually encounter a student who refuses to do his fair share of the work. If a student refuses to complete his section of the project, there is really no way to force him to do so. In the end, you and the other group members will each have to do part of the uncooperative student's section, whether or not you choose to tell the professor there is a problem. You may not care if others benefit from your blood, sweat, and tears as long as you receive an A. If you and your teammates do not mind shouldering the responsibilities of the uncooperative student, proceed with the project as if he were not a member of the group. To help ensure that your project receives an A, try to identify any group problems in the beginning of the semester. You definitely do not want to find out that a member has not completed his assigned section 24 hours before the project is due. Over the course of four years in college, you will probably lose a document on your hard drive or accidentally erase a file. Don't

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forget to back up all of your documents both on the hard drive and on disk! But what if the one file you did not back up is the one you erased? What now? First, calm down. There may be some way to retrieve the document from the hard-drive's back-up files. If you cannot retrieve the document, ask the professor to give your group a 48hour extension. In all likelihood, the group has a rough draft copy of the erased file somewhere, or at least a written outline. If the entire team works together to try to recreate the erased file, you may be surprised at how quickly you solve the problem. If you originally planned to complete the project three days before the due date as suggested earlier in the chapter, you will not need the extension.

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9 Writing Papers Do you find yourself avoiding courses that require papers, essays, or compositions? Chances are that if you haven't developed good writing skills by the time you graduate from high school, you will dread writing college papers. There is no need for this apprehension, however. Not every honor student is an expert writer. In fact, many of them are only average writers at best. What separates the honor student from his or her classmates is an attention to detail. An honor student will fully understand the assignment before beginning to write anything. He or she simply won't take any chances. If the student is not a good writer, he or she will ask a fellow student to critique the assigned papers, and won't submit a written assignment that is sloppy, unclear, or too wordy. If you adopt the same meticulous approach, your written assignments should receive high marks, too. In the first section of this chapter, I list six questions to ask the professor before you begin to write a paper. The answers to these questions should help you avoid common mistakes that might lower your grade needlessly. In the second section, I offer 16 guidelines to follow when writing any type of college paper. In the last section, I make specific suggestions for persuasive papers, term papers, and written case assignments.

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Before You Write the Paper. . . Confirm that you know the answer to each of the following questions: How long should the paper be? When is the paper due? Should the paper be persuasive, expository, or creative? Should the paper include a bibliography and footnotes or endnotes? Should the paper include an executive summary and table of contents? Is your topic too broad or too narrow? Although these questions may seem straightforward, they may not be. The difference between an A and a B on a written assignment may depend upon the answers to these six questions. How long should the paper be? This is an important question to ask, because the length of your paper can have a significant impact on your grade. Some professors will stipulate a page maximum, but won't really object if students exceed the limit by one or two pages. Other professors will deduct points from papers that do not strictly meet the maximum length criterion. You need to know whether the professor has a page length in mind, and how rigid she will be in enforcing it. You should also ask whether she would like the paper to be single- or double-spaced. Double-spacing usually is preferred, as it allows the grader to make comments in the margins. It's also easier to read, which becomes increasingly important after the professor has already read 68 student papers. When attempting to meet the length criterion, if your paper is a little too long or short, you can tinker with the font size, line spacing, and margins. For example, you can change the line spacing on a double-spaced paper to 1.8. This slight change (from 2.0 to 1.8) will go undetected and may allow you to squeeze a few more lines onto the last page. Don't abuse this option, however, because if you shrink the line spacing too much it will be quite obvious to the reader.

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When is the paper due? The professor usually states the due date on the syllabus. That does not mean however, that the date is not subject to change. The professor may choose to give an extension or switch the due dates of two assignments halfway through the course. To avoid any confusion, you should confirm that the stated due date of a paper is correct. You should also ask the professor whether you have the option of submitting the paper after class or putting it in her mailbox on the due date. Hopefully, you will not need an extra few hours to complete it, but it's comforting to know that you have the option. Should the paper be persuasive, expository, or creative? Obviously, this is a very important question, because the answer will impact the way you write the paper. Be careful, though. Sometimes, professors will not explicitly state that they want a persuasive paper, when they actually do. If you think about it, with the exception of creative writing and some term papers, most papers are persuasive to some degree. We will return to this point in the last section of the chapter. Should the paper include a bibliography and footnotes or endnotes? This question is more complicated than it appears to be. Obviously, if you quote an outside source, you will need to cite the source in your paper. But what if you use outside material for general background information only? Some professors will expect you to footnote every sentence that includes ideas that are not your own. Others will allow you to include a list of sources in an appendix, without making specific reference to them in the text of your paper. You definitely need to understand your professor's requirements before you begin to write. Imagine how frustrated you would be if you had written 75 percent of the paper before you realized that footnotes were mandatory. You would now be forced to waste hours hunting through your sources to compile the footnotes. In general, err on the side of conservatism. If you are not sure whether to cite a specific source, go ahead and do so. The professor will not penalize you for being overly conscientious and she may actually reward you for it. Should an executive summary, table of contents, and so on be included? This question will not apply to some papers. It's a more relevant concern when writing term papers and business cases. Still, if you are uncertain, it's worth asking.

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Is your topic too broad or too narrow? You will need to wait to ask this question until after you have done some initial research. Briefly sketch an outline based on the preliminary information you find and show the outline to your professor. Ask for constructive feedback before you research any further. You may need to narrow or expand your focus or you may have to change the topic completely. Remember, if she is not excited about your paper topic, it's not worth doing because you will be at a competitive disadvantage relative to your peers. This is particularly true if some of your classmates write about subjects that truly interest the professor. General Suggestions Although writing a term paper differs from writing a creative story, there are certain similarities among all types of papers you will be asked to write. In this section, I elaborate on the following suggestions for writing college papers: Start early Do a preliminary outline Don't worry if the first or second draft is not perfect Don't attempt to write the paper in one day Make sure that every sentence "flows" into the next Use action verbs and avoid the passive voice If you are uncertain about a grammar rule, refer to a grammar book or speak with another student Write a strong opening and conclusion Be succinct Proofread the paper at least twice Ask a friend to read your paper Include appendices, exhibits, graphs, and charts, wherever appropriate Make the final copy as attractive as possible Submit the paper by the assigned due date

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Print a clean copy of the paper for your professor Make a photocopy of the paper for yourself Start early. This point cannot be stressed enough. As with any assignment or exam, begin your paper as soon as possible. You gain absolutely nothing by procrastinating until the night before the paper is due (except a few gray hairs). By doing preliminary research in advance, you will have time to explore different topics. You may not have much luck with the first topic you choose, so it's better to build in a little time cushion. If you start the paper early, you will also be able to show your outline to the professor and obtain his seal of approval. Otherwise, you'll have to assume that your paper topic is exactly what the professor has in mind. Those students who wait until 9 P.M. the night before the paper is due to begin writing will be out of luck in the event that they don't have enough information to finish it. You, on the other hand, will be relaxing at 9 P.M., proofreading the final copy of your paper. Do a preliminary outline. After you have done some initial research, make an outline. Don't be concerned if you don't have enough information to draft a detailed outline. You'll be able to fill in the blanks later, after you gather more data. Don't be afraid to deviate from the outline once you begin to write. The outline is only intended as a general guide. Nothing is written in stone. Don't worry if the first or second draft is not perfect. It's more important that you express your ideas on paper while they are still fresh in your mind. You can fill in the blanks and perfect the grammar at a later point. Don't attempt to write the paper in one day. I have already stressed the importance of not waiting until the last minute to begin the paper. One of the benefits to starting early is that you have the luxury of composing several drafts of the paper. If writer's block overcomes you, you can always turn off your computer and come back to it later. In all likelihood, you will need to write several drafts over a period of two or three days, if not longer. If you complete the paper in only one day, you will not be able to critique it objective-

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ly. The unclear or verbose sections will not be apparent until you read the paper again at a later point. Therefore, don't try to start and complete the paper in the same 24-hour period. Make sure that every sentence "flows" into the next. If the ideas are not connected in a fluid manner, your professor will not enjoy reading the paper. You certainly don't want points deducted from your grade because your writing is choppy. To improve the paper's flow, avoid the use of long, unfamiliar words. They tend to make sentences choppy, particularly if used incorrectly. You may need to rearrange sentences or paragraphs to increase cohesiveness. Use transitional words and phrases wherever possible. If sections of the paper are still disjointed after you have made a concerted effort, try to edit it again later. You may have to redraft the paper several times before you are satisfied with it. You're not alone if you do. A Boston College student I interviewed told me that he edits his papers over and over again until they are perfect. Use action verbs in place of the passive voice. You can eliminate excess words and make your paper more readable by using action verbs. My tenth-grade English teacher insisted that every single sentence on any written assignment include only action verbs. Students who turned in papers containing the passive voice received an automatic F. Although this is an extreme example, it demonstrates the importance of action verbs in a written paper. If you are uncertain about a grammar rule, refer to a grammar book or speak with another student. Do not assume that your professor will not notice a grammatical error. He very well may pick up on it, and if he does, your paper grade could be affected. Therefore, strive for perfection in all of your written assignments. Diligence is what separates the honor students from the rest. Write a strong opening and conclusion. You cannot be sure that the professor will take the time to read your entire paper, word for word. It is possible that he will only read the first and last paragraphs, skimming the intermediate sections. You always have to assume the worst! Therefore, to ensure that you receive a good grade, you need to write a powerful introductory and closing paragraph.

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The opening sentence should grab the reader's attention. After all of your hard work, you want the professor to continue reading your paper and not cast it aside. You can use the introduction to summarize the points made in the paper or to lure the reader into reading further. Ideally, your opening paragraph or paragraphs will accomplish both of these feats. The conclusion should recap all of the salient points. Try not to make it too lengthy by reiterating everything you stated in the body of the paper. Instead, summarize each major idea in one or two sentences. It's best to write both the introduction and conclusion after you have finished the body of the paper. How can you develop a powerful introductory or closing paragraph without having written the rest of the paper? That's like writing a film review before you see the movie. Be succinct. Some students can write 10- or 15-page papers with very little effort. Others struggle to write two- or three-page essays. The ability to write pages and pages of text can be a curse if your papers are too wordy and lack focus. You must ask yourself, Is each page really necessary? Is every sentence in every paragraph relevant to the subject matter? If the answer to either of these questions is ''no,'' you should do some editing. Concise writing will keep the reader's attention longer. No one wants to read a paper that rambles on endlessly especially not a professor who has 70 papers to grade! What if you have the opposite problem? You cannot seem to write more than two or three pages, no matter what you do. If the professor has specified a page-length minimum, and your paper is too short, you may be tempted to add "fluff." Resist this urge. Superfluous words will not help your grade. If your paper is one or two pages shy of the required length, you will have to include more examples, present another argument, or elaborate further on an idea presented in the paper. Proofread the paper at least twice. Take the time twice to look for spelling errors, grammatical errors, and unclear concepts or sentences. If your word processor includes a "spell check" option, use it to correct the blatant spelling errors. But don't become overly dependent upon your word processor. The spell check feature will not identify spelling errors if the misspelled word is another word in

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the English language. For example, if you type the word "form" when you mean "from," the word processor will not find the error. Therefore, you must carefully proofread your paper for inconspicuous errors after you have used the spell check option. Ask a friend to read your paper. There are at least two advantages to having another person critique your paper. First, you will obtain an objective viewpoint on the content, assuming your friend can be blunt with you. If sections of the paper are unclear, your friend is more likely to identify them than you are. Secondly, another reader may find grammatical or spelling errors that you missed. You can never be too careful in proofreading your written assignments. Unfortunately, it may be difficult to find another student who will agree to edit your paper. If you're having trouble, offer to return the favor. Include appendices, exhibits, graphs, and charts, wherever appropriate. These supplementary items will help clarify the points you make in the body of the paper. Plus, the professor will recognize the extra effort you exerted in making the exhibits and may reward you for it. Every little extra point helps. You certainly have nothing to lose by spending an hour or two designing a few exhibits. You may even receive some extra credit. Make the final copy as attractive as possible. It does not take much time to enhance the appearance of your paper by creating a fancy cover sheet, using an attractive font, and having the paper bound in a local print shop. Subconsciously, the professor may decide to give you a higher grade because your paper looks very professional. The font type and size are also very important. "Courier" should not be used because it looks like a typewriter font (table 9-1). Some examples of more acceptable fonts include: Times Roman, Dutch Roman, Swiss Roman, and Univers. The font size should be at least 10 point, but not larger than 12 point. If your printer does not include several font options, borrow a friend's or use one at the school computer lab. You may want to invest in a font cartridge, because you will have to write countless papers over the four-year college period. Look at tables 9-1 and 9-2 and decide which cover sheet is more appealing. If you were the professor, which paper would

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Table 9-1 Cover Sheet with Courier Font The 1956 Hungarian Revolt James Doe Eastern European Governments Course G-1002 November 14, 1996 Professor John Smith

Table 9-2 Cover Sheet with Times Roman Font The 1956 Hungarian Revolt James Doe Eastern European Governments Course G-1002 November 14, 1996 Professor John Smith leave a more favorable impression in your mind? I am sure you'll agree that the cover sheet in table 9-2 is much more attractive. Submit the paper by the assigned due date. There is simply no excuse for submitting an assignment after the due date.

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Imagine how frustrated you would be if your work merits an A but only gets a B simply because you gave it to the professor one day late. You'd probably kick yourself for such carelessness. Always strive to have your papers written at least 48 hours before they are due. If an unforeseen event occurs, you will have some time cushion. Sometimes, professors will give an extension in light of extenuating circumstances. However, you cannot count on this option, no matter how valid your excuse is. Try to anticipate problems before they escalate and don't assume you can submit the paper late. Print a clean copy of the paper for your professor. This may seem obvious, but it's not. After rereading your paper for the final time, you may notice two or three typos and be tempted to make the changes with a ballpoint pen. Resist this temptation. Your paper will look unprofessional with pencil or pen marks on the final copy. Make any corrections on the word processor and then print out a fresh copy. Make a photocopy of the paper for yourself. There are two major reasons for this. First, however unlikely it sounds, the professor may misplace your paper and then ask for another copy. I have known students who have had to submit a second copy because the professor couldn't locate the original. Secondly, you will want to keep a copy of the paper for your own records. The professor may never return the original, particularly if the paper is due at the end of the term. Of course, you should also save a copy of the paper on disk. You can never be too cautious. Writing Specific Types of Papers In addition to the general guidelines outlined above, I would like to highlight some suggestions for writing specific types of college papers. It is not possible to cover every kind of written assignment you may be required to do. Instead, we will only touch upon three types: Persuasive papers Term papers Written case assignments

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Persuasive Papers In general, almost all college papers should be persuasive to some degree, with the exception of creative writing and some term papers. You can probably think of a few more exceptions I failed to mention. Nonetheless, I am sure you'll agree that many college papers require the art of persuasion. For example, let's assume that you are given the following assignment in a literature course: "Write a five-page paper on a recurring theme in Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls." At first glance, this may not appear to be a persuasive paper assignment. In order to receive an A, however, you will have to convince the professor that the theme you chose is central to the novel. How will you do that? You will have to find examples in the text which support your point of view and then expound on them. Your paper, if successful, will convince the professor that a specific theme is prominent throughout the novel. In effect, you will have to write a persuasive paper. Here are three suggestions for writing better persuasive papers: Don't try to write the paper without doing some outside research. I realize that you are not being asked to write a term paper, and therefore, do not need to spend hours in the library. However, your arguments will be stronger if you have read extensive background material on the subject matter. You'll be more informed and better equipped to defend your position. Furthermore, you will lend credibility to your argument by showing that outside sources support your viewpoint. The opening and conclusion must be particularly strong. I have already explained why an A quality paper must include powerful introductory and closing paragraphs. With persuasive papers, the need is magnified because the professor must be convinced that you are right. There cannot be any lingering doubts in his mind as he finishes reading your paper. Therefore, you must begin and conclude on a powerful note. Argue your points and refute the opposition's. A persuasive paper will not be effective if it fails to present a good rebuttal to the opposition's argument. For example, let's assume you are given the following assignment in an Ethics class: "Write a paper arguing the morality or immorality of doctor-assisted suicide in cases of terminal illness." If you decide to argue that it is ethical,

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you have to discredit the claim that the doctor is committing murder and breaking the Hippocratic oath. It is not enough to state that doctor-assisted suicide is ethical simply because the doctor is aiding someone who is in pain. If you have ever participated on a debate team, you know that to be persuasive, you must refute the opposition. Term Papers Research papers or term papers, as they are commonly known require a great deal of secondary research. As a result, you will spend hours in the library gathering information before you attempt to draft an outline. In fact, once you have assembled the books and articles you will need, writing the paper is relatively easy. In table 9-3, I have outlined the steps you should take in completing a term paper. A term paper contains numerous footnotes or endnotes that give credit to the original source of the information. One of the more difficult aspects of writing a term paper is deciding which sources you will use, and discarding those you will not. Often, you have too much information to manage but don't complain if you do. It's better to have too much data than not enough. Your term paper can be persuasive or explanatory, depending on your professor's requirements. Make sure you know exactly what your professor wants before you begin. If you are writing a persuasive term paper, do not misrepresent the facts to strengthen your argument. You should present both sides of the issue as factually as possible. Here are a few suggestions to assist you in writing a term paper: Get to know your college library. Before you begin the formidable task of writing a term paper, acquaint yourself with the college library. Most libraries offer tours at the beginning of each semester. Take advantage of the free tour and learn how to use the on-line computer services, card catalogs, reference books, periodical guides, microfiche, and so on. You will save hours of time by taking a tour before you start your project. If you cannot find enough information in your college library, try the public library. Depending on whether or not you attend college in a major city, the public library may be more sophisticated than the school library. If other students in your

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Table 9-3 Steps to Take in Writing a Term Paper 1. Do preliminary research to identify a topic. 2. Obtain final approval for the topic from the professor. 3. Do more thorough library research, taking notes as you identify potential sources. 4. Draft a preliminary outline based on your notes or notecards. 5. Write a first draft. Be sure to cite your souces as you write the preliminary draft. 6. Based on your first draft, do more research on the sections of the paper that are weak or incomplete. 7. Write a second draft. 8. Put the paper aside and read it again a week later. 9. Eliminate paragraphs that are redundant or unnecessary. Clarify any points that seem unclear. 10. Write a final draft. 11. Proofread the paper carefully. 12. Write the bibliography, endnotes and footnotes, table of contents, and appendices. 13. Proofread the paper again. class are researching the same topic as you are, some of the books you need may be out on loan. Don't hesitate to use the public library, should you have trouble finding the books or articles you need at school. Devise an organized note-taking system. Most students learn the basics of writing a term paper in high school, including how to take notes on index cards. Despite the valiant efforts of scores of high-school English teachers, I have not encountered many college students who actually use index cards when researching a paper. If you are more comfortable with note cards, then, by all means continue to use them. To refresh your memory, refer to a term paper manual (such as the MLA

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Handbook or Kate Turabian's guide) in the reference Section of your library. These manuals will help you make the most of the index card note-taking system. You may be thinking, "If students don't use index cards, how do they take notes?" That's a good question. The answer depends on the student. I prefer to make a photocopy of every page of material I may use in writing the paper. With a yellow marker, I highlight the sections that apply to the paper topic. I don't re-copy ideas or quotes onto index cards because I know that I'll have to refer back to the original source at some point. I cannot read two or three lines on a note card out of context. Maybe you can. As I locate potential sources and read through them, I sketch out a very preliminary outline. Next to each subheading, I list the sources I have identified. This system may appear disorganized, but it works very well for me. I never have to waste time copying quotes or ideas onto index cards. The principal drawback to my system is the cost of making multiple photocopies. Of course, I don't incur the added expense of purchasing index cards and a file box. Whether you decide to use index cards or not is inconsequential. However you choose to take notes, you must be systematic in your approach. If you take too many shortcuts, your paper will stiffer. Also, be careful not to plagiarize when writing the paper. You cannot take credit for any idea which is not your own. Plagiarism is a breach of the code of ethics and could result in your expulsion from the university. Avoid this nightmare by citing your sources properly. Ask the professor to approve your preliminary outline. This suggestion is particularly relevant for term papers. Your professor may ask each student to submit a paper topic and an initial outline by a certain date. If your professor does not ask for an outline, submit one anyway. You need to know how enthusiastic the professor is about your topic or outline before you proceed any further. If he's not interested in your paper topic, select another one. Don't include an excessive number of footnotes or endnotes. There are two reasons for this suggestion: If the reader constantly has to shift his eyes to the bottom of the page and then back to the text, he will become annoyed. And you certainly don't want to irritate the professor. If virtually every sentence is footnoted, the paper is merely a compilation of other authors' ideas. Include some of your own thoughts in the term paper.

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Written Case Assignments Case studies are usually assigned in business courses such as Finance, Marketing, and Management. I realize that most college students do not graduate with a business concentration, but I chose to include a brief section on written cases because, while you may not major in Business, you may enroll in two or three business classes. If you are considering a marketing or finance course, you should find this section very helpful. What exactly is a business case? The answer to the question depends on the course. In general, business cases present a detailed hypothetical or real business problem or dilemma. The student is asked to read the case and prepare a written response of usually two to five pages. In the written response, the student demonstrates an application of the tools learned in class. The student's objective is to convince the professor that this solution to the business problem is viable. For example, let's assume that you are assigned a case in an introductory marketing course which is summarized as follows: A major consumer products firm is contemplating a new product launch. The firm has no experience in the product line, but believes that the product offers significant growth potential. Should the firm launch the new product? How would you approach this case? Usually, you begin by writing a brief situation analysis. A situation analysis includes a description of the company's historic sales and profit levels, product lines, competition, and management objectives. In this case, you would also include a summary of the forecast sales and profits for the potential new product, as well as an analysis of competing products. After presenting the situation analysis, you must argue the pros and cons of management's various alternatives. The firm could select any of the following options: 1. Launch the new product 2. Purchase a competing firm that currently manufactures the product 3. Enter into a joint venture agreement with a firm that markets the product 4. Do nothing In assessing each of the alternatives, you will need to take both qualitative and quantitative factors into account. Your case write-

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up should persuade the professor that one of these alternatives is best. (There may not actually be a right or wrong answer.) Your grade will depend upon the soundness of your arguments. In table 9-4, I have summarized the steps to take in completing a business case assignment. Keep the following suggestions in mind when completing written case assignments. Table 9-4 Steps to Take before Writing a Business Case Solution 1. Read through the entire case twice. 2. As you read the case for the second time, take notes on key facts and issues. Highlight with a colored marker any important points. 3. Identify the problem or business opportunity that is the basis of the case. You may have to dig below the surface of the problem stated in the case. 4. Review the case and your notes and locate the information you will need to solve the case problem. You should be aware that much of the data you need to make an informed decision is probably not available. 5. Analyze the data given in the case and make any necessary calculations. 6. Identify the alternatives available to the firm. 7. State the advantages and potential drawbacks associated with each alternative which you identified. 8. Choose the alternative that you believe is the most viable. 9. Show how the firm can implement the recommended course of action. Find out exactly what the professor wants. Sometimes, there are questions posed at the end of the case that you must answer. Other times, there are not. Ask the professor to state the issues he would like covered in your case write-up. You certainly don't want to omit anything important.

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Support the points you make in your paper with calculations. For most business cases, you will have to make numeric calculations to assess the viability of different options. Of course, a great many qualitative factors are included in any business decision. Nevertheless, don't try to write a case response without making a few computations. If you do, your arguments will be hollow and your grade will suffer. Don't worry if you don't have enough information to make recommendations. The business case writer deliberately omitted key facts to make the case more closely resemble a real-life business situation. Managers never have all of the information they would like when making decisions, usually because it is either too expensive to obtain the data or it is not available. Your job, in analyzing the case, is to make reasonable assumptions and draw conclusions based on your assumptions. Keep in mind that most cases do not have a ''right'' and "wrong'' answer. The professor will grade your case write-up based on the soundness of your arguments.

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10 Oral Presentations No matter which major you choose, the day will probably come when you will be asked to speak in front of the class. Whether or not you're comfortable speaking before an audience will depend upon how much experience you've had with public speaking. If you haven't had much practice, think of college as the perfect place to sharpen your presentation skills before you are asked to make a speech in a professional setting. In college, oral presentations are usually assigned in conjunction with a written paper or project. Sometimes students spend so much time writing the paper that they neglect the oral component of their project grade. Making a second-rate presentation is a big mistake; it can give the professor an excuse to lower your grade. You should exert the same effort in presenting your project as you did in writing the paper. If you follow the time management techniques discussed in chapter 11, you should not have any problem finding the time to prepare an excellent presentation. This chapter provides guidelines for preparing and giving presentations. Although the focus is classroom presentations, many of the guidelines apply to speeches made outside of an academic setting.

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Writing the Speech List the major concepts/issues that must be addressed in the presentation. If the presentation is based on a written assignment, you can follow your outline. Visualize your presentation as a story that you must convey to the class. Each idea should flow into the next and make sense to the audience. Prepare transition statements to connect each concept. If you find some connections are difficult to make, reevaluate the organization of your speech. Write a brief introduction. The introduction should summarize the issues and conclusions. Provide background information if it is needed for clarification. Write a closing statement. Reinforce the objectives of the presentation. But don't repeat your entire speech in summarizing the major points. Keep the presentation short and interesting. Do not ramble on about a subject in which the class is not very interested. You will become disheartened if you see students yawning or doodling. Keep in mind that the audience has a short attention span, so don't bore the class with too much detail. Rehearse your speech several times until you are extremely comfortable with it. If you think it may help, consider practicing in front of a few friends. The more you rehearse, the more the information will become second nature to you. If you have practiced it enough times, you may be able to make the speech without the use of note cards. You may want to rehearse with your visual aids at least once to ensure that you are comfortable with the slide projector, flip charts, transparencies, or whatever aid you are using. You definitely want to eliminate any snags before the real presentation. Time yourself while practicing to ensure that you aren't exceeding the time limit.

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Creating Visual Aids Visual aids include, but are not limited to, flip charts, overhead transparencies, video tapes, slides, and handouts. If designed well, visual aids will enhance your presentation for three major reasons: 1. The class will have a better understanding of the major points you are making. Remember a picture is worth a thousand words. 2. Visual aids will help you remember your lines. If you allow the visual aids to guide you through the presentation, you won't be too dependent upon notecards. This, in turn, will make you appear more professional. 3. Visual aids keep the professor and the other students interested in your speech. Without visual aids, the audience may become bored or distracted. In tables 10-1, 10-2, and 10-3, I offer suggestions for designing and using specific types of visual aids. Keep the following points in mind: Make sure that your visual aids appear professional. While a grammatical or spelling error is embarrassing in a written paper, the embarrassment is magnified with an oral project because everyone, not just the professor, sees the mistake. Proofread your visual aids several times to confirm that there are no errors. You may also want to ask a friend to review them. Bill J., a classmate of mine, gave an oral presentation without proofreading his visual aids. Unfortunately, three of his flip charts contained obvious spelling errors. As Bill presented his project, he pointed to his flip charts. Each time he came to a spelling error his face turned red and he froze. Rather than apologize for the errors and move on, Bill chose to say nothing and never regained his composure. His grade was lowered five points because he was not an effective speaker. In planning your visual aids, take into consideration the size of the classroom. In a large class, use overhead transparencies or slides to ensure that everyone in the audience can see the visual aids clearly. With a smaller class, you may want to use a flip chart to make the presentation more informal.

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Table 10-1 Flip Charts * Print clearly in large letters. If your handwriting is illegible or sloppy, ask a friend to create the flip charts for you. * Limit the number of lines per page to five and the number of words per line to six. * Do not use any abbreviations that are not widely known. * Proofread each page at least twice. * When presenting, do not stand in front of the flip chart. If you must write something on the chart, stand to the side of it. * Introduce each topic to the class before flipping the page.

Table 10-2 Overhead Transparencies and Slides * Use a software package, such as Harvard Graphics, and include color if at all possible. Your presentation will appear much more professional with quality graphics. * Make sure that the print is large enough to be seen by students in the last row of the classroom. * Check to make sure that all of the equipment in the room is in working order before your presentation. * When using slides, make sure that the slides are in the tray right side up and in the correct order. * If available, use a remote control to operate the projector.

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Table 10-3 Handouts * Inform the class that you will be distributing handouts so that note-taking will be kept to a minimum. * Distribute handouts at the beginning or end of the presentation to reduce distrations. * If you distribute the handouts at the beginning of the presentation, instruct the class when to turn each page. (Otherwise, students may flip through the handout rather than listen to you.) * When giving a quantitative presentation, try to use graphs rather than columns of numbers. Remember that both content and style are important. While it's true that outstanding visual aids will improve the likelihood of your earning an A, you cannot ignore the importance of your speech. Your oral presentation must be informative or you won't receive the grade you would like. Giving the Presentation Speak slowly and clearly. This is particularly difficult to do when you are nervous, but it is paramount to a good presentation. If you rehearse your speech in front of a fellow classmate, she can tell you whether you are speaking too quickly. Make eye contact with everyone in the room, not just the professor or the students in the front row. You have a much better chance of keeping the attention of your classmates if everyone feels included. Imagine how you would feel if a speaker never looked at you. You would probably ignore him. Therefore, try not to focus on only one section of the audience.

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Be prepared to answer questions. There is no way you can know for sure what the students and professor will ask. Nonetheless, you should be familiar enough with your topic to field most questions successfully. Bring a copy of your paper, if you wrote one, and any other information you may need to help you answer questions. Under no circumstances should you pretend that you know an answer if you do not. You should never be afraid to say, "I don't know." You can offer to research the answer and report it to the class at a later point.

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11 Juggling Coursework Throughout this book I have emphasized diligence in studying and in writing papers. I believe that with a solid effort, almost anyone can earn an A in one or two classes. That's not the difficult part. The question is: How does a student manage to do well in all five classes every semester? There just aren't enough hours in the day to dedicate your full attention to five classes. Right? At first glance, this may appear to be true. In taking a closer look, however, you will see that it is possible to achieve Dean's List status without going insane or giving up too much sleep. Of course, you can't expect to procrastinate and still do well in school. In this chapter I will illustrate, through a detailed example, how to balance your homework assignments, projects, papers, and exams in the most efficient manner. In chapter 1, I spoke about Joanne, a Villanova graduate who excelled in both academics and athletics. She accomplished what appears to be impossible: a 3.91 grade point average and athletic excellence in the sport of track and field. How did she do it? How did she go to track practice, finish her homework, and sleep eight hours each day? The answer (as you might have guessed) is that she was extremely disciplined. Having no time to spare, Joanne scheduled nearly every waking moment of her day. That's the only way she could get everything done! Part of her day was allocated to track practice. The remainder was scheduled for studying and class attendance. Joanne usually had to study and write papers

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during the week, because participation in track events demanded the majority of her weekend time. She always completed her homework assignments well in advance of their due dates and never tried to cram for exams. (Cramming was out of the question because she needed a full night of sleep to function!) General Guidelines A well-organized student who takes advantage of any free time and completes assignments in advance has a much better chance of doing well in college. He will also be under less stress. If you schedule your time well, you may find that you can participate in extracurricular programs and still remain on the honor roll. Balancing your workload requires good organizational skills. If you have never been organized before, now is a good time to begin. Purchase a lightweight appointment book at the beginning of the semester. This daily planner should be carried in your backpack at all times, for easy reference. As soon as you have finalized your schedule, review the syllabus for each course and write the due dates of assignments, papers, and exams in the appointment book. You may want to write the dates in pencil, as professors often change due dates. Remember to glance through your appointment book frequently to prepare for upcoming assignments and tests. Do not make plans for weekends that precede particularly busy weeks! At all times, you should know the amount of work you will have to do over the subsequent three to four weeks so that you can budget your time efficiently. There should be no surprises! At the beginning of each week, make a list of the assignments and research you must complete over the following seven days. Next to each assignment, write the approximate time needed to complete it. (See table 11-1.) Also, based on when each assignment is due or when each test will be given, write the days in the week during which you plan to work on each task. (See table 11-2.) This schedule may need to be revised as the week progresses. If you stick to your schedule, you may have enough time to participate in some extracurricular activities.

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Table 11-1 Assignments for the Week * French Quiz (2 hours of studying) * Read Economics chapter (1.5 hours) * Finish Philosophy reading (2 hours) * Do Economics problems (3 hours) * Finish reading novel for English (5 hours) * Research Government paper (3 hours) * French homework (2 hours) Table 11-2 Weekly Schedule for Completion of Assignments Monday French homework Read Econ chapter Tuesday Read some of the novel Wednesday Finish novel Study for French quiz Thursday Read Econ chapter Friday Saturday Research Government paper Sunday Do Philosophy reading Use preliminary weekly timetables to plan your schedule each day. You may want to begin each day by making a list of the tasks you plan to complete. If, for example, you do not finish an assignment on Wednesday's list, include it on Thursday's list. Don't be afraid to switch the order in which you complete your tasks, as long as you're not procrastinating. In allocating your time during each day to schoolwork, concentrate on the assignments that are due the earliest. In other words,

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if you have an exam on Thursday as well as several reading assignments in other courses, focus on the exam. Don't waste time reading chapters for other classes, unless you are being tested on the material within the next few days. Prioritize your tasks according to the weight each carries in determining your final grade. If a homework assignment in one class is worth 5 percent of the final grade and a paper in another comprises 20 percent of the final grade, spend the majority of your time on the paper. If you did not finish the homework exercise in advance (as you should have), postpone working on it until after the paper is written. You cannot afford to waste precious time on insignificant assignments. This may seem like an obvious point, but it's not. Students often devote as much time to a trivial homework exercise as to an important paper. In ''crunch'' periods, prioritize your schoolwork according to when each assignment is due and the relevant weight each carries. Learn to distinguish between assignments that can be postponed and those that have to be completed immediately. As mentioned earlier, certain courses are cumulative by nature, with each new topic building on material taught previously. Cumulative courses include foreign language classes, mathematics, accounting, and statistics. In a cumulative course, you cannot afford to postpone studying, because you will not understand future lectures if you do. In a foreign language class, for example, if you do not know the vocabulary taught early in the semester, you will not understand more advanced readings. You need to complete all homework exercises on time (even if they will not be graded) and keep up with reading assignments. In non-cumulative courses you may have more leeway. Often, you do not have to finish the readings when assigned, because the course material does not build on information and concepts taught in previous lectures. Literature is an example of a non-cumulative course. For example, the professor may begin discussing a new novel every two weeks or so. If you did not finish reading an assigned novel, you can still read the next one and remain in step with the class. This does not mean that you should postpone the reading assignments in these classes until the final exam. I am merely suggesting that you may be able to delay reading or studying for a week or two until your schedule becomes less hectic.

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Don't Procrastinate! If you can complete a reading assignment or research a paper in advance, by all means, do so. You'll be thankful later in the semester. As a general rule of thumb, try to complete reading assignments early in the semester, before mid-term exams and papers require all of your time. If some of the material will not be discussed in class and is not needed to write papers, you can avoid reading it until you are studying for the exam. Try to focus on the reading assignments that must be completed, either because the subject matter is cumulative or because the information is required for a project or paper. Budgeting Time: A Hypothetical Case In table 11-3, you will find a hypothetical college student's schedule and course requirements. The due dates for each assignment, exam, and paper are listed in table 11-4. Assume that you are the college student taking the following five courses: Intermediate Spanish, Microeconomics, Comparative Literature, Calculus, and Modern European History. As you can see in the Appendix, some of your weeks are extremely hectic, while others are not quite as demanding. I have tried to make the illustration as realistic as possible in order to demonstrate how you should organize your time throughout the semester. Choose a time of the day during which you will complete the Spanish homework assignments. For example, you could devote an hour and a half every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday afternoon to Spanish exercises. Imagine you have a class from 5:00 to 6:30 and there is no way you can do anything else other than Spanish homework. Although each assignment constitutes less than 1 percent of your final grade, you must complete the exercises on time, because the subject matter is cumulative. If you keep up with the work, studying for the mid-term and final exams will not require much effort. Get into the habit of always completing the homework during the designated time and Spanish will never interfere with your other coursework, no matter how frenzied your schedule becomes. Allot a four or five hour block of time during each week to reading the Calculus textbook and completing the assigned

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Table 11-3 Class Schedule and Course Requirements 1. Intermediate Spanish Final grade components: * Small homework exercises (primarily grammar and vocabulary) due in every class (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) * 2 short essays (5% each) * Mid-term exam * Final exam * Participation 2. Microeconomics There are textbook readings assigned for each lecture. Final grade components: * 3 problem sets (10% each) * Mid-term exam * Final exam 3. Comparative Literature Seven novels are assigned for the semester. Final grade components: * 2 pop quizzes on assigned novels (5% each) * 3 papers (15% each) * Participation * Final exam

20% 10% 25% 25% 20% 100%

30% 30% 40% 100%

10% 45% 20% 25% 100%

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(table continued from previous page) Table 11.3 (continued) Class Schedule and Course Requirements 4. Calculus There are textbook readings for each lecture. Final grade components: * Homework assignment due every Monday (except 20% midterm week) * Mid-term exam 35% * Final exam 45% 100% 5. Modern European History There are 5 assigned paperback books. Final grade components: * 3 papers (35 pages, worth 15% each) 45% * Mid-term exam 20% * Final exam 25% * Participation 10% 100% problems. For example, you could work on Calculus assignments from 12:00 to 4:30 on Friday afternoons. As with the Spanish homework, doing Calculus problems should not prevent you from studying for other classes, as long as you have a dedicated time period during which you work on Calculus. Use the weeks in which you have few assignments due to get ahead. For example, as you can see in table 11-4 and in the Appendix, during the week of October 2nd you should prepare for the mid-term and paper that are due the next week. Begin studying for your finals after Thanksgiving. Remember to outline textbook chapters to avoid having to read them more than once. If you have not completed all of the readings required for your final exams, now is your chance to do so.

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Table 11-4 Due Dates September 18 Economics problem set 19 European History paper 27 Spanish essay 28 Comparative Literature paper October 9 Economics problem set 9 Calculus mid-term exam 11 Spanish mid-term exam 12 European History paper 19 European History mid-term exam 23 Economics mid-term exam 24 Comparative Literature paper November 7 European History paper 7 Comparative Literature paper 8 Economics problem set 20 Spanish essay December 13 European History final exam 14 Calculus final exam 15 Comparative Literature final exam 18 Economics final exam 18 Spanish final exam In addition, Spanish homework exercises are assigned for every class. Calculus problem sets are due every Monday except October 9th.

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There is no need to cram for your finals you have plenty of time to study. Beginning December 5th, spend each day preparing for one of the five exams. You may not have much time to study until after classes end on December 8th, however. The night before each exam should be used as a review not as a cram session. For example, you could spend December 5th and all day December 12th preparing for your final exam in European History. You could devote December 9th to Calculus, the 10th to Comparative Literature, and the 11th to Economics. Hopefully, this example has demonstrated how a seemingly hectic schedule can be broken down into "bite size pieces." While there were weeks in which several assignments and papers were due, no week was unmanageable. The secret strategy is that you must be organized and you cannot procrastinate! What If You Have Other Commitments? The hypothetical case above assumed that the student had no commitments other than schoolwork. This is probably not realistic. As a college student, you will want to participate in extracurricular activities, join a fraternity or sorority, or possibly work part-time. How can you budget your time in such a manner as to achieve good grades and still have a life outside of school? The busier you are and the more obligations you have, the more you must rely on your daily appointment book. Remember, there are 24 hours in the day and class attendance requires only 15 hours per week. You can easily spend three hours a day in class, four hours studying, and another three or four participating in an extracurricular activity. If your weekends are extremely important to you, you may need to study more than four hours a day during the week. You'll have to decide what works best for you. If you choose to commit to other activities, you will not have time to watch television, hang out in the cafeteria for two hours, or lie out in the sun when the weather is nice. What you choose to do with your extra time is your choice.

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What If You Cannot Study Unless You Are Under Severe Time Pressure? Some college students cannot begin studying for an exam or writing a paper until the night before it is due. Hopefully, you are not one of these procrastinators. If you must be under time pressure in order to do your work, you will have a hard time doing well in school. As you no doubt already know, 24 hours is not enough time to study adequately for an exam or to write a quality paper. To combat the procrastination problem, pretend as if the exam or paper is due two or three days before the actual date. Try to psych yourself into believing that you are under severe time constraints.

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12 Borderline Strategies Securing the A When You Are on the Margin Have you ever walked out of an exam convinced that you aced it, only to find out later that the professor gave you a C? What could have gone wrong? Are there any preventive actions you can take to help ensure that you don't make the same mistake again? In this chapter, I discuss four techniques to help you secure the A in a borderline case. Visit the professor during the semester Do extra credit assignments whenever possible Don't let a solid A slip to a B because you do poorly on the final exam If you believe a grade is incorrect, speak with your professor Visit the Professor Professors schedule office hours because they want students to visit them and ask questions. If you do not speak with your professor after performing poorly on a test or paper, you are not taking advantage of all of your options.

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There are many reasons students choose not to visit their professors. Perhaps some students do not want to be viewed as "teachers' pet." Others may be intimidated at the thought of speaking one-on-one about their poor performance, particularly if the subject matter is confusing to them. In general, however, I think that students are too lazy to make an appointment or too impatient to wait outside the professor's door during scheduled office hours. None of these excuses, however, is a valid reason for not speaking with your professor outside of class. If you perform poorly on an assignment or exam, you should make an appointment with the professor for a time that is convenient to both of you. It may be difficult to chat for more than five or ten minutes during his regular office hours, given the number of students hoping to do the same thing. During the office visit, voice your concerns and ask for suggestions. Let the professor know that you really want an A in his class. He'll be flattered, knowing that you care about his class so much. For example, let's assume that you study diligently for a week in preparation for a Statistics exam. You think you really understand the section on "probability," but after the mid-term you realize how little you really know. Ask the professor to review your exam and specifically point out the errors you made. He can give you a copy of the answer key, but it may not help unless he fully explains each step in the solution. As the professor demonstrates the correct way to solve the problems, write down every word he utters. Don't just listen to him without taking good notes and asking plenty of questions. Otherwise, you will find yourself in the same unfortunate position after the final exam, but then it will be too late! If you do not receive the grade you want on a written paper, ask the professor to elaborate on the comments he made in the margins. Perhaps you didn't approach the topic correctly, or you may have been careless in your writing. It is important to clear up any questions in your mind before you write another paper. This is particularly true if the professor has not made any written comments or suggestions. Even if you have a 92 average in a class, I still suggest you visit the professor. He will connect a name with a face and may give you the benefit of the doubt when deciding your final grade in a borderline situation. You don't know for sure how well you will do on the final exam, so you may as well take out an insurance policy. It doesn't take much time to stop by the professor's office once or twice and chat for a moment.

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Do Extra Credit Assignments Extra credit assignments may not be as common in college as they are in high school or grammar school. Still, it is worth your while to complete one if, in doing so, you will have a better shot at an A. Occasionally, a professor will announce in class that all students have the option to complete an extra project, for example, a 10-page paper. The professor may distribute a printed description of the assignment or may simply explain it verbally. Usually, however, professors do not explicitly state that an extra credit option is available to students. This does not mean that you shouldn't inquire. If your average in the class is not a solid A, ask the professor if you can write a paper for extra credit. What do you have to lose by asking? In some cases, an extra credit assignment will be used in lieu of a student's lowest paper or test score in calculating the final grade. Other times, extra credit points will be added to the student's final average. Either way, you come out a winner! For example, if the optional paper was worth four percentage points and the student had a straight 88 percent average, the final grade would be boosted to a 92 percent. The student would receive an A rather than a B+ in the course. I am sure you'll agree that in this case the inconvenience of writing an extra paper would be well worth the reward. If an extra credit project is offered to the class, you should always do it unless your average is already 98 percent. In completing an optional assignment, you will gain a competitive advantage over your classmates. Most students do not bother to complete the extra credit assignment because they are overburdened with work in other classes. They simply don't have the time, even if they would like to write the optional paper. A well-organized student should not have difficulty completing the assignment early in the semester. Of course, it requires additional effort, but that's precisely why the assignment is for extra credit. It's best, however, not to postpone writing the optional paper until the end of the term, because then it may interfere with your other coursework. If you have trouble motivating yourself to start, pretend the assignment is mandatory. You'll be thankful that you already finished the paper when it comes time to study for the final exam. Plus, you'll enjoy the peace of mind of knowing that you don't have to ace the exam because you have some extra credit cushion.

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Don't Let Solid A's Slip I wish I had a nickel for every time a student said to me, ''I don't know what happened. I went into the final exam with a solid A, but received a B in the course.'' This scenario is all too familiar to many college students they have an A within reach and then something goes wrong! The root of the problem is overconfidence. Students mistakenly believe that simply because they performed well on the mid-term they will do well on the final. What they forget to factor into the equation is how much they studied for the mid-term. If you do not prepare for the final with the same fervor as for the mid-term, you cannot expect to ace it. Do not become overconfident. Students often concentrate their studying efforts on the courses in which they are not doing well. They overstudy for the final exams in these classes, and neglect their other courses. As I explained in chapter 11, a well-organized student will find the time to study adequately for all of her exams. Dispute Your Grade This is a step you should take only if you have a valid reason. That said, if you receive a grade on a test or exam which you believe is incorrect, do not remain complacent. The professor or teaching assistant may have made a mistake in grading. This happens much more frequently than you would think. Of course, sometimes the errors are made in the student's favor, but you'll never hear any complaints. Sometimes a professor will distribute an answer key and go through the exam with the class. You should compare your answers to the solution key to make sure that no errors in grading were made. It is much easier to identify a grading mistake on a quantitative exam than on a qualitative one, because the right answer is more obvious. With an essay exam, you may have to read the answers that several of your classmates gave in order to determine if your responses were correct. After doing so, you may think that you deserve at least partial credit. If so, ask the professor to review the sections of the exam that you question. Be aware, however, that some professors will regrade your entire exam, including the answers for which you received full

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credit. Potentially, she could deduct points on other questions if she thinks that she gave you too much credit on them. Professors implement this strict policy to deter students from needlessly begging for extra points on exams. What if you do not agree with your final grade in a course? Is there anything you can do? I am happy to inform you that it's not too late to dispute your grade. Most universities offer at least a six-week period during which a professor can formally change a course grade. Naturally, it is more difficult to convince a professor to change your course grade than to modify the grade given on a mid-term or paper. This is due to the inconvenience of a formal grade change. Nonetheless, it is possible. Joe T., a student at New York University's Stern School, convinced his professor to raise his grade from a B+ to an A-. Ironically, the course was entitled "Negotiations." Joe decided to confront the professor because he sensed that something was not right after reviewing the grading criteria in the syllabus. (He wouldn't have learned very much in the "negotiations" class if he didn't at least try to bargain for an A!) According to the syllabus, the final course grade was calculated using the following weights: weekly journal (30 percent); class participation (30 percent); take-home final exam (40 percent). Joe knew that he received 90 to 100 percent on all of the weekly journal assignments. He also knew that he had attended every class and made it a point to participate. Given that 60 percent of his grade was a solid A, Joe assumed that either he received a low B on the final exam or the professor made an error in grading. After reading his copy of the take-home final exam, Joe was convinced that the professor had made a mistake. He brought all of his graded journal assignments to the professor's office to prove that at least 30 percent of his final grade was an A. He asked the professor if he could see the comments made on his takehome exam. As it turns out, the professor had given him a B+ on the exam, but had totaled the points incorrectly. After the professor recalculated Joe's final course grade, he officially changed it to an A-. As this example illustrates, it is possible to prove to a professor that you deserve a higher grade. But what do you do if a large part of the grade is subjective? Most course grades are not entirely black-and-white, which can be a double-edged sword. Professors often build in some subjectivity to the final grade decision by making participation account for 10 or 20 percent. If

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the professor does not want to raise your grade, he may argue that you didn't speak in class enough. Unfortunately, if this is true, there is very little you can do. On the other hand, if you have an 89.2 percent average (assuming 90 percent is needed for an A), you may be able to convince the professor to raise your grade to an A. You can point out that you always attended class and participated frequently. It's certainly worth a try. If you believe that you deserve a higher grade, fight for it. Do not let bureaucracy stand in your way! However, make sure you have your facts straight. The professor may have made a mistake in calculating your final course grade or he may have graded your final exam incorrectly. On the other hand, you may actually deserve the grade you received. First, go to your professor's office and carefully review your final paper or exam. Compare your answers on the exam to the solution key and make sure that the professor or T.A. didn't make an error in grading or in totaling the points. Let's assume that you review your exam and you realize that you received an A or an A- on it. Now you're confused. Your final course grade was a B, but you believe you should have received an A in the class. Remember, your professor may be calculating final grades for over a hundred students. It's easy for her to make a mathematical mistake or to fill in the wrong bubble on the registrar's computer form. Next, gather together all of your assignments, papers, and tests, and calculate your grade according to the weights stated in the syllabus. If your scores equate to a higher final grade, bring all of your papers and tests to the professor's office. She may not have recorded all of your grades on her spreadsheet correctly. Finally, remember to be diplomatic when discussing your grade with your professor. You certainly do not want to put her on the defensive. If you prove to her that you deserve an A, she should give it to you. If she doesn't, you can speak with the dean.

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Conclusion Performing well in college is not an easy task. After reading this book, you've no doubt come to see that good grades depend on much more than raw intelligence. First, you must be motivated to do well. If you lack ambition, you will never receive high marks. Ambitious students take advantage of free time, rather than procrastinate. If you have always been a procrastinator, now is a good time to start fresh and get motivated. As you read in chapter 1, good grades are worth the extra effort. Second, if you want to do well in all of your courses, you must be organized. A well-organized person will find the time to do just about anything. A disorganized person, on the other hand, will be overwhelmed if he or she is asked to complete more than one task at a time. If you use an appointment book to plan your schedule, you'll be surprised at how much you can accomplish in a day. Third, don't fight an uphill battle by selecting your courses and professors haphazardly. Learn as much as you can about each class before you decide on a final schedule. Fourth, the hours you spend studying must be well-spent. Focus only on the material on which you'll be tested. Don't waste hours of time studying the wrong things or going over material you already know. If you think you'll learn more by studying with your peers, join a study group.

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Finally, good students know how to hold onto an A or a B+. If you're on the verge of an A, figure out what you need to do to secure it. Don't let your A's slip to B's and your B's drop to C's. Go the extra mile it's worth it!

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Appendix: Sample Calendar

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