United States Foreign Policy toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis and Change (Cambridge Studies in International Relations)

In this book Peter J. Schraeder offers the first comprehensive theoretical analysis of US foreign policy toward Africa in the postwar era. He argues that though we often assume that US policymakers "speak with one voice/' Washington's foreign policy is derived from numerous centers of power which have the ability to simultaneously pull policy in different directions. The book describes the evolution of policy at three levels: Presidents and their closest advisers; the bureaucracies of the executive branch; and Congress and African affairs interest groups. Most importantly, the evidence presented demonstrates that the nature of events on the African continent ranging from routine to crisis and extended crisis situations - has itself affected the operation of the US policymaking process, and therefore the substance of US Africa policies. Drawing on over 100 interviews, and detailed case studies of US relations with Zaire, EthiopiaSomalia, and South Africa, this book provides a unique analysis of the historical evolution of US foreign policy from the 1940s to the 1990s.

CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: 31

UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD AFRICA INCREMENTALISM, CRISIS AND CHANGE

Editorial Board STEVE SMITH (Managing editor) KEN BOOTH

IAN CLARK

JEAN ELSHTAIN RICHARD LITTLE

ANNE DEIGHTON

FRED HALLIDAY

CHRISTOPHER HILL

MICHAEL NICHOLSON

SUSAN STRANGE

R. B. J. WALKER

International Political Economy ROGER TOOZE

CRAIG N . MURPHY

Cambridge Studies in International Relations is a joint initiative of

Cambridge University Press and the British International Studies Association (BISA). The series will include a wide range of material, from undergraduate textbooks and surveys to research-based monographs and collaborative volumes. The aim of the series is to publish the best new scholarship in International Studies from Europe, North America and the rest of the world.

CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 31

PETER J. SCHRAEDER

United States foreign policy toward Africa Incrementalism, crisis and change 30

GRAHAM SP1NARDI

From Polaris to Trident: The development of US Fleet Ballistic Missile technology 29

DAVID A. WELCH

Justice and the genesis of war 28

RUSSEL J. LENG

Interstate crisis behavior, 1816-1980: realism versus reciprocity 27

JOHN A. VASQUEZ

26

STEPHEN GILL (ed.)

25

Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations and ROBIN BROWN (eds.) From Cold War to collapse: theory and world politics in the 1980s

The war puzzle

24

MIKE BOVVKER

R. B. J. WALKER

Inside/outside: international relations as political theory 23

EDWARD REISS

The Strategic Defense Initiative 22

KEITH KRAUSE

Arms and the state: patterns of military production and trade 21

ROGER BUCKLEY

US-Japan alliance diplomacy 1945-1990 20

JAMES N. ROSENAU a n d ERNST-OTTO CZEMPIEL (eds.)

Governance without government: order and change in world politics 19

MICHAEL NICHOLSON

Rationality and the analysis of international conflict 18

JOHN STOPFORD a n d SUSAN STRANGE

Rival states, rival firms Competition for world market shares 17

TERRY NARDIN a n d DAVID R. MAPEL (eds.)

16

CHARLES F. DORAN

Traditions of international ethics Systems in Crisis New imperatives of high politics at century's end 15

DEON GELDENHUYS

Isolated states: a comparative analysis 14

KALEVI J. HOLSTI

Peace and war: armed conflicts and international order 1648-1989 13

SAKIDOCKRILL

Britain's policy for West German rearmament 1950-1955 Series list continues after index

UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD AFRICA INCREMENTALISM, CRISIS AND CHANGE PETER J. SCHRAEDER Loyola University of Chicago

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521444392 © Cambridge University Press 1994 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1994 Reprinted 1995, 1996 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Schraeder, Peter J. United States foreign policy toward Africa: Incrementalism, crisis and change / Peter J. Schraeder. p. cm. - (Cambridge studies in international relations; 31) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0 521 44439 X 1. Africa - Foreign relations - United States. 2. United States — Foreign relations — Africa. 3. United States - Foreign relations - 1945-1989. 4. United States - Foreign relations - 1989-1993. I. Title. II. Series. DT38.W45 1993 327.7306 - dc20 93-21590 CIP ISBN 978-0-521-44439-2 hardback ISBN 978-0-521-46677-6 paperback Transferred to digital printing 2009 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given in this work are correct at the time of first printing but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter.

To Mark "Spanks" Przybyla, the best friend a person could ever have

CONTENTS

List of tables Preface

page x xi

Acknowledgments List of acronyms Maps

xiv xvii xx

1 An introduction to US foreign policy toward Africa

1

2 Pattern and process in US foreign policy toward Africa

11

3 US foreign policy toward Zaire

51

4 US Foreign policy toward Ethiopia and Somalia

114

5 US foreign policy toward South Africa

189

6 US Africa policies in the post-Cold War era

247

Appendix A: Note on method Appendix B: Note on interview techniques

260 263

Notes Select bibliography Index

266 318 336

IX

TABLES

2.1 Carter administration foreign policy behavior by region 2.2 Pattern and process in US Africa policies 3.1 US economic and military aid to Zaire, 1959-1992 4.1 US economic and military aid to Ethiopia, 1950-1992 4.2 US economic and military aid to Somalia, 1954-1992 5.1 US economic and military aid to South Africa, 1985-1992

14 49 112 184 186 246

PREFACE

The genesis of this book was a desire to write a systematic overview and analysis of United States foreign policy toward Africa that would be of interest not only to scholarly audiences and members of the policymaking establishment, but also to those Africans entrusted by their respective governments in negotiating the labyrinth of Washington's foreign policy establishment. As an Africanist with training in the fields of international relations theory and comparative foreign policy, I often have been frustrated by the paucity of scholarly research in these fields that addresses my particular interest in US relations with the African continent. Indeed, the study of Africa within the fields of international relations theory and comparative foreign policy historically has been a low academic priority. Studies that either focus on traditional security concerns, such as East-West relations and the nature of the Atlantic Alliance, or geographical regions of perceived greater importance, such as Southeast Asia, Central America, and, more recently, Eastern Europe and the Middle East, are given priority. Similarly, this attitude is found in official policymaking circles, as well as among segments of the general public. The primary purposes of this book, therefore, are threefold. The first purpose is to address the lack of understanding and attention that Africa has received within the fields of international relations theory and comparative foreign policy. Although I have not argued, as have some of Africa's most passionate supporters, that the continent constitutes the region of greatest importance to US foreign policy, the fact remains that Africa is poorly understood by academia, the policymaking establishment, and the general public. Perhaps the greatest danger inherent in such a state of affairs is that poor understanding can foster poorly devised policies that ultimately are destined to fail. In this sense, our awareness and understanding of African issues must be heightened if the US is to play a positive, proactive role on the African continent. The second purpose of this volume is to describe the roles played by XI

PREFACE

various actors within the policymaking establishment devoted to US Africa policies. Although we often speak of a "United States" foreign policy toward Africa, one must remember that the US is not a monolithic actor that "speaks with one voice." Rather, Washington's foreign policy landscape is composed of numerous centers of power which have the ability to simultaneously pull policy in many different directions. One can (and should) find legitimate differences of opinion and intense rivalries for control of US Africa policies. For example, these rivalries not only come into play between the executive and congressional branches of government, as one would expect, but also within a particular branch (such as between the Department of State and the Department of Defense), as well as within individual bureaucracies (such as between the State Department's bureaus of African Affairs and European Affairs). This book thus focuses on three major levels of the policymaking process. The first and most obvious level is that of the White House, including Presidents and their most trusted foreign policy advisers (usually the Secretary of State and the National Security Adviser). A second important level of the policymaking process is composed of the national security bureaucracies of the executive branch. The relevant foreign policy actors at this level are the State Department, the Defense Department, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), as well as each bureaucracy's separate bureaus devoted specifically to Africa. The final level of analysis is the arena of domestic politics, most notably the Africa subcommittees of both the Senate and the House of Representatives, the Congressional Black Caucus, and private interest groups, such as TransAfrica. The third and most important purpose of this volume is to describe and explain continuity and change in US Africa policies during the post-World War II period. In order to achieve such an understanding, one must build bridges between the fields of international relations theory and comparative foreign policy. Specifically, the evidence presented in this study demonstrates that the nature of events on the African continent - ranging from routine to crisis and extended crisis situations - historically has affected the operation of the US policymaking process, and therefore the substance of US Africa policies. Bilateral relationships with various African regimes have not remained static, but instead have evolved as different portions of the foreign policy establishment have asserted their influence within the policymaking process at different points in time. Thus, by focusing on the interplay between the nature of events on the African continent and the operation of the policymaking process, one can gain a clearer understanding of continuity and change in US foreign policy toward Africa.

PREFACE

In order to facilitate our understanding of the processes affecting US Africa policies, emphasis here is placed on describing the historical evolution of US relations with several African countries over more than fifty years. Detailed comparative case studies include an overview and analysis of US relations with Ethiopia and Somalia (treated as one area), South Africa, and Zaire during the post-World War II era, inclusive of the Bush administration, but ending with the inauguration of President Bill Clinton on January 20, 1993. Although observers of different ideological backgrounds have often characterized US Africa policies as highly erratic, the analysis demonstrates that one can discern several dominant patterns of the US policymaking process. Whereas some of these are unique to US Africa relations, others are indicative of US foreign policy in general. This careful blending of historical analysis with policy-relevant case studies contributes to our knowledge of the theory and practice of US foreign policy. In this regard, the book was written with several audiences in mind. The two most important audiences are scholars in the fields of international relations theory and comparative foreign policy, and Africanists both within and outside the policymaking establishment. The volume is also intended as a starting point for those Africans seeking to understand the nature and evolution of US foreign policy toward their continent. As Somali Charge d'Affaires Abdi Awaleh Jama remarked at a meeting of the Northeast African Studies Association in 1989, the primary dilemma facing African diplomats assigned to Washington "is that the US government speaks with many voices, which oftentimes are contradictory." "In order to survive," he continued, "we African diplomats must learn to walk a precarious diplomatic tightrope, all the time concentrating on which voice, if any, predominates and thus serves as the proper guidepost for our initiatives."

Xlll

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Some of the greatest joys of carrying out an extended research project are the numerous individuals that one meets along the way who are graciously willing to donate valuable amounts of their time to ensure the ultimate success of the project. The winding process that led to the completion of this book fostered contact with a wide variety of individuals, each of whom contributed in a different fashion to the final product. Although it is my distinct pleasure to acknowledge the special and much-appreciated roles played by these individuals, I accept sole responsibility for any remaining deficiencies embodied in this work. First and foremost, I wish to thank the members of my dissertation committee, each of whom brought a special vision to the finished product which, in turn, became the basis for this book. Jerel A. Rosati served as the intellectual guide and inspiration for creating a project that combined my interest in the fields of international relations theory, comparative foreign policy, and African politics. Charles W. Kegley, Jr., an unparalleled scholar in the field of comparative foreign policy, fostered my interest in theory and empirical analysis. Anthony Lake, who can claim a unique combination of extensive experience within both the academic world and the policymaking establishment, most notably as Director for Policy Planning in the State Department under the Carter administration, as well as the recently appointed National Security Adviser of the Clinton administration, corrected the innumerable errors committed by an outsider dedicated to the study of US Africa policies. Janice Love, who initially inspired me to write about US foreign policy toward the Horn of Africa while working together with me in Mogadishu, Somalia, also cultivated my interest in US-South African relations and the evolution of the US anti-apartheid movement. Finally, although he did not serve on the committee in an official status, Mark W. DeLancey was there at the beginning, always helpful and encouraging to those, including myself, who share his love for Africa. xiv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Other scholars helped to focus my arguments throughout the writing process by critiquing earlier versions of individual chapters, several of which were presented as papers at the annual conferences of the African Studies Association, the International Studies Association, and the Northeast African Studies Association. James J. Zaffiro, Joseph M. Scolnick, Donald L. Gordon, and Francis Kornegay, Jr. provided helpful comments on Chapters 1, 2, and 6 at the formative stage of the project. Similarly, each of the case studies benefited from the thoughtful comments of regional specialists. Among those who offered rigorous critiques were Patrick M. Boyle, John W. Harbeson, and Crawford Young (Chapter 3 - Zaire); Daniel Compagnon, Ali K. Galaydh, Abdi Awaleh Jama, David Laitin, I. M. Lewis, Terrence P. Lyons, and John H. Spencer (Chapter 4 - Ethiopia and Somalia); and R. Hunt Davis (Chapter 5 - South Africa). Written critiques of individual chapters were further sharpened by dozens of presentations on the African continent as part of two summer lecture tours sponsored by the United States Information Agency (USIA) and its "American Participant" (AmParts) program during both 1990 and 1991. Among those African institutions which sponsored lectures and, in the process, opened up my research to the insightful comments of African scholars too numerous to list individually, were: Department of Political Science, National University of Benin; Department of Government, National University of Burundi; Faculty of Letters and Faculty of Education Sciences, Ruhengeri Campus, National University of Rwanda; Faculty of Social Sciences and Faculty of Public Administration, Butare Campus, National University of Rwanda; Department of History and Geography, Higher Institute of Pedagogy (Mozambique); Center for African Studies, Eduardo Mondlane University (Mozambique); Department of Political Science, Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone; Department of Political Science and Legon Center for International Affairs, Legon University (Ghana); Department of Government and Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies, University of Nairobi (Kenya); Faculty of Arts, Kenyatta University (Kenya); Institute of Diplomacy, Somali Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Somalia); and Somali Institute for Development and Management (Somalia). Several institutions also facilitated the research and writing process. Special thanks is first due to the University of South Carolina and the faculty and staff associated with the Department of Government & International Studies, the Institute of International Studies, and the International Studies Association. In addition to providing a uniquely creative and nurturing environment dedicated to the pursuit of XV

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

knowledge, the University of South Carolina also provided a series of graduate fellowships and a 1987-88 West Foundation grant which enabled me to develop a dissertation topic. During 1989 and 1990, my status as a visiting scholar in residence with the African Studies Program at Northwestern University provided the perfect atmosphere in which to write a first draft. I will never forget the warm hospitality offered by Assistant Program Director Akbar Virmani, as well as my numerous discussions with Hans Panofsky, Senior Director of the Melville Herskovitts Library of African Studies who retired in 1991 - he will be sorely missed. In Washington, DC, special thanks is due to Kenneth Mokoena and the staff at the National Security Archive, a private foundation which allowed access to a wealth of declassified documents on US Africa policies, as well as the extremely able staff at the Library of Congress. Finally, my current position as an assistant professor in the Department of Political Science at Loyola University of Chicago continues to provide me with an exceptionally collegial and supportive workplace. Among those at Loyola who contributed to completion of the final product were Kate Ahrens, Judy Calix, Wendy Chiaramonte, Nicole Favreau, Phillips George, Bonnie Juettner, Miegan Lesher, Nancy Norman, Bruce Taylor, Michael Walsh and Bryon White. The most important aspect of the research and writing process, however, was the loving support of my family and friends. Among those who never lost faith and provided constant encouragement were Ahmed and Fowzia Jirreh, Susan M. Lowry, Tom and Laura Montbriand, Mark "Spanks" Przybyla, and the entire Schraeder clan: Bill and Helen, Tom and Jorja, Bill and Laura, Max, Jerry, Jason, Paul, Phillip, and Tricia.

XVI

ACRONYMS

ACOA AFSC ANC APC ASA BOSS CBC CIA CNL CONACO CPSU CRISP CRS DCI DDI DDO DFSS DIA DONS ECOWAS EPLF EPRDF ESF EURCOM FIS FLNC FMS FNLA FSO FY

American Committee on Africa American Friends Service Committee African National Congress (South Africa) Armored Personnel Carrier African Studies Association Bureau of State Security (South Africa) Congressional Black Caucus Central Intelligence Agency Committee of National Liberation (Zaire) National Confederation of the Congo (Zaire) Communist Party of the Soviet Union Center for Research and Socio-Political Information (Belgium) Catholic Relief Service Director of Central Intelligence Deputy Directorate of Intelligence Deputy Directorate of Operations Democratic Front for the Salvation of Somalia (Somalia) Defense Intelligence Agency Department of National Security (South Africa) Economic Community of West African States Eritrean People's Liberation Front (Eritrea) Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (Ethiopia) Economic Support Fund European Command Islamic Salvation Front (Algeria) Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (Zaire) Foreign Military Sales Frente Nacional de Libertagao de Angola (Angola) Foreign Service Officer Fiscal Year xvii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

GAO GPO ICCR IGADD EMET IMF ISA LIC MAAG MAP MPLA MSD MSN MTT NAACP NASA NATO NIF NSC NSSM OAU OLF PBS PL 480 PLA PMAC RAF RENAMO SACP SALT SNM SPLA SPM SWAPO TPLF UDPS UN UNITA XVlll

General Accounting Office Government Printing Office Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (Horn of Africa) International Military Education and Training International Monetary Fund International Security Affairs Low-Intensity Conflict Military Assistance Advisory Group Military Assistance Program Movimento Popular de Libertagao de Angola (Angola) Marine Security Detachment Mozambique Support Network Mobile Training Team National Association for the Advancement of Colored People National Aeronautics and Space Administration North Atlantic Treaty Organization National Islamic Front (Sudan) National Security Council National Security Study Memorandum Organization of African Unity Oromo Liberation Front (Ethiopia) Public Broadcasting System Public Law 480 Popular Liberation Army (Zaire) Provisional Military Administrative Council (Ethiopia) Royal Air Force (Great Britain) Mozambique National Resistance Movement (Mozambique) South African Communist Party (South Africa) Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Somali National Movement (Somalia) Sudan People's Liberation Army (Sudan) Somali Patriotic Movement (Somalia) South West African People's Organization (Namibia) Tigrean People's Liberation Front (Ethiopia) Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Zaire) United Nations Uniao National para a Independencia Total de Angola (Angola)

LIST OF ACRONYMS

USAID USC USIA USIS USSR WCOA WIGMO WSLF

United States Agency for International Development United Somali Congress (Somalia) United States Information Agency United States Information Service Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Washington Committee on Africa Western International Ground Maintenance Operation Western Somali Liberation Front (Ethiopia)

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INDEX

Aaron, David 146 Abdirashid Ali Shermarke 131-32 academia 5,6 Acheson, Dean 23, 32 Adamishin, Anatoly 255 Adan Abdullah Osman 126-27 Addis Ababa 119-20,124-26,128,130-31, 13^-36,139^1,171 Adoula, Cyrille 60-69 Afghanistan 94,150,182 Africa Bureau. See Bureau of African Affairs. Africa Division (Central Intelligence Agency) 17-18, 75, 212 African Americans 2, 8, 42^45, 52,1%, 210, 217, 228, 230-32,235 African Development Bank 149 African National Congress (ANC) 202, 225, 226, 229, 234, 238, 240, 243 African Studies Association (ASA) 6,42 African-Asian bloc 59, 63 Afrika Corps 115 Afrikaner Party 192-93 Ahmed Gurey 114-15 al-Bashir, Omar Hassan 254 al-Nimeiri, Ja'faar 254 al-Turabi, Hassan 254 Algeria 27, 77, 86, 258 Ali Mahdi Mohammed 167,169 Aman Adorn 127,137-42 American Committee on Africa (ACOA) 231 American Committee For Aid To Katangan Freedom Fighters 63 American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) 231 American Negro Leadership Conference 206 Amnesty International 42 Angola 3,11,22,28,29, 35-37, 47-48, 84, 87,92,100,101,102,104,110,145, 207, 211-14, 211-15, 219, 220,221, 224, 225, 226, 234, 235, 236, 244, 248, 255,

336

Angolan Accords 100,102,236 anti-apartheid movement 158,206,225, 231,235, 239,242^43,245 apartheid 4,9,189,193-94 Apollo 11 81 Asmara Barracks. See Kagnew Station Asmara 118,124,135 Aspin, Les 30 Atlantic Alliance 5,14-15,17,23 Atlantic Missile Range Telemetry Network 201 Ayah, Wilson Ndolo 250 Azores 7, 22-23, 28, 31, 203 Badouin, King 73 Baker III, James A. 34,178, 236 Ball, George 15, 60, 64 Belgium 9,15,91, 95 and Zaire 51-53, 59-60, 65,67,69, 70-SO, 106-7 and Tshombe 61-62 Bender, Gerald 47-48 Berbera 151,155,169,183 Berry, Mary Frances 228 Biafra 27,46 Biko, Steve 218 Bishop, James K. 167 Bissell, Richard 56 Black Consciousness Movement 218 "black empowerment" thesis 236 Black Leadership Conference on Southern Africa 44,217 Bliss, Don 122 Boer War 27,190-91 Bolte, Charles L. 118 Bolton, Frances P. 130 Boschwitz, Rudy 171,173 Botswana 229 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 170,179 Bowles, Chester 32, 60, 200 Brauer, Bob 44 Brazzaville 53,234 Bright Star exercises 155

INDEX Britain 15 involvement in slave trade 2 and Eritrea 116-24 and Ethiopia 115-16,116-24 and Nigeria 27, 46 and Somalia 126-27,170 and South Africa 27,190-93,199,201, 209,218,239, and Southern Rhodesia 40 British Somaliland 127,167. See also Somaliland Republic Brooke-Alexander Amendment 149 Brown, Harold 93,146 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 33, 92-94,143,145, 147,219-20 Bukavu 77 Bundy, McGeorge 23, 75 Burden, William 55 Bureau of African Affairs (Department of State) 1, 5,16-17, 22, 23, 39, 43,197, 207-9, 223-24, 252-53 and Angola 36 and Burundi 20 and Eritrea 172-73 and Ethiopia 122,127,128,137-38,140, 148-50,156,159-60,163,174, 181, 183 and Liberia 253 and Lumumba 54-55 and Mengistu regime 171-72 and Mobutu 79, 80, 83, 89-91, 101-2, 104,107,109, 111 and Shaba secession 62-66 and Siad Barre regime 160-63 and Somalila 126,131,132,133-34,143, 149-50,150-52,159-60,168-70,176, 181,183 and South Africa 197,200-1, 203, 205, 216-18, 229, 234, 243, 245 and Southern Rhodesia 40 and Zaire 52, 60, 71-72, 77-78, 81, 96-99,107-8 and Zimbabwe 27 Bureau of European and Canadian Affairs pepartment of State) 17, 40, 52, 54-55, 64, 203 Bureau of Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs (Department of State) 17 Bureau of International Organization Affairs (Department of State) 17, 78, 197 Bureau of Latin American Affairs (Department of State) 253 Bureau of Near Eastern and African Affairs (Department of State) 117, 120-21,122 Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian

Affairs pepartment of State) 138, 142, 253 Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs (Department of State) 17,254 Bureau of State Security (BOSS) 209, 212. See also Department of National Security P O N S ) bureaucratic politics. See routine situations and bureaucratic politics bureaucratic incrementalism 23-25. See also routine situations and bureaucratic politics Burton, Dan 163 Burundi 20-21,29 Bush, George 51,102,175,178, 241. See also Bush administration Bush administration 21 policy toward Africa in post-Cold War era 251-52 policy toward Algeria 258 policy toward Ethiopia 163-66,171-74 policy toward Islamic fundamentalism 253-54 policy toward Liberia 256 policy toward Somalia 162-63,168, 175-80,188, 256 policy toward South Africa 236-43 policy toward the Sudan 254 policy toward Zaire 102-108 world view 34-35,178 Butcher, Goler T. 210 Buthelezi, Chief Gatscha 242 Byrd Amendment 41 Byrd, Harry F. 40 Caetano, Marcello 28, 84, 211 Callaghan, James 2 Cameroon 251 Cape Town 43 Cape of Good Hope 3,190,245 Cape Province 240 Carnegie Foundation 42 Carter, Jimmy 13, 90,143,146,150. See also Carter administration Carter administration attention to Africa 13-14 policy toward Ethiopia 140-41,182 policy toward Somalia 142-47,153 policy toward South Africa 214-20, 222, 225,244 policy toward Southern Rhodesia 45 policy toward Zaire 7, 87-99,109-10 policy toward Zimbabwe 6, 221 worldview 33-34, 87, 93,140,144, 182-S3 Casey, William 99 Castro, Fidel 55, 92 Catholic Relief Service (CRS) 157 337

INDEX CBS 177 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 17-18, 22,23, 39,99,117,207-9, 223-24, 252-53 and Angola 29-30, 36, 84, 99-100, 212-13 and Djibouti 19, 24-25 and Ethiopia 129,137 and Lumumba 54-59 and Mobutu 79, 80, 83,89-91,104,107, 109, 111 and Nelson Mandela 202 and Somalia 126,133,d 176 and South Africa 194-%, 199, 201-2, 203, 212-13,216-17, 229, 234-35, 237, 23&-39,245 and Zaire 61-62, 65, 6&^80,81, 84, 99-101 Central Intelligence Group 117. See also Central Intelligence Agency Chad 3, 27,10O-1,104 Chapin, Frederic L. 148 China. See People's Republic of China (PRC) Christopher, Warren G. 35 civil rights movement 189, 227 Clark, Dick 38,47, 219 Clark, William 34 Clark Amendment 47, 99,110, 235 Clinton administration 13, 35,179-^80,188 d o u g h , Michael 6, 250 Cohen, Herman B. 21,102,107,163-^4, 171-72,237,242, 255, 257 Colby, William 29 Cold War 15-18,28-37, 247-49 US intervention in Ethiopia 116-66 US intervention in Somalia 116-66 US intervention in South Africa 193-236 US intervention in Zaire 53-105 See also post-Cold War era colonialism 14 Committee of National Liberation (CNL) 68 Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) 249 Comoro Islands 251 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 189-90,227-36,238, 245 Section 309(a) 233 Section 311 239-40 Section 401(b) 233 Congo River 53 Congress 3,37-41,42,45-48, 50,162, 225, 230 and Angola 213 and Boer War 191 Carter administration 143

338

and Ethiopia 130,134-35,138,149,157, 15&-59,163-65,183 and Nigeria 46 and Somalia 133,169,177,183,188 and South Africa 205,210,219,233-36, 239,245 and Zaire 78-79, 98,102-5,110 See also individual congressional committees, especially Senate Subcommittee on Africa and House Subcommittee on Africa and House of Representatives and Senate Congress Alliance Movement 202 Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) 3,38, 43-45,100, 210,217,218, 231, 237, 241, 251 Congressional Research Service 254 Constable, Peter Dalton 99 "constructive engagement* 6-7, 39, 222, 227, 237, 244 containment doctrine 15, 34,56,59, 87, 194, 247-48, 248,254 Copson, Raymond W. 254 C6te d'lvoire 27 crisis situations and presidential policies 26-37,49-50 and Ethiopia 136-42 and Horn of Africa 124-29,153-59, 167-75 and Somalia 142-48 and South Africa 83-37,211-15, 215-20 and Zaire 59-67, 68-74,74-^80, 87-91, 91-94 See also individual administrations and White House Crocker, Chester A. 7, 39,43,100,114,154, 221-27,234, 236-237,244,252,255-56 Cronkite, Walter 220 Crosson, W. H. 124-25 Cuba 26,56,68,94 policy toward Angola 3, 29, 36,87,102, 213, 222, 248, 255 policy toward Ethiopia 93,154,165 policy toward the Horn 145, 219 policy toward Namibia 236 policy toward Somalia 93 Cutler, Walter 85,88,90 Darod 167 Davis, Nathaniel 212 Dawa, Dire 126 Dayal, Rajeshwar 57 Debayle, Anastasio Somoza 103 Deep Space Instrumentation Facility 199 Defense Department. See Department of Defense Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) 216

INDEX Defense Satellite Communications System 135 Delagoa Bay 191 Dellums, Ronald V. 44,103, 226, 231, 233, 234 Democratic Front for the Salvation of Somalia pFSS) 154 Democratic Party 44, 61, 78, 63,215,226 DengeI,Lebnall4 Department of Commerce 3,19 Department of Defense 18,22,23, 39, 207-9, 22S-24, 252-53 and Djibouti 19,24-25 and Eritrea 116,130,172-73 and Ethiopia 11&-20,129,130,132,135, 136,181 and Liberia 253 and Mobutu 79,80, 83, 89-91,104,107, 109, 111 and Ogaden War 146 and Siad Barre regime 160-63 and Somalia 126,151,155-56,169,175, 176,183 and South Africa 195,198, 201, 203, 205, 216-17, 229, 234, 237, 244, 245 and UN 3 and Zaire 68-30, 81, 88,101,107-3 Department of National Security (DONS) 209 Department of State 3,16, 39,103, 207-9, 252^53 and Angola 36, 212-13 and Djibouti 19,24-25 and Ethiopia 123,129,136 and Mobutu 79,80,83,89-91,104,107, 109, 111 and Nigeria 46 and Somalia 126,145,146 and South Africa 191-%, 19&-99,200-1, 237, 23&-39,241, 244 and Sudan 254 and Zaire 57-58, 68, 83-34, 88,101 Deputy Directorate of Intelligence (DDI) (Central Intelligence Agency) 17 Deputy Directorate of Operations (DDO) (Central Intelligence Agency) 17 Dergue 137-42,138 detente 33-34,94,133, 247 Devlin, Lawrence 56, 57, 64, 81 Diego Garcia 131,135,136,181 Diggs, Charles C. 38, 44,210, 219 Dillon, C. Douglas 54, 55 Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) 17 Djibouti 3,19,24-25,121,131, 264 Djibouti-Addis Ababa railroad 126 Dodd, Thomas 61 Doe, Samuel 253 Dole, Robert 232

domestic politics. See extended crisis and domestic politics Dulles, Allen 55 Dulles, John Foster 32, 34,193 Dungan, Ralph 64 Durban 202 Dutch East India Company 190 Dymally, Mervyn 38 East Kasai 53 Easum, Donald 212 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 256 Economic Support Fund (ESF) 161-62, 251 Edmondson, William 193 Egypt 102,115,120,139,142,154, 251 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 52,55,189. See also Eisenhower administration Eisenhower administration creation of Bureau of African Affairs within the State Department 1 policy toward Ethiopia 125 policy toward Zaire 52-59,108 worldview 32,34,56,153 Eisenhower Doctrine 28 Elisabethville. See Lubumbashi Eritrea 115-16,121-22,137-38,164-65, 171-73,181 Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) 160,171,173 Estimate of the Next Five Years in Africa 197 Ethiopia 4, 5, 7,10,11,26, 33,47,86, 114-38,247,248,258 appointment of Council of Representatives (1991) 174 attempted military coup d'itat (1960) 124,182; (1989) 164 democratic elections (1992) 174 expulsion of US agencies (1977) 141 famine (1983-35) 156-58,173 guerrilla insurgency 160,163-66 involvement in Korean War 119-20 involvement in WWII 115-16 issue of territorial integrity 121-22 nationalization of US companies 148 overthrow of Mengistu regime 167, 171 policy toward Israel 164-66 purge and execution of Mengistu's rivals 140 pursuit of Eritrea 116-18 rebellion in the Ogaden 126-27 resettlement and collectivization programs 158 revolution (1974-77) 136-37 and Somalia 121-23,126-27,154

339

INDEX Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, Ethiopia (EPRDF) 160,174 European Command (EURCOM) 100 extended crisis situations and domestic politics 37-48, 49-50, 63-64,156-58 Falasha Jews 164-66,173,188 Fauntroy, Walter 228 Fenton Communications 42 Fergusson, Clyde 208 Ferriter, John P. 19 Foote Mineral 42 Ford administration policy toward Angola 29, 47-48, 84-87, 211 policy toward Ethiopia 138-40,182 policy toward South Africa 220,244 policy toward Zaire 91,109 worldview 33,138,182, 244 Ford Foundation 42 Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division, Congressional Research Service 254 foreign assistance 9, 23-25, s40-41,115, 251-52 to Ethiopia (1950-92) 184-85 to Somalia (1954-92) 186-S7 to South Africa (1985-92) 246 to Zaire (1959-92) 112-13 Foreign Military Sales (FMS) 149 Foreign Service Officer (FSO) 16 "40 committee" 47, 84, 212 France 3,19, 27,88, 91,117, 209, 218 Frasure, Robert C. 171 Fredericks, J. Wayne 60, 206 Free South Africa Movement 228 French Territory of the Afars and the Issas. See Djibouti Frente Nacional de Libertac.ao de Angola (FNLA) 29-30, 35-37, 47, 81, 84-85, 212-13 Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FLNC) 87S8, 91 Fulbright, J.William 78 Gabon 2? Gary, Willis 124 Gates, Robert M. 176 de GavTe, Chester 124-25 Gbenye, Christophe 68, 73 George, Alexander L. 260 Germany 26, 237 East Germany 103,165 West Germany 127 Nazi era 115,192 Ghana 32,197 Girardi, Alfred F. 169 340

Gizenga, Antoine 58-67,108 Godley, G. McMurtrie 69, 71,72, 77 Gonzolez Amendment 148-49 Gorbachev, Mikhail 238-39,249, 256 Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Deficit Reduction Act 24, 40-41,102,156,251 Gray, Gordon 56 Gray III, William H. 44,158-59,226,231, 242 Greece 28, 32,102 Group Areas Act 193, 240 Grove, Jr., Brandon Hambright 99 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 70 Gullion, Edmund A. 60,63, 69 Gura 115 Habar Gedir 169 Hadsel, Fred L. 133 Haile Selassie 9, 33,117-38,156,158,181, 248,258 Halperin, Morton H. 21-22 Hammarskjold, Dag 55, 57 Harar 135,144 Hargeisa 127,160 Harriman, W. Averell 70, 72,73 Hassan II, King 18 Hawiye 160,167,169 Helms, Jesse 3-4, 7, 39,99,228, 221 Hempstone, Jr., Smith 176-77, 257 Herter, Christian A. 54,198 Hickenlooper Amendment 148-49 Hicks, Irvin 104,171 Hinton, Deane R. 84-85 Holloway, Anne Forrester 45 House of Representatives 42,50,99, 210, 252 policy toward Ethiopia 158 policy toward Somalia 177 policy toward South Africa 210-19, 226, 228-30, 233-36 policy toward Southern Rhodesia 40-41 policy toward Zaire 98,103 Shaba secession 64 House Appropriations Subcommittee on Foreign Operations 103 House Armed Services Committee 44 House Committee on Foreign Affairs 29, 39,98,103,163, 251 House Select Committee on Intelligence 29 House Subcommittee on Africa 37-41, 45, 100 and Ethiopia 148,158-59 and Siad Barre regime 160-63 and Somalia 151-52,156-57,177 and South Africa 210,231-32, 237 and Zaire 89, 96-99,102-5,110

INDEX House Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific 38 House Subcommittee on the Near East and Africa 130 human rights 21, 33, 42, 87, 89-90,103, 139,140-41,155-56,158,164,182 Human Rights Commission 241 Hummel, Jr., Arthur W. 139,148 Humphrey, Hubert 132 Ileo, Joseph 58 Indian Ocean 19,114,121,131,168 Inkatha Freedom Party 242 interest groups 41-48,63,157 Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility (ICCR) 231 Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) 19,24 International Court of Justice 192 International Military Education and Training (IMET) 81,155 international relations theory 5 International Security Cooperation Act of 1985 158 intervention definition 8 Iran 17, 30, 97,142,145, 253-54 Iranian hostage crisis 94,150,152,182 Iraq 102,168,173, 252, 252 Isaias Afwerki 171 Isiro (Paulis) 74 Islamic fundamentalism 9,17-18, 30,150, 174, 253-54, 258 Islamic Salvation Front, (FIS) 258 Israel 82,164-66,173, 213 Italian Communist Party 118 Italian Somaliland 116,121-22 Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935-36 120 Italy 15,115,116,118,126-27,154,170 Japan 38,255 Johannesburg 190,196 Johnson, Lyndon B. and Zaire (1967) 79 See also Johnson administration Johnson administration policy toward Nigeria 27, 46 policy toward South Africa 204-6, 210 policy toward Southern Rhodesia 40-41 policy toward Zaire 69-80, 92,10&-09 worldview 33 Johnston, Harry 38 Joint Chiefs of Staff 23, 64, 72, 78,101,116, 119,123,134,146,195 Jones, David 146 Kagnew Station 115-16,118,119,123,129, 130-31,135,141,181 Kamina 92,100-101

Karl-I-Bond, Nguza 97,107 Kasavubu, Joseph 52-53, 57-76 Kassebaum, Nancy 38,177 Katanga Lobby 61, 63-64, 67,109 Katanga. See Shaba Kaysen, Carl 64 Kennan, George F. 15 Kennedy, John F. 1-2,12-13, 67, 69,189. See also Kennedy administration Kennedy administration policy of cultivating African nationalists 69 policy toward South Africa 200-206, 210, 244 policy toward Zaire 59-69,108-109 Portuguese colonialism in Africa 22, 31 regionalism 87 threat of communism in Africa 15 worldview 32-34, 60 Kenya 25,121,127,131,150,175-76, 250-51, 257 Khartoum 171 Khomeini, Ayatollah 94,150 Kimba, Evariste 76-77 Kimberley 190 King, Jr., Martin Luther 189,196 Kinshasa (Leopoldville) 53, 65, 81,84,105, 110,212 Kiplagat, B. A. 250 Kirkpatrick, Jeane 7 Kisangani (Stanleyville) 59, 70, 73, 74, 77 Kissinger, Henry A. 20, 29, 33, 36, 47, 82, 85-86,139,182, 207, 209, 211-214 Kitchen, Helen 5 de Klerk, Frederik W. 238-41 Kolwezi 87, 92 Korean War 119,120,194 Korn, David A. 10,154 Korry, Edward 126,130 Kuwait 253 Lake, Anthony 35, 41, 43, 209, 215 Lake Tanganyika 76 Lawson, Richard 100 Lawyers Committee for Human Rights 42 League of Nations 191 Leopoldville. See Kinshasa Liberia 105,172,173,252-53, 256 Libya 18, 86,115-16,154,173 Liechtenstein 68 Live-Aid Concert 157 Luanda 84, 213 Lubumbashi (Elisabethville) 58, 65 Lubumbashi University 104 Lugar, Richard 229,242 Lumumba, Patrice 53-59, 76,108 Lundgren, John 19 Lusaka 84, 214

341

INDEX Lusaka Accord 226 Lutete, Umba Di 88 Lyman, Princeton 156 MacElhinney, Brenda 85 Majority Whip (House of Representatives) 44 Malan, Daniel 192 Mandela, Nelson 189, 202, 238, 240-43 Mansfield, Mike 78 Maputo 216 Marcos, Ferdinand 103,108 Massawa 115,135 Mbanza-Ngungu (Thysville) 58 McBride, Robert H. 77 McCarthy, Joseph 195 McGhee, George.64 McGovern, George 38 McHenry, Donald 8 McMillan, Brian 19 McNamara, Robert 203, 205 media characterization of 1974-77 Ethiopian revolution 138-39 coverage of township violence in South Africa 227 criticism of Bush administration's policy in Somalia 177 impact on policy during extended crisis situations 45-48 impact on policy toward Somalia 147 impact on policy toward Zaire 63 perception of events in South Africa 235-36 programming 4-5 response to Ethiopian famine (1983-85) 157 safari tradition of US journalism 4-5, 42 support for Operation Restore Hope 188 Meles Zenawi 171 Mengistu Haile Mariam 138-166,183,188, 255 Mennonite Central Committee 42 Methven, Stuart E. 212 Micombero, Michel 20-21 Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) Mission 80,119-20,124-25, 141 Minitrack and Data Acquisition Station 199 Missile Range Tracking Station 201 Mobile Training Team (MTT) 68 Mobutu Sese Seko 7,18, 25, 33,51, 57-111, 58,61,248,258 Mogadishu 128,132,143,149,162,167, 169-70 Mohammed Farah Aidid 169,175 342

Mohammed Ibrahim Egal 131-34,133,181 Mohammed Siad Barre 4, 9,13S-67,182, 183, 248, 255,258 Moi, Daniel Arap 257 Mombasa 175 Mondale, Walter F. 216 Monroe Doctrine 28 Montgomery, Alabama 197 Moose, Richard 7, 87, 91, 93-94, 96,141, 143-46,148, 215 Morocco 18, 86, 88 Morris, Roger 209 Moseley-Braun, Carol 44 Movimento Popular de Liberta^ao de Angola (MPLA) 29-30, 84-35,100, 102,106, 212r-13 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick 3-4 Mozambique 3, 39,104,165,213, 216, 221, 225-26,255 Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO) 221, 225-26 Mugabe, Robert 6, 221 Mulcahy, Ed 212 Mulele, Pierre 68 multiparty democracy 10,103,133, 256-58 Mutual Defense Assistance Act 195 Nairobi 4 Namibia 172,192,194, 216, 220, 224-25, 233-34, 236, 255 Namibia Accord 236 Nasser, Gamal Abdul 120 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 129,199, 209-10 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 216-17 National Confederation of the Congo (CONACO) 75 National Defense Authorization Act (1989) 164 National Geographic 4, 42 National Islamic Front (NIF) 254 National Party 192-94, 238 National Security Act (1947) 116 National Security Archive 10 national security bureaucracies. See Department of State, Department of Defense, and Central Intelligence Agency National Security Council (NSC) 47, 52, 55, 56, 63, 92,120,121-22,126,144, 146,171,176, 205, 207, 209 National Security Study Memorandum (NSSM) 207; (NSSM 39) 207-10 Nemchina, Sergei S. 65 Neto, Agostinho 29, 84, 88

INDEX 'New Frontier* 32, 34,60, 87,200-01,203, 205 New York Times 3,10,63,177 Newsom, David D. 20,83, 86,134 Nicaragua 103,221 Nickel, Herman 237 Nigeria 27,46,176,213,224, 251,256 Nixon, Richard M. 1 See also Nixon administration Nixon administration policy toward Angola 35-37, 48, 211-15 policy toward Burundi 29 policy toward minority, white-ruled regimes in southern Africa 7 policy toward Nigeria 27,46 policy toward Portugal 28,206-11,222, 244 policy toward Southern Rhodesia 41 policy toward Zaire 80-83,109 worldview 33, 35-37,138, 244 Nixon Doctrine 33, 36,214 Nkomati Accord 226 Nkrumah, Kwame 32 Non-Aligned Movement 96 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 22, 31, 203, 237 Northern Frontier District 121,127 novoye myslenye (new political thinking) 249

Nujoma, Sam 255 Nyerere, Julius 202 Oakley, Robert B. 179-80 Office of African Affairs (Department of Defense, Office of International Security Affairs) 18 Office of African and Latin American Analysis (Central Intelligence Agency) 17 Office of Central African Affairs (Department of State) 81 Office of International Security Affairs (ISA) (Department of Defense) 18, 101,234 Office of Legal Affairs (Department of State) 17 Office of Legislative Affairs (Department of State) 210 Office of Refugee Affairs (Department of State) 17 Ogaden 114,121,125-29,154,160,182. See also Ogaden War Ogaden War 4,26,93,94,114,144-48,151, 182-83, 219 Ogene, F. Chidozie 27, 46 Olenga, Nicolas 72 Olifontsfontein 199

Optical Tracking Station 199 Oman 150 Omar Jess 169 Operation Askari 225 Operation Black Dragon 73-74 Operation Cape 199 Operation Desert Storm 102,168-69, 252 Operation Golden Hawk 72 Operation Grand Slam 65 Operation Joshua 165 Operation Morthor 62 Operation Moses 164-65 Operation Red Dragon 73-75, 92,108 Operation Restore Hope 4,38,176-80, 188 Operation Rumpunch 62 Operation Solomon 173 Orange Free State 190,240 Organization of African Unity (OAU) 3, 17,21, 79, 96,126,128,142,144-45, 171,174, 202 Orientale Province (Haut-Zaire) 58 Oromo 174 Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) 160,174 Pahlavi, Shah Mohammad Reza 97 Panama 252-53 Patriotic Front 6 Paulis. See Isiro Peace Corps 81,131,133 Pentagon. See Department of Defense People's Republic of China (PRC) 29,68, 84 People's Republic of Ethiopia 124 See also Ethiopia People's Republic of the Congo 145,234 Persian Gulf 114,150,152 Petterson, Donald K. 149, 257 Philippines 102,103 Plimpton, Francis T. P. 200 Policy Planning Staff (Department of State) 17 Popular Liberation Army (PLA) 72, 73,68 Population Registration Act 193,240 Portugal bases in the Azores 7, 22,28, 31 colonial policies in Africa 15,28, 202, 211 military coup d'etat 28,244 policy toward Angola 84,207 policy toward Mozambique 207 policy toward Nigeria 27 policy toward Somalia 114-15 post-Cold War era 250-58 impact on superpower intervention in Africa 247 impact on US policy toward Ethiopia 171-75 343

INDEX Portugal (cont.) impact on US policy toward Eritrea 172-73 impact on US policy toward Somalia 168-69,171,188 impact on US policy toward South Africa 236-43, 245 impact on US policy toward Zaire 236^3 Potts, Jim 212 presidential elections (1964) 70,109, 203, 205 (1968) 46 (1992) 177-78 presidential politics. See crisis situations and presidential politics Project 19 115 Pretoria 84 Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) 137 public 40, 93 criticism of Bush administration's policy in Somalia 177 impact on US policy toward Zaire 63 National Geographic image of Africa 4, 42 perception of events in South Africa 227, 231-32, 235-36, 245 response to 1974-77 Ethiopian revolution 138-39 response to Ethiopian famine (1983-85) 157 support for humanitarian relief policies in Ethiopia 183 support for Operation Restore Hope 188 sympathy for Afrikaners in Boer War 191 weariness with US involvement in foreign civil wars 48 Public Broadcasting System (PBS) 4 Public Law 480 (PL 480) 156 Qaddafi, Muammar 4,18 Radio Marina. See Kagnew Station Rainbow Lobby 42 Reagan, Ronald 27, 34, 220, 230. See also Reagan administration Reagan administration policy continuity with Carter administration 99 policy toward Angola 256 policy toward Ethiopia 7,152-59,173, 249

policy toward Mozambique 165 policy toward Namibia 222 policy toward Somalia 7,152-56,183, 249 344

policy toward South Africa 6-7, 39, 220-35, 236-37, 244 policy toward Zaire 96, 99-102 world view 153,183 Reagan Doctrine 34,100-101,153 realpolitik 33, 34, 35,109 Red Sea 19,115,121 174 regionalism 215 Remole, Robert 95 Republican Party 6,178, 203, 231, 232,235 Rhodesia. Sec Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe Richards, Arthur L. 124-25 Roberto, Holden 29, 81,84-35, 212 Robinson, Randall 44, 228 Rockefeller Foundation 42 "roll-back" theory 32, 34, 56,153, 221 Roosevelt administration, policy toward South Africa 191 Rostow, Walt 33 Roth, Toby 158,163 routine situations and bureaucratic politics 12-25,49-50, 99-105, 206-11, 220-27 concerning Belgian Congo 51-53 concerning Ethiopia 116-24 concerning Horn of Africa 115-16, 129-32,13S-36,153-59,159-66 concerning Somalia 116-24,148-52 concerning South Africa 190-99, 200-6, 23S-43

concerning Zaire 8O-S3, 94-99,105-8 post-Cold War era 25Z-53 See also Department of State, Department of Defense, and Central Intelligence Agency Royal Air Force (RAF) 115 Rusk, Dean 23, 25, 32, 70, 72, 73, 200, 203 Russell, Richard 78 Russia 16,35,102,176,249,255. See also Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira 22 Satterthwaite, Joseph 200,201 Saudi Arabia 139,142,145,154 Savimbi, Jonas 29, 84,100,110,220,221, 235 Schaufele, William 140 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M. 31 Schlesinger, James R. 135 Schroeder, Patricia 228 Schultz, George P. 34, 99 Scowcroft, Brent 34,178 Sears, Mason 197 Security Supporting Assistance 86 Senate 31, 93 criticism of US intervention in Zaire 63 partisan and ideological rivalries 50,252

INDEX interest groups 42 national elections (1967) 131 Ogaden 144,149 policy toward Somalia 177 policy toward Southern Rhodesia overthrow of Siad regime 167 40-41 pan-Somali quest 121 policy toward Zaire 98,103 pursuit of regional detente 132 repeal of Clark Amendment 99 raid on Ethiopian border towns (1982) sanctions against South Africa 210, 219, 154 secession of north and declaration as 226,22&-30,233-36 Shaba secession 64 independent Somaliland Republic Senate Armed Forces Committee 78 167 Senate Committee on Foreign Relations signing of peace accord with Ethiopia 38-39,47, 78,149, 229, 235 (1988) 159 Senate Subcommittee on Africa 37-41,107 signing of a military access agreement hearings on township violence in with the US (1980) 151 South Africa 227 Somaliland Protectorate 121-23 hearings on US-Ethiopian relations 140 Somaliland Republic 167,170 sanctions against South Africa 219, 232 South Africa 4, 6-7, 9,11,18,27, 29, 36, 39, Senate Subcommittee on Latin America 52, 71, 77,84,100,102,158,163, 38 189-49, 255 Senate Subcommittee on US Security adoption of a bicameral parliament Agreements and Commitments (1984) 227 Abroad 134 arrest of Nelson Mandela (1962) 202 Shaba (Katanga) 76 Black Consciousness Movement 218 secession (1960-63) 53, 55, 61-66,109 Boipatong massacre (1992) 242 Shaba I crisis 87-91,109-10, 219 death of Steve Biko (1977) 218 Shaba II crisis 91-94 declaration of State of Emergency Shaba III crisis 95 (1985) 229 Shamir, Yitzak 173 elections (1989) 238 Sharpeville 198 "Great Trek" 190 Shultz, George 234 incorporation of Namibia 192 Sikes, Robert L. F. 78 intervention in Angola's civil war Simon, Paul 38,177, 232 (1975) 213 Simonson, Joseph 120 non-aggression treaties with neighbors Simonstown 195 226 Sloan, Frank K. 204 "pass laws" 198 Smith, Ian 40, 213 recognition as a sovereign nation Smuts, Jan Christian 191,193 within the British Commonwealth 190 Soctete' G£n£rale de Belgique 62 reform of apartheid 238 Solarz, Stephen J. 38,89, 97-98,105,108 regional destabilization policies 225 Soloman, Gerald B. 163 rescheduling of debt (1990) 238 Somali National Front (SNF) 167... Sharpeville incident (1960) 198-99, 215 Somali National Movement (SNM) 160, Soweto riots (1976) 215-19 163,167,169 township rebellions (1980s) 227 Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) 160, unification of Afrikaner territories as a 167,169 British dominion (1910) 190 Somali Revolutionary Council 133 parliamentary elections (1948) 191, Somali-Soviet Friendship Treaty of 1974 193-94 134,144 withdrawal from British Somalia 4, 7,114-38,248 Commonwealth (1961) 201 assassination of Shermarke (1969) 133 South African Communist Party (SACP) attempted military coup d'etat 149 193 British and Italian Somaliland South Kasai 53 territories 123 South West African People's clan warfare in post-Siad era 167-170, Organization (SWAPO) 172, 226 256 Southern Rhodesia 40-41,42,45, 71, 77, guerrilla insurgency 160-63 207, 213, 214, 216, 225, 244 massacre of civilians (1989) 162 Soviet Union. See Union of Soviet military coup d'etat (1969) 133-34 Socialist Republics 345

INDEX Soweto 215 Spaak, Paul-Henri 65, 71, 73 St. Lucia air network 100 Stanleyville. See Kisangani State Department. See Department of State State of the Union Address (1978) 146; (1980) 150 Stennis, John 72 Stevenson, Adlai A. 22-23, 60,63, 73,200, 202-04 Stockwell, John 20, 29,84, 212-13 Stonehouse Project 129,131,135 Straits of Bab el-Mandeb 3,155 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) 93,143,147 Sudan 100,177,254 Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) 254 Sullivan, Leon 217 Sullivan Principles 217, 226, 228 Suppression of Communism Act 193,195 Swazil90 Symington, Stuart 134 Talle, Aboudoin 254 Tambo, Oliver 234 Tanzania 27, 202, 213, 224, 257 Task Force on Africa 217 Teferi Band 138 Templesman, Maurice 81 Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan 173 Tesfaye Dinka 165 Thatcher, Margaret 239 Thurmond, Strom 78-79 Thurston, Raymond L. 114 Thysville. See Mbanza-Ngungu 58 Tigrean People's Liberation Front (TPLF) 160,171,173 Timberlake, Clare T. 54 Tombe, Andrew 254 Toibert, Horace G. 127 TransAfrica 3, 44-45,164, 217, 228, 231, 239

Transvaal 190, 240 Treaty of Paris 116 Truman administration 28, 31, 34,195,248 Truman Doctrine 28 Tshisekedi, Etienne 107 Tshombe, Moise 61-SO, 109 Tsongas, Paul 227 Tunney Amendment 48 Turkey 28,102 Tyler, William R. 62 United Nations 3, 53, 76, 82, 88, 96 Charter 191 Declaration of Human Rights 197

346

General Assembly 17,192,194,197,198, 202,209 military intervention in Somalia 256 military involvement in Zaire 54,55,57, 62-66 Resolution (435) 220, 222 sanctions against Portugal 22, 203-04 Security Council 59,170,175,176,179, 199,218, 233, 237,256 Trusteeship Council 197 trusteeship over Eritrea 118 trusteeship status over Namibia 192 Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola (UNITA) 29-30, 35-37,84,100,102,110, 213,220, 235 Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS) 104,107 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 41, 94 as centerpiece of administration worldviews 31-35 as target of US policies of containment 15-16, 31-37 invasion of Afghanistan 94,150,182 policy toward Angola 3, 29, 35-37, 36, 48, 84, 248, 255 policy toward Eritrea 117 policy toward Ethiopia 93,122,140,154, 165 policy toward Mozambique 255 policy toward Namibia 255 policy toward Nigeria 27 policy toward Somalia 4, 93,127, 133-34,135,142 policy toward South Africa 255 policy toward southern Africa 211 policy toward the Horn of Africa 115, 168, 219 policy toward Zaire 54,59, 65 See also Russia United Party 191-93 United Somali Congress (USC) 160,167, 169,175 United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 19,251, 254 United States Information Agency (USIA) 19 United States Information Service (USIS) 141 University of Kinshasa (Zaire) 61 US Air Force 18,100-101,123,124 US Army 18,116,118,124,130,135 US Atomic Energy Commission 1% US Civil Rights Commission 228 US Coast Guard 223 US Export-Import Bank 219 US Marines 4,168,175, 253 US Navy 18, 59,135,155, 205

INDEX US Navy SEALs (Sea-Air-Land-Commandos) 176 USS Franklin D. Roosevelt 205-6 USS Guam 168 USS John F. Kennedy 43 USSMaddox70 USS Sword Knot 205 USS Trenton 168 van den Bergh, General Hendrik 212 Vance, Cyrus 33, 72,81, 85,87-39, 93-95, 143,146-47,182, 215-216 Vance, Sheldon B. 81 Vandewalle, Fre"d£ric 71 Vietnam War 29, 36,47-48, 74, 78,130, 134,139,169, 205 Vorster, John 216 Walker, Lannon 96 War Department 115,191. See also Department of Defense Washington Committee on Africa (WCOA) 231 Weicker, Lowell 228 Weil, Martin 43 Weissman, Stephen R. 41 Wells, Melissa 39 Western International Ground Maintenance Operation (WIGMO) 68 Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) 154-55 White House 12-14,15-16, 25, 28-30, 30-37, 39, 41, 45, 49-50, 207-9, 213, 252-53 and Ethiopia 135,139 and European powers 14-15,17, 26-28 and Falasha Jews 188 and Liberia 253 and Lumumba 56 and Mengistu regime 171-73 and Somalila 143,149-50,154,167-68, 175,177-78,179 and South Africa 211, 216-17,229,230, 240-43,245 and Zaire 69, 70, 71-72,87-38 See also crisis situations and presidential politics Williams, G. Mennen 22-23, 60, 62-63, 70-71,128, 200-203 Winship, North 194 Wolpe, Howard 38-39,104,158,161,166, 232, 237,242 Woods, James L. 234

World Court. See International Court of Justice worldview 30-37 Young, Andrew 8, 44, 87,94, 215-216 Young, Crawford 6-7 Zaire 2, 7, 9,18,24, 25,29, 33,36,51-111, 212,219,235,247-249,258 address by Mobutu announcing political reforms (1990) 103 arrest of 18 members of Legislative Council (1980) 96 colonialism 51-53 corruption 103 death of Lumumba 59 defeat of Shaba secessionist movement (1963) 66 economic development 82 ethnic strife compared to that in Liberia and Somalia 105 government reorganization by military (1963) 69 guerrilla insurgency (1963-64) 68-74 independence (1960) 52 Lubumbashi massacre (1990) 104 military coup d'etat (1960) 57; (1965) 76 mutiny by Force Publique (1960) 53 national and provincial legislative elections (1965) 75 national conference on democracy (1992-93) 107-108 Pentecost Plot 77 presidential and legislative elections (1970) 82 promotion of US Angolan policies 83-87 rupture of relations with Israel 82 troop mutinies and riots (1991) 105 uprisings by mercenaries (1967) 77 vote of censure within parliament (1962) 65 vote of no confidence against the Kasavubu-Kimbe government (1965) 76 "Zairian Sickness" (le "mal Zairois") 90 "Zairianization" campaign (1973-74) 83 Zambezi River 86 Zambia 27, 92, 212,214,229 Zimbabwe 6,27,207,220,221,225,229. See also Southern Rhodesia Zulu 190

347

CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 31

PETER J. SCHRAEDER

United States foreign policy toward Africa: Incrementalism, crisis and change 30

GRAHAM SPINARDI

From Polaris to Trident: The development of US Fleet Ballistic Missile technology 29

DAVID A. WELCH

Justice and the genesis of war 28

RUSSEL J. LENG

27

JOHN A. VASQUEZ

26

STEPHEN GILL ( e d . )

25

MIKE BOWKER and ROBIN BROWN (eds.)

24

ROB WALKER

23

EDWARD REISS

Interstate crisis behaviour, 1816-1980: realism versus reciprocity The war puzzle Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations From Cold War to collapse: theory and world politics in the 1980s Inside/outside: international relations as political theory The Strategic Defense Initiative The development of an armaments programme 22

KEITH KRAUSE

Arms and the state: patterns of military production and trade 21

ROGER BUCKLEY

US-Japan alliance diplomacy 1945-1990 20

JAMES N . ROSENAU a n d ERNST-OTTO CZEMPIEL ( e d s . )

Governance without government: order and change in world politics 19

MICHAEL NICHOLSON

18

JOHN STOPFORD a n d SUSAN STRANGE

Rationality and the analysis of international conflict Rival states, rival firms Competition for world market shares 17

TERRY NARDIN a n d DAVID R. MAPEL ( e d s . )

Traditions of international ethics 16

CHARLES F. DORAN

Systems in Crisis New imperatives of high politics at century's end 15

DEON GELDENHUYS

Isolated states: a comparative analysis 14

KALEVI J. HOLSTI

Peace and war: armed conflicts and international order 1648-1989 13

SAKI DOCKRILL

Britain's policy for West German rearmament 1950-1955

12

ROBERT H. JACKSON

Quasi-states: sovereignty, international relations and the Third World 11

JAMES BARBER a n d JOHN BARRATT

South Africa's foreign policy The search for status and security 1945-1988 10

JAMES MAYALL

Nationalism and international society 9

WILLIAM BLOOM

Personal identity, national identity and international relations 8

ZEEV MAOZ

National choices and international processes 7

IAN CLARK

The hierarchy of states Reform and resistance in the international order 6

HIDEMISUGANAMI

The domestic analogy and world order proposals 5

STEPHEN GILL

American hegemony and the Trilateral Commission 4

MICHAEL C. PUGH

The ANZUS crisis, nuclear visiting and deterrence 3

MICHAEL NICHOLSON

Formal theories in international relations 2

FRIEDRICH V. KRATOCHWIL

Rules, norms, and decisions On the conditions of practical and legal reasoning in international relations and domestic affairs 1

MYLES L. C. ROBERTSON

Soviet policy towards Japan An analysis of trends in the 1970s and 1980s