Underutilized Fruits and Nuts Vol. 2 Fruits of Tropical Region
O.P. PAREEK Formerly Director Central Institute for Arid Horticulture (ICAR) Bikaner-334 001 (Raj.)
SUNEEL SHARMA Professor of Horticulture Haryana Agriculture University Hisar-125 004 (Haryana)
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
First Published in 2009 by Prem C. Bakliwal for
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors 807, Vyas Building, Chaura Rasta Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India Phone: 0141-2578159 e-mail:
[email protected] © Authors
ISBN 978-81-7910-282-4 (Set) 978-81-7910-284-8 (Vol. 2)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied for any purpose by any means, manual, mechanical or electronic, without prior and written permission of the copyright owners and the Publishers.
Printed at
Sheetal Printers Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
CONTENTS
List of Colour Plates ..................................................................................................... .
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS OF TROPICAL REGION 1.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS ................................................ 3-218
-Abiu ............................................................................................................................ 3 -Acai Palm ................................................................................................................... 6 -African Breadfruit ..................................................................................................... 7 -African Plum Tree ..................................................................................................... 9 -African Walnut ....................................................................................................... 11 -Akee .......................................................................................................................... 12 -Ambarella ................................................................................................................. 14 -Araca-boi .................................................................................................................. 16 -Babassu .................................................................................................................... 18 -Baccaurea ................................................................................................................. 20 -Bakuri ....................................................................................................................... 23 -Bambangan ..................................................................... :........................................ 24 -Barbados Gooseberry .............................................................................................. 25 -Bignay ....................................................................................................................... 27 -Bilimbi ...................................................................................................................... 29
-Binjai ......................................................................................................................... 31 -Biriba ......................................................................................................................... 32 -Black Sapote ............................................................................................................. 34 -Borojo ........................................................................................................................ 36 -Brazil Nut ................................................................................................................ 36 -Breadfruit ................................................................................................................. 38 -Breadnut ................................................................................................................... 42 -Burahol ..................................................................................................................... 44 -Buriti Palm ............................................................................................................... 45 -Bush Mango ............................................................................................................. 47 -Camu Camu ............................................................................................................. 48 -Canistel ..................................................................................................................... 50 -Carambola ................................................................................................................ 52 -Cashew ..................................................................................................................... 55 -Cassabanana ........................................................................................................... 60 -Ceriman .................................................................................................................... 61 -Champedak .............................................................................................................. 62 -Coco Plum ................................................................................................................ 64 -Cola Nut ................................................................................................................... 66 -Couepia .................................................................................................................... 68 -Cow Tree .................................................................................................................. 70 -Cupuazu ................................................................................................................... 71 -Custard Apple ......................................................................................................... 73 -Durian ...................................................................................................................... 75 -Elephant Apple ....................................................................................................... 82 -Fijian Longan .......................................................................................................... 83 --Galo Nut ................................................................................................................... 85 --Gandaria .................................................................................................................. 86 --Genipap .................................................................................................................... 88 --Giant Granadilla ..................................................................................................... 89 --Governor's Plum ..................................................................................................... 91 --Grumichama ............................................................................................................ 93 --Guarana ................................................................................................................... 94 -Horse Mango ........................................................................................................... 96 -Ice Cream Bean ........................................................................................................ 97 -Jackfruit .................................................................................................................. 100 -Jamaica CherrY ...................................................................................................... 103 -Java Almond .......................................................................................................... 105 -Java Rose Apple .................................................................................................... 107
-Kitembilla ............................................................................................................... 109 -Kokam ..................................................................................................................... 111 -Kuwini .................................................................................................................... 112 -Langsat ................................................................................................................... 114 -Lovi-Lovi ................................................................................................................ 117 -Lucuma ................................................................................................................... 119 -Madrono ................................................................................................................. 120 -Malabar Chestnut ................................................................................................. 121 -Malay Rose Apple ................................................................................................ 123 -Mammee Apple ..................................................................................................... 125 -Mangosteen ............................................................................................................ 127 -Marang ................................................................................................................... 131 -Matisia .................................................................................................................... 133 -Miracle Fruit .......................................................................................................... 135 -Monkey Pot ............................................................................................................ 136 -Namnam ................................................................................................................. 137 -Nance ...................................................................................................................... 138 --Okari Nut ............................................................................................................... 140 --Orinoco Apple ....................................................................................................... 141 --Orinoco Nut ........................................................................................................... 142 --Otaheite Gooseberry ............................................................................................. 144 -Pandanus ............................................................................................................... 145 -Paniala .................................................................................................................... 148 -Paradise Nut .......................................................................................................... 149 -Passionfruit ............................................................................................................ 150 -Pataua Palm ........................................................................................................... 153 -Pejibaye ................................................................................................................... 155 -Pili Nut ................................................................................................................... 158 -Pitomba ................................................................................................................... 160 -Pitomberia .............................................................................................................. 161 -Pulasan ................................................................................................................... 162 -Pummelo ................................................................................................................. 164 -Rakum Palm .......................................................................................................... 166 -Rambutan ............................................................................................................... 168 -Rose Apple ............................................................................................................. 172 -Rukam .................................................................................................................... 174 -Rumberry ................................................................................................................ 176 -Salak Palm ............................................................................................................. 177 -Sansapote ............................................................................................................... 180
2.
-Santol ...................................................................................................................... 181 -Sapucaia Nut ......................................................................................................... 183 -Seagrape ................................................................................................................. 185 -Soncoya .................................................................................................................. 186 -Souari Nut .............................................................................................................. 187 -Sour Sop ................................................................................................................. 188 -Spanish Joint Fir ................................................................................................... 190 -Spanish Tamarind ................................................................................................ 192 -Star Apple .............................................................................................................. 193 -Sugar Palm ............................................................................................................. 196 -Sweet Calabash ..................................................................................................... 199 -Sweet Granadilla .................................................................................................. 199 -Tahiti Chestnut ..................................................................................................... 200 -Telfairia Nut .......................................................................................................... 202 -Tomatillo ................................................................................................................ 203 -Tonka Bean ............................................................................................................ 205 -Tree Bean ................................................................................................................ 206 - Tucuma ................................................................................................................... 208 -Uvilla ...................................................................................................................... 209 -Velvet Apple .......................................................................................................... 211 -Water Lemon ......................................................................................................... 213 -West Indian Locust ............................................................................................... 214 -Wild Cashew ......................................................................................................... 215 -Yellow Mombin ..................................................................................................... 216 UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION ...................................................................................... 229-292 -African Fan Palm .................................................................................................. 229 -African Locust Bean ............................................................................................. 230 -Amra ....................................................................................................................... 232 -Avocado ................................................................................................................. 234 -Barbados Cherry ......... ......................................................................................... 239 -Chironji ................................................................................................................... 242 -Downy Myrtle ........................................................................................................ 244 -Drumstick ............................................................................................................... 245 -Hissing Tree ........................................................................................................... 248 -nama ....................................................................................................................... 250 -Indian Almond ...................................................................................................... 252 -Kei Apple ............................................................................................................... 254 -Khirni ...................................................................................................................... 255
3.
4.
-Macauba ................................................................................................................. 257 -Marney Sapote ....................................................................................................... 258 -Manila Tamarind .................................................................................................. 261 -Masuku ................................................................................................................... 262 -Monkey Jack ........................................................................................................... 264 -Oyster Nut ............................................................................................................. 265 -Palmyra Palm ........................................................................................................ 267 -Pequi ....................................................................................................................... 269 -Red Mombin .......................................................................................................... 271 -Shea Butter Tree .................................................................................................... 273 -Spanish Lime ......................................................................................................... 275 -Strawberry Pear ..................................................................................................... 277 -Sugar Apple ........................................................................................................... 278 -Surinam Cherry .. ,.................................................................................................. 282 -Tamarind ................................................................................................................ 284 -Water Apple ........................................................................................................... 287 -West African Ebony .............................................................................................. 289 -Wild Custard Apple ............................................................................................. 290 UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION ...... 297-312 -African Dove Plum ............................................................................................... 297 -Argan Tree ............................................................................................................. 298 -Baobab .................................................................................................................... 300 -Black Plum ............................................................................................................. 302 -Doum Palm ............................................................................................................ 304 -Kaffir Orange ......................................................................................................... 305 -Marula Nut ............................................................................................................ 306 -Mogongo Nut ........................................................................................................ 309 -Yeheb Nut .............................................................................................................. 311 EPILOGUE ......................................................................................................... 313-315 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 316-328 INDEX ................................................................................................................. 329-342
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
LIST OF COLOUR PLATES
TROPICAL HUMID REGION Fruiting twigs of buriti palm (M :uritia vinifera) .................................................................... 219 Fruits of sweet calabash ........................................................................................................... 219 Fruits of okari nut ...................................................................................................................... 219 Fruiting in velvet apple ............................................................................................................. 219 Fruiting in ceriman .................................................................................................................... 219 Cut open fruits of salak palm in background ....................................................................... 219 Fruits of acai palm ..................................................................................................................... 219 Fruiting in African breadfruit .................................................................................................. 219 Fruit clusters of Spanish joint fir (Gnetum gnemon) ............................................................... 220 Fruits of star apple .................................................................................................................... 220 Pods of tree bean (Parkia speciosa) ............................................................................................ 220 Fruits of abiu .............................................................................................................................. 220 Fruits of tucuma (Astrocaryum standleyanum) ......................................................................... 220 Fruit clusters of sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) ........................................................................ 220 Fruiting in babassu (Orbignya phalerata) ................................................................................ 220 Nuts of Java almond (Canarium indicum) ............................................................................... 220 Fruiting branch of cupuazu ..................................................................................................... 221
Fruiting in elephant apple ........................................................................................................ 221 Fruits of genipap ........................................................................................................................ 221 Fruiting in giant granadilla ..................................................................................................... 221 Fruiting in Governor's plum .................................................................................................... 221 Fruiting in grumichama ............................................................................................................ 221 Fruits of guarana ....................................................................................................................... 221 Fruiting in Jamaica cherry ........................................................................................................ 221 Fruiting in lovi-Iovi .................................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of lucuma ......................................................................................................................... 222 Fruiting branch of madrono ..................................................................................................... 222 Fruiting in Malay rose apple ................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of matisia ......................................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of namnam ....................................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of orinoco apple .............................................................................................................. 222 Fruits of rakum palm ................................................................................................................. 222 A fruiting passionfruit vine ..................................................................................................... 223 Fruit clusters of peach palm ..................................................................................................... 223 Fruiting branch of pili nut ........................................................................................................ 223 Fruiting in pulasan .................................................................................................................... 223 Fruit clusters of pummelo ......................................................................................................... 223 Fruits of rambutan ..................................................................................................................... 223 African Plum tree (Dacroyodes edulis) ...................................................................................... 223 A fruit of soursop ....................................................................................................................... 223 Fruiting in breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum) ............................................................................ 224 Fruiting in bush mango ............................................................................................................ 224 Fruits of camu camu .................................................................................................................. 224 Fruits of canistel ........ ................................................................................................................. 224 Fruiting in carambola ................................................................................................................ 224 Fruit clusters in cashew .... ........................................................................................................ 224 Fruiting in custard apple .... ...................................................................................................... 224 Fruits of durian .......................................................................................................................... 224 Fruiting twig of African walnut (Coula edulis) ...................................................................... 225 Fruits of akee .............................................................................................................................. 225 Fruit bearing in ambarella ........................................................................................................ 225 Fruit clusters of Baccaurea courtallensis .................................................................................... 225 Fruiting in bignay (Antidesma bunius) ..................................................................................... 225 Fruiting in bilimbi ...................................................................................................................... 225 Fruiting in borojo ....................................................................................................................... 225
Brazil nut .................................................................................................................................... 225 Fruiting branch of Malabar tamarind ..................................................................................... 226 Fruits of mammee apple ........................................................................................................... 226 Fruiting in mangosteen ............................................................................................................. 226 Fruits of marang ......................................................................................................................... 226 Fruiting in jackfruit, cut open fruit (inset) ............................................................................. 226 Fruiting in nance ....................................................................................................................... 226 Fruiting in otaheite gooseberry ................................................................................................ 226 Fruits of paradise nut ................................................................................................................ 226 Fruits of bakuri ........................................................................................................................... 227 Fruiting in Barbados gooseberry ............................................................................................. 227 Fruiting branch of black sapote ............................................................................................... 227 Fruiting in breadfruit ................................................................................................................. 227 Fruiting in burahol .................................................................................................................... 227 Fruits of cassabanana ............................................................................................................... 227 Fruiting in coco plum ................................................................................................................ 227 Fruits of cola nut ........................................................................................................................ 227 Fruiting in Fijian longan and fruit (inset) .............................................................................. 228 Fruits of galo nut ....................................................................................................................... 228 Flowering and fruiting in Inga vera ......................................................................................... 228 Fruits of Mysore gamboge (Garcinia cambogia) ....................................................................... 228 Java apple fruits ......................................................................................................................... 228 Fruits of kokam .......................................................................................................................... 228 Fruits of langsat ......................................................................................................................... 228 Fruiting in Pandanus tectorius ................................................................................................... 228
TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION Fruiting in wild custard apple (Annona senegalensis) ........................................................... 293 Fruiting in Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora) ........................................................................ 293 Fruit clusters of Indian almond ............................................................................................... 293 Fruiting in Spanish lime ........................................................................................................... 293 African locust bean .................................................................................................................... 293 Fruiting in kei apple .................................................................................................................. 293 Fruiting in monkey jack ............................................................................................................ 293 Pequi fruits .................................................................................................................................. 293 Fruits of manila tamarind ........................................................................................................ 294 Fruiting branches of masuku (Uapaca kirkiana) ..................................................................... 294 Palmyra palm in fruiting .......................................................................................................... 294
Fruits of. shea nuts ..................................................................................................................... 294 Fruits of strawberry pear .......................................................................................................... 294 Fruiting in sugar apple ............................................................................................................. 294 Fruit clusters on tamarind tree ................................................................................................ 294 Fruit clusters of water apple .................................................................................................... 294 Fruits and leaf of amra .............................................................................................................. 295 Fruiting in avocado and cut fruits (inset) .............................................................................. 295 Fruiting in Barbados cherry ..................................................................................................... 295 Fruiting chironji tree and fruits (inset) ................................................................................... 295 Fruiting in drumstick ................................................................................................................ 295 Fruits of hissing tree (Parinari curatellifolia) ........................................................................... 295 Fruiting branch of khirni .......................................................................................................... 295 Fruiting in mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) ............................................................................ 295
TROPICAL ARID REGION Drum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) ................................................................................................ 296 Argan tree in fruiting ................................................................................................................ 296 Fruiting in baobab ..................................................................................................................... 296 Fruiting in black plum (Vitex doniana) .................................................................................... 296 Fruiting in kaffir orange (monkey ball) .................................................................................. 296 Fruiting in marula nut .............................................................................................................. 296 Fruiting branch of mogongo nut and nuts (inset) ................................................................ 296 Fruits of African dove plum ..................................................................................................... 296
Underutilized Fruits of Tropical Regions
2
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Table 1 : Underutilized fruits from tropical regions of the world having economic potential Humid region Abiu, Acai palm, African breadfruit, African plum tree, African walnut, Akee, Ambarella, Araca-boi, Babassu, Baccaurea, Bakuri, Bambangan, Barbados gooseberry, Bignay, Bilimbi, Binjai, Biriba, Black sapote, Borojo, Brazil nut, Breadfruit, Breadnut, Burahol, Buriii palm, Bush mango, Camu camu, Canistel, Carambola, Cashew, Cassabanana, Ceriman, Champedak, Coco plum, Cola nut, Couepia, Cowtree, Cupuazu, Custard apple, Durian, Elephant apple, Fijian longan, Galo nut, Gandaria, Genipap, Giant granadilla, Governor's plum, Grumichama, Guarana, Horse mango, Ice cream bean, Jackfruit, Jamaica cherry, Java almond, Java rose apple, Kitembilla, Kokam, Kuwini, Langsat, Lovi lovi, Lucuma, Madrono, Malabar chestnut, Malay rose apple, Mammee apple, Mangosteen, Marang, Matisia, Miracle fruit, Monkey pot, Namnam, Nance, Okari nut, Orinoco apple, Orinoco nut, Otaheite gooseberry, Pandanus, Paniala, Paradise nut, Passionfruit, Pataua palm, Pejibaye, Pili nut, Pitomba, Pitomberia, Pulasan, Pummelo, Rakum palm, Rambutan, Rose apple, Rukam, Rumberry, Salak palm, Sansapote, Santol, Sapucaia nut, Seagrape, Soncoya, Souari nut, Sour sop, Spanish joint fir, Spanish tamarind, Star apple, Sugar palm, Sweet calabash, Sweet granadilla, Tahiti chestnut, Telfairia nut, Tomatillo, Tonka bean, Tree bean, Tucuma Uvilla, Velvet apple, Water lemon, West Indian locust, Wild cashew, Yellow mombin.
Semi-arid region Arid region African fan palm, African dove plum,Argan African locust bean, tree, Baobab, Amra, Avocado, Black plum, Barbados cherry, Doumpalm, Chironji, Downy myrtle, Drumstick, Kaffir orange, Marulanut, Hissing tree, nama, Indian almond, Kei Mogongo nut, Yehebnut. apple, Khirni, Macauba, Mamey sapote, Manila tamarind, Masuku, Monkey jack, Oyster nut, Palmyra palm, Pequi, Red mombin, Shea butter tree, Spanish lime, Strawberry pear, Sugar apple, Surinam cherry, Tamarind, Water apple, West African ebony, Wild custard apple.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
1. ABIU Abiu or caimito (Pouteria caimito (Ruiz and Pav.) Radlk. syn. Achras caimito Ruiz. and Pav., Lucuma caimito Roem. & Schultes, Labaitia caimito Martius, Guapeba caimito Pierre) belongs to family Sapotaceae. It is native of Peru particularly the Amazon headwater area (Clement, 1989). The fruit was well known in the pre-Columbian civilizations of South and Central America. It is well distributed throughout the tropics, though not grown to any large extent commercially (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Its trees grow wild in the Amazon lowlands from Peru to the State of Para in Brazil. It grows wild on the lower eastern slopes of the Andes from southwestern Venezuela to Peru. A botanical variety P. caimito var. strigosa is reported from Venezuela. It is cultivated in Peru, Ecuador and Venezuela (Morton, 1987). It has also been introduced in Australia. The fruit holds good potential for commercial production in the hot tropics (Martin et al., 1987). Even before 1492, South American Indians cultivated it. It is now cultivated in Brazil and Peru and holds good potential in hot tropics. It grows better in warm humid areas free from frost. Abiu plants are drought resistant but even a short dry spell is not desirable. Mature trees can withstand as low temperature as -2°C with little damage. Best growth of the tree occurs within 120 of the equator and up to an elevation of 1000 m and in warmer areas within 250 of the equator (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The tree can be grown on a wide variety of soils provided drainage is good. Best growth occurs in fertile, well-drained soils. It can be planted on acid soils (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987) but cannot tolerate waterlogged areas and saline soils.
4
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Abiu is a dessert fruit. It is rich in carbohydrates and protein and provides 95 calories and contains 74.1 g moisture, 2.1 g protein, 1.1 g lipids, 3.0 g fibre, 96.0 mg calcium, 45.0 mg phosphorus, 1.8 mg iron, 0.2 mg vitamin BI , 0.2 mg vitamin B2, 3.4 mg niacin and 49.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of pulp (Morton, 1987). Fruit is also used to make ices and ice cream. Fruit pulp is eaten to relieve coughs, bronchitis and other pulmonary complaints. The wood is dense, heavy and hard and is used for construction particularly for making handles of tools.
Botany The tree is evergreen and grows 4.5-6 m tall with a pyramidal or round crown. Leaves are dark green, alternate, entire, obovate to lanceolate but variable in shape and 10-20 x 36 em in size. Flowers are borne solitary or in clusters of 2-5 in the leafaxils or above the leaf scars, practically sessile, hermaphrodite; sepals usually 4, ovate, small; corolla cylindrical, white or greenish white; stamens 4-5 on the throat of the corolla, staminodes 4-5; pistil is little longer than corolla with a small globose, 10-12 celled ovary. Fruit is bright yellow, globose to cylindrical berry, 4-5 cm in diameter, 5-10 cm long, tomentose when young; flesh whitish, translucent and jelly-like. The fruit skin is leathery, 3-5 mm thick and produces sticky latex. Seeds are 1-4, cylindrical-ovoid, slightly compressed on the sides (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). 1
E
..1' C f
Fig. 1 : Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk. 1. Leafy branch; 2. Fruit. (FAO, 1986)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
5
Varieties There is much variation in form, size and quality of the fruits in seedling trees. Two types have been identified in Colombia; one bears round and large fruits in 4 years, and the other starts bearing small fruits having little pulp one year after planting. Named varieties in Queensland, Australia, include Inca Gold and Cape Oasis, Gray, Z 1, Z 2, Z 3, Z 4, Z 25 and Z 31 (Parker, 1986). For genetic improvement, the selection criteria include early and regular bearing, round fruit of over 180 g size with few seeds and low skin latex and firm, sweet, translucent flesh having 13-18% total soluble solids and good shelf life (Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
Culture Abiu plants are usually grown from seeds. Seeds are recalcitrant and therefore short lived. The plants raised from seedlings take long time to bear and show great variation in fruit yield and quality. Vegetative propagation methods except by side veneer grafting (FAO, 1986) have given little success. The trees are spaced 8-10 m while planting. Closer inter-row spacing of 2-3 m has also been adopted. Young plants require some shade and regular irrigations until these are established. Moisture stress is harmful to fruiting trees. Flowers and small fruits abscise under moisture stress and fruit size gets reduced. Therefore, regular irrigations particularly during the dry season are necessary for higher yield of larger fruits. A mature abiu tree requires at least 1.5 kg N, 0.5 kg PPs and 0.5 kg ~O per year. Applications are made in at least two splits, one before the wet season and the other just after harvest (Lim and Ramsay, 1992). Mulching is commonly done around the base of the tree to check weed growth and conserve soil moisture. Pruning of mature trees is limited to removal of dead and thin branches and branchlets of the lower whorl that bend towards the ground. In the early years of growth, however, little trimming is required to stimulate lateral growth. The seedling trees flower 710 years after planting. The grafts flower in 3-4 years. Flowering occurs throughout the year. Insects carry out pollination. Fruit set is abundant during the warmer months. One hundred to 130 days are taken from flowering to maturity. Fruit development takes about three months (Schoefield, 1984). Since flowering often overlaps the preceding crop, there can be as many as three crops in a year. It is not uncommon to find fruits of various ages on the same tree and sometimes on the same branch. The skin of immature fruit is green, changing to light yellow on ripening. When immature, all parts of the fruit contain sticky white latex and the cut surface rapidly browns. As fruit matures, the latex disappears from the pulp and remains only in the peel. Full ripening occurs in 1-5 days, when the fruit pulp does not have sticky latex. On maturity, the white translucent flesh becomes jelly-like and sweet with a pleasant somewhat caramel flavour. One to five large oblong seeds are enclosed in a 5 mm thick leathery skin. The tough leathery skin can be easily bruised. It takes 100 to 130 days from flowering to fruit maturity. Fruits are harvested when bright yellow in colour. In northern Queensland, harvesting begins in December and continues until June, with the maximum pick between January and March. On full bearing, the tree produces from 250 to 700 fruits in a year. A mature tree yields 200 kg fruits annually. Abiu fruit normally weighs from 50 to 500 g. Larger fruits weighing up to 1000 g have been reported in a semi-domesticated race. The fruit can be stored for about one week at 12°C.
6
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Pests and diseases do not seriously limit productivity of abiu trees. However, some leaf eating larvae, trunk borer (Cratasomus sp.), twig borers, various scales, aphids and mealy bugs attack different parts of the tree. As they ripen, abiu fruits can become host for fruit flies (Anastrepha sp.). These being quarantine pests, limit the export potential of fruits (Morton, 1987; Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
2. ACAI PALM Acai palm or acai or assai or asai or pina palm (Euterpe oleracea C. Mart.) belongs to family Palmae and is native to Amazon region of Brazil. It is also known as cabbage palm or para palm, palmit, acai-do-para or manicola. It is found growing in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Brazil. It has been introduced into India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. The other related species Euterpe edulis C. Mart. is distributed along the southern seacoast of Brazil and E. precatoria Mart. occurs on Peruvian-Brazilian-Colombian borders (Martin et al., 1987; Tabora et al., 1993). The acai palm needs hot, wet tropical lowland conditions. It grows in the region receiving annual rainfall of 1400-2800 mm under temperature range of 20 to 23°C in seasonally flooded habitats and along the water margins. It can be grown on sandy soils and in marshy areas. The fruit is eaten fresh or as drink, wine, syrup and sauce. Its pulp has an unusual flavour similar to that of raspberries or blackberries and has a nutty taste. In Brazil, it is cooked with cassava meal. The fruit is also used in many baked products. The fruit pulp has high calorific value being rich in starch and sugar. It is also a good source of vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus and iron. Dense purple liquid of incomparable flavour is extracted from the seeds. It is used in drinks or to prepare ice cream, liquor and sweets. Acai palm is an excellent source for palm cabbage or heart and thus has great promise in the tropics (Anderson, 1988). The palm heart contains 2.42% protein, 0.89% crude fibre, 0.33% fat, 0.86% total sugars and 1.8 mg vitamin C per 100 g cabbage (Quast and Bernhardt, 1978). The leaves are used for weaving and thatching. The elegant acai palm is also a choice palm for gardens (Martin et al., 1987).
Botany Acai is a monoecious, clustered and unarmed feather palm. It grows up to a height of 25 m. The palm is easily recognized by its long (20-30 m), thin and elegant stem having a basal diameter of 15-20 em. The long pinnate leaves have pendulous segments. The leaves are 2-3 m long, inserted mainly on top of the palm. The inflorescence is a 50-80 cm long panicle bearing yellow, unisexual flowers. The fruit is a small, round, black violet drupe, 12-15 mm in diameter with single seed. The fruits are borne in large cluster (Anderson, 1988; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture Acai palm can be propagated either by seed or suckers. Seed takes six months to germitlate. Germination of seeds can be improved by soaking in water. Sowing is done either in plastic bags or in beds under shade to raise seedlings. The seedling is transplanted before or after one leaf has developed. The spacing of the plants in the field depends on the intended produce. For the production of fruits, a spacing of 5 x 5 m is recommended and for palm
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
7
cabbage, spacing at 2 x 2 m is considered enough. Young palms are provided temporary shading by intercropping (Tabora et al., 1993). Three years after planting, management of the clumps is done through removal of the tillers, leaving just three or four. Phosphorus and potassium fertilization improves palm growth by increasing leaf number, girth and height.
Fig. 2 : Euterpe precatoria Mart., Acai palm (Source: Fruit Trees of Amazon Region)
Seed propagated palms start flowering three years after planting whereas those propagated through suckers flower one year after planting. Three years after planting, elimination of extra suckers from the clumps is done to retain three or four. The palm flowers and develops fruits throughout the year. From a planting density of 400 per hectare, 10 to 12 tonnes fruit yield is estimated. The fruit turns black or purple on ripening. Harvesting season is usually from July to December. Palm heart yield of 1 kg per tree has been reported. The most serious insect pest is Rhyncophorus sp., which deposits its eggs on the young unopened leaves. The larvae eat the tender leaves and proceed toward the meristematic apex, killing the whole plant. A fungal disease, Colletotrichum sp., attacks acai seedlings causing as much as 70% losses in the nursery (Tabora et al., 1993).
3. AFRICAN BREADFRUIT African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne.) of family Moraceae is a native of tropical West Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as African boxwood, mozinde and okwa and is found growing in Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Cameroon, Sierra Leone and Ghana. It is found growing in evergreen and deciduous forests usually near the streams and swamps and requires hot tropical climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting but
8
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
can also grow in subtropical moist conditions. It can be grown in a variety of soils having pH 5 to 5.3 (Duke, 1989). Roasted or boiled seeds are peeled and eaten as a dessert nut or after frying in oil. The seeds are also ground into meal for flavouring sauces and alcoholic beverages. Flavour of seed is similar to peanuts. The seed also yields edible oil. African breadfruit flour is used to prepare a variety of sweetened baked foods such as cookies, buns, cakes, biscuits and snacks. Almond milk is a beverage made from its meal. Heartwood of the tree is golden yellow or yellow brown in colour and is very dense and heavy and is used for furniture, carving and twinery. African breadfruit is a folk remedy for cough, fever, leprosy, throat ailments and round worms and for tooth extraction. Bark decoction is used to treat constipation and cough. Root decoction is used as febrifuge and vermifuge. It is considered a tonic after illness (Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). It is reported to provide 415 calories and contain 13.9 g protein, 6.2 g fat, 77.5 g total carbohydrates, 1.8 g fibre, 2.4 gash, 140 mg calcium and 349 mg phosphorus per 100 g of seed on zero moisture basis (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is a medium to large dioecious tree of 27 m height and 3 cm girth. Leaves are alternate, simple, glabrous, elliptic to ovate-elliptic, 20-25 x 7.5-12 em in size. Male and female flowers are borne on separate inflorescences. Male flower heads are globular, 5 cm in diameter, brownish-yellow, very short pedunculate with 3 stamens. Fruit is spherical, 45 cm in diameter and 12-16 kg in weight, borne subsessile on the trunk and main limbs and is covered with coarse, spine-like tubercles. It becomes yellow brown and soft on ripening. Seeds are numerous, smooth, ellipsoid, 1.25 cm long and brown in colour (Duke, 1989).
Fig. 3 : Treculia africana Decne., African breadfruit (Duke, 1989)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
9
Varieties Lot of variability occurs with regard to growth and fruiting. Some types can tolerate drought, low pH and waterlogging conditions (Duke, 1989).
Culture It is generally propagated either by seed or budding or cuttings. The vegetatively propagated plants come into bearing at 2 to 4 years age whereas the seedlings bear after 10 or more years. The former also produce fruits at lower plant height. Flowering occurs in January-February and the fruits mature during February-March (Duke, 1989). A mature tree produces up to 30 fruits annually. After processing, each fruit yields 5-10 kg seed (Nwokolo, 1996).
4. AFRICAN PLUM TREE African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H. J. Lam. syn. Pachylobus edulis G. Don.), also known as African pear, bush butter and safoutier belonging to family Burseraceae, is a native of tropical West Africa and is distributed in tropical Africa and Malaysia (Martin et al., 1987). The other related edible species are D. buettneri, D. igaganga, D. klaineana and D. macrophylla. African plum tree features in the evergreen forests extending from southern Nigeria to Zaire and in the m'..lltistoried compound farms of southeastern Nigeria (Burkill, 1985). It is found growing wild in southern Nigeria, Congo and Cameroon and is cultivated in Cameroon, Zaire, Gabon to Uganda and central Angola. It is an extremely plastic plant tolerating a wide range of day lengths, temperatures and edaphic conditions. It grows well both at high and low altitudes in relatively dry tropical Savanna. It prefers humid and sub-humid climatic conditions. It can also grow at an altitude of 1000 m. Mature and young trees are susceptible to frost. African plum tree favours acid soils with plenty of organic matter. It holds lot of potential for agroforestry uses in the tropics. It can be planted to serve as a live fence, as shade tree in tree crop plots and on contour bunds or for hedgerow planting (FAO, 1982; Ayuket al., 1999a; Martin et al., 1987; Aiyelaagbe et al., 1998; Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989; Kengue, 2002). The fruit pulp is eaten fresh, fried, roasted or boiled as dessert with curries. The pulp has pleasant subacid flavour and is rich in starch and protein. Oil is extracted from the seeds that contain palmitic acid (36.5%), stearic acid (55.5%), oleic acid (33.9%) and linoleic acid (24.0%). The oil is suitable as cooking oil for margarine and also for the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The juice of the leaves is used for the treatment of otitis. The decoction of the leaves is used to treat fever, stiffness and headache. The bark contains resin containing sabinene, limonene and canaric acid (Ekong and Okogun, 1969). A decoction of the bark is used in various oral complaints. Wood is used for the preparation of tool handles, poles, etc. (FAO, 1982; Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989). Botany It is an evergreen tree and grows up to 8-12 m in height with a straight and cylindrical trunk. The leaves are compound imparipinnate with 4-12 pairs of leaflets. The tree is dioecious. Male and hermaphrodite flowers are borne on axillary or terminal 8-25 cm
10
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
long inflorescences. Female inflorescence is 5-15 cm long. Female inflorescences produce more fruits than the hermaphrodite ones. The ovary is bilocular each with two ovules. After fertilization they fail to develop normally and only one seed develops. Fruit is an ellipsoid to globular or conical drupe, 4-12 cm long and 3-6 cm in diameter. The drupes are rose coloured when young turning deep blue at maturity. The pericarp consists of a very thin, waxy and coloured epicarp and pulpy edible mesocarp. The light rose, green or whitish mesocarp is 0.5 cm thick and has varied flavour. The endocarp is thin, smooth and plated extremely with a barely visible escutcheon. The seed is light green and consists of two fleshy and five lobed cotyledons (FAO, 1982; Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989).
Fig. 4 : Dacryodes edulis. Safou. female inflorescence; B. Male inflorescence; C. External morphology of flower; D. Longitudinal section of female flower; E. Longitudinal section of male flower; F. Transeverse section of ovary; G. External morphology of fruit; H. Longitudinal sectioin of fruit. (Kengue, 2002).
Varieties Two varieties of D. edulis have been described. D. edulis var. edulis has large, usually more than 5 em long and 2.5 cm wide fruits. D. edulis var. paroicarpa bears fruits usually smaller than 5 x 2.5 cm. In both the varieties, diversity with regard to fruit shape exists (Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
11
Culture African plum tree is generally propagated from the seeds or by air layering or stem cuttings. Standard cultural practices for the African plum tree should be developed. It is planted in the field at a spacing of 10 x 10 m. Trees raised through seeds come into bearing 5-6 years after planting. The vegetatively propagated plants start bearing earlier. Flowering occurs during early January and lasts for about a month. In some early or late varieties, the flowering continues for three months. The flowers are not showy but their strong perfume attracts insects. Bee (Apis mellifera) is the main pollinating insect. Fruiting occurs in MayJune depending upon the time of flowering. The fruit yield ranges from 8 to 110 kg tree-! depending on age of the tree. Fruits are very perishable and start rotting in a few days. The fruits are packed in bags or baskets for farm gate sale.
5. AFRICAN WALNUT African walnut (Coula edulis Baill. syn. C. catrea Wildem and Th. Our.) belongs to the family Olacaceae and is native of western tropical Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as gabon nut or almond wood. It is found growing wild from Sierra Leone to Gabon and Zaire, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria and Cameroon. It is a dominant species of evergreen wet forest and as the understorey of semi-deciduous forest on non-flooded lands. It is a gregarious species of hot tropical humid lowlands but has no special soil requirement. At present, it is a locally important species (Martin et al., 1987). Its seeds are eaten fresh, boiled or roasted and are source of edible oil. African walnut kernel is very rich in oil. Almost 87 per cent of the fat is oleic acid. Per 100 g of seeds contain 7.9 g protein, 25.7 g fat, 64.3 g total carbohydrates, 180 mg calcium and 269 mg phosphorus on zero moisture basis and provides 505 calories. The bark decoction is used to treat dysentery in Liberia. African walnut wood is extremely hard, heavy, close grained and resists water well. It is also resistant to insect attack particularly termites. It is used for making poles for bridges and charcoal (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995).
Botany It is a medium or large tree, 20-25 m in height having a large, dense crown casting a deep shade. The bark is thick, rather smooth lenticellate, greenish-brown, slightly fissured, white and resinous in young trees. Leaf is alternate, simple, exstipulate, oblong or elliptic, coriaceous, 10-30 x 4-9 cm in size. The secondary nerves are depressed on the upper surface and prominent on the lower surface. The young shoots and leaves are covered with rust coloured stellate hair. Flowers are small, tetramerous or pentamerous, with rather thick glabrous, greenish-yellow petals. The fruit is an ellipsoidal drupe, 3-4 cm long with an extremely hard kernel. The flesh surrounding the kernel is green or reddish, 5-6 mm thick and smooth. The oily kernel has a taste comparable to that of a chestnut or hazelnut (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989).
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Owing to the hard integument, seed germination is poor and may take up to one year. African walnut plants are planted at 10 x 12 m spacing. Shading is useful when the plants are young. Cultural requirements for systematic cultivation of African walnut should be standardized. In Nigeria, flowering in
12
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
the trees occurs during January to May and the fruits mature in August. On ripening, the fruit skin turns brownish. No insects or diseases are known to infest the African walnut (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989).
a) branch with leaves
Fig. 5 : Coula edulis BailI. ( FAO, 1982)
6. AKEE Akee (Blighia sapida Koenig) belongs to family Sapindaceae and is native of West Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as seso vegetal. It was introduced into the West Indies during the eighteenth century. It is also planted in West Indies, Ghana and Bahamas (Morton, 1987). There is little potential for its commercial production mainly because of the toxicity in fruit aril (Martin et al., 1987). Akee tree performs the best in hot, tropical and subtropical lowlands where rainfall is well distributed or where seasonal dry periods occur. It flourishes from sea level up to an elevation of 900 m. It can tolerate light frosts (Morton, 1987, Martin et al., 1987). Young trees are more susceptible to winter cold compared to mature trees. It is well adapted to a variety of soils including infertile rocky soils. The aril of the fruit is eaten fresh as well as after cooking. It is generally eaten boiled or fried. The pink tissue, the raphe, attaching the aril to the seed is highly poisonous. Both unripe and overripe arils contain the poisonous peptide, hypoglycin A, which causes vomiting and sometimes even death. Therefore, only naturally open fruits should be eaten.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
13
It is also grown as an ornamental plant owing to the attractive, coarse, compound and dark
green leaves and red fruits (Morton, 1987; Wickens, 1995). Akee fruit contains 57.60 g moisture, 8.75 g protein, 18.78 g fat, 3.45 g fibre, 9.55 g carbohydrates, 83 mg calcium, 98 mg phosphorus, 5.52 mg iron, 0.10 mg thiamine, 0.18 mg riboflavin, 3.74 mg niacin and 65 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of raw arils (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a small evergreen tree growing up to 15 m in height and has 30 cm trunk diameter. The bark is grey, smooth to slightly rough. The inner of the bark is pinkish, gritty and slightly bitter. Twigs are light grey, stout, finely hairy with long, narrow ridges. The leaves are alternate and 15-20 cm long. Leaflets are in 3-5 pairs, with short stalks. The blades are elliptic, mostly 7.5-20 cm long and 5-10 cm wide. The upper surface is shiny, yellowgreen and hairless with many sunken, parallel side veins. The lower surface is dull light green with raised, hairy side veins. The flowers are small, greenish white and fragrant, borne on unbranched raceme of 7.5-18 cm length. Flowers are of two kinds, bisexual and male. The flower has calyx consisting of 5 pointed, brownish-tinged sepals, 5 white petals, 8 stamens and pistil with 3-angled, 3-celled, and 3-ovuled brownish ovary. The fruit is attractive, yellow to red, thick walled, three-valved, pyriform capsule, 7-8 cm long and 4-5 cm in diameter, borne in clusters of 3-10. The three globose, shiny black seeds are covered with firm, white, nut-flavoured pulp (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 6 : Blighia sapida Koenig, A. Flowering shoot; B. Longitudinal section of flower; C. Fruit; D. Dehiscing fruit; E. Seed and aril (Purseglove, 1974)
14
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is generally propagated by seed or by shield budding. Cultural requirements for akee need to be developed. The tree starts producing fruits 3-4 years after planting. Flowering occurs in April-May and the fruit matures in about 90 days. On ripening, the shell folds back exposing the white, nutty-flavoured aril with a shiny black seed partially embedded at the end of each section. The pulp (aril) should be eaten immediately. After ripening, the oily arils soon become rancid and become unfit to eat. Only well developed arils from newly opened fruits are not poisonous. The arils of poorly developed fruits and seeds should not be eaten and the water used in parboiling the fruits should be discarded (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
7. AMBARELLA Ambarella (Spondias duicis Soland ex Parkinson syn. S. cytherea Sonn.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is also known as great hog plum, jew plum, Tahitian apple, polynesian plum, hevi, vi apple, golden apple and otahetite apple. The other cultivated species are S. purpurea L., the red mombin or Spanish plum, grown for its brilliant red coloured fruits rich in vitamin A and C, and S. mom bin L. syn. S. Iutea L. (golden mombin, yellow mombin, hog plum), S. tuberosa Arruda (imbu) and S. venulosa Mart. Ambarella is native of South East Asia and South Pacific region. However, other species like S. purpurea L., S. mombin L., S. tuberosa Arruda, and S. venulosa Mart. are native to the New World. It is cultivated on small scale in Myanmar, Cuba, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and USA (Puerto Rico) principally for its edible fruits (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Ambarella tree requires tropical climatic conditions. It grows between 23°N and 23°S at low and medium altitudes. It has also shown adaptability to subtropical climatic conditions. In the tropics, it is common up to 700 m altitude. The trees require considerable sunlight. Shaded trees produce little or no fruits. Sheltered locations are suitable for ambarella as its brittle branches break easily. The trees are drought tolerant. The trees can grow well on rocky limestone soils or sands, but perform the best in deep rich soils. Ambarella has good potential for cultivation in the tropics (Martin et al., 1987). The fruits are eaten raw. Flavour of the fruit is like that of mango or pineapple. The fruit is rich in ascorbic acid (42 mg/100 g pulp) and iron. Boiled and dried fruit can be kept for several months. The fruit is also used to prepare juices, sherbets, beverages, jam, sauce, jelly, pickles, soups, stews and preserves. The green fruit is much used in green salads (rujak) and curries and to make pickles (sambaI). Young leaves are stewed and eaten as a vegetable. These are sometimes cooked with meat to tenderize it. The wood is light brown and buoyant and has been used for canoes in the Society Islands (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Ambarella is a valuable home garden tree (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Ambarella fruit provides 157.30 calories and contains 59.6-85.5% moisture, 0.500.80% proteins, 0.28-1.79% fat and 0.85-0.36% crude fibre per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany Its trees grow rapidly attaining a height of 10-25 m with a straight, grey and smooth trunk. The trees are deciduous. The leaves are alternate, crowded at the ends of the branchlets,
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMlO REGIONS
15
pinnate, 30-60 cm in length, usually with 4-12 pairs of lateral elliptic leaflets, 4-14 x 2.5-5 cm in size and a terminalleaflet. At the beginning of dry and cool season, the leaves tum bright yellow and fall, but the tree with its nearly smooth, light grey brown bark and graceful rounded branches remains attractive. In the spring, small inconspicuous, whitish, pentamerous flowers appear on large (up to 50 em long), widely branched terminal panicles. Flowers are either male or female or hermaphrodite in a cluster. Calyx is small, 2.5 cm in diameter; petals 5, reflexed yellowish-white; stamens 10, shorter than the petals; ovary sessile, and 5-celled. Fruits are ellipsoid and glabrous drupes, yellow or orange when ripe, 5-10 x 4-8 cm in size with thick, fleshy and white pulp. Stones are comparatively thin, consisting of one layer, with prominent ridges from which long tough fibres radiate in all directions and are 5-celled. Woody core contains 1-5 flat seeds (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties There are no named cultivars although relatively improved forms with thick mesocarp and sweet, refreshing acid taste are available. Inferior forms have long spines, woody endocarp and resinous or pungent pulp. Collections of ambarella genotypes are being maintained at Direction De Investigaciones de Citros y Otros Frutales, La Haban, Cuba (5 accessions) and Centro de Invest. Agricolas Del Pacifico-Norte-INIA, Sin, Mexico (4 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). There is need to develop types for commercial cultivation.
Fig. 7 : Spondias cytherea Sonnerat, Ambarella, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Fruiting branch; 3. Fruit in cross-section (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
16
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture The ambarella can be easily propagated from the seeds. The seeds germinate in about four weeks. Propagation by vegetative methods such as hardwood cuttings, air layering and budding is also successful. Grafting is usually done on Spondias pinnata Kurz. syn. S. mangifera Willd. (amra), a species which bears a much poorer fruit. A non-petioled, slender, mature but green and smooth budwood is used. The plants are spaced 7.5 to 12 m apart in the field. Young trees require light shade for good growth but require enough sunlight for good fruit development. Mature trees are somewhat brittle and are damaged by strong winds. Therefore, sheltered locations are preferred for its plantation. Insects carry out pollination. The trees raised by planting seedlings start producing fruits after four years while those raised from cuttings bear after 2-3 years. The trees bear prolifically, either continuously or seasonally depending on rainfall distribution. Flowering occurs in spring (March-April) and the fruits mature in 200 or more days in late summer or during early fall. On ripening, the skin and flesh of the fruit turns golden yellow. The fruits should be used while still firm and the flesh is crisp, juicy and sub-acid with somewhat pineapple like fragrance and flavour. If allowed to soften, the aroma and flavour become musky and the flesh is difficult to slice due to tough fibres. On an average, 800-900 fruits are produced on a tree. Scab, sooty mould (Tripospermum spp.) and gummosis diseases are reported to attack ambarella trees but do not cause serious damage. The beetles, Pondontia 14-punctata, and P. affinis cause considerable damage to the leaves in Malaysia and Indonesia. In Jamaica, the West Indian fruitfly (Anastrepha mombinpreoptans) attacks the fruits, but the damage is not of economic consequence (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
8. ARACA-BOI Araca-boi or pichi or araza or araza-buey (Eugenia stipitata McVaugh) belongs to the family Myrtaceae and is native of western Amazonia. It is found growing wild in Peruvian Amazon, Ecuador, Bolivia and Colombia (FAO, 1986). It is cultivated in western Amazonia especially around Iquitos, Peru (Leaky and Newton, 1994a). Araca-boi grows naturally in areas with 2800 mm rainfall and mean annual temperature of 26°C up to an elevation of 650 m. It can withstand drought to some extent (FAO, 1986). It prefers well-drained, rich, loam soils but can be grown on poorer, dry oxisols provided they are well-drained. The fruit pulp is used to prepare jelly, juice, ice cream, sweetmeats and jam. The fruit is slightly to extremely acidic and has agreeable refreshing flavour. Owing to high acidity the fruit cannot be eaten without processing. The strong fragrance of the ripe fruit is exquisite but is lost in thermal processed products. Araca-boi has potential for domestication (Clement and Villachica, 1994). Araca-boi fruit contains 90-94.3 g water, 8-10.75 g protein, 3.2 g fat, 70-89 g carbohydrates, 5-6.5 g fibre, 0.16-0.21 mg calcium, 12917 IU vitamin A, 9.84 mg thiamin and 7.68-74 mg vitamin C in 100 g pulp (FAO, 1986; Clement and Silva, 1994).
17
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Botany Araca-boi is a shrub of 3-5 m height. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptical-oval in shape, 8-20 x 3-10 em in size. Inflorescence is racemose, 4-10 mm in width bearing 3-8 flowers. The flower has 4 white petals, 75-150 stamens and one pistil. The ovary is multilocular. The fruit is globose-depressed. The fruit is 50-100 g in weight, 5-10 cm longitudinal diameter, yellowish in colour with velvety rind on ripening. The pulp is aromatic, light yellowish in colour, succulent, and slightly fibrous. Each fruit contains around 6 to 12 seeds, which are oblong in shape and 2.5 cm in length.
'>lJt.----~
~1~lI'3
Fig. 8 : Eugenia stipitata McVaugh. 1. Leafy branch; 2. Fruit; 3. Flower; 4. Seed. (FAD, 1986)
Varieties There are two sub-species of Eugenia stipitata: i) E. stipitata subsp. stipitata McVaugh is called pichi in Peru and araca-boi in Brazil. Its tree grows up to 12-15 m tall with short-petioled, opposite, broadelliptic leaves, acuminate at the apex, rounded at the base, 7.5 - 18 x 3.4 - 8.25 cm in size with entire margin and 6-10 pairs of impressed lateral veins on the upper surface, densely hairy on the underside and faintly dotted with oil glands on both sides. Inflorescence is racemose, axillary with 4-10 mm long axis bearing 2-5 pairs of flowers, which are white, hairy, 2 cm wide with numerous prominent stamens. Terminal flower is absent. Pedicels are 1-2 mm long, calyx lobes are rounded, broader than long, overlapping in the bud. Five petals are white, obovate, 7-10 x 4 mm in size. Ovary is 4-locular, each locule having 5-8 ovules. Style is 5-8 mm long. Fruit is an oblate or spherical berry like a small guava. It is very aromatic. In wild trees, the fruit is 1.5 cm wide and less than 56 g in weight. In cultivated types, the fruit is 12 cm wide weighing 420 to 800 g with thin and delicate skin, soft, juicy and very acid pulp, containing 8 to 10 irregular oblong or kidney shaped seeds which are 12.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The fruit is light green at first but turns pale or orange yellow on ripening, with a thin velvety skin enclosing a juicy and thick pulp which accounts for as much as 60 per cent of the fresh fruit (FAO, 1986).
18
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
ii)
E. stipitata subsp. sororia is called rupina caspi in Peru. It is a shrub or a small tree of 3 m height with elliptic leaves, 9-12.5 x 2.5-4.5 em in size, with barely visible veins; minutely hairy or hairless beneath when fully mature having a few dark dots. The flowers are 1.25 cm wide with 75 stamens (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). Germplasm of araca-boi has been maintained at Iquitos, Peru (20 accessions) and Manaus, Brazil (5 accessions) ( Leaky and Newton, 1994a).
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds. Seed germination may take 2-4 months to start and 6-8 months to complete. The seeds may germinate in few weeks if stored in moist charcoal powder. Planting in the field is done at a spacing of 3 x 3 m or 4 x 4 m. The seedlings grow slowly at first even on a good substrate. In about 12 months time the seedlings attain a height of 25-45 cm and can be transplanted. Cultural requirements for araca-boi should be standardized. It seems to have high potassium requirement as in case of guava. The trees begin to bear fruit in about 18 months. The fruiting season is from January to May in Brazil. Plants flower and bear fruits throughout the year on well-fertilized soils. There may be 4 crops a year in Peru and Ecuador. Fruits may be collected when they start to turn yellow. They continue to ripen after harvest. Harvesting should be done at least once a week, as the maturity is very rapid. The fruit skin is very thin and the pulp is delicate. Therefore, careful postharvest handling is very important. The araca-boi fruit has delightful flavour. When planted at 3 x 3 m spacing, fruit yield of 3 to 5 tonnes per hectare can be obtained at first harvest on adequate fertilization and irrigation. Yields of 28 tonnes per ha have been obtained in Peru. The fruit has economic potential. A leaf spot disease has been obserfed. The fruit is prone to the attack by fruitflies (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). Technologies to retain the aroma and taste in its processed ·products should be developed (FAO, 1986).
9. BABASSU Babassu (Attalea speciosa C. Mart. ex. Spreng. syn. Orbignya phalerata Mart., O. martiana Barb.-Rodr., O. speciosa (Mart.) Barb.-Rodr.) belongs to family Palmae and is native of southern and eastern fringe of Brazilian Amazonia. It is also known as babacu palm or aguassu. It is distributed throughout South America. It grows wild in more than 150,000 km2 area from the Atlantic Ocean to Bolivia especially in Maranhao, Bahia and northern Minas GeraIs and Mato Grosso. The related edible species are A. cohune C. Mart. (cohune palm), A. colenda (0. F. Cook) Balslev and Ardr. Hend. The palm requires hot tropical monsoon climatic conditions for good growth and productivity. It tolerates a wide range of edaphic conditions and grows in both primary and secondary forest sites subject to intensive disturbances. It is especially common on the abandoned agricultural lands. It grows the best in alkaline or neutral soils under average rainfall and good drainage conditions (FAO, 1986; Duke, 1989; Clay and Clement, 1993; Wickens, 1995). The babassu tree has multipurpose uses. The babassu fruit provides a variety of important subsistence and commercial products. Its pulpy mesocarp is edible and provides a starchy meal. Flour, animal feed, medicines and beverages are prepared from the mesocarp. The kernels provide oil and protein-rich meal. Babassu kernels taste, smell and look like
19
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
coconut meat, but contain more oil (60-70%), which is rich in lauric acid. The oil is useful for cooking, soap making and burning. Unlike many palm oils, the babassu oil does not quickly turn rancid. The endocarp is used to prepare high calorie, low polluting charcoal. The leaves are used for fibre, fuel and as construction material. The leaves also have medicinal value. The stems are used for construction and as food (palmito), salt, animal feed and mulch material. The palm has good potential for use in agroforestry (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Johnson, 1997). The current collection and use of kernels from its wild trees is a very important source of both income and food for about 9 million people. Therefore, babassu has potential to be developed as a fruit crop. The babassu kemal contains 4.21 % moisture, 66.12% oil, 7.17% protein, 14.47% digestible carbohydrates, 5.99% woody fibre and 2.03% ash (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is an erect, smooth, pleonanthic, single-stemmed feather palm growing up to 20 m in height. Leaves are elegant, large and pinnate with long, rigid, oblique-acuminate, 1025 leaflets disposed in a vertical plane. The palm is monoecious. The spadix has large racemose and pendent branches, which are rigid, bracted and dense. Female spadix has many sessile flowers on branches with abortive male flowers at the apices. Male spadix has flowers with small calYx, two or rarely three overlapped petals, 24 stamens, aggregate in groups of eight. Female flowers are much larger, ovoid-oblong with broadly oblong sepals, slightly smaller, oblong petals with irregularly serrated margins and 3 to 6 stigmas. Fruit is an oblong, conical, pointed drupe with persistent calyx. Epicarp is fibrous, 1-4 mm thick, mesocarp is mealy, dry, 2-12 mm thick and the endocarp is woody, 100-200 g in weight enveloped almost half way and has 3 to 6 seeds. Seeds are ellipsoid in shape, flattened and 2-6 x 1-2 em in size (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Wickens, 1995).
•.
.}.
-.- j. .
'>I'!,
Fig. 9 : Orbygnya martiana Barb. Rodr., Babassu (Duke, 1989)
20
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties There is plenty of scope to develop cultivable types using the rich variability occurring in Brazil. Search for genotypes having precocity and high kernel content besides the ability to grow on poor soils and degraded pastures in areas considered too dry for african palm, peach palm, tucumas is required for future development (FAa, 1986).
Culture Babassu plants are usually multiplied from the seeds. The seed may remain dormant within the nut for years provided coleopteran larvae do not attack them. Fire or heat may be necessary to break the dormancy. Separated kernels may germinate within a few months. The seed germinates and immediately pushes the apical meristem underground, which stays below ground as the palm develops. Babassu palm has long juvenile phase and starts yielding after 8 years and continues to bear for 75 years or longer. The palm produces flowers round the year that do not always set fruits. In Brazil, the fruit ripens from July to November and falls to the ground. After collection, the fruit is usually dried in sun to facilitate removal of the kernel from the shell by an axe and mallet. About 8 kg kernels can be shelled per day. The kernels prOvide 80 per cent oil and thus yield of 40 kg oil per tree can be obtained. The yield of nuts is 1500-2500 kg per hectare. Density of about 100 palms per hectare produces the maximum yield of fruit. The old groves are thinned to retain this density. No serious pests or diseases are known to attack the babassu. A beetle (Pachymerus nucleorum) destroys the fallen fruits (FAa, 1986; Wickens, 1995).
10. BACCAUREA Out of a large number of Baccaurea species belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, only five are primarily grown for fruit. These are Baccaurea dulcis (Jack.) Muell. Arg. (ketupa), B. motleyana Muell.Arg. (rambai), B. racemosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Muell. Arg. syn. B. wallichii Hook. f. (kapundung), B. ramiflora Lour. syn. B. sapida (Roxb.) Muell. Arg. (Burmese grape, mafai), and B. griffithii Hook. f. syn. B. macrocarpa Muell. Arg. (larah, taban, rambai utan). These species occur in the region extending from India to the Pacific with the centre of diversity in western Malaysia and are cultivated in southern Sumatra and in parts of western Java. B. dulcis and B. motleyana are native to South East Asia and are widely cultivated throughout the peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali, Thailand and Philippines. B. racemosa is native of Malaysia and is cultivated in Java, Sumatra, Bali and peninsular Malaysia. B. ramiflora is native of South East Asia region and is cultivated in India, Thailand, Mynamar and Malaysia and B. griffithii is native to Malayan Peninsula (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It has good potential as a food crop if improved varieties are developed (Martin et al., 1987). The Baccaurea species thrive well in humid tropical lowlands, preferably below 500 m altitude. The trees are found in wide range of soils from dry sandstone to peat swamps. The rambai is common in alluvial soils along the rivers (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is eaten fresh and is also cooked, pickled, preserved and used in stews, jam and wine. Most of the species produce excellent timber. These are also good as ornamental and shade trees. The bark of several species is used to dye silk and also in medicines to relieve eye inflammation (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruits of B. racemosa contain 82.3 g water, 0.4 g protein, 0.2 g fibre and 5 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
21
Botany B. dulcis trees grow 5-15 m tall with bole diameter up to 50 an. The leaves are obovate to elliptic, 14-18 x 8-13 an in size, coariaceous, glossy, glabrous having 1-5 em long petioles and ovate stipules. The trees are dioecious. Inflorescences are ramiflorous. Male racemes are 6-11 an long with yellowish fragrant flowers, 4 sepals, 6 stamens. Female racemes are 5-14 em long, with flowers having 4-5 sepals, 3 locular ovary and 3 stigmas. The fruits are 3.5-4 an in diameter and occur in clusters.
Fig. 10 : Baccaurea dulcis Oack) Muell.-Arg. (IBPGR, 1980)
B. motleyana trees are slow growing, 15-25 m tall with 40 an bole diameter and low and round crown. Leaves are evergreen, obovate lanceolate to elliptic, 20-35 x 8-17 cm in size with 3-10 an long petioles. The trees are dioecious.lnflorescences are ramiflorous. Male racemes are 13-20 an long with yellow flowers in fasicles of 2-5, having 4-5 sepals and 48 stamens. Female racemes are 25-60 an long with flowers often in clusters having 4-6 sepals. The fruits are 2-4 cm in diameter, thinly puberulous and buff-coloured. The pulp is translucent, white and sweet to acidic, has in 3 to 5 segments, which separate readily. Each segment contains a brown, flat seed, about 1.25 an long and adherent to the pulp (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 11 : Baccaurea motleyana Muell.-Arg. (IBPGR, 1980)
22
UNDERUTILIZEO FRUlTS J\ND NUTS
B. racemosa trees are 15-25 m tall with 25-70 em bole diam@tel' and dtmse iUld irregular crown. Leaves are ovate-oblong to obvate, 7-18 x 3e7 em in ~iz~, glanduhu' having 0.5-4.5 em long petioles. Inflorescences are borne on old branches or even on the trunk. McUe racemes are 5-13 em long composed of numerous 3-flowered, densely hairy cyme(il. Flowers are very small having 4-5 sepals and 4-8 stamens. Female racmes are 1()"20 em long having solitary or fascicled, rather large flowers with 5 sepals and 3-41oeular oV!U'Y. The yellilwl$h green or reddish fruits are 2-2.4 em in diameter. B. ramiflora trees are up to 25 m tall. Leaves are ovate to ovate~laneealate in shiipe and 10-20 x 4-9 em in size. Inflorescences are borne on branches and on the trunk, which are tomentose. Male racemes are 3-8 em long bearing flowers in fascicles on very short rachis. The flower has 4-5 sepals and 4-8 stamens. Female racemes are 14 em long home lower on the trunk with solitary flowers having 4-5 sepals, 3-locular ovary and 2 lobed stigmas. The fruit is 2.5-3 em in diameter, glabrous, yellowish or pinkish to bright red. B. griffithii trees are medium in height (10-15 m). The trees are dioeclous. Flowers are similar to those of other species and are borne on the trunk. The fruit is spherical, 2.56 em in diameter having brownish external and white internal colour and borne in clusters of 3-5 (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 12 : Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw. ex Bl.) Muell.-Arg. (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties In B. racemosa (kapundung), two forms are distinguished, one with white fruit flesh (menteng) and other with red flesh (bencoy). Both sweet and sour types are found. Lot of variability occurs in B. ramiflora (Burmese grape) with regard to fruit colour (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). In view of the serious genetic erosion particularly of rambai and kapundung, Baccaurea germplasm collection is being made in South East Asia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collections have been made at National BiolOgical Institute, Bogor, Indonesia and Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, Florida, USA (Bettencourt et al., 1992.)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
23
Culture Baccaurea is usually propagated from the seeds. Air layering and budding are also successful. Budding is done on rambai rootstocks. Cultural requirements for Baccaurea have to b~ standardized. The trees are planted at 7-9 m spacing. In Malaysia, flowering occurs in January-February and the fruits mature during July-August. In Java, fruits are harvested during January-March. On ripening, the fruit skin turns brownish yellow but the internal colour remains white (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
11. BAKURI Bakuri or bacuri (Platonia insignis Mart. syn. Platonia esculenta (Arruda) Rickett and Stafleu) belongs to the family Guttiferae. It is also known as bacuri do parana, pacuri, parcouri and bacupari. It is a native of Brazil and Paraguay where it is found wild in the Amazon region of northern Brazil from Maranhao, Goias to Paraguay. It is also cultivated (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). It is one of the most popular fruits of Paraguay and Brazil but is little known elsewhere (Leaky and Newton, 1994b). The bakuri is one of the most popular fruits of the Belem region and has good potential for spread elsewhere in the tropics (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987), Bacuri requires hot and humid climate and grows best in the lowlands. The regions where it is found growing wild have temperatures between 25 to 28°C and rainfall between 1500 to 2500 rom with a pronounced dry season of 3 to 6 months. The bakuri does well on sandy and dry soils. The trees can tolerate poor soil and drainage conditions (FAO, 1986; Martin, et al., 1987). The fruit pulp is eaten raw or made into sherbet, ice cream, juice, puddings, marmalade or jelly. The wood is valued for construction, furniture, flooring, shipbuilding and general ca..pentry. The seeds contain 6-11 % oil that is mixed with sweet almond oil and used to treat eczema and herpes (Morton, 1987). Bakuri fruit contains 72.3 g moisture, 1.9 g protein, 2 g lipids, 7.4 g fibre, 20 mg calcium, 36 mg phosphorus, 2.2 mg iron, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.5 mg niacin, and 33 mg ascorbic acid and provides 105 calories per 100 g of pulp.
Botany The tree is tall, erect and grows up to 25 m in height with pyramidal crown and has copious latex in the bark. The leaves are opposite, oblong or elliptic, 15 em long, dark green and glossy above and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are solitary, 7 em long, bisexual, rose coloured, S-petalled with many stamens borne terminally on yourig branches at leaf fall. The mature fruit is spherical, 8-12 em in diameter, weighing up to 900 g with smooth yellow to orange exocarp (rind). The rind is yellow, hard but fleshy inside, 1-2 em thick and contains gummy, yellow, resinous latex. The white and pithy pulp, of pleasant odour and agreeable subacid flavour, contains 1 to 4, rarely 5, oblong, angular, dark brown and 5-6 em long seeds. The infertile seed compartments are filled with pulp called "tilho" (Martin et al., 1987).
Varieties No standard variety is known. However lot of variability occurs in nature with regard fruit size, quality and yield. A seedless variety has been identified (FAO, 1996).
24
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS
AND
NUTS
Culture It is propagated through seed. The seeds germinate easily if sown soon after removal from the fruit. Germination starts after 50 days and continues for another 50 days. Seedlings are normally transplanted into po1yethylene bags and kept in the nursery until they attain 50 to 60 em height for planting in the field. Planting is done in equilateral triangular system at 10 m spacing so that there are 115 plants per hectare. Plants can be multiplied by cleft and side veneer grafting also.
Fig. 13 : Platonia esculenta 1. flower without perianth; 2.flower buds; 3.F1ower; 4. leaf branch; 5. Seed; 6&7. Whole and sectioned fruit (FAO, 1986) Although the bacuri is very rustic, it is advisable to apply manure and bone meal at planting time and then maintain a regular fertilization schedule using 10% ammonium sulphate and 40% potassium chloride. The grafted plants may start production in 3 to 5 years after planting while seedlings take 6 to 10 years to come into bearing. The tree flowers during dry season Oune-July) and the fruit matures 200-300 days after flowering. The fruits start maturing in early December and the season extends to the following May with a peak production in February-March. The fruit rind turns yellowish to brown on ripening. Ripe fruits fall down to the ground. A grown up and vigorous tree yields 800 to 1000 fruits (FAO, 1986, Martin et aI, 1987).
12. BAMBANGAN Bambangan (Mangifera pajang Kostermans) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of Borneo. It is also locally known as asem payang, alim, hambawang, etc. It occurs wild in lowland dipterocarp forest of Borneo. It is found in cultivation in Dayak orchards in Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei and East Kalimantan. This attractive fruit tree remained confined
to its native area for long and was introduced outside Borneo only in the 1980's. The bambangan occurs chiefly in primary lowland forest in the wet tropics. It is adapted to areas with abundant rainfall, evenly distributed over the year and up to elevations above 1000 m (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
25
The globose or ovoid fruits of bambangan are the largest in the Mangifera genus and are 20 an in diameter. The fruit has thick coarsely fibrous flesh. The ripe fruit is pleasant to eat and has a unique aromatic flavour. Large, aromatic fruits have a strong appeal. The fruit skin is 1 an thick and can be peeled like banana. Its flesh is deep yellow. The skin is occasionally dried and used for sambal. In Sarawak, flushing shoots are sold as a vegetable (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany Trees of bambangan grow up to 15-33 m tall with 30-70 an trunk diameter. The bark is brown or grey and smooth or fissured, leaves are elliptic-oblong to obovate-oblong, 28-45 x 10-15 an in size, rigidly coriaceous with prominent nerves. The fragrant flowers are borne terminally or subterminally on erect, pyramidal, up to 30 an long inflorescence. The flower has 5-lobed calyx, 5 petals, purple on the inner surface and pinkish white outside, 5 stamens of which 2 are fertile, and white ovary. Fruit is a globose or ovoid drupe, 9.5-12 x 6.5-10 cm in size, rough and potato brown. The flesh is bright deep yellow, pleasantly aromatic and fibrous. Stone is plump, 9x6.5x4.5 cm in size with woody endocarp and monoembryonic seed (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture 'It is generally propagated through seed. The seedlings require much moisture and light shade but later grow well in full sunlight. In Sarawak, flowering occurs in May-August and fruits ripen in August-November. In East Kalimantan, flowering occurs in AprilSeptember and fruit ripens in August-January. Trunk borer (Rhytidodera simulens) damages and kills branches, but the tree retains its vitality. The attacks by Arbela on the bark are more superficial. The fruit is often seen damaged by mango weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae) whose larvae feed in the flesh (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). All the horticultural aspects of this crop need standardization (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). 13. BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY Barbados gooseberry (Pereskia aculeata Plum. ex Mill. syn. P. pereskia Karst.) belongs to the family Cactaceae and is native of tropical America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as West Indian gooseberry, Spanish gooseberry, leafy cactus, lemon vine or blade apple. It is found growing in the West Indies, coastal northern South America and Panama. It is frequently grown as an ornamental plant or occasionally for its fruit in the American tropics, Bermuda, California, Hawaii, Israel, Philippines, India and Australia. It has little potential for wider cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). Barbados gooseberry requires hot tropical climate with medium to high rainfall. Chilling causes the leaves to fall. The plants are drought tolerant. In greenhouse experiments, it grew taller with ascending stems and larger and thinner leaves under high light intensities (Morton, 1987). Th~ fruits are eaten fresh or generally stewed, preserved with sugar or used to prepare jam. Young shoots and leaves are cooked and eaten as greens and is rich source of protein. Flowers are of great value. The leaves are valued for their emollient property and are applied on inflammations and tumors (Morton, 1987).
26
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Barbados gooseberry fruit contains 91.4 g moisture, 1.0 g protein, 0.7 g fat, 6.3 g carbohydrates, 0.7 g fibre, 174 mg calcium, 26 mg phosphorus, 3215 IV vitamin A, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin and 2 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987). Thus the fruit is a rich source of vitamin A and calcium.
Botany It is an erect woody deciduous shrub when young and grows up to 10 m long into a scrambler or climber with vine-like branches. Spines on the trunk are long, slender and in groups and those on the branches are short, recurved, usually in pairs and rarely solitary. Leaves are alternate, 3.2-10 em long, short-petioled, elliptic oblong or ovate and shortly pointed at the apex, sometimes fleshy. Flowers are white, yellOwish or pink tinted and 2.54.5 em across. The calyx tube is prickly. Fruit is round, oval or pyiform, lemon or orange yellow or reddish, 1-2 em wide with thin, smooth and somewhat leathery skin. Seeds are 4 mm long, thin, brown or black and soft (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 14 : Pereskia aculeata Plum. ex MilL, Barbados gooseberry (Ochse, 1977; Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies, Survey of the indigenous and foreign plants serving as pot herbs and side dishes; A. Asher &: Co., BV, Amsterdam)
Varieties Two cu1tivars are well known in ornamental plants trade: 1) Godseffiana, having broad leaves, basically yellow green variegated with scarlet and coppery on the upper surface, and 2) Rubescens, having leaves variegated with red (Morton, 1987). ~
Culture It is propagated from sf:ed or by semi-hardwood cuttings. The plant requires little or no care after planting. Cultural requirements should be developed for Barbados gooseberry.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
27
Flowering occurs in June and again in October and November and the fruits mature in March and October. On ripening, the fruit skin changes to yellow and pulp becomes whitish (Morton, 1987).
14. BIGNAY Bignay or salamander (Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.) belongs to family Euphorbiaceae and is native of South East Asia. It is also known as Chinese laurel (Martin et al., 1987). It is widespread from India and Sri Lanka to northern Australia and has been introduced into tropics but is not common outside J\sia. It is cultivated extensively in many parts of Indonesia, particularly in Java and also in Indo-China (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). A related species A. dallachyanum Baill., known as Herbert river cherry or Woolmi, a native of Australia, also produces edible fruits (Morton, 1987). Bignay requires hot, humid, tropical climatic conditions. It can also tolerate light frosts. It can be cultivated in areas below 1000 m altitude. The tree does not become as large at higher altitudes in the tropics (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). It can grow well on various types of soils. The pulp of the fruit is eaten fresh or is used to make jam or jelly and wine. It is mixed with other fruits to prepare drinks. The fruit contains high amounts of pectin. The young leaves are sometimes eaten as lalab (a dish consisting of young leaves and fruits and eaten with brown paste, pepper and salt together with rice). The bark contains an alkaloid, which has medicinal properties (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Bignay is a decorative home garden tree. The tree can be useful in regreening programmes (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Bignay fruit contains 91.11-94.80 g water, 0.75 g protein, 0.12 mg calcium, 0.04 mg phosphorus, 0.001 mg iron, 0.031 mg thiamine, 0.072 mg riboflavin and 0.53 mg niacin per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany Bignay is a tall (15-30 m), much branched, dioecious tree with dense crown. The straight trunk has smooth, flaky, dark-grey bark with numerous fine splits and is usually branched near the base. The leaves are distichous, large, 19-25 x 4-10 em in size, shortpetioled, oblong-lanceolate, coriaceous, shiny and glabrous above, yellowish-green and shiny beneath with short-tufts of hair. The inflorescence is terminal or axillary spike. The spikes are pubescent, 6-20 cm long and bear unisexual, apetalous flowers with small ovate or obovate, 0.7-1 em long bracts. The male flowers are sessile, pale green, later tinged red, 1-1.2 x 1.5-2 mm in size and have 3-4 stamens. The female flowers are large and stalked with ovoid ovary, 3-4 stigmas and small disk. The fruit is globose or ovoid drupe, 8.5-10 mm in diameter, dark red to light yellow and appear in clusters of 20-50. The seed is 6-8 x 4.5-5.5 mm in size, ovoid or ovoid-oblong, slightly oblique with short, thick, reticulated ribs (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Standard varieties are not known and should be developed by selection from the available variability.
28
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 15 : Antidesma bunius (1.) Spr. 1 Branchlet with leaves and axillary spikes of fruits, 2. Spike of fruits, 3. Single fruit, 4. Transverse section of fruit. (FAO, 1984)
Culture The plants can be raised from seeds but are normally propagated by vegetative methods such as cutting, layering and budding. Budding is best done during wet season as the scion buds remain dormant in dry weather. Planting should be done at 6 to 8 m spacing in the field. Attention to pollination could boost yield and improve fruit quality. To ensure satisfactory pollination, one male tree is kept for every 10 to 12 female trees. The trees tend to form low and spreading crown with drooping weak branches. Therefore, windbreak should be provided particularly when the trees are small. Seedling tree starts fruiting 5-6 years after planting, whereas grafted trees commence fruiting after 2-3 years. In Indonesia, the main flowering period is September-October and the fruit matures after 150-200 days in February-March. On ripening, the green fruit turns red and finally becomes bluish black. The juicy pulp is purple in colour.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
29
All the berries even in one cluster do not mature at one time. Therefore, ripe fruits are picked several times over a period of a few weeks. However, for jelly making, the entire spike may be harvested when about half to two-thirds of the fruits are fully ripe. Average fruit yield is 135-200 kg per tree. Termites, mealy bugs and scales sometimes infest the tree. Leaves are damaged by green scurf and algal leaf spot caused by Cephaleuros virescens (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991).
15. BILIMBI
