Twentieth-century Catholic theologians: from neoscholasticism to nuptial mysticism

T W E N T I E T H - C E N T U R Y

Praise for T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y

C A T H O L I C

Catholic Theologians " W i t h characteristic l u c i d i t y and insight, Fergus K e r r narrates the story o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theology This i l l u m i n a t i n g and c o m p e l l i n g

T H E O L O G I A N S

account w i l l surely be appreciated b y a w i d e ecumenical readership." D a v i d Fergusson, University o f E d i n b u r g h "An

engaging biblio-biographical study designed to show the critical

influence o f t e n theologians i n transforming t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholicism. Kerr's keen

sense for trajectories

reveals h o w startling has been

From Neoscholasticism to Nuptial Mysticism

the

transformation — more than half had been disciplined by Vatican authorities In the face of these lives, no one w i l l ever be able to d o u b t the potential for intellectual regeneration, w h i l e the r i c h perspective they offer may also help defuse t r i v i a l tensions exacerbated by needless ideological polarization

Fergus K e r r

This narrative of t h e o l o g y - i n - a c t i o n is meant for literate faithful as w e l l as pastoral workers f r o m acolyte to bishop." D a v i d B u r r e l l , University o f N o t r e D a m e " K e r r , w i t h his usual oblique fluency, miraculously manages to include an attention to nuance and telling detail w i t h i n a short general account that is uner r i n g l y focussed o n w h a t , i n the previous century o f Catholic t h o u g h t , is still likely to matter i n the current one This v o l u m e w i l l surely become the standard i n t r o d u c t i o n to its subject matter." John M i l b a n k , University of N o t t i n g h a m " T h i s volume offers analysis o f some o f the most significant theologians o f the last h u n d r e d years by a theologian w i d e l y regarded as the most knowledgeable and insightful academic i n the field Simply invaluable." A l a n Torrance, St Andrews University

Blackwell Publishing

CONTENTS

© 2007 by Fergus K e r r BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 M a i n Street M a i d e n , M A 02148-5020. U S A 9600 Garsington R o a d , O x f o r d O X 4 2 D Q , U K 550 Swanston Street, C a r l t o n V i c t o r i a 3053. Australia T he r i g h t of Fergus K e r r l o be i d e n t i f i e d as the A u t h o r o f this W o r k has been asserted i n accordance w i t h the U K C o p y r i g h t , Designs and Patents A c t 1988 A l l rights reserved N o part of this p u b l i c a t i o n may be reproduced, stored i n a retrieval system or transmitted, i n any f o r m or b y any means, electronic, mechanical, p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g or otherwise, except as p e r m i t t e d b y the U K C o p y r i g h t , Designs, and Patents A c t 1988 w i t h o u t the p r i o r permission o f the publisher

Preface

vii

First published 2 0 0 7 b y B l a c k w e l l P u b l i s h i n g L t d

L Before Vatican I I

1 2007 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

K e r r , Fergus T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theologians: from neoscholasricism t o n u p t i a l mysticism / Fergus K e r r p. cm Includes bibliographical references and i n d e x I S B N - 1 3 : 9 7 8 - 1 - 4 0 5 1 - 2 0 8 3 - 8 (hardback: alk. paper) I S B N - 1 0 : 1-4051-2083-5 (hardback: alk. paper) I S B N - 1 3 : 9 7 8 - 1 - 4 0 5 1 - 2 0 8 4 - 5 (paperback: alk. paper) History—20th century 2 Theologians 1 Tide

1 Catholic C h u r c h — D o c t r i n e s —

B W 1 7 5 1 . 3 K 4 7 2007 230' 2 0 9 0 4 — d c 2 2 2006004748 A catalogue record f o r this title is available f r o m the B r i t i s h 1 ibrary Set i n 10

5ptBembo

by The R u n n i n g Head Limited Cambridge w w w therunninghead c o m P r i n t e d and b o u n d i n Singapore by Fabulous P r i m e r s Pre L t d The publisher's p o l i c y is to use p e r m a n e n t paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry p o l i c y and w h i c h has been manufactured f r o m pu]p processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the t e x t paper and cover board used have m e t acceptable environmental accreditation standards For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on B l a c k w e l l Publishing visit our website: wwwblackwellpublishing com

1

2 Marie-Dominique Chenu

17

3 Yves Congar

34

4 E d w a r d Schillebeeckx

52

5 H e n r i de Lubac

67

6 KarlRahner

87

7 Bernard Lonergan

105

8 Hans U r s v o n Balthasar

121

9 HansKüng

145

10 K a r o l W o j t y l a

163

11 Joseph Ratzinger

183

12 A f t e r Vatican I I

203

Appendix-. The A n t i - m o d e r n i s t O a t h

223

Index

226

PREFACE

'There is no d o u b t that the outstanding event i n the Catholic t h e o l o g y o f our century is the s u r m o u n t i n g o f neo-scholasticism',

so Walter Kasper

declared, i n 1987. A n y o n e w h o began o r d i n a t i o n studies i n 1957, as I d i d , 1

w o u l d agree That the century ended w i t h a reaffirmation of nuptial mysticism by influential theologians, w e d i d not anticipate 'Neo-scholasticism',

Kasper

explains, 'was the attempt to solve

the

m o d e r n crisis o f theology by p i c k i n g up the thread o f the h i g h scholastic t r a d i t i o n o f mediaeval times. T h e a i m was t o establish a timeless, unified theology that w o u l d provide a n o r m for the universal c h u r c h . I t is impossible to deny this attempt a certain grandeur B u t i n the l o n g r u n a restoration o f this k i n d was b o u n d to fail*

2

For one t h i n g , neoscholastic Catholicism

depended o n 'metaphysics', and developments b o t h w i t h i n Catholic t h e o l ogy and outside l e d to 'the b r e a k d o w n o f metaphysics i n t h e i r classic f o r m ' . B y classical metaphysics Kasper means 'the study o f the f i n a l , alld e t e r m i n i n g and c o h e r i n g foundations, w i s d o m about the oneness and wholeness o f reality'. I n Catholic theology, this study was essential: ' I n the total theological t r a d i t i o n h i t h e r t o , metaphysics w i t h its universal categories had p r o v i d e d the i n s t r u m e n t w i t h w h i c h to render i n the m e d i u m of t h o u g h t a theologically appropriate and reflective account of G o d , the one reality that — itself a l l - c o m p r e h e n d i n g and all-deter m i n i n g — yet transcends all else' Obviously, i n selecting some e m i n e n t theologians to discuss, m a n y others are left aside, i n c l u d i n g those w r i t i n g i n Italian and Spanish, a deplorable omission Also, the neoscholastic theologians w h o resisted the t r e n d should

1

2

Theology and Church

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1 9 8 9 ) : 1 .

C f . James A . W e i s h e i p l , ' N e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m a n d N e o t h o m i s m , New

( N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l 1967)

vol

10:337

Catholic

Encyclopedia

P R E F A C E

P R E F A C E

VIII

iX

have been examined o n their o w n and f o r their o w n sake Since they

son O P and Rebecca H a r k i n read the text i n draft, for w h i c h I t h a n k them,

published mostly i n Latin, their w o r k is n o w largely unread

Regrettably,

w h i l e of course declaring t h e m free of blame f o r blemishes that r e m a i n and

they appear here o n l y as spectral adversaries, no d o u b t caricatured as adver-

for prejudices o f m i n e that were n o t overcome. I am grateful to m y friend

saries i n controversy often are Some o f the theologians h i g h l i g h t e d here

Jacinta O ' D r i s c o l l O P f o r essential technical assistance and t o Eileen Power for

suffered harassment by neoscholastic colleagues and ecclesiastical superiors.

her careful and sympathetic copy-editing. I cannot resist adding a w o r d of

The R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h , one should n o t forget, is a c h u r c h of

thanks to L a r r y Page and Sergey B r i n , founders of the Internet search engine

extremes: tolerant o f forms o f d e v o t i o n barely distinguishable f r o m 'supersti-

Google, w i t h o u t w h i c h m y claims to learning w o u l d be even more tenuous

t i o n ' , w i t h pastoral care sometimes verging o n 'tyranny', and o f t e n ferocious i n resisting intellectual i n n o v a t i o n . Moreover, the fate o f theologians 3

cannot be separated f r o m p o w e r struggles w i t h i n the C h u r c h , or f r o m events i n the w i d e r w o r l d : the First W o r l d War, the rise o f fascism and Soviet c o m m u n i s m , the Second W o r l d War, and the C o l d War. These are only alluded to w h e n they brush the lives o f o u r subjects W h i l e neoscholasticism

will

n o t be restored i n the foreseeable future, the philosophical problems f o r theology raised d u r i n g the m o d e r n i s t crisis i n the first decade o f the t w e n t i eth century seem as troublesome as ever. W h e t h e r the c o u n t e r - c u l t u r a l emphasis o n a certain nuptial mysticism, i n ecclesiology and theological anthropology and elsewhere i n Catholic C h r i s t i a n doctrine, w i l l carry us far i n t o the n e w century, remains to be seen These chapters derive mostly f r o m lectures at Blackfriars, O x f o r d . Versions o f chapter one were offered as the Saint Thomas Aquinas Lecture at the N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f Ireland, M a y n o o t h , i n M a r c h 2005; at the j o i n t m e e t i n g of the Society f o r the Study o f T h e o l o g y and the Irish Theological Society at D r u m c o n d r a , i n A p r i l 2005; and as the Glasmacher Lecture at Saint-Paul University, O t t a w a , i n N o v e m b e r 2005 The chapter o n Joseph Ratzinger derives f r o m the address w h i c h I gave w h e n receiving the Yves Congar A w a r d at B a r r y University, Florida, i n O c t o b e r 2005, w h i l e the chapter o n Yves Congar comes f r o m the D i s c e r n A n n u a l Lecture 2005 at the Institute for Research o n the Signs o f the Times i n M a l t a M y thanks go to D r Thomas A E Kelly, D r Paul D M u r r a y , D r R i c h a r d Feist, D r E d Sunshine and Fr M a r k W e d i g O P , and Fr Joseph Inguanez, respectively, for these invitations, and m u c h enjoyable hospitality Several friends have read parts of the text. V i v i a n B o l a n d O P , N e i l Fergu-

3

C f J o h n H e n r y N e w m a n ' s Preface t o t h e T h i r d E d i t i o n (187 7) o£ Lectures on the

Office of the Church the Anglican

Church,

viewed relatively to Romanism

and Popular Protestantism,

Prophetical

i n The 'Via Media'

of

e d i t e d b y H D . W e i d n e r ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1 9 9 0 ) : 10—57, i n

w h i c h he sees t h e d y n a m i c i n t h e C h u r c h i n t e r m s o f t h e t h r e e f o l d f u n c t i o n s o f w o r s h i p , t h e o l o g y a n d r u l e , t h e first t e n d i n g t o ' s u p e r s t i t i o n a n d e n t h u s i a s m '

the second t o ' r a t i o n a l -

i s m ' , a n d t h e t h i r d t o ' a m b i t i o n craft a n d c r u e l t y ' , each c o r r e c t e d b y t h e others i d e a l l y i n 'a ;

t r u c e o r a c o m p r o m i s e ' — ' t y r a n n y ' is N e w m a n ' s w o r d

Chapter One BEFORE VATICAN II

A c c o r d i n g to Pope J o h n Paul I I , w r i t i n g i n 1998, 'the m o r e distinguished o f the Catholic theologians of this century, to whose reflections and researches Vatican I I owes so m u c h ' , were all 'educated i n the school of t h e Angelic Doctor'

1

R e a s o n under O a t h The essential t h i n g , f o r Catholic theologians b o r n between 1890 and 1940, was that they should be g r o u n d e d i n 'thomistic philosophy' This was to inoculate t h e m against i n f e c t i o n by the idealist, subjectivist and positivist philosophies, w h i c h were held to have created 'the modernist crisis'

2

A c c o r d i n g to C a n o n Taw, clergy were required to attend lectures i n p h i l osophy

and theology, delivered i n L a t i n , by professors

who

treated

everything according t o the m e t h o d , d o c t r i n e and principles o f the Angelic D o c t o r , Saint Thomas A q u i n a s Moreover, all clergy, pastors, seminary p r o 3

fessors and so o n , swore the A n t i - m o d e r n i s t O a t h imposed i n 1910

'

P o p e J o h n P a u l I I , E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r Fides

ct Ratio,

(see

15 S e p t e m b e r 1998 ( n u m e r o u s e d i -

tions): § § 5 7 - 9 2

T h e l i t e r a t u r e is i n u n e n s e ; see D i r r e l l j o d o t k (ed ) Catholicism

Roman

Catholic

Modernism

and Anti-Modernnm

in Historical

Context

Contending

with

Modernity.

(Cambridge: Cambridge

U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 0 ) 3

N o o n e i m a g i n e d t h a t lay m e n , let a l o n e w o m e n , c o u l d be t h e o l o g i a n s t h o u g h consider

M a r y D a l y ( b o r n 1928), w h o t o o k a different t u r n , b u t whose doctorates i n p h i l o s o p h y and t h e o l o g y w i t h t h e D o m i n i c a n s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f F r i b o u r g , S w i t z e r l a n d are g o o d examples o f n e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m : 77?i Problem of Speculative Natural 1966)

Knowledge

of Cod in the Philosophy

Jlieology

( W a s h i n g t o n : T h o m i s t Press 1965) and

of Jacques Maritain

(Rome: O f f i c i u m L i b r i Catholici

2

BEFORE VATICAN

BEFORE

I I

appendix) The philosophy examinations, to be passed before students p r o ceeded to theology, were framed i n terms o f the T w e n t y - f o u r Thomistic Theses. 4

Paradoxically, the revival o f Thomistic philosophy i n the wake o f Leo

VATICAN

3

II

w h a t the believer says, as i f the t r u t h s o f faith m i g h t differ f r o m the truths o f historical fact W e do n o t accept biblical exegesis that is supposedly 'neutral' and 'scientific' Finally, w e are most o f all concerned t o u p h o l d the n o t i o n o f there being absolute and unchangeable truths.

X I I I ' s directive, i n t e n d e d to keep m o d e r n philosophy o u t o f Catholicism, and especially G e r m a n R o m a n t i c i s m , kept to very m u c h the same canons o f

T h e Thomistic Theses

rationality as we f i n d i n the Enlightenment. The E n l i g h t e n m e n t ideal was to attain timeless, universal and objective conclusions by exercising a u n i t a r y and ahistorical form of reasoning. Similarly, neoscholastic theology ' i d e n t i -

I t is easy to see w h a t the p r o b l e m was: the nature of truth W h e t h e r i m p o s i n g

fied t r u t h and life w i t h i m m u t a b i l i t y and rationality; i t opposed being to

a f r a m e w o r k f o r the study o f philosophy i n the f o r m o f the T w e n t y - f o u r

5

history and i g n o r e d concreteness i n h u m a n life and i n the economy o f sal-

Thomistic Theses was a wise m o v e m i g h t w e l l be questioned.

vation'

For neothomists, as f o r E n l i g h t e n m e n t philosophers, appealing to

extent the average seminary philosophy course actually c o n f o r m e d to the

experience, t r a d i t i o n and historical studies was the w r o n g way to get to

pattern seems d o u b t f u l M o s t seminarians - straight f r o m school - were i n

truth

any case never destined to be competent i n philosophy They c o u l d do little

6

The w o r d ' m o d e r n i s m ' settled i n Catholic parlance i n the early t w e n t i e t h century, for example i n the encyclical Pascendi Dotninici Pope Pius X i n 1907

Gregis issued by

Setting aside the absurdly bombastic style of papal

documents i n those days, the m o d e r n i s m w h i c h the encyclical attacks is

To what

m o r e than learn the arguments o f f by heart, to reproduce i n the brief (always oral) examinations. The course was d i v i d e d i n t o ontology, cosmology, psychology and t h e o d icy: dealing, then, w i t h being, nature, soul and G o d , respectively

amazingly l i k e postmodernism: 'Postmodernity is a style o f t h o u g h t w h i c h

T h e p o i n t o f the eight theses i n o n t o l o g y was to secure the difference

is suspicious o f classical notions o f t r u t h , reason, i d e n t i t y and objectivity, o f

b e t w e e n that w h i c h is pure act and that w h i c h is composed of p o t e n c y and

the idea o f universal progress or emancipation, o f single frameworks, grand

act. P r i o r to any consideration o f the biblical doctrine o f creation, that is to

nar ratives o r ultimate grounds o f explanation'

say, the student learns h o w to explain that there is a radical difference i n

7

The A n t i - m o d e r n i s t O a t h asserts the R o m a n Catholic Church's c o m m i t -

b e i n g between G o d and e v e r y t h i n g else G o d is n o t a being i n the same

m e n t to intellect, and articulates fears o f the effects i n theology o f a n t i -

w a y as we are; G o d is i d e n t i f i e d as 'pure act o f being', ipsum esse subsisten.^

intellectualism

dependent o n n o e n t i t y or event to be G o d

The existence o f G o d , i t is asserted, may be k n o w n f o r

There is no p o t e n t i a l i t y i n

certain and proved by arguments f r o m cause and effect That is to say, we are

G o d ; that w o u l d mean G o d r e q u i r e d some other e n t i t y or event to c o m -

n o t dependent o n faith, feeling, i n t u i t i o n or instinct, f o r this belief There

plete H i m . There is n o 'possibility' i n G o d , potential that needs to be

are objective external criteria f o r the t r u t h o f Christianity; i t is n o t all a

realized This is a matter o f rational demonstration; n o t s o m e t h i n g we take

matter o f subjective psychological states. The i n s t i t u t i o n o f the C h u r c h ,

o n faith

i n c l u d i n g the papacy, was f o u n d e d by Jesus Christ, historically, p r i o r to his

Some beings composed of potency and act are corporeal, and some 'of

death. There is no such t h i n g as ' e v o l u t i o n o f d o c t r i n e ' , i f b y this is meant

these have souls, as the five theses i n cosmology m a i n t a i n Basically, the

change i n meaning. Faith is n o t a ' b l i n d feeling'; i t is real assent to true

p o i n t here was to secure proper understanding o f the (relative) a u t o n o m y o f

propositions. Those w h o swear this oath endorse the anti-modernist u t t e r -

the natural order, w i t h its intrinsic teleology This was i m p o r t a n t : the physi-

ances o f Pope Pius X , especially i n relation to 'the so-called history o f

cal w o r l d had to be s h o w n to w o r k o n its o w n natural principles — i t was not

dogmas'

sustained by regular infusions o f divine grace, i t was not a permanent miracle.

There is no distinction between w h a t the historian may say and

I n short, natural science is possible. I n some ways, cosmology was the decisive element o f the c u r r i c u l u m w h i c h secured the A r i s t o t e l i a n basis o f 4

See w w w v a x x i n e c o m / h y o o m i k / a q u i n a s / t h e s e s . e h t

5

Alasdair M a c h i t y r e Three Rival

6

T h o m a s F. O ' M e a r a O P Thomas Aquinas

for

Versions of Mora! Enquiry Theologian

L a t i n text and translation ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r t h 1990): 65

(Notre Dame, I N , and L o n d o n : U n i -

versity o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1 9 9 9 ) : i 71 7

T P E a g l e t o n , The Illusions

ojPostmodernism

( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1996): v i i

neoscholastic T h o m i s m The theses i n psychology m a i n t a i n that the h u m a n soul is b y nature i m m o r t a l (Thesis 15); there is n o body/soul dualism (16); yet the intellect operates independently of any b o d i l y organ (17); o u r minds have direct

4

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

B E F O R E

I I

V A T I C A N

5

I I

knowledge o f the natures o f things (20); and the w i l l is subordinate to the

theological m o d e r n i s m , b y censorship, sackings and e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n - and

intellect (21)

the resurgence of issues that c o u l d n o t be repressed by such methods.

The w h o l e course culminates i n the three theses i n theodicy: the existence o f G o d is demonstrable b y cosmological arguments (22); the d i v i n e

Modernism

nature is appropriately i d e n t i f i e d as pure act or subsistent b e i n g (23); G o d alone may be said to create (24).. M u c h m i g h t be said about these theses. As the standard course books w o u l d show, cosmology i n c l u d e d consideration o f such terms as substance

The easiest access to the p r o b l e m set by theological m o d e r n i s m is

Medieval-

ism, the very readable b o o k published i n 1908 b y the f o r m e r Jesuit George

and accident, f o r m and matter, the philosophical t e r m i n o l o g y required (for

Tyrrell (1861-1909)

example) f o r the d o c t r i n e o f transubstantiation. Theodicy, obviously, covers

Catholic i n L o n d o n i n 1879 and entered the Society o f Jesus. Set to teach

only the o p e n i n g moves i n natural theology - n o t e x t e n d i n g to justifying

philosophy to Jesuit students he was soon transferred to other duties (jour-

the ways o f G o d i n the l i g h t o f the p r o b l e m o f evil.

nalism, c o n d u c t i n g retreats), o n the grounds that he was sponsoring 'pure

I n psychology the p r o g r a m m e was to e x p o u n d the metaphysical a r g u ments that prove that w e have i m m o r t a l souls - i t is not j u s t a matter of faith, or i n t u i t i o n . Independently o f w h e t h e r w e are to be raised f r o m the dead, there are metaphysical arguments that demonstrate h u m a n i m m o r t a l i t y Second, our k n o w l e d g e o f things is o f things as they are, n o t o n l y of h o w

9

B o r n i n D u b l i n , raised A n g l i c a n , he became a

T h o m i s m ' rather than the required 'Suarezianism'

H i s w r i t i n g s became

steadily m o r e u n o r t h o d o x H e was expelled f r o m the Society i n 1906. H e d i e d o f Bright's disease, ' f o r t i f i e d b y the rites o f the C h u r c h ' , absolved by three priests, denied a Catholic funeral (however) by the bishop since none c o u l d say that he 'recanted'

1 0

Cardinal Mercier, Archbishop o f Malines and Primate of B e l g i u m , had

they seem - w e are n o t prey to varieties o f phenomenalism that lay us o p e n to the anxieties over w h e t h e r w e have k n o w l e d g e o f a n y t h i n g outside o u r

addressed his f l o c k o n the subject of m o d e r n i s m

o w n heads.

t h e m that the heresies, p r i n c i p a l l y i n France and Italy, had scarcely a single

n

W h y , w h e n he assures

Finally, the existence o f G o d is philosophically demonstrable Here again,

adherent i n B e l g i u m , remains mysterious. M o d e r n i s m , anyway, Mercier says,

we are n o t dependent o n i n t u i t i o n i s m , a priori considerations o r mere faith.

is the v i e w that believers draw the object and motive o f their f a i t h f r o m

I t is possible to reason one's way to the t r u t h that G o d exists - this is n o t a

themselves, denying historically revealed t r u t h and thus also the teaching

t r u t h that w e learn f r o m the testimony or o n the a u t h o r i t y o f others, n o r

author ity of the C h u r c h . M o d e r n i s m is a f o r m of Protestantism: f a i t h under-

one that wells up f r o m w i t h i n , as the p r o d u c t o f instinct, feeling o r

stood as 'private judgment'. This Protestant spirit has infected Catholic

intuition

consciousness. Mercier singles o u t 'the English priest Tyrrell'. A g a i n , w h y he

I n short, theologians were expected to take their stand o n the realist metaphysics, philosophy o f science, epistemology and natural theology, framed no

d i d so, since few churchgoers i n B e l g i u m c o u l d have k n o w n o f his existence, let alone o f his w r i t i n g s , remains puzzling

1 2

U n d a u n t e d , indeed exhilarated, by this personal attack, Tyrrell, w i t h

d o u b t somewhat abstractly by the Thomistic Theses - w h i c h nonetheless show that the Christian faith, at least i n its Catholic f o r m , is n o t against all reason. O n the contrary, as every Thomist knows, 'Grace does n o t obliterate nature but perfects i t , just as natural reason subserves faith and the natural

9

inclination o f the w i l l yields to charity' (Summa Theologies 1 a

b r i d g e W e l l s : B u r n s a n d Oates 1994)

l,8ad2m).

I n their o w n way, the pastors o f the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h were determ i n e d to u p h o l d the claims o f reason against a generation o f theologians w h o m they suspected o f o p t i n g rather f o r the a u t h o r i t y o f i n t u i t i o n , testimony, t r a d i t i o n , and especially 'experience'

8

The history o f t w e n t i e t h -

century Catholic theology is the history o f the attempted e l i m i n a t i o n o f

T h i r d revised a n d e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n 1 9 0 9 r e p r i n t e d w i t h f o r e w o r d b y G a b r i e l D a l y ( T u n -

1 0

Cf. Ellen M

L e o n a r d , George Tyrrell and the Catholic

Tradition

( L o n d o n : D a r t o n . T^ngman

a n d T o d d 1 9 8 2 ) ; N i c h o l a s Sagovsky, 'On God's Side': A Life of George Tyrrell ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1990) 1 1

D e s i r e M e r c i e r ( 1 8 5 1 - 1 9 2 6 ) t h e first professor o f T h o m i s t P h i l o s o p h y at L o u v a i n was a n ;

ardent p r o m o t e r o f neoscholasticism

a n d a valiant o p p o n e n t o f t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n

of

B e l g i u m i n 1 9 1 4 - 1 8 H e set u p t h e M a l i n e s C o n v e r s a t i o n s 1 9 2 1 - 5 . c u t s h o r t b y h i s death, t o respond to the A n g l o - C a t h o l i c r e u n i o n initiative 1 2

H

Alessandro M a g g i o l i n i ,

Magisterial teaching o n experience i n the t w e n t i e t h century;

f r o m t h e M o d e r n i s t crisis t o t h e S e c o n d V a t i c a n C o u n c i l ' , Communio

23 ( 1 9 9 6 ) : 2 2 4 - 4 3

A b b o t C o l u m b a M a r m i o n o f M a r e d s o u s h a d a p p r o a c h e d M e r c i e r about a c c e p t i n g T y r r e l l

f o r i n c a r d i n a t i o n i n M a l i n e s diocese; g r a t e f u l f o r M e r c i e r ' s interest his c o n d i t i o n s ( n o p r e a c h i n g o r p u b l i s h i n g )

I y r r e l l w o u l d n o t accept

6

B E F O R E

V A I I C A N

I I

B E F O R E

Mercier's permission, translated the pastoral so that he c o u l d reply A f t e r

V A I I C A N

7

I I

Tyrrell writes w i t h gusto. H e was a journalist, n o t a scholar, as he m i g h t

some p o l i t e remarks he w e n t o n the offensive: T n spite o f ail their t h e o -

have agreed i n Through Scylla and Charybdis

logical heresies and divisions, the religious interest still lives and grows i n

symbolic approach to religious t r u t h , w h i c h deprives the concept o f t r u t h of

Protestant countries, whereas i t languishes and dies a m o n g Catholics under

its meaning; and i n the posthumous Christianity

this m o d e r n craze f o r centralization and m i l i t a r y u n i f o r m i t y '

ages C h r i s t i a n i t y as developing i n t o a universal religion I n these books he

1 3

Whatever

(1907) he sympathizes w i t h a at the Cross-Roads

he envis-

the Cardinal says, i t is the vitality o f f a i t h that is the source and c r i t e r i o n o f

moves w e l l beyond Catholic o r t h o d o x y I n Medievalism,

d o c t r i n a l t r u t h , w h i c h is n o t the same t h i n g as i n d i v i d u a l subjectivity.

real questions, albeit i n an i n f l a m m a t o r y manner

Indeed, i f there is a subjectivism threatening the C h u r c h , i t is the ' i n d i v i d u -

dealt w i t h : governance i n the C h u r c h ; the d i g n i t y and role of laity; and the

alistic conception o f papal a u t h o r i t y ' . Since 1870, catechisms and seminary

concepts o f experience and t r a d i t i o n as l o c i o f t r u t h

textbooks have been revised to impose the heresy o f u l t r a m o n t a n i s m - 'to destroy the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the C h u r c h ; to make ornamental nonentities o f the bishops; and to substitute, as the r u l e of faith, the private j u d g m e n t o f the Pope instead o f the p u b l i c j u d g m e n t o f the w h o l e C h u r c h as represented by the entire episcopate'.

14

T h e lay Catholic's place is n o t j u s t 'to

receive the faith passively as one receives a traveller's tale o f regions b e y o n d his ken; a tale w h i c h he repeats to others w o r d for w o r d f o r w h a t i t is w o r t h , b u t w i t h no guarantee o f personal experience or c o n v i c t i o n ' O n the c o n trary, 'the laity are part o f the C h u r c h ' : ' Y o u forget that every baptized Christian is commissioned apostle and teacher; and as such is no mere telephone, but must speak f r o m the fulness o f a l i v i n g personal interest i n the t r u t h o f his r e l i g i o n ' Teaching

1 5

O f course there is a distinction between the ' C h u r c h

and the ' C h u r c h

Taught' -

the hierarchy and the faithful

However, p r i o r i t y lies w i t h 'a D i v i n e Tradition o f w h i c h the entire C h u r c h ,

however, he raised

They w o u l d have to be

H e was n o t f o r g o t t e n at Vatican I I O n 1 October 1963, i n a powerful speech, Ernesto R u f f i n i , Cardinal Archbishop o f Palermo, a major figure at the C o u n c i l , i n f o r m e d the assembly that the idea o f the C h u r c h as a sacram e n t came from Tyrrell. H e was probably indebted to Joseph C Fenton, the most eminent A m e r i c a n theologian at the C o u n c i l , w h o complained that the w h o l e of the first chapter of Lumen Gentium, the document o n the nature :

of the C h u r c h , was composed i n the language o f Tyrrell. That the C h u r c h as hierarchical institution (chapter 3) should be treated after the C h u r c h as mystery (chapter 1) and as people o f G o d (chapter 2) w o u l d surely have seemed to Tyrrell a g o o d way o f laying o u t the doctrine That the likes of R u f f i n i and Fenton. significant members of the ultramontanist m i n o r i t y at Vatican I I , should f i n d Lumen however, a salutary thought

Gentium

to reek of modernist heresy is,

1 8

and n o t merely the episcopate, is the organ and depositary' ' Tradition is the faith that lives i n the w h o l e C h u r c h and is handed d o w n f r o m generation to

Alternatives to

generation, o f w h i c h the entire body, and n o t a mere handful of officials, is the depositary and organ o f transmission

O f this rule and l a w the H o l y

Spirit diffused i n the hearts o f the f a i t h f u l is the author; the episcopate merely the servant, the witness, the interpreter' .

1 6

Tyrrell attacks the ' n e w

theology', according to w h i c h a bishop i n his diocese is m e r e l y the delegate or vicar o f the Bishop o f R o m e .

H e defends the C h u r c h o f England

('We have m u c h to learn f r o m h e r ' ) . H e mocks the idea that he is 'leader' o f any movement. Finally, his ' m e t h o d o f i m m a n e n t i s m ' , w h i c h M e r c i e r denounces, is indebted, n o t to c r y p t o - K a n t i a n Protestantism, as alleged, b u t to the Exercises o f St Ignatius o f L o y o l a .

17

Even d u r i n g the decades w h e n T h o m i s t philosophy was mandatory, many significant theologians w o r k e d o n quite different lines

Medievalism:

1 4

I b i d : 50

1 5

I b i d : 59

43

I n Germany, for

example, neither Karl A d a m (1876-1966) nor R o m a n o Guardini (1885-1968) was Thomist, i n any sense. K a r l A d a m , trained as a patristic scholar at the U n i v e r s i t y of M u n i c h , w i t h books o n Tertullian's concept o f c h u r c h (1907) and Augustine's d o c t r i n e o f the eucharist (1908), taught all his life at Tübingen. B u i l d i n g o n t h e legacy o f the Catholic Tübingen S c h o o l ,

1 8

1 1

Neoscholasticism

G

19

he presented the C h u r c h as p r i m a r i l y a

A l b e r i g o a n d J A K o m o n c h a k ( e d s ) History

Second Period

and

Intersesiion

September

L e u v e n : Peelers 2 0 0 0 ) : 50 ( R u f f i n i ) , 3 0

of Vatican 11, v o l I I I The Mature

1963-September

1964

Council

( M a r y k n o l l , N Y : O r b i s , and

(Fenton)

F o r the C a t h o l i c T ü b i n g e n S c h o o l see James I i m s t e a d B u r t c h a e l l esc, i n N i n i a n Smart

1 6

I b i d : 61

a n d o t h e r s (eds) Nineteenth

1 7

I b i d : 104

U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 8 5 ) : 1 1 1 - 3 9

Century

Religious

Thought

in the West ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e

8

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

9

I I

c o m m u n i t y , indeed as 'mystical b o d y o f C h r i s t ' , contrasting this quite d e l i b -

C o u n c i l accepted m u c h o f the agenda that he had stood for all his life, he

erately w i t h the prevailing neoscholastic image o f the C h u r c h as a 'perfect

was sceptical about the likely results H e refused Pope Paul VI's i n v i t a t i o n to

society', and, o n the other extreme, w i t h liberal Protestantism's fuzzy eccle-

become a cardinal

siologies.. I n the 1920s he c o n t r i b u t e d t o the development o f 'kerygmatic theology', Verkündigungstheologie,

i n this instance steering b e t w e e n the syl-

Immensely influential, w i t h dozens of books, G u a r d i n i never engaged w i t h historical-critical biblical exegesis H e w r o t e about the C h u r c h w i t h -

logistically expounded C h r i s t o l o g y o f neoscholastic textbooks and the ' l i f e -

o u t r e f e r r i n g t o Vatican I.. H e w r o t e manifestly Catholic theology w i t h o u t

of-jesus research' o f liberal Protestantism.

frequendy c i t i n g papal encyclicals, as was the style o f the day. R e l a t i n g

A d a m , delated to R o m e (need i t be said?), revised several o f his books to reduce suspicions o f his o r t h o d o x y L i k e others i n the Tübingen t r a d i t i o n ,

theology to culture and literature, he w r o t e o n Dostoevsky, Pascal, Dante, Hölderlin, R i l k e , and m u c h else

w i t h its R o m a n t i c emphasis o n c o m m u n i t y , he was attracted, initially, i n the early 1930s, to the p a t r i o t i s m and f a m i l y values p r o c l a i m e d b y the N a t i o n a l

That neither K a r l A d a m n o r R o m a n o G u a r d i n i belonged to any religious order, is no accident — n o r that they had tenure i n G e r m a n universities

Socialist G e r m a n Workers' Patty Too o l d to play a part i n the r u n - u p to Vatican I I , his books nevertheless helped to prepare some o f his compatriots for the unexpectedly radical event

Neoscholasticism

2 0

R o m a n o G u a r d i n i , Italian by b i r t h , g i e w up i n M a i n z

2 1

H e studied at

Freiburg i m Breisgau and Tübingen, before g o i n g to the diocesan seminar)',

I n most seminaries and universities t h r o u g h o u t the Catholic w o r l d , however,

where he f o u n d the neoscholastic textbooks insufferable. Back i n Freiburg

philosophy and theolog)' were taught strictly ad mentem Sancti Thoma?

f o r doctoral studies, he w o r k e d o n Bonaventure's teaching o n r e d e m p t i o n

best account, by A n t h o n y Kenny, recalls his experience at the Gregoriana,

2 3

The

This choice o f topic, and unconcealed scorn for neoscholasticism, prevented

the great Jesuit university i n R o m e , f r o m 1949 to 1 9 5 6 .

his b e i n g appointed, as he had expected, to teach i n the diocesan seminary

Dezza, the Professor o f Metaphysics: 'sitting totally motionless, he enunci-

Anyway, parish m i n i s t r y soon gave way to m i l i t a r y service as a medical

ated rheumily, i n a barely audible voice, theses about t h e analogy o f being

orderly (1916-18). I n 1918, t h r o u g h his sympathy w i t h the B e n e d i c t i n e -

and the varieties of potentiality and actuality'.. Later, i n his theology years,

inspired liturgical m o v e m e n t i n Germany, he published his first, immensely

so K e n n y reports, neither the B i b l e n o r the Summa Theohgiee was m u c h

influential b o o k , Vom Geht der Liturgie

23

H e recalls Paolo

H e was i n v o l v e d w i t h the C a t h o l i c

studied H e d i d not appreciate Bernard Lonergan then as he d i d later, for his

y o u t h movement, centred at B u r g Rothenfels. I n 1923, he accepted a n e w l y

Aquinas books: he 'lectured w i t h an air o f b o r e d o m that q u i c k l y c o m m u n i -

established chair i n B e r l i n , t h o u g h his Protestant colleagues were so u n -

cated itself to his audience'

w e l c o m i n g that he agreed to the f i c t i o n that he was a visiting professor

grace, 'the best lecturer I have heard i n a l i f e t i m e o f l e c t u r e - g o i n g ' (no small

Breslau

from

I n M a r c h 1939, the N a z i regime abolished the post, forbade his

c o m p l i m e n t f r o m an O x f o r d don)

ministry w i t h y o u t h , and i n 1941 banned h i m f r o m speaking i n public A m o n g the first academics to be reinstated, he taught at Tübingen, before j o i n i n g the philosophy faculty at the U n i v e r s i t y o f M u n i c h , where he remained u n t i l retirement i n 1962

H e t o o k part i n the pre-Vatican I I

l i t u r g y commission t h o u g h n o t i n the C o u n c i l itself W h i l e seeing that the

H e tecalis M a u r i z i o Flick o n the t h e o l o g y of

Classes were huge N o one studied p r i m a r y sources Cyclostyled lecture notes became available as technology advanced The b r i g h t students relied o n secondary literature, i n Latin, such as the textbooks o f G r e d t

24

and Billot

Joseph A u g u s t Gredt (1863-1940), b o r n i n L u x e m b o u r g , a Benedictine m o n k , studied i n R o m e w i t h D o m i n i c a n Thomists such as A l b e r t o Lepidi, and Tbmmaso Zigliara. H e taught p h i l o s o p h y i n R o m e f o r 40 years. Interested i n physics and biology, he became a legend f o r his t w o - v o l u m e

2 0

See R o b e r t A

K r i e g , Kar! Adam:

Catholicism

in German

Culture

(Notre Dame, I N , and

2 1

See R o b e r t A

K r i e g Romano

Guardini

A Precursor

textbook, Elementa philosophies amtotelico-thomisticce, 1899 and 1901, reissued i n expanded editions i n t o the 1960s, 'the classical t e x t b o o k of thomisdc

L o n d o n : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1992) oj Vatican II ( N o t r e D a m e . I N and

L o n d o n : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1 9 9 7 ) . 2 2

Supervised by Engelbert Krebs

( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 0 ) , w h o c o n d u c t e d his f r i e n d

Heidegger's

w e d d i n g i n 1917; p r i m a r i l y a m e d i e v a l i s t , be was r e m o v e d f r o m t e a c h i n g b y t h e N a z i s i n 1938

2 3

A Path from Rome. An Autobiography

( L o n d o n : S i d g w i c k a n d Jackson 1 9 8 5 ) : 4 7 ( D e z z a ) , 77

( L o n e r g a n ) 77 ( F l i c k ) 2 +

C f A W M i i l l e r i n New Catholic

Encyclopedia

V I ( 1 9 6 7 ) : 725

10

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

11

philosophy', still i n use 20 years after his death Gredt's p o s i t i o n was w o r k e d

Theobgiœ

out i n opposition to e x t e r n a l - w o r i d scepticism and the other problems o f

achievement

post-Cartesian philosophy. The problematic s h o u l d n o t be unfamiliar to

clarifications offered by a select b a n d of sixteenth-century

student theologians.

There was, however, n o p o i n t i n p a y i n g m u c h attention t o h o w his thought

- was an unsurpassed and unsurpassable speculative theological I t m i g h t , and indeed should, be studied i n the l i g h t o f the commentators

Louis B i l l o t (1846-1931), a French Jesuit, taught f o r years i n R o m e . H e

interacted w i t h that o f his contemporaries o r h o w i t was shaped by his

is perhaps best remembered f o r resigning as Cardinal i n 1927, unable to

inheritance f r o m earlier Christian thinkers (let alone Jewish and M u s l i m

accept the papal c o n d e m n a t i o n of the u l t r a - r i g h t w i n g m o v e m e n t Française

Action

Billot's books, massive and w e l l d o c u m e n t e d , f r o m his De Verba

ones). O n the other hand, g o o d students should w o r k o n A r i s t o t l e and Aquinas's commentaries

o n A r i s t o t l e Otherwise, k n o w i n g n o t h i n g o f

incarnato (1892) onwards, constitute by far the most impressive b o d y of

Aquinas's grandeur as a metaphysician, they w o u l d misunderstand h i m

Catholic theology as i t existed at the b e g i n n i n g o f the t w e n t i e t h century,

completely

covering all the m a i n topics Neglected, i f not completely f o r g o t t e n , Billot's w o r k w o u l d need to be explored i n any attempt t o w r i t e a balanced and comprehensive

history o f m o d e r n Catholic theology, w h i c h w o u l d do

N a t u r a l Metaphysics

justice to all sides.

There was no way of e n t e r i n g Catholic theology w i t h o u t first d o i n g philosophy — learning to master the d o c t r i n e laid o u t i n the 'perennial philosophy',

T h o m i s m at the A n g e l i c u m

and, secondarily, laying bare and r e f u t i n g all the w r o n g philosophies I n the key text, La synthèse thomiste (1946) w e can see Garrigou-Lagrange at his

The m o d e l T h o m i s t - n o t o n l y i n D o m i n i c a n m y t h o l o g y — was R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Tagrange

most characteristic

2 7

B o r n i n 1877, he had a conversion, w h i l e a medical

As regards the positive exposition, the author insists that, i n Aristotle,

student, t h r o u g h reading w o r k b y Ernest H e l l o ( 1 8 2 8 - 8 5 ) , the somewhat

Aquinas discovered the 'natural metaphysics o f h u m a n intelligence', a meta-

maverick, radically conservative ultramontanist B r e t o n w r i t e r . H e j o i n e d

physics w h i c h , b e g i n n i n g w i t h sense experience, rises progressively u n t i l i t

the French D o m i n i c a n s , studied and taught at Te Saulchoir before m o v i n g

reaches G o d , actus purus and noesis noeseos, 'sheer being' i n Aquinas's phrase,

to R o m e , w h e r e he lectured at the C o l l e g i o A n g e l i c o , the D o m i n i c a n u n i -

and ' s e l f - k n o w i n g ' i n Aristotle's As this argument unfolds i t delivers a

versity, f r o m 1909

H e supervised the doctoral

philosophy o f being, an ontology, d i f f e r i n g entirely f r o m philosophies of

research of M . - D C h e n u and the future Pope John Paul I I . H e gave the

appearance (phenomenalism), o f b e c o m i n g (evolutionism), and o f the ego

2 5

u n t i l he retired i n 1960.

retreat i n Paris w h i c h attracted Yves C o u g a r to leave the diocesan seminary

(psychologism) Phenomenalism is still o n the market, t h e others w e m i g h t

i n order to j o i n the D o m i n i c a n s

H e was a controversial figure, m u c h

be i n c l i n e d to relabel as process t h o u g h t and subjectivism; but the m a i n aim

admired b u t also o f t e n caricatured, even demonized His b i g b o o k o n G o d ,

o f philosophical studies for neophyte theologians had t o be to establish for

for example, is n o t as dreadful as some have asserted: 'the G o d o f the Bible

themselves a moderate f o r m of metaphysical, epistemological and moral

and the Gospel has been reduced to a caput mortuum o f frozen abstractions

realism.

overwhelmingly b o r i n g . tautology'

n o t h i n g b u t a gigantic and futile exercise i n

2 6

B e i n g , reality, w h i c h is w h a t intellect first apprehends, is not the b e i n g of G o d , n o r the being o f the cognizing subject, Garrigou-Lagrange insists. I n

For Garrigou-Tagrange, Thomas Aquinas's w o r k - chiefly the

Summa

other words, he suspects that the neophytes are strongly tempted to think that either G o d or oneself is the p r i m a r y d a t u m of knowledge. Against this, so he contends, we have to see that being, reality, exists i n t h e sense-

2 5

C f . R i c h a r d P e d d i c o r d , The Sacred Monster

of Reginald 2 6

Thus

Garrigou-Tagrange Louis Bouyer

of Thomism:

An Introduction

to the Life and

Legacy

O P ( S o u t h B e n d , I N : St A u s t i n ' s Press 2 0 0 5 )

(1913—2004). f o r m e r l y a L u t h e r a n pastor, p r i e s t o f the

French

perceptible w o r l d

This means that knowledge o f God's existence and

nature is mediated: i n k n o w i n g things i n the w o r l d we can argue f r o m effect

O r a t o r y h i m s e l f a m a j o r t h e o l o g i a n , N e w m a n scholar a n d l i t u r g i s t . w h o n e v e r e n d u r e d s e m i nary neoscholasticism:

cf.

The

Invisible

( E d i n b u r g h : I & L C l a r k 1999): 248

Fathei

Approaches

to the

Mystery

of the

Divinity

2 7

Reality

A

Synthesis

of Ihomistic

c h a p t e r s u m m a r i z e s this b o o k

Thought

(St L o u i s , M O : H e r d e r 1 9 5 2 ) : t h e rest o f this

12

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

B E F O R E

I I

to cause - b u t i t is the w o r l d that w e k n o w i n the first place. W e do n o t have

Alternative

some basic innate k n o w l e d g e o f G o d n o r any k n o w l e d g e o f o u r o w n c o n sciousness, p r i o r to our engagement w i t h things i n the w o r l d w e inhabit. I t is o n l y by reflection o n its o w n act o f k n o w i n g things that the intellect comes t o k n o w the existence o f its cognitive acts and thus o f its being a subject, a centre o f consciousness The 'moderate realism' o f A r i s t o t l e and Aquinas is i n h a r m o n y w i t h c o m m o n sense, w h i c h is to say: our natural, spontaneous knowledge.. This

1

contemporary

philosophy, as

Garrigou-

agnosticism, w h i c h includes the neo-positivism of Carnap, Wittgenstein, 28

Here, too, belongs the p h e n o m -

enology o f Husserl, w h i c h holds that the object o f philosophy is the immediate datum o f experience. AH these philosophies are concerned, then, n o t w i t h being, reality but w i t h phenomena, 'appearances'. 2

e v o l u t i o n i s m , w h i c h , i n the wake of H e g e l , takes the f o r m o f idealism, represented by Gentile i n Italy, and by L e o n Brunschvicg i n France; and

the p r i n c i p l e o f n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n : the articulation o f o p p o s i t i o n between

w h e n g i v e n a twist towards the empirical, c o i n i n g o u t as the creative

being and n o t h i n g ' B e i n g is n o t n o t h i n g ' , we may say; 'one and the same tively considered, then, this is the p r i n c i p l e o f i d e n t i t y : ' I f a t h i n g is, i t is: i f i t

characterize

nalism o f H u m e and C o m t e rehashed.

to believe - rather, these are necessary laws of b e i n g , objective laws o f all

Posi-

that

Rougier, and of the group called the Vienna Circle, w h i c h is the n o m i -

to phenomena, merely experimental, as the neophytes seem to be i n c l i n e d

t h i n g , r e m a i n i n g such, cannot simultaneously b o t h be and n o t be'

Philosophies

Lagrange lists t h e m :

h a r m o n y appears most clearly i n the objective validity o f first principles,

R i s i n g i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m the idea o f being is the fir st p r i n c i p l e , w h i c h is

13

I I

This becomes m u c h easier to grasp w h e n w e come to the three p r i n c i p a l tendencies

w h i c h are laws, n o t o f the m i n d only, mere logical laws, n o r laws restricted

reality, o f all that is o r can be.

V A I I C A N

evolution o f Bergson. 3

the m o d e r n G e r m a n school - rather a m i x e d bag, i t has to be said v o l u n t a r i s m as i n M a x Scheler; natural philosophy i n D r i e s c h , w h o

is n o t , i t is n o t ' To this p r i n c i p l e o f n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n is subordinated the

(however) leans o n A r i s t o t l e ; and o n t o l o g y i n H a r t m a n n , w h o gives a

p r i n c i p l e o f sufficient reason: ' E v e r y t h i n g that is, has its raison d'être, i n itself,

Platonic t w i s t to Aristotle's metaphysics — accordingly, for a Thoinist

i f of itself i t exists; i n something else, i f o f itself i t does n o t exist'

like Garrigou-Lagrange, these philosophies are w o r t h engaging w i t h ,

These are the principles o f our natural intelligence, first manifested i n

precisely w h e r e they l i m p towards A r i s t o t l e and Plato

that spontaneous f o r m o f intelligence w h i c h we call c o m m o n sense, that is, the natural aptitude of intelligence, to judge things sanely — before we have been initiated into a certain philosophical

culture

Garrigou-Lagrange's map o f m o d e r n philosophy need n o t be accepted i n every detail Nonetheless, as a r o u g h guide, he is by no means completely at

E x p o s i t i o n of the principles o f o n t o l o g y takes up the greater part o f Garrigou-Lagranges b o o k I t cannot be said to be easy going. O n the c o n -

sea. O n the contrary, he had a m o r e i n f o r m e d and better-balanced picture than many philosophers, let alone Thomists, had at the time.

trary, i t seems, at least to an analytic philosopher's eye, all t o o m u c h like the exposition, h i g h l y abstract and syllogistic, o f a set o f quasi-Euclidean t h e o rems. The c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f metaphysical principles seems very m u c h l i k e

Theology without Thomistic

setting o u t the rules o f a game. F r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f a m o r e text-based way o f studying philosophy, metaphysics seems treated like a k i n d of m a t h ematics. O n the historical side, concepts seem to come f r o m nowhere, they have n o background or context O n e way to keep one's head up, however, is to keep r e m i n d i n g oneself that, f o r Garrigou-Lagrange, the abstract structure w h i c h he expounds is actually i n t e n d e d to seem perfectly natural, once we clear away the mistaken philosophical theories

w h i c h distort and

occlude our c o m m o n sense. H i s metaphysics, one may say, is intended to let

Philosophy

W h a t goes w r o n g w h e n Catholic theologians t u r n away f r o m metaphysics? L i p service is, o f course, p a i d to Thomas Aquinas, Garrigou-Lagrange says, sarcastically Catholic theologians have to pretend to be Thomists. Yet, he asks rhetorically, is one a Thomist by accepting the dogmas defined by the C h u r c h , w h i l e f o l l o w i n g Descartes o n the spiritual life — b y privatizing one's relationship w i t h God? O r w h i l e , w i t h H u m e , denying the p r i n c i p l e of

things appear to us as they w o u l d i f our minds were n o t c l o u d e d by p h i l o sophical theorizings 2 t i

L o u i s R o u g i e r ( 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 8 2 ) , t h e F r e n c h l i n k w i t h t h e V i e n n a C i r c l e , a sort o f l o g i c a l

e m p i r i c i s t , o r g a n i z e d t h e Paris I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f S ci e n t i f i c P h i i o s o p h y

1935.

14

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

B E F O R E

I I

causality and hence the validity o f cosmological proofs f o r the existence

V A T I C A N

15

I I

Garrigou-Lagrange becomes extremely eloquent Are w e to suppose that the dogma o f the I n c a r n a t i o n affirms that Jesus is G o d , a statement o f fact -

of God? A h - w e m i g h t naively ask — are n o t the truths o f c o m m o n sense a s u f f i -

or a pious e x h o r t a t i o n , that we must act towards Jesus 'as i f he were God? Is

cient f o u n d a t i o n for Catholic philosophers and theologians? Indeed they

Christ really present i n the eucharist, o r do w e only act as i f he were so?

are, Garrigou-Lagrange replies, w a r m i n g to his theme - the p r o b l e m is that

Succumbing to the allurements o f pragmatism, he fears, w e forget h o w to

the truths of c o m m o n sense are t o o o f t e n overlaid b y m o d e r n philosophical

understand dogmas defined by the C h u r c h as true, immutable, and as con-

theorizings. The minds o f neophyte theologians, so he thinks, are so soaked

f o r m i n g to the extramental reality w h i c h they express. W h a t they express is

i n phenomenalism, idealism, positivism, pragmatism, and so o n , that, w i t h -

n o t o u r religious experience. As regards the dogma o f the Incarnation,

o u t serious engagement w i t h these philosophies, they r e m a i n under t h e i r

Garrigou-Lagrange asks, w i t h r o u g h h u m o u r , ' W h o can c l a i m to experience

spell, w h i c h means i n the end that they discount reason

the hypostatic u n i o n ? ' W e may experience, n o t the mystery itself, b u t its

H e t h e n goes o f f i n t o something o f a rant. W h e n theologians choose history o f doctrine as their specialism, and abandon metaphysics, w h i c h he seems to regard as the unavoidable effect, then relativism creeps i n t o the teaching o f d o c t r i n e Pope Pius X was r i g h t to h i g h l i g h t , i n many C a t h o l i c ' theologians, i n his day, a gaping v o i d : the lack o f philosophy N e a r l y f i f t y years later, i n the 1950s, so Garrigou-Lagrange thinks, the same v o i d lies gaping open

effects i n us - i f y o u like: ' T h e Spirit H i m s e l f g i v e t h testimony to o u r spirit that we are the sons of G o d ' (§1384). Thomas Aquinas w o u l d agree to that, no d o u b t a l l o w i n g that the Spirit evokes i n us a filial affection, w h i c h (if you like) y o u may say y o u 'experience' Yet even this 'experience', G a r r i g o u Lagrange says, deflatingly, w o u l d be difficult to distinguish f r o m

mere

sentimental affection Bemused by this pragmatist c o n c e p t i o n o f t r u t h , another theologian has

Recently, for example, Garrigou-Lagrange reports, one theologian has asserted that, w h i l e speculative

theology no d o u b t p r o d u c e d beautiful

claimed that theology is at b o t t o m a spirituality, w h i c h has f o u n d concepts adequate to its religious experience. This p o s i t i o n comes from the G e r m a n

systems i n the M i d d l e Ages, i t n o longer has a role: serious w o r k is n o w all

Romantic

i n positive theology - historical scholarship, that is to say - rather than i n

Here, however, as we shall see i n the next chapter, Garrigou-Lagrange is

Tübingen School, and especially f r o m Johann A d a m M ö h l e r

metaphysical system-building. A n o t h e r proposes t o p u t the treatise o n the

attacking his f o r m e r student M a r i e - D o m i n i q u e C h e n u

This is t h e claim

T r i n i t y before the de Deo uno, w h i c h i n any case he w o u l d cut d o w n to size.

that L h o m i s t theology w o u l d be the expression o f D o m i n i c a n spirituality,

As regards the relationship between nature and grace, another w o u l d r e t u r n

Scotism that o f Franciscan spirituality, M o l i n i s m that of lgnatian spirituality,

to w h a t he holds to be the true p o s i t i o n o f the Greek Fathers before the

and so o n These three schools of spirituality, i t w o u l d be said, are tolerated

t i m e o f Augustine - as i f the labours o f Aquinas, and seven centuries o f

i n the Catholic C h u r c h , and so the theologies, w h i c h are their conceptual

Thomists, were o f no value! For the likes o f Garrigou-Lagrange, there was

expressions, each being i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the particular religious experi-

no p o i n t i n studying earlier authors whose w o r k was absorbed i n t o , or r e n -

ence, w h i c h is its source, w o u l d all be equally 'true'. A t times, however,

dered redundant by, Aquinas's achievement. Pragmatism is a great t e m p t a t i o n : ' A doctrine according to w h i c h t r u t h is

Garrigou-Lagrange protests, these theologies contradict one another — what is to be said about this?

a relation, entirely i m m a n e n t to h u m a n experience, whereby k n o w l e d g e is

This 'spiritualization' o f theology, r e d u c i n g i t to a religious experience,

subordinated to activity, and the t r u t h o f a p r o p o s i t i o n consists i n its u t i l i t y

deprives i t o f all 'scientific' o b j e c t i v i t y This is the morass i n t o w h i c h we

and satisfactoriness'.

are l e d i f we abandon t h e n o t i o n o f t r u t h as c o n f o r m i t y w i t h

29

D o g m a becomes a n o r m , regulatory, a practical

objective

prescription: ' I n y o u r relations w i t h G o d , act as y o u do i n y o u r relations

reality, p r o p o s i n g rather to define t r u t h as c o n f o r m i t y w i t h

constantly

w i t h people'. D o g m a , that is t o say, w o u l d n o t be true by its c o n f o r m i n g to

developing experience, m o r a l and religious

transcendent d i v i n e reality, b u t b y its relation to the i n t e r n a l religious ex-

c o n c e p t i o n o f t r u t h as correspondence w i t h reality is t o unsettle a l l f o u n -

perience o f the person. ' T h e dogmas o f faith are t o be retained o n l y i n the

dations, n o t o n l y i n theology, i n metaphysics, b u t also i n the sciences, and

practical sense, i e : as preceptive norms o f action, but n o t as norms o f

i n f a i t h : ' T h e enthusiasm o f hope and charity, i f i t is not to remain a beauti-

b e l i e f w h i c h is a thesis that has been condemned by the C h u r c h (§1371).

ful dream of religious e m o t i o n , must rest o n a faith w h i c h is i n c o n f o r m i t y

To abandon the traditional

w i t h reality, n o t merely w i t h the exigencies o f o u r i n n e r life, or even w i t h Reality:

§1367

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

our best intentions'.

16

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

Chapter Two

Back, t h e n , to w h e r e w e were before, so Garrigou-Lagrange counsels us. A c t i o n , practice, experience, can never be the first c r i t e r i o n o f w h a t is true. Rather, the first c r i t e r i o n must be ontological, that objective reality f r o m

MARIE-DOMINIQUE

w h i c h reason draws first principles The first act o f the intellect is to k n o w , n o t its o w n action, n o t the ego, n o t phenomena, b u t objective and i n t e l l i -

CHENU

gible being (§1398). Unless w o u l d - b e theologians free themselves o f the philosophies b y w h i c h Garrigou-Lagrange takes i t f o r granted they are captivated, t h e i r theology w i l l inevitably subvert true Catholic d o c t r i n e

Conclusion M u c h m o r e m i g h t be said, o f course Garrigou-Lagrange published many

W h i l e Garrigou-Lagrange w a n t e d h i m to r e m a i n i n R o m e , i n 1920, as his

books o n dogmatic theology and spirituality H i s exposition o f Thomistic

assistant at the A n g e l i c u m , the y o u n g C h e n u chose rather to r e t u r n to Le

philosophy o f being, one may concede, is so abstract as to be almost i m p o s -

Saulchoir, the French D o m i n i c a n college t h e n i n exile i n B e l g i u m .

sible f o r beginners nowadays to get into. W h a t he perhaps intended as

younger m a n w a n t e d to develop a radically different way o f reading Thomas

merely a supplementary historical sketch o f the types of philosophy i n

Aquinas f r o m the one inculcated at the A n g e l i c u m T h e conflict o f inter-

vogue w h e n he was w r i t i n g is a far m o r e accessible p o i n t o f e n t r y i n t o the

pretations w h i c h divided t h e m so b i t t e r l y soon emerged.

1

The

questions about t r u t h and reality, realism, idealism, phenomenalism, and so

M a r c e l - L e o n C h e n u was b o r n o n 7 January 1895 at Soisy-sur-Seine, and

o n , w h i c h any w o u l d - b e Catholic theologian still needs to sort out. I r o n i -

died i n Paris o n 11 February 1990. H i s parents, bakers near C o r b e i l , eventu-

cally, w h e n this inveterate adversary of the histórico-contextualist approach

ally r u n n i n g a m e t a l w o r k i n g business, were never fiee o f financial anxieties

considers the philosophical options adopted by philosophers i n his o w n day,

H i s maternal grandparents, state school teachers, especially his grand-

he becomes a m o d e l o f h o w to engage w i t h the philosophical issues about

m o t h e r , encouraged his aptitude f o r study As a 15-year-old, v i s i t i n g Le

being, t r u t h , and so o n , w h i c h may perhaps always remain o n the t h e o -

Saulchoir, he fell i n love w i t h w h a t he saw as 'a very beautiful l i t u r g y w i t h a

logian's agenda, but w h i c h , i n any case, haunt the theologies w e are n o w to

life of study and a c o m m u n i t y d i s c i p l i n e ' .

examine.

The next step is to consider h o w differently the t h o u g h t o f

Garrigou-Lagrange, already gone to R o m e . I n 1913, after some m o n t h s i n a

Thomas Aquinas was approached by Garrigou-Lagrange's p u p i l : M a r i e -

diocesan seminary, he was clothed as a D o m i n i c a n fr iar, receiving t h e name

Dominique Chenu.

M a r i e - D o m i n i q u e , according to the custom i n those days U n f i t f o r military

2

H e just missed

meeting

service, he was packed o f f to R o m e i n late 1914, w i t h others, w h e n the G e r m a n advance i n t o B e l g i u m led to the suspension o f teaching at Le Saulchoir

Thus C h e n u completed the w h o l e seven years of neoscholastic

philosophy and theology at the A n g e l i c u m . R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Lagrange supervised his doctorate dissertation. I n L a t i n , o f course, i t is an analysis of

1

D e s p i t e P o p e L e o X I I I s call t o F r e n c h C a t h o l i c s t o s u p p o r t t h e R e p u b l i c t h e y f a i l e d to d o

so l e a d i n g , especially u n d e r E m i l e C o m b e s , p r i m e m i n i s t e r 1 9 0 2 - 5 , t o a serious a t t e m p t t o destroy t h e p o w e r o f t h e C h u r c h a n d t o t h e e x i l e o f r e l i g i o u s orders 2

F o r details see C h r i s t o p h e F P o t w o r o w s k i Contemplation

Marie-Dominique

Chenu

and Incarnation:

The

Theology

oj

( M o n t r e a l a n d K i n g s t o n : M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 1 ) ,

w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y l i s t i n g 1,396

items

18

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

19

C H E N U

w h a t Aquinas says about c o n t e m p l a t i o n , m o t i v a t e d , however, b y the desire

I n effect, C h e n u was d e n y i n g any need to master Thomistic philosophy

to challenge the assumption (then), allegedly, that spirituality is p r i m a r i l y t o

before being allowed to enter i n t o Aquinas's w o r k as a w h o l e O l d e r c o l -

do w i t h a person's soul and o v e r c o m i n g sin, rather than concerned

with

leagues at Le Saulchoir, as w e l l as Garrigou-Lagrange, were dismayed at

I n effect, this

w h a t seemed to t h e m neglect o f speculative theology i n favour o f ('mere')

reconstruction of Aquinas's account o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n was designed to

historical scholarship, the slippery slope to relativistic notions o f t r u t h and

retrieve a theocentric

thus to m o d e r n i s m C h e n u was undismayed. I n 1937 he issued a manifesto:

contemplative self-submission to the objectivity o f G o d

3

c o n c e p t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n spirituality over against

m o d e r n , at any rate late n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y concentration o n the state o f

Une École de théologie: Le Saulchoir H e had just passed the S T M examination,

the individual's spiritual progress

the highest degree w i t h i n the D o m i n i c a n Order. H e had been appointed

A f t e r these years i n R o m e , w h i c h he f o u n d uncongenial, C h e n u was impatient to get back to Le Saulchoir.

H i s reluctance

to w o r k

with

Garrigou-Lagrange, however, suggests that he already had a different way o f e x p o u n d i n g Aquinas i n m i n d . Back at Le Saulchoir, his first course (to fellow D o m i n i c a n s l i t t l e younger than himself) was o n 'the patristic sources o f the t h o u g h t o f St Thomas'. T h i s was n o t unprecedented, and i n any case he was charged w i t h teaching the history o f d o c t r i n e , n o t w i t h any of the m a i n courses o n dogmatic and m o r a l theology These were, of course,

R e g e n t , head o f the college. A t 42 he was o n the b r i n k o f great things. The college itself had just been granted the r i g h t t o award p o n t i f i c a l degrees, i n addition to i n t e r n a l D o m i n i c a n qualifications The result of his manifesto, however, was a summons to R o m e i n 1938 to be interrogated b y a handful o f his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s , headed b y Garrigou-Lagrange. T h e y b u l l i e d h i m so severely that: T gave i n t o a sort o f psychological pressure, I let myself be intimidated. O n e o f t h e m - no d o u b t to pacify R o m a n i r r i t a t i o n s — asked m e to sign a series of t e n propositions I signed'.

taught by m o r e experienced professors, and t o o k the f o r m (well i n t o the

6

Clearly, as a glance at t h e m shows, i n their fabulous absurdity, the p r o p o -

1960s) o f l i n e - b y - l i n e exposition o f the Summa Theologies, w i t h reference to

sitions reveal the senior D o m i n i c a n s ' fear that Chenu's

the c o m m e n t a r y b y Cajetan b u t w i t h l i t t l e or no allusion to the sources o f

recreating the historical context meant that t r u t h was n o t 'absolute and

Aquinas's views, i n patristic o r other literature..

i m m u t a b l e ' ; that theology was o n l y an expression of religious experience

emphasis

on

I n t e n years, w h a t began as an ancillary course b y a j u n i o r professor

and n o t a 'true science'; and so on. I t may seem incredible that g r o w n men

entirely redirected the way o f reading Aquinas. I n 1936—7 C h e n u lectured

w o u l d come up w i t h the p r o p o s i t i o n that ' I t is glorious f o r the C h u r c h to

o n Bonaventure's Itinerarium Mentis in Deum:

have the system of Saint Thomas as t r u l y o r t h o d o x ' , and suchlike, and

obviously n o t o n l y relating

Aquinas to his greatest c o n t e m p o r a r y b u t also i m p l y i n g that, i n its o w n quite different way, the Summa

Theologies c o u l d , and should, be read as a

k i n d o f ' j o u r n e y o f the m i n d i n t o the d i v i n e m y s t e r y ' . Just as challengingly, 4

w e f i n d C h e n u l e c t u r i n g , i n 1938-9, o n 'Augustine and Denys: the t w o Platonisms o f St Thomas'.

5

The difference between the theologies o f Aquinas

and Bonaventure expressed a difference i n 'spiritualities'. The c o n t r i b u t i o n

6

T h e t e n p r o p o s i t i o n s C h e n u signed w e r e as f o l l o w s : 1 F o r m u l a : d o g m a t i c s e n u n c i a n t ver-

i t a t e m a b s o l u t a m et i m m u t a b i l e m 2 P r o p o s i t i o n e s vera: et certa;

sive i n p h i l o s o p h i a sive i n

t h e o l o g i a . firma; s u n t et n u l l o m o d o fragiles 3 Sacra L r a d i t i o novas veritates n o n creat. sed firm i t e r t e n e n d u m u t d e p o s i t u m revelationis sen c o m p l e x u m v e r i t a t u m d i v i n i t u s r e v e l a t a r u m , c l a u s u m fuisse m o r t e u l t i m i a p o s t o l i

4 Sacra T h e o l o g i a n o n est q u í d a m s p i r i t u a l i t a s qua;

o f Denys and Augustine was as significant as that o f A r i s t o t l e i n shaping

i n v e n i t i n s t r u m e n t a sua; e x p e r i e n c i a ; r e l i g i o s a ; ada;quata; sed est vera scientia, D e o

Aquinas's w o r k . I n these, and several other ways, Chenu's ancillary course

c e n t e s t u d i o acquisita, cujus p r i n c i p i a s u n t a r t i c u l i F i d e i et e t i a m o m n e s veritates revelata;

edged o u t the standard way of e x p o u n d i n g Aquinas F r o m the start he broke completely w i t h the style o f e x p o u n d i n g the T h o m i s t synthesis as practised b y Garr igou-Lagrange.

q u i b u s t h e o l o g u s f i d e d i v i n a saltern i n f b r m i , adhœret. 5 V a r i a systemata t h e o l o g i c a i n q u i b u s ab i n v i c e m d i s s e n t i u n t n o n s u n t s i m u l vera systema S. T h o m a ;

q u o a d ea

6 G l o r i o s u m est E c c l e s i a m habere

t a m q u a m valde o r t h o d o x u m , i e

7 Necesse est veritates t h e o l o g i c a s p e r S

benedi-

v e r i t a t i b u s F i d e valde

conforme.

S c r i p t u r a m et t r a d i t i o n e m d e m o n s t r a r e ,

e a r u m n a t u r a m et i n t i m a m r a t i o n e m p r i n c i p i i s et d o c t r i n a S. T h o m a ; i l l u s t r a t e 8 S

necnon Thomas,

etsi p r o p r i e t h e o l o g u s p r o p r i e e t i a m p h i l o s o p h u s f u i t ; p r o i n d e , p h i l o s o p h i a eius i n sua i n t e l l i 1

'De contemplatione

( A n g e l i c u m 1 9 2 0 ) , L a L h è s e m é d i t e d u P. M . - D . C h e n u ' , e d i t e d b y

C a r m e l o G i u s e p p e C o n t i c e l l o , Revue

des

Sciences Philosophiques

et Théologiques

75

(1991):

F o r t h e finest a c c o u n t a l o n g these lines: A N W i l l i a m s , ' M y s t i c a l T h e o l o g y R e d u x :

P a t t e r n o f A q u i n a s s Summa Theologies', i n Modem 5

Cf

Aquinas:

Fran O ' R o u r k e ,

Theologyi3

Lhe

9

Theologo

i n processu s c i e n t i f i c o

suo v a l d e n e c e s s a r i u m

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 2 0 0 3 ) : 2 4 7 - 7 9 .

est

metaphysicam

10 D e aliis s c r i p t o r i b u s et

d o c t o r i b u s p r o b a t i s s e r v a n d u m est m o d e r a m e n reverentiale i n m o d o l o q u e n d i et s c r i b e n d i , e t i a m s i i n q u i b u s d a m d e f e c t u m i n v e n i u n t u r T h e L a t i n needs n o t r a n s l a t i o n ; i t w o u l d s o u n d

(1997):53-74

A q u i n a s a n d P l a t o n i s m ' , i n Fergus K e r r O P (ed.)

On the Varieties ojInterpretation

absolutas

S. T h o m a ; a d h i b e r e et ad regulas dialéctica; d i l i g e n t e r attendere

363—422: extracts, w i t h c o m m e n t a r y 4

g i b i l i t a t e et v e r i t a t e n o n p e n d t t ab ejus t h e o l o g i a , nec e n u n c i a t veritates m e r e relativas sed

Contemplating

e v e n m o r e absurd i n E n g l i s h ; t h e t e x t is i n t h e h a n d , i t is said, o f M i c h a e l B r o w n e (see f a c s i m ile Une Ecole de théologie:

le Saulchoir (Paris: C e r f 1 9 8 5 ) : 35)

20

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

badger C h e n u i n t o p u t t i n g his signature to such p o p p y c o c k - b u t that is

' o p t i m i s m ' o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n Gaudium

symptomatic o f the theological pathology o f those days.

C h u r c h and the M o d e r n W o r l d ' .

21

C H E N U

et Spes, the d o c u m e n t ©n 'The

Chenu's critics, besides Garrigou-Lagrange, i n c l u d e d M a r i a n o C o r d o v a n i

I n the aftermath, C h e n u was m o r e dismayed by the failure to i m p l e m e n t

(1883-1950), t h e n recently a p p o i n t e d Master o f the Sacred Palace, personal

the reforms that he expected, rather than by the surrender to the attractions

theologian to the pope; and M i c h a e l B r o w n e (1887-1971), R e c t o r of the

o f secularism that distressed many others i n his generation H e d i e d i n Paris

A n g e l i c u m and future Master o f the D o m i n i c a n O r d e r and a leader o f

o n 11 February 1990, receiving a splendid funeral i n N o t r e - D a m e , w i t h

the ultramontanist m i n o r i t y at Vatican I I

many bishops i n attendance.

These three were f o r m i d a b l e

theologians, d e t e r m i n e d enemies o f any tendency i n Catholic theology that c o u l d be accused o f m o d e r n i s m , and very capable exponents o f the A r i s t o t e l i a n - T h o m i s t synthesis. T h e i r views were certainly representative o f

Baroque Scholasticism

the m a j o r i t y o f Chenu's f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s at the t i m e I n 1942, i n G e r m a n - o c c u p i e d Paris, C h e n u heard o n the radio that his

C h e n u , then, c o m p l e t e d the f u l l seven years o f mandatory Thomistic p h i l -

Thomas

osophy and theology at one o f the leading institutions i n R o m e . T h e worst

Philippe, f o r m e r l y a colleague at Le Saulchoir b u t teaching i n R o m e since

excesses o f the a n t i - m o d e r n i s t campaign were curbed w h e n Pius X died

1936, ar rived w i t h a u t h o r i t y f r o m the Master of the O r d e r to deprive C h e n u

and was succeeded i n September 1914 by Benedict X V

o f his post as R e g e n t at Le Saulchoir (back i n France, i n the south-east

recently retired f r o m his chair at the Gregorian University, was b y far the

suburbs of Paris, since 1938), d e n o u n c i n g h i m explicitly as a 'modernist', f o r

most authoritative theological presence i n t o w n

playing d o w n the role o f reason i n d o i n g theology, and advocating the study

O a t h and the T w e n t y - f o u r T h o m i s t i c Theses had recently been imposed (in

little manifesto was n o w o n the I n d e x o f P r o h i b i t e d B o o k s .

7

o f T u b i n g e n School theologians, i n particular o f Johann A d a m M o h l e r

8

C h e n u never again taught at Te Saulchoir Friends got h i m a post at the E c o l e des Hautes Etudes i n Paris, w h i c h o n l y c o n f i r m e d the j u d g e m e n t that, w h i l e perhaps suited to historical research, he was n o t a reliable e x p o nent o f Aquinas B y t h e n , however, as a friar-preacher, he was i n v o l v e d w i t h the beginnings o f the w o r k e r - p r i e s t m o v e m e n t , and its attempt to evangelize the anti-clerical i n d u s t r i a l suburbs o f Paris. Eventually, i n 1953, C h e n u was a m o n g the French D o m i n i c a n s disciplined by the Master o f t h e i r O r d e r (Suarez), supposedly to save t h e m f r o m worse treatment by the Vatican.

9

1 1

1 0

Louis B i l l o t sj,

The Anti-modernist

1910 and 1914 respectively). Years later, C h e n u w o u l d a d m i t to r e m a i n i n g marked by the T w e n t y - f o u r Theses. The i m p o s i t i o n o f the Theses o n all doctorate candidates he saw as one o f the w o r s t abuses o f papal authority, distorting the practice o f Catholic theology P r i m a r i l y a historian, a n d never a metaphysician, he w o u l d always have developed a different reading of Thomas Aquinas f r o m that elaborated by Garrigou-Lagrange His approach, one may say, a little summarily, was very m u c h a reaction against the project (as i t seemed to h i m ) o f extracting metaphysical theorems f r o m Aquinas's w o r k , t a k i n g t h e m o u t o f theological as w e l l as historical context, creating (as he used to say) a 'sacred metaphysics' C h e n u used to say that he p r o f i t e d f r o m Garrigou-Lagrange's

N e v e r an official 'expert' at Vatican I I , b u t employed as adviser to French-

lectures

speaking A f r i c a n bishops, C h e n u instigated the Message to the W o r l d

However, he regarded h i m as a d i v i d e d m i n d : a master o f spirituality, versed

(20 O c t o b e r 1962), o n the grounds that the C o u n c i l should display f r o m

particularly i n St John o f the Cross, the Spanish Carmelite mystic, and yet an

the outset that the C h u r c h is concerned n o t o n l y w i t h herself b u t p r i n c i -

inflexible Aristotelian i n philosophy, d e t e r m i n e d to keep spirituality and

pally w i t h the destiny o f the w o r l d . H e had a g o o d deal to do w i t h the 1 0

G i a c o m o D e l i a C h i e s a (1854—1922), a p a t r i c i a n a n d career d i p l o m a t was said t o have

f o u n d a secret file d e n o u n c i n g his o w n ' m o d e r n i s t ' heresies w h e n h e sat d o w n at t h e papal 7

C r e a t e d b y t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n o f t h e i n q u i s i t i o n i n 1557 t o c o n t r o l l i t e r a t u r e c o n t r a r y t o

f a i t h o r m o r a l s ; a b a n d o n e d i n 1966 8

desk 1 1

T h o m a s P h i l i p p e ( 1 9 0 5 - 9 3 ) later b e c a m e c h a p l a i n t o a n i n s t i t u t i o n f o r m e n w i t h d i s a b i l i -

A c c o r d i n g t o C h e n u , B i l l o t s t h e o l o g y is i d e o l o g y ; c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t a n d careless o f the

historicity o f the Christian economy

w i t h n o interest i n b i b l i c a l sources, i n d i f f e r e n t t o the

ties, w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y i n s p i r e d Jean V a n i e r t o f o u n d L ' A r c h e , a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k o f

pastoral e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e C h u r c h a n d o f t h e C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e :

such communities..

entirely defined by conceptual and juridical authority, w i t h no methodological guidance from

9

F o r this s h a m e f u l s t o r y see F r a n ç o i s L e p r i e u r Quand Rome condamne. Dominicains

ouvriers (Paris: P i o n / C e r f

1989)

et prêtres-

t h e m y s t e r y w h i c h is nevertheless its o b j e c t ' , see Jacques Duquesne théologien

en liberté. (Paris: C e n t u r i o n 1 9 7 5 ) : 3 1 .

a t h e o l o g y o f t h e faith interroge le Pére Chenu:

Un

22

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

speculative theology completely separate. For C h e n u , b y contrast, Catholic Christian theology c o u l d n o t be practised except w i t h continuous reference

23

C H E N U

the objectivity o f speculative theology as a quasi-scientific discipline i n favour (as they feared) o f a morass o f piety, subjective experience and fideism.

to the historical economy of the mystery o f G o d incarnate - w h i c h meant, as a matter o f course, that theological activity was g r o u n d e d i n the liturgical

L e S a u l c h o i r : A S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y ?

life and contemplative asceticism w i t h w h i c h he had fallen i n love as a youngster. C h e n u was n o m o r e interested than Garrigou-Lagrange was i n historical scholarship f o r its o w n sake (whatever that m i g h t be) H e saw the

To w h a t extent Le Saulchoir ever was, even i n 1937, 'une école', as i f all the

revitalization o f Catholic study o f Scripture by the application o f the histor-

D o m i n i c a n s o n the teaching staff at the t i m e had a single v i s i o n , is dis-

ical critical methods o f biblical scholars, his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n Marie-Joseph

putable Some o f his colleagues, at least, were i n f u r i a t e d by Chenu's magis-

Lagrange i n p a r t i c u l a r .

terial exposition of w h a t they stood for, collectively

12

The same approach, w i t h appropriate differences,

w o u l d open up the theology o f the medievals and especially that o f Aquinas,

Moreover, i n retrospect, Une école de théologie was needlessly polemical.

so C h e n u believed, far m o r e f r u i t f u l l y than neoscholastic T h o m i s m c o u l d

For example, C h e n u d e r i d e d the c u r r i c u l a at seminaries and colleges (no

ever achieve. Aquinas s v i s i o n o f the Christian revelation o f G o d was, i n a

d o u b t i n c l u d i n g the A n g e l i c u m ) : neoscholastic philosophy and theology

way, incarnate i n his w r i t i n g . To ignore the historical context, the genesis

textbooks were pervaded b y ' W o l f f i a n rationalism' H e peppered his text

and texture, o f this w r i t i n g was to miss the vision

w i t h insults N a t u r a l theology as practised i n Catholic institutions had no

C h e n u w r o t e as follows:

m o r e religious character than eighteenth-century D e i s m The Augustfnian

Those who enclose themselves i n a scholastic I h o m i s m hardened by generations of textbooks and manuals (and marginalized by the intrusion of a massive dose of Baroque scholasticism) oblige themselves thereby to summary condemnations o f positions o f which they are largely ignorant. This would certainiy not be the path for disciples of Thomas Aquinas. A n d less helpful is the way o f those who, colluding strangely w i t h anti-modernism, hand the memory of the medieval doctor over to a positivist intellectualism, keeping for themselves a I h o m i s m which is only a paragon of their own pseudoreligious integrist position But this exploitation of Thomism (which some naively view to be salutary) cannot hide the real intentions of others, penetrated w i t h the spirit o f Thomas and w i t h the highest requirements of scientific or theological work They meet honesdy the problems legitimately posed by the philosophy of religion, biblical exegesis, and the history of dogma Illumined by the experience of their teacher they know how to discern in new terrain the relationships o f reason and faith Precisely this is the intellectual regime o f Catholicism.

Aquinas's theology Catholic theology needed to be disinfected o f 'baroque

Chenu's c o n t r i b u t i o n is all there, already, i n 1931. For Garrigou-Lagrange,

j e c t e d t h e C h u r c h t o t h e state: o n e o f t h e spectres h a u n t i n g t h e V a t i c a n at V a t i c a n I - q u i t e an

however, and many w h o shared his view, Chenu's project risked forfeiting

arcane i n s u l t !

sap and the D i o n y s i a n mysticism had been allowed to leak away f r o m Scholasticism': Joseph I I ' .

1 4

'the philosophy o f clerical functionaries at the c o u r t o f

T h e ' T h o m i s t o r t h o d o x y ' o f Cardinal Zigliara, the greatest

o f the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y D o m i n i c a n Thomists i n R o m e , was ' c o n t a m i nated b y W o l f f i a n i s m ' ; i t suppresses the 'Platonic' interpretation o f (say) Lepidi

1 5

C h e n u w o u l d prefer Pierre Rousselot's b o o k , L'lntellectualisme

Saint Thomas, 'despite its faults'

1 6

de

Esoteric as these boutades n o w sound, they

c o u l d n o t b u t anger most Catholic theologians at the time, G a r r i g o u Lagrange above all. I n short, so Chenu's charge ran, neoscholastics paid n o attention to 'the problems o f existence, action, the i n d i v i d u a l , b e c o m i n g , and t i m e ' , preferr i n g 'a philosophy of essences, i n w h i c h w h a t counts is the n o n - c o n t i n g e n t , the universal, ideal and i m m u t a b l e relations - fine matters for definitions'

13

1 4

1 5

J o s e p h I I (1 7 4 1 - 9 0 ) H a b s b u r g E m p e r o r , a n d leader o f t h e C a t h o l i c E n l i g h t e n m e n t , sub-

Tomasso M a r i a Z i g l i a r a O P ( 1 8 3 3 - 9 3 ) t a u g h t i n R o m e f r o m 1 8 7 0 t o 1893 a n d was t h e

c h i e f e x p o n e n t o f A r i s t o t e l i a n I h o m i s m A l b e r t o L e p i d i O P ( 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 2 5 ) , b y contrast, w h o 1 2

Marie-Joseph

Lagrange ( 1 8 5 5 - 1 9 3 8 ) f o u n d e d a centre o f b i b l i c a l studies i n Jerusalem i n

1 8 9 0 a n d was t h e greatest C a t h o l i c b i b l i c a l scholar A t t a c k e d b y colleagues f o r his s u p p o r t o f m o d e r n i s m , h e t u r n e d f r o m O l d t o N e w Testament studies, less liable (then) t o raise suspicions 1 3

' L e sens et les l e ç o n s d ' u n e crise religieuse'. La Vie intellectuelle

T h o m a s F O ' M e a r a OP. Thomas Aquinas o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1999:

182

Theologian

(Notre Dame

13 ( 1 9 3 1 ) : 3 8 0 translated i n I N , and L o n d o n : University

t a u g h t i n France and B e l g i u m , stressed t h e A u g u s t i n i a n s t r a n d i n A q u i n a s Z i g l i a r a a n d L e p i d i represented r a d i c a l l y d i v e r g e n t t r a d i t i o n s e v e n w i t h i n t h e D o m i n i c a n O r d e r 1 6

C h e n u , a D o m i n i c a n , r e c o m m e n d i n g a b o o k b y a Jesuit, was o f c o u r s e b e i n g p r o v o c a t i v e .

P i e r r e R o u s s e l o t Sj ( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 1 5 ) r e d i s c o v e r e d a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f k n o w l e d g e and l o v e i n t h e w o r k o f A q u i n a s , m a k i n g A r i s t o t e l i a n T h o m i s m i r r e l e v a n t ; see his 1 9 0 8 thesis translated as The Intellectualism

of St Thomas ( L o n d o n : Sheed a n d W a r d 1935)

Sorbonne

24

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

Provocatively, as he must have realized, the second chapter of Chenu's

25

C H E N U

and i n the contemplation, which, goal o f both, guarantees the fervour, the method, the purity, and the freedom o f their s p i r i t

manifesto begins w i t h a q u o t a t i o n f r o m a letter f r o m George Tyrrell {whose

18

name he misspelled) to F r i e d r i c h v o n H u g e l w r i t t e n i n 1904, i n w h i c h he remarks that i t is not o n this or that article o f the Creed that they differ f r o m

This is, obviously, exactly w h a t Garrigou-Lagrange rejected. For a theo-

their adversaries, they differ over the w o r d credo, o n the m e a n i n g o f the

logian, C h e n u goes o n , c o n t e m p l a t i o n is n o t a practice i n w h i c h he may

w o r d ' t r u e ' as applied to dogma. This remark C h e n u takes to show that

engage f r o m t i m e to t i m e , 'a burst o f fervour, beyond his studying, as i f an

there c o u l d be n o d o u b t about 'the intellectual and religious crisis that cut

escape f r o m its object and its m e t h o d ' . Rather, c o n t e m p l a t i o n is the theo-

across Christianity at that t i m e ' Nevertheless, he i m m e d i a t e l y says, m u c h

logian's everyday environment, w i t h o u t w h i c h theology w o u l d be arid

has been achieved, i n Catholic scholarship. H e reels o f f the famous names:

and pointless. Garrigou-Lagrange w o u l d n o t have dissented. B e h i n d what

Duchesne, B a t i f f o l , Lagrange, Mercier, and B l o n d e l — 'the fruits o f this

C h e n u is saying, however, there lies a longstanding dispute about h o w to

extremely fecund a c t i v i t y presided over b y Pope Leo X I I I '

A l l i n all, as

divide up the day: does a theologian spend an h o u r on his knees w i t h o u t a

this litany was meant to demonstrate, there was a h a l f - c e n t u r y o f Catholic

b o o k o f any k i n d and t h e n go to the library to study or to the aula to

scholarship to celebrate (always a booster, C h e n u , never a knocker) - w h a t -

lecture; or is the hour's m e d i t a t i o n dependent o n a text and the research and

ever 'controversies and incidents' there had been.

teaching always contemplatively practised? C h e n u , i t seemed to his critics,

1 7

Interestingly C h e n u makes n o attempt to discuss the concept o f t r u t h , w h i c h Tyrrell assumes that he and v o n H u g e l share, over against the concept

failed to make the proper distinction between study and prayer, and was thus, Unsurprisingly liable to confuse theology and spirituality

held by their critics Tyrrell is m a k i n g the crucial p o i n t that, philosophically,

I n the chapter o n philosophy C h e n u raises the perennially d i f f i c u l t ques-

his conception o f t r u t h is quite different f r o m that i n neoscholastic theology

t i o n o f the status o f philosophy w i t h i n Christianity This is a practical as well

C h e n u does n o t endorse Tyrell's remark, n o r o n the other h a n d does he

as a theoretical question. As standard seminary pedagogy required, should

seem to see any reason to question it.

philosophical studies precede entry i n t o theology? Neoscholastic apologetics,

The message o f Chenu's manifesto lies, most provocatively, i n the layout: the chapter o n philosophy comes after the one o n theology

the c r o w n o f the philosophy course, mistakenly regarded as 'traditional',

I n effect,

completely misrepresents the relationship between reason and faith, 'as i f i t

There is no

was a matter o f t w o worlds outside one another, for w h i c h happy concor-

need to be able to defend the T w e n t y - f o u r Theses before one is allowed to

dances had to be f o u n d ' . N o d o u b t this seemed to make sense, as a reaction

pass i n t o theological studies.

reconstruct

to the deism o f the Enlightenment. B u t i t is a mistake: ' A Christian doing

Aquinas's historical context than to master the metaphysical theorems that

philosophy does n o t cease to be a Christian; a Christian philosopher does not

supposedly he at the basis o f his theology

cease to be a p h i l o s o p h e r ' .

Thomas Aquinas is to be read as a theologian f r o m the outset I t is far m o r e i m p o r t a n t to

T h e key passage runs as follows:

19

C h e n u is sceptical about the n o t i o n o f a 'perennial philosophy'

The

phrase itself — philosophic! perennis — was invented by a certain A. Steuchus, Theological systems are only the expression of spiritualities . The greatness and the truth o f Bonaventuran or Scotist Augustinianism are entirely i n the spiritual experience of Saint Francis which became the soul i n his sons; the grandeur and the truth of Molinism are i n the spiritual experience of Saint Ignatius's Exercises A theology worthy o f the name is a spirituality, which finds the rational instruments adequate to its religious experience It is not the luck of history that Saint Thomas entered the Order o f Saint Dominic; and it is not by some desultory grace that the Order of Saint Dominic received Saint Thomas Aquinas The institution and the doctrine are closely allied w i t h one another, in the inspiration that carried the one and the other into a new age,

C h e n u i n f o r m s us, i n a characteristic

display o f self-mocking erudition—

'this Renaissance philosopher w h o wanted, w i t h this phrase, to reconcile the Paduan theism w i t h medieval scholasticism'

2 0

The p r o b l e m w i t h the

phrase, however, is that i t suggests that philosophy is a set of 'characterless and shapeless principles', énoncés dépersonnalisés et avachis, the least c o m m o n denominator, so to speak, o f philosophical projects w h i c h (however) actually

1 K

Ibid:

1 9

I b i d : 153

148-9

2 0

A g o s t i n o S t e u c o ( 1 4 9 6 - 1 5 4 9 ) was a C a n o n R e g u l a r o f the L a t e r a n and r a n t h e Vatican

L i b r a r y H i s w o r k s i n c l u d e Philosophia

Perennis ( w r i t t e n 1540) w h i c h sees all r e l i g i o n s as m a n i -

festations o f a p e r e n n i a l p h i l o s o p h y that is o n e a n d e t e r n a l ; t h e phrase was t o b e p i c k e d up b y 1 7

Le Saulchoir' Une. école de théologie

(Paris: C e r f 1 9 3 7 ) : 115

Leibniz

26

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

differ considerably, ' i n i n t u i t i o n and i n systematization'

I n brief,

neo-

C H E N U

27

t h e o r y o f knowledge, is the object o f k n o w l e d g e as i t is outside th'e knower

scholastic philosophy — 'under the patronage o f L e i b n i z ' — adopted a false

i n its proper existence Yet, as he goes o n to say, there is n o k n o w l e d g e of

'ideal of i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y '

the reality except t h r o u g h w h a t there is of this reality i n the knower. A n a l o -

2 1

gously, the d i v i n e reality obviously exists independently o f us; but o u r minds receive i t i n o u r o w n way, that is to say by c o m b i n i n g and d i v i d i n g , by way (then) o f propositions

C h e n u on T h o m a s Aquinas on Faith

As a historian C h e n u delightedly re-creates the controversy, i d e n t i f y i n g C h e n u had ambitious plans to study Thomas Aquinas i n historical context

the disputants w h o m Aquinas never names. Clearly, however, his m o t i v a t i o n

i n such a way as to cast l i g h t o n current theological matters. Perhaps the

is to demonstrate a m e t h o d o f reading Aquinas w h i c h , far f r o m l o s i n g spec-

outbreak o f w a r i n 1939 w o u l d have i n t e r r u p t e d h i m anyway, b u t ecclesias-

ulative theology i n the dust o f historical research, or (worse) i n a morass of

tical sanctions d i d n o t help. H i s first p u b l i c a t i o n , back i n 1923, shows the

relativism, actually enables Aquinas's solution o f the t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

k i n d of w o r k he wanted to do..

dispute to bear o n m o d e r n disputes.. We do n o t have t o choose between

I n this article C h e n u offers a reading o f Aquinas's consideration i n his Summa Theologies o f the object o f f a i t h .

2 2

T h e question is w h e t h e r the object

saying that o u r faith is i n propositions and saying that i t is i n the reality of the divine W o r d I n the 1920s, as now, there were disputes over w h e t h e r our

i n the f o r m o f a

minds are c o n f i n e d w i t h i n language or capable o f transcending directly to

proposition, o r first t r u t h itself, Veritas prima, that is to say: G o d , w h o is i n n o

reality Catholics believed i n propositions w h i l e Protestants had f a i t h i n a

way composed of parts Is faith i n propositions or i n God?

person, so i t was often claimed For C h e n u , Aquinas dissolved this putative

o f faith is something composite, per modum enuntiabilis,

A c c o r d i n g to C h e n u , the interest o f this has been missed, because c o m -

d i l e m m a l o n g ago, i n a paradigmatic way H e r e , less t h a n three years since

I f we re-create the

leaving R o m e , C h e n u was demonstrating a way o f studying the text o f

controversy we can see the permanent importance o f the p o s i t i o n Aquinas

Aquinas quite different (he does n o t need to say) f r o m the way practised by

takes The controversy originates i n the question of the i d e n t i t y o f faith

Garrigou-Lagrange

between O l d and N e w Testaments: the i m m u t a b i l i t y of faith t h r o u g h its

adds, dreamed o f by D e n i f l e

mentators

d i d n o t place i t i n historical context

This is the k i n d o f historical theology, Chenu cheekily 2 3

development. For Aquinas, there was c o n t i n u i t y between C h r i s t i a n and Jewish faith

Some o f his predecessors h e l d that, since faith is a k i n d o f

knowledge, i t must have propositions as its object. H e is happy to agree,

I n t r o d u c t i o n to T h o m a s A q u i n a s

since this allows h i m to insist o n the h u m a n conditions of the act of faith: 'the way o f k n o w i n g t r u t h proper to the h u m a n m i n d is by an act o f c o m b i n i n g and separating'

For C h e n u , this should legitimate o u r m o d e r n

interest i n the psychological conditions o f faith

I t should also r e m i n d

writers about spirituality — 'against all i l l u m i n i s m ' — that even the gifts o f the H o l y Spirit do n o t exempt the C h r i s t i a n f r o m the regime o f gradual, u n e n d i n g and expanding enlightenment. Faith does n o t s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n t e l ligence; o n the contrary, i t incarnates the divine t r u t h i n the very substance o f our minds

Bizarrely i t required some ecclesiastical m a n o e u v r i n g for C h e n u to be allowed to publish his i n t r o d u c t i o n to the study o f Thomas Aquinas

2 4

' H i g h e r authorities' sought to b l o c k i t since, after all, his little manifesto remained o n the Index o f P r o h i b i t e d Books.. C h e n u contends, i n w h a t remains one o f the best i n t r o d u c t i o n s , half a century later, that we cannot understand Aquinas w i t h o u t detailed study o f the histor ical context to w h i c h he belonged, and of the histor ical conditions under w h i c h he w o r k e d : the D o m i n i c a n Order, the University o f Paris, the

However, others held that the object o f faith was G o d , absolutely

They

academic institutions and literary f o r m s of the day, the legacy o f Augustine,

are o f course correct, so Aquinas argues: the reality k n o w n , according to his 2 i

2 1

U C h e n u , Le Sauichoir.

2 2

' C o n t r i b u t i o n à l ' h i s t o i r e d u traité de la f o i C o m m e n t a i r e h i s t o r i q u e de H a I l a e , q. 1 , a 2'

Mélanges

154-5

thomistes (Le S a u l c h o i r : K a i n . 1 9 2 3 ) : 1 2 3 - 4 0 ; r e p r i n t e d i n C h e n u , La Parole de Dieu

La Foi dans l'intelligence (Paris: C e r f T 9 6 4 ) : 31—50

H e i n r i c h Seuse D e n i f l e O P (1844—1905), p a t h - b r e a k i n g m e d i e v a l i s t ( t h o u g h h e predates

t h e C a t h o l i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f L u t h e r ) , was t h e greatest D o m i n i c a n h i s t o r i a n o f t h e d a y î.

2 4

Introduction

a I'etude de S. 'Tltomai d'Aquin

(Paris: V r i n 1950. s e c o n d e d i t i o n 1 9 5 4 ) , trans-

l a t e d b y A - M L a n d r y a n d D H u g h e s as Towards Understanding

Saint Tltomas w i t h a u t h o r i z e d

c o r r e c t i o n s a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l a d d i t i o n s ( C h i c a g o : H e n r y R e g n e r y 1964).

28

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

C H E N U

29

Denys, and the neoplatonic t r a d i t i o n , and so o n , as w e l l as Aquinas's critical

generally o m i t t e d i n expositions i n class of the doctrine C h e n u invites us to

engagement w i t h the recently discovered w o r k s o f Aristotle. H e highlights

notice h o w considering r e l i g i o n , d e v o t i o n and piety, and so o n , i n the

the diversity o f Aquinas's w o r k : commentaries o n A r i s t o t l e , o n Scripture,

context o f the m o r a l v i r t u e o f justice, perhaps points o u r conception o f spir-

disputations, m o r e than one summa, and so o n , each genre w i t h its o w n

ituality i n an unusual direction.

logic and relevance f o r spirituality T h o u g h t and text, expression and t r u t h ,

I n short, i n a list o f examples, C h e n u opens up a quite different approach

go together. Above all, however, Aquinas w o r k e d his thoughts o u t , most

to reading the Summa

Theologies f r o m the one inculcated by the lecture

characteristically, i n the classical f o r m o f the quœstio: considering every issue

courses and textbooks

supposedly composed

as raising questions. I t was just n o t the same t h o u g h t , C h e n u means, w h e n

Failure to allow f o r the context w h i c h he t o o k f o r granted — the Christian

Aquinas's solution to the question is reformulated as a 'thesis', as i f the

mystery, liturgically p e r f o r m e d , l i v e d i n disciplined c o n t e m p l a t i o n — leaves

objections that he considers to his v i e w c o u l d be left aside

the Summa Theologies as arid an exercise as most seminarians f o u n d i t Far

C h e n u 's was the first major effort to h i g h l i g h t the dramatic history, so to speak, w i t h i n w h i c h Aquinas's w o r k c o u l d disclose its riches

The

Summa

Theologies c o u l d no longer be treated, credibly, as a self-standing system t r a n scending all history and t i m e O n the c o n t r a r y like any classic, w e may say, i t

ad mentem Sancti

Thomcs.

f r o m reducing the rigorously intellectual achievement o f the Summa, Chenu was o u t to demonstrate that w e miss the achievement altogether unless we get to k n o w the m i n d the fruits o f whose c o n t e m p l a t i o n are set d o w n — incarnated, so to speak - i n the texts w h i c h w e have i n h e r i t e d

is precisely as b e l o n g i n g to the setting i n w h i c h i t is composed that i t c o n -

For all the importance of Aristotle, C h e n u insists, Aquinas should not be

tinues to disclose h o w p e r m a n e n t l y vital and valuable i t is We need n o t fear

read as i f he repudiated his inheritance f r o m Augustine. T h o u g h references to

that, the deeper we get i n t o the genesis and c o m p o s i t i o n o f a text, the m o r e

the platonici are usually critical, this should n o t occlude h o w m u c h he takes

slippery w i l l be the slope to relativism - just the opposite.. ' T h e t r u t h is n o

f o r granted f r o m the neo-Platonic tradition H e cites Denys as m u c h as A r i s -

less true for being inscribed i n t i m e ' .

totle We need to remember the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Renaissance, the presence

2 5

C h e n u combats the t h e n standard division of labour i n e x p o u n d i n g the Summa Theologies Far f r o m reflecting a decision to complete w h a t may be

o f lslamic culture, the evangelism o f the Friar s, and m u c h else that students of Thomas Aquinas n o w regard as an essential part of understanding his w o r k

demonstrated about G o d by reason before considering w h a t may be said

I t is salutary to remember that the approach w h i c h C h e n u pioneered 50

solely i n v i r t u e o f revelation, the fact that Aquinas deals w i t h the questions

years ago was t h e n regarded as a threat to the standard neoscholastic exposi-

de Deo uno and then w i t h those de Deo trino, 'results f r o m an o p t i o n charac-

t i o n o f T h o m i s m and thus to the maintenance o f o r t h o d o x y i n Catholic

teristic of L a t i n theology, w h i c h implies a spiritual itinerary towards the

theology

G o d of revelation'.

26

H o w e v e r pervaded w i t h metaphysics (he admits), the

questions de Deo uno deal w i t h the G o d of the B o o k o f Genesis, n o t the god o f Aristotle's Physics: the G o d o f A b r a h a m , Isaac and Jacob, w h o points us

Wolffianism at V a t i c a n I I

towards Christ. We have to retain the religious character o f this text, C h e n u insists, never reducing i t to a 'deist' theodicy H e refers us to a classic (though

In 1973, reflecting o n w h a t was achieved at Vatican I I , Chenu r e t u r n e d to

neglected) article by his colleague R e n é M o t t e .

the charge that neoscholastic theology was pervaded b y ' W o l f f i a n i s m ' The

2 7

T h e l i n k between the questions o n G o d and the theology o f creation,

unexpected rejection b y the m a j o r i t y of the bishops, i n N o v e m b e r 1962, o f

thus between the d i v i n e mystery and the w o r l d o f space and t i m e , is made

draft texts i n w h i c h he detected signs of ' W o l f f i a n metaphysics', was the final

by the key question o n the 'missions' o f the Son and o f the Spirit (Summa

defeat o f the neoscholastic T h o m i s m to w h i c h he was subjected i n R o m e i n

Theologice 1.43)

his y o u t h O n c e and f o r all, the spirit o f eighteenth-century rationalism was

T h r o u g h o u t the first part of the Summa, Aquinas keeps

i n c o r p o r a t i n g biblical material about creation — w h i c h , C h e n u notes, was

expelled f r o m Catholic t h e o l o g y

2 8

This was an irreversible shift i n theo-

logical sensibility, w i t h immensely i m p o r t a n t implications, however l o n g i t m i g h t take to w o r k i t all o u t 2 5

Introduction

à l'étude

de S. Thomas d'Aquin:

6, m y t r a n s l a t i o n

2 6

I b i d : 275

2 7

R A M o t t e , ' T h é o d i c é e et t h é o l o g i e c h e z S T h o m a s d ' A q u i n , Revue

sophiques et Théologiques

2 1 ( 1 9 3 7 ) : 5—26

des Sciences

Philo-

2 i î

M . - D . C h e n u , V é r i t é évangélique et métaphysique w o l f i e n n e à Vatican I S , Revue des Sciences

Philosophiques

et Ihéologiques

5'7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) : 632—40

30

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

I t is n o t clear h o w m u c h o f the prolific w o r k s o f the G e r m a n Lutheran theologian C h r i s t i a n W o l f f (1679-1754) C h e n u ever read. N o d o u b t he k n e w that W o l f f w a n t e d to g r o u n d theological truths o n evidence o f quasimathematical certitude

N o t o r i o u s l y , W o l f f s Pietist L u t h e r a n colleagues

were enraged by a lecture w h i c h he gave i n 1721, instancing the m o r a l p r e cepts of Confucius as evidence o f the p o w e r o f h u m a n reason to attain by its o w n efforts to m o r a l t r u t h

rationalism

31

C H E N U

Indeed, this explains the acrimonious controversies

i n the

decade 1940 to 1950, w h e n French D o m i n i c a n s and Jesuits, contesting the neoscholastic theology w h i c h p u t w o u l d - b e 'scientific' deductivism against the ressourcement of theology to be f o u n d i n the study o f the h i s t o r y and economy of salvation, and so i n the pastoral and missionary presence o f the w o r d o f G o d i n the C h u r c h , were persecuted b y the ecclesiastical a u t h o r i ties, removed f r o m teaching posts and prevented f r o m publishing. The

W o l f f invented the courses o n logic, ontology, rational psychology, natural

phrase 'new t h e o l o g y ' was applied, abusively, b y Garrigou-Lagrange and his

theology, m o r a l philosophy, and so o n , w h i c h shaped Catholic seminary

cohort i n R o m e to those (like C h e n u and H e n r i de Lubac) w h o questioned

t r a i n i n g i n t o the 1960s, as w e l l as university philosophy faculties every-

the neoscholastic rationalism, w h i c h cut Catholic theologians off f r o m their

where

inheritance - the 'traditional t h e o l o g y ' w h i c h the so-called ' n e w theo-

This division o f labour fragmented philosophy i n the sense o f a

sapiential exercise, a 'love o f w i s d o m ' , and gave rise to the specialisms w i t h

logians'were actually retrieving.

w h i c h w e are familiar i n professional philosophy For many years Gilson had been c l a i m i n g that 'WolfEanism' had i n f i l trated the w o r k of Garrigou-Lagrange, an outrageous suggestion as many thought. This is, as Peddicord says, 'preposterous'.

29

c l a i m seems to be that, i n his first major b o o k Le Sens commun (1908), Garrigou-Lagrange declares a debt to A f r i k a n Alexandrovich Spir (1837-90), whose b o o k Denken

unci Wirklichkeit:

T h e o l o g y w i t h o u t Philosophy?

The basis f o r Gilson's

Versuch einer Erneuerung

der kritischen

Philosophic (1873) he read i n French translation, the c o n d u i t t h r o u g h w h i c h , supposedly, he i m b i b e d W o l f f i a n rationalism. I h e genuine T h o m i s t understanding o f b e i n g - b e i n g as existence, n o t essence — was lost a r o u n d 1729, the year w h e n Wolff's Ontologia appeared. The act o f b e i n g as such - ipsum esse subsistens - w h i c h is so central to Aquinas's metaphysics, disappears f r o m m o d e r n philosophy, so Gilson's o f t e n rehearsed story goes. I t w o u l d take us t o o far to untangle all this here - the p o i n t is o n l y that Garrigou-Lagrange was being dismissed as a rationalist, as a self-styled T h o m i s t w h o failed to grasp the fundamental T h o m i s t i n t u i t i o n

Chenu invites us to examine the text o f the chapter De cognitione veritatis i n the De deposito fidei pure custodiendo drafted for Vatican I I H e r e w e f i n d , i n this w o u l d - b e key text o n 'keeping the treasure o f faith authentically', a certain theory of 'knowledge o f t r u t h ' (epistemology) at w o r k : t r u t h is allied w i t h inimutability, necessity, universal rationality, and suchlike.. Moreover, the p h i l osophy of being is contrasted favourably w i t h a philosophy of becoming. The dimensions of t i m e and history, i n knowledge o f truth, are totally absent I n short, the wholesale rejection of these drafts b y the C o u n c i l fathers opened the way to a renewal o f Catholic theology, 'beyond the aporias o f neoscholasticism, of w h i c h W o l f f i a n rationalism was n o t the least avatar'. A t last, 30

once and for all, C h e n u contends, at Vatican I I , the Catholic C h u r c h rejected the rationalism that prevented authentic understanding o f Thomas Aquinas, as

True e n o u g h , Garrigou-Lagrange attached great importance to the p r i n -

w e l l as all theological engagement w i t h the problems of m o d e r n life,

ciple of sufficient reason: ' E v e r y t h i n g w h i c h is, has a sufficient reason f o r existing'. That no d o u b t sounds Leibnizian, t h o u g h Garrigou-Lagrange always held that we d i d n o t need Leibniz to formulate this p r i n c i p l e This is the p r i n c i p l e , i n the Thomistic Theses, o n w h i c h the proofs for the existence o f G o d are based.

Consider, however, w h a t C h e n u t h e n says. The t r u t h o f biblical revelat i o n cannot be reduced to the f o r m a l t r u t h o f the propositions that state i t G o d is revealed i n actions and events as w e l l as i n words.. These events are n o t b r u t e facts, illustrating d i v i n e ideas (as w h o m i g h t have thought?)

They

are God's actions i n history It's n o t g o o d e n o u g h 'to study the abstract con-

Anyway, d o i n g little m o r e than Gilson to d o c u m e n t the claim, C h e n u

ditions of the possibility o f a revelation, deductively', as Garrigou-Lagrange

contends that the version o f I h o m i s m to w h i c h he was exposed at the

d i d , so C h e n u says, ' i n the f r a m e w o r k of a metaphysical conception of

A n g e l i c u m f r o m 1914 u n t i l 1920

truth'.

2 9

R i c h a r d P e d d i c o r d , The

Reginald

Garrigou-Lagrange

Sacred Monster

Qv ( S o u t h B e n d

was infiltrated by this E n l i g h t e n m e n t

of Thomistn • An Introduction

to the Life and Legacy of

I N : St A u s t i n s Press 2 0 0 5 ) : 103

footnote

70

3 1

'This analysis connects neither w i t h the historical c o n d i t i o n o f man

3 0

C h e n u . 'Vérité évangélique':

3 1

I b i d : 637

636

32

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

33

C H E N U

n o r w i t h saving t r u t h ' I t is the 'purely extrinsic m e t h o d o f a certain f u n d a -

context, he brings o u t Aquinas's evangelical i n t e n t i o n and its actuality for

mental theology, rendered obsolete by the C o u n c i l ' .

today

3 2

W h a t we want, C h e n u goes o n , is a conception o f ' b i b l i c a l t r u t h , evangelical t r u t h , according to the H e b r e w m i n d ' - i t 'connects directly n o t w i t h w h a t is b u t w i t h w h a t comes about, w i t h that of w h i c h one has e x p e r i ence'

3 3

'Greek t h o u g h t developed b y reflecting o n the substance o f beings,

and issues i n t o a philosophy o f i m m u t a b i l i t y and permanence. I t left o u t the proper characteristic o f biblical t h o u g h t : time, the

fragility

o f things and

persons B i b l i c a l t h o u g h t is t u r n e d n o t to essences b u t to destinies; i t questions itself about the feeblenesses and the promises o f l i f e ' .

3 4

True, he allows, i t w o u l d be g i v i n g i n to a pernicious and historically

3 5

As f o r Chenu's legacy, i t may n o w be traced i n the w o r k o f many

theologians, such as Jean-Pierre Tbrrell, Gilles Emery, Gregory P. Rocca, and M a t t h e w Tevering, w h o take i t for granted that Aquinas needs to be studied i n historical context — w h i c h does n o t mean he has n o t h i n g to say that bears o n matters o f great theological interest today - just the opposite

3 6

The second v o l u m e o f Terrell's magnum opus presents Aquinas as 'spiritual master' - his theology as clearly o r i e n t e d towards contemplation as his spirituality expresses itself i n his theology T h o u g h he obviously owes far more to Chenu's example, perhaps Chenu's and Garrigou-Lagrange's versions o f T h o m i s m reach a degree o f reconciliation i n TorreHs b o o k .

controversial dualism to oppose the historical and concrete t r u t h o f the

T h e n , given the place o f n e o - A r i s t o t e l i a n ' v i r t u e ethics', at the c u t t i n g

Gospel to the abstract t r u t h o f G r e c o - T a t i n philosophy, defined as this latter

edge o f English-language m o r a l philosophy, as w e l l as i n C h r i s t i a n ethics,

is by adequatio rei et intellectus, i n a j u d g e m e n t w h i c h relates a statement w i t h

the best testimony to Chenu's advocacy of historical-contextualist studies as

the t r u t h o f being as being. .

the way to retrieve and appropriate Aquinas's t h o u g h t most creatively may

A n d he goes o n i n this strain, p l a y i n g off a

supposedly evangelical concept o f t r u t h against the concept of t r u t h i n h e r -

be f o u n d i n the w o r k o f the Belgian D o m i n i c a n Servais Pinckaers

i t e d f r o m ancient Greek philosophy A d m i t t e d l y , 30 years ago, the difference

doctoral dissertation - ' T h e V i r t u e o f H o p e f r o m Peter L o m b a r d to Thomas

between H e b r e w and Greek ways o f t h i n k i n g , and between biblical and

Aquinas' - was supervised by Garrigou-Lagrange - and he invited C h e n u to

metaphysical concepts o f t r u t h , was something of a commonplace,

w r i t e the preface to his first major b o o k , Le Renouveau de la morale (1964)

a m o n g Catholic theologians

even

His

3 7

N o d o u b t i t was h i g h t i m e that the grip o f

M o s t Catholic theologians, however, do n o t f i n d i t attractive, or even

neoscholastic rationalism was b r o k e n . B u t o p t i n g f o r a biblical n o t i o n of

necessary, to study Aquinas i n Chenu's or anyone else's way Outside the

t r u t h over against a metaphysical concept was a m o v e that w o u l d have

English-speaking w o r l d , especially, recourse to Aquinas seems mere anti-

excited Garrigou-Lagrange's suspicions, n o t altogether unjustifiably

quarianism, a failure to face up to the unavoidable implications o f p o s t m o d ernism. I n the most i n f l u e n t i a l m o v e m e n t currently i n Catholic theology, the Song o f Songs and the patristic and medieval commentaries

Conclusion Chenu's lasting achievement

thereon

play a m u c h m o r e significant role than Thomas Aquinas's w o r k

was to challenge from inside the standard

reading of the Summa Theologies Unbelievable as i t may seem to theologians i n other c h u r c h traditions, as w e l l as to Catholic theologians o f the postVatican I I era, fears that his approach led to relativism, and so to m o d e r n i s m , were so prevalent a m o n g his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s that he was dismissed

from

3 5

O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 5 9 , r e c e n t l y translated w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y P a u l J. P h i l i b e r t

O P ; see Aquinas 3i>

and His Role in Theology ( C o l l e g e v i l l e , M N : T h e L i t u r g i c a l Press 2 0 0 2 )

Jean-Pierre T o r r e l l O P Saint

Thomas

Aquinas,

vol

2 Spiritual

teaching i n any D o m i n i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n simply f o r insisting that Thomas

M I : Sapientia Press 2 0 0 2 ) ; G r e g o r y P R o c c a O P . Speaking

Aquinas's exposition o f the t r u t h o f C h r i s t i a n faith becomes all the more

Aquinas

enlightening as we read h i m i n historical context The best access to Chenu's distinctive approach to Aquinas is to be f o u n d i n a recently translated b o o k , i n w h i c h , by reconstructing the historical

Master

C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 3 ) ; Gilles E m e r y O P Trinity on the Interplay

of Positive and Negative

the Incomprehensible

Fulfilment

D a m e , I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 2 0 0 2 ) , a n d Scripture

3 7

of Trinitarian

God'

Thomas

of Torah and Temple and Metaphysics'

(Notre

Aquinas

and

Theology ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 2 0 0 4 ) .

B o r n i n 1925 i n B e l g i u m Servais P i n c k a e r s j o i n e d t h e D o m i n i c a n s i n 1945. t a u g h t at the

University o f Fribourg

S w i t z e r l a n d , f r o m 1973:

E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e w o r l d see

The

Sources of Christian

his i n f l u e n c e is o n l y n o w r e a c h i n g Ethics

3 2

Ibid

v e r s i t y o f A m e r i c a Press 1 9 9 5 ) ; a n d especially J o h n B e r k m a n a n d C r a i g Steven T i t u s

Ibid

The Pinckaers

Ibid : 637-8

sity o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 5 )

Reader:

Renewing

Tlwmistic

Moral

Theology

the

(Washington D C : Catholic U n i -

3 3

3 4

DC:

(Ypsilanti

Theology ( W a s h i n g t o n D C : C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y

o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 4 ) ; M a t t h e w L e v e r i n g , Christ's the Renewal

(Washington

in Aquinas

(eds)

(Washington. D C : Catholic U n i v e r -

Y V E S

Chapter Three

35

C O N G A R

political m o v e m e n t attractive to Catholics w h o deplored the anti-clericalism o f the socialist politicians of the T h i r d R e p u b l i c and sometimes even wanted /

YVES

to restore the monarchy, as w e l l as the influence o f the Catholic C h u r c h .

CONGAR

4

The D o m i n i c a n s at L e Saulchoir, however, they regarded as treating the study o f Thomas Aquinas m o r e as an exercise i n historical scholarship intended to impress the medievalists at the Sorbonne, rather than the t i m e less system o f speculative theology w h i c h most D o m i n i c a n s at the t i m e t o o k i t to be. Congar's year o f m a n d a t o r y m i l i t a r y service (1924—5) was spent i n the R h i n e l a n d . H e forsook the diocesan clergy i n order to enter the D o m i n i c a n Order, where i n a year o r t w o he fell under C h e n u s spell. His first publica5

tions suggest he was destined f o r a future as a medievalist I t soon became clear to h i m , however, that his vocation lay i n w o r k i n g f o r Christian A c c o r d i n g to the A m e r i c a n Jesuit theologian A v e r y Dulles, i n an obituary, 'Vatican I I c o u l d almost be called Congar's C o u n c i l '

1

Yves Congar was b o r n o n 13 A p r i l 1904, at Sedan, i n the Ardennes region of north-east France, a f e w miles f r o m the frontier w i t h B e l g i u m . H i s father 2

Georges C o n g a r was a bank manager. H i s very devout m o t h e r L u c i e read The Imitation of Christ to the children and o n Saturday evenings the n e x t day's gospel text They had Jewish friends as w e l l as Protestant neighbours,

reunion. H i s first b o o k Chrétiens désunis appeared i n 1938, the first v o l u m e i n the series he f o u n d e d under the name Unam Sanctam - a series he saw as c o n t r i b u t i n g to C h r i s t i a n r e u n i o n , principally, i n the b e g i n n i n g anyway, by retrieving f o r g o t t e n themes o f Catholic t r a d i t i o n . A n anonymous article i n 6

UOsservatore

Romano

attacked the b o o k ; and the Provincial o f the Paris

D o m i n i c a n s was s u m m o n e d to R o m e to explain w h y the b o o k had been p e r m i t t e d to appear.

unusual f o r Catholics i n France i n those days Back i n the sixteenth century

As a reservist Congar was m o b i l i z e d i n September 1939. H e was captured

the local princes were Protestant E v e n i n the early t w e n t i e t h , w h e n the

i n M a y 1940, w h e n France surrendered T h e next five years he spent i n

pr inces were o f course l o n g gone, there were Protestants and Catholics and

high-security prisons, t w i c e at C o l d i t z Back f r o m the war, he was impatient

even a f e w Jews l i v i n g peaceably together i n the t o w n R i g h t i n the path o f

to c o n t i n u e his interest i n p r o m o t i n g C h r i s t i a n reunion. Few Catholics i n

the G e r m a n a r m y i n 1914, the t o w n was besieged, and the C a t h o l i c church

the English-speaking w o r l d understand the traumatic effects i n t h e ancient

b u r n e d d o w n . The Catholics were allowed b y the R e f o r m e d pastor to use

Catholic countries o f western E u r o p e of the serial catastrophes o f Nazism,

the local Protestant church f o r Sunday worship. Congar's father was a m o n g

m i l i t a r y occupation, collaboration, the r o u n d - u p of Jews, the invasion and

the m e n deported by the Germans to L i t h u a n i a , occupied b y the G e r m a n

the b o m b i n g , and so on. I n 1945 the C h r i s t i a n faith, and especially the

army i n September 1915

Catholic C h u r c h , was rising f r o m the dead, r e t u r n i n g f r o m hell t o n e w life

Encouraged by a local priest, Congar entered the diocesan seminary I n

I n 1950 Congar published Vraie et fausse réforme dam l'Eglise

1

This went

1921 he m o v e d to Paris, to study philosophy H e attended courses by Jacques M a r i t a i n , the lay m a n w h o was soon to become one o f the leaders of

4

the renaissance o f T h o m i s m

t h e T h i r d R e p u b l i c w h i c h was e x t r e m e l y a n t i - C a t h o l i c

3

H e w e n t to retreats conducted near Paris b y

R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Lagrange. They were all d r a w n to A c t i o n Française, a

A c t i o n Française was f o u n d e d i n 1898 at t h e h e i g h t o f t h e D r e y f u s affair a n d was hostile t o I h e b e s t - k n o w n leader

Charles

M a u r r a s ( 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 5 2 ) . j o u r n a l i s t , p h i l o s o p h e r , m o n a r c h i s t , m i l i t a n t atheist a n d a n t i - S e m i t e , o n l y b e c a m e a C a t h o l i c i n b i s last years I n 1926 P o p e P i u s X I f o r b a d e C a t h o l i c s t o s u p p o r t t h e m o v e m e n t because o f its e x t r e m e n a t i o n a l i s m a n d m i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e

1

A v e r y D u l l e s SJ ' Y v e s C o n g a r : I n A p p r e c i a t i o n ' America

2

F o r details see A i d a n N i c h o l s O P , Yves Congar

E l i z a b e t h Teresa G r o p p e , Yves Congar's Theology

H i s a c t i o n p r o v o k e d a grave crisis o f c o n s c i e n c e f o r m a n y clergy a n d f a i t h f u l

173 (15 J u l y 1 9 9 5 ) : 6 - 7 .

( L o n d o n : Geoffrey C h a p m a n 1989); and

of the Holy

Spirit ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y

Press 2 0 0 4 ) 3

Jacques M a r i t a i n

5

6

(1882-1973), a French

I h o m i s t p h i l o s o p h e r , h e l d chairs at

Paris,

T o r o n t o a n d P r i n c e t o n . H e a p p l i e d I h o m i s t p r i n c i p l e s t o m e t a p h y s i c s , m o r a l , social a n d p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n , h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e a n d art.

As a n o v i c e h e was g i v e n t h e n a m e M a r i e - J o s e p h , e v e n t u a l l y d r o p p e d ; his e a r l y p u b l i c a -

t i o n s are a t t r i b u t e d t o M -J. C o n g a r Chrétiens

Divided 7

désunis:

Christendom:

Principes

d'un

Vraie et fausse réforme dans l'Église

revised e d i t i o n

1969

'oecuménisme'

catholique

A Catholic Study of the Problem of Reunion

(Paris: C e r f 1937)

translated as

( L o n d o n : C e n t e n a r y Press 1939)

(Paris: C e r f 1 9 5 0 ) ; never translated i n t o E n g l i s h ; second,

36

Y V E S

C O N G A R

Y V E S

C O N G A R

37

t o o far - the very idea o f ' r e f o r m ' , w h e t h e r true or false, i n the C a t h o l i c

1958 Congar was allowed to publish his b o o k Le Mystère du temple - a study

C h u r c h , was a provocation The papal n u n c i o i n Paris, A r c h b i s h o p A n g e l o

o f the history of the presence o f G o d i n the w o r l d f r o m Genesis to the

R o n c a l l i , inscribed i n his o w n copy the question ' A r e f o r m o f the C h u r c h -

Apocalypse - the p r o d u c t of some months o f exile i n Jerusalem There was

is i t possible?' Less than t e n years later, w h e n he had b e c o m e Pope

no possibility o f republishing, even w i t h revisions he wanted to make, any o f

John X X I I I , the idea that the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h c o u l d be r e f o r m e d

the three great books

-

r enewed, anyway - was f i r m l y o n the agenda. I n 1953, as i f anticipating that renewal, Congar b r o u g h t o u t Jalons pour une théologie du laicat

T h e n , to everyone's amazement and many people's dismay, Pope John

8

X X I I I announced i n January

laid out w h a t

c o u n c i l , the Second Vatican C o u n c i l - to r e f o r m the C h u r c h e x p l i c i t l y i n

w o u l d , quite unexpectedly, dominate the agenda f o r Vatican I I : a f o r m o f

order to b r i n g about r e u n i o n a m o n g Christians I n July 1960 Congar was

ecumenism acceptable to Catholics; acceptance o f the t r u t h that the C h u r c h

a m o n g the first appointed by John X X I I I t o draft texts for the bishops to

was always i n need o f r e f o r m (ecdesia semper reformando); and recovery o f a

consider. I n i t i a l l y C o n g a r was sceptical about any g o o d the C o u n c i l m i g h t

sense o f the C h u r c h as the people o f G o d , clergy and laity together. A t last

do, assuming, as many others d i d , that there c o u l d o n l y be a wave o f c o n -

D a t e d now, o f course, these three books nevertheless

1959

that he was c o n v o k i n g a full-scale

the Catholic C h u r c h w o u l d concede that Christians outside her visible

demnations o f C o m m u n i s m , o f the ' n e w theology', of 'ecumenism', and o f

membership were at least w o r t h t a l k i n g to, their 'churches' had elements o f

m u c h else, or, o n the positive side, a dogmatic d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e Blessed

'true C h u r c h ' i n them.

V i r g i n M a r y as M e d i a t r i x of A l l Graces.

9

I f Congar was already under suspicion i n 1938 f o r his ecumenical i n t e r -

O n 20 N o v e m b e r 1962, after days of b i t t e r exchanges i n the aula, the

ests, worse was to come i n 1953 w h e n he became interested i n the w o r k e r -

m a j o r i t y o f the C o u n c i l fathers v o t e d against the draft text de fontibus rev-

priest movement. Its members were priests w h o sought to evangelize the

elationis, o n 'the sources' of C h r i s t i a n revelation, the w o r k o f a team o f

deeply anti-clerical industrial workers b y b e c o m i n g workers themselves, i n

(mostly) R o m a n university theologians, presided over b y C a r d i n a l O t t a -

the hope o f breaking d o w n the barrier. T h e m o v e m e n t w o r r i e d many o f

v i a n i and Sebastian T r o m p sj. T h e vote - 1368 to 822 w i t h 19 n u l l - d i d

the French bishops Some bishops feared that these priests were losing their

n o t reach the t w o - t h i r d s required b y the rules to reject a text — t h o u g h i t

priestly status, accepting election as trades u n i o n officials, and so on. A n

was nonetheless an affront to those w h o regarded themselves, and were

article he published i n September 1953 o n the future o f the m o v e m e n t l e d

w i d e l y regarded, as t h e custodians o f C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e John X X I I I exer-

to Cougar 's b e i n g dismissed f r o m teaching at Le Saulchoir, and f o r b i d d e n to

cised his a u t h o r i t y o n the side o f the m a j o r i t y , n a m i n g a new commission

set f o o t i n any study house o f the D o m i n i c a n Order. This was o n l y an

to compose a fresh text This was the t u r n i n g p o i n t , n o t only the defeat o f

excuse: suspicion of his interest i n C h r i s t i a n r e u n i o n was the true reason f o r

the H o l y O f f i c e theologians; b u t , as many saw at the time, incredulously,

the treatment to w h i c h the Order subjected h i m , perhaps under pressure

w i t h delight o r dismay, the close o f an age - i n p r i n c i p l e , at least. Congar's

f r o m Vatican authorities N o t h i n g C o n g a r published was ever censured b y

doubts about John X X I I I and the C o u n c i l were settled. B y early 1963 he

the H o l y O f f i c e , or placed o n the Index o f P r o h i b i t e d Books, n o r was he

was playing a major part i n drafting the n e w texts w h i c h eventually became

ever s u m m o n e d to defend his ideas i n R o m e . H e was kept h a n g i n g about,

the documents o f Vatican I I ,

mostly i n R o m e , w h i l e no one, n o n e o f his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n friars, c o u l d or w o u l d tell h i m w h y he was f o r b i d d e n to teach or preach o r publish or live i n the same house as friars i n f o r m a t i o n . Congar's misery culminated i n February 1956 w h e n he was sent by the Master o f the O r d e r to the English D o m i n i c a n house i n C a m b r i d g e , f o r an indefinite p e r i o d , f o r b i d d e n to lecture or preach This proved the unhappiest six m o n t h s o f his life, worse

D u r i n g the C o u n c i l Congar published t w o volumes o n the theology o f Sacred Tradition (1960 and 1963): the r e f o r m or renewal of the Catholic C h u r c h that he envisaged was t o be o n the basis of a retrieval of t h e fullness of the Catholic t r a d i t i o n that he believed had been lost as Catholics reacted against Protestantism i n the so-called C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n , and against

than b e i n g i n C o l d i t z I n D e c e m b e r 1956 the bishop o f Strasbourg rescued h i m , quite as arbitrarily, enabling h i m to resume a (limited) m i n i s t r y I n

9

F o r decades m a n y C a t h o l i c s have w a n t e d M a r y d e c l a r e d M e d i a t r i x o f A l l Graces o r C o -

R e d e m p t r i x : as M o t h e r o f G o d (Theotoko.s:

G o d - b e a r e r ) she has f o r ever a m a t e r n a l - m e d i a t i n g

role i n G o d s s e l f - c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o the faithful (entirely subordinate and speaking analoK

Jalons pour une théologie

du laicat (Paris: C e r f 1953)

Study for the Theology of the Laity

translated as Lay People in the Church-

( W e s t m i n s t e r M D : N e w m a n Press 1965).

A

g o u s l y ) ; as t h e o n e w h o gave h e r c o n s e n t at t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n she has a c o - o p e r a t i v e role i n t h e h i s t o r y o f r e d e m p t i o n (again o f course, s u b o r d i n a t e a n d analogously)

38

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

39

C O N G A R

I n 1937 Congar visited England, as a guest o f A M

the ancient churches o f the East w h e n they rejected papal a u t h o r i t y as c o n ­

Ramsey,, w h o m u c h

later became A r c h b i s h o p o f Canterbury and a f r i e n d o f Pope Paul V I H e

ceived and practised i n the early M i d d l e Ages. I n the aftermath Congar published m u c h , d o c u m e n t i n g h o w traditional Vatican II's understanding o f the C h u r c h actually was Finally, i n 1979-80, he published a major w o r k o n the doctrine o f the H o l y Spirit -

fell i n love w i t h Anglicanism, at least w i t h the beauty o f the l i t u r g y i n a great cathedral like L i n c o l n , w h e r e he stayed w i t h R a m s e y

1 2

elementary

A m a z i n g as this all n o w seems, t a l k i n g theology and praying, w i t h L u t h ­

i n the w a y i t summarizes the history o f h o w the presence o f the H o l y Spirit

erans, Anglicans and O r t h o d o x , was w i d e l y regarded as inappropriate for

has been perceived d o w n t h r o u g h the ages and across the various c o n f l i c t i n g

Catholics.. T h e r e were, o f course, suspicions o n b o t h sides - the O r t h o d o x ,

ecclesiastical traditions - the ultimate a i m , however, being to prepare the

even today, are o f t e n suspicious o f overtures f r o m R o m e , greeting t h e m as

way f o r r e u n i o n between Eastern and Western C h r i s t i a n i t y

n e w ways to trap the O r t h o d o x i n t o submission to Rome's longstanding

Gradually incapacitated by the neurological disease first detected i n 1935,

desire for c o n t r o l , as the O r t h o d o x see it, n o t altogether unjustifiably

Congar was m o v e d i n 1984 to Les Invalides, the m i l i t a r y hospital f o r heroes o f the Republic, where he died o n 22 June 1995, having been named a Car­

Divided

dinal by Pope John Paul I I the previous year - an h o n o u r w h i c h Congar

Christendom

accepted although, i n his view, the status by the eleventh century o f the Cardinals i n R o m e had all but destroyed the a u t h o r i t y o f the episcopate .

I n Divided Christendom

1 0

Congar outlines the historical origins of the division

between Eastern and Western C h r i s t i a n i t y and, secondly, the split i n the West at the R e f o r m a t i o n . The f o r m e r Congar attributes to political and c u l ­ tural factors, m u c h exacerbated b y the advance of Islam The gulf between

Ecumenism

Protestants and Catholics is 'practically impassable': indeed, we should speak Preparing for o r d i n a t i o n to priesthood, i n 1930,

Congar meditated o n

o f ' t w o different Christianities'

Protestant o p p o s i t i o n to Catholicism is

chapter 17 o f the f o u r t h gospel - 'that all shall be one' T h e n - unheard o f at

(however) quite understandable: i n theology and piety, there was 'a great

the t i m e , f o r a Catholic theologian — he w a n t e d to meet Christians o f other

emphasis o n man's o w n m o r a l activity and a less-marked sense o f the

traditions H e visited Germany, to meet L u t h e r a n pastors and professors

supreme theocentricism

N e v e r having heard o f the legend of the Grand I n q u i s i t o r (in Dostoevsky's

j u r i d i c o - s o c i a l aspect o f the C h u r c h that b y m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the

Brothers Karamazov)

he was shocked to learn that, for his n e w L u t h e r a n

of the great t r a d i t i o n ' ; and such stress o n the

C h u r c h was 'as m u c h l i k e a fortress as a t e m p l e ' .

13

friends, this was their picture o f the Catholic C h u r c h : 'Catholics are the

The doctrine o f the u n i t y of the C h u r c h is grounded i n G o d as Trinity;

subjects o f the Pope and prisoners i n a hierarchical ecclesiastical system

historically given i n C h r i s t ; the C h u r c h his Mystical Body, the People of

w h e r e consciences are enslaved, the relations o f souls w i t h G o d are at

G o d , a fellowship, a great sacrament, and so o n Chapter 3, o n the C a t h o l i c ­

second-hand and stereotyped - r e l i g i o n i n fact b y p r o x y for the benefit o f

ity o f the C h u r c h , insists that the 'great diversity o f religious experience - o f

the clergy, an ecclesiastical k i n g d o m o f w h i c h the Pope is the autocrat.'

ways of feeling o r l i v i n g the C h r i s t i a n life and of i n t e r p r e t i n g the religious

11

Whatever else m i n i s t r y i n the service o f C h r i s t i a n r e u n i o n w o u l d mean, so

objectivity — is n o t only legitimate b u t desirable i n the C h u r c h ' (110)..

Congar realized, the first and most urgent requirement was to engage i n dis­ cussion w i t h Lutherans i n order to liberate t h e m f r o m their prejudices about w h a t Catholics actually d i d and t h o u g h t - and he w o u l d n o t get very far w i t h o u t d o i n g his best to learn w h a t Protestants actually d i d and t h o u g h t -

Chapter 4 offers a fairly severe critique o f the theories u n d e r l y i n g the Ecumenical M o v e m e n t , first as manifested i n the S t o c k h o l m Conference İn 1925 - w h i c h 'emanated f r o m a pragmatist and chiefly English-speaking

to overcome his o w n prejudices. 1 2

A r t h u r M i c h a e l R a m s e y ( 1 9 0 4 - 8 8 ) was a p p o i n t e d s u b w a r d e n o f L i n c o l n t h e o l o g i c a l

c o l l e g e i n 1930; c a n o n - p r o f e s s o r at D u r h a m i n 1940; B i s h o p o f D u r h a m i n 1952, A r c h b i s h o p 1 0

I n 1059

n o d o u b t u n d e r the influence o f H i l d e b r a n d , the f u t u r e Pope G r e g o r y V I I , Pope

o f Y o r k i n 1956, a n d was A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y f r o m 1961 t o 1 9 7 4 ; see his The Gospel

N i c h o l a s ¡1 r u l e d t h a t t h e c a r d i n a l bishops a l o n e s h o u l d elect t h e p o p e ( i n t h e h o p e o f e x c l u d ­

the Catholic

i n g simony)

1 3

1 1

Divided

Christendom:

34

text

Divided

Church

and

(1936), w h i c h Congar m u c h admired

Christendom:

33, 35

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n the

40

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

milieu under the aegis o f a Protestant modernist'; and t h e n at Lausanne

Intégrisme

(1927): 'a characteristic p r o d u c t o f the A n g l i c a n o u t l o o k ' — c o n c l u d i n g that Catholic co-operation should take the f o r m o f ' t h e o l o g i c a l assistance', 'certainly n o t the f o r m o f official membership'.

41

C O N G A R

Vraie et fausse réforme dans l'Eglise

runs to 650 pages. I n the first part Congar

deals w i t h sin i n the C h u r c h (chapter 1); h o w r e f o r m should take place

Chapter 5 outlines A n g l i c a n doctrine of the C h u r c h , as C o n g a r u n d e r -

(chapter 2); and the part played b y r e f o r m i n g prophets (chapter 3)

The

stands i t , quite sympathetically, c o n c l u d i n g however that, as to ' n o n - R o m a n

second part lays o u t f o u r conditions for r e f o r m w i t h o u t schism: a c k n o w -

Catholicism', i f that is w h a t Anglicans believe they represent, t h e n 'there is

l e d g i n g the p r i m a c y o f charity; remaining i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h the w h o l e

n o such t h i n g ' (197)

C h u r c h ; patience; and renewal by ressourcement, r e t u r n to the sources. The

O r t h o d o x y , i t turns o u t i n chapter 6, has an ' i n c o m p l e t e ' ecclesiology;

t h i r d part deals w i t h the R e f o r m a t i o n , p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h Luther, contending

nonetheless Congar breaks w i t h the t h e n prevalent Catholic v i e w that

that the m e d i a t o r y role o f the visible C h u r c h falls away i n t o o b l i v i o n . I n the

Christians w h o were n o t i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h R o m e and thus under the

conclusion C o n g a r admits understandable reservations and hesitancies but

a u t h o r i t y o f the H o l y See are ipso facto 'heretics' Indeed, so Congar c o n -

argues that the t i m e is ripe, especially i n France: there is n o t h i n g 'modernist'

tends, Catholics have m u c h t o learn f r o m the Russian C h u r c h ('to k n o w

or ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y ' to fear; the bishops are w e l c o m i n g , the w o u l d - b e r e f o r m -

and experience a m o r e i n t e r i o r and mystical o u t l o o k ' , 220). A b o u t Greek

ers are loyal Catholics; the r e f o r m required obviously issues out o f pastoral

O r t h o d o x y , oddly, he says n o t h i n g

concern.

Chapter 7 invites Catholics to see other Christians as 'brethren' — 'separated' yes; b u t as 'Christians w h o already possess i n greater or lesser degree w h a t we desire to see fulfilled i n t h e m , and w h o themselves secretly l o o k f o r such a c o n s u m m a t i o n ' (247). T h o u g h ' b o r n i n t o an erroneous f o r m o f Christianity', n o n - R o m a n - C a t h o l i c Christians are 'very rarely real heretics'. I n the c o n c l u d i n g chapter, an o u t l i n e f o r a practical programme, Congar allows that 'some day we shall have complete r e u n i o n ' , namely w i t h the Eastern C h u r c h . For any chance o f r e u n i o n w i t h Protestants, however, 'vast changes' w o u l d be required - 'the specifically Protestant m i n d is gradually destructive o f the objects o f its o w n belief, and o f w h a t survives o f the h e r -

Nevertheless Congar acknowledges the p r o b l e m o f a split - une scission spirituelle - a m o n g Catholics, between one c o u n t r y and another, France and (say) Flanders,

Quebec, the Netherlands, Ireland; and also

between Catholics i n the same c o u n t r y ! Accordingly, the b o o k ends w i t h 18 pages o n intégrisme i n France. M o d ernism, as i t existed f r o m 1895 to 1910, C o n g a r says, was indeed a heresy H e happily quotes Pope Pius X against it. Intégristes, o n the other hand, maximize o r t h o d o x y so m u c h that this also becomes a way out o f C a t h o l i cism. H e adapts N e w m a n , w r i t i n g to W G W a r d :

itage o f historic Christianity' (274).

P a r d o n m e i f 1 say t h a t y o u are m a k i n g a C h u r c h w i t h i n a C h u r c h , as

T h a t last remark c o u l d have been made by any a n t i - m o d e r n i s t I t is d i f f i -

N o v a t i a n s o f o l d d i d w i t h i n t h e C a t h o l i c p a l e , a n d , as o u t s i d e t h e

cult to imagine w h y colleagues and the authorities i n R o m e were so

pale, the Evangelicals o f t h e Establishment

w o r r i e d about Congar's principles o f Catholic ecumenism..

make a party i n the Catholic

H e sees no

Christ by exalting your opinions into dogma

remote - o f r e u n i o n w i t h the A n g l i c a n Church.. T h e ecclesiology o f the

against y o u r tenets, b u t against w h a t I m u s t call y o u r schismatical

O r t h o d o x is defective, yet, so he thinks, they are definitely n o t heretics M o r e shocking, however, was

n o d o u b t the assertion that n o n - R o m a n - C a t h o l i c

churches have ' i n greater

o r lesser degree' true elements o f w h a t the C h u r c h really is - other C h r i s tians, that is to say, are members o f churches w h i c h are, sacramentally and i n other ways, n o t completely and totally n u l l and v o i d

the

Catholic

. . . y o u are d o i n g y o u r b e s t t o

C h u r c h , a n d i n S t P a u l ' s w o r d s are

chance of r e u n i o n w i t h Protestant churches - and perhaps the possibility —

perhaps that was a shocking t h o u g h t i n 1938

between

dividing

. . I protest then again, spirit

not

1 4

Lhis sectarian tendency to maximize whatever is settled by a u t h o r i t y slips i n t o c o n d e m n i n g all openness, research, and questioning o f received ideas. A Catholic's o r t h o d o x y becomes measurable b y the degree of hatred that he shows for those he suspects of heterodoxy The p r o b l e m w i t h intégrisme is, finally, Congar thinks, that i t has t o o little confidence i n the t r u t h , insufficient love o f the t r u t h - ' f o r d enlarge m y soul, as Catherine of Siena prayed.'

1 4

9 M a y 1867. q u o t i n g W W a r d rheLifccfJ.H

Cardinal Newman (1913). v o l . 2 : 2 3 3 ; n o w Tlie

Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman, v o l X X I I I ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1 9 7 3 ) : 2 1 6 - 1 7

42

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

canonical and theological t r a d i t i o n means by ' c o l l e g i a l i t y ' . I t was a fact of 16

Lay People in the Church

life f o r centuries

Lay People in the Church is a classic. For decades, especially under the i n f l u ence o f Pius X I and Pius X I I , there were tremendous developments i n the lay apostolate. I t was t i m e f o r reflection and an attempt to recapitulate the place o f lay people, structured o n the d o c t r i n e o f their p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Church's t h r e e - f o l d priestly, regal/pastoral and prophetical function.. The theology o f laity really demanded a total ecclesiology.. The C h u r c h is the collectivity o f the faithful, the congregatio fidelium i n a phrase that Congar likes to quote f r o m Thomas Aquinas T h e faithful, one has to remember, include the clergy! For generations, i n understandable b u t one-sided reactions to 'spiritual' sects, conciliarism, Gallicanism, the R e f o r m a t i o n , and so o n , Congar says, ecclesiology gradually became ' h i e r archology'

The lay apostolate has o u t m o d e d this. C l e r g y and laity p a r t i c i -

pate equally i n Christ's messianic mission, yet i n different ways: the clergy, by celebrating the sacraments, constitute the f a i t h f u l people; whereas the laity, b y their graced activities, consecrate the w o r l d , m a k i n g o f all things a sacrifice o f praise and temple o f G o d . W e need to retrieve the d o c t r i n e o f the priesthood of the laity, w h i c h Congar develops entirely o n the basis o f quotations f r o m Aquinas The regal or pastoral f u n c t i o n extends to the laity's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r u n n i n g the C h u r c h , Congar recalls h o w m u c h lay people have done, historically, i n administrative and legal matters. H e includes a paragraph o n the possibility of a lay man's b e i n g elected pope, as Benedict V I I I i n 1012 and John X I X i n 1024 were, he tells us A small piece o f f o r g o t t e n history d e stabilizes a l o n g - h e l d assumption

43

C O N G A R

The t e r m 'collegiality' needs to be allowed tb retrieve its

m e a n i n g i n the cluster o f allied concepts related to C h r i s t i a n life i n f e l l o w ship and c o m m u n i t y I t is a T r i n i t a r i a n concept: the sublime mystery o f the H o l y T r i n i t y is 'a sort o f c o n c e l e b r a t i o n '

17

- w h i c h is the law o f the w h o l e

economy o f grace. As Paul says (1 C o r i n t h i a n s 1 1 , Ephesians 5), hierarchy and people are l i k e husband and w i f e (sid) trine'

1 8

This involves ' m u c h deep doc-

W h a t happens i n the C h u r c h is o n analogy w i t h 'the happiness of

c o m m u n i n g w i t h as w e l l as c o m m u n i c a t i n g to, o f g i v i n g itself a f e l l o w as partner and helper, w i t h w h o m a dialogue and co-operation are set up, then a sharing, and finally a c o m m u n i o n ' ,

1 9

namely, i n the t r i u n e Godhead

These remarks, m o r e provisional than the summary makes t h e m sound, anticipate the d o c t r i n e o f nuptiality w h i c h , as w e shall f i n d , came t o d o m i nate Catholic theology by the end o f the t w e n t i e t h century. This leads to the sensm fidelium: ' T h e C h u r c h l o v i n g and believing, that is, the b o d y o f the faithful, is infallible i n the l i v i n g possession of its f a i t h ' . This ' i n f a l l i b i l i t y ' is ' n o t simply a submissive deference to the hierarchy, a moral act o f docility or obedience, b u t i t is o f a vital, m o r a l nature, connected w i t h righteous l i v i n g '

2 0

Finally, Congar trawls t h r o u g h history f o r evidence o f lay participation i n teaching the C h r i s t i a n faith, by poets and artists, by m a n y lay movements, and by lay theologians - back to Justin, Tertullian and suchlike H e returns, at length - 150 pages - to Catholic A c t i o n , lay people taking part i n the Church's mission; lay holiness; sanctification i n the w o r l d , the existing reality o n w h i c h his b o o k is o n l y a reflection.

1 5

As for the prophetical f u n c t i o n , C o n g a r insists that, i n d o c t r i n a l develop-

Vatican I I

m e n t , there is co-operation, i n the conservation and development o f the deposit o f faith, between laity and clergy I n the C h u r c h , all are animated by the H o l y Spirit, according to their place and part: the bishops to teach, the laity to believe; but b e l i e v i n g is an active appropriation, n o t mere passivity Congar introduces the Russian O r t h o d o x idea o f sobornost',

suggesting

O n the eve o f the C o u n c i l , i n 1962, Yves Congar's help was n o t wanted, either by the French bishops or by the Master of the D o m i n i c a n Order, despite his h a v i n g taken part i n the preparatory drafting I n August 1962 he

that the translation as ' c o n c i l i a r i t y ' should give way to w h a t the Western 1 6

T h e Russian w o r d sobornost' ( c a t h o l i c i t y ) means that t h e c a t h o l i c i t y o f the C h u r c h is f o u n d

i n t h e u n i t y i n C h r i s t w h i c h exists i n t h e e v e n t o f t h e w o r s h i p p i n g c o n g r e g a t i o n especially i n H e doesn't g o far e n o u g h : B e n e d i c t V I I I (pope 1 0 1 2 - 2 4 ) a n d J o h n X I X ( 1 0 2 4 - 3 2 ) w e r e

t h e eucharist; t a u g h t b y R u s s i a n t h e o l o g i a n s such as G e o r g e s F l o r o v s k y ( 1 8 9 3 - 1 9 7 9 ) a n d

b r o t h e r s , succeeded b y t h e i r n e p h e w , B e n e d i c t I X ( 1 0 3 2 - 4 5 ) , also a lay m a n . H e . i n t u r n , a b d i -

A l e x e i K h o m i a k o v ( 1 8 0 4 - 6 0 ) . i t perhaps has n o t s u c h p r o m i n e n c e i n O r t h o d o x t r a d i t i o n as

cated i n favour o f his g o d f a t h e r G r e g o r y V I ( 1 0 4 5 - 6 ) , w h o was deposed b y a s y n o d called a n d

C o n g a r seems t o t h i n k .

1 5

presided over b y t h e H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r , w h o t h e n h a d 'elected' t h e first o f t h e f o u r G e r m a n popes he i m p o s e d : n o t a g l o r i o u s p e r i o d i n papal h i s t o r y b u t s h o w i n g that t h r e e popes w e r e lay

1 7

Lay People in the Church:

1 8

I b i d : 272

m e n w h e n elected w h i l e o n e was deposed and f o u r i m p o s e d , b y a k e e n y o u n g lay m a n d e t e r -

1 9

I b i d : 271

m i n e d t o r e f o r m t h e C h u r c h , o r a n y w a y t o get t h e papacy o u t o f o n e R o m a n family's clutches

2 0

I b i d : 275

271

44

YVES

CONGAIÍ

YVES

45

CONGAR

offered his services to the bishop o f Strasbourg w h o at first refused - n o t ,

I n O c t o b e r 1963 a large m a j o r i t y o f the C o u n c i l fathers voted i n favour

however, because of reluctance to e m p l o y the still suspected theologian,

o f the doctrine o f collegiality - that supreme a u t h o r i t y i n the C h u r c h lay

o n l y because he feared he w o u l d have to pay Congar's expenses i n R o m e .

w i t h the bishops as a w h o l e , o f course i n c l u d i n g the pope. However, over

However, he was a m o n g the 200 'experts' appointed by Pope John X X I I I .

408 were against the doctrine. A f t e r m u c h redrafting, i n response to the

I n the event, t h o u g h Congar was n o t the p r i n c i p a l begetter o f the Vatican I I

bishops' w r i t t e n suggestions, w h e n the text was resubmitted i n September

d o c u m e n t o n the C h u r c h , the layout - the C h u r c h as mystery, as people o f

1964 there were still 322 o u t o f 2,000 against the doctrine - and this m i n o r -

G o d , as clergy and laity, and so o n - obviously displays his sense o f p r i o r i t i e s

i t y i n c l u d e d many p o w e r f u l figures. M o r e than four decades o n , w h i l e they

i n e x p o u n d i n g the doctrine.

are no d o u b t all dead, the fact remains that there has n o t been a n y t h i n g like

W h i l e the idea of a chapter o n 'the people o f G o d ' seems to have been

the decentralization, the r e t u r n o f a u t h o r i t y to local bishops, that the text

suggested b y A l b e r t P r i g n o n , t h e n R e c t o r o f the Belgian College i n R o m e ,

promulgated i n 1964

Congar drafted it. I n his j o u r n a l , f o r 2 O c t o b e r 1963, Congar records the

m a j o r i t y o f the bishops expected to be balanced by n e w or revitalized

envisages. The power o f the papal C u r i a that the

speech by the Master o f the D o m i n i c a n Order, attacking the idea of the

instruments o f collective episcopal a u t h o r i t y seems, i f anything, o n l y to have

C h u r c h as the people o f G o d , w a r n i n g o f the risk o f falling i n t o exaggerated

become m o r e secure, as we enter the t w e n t y - f i r s t century

democratismus H e recor ds the very fair presentation (as he thinks) o f the idea o f episcopal coHegiality by Cardinal M i c h a e l B r o w n e , spokesman f o r the doctrine commission; m a k i n g i t clear however that he (Browne) rejected

Religious Liberty

the doctrine himself: to say the bishops f o r m e d a college w o u l d be to say they were all equal — w h i c h c o u l d n o t be r i g h t , since bishops have n o j u r i s d i c t i o n outside their o w n diocese; i f they share i n governing the C h u r c h i t is by favour o f the pope, he alone is the source o f their a u t h o r i t y

2 1

Yves Congar had a h a n d i n half of the Vatican I I texts, at some stage ments o f t r u t h and grace i n n o n - C a t h o l i c

Back i n 1953, as we saw, Congar p u t the w o r d 'collegiahty' i n t o circula-

The

Decree o n E c u m e n i s m contains his dearest themes: recognition o f the eleChristian c o m m u n i t i e s ;

importance o f 'dialogue'; of 'spiritual ecumenism';

the

and o f ' r e f o r m '

He

tion. The idea o f the Apostles as a college, i n parallel w i t h the bishops as an

w o r k e d closely w i t h his y o u n g colleague Joseph Ratzinger o n r e w r i t i n g the

order, was already to be f o u n d i n the draft constitution de ecclesia prepared

rather miserable draft o n Missions - p r o d u c i n g what is acknowledged to be

f o r discussion i n 1870.

one o f the finest texts.

Few k n e w these texts, i n w h i c h i t was n o t e d , f o r

example, that ancient conciliar practice shows i t to be a dogma o f faith that

B u t n o t h i n g is m o r e revealing about Congar's character, as w e l l as his

the bishops share i n governing and teaching the universal C h u r c h . I n 1963,

ecumenical approach, than his involvement i n drafting Dignitatis

however, this talk o f episcopal collegiality seemed n e w - a n e w l y introduced

the Declaration o n R e l i g i o u s L i b e r t y The history o f the p r o d u c t i o n o f this

w o r d to express an essential d i m e n s i o n o f the Church's life all along, as

text displays radically c o n f l i c t i n g visions of Catholicism. Congar t r i e d hard

Congar believed; a n e w w o r d to smuggle i n an attack o n papal supremacy, as

to make i t a m u c h stronger text, m o r e scriptural and more theological,

the likes o f B r o w n e and Fernandez feared

For Congar, the balance was

g r o u n d i n g i t i n the N e w Testament doctrine o f our f r e e d o m i n C h r i s t , and

being restored between papal p r i m a c y and episcopal collegiality — essential

so on. Eventually he gave up, deciding that any further substantial m o d i f i c a -

i f there was ever to be reconciliation w i t h the O r t h o d o x B u t this was o n l y

tions to the text-in-progress w o u l d likely end i n there b e i n g no t e x t at all

one o f the most intractable questions at Vatican I I F r o m the ultramontanist m i n o r i t y , fearful o f the implications o f the very idea of episcopal collegialiry, to the m u c h larger n u m b e r w h o v o t e d against i n c l u d i n g the text o n the V i r g i n M a r y i n the d o c u m e n t o n the C h u r c h , t h r o u g h to the stubborn resistance to successive drafts o f the text o n religious liberty, the speeches o n the f l o o r exposed the deep r i f t between t w o very different versions Catholic theology and sensibility

of

A f t e r the N a z i G e r m a n and Soviet Russian attempts to exterminate the C h u r ch, as w e l l as the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f anti-Catholic laws i n France, M e x i c o and elsewhere, something about the f r e e d o m o f the C h u r c h f r o m state c o n t r o l had to be o n the agenda. I n any case, i t was a m a j o r issue i n h e r i t e d f r o m the First Vatican C o u n c i l I t was even the major issue: the p o i n t o f Vatican I s doctrine o f papal supremacy was, i n its o w n way, equivalent to the O x f o r d Movement's resistance to erastianism i n the C h u r c h o f England, and to the D i s r u p t i o n o f 1843

2 1

MonJournal

du Conálc

I (Paris: C e r f 2 0 0 2 ) : 4 2 6 ,

Humante,

380

i n the C h u r c h o f Scotland, and parallel

movements elsewhere. Certainly, the R o m a n university theologians w h o

46

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A E

47

C O N G A R

(mostly) drafted the d o c u m e n t w a n t e d a clear statement, asserting the r i g h t

denied the fact that, objectively speaking, no other r e l i g i o n but the R o m a n

o f the C h u r c h to exercise her mission, free o f c i v i l interference, i n c l u d i n g

Catholic C h u r c h had the r i g h t to propagate its doctrine; and so ,on

practical matters like f r e e d o m to r u n schools, o w n property, and so o n ,

The leading D o m i n i c a n s at the C o u n c i l w e i g h e d i n against the text.

preferably i n h a r m o n y w i t h , and indeed w i t h the support of, the state, and

A c c o r d i n g to Cardinal M i c h a e l B r o w n e , i t c o u l d n o t be approved as i t

so (tacitly) i n c l u d i n g tax relief and other such benefits

stood, since i t asserted that religious freedom is f o u n d e d o n the rights o f

Controversy heated up w h e n the bishops o f the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a entered the debate. O f course they sought freedom o f action f o r the C h u r c h over against the state - b u t they wanted also freedom of conscience f o r i n d i viduals They w a n t e d a clear admission that the Catholic C h u r c h officially recognized the rights o f members o f other religions to practise their faith This was an essential step f o r engagement i n the ecumenical movement, i n a

conscience, w h i c h is simply not true. A n i c e t o Fernandez, his successor as Master o f the Order, wanted a g o o d deal o f revision, arguing that the text was t o o naturalistic B o t h o f these critics, obviously, feared that the Catholic C h u r c h was being manoeuvred i n t o adopting some version o f Jefferson's belief i n the absolute

The c o n f l i c t i n g views were so intractable, as the C o u n c i l speeches show, that a decision to vote o n the text was repeatedly postponed. I n September 1964, at the t h i r d session, the U S cardinals t o o k the floor, accepting the text as i t stood at that date They d i d n o t w a n t i t sent back f o r f u r t h e r r e w r i t i n g , perhaps fearing that i t w o u l d disappear for ever. Further amendments, i f any were needed, should strengthen the Church's c o m m i t m e n t to religious

Thomas

o f private j u d g e m e n t and his

assumption that creeds were the bane and r u i n o f Christianity

2 2

The text as i t stood, at this stage, so Congar t h o u g h t , was 'premature'

religiously pluralist society l i k e that o f the U n i t e d States, so they insisted.. (The first Catholic President was elected i n 1961.)

freedom

The Catholic Church's previous p o s i t i o n about freedom i n religious matters - 'error has n o rights' — was embedded i n a history, C h r i s t e n d o m , Catholic states, and suchlike, and should certainly be abandoned Yet, he t h o u g h t , the draft replaced w h a t had been believed f o r centuries, m u c h t o o abruptly, whereas there needed to be m o r e sense o f c o n t i n u i t y T h e statement should n o t be allowed to give the impression of b e i n g a total reversal o f previous teaching.

freedom, a natural r i g h t o f every person, one of the aspects o f natural h u m a n

M u c h revised, the t e x t ( n o w i n its f o u r t h draft) r e t u r n e d to t h e bishops

freedom, and so o n , but the text should stand. W h a t they sought, i t seemed,

f o r debate i n N o v e m b e r 1964. So m u c h revision had taken place that some

was something l i k e the First A m e n d m e n t to the C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the U n i t e d

w a n t e d t i m e to reconsider i t A c c o r d i n g l y , the praesidium decreed that dis-

States (1791): 'Congress shall make n o law respecting an establishment of

cussion w o u l d be deferred u n t i l the f o u r t h (and everyone h o p e d final)

religion, or p r o h i b i t i n g the free exercise t h e r e o f . N o C h u r c h - however

session o f the C o u n c i l A t this, the U S bishops were outraged - t h e c o n f i -

' t r u e ' - w o u l d ever be granted p r i v i l e g e d status b y the state; no religious

dence o f the entire C h r i s t i a n and n o n - C h r i s t i a n w o r l d i n the Catholic

b o d y - however- bizar re - was to be prevented b y the state f r o m w o r s h i p p i n g

C h u r c h w o u l d be f o r f e i t , i f there were any f u r t h e r delay over w h a t seemed

G o d o r propagating its teachings i n whatever way i t chose

to the Americans

M a n y Europeans c o u l d n o t stomach this. For one t h i n g , they d i d n o t see w h y w h a t Catholics believe should be tempered i n any way to relieve a n x i eties o n the part o f others. As regards f r e e d o m to practise one's r e l i g i o n itself, Cardinal O t t a v i a n i , i n effect speaking f o r the H o l y Office, o f w h i c h he was still the Prefect, argued that the text w o u l d be saying n o t h i n g n e w no one is to be coerced i n religious matters, as the Catholic C h u r c h has always recognized Nonetheless there needed to be an explicit affirmation o f the p r i m a r y r i g h t to religious freedom, i n the proper sense o f ' r i g h t ' , w h i c h belongs, objectively, to those w h o are members o f the one true revealed r e l i g i o n Moreover, the rights o f the true r e l i g i o n are based, he argued, n o t o n merely natural rights, b u t o n the rights w h i c h f l o w f r o m revelation.

a perfectly straightforward and simple m a t t e r : do

Catholics believe i n f r e e d o m o f conscience o r not? P a n d e m o n i u m broke o u t o n the C o u n c i l f l o o r ; Paul V I , w a t c h i n g o n closed-circuit television, telephoned the secretary general t o come to h i m at once, the Americans started to gather signatures for a p e t i t i o n — i n vain: the pope decided to leave the decision u n t i l the f o u r t h session, guaranteeing i t w o u l d be first on the agenda For this reason, a m o n g others, the t h i r d session c o n c l u d e d , on 21 N o v e m b e r 1964, w i t h a g r i m - f a c e d Paul V I being carried o n the sedia geitatoria

o u t o f the basilica t h r o u g h tiers o f stony-faced bishops, whose

lack o f enthusiasm, so uncharacteristic of such events, testified t o the seriousness o f the impasse over several issues, at this p o i n t i n the h i s t o r y of Vatican I I

Two eminent Spanish bishops were m u c h less sympathetic: the text was totally unacceptable, i t appeared to favour u n i o n w i t h the separated brethren, it endorsed the 'liberalism' w h i c h the C h u r c h had so often condemned, i t

1 2

Mon Journal

du Concile I I (Paris: C e r f 2 0 0 2 ) : 157,

162

48

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

49

C O N G A R

The reason f o r d e f e r r i n g the vote once again was simply that the pope

concepts o f development and historicity, the long-resisted obvious fact that

and the inner circle o f his advisors feared that there w o u l d be as many as 800

institutions change over t i m e and that interpretations of events and texts also

votes against the text, o u t o f 2,300, m u c h t o o significant a m i n o r i t y W h a t

change, the implications f o r the C h u r c h , and f o r Scripture, were still to be

w o u l d i t l o o k like, to the outside w o r l d , i f the Catholic C h u r c h were to

faced

endorse religious l i b e r t y b u t w i t h one i n three o f the bishops against it?

some cases n o t even discussed

M o r e anguishing for Paul V I , w h a t w o u l d i t feel like, f o r o r d i n a r y Catholics

marriages, penitential discipline, and indulgences.

the w o r l d over, to discover h o w d i v i d e d the C h u r c h was? H e sought as

presbyteral; the place o f w o m e n i n the C h u r c h ; h o w priests are p a i d ; h o w

m u c h consensus as possible, b u t , l i k e other observers at the t i m e , he had n o

bishops are appointed; the r e f o r m o f the papal C u r i a and o f tides and p o m p

illusions about the deep and b i t t e r c o n f l i c t between t w o radically different

— a somewhat heterogeneous agenda o f unfinished business. Yet, he had no

T h i r d , major ethical and practical issues were n o t decided, and i n These issues i n c l u d e d contraception, m i x e d 25

ministries o t h e r than

doubt, flawed and compromised as Vatican IPs ' r e f o r m ' o f the C h u r c h was, i t

versions o f Catholic C h r i s t i a n i t y I n February 1965, w h i l e w o r k i n g o n the text to be presented at the final session, Congar regarded the draft as simply t o o optimistic - the drafting

was m u c h greater than he or anyone else c o u l d have i m a g i n e d i n the dark days o f the 1950s.

c o m m i t t e e lacked the benefit o f having opponents a m o n g t h e m w h o w o u l d oblige t h e m to compromise, instead o f just celebrating w h a t he calls their 'euphoric u n a n i m i t y '

2 3

H e even w i s h e d that Cardinal M i c h a e l B r o w n e ,

and t w o other stalwart adversaries

Reception and

Re-reception

o f everything he wanted f r o m the

C o u n c i l had been o n the commission

I n M a y 1965 he confided to his

I n 1972 Congar published a l a n d m a r k essay o n the theological concept of

j o u r n a l that w h i l e the Declaration w o u l d reduce fears o f the Catholic

'reception': the way i n w h i c h the Gospel is received and understood by the

C h u r c h , yet i t w o u l d also v e r y likely encourage i n d i f f e r e n t i s m i n religious

Church

matters a m o n g Catholics. Indeed, he predicted, i t was likely to encourage

2 6

T h e t e r m is not to be f o u n d i n the relevant v o l u m e o f the

Dktionnaire

the idea that the norms o f morality, standards i n ethical conduct, and so o n ,

theologique catholique, the p r i n c i p a l French authority, unsurprisingly since i t

reside i n people's b e i n g sincere and h a v i n g g o o d intentions, rather than i n

came out i n 1951. The Oxford Dictionary

anything o b j e c t i v e .

n o entry either; whereas i n the 1997 e d i t i o n , the t e r m receives a dozen

24

I n the end, w h e n they voted o n 19 N o v e m b e r 1965, o f the 2,216 C o u n c i l

of the Christian Church (1957) has

lines, w i t h n o bibliography: Anglicans and O r t h o d o x have

emphasized

members present, 1,954 v o t e d i n favour, 249 against, and 13 votes were

'reception' i n recent times, w e are t o l d , but the d e f i n i t i o n o f papal a u t h o r i t y

invalid - w h i c h was, o f course, a decision by far m o r e than the required t w o -

l e d to its being comparatively neglected by C a t h o l i c s .

27

thirds m a j o r i t y Nonetheless a hard core o f opponents remained The history o f the p r o d u c t i o n o f the d o c u m e n t o n f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o n convinced Yves Congar that the achievement o f the C o u n c i l c o u l d never have been completely satisfactory, i n the sense o f satisfying everyone

He

saw the deep and bitter differences w i t h i n Catholic t h e o l o g y and piety, and sensibility I n 1965 he listed problems that were never seriously engaged w i t h at all There was a gap between biblical scholars and theologians; no one should be awarded a higher degree i n Catholic theology, he suggested, unless they have published some w o r t h w h i l e w o r k o n the Bible, a pretty d a u n t i n g requirement. Integrating m o d e r n biblical studies w i t h d o c t r i n e w o u l d be one o f the major problems to come. Second, w h i l e Vatican I I admitted the

2

^

V i s i t o r s t o c h u r c h e s i n c e r t a i n C a t h o l i c c o u n t r i e s are o f t e n s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h a t i n d u l -

gences, the p r a c t i c e b y w h i c h t h e C h u r c h r e m i t s the t e m p o r a l p e n a l t y due t o f o r g i v e n sin i n v i r t u e o f t h e m e r i t s o f C h r i s t a n d t h e saints E n c h i r i d i o n Indulgentiarum

remains i n o p e r a t i o n ; t h e latest e d i t i o n o f the

i n c l u d e s a n e w p l e n a r y i n d u l g e n c e g r a n t e d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the

W e e k o f Prayer f o r C h r i s t i a n U n i t y 2 6

'La

' réception"

Théologiques 2 7

comme

réalité

ecclésiologique'

Revue

des

Sciences

Philosophiques

T h e F a i t h a n d O r d e r C o n s u l t a t i o n at L o u v a i n i n 1 9 7 1 spoke o f r e c e p t i o n as ' t h e process

b y w h i c h t h e l o c a l churches accept t h e d e c i s i o n o f a c o u n c i l and t h e r e b y recognize its a u t h o r i t y T h i s process is a m u l t i p l e x o n e a n d m a y last f o r c e n t u r i e s .

. t h e process o f r e c e p t i o n

c o n t i n u e s i n s o m e w a y o r o t h e r as l o n g as t h e churches are i n v o l v e d i n s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n o n t h e basis o f w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n c i l has b e e n r e c e i v e d a n d a p p r o p r i a t e d p r o p e r l y a n d w i t h j u s t i f i c a t i o n I n this sense

i n t h e e c u m e n i c a l m o v e m e n t t h e c h u r c h e s find themselves i n a

process o f c o n t i n u i n g r e c e p t i o n o r r e - r c c e p t i o n o f t h e c o u n c i l s ' , see The Dictionary Journal

11:329

I b i d : 370

et

56 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 3 6 9 - 4 0 3

menical Movement 1991). s v

e d i t e d b y N i c h o l a s L o s s k y et al

'Reception

(Geneva: W o r l d C o u n c i l o f

of the EcuChurches

50

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

Congar means the w h o l e process b y w h i c h the C h u r c h accepts and i n -

51

C O N G A R

i n the process o f reception' being played by 'the response of the f a i t h f u l '

tegrates i n t o her life this or that d o c t r i n a l decision, l i t u r g i c a l r e f o r m , or

(§16) - w h i c h implants the concept o f reception, very m u c h i n Congar's

whatever. The C h u r c h is inherently receptive: she exists o n l y i n v i r t u e o f

terms. I n an i m p o r t a n t text (though o f course n o t authoritative i n either the

receiving the H o l y Spirit ( John 20:22; Acts 1:8)

A n g l i c a n C o m m u n i o n o r the Catholic C h u r c h ) , The Gift of Authority,

The C h u r c h teaches w h a t

she has received, n o t w h a t is invented o r discovered (1 Cor. 11:23; 15:3).

the

A g r e e d Statement by A R C I C (1999), we even hear of 're-reception':

Even i f the faith 'has been delivered to the saints once and f o r all' (Jude 3),

Even though promised the assistance of the H o l y Spirit, the churches from time to time lose sight o f aspects of the apostolic Tradition, failing to discern the full vision o f the kingdom of God i n the light o f which we seek to follow Christ. . Fresh recourse to Tradition i n a new situation is the means by which God's revelation i n Christ is recalled The insights o f biblical scholars and theologians and the wisdom of holy persons assist this. Thus, there may be a rediscovery of elements that were neglected and a fresh remembrance of the promises of God, leading to renewal of the Church's 'Amen' There may also be a sifting of what has been received because some o f the formulations of the Tradition are seen to be inadequate or even misleading i n a new context This whole process may be term re-reception

reception does n o t cease: the Spirit keeps leading the C h u r c h m o r e deeply ' i n t o the t r u t h ' (John 16:13).. The reception o f this or that doctrinal decision, then, needs to be situated i n the context o f this o n g o i n g reception o f the Gospel. The C h u r c h as a w h o l e receives the t r u t h , n o t this or that element i n the C h u r c h , such as the bishops (say).. Thus the reception o f the doctrine o f the C o u n c i l o f C h a l cedon (451), f o r example, is to be f o u n d not o n l y i n the teaching o f the subsequent councils b u t i n h y m n o d y , prayers, icons, a w h o l e spirituality. R e c e p t i o n o f doctrine, i n this sense, is an 'ecclesiological reality', as Congar calls i t : a reality w h i c h goes far beyond accepting certain propositions.

2 9

Moreover, historically, the reception o r assimilation o f a d o c t r i n e defined at a C o u n c i l has n o t always been immediate o r unanimous.. A f t e r Nicaea

Conclusion

(325) i t t o o k decades for the C h u r c h to receive the doctrine defined then. Indeed, formulations have been rejected, as Chalcedon was b y m u c h o f the Eastern C h u r c h - hence the existence o f the O r i e n t a l O r t h o d o x C h u r ches..

M u c h that Yves Congar stood for, and suffered for, passed i n t o Catholic

F u r t h e r m o r e , a doctrine is never received once and f o r all.. Absorbed i n t o

d o c t r i n e at Vatican I I . T h a t does n o t mean, however, that all his theological

the existing b o d y o f doctrine, i t necessarily affects all the rest. R e c e p t i o n is a

ideas are n o w history W i t h the concept o f reception - and of re-reception -

permanent process W e m i g h t speak o f 're-reception', Congar says. For

Congar opened questions and possibilities, w h i c h we have barely begun

example, i n the l i g h t of Vatican I I o n collegiahty, there cannot b u t be a re-

to c o n f r o n t .

30

reception o f Vatican I o n papal p r i m a c y This does n o t mean abandonment of the dogma, as i f i t were n o w redundant; n o r does i t mean revision, as i f i t were mistaken Rather, a d o c t r i n e l o n g held simply begins to l o o k different i n the context of a n e w l y promulgated doctrine — that is w h a t Congar means. The t e r m 'reception' is m a k i n g its w a y slowly I n the A n g l i c a n - R o m a n Catholic A g r e e d Statement Authority

in the Church (19 7 7 ) ,

28

the way is p r e -

pared i n phrases such as the C h r i s t i a n community's being 'enabled by the H o l y Spirit to live o u t the gospel and so to be led i n t o all t r u t h ' ; its b e i n g 'given the capacity to assess its faith and life' (§2); its having to 'respond to and assess the insights and teachings o f the ordained ministers'; i n a ' c o n t i n u i n g process o f discernment and response' (§6); t o 'the r e c o g n i t i o n and reception o f conciliar decisions and disciplinary decisions', 'a substantial part 2 9

2 8

Authority

Commission

in the Church : An Agreed

Statement by the Anglican—Roman

( L o n d o n : Catholic T r u t h Society

1977)

Catholic

International

The Gift of Authority

(Authority

Catholic International

Commission

See Yves Congar

Theologian

3 ( 1

w i t h g o o d bibliography.

m the Church

III) : An Agreed

Statement by the A

nglican-Roman

( L o n d o n : C a t h o l i c T r u t h Society 1 9 9 9 ) : (§25) of the Church,

e d i t e d b y G a b r i e l F l y n n ( L o u v a i n : Peeters 2005),

E D W A R D

Chapter Four

53

S C H I L I E B E E C K X

were overshadowed by the G e r m a n occupation o f B e l g i u m . H e received a classical education at a Jesuit school, f o r w h i c h he had t o learn to speak French. (Flemish was n o t p e r m i t t e d i n Belgian schools and universities ) His

EDWARD

decision n o t to f o l l o w an older b r o t h e r i n t o the Society o f Jesus was made

SCHILLEBEECKX

entered the D o m i n i c a n O r d e r i n 1934. H e read the mystics, taking the stan-

after he read H u m b e r t Clerissac's L'Esprit

de Saint Dominique

(1924). H e

dard D o m i n i c a n line: mysticism is the life o f v i r t u e and devotion directed towards G o d , w h i c h the H o l y Spirit grants to all believers, quite distinct f r o m episodic religious 'experiences', or a n y t h i n g essentially 'abnormal'. As a novice he added the name o f H e n r i c u s t o the f o u r he already had, i n h o n o u r o f H e n r y Suso (c. 1295—1366), the G e r m a n D o m i n i c a n spiritual writer. Tike Congar, Schillebeeckx eventually dropped his religious name

5

L i k e all Belgian seminarians, Schillebeeckx d i d m i l i t a r y service, i n a barW h i l e he regarded liimself as a theologian i n the historico-contextualist school o f his older D o m i n i c a n colleagues C h e n u and Congar, E d w a r d Schillebeeckx was always far m o r e sensitive to philosophical questions than either o f t h e m The D o m i n i c a n p r i o r y at Touvain, by his day, was no longer an enclave o f pure Thomistic p h i l o s o p h y Y o u n g Schillebeeckx was taught 1

racks reserved f o r student priests, rabbis and pastors, passing the year reading Husserl, Heidegger and M e r l e a u - P o n t y Recalled to the a r m y i n O c t o b e r 1939 he was never i n v o l v e d i n fighting. W h e n the B e l g i a n government capitulated i n M a y 1940 he r e t u r n e d to L o u v a i n where he pursued his four years of theological studies, virtually undisturbed by the war. I n 1942, however, D e Petter was replaced as R e g e n t , part o f the w i d e r

b y D o m i n i c u s D e Petter, w h o was b y then w o r k i n g o u t a synthesis of 2

Thomas Aquinas and c o n t e m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l and personalist

campaign b y the D o m i n i c a n authorities i n R o m e to eradicate ' m o d e r n i s m '

philosophy, m a i n t a i n i n g that i n o u r experiential k n o w l e d g e o f entities w e

D e Petter's talk o f ' i n t u i t i o n o f b e i n g ' seemed to t u r n T h o m i s t realism into

have an immediate i n t u i t i o n o f being H e was particularly interested i n p h e -

some f o r m o f subjectivist idealism. This crisis affected Schillebeeckx all the

nomenology, Husserl and problems o f the i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f consciousness

m o r e because he discovered sympathies w i t h N a z i ideology i n some o f Karl

F r o m the outset, this directed Schillebeeckx away f r o m a n y t h i n g that Gar-

Adam's early w o r k Put o n to reading A d a m b y D e Petter, precisely as an

rigou-Lagrange c o u l d have recognized as T h o m i s m

alternative to 'rationalist' n e o t h o m i s t fears o f the place o f 'experience' i n

E d w a r d Cornells Florent A l f o n s Schillebeeckx was b o r n o n 12 N o v e m 3

ber 1914, sixth o f w h a t w o u l d be 14 children, i n a devout middle-class Flemish f a m i l y . H e g r e w up i n K o r t e n b e r g , an o l d t o w n i n Brabant. H i s 4

father w o r k e d as an accountant for the Belgian government. H i s early years

Catholic theology, he f o u n d that Adam's Tübingen School emphasis on 'life', ' c o m m u n i t y ' , 'das V o l k ' , and so o n , exposed h i m to the charms of Nazism

I n ' N a t u r e and Supernature', Schillebeeckx developed his o w n

understanding o f the orientation o f h u m a n nature towards G o d , against Karl Adam's use o f the supposedly T h o m i s t i c t h e o r e m 'grace perfects nature' to justify Catholic Christian collaboration (up to a point) w i t h Nazism

1

As i t n o d o u b t was

i n t h e heyday o f the l e g e n d a r y A n t o n i n u s -

M . Dummermuth

( 1 8 4 1 - 1 9 1 8 ) , i n f l e x i b l y anti-Jesuit d e f e n d e r o f t h e T h o m i s t d o c t r i n e o f physical p r e m o t i o n , a n d t h e equally m e m o r a b l e M a r c o l i n u s — M

Tuyaerts (1878—1948), w h o believed m o s t solutions t o

questions a d o p t e d b y T h o m a s A q u i n a s c o u l d be t u r n e d i n t o d e n n e d dogmas o f t h e C h u r c h . Dominicus De

2

Petter ( 1 9 0 5 - 7 1 ) t r a i n e d at t h e I n s t i t u t S u p é r i e u r de P h i l o s o p h i e

at

L o u v a i n f o u n d e d by Cardinal M e r c i e r 3

I f E d w a r d spelled t h u s , seems an u n u s u a l n a m e f o r a B e l g i a n i t goes b a c k t o the M i d d l e

Ages w h e n E n g l i s h i n f l u e n c e was s t r o n g i n Flanders 4

F o r d e t a i l see E r i k B o r g m a n , Edward

Catholic

Theology

of Culture

K e n n e d y O R Schillebeeckx by R o b e r t ] Theologian

(Î914-1965)

Schillebeeckx:

A Theologian

in His History,

As soon as the war ended, Schillebeeckx w e n t to Paris t o w o r k o n a doctoral dissertation o n faith and culture, effectively a variant o f the grace/ nature theme, at the p o n t i f i c a l faculties o f Te Saulchoir. As so often happens in D o m i n i c a n life, however, he was soon recalled to L o u v a i n to teach dogmatic theology, l o n g before he was properly qualified to d o so. I n his year i n Paris, Schillebeeckx t o o k courses at Le Saulchoir (Yves Congar among

vol. I : A

( L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k : C o n t i n u u m 2003); P h i l i p

( L o n d o n : G e o f f r e y C h a p m a n 1 9 9 3 ) ; The

Schillebeeckx

Reader, e d i t e d

S c h r e i t e r ( N e w Y o r k : Crossroad 1 9 8 4 ) ; a n d E d w a r d S c h i l l e b e e c k x . I Am a Conversations

6

with Francesco Slrazzari

( L o n d o n : S C P Press 1994)

Happy

71

I n his first p u b l i c a t i o n s , as De sacramentele

Hcilseconomie

Schillebeeckx 6

S u m m a r i z e d b y B o r g m a n . Schillebeeckx:

56-9

(1952) h e appears as H e n r i c u s

54

E D W A R D

S C H I L

I E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

S C H I I

55

I E B E E C K X

others), at the Sorbonne ( R e n é Le Senne, Louis Lavelle, Jean Wahl), the

clash b e h i n d the scenes between Schillebeeckx, the Flemish D o m i n i c a n , and

É c o l e des Hautes Études (Chenu) and the Collège de France (Gilson)

the D u t c h Jesuit Sebastian T f o m p (1889-1975), famous i n the Netherlands

7

The

dissertation came to n o t h i n g

for his role i n enforcing the dismissal i n the mid-1950s of seminary professors

I n 1952, however, he published De sacraméntele heilseconomie, 'theological

sympathetic to the so-called ' n e w theology', signalled the move f r o m a

reflection o n St Thomas's d o c t r i n e o f the sacraments i n the l i g h t o f t r a d i t i o n

deeply traditional, ultramontane Catholicism to the 'progressive liberalism'

and o f m o d e r n problems about the sacraments', the first v o l u m e o f an exten-

w i t h w h i c h D u t c h Catholics were to become identified i n the immediately

sive investigation o f the tradition that was to f o r m the basis o f a synthesis,

post-Vatican I I years (This conflict between Catholic sensibilities and con-

never completed, e x p o u n d i n g the sacraments as celebrations, expressions,

victions i n the Netherlands has never been resolved.) Immediately after

o f the Christian faith i n all its fullness

Vatican I I Schillebeeckx devoted a great deal o f energy to spreading his ideas

This massive b o o k -

700 pages —

was the product of t w o lecture courses o n the sacraments. The historical-

about the Council's achievement

contextualist approach to Thomas Aquinas, characteristic o f C h e n u , and the

g r o u n d , i n r e t h i n k i n g classical Christology i n the light o f historical-critical

t r a w l i n g t h r o u g h patristic and medieval scholastic literature as practised by

biblical studies. H e retired i n 1983 t o w o r k o n the sacraments

Increasingly, however, he b r o k e new

Congar, are very evident - w h i l e the interest i n phenomenological p h i l osophy already indicates the conditions f o r Schillebeeckx to develop his o w n distinctive approach. This b o o k earned h i m the doctorate at Le Saulchoir.

Delations

F r o m 1946 to 1957 Schillebeeckx taught dogmatic t h e o l o g y to y o u n g friars i n the D o m i n i c a n study house at L o u v a i n As a m e m b e r o f a religious

Lecture tours, especially i n the U n i t e d States, stimulated Schillebeeckx's

order, he c o u l d n o t have had a chair at the Catholic U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a i n

t h i n k i n g i n many respects John Robinson's Honest to God, the so-called

I n 1958 he was sounded out about a chair at the U n i v e r s i t y o f N i j m e g e n

'God-is-dead' theologians, and suchlike, confronted Christian theology w i t h

The Flemish D o m i n i c a n s , at first refusing to let h i m go, w i t h d r e w their

very fundamental questions, he believed, w i t h w h i c h he sought to grapple

objections w h e n , w i t h his connivance, appeal was made to the Master o f the

by d r a w i n g o n 'critical t h e o r y ' (the Frankfurt School, Jiirgen Habermas),

Order, M i c h a e l B r o w n e , w h o decreed that he should take up the offer o f

hermenéutica! philosophy (Paul R i c o e u r , Hans G e o r g Gadamer) and to

this prestigious chair. Ironically, three or f o u r years later, B r o w n e was one o f

some extent anglophone linguistic philosophy. W h i l e certainly seeing

the leaders of the m i n o r i t y (as they t u r n e d o u t to be, m u c h to their surprise)

Vatican I I as a breakthrough, he predicted, i n 1964, that the Council's deci-

at Vatican I I , p i t t e d against Schillebeeckx, by t h e n the 'progressive' in-house

sions w o u l d rapidly become outdated for Catholics i n the Netherlands,

theologian o f the D u t c h bishops

b e i n g far t o o ambiguous and anodyne to speak to the adversaries i n the

"When he got to N i j m e g e n , Schillebeeckx f o u n d Catholic theology i n the Netherlands 'almost non-existent': that is to say, adhering to the n o n -

stormy conflicts already o c c u r r i n g After 1970,

as the m u t u a l hostility

between the Vatican and many D u t c h Catholics over liturgy, m i n i s t r y and

historical approach i n neoscholastic I h o m i s m and avoiding dialogue w i t h

c h u r c h organization, m i r e d d o w n i n t o an impasse, and the 'progressive'

current philosophy Never an official peritus at Vatican I I , blocked by the

bishops were gradually replaced b y loyal ultramontanists, Schillebeeckx

H o l y Office, t h o u g h the Cardinal Archbishop o f U t r e c h t ( A l f r i n k ) asked

t u r n e d away i n t o an entirely unprecedented project for a Catholic theo-

t w i c e that he be appointed, Schillebeeckx, since he was n o t b o u n d by the

logian: classical C h r i s t o l o g y needed

oath o f confidentiality required of 'experts', was fr ee to influence o p i n i o n as

'scientific' historical c r i t i c i s m of Scripture. Schillebeeckx immersed himself

the bishops f r o m all over the w o r l d f o u n d their feet H e lectured attractively

i n the secondary literature i n G e r m a n , French and English H i s research

i n English, he alluded to ideas i n the secret drafts, c r i t i c i z i n g t h e m and

issued i n a trilogy, Jezus,

sketching alternatives. Advised p r i n c i p a l l y by Schillebeeckx, the bishops o f

Liefde (197 7) and Mensen als verhaal van God (1989)

the Netherlands had a u n i t e d and often decisive voice at the C o u n c i l . The

7

I b i d : 103: S c h i l l e b e e c k x f o u n d C o n g a r

closed, w i t h d r a w n a n d i m p a t i e n t ' : ' W h e n l e c t u r -

i n g , C o n g a r seemed d i s t a n t t i r e d d u l l ' (this i n 1945—6); w h e r e a s C h e n u was 'a n a t u r a l t a l e n t w i t h a d e l i g h t i n life

to be

rethought i n the l i g h t

het verhaal van een levende (1974), Gerechtigheid

of

en

s

T h e first v o l u m e was delated to R o m e b y fellow theologians w h o no

8

Jesus: An Experiment

in the Modern

in Christology

( L o n d o n : C o l l i n s 1 9 7 9 ) ; Christ:

World ( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1 9 8 0 ) ; Church:

S C M Press 1990).

The Human

The Christian Story oj God

Experience (London:

56

E D W A R D

E D W A R D

S C H I L I E B E E C K X

57

S C H I I I E B E E C K X

d o u b t believed that he was t o o close to the D u t c h bishops f o r them, to curb

appointed was required b y c h u r c h law, but the justice required b y natural

his w o r k . T h o u g h never forced o u t o f teaching or f o r b i d d e n to publish, he

law t o o k priority. ' M y conscience t o l d me t o make a m e n t a l reservation',

had several colloquies w i t h officials at the C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the D o c t r i n e o f

R a h n e r t o l d Schillebeeckx

the F a i t h .

1 0

Delated as soon as i t appeared, Schillebeeckx's Jesus raised quite serious

9

Influential figures i n the Vatican had been angered f o r years, especially b y

problems. B y this t i m e the Congregation rules were changed, enabling the

Schillebeeckx's influence at the C o u n c i l . As everyone knew, the brochure

accused to defend himself! H e replied i n w r i t i n g to one request f r o m the

published by the D u t c h bishops i n 1961 -

on

Congregation to clarify (1) the preference for certain schools of b i b l i c a l exe-

the Council - was drafted b y Schillebeeckx.. I h e text speaks, most unset-

gesis; (2) the implications for the history of Jesus and particularly for his resur-

t l i n g l y f o r anyone o f ultramontanist inclinations, o f ' p a p a l i n f a l l i b i l i t y [as]

rection; and (3) the implications f o r the doctrines of the Incarnation, the

The Bishops of the Netherlands

also i n v o l v e d i n the ministerial i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f the w o r l d episcopate' (bad

Tr inity, the v i r g i n a l conception o f Jesus and the f o u n d a t i o n of the C h u r c h

enough!), t h e n goes o n to m a i n t a i n that 'the ministerial i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f the

Eventually, i n December 1979, i n R o m e , over t w o and a half days, Schille-

w o r l d episcopate' i n its t u r n is 'also b o r n e up by the infallible faith o f the

beeckx answered questions p u t to h i m by three Congregation theologians:

w h o l e o f the c o m m u n i t y o f f a i t h ' Each bishop was g o i n g to the C o u n c i l as

A l b e r t Descamps, a distinguished biblical scholar f r o m Touvain, an o l d friend

'the voice o f the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y o f faith f o r w h i c h he is responsible'

(T a m here as an exegete and not as a dogmatic theologian'), w h o had already

This, and m u c h else i n the brochure, l o o k e d l i k e an attempt to revise the

reviewed the b o o k , critically but respectfully; A l b e r t Patfoort O P , the epitome

dogma of papal i n f a l l i b i l i t y b y locating infalhbility i n the faith o f the w h o l e

of mainstream D o m i n i c a n T h o m i s m , then l e c t u r i n g at the A n g e l i c u m , i n n o -

c o m m u n i t y Such ideas sounded u n c a n n i l y like the heresies eliminated at

cent o f any other theology or philosophy apart f r o m Aquinas s (he asked

Vatican I , n o t to m e n t i o n w h a t George Tyrrell was suggesting i n his reply to

Schillebeeckx to explain hermeneutics); and Jean Galot sj, another Belgian,

Cardinal M e r r i e r

L o u v a i n trained, l e c t u r i n g at the Gregorianum, and already an internationally

I n 1967 the little b o o k Schillebeeckx published, no d o u b t to prepare people f o r the expected abandonment o f the requirement o f celibacy f o r clergy i n the Latin r ite (Clerical Celibacy under Fire: A Critical Appraisal

1968),

was delated to the Vatican by a w e l l - k n o w n D o m i n i c a n scholar I n 1968, K a r l R a h n e r telephoned Schillebeeckx to say that he had been appointed to defend h i m before the officials o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n for the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith. H e mailed the dossier: copies o f i n t e r v i e w s given to newspapers i n the U n i t e d States.. The issue was Schillebeeckx's statement about 'secularization' (it was t h o u g h t at the t i m e that r e l i g i o n was o n the wane) O n 24 September 1968 he Monde disclosed that the C o n g r e g a t i o n was investigating Schillebeeckx ' o n suspicion of heresy' Since he himself was supposed to k n o w n o t h i n g o f the investigation, and all other parties

k n o w n dogmatic theologian o n the distinctly 'conservative'wing ( u n f o r t u nately he chose to display a newspaper photograph of Schillebeeckx preachi n g at the marriage o f a priest i n a D u t c h parish, and had to be b r o u g h t to order by the neutral chairman f o r this irrelevance)

T h e c o l l o q u i u m was

m o u n t e d , as the rules said, i n an 'ecclesial spirit of respect and m u t u a l trust'; certainly every effort seems to have been made to assemble theologians f a m i l iar w i t h the L o w Countries (Patfoort was a F l e m i n g f r o m Lille.) I n the event, on 20 N o v e m b e r 1980, Schillebeeckx received a letter f r o m the Congregat i o n i n v i t i n g h i m to clarify some points and remove some ambiguities — stating, however, that w h i l e some questions remained open o n matters w h i c h are n o t i n accord w i t h the doctrine o f the C h u r c h , they were in accord w i t h the faith. There was no ' c o n d e m n a t i o n '

were s w o r n to silence, the C o n g r e g a t i o n officials were i n f u r i a t e d . R a h n e r was s u m m o n e d to the Vatican, interrogated f o r three hours by Archbishop Paul Philippe O P (1905-84), o n behalf o f the Congregation. R a h n e r repeat-

T h o m i s m Revised

edly denied telling Schillebeeckx - and eventually Philippe apologized R a h n e r believed that he had to speak to the accused, whatever the C o n g r e gation rules prescribed — the oath of secrecy w h i c h he had s w o r n w h e n

9

Set

Edward

The Schillebeeckx Schillebeeckx

Case: Official Exchange

of Letters

OP by the Sacred Congregation

Ted S c h o o f O P ( N e w Y o r k ; Paulist.

1984)

and Documents

for the Doctrine

in the Investigation

of the Faith

1976-1980,

ofFr ed

For three years Schillebeeckx attended courses o n Thomistic p h i l o s o p h y i n c l u d i n g by D e Petter, w i t h o u t actually reading texts o f Thomas Aquinas

1 0

F o r d i e w h o l e s t o r y see S c h i l l e b e e c k x

I Am

a Happy

Theologian:

32-4

Kar! Lehmann

t h e n R a h n e r ' s assistant, n o w C a r d i n a l A r c h b i s h o p o£ M a i n z h a d the task o f r e a d i n g t h e dossier a n d d r a f t i n g R a h n e r ' s speech

58

E D W A R D

S C H U L

E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

S C H I I L E B E E C K X

59

I n the f o u r years o f theology, he and his companions d i d read Aquinas,

concepts were treated as i f they were eternal; as i f they had n o history This is

t h o u g h completely unhistorically They read n o t h i n g apart f r o m the Summa

very m u c h Chenu's critique o f Garrigou-Lagrange's approach.

Theologies, paying little attention to the historical o r narrative context o f whichever section they had before them.

I n Jesus Schillebeeckx explicitly breaks w i t h the religious epistemology taught by D e Petter H e n o w rejects the w h o l e idea o f i m p l i c i t intuitive

I n 1 9 3 7 - 8 Schillebeeckx u n d e r t o o k a project under D e Petter's super-

participation i n being, the w h o l e o f meaning, allegedly, manifest o r anyway

vision to consider w h e t h e r k n o w l e d g e is conceptual o r includes a n o n -

i n t u i t i v e l y discoverable i n every particular experience o f meaning.. This

conceptual element. The question was about h o w G o d comes to be k n o w n

was a b r i l l i a n t development of Thomas Aquinas, he allows I n Aquinas's

-

conceptually, i n t u i t i v e l y o r experientially Against neoscholastic p h i l -

day, moreover, w h e n i t was a self-evident t r u t h that h u m a n beings had a

osophy, w h i c h evidently favoured an ahistorical system o f concepts, so i t was

single destiny - the beatific vision - and there was a range of 'appropriate

t h o u g h t , this was o p e n i n g the possibility of a certain

non-conceptual

plausibility-structures' i n place to sustain i t , Aquinas's theology was i n place,

element. D u r i n g his m i l i t a r y service he read the n e w l y published Geist in

incontestably For us, now, however, i n a society i n w h i c h divergent i d e o l o -

Welt b y K a r l R a h n e r As w e shall see, Balthasar, w i t h his b o o k o n t r u t h , and

gies and outlooks compete i n the market o f w o r l d history, so Schillebeeckx

Lonergan, w i t h his b o o k Insight,

also felt the need to s u r m o u n t the

contends, the idea o f o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a simply given structure o f being

neoscholastic t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e that they i n h e r i t e d W i t h many o f their

has n o purchase whatsoever. W h e r e w e have to start is w i t h the idea of

contemporaries i n R e f o r m e d and A n g l i c a n theology, t h o u g h i n almost total

anticipating a total meaning i n the history w e are always still m a k i n g

ignorance of their w o r k , this generation o f Catholic theologians felt c o m pelled to deal w i t h questions i n religious epistemology, and i n particular to challenge w h a t they t o o k to be a merely conceptualist approach..

T h e Jesus B o o k

F r o m the outset, w h e n he e x p o u n d e d Aquinas's theology t o y o u n g D o m i n i c a n friars i n L o u v a i n , Schillebeeckx insisted o n c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g

H i t h e r t o , Catholic expositions o f C h r i s t o l o g y began f r o m the doctrines

concepts i n t h e i r genesis, o f f e r i n g a historical reading, t a k i n g i n t o consid-

defined at the C o u n c i l o f Chalcedon i n 451 ('two natures i n one person')

eration the patristic sources and the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y 'Masters'. H e believed

The celebration i n 1951

that the most i m p o r t a n t decisions i n the h i s t o r y o f theology were made

Rahner, a m o n g other Catholic theologians, t o contemplate the possibility

i n the t w e l f t h and n o t i n the t h i r t e e n t h century — an insight n o d o u b t

o f a renewal o f Catholic Christology, but the fears articulated b y Pope

f r o m C h e n u W h e n he w e n t to N i j m e g e n his predecessor Gerard K r e l i n g

Pius X I I , however, i n the same year, i n his encyclical Humani

advised h i m to b e g i n w i t h the de Deo uno, the course o n God's existence,

damped enthusiasm for radically n e w developments. B y 1970, however, for

nature and attributes t h e n assumed to be the dogmatician's f a v o u r i t e topic

Schillebeeckx a m o n g many others, i t no longer seemed possible to expound

K r e l i n g was a great

authentically

C h r i s t o l o g y solely o n the basis o f the classical creeds and conciliar d e f i n i -

T h o m i s t , b u t i n the sense o f 'pure scholasticism w i t h o u t the historical

tions A half-century o f historical research, by Catholic scholars as well as

dimension'. H e was i n f u r i a t e d w h e n Schillebeeckx began w i t h eschatol-

others, needed to be incorporated. C h r i s t o l o g y c o u l d b e g i n , n o t f r o m the

ogy (For the 10 years r e m a i n i n g to K r e l i n g he lived i n increasing isolation

d o c t r i n e o f the Incarnation, as Thomas Aquinas does, b u t f r o m t h e N e w

t h e o l o g i a n , Schillebeeckx recalled,

of the centenary o f the C o u n c i l spurred Karl

Generis,

i n a small parish - sidelined; one s h o u l d n o t forget the pain suffered by his

Testament narratives, the story o f h o w the m a n Jesus is discovered as Lord,

generation.)

scrutinized i n the light o f the best m o d e r n c r i t i c a l exegesis.

Before Vatican I I , then, Schillebeeckx had b r o k e n w i t h neoscholastic

As he made clear at the outset, Schillebeeckx sought to reconstruct

theology T h e n , i n 1965, another shift occur red w h e n he discovered h e r m e n -

C h r i s t o l o g y b e g i n n i n g w i t h the apparently diverse Christologies to be

eutics "This changed the way I d i d t h e o l o g y ' A principle often enunciated by

f o u n d i n the three synoptic gospels, according to the exegetes b y whose

Thomas Aquinas - ' o m n i a quae r e c i p i u n t u r recepta sunt secundum m o d u m

w o r k he was most attracted H e t o o k M a r k as the first gospel, already a con-

recipientis' (everything that is received is received according to the mode o f

troversial decision i n the eyes of most traditional Catholic theologians, but

the one w h o receives) — legitimized taking account always o f the social

h e l p i n g to substantiate the claim that a version of the story of Jesus existed

and historical conditions under w h i c h any knowledge takes place

Neo-

w i t h no account o f his b i r t h and infancy, and n o account o f his resurrection

thomistic theology was never related properly or sufficiently to experience:

either ( M a r k being assumed to conclude w i t h the w o m e n leaving the empty

60

E D W A R D

S C H I I I

E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

t o m b ) Schillebeeckx accepted the existence of the so-called ' Q ' d o c u m e n t : the hypothetical source o f the material shared by M a t t h e w and L u k e and absent i n M a r k

1 1

H e takes the ' Q ' material as the interweaving b y M a t t h e w

and L u k e i n t o their narratives o f a text that was o r i g i n a l l y the creed o f one o f the first C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s (Jesus 4 1 0 - 1 2 ) T h i s creed says n o t h i n g about the suffering, death and resurrection o f Christ. H e was even attracted b y the t h o u g h t that we can detect developments w i t h i n the history o f this supposed Q - c o m m u n i t y , w i t h its distinctive ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' existing w i t h o u t any interest i n the Incarnation, Passion or Resurrection. T h a t he always planned to move f r o m the supposedly diverse C h r i s t o l o gies i n the first three gospels to the Christologies developed i n the f o u r t h gospel, i n the letters o f the apostle Paul, and i n the rest o f the N e w Testament, was always clear. This is, o f course, w h a t he d i d i n the second v o l u m e , another masterly engagement w i t h a vast amount o f secondary literature. B y then, however, so m u c h anxiety had been raised that he responded w i t h the Interim Report,

explaining and to some extent m o d i f y i n g the claims that

seemed so contentious

1 2

Obviously, c o m i n g late i n the day and largely self taught, Schillebeeckx was b o u n d to make mistakes. H e always goes for the most e x c i t i n g theory.

61

I by a critical study o f t h e N e w Testament texts and then s u b m i t t e d to reinterpretation This k i n d o f project is at least as o l d as nineteenth-century liberal Protestant exegetes. R u d o l f Bultmann's effort t o 'demythologize' t h e N e w Testament w i t h the aid o f Heidegger's existential categories seems t o engage Schillebeeckx's interest m o r e

H e simply reverses Bultmann's

strategy

Whereas B u l t m a n n maintained that hardly a n y t h i n g c o u l d be k n o w n about Jesus as a historical figure, w i t h the result that the w h o l e Christian p h e n o m enon is to be f o u n d i n the kerygma, i n the proclamation o f the Christ o f faith ('Jesus rose i n t o the kerygma', as B u l t m a n n p u t i t ) , Schillebeeckx asserts that the N e w Testament, properly studied, w i t h the tools o f m o d e r n criticalhistorical research, delivers substantial, verifiable i n f o r m a t i o n about Jesus of Nazareth

Indeed, this history 'can then show us w h a t exactly i t was that

very early C h r i s t i a n i t y understood b y the a f f i r m a t i o n : h e is the C h r i s t , the son o f man, the Son o f G o d , the L o r d ' (pp, 437, 440; cf pp. 71 and 515). This quasi-archaeological

excavation o f the synoptic gospels lays bare

five levels. 1

O n the other hand, as an experienced professor o f systematic theology,

jesus's o w n experience of G o d and of his mission -Jesus's ' A b b a experience': h i g h l i g h t i n g these references takes us to the historical Jesus, i n his

he came t o the results of biblical scholarship w i t h m u c h greater awareness o f the implications f o i C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e than biblical scholars c o m m o n l y

SCH11LEBEECKX

historically unique w a y of addressing G o d as ' A b b a ' 2

display

The experience o f Peter and the Twelve: some weeks or m o n t h s after Jesus's death, Peter had an experience o f being f o r g i v e n for his faithless-

A t one level, the Jesus b o o k is a vast c o m p e n d i u m o f the most recent biblical research

ness, gathered the disciples, i n a setting o f doubt and debate, recalled

T h e aim, however, is t o reconstruct the history o f the

w i t h t h e m the life and ' A b b a ' experience of Jesus, then ' T h e y all of a

development o f the N e w Testament literature, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the synoptic

sudden " s a w " i t ' (391) - Jesus crucified, has been definitively vindicated

gospels, so as t o reveal h o w faith i n Jesus emerged: ' W i t h the aid of Form¬ geschichte [the study o f the h i s t o r i c i t y o f biblical w r i t i n g s by studying their

by G o d and is alive w i t h his Father. 3

literary f o r m ] our a i m is, a m o n g other things, to penetrate t o the earliest layer of the pre-canonical tradition, i n order thus to open the way to Jesus o f

The Q - c o m m u n i t y tradition: f a i t h that Jesus was the expected latterday prophet and messianic judge w h o was 'exalted' to G o d

4

Nazareth' (744)

The early Palestinian Christians: f o l l o w i n g Jewish custom, they started a practice o f venerating the t o m b o f Jesus at Jerusalem, w h i c h gave rise to

The assumption is that the text as we have i t can be pressed to disclose the

the story o f w o m e n f i n d i n g the 'empty t o m b ' ' o n the t h i r d day'; 'an

elements o u t o f w h i c h i t was created. Schillebeeckx b u r r o w s i n t o w h a t

aetiological cult-legend, i n t e n d e d to shed light o n the (at least) annual

he calls the 'incubatory history' o f the texts, w i t h methods analogous to

visit o f the Jerusalem church t o the t o m b i n order t o h o n o r the risen

those o f an art restorer w h o strips off one level t o exhibit an u n d e r l y i n g

[exalted] O n e ' (336); and f r o m this practice, i n the 'first f e w genera-

sketch I f Christianity is neither to become 'an historical relic' n o r to appeal

tions', the language o f a b o d i l y resurrection f r o m the dead began to take

to 'supernatural hocus-pocus', its message must be reconstructed historically

precedence over the language o f 'exaltation' to the r i g h t h a n d o f the Father (396).

1 1

K n o w n as Q since t h e 1890s ( G e r m a n Quelle - source); see ] K l o p p e n b o r g

tion of Q ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , P A : Fortress 1 9 8 7 ) . 1 2

Interim

Report on the Books Jesus'and

'Christ'

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1980)

The Forma-

5

F r o m a 'theology o f Jesus' to a ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' : from interpretations of the meaning o f Jesus concerned n o t w i t h w h o or w h a t Jesus was b u t w i t h w h a t he was meant to do, thus 'first-order' ' f u n c t i o n a l ' descriptions, t o

62

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E D W A R D

S C E I I I I E B E E C K X

the 'second-order' ' o n t o l o g i c a l ' claims about t h e i d e n t i t y o f Jesus, already there i n Paul and John

63

S C H I L L E B E E C K X

existence, his very b e i n g , solely t o the H o l y Spirit I n due course this Christological reflection assumed a historical f o r m - 'one that is indeed concrete, albeit n o t e m p i r i c a l l y ascertainable, b u t to be approached and

The claim, then, p u t t i n g i t t o o simply, is that, by re-creating t h e history o f

evaluated o n l y w i t h i n a context o f faith - i n a V i r g i n B i r t h ' (Jesus 555-6). I n

h o w faith i n Jesus o f Nazareth arose, i t becomes possible t o arouse faith i n

other words, so i t seemed to most readers, w h a t has been taken as an account

h i m i n people n o t h i t h e r t o C h r i s t i a n believers, w h o w o u l d n o t f i n d ready

o f something that happened - the c o n c e p t i o n and b i r t h o f Jesus, his mother

access t o h i m t h r o u g h t h e doctrines o f the C h u r c h - Incarnation, Passion,

remaining a v i r g i n - is actually a representation as a piece o f history of the

Resurrection, and so o n

p r i o r and independent belief i n Jesus's unique o r i g i n i n t h e H o l y Spirit.

Few Christians, certainly n o Catholics before Vatican I I , ever depended

T h e n again, w h a t d i d the disciples 'see', w h e n they encountered the risen

o n doctrines apart f r o m a great deal oi experience. N o d o u b t theologians, and

L o r d Jesus? A c c o r d i n g t o Schillebeeckx, i t seems, i n the literal sense o f vision

even o r d i n a r y Catholics, shied away f r o m the w o r d , i t was t o o m u c h associ-

they saw n o t h i n g - n o t h i n g happened that m i g h t have been

ated w i t h m o d e r n i s m . Yet, i n practice, i n t h e liturgy, i n personal asceticism

physically, o r photographed They simply 'saw', o n reflection together, that

experienced

(regular confession, acts o f penance, continence i n marriage, and so o n ) , i n

Jesus is 'the l i v i n g O n e ' . H i s resurrection f r o m the dead should n o t be

acquaintance w i t h m e n and especially w o m e n l i v i n g under vows o f pover ty,

understood 'objectively', as an e m p i r i c a l l y verifiable, historical event - that

chastity and obedience (monks, nuns, sisters), a n d m u c h else, 'cradle'

is w h a t fundamentalists believe O n the other hand, the resurrection o f Jesus

Catholics were b o r n and b r o u g h t up i n a w h o l e culture, e m p i r i c a l l y h a b i t u -

should n o t be understood as something that t o o k place entirely i n t h e heads

ating t h e m t o 'the C h r i s t i a n t h i n g ' (as G . K Chesterton called it) - such that

o f his followers, as a subjective renewal o f their faith - as B u l t m a n n and

there was plenty of 'experience', a r i c h l y textured background, c a r r y i n g and

others h o l d , so Schillebeeckx says H e wants a middle path H e locates the

c o m p l e t i n g the doctrines

o r i g i n a l Easter experience i n a conversion process (subjective), i n w h i c h the

I n effect, the Christ w h o m most

Catholics

encountered principally at Mass, w i t h all that penumbra o f religious e x p e r i ence, Schillebeeckx was suggesting, c o u l d n o w also be f o u n d i n r e c o n structing and appropriating the history o f the i n i t i a l encounter w i t h the Jesus of the N e w Testament.

disciples 'saw', o r came t o believe, that Jesus was alive w i t h G o d (objective) M o s t Christians, i f t h e y believe i n the resurrection o f Jesus f r o m t h e dead at all, literally understood, suppose that this b e l i e f is based o n the evidence o f the tomb's b e i n g f o u n d empty and o f the physical encounters w i t h Jesus after his death. Schillebeeckx argues, however, that t h e language o f ' r e s u r rection', the concept o f 'being raised f r o m t h e dead', far f r o m b e i n g the o r i g i n a l interpretation o f what happened, is second order, supplementary,

T h e Easter Experience

and the p r o d u c t of later reflection O r i g i n a l l y , the C h r i s t i a n faith was, n o t Obviously, the very idea o f r e t h i n k i n g C h r i s t o l o g y o n the basis o f 'scientific'

that Jesus was raised f r o m the dead, b u t that he was 'exalted i n t o heaven',

h i s t o r i c o - c r i t i c a l exegesis o f Scripture rather than i n terms o f t h e dogmas

'sitting at t h e r i g h t hand o f t h e Father' -

o f the C h u r c h was always g o i n g to shock most Catholic

theologians,

metaphorical language I n fact, t h e figurative language that we are n o doubt

obviously analogical and

neoscholastic or otherwise - let alone pastors charged w i t h p r o t e c t i n g the

i n c l i n e d to regard as secondary and o p t i o n a l (exaltation) is, o n the contrary,

beliefs o f 'the simple faithful'. F o r one t h i n g , there was always the danger o f

w h a t is basic and original.

genetic fallacy: discovering its origins does n o t guarantee g e t t i n g nearer the

Thus, t h e 'Easter experience', historically, was always independent of the

t r u t h o f a claim O n the other hand, Schillebeeckx t o o k risks, sometimes

' t r a d i t i o n ' o f t h e appearance stories, and equally so of t h e ' t r a d i t i o n ' of the

w i t h a h a n d f u l of extremely sensitive topics, w h i c h distracted readers f r o m

e m p t y t o m b (397) T h e p r o b l e m here, w i t h h o w the empty t o m b stories

learning f r o m the immense b i b l i o g r a p h y digested f o r t h e m b y his o m n i v -

g r e w up, is that the evidence f o r there being veneration o f anybody's tomb

orous reading.

at the t i m e is scanty — never m i n d the leap f r o m v i s i t i n g Jesus's t o m b to

O n e p r o b l e m , of course, is that o f the virginal c o n c e p t i o n o f Jesus As a

c l a i m i n g i t was empty ' T h e vital context', namely f o r t h e story i n M a r k of

result o f the 'Easter experience', reflection eventually shifted to Jesus's

the women's visit to t h e t o m b , 'is a t o m b w h e r e a l i t u r g i c a l service is con-

baptism by J o h n and thus to the emergence and actual c o n s t i t u t i o n of his

d u c t e d ' - w h i c h 'is something g r o u n d e d deep i n h u m a n nature' (336) I n

being man - i n other words, t o the conclusion that Jesus owes his h u m a n

the extensive, and valuable, bibliography to t h e analysis o f the e m p t y tomb

64

E D W A R D

S C H I I I E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

65

S C H I I 1 E B E E C K X

stories there is really n o t h i n g bearing this o u t except a reference to five

For Schillebeeckx, then, the p o i n t is that biblical and ecclesiastical expres-

pages i n J o a c h i m Jeremias's b o o k o n popular pilgrimages to sacred tombs i n

sions of faith are never purely and simply articulations o f supposedly ' i m -

the early C h r i s t i a n e n v i r o n m e n t .

mediate religious experiences', such as experiences of Jesus that his disciples

1 3

The reference to 'the t h i r d day' - as i t were the Sunday three days after

may be said to have had. These expressions are always already theory-laden

G o o d Friday - says n o t h i n g about the date o n w h i c h Jesus was raised f r o m

H e allows that this needed m u c h m o r e discussion, i n the t w o books on

the dead - r ather, i t is code for the definitive, eschatological saving action o f

Jesus I t needs m u c h m o r e than he takes space to discuss i n Interim

G o d as regards the crucified Jesus (532). O n the t h i r d day Joseph releases

However, i t is enough to insist that even expressions o f faith are never

his brothers f r o m prison (Gen

Report

42:18); G o d makes a covenant w i t h his

straight presentations o f religious experience - they necessarily i n c l u d e an

people (Exod. 19:11, 16); G o d gives life t o his people and raises t h e m up

element o f t h e o r y Experience is always already interpretative. To deny this,

(Hos 6 : 2 - 3 ) ; and so on. That 'the t h i r d day' has all this previous biblical

he suggests, is to fall i n t o a f o r m o f n e o - e m p i r i c i s m - and i t is surely clear

significance is, of course, a valuable insight. W h y this insight makes i t r e d u n -

that w h a t he means is that some o f his critics at any rate rely o n a 'naive con-

dant to t h i n k that Jesus actually rose o n the t h i r d day as Schillebeeckx seems

fidence i n so-called direct experiences'.

14

to suggest, rather than m a k i n g w h a t really happened that m o r e deeply significant, is the k i n d o f question that goes beyond the parameters o f biblical criticism

Conclusion

The fears o f those i n c l u d i n g f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s w h o delated h i m to the Congregation for the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith are, o f course, that Schille-

Totally c o m m i t t e d to renewal o f the C h u r c h , Schillebeeckx never played

beeckx's emphasis o n 'experience' undermines belief i n the teaching office

d o w n the many crises and conflicts at the C o u n c i l , as we see i n the accounts

o f the C h u r c h as the n o r m o f t r u t h . I n Interim Report - essentially his reply

he w r o t e .

to critics o f the first t w o volumes o n Christology - Schillebeeckx insists that

ship between

he should n o t be dismissed as a 'neo-liberal'. H e refuses to concede that he

pastoral constitution o n the C h u r c h i n the M o d e r n W o r l d , Gaudiutn et Spes,

devalues the t r a d i t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y H e insists that he never

opened the way (he expected) to b r i n g Catholicism i n t o f r u i t f u l interaction

offered m o r e than prolegomena to a future C h r i s t o l o g y - his project should

w i t h secular culture T h e C o u n c i l was a 'compromise', he recognized

therefore n o t be attacked f o r w h a t i t is not. H e discusses many other issues,

l i f t e d the shadow of Humani

i n w h a t is i n some ways his most interesting c o n t r i b u t i o n to theological

i n w h i c h Catholic theologians w o r k e d since the modernist crisis Indeed, ' i t

methodology. F r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f those concerned w i t h his n o t i o n

was the theology of theologians w h o had been condemned, removed from

o f ' e x p e r i e n c e ' he takes us back to the literature referenced i n the

teaching posts, sent i n t o exile, that t r i u m p h e d at the C o u n c i l '

b o o k , t h o u g h h i g h l i g h t i n g the w o r k o f K a r l Popper,

TS.

Christ

K u h n , Imre

Lakatos, Paul Feyerabend and the Erlangen School (Paul Lorenzen).

The

1 5

O n the w h o l e , he rejoiced i n w h a t he saw as the new relationC h u r c h and w o r l d , w h i c h the C o u n c i l established.

The

It

Generis and ended the climate o f i n t i m i d a t i o n

1 6

- however,

as he noted, the neoscholastics were defeated only temporarily, and there w o u l d be a r e t u r n o f the repressed, such that a k i n d o f restoration was

p o i n t he wants to make is that his c o n c e p t i o n of the interrelationship o f the

unavoidable

concepts o f revelation, experience and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d indeed be mis-

w h i l e o n some extremely i m p o r t a n t issues the anti-modernist ultramon¬

leading i f w e supposed that every experience is accompanied by conceptual

tanist m i n o r i t y were o u t v o t e d , the c o n f l i c t i n g versions o f Catholicism o n

or metaphorical articulations. Since Kant, and particularly i n the p h i l o s o -

show o n the f l o o r of the C o u n c i l reflect the division w i t h i n the C h u r c h

phers he mentions, i t has been recognized that theory or m o d e l has a certain

t h e n - and prefigure the division that there is still.

1 7

W i t h o u t m u c h need o f hindsight, we do better to say that,

p r i m a c y over experience, i n the sense that there can be n o experience w i t h o u t at least an i m p l i c i t theory. O n the other hand, theories cannot be derived f r o m experiences straight off, as i f b y i n d u c t i o n ; they are the product 1 4

o f creative initiative o n our part.

1 5

Interim

Report:

Vatican IT The

18. Struggle of Minds

The Real Achievement J o a c h i m Jeremias, Heiligengraber 1958)

1 3

in Jcsu

Umwelt

(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck

and

Ruprecht

(Dublin: M H

G i l l 1963) a n d Vatican

II

Theologian:

15.

1 6

I Am a Happy

1 7

D a n i e l Speed T h o m p s o n ,

Authority

and Other Essays

( L o n d o n : Sheed a n d W a r d 1967)

in the Catholic

Church

The

Language

of Dissent/

Edward

Schillebeeckx

on the

Crisis

( N o t r e D a m e . I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 2 0 0 3 )

of

66

E D W A R D

S C H I L I

E B E E C K X

Chapter Five

The debate i n philosophy, analytic and hermeneutic, has of course moved o n i n the past 25 years Perhaps Schillebeeckx does n o t explain himself perfectly, or even all that skilfully, philosophically T h e p o s i t i o n that he wants to

H E N R I DE LUBAC

occupy, i n theological epistemology, namely, somewhere between naive e m p i r i c i s m and subjectivism, is anyway controversial. W h a t remains impressive, i n his generation o f Catholic theologians, is his readiness to engage w i t h the central philosophical issue o f the relationship between experience and interpretation Moreover, he has not had many successors as yet i n the field o f C a t h o l i c theology w h o dare, or are even competent, to r e w o r k the doctrines o f the faith as defined b y the early Councils and e x p o u n d e d i n the classical theology of the Fathers and the Scholastics, i n the l i g h t o f serious study of Scripture and related literature The g u l f between professors o f doct r i n e and biblical scholars is as w i d e as ever.

Thomas Aquinas was, o f course, a D o m i n i c a n friar A t t h e i r chapter i n Paris i n 1286, 12 years after his death, the D o m i n i c a n s decreed that every friar should p r o m o t e his teaching and i f anyone taught the contrary he was to be suspended ipso facto f r o m whatever office he h e l d u n t i l he t h o u g h t better. For all that, the reception of Aquinas w i t h i n his o w n O r d e r has a chequered history

1

T h e n , even w h e n they were all professing Thomists, D o m i n i c a n s

such as C h e n u , Congar and Schillebeeckx,

c o u l d , as w e have seen, clash

w i t h confreres like Garrigou-Lagrange, i n radically different and effectively incommensurable interpretations o f Aquinas even w i t h i n the confines of the D o m i n i c a n Order. W h e n we t u r n to such e m i n e n t Jesuit theologians as H e n r i de Lubac, K a r l Rahner, Bernard Lonergan and Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, however, i t turns out, according to their recollections, that, as far as their years o f mandat o r y Thomist philosophy were concerned, they were taught what they came to recognize as 'Suarezianism'

2

I n any case, de Lubac's early years as a Jesuit were so disrupted by the Great War that he seems to have been left largely to get o n w i t h his o w n reading, undisturbed b y lecture courses. H i s superiors seem n o t to have regarded h i m as a future professor, either o f philosophy o r of t h e o l o g y H e often expresses gratitude to scholars o f the previous generation, nearly all of w h o m were his fellow Jesuits; but effectively he was self-taught.

1

N c w n u n . o n his w a y t o R o m e i n a u t u m n 1846, as y e t u n d e c i d e d w h i c h r e l i g i o u s order i f

any he s h o u l d j o i n

was s h o c k e d t o l e a r n o f the D o m i n i c a n s i n Florence m a n u f a c t u r i n g

s c e n t e d w a t e r , possessing a cellar o f g o o d w i n e s , a n d w i t h n o interest i n T h o m a s A q u i n a s , w h i c h d e c i d e d h i m against t h e m

Tlie Letters

( L o n d o n : T h o m a s N e l s o n a n d Sons 1 9 6 1 ) : 2 6 0 2

and Diaries 263

See chapter 8 f o r Balthasar's a c c o u n t o f Suarezianism

of John

Henry

Newman,

vol X I

68

H E N R I

D E

H E N R I

I U B A C

D E

69

I U B A C

at

Pier re Teilhard de C h a r d i n Mainly, however, he had already begun w o r k i n g

Cambrai, i n north-east France. I h e family returned i n 1898 to the Lyons

his way t h r o u g h the Greek and L a t i n patrologies and the medieval Scholas-

district H i s father, a banker, o r i g i n a l l y f r o m Ardèche (where, i n the local

tics, gathering the quotations o u t of w h i c h he w o u l d weave his books. As his

dialect, Vubac means the shady side o f a m o u n t a i n ) , admired the Catholic

younger colleague and friend Hans U r s v o n Balthasar w o u l d note, de Lubac

social renewal project inspired by A l b e r t de M u n

H i s maternal g r a n d -

preferred 'to let a voice f r o m the great ecclesial tradition express w h a t he

parents were old-fashioned royalists, adhering to the elder b r a n c h o f the

intends rather than raising his o w n v o i c e ' - y e t , unmistakably, his views 'can

B o u r b o n dynasty Schooled by Jesuits i n Lyons, H e n r i studied l a w f o r a year,

be easily discerned i n the w e b o f quotations, especially w h e n one pays close

before entering the Lyons province of the Society o f Jesus, then i n exile at

attention to the critiques and corrections o f the passages c i t e d ' .

St Leonards o n the south coast o f England. H i s noviciate was i n t e r r u p t e d

o f course, that de Lubac's views are easily missed by hasty readers, impatient

w h e n he was drafted i n 1914, i n t o the French a r m y H e saw action i n

to locate a position to challenge or to adopt - he is too elusive for that; yet, as

Flanders, receiving the serious head w o u n d at Les Eparges, i n 1916, w h i c h

one becomes accustomed to the procedure o f m u l t i p l y i n g references, de

afflicted h i m f o r the rest o f his life

Tubac's theological options soon reveal themselves..

H e n r i Joseph Sonier d e

3

Lubac was b o r n o n 20 February 1896, 4

5

9

10

This means,

D e m o b i l i z e d , he r e t u r n e d to the Jesuits, at Canterbury, then o n Jersey

I n a way de Lubac re-created a w h o l e p r e - m o d e r n Catholic sensibility

Years later, he reported that 'a certain Suârezian and M o l i n i s t o r t h o d o x y '

w h i c h he w a n t e d to inhabit. M u c h later, about 1960, l o o k i n g back o n the

was required o f the professors, claiming that o n Jersey t w o were 'savage

results of his decades o f research i n patristic and medieval-scholastic t h e o l o -

Suârezians' - whereas by 1950, ironically, 'against the abusive dominance o f a

gies, de Lubac w o u l d say that, for h i m , the 'great c e n t u r y ' of the M i d d l e

" T h o m i s t " school that was t h e n i n p o w e r ' , there were Jesuits seeking

Ages began around the year 1100, w i t h 'the Bayeux tapestry, the murals

freedom to ' f o l l o w the Suârezian interpretation o f Saint L h o m a s ' . Clearly,

at Saint-Savin, the sculptures at Toulouse and Moissac, the Heavenly Jeru-

he distances himself f r o m both. O n his o w n , he studied Thomas Aquinas,

salem at San Pietro al M o n t e (Civate), the basilicas o f C l u n y and Vézelay,

i n the light (however) o f Etienne Gilson's 'fundamental b o o k ' , w h i c h , he

the first mosaics at San M a r c o ' .

notes, again w i t h some irony, was ' i n the bookcase o f l i g h t reading that was

(c

generously u n l o c k e d for us d u r i n g holidays', together w i t h Rousselot's thesis

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), 'the last o f the Fathers

at the Sorbonne o n Aquinas's intellectualism Colleagues m o c k e d h i m as a

great m o d e r n s ' .

' T h o m i s t ' (as lus colleagues laughed at George Tyrrell). As regards his p h i l o -

Knowledge of Easter n as w e l l as o f Western patristic literature I n referring

sophical culture, de Lubac

8

to h i m , de Lubac is r e m i n d i n g us that the Greek fathers remained i n the

E v i d e n t l y unaffected by lecture courses, he o w e d a great deal to discussions

m e m o r y o f the L a t i n C h u r c h w e l l i n t o the t w e l f t h century R u p e r t, o n the

w i t h contemporaries, some of w h o m were to be friends f o r life, i n c l u d i n g

other hand, is best remembered f o r supposedly h o l d i n g the d o c t r i n e later

6

7

read M a u r i c e B l o n d e l , w i t h

enthusiasm.

12

T h e n o b i l i a r y p a r t i c l e , c o r r e c t l y used o n l y w i t h t h e prénom

or i n i t i a l , but. even i n French

This was the age o f R u p e r t o f Deutz , the first of the

W h a t is remarkable about W i l l i a m , o f course, is his w i d e

k n o w n as i m p a n a t i o n 3

1 1

1075-1129/1130), o f W i l l i a m o f S t - T h i e r r y (1075/80-1148), and o f

1 3

H e also w r o t e a commentary o n the Song o f Songs,

i n w h i c h he interprets the beloved as the V i r g i n Mary, and was a m o n g the

w e find h i m o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as de L u b a c t h e standard p r a c t i c e i n E n g l i s h 4

F o r b i o g r a p h i c a l details see Jean-Pierre W a g n e r Henri de Lubac (Paris: C e r f 2001) a n d H e n r i

de Lubac, At the Service of the Church 5

(San Francisco: Ignatius Press 1993)

his selective m e m o i r s .

A l b e r t de M u n ( 1 8 4 1 - 1 9 1 4 ) , leader o f t h e l i b e r a l C a t h o l i c s i n F r a n c e f o u n d e d C a t h o l i c to Henri

Letters of Etienne

7

I b i d : 7 - 8 ; t h e second 1922 e d i t i o n o f Le Thomisme,

'less d e p e n d e n t o n m o d e r n T h o m i s t s

i t c o n t a i n e d a m o r e p e n e t r a t i n g analysis o f t h e actual t e x t o f Saint T h o m a s ' ;

LTinteHectuahsme

b y t h e F r e n c h Jesuit P i e r r e R o u s s e l o t .

killed

i n a c t i o n at Les Eparges i n 1915 aged 36 s

such r i g o r o u s censorship that l i t t l e appeared, b u t his w o r k has been i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r p o s t h u m o u s l y As a Jesuit student at Hastings he p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e 'discovery' o f P i l t d o w n M a n . 1 0

H a n s U r s v o n Balthasar

Tlie

Theology

of Henri

de Lubac:

An

Overview

(San

Francisco:

I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 6 - 7

M a u r i c e B l o n d e l ( 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 4 9 ) , lay C a t h o l i c p h i l o s o p h e r , h i g h l i g h t e d t h e p r e ^ f l g c t i v e

desire o f h u m a n beings f o r v i s i o n o f G o d : L'Action:

received several citations f o r v a l o u r H e was professor o f g e o l o g y i n Paris

V i k i n g ( W e n n e r - G r e n ) F o u n d a t i o n F r o m 1925 he was r e q u i r e d t o s u b m i t religious w r i t i n g s t o

de Lubac (San Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 8 ) : 188..

6

de saint Thomas (1908. E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n 1935)

M a r i e - J o s e p h Pierre T e i l h a r d de C h a r d i n ( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 5 ) m o b i l i z e d i n D e c e m b e r 1914 as a

stretcher-bearer,

1 9 2 0 - 5 , m o s d y i n C h i n a 1 9 2 3 - 4 6 s t u d y i n g early h u m a n remains i n N e w Y o r k 1 9 5 1 - 5 w i t h t h e

w o r k e r s circles a n d was a p r o l i f i c w r i t e r Gilson

11

Essai d'une critique de la vie et d'une science de

1 1

Exégèse

médiévale

les quatre sens de l'Ecriture,

( I V ) (Paris: A u b i e r 1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 1 . 1964)

C o l l e c t i o n T h é o l o g i e 4 1 ( I a n d I I ) , 4 2 ( I I I 0 50

H e r e 11:232

la pratique ( 1 8 9 3 ) , translated b y O l i v a B l a n c he tte ( N o t r e D a m e , I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e

1 2

Ibid

Press 1984)

n

T h e B o d y o f C h r i s t is ' i m p a n a t e d ' . ' i m - b r e a d e d , so t o speak, at t h e e u c h a r i s t i e consecra-

A d e v o u t C a t h o l i c , he l i v e d f o r years i n t e r r o r o f h a v i n g his w o r k p l a c e d o n t h e

I n d e x o f P r o h i b i t e d B o o k s , a n d was harassed especially b y t h e D o m i n i c a n s

111:426-7

t i o n , o n analogy w i t h t h e W o r d ' s b e c o m i n g i n c a r n a t e

'enfleshed'

70

H E N R I

D E

H E N R I

I U B A C

earliest to do so W h a t n o d o u b t attracted de Lubac is that R u p e r t , o n

Catholicism

in 1950.

17

D E

71

L U B A C

Many, i n c l u d i n g Congar, Balthasar, W o j t y l a and

several occasions under suspicion by ecclesiastical authorities, is one o f the

Ratzinger, regarded i t as the key b o o k o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y C a t h o l i c t h e o l -

many misunderstood characters i n the history o f theology w h o m he seems

ogy, the one indispensable text. Against the b a c k g r o u n d of the liberal-

to have made a deliberate choice to highlight. Against the 'devastating c o n -

capitalist and totalitarian ideologies o f the 1930s, de Lubac sought to show

tractions o f [ m o d e r n C a t h o l i c ] t h e o l o g y ' , as Balthasar noted, de Lubac

that, i n Catholic Christianity, the claims o f person and o f society are equally

chose to w r i t e , n o t about Bonaventure, Nicholas o f Cusa, Pascal, Möhler,

respected Very m u c h a tract for those times, p r i m a r i l y directed against the

N e w m a n , and so o n , w h o m one w o u l d have regarded as his 'allies' i n the

overly individualistic and introspective spirituality o f h i s y o u t h , as he saw i t ,

history of C a t h o l i c theology; b u t o n 'other representatives o f universal

the b o o k is nevertheless as relevant a therapy f o r those w h o m i g h t n o w be

t h o u g h t , namely, the great a m o n g the vanquished w h o have fallen because

i n c l i n e d to over-emphasize the c o m m u n a l structure of Catholic p i e t y I n a

of the machinations o f smaller minds or o f a n a r r o w C a t h o l i c i s m that is

substantial appendix, de Lubac offers 55 extracts, m a i n l y f r o m patristic and

politically rather than spiritually m i n d e d ' , f r o m O r i g e n to Leilhard de

medieval sources, often neglected and little k n o w n , but i n c l u d i n g N e w m a n ,

Chardin

I t was also, as w e shall see, i m p o r t a n t that R u p e r t c o n t r i b u t e d to

F r i e d r i c h v o n H u g e l , and Teilhard de C h a r d i n , taking us f r o m the Christian

the t r a d i t i o n o f c o m m e n t i n g o n the Song o f Songs. Finally, i n this little

anthropology o f G r e g o r y o f Nyssa to a vision o f the Cosmic Tree m i s a t t r i b -

cameo, de Lubac signals that the 'great century', f o r h i m , i n Western C h r i s -

uted to John C h r y s o s t o m Here, already, de Lubac notes that, u n t i l late i n

tianity, was n o t the t h i r t e e n t h , w i t h Thomas Aquinas, as most neoscholastic

the M i d d l e Ages, the expression 'corpus m y s t i c u m ' referred t o Christ's

theologians w o u l d have c l a i m e d .

eucharistic body, rather than to the b o d y o f C h r i s t i n the sense of the

1 4

15

C h u r c h . Already, m u c h m o r e contentiously, de Lubac, insisting that the w h o l e o f C a t h o l i c C h r i s t i a n dogma is a series o f paradoxes, declares that the greatest paradox of all is that, w h i l e the vision o f G o d enjoyed by the blessed

Key Books in Modern Catholicism

is a free gift, unanticipated, u n m e r i t e d , never owed to t h e m , yet t h e desire

I n 1929, after the Jesuits r e t u r n e d to France, de Lubac began l e c t u r i n g o n

f o r k is, naturally and constitutively i n every h u m a n soul.

fundamental theology at the Theology Faculty o f Lyons, the required d o c -

These t w o themes are spelled o u t i n the n e x t t w o books D e Lubac's life

torate having been conferred by the Gregorian U n i v e r s i t y i n R o m e at the

was, o f course, i n t e r r u p t e d by the G e r m a n occupation o f France A f t e r the

behest of the Father General o f the Society o f Jesus, w i t h o u t de Lubac's

capitulation, many Catholics were content w i t h the V i c h y government: i t

setting f o o t there or ever s u b m i t t i n g a dissertation

For better or worse,

seemed the restoration o f the traditional Catholic France that the anti-

like many o f the e m i n e n t C a t h o l i c theologians o f his generation, de Lubac

clericalism o f the T h i r d R e p u b l i c (and its hated atheist and Jewish deputies)

was never subjected to the discipline o f doctoral research i n w h i c h their

had repressed. D e Lubac was one o f the m i n o r i t y w h o resisted, against the

Protestant contemporaries, especially i n Germany, began their careers

w i l l o f his Jesuit superiors i n R o m e .

H e never taught any of the m a i n theological courses to Jesuit students or

colleague and f r i e n d Yves de M o n t c h e u i l , arrested a m o n g the M a q u i s at

anyone else.

Vercors, was executed by the Gestapo at Grenoble i n A u g u s t 1 9 4 4 .

1 6

1 8

H e w e n t i n t o h i d i n g , b u t his Jesuit 19

Ready f o r p u b l i c a t i o n b y 1939, Corpus Mysticum : Essai sur I'Eucharistie et

T h e books that he w o v e out of fris reading, w h i c h he usually passed off as 'occasional', and p u t together at someone else's u r g i n g , soon began to

I'Eghse au Moyen Age, appeared i n 1944

appear. Three were to become major texts i n m o d e r n C a t h o l i c theology

retrieved the doctrine, p u t pithily, that 'the church makes the eucharist

This 'naive b o o k ' , as he called i t ,

The first, Catholicisme- Les Aspects sociaux du dogme, appeared i n 1938 t h o u g h

and the eucharist makes the c h u r c h ' Leafing t h r o u g h volumes o f Migne's

the outbreak o f the Second W o r l d W a r meant that i t reached the w i d e r readership o n l y i n the expanded e d i t i o n o f T 9 4 7 . I t appeared i n English as

1 7

O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e t i d e Catholicism

reissued i n 1988 as Catholicism:

Christ and the Common

( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n G r e e n 1950) i t was Destiny

of Man (San Francisco: Ignatius

Press) 1 4

1 5

Balthasar, The Theology of Henri

au douzième 1 6

de Lubac:

30-1

F o r that m a t t e r C h e n u s best w o r k , s o m e m i g h t say is t o b e found i n his b o o k La siècle (Paris: V r i n

At the Service oj the Church:

1957) 143

1 8

Théologie

H e n r i de L u b a c

Christian

Resistance

to Anti-Semitism

Memoirs

from 1940-1944

(San F r a n -

cisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1990) 1 9

F o r his m e m o i r o f his colleague see H e n r i de L u b a c .

I g n a t i u s Press 1987).

Three Jesuits

Speak (San

Francisco:

72

H E N R I

Patrologia Latina,

D E

I U B A C

H E N R I

he h i t o n the phrase 'corpus m y s t i c u m ' i n the w o r k o f

Florus o f Lyons ( w h o d i e d a r o u n d 860)

2 0

This started h i m o f f o n the trail.

I n m o d e r n times, and especially since Pope Pius X I I ' s encyclical

D E

73

I U B A C

to the standard neoscholastic t h e o l o g y o f grace and nature. The b o o k is peppered w i t h barely coded insults directed at august T h o m i s t c o m m e n t a -

Mystici

tors past and present H o w e v e r , i t was n o t o n l y that, according to de Lubac,

Corporis Christi (1943), the C h u r c h was referred to, i n seminary courses, p r i -

they m o r e or less all m i s i n t e r p r e t e d Aquinas - a shocking e n o u g h c o n -

m a r i l y as the 'mystical B o d y ' o f Christ

t e n t i o n , o f course - they d i d so, he claimed, because o f their ignorance o f

As he pursued his research i n

Torrell,J-P,33 Tracy, David, 111 n Tromp, Sebastian, 37, 55 Tubingen School, 7n, 15, 20, 53, 209 Tymieniecka, Anna Tl, 167 Tyranowski,Jan, 165 Tyrrell, George, 5-7, 56, 68, 93 ultramontanism, 6, 55,173, 206 UtUnum Sint, 171-5,207 Vatican I , 117, 158,207n, 208 Vico,GB,190n Vigilius, 222n Wais, K , 164 Weigel, George, 176,187 William o f St-Thierry, 69 Williams, A . N , 1 8 n Williams, G H , 163n, 168 Wilmsen,A., 184 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 13, 92-3, 102, 108n, 128,169,191 Wojtyla, Karol, 71, 163-82 on Aquinas, 168-70 on the body, 180-1 on contraception, 219-21 on Maritain, 168 and phenomenology, 166-8 and Poltawska, 219 and Tyranowski, 165 see also John Paul I I Wolff, Christian, 30, 11 7 Wolffianism, 23, 30-1,127 women, 102, 200-1 Yannaras, C , 82 Zigliara, T.M , 9, 23