Trees for Saltland: A Guide to Selecting Native Species for Australia

Trees for Saltland a guide to selecting native species for Australia Nico Marcar Debbie Crawford Peter Leppert Tom Jovanovic Robert Floyd Roger Farrow

CSlRO AUSTRALIA

Division of Forestry

PO. Box 4008 Queen Victoria Terrace, ACT 2600 Australia

Cataloguing-in-F'ublication Entry Trees for saltland: a guide to selecting native species for Australia / Nico Marcar . . . [et al.] Includes bibliographic references. ISBN 0 643 05819 2

1. Trees - Australia - Identifications. 2. Shrubs Australia - Identification. 3. Salt-tolerant crops - Australia. I. Marcar, Nico Ernile. 11. CSIRO Division of Forestry.

O CSIRO Australia 1995

Available from: CSIRO Press PO Box 89 (314 Albert Street) East Ivlelbourne Victoria 3002 Australia Tel: (03) 9418 7217 Int: t613 9418 7217 Fax: (03) 9419 0459 Int: 4 1 3 9419 0459

Text design and layout: Vlad Mosmondor Debbie Crawford and Nico Marcar CSIRO Division of Forestry Cover Design: Vlad Mosmondor CSIRO Division of Forestry Production: Vlad Mosmondor CSIRO Division of Forestry

Contents Preface

Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Principles of Tree Growing on Salt-Affected Land Australia-Wide Perspective .................................................................... Lowering Water Tables with Trees .................................................... Trees in Discharge Locations ............................................................... Classification of Soil Salinity and Sodicity.......................................... Salt and Trees ....................................................................................... Waterlogging and Trees ..................................................................... Sodic Soils and Trees ............................................................................. Tree Growth on Salt-Affected Land ..................................................... Establishing Trees on Salt-Affected Land .......................................... Dealing with Insect Pests ...................................................................... Tree Products ....................... . . ............................................................ References ............................................................................................. Further Reading .......................... . . .......................................................

Chapter 2 Species Descriptions General ................................................................................................. Notes for Species Descriptions ............................................................. .............................................................................. References .......... . . . References Consulted for Species Descriptions................. ................ List of Species...................................................................................... Section One - Detailed Profiles ............................................................ Section Two - Summary Profiles............................ .. ........................... Glossary of Botanical and Other Terms............................... .. ..............

Contacts for Further Information Index of Species Common Names

70

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Preface Over the last twenty or so years there has been considerable lnterest in the use of trees as part of a biological approach to managing soil salinity. Salinity control involves the management of water in recharge and discharge areas. Long-term solutions to the spread of soil and water salinity involve control of recharge in dryland and irrigated landscapes. Managing discharge sites is important to maintain farm productivity, enhance aesthetics and property valnes and to reduce the flow of salts to streams and rivers. Trees can be strategically planted on or adjacent to saline discharge sites in dryland areas along with salt-tolerant shnrbs, grasses and herbs as well as on land with shallow, saline watertables in irrigation areas. The main purpose of this book is to assist landholders, landcare and community groups, planners, field researchers and others to make decisions about which Australian native tree(s) they ought to plant on salt-affected land of interest to them. The book does not deal with introduced trees, salt-tolerant h i t trees or mangroves. The impetus for writing this book has come kom a strong desire to extend infomlation on salt tolerance of trees and shrubs that the CSIRO Division of Forestry and many other research groups have assembled. During the last ten years the Division of Forestry has had extensive contact with State departments, landcare groups and f m ~ e r son this subject. Insect pests can pose a considerable threat to successful b-ee growing and therefore this subject is given due attention in the book. The book contributes to the goals of the National Program for the Productive Use and Rehabilitation of Saline Land (NPPURSL). NPPURSL acts in the national context to expedite the development of productive and sustainable management systems for salhe land and water. This book comple~nentsanother book 'Saltland Pastures in Australia: a practical guide' by Barrctt-Lennard and Malcolm (1995), u~hich includes information on salt-

tolcrant shmbs, such as salt-bushes (genus Atriplex) and blue-bushes (genus Maireanca), grasses and herbs. The introductory sections of this book provide general information on issues such as how trees deal with saline soil, their susceptibility to insect pests, where to plant trees and how best to establish them. These sections are not intended to provide detailed practical advice on tree planting and culture for specific sites. Such information can be obtained from local expcrts and other written sources, including those mentioned in this book. The main section provides detatled descriptions of 30 species for use on saltaffected land. Some species, such as Tasmanian blue gum (E globulus subsp. globulus), are included here because, although thcy toleratc only low salinity, thcy provide valuable economic products and are currently thc subject of intensive screening and selection. It was, unfomnately, not possible to provide detailed descriptions of all species of potential interest and still produce this book withill a reasonable time. Therefore, 30 more species have been described in a summary form. If there is sufficient demand a revised and more comprehensive book may be produced at a later date. The writing and publication of this hook was undertaken as part of a CSfRO Priority Program dealing with 'Salinity Control'. The book complements a computer database dealing with tree performance on saline and other sites in Australia (TREDAT). Additional sources of information include published and unpublished reports on trials and demonstrations from CSIRO, several State govenunent depatments and personal communication with landholders.

Nico E. Marcar and Debbie F. Crawford August 1995

Acknowledgments We are indebted to several people for assistance with the publication of this book. Where appropriate, sources of information are indicated within the book, as well as in the section 'Further Reading'. We thank Trevor Booth (CSIRO Division of Forestry) for providing access to the Australian climatic mapping program (AUSGRD) and collaborating with Tom Jovanovic to produce the climate prediction maps for each of the detailed species descriptions. The Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University provided interpolated climatic data. Several State herbaria provided natural distribution information for the species of interest. We thank Paul Munns (Northern Territory Conservation Council Herbarium, Darwin), David Albrecht (Royal Botanic Gardens and National Herbarium, Melbourne); Sarah Hastings and Penny Farrant (Royal Botanic Gardens Herbarium, Sydney), R. Johnson (Queensland Herbarium, Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane), Sue Patrick (Western Australian Herbarium, Department of Conservation and Land Management, Perth) and CSIRO Division of Plant Industry Herbarium, Canberra. We thank Janet Fan (WA CALM) and Wolfgang Wanjura, John Dowse and Rex Sutherland (CSIRO Division of Entomology) for providing additional information on insect susceptibility of various species. John Doran and Peter Martenz (CSIRO Division of Foreshy) provided very useful infonnation for species descriptions. Vlad Mosmondor (CSIRO Division of Forestry) guided us through the earlier editing phases, prepared photographic material, arranged a printer and generally ensured the high quality production of the book. Joe Walker (CSIRO Division of Water Resources and leader of the CSIRO priority 'Salinity Control' project) provided encouragement to produce this book.

We are indebted to the following persons for reviewing drafts of this book: Allan Nicholson (NSW CaLM (Soil Conservation), Wellington); David Bicknell (WA Department of Agriculture, Narrogin); Kevin Ritchie (Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Benalla); Dan Sun (QFRI, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Atherton); Peter Bulman (SA Department of Primary Industries, Murray Bridge); Cheryl Paton (Landcare specialist, NSW CaLM (Soil Conservation), Wagga Wagga); Peter Milthorpe (NSW Department of Agriculture, Condobolin); David Wright (Tasmanian Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Kings Meadow); Neil Parker (Private Forests Tasmania, Kings Meadow); Paui Truong, Peter Thorburn and Ingrid Christiansen (Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane); Ed Barrett-Lennard (WA Department of Agriculture, Perth); Jim Morris (Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Kew), Gary Waugh (CSIRO Division of Forest Products, Clayton, Victoria), Maurice McDonald, John Doran, Doug Boland, Ken Eldridge and other staff and colleagues (CSIRO Division of Forestry, Canberra). We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the 'Salinity Control' project of the CSIRO Land and Water Care Program and the Australian Centre for Agricultural Research (ACIAR) for work on the salt tolerance of native trees, and, from the Murray-Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) which supported the work on insect damage on trees in salt-affected catchments. We also acknowledge the generous financial support given to the CSIRO Division of Forestry from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) and the Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation (LWRRDC) through the RIRDC-managed Agroforestry Program for the publication of this book.

Chapter 1 Principles of Tree Growing on Salt-Affected Land Australia-Wide Perspective About one-third of Australia (ca. 29 nill lion ha) consists of naturally-occurring salt-affected land, including arid and semi-arid regions which have iia~rally-occurring saline subsoils. In addition, there over 4 million ha of secondary or human-induced saline soils (Fig. 1; Williamson 1990). There are two types of secondary salinity. The first type, described as scald, is found in low rainfall pastoral zones and results from grazing-induced soil erosion leaving behind a saline or sodic subsoil. The second type, in which groundwater is a key component, is usually described as dryland (saline seepage) or irrigation salinity. There are over 1.2 million ha of dryland (Robertson 1993) and 500,000 ha of irrigated land in Australia currently affected to some degree by salinity and/or high water tables. Many saline soils suffer from periodic or seasonal waterIogging and some may have poor structure. In addition, a significant proportion of Australia's surface and ground waters are affected by salt.

Dryland salinity is the build up of salts in the surface soif, usually as a result of a rising water table and subsequent groundwater seepage. These salts have been stored to depths of 30 m or more in many soil types and have accumulated there from several sources: the ocean via rainfall, weathering of soil and rock minerals, and marine deposition in earlier geological periods. Water tables have risen in response to clearing of deep-rooted native vegetation, including trees (Fig. 2). The clearing has allowed large volumes of rainfall to leak through the soil and cnter ('recharge') the ground water system. This water re-surfaces in 'discharge' areas.

4

evapotranspiration

BEFORE CLEARING

AFTER CLEARING

Figure 1. Human-induced salt-affected land in Australia. Where estimates of area affected are available they are indicated. Adapted from Williamson (1990). The prognosis is for a considerable worsening of salinity and waterlogging problems, particularly in southern Australia because groundwater levels continue to rise and only small-scale land management programs have been implemented. Salinity usually decreases the productive potential of land, decreases the water resources available for consumption, and degrades the ecological values of wetlands, rivers and their associated habitats. Economic values for on-site (e.g. loss of farm production) and off-site (e.g. water quality, roads) impacts of chyland salinity are being evaluated (Beal 1993).

Figure 2. Dryland salinity development resulting from water table rise (Anon. 1989).

Management of salinity can be achieved by property and catchment level land-use planning, vegetation (pasture and tree) management, crop rotations and mapping of key 'recharge' (water intake) areas as protected lands. Strategic tree planting in both recharge and discharge areas can contribute significantly to controlling rise of water tables, the cause of soil salinisation. Water tables in discharge areas may also be lowered in some dryland sites using windmill or diesel pumping and by subsurface drainage. The majority of dryland salinity is found in the wheat growinghheep grazing zones (400-600 mm annual average rainfall) of Western Australia and South Australia. Rainfall limitations of these regions will reduce options for which tree species to plant. In these regions, trees would be grown mainly for firewood and on-farm timber. Other options, such as development of mallee eucalypt plantations for industrial and pharmaceutical oil production in the wheat belt of Western Australia, are being actively pursued (Bartle 1994). Up to 100,000 ha of land in the medium rainfall (600-900 mm) zone in Western Australia, Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania are also salt-affected. These regions (as well as irrigated land) could, in principle, support pulp and/or timber production. Irrigation salinity, resulting from application of excessive water and insufficient drainage, is often associated with high water tables and occurs along the Murray-Darling River system in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales as well as small areas in Queensland. With suitable irrigation management, viable wood andlor pulp producing enterprises may be feasible, for soils of low to moderate salinity, with species such as river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), river oak (Casuarina cunninghamiana) and, possibly, Tasmanian blue gum (E. globulus subsp. globulus) and flooded gum (E. grandis). The economics of tree growing on saline land will be improved if suitably salt-tolerant, fast-growing commercial species can be identified. The 'Trees for Profit' program in Victoria has recently generated considerable interest in the potential for planting commercial tree species for agroforestry and salinity control on moderately saline land in irrigation areas of northern Victoria and southern New South Wales. Pest and disease problems will also need to be contained by careful management or use of resistant species. In this book we have dealt extensively with insect pests and their control. The reader is referred to publications such as Cremer (1990) for information on tree diseases. Leaf and root fungal diseases may cause significant damage to trees, especially in humid, wet regions. On areas of moderate to high salinity, highly salt-tolerant species which may have fodder, firewood andlor on-farm timber value, should be used. There is scope for the use of trees in irrigation areas, in combination with engineering solutions, to utilise saline drainage water. For example, feasibility studies have been conducted in the Shepparton region of Victoria for the incorporation of trees into biological systems for concentrating saline water for later disposal (Heath and Heupermann, 1994).

Lowering Water Tables with Trees Strategic tree and shrub planting, adequate drainage, pasture improvement and more efficient crop water use can all contribute to reducing recharge and lowering water tables. Trees have many attributes for water table control. They are relatively deep rooted, may use water whenever it is available and intercept a significant fraction of rainfall before it reaches the soil. High water using trees are generally the trees that grow well, although species differences are important. Main determinants of tree water use are (i) sapwood area, (ii) leaf area and (iii) rooting depth and spread. Therefore it is important to use the right tree and cultural techniques to promote the best growth possible on salt-affected catchments. Using trees and shrubs in the right places is one way to help halt the rise of water tables or even lower the water tables again (Fig. 3). In many cases, for example on the slopes of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria and New South Wales, trees are best planted in recharge areas in order to use more water before it enters the ground water system. The best locations for tree planting to control recharge on individual properties are catchment specific and require careful discussions with local specialists and advisers. Recharge control is likely to be a long-term proposition. Computer simulation programs are available to assist land managers and researchers in planning strategic locations for vegetation planting and retention (Walker et al. 1991).

(a) 'recharge'

(b)'break of slope'

2

(c) 'discharge'

Figure 3. Options for location of tree planting for dryland salinity management. There are several cases where tree planting in discharge locations may be beneficial, for example: (i) where stream water quality is the overriding consideration; (ii) to remove relatively fresh water in 'break of slope' situations; (iii) to intercept relatively fresh perched groundwater above sand plain seeps in Western Australia (Schofield 1992) and (iv) in alley farming systems in the wheavsheep zone of Western Australia (Lefroy and Scott 1994). Water table lowering is most likely to occur only underneath the planted trees,

unless tree planting is extensive throughout a salt-affected catchment. Lowering will only occur if trees can use groundwater directly and inflows from surrounding areas are relatively small. The presence of highly saline (EC > 510 dSlm) water will reduce the chances of successful water table lowering. Where trees are planted extensively in a saltaffected catchment, water tables may be lowered in areas beyond the trees since eventually the total additional water use by the trees must approach the excess recharge which causes the problem.

Trees in Discharge Locations Dryland Sites Salt-tolerant trees, shrubs (including Afriplex spp.) and grasses can be planted on or adjacent to discharge areas (seeps and scalds). Trees planted adjacent to saline seeps and scalds will have better survival, growth and water use than those planted on the seep. This is because soil physical and chemical conditions are more favourable at the edge of the seep or scald and tree roots will probably be tapping into less saline ground water. If the water table level drops and surface soil salinity is reduced, more trees, grasses or crops can be planted towards the centre of the area. Holgren (1994) provides an example of zonal planting. Planting trees in discharge locations can (i) help to lower locally high water tables, (ii) help to reduce soil erosion via root activity and litter breakdown, (iii) provide shelter, shade and tree products (including honey, oils etc.), (iv) provide habitat for wildlife and maintain conservation values, (v) decrease stream and river salinity and (vi) improve aesthetics and land values.

Lower- and mid-slope planting in Western Australia.

Discharge planting on dryland site in New South Wales (Photo Stephen Midgley).

Brcak of slope planting in north-east Victoria (Photo Russell Washusen). Maximum water use per unit of land area is likely to occur where trees have access to good soil moisture for most of the year (e.g. in highgr rainfall sites, under irrigated conditions or when planted above a shallow groundwater system) and in situations where the canopies of trees are close together (e.g. where trees are planted close together (>500-1000 trees per ha)). Tree water use is usually much lower when trees can dry out the soil profile relatively quickly and/or where they are using saline water compared with fresh water. Many tree species can continue to use water of EC > 5-10 dSIm but only the most tolerant trees (e.g. salt paperbark, Melaleuca halmaturorum) can use water of EC greater than 20 dS/m in any significant way.

Trees can be planted as compact woodlots and blocks (>500 treesha), around saline seeps or scalds, or scattered (GO0 treesha) throughout the seep. In wide-spaced agroforestry plantings, pastures should not be grazed until trees are well above grazing height; cattle, in particular can damage relatively old trees. Holgren (1994) provides information on use of Casuar&a spp. for shelterbelts and grazing (suckering plants on outside rows). Recent attempts by Western Australia farmers to use one or more rows of salttolerant trees (e.g. E. camaldulensis, E. loxophlebn, E. occidentalis, E. sargentii and E. spathulata) spaced 1530 m apart have met with some success in lowering saline (EC up to 30 dS1m) water tables under the trees and the alleys between the tree rows (George et al. 1993; Lefroy and Scott 1994). vowever, pasb~regrowth in the alleys has often been relatively poor due to tree root competition, particularly in narrower alleys and on sites which do not permit rapid downward growth of tree roots.

One potential longer-term problem with planting trees on saline land or above a saline water table is that salts may accumulate in or below the root-zone. This might be expected to result in reduced tree growth and water use and eventually tree death. Field studies are now in progress, particularly in Victoria and Western Australia, to evaluate this possibility. Current evidence indicates that salts can build up seasonally in or just below the zone of actively growing tree roots but some researchers suggest that leaching from rainfall events coupled with improving drainage may alleviate this build up, especially for lighter soils and where water tables are deep.

Irrigation Sites Strategic tree planting within areas that are salt-affected andlor have high water tables can provide two main benefits (in addition to those for dryland sites). These are (i) drawdown of locally high saline water tables, through either control of recharge (e.g. from channels) or withdrawal from ground water and (ii) use of saline ground water which would othcnvisc have tlowed to streams and ever~tuolly rivcrs. b!. sub-surtacc sccpagc or deliberate drainage disposal (Heupermann 1991). In addition, there is potential to irrigate trees and shrubs with saline drainage water using the serial biological concentration approach. This approach offers scope for decreased reliance on evaporation basins and conjunctive use of saline groundwater in irrigation areas (Heath and Heupermann 1994). Woodlots or plantations are the main options for conferring economic returns in addition to reductions in water tables outside the planted area. Tree planting on the borders of paddocks and along channels are other options.

Classification of Soil Salinity and Sodicity Soil conditions for plant growth deteriorate as salts build up in the soil or the period of waterlogging increases. Soil salinity is best described in terms of the electrical conductivity (EC). The best measure is the electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste (EC,) in units of decisiemens per metre (dS/m). The alternative (and easier to determine) measure is the electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil water extract (EC1,5).EC1:5can be converted to EC, by applying multiplication factors (Table I)., The salinity of surface and groundwater can also be conveniently measured with a portable conductivity meter. A reading of 1 dS/m is equivalent to 1000 microSiemens per centimetre (pS/cm) or I millisiemens per centimelxe (mSIcm) or ca. 640 parts per million (ppm). Table 1. Multiplication factors for converting EC1 :5 to EC,.

1

Sands

very little or no coherence and cannot be rolled into a stable ball; individual sand grains adhcre to fingers

17

,

Loams

can be rolled into a thick thread, but will break up before it is 3-4 mm thick; the soil ball is easy to manipulate and has a smooth spongy feel with no obvious sandiness

10

Clay loams

can bc easily rolled into a thrcad 3-4 mm thick but will have a number of fractures along its length; the soil is becoming plastic, capable of being moulded into a stable shape

9

Light clays

can be rolled to a thread 3-4 mm thick without fracture; plastic behaviour evident, smooth feel with some resistance to rolling out

8

Mediurn clays

handles like plasticine, forms rods without fracture, has some resistance to ribboning shear, ribbons to 7.5 cm or more

7

Source: Fogarty et al. (1993). Five salinity classes are commonly recognised, viz. nonsaline (EC, < 2 dSim), slight (EC, 2-4 dSim), moderate (EC, 4-8 dSim), severe (EC, 8-16 dS/m) and extreme (EC, >16 dSim). A broad range of dissolved salts is known to occur in soil and water. In the majority of cases, sodium chloride (NaCI) is the principal concern. However sulphate (SO4) and bicarbonate (HC03) salts may also occur in significant amounts. Tree planting on irrigated land in northern Victoria.

Soil sodicity is described in terms of the content of sodium (Na) relative to calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) or the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). Three sodicity classes are commonly recognised, viz. non-sodic (ESP 14%). Sodic soils are normally highly to severely alkaline because of the excess Na, HC03 and carbonate ( C 0 3 ) in soil

solution. For most purposes, acid soils have pH < 7.0; neutral soils have pH ca. 7.0 and alkaline soils have pH > 7.0. In addition there are degrees of acidity and alkalinity. Acid soils can be divided into severely (pH < 4 3 , highly (pH 4.5-5.5) and moderately (pH 5.6-6.5) acid. Alkaline soils can be divided into severely (pH > 9.0), highly (pH 8.0-9.0) and moderately (pH 7.0-8.0) alkaline. The level of groundwater salinity will affect tree growth as well as water use. The following generalisations are a guide. If the EC is < 7.5 dSim, then good growth of moderately salt-tolerant trees can be expected. If the EC is 7.5-15 dSim then moderate growth of highly salt-tolerant trees should occur. If the EC is 15 dSim then slow growth of highly salt-tolerant trees should result. The salinity of seawater is ca. EC 50 dS1m.

potassium (K), phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N)), or due to reduced root growth. Nitrogen fixation in legumes may also be disrupted. Most trees and shrubs are termed non-halophytes. They show growth reductions with increasing salt concentrations (refer Fig. 4: E. camaldulensis response). In most cases, the roots of these trees try to limit how much salt enters the plant. Transport of these salts to young developing leaves is also restricted. Species and provenances that are more salttolerant have a greater ability to exclude salts. These trees use organic solutes (such as sugars and amino acids derived from photosynthesis) and inorganic solutes (such as K, Ca and nitrate (NO,)) to counteract (or adjust to) the induced osmotic stress. The use of organic solutes for this osmotic adjustment will, however, deprive the plant of energy that could otherwise be used for growth.

Further information on concepts, terminology (e.g. different types and units of measurement) and methods for analysis of these and other descriptors can be found in Taylor (1991). The electromagnetic (EM) induction technique can be a usehl means of assessing salinity in the tree root zone (up to 1.5 m depth); the EM38 device has been widely adopted (Fogarty et al. 1993).

Salt and Trees Salinity affects plant growth in three main ways:

Water Stress - Osmotic Effects EC, dSlm

High concentrations of salts may affect the ability of plants to extract water from the soil, even when abundant soil water is available. This is called an osmotic effect, because the plant is required to obtain soil water though its roots against an osmotic (or salt concentration) gradient. Plants have to lower the water potential of leaves and other tissues in order to get water to move into roots. through the stem and to be transpired by the leaves. Osmotic effects are likely to occur when plants are exposed to sudden changes in the root environment, e.g. where seedlings are planted into saline soil or where saline irrigation water is applied. Water stress symptoms may result within days or weeks.

Salt Toxicity Unregulated uptake of salts by plant roots and the inability of plants to place these salts within the vacuoles (the major components of mature cells) of leaf cells can lead to leaf damage and reduced growth within weeks or months of exposure to saline conditions. For trees, chloride (Cl) toxicity is considered more prevalent than Na toxicity. High concentrations of Mg may severely reduce root growth, mainly due to induced Ca deficiency.

Figure 4. General relationships between tree growth and salinity (A: e.g. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, B: e.g. Casuarina glauca, C: e.g. Acacia stenophylla). Typical signs of salt damage are marginal or tip death of older leaves followed by the death and subsequent shed of leaves. Newer leaves of seedlings planted into highly saline soil may quickly dry and die due to induced water-stress. Newly planted seedlings are usually more susceptible to elevated salinity than those which have had time to adjust and develop an extended root system. Halophytic trees and shrubs tend to show growth stimulation at low levels of salt and growth reduction at higher salt concentrations (refer Fig. 4: Acacia stenophylla response). Whilst they also exclude salts at the roots, these plants are much better at dealing with salt accumulation in their leaves. This salt is either primarily included in vacuoles of leaf cells where it is used in osmotic adjustment (e.g. mesquite (Prosopis), an exotic tree) or secreted onto the leaf surface in specialised glands and bladders (e.g. athel (Tamarix aphylla), an exotic tree; mangroves and salt bush (Atriplex spp.)) or both. Salts on leaf surfaces can be washed off by rain and dew.

Nutrient Imbalance Nutrient deficiencies may result because uptake of salts (Na, Mg, C1 and other ions) may compete with nutrients (such as

Both halophytes and non-halophytes can also reduce salt accumulation by shedding older leaves to 'relieve' the plant of its salt load, but this strategy reduces growth.

will severely restric

Waterlogging and Trees Waterlogging is often associated with saline soils because (i) most of the root zone is already saturated or moist from either rising water tables or seepage from perched water tables higher in the landscape andlor (ii) infiltration and permeability are low due to soil sodicity. In many areas waterlogging by itself is a major problem and is often more widespread than salinity. The principal stress is an oxygen deficit, despite the variety of physical and chemical changes which can occur in waterlogged soil. Inundation or flooding will cause added stress and may also increase the erosion risk. 'The degree of plant damage and growth reduction will vary with duration of the waterlogging or flooding event, species and other interacting factors (e.g. degree of salinity and temperature). Waterlogging reduces shoot growth by slowing the production of new leaves, reducing growth of existing leaves and by causing premature leaf shed. Waterlogging also reduces root growth and viability, and reduces root formation. The above effects are mainly related to direct effects of low soil oxygen concentrations and changes in plant hormone levels. Woody (older) roots are much more tolerant to flooding than non-woody (younger) roots. High water tables and sodic soils (especially those with a restricting layer) tend to restrict root growth to the surface horizons. This predisposes the tree to falling over, and, in dry seasons, to drought injury. Prolonged waterlogging can predispose roots to damage from soil pathogens such as phytophthora (Phytophthora cinnamomi). Nutrient uptake (e.g. N) will be reduced under waterlogging. Plants which tolerate waterlogging usually have specially adapted roots. For example, river red gum (E. camaldulensis) has root air channels (aerenchyma), mangroves have 'aerial roots and some plaits also-have adventitious roots close to the soil surface, often with air channels. If saline soils are also waterlogged, non-halophytes will be less able to restrict salt uptake due to lower soil oxygen supply. Salt exclusion mechanisms rely on high metabolic activity and thus on good soil aeration. Halophytes can also be affected by this interaction.

Sodic Soils and Trees

Nutritional imbalan sodic soils than on Factors that impede root growth include poor aeration, high saline-sodic soils n soil strength, stickiness when wet and cracking soil surfaces. subsoils in southern Sodic soils may also develop an impermeable layer,ofdue to precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaCO,),

3. Most native tree species can tolerate quite high B levels in their leaves. Plant growth on non-saline sodic soils is usually more affected by poor physical structure than on saline-sodic soils.

Tree Growth on Salt-Affected Land Slow deterioration of the health of remnant trees on flats, along roadsides, in valley floors and on poorly-drained sites is often an indication of rising saline water tables. Mature trees are usually susceptible to increasing soil salinity because their root systems cannot adjust adequately and because many affected species tend to be less salt-tolerant. Because saline sites represent drastically altered conditions for plant growth, compared with those which existed previously, it is usually not appropriate to replant the same species, let alone the same provenance (geographically divergent seed source) or ecotype, that had existed previously on the site. A provenance is genetically adapted to a particular set of environmental conditions, often much better adapted to these conditions than other provenances of the same species (Iianvood 1990). Species with wide geographical ranges (e.g. E. camaldulensis) tend to show greater provenance variation than do species with limited distributions pldridge et al, 1993). Whilst field testing of tree species, provenances and clones on saline sites in Australia has increased over the last 20 years, results from trial and demonstration sites have not been rigorously evaluated for comparison. In many cases information on salt tolerance is not well quantified and therefore is of limited value for use on new sites. Recently, the CSIRO Division of Forestry has assembled results from many field studies, in collaboration with State agencies and community groups, into a computerised tree verformance database called TREDAT. TREDAT stores information on climate and soil parameters, species planted (including details of provenance), management regime, plant survival and growth at different ages.

The main constraints to growth in sodic soils are: (i) (ii) (iii)

poor physical conditions and correspondingly poor aeration, and/or nutritional imbalances including deficiencies of Ca and Mg, and/or toxicity of specific ions, e.g. boron (B).

The information retrieved from TREDAT is useful for extension booklets and new software packages being developed (e.g. REX in Western Australia (contact: David Bicknell, WA Department of Agriculture, Narrogin)). In addition, 'real growth data' stored in TREDAT can be used to verify the estimates of tree performance from tree growth computer models. To date, TREDAT has information on the

performance of over 200 different tree species planted on about 80 different sites (encompassing recharge (non-saline) and discharge (wetlsaline) areas) in the Murray-Darling Basin. By constructing graphs of tree growth versus soil salinity, it is possible to estimate growth for a species, provenance or clone for a given level of salinity at new sites (Fig. 4). However, other factors, such as soil moisture, degree of waterlogging, nutrition, impact of insects and pathogens will interact with salinity to modify this response. Variation in response to salinity and waterlogging between individual plants in a species has allowed selection for increased salt tolerance. Individual plants with high salt tolerance can be vegetatively propagated (cloned) by cuttings or micropropagation and tested in the field. It has been shown that the best gains in salt tolerance of E. carnaldulensis and other species are from selecting individual plants subjected to salinity and waterlogging at the same time. E. camaldulensis clones also differ from each other in stem form, crown volume and insect damage. Under conditions of high salinity selected clones may survive and grow better than seedling trees, but more field studies are required. The relative merits of planting unselected seedlings versus selected clones will also depend on costs vs increased growth, form and desired attributes. It is now possible to target tree and shrub species to sites of varying salinity and waterlogging and for specific purposes (Francis and Marcar 1993; Table 2). The classifications provided in this book are rather conservative and relate particularly to expected growth (and by inference to water use). For example, if seasonal waterlogging is not a problem on the site of interest, some of the species in the slightly tolerant classification may perform satisfactorily in the lower ranee of salinities for the moderate classification. In addition, it is expected that survival will be good to very good for each species in the salinity class in which it has been placed.

-

Establishing Trees on Salt-Affected Land

Seedlings can usually be purchased from a variety of local retail outlets, including commercial and State forestry department nurseries. Alternatively, they can be produced by individual landholders or as part of landcare group activities. Details concerning seed collection, germination and nursery practice are available in several books, including Chapters 4 and 5 of Cremer (1990), and other publications, including the Greening Australia brochures 'How to Collect Native Tree Seed' and 'How to Germinate Native Tree and Shrub Seed'. The Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO Division of Forestry, Canberra can supply research and commercial quantities of authenticated seed of several thousand native tree and shrub species and provenances. In addition, a number of commercial seed collectors offer their services. Seedlings should have a balanced root:shoot ratio. Plants with an average height at planting of 15-30 cm are ideal. Containers for seedling production should allow for roots to grow straight down and avoid curling. It is especially important that plants are hardened (by reducing shading, watering and nutrient application) in the nursery at least one month before planting. Although reducing watering is important to harden plants, they should be well watered immediately before leaving the nursery and at the time of planting. The site should be surveyed for salinitylsodicity levels and water table depth. Salinityisodicity levels are determined by either collecting soil samples for subsequent laboratory analysis and/or the use of an EM38 device. Water table depths are determined by installing a piezometer (Francis et al 1993). Changes in vegetation composition (e.g. increase in barley grass cover) and relatively sudden dieback of stands of trees can also be good indicators of increasing salinity (Marcar 1995). The site should be fenced off and grazing livestock and vermin such as rabbits kept off for a number of years during tree establishment.

Preparing the Site Ripping

Successful establishment of trees on saline sites requires appropriate pre- and post-planting strategies. The following steps have been shown to be effective in field studies.

Plants and Preparation Seedlings are usually planted manually or mechanically. Direct seeding on waterlogged, saline or sodic sites is generally less reliable than using seedlings. However, there are exceptions to this, e.g. in rehabilitation of saline minespoil sites. Local conditions and experience should be checked. Trials in Pakistan have shown that Acacia ampliceps establishes well from seed broadcast onto moderately saline land and A. saligna is regularly included in direct seeding operations as a fodder shrub along with saltbushes in Western Australia.

Waterlogging, surface water control and drainage should be dealt with by earthworks before any other activity wherever possible. Deep ripping (30-50 cm) with 1-3 tines (ideally winged) will loosen the soil approximately within angles of 45" to either side of the rip line, assisting with root penetration vertically and laterally. On dry sites ripping should be on the contour to increase moisture infiltration and availability to the plants. On waterlogged sites, ripping should be across the contour to promote drainage, except where there is a danger of erosion. Ripping should ideally be carried out about six months ahead of planting or else when site conditions allow it. Ripping should not be done when the soil is wet or dry;the ideal is a moist and friable soil.

Table 2. A list of native tree and shrub species suitable for planting o n saline and periodically waterlogged sites

size

slight

moderate

severe

Tree

A. mearnsii A. melanonylon a'f E. aggregata

All. luehmannii All. verticillata 'ci'k C. cunninghamiana 'c?'h"?'k E. astringens a?,d?e,f,k E. botryoides E. brockwayi fh,k E. camaldulensis* e' ' E. coolabah a'C E. larg$orens a,c,e?,g,i E. Ieuconylon ace7g E. melliodora ' ' " E. moluccana %c,e?,g E. platypus E. polybractea c7,g,k E. robusta E. rudis a a,c,d?e,f h,k E. tereticornis M styphelioides C?

A. salicina &e,f?j? C. cristata C. glauca* a'c'i'k E. campaspe E. occidentalis* E. sargentii a'k a,c?,h,k E. spathulata a,c?,i,k M leucadendra M quinquenervia a,c,h,k

A. ampliceps A. stenophylla * C, obesa* ac?j? E. kondininensis a'c?

A. refinodes M cuticularis

A. cyclops M halmaturorum a

E. camphora a E. cinerea E. cladocalyx "c'e? E. cornut .c?,g E. crenubta E. dumosa a E. elata e? E, globulus a,c?,d,e,f,k

E. grandis "d3e'k E. ovata a.c?

Shrub

"'

c,k

A. acuminata A. iteaphylla a A. longifolia a A. saligna* M. armillaris a'c7 M bracteata C'k M ericifolia M linariifolia 'c?'k

extreme a.cj?,f

M. decussata a M. lanceolata h,i a'c'g'h M. squarrosa k M uncinata

a,c?jr?

A. stenophylla a'c'f'? a,c?,hj?,k C. cunninghanziana C. giazrca "c'i'k C, obesa a?c?d?

E. aggregata E. camaldulensis a'c'd?'e'fh'k E. camphora a E. ovata "'? E. robusta a'c3d? E. rudis a a.c,d?,e,f.h,k E. tereticornis a,c?,i,k M. leucadendra M styphelioides '?

aj?

A. longifolia a M armillaris a'c? M decussata a Ad ericifo~ia'~'~ M. halmaturorum a M lanceolata a'c'g'h

M. squarrosa k M. uncinata

h,i

(i)

Species listed under one category will perfom well in the categories below. The above rankings are conservative, i.e. it might be worth trying a species or certain provenances of a species in the next category of saline soil. It would be expected that in their present grouping these species would have good survival and might grow up to 25% slower than if they were planted on non-saline land. In the case of the 'extreme' classification, performance will depend on how much greater than 16 dS/m the salinity level is. Growth response curves that cover a wide range of soil conditions and sites still have to be assembled for most of the species of interest, but in many cases available data are limited.

(ii)

The above rankings do not take into account the effects of salinity and waterlogging together. If the saline site is periodically waterlogged (e.g. during the winter months in southern Australia), trees will suffer more problems than if the soil was well-drained (refer p. 12).

(iii)

Provenances within a species may grow very differently on saline and other soils. Those species marked with an * are known to exhibit marked provenance variation for survival, growth and/or form on saline soils and in some cases clones have been developed from selected individual plants (refer p. 24).

(iv)

Superscripted letters next to a species name indicate suitability for the following products (refer chapter 2 section on 'Species Descriptions', pp. 29-67): a: Firewood; b: Preserved posts; c: Durable posts, rails etc., d: Pulpwood; e: Sawlogs; f: Furniture; g: Honey; h: Pollen; i: Attractive to bees; j: Fodder; k: Other products, e.g. oils, tannins, turnery; ?: Indictates uncertainty about product.

(v)

Tree (> 5 metres); Shrub (< 5 metres); A =Acacia, All. = Allocasuarina, C = Casuarina, E =Eucalyptus, M

= Melaleuca

Mounding

Mulching

Mounding is necessary on waterlogged and salinewaterlogged sites, but may give an advantage on other sites as well. As soils become heavier, more salt-affected and waterlogged, mounds should be taller and wider, and have a distinct trough.

Mulches and standing dead vegetation help reduce the loss of moisture from the soil and therefore reduce the accumulation of salts at the surface. Mulches reduce evaporation by lowering surface soil temperatures and acting as a barrier to free water movement. This reduces the rate of water movement to the soil surface from wetter conditions below. Effective mulches include wood chips, straw (hay), rice hulls, vermiculite, peat, sand and biodegradable plastic film. Where practical, these mulches should be at least ca. 5 cm thick and should be applied to an area of 80 cm to 1 m in diameter around the tree stem following planting. Mulches may increase the frost hazard on frost-prone sites. Mulches also reduce weed competition.

Such double-ridge mounds have proven very effective by providing (i) site drainage, (ii) elevation of the seedling above the water table (zone of low oxygen availability) and (iii) salt leaching from the seedling root zone. These mounds are particularly usefill where there is sufficient rain andlor irrigation water at or hefore planting time to leach salts from below the trough at this critical time. It is best to construct mounds several months before planting.

Weed Control Rajnfall *#

a

a d a,(>

Salt reduced zone

1 metre

-r

Mrm deep

Figure 5. Double-ridge mound design. Adapted from Francis and Marcar (1993). Single-ridge and flat-topped mounds are not as effective, but are better than no mounds. These mounds, in contrast to double-ridge mounds, tend to shed rainfall and wet up either from the water table below or from water collected in the furrows formed to make the mounds. Salts dissolved in this water accumulate in the mounds as the water evaporates from the mound surface. To minimise this effect the mounds need to be as wide (1.0-1.5 m) and as high as practicable (30-50 cm or higher above the ground level). Several ways are available for mechanically forming mounds. Equipment includes (i) press wheels attached to a mound plough (e.g. Savannah mound plough), (ii) modified direct seeding machinery and (iii) twin discs. An advantage of the continuous fUrrows formed in the mounding process is that they may be used to drain the land, further reducing waterlogging stress to planted seedlings. However, long mounds can be a problem for vehicle access and livestock movement, and if water builds up in the furrows. In this case breaks can be made in the mounds and drains built to collect and remove surface water.

Weed control is vital for tree establishment on any site. On saline sites, weed control can be best achieved by use of herbicides. A combination of knockdown (e.g. glyphosate and amitrol) and residual (e.g. simazine and propazine) herbicides gives great flexibility and reliability. Knockdown herbicides are absorbed by the plant leaf and so control weeds which are present at the time of spraying. Residual herbicides move into the soil and are absorbed by plant roots. They slowly kill existing weeds and also prevent further weed seeds from germinating. Herbicides can be used over the mounds, usually at lower rate; than on disturbed soil, and applied about six months before planting and again at or prior to planting. Information on registered trade names, rates of application and constraints on usage should be obtained from local experts and manufacturers. Weed mats, composed of woven fabric, can also be placed around individual trees for good weed control when small numbers of trees are involved.

Chemical Treatments Gypsum can be added to the soil prior to or during planting in order to replace the excess Na on the soil exchange (clay) complex with more favourable Ca ions. To be effective, this process must be complemented by leaching of soluble salts beyond the root zone by rain or irrigation water. Fertiliser for seedling establishment is not usually required on ex-pasture or crop sites with a history of fertiliser application. This is despite the fact that nutrients may be harder to obtain from salt-affected than unaffected soils. Small quantities of slow-release fertiliser may be useful. However, early growth responses to fertiliser may be very beneficial, if only to reduce later weed competition. For sustained high growth rates, fertiliser application is probably essential on most sites.

Planting Time Field conditions at the time of planting and the first few months after planting are of critical importance. The best time for any planting is when the soil is moist, warm but not waterlogged. It is best to plant after good soaking rains have had a chance to leach salts from the surface. On cold sites (e.g. tableland areas of the eastern mainland states and in Tasmania), it is best to avoid planting in autumn. The incidence of frost damage should be reduced in early spring planting by the use of plastic tree shelters (locally available). Young plants are very susceptible to the combination of high temperatures with drought, high soil salinity or waterlogging. High soil salinity and waterlogging can have the same effect as drought in restricting moisture availability to seedlings. Warm waterlogged conditions are more damaging than cold waterlogged conditions. This is because plants grow slowly in cold soils so the rate of oxygen depletion (and carbon dioxide accumulation) from respiration is less than in warm soils. Thus hot periods, even short hot spells, within a planting season should he avoided for planting.

insect attack as well as to salt and waterlogging, where possible (Table 3). Insects feed on all plant parts, including stems, leaves, shoots and roots. They employ a variety of feeding strategies, such as chewing of leaves, shoots and bark; sapfeeding on leaves, stems and shoot tips; mining of leaves; gall-forming in leaves and stems; and boring below the bark and in sapwood of stems and heartwood of trunks. Juvenile leaves are usually more susceptible to attack than the tougher adult leaves and some species feed only on juvenile leaves. The most important defoliators of eucalypts are autumn gum moth larvae, sawfly larvae or spitfires, Christmas beetles, spring beetles, gumleaf skeletoniser larvae, leaf beetles, gumtree weevils and cup moth larvae.

Well-drained sites (no waterlogging or salinity problems) may be planted any time from the time of opening rains (i.e. autumn in southern Australia) to mid-spring. In contrast, sites subject to waterlogging (with or without a salinity problem) should not be planted until after the rainy season (i.e. spring in southern Australia). Unmounded sites should not be planted until the surface water has gone. Of course, waterlogging can often be minimised with drainage before planting. Drainage plus mounding will allow earlier planting, and this will give more time for strong growth as moisture recedes in the dry season. Experience in the eastern states shows that a hand operated tree planter; such as the I-Iamilton Tree Planter, that takes out a plug of soil the same size as the tube is the easiest to use for manual planting. However, care must be taken not to compact the soil in the planting hole. A wide variety of mechanical tractor drawn planters, including the 'Shelterbelter' and speedling planters, are available. A tree planting auger which avoids glazing the sides of the auger hole, does not remove soil from the hole and can be attached to a tractor or Bobcat is also available. Seedlings should ideally be watered in at planting time to allow for leaching of salts and good establishment.

Christmas beetle damage on Eucalyptus camphora

Dealing with Insect Pests Major Pests Newly planted and established trees are susceptible to damage from native insect herbivores. Trees stressed by salinity and waterlogging are inore susceptible to insect feeding. It is very important, therefore, to select tree species, provenances or individuals that are relatively resistant to

Gumleaf skeletoniser damage on Eucalyptus camaldulensis.

-

'able 3. Relative susceptibility of tree species lo insect feeding. Low 0-25%, medium = 25-75% and high = 75-100Yo damage reported.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

18

-

'able 3. Relative susceptibility of tree species lo insect feeding. Low 0-25%, medium = 25-75% and high = 75-100Yo damage reported.

Acacia mearnsil Acacia melanoxylon

Table 4. A guide to the common and scientific names of insects commonly attacking: Acacia, Cusuarina, Eucalyptus and lMelaleuca trees.

E. platypus var. heterophylla Eucalyptuspolybractea Euca[yptus robusta Eucalyptus rudis Eucalyptus sargentii

Medium (WA) Low Foliage - medium Stems - high Medium in Eastern Australia High in WA Low

L e v (WA) None reported AGM, GTS, LBS, lerp, gumtree hopper, eucalypt weevil Eucalypt, ringbarking, bullseye & cossid borers None reported, expect susceptibility similar to E camaldulensis GLS, GTS, LBS, sawfly, shothole miner None reported (NSW) spring beetle (WA)

18

Among the sap-feeders, the most important are the necrosiscausing psyllids or lerps, gumtree scales and gumtree hoppers, tip-feeding bugs and tip-feeding psyllids.

Tip-feeding bug damage on Euculyptus camaldulensis. The important leaf miners are leafblister sawfly on juvenile leaves and shothole miner on adult leaves. As the trunk increases in diameter, eucalypts become susceptible to borers, particularly if they are stressed by drought and salinity. These include the ringbarking borer, the bullseye borer and the eucalypt borers, both of which tunnel under the bark, and cossid moth larvae which tunnel into the heartwood and also feed on bark.

Methods of Control It is desirable, whenever possible, to allow the natural enemies (predators, parasitoids and pathogens) of the insect pests to control their numbers. Therefore, chemical insecticides should only be used when significant economic loss is going to occur. Biological insecticides such as those containing Bacillus thuringiensis are very specific and could be used against the early stages of moth larvae and some beetle larvae. The use of a number of control options in an integrated pest management strategy is the ultimate goal in sustainable insect controI. Insecticides are currently the most practical and effective control method. However, to maximise the benefits and minimise the costs, insecticides should be applied in conjunction with careful monitoring for the presence of pest species to determine if the pests are still present. Insect damage often becomes obvious after the pests have moved away or their population is already in decline. Chemicals should be carefully chosen. The registration of chemicals for use on trees is controlled by State legislation and the relevant Department of Agriculture or central Registrar of Pesticides should be consulted before selecting a chemical. Young trees can be sprayed using back pack units or modified boom sprays while larger treeslplantations may require orchard blowers or even aircraft. It is important to use a good wetting agent with any foliage spray to ensure the insecticide sticks to the foliage. Individual trees can be injected with a systemic insecticide but this approach is very time consuming and expensive.

Selection and Breeding for Insect Resistance

Leafblister sawfly damage on Eueaiyptus cumuldulensis. In acacias the main damage is caused by borers which also attack young trees, and include larvae of longicorn beetle and of cossid moth. Defoliators such as fireblight beetle can devastate plantations of bipinnate acacias in southern Australia. Bipinnate acacias are also defoliated by tussock moth larvae, loopers and case moth larvae. Phyllodinous acacias in the inland are frequently defoliated by larvae of the bag-shelter moth. The phyllodes may be necrotised by the acacia spotting bug. New growth can be destroyed by the tip-feeding bug and distorted by mealybug especially on stressed trees. Casuarinas are relatively free of pests except in southern Queensland where they can be defoliated by the brown swarming leaf beetle. Melaleucas are principally affected by defoliating sawflies although debilitating scale outbreaks may also occur.

The most attractive option for insect control is to choose species or seed sources of trees that are relatively resistant to insect attack. Some species such as E. grandis and juvenile E. globulus are known to be very susceptible to insect attack while other species, such as E. occidentalz.~,are resistant in eastern Australia. 'Silverton' or 'inland' forms of E. camaldulensis are relatively resistant to lerp but many of the northern Victorian provenances are quite susceptible. If local seed is being collected, it is important to avoid collecting from trees that show the signs of heavy insect attack. The CSIRO Division of Entomology has established seed orchards of farm tree species that have a history of resistance to Christmas beetle or lerp feeding. Individual trees in these orchards will be selected and the orchards will ultimately produce seed of trees with superior insect resistance.

Tree Products

References

There are many beneficial effects of trees other than for salinity and waterlogging control. These include commercial tree cropping for timber, pulp, firewood, fodder and other products; shelter and shade, wind and water erosion control, wildlife corridors and aesthetics (refer to multi-authored publication 'The Role of Trees in Sustainable Agriculture', Proceedings of a National Conference September 30- October 3, 1991, Albury, NSW).

Anon. (1989). Why you need trees on your farm. Farm Tree Series No. I . NSW Agriculture and Fisheries, NSW Forestry Commission and NSW Soil Conservation Service. NSW Government Printer. 8 p.

One of the most common anticipated products from woodlots or other agroforestry systems in Australia is firewood. However, other products such as pulp chips (from stemwood), wood fuel chips (from branches and foliage) and cellulose feedstock for industrial purposes like manufacturing plastics, chemicals and liquid fuels are possible. Many salt-tolerant tree species could provide firewood of adequate quality, especially with modem domestic wood burning heaters. However, very few of these species have proven good-quality pulping characteristics. Unfortunately, firewood and pulpwood are low-priced bulky products and are very sensitive to the high cost of long-distance cartage. Preliminary studies have suggested no or little effect of salt accumulated in wood of young plantation-grown trees on wood and fibre properties (Stephen Catchpoole, personal communication). On the other hand, products which have a high price per tonne, like cabinet timber, leaf oils and tannins, may be grown profitably far from markets. Leaf oils can be simply and cheaply extracted from leaves of several mallee eucalypts (e.g. E. horistes, E. loxophleba, E. polybractea and E. suggrandis) and melaleucas (e.g. M. alternlfolia, M linarill/blia)(Boland et al. 1991). Considerable attention is currently focussed in the Western Australia wheatbelt on developing an industry based on production of eucalyptus oil for industrial solvents to replace trichlorethane, which is harmful to the ozone layer (Bartle 1994). Tannins can be extracted from the bark of acacias (e.g. A. mearmrii). These compounds could provide a by-product to increase fmancial return. The major advantage of such uses is the potentially short rotation times possible (as low as 2-3 years), the use of coppice re-growth and, in the case of effluent reuse, the ability to maximise both water use and nutrient uptake. Special purpose uses, such as timber for construction and furniture, crossarms, poles or fence posts are possible for selected species (e.g. E moluccana) but would require longer rotation periods. Some species such as E. cladocalyx (sugar gum) and E. camaldulensis (river red gum) are well suited for round timbers. Several salt-tolerant acacias, such as A. ampliceps, A. salicina, A. saligna and A. stenophylla, also have the potential to provide supplementary forage or fodder.

Bartle, J.R. (1994). New horizons for forestry-tree crops for the wheatbelt. Institute ($Foresters Australia Newsletter 35, 4-7. Beal, A. (1993). Dryland ,Falini@ Management in the Murray-Darling Basin. Report prepared by the Dryland Salinity Management Working Group for the MurrayDarling Basin Ministerial Council. 191 p. Boland, D.J., Brophy, J.J. and House, A.P.N. (1991). Eucalyptus Leaf Oils: Use, Chemistry and Marketing. Inkata Press. 252 p. Cremer, K. (Ed.) (1990). Treesfor Rural Australia. Inkata Press. 455 p. Eldridge, K.G., Davidson, J., Harwood, C.E. and van Wyk, G. (1993). Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Oxford University Press. 288 p. Fogarty, P., Francis, J. and Wild, 6. (1993). How severe is your discharge area? Dqdand Salinity: extension booklet no. 2. NSW CaLM, Water Resources, Agriculture and CSIRO (printed Wagga Daily Advertiser). 12 p. Francis, J., Britten, R. and Tuckson, M. (1993). Piezometers - how and why? Dryland Salinity: extension booklet no. 3. NSW CaLM, Water Resources, Agriculture and CSIRO (printed Wagga Daily Advertiser). 16 p. Francis, J. and Marcar, N.E. (1993). Productive use of saltaffected land. D~ylandSalinity: extension booklet no. 4. NSW CaLM, Water Resources, Agriculture and CSIRO (printed Wagga Daily Advertiser). 12 p. George, R.J., Smith, A.D. and Bennett, D.L. (1993). Evolution and effectiveness of revegetation strategies for dryland salinity control in south-westem Australia. In: Land Management for Dryland Salinity Control. (Taylor, J. and Clifton, C. Eds). Proceedings National Conference, 28 September - 1 October 1993. La Trobe University, Bendigo, Victoria. pp. 151- 157. Hanvood, C. (1990). Aspects of species and provenance selection. In: Sowing the Seed: Direct Seeding and Natural Regeneration Conference. Proceedings Greening Australia Conference, 22-25 May 1990. Adelaide, SA. pp. 127-133. Heath, J. and Heupermann, A. (1994). Serial biological concentration of salt; its application to the Shepparton irrigation region. In: Productive Use of Saline Lands. Proceedings Third National Workshop. 15-17 March 1994. Echuca, Victoria. pp. 95-103.

Heupem~ann,A. (Ed.) (1991). Trees as a Toolfor Resource Management in Irrigation Areas. Proceedings of a Symposium, July 23, 1991, Institute of Sustainable Agriculture, Tatura, Victoria. 102 p. HoIgren, D. (1994). Trees on the Treeless Plains: Revegetation Manual for the Volcanic Landscapes of Central Vicloria. Holgren Design Services. 23 1 p. Lefroy, E.C and Scott, P. ( 1 994). Alley fanning: new vision for Western Australian farmland. WA Jo~lrnalofAgriculture 35, 119-126. Marcar, N.E. (1995). Rising groundwater/salinity: puttirig back the trees. In: A$er Drehack. Proceedings Greening Australia State-wide Conference, 9-10 May 1995. Orange, NSW. pp. 35-40. Robertson, G.A. (1993). Salinity in Australia - a national perspective. In: Land Management for Llryland Salinig Control. (Taylor, J. and Clifton, C. Eds). Proceedings of a National Conference. 28 September-1 October 1993. 1,a Trobe University,. Bendigo, Victoria. pp. 9-12. Schofield, N.J. (1992). Tree planting for dryland salinity control in Australia. Agroforestry Systems 20, 1-23. 'Taylor, S. (1991). Dyland Salinity Introduction Extension Notes. NSW Department of Conservation and Land Management (CaLM). 54 p. Walker, .I. Williams, , B.G., Hatton, T.J., O'Loughlin, E.M., Jupp, D.L.B., Booth, T.H., Marcar, N.E., Jovanovic, T. and Vercoe, T. (1991) Use of trees for dryland salinity control. In: The Role of Trees in Sustainable Agriculture (section Salinity). Proceedings of a National Conference. September 30- October 3 1991. Albury, NSW. pp. 81-94. Williamson, D. (1990). Salinity - an old environmental problem. In: Year Book Australia 1995. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. pp. 202-21 I.

Further Reading Allen, J.A., Chambers J.L. and Stine, M. (1994). Prospects for increasing the salt tolerance of forest trees: a review. Tree Physiology 14, 843-853.

Casey, M.F and Chalmers I.T. (1993). (Eds) Tree Tops: A Tree Planting Bookpbv Farmers. Kondinin Group, Lamb Printers Pty Ltd Perth W.A. 168 p. Elliott, H.J. and De Little, D.W. (1985). Insectpests of trees and timber in Tasmania. Forestry Commission, Hobart. 90 p. Farrow, R.A., Floyd, K.B. and Neumann, F.G. (1994). Interprovenance variation in resistance of Eucalyptus gIobzllus juvenile foliage to insect feeding. Australian Forestry 57, 65-68. Fitzpatrick, D. (1994). Money Trees on Your Property. Sydney. lnkata Press. 174 p. Floyd, R.B., Farrow, R.A. andNeumann, F.G. (1994). Interand intra-provenance variation in resistance of red gum foliage to insect feeding. Ausfralian Forestry 5 7 , 4 5 4 8 . Gough, D.K., Bell, R.E., Ryan, P.A. and Bragg, C.T. (1989). Drying and burning properties of the wood of some Australian tree species. In: Treesfor The Tropics: Growing Australian Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs in Developing Countries (Boland, D.J. Ed.). ACIAR Monograph No. 10. pp. 177-186. Hadlington, P.W. and Johnson, J.A. (1979). Australian Trees. A Guide to Their Care and Cure. NSW University Press, Sydney, NSW. 133 p. Howes, K.M.W. (Ed.) (1990). Insect and Allied Pests of Extensive Farming. Bulletin No 4185. Department of Agriculture, U'A. 112 p. Morris, J.D. (1991). Water tables and soil salinity beneath tree plantations in groundwater discharge areas. In: Productivity in Perspective (Ryan, P.J. Ed.). Proceedings Third Australian Forest Soils and Nutrition Conference, 7I 1 October 1991. Melbourne, Victoria. pp. 82-83. Nulsen, R.A. (1993). Opportunities and limitations for using agronomic techniques to control dryland salinity. In: Land Management for Dlyland Salinity control. (Taylor, J. and Clifton, C. Eds) Proceedings of a National Conference. 28 September-1 October 1993. La Trobe University, Bendigo, Victoria. pp. 24-3 1.

Barrett-Lennard, E. and Malcolm, C.V. (1 995). Saltland Pastures in ,4ustrwlia: apractical guide. WA Department of Agriculture. 116 p.

Phillips, C. (1992). Forest Insects. Leaflets NOS 1-25. Department of Primary Industries, SA.

Bird, P.R., Dickmann, R.B., Cumming, K.N., Jowett, D.W. and Keamey, G.A. (1 992). Trees and shrubs for south west Victoria. Victorian Department of Food and Agriculture, Technical Report series No. 205. 100 p.

Slavich, P. and Petterson, G.H. (1990). Estimating average root-zone salinity from electromagnetic induction (EM38) measurements. Australian Journal of Soil Research 38,453463.

A.J. (1991). Insect Pests On Farm Trees. Farm Tree Series No 8. Department of Conservation and Land Management, NSW. 16 p.

Sweeney, S. and Frahn, B. (1992). Effect of water quality on the water use of irrigated eucalypts. In: Catchments qf Green. Proceedings National Workshop. Vol. B. 23-26 March 1992. Adelaide, South Australia. pp. 183- 190.

Chapter 2 Species Descriptions General This chapter contains two sections. The first section comprises detailed descriptions of 30 native tree and shrub species that will tolerate saline andlor waterlogged conditions to varying degrees. Results from field studies and observations as well as landholder interest indicate that these species are amongst the most useful for planting on dryland or irrigated sites that are saline, seasonally wet or waterlogged andfor underlain by shallow watertables of variable salinity. In addition, some species are included because of their commercial value (e.g. flooded gum (E grandis), Tasmanian blue gum (E. glohulus subsp. globulus) and blackwood (A. melanoxylon)) even though their tolerance to salt and/or waterlogging is modest. The second section comprises summary descriptions of 30 native tree and shrub species. Some of these 'pecies (e.g. blue (E. polybractea)) are also and econolnically useful, but their performance is less well known in cultivation or on salt-affected land. It has not been possible to deal with all species of current or potential interest. For example, there are several lesserknown eucalypts from Western Australia that are potentially quite salt-tolerant but have either been planted i n a very limited scale only or else not at all. These include E. comitae-vallis, E. halophila, E. horistes, R loxophleba E. striatacalyx and E. suggrandis. More detailed descriptions of these and other species may be included in a subscquent edition of this book. While the list of species covered is not exhaustive, most species recognised as being useful on salt-affected sites by landholders, extension specialists and researchers are included. Non-native tree specics are not included because very few are known to tolerate these conditions in Australia. Some of these, for example desert poplar (Populus euphratica) are known to be at least moderately salttolerant; a subsequent edition of this book may deal with such species. In addition, descriptions of some trees, such as athel (Tumarix uphylla) are not included because planting these may further aggravate surface soil salinities whilst, others, such as willows (Salk sp.) have limited value and may become weeds. The information included in the species descriptions has generally been sourced from books, leaflets, other published material, unpublished reports and from CSIRO Division of Forestry staff. Books and other publications consulted are included at the end of this chapter. Where appropriate, personal communications are acknowledged. Comments by reviewers (acknowledged in the preface) have also been incorporated.

A list of contact persons and organisations in each State, including some of those responsible for on-going field studies, is provided on p. 69 of this book. Photographs of each species, for which a detailed description has been given, appear on the cover pages of the book. These photographs depict trees as either naturally occurring in stands or individually, or in experimental plantings. These photographs have been supplied by staff of the CSIRO Divisions of Forestry and Entomology. The photo of E. leucoxylon was provided by Jim Morris (Centre For Tree Technology, Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Kew), whilst the photo of C. cristata was provided by the National Botanical Gardens, Canberra (0Murray Fagg).

Notes for Species Descriptions Each detailed species description contains infomation on botanical features, growth characteristics, preferred soils and climates, and known as well as potential uses. M~~~ of the distribution and estimated climatic range - for each species are also given. Summary descriptions cover these areas in less detail and do not include the two maps, Specific information relevant to each description is provided below,

Species Name Generally recognised conventions are used in referring to species names. The main source document used is Chapman (1991). Hill and Johnson (1992, 1994) have been followed for the taxonomy of E. coolabah subsp. coolabah, E. spnfhulatu and E. sargentii subsp. sargentii.

Botanical Description Seed viability information has been drawn, wherever possible, from records of the Australian Tree Seed Centre [ATSC), CSIRO Division of Forestry. Maturation time of seeds has only been included for acacias. Most of these species shed their seed once it is ripe. Seed pods usually become dry and brown when ripe. Collected pods should be placed on a sheet or tarpaulin in the sun to dry out further and open; the seed can usually be shaken free from the pods. Species of the other genera usually retain some ripe fruit on the tree. Depending on the species, maturation can be several months to more than a year after flowering. Collection time for temperate eucalypts is usually in summer and in the dry season for tropical eucalypts. In eucalypts the fruit is usually brownish with distinct valves when ripe. An easy way to check if the seed is ripe is by

making a transverse cut through the fruit with secateurs; ripe seed will be white and firm with a dark seedcoat, and dark coloured chaff will also be seen towards the top of the capsule. Again place the woody fruits of eucalypts, casuarinas, allocasuarinas and melaleucas on a sheet or tarpaulin in the sun; once the fruit has opened, vigorous shaking will release the seed.

Growth Characteristics Information on responses to salinity and waterlogging have been drawn from field studies, wherever possible. Some references to specific field studies are included at the end of this chapter. In addition to these references, information has been drawn from unpublished reports, other documents, personal communications and from the tree performance database, TREDAT. 'Expected' growth or survival at the salinity levels (EC,) given is likely to be ca. 10-20% less than trees growing on non-saline soil. This information is often drawn from only a few field studies. Therefore it is only a guide to what may be expected and local site factors, such as the duration and extent of waterlogging, will modify this response. In many cases there will be large differences between provenances of the same species in response to soil and climate factors; these are noted where known to occur. The word 'tolerance' has been used in preference to 'resistance' and refers to the overall response of the tree rather than to any inference about mechanisms involved. It is very difficult to give accurate estimates of expected growth rates of particular species in terms of height, stem diameter or stem volume increment per year. These rates will vary greatly with location and management, e.g. weed control, fertiliser application and land preparation, of the tree planting activity as well as with tree age, e.g. fast growth of young trees may not be sustained over the longterm. In general terms, the following definitions will be broadly applicable for good quality sites: (i) fast growth rate (1-2 m per year), (ii) moderate growth rate (at least 1 m per year) and slow growth rate (0.5-1 m per year). Acacias tend to be short-lived (often 10-15 years) but some like A. melanoxylon and cooba (A. salicina) are longer lived. All Acacia and Casuarina species are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen for some of their growth requirements. As a general comment, the growth of all Casuarina species will be improved by inoculation with suspensions of crushed casuarina root nodules (which contain the Frankia fungus), since this will enhance the degree of nitrogen fixation. Acacia seedlings should also benefit from inoculation with crushed acacia root nodules (which contain the Rhrzobium bacteria) or with Rhizobium cultures. Roots of some Acacia species will become well nodulated by inoculation with specific Rhizobium strains whilst others can be inoculated with a variety of strains or strain mixtures. Local experts should be consulted about these possibilities.

Uses The section on uses refers mainly to known uses of mature trees. Agroforest or plantation-grown trees will be harvested much younger than mature forest trees. Wood properties of these younger trees would therefore be expected to be different from those usually cited in the literature. Wood density can be expected to be lower, colour lighter and durability substantially lower. Shrinkage could be greater and stability worse than for mature wood. Further enquires should be directed to local experts or timber companies. Local experts should also be contacted regarding species choices for specific sites. Values for air dry wood density are given for species where they have been reported. In most cases these are for mature trees and, as indicated above, values are likely to be lower for younger material. Wood well suited to burning as firewood is likely to have higher density, dry relatively quickly, ignite easily, produce little residual matter and not emit sparks or excessive toxic smoke. Preliminary investigations suggest that salt effects on wood or pulping properties of trees are likely to be relatively minor (Stephen Catchpoole, personal communication).

Climatic Indicators Six climatic indicators are used to suggest the climatic range of each species. They have been found to be useful in determining areas suitable for growing different tree species and provenances worldwide (Booth and Pryor 1991) and are also indicators of major importance for agriculture. Values for each indicator have been determined from records of natural occurrence. Climatic conditions experienced at successful trial sites have been used to modify these values wherever appropriate data exists. The climatic conditions of each recorded location are predicted (estimated) using a computer program called BIOCLIM (obtained from the Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies at the Australian National University). The range of each climatic indicator is given for each species. Likely frost tolerance cannot be determined directly from the program; however the minimum temperature that a species is likely to tolerate will be approximately 6°C lower than the mean minimum of the coldest month indicated for that species (e.g. for orange wattle (A. sal~gna)this will be ca. -3°C). Two maps appear with each detailed species description. The first map shows records of natural occurrence for each species, thus indicating the pattern of natural distribution. The second map was produced with a mapping program called AUSGRD, developed by Trevor Booth and Tom Jovanovic at the CSIRO Division of Forestry. This program uses the values for the six climatic indicators. The shaded areas on the map illustrate the areas which correspond to these climate ranges. This map will usually show a larger potential area for growing a species than would be obvious

from natural distribution maps. Care must be exercised in following this map too rigorously. This map provides a reasonable guide for deciding where a species may be succcssfully grown based on best available climatic data. It must be remembered, however, that soil conditions will also determine the suitability of a particular site for the species of interest. A lower limit of 350 rnm has been placed on the mean annual rainfall for the second (estimation) map because it is almost certain that below this limit trees would need seasonal access to groundwater or streams for survival and growth. One example is when the natural distribution map of river red gum (8. camaldulensis) is compared with the prediction map; central Northern Territory sites are not considered suitable even though many populations are known to grow there. If irrigation water is in plentiful supply or if there is access to shallow groundwater by tree roots, as in northern Victoria or southern New South Wales, the lower rainfall limits will also not be applicable.

For several species (e.g. E. camaldulensis and C. cunninghamiana), provenances are likely to differ markedly in their response to climate factors. Decisions about which provenance to plant will then become important and experts should be consulted. Large provenance variation could be responsible for wide amplitude for some climate indicators.

References Booth, T.H. and Pryor, L.D. (1991). Climatic requirements of some commercially important eucalypt species. Forest Ecology and Management 43,47-60. Chapman, A.D. (1991). Australian Plant Name Index. Volumes 1-4. Australian Flora and Fauna Series No. 12-15. Australian Government Publishing Service. 3055 p. L.A.S. (1992). Systematic studies in Hill, K.D. and Joh~~son, the eucalypts. 5. New taxa and combinations in Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae)in Western Australia. Telopea 4, 561-634. Hill, K.D. and Johnson, L.A.S. (1994). Systematic studies in the eucalypts. 6. A revision of the coolibahs, Eucalyptus subgenus Symphyomyrtus section Adnataria series Oliganthae subseries Microthecosae (Myrtaceae). Telopea 5,743-773.

References Consulted for Species Descriptions Anon. (1979). Eucalypts for Planting. F A 0 Forestry Series No. 11. FA0 Rome. 677 p. Anon. (1980). Firewood Crops. (Vol. 1) National Academy of Sciences. Washington D.C. 237 p.

Anon. (1980). Firewood Crops. (Vol. 2). National Academy of Sciences. Washington D.C. 92 p. Bell, D.T., McComb, J.A., van der Moezel, P.G., Bennett, I.J. and Kabay, E.D. (1994). Comparisons of selected and cloned plantlets against seedlings for rehabilitation of saline and waterlogged discharge zones in Australian agricultural catchments. Australian Forestgi 5,69-75. Biddiscombe, E.F., Rogers, A.L., Greenwood, E.A.N. and De Boer, E.S. (1985). Growth of tree species near salt seeps, as estimated by leaf area, crown volume and height Australian Forest Research 15, 141-1 54. Bird, P.R., Llickmann, R.B., Cumming, K.N., Jowett, D.W. and Kearney, G.A. (1992). Trees and Shrubs for South West Victoria. Department of Food and Agriculture Technical Report Series No. 205. 100 p. Boland, D.J., Brooker, M.I.H., Chippendale, G.M., Hall, N., Hyland, B.P.M., Johnston, R.D., Kleinig, D.A. and Turner, J.D. (1984). Forest Trees of Australia. CSIROI Nelson (Aust.). 687 p. Boland, D.J., Brooker, M.I.H. and Turnbull, J.W. (1980). Eucalyptus Seed. CSIRO, Australia. 191 p. Brock, J. (1988). Top End Native Plants. John Brock Publication. 354 p. Brooker, M.I.H. and Kleinig, D.A. (1983). Field Guide to Eucalypts. (Vol. 1) South-eastern Australia. Inkata Press. 288 p. Brooker, M.I.H. and Kleinig, D.A. (1990). Field Guide to Eucalypts. (Vol. 2 ) South-western and Southern Australia. Inkata Press. 428 p. Brooker, M.I.H. and Kleinig, D.A. (1994). Field Guide to Eucalypts. (Vol. 3) Northern Australia. Inkata Press. 383 p. Chippendale, G.M. (1973), Eucalypts of the Auslralian Goldfields (and the adjacent wheatbelt). Australian Govemment Publishing Service. 2 18p. Cremer, K.W. (Ed.) (1990). Trees for Rural Australia. Inkata Press. 455 p. Cunningham, P.C.M., Mulham, W.E., Milthorpe, P.L. and Leigh, J.H. (1981). Plants of Western New South Wales. NSW Government Printing Office. 766 p. Dale, M. (1992). Preliminary results on irrigation drainage water re-use on different tree s~ecies.In: Catchments of Green. Proceedings National workshop Vol. B. 23-26. March 1992. Adelaide, South Australia. pp. 177-182. Davis, B. (1994). Wood Densities for Fifty-Two Australian Tree Species. CSIRO Division of Forestry User Series Number 7. 10 p.

Dunn, G.M., Taylor, D.W., Nester, M.R. and Beetson, T.B. (1995). Performance of twelve selected Australian tree species on a saline site in southeast Queensland. Forest Ecology and Management 70, 255-260. Gardner, C.A. (1987). Eucalypts o f Western Australia. W.A. Herbarium, Dept. Agriculture. 259 p. Hillis, W.E. and Brown, A.G. (Eds) (1984). Eucalypts for Wood Production. CSIROIAcademic Press. 434 p. Holliday, T. (1989). A Field Guide to Metaleucas. Hamlyn (Aust.). 254 p. Hoy, N.T., Gale, M.J. and Walsh, K.B. (1994). Revegetation of a scalded discharge Lone in central Queensland I. selection of tree species and evaluation of an establishment technique. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34,765-776. Langkamp, P. (Ed.) (1987). Germination of Australian Native Plant Seed. Inkata Press. 236 p. Marcar, N.E., Crawford, D.F. and Leppert, P.M. (1994). Tree growth on saline land in southern Australia. In: Productive fie ofsaline Lands. Proceedings Third National Workshop, Echuca. Victoria, 15-17 March 1994. pp. 60-65. Midgley S.J., Johnston, R.D. and Turnbull, J.W. (Eds) (1983). Casuarina Ecology, Management and Utilisation. Proceedings International Workshop, 17-21 August 1983. Canberra, Australia.. 286 p. McKelvie, L., Bills, J. and Peat, A. (1994). Jojoba, Blue Mallee and Broombush: Market .4ssessment and Outlook. ABARE Research Report 94.9. Canberra. 57 p. Pepper, R.G. and Craig, G.F. (1986). Resistance of selected Eucalyptus species to soil salinity in Western Australia. Journal ofApplied Ecology 23,977-987. Pettit, N.E. and Ritson, P. (1991). Performance of selected tree and shrub species grown for stream salinity control in the Wellington Reservoir Catchment. Water Authority of WesternAustralia Report No. WS 78.60 p. Simmons, M. (1 987). Acacias of Australia (Yol. I). Thomas Nelson (Aust.). 325 p. Simmons, M. (1988). Acacias ofAustralia (Vol. 2). Penguin Books (Aust.). 319 p. Simpfendorfer: K.J. (1992). An Introduction to Trees jor South-eastern Australia. Revised Edition. lnkata Press. 377 p. Standards Association of Australia. (1983). Nomenclature of Australian Timbers. Australian Standard 2543-1983. Revised Edition. Standards Association of Australia. 64 p.

Tame, T. (1 992). Acacias ofSozitheasl Australia. Kangaroo Press. 206 p. Thomson, L.A.J. (1987). Australian acacias for saline, alkaline soils in the hot, dry subtropics and tropics. In Australian Acacias in Developing Countries. AClAR Proceedings No. 16,66-69. Turnbull, J.W. (Ed.) (1986). Multipurpose Australian Trees and Shrubs: Lesser Known Species jur Fuelwood and Agroforestry. ACIAR Monograph No. 1, 3 16 p. Whibley, D.J.E. and Symon, D.E. (1992). Acacias ofSuuth Australia. S.A. Government publication. 328 p.

van der Moezel, P. (1993). Growth of Eucalyptus camaldulensis clones at Boyanup Brook, Western Australia. Land and Water Research News (WA Department of Water Resources) 13, 19-23. Vercoe, T. (1989). Fodder value of selected Australian tree and shrub species. In: Trees ,for the Tropics: Growing Australian multipurpose Trees and Shrubs in Developing Countries. ACIAR Monograph No. 10, 247 p.

List of Species Section One - Detailed Descriptions Acacia arnpliceps Acacia cydops Acacia melanoxylon Acacia salicina Acacia saligna .4cacia stenophylla Cusuarina cristata Casuarina cunninghamiana subsp. cunninghamiana Casuarina glauca Casuarina obesa Eucalyptus aggrqpta Eucalyptus botryoides Eucalyptus brockwayi Eztcalyptus camaldulensis Eucalyptus camphora

Eucalypfus cludocalyx Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus Eucalyplus grandis Eucalyptus kondininensis Ezlcalypt~rslarg~jloren.~ Eucalyptus Ieucoxylon subsp. kucoxylon Eucalyptus occidentalis Eucalyptus robusta Eucalyptus sargentii subsp. sargentii Eucalyptus spathulata Eucalyptus tereticornis Melaleuca halmaturoruin subsp. halmaturorum Melaleuca lez~cadendra Melaleucu linariifolia Melaleuca quinquenervia

Section Two - Summary Descriptions Acacia acuminata Acacia iteaphylla Acacia longz$olia Acacia mearnsii Acacia retinodes Allocasuarina luehmannii Allocasuarina verticillata Eztcalyptus astringens Eucalyptus campaspe Eucalyptus cciraerea Eucalyptus coolubah subsp. coolabah Eucalyptus cornuta Eucalyptus crenulata Eucalyptus dumosa Eucalyptus elata

Eucalyptus melliodora Eucalyptus moluccana Eucalyptus ovata var. ovata Eucalyptus platypus Eucalyptus polybractea Eucalyptus rudis Melaleuca arm~llaris Melaleuca bracteata Melaleuca cuticularis Melaleuca decussata Melaleuca erzcifolia Melaleuca lanceolata Melaleuca squarrosa Melafeuca styphelioides Melaleuca uncznata

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Section One - Detuiled Descriptions

Acacia ampliceps Maslin Common names

Salt wattle, jila jila bush, nyalka.

Main attributes

Large shrub or small spreading tree. Tolerant of alkaline soils and high levels of soluble salts in upper soil horizons. Relatively fast-growing and excellent for use in wind breaks and for soil conservation.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 225-1360 mm. Rainfall regime: Summer. Dry season: 0-10 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 29-41 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 8- 15 O C . Mean annual temperature: 21-28 OC.

Description Large dense shrub or small tree (2-8 m tall with 6-12 m crown spread), 1-4 stems, branches often pendulous and a spreading canopy. Bark is rough greybrown for 1-2 m from the base, becoming smooth light green-brownish. Phyllodes are moderately long (7-25 cm), broad (7-30 mm) shiny green, with a prominent yellow midrib. Flowers are white or cream appearing May to August. Pods are hard, grey brown (7-10 x 0.5 cm), slightly constricted between the seeds, maturing August to November. Seeds are black with a red funicle. Approx. 3040 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Moderate to fast growth rate. Coppices and root-suckers. It establishes well by direct seeding on saline and other sites in Pakistan. Shallow root system. It can spread by root-suckering and frequently grows in clumps or dense stands. Significant variation in form and growth of provenances. Medium insect damage reported from trials in Queensland by crusader hug, longicorn borer and defoliating caterpillars. Intolerant of frost. Tolerant of highly saline, sodic and alkaline soils, but intolerant of acid soils and waterlogging. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dS/m, with reduced survival above ca. 20 dSim. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

Potential supplement for goats (Pakistan), sheep and cattle. Good, bums well. Hard and tough, potential for posts and small poles. Air dry density 660 kg/m3. Dune stabilisation and low windbreaks; potential for reclamation of salt land, seed is edible.

Soils and vegetation types

Occurs on depositional landforms such as sandy plains and flood plains and along drainage lines or low-lying plains among rough hill country or low hilly tracts. It also grows very close to the tidal zone and in and around salt lakes. Soils are chiefly alluvials, either sandy or clayey and often alkaline. Soil types include calcareous earths, grey loams, red earthy sands and cracking clays. Occasionally found in chenopod shrub land, acaciadominated open-shrub land or, less frequently, in open woodlands. It grows best in alkaline soils which are free draining with access to plentiful ground water.

(3W mm min 1

F d 1 4rtmr*ic -

SectLon One - Deta~ledDescriptrons

Acacia cyclops A.Cunn. ex. G.Don Common name

Western coastal wattle.

Main attributes

Dense bushy shrub or small tree, often multi-stemmed, which can grow in very dry areas. Tolerates salt spray, soil salinity and sand blast so is very useful for coastal dune stabiliqation. Produces a dense, high quality firewood.

Description

Spreading shrub (1-4 x 3-4 m) to small tree (up to 7 m). Bark is light greenish brown, becoming dark brown with age, sometimes fissured at the base. Phyllodes arc oblong to lance-shaped (4-8.5 x 0.5-1.2 cm). Flowers are lemon yellow balls, in clusters of 2-3, appearing September to March. Pods are greyish brown, leathery, narrow oblong (4-12 x 0.8-1 cm), maturing January to February. Seeds are dark brown to black with a bright red funicle that encircles the seed. Approx. 25 viable seedsig.

Growth characteristics

Relatively slow-growing (taking 7-10 years to reach harvestable size for firewood in Republic of South Africa). Rarely coppices. Invades disturbed areas, particularly after fire. Very successful coloniser in Republic of South Africa (classified as a weed). No insect damage reported. Tolerant of mild frosts, drought, sea spray, poorly drained, calcareous and highly saline soils. Sensitive to waterlogging. Expect reduccd growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dS/m with reduced survival above ca. 20 dS/m.

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

Phyllodes have been browsed by goats and antelope (Republic of South Africa) Dense high quality. Unknown. Low shelter in coastal areas, soil and dune stabilisation.

Soils and vegetation types

Occurs mainly on calcareous sands, shallow calcareous loams or brown calcareous earths. Prefers well drained sandy soils. Will also tolerate saline and poorly drained soils. Occurs in coastal shrublands and low open woodlands. On exposed coastal sites it produces low hedgelike thickets in pure stands.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 200-1400 mm. Rainfall regime: Unifomlbimodal, wintcr. Dry SedSOn: 2-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 26-33 O C Mean minimum coldest month: 3-10 "C. Mean annual temperature: 14-19 O C .

Section One - Detailed Uescviptions

Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. Common names

Blackwood

(standard

trade

Climatic indicators

name), swamp blackwood.

Mean annual rainfall: 480-2940 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform/bimodal, writer, summer. Main attributes A long-lived, predo~nlnantl~ Dry season: 0-6 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 19-33 "C. understorey tree prized for its decorative wood used for Mean minimum coldest month: -3- 16 O C . veneers and furniture timber. Also useful for shade, shelter and ornamental planting. It tolerates frosts, moderate Mean 9-25 OC. salinity and periodic waterlogging.

Description Shrub to tall tree (mostly 10-20 m, but may be as high as 40 m in Tasmania). Form varies from shrub with branches near ground level to a tree with a welldeveloped trunk. Bark is grey to dark grey, longitudinallyfurrowed and scaly. Juvenile leaves are pinnate, then develop through bipinnate to an adult phyllode. Phyllodes are lance-shaped (8-13 x 0.7-2 cm), deep or dull green, with 3-5 prominent veins. Flowers are white to very pale yellow, appearing August to November (southern Australia) and November to February (northern Australia). Pods are brown, flat and thin (6-10 x 0.4-0.6 cm), maturing around February. Seeds are black and encircled by a red funicle. Approx. 40-90 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Moderate growth rate. Coppices and root suckers. Long-lived (up to 100 years). May become a weed. Has a vigorous spreading root system. Prefers rich moist acid soils, however will tolerate heavy clay. Marked provenance variation in phyllode shape, tree form and growth. Low insect damage reported from acaciaspotting bug and from cossid and longicorn borers. Very susceptible to damage from browsing by native and domestic animals and may need protection. Tolerates moderate to heavy frosts, periodic waterlogging and slightly saline soils. Expect reduced growth at EC, less than 5 dSIm, with reduced survival at ca. 5 dSlm. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Potential for cattle (India). Reasonable, low density, bums quickly. Golden brown to dark brown heartwood, sapwood is paler. Suitable for high quality furnitureicabinet timbers, decorative veneer and turnery. Air dry density 600700 kg/m3. Wood from young trees may be a pale red-brown with light coloured sapwood; air dry density 550-600 kg/m3. Windbreaks (lower branches retained when open-grown), shelterbelts. Good source of pollen.

Soils and vegetation types

Found on lowland swamps to lower valley slopes of hilly and mountainous areas, to higher hill slopes and tablelands and even exposed mountain tops. Best growth on podsols, alluvia, sandy loams and krawozems. Mainly found as an understorey species in cool temperate rainforests and in tall open-forest.

%timated climatic range - --

Section One

-

Detuiled De.~crzptions

Acacia salicina Lindl. Common names Cooba (standard trade name), willow wattle, doolan, Broughton willow wattle, native willow. Main attributes

A tall, vigorous and relatively drought-tolerant shrub or medium tree. It can be grown on a wide range of soils and is tolerant of saline conditions. Provides good shade and shelter and has some fodder value.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 120-1950 mni. Rainfall regime: Uniformhimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 27-40 O C Mean minimum coldest month: 1-14 "C. Mean annualtemperatnre: 15-26 "C.

Description Tall shrub to medium tree (7-13 m, though it may grow to 20 m), erect and single stemmed with drooping branches which form a rounded crown. Bark is dark grey-brown, rough and fissured; smooth and grey on upper. branches. Phyllodes are broad-linear to narrowlanceolate, elliptic (4-17 x 0.4-2.5 cm), blue-green to deepgreen, with prominent central nerve. Flowers are pale yellow, appearing April to June. Pods are grey to brown, thick, woody (4-12 x 0.1 cm), maturing October to December. Seeds are dark brown to black with an encircling red aril. Approx. 10-20 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics

Moderately fast-growing. Relatively long-lived. Coppices and root-suckers prolifically. The vigorous suckering habit and tendency to form thickets could cause weed problems. Medium susceptibility to insect damage from bag-shelter moth. Suited to most soils. Tolerates both acid and alkaline situations. Moderately frost-, drought- and waterloggingtolerant. Moderately to highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10 dSIm and reduced survival above ca. 15 dSIm.

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Potential drought reserve for sheep, but high tannin content. Reasonable. Dark reddish brown heartwood, sapwood much paler. Attractively marked and close grained. Hard, durable, suitable for high quality furniture, turnery, building poles, piling and posts. Air dry density 700 kg/m3. Windbreaks, erosion control, dune stabilisation, shade, ornamental.

Soils and vegetation type Occurs naturally on flat alluvial plains and flood plains. Soils are mainly black cracking clays, and acid and neutral red earths. Other soils include brown and red cracking clays, solonised brown soils, shallow loamy and sandy soils, and desert loams. Soils may be alkaline or saline. Mainly associated with openwoodland and eucalypt woodland in its eastern range to shrubland in its western range.

Jatural distribution

Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Acacia saligna

(Labill.) H.L.Wend1. Syn. for ACUCia cyunophylla Lindl

Common names Orange wattle, wattle, golden wreath wattle, coojong.

blue-leafed

Main attributes

An extremely hardy tree that has proven widely adaptable to barren slopes, degraded land and arid conditions in Australia and North Africa. Tolerant of mild frost, calcareous soil and salt laden winds. Moderately salt- and waterlogging-tolerant.

Description Dense bushy shrub or small to medium tree (3-8 m), often multistemmed from near base but sometimes well defined main stem, and with a rounded crown. Bark is smooth, grey to reddish brown. Phyllodes are linear to lanceolate and broad (8-25 x 0.4-2 cm). Blue and green forms exist. Flowers are yellow-orange, appearing August to October. Pods are linear and straight (8-12 x 0.4-0.6 cm), slightly constricted between seeds, maturing November to January. Seeds are dark brown to black with a yellow funicle. Approx. 30-60 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Fast-growing with 10-20 year lifespan. Suckers prolifically from roots, or self sows from seeds (has become a problem weed in Republic of South. Africa). It establishes well by direct seeding on saline and other sites in the south-west of Western Australia. Coppices well after fire. Expect marked variation in growth of provenances. Susceptible to gall rust (Uromycladzum tepperjonurn). No insect damage reported in New South Wales. Low damage reported from swarming leaf beetle in southern Queensiand. Fungal stem and leaf galls reported from Western Australia. Will grow under both acid and alkaline conditions. Tolerates mild frost and will usually reshoot from base after heavy frost. Tolerates drought, calcareous soil and salt laden winds. Moderately salt- and waterlogging-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dSiin. with reduced survival above ca. 5-10 dS/m. Uses Fodder:

Supplement for sheep and goats ( North Africa and Middle East).

Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Good. Vine stakes, particle board. Air dry density ca. 600 kg/m3. Windbreaks, erosion control, dune stabilisation, mine site rehabilitation, shade, tannins (ca. 30% in bark), ornamental.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs naturally on undulating topography and coastal sands, but also extends to swampy sites, river banks and hill slopes. Occurs on many soil types, especially poor and calcareous sands, but also on moderately heavy clays and a range of podsolics. Found mainly in more open parts of dry sclerophyll forest or in the temperate woodlands (now prime wheat and sheep zone).

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 280-1210 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformfbimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0 -12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 26-36 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-10 O C . Mean annual temperature: 13-21 "C.

Section One - Detailed Descripfions

Acacia stenophylla A.Cunn. ex Benth. Common names River cooba (standard trade name), river myall, belalie, Dalby wattle and eumung. Main attributes

A vigorous small tree adapted to saline, heavy clay soils in arid and semi-arid areas where supplementary groundwater is available. Suitable for firewood, small round timbers, shelterbelts and amenity.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 250-650 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform!bimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 29-40 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-1 1 'C. Mean annual temperature: 16-27 "C.

Description Small to medium tree (5-15 m), erect and single-stemmed to multi-stemmed near the ground with pendulous branches which form a rounded crown. Bark is dark grey-brown, rough and fibrous. Phyllodes are long and narrow (15-40 x 0.1-0.8 cm). Flowers are pale yellow, appearing April to July. Pods are grey to brown, constricted between the seeds (10-20 x 1 cm), maturing October to December. Seeds are large (7 x 5 mm), brown with a small white aril. Approx. 6-12 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Moderate to fast growth. Coppices and root-suckers. No insect damage reported. Marked variation in form and growth of provenances. Tolerates moderate frosts, drought, periodic waterlogging and flooding, and highly saline soils. Grows well on heavy clay soils. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dS/m and reduced survival at ca. 15-20 dS!m. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Potential drought reserve for sheep. Excellent. Red-brown to black, attractively marked, hard, durable, close grained. Suitable for fenceposts and hrniture. Air dry density 860 - 900 kg/m3. Windbreaks, shelter, shade, mine-site rehabilitation, soil stabilisation, ornamental, edible seeds and pods.

Occurs naturally on plains and gentle slopes and is common on the margins of water courses, river flood plains, and depressions. Soils are mainly fine-textured alluvials, grey cracking clays and red sandy clays. Soils typically have neutral to alkaline pH, may be saline and may be subject to extended periods of waterlogging. Found along watercourses as a component of open-forest, woodland or low woodland dominated by eucalypts.

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Soils and vegetation types

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Estimated climatic range (350 mm min)

One - Detailed Descviptions Secfion

Casuarina cristata Miq. Common name

Belah (standard trade name).

Main attributes

A medium tree growing commonly on self-mulching heavy neutral to alkaline soils. It is tolerant of frost, periodic waterlogging, salinity and drought. It produces excellent fuewood and the foliage has potential as a drought reserve for stock but should be used with caution.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 310-1 180 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform/bimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 27-35 O C . Mean minimum coldest month: 1-13 "C. Mean annual temperature: 13-24 "C.

Description Medium tree (up to 20 m), with a short stout trunk and drooping foliage. Bark is hard, dark brown to blackish. Leaf 'teeth' in whorls of 9-16 carried on dark olive-green to grey drooping branchlets (to 25 cm long). Male and fernale flowers occur on separate trees; male flowers are yellowish and form spikes on the tips of the branchlets, female flowers are reddish-pubescent, small and grouped together in alternating whorls of 9-16 forming a 'cone'. Flowers appear during February to March. Fruits are spherical concs (1.5-2.5 cm) with flattened ends and longpointed 'bracteoles'. Approx. 40- 140 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Coppices and root-suckers. Performs best on lowland areas which have greater water storage t h a slopes or ridges. Little insect damage. Frost-tolerant. Tolerates drought, periodic waterlogging and flooding, and highly saline soils. Becomes chlorotic on calcareous soil. Moderately salttolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. or below 10 dSim and reduced survival at ca. 15 dSlm.

Uses Fodder:

Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Foliage is a possible drought reserve but use with caution as the woody twigs have an astringent affect on stock. Excellent. Dark reddish brown heartwood, sapwood is cream coloured. Moderately strong and very tough when seasoned. Suitable for rough construction and turnery. Air dry density 1150 kg/m3. Windbreaks, ornamental.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs commonly on self mulching heavy black or grey soils that are alkaline. Other soils include deep fine textured grey clays that are gilgaied, skeletal soils, red and grey loams, light grey sand, gravelly clays and red clay on river flats. Occurs as a dominant or co-dominant tree with eucalypts and acacias in woodland. Other habitats are flats and depressions where it forms dense stands.

Estimated climatic mge (350 mm rnin.)

Sectzon One - Detaiied Desc~ipfions

Casuarina cunning.hamiana Miq. subs p. Common names River sheoak (standard trade name), creek oak, river oak, fire oak. Main attributes A tall, fast-growing, relatively cold-tolerant tree adapted to warm humid and subhumid climates. It prefers sites with access to groundwater (stream banks and river flats). Tolerates moderately saline soils. Used for shelterbelts, riverbank stabilisation and as an ornamental. It produces an excellent fuewood. Description

Medium to tall tree (10-35 m), erect and single stemmed. Bark is dark grey, hard, deeply furrowed. Foliage is persistent to ground level. Leaf 'teeth' in whorls of 8-10 carried on thin dark-green branchlets (10-15 cm long) with small internodes. Male and female flowers usually occur on separate trees; male flowers form short rust coloured spikes at the tips of the branchlets and female flowers are small, reddish and grouped together in 6-7 alternating whorls of 6-8 flowers. Flowers appearing in February to March. Fruits are small, spherical (6-10 mm) cones and mature February to March (northern Australia) and April to May (southern Australia). Approx. 100- 1500 viable seedsig.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs naturally along river and stream banks and adjacent valley flats. Soils are mainly sands or sandy loams, but include clay loams and gravel terraces of old river courses. Soils are mainly acidic or near neutral. Component of eucalypt open-forest, woodland and open woodland. Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 360-2 180 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformibimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 25-40 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: -2-19 O C . Mean annual temperature: 12-29 "C.

Growth characteristics Fast-growing. Coppices and root-suckers. Tolerates a variety of acid to slightly alkaline soils from sands to clay. Frost-tolerant. Inland high altitude provenances are more frost-tolerant than lower elevation or coastal provenances. No insect damage reported in Newdatural distribution South Wales. Medium susceptibility to brown swarming leaf beetle in southern Queensland. Tolerates drought, periodic waterlogging and flooding and moderately saline soils. Can tolerate strong winds. Performs well under irrigation (northern Victoria). Exhibits substantial inter- and intra-provenance variation for a wide range of attributes (e.g. for growth, frost tolerance, salt tolerance). Becomes chlorotic on calcareous soil. Moderately salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5-10 dS/m and reduced survival above ca. 10 dSirn. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Foliage of younger trees is a useful drought reserve. Excellent. Pinkish grey to purple brown heartwood; sapwood is distinctively paler. Moderately strong and very tough when seasoned. Diverse uses include casks, handles, roof shingles flooring, packing cases, particle board and turnery. Air dry density 770 kg/m3. Wood from young trees (20 years) is pale in colour with an air dry density ofEstimated climatic range 450-500 kg/m3. Windbreaks, riverbank protection, sand stabilisation, erosion control, shade, ornamental. Reasonable source of pollen.

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Casuarina glauca Sieber ex Sprengel Common names Swamp sheoak (standard trade name), swampy oak, swamp oak. Main attributes A medium tree (up to 20 m) of the warm humid and subhumid zones, often very conspicuous in coastal situations occurring on the fringe of mangrove swamps. Tolerant of waterlogging and highly saline soils. Produces excellent firewood and also of use as a supplementary fodder.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 570-2180 mm. Rainfall regime: Unifomlbimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-7 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 25-33 'C. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-15 "C. Mean annual temperature: 13-24 "C.

Description Medium tree (10-20 m), mainly single stemmed and upright. Bark is hard, rough, grey to light black, slightly tessellated. Leaf 'teeth' in whorls of 12-16 are borne on long, pendulous, stiff dull grey-green branchlets (to 30 cm long). Male and female flowers occur on separate trees; male flowers form dense red-brown spikes at the tips of the branchlets, female flowers are grouped in alternating whorls of 12-16. Flowers appearing in September to October. Fruits are woody, short and cylindrical cones (1-2 x 1-1.5 cm). Approx. 100-1000 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Fast-growing. Coppices and root-suckers vigorously; potential to become a weed. Tolerates both acid and alkaline soils. No insect damage reported in New South Wales. Possible susceptibility to brown swarming leaf beetle in southern Queensland. Tolerates a wide range of conditions; from shallow soils to high watertables or swampy conditions. Tolerates mild to moderate frosts. drought, sea spray and highly saline soils. Significant inter-and intra-provenance variation in survival and growth has been found in field trials in Australia and overseas. Performs well under irrigation. Highly salttolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dSim with reduced survival ca. 15 dS1m.

'd

Natural distribution

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

Supplement for sheep (observed in central western NSW). Excellent. Brown heartwood, pale sapwood. Posts, turnery, flooring, pilings, handles, particle board (in Egypt). Air dry density 900-980 kglm3. Windbreaks, dunelsoil stabilisation, land reclamation.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs naturally on flat swampy sites, along river banks and streams, usually associated with brackish or salty water and high watertables. Soils are mainly dark, alluvial and acidic but there is wide variation. Typically forms pure stands in open-forests and woodlands.

+ , dm

LEstimatad climatic range

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Section One - Defailed Descriptions

Casuarina obesa Miq. Common names Swamp sheoak (standard trade name), swampy oak, swamp oak, Western Australian swamp oak, salt sheoak. Main attributes

A shrub or medium tree that grows well on highly salt-affected and waterlogged sites. Tolerates salt-laden winds. Produces an excellent firewood and is useful for shelterbelts.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 200-1 150 mm. Rainfall regime: Unifomibimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 4 -12 months.

Mean maximum month: 27-39 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: 3-9 'C. Mean annual temperature: 13-23 OC'

Description Small shrub to medium tree (2-14 m), mainly single-stemmed and upright. Bark is hard, grey, slightly tesselated. Leaf 'teeth' in whorls of 12-16 carried on erect branchlets (to 21 cm long). Male and female flowers on separate trees. Fruits are woody, globular, truncate cones (1.5-2 x 1-1.5 cm). Approx. 150 - 750 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics

Moderately fast-growing. Coppices and root-suckers (weed potential). Has been established through direct seeding in Western Australia. Performs well in low-lying swampy flats. Fire-sensitive. No insect damage reported. Due to its palatability, this species should be protected from stock. Tolerates mild frosts, drought, waterlogged, alkaline, highly saline soils and saltladen winds. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dS/m and reduced survival above ca. 15-20 dSIm.

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

Potentially suitable for sheep and cattle but of low nutritional value. Excellent. Hard, heavy (similar to other casuarinas); possibly for fenceposts. Shelterbelts, windbreaks, ornamental.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs naturally on sand plains and gently undulating topography. Usually associated with stream lines, edges of salt lakes and mudflats beyond the tidal zone. Soils are mainly sandy or silty, neutral to alkaline. May also occur on loams, red and yellow earthy sands, calcareous and sandy earths, and grey cracking clays. Mainly a component of woodland and tall shrubland.

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... Estimated climatic range (350 mrn rnin.)

Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus aggregata Deane & Maiden Common name

Black gum.

Main attributes A small to medium, highly frosttolerant tree found growing on flats and in valleys adjacent to streams and swamps. It merits a mention as a shelterbelt candidate species on cold, moist tableland sites in southeastern Australia. Timber is soft, non-durable and of low quality as firewood.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 600-1460 mm. Rainfall regime: Unifonn/bimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 23-28 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: -2-5 "C. Mean annual temperature: 9-15 O C .

Description Small to medium, compact tree (up to 18 m) with a dense spreading crown. Bark is rough and persistent to the small branches, brown, grey to black, fibrous to hard. Leaves are dark green, elliptical to ovate (juvenile) and narrow-lanceolate (adult, 5-12 x 1-2 cm). Flowers are white, appearing December to February. Fruits are small, hemispherical to sub-globular, 3-4 valves. Approx. 880 viable seedsig. Growth characteristics Moderate growth rate. To,lerates frosts. cold winds and light snow. Low to medium susceptibility insect damage, depending on provenance, from Christmas beetle, leaf beetle, sa~rfly and scale. Tolerates waterlogging and low to moderate salinity, although some recent field selections may be more salt- and frost-tolerant. Expect growth and survival reduction at EC, ca. 5 dSim or below. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

No. Low quality. Pale, soft, non-durable and of no value. Shelterbelts, erosion control, ornamental

'd

Natural distribution

Soils and vegetation types Usually occurs in damp situations near streams, hollows, poorly drained flats or on alluvial flats. Soils are mainly meadow podsols or partly developed alluvials, but also found on various other podsols. Occurs in woodlands, usually with other coldtolerant eucalypts.

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Section One - Lletazied Descriptions

Eucalyptus botryoides Smith Common names

Southern mahogany

(standard

trade name), bangalay. A medium to large forest tree, Main attributes excellent for coastal sites as it tolerates strong salt-laden winds. Useful for flooring, decking, furniture and veneering. Potential for pulpwood under irrigation.

Description Medium to tall tree (30-40 m), with long tnmk and dense crown. Shorter on poorer sites but still of good form, and where exposed to saline coastal winds can be shrubby and heavily branched. Bark is rough, coarsely fissured, brown to grey brown and persistent on trunk and larger branches; upper branches are sn~ooth,grey-white. Leaves are green, discolorous, alternately arranged, ovate (juvenile) and broad lanceolate @dult, 10-16 x 2.5-4 cm). Flowers are white to cream, appearing December to March. Fruits are short, sessile and cylindrical. Approx. 400 viable seedslg.

Soils and vegetation types Found in coastal locations, on poor sandy soils. Further inland occurs in sheltered lowland valleys on moderately fertile loams. Forms mixed stands in open forests. Intergrades with E. saligna in south en^ New South Wales. Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 660 - 1540 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformlbimodal, summer. Dry season: 0-1 month. Mean maximum hottest month: 21-29 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: -2-8 "C. Mean annual temperature: 9-18 "C.

Growth characteristics Fast-growing. Poor coppicing ability. Will tolerate a variety of acid to neutral soils from sandy, well drained to heavy, wet conditions. Tolerates moderate frosts and poorly drained to wet soils. High susceptibility to insect damage from leafblister sawfly, lerp, autumn gum moth, scale, leaf beetle and borers. Sheds lower branches (self pruning) which can cause problems in windbreak plantings and along fencelines. Considerable provenance variation for tree form (e.g. Orbost (Victoria) provenance performs well in north-eastern Victoria and in New Zealand). Has shown promise under irrigation in northern Victoria. Widely planted in recent years on the North Island of New Zealand in farm woodlots. Can withstand strong saline winds in coastal situations. Low to moderately salt-tolerant. Expect growth and survival reduction at EC, ca. 5 dSlm. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Reasonable. Deep pink to red heartwood; sapwood is distinctively paler. Interlocked grain, hard and durable, saws well from large logs. Useful for flooring, decking, furniture and veneering (New Zealand). Possible potential for pulpwood. Air dry density ca. 920 kg/m3. Wood from young trees is pink in colour with an air dry density of ca. 650 kg/m3. Shade, shelter, windbreaks, coastal plantings. Minor source of nectar and pollen.

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus bvockwayi C.Gardner Common name

Dundas

mahogany

(standard

trade name).

Main attributes

A medium tree, which grows quickly in its early stages and can grow in extremely dry climates. Tolerates saline conditions. UsefUl for amenity planting in areas of low rainfall, for axe handles, mining props and durable posts and poles.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 240-450 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform/bimodal, winter. Dry season: 6-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 31-33 "'2. Mean minimum coldest month: 3-6 "C. Mean annual temperature: 16-18 OC.

Description

Medium tree (15-25 m), moderately straight trunk, comrnonly not exceeding one third to half the tree height, with an open but deep crown. Bark is smooth and white or salmon pink. Leaves are pale green, sessile, elliptical (juvenile) and glossy green, narrow lanceolate, petiolate and alternate (adult, 7-13 x 0.7-1.3 cm). Flowers are white, appearing March to May. Fruits are short, sessile and globular to urn shaped. Approx. 400 viable seedslg.

Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Moderately frost-tolerant. Grows best on lighter, loamy soils but will grow on heavier and alkaline soils. No insect damage reported. Tolerates drought and moderately saline soils. Expect survival and growth reduction at EC, ca. 5 dS1m. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Good. Red heartwood, straight grained and long fibred. Hard and tough but not termite resistant. Used for axehandles, mining props, durable posts and poles. Bark has a high (40%) tannin content. Also used for shade, shelter, windbreak and as an ornamental.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs on flat or slightly sloping country such as lower slopes of hills with alkaline sandy soils or sandy loams derived from basic metamorphic rocks. Sonletimes found close to the margins of salt-affected lakes. Found in open forests and woodlands.

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Estimated climatic range (350 mm min.)

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Common names River red gum (standard trade name), red gum, Murray red gum, river gum (Western Australia). Main attributes

A medium to tall tree, usually with a large crown (when open grown). It is the most widely distributed of all eucalypts, found along watercourses and on floodplains in arid and semi-arid zones. It exhibits large provenance variation for tolerance to salinity and waterlogging. lt is an excellent firewood and the timber is used for many purposes, including pulpwood.

and Douglas River (Victoria) and Silverton (New South Wales). Ciones are available, some of which display good form, high oil content and, in some cases, better salt and waterlogging tolerance (refer local contacts). Widely planted overseas, particularly in both the Mediterranean region and the seasonally-dry tropics.

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

A northern and a southern form of E. camaldulensi~~ have been recognised. These forms differ as detailed below. A distinct boundary does not exist between the northern and southern forms; studies have suggested a gradual change over the range. The southern form is confmed to southeastern Australia.

Description

Medium to tall tree (20 to 45 m), short thick trunk with a large spreading crown when open grown and long clear trunk with lightly branched crown in plantations. Bark is smooth, white, pale grey with grey and reddish patches. Juvenile leaves are alternate, petiolate, glaucous (northern form) or non-glaucous (southern form), ovate to broad lanceolate. Adult leaves are broad lanceolate to lanceolate and yellow-green (northern form) or greygreen (southern form) (8-30 x 0.7-2 cm). Flower buds are rounded (northern form) or pointed (southern form). Flowers appear mostly August to November (northern form) or December to February (southern form). Fruits are ovoid or truncate-globular. Approx. 600 viable seedsig.

Growth characteristics Fast-growing. Lignotubers present on northern form, absent on southern form, however all provenanccs coppice well for several rotations. Prefers deep, silty soil. Northern form is best suited for tropical, summer rainfall regions. Southern form is best suited for mediterranean winter rainfall climates. Large provenance variation for growth, form and tolerance to drought, frost; salinity and insects. Tolerant of mild frost and waterlogging. Low to high susceptibility to insect attack depending on provenance and individual. Riverine provenances damaged by sawfly, gumleaf skeletoniser, Christmas beetle, lerp, leafblister sawfly, leaf beetle, shothole miner and cup moth. Inland provenances (e.g. Silverton, Flinders Ranges) and clones are more resistant to lerp and leafblister sawfly but susceptible to sawfly, gumtree hopper and tip-feeding bug. Christmas beetle resistant individuals occur. Northern form grows well on alkaline sodic sites. Moderately salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dSim or above and reduced survival ca. 10-15 dS/m. Best performing northern provenances, particularly in the presence of salinity and waterlogging, include De Grey River and Wiluna (Western Australia), Katherine and Mt Benstead (Northern Territory) and Petford (Queensland). Best performing southern provenances for these conditions include Lake Albacutya

Other:

No. Excellent. Red to reddish brown heartwood; sapwood distinctly paler. Fine interlocked grain, hard, durable. Used for heavy construction, railway sleepers, flooring, framing, fencing, plywood, charcoal, veneer manufacture and wood turning. Young plantation-grown trees are used in Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Thailand and USA (California) for pulpwood. Used in Argentina, Israel, Mexico and Spain for hardboard and particle board. Air dry density ca. 900 kgim3.Wood from young trees is pink in colour with an air dry density of ca. 650 kg/m3. Very good source of nectar and pollen. Leaves of some provenances (e.g. Petford) give a cineole-rich eucalyptus oil.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs mainly on sandy and alluvial soils (northern provenances) or heavy clays (southern provenances). Not well adapted to calcareous soils. Found in open-forest, along watercourses or woodland on flood plains in the arid and semi-arid zones.

Climatic indicators Northern provenances Mean annual rainfall: 250-2500 mm. Rainfall regime: Summer. Dry season: 2-8 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 22-41 O C . Mean minimum coldest month: 6-24 "C. Mean annual temperature: 18-28 "C. Southern provenances Mean annual rainfall: 400-2000 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformhimodal, winter. Dry season: 0-7 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 21-41 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: 0-14 OC. Mean annual temperature: 13-22 "C.

Natural distribution ----

Kortl~crnprovenances

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Estimated climatic range (350 mm min.)

Southern provenances C "

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Estimated ctrmatic rmge

Section One - Detazled Descrrptzom

Eucalyptus camphora R.Baker Common names Swamp gum (standard trade name), broad leaved sally, mountain swamp gum. Main attributes

A moderately small tree of variable form depending on site. Tolerant of frosts and swampy locations. Timber of limited value, but a useful tree for shade and shelter in cold (frost-prone), wet (and swampy) areas.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 580- 1500 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformibimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-1 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 24-3 1 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: -3-5 "C. Mean annual temperature: 8-15 "C.

Description Small to medium tree (5-15 m), usually crooked or mallee-like in appearance on adverse sites. Bark is rough flaky at the base of the trunk, with dark grey gum bark on upper branches. Leaves green, dull to slightly glossy, ovate (juvenile) and elliptical to ovate or broad lanceolate (adult, 13 x 5 cm). Flowers are small cream coloured, appearing March to April. Fruits are small, obconical with 3-4 slightly exerted valves. Approx. 850 viable seedsig. Growth characteristics Relatively slow-growing. Moderate insect damage. Has performed well on cold, periodically waterlogged sites in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales. Low to moderate susceptibility to insect attack, depending on provenance. Affected by Christmas beetle, leaf beetle, sawfly and scale. Highly frost-tolerant. Slightly salt-tolerant. Expect survival and growth reduction at EC, ca. 5 dSlm. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

No. Good. Pale heartwood. Physical properties not known. Potential as an ornamental as well as shade and shelter in situations where few other trees would thrive (cold waterlogged sites).

Occurs mainly on Soils and vegetation types meadow podsols or partly-developed alluvials but will grow on a wide range of soils of allied types. Found on gentle slopes on valley floors or the edges of marshy areas in mountainous regions (up to 1250 m altitude). Grows in woodland or forest formation with other eucalypts that are able to withstand very cold and damp conditions.

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Natural distribution

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Section One - Detailed Descvipiions

Eucalyptus cladocalyx F .Muell. Common name

Sugar

gum

(standard

trade

name).

Main attributes A small to medium tree of good form. Used for farm woodlots, shelterbelts and poles. Tolerates low to moderate salinity but intolerant of waterlogging.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 350-735 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformibimodal, winter. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 22-33 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-10 "C. Mean annual temperature: 13- 18 'C.

Description

Small to medium tree (8-15 m), but can exceed 30 m on favourable sites, with clear, straight trunk and an open thin crown. Bark is smooth with patches of offwhite, yellowish, grey and bluish grey. Leaves are alternate, elliptical or circular on reddish twigs (juvenile) and alternate, broad lanceolate, discolorous with a dark green, glossy upper surface (adult, 11-15 x 2-2.5 cm). Flowers are white, appearing January to April. Fruits are ovoid or bell shaped with 3-4 valves, deeply enclosed. Approx. 95 viable seedslg.

Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Coppices well. Spreading and competitive root system. Will tolerate acid to neutral conditions. Requires a well drained soil. Not suitable for wet or waterlogged soils; however, performs well under irrigation. Low susceptibility to insect attack. Sometimes affected by Christmas beetle, leaf beetle, sawfly and scale. Drought-tolerant. Mature trees can die in years of excessive waterlogging. Low to moderate salt tolerance. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dS/m and reduced survival ca. 5-10 dS/m. Has been successfully used as a plantation species in Africa, Spain and Portugal. The Port Lincoln (South Australia) provenance has proven most drought tolerant in Western Australian plantings. Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

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Natural distribution Vatural distribution

Uses No. Good. Pale yellow-brown with fine uniform texture, hard, durable and moderately strong, used for poles, posts, railway sleepers, general construction, farm timber. Air dry density of I100 kglm3. Wood from young trees has an air dry density of ca. 850 kg/m3. Shelterbelts, windbreaks. Widely planted in Victoria where it is managed on a coppice system as windbreaks for firewood and farm timber. Good source of nectar, honey.

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Soils and vegetation types

Occurs naturally on skeletal or podsolic soils, which are often shallow. Less commonly found on solonised brown soils or deep sands. Also grows on ironstone gravels. It has been grown on limestone. Dominant in dry sclerophyll open forest in the wetter parts and as a component of savannah woodland in the drier parts of its natural distribution.

Estimated ctimatic range

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Section Om - Detailed Descrtptions

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. S U ~ S P globulus . Common names Southern blue gum (standard trade name), Tasmanian blue gum, blue gum.

Uses

Main attributes

Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Description Woodland form is a medium tree (15-20

Other:

m) with a compact crown and branches retained to half the trunk height. Forest form is tall (up to 70 m) with a long straight trunk. Bark is usually a stocking at the base (rough, grey or brown) and shedding above in long strips, leaving a smooth yellow-grey surface. Leaves are opposite, sessile, stem clasping, ovate and bluish-green (juvenile) and alternate, petiolate and lanceolate (adult, 12-25 x 1.7-3 cm). Flowers are sessile, mainly solitary, white, appearing September to December. Fruits are large, sessile, subglobular to more or less hemispherical, ribbed, 4-5 valves. Approx. 70 viable seedslg.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs on gently undulating land near the sea, but best development occurs in moist valleys in hilly country on good quality loams. It occurs on dolerite and on shallow humus soils over mudstone. In coastal areas it is often found on poor sands. Found in woodland and forest formation.

A large tree which bas been extensively planted in Australia and in other countries. Fast early growth rate on favourable sites, and slightly to moderately salt-tolerant (significant provenance variation). Plantation-grown trees used widely for pulpwood but also for various timber products. Mature timber can be used for light and heavy construction.

Growth characteristics ~ast-growing(up to 2-3 m per year) with marked provenance variation for growth (refer local experts). Coppices well for several rotations. Main limiting soil factors are insufficient depth, poor drainage, salinity and carbonates. Medium to high susceptibility to insect attack depending on, provenance and foliage type. Juvenile foliage of Victorian and Tasmanian provenances very susceptible to autumn gum moth, Christmas beetle, leafblister sawfly, leaf beetle, tip-feeding bug , scale and bluegum psyllid. Juvenile foliage of King Island and some other Bass Strait Island provenances less susceptible to autumn gum moth, leafblister sawfly and possibly other insects. Adult foliage generally resistant to insect attack by Christmas beetle and other insects. Older trees susceptible to eucalypt, bullseye, cossid and ringbarking borers if drought stressed. In some fast-growing plantations, juvenile foliage has been severely damaged by the leaf fungus Mycosphuerella spp. Tolerates moderate frosts. Relatively drought sensitive. Low to moderate salt tolerance. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dSlm or lower and reduced survival ca. 5-10 dSim. Intensive selection for salt and waterlogging tolerance is currently underway. Extensive plantations, woodlots and timberbelts exist in south-west Western Australia for pulpwood and salinity control. Also planted extensively in Tasmania and in other countries. Performed well in irrigated and higher rainfall sites in northern Victoria.

No. Good (good charcoal source). Light yellow-brown, open textured, commonly interlocked grain, strong and moderately durable. Used as pulpwood (from young plantation-grown wood), mine-timber, poles, posts and piling. Air dry density 900 kgim3. Wood from young trees has an air dry density of ca. 650 kg/m3. Ornamental and shelter. Very good source of nectar and pollen. Species used for foliar essential oil production (moderately high cineole content) outside of Australia (e.g. China, Chile, India).

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 600-1500 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformibimodal, winter. Dry season: 0-5 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 19-31 O C . Mean minimum coldest month: 2-12 "C. Mean annual temperature: 9-18 '2.

Section One - Detailed description^

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Natural distribution

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Esirnatd climatic range

Estimatad climatic range

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus grandis W.Hil1 Common names

Rose gum (Queensland) (standard trade name), flooded gum (New South Wales).

Main attributes A tall tree of good form which tolerates short-term flooding but is intolerant of swampy conditions. Slightly salt-tolerant, however some provenances may be more tolerant than others. Timber is lighter and softer than most eucalypts. Used extensivelr for house construction, veneer and paper pulp. Description Tall to very tall tree (45-55 m), straight trunk up to three quarters of the total height. Rough bark stocking at base (grey flaky) then smooth, white to greywhite or blue-grey. Leaves are alternate, discolorous, green to dark green, oblong-lanceolate (juvenile) and lanceolate (adult, 10-16 x 2-3 cm). Flowers are white, appearing mostly April to August. Fruits are shortly pedicellate or sometimes sessile, pyriform, slightly contractcd, 4-5 valves, exserled and incurved. Approx. 600 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Fast-growing (up to 2-3 m per year); marked provenance variation (refer local experts). Coppices vigorously when young, although trees over ten years of age may be less easily coppiced. For best performance requires deep free-draining soils. Medium to high susceptibility to insect attack. Juvenile foliage very susceptible to autumn gum moth, leafblister sawfly and gumtree hoppers. Adults foliage susceptible to lerp, autumn gum moth, Christmas beetle, gumtree hopper, leaf beetle, leafblister sawfly and scale. Older trees susceptible to eucalypt, bullseye, ringbarking and cossid borers if droughtstressed. It is somewhat frost-sensitive when young though will withstand low temperatures if hardened. Tolerates short-term flooding but is intolerant of swampy conditions. Generally slightly salt-tolerant, but currently the subject of intensive selection for salt and waterlogging tolerance. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dS/m and reduced survival at ca. 5-10 dS/m. Grows well on irrigated areas in northern Victoria.

SoiIs and vegetation types Occurs on flats or lower slopes of deep, fertile valleys, commonly on the fringes of, or sometimes within rainforests. It prefers moist, well drained, deep, loamy soils of alluvial or volcanic origin. Occurs in tall open-forest formation. Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 800-2500 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformibimodal, summer. Dry season: 0-5 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 25-34 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 0-16 O C . Mean annual temperature: 14-25 OC.

qatural distribution

.--

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Good. Pink to light reddish brown. Extensively used for house construction (mature trees) and boxes (immature trees). Young plantation-grown trees produce excellent pulpwood. Also used for veneer, plywood, panelling, boat building and flooring. Air dry density 600-750 kg/m3. Wood from young trees is pink in colour with an air dry density of 550-600 kg/m3. Good source of pollen.

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IEsrimacd clirnalic range

Estimated climatic range

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Section One - Detailed Section One - Detailed Descriptions Descvipiions

Eucalyptus F .Muell. Eucalyptuscladocalyx kondininensis Maiden & Blakely Common Sugar gum (standard trade Commonname names Kondinin blackbutt, stocking name). tree, stocking gum, black yate. Main Mainattributes attributes

AAsmall to medium tree ofmedium good highly salt tolerant, form. Used for farm woodlots, shelterbelts and poles. tree resistant to drought and frost. It is moderately slowTolerates lowuseful to moderate salinity intolerant of growing, and for farm timber and but firewood. waterlogging.

Climatic Climaticindicators indicators

Mean Meanannual annualrainfall: rainfall:350-735 350-670mm. mm. Rainfall Rainfallregime: regime:Uniformibimodal, Uniformhimodal,winter. winter. Dry months. 3-12 months. Dryseason: season:0-12 Mean Meanmaximum maximumhottest hottestmonth: month:22-33 27-34OC. "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-10 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 3-8 "C. Mean 18 'C. Meanannual annualtemperature: temperature: 1313-18 OC.

Description Medium tree (10-15 m), straight and Description Small to medium tree (8-15 m), but can slender trunk with spreading branches. Lower (up to 3.5 m)

exceed m on black favourable sites, with trunk bark is30rough, and fibrous and clear, above straight is smooth and and an brown open thin crown.Leaves Bark isare smooth patches ovate of off-to light to grey. pale with grey-green, white, and bluish glossy grey. Leaves alternate, broadyellowish, lanceolategrey(juvenile), green are and narrow elliptical circular onx 0.7-1.6 reddish cm). twigs (juvenile) and lanceolateor(adult, 5.5-14 Flowers are creamy a dark green, alternate, broad lanceolate, white, appearing mostly discolorous November with to December but glossy upper 11-15 x 2-2.5 cm).areFlowers are possibly alsosurface in later(adult, summer months. Fruits bell shaped white, appearing January to April. Fruits are ovoid bell slightly projecting valves. Approx. 300orviable with 3-4 95 viable shaped with 3-4 valves, deeply enclosed. Approx. seedslg. seedslg.

Growth characteristics characteristics Growth

Moderately slow-growing. Moderately fast-growing. Resistant to drought and frost. No insect damage reported. Coppices well. Spreading and competitive root system. Will Highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 15 tolerate acid to neutral conditions. Requires a well drained dS/m and reduced survival ca. 20 dS1m. Has exhibited high soil. Not suitable for wet or waterlogged soils; however, salt tolerance when planted in northern and north-western performs well under irrigation. Low susceptibility to insect Victoria. attack. Sometimes affected by Christmas beetle, leaf beetle, sawfly and scale. Drought-tolerant. Mature trees can die in Usesof excessive waterlogging. Low to moderate salt years Fodder: Expect No. tolerance. reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dS/m and Firewood: reduced survival ca.Reasonable. 5-10 dS/m. Has been successfully used Brown, for farm The asWood: a plantation species in dense, Africa,strong. Spain Used and Portugal. and posts. Australia) provenance has proven most Port Lincoln (Southtimber Other: tolerant in Amenity plantings, shade and shelter. drought Western Australian plantings.

Soils and vegetation types Uses

Occurs on neutral to alkaline, saline, medium to heavy loams and heavy clay Fodder: No. flats. Occurs either in pure stands or associated with Firewood: Good. melaleucas, other eucalypts and chenopod vegetation Wood: Pale yellow-brown with fine uniform around salt lakes. texture, hard, durable and moderately strong, used for poles, posts, railway sleepers, general construction, farm timber. Air dry density of l I00 kglm3. Wood from young trees has an air dry density of ca. 850 kg/m3. Other: Shelterbelts, windbreaks. Widely planted in Victoria where it is managed on a coppice system as windbreaks for firewood and farm timber. Good source of nectar, honey.

Vatural distribution

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Natural distribution

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Soils and vegetation types

Occurs naturally on skeletal or podsolic soils, which are often shallow. Less commonly found on solonised brown soils or deep sands. Also grows on ironstone gravels. It has been grown on limestone. Dominant in dry sclerophyll open forest in the wetter parts and as a component of savannah woodland in the drier parts of its natural distribution.

Esirnatd climatic range

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Section One - Detarled Descriptions

Common name

Black box (standard trade name).

Main attributes

A medium tree. Will withstand periodic waterlogging. It is drought-tolerant and highly salttolerant. The timber is used for posts and sleepers and burns well. It is also useful for shade, shelter and honey.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 120-650 mm. Rainfall regime: Unifomlbimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 27-38 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: 0-7 O C . Mean annual temperature: 13-22 'C.

Description

Medium tree (10-20 m), with a short trunk (between one quarter to one half the size of the tree) and an open crown, wide spreading and of irregular shape. Bark is box-type, persistent on the trunk and large branches, hard, rugged and grey. Leaves are alternate, petiolate, linearlanceolate bluish-green (juvenile) to narrow-lanceolate, green to grey-green (adult, 9-18 x 0.9-1.8 cm). Flowers are white, appearing mostly August to January. Fruits are hemispherical to ovoid, on pedicles, with 3-4 valves. Approx. 700 viable seedsig.

Growth characteristics Moderate growth rate. Coppices and root-suckers. Best development on moist but heavy soils. No insect damage reported. Tolerates moderate frosts, drought, periodic waterlogging and moderately high salinity. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5-10 dSim and reduced survival above ca. 10 dSim. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Good. Pink or reddish brown, hard, heavy durable; used for posts, sinall poles and sleepers, but not readily sawn or split. Air dry density 1 100 kg/m3. Shade, shelter, amenity, windbreaks. Good source of nectar, but flowering is unreliable.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs mainly on broad river flats, depressions in otherwise treeless plains and silted lake beds, and on ground subject to occasional flooding. Most common soils are grey clay loams, occasionally dark grey, self-mulching clays and, less commonly, fine redbrown sands. Drainage is often poor. On flat, poorly drained areas it can occur in almost pure open stands, elsewhere it occurs in woodland or open woodland formations mixed with other eucalypts and acacias. Hybrids with E. gracilis observed.

Estimated climatic range (350 m m min.)

Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus leucoxylon F.Muel1. subsp. leucoxylon Common names Yellow gum (standard trade name), South Australian blue gum (South Australia), white ironbark. Main attributes A moderately salt-tolerant, medium tree. Some provenances have good frost tolerance. It is an excellent firewood and has hard, tough, durable timber and is used for rough construction. It is a major source of honey.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 300-1 130 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformhimodal, winter. Dry season: 0- 12 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 23-33 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 1-9 "C. Mean annual temperature: 12-18 "C.

Description Mostly a medium tree with erect habit and a spreading crown (10-16 m), but can attain 30 m on favourable sites. Bark is smooth with streaks of white, yellow, grey and blue, with 1-2 m of rough bark at the base. Leaves are ovate-cordate, green, sessile and opposite (juvenile) and lanceolate, green to bluish-green, petiolate and alternate (adult, 9-13 x 1.3-2.5 cm). Flowers are mostly cream coloured but sometimes pink or red, appearing May to September. Fruits are barrel shaped with 4-6 valves. Approx. 250 viable seedsig. Growth characteristics Moderate growth rate. Coppices freely from low stumps and can be pollarded. Will tolerate a variety of soils but prefers heavy alluvial soils. Medium to high susceptibility to insect attack depending on foliage type. Juvenile foliage susceptible to autumn gum moth. Adult foliage susceptible to lerp, leaf beetle, Christmas beetle, gumtree hopper and sawfly. Droughthardy, capable of withstanding strong, hot winds and alkaline soils. Moderately frost-tolerant. Low to moderate salt tolerance. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dS/m and reduced survival above ca. 10 dS1m. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Excellent. Pale brown heartwood; sapwood is distinctively paler. Hard, strong and very durable. Used for structural engineering, fences, railway sleepers, building, framing and poles. Air dry density 770-1200 kg/m3. Shade, shelter and windbreaks. A very good source of nectar, producing a fine honey. A cultivated variety (var. iosea) is widely planted as an ornamental on account of its red flowers.

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Soils and vegetation types Occurs on soils derived

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fiom a wide range of parent materials such as shales, granites, basalts, calcareous marine debris and siliceous sands. Soils are mostly acidic. Will also grow on heavy and alkaline soils and tolerates limestone. Occurs in woodland or open-forest formation.

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Estimated climatic range

Section One - Detailed Descnptioris

Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl. Common names

Flat-topped yate (standard trade

name), swamp yate.

Main attributes A medium tree which will tolerate wet and poorly drained sites and moderate to high levels of salinity. Produces hard, durable timber which is used for construction. Also used for erosion control, shade and shelter.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 355-960 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformibimodal, winter. Dry season: 0-1 1 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 26-33 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-8 "C. Mean annual temperature: 13-18 "C.

Description

Medium tree (10-20 m) with a short trunk and several stout primary branches (but may be mallee form in coastal swamps) and a terminal, moderately dense canopy. Bark is rough, flaky and moderately thick for half to most of the trunk, dark grey or black, longitudinally furrowed. Leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, bluegreen ('juvenile) and glossy green, lanceolate to narrow lanceolate (adult, 7-16 x 1.2-2.5 cm). Flowers are pale yellow, appearing mostly April to May. Fruits are bellshaped with 4 exerted, broad valves. Approx. 200 viable seedsig.

Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Coppices and root-suckers. Low insect damage reported in New South Wales from leaf beetle. High susceptibility in Western Australia due to damage by the lerp and, especially in its natural range, gumleaf skeletoniser, sawfly and termites. Adaptable to most soil types, tolerates wet and poorly drained sites. Frost-tolerant and drought-hardy. It has performed well on saline irrigated and dryland sites in northern Victoria and Western Australia. Moderately to highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10 dSim and reduced survival at ca. 15-20 dS1m. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Excellent. Pale, hard, durable. Used for building poles, piling, posts, heavy construction. Air dry density 850-900 kg/m3. Shade and shelter, windbreaks, erosion control, high tannin content in the bark. Good source of nectar.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs naturally on flat alluvial plains often subject to waterlogging. Soils are mainly clays and saline. Away from depressions it may be found on light brown sandy, gravelly loams. Occurs in woodland formations with associated eucalypts.

Estimated climatic m g e (350 rnm min.)

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus robusta Smith Common names Swamp trade name), swamp messmate.

mahogany

(standard

Main attributes A moderately salt-tolerant and highly waterlogging-tolerant medium to large tree. Has been widely planted overseas. Suitable for irrigated inland areas with low frost risk in Australia The wood bums well and is also used for charcoal and heavy construction. Description

Medium to large tree (20-30 m), straight trunk about one half size of tree with a dense crown and long, spreading, irregular branches. Bark is grey to reddish grey-brown, rough, flaky and persistent to the smaller branches. Leaves are alternate, green, discolorous, ovate (juvenile) and lanceolate (adult, 10-16 x 2.7-4.5 cm). Flowers are white, appearing mostly May to July (winter). Fruits are cylindrical and on pedicles, 3-4 valves. Approx. 4 15 viable seeds/g.

Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Coppices well up to 25 years, then poorly thereafter. Grows well on a wide range of soil types, provided there is adequate moisture. Recovers well after fire damage. Medium to high susceptibility to insect attack. Juvenile foliage very susceptible to leafblister sawfly and autumn gum moth. Adult foliage susceptible to lerp, autumn gum moth, leaf beetle, leafblister sawfly, gumtree hopper, scale and Christmas beetle. Older trees susceptible to eucalypt, bullseye and cossid borers if drought stressed. Susceptible to eucalypt weevil (Gonipterus spp.) and to termites when young. Highly waterlogging-tolerant; may form aerial roots on main trunk (evidence from Brazil and Hawaii). Will not tolerate drought; sensitive to competition for water and nutrients by more vigorous species. Withstands severe coastal exposure. Slightly to moderately salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5 dS1m and reduced survival at ca. 10 dSim. Suitable for irrigated areas of northern Victoria. Has been widely planted in other countries where it grows well from equatorial regions to about latitude 35", provided frosts are not severe.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs mainly on margins of swamps and on the edges of salt water estuaries and lagoons. Soils are typically heavy clays but will also grow satisfactorily on light sandy clays. Found in openforest formation, often in pure stands. Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 780-1850 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformhimodal, summer Dry season: 0-4 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 22-32 OC. Mean minimum coldest month: 0-9 "C. Mean annual temperature: 16-23 OC.

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Natural distribution

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Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Good. Light red to reddish brown heartwood; sapwood usually paler. Moderately hard and strong, very durable and resistant to marine borers. Uses include building poles, piling, posts, short fibre pulp, heavy!light construction, boxes and crates. Air dry density 700-850 kglm3. Street tree, a good shade tree, reasonable source of pollen.

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus sargentii Maiden subsp. sargentii Common names Salt River mallet (standard trade name), Sargent's mallet, Salt River gum. A highly drought-tolerant and Main attributes salt-tolerant small bushy tree. It is only mildly frost-tolerant. It is well suited to planting for shade, windbreaks or as a street tree on inland salt-affected soils. It produces good firewood and the bark is rich in tannin.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 290-670 mm. Rainfall regime: Unifomibimodal, winter. Dry season: 3-1 1 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 27-35 OC Mean minimum coldest month: 3-8 "C. ilfean annual temperature: 13-18 "'2.

Description

Small tree (8-1 1 m), with short trunk and wide-spreading dense, rounded crown. Bark is rough and persistent on lower part of trunk, grey-brown and smooth on upper branches. Leaves are opposite, stalked, linear and grey-green (juvenile) to alternate linear to narrow-lanceolate and green (adult, 6-9.5 x 0.5-1.1 cm). Flowers are cream, appearing mostly September to December. Fruits are bellshaped to cylindrical with 3-4 slightly exerted valves. Approx. 200 viable seeds/g.

Growth characteristics Moderately slow-growing. Coppices, root-suckers and can withstand severe pruning. Grows well on non-irrigated saline sites of northern Victoria and has also been successfully grown on mine dumps at Broken Hill. No insect damage reported from New South Wales. In Western Australia low susceptibility to spring beetle attack. Favours alkaline soils. Tolerant of periodic flooding, mild frosts and drought. Highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dSim and reduced survival above ca. 20 dS1m. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

No. Good. Pale brown, tough, dense and straightgrained, little used. Bark is rich in tannin; shade and shelter. windbreak, street tree.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs mainly on broad river flats and depressions in otherwise treeless plains and silted lake beds, and on ground subject to occasional flooding. Most common soils are neutral sandy loams, grey clay loams, occasionally dark grey, self-mulching clays and, less commonly, fine red-brown sands. Occurs frequently where salt is on the surface. Drainage is mostly poor on these sites. Occurs in woodland or low-woodland formation, typically with paperbarks and saltbushes rather than other eucalypts.

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Section One - Detailed De.rcriptzons

Eucalyptus spathulata Hook. Common names

Swamp mallet, narrow leaved

gimlet, swamp gimlet.

Main attributes A highly salt-tolerant and moderately waterlogging-tolerant shrub or small tree It is moderately frost-tolerant and drought-resistant. Useful for windbreak plantings in saline or waterlogged locations in low rainfall areas. It produces a good firewood and the bark is rich in tannin.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 270-640 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformlbin~odal,winter. Dry season: 0-1 1 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 27-35 'C. Mean minimum coldest month: 2-7 "C. Mean annual temperature: 13-19 O C .

Description

Shrub or small tree (most commonly to 6 m but occasionally to 12 m), mallee form or with low branching and compact dense crown. Bark is smooth, redbrown often turning grey. Leaves are grey-green, alternate and narrow lanceolate (juvenile) and linear lanceolate (adult, 4.5-10 x 0.2-0.5 cm). Flowers are white-cream, appearing mostly October to December. Fruits are cupshaped or hemispherical with 3-4 exerted valves. Approx. 340 viable seedslg.

Growth characteristics

Fast-growing and coppices well. No insect damage reported from New South Wales. In Western Australia low susceptibility to spring beetle attack. Will tolerate heavy, alkaline or wet soils. Moderately frosttolerant. Tolerates some waterlogging. Moderately to highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dS/m and reduced survival above ca. 15 dS/m.

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

No. Good. Pale brown, hard and dense, with little timber value; poles and posts. Bark is good source of tannin, windbreaks (low branched, dense crown), honey production, ornamental.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs on medium to heavy loams in damp positions with poor drainage, such as around seasonal lakes, and alkaline grey cracking clays. Adaptable to most soils including saline soils, and highly suitable for damp positions with poor drainage. Often grows in association with species of melaleuca in open woodlands. lntergrades occur with E. veguandis and hybrids occur with E. loxophleba and E. platypus.

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Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith Common names Forest red gum (standard trade name) blue gum (Queensland), red irongum (Queensland). Main attributes

A fast-growing, moderately saltand waterlogging-tolerant, medium to tall tree. It has been successfully introduced and widely planted in many tropical and subtropical countries in Africa, Asia and South America. It produces an excellent firewood. The timber is durable and is used for construction, poles, posts, fibreboard and particle board. It is also a good source of pulpwood.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 530-2600 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniformhimodal, winter, summer. Dry season: 0-7 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 22-38 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: -2-19 OC. Mean annual temperature: 10-26 O C .

Description

Medium to tall tree (20-50 m), erect, straight trunk (often clear for more than half its height) and dense crown. Bark is smooth with white, grey and bluish patches. Leaves are dull green to green, alternate, ovate (juvenile) and lanceolate to narrow lanceolate (adult, 10-20 x 1-2.7 cm). Elongated, cone-shaped bud cap (operculum) is a distinctive feature. Flowers are white, appearing mostly June to November. Fruits are truncate-globular with 3-4 exerted valves. Approx. 600 viable seedslg.

Growth characteristics Fast-growing. Coppices vigorously. Relatively fire-resistant. Medium to high susceptibility to insect attack from Christmas beetle, leaf beetle, lerp, sawfly, scale, gumleaf skeletoniser and eucalypt weevil. Two main forms occur, viz. northern tropical and southern temperate. Southern forms are moderately frosttolerant. Has been planted most successfully in summer rainfall areas, with a moderate to fairly severe dry season. Wide inter- and intra-provenance variation. Moderately salttolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca 5-10 dS/m and reduced survival above ca. 10-15 dSIm. Coastal trees susceptible to wind-blow11salt.

I Natural distribution

Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. Good, also produces good charcoal. Red heartwood; sapwood paler. Fine interlocked grain, hard, heavy, strong and durable. Immune to termites and dry rot. Old trees are used for heavy construction and railway sleepers. Young plantationgrown trees are used for poles, posts, stakes, fibre and particle board, paper pulp. Air dry density ca. l I00 kglm". Good source of pollen. Has been used for tannin extraction (Zaire).

Soils and vegetation types Prefers fairly fertile well drained alluvial soils, sandy or gravelly loams which are moist but not waterlogged. A neutral or slightly acid pH is preferred. Occurs in open forest formation or as scattered trees on alluvial flats. Outside its ilatural range, it has been planted on a wide variety of sites that include alluvial soils, silts and sandy clays. The natural distribution of this species also extends to southern Papua New Guinea.

M(

LEstimated climatic range

Section One - Detailed Descripfions

Melaleuca halmaturorum F.Muel1. ex. Miq. subsp. halmaturorum Common names South Australian swamp paperbark, salt paperbark, blistered paperbark, Kangaroo Island paperbark, kangaroo honey myrtle. Main attributes

A highly waterlogging-tolerant and salt-tolerant dense shrub or small tree, often multistemmed. It is moderately frost-tolerant. Particularly useful for revegetation of saline, waterlogged sites.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 180-660 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform/bimodal, winter. Dry season: 0-12 months. Mean max hottest month: 24-36 "C. Mean min OC. Mean 13-20 OC.

Description Shrub or small tree (up to 8 m), irregular form or multi-stemmed, with dense crown. Bark is thick, whitish and papery, often peeling. Leaves are dark green, small and linear-lanceolate (3-7 x 1-2 mm). Flowers white or creamy white, in small clusters along the stem, appearing mostly September to December. Fruits are small cup-shaped capsules. Approx. 2600 viable seedsig. Growth characteristics Relatively slow-growing. Does not coppice readily. No insect damage reported. Tolerates long-term waterlogging even on saline soils and moderate frosts. Tolerates both acid and alkaline soils. Highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 1015 dS/m and decreased survival at EC, ca. 20 and above. Tolerates exposure to salt-laden winds. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

No. Reasonable. No recorded information. Revegetation of saline and waterlogged sites, erosion control, ornamental, low shelter belts.

Soils and vegetation types Grows in low-lying areas subject to salinity and waterlogging, often in pure stands.

-.

-

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% a-

' d--

L-

%&,p

Estimatad climatic range (350 m m min.) - -

-

Detailed description^

Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. Common names

Long-leaved paperbark, broadleaved paperbark, paperbark, broad-leaved tea-tree, river tea-tree, weeping tea-tree.

Main attributes

A highly waterlogging-tolerant, moderately to highly salt-tolerant, fast-growing tree. Useful for posts, poles, firewood, shade, shelter and honey production.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 422-4056 mm. Rainfall regime: Summer. Dry season: 0-8 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 28-39 O C . Mean minimum coldest month: 7-21 "C. Mean annual temp: 19-29 "C.

Description On favourable sites a tall tree (25-40 m), with straight trunk up to 1.5 m in diameter, short and twisted on poorer sites. Bark can be striking white in colour and smooth, outer layers become loose and unrolled, hence paperbark. Leaves are light green and lanceolate (10-20 x 13 cm) with 5 distinct longitudinal veins. Flowers are on loose spikes in groups of up to 3, white or creamy white, appearing mostly May to September, but can occur at other times throughout the year. Fruits are small cup-shaped capsules loosely clustered along branches. Approx. 2300 viable seedslg. Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Tolerates fire. Like many melaleucas, it has the potential to become a weed. No insect damage reported. Adapts to a wide variety of soils. Frost sensitive. Tolerant of acidic, swampy conditions; shows excellent growth on seasonally inundated, acid sulpbate soils in Vietnam. Highly waterlogging-tolerant. Forms aerial adventitious roots in waterlogged or flooded conditions. Moderately to highly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10-15 dS/m and reduced survival above ca. 15 dS/m. I

-*

Uses

t.

Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Other:

No. ' 9 Good. Pinky grey heartwood; sapwood usually Estimatedpaler. climatic rangeand durable. High silica Strong content, rapidly blunts saws and planes. Can be used for unsawn rough construction timber, sleepers, fence posts, mine props, boat building, poles and piles. Air dry density 725-800 kg/m3. Used for windbreaks, erosion control and as an ornamental. Flowers regularly and is a good source of nectar.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs on flat or very gently sloping topography, mostly on river flats, coastal plains or seasonal swamps. Soils are silty to loamy clays or sandy loams over clay with seasonally fluctuating watertables, which may be saline. Best form in tall openforest adjacent to rainforest or along riverbanks. Often the dominant species, commonly occurring in almost pure stands. The natural distribution of this species also extends to Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya. !sthated climatic range

Section One - Detailed Descriptions

Melaleuca ~inariif0lh-dSmith Common names

Narrow-leaved tea-tree (standard trade name), narrow-leaved paperbark, flax-leaf paperbark, snow-in-summer.

Main attributes

A moderately salt-tolerant, highly waterlogging-tolerant, fast-growing, denselybranched shrub or small erect tree. Is moderately frosttolerant and the wood is durable for marine piles. It is a good firewood and the leaves are rich in oils.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 730-1700 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform/bimodal, summer. Dry season: 0-4 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 25-32 O C . Mean minimum coldest month: 0-10 "C. Mean annual temp: 12-2 1 O C .

Description

Densely-branched shrub (2-8 m) to small erect tree (10-15 m) with well-branched and dense crown. Bark white and papery. Leaves are small, linear- lanceolate and tapering to a sharp point (2-3 x 0.2-0.4 cm) in opposite pairs. They have many oil glands and a visible midrib. Flowers are on short spikes, white, appearing mostly December to Februaq. Fruits are flattened round capsules, scattered along the stem. Approx. 2150 viable seedslg.

Silviculture and growth Moderately fast-growing. Will grow in heavy soils. No insect damage reported. Tolerates swampy conditions and moderate frosts. Forms aerial adventitious roots in waterlogged or flooded conditions, but otherwise deep rooted. Can be grown on coastal locations. Moderately salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 5-10 dSim and reduced survival ca. 10 dS/m. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood: Other:

No. Good. Durable when uied in water (e.g. marine piles). Useful for shade and shelter, ornamental. High percentage (1.5-2%) of essential oil in leaves. Mostly of high cineole content but some provenances rich in terpinen-401. The latter is of commercial potential. Attracts birds.

-r;at,.

Soils and vegetation types Occurs in swamps, deep sands and heavy soils derived from shales and prefers sites where adequate soil moisture is available throughout the year. It will grow on soils with acid to neutral pH. Occurs in open-forest formation, typically in almost pure stands along streams or swampy areas.

r

-1 I 8

6-

"

v

.

'k

*'

-

Estimated climatic range

Section One - Detailed Descriptiom

Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T.Blake Common names Broad-leaved tea-tree (standard trade name), five-veined paperbark, broad-leaved paperbark, paperbark tea-tree, numbah, belbowrie. Main attributes A moderately salt-tolerant, fastgrowing tree which is capable of growing on acidic sites with long term or periodic flooding. Fire-tolerant. It produces an excellent firewood, provides useful timber and is a good source of honey.

Climatic indicators Mean annual rainfall: 840-3440 mm. Rainfall regime: Uniform/bimodal, summer. Dry season: 0-7 months. Mean maximum hottest month: 27-34 "C. Mean minimum coldest month: 4-20 "C. Mean annual temp: 17-26 "C.

Description Small to medium-sized tree (8-12 m), occasionally up to 25 m, moderately straight trunk. Bark is thick, pale coloured, with outer papery layers that split and peel. Leaves are dull green, stiff and leathery with 5 prominent veins (4-10 x 1.5-3 cm), lanceolate to oblanceolate. Flowers are on dense spikes, white or creamy white, appearing mostly March to July, but can occur at other times throughout the year. Fruits are small, woody cylindrical capsules, densely packed along branches. Approx. 2700 viable seedsfg. Growth characteristics Moderately fast-growing. Coppices well, reports of root suckering are rare. Seeds profusely and can become a weed where periodic fires provide a suitable seedbed. Tolerates fire. Low insect damage from sawfly. Forms aerial adventitious roots in waterlogged or flooded conditions. Extensive root system. Tolerates acidic, swampy conditions. Frost-sensitive. Moderately salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth at EC, ca. 10 dS1m and reduced survival ca. 15 dSIm. Uses Fodder: Firewood: Wood:

Others:

No. Excellent. Pink to reddish brown, hard, durable, can warp. High silica content, rapidly blunts saws and planes. Difficult to season. Can be used for unsawn rough construction timber, sleepers, fence posts, mine props, poles and piles. Air dry density 730800 kg/m3. Windbreaks, erosion control. Good source of nectar and pollen. Bark can be used as a component of potting mixes, packaging and insulation. Foliar essential oils are extracted in New Caledonia for use in pharmaceutical products.

Soils and vegetation types Mostly occurs on level or gently undulating coastal lowlands. Also occurs on streams, fringes of tidal estuaries and freshwater swamps. Soils are often peaty humid gleys, sandy at the surface but silty or clayey below with high organic matter content. Prefers acidic to neutral soils. Occurs in open-forest and woodland formation. Also occurs in Papua New Guinea and on hill slopes in New Caledonia.

... .C

Estimated climatic range

Section Two - Summary Descriptions

Acacia acuminata Benth. Common name

R a s ~ b e nJam ~ (standard trade

name).

Susceptible to attack by acacia spotting bug. Frost-tolerant. Tolerates slightly acidic to alkaline soils. Suited to wet, waterlogged sites and coastal exposure. Slightly to moderately salt-tolerant. Air-dry density ca. 660 kg/m3. Firewood and ornamental.

Description, occurrence and uses

Moderately fast-growing, large bushy shrub to small tree (3-5 m) with erect, spreading branches. Deeply furrowed grey coloured bark on lower part of trunk. Phyllodes have 1-3 prominent veins. Fragrant brilliant yellow flowers, in dense spikes, appear in winter. Occurs in south-west Western Australia where the mean annual rainfall is 300-500 mm. Grows on gently undulating topography, soils range from clays to red sand and granite gravels. Tolerates drought, light frosts, moderately alkaline and moderately saline soils. Medium susceptibility to insect attack in Western Australia due to unidentified borers and occasionally to fungal leaf and stem galls. Reddish brown h e m o o d with a pale yellow sapwood. Timber is hard and very durable in the gronnd. Air-dry density ca. 1100 kg/m3. Odour from freshly cut timber ,smells like raspberry jam. Used for fence posts (major use in Western Australia), craft and wood turning, shelter and erosion control.

Acacia iteaphylla F.Muel1. ex Benth. Common names

Flinders Range wattle, willow-

leaved wattle.

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, small bushy shrub (2-4 m) with drooping branches. Bark smooth, reddish-brown. Phyllodes are silver blue-green. Globular pale or bright lemon-yellow flowers appear in autumn-winter. Occurs mainly in the Gawler and Flinders Ranges in South Australia. Rainfall 200-500 mm. Grows on shallow, compact loamy soils on hillsides amongst rocky outcrops or in valleys along rocky creek banks. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Tolerates both alkaline and acid soils. Drought-hardy and frost-tolerant. Moderately salt-tolerant. Used as firewood, planted with a taller species for shelterbelts, ornamental.

Acacia long~yolia(Andr.)Willd. Common names

Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Common name

Black

wattle

(standard

trade

name).

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing (up to 2-3 m per year), large shrub or small tree (6-10 m), occasionally reaching 20 m. The bark on old trees is brownish-black, hard and fissured, but on the upper branches and on younger stems it is grey-brown and smooth. It has dark-green, fern-like bipinnate foliage made up of 8-21 pairs of pinnae each with 15-70 pairs of crowded leaflets. Pale creamy flowers in globular heads appear in spring-summer. Occurs in south-eastern Australia from near Sydney, New South Wales, through southern Victoria to south-eastem South Australia and Tasmania. Rainfall ranges from 600 to 925 mm. It grows on a range of soils but is common on soils derived from metamorphic shales and slates. The soils are mainly loams, sandy loams, valley alluvia, and deep forest podzols of moderate to low fertility. The best soils are moist, relatively deep, light-textured, and well-drained. Produces root-suckers, may become a weed. Medium to high susceptibility to insect attack. In Victoria and Tasmania it is very susceptible to fireblight beetle, a winter-active leaf beetle specific to bipinnate wattles. It is also susceptible to borer attack and to mealybug especially on stressed sites. A range of pinnule-feeding defoliating caterpillars may also cause significant defoliation. Provenance variation for frost tolerance and possibly to insect attack. Slightly salt-tolerant. Expect reduced growth and survival at EC, less than 5 dS/m. Pale brown, moderately dense wood. Air-dry density ca. 550-750 kg/m3. Excellent for firewood and charcoal. Used for poles and mining timber. Bark is very rich in tannin which is used in Australia and overseas for leather tanning and in adhesives for timber products. A useful species for erosion control, shade, windbreaks and ornamental plantings.

Acacia retinodes Schldl.

Sydney golden wattle (standard

trade name), sallow wattle.

Description, occurrence and uses

Common names

Swamp wattle, wirilda.

~ a ~ t - ~ Description, ~ ~ ~ i occurrence ~ ~ , and uses ~ast-glowing, tall shrub to small tree (UP to 8 m) with drooping branches. large spreading short-lived shrub (3-7 m). Dark grey rough Greyish-brown bark. Ph~llodesare dull grey-green with bark. Phyllodes have 2-3 prominent veins. Bright yellow prominent mid-vein. Perfumed, pale yellow flowers in a flowers on spikes appear in spring. Occurs along the coast spherical head, appear in all seasons, but usually spring. and eastern tablelands in New South Wales and Victoria and southern south ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ 500-1000 f ~ l l imm,~ .Occurs in southern South Australia, south and central

Section T w o - Summary Descriptions

Victoria and on Flinders Island. Grows on coastal sands and loams in damp gullies and on hillsides. Rainfall 400-1000 mm. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Tolerates frost and acid soils. Highly salt-tolerant. Suited to wet sites with saline subsoils. Used for windbreaks, ornamental, road side plantings.

wood turnery. Foliage is highly palatable and recognised drought fodder. Windbreak, shade.

E U C U ~ astringt?ns ~ ~ ~ U S (Maiden) Maiden Common name

Allocasuarina luehmannii (R.Baker) L.Johnson Formally known as Casuarina luehmannii R.Baker

Common name

Bull oak (standard trade name).

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, medium tree (10-20 m), with dull green branchlets and rough, brown bark. Male and female flowers occur on separate trees; male flowers are yellowish and form spikes towards the ends of the branchlets, female flowers are in short compact heads. Flowers appear mainly in summer. Has a wide distribution in eastern Australia, from north Queensland to eastern South Australia. Occurs mainly on the plains and gentle slopes. Grows on a wide range of soils, from poor, well-drained sands to sandy loams and poorlydrained clays, all usually low in nutrients. Rainfall 400-800 mm. Root-suckering is rare. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Tolerates wind, light frost, drought, poorly aerated soils, waterlogging and moderate salinity (similar to Allocasuarina verticillata). Dark red heartwood; sapwood usually paler. Durable, coarse grained timber. Air dry density 1100 kg/m3. Good firewood, mine props, posts. Negligible value for fodder. Windbreak, shade.

Brown mallet (standard trade

name).

Description, occurrence and uses: Moderately fast-growing, small to medium tree (10-25 m). Straight trunk with smooth grey bark. Leaves are alternate, lanceolate and glossy-green. Creamy-yellow flowers appear in spring. Occurs in south-west Western Australia on sandy or clay loam soils with 350-550 mm rainfall. Poor coppicing ability. Adaptable to most soils, including heavy clays, provided drainage is suitable. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Moderately frost- and salttolerant. Drought-hardy. Heartwood is light red-brown to dark grey-brown; sapwood is paler. Timber is fine textured, strong and moderately durable. Air dry density 980 kg/mi. Excellent firewood, fence posts, mining props, tool handles, bark has high tannin content. Ornamental. A good source of nectar and pollen.

Euca&ptus campaspe S.Moore Common name

Silver-topped

gimlet (standard

trade name).

Description, occurrence and uses

Allocasuarina verticillata (Lam.) L.Johnson Formally known as Casuarina stricta Aiton Common name

Drooping sheoak (standard trade

name).

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, small tree (6-10 m), dense crown of dull greyish-green, mostly drooping branchlets. Male and female flowers occur on separate trees; male flowers are yellow-brown in colour and form dense cylindrical spikes, female flowers form inconspicuous short heads. Flowers appear in winter. Occurs .. on the coastal plains and inland ranges of South Australia, Victoria. Tasmania and New South Wales. Grows on a range of topography which varies from level countryside to exposed coastal headlands and cliffs, rocky gorges and ledges and mountain ridges. It covers a wide range of soil types, although they are all generally poor. Rainfall is 600900 mm. Coppices vigorously. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Tolerates wind, frost, drought, waterlogging and moderate salinity. Heavy, hard and durable timber. Good firewood, mine props, posts and

Slow-growing, small tree (up to 11 m), with low branches. Smooth, copperbrown to dark red-brown bark. Adult leaves are alternate, lanceolate, grey or grey-green. Creamy-white flowers appear in spring-summer. Occurs near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia on red, loamy soils, with 250-300 mm rainfall. Will grow on light to heavy soils. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported from New South Wales. Low damage reported from Western Australia due to gumtree scale. It is tolerant to drought and moderate frost. It is highly salt-tolerant. Pale brown strong wood, useful for firewood, poles and tool handles. Ornamental (attractive canopy), windbreaks and shade. Bark rich in tannin.

Eucahtus cinerea F.Muell. ex BenthCommon names

~~~~l~ apple (standard

trade

mealy s*ngybark.

Description, occurrence and uses

Moderately fast-growing, small to medium tree (8-15 m). Bark is rough and persistent, thick and fibrous, furrowed, reddish-brown to grey-brown. Leaves are sessile, opposite, orbicular to

Section Two - Summaiy Descriptions

cordate and glaucous (mature trees usually have juvenile leaf form). White flowers appear in late spring-early summer. Occurs in 500-700 mm rainfall zone in southern tablelands of New South Wales and in arts of northeast Victoria. Very susceptible to autumn gum moth in outbreak years of this moth. It is highly tolerant to frost and moderately drought-tolerant. Slightly salt-tolerant. Will grow on wet sites. Wood is soft, weak and of little use. Ornamental and shelterbelts. Cut stems with silvery foliage are used by floral industry. Reasonably high levels of cineole leaf oils.

Eucalvptus coolabah 7

Blakely & Jacobs

subsp. coolabah Common name

Coolabah

EucalyptUS crenulata

slakely

&

de

Common names Victorian silver gum (standard trade name), Buxton gum, silver gum. Description, occurrence and uses

Moderately fast-growing, small tree (6-12 m). Bark rough and persistent on lower trunk, peeling to leave a yellow, grey or greybrown surface. Leaves are blue-green and opposite on both juvenile and mature trees. White flowers appear in spring. Occurs in 1100-1400 mm rainfall zone in restricted area north east of Melbourne, Victoria. Very susceptible to autumn gum moth. Frost-tolerant. Grows on wet valley floors near rivers in mountainous country. Will tolerate a variety of soils and wet soil conditions. Suited to swampy sites, -will tolerate some flooding. Slightly salt-tolera&. Wood is pale coloured, open-grained, soft but tough. Ornamental plantings.

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing. Varies from a well fonned tree (15-20 m) to a small straggly tree. Bark rough and persistent on part or most of trunk. Adult leaves are green to greyish-green and lanceolate. White flowers appear in summer. Occurs in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia. Grows around swamps and lagoons or along watercourses, usually on flat sites on heavy, grey cracking soils. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Is drought-tolerant and moderately frost-tolerant. Tolerates alkaline and moderately saline soils. The dark brown to black wood with an interlocked grain is hard and durable. Air dry density is 1150 kg/m3. Used for firewood and fencing.

Eucalyptus cornuta Labill. Common name

Yate (standard trade name).

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, small to medium tree (10-25 m). Straight trunk with rough and persistent dark grey bark. Adult leaves are alternate, lanceolate and glossy-green. Creamy-yellow flowers appear in late summer. Occurs in southwest Western Australia along the coast from Busselton to Albany. Commonly found in fertile moist valleys on gravelly loams with 750-1400 mm rainfall. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests re~orted.Mildly frost-tolerant. Will tolerate a variety of soils including gravelly, alkaline, slightly saline and heavy clays. Pale yellow-brown wood, very heavy with an interlocked grain, durable. One of the strongest and hardest timbers in the world. Windbreak, shade, ornamental. Useful for honey production.

EUCU&~~US dumosa A.Cunn. ex Oxley Common name

White mallee (standard trade

name).

Description, occurrence and uses

Moderate growth rate. Mallee shrub (2-10 m). Bark peeling over most of its surface to leave a white-yellow to grey surface. Leaves are narrow, yellow-green to grey-green and alternate. White flowers appear in winter-spring. Occurs in 250-500 mm rainfall zone in central South Australia to Victoria and western New South Wales. Found on solonised brown soils, red-brown earths and desert loams. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Moderately frosttolerant. ~ r o u ~ h t - t o l e r a nslightly i salt-tolerant. ~i-mberis only available in small sizes; it is hard and moderately durable. The 'mallee' roots are a good firewood. Ornamental, shelter in dry areas. Source of nectar.

Eucalyptus data Dehnh. Common names

River peppermint (standard trade

name), river white gum. Occurrence and uses Fast-grOwing, medium tree (20-30 m). Bark is lough On lower m*, dark grey, fissured and peeling off in. long ribbons. ~ d u l t leaves are narrow, alternate, green, with prominent oil glands; producing a peppermint smell when crushed. White flowers appear in spring. Occurs in eastern tablelands of New South Wales and sub-coastal areas of New South Wales and Victoria in the 650-1700 mm rainfall zone. Low susceptibility to Christmas beetles, sawfly, leaf beetle, scale,

Section Two - Summary Descriptions

eucalypt weevil and other insects. Moderately frost-tolerant. Coppices. Suited to moist (but not waterlogged), moderately fertile alluvial loams. Slightly salt-tolerant. Wood is pale brown, subject to gum veins and can be used for light construction and for interior finish and joinery.

trunk. Adult leaves are alternate, broad-lanceolate to lanceolate, glossy green. White flowers appear in mid summer to autumn. Grows on the coastal plains and ranges of central and northern New South Wales, extending into south east Queensland. with scattered occurrences as far north as the Atherton area. Mean annual rainfall is around 700-1200 mm. Occurs in open-forest and woodlands on plains and undulating country. Soils are usually heavy. clays or light soils over a clay sub-soil. These are moist but welldrained and moderately fertile. Coppices well. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Frost-tolerant. Moderately salt-tolerant. Light brown heartwood, sapwood is paler. Wood has a fine uniform texture with an interlocked grain and is very hard, strong, durable and termite-resistant. Air dry density is about 1100 kgim3. Used for heavy engineering construction, poles, crossarms and railway sleepers. Excellent firewood. Useful tree for shade and windbreaks, good source of nectar. ~

~~~~l't~~ melliodora A . c ~ ex~ schauer ~ . Common names Yellow box name), honey box, yellow ironbark.

(standard

trade

Description, occurrence and uses Moderate to very slow-growing, medium to tall tree (15-30 m). Rough, grey to yellow-brown (or darker) bark which is persistent on the lower part of the trunk. The bark is usually shed from the upper trunk and main branches, leaving a smooth whitish or yellowish surface. Adult leaves are alternate, lanceolate to narrow-lanceolate and are light green to greygreen. At all stages the intramarginal vein is conspicuous~y remote from the leaf edge. White flowers appear in springsummer. Widely distributed on the plains and tablelands from western Victoria, through New South Wales to southern Queensland, and in sub-coastal areas such as the Hunter and Bega valleys. Occurs mainly in woodlands on gentle slopes and foothills, but is restricted to flats near watercourses in the drier parts of its range. Best development is on light to somewhat heavy alluvial soils, loams and sandy loams with 500-900 mm rainfall. Coppices well. Varying susceptibility to insect attack with some individuals and provenances more resistant than others. Young trees are susceptible lo sawfly and scale, older trees have varying susceptibility to Christmas beetles and are susceptible to outbreaks of yellow box lerp (western slopes of New South Wales) and yellow box lace lerp (Hunter Valley). Frost-tolerant, but growth is very slow in cold sites. Tolerates a variety of acid to slightly alkaline soils. Withstands strong winds. Moderately salt-tolerant. Light pink to yellowish-brown heartwood with a paler sapwood. Very strong and heavy with a coarse texture and interlocked grain. Air dry density is about 1100 kg/m3. The timber is extremely durable and is used for heavy engineering construction, poles and railway sleepers. It is an excellent firewood. Useful tree for amenity planting, shade and windbreaks, but slow growth may be a problem. Considered to be the best honey-producing eucalypt.

Eucalyptus rnoluccana ~ o x b . Syn. E. herniphloia F.Muel1. ex Benth.

Eucalyptu~ovata Labill. Var. ovata names Swamp gum (standard name), black gum (southern Tas.), white gum.

trade

Description, occurrence and uses Slow-growing. Medium to tall tree (1 5-25 m), with a straight trunk for half tree height and a moderately dense crown (a stunted tree in cold poorly-drained conditions). Bark is a dark grey stocking at the base, shed from the trunk and branches in long ribbons. Adult leaves are alternately arranged, glossy green, ovate to lanceolate. White flowers appear in autumnwinter. Widely distributed in south-eastern Australia including Tasmania and the eastern Bass Strait Islands. Rainfall is around 600-1400 mm. Occurs on a variety of sites, from exposed coastal plains to mountain foothills. Soils are generally sands and clays, very frequently poorlydrained. Very susceptible to insect attack especially in Tasmania where gumleaf skeletoniser is the major problem. Also damaged by leaf beetle, Christmas beetle and scale. Grows well in frost hollows and areas subject to extended (several months) waterlogging. Slightly salt-tolerant. Wood is pale, not very durable, air dry density 700 kg/m3. Used for firewood and posts. Shade and shelter tree for cold, wet sites, along streams and drainage lines.

Eucalyptus platypus ~ o o k . Common names

Round-leaf moort (standard trade

name), moort.

Common names

Grey box (standard trade name),

gum-topped box.

Description, occurrence and uses

and uses Moderately fast-growing, medium tree (20-30 m) of good form. Thin, grey b m - t ~ ~bark e is persistent on the lower half of the

mallee shrub (3-4 m) to small tree (6-9 m). Short trunk with smooth grey bark peeling in summer to leave a fresh, brown-pink bark. Adult leaves are alternate, thick and olive green. Yellow-green to creamy-green flowers appear in

Fast-growing,

Section Two - Summary Descriptions

mid-summer. Occurs near southern coast of Western Australia between Albany and Esperance. Grows on clay soils, often associated with limestone, within the 400-700 mm rainfall zone. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Is drought-tolerant and moderately frost-tolerant. Tolerates alkaline soils. Will grow on moderately saline soils and on areas with poor drainage. Pale brown, durable wood suitable for fence posts, bark suitable for tanning. Ornamental, shelterbelts. Good pollen and nectar production.

Eucalyptus polybractea R.Baker Common names Blue name), blue-leaved mallee.

mallee

(standard

trade

Description, occurrence and uses small, moderately slow-growing multi-stemmed mallee tree (5-10 m). Adult leaves are alternate, narrow-lanceolate or linear and green to greyish-green with numerous oil glands. The spreading canopy has an ash-coloured or bluish appearance. White flowers appear from March to June. Has a limited distribution, occurring in two disjunct areas separated by over 400 km; it is found in the Wyalong district of New South Wales (470 mm annual rainfall) and in the Bendigo district of central northwestern Victoria (540 mm annual rainfall). Grows in low open-scrub formation on the rises and flats of gently undulating country. Soils are mainly redbrown loams, also occurs on sandy and shale soils. Coppices well. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Frost-tolerant. Moderately salt-tolerant. The smallsized wood is hard and strong. Valuable oil producer with a high content of cineole (up to SO-90%) in the leaves. Useful for honey production.

Eucalyptus rudis Endl. Common names

Western Australian flooded gum (standard trade name), swamp gum.

Description, occurrence and uses Fast-growing, medium tree (10-20 m). Short, straight trunk covered with grey box-type (shortly fibrous) bark, with large spreading branches. Adult leaves are alternate, broad-lanceolate to lanceolate and green. White to cream flowers appear in spring. Occurs near the coast and in nearby ranges from north of Geraldton to southern Western Australia (usually within 200 km of the sea) with a range in rainfall from 4001000 mm. Closely related to E. camaldulensis. It is found mainly on river flats and along stream banks. Occurs on sand, heavy silt, loan and clay soils. High susceptibility to insect attack in Western Australia due to shothole miner, gumleaf skeletoniser, leafblister sawfly, sawfly and gumtree scale. Probably also susceptible in eastern Australia. Slightly frost-tolerant. Tolerates poorly-drained sites. Moderately

salt-tolerant. Pale brown to red wood, heavy and crossgrained, of low durability. Mainly used for firewood. Windbreak and shade tree. Useful for honey production.

Melaleuca armillaris (Gaertner) Smith Common names Bracelet honey myrtle (standard trade name), giant honey myrtle. Description, occurrence and uses Fast-growing, compact, dense-foliaged, bushy shrub or small tree (3-8 m). Bark is whitish-brown, papery. Leaves are needle-like, soft. Creamy white flower spikes appear in spring-summer. Grows on the coastal areas of New South Wales and eastern Victoria, mainly on lowland sites near streams. Will tolerate a range of soils including sandy, acid, alkaline and heavy clay. Medium susceptibility to sawfly on coastal sites. Suited to both wet and dry sites. Frost-tolerant. Tolerates waterlogging. Will tolerate severe coastal exposure. Moderately salt-tolerant. Firewood, windbreak and ornamental.

Melaleuca bracteata F.Muel1. Common names River tea-tree (standard trade name), black tea-tree, white cloud tea-tree, prickly-leaved tea-tree, bracteate honey myrtle. Description, occurrence and uses Moderate growth rate. Large shrub or small tree (5-10 m). Bark is dark grey, hard and deeply furrowed. Leaves are sessile, lanceolate, pointed and often hairy. White flower spikes appear in spring to early summer. It has one of the widest distributions for a melaleuca in Australia. The main distribution is in eastern Australia from central New South Wales to Cape York, Queensland. There are disjunct occurrences in Queensland, central Australia, and the Pilbara and Kimberley areas of Western Australia. Rainfall ranges from 250 to 1150 mm throughout its range. Frequently found around waterholes and along watercourses. Grows on basalt, granite, granodiorite, quartz, sandstone, and serpentine. Soils are generally heavy textured clays, krasnozems, and fine alluviums. Coppices readily and root-suckers. Low susceptibility to insect attack; sawfly occasionally reported. Moderately frost-tolerant. Can grow on highly alkaline soils. Moderately salt-tolerant. Wood is close-grained, hard and durable. Excellent ornamental and shelter tree for sub-humid and semi-arid climates. Leaves produce an essential oil (methyl eugenol) which can be used in insecticides, perfumery and soap.

Section Two - Summary Descriptions

Melaleuca cuticularis Labill. Common name

Melaleuca lanceolata otto Common names

Saltwater paperbark.

Moonah (standard trade name),

dryland tea tree.

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, large single or multi-stemmed shrub or a small tree (6-12 m). The bark is white and papery. The small leaves are opposite, linear-oblong to narrow-lanceolate. White or cream flowers surrounded by imbricate brown bracts appear in single or multiple heads at the ends of the branches in spring. Fruit are rough and woody with long, persistent, claw-like sepals which are star-shaped when viewed 'end on'. It is distributed in the south west of Western Australia; a single population also exists on Kangaroo Island in South Australia. Typically grows on or near the coast, usually in waterlogged depressions. Often occurs in pure stands around lakes, drainage lines, swamps, salty clay pans and streams. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Highly waterlogging tolerant. Can tolerate alkaline soils. Highly salt-tolerant. Useful for sites with a high saline watertable. Small windbreak and ornamental plantings.

Melaleuca decussata R.Br Common name

Cross-leaf

Description, occurrence and uses Fast-growing, bushy shrub to small tree (5-8 m) with a dense rounded canopy. Hard, dark grey to black coloured bark. Leaves are alternate, small, lanceolate and dark green (but new growth is pale green). Spikes of white flowers appear in summer. Occurs in southern Australia in all mainland states except Northern Territory, on coastal and inland sites, annual rainfall is mainly 300-650 mm. Grows on a wide range of soils, including shallow terra rosa over limestone, shales and ancient sand dunes. Low susceptibility to insect attack; sawfly occasionally reported. Tolerates acid and alkaline soils, frost, drought, and swampy conditions. Highly salttolerant. The pinkish-brown wood is tough and durable and suitable for fence posts. Air dry density is 560 kg/m3. Firewood, erosion control, windbreak, shade and shelterbelts. Source of nectar (produces a light amber honey) and pollen.

Melaleuca squarrosa Donn ex Smith honey

myrtle

Common names

(standard trade name).

Scented

paperbark

(standard

trade name), tea-tree.

Description, occurrence and uses Fast-growing, many branched, normally erect shrub (2-4 m). Leaves are small and flat, opposite and decussate, forming a cross when the stem is viewed 'end-on'. Small, purple flowers appear in late spring-summer. Found on the wetter coastal regions of South Australia and western Victoria. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Will grow in both acid and alkaline conditions. Highly frost-, waterloggingand salt-tolerant. Firewood, windbreak and ornamental.

Melaleuca ericifolia Smith Common names

Swamp tea-tree (standard trade

Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, erect, dense shrub or small tree (2-6 m). The bark is greyish and papery. Leaves are bright green, opposite, small and rigid, ovate to ovate ending with a definite point. The leaves have 5-7 distinct nerves running along them. Terminal spikes of scented, cream flowers appear in spring or early summer. It occurs from the south coast of New South Wales, through Victoria to the south-east of South Australia and Kangaroo Island and Tasmania. It is usually found in low-lying swampy areas. Low susceptibility to insect attack; sawfly occasionally reported. Low frost tolerance. Tolerates acid soils, intolerant of alkaline conditions. Highly waterlogging- and salt-tolerant. Understorey for windbreaks, ornamental. Useful for wet saline conditions. Provides useful quantities of both pollen and nectar.

name), swamp paperbark.

Description, occurrence and uses Fast-growing, tall bushy shrub to small tree (3-9 m). Greyish, papery bark. Leaves are small and needle-like. Short spikes of creamywhite flowers appear in spring. Occurs in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, mainly in wet coastal situations. Will grow in both acid and alkaline conditions. Will grow in swampy conditions. Low susceptibility to insect attack; sawfly occasionally reported. Highly frostand waterlogging-tolerant. Moderately salt-tolerant. Firewood, windbreak and ornamental. Good source of both nectar and pollen.

Melaleuca styphelioides Smith Common names Prickly-leaved tea-tree (standard trade name), prickly paperbark. Description, occurrence and uses

Fast-growing, small erect tree (8-15 m) with a dense canopy. Bark is greywhite and papery. Leaves are alternate, ovate-lanceolate. Spikes of cream coloured flowers appear in spring-summer. Grows along coastal streams and estuaries of southern

Section Two - Summay Descriptions

Queensland and New South Wales. Will tolerate a variety of soils including sandy, wet and heavy clay. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Tolerates both acid and alkaline soils. Frost- and droughttolerant. Tolerates waterlogging and swampy conditions. Moderately salt-tolerant. Red-brown wood is very durable. Windbreak and ornamental plantings.

Melaleuca uncinata R.Br. Common names Broombush (standard name), brush honey-myrtle, broom honey myrtle.

trade

Description, occurrence and uses Slow-growing, broom-like shrub (1-3 m) with numerous ascending branches. Grey, papcry bark. Leaves are alternate, cylindrical or slightly flattened. Globular heads of cream to yellow flowers appear in spring. Fire-resistant; regenerates from ligno-tubers with multiple stems after fires or coppicing. Occurs in all mainland states in low rainfall mallee areas. Grows on deep sandy soils and red earths in mallee communities, on gravelly ridges with loamy soils or around the edges of small sandy depressions. Often found in monospecific stands where the soil surface is damp for several months during winter. Low susceptibility to insect attack; no insect pests reported. Moderately salt-tolerant. Tolerates drought, waterlogging. Used commercially for the construction of brush fencing. Other uses include shadehouses, construction of garden furniture, hanging baskets, and decorative bird feeders.

Glossary of Botanical and Other Terms Most of the entries are based on Boland et al. (1984), Brooker and Kleinig (1983) and Whibley and Symon (1992) (see References, Chapter 2). Alternate A spaced arrangement of leaves along a stem, where adjacent leaves are neither opposite one another nor whorled. Aril (see funicle) An expansion of the funicle into a fleshy appendage, sometimes covering a considerable part of the seed. Bimodal (of rainfall) Possessing two peak periods during the year. Bipinnate Having pinnate leaves, in which the leaflets are again divided into secondary leaflets. Bracteole A leaf in the axil of which an inflorescence or single flower arises.

Globular Having the form of a ball or sphere; spherical. Lanceolate (of leaves) Narrow and tapering at each end: lance hke; in modem usage the base is usually somewhat broadened, with the greatest breadth about one third from the base. Linear (of leaves) Long and narrow, the sides parallel or nearly so. Obconical Conical but inverted with the narrow end to the point of attachment. Ovate (of leaves) Shaped like the longitudinal section of a hens egg, the broader end basal. Ovoid An egg-shaped solid. Pedicle The stalk of an individual flower or fruit. Pedicelate Having a petiole.

Clone The group of plants which are grown from vegetative material collected from one tree. Vegetative material collected from a tree is produced asexually, and is therefore all genetically identical. For example, all the plants grown from cuttings from one tree are a clone. Coppice New sprouts arising from a lignotuber or stump, typically following loss of, or damage to, the stem. Cordate Heart shaped; applied to ovate leaves having the petiole at the broader and notched end. Discolorous The two surfaces of the leaf differ in colour (or are unlike in colour). EC The electrical conductivity of water, a soil water extract or mix is an inferred measure of the salinity of a solution.

Pendulous Hanging down. Petioles The stalk of a leaf. Phyllode (on acacias) A petiole taking on the form and functions of the leaf. Pinnate With the leaflets of a compound leaf placed on either each side of the rachis.(see below) Provenance The place where a particular seedlot comes from, normally used for natural forests and not plantations. Because of genetic adaptation to their different natural sites, seed from different areas but of the one species (provenances) can differ greatly in performance when planted together at one site.

EC,The electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste is an appropriate way of describing soil salinity. The units most com&only used are decisiemens per metre (dS/m). See Table I (page 10) for details of converting EC1:5to EC,

Pyriform Pear-like in shape.

Exserted Protruding beyond the mouth (of the capsule).

Sessile Without a stak or petiole.

Family The plants which are grown from the seed collected from one tree. Seeds are created by sexual reproduction and are genetically different. A family is therefore the sexually reproduced progeny of a parent tree.

Tessellated (of bark) Surface marked onto squares or oblong 'scales' or blocks.

Funicle Slender stalk connecting the ovule (or seed) to the placenta (seed pod).

Whorl An arrangement of branches, leaves or floral parts in a circle around a common axis.

Glaucous Having a dull greenish-grey, waxy or powdery bloom.

Rachis The stalk or axis of an inflorescence or compound leaf.

Truncate Shortened in shape, as though cut off at the end.

Contacts for Further Information Further advice about which tree to plant, what methods to use and site preparation techniques should be addressed to local experts in public or private enterprise. In particular, offices of State deparhnents of conservation, forestry and agriculture and Greening Australia should be consulted in your district. Addresses of a few organisations, including contact persons, which could be contacted for further information and advice are given below. Australian Capital Territory

Tasmania

CSIRO Division of Forestry PO Box 4008 Queen Victoria Terrace Canberra ACT 2600 (contact: Nico Marcar and Debbie Crawford)

Private Forests Tasmania PO Box 180 Kings Meadows Tas 7249 (contact: Neil Parker) Victoria

CSIRO Division of Entomology PO Box 1700 Canberra ACT 260 1 (contact: Roger Farrow and Robert Floyd) New South Wales NSW Soil Conservation Service Department of Conservation & Land Management PO Box 207 Wellington NSW 2820 (contact: Allan Nicholson)

Department of Agriculture Pastoral & Veterinary Institute Private Bag 105 Hamilton Vic 3300 (contact: Rod Bird) Department of Conservation and Natural Resources PO Box 406 Kew Vic 3101 (contact: Jim Morris) Western Australia

Oueensland Queensland Forest Research Institute Queensland Department of Primary Industries Atherton Qld 4883 (contact: Dan Sun) Queensland Forest Research Institute MS 483 Fraser Road Gympie Qld 4570 (contact: David Taylor) South Australia State Flora Department of Primary Industries Murray Bridge Revegetation Centre PO Box 752 Murray Bridge SA 5253 (contact: Peter Bulman)

Department of Agriculture 10 Doney Street Narrogin WA 63 12 (contact: David Bicknell) Water Authority of Western Australia PO Box 100 Leedewille WA 6007 (contact: Neil Pettit)

Index of Species Common Names Argyle apple Eucalyptus cinerea 62 bangalay Eucalyptus botiyoides 40 belah Casuarina cristata 35 belalie Acacia stenophylla 34 belbowrie Melaleuca quinquenervia 60 black box Eucalyptus larg~florens 50 black gum Eucalyptus aggregata 39 black gum Eucalyptus ovata. var. ovata 64 black tea-tree Melaleuca bracteata 65 black wattle Acacia mearnsii 61 black yate Eucalyptus kondininensis 49 blackwood Acacia melanoxylon 3 1 blistered paperbark Melaleuca halmaturorum subsp. halmaturorum 57 blue gum Eucalyptus tereticornis 56 blue gum Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus 46 blue mallee Eucalyptus polybractea 64 blue-leafed wattle Acacia saligna 33 blue-leaved mallee Eucalyptuspolybractea 64 bracelet honey myrtle Melaleuca armillaris 65 bracteate honey myrtle Melaleuca bracteata 65 broad leaved sally Eucalyptus camphora 44 broad-leaved paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra 58 broad-leaved paperbark Melaleuca quinquenervia 60 broad-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca leucadendra 58 broad-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca quinquenervia 60 broombush Melaleuca uncinata 66 Broughton willow wattle Acacia salicina 32 brown mallet Eucalyptus astringens 62 bull oak Allocasuarina luehmannii 62 Buxton gum Eucalyptus crenulata 63 cooba Acacia salicina 32 coojong Acacia saligna 33 coolabah Eucalyptus coolabah subsp. coolabah 63 creek oak Casuarina cunninghamiana subsp. cunninghamiana 36 cross-leaf honey myrtle Melaleuca decussata 65 Dalby wattle Acacia stenophylla 34 doolan Acacia salicina 32 drooping sheoak Allocasuarina verticillata 62 dryland tea tree Melaleuca Ianceolata 66 Dundas mahogany Eucalyptus brockwayi 4 1 eumung Acacia stenophylla 34 fire oak Casuarina cunninghamiana subsp. cunninghamiana 36 five-veined paperbark Melaleuca quinquenervia 60 flat-topped yate Eucalyptus occidentalis 52 flax-leaf paperbark Melaleuca linariifolia 59 Flinders Range wattle Acacia iteaphylla 61 flooded gum Eucalyptus grandis 48 forest red gum Eucalyptus tereticornis 56 giant honey myrtle Melaleuca armillaris 65 golden wreath wattle Acacia saligna 33 grey box Eucalyptus moluccana 64 gum-topped box Eucalyptus moluccana 64

honey box Eucalyptus melliodora 63 jila jila bush Acacia ampliceps 29 kangaroo honey myrtle Melaleuca halmaturorum subsp. halmaturorum 57 Kangaroo Island paperbark Melaleuca halmaturorum subsp. halmaturorurn 57 Kondinin blackbutt Eucalyptus kondininensis 49 long-leaved paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra 58 mealy stringybark Eucalyptus cinerea 62 moonah Melaleuca lanceolata 66 moort Eucalyptus platypus 64 mountain swamp gum Eucalyptus camphor~ 44 Murray red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis 42 -

-

-

narrow leaved gimlet Eucalyptus spathulata 55 narrow-leaved paperbark Melaleuca linariijblia 59 narrow-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca linariifolia 59 native willow Acacia salicina 32 numbah Melaleuca quinquenervia 60 nyalka Acacia ampliceps 29 orange wattle Acacia saligna 33 paperbark Melaleuca Ieucadendra 58 paperbark tea-tree Melalezcca quinquenervia 60 prickly paperbark Melaleuca styphelioides 66 prickly-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca bracteata 65 prickly-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca styphelioides 66 raspbeny jam Acacia acuminata 61 red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis 42 red irongum Eucalyptus tereticornis 56 river cooba Acacia stenophylla 34 river gum Eucalyptus carnaldulensis 42 river myall Acacia stenopJgdla 34 river oak Casuarina cunninghamiana subsp. cunninghamiana 36 river peppermint Eucalyptus elata 63 river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis 42 river sheoak Casuarina cunninghamiana subsp. cunninghamiana 36 river tea-tree Melaleuca bracteata 65 river tea-tree Melaleuca leucadendra 58 river white gum Eucalyptus elata 63 rose gum Eucalyptus grandis 48 round-leaf moort Eucalyptusplatypus 64 sallow wattle Acacia Eongfolia 61 salt paperbark Melaleuca halmaturorum subsp, halmaturorum 57 Salt River gum Ezlcalyptus sargentii subsp. sargentii 54 Salt River mallet Eucalyptus sargentii subsp. sargentii 54 salt sheoak Casuarina obesa 38 salt wattle Acacia ampliceps 29 saltwater paperbark Melaleuca cuticeclaris 65 Sargent's mallet Eucalyptus sargentii subsp. sargentii 54 scented paperbark Melaleuca squarrosa 66 silver gum Eucalyptus crenulata 63 silver-topped gimlet Eucalyptus campaspe 62 snow-in-summer Melaleuca linariifolia 59 South Australian blue gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon subsp. leucoxylon 5 1 South Australian swamp paperbark Meluleuca halmaturorum subsp. halmaturorum 57

45 southern blue gum Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus 46 swamp blackwood Acacia melanoxylon 3 1 southern mahogany Eucalyptus botryoides 40 swamp gimlet Eucalyptus stocking gum Eucalyptus kondininensis 49 stocking tree Eucaiyptus kondininensis 49 sugar gum Eucalyptus cladocalyx spathulata 55 swamp gum Eucalyptus camphora 44 swamp gum Eucalyptus ovata. var. ovata 64 swamp gum Eucalyptus rudis 65 robusta 53 swamp mahogany Eucalyptus swamp mallet ~ u c a l ~ ~ t u . ~ s p a t h u l55 ata swamp messmate Eucabptz*s robusfa 53 swamp oak Cmuarina glauca 37 swamp paperbark Melaleuca ericifolia 66 swamp sheoak Casuarina glauca 37 swamp tea-tree Melaleuca ericifolia 66 swamp wattle Acacia retinodes 61 swamp yate Eucalyptus occidentalis 52 swampy oak Casuarina glauca 37 Sydney golden wattle Acacia longifolia 61

Tasmanian blue gum Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus 46 tea-tree Melaleuca squarrosa 66 Victorian silver gum Eucalyptus crenulata 63 weeping tea-tree Melaleuca leucadendra 58 Western Australian flooded gum Eucalyptus rudis 65 Western Australian swamp oak Cmuarina obesa 38 western coastal wattle Acacia cyclops 30 white cloud tea-tree Melaleuca bracteata 65 white gum Eucalyptus ovata. var. ovata 64 white ironbark Eucalyptus leucoxylon subsp. leucoxylon 5 1 white mallee Eucalyptus dumosa 63 willow wattle Acacia salicina 32 willow-leaved wattle Acacia iteaphylla 61 wirilda Acaciaretinodes 61 yate Eucalyptus cornuta 63 yellow box Eucalyptus melliodora 63 yellow gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon subsp. leucoxylon 5 1 yellow ironbark Eucalyptus melliodora 63