Tradition and Change in the Performance of Chinese Music, Part I: A special issue of the journal Musical Performance

Tradition and Change in the Performance of Chinese Music Part I

Contents

Guest Editor’s Preface Tsao Penyeh

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Romanization and Pronunciation

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Chinese Musical Instruments

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Articles ‘The Running Waters’: Traditional Chinese Instrumental Music Wu Ben

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The Music Associations of Hebei Province Xue Yibing, Stephen Jones

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Han Folk Song in China Qiao Jianzhong

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Nuo-Culture and Music: Traces of Chinese Primitive Music in Nuoyi and Nuoxi Deng Guanghua

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Taoist Ritual Music in China Tsao Penyeh

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Notes on Contributors

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Index

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Preface Tsao Penyeh

As a cultural entity of over five thousand years of history, Chinese music is a multifaced phenomenon consisting of diverse regional and trans-regional traditions. Two large categories of Chinese music can be distinguished: music(s) of the Han nationality and music(s) of the ethnic nationalities. The music(s) of the Han (majority of the Chinese population) is further divided into folk song, narrative music, instrumental music, music of the traditional theatres, and ritual music. The same divisions cannot always be applied to the music(s) of the 55 minority ethnic nationalities, whose music-making, mostly communal-occasion oriented, often intermixes vocal and instrumental music with dance. There has been a long tradition of native scholarship in the study of Chinese music, which, however, is little known to the West due to linguistic and cultural barriers. The present volume brings together ten articles written largely by native scholars, with the general aim of presenting a dialogue about Chinese music from ‘insider’s’ view points. These articles bring together divergent interests in the overall context of traditional music in today’s world of change. The articles encompass a wide cross-section of a variety of Chinese music and are arranged under the following topics:

1. Tradition, change, and preservation of musics of the Han nationality in mainland China; 2. Tradition, change, and preservation of musics of the Chinese ethnic nationalities in mainland China; 3. Contemporary development of Chinese music in mainland China; and 4. Chinese music outside Mainland China

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Under the first topic, Wu Ben’s description of the history and classification of traditional qiyue (instrumental music), their performance and transmission, and recent development provides an overview of Chinese instrumental music. Xue Yibing and Stephen Jones present a case study of the performance practice, organization, instrumentation and repertory of the amateur village ‘music associations’ (wind and percussion instrumental ensembles) in the Hebei province of northern China. Dealing with another area under the same topic, Qiao Jianzhong provides a brief discussion of the tradition of minge (folk song) and the general styles of its various song categories—haozi (work song), shangge (mountain song), xiaodiao (popular/small song), and tiange (rice-field song). Deng Guanghua presents a general description of the very ancient and still existing ritual-theatrical tradition of nuo, in terms of nuoyi (nuo ritual), nuowu (nuo dance), and nuoxi (nuo theatre). Also dealing with ritual music, Tsao Penyeh’s article delineates the history of religious Taoism and discusses the use of vocal and instrumental music in Taoist rituals. Tian Liantao’s article is an introduction to the musical styles of the Chinese ethnic nationalities. The influence of Western educational philosophy in recent history of music education in China is addressed by Xiu Hailin in his article on Cai Yuanpei, a pioneer music educator of the first half of the twentieth century. Also focusing on recent developments of Chinese music, Tsui Yingfai examines the emergence of the modern Chinese ‘folk’ orchestra. The last two articles in this volume deal with Chinese music outside mainland China. Ruth Yee discusses the basic elements in yueju (Cantonese opera) performance and its ‘hybridization’ in the context of colonial Hong Kong, and compares it with the yueju in mainland China. Wang Yaohua, on the other hand, compares, from a historical perspective, the interrelationship between Chinese and Japanese Ryukyu music in terms of the Chinese sanxian (three-string plucked lute), its tuning system and notation. I would like to thank first of all the authors of these articles for their outstanding cooperation in putting together this volume. Although the language of this volume is English, it is not the native tongue of the contributors, Stephen Jones being the only exception. In most cases, contributors wrote their articles in Chinese first, and then sought translators to translate their articles into English. Unable to read the English translation themselves, revision of the articles proved to be doubly difficult both for the contributors and the editor. Here, I would like to express my deep appreciation to the hard work and patience of the contributors. Language requirement has precluded many other potential submissions from the native scholars; in some cases, authors who had completed their articles in Chinese had to withdraw their submission at a later stage due to language difficulties. To them, I would like to express my gratitude for their support. Special thanks are due to Basil Tschaikov, the Chief Editor of Musical Performance, for his support and generous guidance in making this publication possible.

Romanization and Pronunciation

The pinyin romanization system is used for all Chinese names and terms in this volume. Pinyin is the official romanization adopted by the People’s Republic of China. The consonants b, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, and y and ch are pronounced in the same way as in English. Other pronunciations that are not usually found in English are listed below:

viii

ix

x

xi

xii

xiii

xiv

xv

1. Qing 2. Yinqing 3. Moyu 4. From left to right: bo, bell, dang, and gu

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The Hong Kong Ensemble in 1980

“The Running Waters”: Traditional Chinese Instrumental Music* Wu Ben

This article is a general introduction to traditional instrumental music primarily of the Han people in China mainland. It is divided into the following sections: the history and classifications of instruments and music are briefly stated; the performance and transmission of court music, religious music, literati’s music and folk music in traditional contexts are discussed; recent changes in the performance, transmission and preservation of traditional music are discussed. KEYWORDS: traditional instrumental transmission, preservation, context.

music,

performance,

History and Classification Chinese musical instruments and instrumental music have a long history. The ancestors left a large number of instruments and colorful instrumental music (see Yang, 1981; Guo, 1989; Zhongguo Yishu Yanjiuyan Yinyue Yanjiusuo, 1988). The history of Chinese music can roughly be divided into the following large overlapping periods.

*

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to his colleague Ms. Nancy Guy for her valuable help in writing this article.

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Pre-Qin Dynasty ( -221 B.C.) The earliest instruments can be traced back to about 6000 B.C. according to archeological findings. A batch of gudi (bone flute) was unearthed from the Jiahu ruins in the Wuyang area in Henan Province in 1986–1987. They were sacrificial objects in a tomb. According to the Carbon-14 date, they existed 7920 (±150) years before the present, and they are the earliest instruments found in China so far. They were made from the leg bones of large birds. Most of them have seven fingerholes, so that different types of heptatonic scales can be played on them. This indicates that there was a well-developed musical culture in China at that time. Many ancient instruments from the Neolithic Age, 8000–4000 years ago, have been unearthed in various places in China. Besides gudi found in different ruins, there are different shapes of xun (an egg or ball shaped wind instrument, comparable to the ocarina), qing (L-shaped sonorous stone), taozhong (pottery bell), and so on. Bronze making techniques were well developed during the Shang (c. 1600–1100 B.C.) and West Zhou (c. 1100–771 B.C.) Dynasties, and various bronze instruments appeared during that time. The most important were the zhong (bronze bell) and bianzhong (bell chime). The bronze technique provided sharp tools for instrument making, thus allowing for the development of new types of instruments. According to historical records there were around seventy kinds of instruments in the West Zhou Dynasty; the earliest classification of musical instruments appeared in China at that time. The classification system had eight categories based on the materials which the instruments were made. They were jin (metal), such as zhong; shi (stone), such as qing; si (silk), such as qin (seven string plucked zither); zhu (bamboo), such as di (bamboo flute); pao (gourd), such as sheng (mouth organ); tu (earth), such as taoxun (pottery ocarina); ge (hide), such as gu (drum); and mu (wood), such as yü (scraped wooden block). Until the Spring and Autumn (770–476 B.C.), and the Warring States Periods (475–221 B.C), the manufacture of instruments developed to a very high level. Instruments unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of the Zeng state (buried in 433 B.C.) indicate how well those instruments were developed and how refined and skillful the manufacture was. Take the bianzhong from this tomb as an example, it has 64 bells, with each bell able to generate two tones of different pitches. It has 12 half tones within three octaves in the middle register, and the chromatic scale can be played on it. Its timbre is clear and pure, and the tuning is accurate according to the traditional Chinese temperament system used at that time. As well as the bianzhong, bianqing (stone chime), gu, qin, se (large plucked zither) sheng, di and paixiao (pan pipe) were unearthed from this tomb; in ensemble all these instruments composed a large performing ensemble with the bianzhong as the leading instrument. Naturally, if there were musical instruments, there was also instrumental music, however, in ancient times, instruments were generally played to accompany vocal music and dance, and pure instrumental music was less common. Examples of instrumental music include solo qin (seven-string plucked zither) music and a band used at the court of Qi which consisted of 300 yü (a type of ancient sheng, mouth organ). The yü was also used to play solo music for entertaining the king. From

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these early records, we can see that instrumental music had started to develop independently at that time.

From the Qin to the Five Dynasties (221 B.C.–960 A.D.) Musical instrument development came about partly as the result of frequent international cultural exchanges during this period of time. Various instruments of different origin (both from foreign countries and ethnic minorities in the border areas) came to the central plain. Important instruments appearing during this period were the pipa (short neck plucked lute with pear-shaped soundbox), ruan (long neck plucked lute with round soundbox), wo konghou (plucked zither with frets on the soundboard), shu konghou (angular harp), fengshou konghou (arched harp), yazheng (rubbed half-tube zither), xiqin (rubbed lute), hujiao (horn), suona (conical oboe), bei (conch), bili (a double-reed cylindrical instrument), chiba (vertical bamboo flute), tongbo (brass cymbals), luo (gong), paiban (clappers), and various shaped drums including column shaped, hourglass shaped, frame shaped, and so on. Instrumental music also had new developments. Some large suites of vocal music, such as xianghe ge (song, accompanied by instruments) performed in the court of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.) and the Three Kingdoms (220–265 A.D.), which often included instrumental ensemble sections. Also from the Han Dynasty, guchui yue (drum and wind music) appeared as martial and court banquet music, and this tradition continued through to the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). Besides, qin and pipa solo music also continued to develop and a number of famous players appeared during this period of time. The court banquet musics of the Sui (581– 681 A.D.) and the Tang (618–907 A.D.) Dynasties were divided into nine or ten ensembles according to different origins, and every ensemble had different instrumentation. The performance of the court banquet music, especially the daqü (large suite), was usually a combination of vocal, instrumental music and dance, with independent instrumental sections in the performance. For example, the sanxü (prelude in free rhythm) in daqü usually consisted of sections for instrumental solos as well as ensemble sections. The development of instrumental music was strongly influenced by singing and dancing music through performing together with them and accompanying them.

From the Song to the Qing Dynasty (960–1911 A.D.) Throughout this period it was the folk musicians rather than those within the Court (as in the past) who were responsible for passing on and exchanging musical instruments. The most important development during this period was that of the bowed string instruments. Various types of bowed lutes appeared throughout the country. Their soundboxes were made of wood, bamboo, brass, gourd, coconut shell or buffalo horn; and came in a variety of shapes such as a tube, bowl or box. The faces of their soundboxes were covered by the skins of snake, frog, buffalo,

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horse, sheep, camel, or a thin piece of wood, bamboo leaves, and other leaves. In short, the materials were taken from local objects, and their shape and timbre varied. Among the commonly played bowed lutes, was the erhu, which was a twostring bowed lute with a tube-shaped wooden soundbox, with its face covered in snake skin. Other examples of bowed lutes include the sihu, which had four strings in two pairs of same pitch, with some sihu soundboxes being made of brass; the twostringed banhu, with a bowl shaped soundbox being made of coconut shell, and covered by a thin piece of wood; the jinghu, which is much smaller than an erhu, with a soundbox made of bamboo, that was mainly used for accompanying Peking opera. All these instruments are in use up to the present day. In addition to various types of bowed lutes some other instruments appeared or were introduced from foreign cultures during this time. Among these were the sanxian (three-string long neck plucked lute), yunluo (small gong chime) and yangqin (struck dulcimer). Other instruments that had appeared or been introduced earlier, were further developed during this time, including various types and sizes of suona, ruan, luo and tongbo. They have been extensively used to the present day. From the Song Dynasty (960–179) onward, various genres of folk singing narratives and operas appeared and were developed. They usually had instrumental accompaniment, and this contributed to the development of various genres of instrumental music. Most extant genres of folk instrumental ensembles appeared during this period, especially during the Ming (1368–1644) and the Qing (1644– 1911) Dynasties, and many of them had various links with different genres of narrative songs and traditional operas (see Wu, 1993). Music for qin and pipa solo music was developed continually. In addition, some other instruments, such as zheng and yangqin, also started their solo traditions during this time. They were developed from various genres of vocal accompaniment or instrumental ensemble playing. The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 is generally given as the beginning of the modern era in China. The change and preservation of the music in modern times is discussed later.

The Classifications of Musical Instruments and Instrumental Music From ancient times up to the present, there have been hundreds of different kinds of musical instruments in China. The system of classification of instruments by materials appeared in the Zhou Dynasty and was used until the Qing Dynasty by court officials. Among folk musicians, another classification has commonly been used. Though not recorded in historical literature, it appeared later during the Qing Dynasty and consisted of four categories: chui (blowing, i.e., wind instruments), la (drawing, i.e., bowed instruments), tan (plucking, i.e., plucked instruments) and da (striking, i.e., percussion instruments). This classification has been used not only by folk musicians, but is also commonly used in some contemporary scholarly writing, although some scholars prefer the Hornbostel and Sachs’ classification (i.e. idiophone, membranophone, chordophone and aerophone).

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As for traditional instrumental music, there are also different ideas about how to classify it (see Yuan, 1986; Ye, 1983). There is a classification often used for instrumental music based on different solo instruments or the instrumentation used by the ensemble. It divides the music into two large categories, solo and ensemble. The solo category is further divided by instrument: qin solo, pipa solo, erhu solo and so on: the ensemble groups are further divided according to the instrumentation of the ensemble, string ensemble, string and wind ensemble, or wind and percussion ensemble. Within each category, there are some specific ensemble traditions; for instance, within the string and wind groups there are Jiangnan Sizhu (string and wind ensemble in the south area of the Yangtze River Valley), Guangdong Yinyue (“Cantonese music”), etc. In recent years, it is noted that the above classification mainly looked at the music itself, but neglected the social and cultural contexts and function of the music. The different performing traditions may also be classified by the circumstances in which they are heard, and by their function. In this way traditional Chinese music is classified in four large categories: court music, religious music, literati music, and folk music. However, there are some overlapping areas: for example, a piece may be played by both literati and folk musicians, though its function will be different. This classification is helpful when examining music as a cultural phenomenon, and it is this system which is used in the following section.

The Performance and Transmission of Music in Traditional Contexts Music in the Imperial Court Court music had a long tradition. Every dynasty in Chinese history had music played in the court. Its function was to serve various imperial rituals and to entertain the imperial family as well as other high officials in the court. The players were mainly music ‘workers’, although some music officials also participated by organizing the performance. Music in court can be roughly divided into yayue (ritual music) and yanyue (banquet music). Most types of performance included both vocal and instrumental music. Pure instrumental music was rare. The bands used in yayue were usually large, and most of the instruments were wind and percussion. Many of them were really ancient and were no longer used among the ordinary people even at that time. There were usually several programs in yanyue, and the instrumentations varied. Different types of music notation (gongche and lülü notation) were used, but it is believed that the music was mainly taught orally, and notation was used only as a supplementary means or for reference. (Yang, 1963). Religious music (see Taoist Ritual Music in China by Tsao Penyeh, in this journal).

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Music Played by the Literati The literati were people who were well educated in traditional Chinese culture. They were often civil officials or literary tutors. Many literati played musical instruments. Traditionally, Chinese literati had four categories of self-cultivation and entertainment. They were qin (the seven string plucked zither, and various other instruments), qi (chess), shu (calligraphy) and hua (painting). Their goal in playing instruments was only for self-improvement and personal entertainment. The literati, especially those who played instruments, were usually well-off financially, and they did not need to earn money by playing music. They usually played in their studies for themselves, or for a few guests and friends who were often of similar educational background. The purpose and occasion of the performance greatly influenced the content and style of the music. The instrument most frequently played by the literati was the qin, although a few other instruments, such as the pipa, zheng and xiao (vertical bamboo flute, similar to the ancient chiba) were also used sometimes. Common topics of the qin pieces were beautiful scenes of nature, historical stories, or personal feelings, and the styles were often exquisite and elegant. Pieces played by literati were often composed by the players themselves or by literati musicians in earlier ages. The music was mainly taught orally, though notation was also used as a supplementary tool. There were two forms of qin notation: wenzi pu (character notation) and jianzi pu (simplified character notation). The wenzi pu notates the pitches and playing techniques by stating the string sequence, hand position, and so on. The only extant wenzi pu was written in the Tang Dynasty. The jianzi pu also notates pitches and playing techniques, but uses some symbols that were derived from written Chinese characters. According to some historical records, jianzi pu was devised by Cao Rou in the Tang Dynasty, and the earliest extant jianzi pu is the qin collection Shenqi Mipu (Fantastic scores) edited by Zhu Quan and printed in 1425. There are now about 100 extant qin piece collections, 600 pieces and 3000 items of literary preface in different collections. They include a rich historical and cultural content, and reflect an important and valuable part of Chinese musical tradition. Here, literati made a great contribution to the preservation of qin music. Liushui (The Running Waters) was an often played qin piece. Its score appeared in the Shenqi Mipu for the first time, but it is commonly believed that the piece appeared much earlier. It describes various features of running waters and beautiful scenes of nature. (Music Example 1) In addition to qin, pipa was also played sometimes by literati. The printed and handwritten collections of pipa pieces appearing since the Qing Dynasty were all edited by literati, and they show that some literati were also good pipa players. The repertoire in these collections is divided into two interpretive categories: wenqü (civil pieces) and wuqü (martial pieces). Comparatively speaking, the civil pieces are often refined, elegant, played at a slower tempo and quietly; they are considered to be feminine in nature. The well known pipa piece Xiyang Xiao Gu (Flute and Drum Music at sunset) is a typical example of wenqü. On the other hand, wuqü are often

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Music Example 1 An excerpt from the qin piece Liushui (The Running Waters). Played by Guan Pinghu. Transcribed by Xü Jian.

very powerful, mighty, played at faster tempo and at a louder volume, and are viewed as being masculine. The piece Shimian Maifu (Ambush on all sides) is a classic example of wuqü.

Music Played by Folk Musicians Folk musicians usually had a lower social status in the old days. Most of them were living in the countryside or small towns, and were semi-professional players and also peasants or handicraftsmen. During agricultural (or other working) busy seasons, they did manual labor in the field or workshops; whereas in off-seasons, or when music playing was in need, they played music. The main purpose of their playing was to make a living. Most of them played in a group. The occasions of their playing included weddings, funerals, celebrating traditional festivals and other happy events. Although their patrons were sometimes rich, the audience was usually of a lower social status. The performances were usually held outdoors. The nature of the music as well as its purpose conditioned the music’s style, which was usually happy, straightforward and loud. Basically, folk music was transmitted orally, but some notations were also found among folk music groups. They are all in gongche notation system although different versions of the notation were used in different areas. The function of the notation was supplementary and for reference purposes. (Wu, 1988). The most often used ensemble was a wind and percussion ensemble because it was easily adapted to many performing circumstances. There were various types of wind and percussion ensembles in different areas of China. For example, the genre Chuige Hue (Society of blowing songs) was very popular in the central area of Hebei Province. Its ensemble usually consisted of several guan (a double-reed cylindrical instrument, basically the same as the ancient bili) as leading instrument, sheng, di,

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haidi (small suona), as well as percussion instruments like gu, bo and luo. The music was played in heterophonic style, and some sections were in a call and response style. Most of the pieces came from folksong or the singing of local opera, and thus the genre’s name “blowing song”. The piece Fanglü (Pasture Donkey) was an often played piece in Chuige Hui. Its main tune came from a folk dance-song program Paolü (Donkey running), and the mood is cheerful and humorous. (Music Example 2) In addition to the wind and percussion ensembles there were also a large number of string and wind ensembles, which were more often found in cities or towns rather than in the countryside, such as the groups of Jiangnan Sizhu, Guangdong Yinyue, Chaozhou Xianshi (String music in Chaozhou) and so on. Their intentions and the occasions when they were performed was similar to the folk musicians in the country-side, but there were also a few groups playing mainly for selfentertainment, such as the groups of Qingke Chuan (Free guests’ ensemble) of Jiangnan Sizhu. Their playing styles were more elegant and refined than normal folk styles. The instruments used were di, erhu, pipa, yangqin and so on. The music was played in heterophonic style. A good example is one of the “eight great pieces” of Jiangnan Sizhu, Zhonghua Liuban (Six beats in middle tempo). (Music Example 3)

Music Example 2 An excerpt from the wind and percussion piece Fanglü (Pasture donkey). Played by Liu Guanyue, Liu Wendou, etc. Transcribed by Li Minxiong.

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Music Example 3 An excerpt from the string and wind piece Zhonghua Liuban (Liuban in middle tempo). Played by Shanghai Minzu Yuetuan (Shanghai Chinese Orchestra). Transcribed by Li Minxiong.

In addition to those various playing ensembles, there were some individual street musicians in towns or large cities. They often sang folk songs or narrative songs and played instruments to accompany their singing. The well known folk musician Abing (1893–1950) from south of Jiangsu Province was an outstanding example of them. Although Abing lived more in the modern time, his playing context was basically traditional. Besides singing, he played several instruments well, especially erhu and pipa. He was unique for his mastery of playing techniques and profound ability of composition. His erhu piece Erquan Yingyue (Moonlight reflected on the water of Erquan Spring) has become one of the classical works in traditional Chinese music. (Music Example 4) Besides erhu and pipa, other folk solo traditions often had links with vocal or ensemble genres. For example, the zheng solo tradition in Henan Province came from the local singing narrative genre Dadiao Qüzi; the zheng solo tradition in Chaozhou area came from Chaozhou Xianshi; the yangqin solo tradition in Sichuan Province came from the local narrative song genre Sichuan Yangqin; whereas guan

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Music Example 4 An excerpt from the erhu piece Erquan Yingyue (Moonlight reflected on the water of Erquan Spring). Played by Abing. Transcribed by Yang Yinliu.

and suona solo traditions in different areas all came from various genres of wind and percussion ensembles in which the guan or suona were the leading instruments.

Change and Preservation of the Music in Modern Times The fall of the last Chinese imperial dynasty in 1911 marked the beginning of the modern age in China. Since then Chinese society and culture have changed drastically. These changes influenced the performance of Chinese instrumental music because its cultural contexts, social function, occasions of performance, methods of transmission, as well as musical instruments were all changed in varying degrees. Some new social groups of Chinese music performers appeared. At the same time, various types of traditional music have also been preserved, although the venues for these performances have sometimes changed. (see Huang, 1987). Let us first look at the four traditional categories of performing venues for music, their continuity and change.

Music in the Court—No Longer Played After the establishment of the Republic of China in 1911, most types of court music ceased to be played, and were already in the process of being forgotten, especially yayue. Now people can only know some of them from historical writings and music scores. In the 1950s, someone suggested restoring the performance of yayue, but

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this suggestion was not accepted. In the 1980s and 1990s, the ritual music Ji Kong Yuewu (Worshiping music and dance to Confucius) was restored in Confucius’s hometown, Qüfu, and at the Confucian Temple in Beijing. But the music and dance were reconstructed, and the performance was mainly to satisfy tourists. Some recently composed tunes were used in these performances, so one must be careful if a historical study is to be made of these events. On the other hand, some types or pieces of entertainment music in the Qing court have been preserved because some players became folk musicians continuing to play the music after the decline of the Qing Dynasty. Such folk music organizations include Qingyin Hui (Qing’s Music Society) in Chengde area near Beijing. Some musicians had played entertainment music for the imperial family at the Chengde imperial summer resort before 1911. In the early 1980s, this society restored its activity. Although some old players have passed away, it is said the music they played had changed little, and some of the old instruments they preserved are believed to have been brought from the court. Religious Music (see Taoist Ritual Music in China by Tsao Penyeh in this journal).

Literati, Replaced by Modern Intellectuals Here the difference between the literati and modern intellectuals is that the literati were educated in traditional Chinese culture, whereas the modern intellectuals were educated not only in Chinese culture, but also strongly influenced by Western culture which was largely introduced at that time. From the beginning of the modern era, when the educational system started to change, the number of “pure” traditionally trained and educated literati has declined. Before 1949, there were some literati who continued playing music in traditional contexts, but after 1949 they declined in number because many had passed away. The few that remained started jobs playing or teaching music in professional performing groups or music conservatories, and by doing so, they have become modern professional players (see later section about this category of players).

Folk Musicians, Facing New Circumstances From 1911 to 1949 most of the folk musicians continued playing their music at traditional venues. Due to the upheaval caused by numerous wars and other disasters some music groups and individual musicians were interfered with seriously. For example, the well-known folk music group Qüjiaying Yinyuehui (Music Society at Qujiaying village) had to stop its activity during World War II, and the well-known folk musician, Abing, suffered greatly during the old days. Since 1949 the situation has been different. Folk musicians can play in some old contexts, such as at folk festivals, but some other traditional occasions, such as funerals, rain worshiping ceremonies held during a drought and so on, were no longer allowed by the government, especially during the “Cultural Revolution” (1966–1976). Yet, since the end of the 1970s, this kind of activity has gradually been restored.

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At the same time some new performing occasions have appeared and can be summarized as follows: (i) by celebrating new events whereby folk performing groups were asked sometimes by the authorities to play for celebrating some new events, such as the establishment of a “people’s community” and so on. On these occasion the musicians earn similar wages to those doing manual work in the field, (ii) art festivals which are usually organized by the government or local authorities for people’s entertainment or with commercial intentions (employing the arts to attract businessmen, especially since the 1980s), (iii) performing for preserving music. These activities are usually organized by official musical organizations, which record the music for publication and study, such as Luxinan Minyue Diaoyan (Folk music performance in the Southwestern area of Shandong Province) sponsored by Shandong Musician’s Association in 1985, Tianjin Minjian Yinyue Shenghui (the great meeting of folk music in Tianjin City) sponsored by Tianjin Musician’s Association in 1987. Although these occasions were new, the music played had changed little, and so the music was being preserved. Alongside the traditional performing groups and their contexts, some new social groups of Chinese music players have appeared in modern times. Although they also play traditional Chinese music, their goals and the occasions and styles of performances are somehow different from the traditional groups. They can be further divided into two large groups: modern intellectual musicians and contemporary professional players.

Modern Intellectual Musicians (roughly from 1911 to 1949) and Traditional Music As we said before, they were educated not only by Chinese culture, but were also strongly influenced by Western culture which was introduced into China largely during that time. Some of them studied in Western countries or Japan (which had more Western influence than China at that time), and some accepted Western education from Westerners in China. In the 1910s, there was a new wave of cultural thinking with “Science and Democracy” as its flag. A batch of modern intellectuals began to be active in the areas of culture and education in China. In the musical world some modern intellectuals established professional institutes for music education. Traditional Chinese music courses were taught in most of these institutes, and the instructors were modern intellectual musicians. They became the new social group of Chinese music at that time. The modern intellectuals were conscious of inheriting and developing Chinese music. Their goal was to perform and teach the traditional music which they had learned from old literati or folk musicians. When they played the traditional pieces, the music was not changed too much, but the playing occasions, and the teaching methods were changed. Besides teaching the music in the classroom, they played the music at concerts sometimes, and these were very new occasions for traditional Chinese music. They transmitted the music by both oral and written means, and edited some collections of traditional pieces. Since the impact of Western music,

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they used not only traditional Chinese jianzi pu and gongche notations, but also Western staff and number notations. For example, Yayin Ji (Collection of elegant music) volumes 1 and 2, edited by Yang Yinliu in 1923–1929, are in number notation; Wenban Shi’er Qü (Twelve civil short pieces) edited by Yang Yinliu and Cao Anhe in 1943 has two versions—staff notation and gongche notation. Some reforms were made on the gongche notation of this collection to make it more accurate (Wu, 1992). In addition to traditional pieces, they also composed and played new pieces themselves (see “Development of contemporary Chinese music in mainland China” in this journal). For teaching Chinese instruments, some modern intellectual musicians composed practice studies. Professor Liu Tianhua (1895–1932) wrote 47 erhu etudes and 15 pipa etudes. Obviously, these were influenced by Western teaching methods for instrumental music. Before that, there were no special studies for Chinese instruments. Traditionally, people always played some simple tunes, such as Ba Ban (Eight beats). The appearance of these etudes made the teaching of Chinese instruments more formal, strict and systematic, and it has had a profound influence on teaching in modern times. Mainly because of the impact of Western music theory, some musicians started to “improve” Chinese musical instruments, especially the pipa. They rearranged the frets of the pipa according to the twelve-tone equal temperament. This “improvement” has resulted in the pipa being able to modulate from one key to another freely, but it can no longer play the 3/4 tones, which exist in traditional Chinese music (Yang, 1982). This “improved” pipa had not been used extensively until 1949.

Contemporary Professional Players (roughly from 1949 until now) and Traditional Music Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the government has attached great importance to the development of Chinese music. A new social group of Chinese musicians, contemporary professional players, appeared. They play in various professional performing groups or act as instructors to students in various music conservatories and schools. Some of them came from old playing groups, such as folk musicians, literati, and modern intellectual musicians, but most of them, especially nowadays, have graduated from music conservatories or schools. On the one hand, since they have various links with tradition, they inherited traditional music to some degree; on the other hand, because of the changes in social and cultural contexts, as well as the influence of Western music theory which most of them learned at school, they have also made some changes to traditional music. Generally speaking, they play music for their occupation and personal interest. The occasions of their playing are various, including teaching in schools, playing at concerts and for radio and TV stations, as well as recording discs and tapes. Since their playing occasions are so various, they have an extensive audience.

30 WU BEN

They have inherited most of the traditional pieces, and they transmit the music mainly by Western staff and number notations. The gongche notation is no longer used, and oral teaching has become a supplementary method. When they play traditional pieces, they often revise and adapt them for modern performing occasions. Since most of the traditional pieces are long by modern standards, they usually make some cuts and speed up the tempo to make them shorter. For example, the famous traditional pipa piece Shimian Maifu had thirteen sections but when it is played now the last three or even five sections are usually cut out, and the playing time changes from about twelve minutes to five minutes. Another example is a qin piece, Guangling San (Tune of Guangling). The well-known qin player Guan Pinghu’s performance of this piece took 22 minutes 57 seconds, but now, when this piece is played in a concert or recorded, large parts of the piece are cut out, and it takes only about five minutes. Since most players now use the “improved” instruments, the timbre and dynamic levels of the music are also changed to varying degrees. For example, silk strings have usually been replaced by metal ones on string instruments; the timbres of the two sorts of strings are truly different. In addition to traditional pieces, contemporary professional players play a large number of new composed or rearranged pieces for Chinese instruments. Besides the performances by the musicians referred to above how has traditional instrumental music been preserved in contemporary times? Since 1949, professional researchers and instructors in institutes and conservatories started doing field work in various places in China collecting traditional music, including instrumental music. They listen to folk musicians playing, record them on tape and make transcriptions. Although their goals are multiple, including learning the music for teaching, performing and composing, a large number of music pieces have been preserved by their work. Some of their reports and transcriptions have been published, and some others, especially most of the recorded tapes, are stored in various institutes or in private collections. Here, the publication of the music collections are very significant. Various and countless new collections of traditional pieces have been published since 1949. They have been transcribed and edited by professional players or scholars, and the music has been notated in either number notation or staff notation. At the same time some traditional collections have been reprinted, such as the qin collection Shenqi Mipu, the pipa collection Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqü Pipa Xinpu (the new pipa collection of thirteen long pieces of the southern and northern performing schools) edited by Li Fangyan in 1895, as well as the Qinqü Jicheng (a comprehensive collection of qin pieces). Among other publishing houses, the Renmin Yinyue Chubanshe (People’s Music Press) in Beijing, Shanghai Yinyue Chubanshe (Shanghai Music Press) in Shanghai and Zhonghua Shujü (China Bookshop) in Beijing, have contributed a lot to these publications. The Chinese Musician’s Association is now compiling five “Comprehensive Collections” of traditional Chinese music. One of which is for traditional Chinese instrumental music. The first step is to compile and publish provincial volumes, and then to edit a general volume. Musicians and scholars in many provinces are now

THE RUNNING WATERS 31

collecting and recording the music for this large project. It will be completed before the end of the 1990s according to official announcements. All these efforts are to preserve the music itself. It is a more serious challenge to retain the lively performing traditions in contemporary times. In folk music groups, the musicians are usually very old and many members are already deceased. Yet it is not so easy to find young people to join because there are no financial benefits, and people cannot earn a living by playing music nowadays. The groups have been trying to get financial support from the government, local authorities or enthusiastic businessmen. This kind of support is extremely limited. But these groups cannot survive without additional income. The aging of the players and a lack of financial support, are the two most common and serious problems for almost all folk music groups at present. On the other hand, the music is also performed by professional players, but as has already been mentioned, their performing contexts are new and the music played by them is often changed to varying degrees. Though they face this serious challenge playing traditional music, generally speaking, the audience for traditional music is getting less nowadays, mainly because young people usually prefer modern Westernized popular music to traditional Chinese music. Therefore professional players cannot make a living if they only play traditional music. In fact, performing groups like Zhongyang Mingzu Yuetuan (Central Chinese Orchestra) have encountered a new difficulty because the government can no longer provide enough funds to support them totally, and the income from concert tickets is extremely limited, certainly not enough to support all the players. Many professional players have to go to restaurants, dance halls or bars to play popular music in order to survive. So, truly traditional music is played less and less nowadays. These are the problems in preserving traditional instrumental music, and people are looking for methods to overcome them. Someone suggested that if it is difficult to preserve the living performing traditions, we can preserve the music itself. That is to record the music performance on aural and video tapes and transcribe the music on paper. Yet this kind of preservation work is also difficult due to the lack of funds. Compared with the countless types and pieces of traditional music, those which have been recorded and notated are very few. A lot of work needs to be done for preservation. Yet the music is never at a standstill. It is always changing, just like running water. Probably the best way to preserve it is to keep the performing tradition alive, just like keeping the water running.

Glossary Ba Ban banhu bei bianqing

Eight beat two-string bowed lute with a bowl shaped soundbox made of coconut shell, and covered by a thin piece of wood conch stone chime

32 WU BEN

bianzhong bili bo Chaozhou Xianshi chiba chui Chuige Hui da Dadiao Qüzi daqü di erhu Erquan Yingyue Fanglü fengshou konghou Ge gonche gu guan Guangdong Yinyue Guangling San Guchui yue gudi haidi hua hujiao Ji Kong Yuewu Jiangnan Sizhu jianzi pu Jin jinghu

bell chime a double-reed cylindrical instrument cymbals String music in Chaozhou vertical bamboo flute blowing, a category of folk classification for music instruments, meaning wind instruments Society of wind songs beating, a category of folk classification for music instruments, meaning percussion instruments a local singing narrative genre in Henan Province large suite bamboo flute two-string bowed lute Moonlight reflected on the water of Erquan Spring, an erhu piece played by Abing Pasture donkey, a wind and percussion ensemble piece played in Chuige Hui in Hebei Province arched harp hide, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments Chinese system of notation drum a double-reed cylindrical instrument, basically the same as the ancient bili Cantonese music, a genre of instrumental ensemble in Guangdong Province Tune of Guangling, a qin piece drum and blowing music bone flute small suona (small conical oboe) painting, one category of the literati’s selfcultivation and entertainment horn Worshiping music and dance to Confucius String and wind ensemble in the south area of the Yangtze River Valley simplified character notation metal, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments two-string bowed lute, like a small erhu but with its soundbox made of bamboo

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la Liushui luo lülü Luxinan Minyue Diaoyan Mu Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqü Pipa Xinpu paiban paixiao Pao Paolü pipa qi qin qing Qingke Chuan Qingyin Hui Qincjü Jicheng Qüjiaying Yinyuehui Renmin Yinyue Chubanshe ruan sanxian sanxü se Shanghai Yinyue Chubanshe sheng Shenqi Mipu Shi

drawing, a category of folk classification for music instruments, meaning bowed instruments The Running Waters, a qin piece gong Chinese system of notation using the names of the 12 pitches Folk music performing meeting in the Southwest area of Shandong Province wood, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments The new pipa collection of thirteen long pieces of the southern and northern performing schools, a pipa collection edited by Li Fangyan in 1895 clappers pan pipe gourd, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments Donkey running, a folk singing and dancing program short neck plucked lute with pear-shaped soundbox chess, one category of the literati’s selfcultivation and entertainment seven-string plucked zither, also one category of the literati’s self-cultivation and entertainment, which includes playing L-shaped sonorous stone Free guests’ ensemble, a kind of group in Jiangnan Sizhu Qing’s music society A comprehensive collection of qin pieces Music society at Qüjiaying village People’s Music Press in Beijing long neck plucked lute with round soundbox three-string long neck plucked lute prelude in free rhythm, a part of daqü large half tube plucked zither Shanghai Music Press in Shanghai mouth organ Fantastic scores, a collection of qin pieces stone, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments

34 WU BEN

Shimian Maifu shu shu konghou Si Sichuan Yangqin sihu suona tan taoxun taozhong Tianjin Minjian Yinyue Shenghui tongbo Tu Wenban Shi’er Qü wenqü wenzi pu wo konghou wuqü xiao xianghege xiqin xun yangqin yanyue Yayin Ji yayue yazheng yü yü (different character) yunluo zheng

Chinese

Ambush on All Sides, a pipa piece calligraphy, one category of the literati’s selfcultivation and entertainment angular harp silk, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments a local singing narrative genre in Sichuan Province four-string bowed lute conical oboe plucking, a category of folk classification for musical instruments, meaning plucked instruments pottery ocarina pottery bell The great meeting of folk music in Tianjin City brass cymbals earth, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments Twelve civil short pieces, a collection of pipa pieces edited by Yang Yinliu and Cao Anhe in 1943 civil pieces character notation half-tube plucked zither with frets on the soundboard martial pieces vertical bamboo flute, similar to ancient chiba song, accompanied by instruments bowed lute egg or ball shaped wind instrument, comparable to ocarina dulcimer banquet music in the court Collection of elegant music edited by Yang Yinliu in 1923–1929 ceremonial court music zither a type of ancient sheng, mouth organ scraped wooden block small gong chime bridged zither

THE RUNNING WATERS 35

zhong Zhonghua Liuban Liuban Zhonghua Shujü Zhongyang Mingzu Yuetuan Zhu

bronze bell in middle tempo, one of the “eight great pieces” of Jiangnan Sizhu China Bookshop in Beijing Central Chinese orchestra in Beijing bamboo, a category of ancient classification for musical instruments References

Guo Nai’an. (1989) “Zhongguo Gudai Yinyue” (Music in ancient China). In Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu, Yinyue Wudao (Chinese encyclopedia, music and dance volume), pp. 863–872. Beijing: Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe. Huang Xiangpeng. (1987) “Lun Zhongguo Chuantong Yinyue de Baocun yü Fazhan” (On the preservation and development of traditional Chinese music). Zhongguo Yinyuexue (Musicology in China), 1987/4, 4–20. Li Mingxiong. (1983) Chuantong Minzu Qiyueqü Xinshang (Appreciation of traditional Chinese instrumental repertory). Beijing: Renmin Yingyue Chubanshe. ——. (1989) Zhongguo Munzu Yinyue Daxi—Minzu Qiyue Juan (Traditional Chinese music series—instrumental music volume). Shanghai: shanghai yinyue chubanshe. Wu Ben. (1988) “How Music Is Transmitted in a Typical Chinese Folk Musical Group”. International Council for Traditional Music, UK Chapter BULLETIN, No. 21, 5–12. ——. (1992) “Pipa Yinyue Jiqi Shehui Beijing” (Pipa music and its social context). Zhongguo Yinyuexue (Musicology in China), 1992/2, 57–67. ——. (1993) “Lun Shengyueqü dui Zhongguo Chuantong ji Jinxindai Qiyue Chuangzuo de Yingxiang” (The influence of vocal music on the traditional and modern composed Chinese instrumental music). Zhongguo Yinyuexue (Musicology in China), 1993/4, 55–66. Yang Yinliu. (1963) Gongche Pu Qianshuo (A primary study on gongche notation). Beijing: Yinyue Chubanshe. ——. (1981) Zhongguo Gudai Yinyue Shigao (A historical study of ancient Chinese music). Beijing: Renmin Yinyue Chubanshe. ——. (1982) “San Lü Kao” (Study on three systems of tone and temperament). Yinyue Yanjiu (Music research). 1982/1, 30–39. Ye Dong. (1983) Minzu Qiyue de Ticai yü Xingshi (Genres and forms of traditional Chinese instrumental music). Shanghai: Shanghai Wenyi Chubanshe. Yuan Jingfang. (1986) Minzu Qiyue Xinshang Shouce (Handbook for appreciation of traditional Chinese instrumental music). Beijing: Zhonggou Wenlian Chuban Gongsi. ——. (1987) Minzu Qiyue (Traditional Chinese instrumental music). Beijing: Renmin Yinyue Chubanshe.

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Zhongguo Yishu Yanjiuyuan Yinyue Yanjiusuo (Research Institute of Music, Chinese Academy of Arts). (1988) Zhongguo Gudai Yinyueshi Tujian (A pictorial guide to the ancient history of Chinese music). Beijing: Renmin Yinyue Chubanshe.

The Music Associations of Hebei Province Xue Yibing and Stephen Jones

The Music Associations of villages in Hebei province are amateur ritual associations which continue Buddhist and Daoist traditions of imperial times. Their ensemble music is part of a tradition of wind and percussion instruments still found throughout northern China. The article discusses ceremonial performance contexts, organization, instrumentation, and the repertory of the associations. KEY WORDS: temple music, ritual, village, Buddhism, Daoism, wind-and-percussion. At the beginning of the 20th century, with the overthrow of the last imperial dynasty, the Qing, the palace music of the Imperial courts, which had a tradition of two thousand years, was dissolved. In the social upheavals of the mid-20th century and the ensuing political changes, the ancient instrumental music which had been transmitted in innumerable Buddhist and Daoist temples also gradually disappeared. Since the revolution of 1949, Chinese musical traditions have been impoverished by social changes, political campaigns, and, since around 1980, the incursion of modern Western industrial culture. However, many traditional genres still survive today throughout China. Palace and Temple musics have not been lost, for they are still alive in folk practice. The two main types of instrumental music practised in northern Chinese villages today are wind-and-percussion ensembles (Jones, 1995, chs. 10–12). Shawm and percussion bands (such as guyue ban, chuida ban, or chuigu shou) are the most common

38 XUE YIBING AND STEPHEN JONES

form of instrumental music throughout rural China, hired to perform for ceremonial occasions. More prestigious is sheng-guan music, which uses the four melodic instruments sheng (free-reed mouth organ), guanzi (double-reed pipe), dizi (transverse flute with kazoo membrane), and yunluo (frame of ten pitched gongs), and percussion, performed mainly by folk ritual specialists. Such ensembles, derived from the Buddhist and Daoist temple music of Imperial times, survive today throughout northern China. They are found in Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan, Shandong, and the Northeast. But both their rituals and music have been in decline since the 1940s. The Yinyue Hui (Music Associations) are ritual associations serving villages on the Jizhong plain of central Hebei near Beijing (Xue and Wu, 1987; Jones and Xue, 1991). In the early 1990s there were well over a hundred such associations still practising in villages throughout central Hebei in the Baoding and Langfang districts, and even in the municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin. (Figure 1) Most Music Associations can recite scriptures and perform rituals as well as play melodic and percussion music. They distinguish Buddhist and Daoist scriptures (heshang jing, laodao jing), used for ritual days and funerals. Temples in this region were destroyed over a long period, from around 1900 until the Cultural Revolution

Figure 1 Location of Music Associations in Jizhong plain.

THE MUSIC ASSOCIATIONS OF HEBEI PROVINCE 39

(1966–76), but traditions survive today mainly in the hands of lay ritual specialists in the villages. Many Music Associations acquired their music and were trained directly by Buddhist or Daoist priests in local temples. The histories of these associations are quite diverse. A few were only founded in the 1950s, though some were established in the Republican period (1911–49). Most are laohui (ancient associations) which were already in existence in the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). Their history can be traced to the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) or earlier. However, their ancient musical and social traditions are basically similar. The folk religion of these associations is related to Bailian Jiao (White Lotus teachings), an amalgamation of Buddhist and Daoist beliefs. Music Associations commonly describe themselves as shan hui (charitable associations). Their goal is to practice good deeds and accumulate merit for the other world. Apart from calendrical rituals for deities on behalf of the villagers, their main function is to perform funerary rituals for the salvation of the souls of the dead. For all these activities, the Music Associations adhere firmly to the principle of serving without any reward, refusing all payment. They may also be seen as a relic of the ancient she hui (altar assembly) practised by communities since the Zhou Dynasty. In the early period the she mainly consisted of offerings to the god of the soil, but later this developed into offerings to many folk deities seeking to gain prosperity and avert calamity (Xue, 1993). To the south of the area, around Dingxian and Xushui, many associations have modified their music since the 1920s to a more popular style, incorporating melodies from socialist revolutionary songs, film and TV music. This music is known locally as Nanyue (Southern music) or chuige (songs for winds). However, the Music Associations discussed below are more conservative.

Organization Chinese folk instrumental ensembles generally use names such as ban (band), she (society), or hui (association), all representing different types of social organization. Ban are often professional or semi-professional ensembles hired to perform for folk ceremonial events. She are usually entertainment ensembles made up of amateurs meeting for their own self-improvement. Hui are generally ensembles related to folk religion and ritual. The Hebei Music Associations are amateur organizations belonging to one village, or to a street in a town. Membership is exclusively male. Members come from the village or town, entering the association voluntarily. The traditional attitude of the association towards a new recruit is to reject no-one as long as they behave properly and abide by the association’s rules. We may identify core and external components. Members of the external group are called zaihuide (in the association); they might be called helpers. The basic unit is the family. Any family which helps the association in practical ways, such as formally taking a son to enter the association and learn the music, or donating money or

40 XUE YIBING AND STEPHEN JONES

goods to the association, may be considered ‘in the association’. They consider the Music Association as an organization which belongs to them, practising on their behalf. In most villages which have Music Associations, all the families are ‘in the association’, that is, the whole village. However, there are also some villages and small towns which have more than one type of association and whose social background is more complex, where only certain families or lineages are ‘in the association’. The members who take part in the core organization of the association are named according to their responsibilities. The instrumental musicians are called xueshi (learning the [ritual] business); senior musicians of outstanding ability who are qualified to transmit their knowledge are further called shifu (masters); the man responsible for running the association is called huishou (association head); the man who organizes the activities both within and outside the community is called xiangshou (incense head); those who carry out the instructions of the association head and the incense head, going on errands to spread the instructions, get the musicians together, and run errands, are called guanshi or zan guan (helper). There are usually around thirty core members, including around twenty musicians, one to three association heads, one incense head, and two or more helpers.

Performance Contexts The traditional activities of the Music Associations include funerals, calendrical rituals, and rain-prayers.

Funerals The Music Associations perform music and recite the scriptures in the ritual to deliver the soul of the deceased. This is perhaps the most important activity of the Music Associations today. Whether or not the deceased is in the village, or ‘in the association’, as long as the family of the deceased requests the Music Associations to perform, they must do so, and strictly without any material reward. Funeral ritual has been simplified since the 1940s, but scriptures are still often recited in the villages.

Calendrical Rituals Most important is the New Year. On the first day of the first moon, the Music Associations, led by the incense head, caijie (street procession), also called baimiao (paying homage at the temples), play music on a tour of all the temples in the village, burning incense and paying homage to the gods. Although the temples no longer exist, this ritual is still practised. On the nights of the 15th and 16th of the first moon, in the eastern part of the Jizhong plain, including Wuqing and Anci, Music Associations perform the ritual of fang deng ke (releasing the lanterns). On these nights, the villagers put out lotus lanterns in all the wells and dark corners of the village, and the Music Associations,

THE MUSIC ASSOCIATIONS OF HEBEI PROVINCE 41

Figure 2 New Year procession Yixian 1989.

led by the incense head, make a slow procession through the path of lanterns, performing the music as they walk. Popularly known as song gui (sending off the ghosts), this is a ceremony of exorcism to avert misfortune. (Figure 2)

Welcoming the Gods Music Associations in the western part of the plain, including the countries of Yixian and Laishui, still preserve a New Year’s ritual to welcome the gods (ying shen). The ritual takes place between the 13th and the 16th of the first moon. The incense head and the association heads request donations from the villagers ‘in the association’ to set up a lantern tent with images of the gods and an altar to welcome the gods. The Music Associations perform a ritual, playing music and chanting the scriptures, making offerings and holding special feasts (Jones and Xue, 1991, 8–12), while the villagers in the association take turns to enter the tent and make offerings, burn incense and make vows to the gods (xuyuan). (Figure 3) Other calendrical rituals include the Ghost Festival held on the 15th day of the seventh lunar moon. The whole area once had rituals called fangshe, shishi (pardon and distribution of food). The folk custom on the Jizhong plain is ‘releasing the river lanterns’ (called fang hedeng) to illuminate the darkness. The Music Associations hold a feast for all the households (chi hui), performing their music all day. When night falls they accompany the crowd releasing the lanterns down to the river or lake, playing their most rousing music in order to revere the ancestors and give deliverance to the ‘hungry ghosts’. This custom is still well preserved in the region of the Baiyang dian lake; other regions without water still have vestiges of this custom.

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Figure 3 New Year ritual, Laishlli 1989.

Temple Fairs Before 1949, the Music Associations were one of many types of folk performing arts groups (huahui) which would play for the calendrical fairs for the gods held by major temples such as the Bian Que Ci temple in Maozhou (Renqiu), the Houtu miao temple in Yixian, or the Niangniang miao temple on Miaofeng shan. Such pilgrimages were called shang miao (going to the temple). Of all the performing groups, the Music Associations were respected as the shenghui (outstanding association); other associations which met them on the road had to give way to them. Temple fairs in Hebei became rare after the 1940s, but there have been small signs of revival in some places since around 1985.

Rain-Prayers In the old society, whenever there was a drought, the incense head would organize the Music Association to make offerings to the gods to pray for rain. For a minor drought they would ‘please the gods’ by performing at the temple of the Dragonkings. For longer droughts they would accompany a pilgrimage of the villagers to parade the images of the gods, and perform rituals of receiving and sending off the ‘holy water’. Over recent decades this ritual has become largely obsolete due to the improvement of irrigation facilities and official discouragement.

THE MUSIC ASSOCIATIONS OF HEBEI PROVINCE 43

Music The Music Associations have three main musical elements: melodic music, percussion music, and vocal liturgy. The common orchestration of the Music Associations is as follows: Melodic instruments: guanzi (2), sheng (2–4), dizi (2), yunluo (2). Percussion: gu (large barrel drum) (1), cha or ban (small cymbals) (1), dangzi (gong in frame) (1), nao and bo (large cymbals) (2 pairs of each). That is a standard instrumentation; on the basis of this, different associations may use more or less guanzi, sheng, dizi, and large cymbals, depending on the availability of musicians. There are two types of instrumental music, melodic and percussion. Melodic music is called qu (pieces). The melodic instruments are accompanied by the drum and small cymbals; the full percussion ensemble also sometimes plays interludes, preludes, and codas. There are two types of melodic music, daqu (large pieces) and xiaoqu (small pieces). ‘Large pieces’, daqu, also called tao (suites), are solemn and grand in mood, and are used only when seated at the ritual tent (zuopeng), when the musicians sit around a large table. They have a fixed structure, generally consisting of prelude, body and tail (pai-shen-wei) (Yuan, 1993). The opening prelude begins in free-tempo; each suite has its own prelude. The ‘body’ is the main content of the suite, with several sections, consisting either of one melody repeated with variations, or of several different melodies played in a fixed sequence; each melody is a pai (body) and in their traditional scores they are listed as ‘body 1’, ‘body 2’, ‘body 3’ etc. with melodic titles added. The tempo gradually accelerates from slow to mid-tempo, and then further to a fast tempo for the ‘tail’. The tail is the coda of the whole suite, either one piece in several variants, or a sequence of different pieces. These suites vary in length from a few minutes to around an hour. ‘Small pieces’, xiaoqu, are more extrovert individual melodies, mainly used on processions. In practice they are also played in sequence, but their choice is not predetermined; after each piece there is a percussion interlude, and for the next melody the ensemble generally follows the free choice of the lead guanzi player. There is no free-tempo prelude, nor fixed coda; the sequence usually begins immediately in mid-tempo; the number of melodies, and when they come to an end, is flexible. The percussion music consists of tao (suites) for the whole percussion ensemble. These suites are also an extended form made up of either variants or a sequence of percussion pieces (paizi, cf. the melodic qupai). The drum and the large cymbals nao and bo are the leading instruments, while the small cymbals and gong-in-frame maintain a steady pulse. These percussion pieces use complex rhythmic patterns, contrasts of dynamics and timbres, and balletic movements of the large cymbals, to create a solemn and imposing atmosphere. As in most Chinese music, the basic unit is the qupai (labelled melody). Some have the same title as ci and qu, poetic lyrics of the Tang and Song Dynasties (7–13th centuries), while the great majority of them have the same titles as the qupai, ‘Southern and Northern’ operatic melodies, folk instrumental pieces, and folk

44 XUE YIBING AND STEPHEN JONES

Figure 4 Preface of traditional score of Gejezharg village, Xongxian county.

songs of the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties (13–19th centuries) (Qiao, 1990). (Figure 4) Although oral-aural transmission from master to pupil is the main method of learning, almost all the old associations preserve an old score written in gongche notation. This score notates the skeletal notes of the melodies, and is the basis of the learning process, and an aid to memory; when learning, they must begin by reciting and singing from memory the notes in the score (Wu, 1988). We have found more than sixty scores so far in fieldwork, the most collected from any Chinese genre. The gongche symbols of most associations belong to the Song Dynasty (10–13th centuries) (for examples, see Yang, 1957). As a result of analysing the repertory, musical structure, and notation of the Music Associations we find that this music, like that of many other living folk windand-percussion ensembles, has been much influenced by the ‘Southern and Northern’ dramatic music of the Ming and Qing Dynasties; at the same time it has also transmitted temple and palace instrumental traditions from that period or still earlier. For instance, the guanzi preserved by some associations has nine holes, and some sheng have all seventeen sounding reeds, the same as palace instruments in the Tang and Song Dynasties. After the Song Dynasty they became largely obsolete in the palace, only surviving in the Zhihua temple in Beijing (Yang, 1953; Yuan, 1993) and the village Music Associations. In contexts of performance, instrumentation, musical structure, repertory, and style, the Music Associations are part of a little-recognized tradition of wind-andpercussion music serving ritual, still being performed throughout northern China.

THE MUSIC ASSOCIATIONS OF HEBEI PROVINCE 45

Music Example 1 Cui Taiping piece, transcribed and notated by Dr. Zhang Zhentao at a performance in Beishakur village, June 1994.

46 XUE YIBING AND STEPHEN JONES

THE MUSIC ASSOCIATIONS OF HEBEI PROVINCE 47

48 XUE YIBING AND STEPHEN JONES

Glossary Bailian Jiao baimiao ban caijie cha, ban chi hui chuige chuigu shou dangzi daqu dizi fang dengke fangshe or shishi fang hedeng gongche gu guanshi, zan guan guanzi guyueban, chuida ban huahui hui huishou nanyue nao, bo pai paizi qu qupai shang miao shan hui she she hui shen sheng sheng-guan yue shenghui shifu tao wei xiangshou xiaoqu xueshi xuyuan

White Lotus teachings paying homage at the temples band street procession small cymbals hold a feast for all the households songs for winds drumers and wind players gong in frame large pieces transverse flute with kazoo membrane releasing the lanterns pardon and distribution of food releasing the river lanterns traditional notation large barrel drum helper double-reed pipe wind-and-percussion band assembly of performing troupes association association head the southern music large cymbals prelude percussion pieces, cf. the melodic qupai pieces labelled melodies going to the temple charitable associations society altar assembly body free-reed mouth organ type of wind-and-percussion music outstanding association masters suites tail incense head small pieces learning the [ritual] business make vows to the gods

THE MUSIC ASSOCIATIONS OF HEBEI PROVINCE 49

yingshen yinyue hui yunluo zaihuide zuopeng

welcome the gods Music Associations frame for ten pitched gongs in the association seating at the ritual tent References

Jones, Stephen. (1995) Folk Music in China: Living Instrumental Traditions. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Jones, Stephen, and Xue Yibing. (1991) ‘The Music Associations of Hebei Province, China; a Preliminary Report’. Ethnomusicology 35/1, 1–29. Qiao Jianzhong. (1990) ‘Qupai lun’ (On qupai). In Qiao Jianzhong and Tsao Pen-yeh eds. Zhongguo Yinyue Guoji Yantao Hui Lunwen Ji (Collected essays from the international symposium on Chinese music, Hong Kong 1988), ed. Xianggang Zhongwen Daxue Zhongguo Yinyue Ziliao Guan and Xianggang Minzu Yinyue Yanjiu Hui (Ji’nan: Shandong Jiaoyu Chubanshe) 319–36. Wu Ben. (1993) ‘How Music is Transmitted in a Typical Chinese Folk Musical Group’. International Council for Traditional Music, UK Chapter Bulletin 21, 5–12. Xue Yibing. (1993) ‘Cong Jizhong Yinyue Hui de Fo-Dao Jiao Menpai Kan Minjian Zongjiao Wenhua de Tedian’ (Folk religious culture as seen through Buddhist and Daoist sects of Music Associations in Hebei). Yinyue Yanjiu (Music Research) 1993/4, 63–82. Xue Yibing and Wu Ben. (1987) ‘Qujia Ying Yinyue Hui de Diaocha yu Yanjiu’ (Survey and research on the music association of Qujia ying). Zhongguo Yinyue Xue (Musicology in China) 1987/2, 81–96. Yang Yinliu. (1953) ‘Zhihua Si Jing Yinyue Caifang Jilu’ (Record of fieldwork on the Capital music of the Zhihua temple). Beijing, 3 parts, mimeograph. ——. (1957) Zhongguo yinyue shi cankao tupian (Illustrations for reference on Chinese music history) vol. 4. Beijing: Yinyue Chubanshe. Yuan Jingfang. (1993) Zhongguo Fojiao Jing Yinyue Zhongtang Qu Yanjiu (Study of the Zhongtang pieces of Capital music in Chinese Buddhist music). Zhongguo yinyue xue (Musicology in China) 1993/1, 43–59.

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Han Folk Song in China Qiao Jian Zhong

A review of the wide variety of folk song, from the sixth century BC to the present day, as sung in many venues for many social and work purposes by the Han people, the largest ethnic group in China. Folk songs of the ethnic group of Han in China are an important component part of traditional Han music popular in mainland China and Taiwan. This music reflects the ideals and emotions of the common people and illustrates their social life over thousands of years of Chinese history. Shijing, The Book of Songs, completed in the sixth century B.C, is the earliest existing collection of poems and verses in China. In this book there are one hundred and sixty songs, grouped under the category called Feng, which can be considered the first complete record of Han folk songs in Northern China. At around the same time folk songs, referred to as the Chu songs, were popular around the middle Yangze river region where their texts were collected. These two collectors are the first recorded folk songs in China. At the end of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 B.C.) and the beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.), the rulers of China founded an institution for collecting and compiling folk songs, the Yuefu (music bureau); they thought they would understand the people, their ideas and attitudes from their folk songs. Folk songs of this time are called Yuefu folk songs. During the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 A.D.), Wuge (folk songs of the Wu region) developed in the lower reaches of the Yangtze river. Wuge and Xiqu (west tunes from the upper reaches of the Yangtze) rivers were the two important styles of Yuefu folk songs in southern China.

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In the Tang Dynasty (618–907), quzici appeared, and in the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), xiaoling; each had a variety of themes and structures that laid the foundation for the future development of folk song during the Ming (1366–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) Dynasties when Han folk song flourished. From the Ming and Qing Dynasties onwards folk songs occupied a more important position in the overall development of folk music and by the 1930s and 1940s it had become considered by scholars as a genre of folk music with a great variety of styles and forms which greatly influenced the development of other folk music genres.

Classifications of Folk Songs Several classification systems have been proposed by scholars for the study of folk songs:

(i) according to their place of origin: for example, the folk songs in the Book of Songs were divided into 15 groups: Qi State feng, Wei State feng, Zheng State feng, Cao State feng, Chen State feng, Wang State feng, Tang State feng, Bin State feng, etc. Here feng denotes style. A similar method was used to classify the Northern dynasty Yuefu folk song, Wu folk song and ‘west tunes’. In modern times we have the Northeastern China folk song, Sichuan folk song, Shanxi folk song, Hunan folk song, etc. (ii) thematic classification: grouped into lyrical, satiric and working songs; (iii) the use and function of folk songs: there are toasting songs, folk-lore songs; elegy, pastoral, ploughing, lifting water, lumbering, rafting, eulogy songs and many others; (iv) the manner in which they are sung: whether they are sung with high tone, low tone, mild tone, sharp tone, or powerful tone; (v) a musical consideration is their textual structure; for example, whether they are heterophonic or monophonic; (vi) the occasion when they are sung: field songs, work songs; children’s songs, etc. Of the various means of classification (vi) is the most frequently used. Haozi (Work songs), are sung during collective physical work. The fast and powerful rhythm of a work song synchronizes the movements of the laborers. Usually one person leads and others respond. Work songs have existed from very early times. In the spring and Autumn Annals, (about the third century B.C.) a work song sung by workers when carrying wood, has been found.

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Music Example 1 A work song from An Hui: Fighting the Drought.

Depending on the occasion and the type of labor, work songs are divided into river work song, marine work song, dock work song, forest work song, construction-site work song and farm-field work song. These can also be called work songs for boatmen, fishermen, porters, masons, builders and lumbermen. There are subdivisions within each type of work song. Among the most famous Han work songs are ‘The Chuan River Boatmen’s Song’, ‘The Water Transportation Song’, ‘The Yellow River Boatmen’s Song’, ‘The Yellow River Rammer’s Song’, ‘The Zhoushan Fishermen’s Song’, ‘The Shanghai Docker’s Song’ and ‘The Daxing’ anling Forest Song’. (Music Example 1) Shange (Mountain Songs), are sung by farmers and herders, who live in mountainous areas or on plateaus, when they are cutting wood or herding; this is usually an individual rather than a group activity. Mountain songs are in a free rhythm, have a bold and rigorous style, sung in high tones and with lyrical melodies. Due to their different geographical backgrounds, mountain songs from different places have their own particular characteristics and have formed their own repertories. Among them the most famous include ‘The Mountain Climbing Tune’ of western Inner Mongolia, Xintianyou from the Dabie Mountain areas, ‘Carrying Second Brother’ from northern Sichuan, ‘Divine Song’ from southern Sichuan, ‘Maoshan song’ of southern Shaanxi, ‘Hakka mountain song’ from the juncture of Guangdong, Fujian and Jiangxi, ‘High tone’ and ‘Mild tone’ of Hunan and The Xingguo mountain song’ of southern Jiangxi. (Music Example 2) Xiaodiao are popular among urban lower-middle class people. Unlike mountain songs and work songs, they do not have much to do with physical labor. They are more a performance and entertainment folk art, sung by professional or semiprofessional singers, with the accompaniment of folk instruments, in urban tea houses and public houses. Xiaodiao are usually well organized; the music is, very

54 QIAO JIAN ZHONG

Music Example 2 A mountain song from Shanxi.

decorative and suitable for narrative textual themes. There are a great variety of textual themes, ranging from historical stories to daily events. Xiaodiao also have their own different forms, for example, ‘The Five Geng tune’, ‘The Four Seasons Song’, ‘The December Flower’, ‘The Ten Cups of Wine’ and ‘The Antiphonal song of flowers’, ‘The Five Gen’ (traditionally the gen referred to are the five two-hour periods into which the night was divided) are usually sad in nature. The verse is divided into five episodes. As the song goes on, the passion becomes more and more intense. ‘The Four seasons song’ usually tells a story in four episodes. It starts with a question, ‘What flower blossoms in spring?’ or ‘What flower blossoms in summer?’ The answers to such questions convey a general knowledge of nature. All the forms are popular in the Han areas. Influenced by different local dialects, Xiadiao from different places differ from one another in verse, and sometimes in music as well. (Music Example 3) Tiange (Farm Field Song). This form of folk song is popular along the Yangtze River and the areas south of the Yangtze River where rice is grown. Every year there are two or even three crops. While working in the rice fields, farmers sing to create a happy and relaxed atmosphere and make the work less tiresome. The music has four-lines. A new line may be added either between the second and third line or the third and fourth line. For example:

I saw you picking up fire wood. On the mountain I am facing, I am willing to carry water for you. *I am willing to pick up fire wood for you, For I don’t want you to get tanned while working. Adding a line* between the third and fourth lines makes the fifth line more expressive.

HAN FOLK SONG IN CHINA 55

Music Example 3 Xiao diao: Meng Jiang nu.

The General Characteristics of Han Folk Songs As the Han people live in an area of vastly varied geographical characteristics the music of their folk songs differs in style depending on where they live and the nature of the terrain. Though they share a common cultural background the Han fold songs can adopt either the five or seven tone modal system. The modes include gong (do), shang (re), jiao (mi), zhi (sol), and yu (la). Yu is popular in southwest China, shang and zhi in northwest China. Which songs are sung depends on the work being undertaken. For example, there are two ways of singing Farm Field Songs (song for irrigating, weeding, ploughing, etc.): (i) semi-professional singers accompany the farmers into the fields and sing antiphonally; one group leads and the other responds, while drums are beaten at the edge of the field, and (ii) either the farmers or the singers lead and the other group responds. Each song may have a great many verses and can last for more than an hour. The singers extemporise on what ever happens to be going on at the time. The musical phrases of Han folk songs correlate to the textual organization. These can be in couplets or have four or five lines. In a couplet the first line states the theme and the second concludes it, and so the complete meaning is expressed. In a four line verse the first line starts the theme and the second line continues the musical material; the third line presents a turning point, and the forth concludes it. The five line music is based on the two line and, in northwest China, is in the zhi mode. There can also be a great variety of choices in regard to pitch. The verses usually rhyme in couplets, or are in four or five lines, but can vary in the number of syllables to each line. There may be no fixed number of syllables to each line, or they may have two, three, five, or seven syllables, or mixed five and seven syllables. This variable structure developed from a more fixed structure by the addition of chenci, the addition of words added for balance or euphony, and chenju, the addition of phrases, added for the same reasons. Chenci changes the structure of the original

56 QIAO JIAN ZHONG

song and makes it more rhythmic; chenju can be used at the beginning of a song or as an epilogue. The great variety of modes and pitches that can be selected make Han folk song colourful and rich in style.

Glossary Shijing Feng Yuefu Xiqu Haozi Shange Xiaodiao Tiange gong (do),

The Book of Songs folk songs music bureau West tunes Work songs Mountain songs lesser melodies, ditties Farm Field Songs shang (re), jiao (mi), zhi (sol) and yu (la) References

Guo Qiqian (Song Dynasty). Music House Poems. Reprinted by China Press of Books in 1979. Jiang Mingdun. (1982) Outline of Han Folk Song. Shanghai: Shanghai Press of Culture and Art. Jin Qihua. (1984) Annatation of the Book of Verse. Shanghai: Jiangsu Press of Ancient Relics. Miao Jing and Qiao Jian Zhong. (1987) Classification of Han Folk Song According to Style. Beijing: Press of Culture and Art. Research Institute of Music of the Chinese Academy of Arts, Compiler. (1980) Outline of National Music: Folk Song. Beijing: People’s Publishing House of Music.

Nuo-Culture and Music: Traces of Chinese Primitive Music in Nuoyi and Nuoxi1 Deng Guanghua

Nuo-culture is an age-old ritual tradition in China. It is composed of Nuoyi (Nuo-rite), Nuowu (Nuo-dance) and Nuoxi (Nuo-drama). KEY WORDS: Chinese music, ritual music in China, Nuo ritual

The History and Present Condition of Nuo Nuo is a kind of primitive religion with a strong flavour of witchcraft. Nuo has gone through a long historical process over more than three thousand six hundred years. It is a sacrifical rite that includes performance—singing, dancing and acting. In Southern China, especially in Guizhou Province, nuo is divided into Nuoyi (nuo-rite), Nuowu (nuo-dance) and Nuoxi (Nuo-drama or Nuo-opera). Wizards perform wearing masks symbolizing various gods and ghosts so as to drive out devils and pestilences: this is the purpose of the nuo ritual. Nuo originated in prehistoric times and flourished during the period of the ShangZhou Dynasties (from the sixteenth to the third century B.C.). According to historical documents from the Zhou Dynasty (eleventh century to 256 B.C.), the rite of Nuo was organised by the fangxiang.2 The fangxiang, dressed in black and red, wrapped himself in a bearskin, and, wearing a golden mask with four eyes and

1

This paper is translated by Mr. Gu Zongzhi, a teacher at the Guizhou Higher Arts Institute. I wish to express my gratitude for his assistance. 2 Fangxiang, the name for the main official in the Zhou dynasty (eleventh century to 256 B.C.) who held the leading position in Nuo rites.

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carrying dagger-axes and shields led the masses to perform the Nuo rites. In the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–A.D. 220), twelve ‘divine animals’3 and one hundred and twenty ‘Zhenzies’ 4 were added to the Nuo rite. There was also a chorus, solo singing and dancing, and there were musical instruments, such as bronze dagger-axes, big tao5 and so on. Gradually, until the Song Dynasty (A.D. 960–1279), secularized mythical figures such as Zhongkui,6 Panguan,7 Menshen,8 and others appeared in Nuo— replacing the fangxiang, divine animals and zhenzies. (see Figure 1) Having undergone a long process of evolution over several thousand years, there are now more than twenty varieties of Nuoxi9 in the extensive rural areas of China. They differ in both regional attributions and their level of development. According to their different cultural functions, Nuoxi can be divided into four types: CourtNuo,10 Folk-Nuo, Army-Nuo11 and Temple-Nuo.12 They are to be found mainly in the areas of the Yangtze River and Yellow River basins, especially in the areas adjoining Guizhou and Hunan Provinces, where the distribution of Nuoxi is densest; it is less dense in the Provinces of Shichuan, Yunnan, Guangxi, Anhui and Jiangxi. In the areas of eastern Guizhou, where the national minorities have lived since ancient times, people have had a longheld tradition of witchcraft. They have concentrated their attention on worshiping the ghosts and gods, even with the onslaught of modern culture. As a result, the Nuo-custom has been preserved to such an extent that the area is called ‘The home of Nuoxi’. Although the Nuoxi in various areas are not completely alike in appearance, they are identical in that they have all retained some primitive witch practices in varying degrees. For instance, if a family member falls ill, the wizards will be requested to

3

A stone relief, ‘A Picture of Driving the Devils’ by twelve ‘Divine Animals’, preserved in Wuliangci (the ancestral temple), Shandong Province, is historical evidence regarding ancient Nuo culture. 4 Zhenzies, an ensemble of Nuoyi in ancient times, was composed of boys and girls aged ten to twelve and all from noble families. 5 Tao, rattle-drum. 6 Zhongkui, a mythical figure who has the ability to capture ghosts. 7 Panguan, the judge in Hell. 8 Menshen, a door-god, a talisman and the patron saint whose picture was often pasted on the front door of a house. 9 Nuoxi, Nuo drama, an age-old operatic tradition preserved in Nuo. 10 Court-Nuo, a category of Nuo which was performed in court. 11 Army-Nuo, a category of Nuo which was practiced by military troops in ancient China. At present, the Dixi (performing on the ground) in Guizhou Province and Guansuoxi in Yunnan Province are the remains of the ancient Army-Nuo. 12 Temple-Nuo, a category of Nuo performed in temples. Today, at many big Buddhist Temples in the Tibet Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province and the Yonghe-Palace in Beijing, Temple-Nuo are still being performed.

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Figure 1 A scene from Zhongkui Panan (Zhongkui Is Judging a Case) of Nuotan main-drama (see Note 6). The figure is Zhongkui and the other two kneeling on the ground are little ghosts. (All Photos by Wang Yujiang)

undertake a curing ritual by ‘Chong Nuo’, or make a scarecrow as a substitute so as to save the patient from danger.13 If a great disaster has occurred, the wizards will be asked to do a divination by dripping blood; this is called ‘opening the red mountain!’.14 If a couple have no children they will make a vow to achieve a son (redeeming the vow for children). When a boy reaches the age of twelve, the parents will make ‘redeeming the vow for passing the age-gate’ climbing a ladder with many swords.15 Nuoyi is the basic sacrificial rite of Nuo, and it generally includes three parts: Kaitan (opening the Nuo-altar), Kaidong (opening the mountain caves) and Bitan

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(closing the Nuo-altar). The procedures for these rites are very complicated and the scenes are very grand, enthusiastic, lively and interesting. In Kaitan, wizards wearing masks sing, dance and act for the gods. In the meantime, they will create an argument so as to cross-examine each other’s knowledge, including the cosmic origins and conditions of heaven and earth, Wuyue (Five Mountains),16 eight diagrams,17 jiazi18 and so forth. This is called Hetan (responding on the Nuo-altar). The ritual continues with Kaidong and requesting Grandma Tang (a mythical figure) to take the drama out of three mountain caves in the Peach Orchard. (Figure 2). The so-called ‘drama’, is, in fact, a special sort of rite with some of the characteristics of dramatic acting. Nuoxi can be divided into two categories: Zhengxi (main-drama or Yindrama) and Waixi (outer-drama or Yang-drama). The former is performed wearing masks and its purpose is to reward the gods; the latter is generally performed without masks and to amuse the people and the actors themselves. It is often difficult to distinguish between dramatic acting and sacrificial rite. It is, in fact, both sacred rite and a secularized performance.19 To finish the entire Nuoyi takes a day and a night at least, sometimes ten days, or even half a month.

13

In the area of eastern Guizhou Province, Nuo is divided into three categories: JijiuNuo, Taiping-Nuo and Di-Nuo. Jijiu-Nuo has a strong flavour of witchcraft. The patient is entwined by the devil, the wizard makes a scarecrow, as a scapegoat, and orders it to go to Hell and register itself with the Yama (the King of Hell). After that, the patient can be brought back to life. 14 In order to turn bad luck into good, a wizard would drive a nail into his brain, or stab his forehead with a dagger and drip the blood onto a piece of paper. This is a called kaihongshan (opening the red mountain). 15 On the occasion of the ritual ‘redeeming the vow for passing the age-gate’, a wooden pole with twelve or twenty-four swords is set up on the ground, shaped like a swordladder, and the sharp blades are placed upward. Then the wizard, who carries the boy on his back, steps on the blades with his barefeet and climbs the sword-ladder, going up and down three times. 16 Wuyue, five well-known mountains in China: Taishan Mountain in Shandong, Hengshan Mountain in Hunan, Huashan Mountain in Shaanxi, Hengshan Mountain in Shanxi and Songshan Mountain Henan. 17 Eight Diagrams, a set of signs with symbolic meanings in ancient China. The eight diagrams are composed of three whole or broken lines used for divination. It is called Bagua. 18 Jiazi, the Heavens Stems and Earthly Branches, are two sets of signs, one being taken from each set to form sixty pairs of signs used for designating a full cycle of sixty years. 19 In eastern Guizhou, there are twenty-four Nuo dramas, of which each has a mask role as its representative. All the mask roles have names: for instance, sweeping monk, landlord, pathbreaker, pioneer with white flag, village god who guides the soldiers, and others. Collectively they are called the gods of the twenty-four Nuo-dramas.

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Figure 2 A scene of Kaidong (opening the caves) from Noutan main-drama, the Dipan Tudi (village god) is on his way to the Peach Orchard to request Grandma Tang to take the drama out of the three mountain caves.

Nuo-Altar Witch-Sound: The Music Nuo-altar Witch-sound is important in Nuoyi and Nuoxi; it includes the sounds of singing, chanting, reciting, incantation, shouting and various musical instruments, as well as magical instruments, such as the oxhorn,20 shidao,21 lingpai,22 zhugua,23 gongs, drums and so on. All of these instruments have been endowed with the power of calling the gods and dispatching the generals from heaven. Let us take the ox-horn and shidao as examples. (Figure 3)

20

Ox-horn, is one of the music ritual instruments in the Nuo-altar. Usually the horn is made of water buffalo horn, about 80 cm, long with a mouthpiece made of wood from the Chinese parasol tree. 21 Shidao, one of the magical implements in Nuo-altar. It is made of iron and shaped like a ring, to which many small iron rings are tied. It is wielded by the wizards and produces the sound of ‘sha…sha…sha…’.

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Figure3 In the rite of Hetan, both wizards are singing and dancing to cross-examine each other about the origins of many things. The article in the left man’s right hand is a Zhugua (see Note 23) and that in the other man’s right is a Shidao (see Note 21). In addition, the rectangular wooden boxes in their left hands are called Shipai, a kind of magic prop, to which are attached many pieces of cloth of various colors; the words of Nuo-vows are written on them.

The sounds made by the ox-horn are shrill and piercing, and frequently vibrate within the interval of about a minor third, oscillating from slow to fast. The ‘wu… wu…wu…’ sound of the ox-horn mingled with the ‘sha…sah…sha…’ of the shidao engender a solemn and ghastly atmosphere, as if the people were lost in an illusory world where the gods and ghosts have lived. To the wizards’ mind, as the ox-horn is playing, the gods from heaven descend to the world and make their magic. Part of Nuo-song (in the eastern Guizhou Province) goes like this:

An ox-horn was sharp The sounds of ox-horn-blowing reached

22

Lingpai, a block of wood representing the authority of the wizards. Zhugua, two pieces of the conical root of bamboo used for divination; sometimes they are beaten against each other rhythmically as an accompaniment to a witch-song sung by the wizards.

23

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the gate of heaven. The Yuhuang 24 (Jade Emperor) heard them, He led the troops to the Nuo-altar hurriedly. (Figure 4) Shilang (wizards) play the ox-horn three more times, Each time the sounds called the gods and Seven thousand master gods descend from the upper-altar, and Eighty thousand master gods came from the lower-altar. According to the wizards, some ox-horn-notations, passed on in secret, still exist. In the Nuo-altar, the gong-drum, witch-song and incantation are believed to have supernatural powers. For example, in ‘daqiao’ (building a bridge), a sacrificial verse of Nuo in eastern Guizhou Province tells of the mysterious power of the gong-drum:

Figure 4 At the rite of Kaitan (opening the Nuo-altar) an old wizard is playing an ox-horn inviting the gods from all directions.

24

Yuhuang, Jade Emperor, the supreme Diety in Taoism.

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The First beat of the gong-drum made the heaven and earth turn upside down, The Second made the sun and moon shine and shine. Third of that made the ‘suoluo’ (cyathea spinulosa) in heaven keep on turning, Fourth of that made the Yuhuang ascend his throne…

Searching for Traces of Chinese Primitive Music in Nuoyi and Nuoxi Nuo-altar Witch-sound revealed some historical information about Chinese music in ancient times. Figure 4 At the rite of Kaitan (opening the Nuo-altar) an old wizard is playing an ox-horn inviting the gods from all directions.

1. The Nuo wizards achieved the divine realm as soon as they put on masks. In the illusional state, they sang in a style between speaking and singing, oscillating higher and lower and repeating ceaselessly. Inviting the gods

Singers: Tian Yinggui Xie Guoxiang Collector: Deng Guanghua

Music Example 1

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The general meaning of the text: Don’t burn a joss stick before anything. Don’t invite the gods without a purpose. Ask the Shigong (grand master) and Thunder God to befall and grant prosperity to us. This singing style is consciously aims at reaching the other world where the gods and ghosts have lived. Perhaps we may also say that this singing style reflects the early stages when language and music started to separate. 2. There are many Nuo-songs that have a simple one-phrase structure which was used to serve the gods in Nuoyi; their structural form is relatively fixed.

Roving around the Nuo

Singers: Tian Yinghua Xie Guoxiang Collector: Deng Guanghua You nou Sai hai

Music Example 2

The general meaning of the text is: I see the coming and going of the god, Now I see her in front of me. I want her to stay for a night, But there is not any rice for the breakfast. In addition, there are sacrificial songs that are composed as music and dance for the gods which mix singing, dancing and playing musical instruments together. Based on what we know of the historical development of Chinese music, these

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traces can be regarded as ancient musical forms preserved until present day Nuoculture. 3. Singing in a kind of unnatural voice, symbolizing the devils, is an important characteristic of the ‘main-drama’ in the Nuo-altar, which is generally performed in a gloomy and ghastly atmosphere. In order to express the power of the Nuo gods the wizards put on ferocious masks and danced with rough and frenzied movements. At the same time they ‘sang’, or, to be more exact shouted hoarsely against the deafening noise of the percussion instruments which it was believed could be heard by the gods. This sonic design may be regarded as a description of the ancient rites as recorded in historical documents. Nuo is a pan-cultural phenomenon. With the attention and participation of our colleagues, we will learn more in our study of Nuo-culture.

Glossary Bitan Chongnuo Daqiao Dixi Fangxiang Hetan Jiazi Kaidong Kaitan Kaihongshan Lingpai Menshen Nuo Nuowu Nuoxi Nuoyi Panguan Shidao Tao Waixi Wuliangci Wuyue Yuhuang Zhengxi Zhongkui Zhugua

close the Nuo-altar see note 13 build a bridge see note 11 see note 2 responding the occasion of Nuo see note 18 opening the mountain cave opening the Nuo-altar opening the red mountain see note 22 see note 8 the ritual of Nuo Nuo-dance Nuo-drama Nuo-rite see note 7 see note 21 see note 5 outer-drama see note 3 see note 16 see note 24 main-drama see note 6 see note 23

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References Anon. (B.C.) Zhouli: xiaguan (Record of the etiquette and rite in Zhou Dynasty). Deng Guanghua. (1986) Sinan Nuotanxi Gaiguan (A general survey of the Nuo-drama in Sinan County). Edited and published by Guizhou Arts Research Institute. ——. (1993) Nuo, Yishu, Zongjiao ( Nuo, Arts, Religion). Beijing: Zhongguo Wenlian Chuban Gongsi. Dong Weisong and Shen Qia. (1985) Minzu yinyuexue Yiwenji (A translated selection of Ethnomusicology). Beijing: Zhongguo Wenlian Chuban Gongsi. Fan Ye (A.D. 398–445). Houhanshu: Liyizhi (History of Eastern Han Dynasty: Records of etiqutte and rites). Hong Jiaxiu and Zhong Tian. (he lived in the period of the Ming Dynasty, A.D. 1368– 1644). Sinan Fuzhi (Local chronicles of Sinan County, my hometown in eastern Guizhou). Li Zihe et al. (1989) Nuo, Nuoxi, Nuowenhua (Nuo, Nuo-drama and Nuo-culture). Edited by Guizhou Arts Research Institute. Beijing: Wenhua Yishu Chubanshe. Ming Yuanlao. (lived during the Southern Song Dynasty, A.D. 1127–1279 A.D.) Dongjing Menghualu (Records of the prosperity of Dongjing, the capital during the Northern Song Dynasty, now Kaifeng city of Henan Province). Qu Liuyi et al. (1989) Zhongguo Nuowenhua Lunwenji (A Selection of Nuo-culture of China). Edited by Gu Puguang, Tuo Xuiming, Luo Tinghua and Liu Zhenguo. Guiyang: Guizhou Minzu Chubanshe. Wu Zimu. (lived during the period of Southern Song Dynasty) Menglianglu (Records of the institutions of Linan, the capital during the Southern Song Dynasty, now Hangzhou city of Zhejiang Province). Zong Lin. (lived in the period of the Liang Dynasty, A.D. 502–557) Jingchu Suishiji (Records of local conditions and customs in Jingchu, place name in ancient times of China, now mainly the Provinces of Hubei and Hunan).

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Taoist Ritual Music in China Tsao Penyeh

This article provides an overview of the history of religious Taoism and the use of vocal and instrumental music in its rituals. KEY WORDS: Chinese religion, religious Taoism, Taoist ritual, ritual music, Taoist ritual music, music and ritual.

Introduction Archaeological findings of burial offerings from tombs of the Shang (sixteenth century B.C. to 1066 B.C.) and pre-Shang periods suggest that divination and communication with supernatural forces were widely practised in ancient China. Ritual dancing and singing in honour of the ancestors, and activities of the wushi (shaman and spirit-medium) and fangshi (man of magical techniques) in the courts and among the people, from the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 B.C.) until the end of second century, are generally viewed as the contributing factors in the formation of religious Taoism.1 Pursuit of immortality was an important preoccupation in the court. The magical techniques used by the wushi and fangshi were later amalgamated into the cosmology of yin-yang wuxing by Zou Yan (circa 350–270 B.C.). Coupled with the philosophical concept of tian ren he yi (the human in the universe/ the universe within the human), this cosmological yin-yang wuxing, with subsequent 1

See Chapter 28 of Si Maqian’s Shi Ji (Historical annals), in Ershisi Shi (The twenty-four historical annals), vol. 4 (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1959, 1355–1404). Si Maqian (145– 86? B.C.) completed this 130-chapter historical annals about 91 B.C., recording events encompassing the period from the legendary Huangdi to about 101 B.C. of Han dynasty.

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Figure 1 Yin-yang Wu-xing.

reinterpretations and expansions, became the basis for explaining the formation of the universe and the inter-relationships of things within it. (Figure 1) By the time of the Warring States (403–221 B.C.), the yin-yang wuxing cosmic principle was already part of Taoism. Taoists advocated the idea of wuwei, allowing things to be in their natural state or to develop according to their natural course.2 Laozi and Zhuangzi (circa 369–285 B.C.) both attributed the origin of heaven, earth and humans to the Dao, the most original source of the universe and all things in it. Dao existed eternally and provided harmony and balance in the universe, transcending the boundaries of time and space. Because of this, everything was just fine in its natural state and should not be disturbed. Laozi’s Daode jing (ca. 300 B.C.) says: ‘Dao [nothingness] produces the One [the qi, the primordial energy]; One produces the Two [the yin and yang]; Two yields the Three [as a result of unity of the yin and yang, the process of he]; and the Three make millions of things’.3 As the Han Dynasty came towards its end (between 140 and 185 A.D.), there appeared two religious movements that forecasted the development of organized religious Taoism. The leaders of these movements all claimed to have received revelations from the gods and immortals. Firstly, Taoist Zhang Jue organized a religious rebellious movement in northern China under the name Taiping Dao (The Way of Great Peace) in 180 A.D., which was defeated by the court in the same year. Historians named this movement the ‘Yellow Turbans Rebellion’, because Zhang’s followers wore yellow cloths around their heads to symbolize the power of

2

Various writers have presented interpretations of the meanings of wuwei; see, for example, Welch’s version (1957, 83–87). 3 Chapter 42 of the Daode Jing. Taoist interpretation of this passage is in square brackets. There are several publications of the Daode Jing, such as the one contained in Daozang, vol. 346.

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earth. At about the same time in the Kingdom of Shu (present-day Sichuan), another Taoist named Zhang Ling led a religious movement under the name Tianshi Dao (The Way of the Heavenly Masters) which proved to be a success, and Zhang has since been referred to as the first generation of the hereditary Tianshi tradition. Between the years 307–312, the fourth generation Tianshi Zhang Cheng moved to Longhu mountain in Jiangxi province, from where the Tianshi tradition later became known as the Zhengyi (Heavenly Master) sect. Developments immediately following these early religious Taoist movements can be viewed as the enrichment, refinement, and reorganization of religious Taoism:

1. Taoist Ge Hong (284–364) systematically summarized Taoist thoughts and techniques regarding immortality in his Paopuzi (vols. 868–870 in Daozang).4 2. Between the period of the third and fifth centuries, there appeared several important scriptures that further theologized religious Taoism. They were classified under the three liturgical systems of Shangqing Jing, Lingbao Jing, and Sanhuang Ling.5 3. During the reign of the Northern Wei ruler Taiwu (424–452), Taoist recluse Kou Qianzhi (365–448) restructured the Tianshi Dao and gave it a superstructure of elaborate rites. Kou also claimed to have received the yunzhong yinsong (chants from the clouds) from some mystical sources, thus incorporating singing into scripture readings (Chen 1963, 291). 4. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (316–589), Taoist Lu Xiujing (406–477) verified and arranged 1228 existing Taoist written documents under a three-part classification system (Sandong) which not only brought the methods of the earlier Taoist practices into a doctrinal and canonical unity but also established the basis for the subsequent compilation work of the multi-voluminous Daozang. Lu also further elaborated the rites, bringing the structure of Taoist ritual near to completion (Chen 1963, 281–282). 5. Taoist Tao Hongjing (456–536) advocated the practice of sanjiao heyi (Three religions into one); that is, the introduction of Buddhist and Confucian aspects into Taoism.

4

Earlier compilation of the Daozang are no longer in existence. The existing two Daozang were compiled during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644): the Zhengtong Daozang (The orthodox Taoist canon) by Shao Yizheng (completed in 1445) and the Wanli Xu Daozang (Supplement to the Taoist canon) by Zhang Guoxiang (completed in 1607). 5 See examination of the contents of these scriptures by Chen (1963, 7–61; 66–70; and 71–77).

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Taoism reached its peak during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). Because the Tang emperors had the surname ‘Li,’ the same as that of the legendary Laozi, the court advocated Taoism nation-wide and bestowed various titles to honour Laozi. Part of the Taoist music was performed in the court under the yanyue (court banquet music); and emperors, such as Xuan Zong (712–756), personally participated in composing and instructing the performance of Taoist music (Wushang Huanglu Dazai Jichengyi, ch. 15, vol. 281 in Daozang). Religious Taoism continued to occupy an important position in the courts of the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), particularly during the reigns of Emperors Zhen Zong (998–1022) and Hui Zong (1101–1125). Yuyin Fashi, from the Northern Song period, is the earliest extant collection of Taoist chants.6 (Figure 2) Between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, with the courts of Liao (916–1125), and later Jin (1115–1234) in the north, and the migration of the Song court to the south in 1127, religious Taoism branched out into the northern and southern sects. Between the years of 1161 and 1189, Taoist Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) established the Quanzhen (Perfect Realization) sect which quickly spread across northern China, distinguishing itself from the Tianshi Dao (now called the Zhengyi sect). The Quanzhen and Zhengyi sects have since become the two major sects of religious Taoism.7 Although the Quanzhen Taoists generally tended to emphasize meditation while the Zhengyi Taoists were more concerned with rituals, the two Taoist sects have developed rituals that are similar in basic contents and structure. During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1661), the compilation of the Taoist canon Daming Zhengtong Daozang was completed in 1445, containing 5305 volumes, to which 180 volumes were added in 1607. Fourteen Taoist chants were recorded in gongchi notation in another Ming collection Daming Yuzhi Xuanjiao Yuezhang (volume 616 in Daozang). The Qing (1644–1911) court generally favoured Buddhism. However, the weakening of political influence of the Taoists in the court had very little effect outside the court. Religious Taoist activities has continued to play an important role in the daily life of the people until the present day.

Taoist Ritual and Ritual Music Present-day Taoist rituals are modelled largely on the traditions established during the Ming Dynasty, although there are regional variations of detail. They can be grouped into three categories: Xiudao fashi, Jinian fashi, and Zaijiao fashi. Xiudao fashi are the daily morning and evening offices. These are essentially meditative rituals

6

Fifty chants are recorded in contour-notation, which scholars have yet to find a way to decipher. The collection is in volume 333 in Daozang. 7 Since the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), Quanzhen sect has been more prevalent in Beijing, Shanxi, Ganshu, Henan, Shandong, Hebei, Shanxi, Liaoning, Wubei, Sichuan, and Hong Kong; and the Zhengyi sect is more active in Shanghai, Wuxi, Hangzhou, Mao mountain, Taiwan, with Longhu mountain (Jiangxi province) as its center.

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Figure 2 Line-Notation of Yuyin Fashi.

aiming to cleanse the body and mind of the Taoist priest. Jinian fashi are the rituals celebrating the birthdays of various gods, deities, and Taoist masters. Zaijiao fashi, which can vary from one to three, five, seven or more days, are rituals performed for providing salvation to the deceased. Intended for public viewing, the Zaijiao fashi emphasizes aural and visual aspects, often adopting wellknown tunes from repertories of secular folk music and performed with colloquial scripture contents, colourful costumes and elaborate hand and body gestures, effectively reaching out and communicating with the spectators, the living as well as the ritually intended deceased. Music, vocal and instrumental, is integral to the performance of these rituals.8 Both regional and transregional characteristics are found in Taoist ritual music. In general, transregional elements are more evident in the music of templeaffiliated Taoists (i.e., celibate Quanzhen and Zhengyi Taoists), while music traditions

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of the huoju daoshi (non-celibate Taoists) are more regionally oriented and have closer affiliation with other musical genres in the region. Although a number of notation systems are in existence, oral transmission has been essential in the propagation of Taoist traditions. Taoist rituals are performed by three key specialists: the gaogong fashi (chief Taoist or master of exalted merit), dujiang (chief cantor), and fujiang (assistant cantor). Musically the dujiang is the most important person. Standing to the right of gaogong fashi, the dujiang is the person who begins singing the first few pitches of a chant, thereby setting the pitch and tempo, and selecting the appropriate tune for other Taoists to follow.9 The ritual field is the microcosm of the Taoist universe. The sequence of the ritual performance is organized within a fixed framework, consisting of sequential units aiming at establishing this temporary universe and making it effective. In ritual performances, alternating passages of recitation and chanting, linked by instrumental interludes and interspersed with ritual actions, are organized within the basic liturgical framework. There are eight musical events: (a) preliminary instrumental preludes; (b) chant(s) to eulogize god and/or praise the power and meaning of the Dao; and to the incense offering and invitation for the god’s presence and assistance; (c) chant sung to the dispatching of memorial that announces the purpose of, and assistance required for this particular rite; (d) in rites dealing with the deceased, chant(s) sung to describe the fetching of ghosts or ancestors from the underworld; (e) chants sung to complement preaching of repentance and merits according to Taoist teachings; (f) in rites dealing with the deceased, chants sung to relieve drudgeries in ghosts; (g) closing chant(s) to thank and send off the god and to praise the merits of the rite; and (h) instrumental postlude. These eight musical events correlate to the liturgical framework. The first four musical events occur during the ‘preparatory’ stage of the ritual—the part which provides the proper conditions for the ritual to begin (e.g., the tan (altar) being purified; the gods being offered, praised, and invited; the purpose of the ritual being announced; and ghosts or ancestors being summoned, etc.). This is followed by the ‘objective-achieving’ stage in the ritual, the preaching of Taoist teachings and relief of drudgeries (in rites dealing with deceased). The last two musical events correspond to the third and final stage in the ritual, ‘thanksgiving’. (Figure 3) Chants, referred to as yun, yunqiang, or yunzi, are grouped under the yangyun and yinyun categories. Yangyun are chants praising the virtues and power of the gods. They are mainly sung during the Xiudao fashi and Jinian fashi. Yinyun consists of chants that are used in Zaijiao fashi. The two types of repertory are not interchangeable in use. The yunqiang, together with instrumental interludes, are

8

The Chinese terms for Taoist ritual music are fashi yinyue, daochang yinyue, zaijiao yinyu or daojiao yinyue. 9 There are often several alternative tunes of different lengths that can be used for the same chant text.

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Figure 3 Taoist ritual performance.

organized into a large suite in ritual performances. They are sung solo, or in unison (congregational or leader-congregational) and in alternation between two or more persons. The singing style varies from speech-mode (i.e., syllabic) to singing-mode (i.e., neumatic or melismatic). Musical phrases correlate closely with the textual line-structure (i.e., the number of syllables and cesura patterns in a textual line). The matching of music to text has three varieties: one chant-tune to several texts of similar textual structure; several chant-tunes for the same text; and one chant-tune to one text. (Music Example 1) Chant repertory of the Quanzhen sect contains the Quanzhen zhenyun (Orthodox Quanzhen chants), which are unified chants sung in the major temples of the Quanzhen sect; and the difang yun (regional chants). The extant printed collection of the Quanzhen zhengyun is the 1906 re-printed edition, by the Taoist priests He Longxiang, Peng Hanran and others of the Erxian temple in Sichuan. The origin of the chants and their first edition can no longer be traced. This re-printed edition contains fifty-six chants, notated in the dangqing notation (i.e., only the punctuation of the small brass bell on a stand, dang, and the brass bowl, qing, are notated at the right side column of the text; pitch and rhythm are not notated).10 The Zhengyi chant repertories are much more regionally oriented. (Music Examples 2 and 3)

10

Fifty-three tunes have been notated in cipher notation and published in Quanzhen Zhenyun Puji (1991), based on the oral version recalled by the seventy-year old Taoist Master Ming Zhiting.

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Music Example 1 Chanting in speech-mode.

Translation of Text: With fragrant flowers [we] urge [our] messenger to begin his journey quickly; On his priceless horse with golden saddle, he rides across the blue sky, heading for the heavenly kingdom with colourful clouds at his feet… Note: Padding syllables indicated by brackets. Music Example 2 Chant from the Quanzhen Zhengyun repertoire ‘Songhua Zan’.

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Instrumental music is provided by an ensemble consisting of percussion and wind instruments. It includes the faqi (ritual instruments)—qing (idiophone in the shape of a large bowl, usually made of brass, and hit by a wooden stick), yinqing (idiophone in the shape of a small bowl standing on a stick, made of brass, and hit by a slender metal stick), moyu (idiophone shaped like a fish, made of wood, and hit by a wooden stick), dang (idiophone, small brass gong suspended in a wooden framework, and hit by a thin bamboo or wooden stick), and shouling (idiophone, brass hand bell); melodic wind instruments of suona (aerophone, oboe), di (aerophone, horizontal flute), and guan (aerophone, reeded pipe); and percussion instruments of gu (membranophone, drum), shougu (membranophone, hand-held drum), bo (idiophone, cymbal), and luo (idio-phone, gong). Zhengyi Taoists tend to place more emphasis on instrumental music than the Quanzhen Taoists. It is usual for instrumental ensembles of the Zhengyi sect to employ plucked and bowed string instruments in addition to the percussion and wind instruments.

Translation: When the roots of miseries are eliminated, beauty and kindness remain. Music Example 3 Chant from the repertoire of Wudang Mountain ‘Diaogua’.

Six types of instrumental music may be distinguished: (1) percussion prelude; (2) wind and percussion prelude; (3) percussion interlude; (4) wind and percussion interlude; (5) percussion postlude; and (6) instrumental accompaniment to the recitation and chanting of the Taoists. Instrumental music follows a fixed pattern in ritual performances. Each ritual begins with three drum rolls, a percussion prelude,

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alternating qing and moyu beats, a wind and percussion prelude, more exchanges between qing and moyu, and then, three rolls of slow-to-fast moyu beats. While the interplay between qing and moyu and the slow-to-fast moyu beats have symbolic meanings representing respectively the dialogue between the yang and yin forces and/or the Sanqing (The Three Pure Ones, highest of the Taoist gods), the opening drum rolls have a dual function. They alert heaven, informing it that a rite is about to begin, and signals to the Taoists to prepare for the commencement of a rite. The percussion prelude that follows provides accompaniment to the entering and positioning of the Taoists in the tan area. Similarly, the percussion postlude is used to accompany Taoists while they exit the tan. The wind and percussion prelude provides the Taoists an opportunity to make final adjustments to their clothing and to get into the meditative mood to begin the ritual. To the spectators, instrumental music provide a general ritual atmosphere, with the instrumental prelude announcing the opening of a ritual and postlude declaring the successful completion of a ritual. Tunes used in instrumental preludes and postludes are often those customarily used in Chinese operas to accompany stage actions. The flexibility in extending or terminating the musical accompaniment is obviously a deciding factor for the preference of using these tunes to accompany ritual performances. (Music Example 4) Taoist rituals aim to unite the micro-universe (ritual area and ritual participants) and the macro-universe, and music serves as the effective bridge linking the two universes.

Note: Alternative pitch choices are differentiated with upward and downward stems. Music Example 4 Instrumental interlude ‘Yiding Jing’.

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Glossary Bo Dang Dao Daozang Di Difang yun Dujiang Fangshi Faqi Fujiang Gaogong fashi Gongchi Gu Guan He Huoju daoshi Jinian fashi Luo Moyu Qi Qing Quanzhen Quanzhen zhenyun Sandong Sanjiao heyi Sanqing Shougu Suona Taiping Dao Tan Tian ren he yi Tianshi Dao Wushi Wuwei Xiudao fashi Yangyun Yanyue

idiophone, cymbal idiophone, small brass gong suspended in a wooden frame the transcendent eternal Cosmic Way Taoist canon aerophone, horizontal flute regional chants chief cantor man of magical techniques ritual instruments assistant cantor chief Taoist or master of exalted merit notational system membranophone, drum aerophone, reeded pipe process of uniting the yin and yang non-celibate Taoist priests rituals celebrating the birthdays of various gods, deities, and past Taoist masters idiophone, gong idiophone shaped like a fish, made of wood the primordial energy idiophone in the shape of a large bowl, usually made of brass Perfect Realization Orthodox Quanzhen chants three-part classification of historical documents used in the Taoist canon Three religions (Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism) into one The Three Pure Ones, highest of the Taoist gods membranophone, hand-held drum aerophore, oboe The Way of Great Peace Taoist altar human in/as universe The Way of the Heavenly Masters shaman and spirit-medium Taoist philosophical idea of non-interference daily morning and evening offices chants praising the virtues and power of the gods court banquet music

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Yin-yang wuxing Yinqing Yinyun Yun Yunqiang Yunzi Zaijiao fashi Zhengyi

cosmic principles of the yin and yang, and five elements idiophone in the shape of a small brass bowl standing on a stick chants that are used in Zaijiao fashi Taoist chants Taoist chants Taoist chants rituals performed for providing salvation to the deceased Heavenly Master References

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Notes on Contributors

Wu Ben was born in Bejing in 1950. He graduated from the Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Arts, Bejing, and in 1985 he received an MA in musicology from the Research Institute of Music, Chinese Academy of Arts. In 1988 he studied ethnomusicology for a year at Queen’s University, Belfast, UK. Since 1993 he has been studying ethnomusicology at the University of Pittsburgh, USA. Xue Yibing was born in 1950. He is Deputy Director of the Music Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Arts, Beijing. An author of many articles on traditional Chinese music he has undertaken fieldwork throughout China. Stephen Jones was born in 1953. He is a Leverhulme research fellow at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London University and chairman of CHIME, the European Foundation for Chinese Music Research. He is also a professional violinist in London’s early music orchestras. Qiao Jian Zhong is Director of the Research Institute of Chinese Music in Beijing, specialising in the study of folk songs and instrumental music. Deng Guanghua was born in Sinan County, Guizhou Province. Since 1940 he has been the Associate Professor and Deputy Director of the Arts

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Department, Guizhou Normal University. He is a member of the Chinese Musicians’ Association and Director of the Society for Nuo-drama of China. Tsao Penyeh is Senior Lecturer in Ethnomusicology at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interest in Chinese music includes singing-narratives, puppet theatre, and ritual music. Tsao heads the Ritual Music in China Research Programme at the Music Department of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, aiming to systematically investigate Taoist and Buddhist ritual music as well as ritual music of other ethnic nationalities in China. With a team of twenty scholars, the Research Programme is presently conducting a three-year project ‘Comparative Study of Regional and Transregional Taoist Ritual Music Traditions of Major Temples in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan’. Tian Lian-tao is an ethnomusicologist and composer, and professor of the Central Conservatory of Music, Beijing, China. He has conducted extensive research into the traditional music of China’s minority nationalities for more than forty years. Xiu Hailin was born in Shanghai in 1952 and graduated from the department of Musicology at the Central Conservatory of Music in 1983. He is currently the Assistant Professor and Assistant Director of the Institute of Music, Central Conservatory of Music. Tsui Ying is currently an ethnomusicology Ph.D. student in the University of Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania, USA). He received his B.A. in 1987 and his M.Phil. (Chinese music), in 1990 from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His major field of interest in Chinese instrumental music. In Hong Kong, he has been active as a Chinese flute player as well as a conductor in the modernized Chinese folk orchestras, as well as a Western flute player, for over a decade. His master thesis studied amateur Chinese orchestras in Hong Kong in the seventies with reference to the musical characteristics of the kind of repertoire performed and the social context in which the orchestras emerged. Tsui’s doctoral dissertation is on the issues concerning the traditional Cantonese music ensemble. Ruth Wingyu Yee , a founder of the Shatin Cantonese Opera Troupe, Hong Kong, has for the past ten years been serving on its management committee and performing as a principal actress. She was a solo folksong singer

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of the Chinese Folk Dance Association in San Francisco and a solo dancer of the East/West Dance Company in Boston. She has also helped these groups to organize demonstration workshops for local communities. Ruth Yee’s research interest is in Chinese music in gender context. In 1994 she published a two-part review article on the definitions of Chinese folk songs in the Journal of Wuhan Music Conservatory and in 1995 presented a paper at the 33rd World Conference of the International Council of Traditional Music entitled The Lao Ma Ma Hui of Bai Ethnic Nationality in Yunnan, China. Wang Yaohua was born in Changting county of Fujian province in 1942. He graduated in the music department of the Fujian Teachers University in 1961. Currently Professor of Music and Vice-president of the University. He has been engaged for many years in the study and teaching of Chinese Traditional Music.

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Index

Abing 24, 25

Haozi (work songs) 52 Shange (Mountain songs) 53 Tiange (Farm field song) 53 Wuge (f olk songs of the Wu) 49 Xiaodiao (lesser melodies) 53

Ba Ban (Eight Beats) 28 Bailian Jiao (White Lotus Teachings) 38 Bianzhong (set of bells) 17 Bianqing (set of stone slabs) 17

Ge Hong 70 Gu (drum) 17 Guan Pinghu 22, 29 Guangling San 29 Guchui yue (drum and wind music) 19 Gudi (bone flute) xiii

Cao Rou 21 Chinese Musician Association 30 Chuige (songs for winds) 38 Chuige Hue (Society of blowing songs) 23 Confucius 26 Cultural Revolution 27, 38

Han Dynasty 19 Hebei Music Associations 38 Heptatonic scale xiii Hui Zong 71 Huoju daoshi (non-celibate Taoists) 72

Daming Yuzhi Xuanjiao Yuezhang 72 Dao (Tao) 67, 70 Daodejing 70 Daozang 70 Daqu (large suite) 19, 42 Di (flute) 17

Ji Kong Yuewu (Worshipping Music and Dance to Confucius) 26

Erquan Yingyue 24, 25 Kou Qianzhi 70 Fanglu 23, 24 Folk song Classification 52

Laohui (ancient associations) 38 Laozi 67, 70

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98 INDEX

Li Fangyan 30 Lingbao Jing 70 Liu Tianhua 28 Liushui 22 Lu Xiujing 70 Marquis Yi 17 Ming Dynasty 38 Modes 54 Musical instruments classification 17, 20– 20 Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqu Pipa Xinpu (New Pipa Collection) 30 Nanyue (southern music) 38 Neolithic xiii Notation Gongche notation 23, 28, 29, 44 Jianzi pu notation 28 Nuo 56 Nuowu (Nuo-dance) 56 Nuoxi (Nuo-drama) 56, 58, 60 Nuoyi (Nuo-rite) 56, 60 Paixiao (pan pipe) 17 Pipa (plucked lute) 19 Qin (seven string zither) 17 Qin notation 21 Qing (stone slab) 17 Qing Dynasty 38 Qingyin Hui (Qing Music Society) 27 Qinqu Jicheng (Collection of Qin Pieces) 30 Quanzhen Zhenyun (Orthodox Quanzhen Chants) 74 Quanzhen (Perfect Realization) sect. 72 Qujiaying Yinyuchui (Music Society, Qujiaying village) 27 Qupai (labelled melody) 43 Quzici 49 Renmin Yinyue Chubanshe (People Music Press) 30

Sanhuang Ling 70 Sanjiao Heyi (Three religious into one) 70 Sanxu (prelude in free rhythm) 19 Se (large plucked zither) 17 Self-cultivation 21 Shan Hui (charitable associations) 38 Shandong Musician Association 28 Shang Dynasty 17, 67 Shangqing Jing 70 Shanghai Minzu Yuetuan (Shanghai Chinese Orchestra) 25 Shanghai Yinyue Chubanshe (Shanghai Music Press) 30 She Hui (altar assembly) 38 Sheng (mouth organ) 17 Shenqi Mipu (Fantastic Scores) 21, 30 Shijing (Book of Songs) 49 Shimian Maifu 22, 29 Song Dynasty 20 Spring and Autumn 17 String and wind ensemble 20 Chaozhou Xianshi 23, 24 Jiangnan Sizhu 20, 23 Guangdong Yinyue 20, 23 Taiping Dao (The Way of Great Peace) 70 Tao Hongjing 70 Taoist sects 72 Three Kingdoms 19, 49 Tian ren he yi 67 Tianjin Minjian Yinyue Shenghui (Meeting of folk music in Tianjin City) 28 Tianjin Musician Association 28 Tianshi Dao (The Way of the Heavenly Masters) 70 Warring State 17 Wenban Shi r Qu (Twelve Civil Short Pieces) 28 Wenqu 22 Wuqu 22 Xianghe ge 19 Xiaoling 49

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Xiaoqu 42, 43 Xintianyou 53 Xiqu 49 Xiyang Xiao Gu 22 Xuan Zong 70 Xun (ocarina) xiii Yang Yinliu 28 Yanyue (court banquet music) 20, 70 Yayue (court ritual music) 20, 26 Yin-yang wuxing (Yin-Yang and the five elements) 67 Yinyue Hui (Music Associations) 36 Yu (scraped wooden block) 17 Yuefu (music bureau) 49 Yuyin Fashi 71 Zeng State 17 Zhang Cheng 70 Zhang Jue 70 Zhang Ling 70 Zhen Zong 71 Zhengyi (Heavenly Master) 70, 72 Zhihua temple 44 Zhong 17 Zhonghua Liuban (Six Beats in Middle Tempo) 23 Zhonghua Shuju (China Bookshop) 30 Zhongyang Mingzu Yuetuan (Central Chinese Orchestra) 30 Zhou Dynasty 56, 67 Zhu Quan 21 Zhuangzi 67