Theatrical Scene Painting: A Lesson Guide, 2nd edition

Theatrical Scene Painting

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Souther IllinoIs

Pr~ss • Ca~bcmdale

For Jenny, Averie, and Reilly

Copyright © 1987, 2008 by the Board of Trustees, Southern Illinois University All rights rese rved, First edition 1987 Second edition 2008 Printed in the United States of America 11

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data Pinnell, William H . Theatrical scene painting: a lesson guide I William H. Pinnell-2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-2765-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-lO: 0-8093-2765-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Scene painting-Technique. 1. Title. ND2885.P562008 751.7'5- dc22 2007019669 Printed on recycled paper. 0 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.0

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments xi

vii ix

Part 1 Materials and Techniques of Texture 1 1. Space 3 Paint frame; boomerang; continental system; floor paper 2. Equipment 7 Buckets and containers; paint carriers; brushes; paint and dye: dry pigments, cascin, vinyl paints, latex paints, dyes, bronze powders 3. Color 19 Color psychology; basic color mixing; color wheel; primaries, secondaries, and complementaries; using black and white; T able ofNioc Mixtures; classic scene-painting palette (traditional terminology) 4. M ixing the Base, T int, and Shade 29 Procedure; analogous colors and the common denominator 5. Prepa ring the Surface to Be Painted 32 Flameproofing; primer coat 6. Basic Scene Painting a nd Texture 34 Focus and toning; procedural methods; graded wet blend; scumbling; spattering (and spatter and drag); sponging; stippling; rag rolling; rolling; flogging; puddling; dry brushing; stenciling and stamping; spraying; brush care

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Part 2. Basic Lessons 71 7. The Three-D imensional Illusion and the Light Source 71 Highlights and lowlights; shadows, glazes/washes; lining; using the straightedge 8. Stonework 80 Bricks; rough stones; cut stones; marble 9. Wallpaper 103 Painting considerations; pounce method; stenciling; pattern arrangements; spattering or spraying; stamping a pattern 10. Woodwork 116 Graining; rendering methods: wash method, opaque method, drybrush method; wainscoting; recessed and protruding panels; additional examples

Part 3. Advanced Lcssons 139 11. Cornice Moldings 139 Roman agee and cove; reversing the light source 12. Panels and Posts 157 13. Reflective Metallic Objects 161 Graphic-arts approach; scene-painting approach 14. Draperies 170 15. Foliage 180 16. Clouds, Mountains, and Water 191 17. Scale Transfers 202 Pai nter's elevation; gridding; opaque and overhead projectors 18. Perspective and the Vista 209 Perspectivc; vanishing points 19. Drops and Scrims 222 Laying out; starch priming; storing drops; flexible glue; painting the drop; translucencies; cut drops and scrims 20. A Final Word 232 Glossary

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Preface to the Second Edition

Any readers fam iliar with the first edition of this book will fi nd its second edition far morc comprehensive in scope. lhe first edition, a good primer, is geared to the beginning- and intermediate-level scene painters, but I have found over the decades of teaching design and painting at the university level that as the caliber of my students began to risc, so did the need for a more in-depth syllabus for my scene-painting courses. The first edition of 'Theatrical Scene Painting left some questions unanswered, and the range of its painting examples did not match the growth and eagerness of my students. I have expanded the painting projects in my classes, so writing a second edition to keep in step seemed the natural and necessary thing to do. Many sections from the first edition were kept, some dated ones ] threw out, and in others, I updated methods of procedure for both the basic and advanced painting lessons. Some new features are additional text to support origins of painting techniques clearer step-by-step descriptions and more convenient illustration-to-text sequencing many new instructional photographs and drawings additional painting projects and their possible variations an expanded glossary a gaIJery featuring examples of professional scenic designers and scenic artists ' Lhese improvements are speCifically intended to allow the reader and painter a more clear and concise formula for effiCiently and successfully creating impressive projects. This edition, with its clarity and appeal, was created in the hope of inspiring further explorations into the magical illusions unique to the art of theatrical scene painting.

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Preface to the First Edition

All stage scenery strives for a textural quality, a surface smoothness or roughness that will provoke a particular, albeit subconscious, emotional reaction in the spectator. One does not react or relate equally to textures of coarse stucco, plush velvet, aged wood, or polished chrome. lluough the setting, the scenic designer uses, among other tools, textures and dimensions to support the emotional qualities inherent in tbe play. Appropriate to the ex tent of the production budget, those textures may be three-dimensionally duplicated or achieved through the artistry of the scene painter. The following work takes a very traditional and singular line. The techniques that form the foundation of traditional scene painting are what will be examined here, techniques employed to fool the eye into believing that twodimensional surfaces possess a third dimension. M any devices and materials can be used to supplement the illusion of scene painting. Exciting and creative developments have been made with an aggregate of materials and textural aides. But this book is geared to the creative artist who, for lack of additional tools or for personal preference, must work with merely canvas and color. Everything discussed and illustrated on the following pages is directed toward techniques employed in the realistic style ofscene painting. But attempting to teach or learn and recognize realism is merely a starting point. Although realism and attempts to "mirror the real world" may be the foundation of one of the largest walls in the theater, they do not necessarily provide the most enjoyable entertainment. Realism may, conversely, serve as a model from which we derive our own interpretations and create individual styles of expression. Of course, scenery and its accompanying scene painting must blend into the style and interpretation of the production. And more often than not, a play

will demand a realistic locale for the passage of its events. Accordingly, the painter must apply his knowledge of realistic impressions. But it is important that each and every painter in doing so not preoccupy him or herself with a quest for realistic duplication. Style must be encouraged. For with the development of style, self-assessments of aptitude and strong and weak points will occur. With the strong points will come the confidence needed to expand and experiment. With the weak points, ideally, efforts will be made to overcome shortcomings or find alternate approaches. What will result will be the individual painter-a painter who, through experimentation, has developed a uniqueness of expression unlike any other painter. And, after all, is that not what the theater is about: to develop an abi lity to perceive, evaluate, and create an expression that is d istinctly individual, meaningful, and entertaining? Scene painting can be pleasurable or a devastatingly arduous and tedious experience. l 11e hours can be long, and your wardrobe will take a good beating if you are not suitably dressed. The importance of preplanning and organization cannot be minimized . Preparation is the key. Carefully plot what has to be done, and verify the sequence of painting steps that best suit your working habits. Make sure the scenery has been fully prepared for painting and is securely in position. Is there enough floor space for safe mobility? There is nothing worse than having to walk uphill no matter which direction you head. H ave extra surfaces been set aside for testing paint samples? Finally, are there enough buckets, containers, and stir sticks available to mix your colors? The next morning you will thank yourself for quitting earlier the day before so the painting area could be cleaned and reorganized. Most importantly, make every effort to keep your work enjoyable. Take a break when you need it. D on't push for the marathon sessions. Remember that your painting is making a valuable contribution to the production and is no less important and integral [0 its success than any other element. Your role is an expressive one, but unlike any other in the theater, it can only be achieved by the sympat hetic stroke of the painter's brush.

Acknowledgments

The design and painting process is constantly one of creative self-ed ucation coupled with the tutelage given by respected and trusted mentors. Much of this book is evidence of the talented instruction given me by Professor Emeritus Russell E. Smith of Wayne State University and scenic artists Vern Smith and James Miller. Special thanks are extended to the following: Rick Banville, production manager of Opera Atelier in Toronto, Ontario, for his kind permission to feature many examples taken from the Opera's productions; to Gerard Gauci, resident designer for Opera Atelier, for his breathtaking desig ns and color plates he generously allowed me to USC; to R ichard Mongiat from Scenic D rop Studios in Toronto, who, on behalf of his late business partner and fr iend Jules Tonus, painted the designs commissioned by Opera Atelier; and to David Court, whose ever-growing talent is evidenced through his kind contribut ions. With Richard Mongiat, 1 also gratefully recognize the artistry of any additional painters whose specific contributions could not be identified . Much apprcciation is extended for the generous assistance of the technical theater staff at the University of Windsor, in particular Nancy and Tedfred Myers, Nicola Oi Risio, and D aniellc Mac Kinnon . Finally, I will forever deeply appreciate the support and patience of Kelly and my mother and father, without whose love, advice, and encouragement this book and its revision would never have been written.

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Theatrical Scene Painting

Part 1

Materials and Techniques of Texture

Scholars and historians have debated for centuries as to how, when, and by whom scene painting came into being. The debate has raged because most of what is known is relatively scant, upon which conjecture has been based. What can be cited arc the writings of Roman historian Vitruvius, who, writ~ ing in the first century H.C.E., made mention of a painter who worked with the Creek playwright Aeschylus. As many of toclay's theatrical conventions found their beginnings in ancient Greece, it is hardly ullsurprising, and quite likely, that the first person to use some semblance of theatrical painting was this first of all great Greek playwrights. The painter with whom he worked-and on what play or how many is unknown-was a gifted and inventive painter by the name of Agatharchus. H is bag of tricks may have contained a technique the Greeks called skiagraphia, or "shadow painting." This is most interesting, as the mere hint of a shadow in a painted illusion leads to the assumption that the paintings created by Agatharchus likely possessed some semblance of depth, plane variation, or three-dimensional illusion. To what extent the fo rms of scene painting used now were in practice then is totally without evidence. It is assumed that a type of scenic surface-or pinake (a precursor of the scenic Rat), which scholars believe was inserted in entrance doorways of the skene or scene house (see fig. l)-was painted upon, thus giving an impression of the genre or theme of the play being presented. D espite the historical references to shadow paiming, however convincing or tangible the images may have been, is, unfortunately, in the hands of the wishful dreamer; and what could have been an interesting illusion to the eye of the ancient Greek was probably achieved by accident or keen observation on the part of the painter. It is safe to say that practitioners in antiqu ity possessed no

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a pinoke ( P) in a doorway of an ancient Greek skene. or 5CCne house

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knowledge oflinear-pcrspectivc formulae or what the art world has come to rely on as the most powerful and expressive tools: line, mass, color, and texture. The appreciation and potency of texture for scenic reality came into prominence in the twentieth century. Texture remains an invaluable tool and has received nearly as much scientific investigations on the subconscious as have the psychology of colors and aroma therapy. And t he term lexture, in the visual arena, is not meant to just be applicable to a flat surface that possesses a tactile illusion. Multiplaned surfaces (actually replete with sculpted moldings) recessions, and architectural protrusions can also said to be visibly textural. Texture on stage scenery may be achieved in two ways : aetna/or simulated. Actual textures assume a three-dimensional fo rm and may be constructed by using dimensional replicas or by building up the scenic surface with substitutes, such as resins, Styrofoam, carpeting, and plastics. The list of materials for application is practically endless and can be as simple and ingenious as using painted bubble wrap for chain mail. Simulated textures are achieved through the techniques and talents of scene painting in which the audience is fooled into believing that a surface is actually textured or multilevcled. Not only can the scene painter produce a wide variety of textures but also create amazing illusions of depth and protrusion. The scene painter employs a number of tools to achieve texture: varying shapes and sizes of brushes, sponges, fabric, sprayers, rollers, feathe r dusters, and string. One need only look around, fo r there is really no limit to what can be used. The utensils coveted in this book are time tested; they may, however,

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be abandoned or substituted according to the preference or style of the individual painter. But before further discussions on texture as simulated through scene painting, it is necessary to outline the working requirements of space and materials one will need before this art of illusion can begin.

1. Space A good working area is essential. A warm, dry atmosphere is a distinct asset. The consistencies of most paints and dyes react unfavorably to cold, and the drying time will be markedly and inconveniently retarded. Conversely, painting in a warm room or in sunlight will speed up the drying times.

Paint Frame Many professional scene shops and theaters have large, wooden paint frames, hung vertically, to which drops, scrims, and other forms of two-dim ensional scenery may be attached. The frame is usually permanently attached to the back walJ of the theater or paint shop, but it may be of such a nature that it can be raised or lowered through a slit in the floor, allowing the scenic artist to remain on one level without climbing ladders (see fig. 2).

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Figure 2

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Boomerang If the paint frame is stationary, the scene painter may either work on a movable bridge or use a boomerang. A boomerang is a construction on casters much resembling a flight of steps with convenient land ings so the scene painter can change his or her elevation and paint the scenery with ease (see fig. 3).

Figure 3

A BOOMERANG

Continental System Should a paint frame not be available and large drops or scrims have to be painted, a room with adequate floo r space is necessary. Individual flats can be painted on their sides or, if ceiling space allows, may be stood upright. Should the room's available height be a restriction, the scenery must be placed flat on the Roar. The method of painting scenery wh ile it is lying faceup on the floor is called the (ontinental system. 1his system originated in Europe and received its moniker by Westerners in referring to Europe as "the continent." Painting continentally is also commonly referred to as horizontal painting, painting jlat, or painting down. Most scene painters prefer the continental method for painting much of their scenery, regardless of the space and f..1.cilities available.

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This preference is largely related to the number of painting effects that can be achieved when the forces of gravity are not in play. Blending and man ling col~ ors into soft, ethereal fusions are all but impossible on a vertical surface. And when one works with dyes, which are generally much thinner in consistency than paints, the control of color and line is much easier to accomplish continentally. Upright painting, where gravity can be the enemy, may result in the unwanted and frustrating dripping of color. Painting a small piece of scenery that is lying faceup and resting on sawhorses is a convenient arrangement in that the painter may comfortably stand and work with the same proximity to the painting surf.'lce as if it were placed vertically. The adjustment from the vertical to the horizontal approach when the scenery is lying on the floor does require practice. In vertical painting, the bristles of the brush are within inches of the motor control of the fingers and wrist. In horizontal painting, small areas can be painted by the painter kneeling; however, to avoid back strain and give the painter a broader visual scope of the work being done, brushes are common ly attached to boards and bamboo sticks so the painter can remain in a standing position (see figs. 4a and 4b) . With patience and practice, one can develop the same sense of motor control with the bristles that are now three feet away. Not only will the painter work with ease but the paint is, by gravity, always running downward to the tip of the brush, thereby lessening

Figure 4a.}ules Tonus, scenic artist

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C ONTINENTAL PA INTING - STANDING

Figure 4b

the number of times the brush must be recharged. An additional advantage to the continental method rests in the retarded drying time of the paints and dyes. Because air cannot readily circulate bet ween the scenery and the floor, paints will remain wetter longer and allow additional time for the wet mixing of colors if desired.

Floor Paper When continentally painting flats, t he floor should be covered with brown kraft paper to catch spilled or refuse paint. When painting drops or scrims on the floor, gray bogus paper as an undercovering should be used to allow evenness in drying. (The rough side of the bogus paper should be facing up to allow maximum absorption.) Kraft paper, on the other hand, should not be used under drops and scrims, as it does not absorb water well and wilJ buckJe when wet. Commercially available waxed paper should be used when gluing appliques or reinforcing cut drops with scrim or scenic netting. The waxed paper will peel away from the rear of the drops and scrims, whereas gray bogus paper will stick.

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2. Equipment Buckets and Containers Even fo r paiming small, simple pieces of scenery, buckets and containers in which to mix paint are needed. The obvious containers are the ones in which the paint is shipped. Most commonly, manufacturers package theif products in either of two types of containers: 1.

convenient 1- or S-gaJlon plastic bucket that has its own snap-on lids to keep the color fresh. These may be cleaned and used for years, will stack neatly together, and are very light and portable.

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I-gallon metal or plastic paint cans with lids. Those of metal will not stack, and the lids, when firmly sealed, must be pried open with a paint key or slot screwdriver. Plastic cans are available with snap-on and screw-on lids and stack when empty.

l he main drawback of these cans occurs when paint is allowed to collect in the top groove of the can in which the lid goes. Taking a few moments to hammer nails to make holes through this groove will allow collecting paint to drip into the can, keeping the groove clear and allowing the lid to be resealed with ease. Both of these containers types are fairly easy to clean ifhot water is allowed to soak in them soon after the paint has been exhausted. It is wise to save the 5-gallon containers that white or black paint come in when large quantities are ordered . These containers are rugged plastic, with sturdy handles and heavy-duty lids with pour spouts perfect for mixing large quantities of a color and storing unused quantities. Plastic buckets (2- to 3gallon capacity) with shaped pour spouts are a must. The only draw back is that many available in hardware and dO-it-yourself centers may not come with lids. For the durat ion of the painting period, 1,4 inch plyvvood disks may be placed on the top of the bucket, with a weight of some sort resting upon it. This will keep most of the air out and hclp paint retain freshness for a couple of weeks . Aluminum cans, commercial ly referred to as number 10 size, will prove very handy for smaller quantities of special colors (dozens of these cans arc thrown out daily by restaurants and cafeterias) as are coffee cans with plastic lids. For smaller quantities of brilliant colors, metallic paints, and the like, maintain a generous supply of plastic, lidded containers from margarine, yogurt, dessert topping, and sim ilar items (see fig. 5).

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Figure 5

5 gallon

2·3 gallon

No. 10 can

(coffee can)

Paint Carriers Paint carriers are a must for the painter who has to move from area to area in the shop (sec fig. 6). These not only provide for the easy mobility of the paint but helps prevent the spilling of it and includes a storage area for extra brushes, charcoal sticks, and fclt-tip markers. Under the rolling carrier are casters for roUing the unit around, while furniture pads tacked on the underside of the base of the pick-up-and-carry type minimize the possibility of damage to the horizontal painting surface when the carrier is moved .

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PICK·UP & CARRY

Figure 6

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Brushes The brush is the painter's most prized possession. To the sensitive painter, each brush in his or her collection has a unique feel and special purpose. 1he more superstitious of painters will only work with their own brushes (much the way a ballplayer uses only his or her own bat) and claim that borrowed brushes are unsuitable, inferior, and simply don't feel right. Regardless ofindividual preferences, eccentricities, or superstitions, every painter is aware that no one brush will serve all painting needs and that a repertoire of shapes and sizes is required to fulfill painting stroke requirements. Figure 7 illustrates the components of the paintbrush. The shapes of the bristle and ferrule and the length and shape of the handle determine the type of brush and its recommended usage. 1be foUowing brushes common to scene painting arc displayed in figure 8: 1. A large brush called a primer is 5 to 6 inches in width and, as its name would suggest, is used to treat newly covered flats with a scaling coat of paint. Its bristles are soft and should not be confused with a whitewashing brush, which has stiffer bristles. The larger the brush the marc smoothly and quickly large areas can be covered. The primer brush may also be used for applying base coats of paint. This brush is usually ordered through a theatrical supplier, although some home centers do carry wide brushes with fairly supple bristles. 2. Lay-in brushes come in 3 inch, 4 inch, and 5 inch widths. They cover rapidly and cut sharp edges when twisted. Brushes of this nature can be pu rchased in any paint or hardware store and home center, but be sure to choose ones with relatively soft bristles. (Those referred to as "latex brushes" will work well, as many brands of scenic paint come in latex form .) Bristle length is also important. Avoid stubby brushes, as the longer the bristle, the more paint the brush will hold . 3. Foliage brushes, sometimes called jantai/s, range from Ph to 3'h inches in width at the ferrule. 1beir unique bristle shape allows for graceful imprints when the edge of the bristles' length is pressed against the painting surface. Fantails arc purchased through theatrical painting and supply houses. 4. Small, long-handled brushes arc called liner brushes (or, more commonly years ago, fitches) and will range from a 1J4 inch cutting brush to 2 inches in width . These brushes possess a sharp chisel point, generally made from Chinese bristles, and are used primarily for lining, tapering strokes, and endless detail work and touch-ups. 1he ends of the bristles may be parallel to

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.;. DIAGRAM OF THE PAINT BR USH .;.

Figure 7

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Trim EJrush

Fig ure 8

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the bottom edge of the ferrule or shaped at an angle, resembling a standard trim brush (see the trim brush in fig. 8). They are available through theatrical suppliers. 5. Stencil brushes and round brushes have a round ferrule and are used to pound paint through stencils. Not as long as a stencil brush, round brushes come in varieties of diameters and bristle qualities and may also be used for detail work. They are available through theatrical supply, arts supply, craft stores, and similar places. Trim brushes are favored by house and interior painters because their angled bristles allow easy painting into corners, at wall-ceitingjunctures, and around moldings and trim. They can be used for variety of utility purposes in scene painting and are available at hardware stores and home centers. 6. Spuialty brushes are those adapted from new brushes or from older or worn brushes. One common example is the cut-bristle brush, which is used for graining, cloth-fiber appearances, and general linear texturing. Clumps of bristles have either fallen out or been removed . Any brush could become a specialty brush if one is ingenious enough. Hardware and paint stores also feature semidisposable, black, foam-rubbe r brushes with wooden handles. These brushes come in va rious widths and have a preformed chisel point but are not suited to large-scale tasks. TIle foam brush can be effective in painting props, set dressing, and smaller units of hard scenery. They can be used to cut in detail lines and arc sweeps. Notching the chisel end can produce interesting wood graining (see fig. 40b). But the foam itself is shorr-lived, crumbles easily, and never holds a great deal of paint. There are no rules as to what to use to get the job done: whatever works well and can be llsed repeatedly should qualify. Push brushes or brooms are ordinary long-handled janitor's brooms with softened bristles. Used for continental painting techniques, they can be found in hardware stores and home centers. With the possible exception of push brushes and brooms, all ot her paintbrushes have one t hing in common: each can be used in a variety of ways. Using a lay-in brush for the following examples, one may stroke on the paint in the usual fashion or imprint paint in three different ways : 1. jlat print. The broad face of the brush is pressed against the surface

(see fig. 9a). A variation on this is thejlick, which somewhat resembles a scumble stroke. 2. jlat-twist print. The broad bristle t:'lce is placed flat against the surface, and the brush is gently twisted or flipped over (see fig. 9b).

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(a) Flat Print

Figure 9

3.

side print. The side edge of the brush lies on the paint surface as the handle begins a rolling up motion (sec fig. 9c).

Another attack is the end print, which, essentially, is a stippling motion in that just the ends of the bristles make contact. It behooves one to practice these st rokes and possible combinations and variations with all different types of brushes as mastery will create a valuable arsenal. If one is serious about scene painting, it is worthwhile to buy best-quality brushes. Brushes resembling some of those described above might be found in cavernous home centers, but for scene-painting needs, it is best to shop through a theatrical supplier where one can be sure the brushes purchased suit theatrical needs. European white bristle liner and f.1.ntail brushes are extremely durable if properly used, cleaned, and stored. Artist easel brushes may find a calling for special painting needs but are generally of too hard or soft a bristle texture for scene-painting needs.

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Though certainly not a brush, having a supply of painter's tape on hand is important. Resembling masking tape, though not as strong and stubborn, painter's tape is intended to mask off areas and is much more easily removed than masking tape. It comes in a variety of widths, is foun d in the painting supply area of almost any hardware store or home center, and is conveniently recognized by its green or blue color (for additional scene painting aids, please see part 2, section 7, "Lining,~ and section 9, "Wallpaper").

Paint and Dye Many types of paints and dyes are used in painting scenery. Paints, in their opaque form, are used to provide a color that will mask over a previous color. When t hinned to a wash, also called glaze, consistency, they work much in the same way as a dye by casting a transparent or semi-transparent color over an existing one. (The terms wash and glaze arc synonymous and may be used interchangeably.) The original colorwiU show through to the extent it has been enhanced or masked by the thinned paint or dye-aver-color. All paints, whether used straight from containers, watered down, or mixed with other colors, are classified as a suspension, rather than a solution. A solution is a combination ofingredients that when mixed will not separate; in a suspension, the ingredients separate. Paints are composed of a coloring agent mixed with a liqu id binding agent. This binding agent is made from water and another substance that will cause the paint to stick to the painting surface after the water in the binding agent evaporates. The color property in t he paint is almost excluSively heav ier than its binding agent, which is why paints need to be stirred often . The coloring agent or agents are floating, that is, suspended, in the liquid binding agent. And the more paint is t hinned down, the more likely the color will sink to the bottom if the paint is not repeatedly stirred. l hose coloring mediums that have historical significance and those in common use today, which may be of historical significance, are (though not in any significant order) : dry pigments caselO vinyl paint latex paint dyes bronze powders

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From the above, many derivatives are available, and the combined usage of several on one painting project is not uncommon. Each is described below fo r its singular characteristics and individual usage. Dry pigments are the oldest and most "traditional~ form of scene paint. 1heir use, in primitive form, predates not only the theater but the civilized world. Paleolithic artists whose cave paintings were discovered quite by accident by amateur spelunkers in southeastern France created colored images that have been carbon-dated to thirty thousand years. The age of the paintings is under somewhat of a controversy as some of the paints used were created from iron oxides. As only those drawings and paintings whose colors were mixed with bone, wood, or plant fibers (i.e ., from once-living organisms) can be dated using carbon 14 dating, a scholarly squabble to do with the exact dating of the cave paintings will continue until other empirical evidence, if any, surfaces. It does appear that the most prevalent color used in ancient paintings was a red derived from what is now classified as hematite. The word hematite is derived from the Greek word hema or haima, meaning blood . Although hematite can be found in two forms, either in black, lustrous crystals or red powder, it was the red that was most used by Paleolithic peoples. The color red was associated with blood, the most vital of fluids. It came to dramatically symbolize life's very beginning and end. Although the Paleolithic color spectrum was but a flicker of the unlimited one in use today, they used red, black, and yellow to create impressive and often magnificent sweeps of line that majestically captured their prey and beasts of prey. Their coloring pigments of ground rock, bits of clay, limestone, charcoal, ground bone, roots, and berries were mixed into a paste that served as a binding agent that would make the paints adhere to the cave's walls. The binding liquids were made from rendered fat and bone marrow, sinew, saliva, vegetable ju ices, urine, or egg whites. The extent to wh ich the ancient colors were liquefied would have had a direct bearing on their methods of application. While the cave paintings may be spectacular in appearance and sophisticated in scope, there is no evidence to suggest that the colors were employed other than in a crayon-stick type of consistency. Perhaps brushing, as now thought of, was not even used. Historians can only speculate on how the paints were applied by observing the final product. The very pock-marked surface of the cave walls could lead to speculation that the paints were either dabbed or smeared on, perhaps by using the fingertips. Large areas could have been covered by using animals skins damp with paint. To suggest primitive people invented the paintbrush is wishful speculation. It is, however, reasonable to assume that commensurate with the extent of the artistry found on the cave

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walls could have been the creative technology capable of binding hair to a stick or bone, thus resembling the beginnings of a paintbrush. As the consistency of the paint medium became thinner, one might jump to the notion that its application could have become more graceful and refined. Could feathers have come into play? The Yanomami peoples, living an almost preh istoric ex istence in remote areas ofVenezue1a and Brazil, blow thinned colors through hollow bones, thus creating an air-brushed appearance to their paintings. Could their global ancestors have done likewise? Regardless as to debamble methods of application, primitive paints have much in common even with roday's media, in that every form of modern paint contains a binding agent; and as was the case in the dawn of humankind, once the water in the binding agent evaporates the adherent property-whether animal sinew or acrylic-allows the paint to stick to a surface. And although the basic formula of color plus binding agent has not changed since prehistoric times, its processing has evolved light-years in terms of synthetic substitutions and color variations. Despite their color range, which is broad and often brilliantly rich, dry pigments are not in common use today largely because of two f.'lctors: (1) the inconveniences of preparation and maintenance and (2) health concerns. Dry pigments are finely ground; although heavier in volume than talcum powder, particles, when sifted and measured, may go into the air and may be ingested. Although more difficult to purchase now, dry pigments are available by the pound in powder fo rm, and later mixed with a separate binder, or glue solution. If mixed only with water, the paint will dry back to its original powdered smte and not adhere to the scenery. Though almost any type of binder could be used with this kind of scene paint, the one type that will not dull the Vibrancy of the powder pigments and is the most economical in the long run is called size water. Although size water may apply to any glue solution that has been cut with water, ground, or flaked, animal glue and hot water are the ingredients of traditional size water. Using animal glue has become both an environmental and political powder keg, greatly discouraging its use . As to the maintenance of liquefied dry pigments, all binding solutions have a tendency to separate with the gluing agent, which, being heavier than water, will settle to the bottom. This can cause quite the sludge at the bucket's base, which must be stirred until the paint is mixed thoroughly again. (When using the old animal glue, the binder would coagulate and harden when cool. The bucket needed to be reheated in a double-boiler arrangement to soften it, and the resulting smell could be putrid !)

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When dry pigments have d ried, they may often lack the permanence of other media, such as, casein, vinyl, or latex, and may need to be "sealed," or covered, by a waterproof glaze (Le., latex or vinyl) to prevent the pigments from rubbing off. Whiting is used to stretch the quantity of the paint, which is then tinted to the appropriate color with other more expensive and exotic dry-pigment colors. On the cheaper end of the price scale is the whiting; the price of pigments per pound increases as the colors become more brilliant. Dry pigments are at least three times darker when wet, so some painters mix their colors fi rst in powder form, thus approximating the value of t he paint after it has dried, and then add the binder, and mix to the desired consistency. Couin, along with vinyl colors, is a very popular medium because of its ease of workability. Casein contains its own binder and stems from protein found in milk. It can be poured in its thin paste form from the can and conveniently mixed with warm water. D yes may be added to casein to deepen and strengthen its tone. Completely waterproof when dry, casein can be washed with a light solution of soap and water. Offering good hiding power, it may also be thinned to a wash and will mix read ily with other water-based med ia. Because ofits durabi lity, casein may be covered with glazes of dyes or thinncd paints without being rubbed up. Its Rat drying finish is slightly lighter when dry, and its rich colors maintain most of their wet-state vibrancy. Shelf life is excellent if tightly scaled. A small amount of water can be added to the top of the paint to keep it moist. Vinyl paint comes in liquid form, contains its own binder, and is thinned with water. Like casein and latex colors, its principal attributes lie in its permanence and the convenience of preparation and workability. It docs, however, lack the brilliance of dry-pigment colors and is not as vivid as casein, but it can be heightened (or enriched) by adding dye or casein paint. Vinyl paint is available in flat or semigloss and when applied straight from the can is very durable fo r painting floors and platforms. Th inned to a normal paint consistency, it can be used on muslin or canvas; further t hinning will produce an excellent wash. Clear liquid vinyl can be used to waterproof dry-pigment colors, while clear gloss vinyl adds an extra dimension of richness to wood graining, a luster to marbleized units, and the like. Although latex paint is available in wide ranges of colors, it has a tendency to gray very slightly when dry. Alkyd-latex (its form al name) comes in consistencies ranging between thin paste and hcavy cream, with a base containing synthctic rubber. Readily thinned with water, latex dries to permanency. Latex contains its own binder and can be scrubbed clean when applied to porous and semiporous surfaces {e.g., canvas and wood).lt forms its own resilient surf.'lce

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that accepts glazes of cascin, vinyl, or dye. Latex does not adhere well, if at all, to nonporous surf.'lces, such as plastic or glass. It adheres to Plexiglass if first thinned to a wash; thick and paste-like consistencies peel away. Latex is available in flat, semigloss, and clear varieties. Clear latex, which somewhat resembles heavy cream when wet, dries completely transparent and is available in gloss and mane finishes. I n the glossy variety, the degree of sheen is controlled by the amount of water used to thin the mixture (the more water, the less sheen). Working straight from the original container will result in a highly polished look. Clear latex is excellent for increasing surface richness and as a "fixative" for all dry pigments. including dry tempera. As with clear liquid vinyls, expect a darkening of the painted surface . Color may be added to clear finishes if one wishes to alter the tone of a painted surface. This provides not only an excellent corrective tool should the finished product be too bright but can also lend a sense of age or the appearance of built-up grime to a surface . Dyes come in both powder and crystal forms . Most are soluble in hot water; some are alcohol soluble. Household laundry dyes may be purchased at any grocery, hardware store, and pharmacy; more potent and large-case orders are available from theatrical supply. All dry dyes will mix readily with one another, allowing for an infinite spectrum of possible colors. Even some readily available dyes claiming to be water-soluble may float on the surface of even the hottest of water; a small amount of isopropyl alcohol added sparingly will break down any resistance. Salt added to the hot-water solution wilJ increase the dye's permanence. The type of dye traditionally used in the theater has been aniline dye. It comes in powder form with a shelflife that is exceptional. Its richness of color will not fade with age if the container (preferably a metal can) is kept tightly scaled. Although many theaters may still have a supply of aniline dyes, its use could pose serious health and environmental consequences. Aniline dyes (ontain an extract ojbenzene, a poisonous liquid obtainedfrom coal tar. Ifone must work with aniline, one iJ adviJed to do so in a well-ventilated area while wearing a maJk and by taking frequent breaks to minimize continuous exposure to its fumes. Painters are advised to find alternatives to aniline dye, including using the commercially available household varieties and increasing their strength and depth of color by cutting back on the amount of water added . Watering down a scenic paint to a thin wash, or glaze, consistency actually creates a dye, although most paints cannot be removed with bleach once they have set. One of the strongest and most permanent of dyes can be made by boiling red or yellow onion skins; costumers and property makers often use tea as an aging or "breaking down" element.

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As the name of the medium suggests, a dye enhances or alters the color upon which it is applied. 1t can be used to bleed or puddle on fabric backdrops, augment the beauty of a velour's texture, pull out the grain of raw wood, create a dreamlike mist on a scrim, or cast superb shadows. Dyes must be used and prepared with care. The general rule is to prepare a dye that is a little weak rather than one that is too strong. The darker the desired effect, the more applications of dye should be used. D ye only works one way: it darkem. To lighten is to bleach. Dye that has been mixed too strongly (i.e., with very little water) will crystallize and rub off. To be safe and to assure permanence, even the most inexpensive of dyes can be made permanent by mixing them with binders of size water, white glue, or clear vinyl. Bronze powders are not exclusively bronze-colored but are metallic in nature. The title brol1ze is a generic one, and the powders come in a wide range of colors. These metallic pigments are not readily available and arc expensive but, in terms of traditional scene painting, were once indispensable for scenic use . Like dry pigments and aniline dyes, bronze powders have fallen out of favor for health and contaminant reasons. The powders arc incredibly light in weight and seem to float out of the can when opcned . Thcy can be easily inhaled and spread through the air by the slightest breeze. When mixed with a reliable binder, however, they adhere nicely to a surface. Tn their heyday, they were ideal for gilding architectural ornaments, picture frames, set and hand props; highlighting decorative filigree and drapery tassels; denoting veining in stonework; or stenciling on drops and flats. Metallic powders can be used on wood, plastic, metal, or fabric. Frugally added to paint, they will float to the surface of the painting as it dries to lend a metall ic glaze. Though bronze powders can be mixed with many types of binders, almost all forms will dull the metallic pigment to varying degrees. For minimal discoloration, mix with clear gloss vinyl (2 parts vinyl to 1 part water). Stir often . Convenient alternatives to bronze powders are available in ready-touse metallic coiors, thanks to the blossoming popularity of custom-interior painters, home decorators, and their loyal legions of home dO-it-yourselfers . Some of these metallics arc water based and may be mixed with a variety of scene paints. Many can be ordered f.'lctory-direct in large quantities. For finishing touches, enamel and water-based metallic spray paints may be used. It is advisable to work il1 weI/-ventilated areas and wear a mask whenever using any type of spray paint. 1n a pinch, a spray can may be upended and sprayed into its own cap, creating a puddle of paint, which then can be applied with a brush.

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3. Color Color psychology The psychology ofcolor is a fascinating subject, one that has been researched extensively. D ocumented findings receive increasing importance and impact on daily lives. Scientists studying chromadynamics have to an extent proven the effects colors have on vision, respiratory rhythm, heart rate, rhe endocrine system, diet, mood, and the like. Such studies and subsequently published findings have led to a method of t herapy called chromatherapy, whereby patients with certain d isorders arc exposed to various colors and color combinations in an effort to m inimize o r eradicate side effects associated with the disorder. The degrees to which muscular tcnsion, tremors, and relaxat ion increase or abate can be measured and, often, are overtly noticeable. Some patients afflicted with Parkinson's disease have been observed with increases in tremors when exposed to red and yellow. Equipping these same patients with greentinted eye lenses avoided tremor increase when exposed to these colors. StilJ other colors may, in some cases, affect judgment. There is a tendency for those exposed to red (possibly denoting heat) over an extended period to overestimate the amount of time that had elapsed, while those exposed to blue (denoting cold) underestim ated how much time passed. Although numerous and highly interesting examples may be given as to the varying effects colors have on individuals, one must not lose sight of the subjective side of color stimulation and reaction. Some people, perhaps due to personal association, may react in opposite ways to a color. A child who stuffed himself with banana cream pic to the point of vomiting may fo rever have an aversion to light, creamy yellow. The color that may provoke nausea in one person may lead to tranqUility in another. Globally, various cultures put opposing weight on their Significance of color communication: white may suggest purity and virginity in many Western cult ures, whereas it may be symbolic of deat h in others. According to chromadynamics, colors are absorbed by the eye and the body. Red radiates waves oflight that are closer toget her than blue, thus bombarding, perhaps, the eye and body more quickly and intensely. We are constantly influenced, even on the minutest of subconscious levels, by the colors surrounding us. Therefore, the colors of the environments in which we work and live need serious consideration. From young children who need the stimuli of primary colors to the sick and aged who require pale blues and greens to relieve tension and despair, color can intensify or relax the h uman condition.

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The theater uses color as one of its strongest tools but usually in ways that are not meant to assault or bombard the spectator. Many colors on the stage are used in muted form so as to not take their taU on the audience over a two- to three-hour period of exposure. Stage lighting plays an enormous role on the impact of colors by either increasing or decreasing the proximity of visual waves being emitted. 1l1e waves are controlled by enhancing or neutralizing paint colors through the color oflight and by the degree ofillumination (bright light bouncing off even a pale gray wall can be absolutely confrontational to the viewer.) Primary colors and "first" secondaries (true orange, purple, and green) are rarely used in large quantities as they are very rich and cause more distraction than support. While individuals may have hugely diverse and subjective reactions to various colors in isolation, those same colors used in little bits here and there on the stage have little effect on the spectator. A scenic, costume, or lighting deSigner simply cannot be overly concerned with how individuals may react to color, other than to make strong and selective statements on occasion for dramatic impact. Dressing the conniving woman in scarlet is apropos and supports the nature of her character. Bathing the romantic scene in moonlight rather than noon sunshine only en hances the mood . Painting the set for the hospital corridor in a soothing light mint green instead of nauseating malaria yellow just makes sense! As such, designers know that certain colors when supported by appropriate uses of line, texture, and mass work appropriately to enhance the genre of the play: light, frothy colors fo r comedy; intense pastels fo r fa rce; primaries for extreme stylizations and cartoon-like skits; earthen tones for drama; deep rich, heavy tones for tragedy. Bur even these have exceptions.

Basic Color Mixing For the beginning painter, the mixing of t he paint sometimes takes longer than the actual scene painting. It is worthwh ile to go to the precautions necessary to ensure the colors and consistencies are exactly right before the paint is applied to the scenery. The scene painter must have a thorough understanding of the harmony, balance, and sequence of colors as they vary in value and intensity. If the scenic designer and scene painter are not the same person, then the role of the painter is one of duplicator of colors. lherefore, the designer must provide the painter with an accurate sample of the finished painting. A painter's elevation is produced by the designer, whereby, unless a full drop or scrim is to be painted, only select portions of the set are usually pictured (see figs . lOa . lOb, and 10c).

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Figure: lOa

, Figure lOb

21

Figure lOe

Color Wheel The first step facing the painter is to identify the position that each of the colors occupies on the color wheel. The color wheel is the most familiar graphic arrangement of color relationships in use. Although the wheel may come in a variety of formats, the circular sequence is universal and shows the step-tostep formation and sequencing of colors that eventually end at the point where the flow began. Observe the color wheel in figure 11. While some color wheels may contain several variations in color, the simplicity of this wheel indicates color relationships found in their purist form. Within the circle is a six-pointed dotted figure, overlapped by a striped triangle that in turn is overlapped by a solid t riangle.

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• COLOR WHEEL.

Figure 11

Primaries, Secondaries, and Complementaries The solid triangle points to three colors : yellow, red, and blue . These are called primaries because they cannot be mixed from other colors. Thei r pigments must be obtained from natural elements or plants containing those colors. The striped triangle points to the three colors created by the mixing of two equal quantities of primaries. The resulting orange, purple, and green arc cal led the secondaries. (Colors made from combining a primary with a secondary or two secondaries combined together may be called tertiary, when, tech nically, all colors other than the three primaries arc secondary colors.) The initial secondaries of orange, purple, and green arc said to be the principal or central secondaries because of t he equal ratio of their primary components. L astly, the dotted figure points to six additional secondaries that are the results of the proportions of the hvo primary colors that are mixed to create them. This color wheel, then, contains the twelve principal hues that make up the scene painter's palette. One might recognize colors similar to t hose on the wheel in the average paint store. No doubt the yellow orange will not be called

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as such because the name is unexciting albeit true to its base formula . Instead it might be labeled Santa Fe Sunset, for example, to increase its appeal. TIle very complex nomenclature of color is a problem in and of itself, even when ordering from theatrical suppliers, because there is a great discrepancy in the way the terms are used. Unfortunately, individual terminology and definition are subject to particular tastes, preferences, convenience, or popular trends. As an example, one company may offer a primary red pigment, while another company counters with the supposed equivalent-spectrum red. By definition, a primary is an original hue in the light spectrum of color. D o not be surprised if the corresponding reds are very different in value. One may be a bluish red , that is, a red with blue cast; t he other may have touches of yellow. Any time the primary is not a trut primary (and, surprisingly, that is most of the time), the color is said to have contaminatiorl. Commercial colors usually have some degree of color contamination . Most have additives of white or black. The problem is that contamination is not uniform.lf one were to be able to count on a certain degree of white contamination, say, in all of one's colors, one would be able to account for the contam inations during mixing. However, the degree and colors of contaminants vary largely from color to color and company to company. One must be on guard for such variances and through experience learn to counteract their effect. If one were to procure absolute primaries, equal quantities of the three mixed together would create black. Most commercial colors claiming to be primary or spectrum colors when mixed equalJy will produce either a deep gray or deep brown, depending on the contaminants used, instead of black. Any pairs of colors when mixed to produce black are called compltmentaries. An easy way to discover a color's complement is to match that color with the one directly across the color wheel. For example, green and red are complementary colors. Mixing these together will create black only if combined in equal quantities ifall colors involved.

1 quart of RED

Combining with 2 quarts of GREEN (1 quart YE l. LOW and 1 quart BLUE) is the same as an equal mixture of the three primaries ~ and equals Bl.ACK ....

An example that proves the same principle but is visually more interesting is this demonstration: To 2 cups of the relatively dark color that is purple

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(made from 1 cup of red and 1 cup of blue), add 1 cup of the lighter color of yellow. Stir, and the result will again be black. Hard to believe adding a light color to a dark color can produce an even darker one. Suppose 1 quart of red and 1 quart of green arc added together. Break the colors down into sma ller parts. The red accounts for 2 pims of tile primary color red. The true or central green is made of1 pint each of the primary colors yellow and blue. The 2 pints total of yellow and blue combine with 1 pint of red to produce black (for a total of3 pints mixed together). Leftover will be 1 pint of red. The final mix, which is 3 pints black plus 1 pint red, will be a black red, or more likely a black that has the faintest cast of red . Changing the ratios of any of the contributors will alter the value of the eventual hue. Black was used in the past example to illustrate two points: (1) absolute primaries combined in equal proportion, or any complementaries combined in equal color-component proportion, will produce black, and (2) black is integral in the mixing of colors when variation in color value-thc quality or richness of color--is needed. The absence of black in the scheme of color mixing could be a detriment. Why, then, is black not included on the color wheel? It certainly does not fall into the category of a primary because it can be mixed from other colors. Neither is white found on the color wheel, yet it is like the primaries in that it cannot be mixed from other colors. Some proponents of color theory refer to black as the combination of all colors and refer to white as the absence of color. What is important to note is that black and white can tint or shade with similar results as the colors on the color wheel. In the practical mixing of color, the use of primaries and secondaries to create various hues can be costiy, particularly when large quantities are called for. At the risk of diluting or dulling a color's strength, the experienced painter can cut many a corner and save quantities of the more valuable color by using black andlor white in appropriate measures.

Using Black and White Colors may be described not only to their relative placement on the color wheel but also by the amount of white or black they may contain. White can be combined with any color and what will result is a tint of the original color. The white will soften the original color or render it increasingly paler as the amount of added white increases. Black added to a color will create a darker version of the color, or a shade. Darkening a color with black erodes away the color's richness, making the color duller and more "lifeless" as the amount of added black increases. H owever, with judicious use of black (perhaps the least

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expensive color) and white, an extensive array of tints and shades of anyone color is possible. To create a shade that retains more ofthe richness ofthe base color than an additive of black would aI/ow, add to the base color its complement (found on the color wheel): that is, add some orange to some base blue to arrive at a shade ofblue. This principal can get quite confusing when a base color starts off as a mixture of several other colors. To avoid an unintentional muddy appearance, mix as few colors together as possible to create the base. The painter will eventually acqu ire a feci for how colors interact. As a shade is usually associated with a cool tone, and a tint with a warmer glow, experiment with adding deep blues or purples to create a rich shade . For example, a powerfully rich shade of burnt umber can be made by adding purple to it.

Table of Nine Mixtures Black and white can be mixed together in countless proportions. What has become standard for a beginner's scene-painting needs is the Table of Nine Mixtures. 1110ugh black and white are used below, the Table of Nine Mixtures can be applied to any two root-color combinations, using the following formula. Table of Nine M ixtures (The number is any unit of measure, such as a cup.) white 0 black 8 white 1 black 7 white 2 black 6 white 3 black 5 white 4 black 4 white 5 black 3 white 6 black 2

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white 7 black 1 white 8 black 0 This column is a scale of mixture from black to white. The top combination represents a pure black and the bottom a pure white; those in between represent varying values of gray. Begin to imagine, for example, the virtually limitless possibilities of color with mixing the medium (4 to 4) gray with pu rple. Create an entirely new scale wit h the ratios of the black-white Table of Nine Mixtures: mix 8 parts purple with 0 parts medium gray, and continue through to t he end of the table, o to 8. If this series is continued with all values of gray from the black-white table, the result is for ty-nine different values of purple, excluding the pure purple and original values of gray resulting from 0-to-8 and 0-to-8 ratios. Values of gray can be used to neutralize bright colors and lessen their vibrancy. The procedure is called graying down a color. l he usc of white alone with purple in the nine-mixture table produces seven different tints of purple. Using black will create seven shades. Because many of the black pigments available are contaminated, shades appear muddy. A lways purchase t he purist of blacks and the most brilliant of whites.

C lassic Scene-Painting Palette (Traditional Terminology) While it is theoretically true that a painter could get by with uncontam inated quantities of the three primaries plus black and white, convenience dictates that at least those colors found on an expanded version of the basic color wheel should be on hand to f,'lcilitate mixing. The following palette lists the twelve principal hues of the expanded wheel and names the colors closest to those hues. lhese colors represent a respectable palette to have in inventory. Paint distributors may classify the paints by the traditional names, but the individual paint shop may va ry its palette structure according to its own preference. light chrome yellow medium chrome yellow ORANGE: American vermilion ORANGE RED: flame red RED: turkey red lake REO PURPLE: magenta lake Y ELLOW:

YELLOW ORANGE:

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royal purple violet lake BLU E: cobalt blue BLUE GREEN: celestial blue or teal GREEN: emerald green YELLOW GREEN: primrose yellow or cadmium yellow PURPLE:

PURPLE BLUE:

I n addition, careful selections of white, black, and earth colors are important to complete the palette. They are less expensive than the colors listed above.

burnt sienna, burnt umber, raw sienna, golden ochre permanent white BLACK : ivory drop black BROWNS :

WHITE:

Colors may roughly be divided into two categories: warm or cool. Those colors possessing predominant proportions of blue, purple, or green arc soothing to t he eye and are referred to as cool. Colors having a predominance of red, orange, or yellow are striking and energetic, arouse emotion, and arc warm . Taking these categories to extreme will render them cold or hot. Cool and cold colors have a tendency to lie dormant or lend an illusion of distance to objects. They may seem to recede from the observer and, thus, are passive in nature. W arm and hot colors are energetic and create an excitement that can be forceful and seem to approach the observer. As such, they are active in nature. It is nO[ unusual in scene painting to add blotches of a warm or cool color to a colored surf.1ce. Not only will visual variety and interest be enhanced but the temperature of the surface may be strengthened or altered . The painting surface "temperature," combined with supporting texture, will aid the scenery in the establ ishment of mood for the environment. Although elements ofline, mass, and color are standard tools of expression for the artist, the scene painter docs not have control of the uses of line and mass within his or her area of responsibility, unless, of cou rse, the scene painter is the designer as well . The painter must combine color and texture on the confines of a two-dimensional surface to create illusions, using ranges of color and texture appropriate to everyday existence or, if required, taking the tools to extreme . All effects arc gauged in relation to the actor or what has popularly become known as the human condition. We cannot help but associate visual elements with our own frameworks of existence. Should a hospital be a deep yellow-green stucco environment or a soothing light mint green with smooth walls? Should one create a sense of serenity or ill at ease? ]s a fireplace to be made of crisp, aqua ceramic

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tiles or seasoned orange-brown bricks? Decisions of visual expression and observer impression are fundamental to the overall conception of the designer, but the matter of execution and knowledge of color and texture must finally be assumed by the painter.1he use of temperature in color and the illusions of texture are the keys to the visual expression entrusted to and controlled by the scene painter. I n its simplest form, all illusionary painting requires the mixing of three hues of the predominant color: a base, a tint, and a shade.

4. Mixing the Base, Tint, and Shade To produce almost all types of scene-painting techniques, from texturing to detail work and regardless of the type of paint used, a minimum of three hues of a color are used. Before beginning, one cardinal rule of color mixing must be recognized: It is a/ways easier to mak.e a color darker than it is to mak.e it lighter. Surprisingly large amounts of white are needed to lighten a color that accidentally was mixed too dark. Many times itwiU behoove the painter to empty the ill-mixed or too- dark a color into an "ends" bucket for use as a back- painting color than to waste voluminous quantities of white in attempts to lighten a dark color. The three hues of color to prepare are labeled according to their purpose. The first color to mix will represent the predominant color the scenic unit is to be painted. It is called the base color. From th is are created the two remaining colors: the tint and the shade. In synonymous painting terms, the tint may also be called a highlight, and the shade a lowlight. In the Table of Nine MiJ.:tures, t he middle of t he scale, or the 4-to-4 ratio, represents the medium or base gray (although the black will exert more visual strength than the white .) Those colors approaching the absolute white arc tints or high(er) lights of the base; working toward absolute black finds the shades or low(er) lights of the base color. An average tint and shade, according to the table, could be made using the middles hues, that is, tint := 6 white + 2 black, shade:= 2 white + 6 black. Mixing the base, tint, and shade by way of the nincmixture table is no more than a simple cookbook recipe for the inexperienced painter, but practice wiIl provide shortcuts to the measuring process. It is wise for the novice painter to begin early to develop and strengthen an ability to match sample colors. A simple beginning would be to miJ.: the base, tim, and shade grays according to the table and then abandon all tools of measurement other than the judgment of the eye and attempt to visually match the three values made by t he table formula.

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Procedure The steps below encourage mixing by eye rather than recipe (see fig. ] 2): Step 1: Line up three buckets. To make t he base gray, into the center bucket add 4 equal parts each of black and white, and stir. This color will have to be made in a large enough quantity as it will be used to create the tint and the shade. Step 2: Into the right bucket add 2 parts of white . To this white, slowly add some of the base color while sti rring to make t he tint. Arriving at t he desired tint will take some practice. It may be best to work in teaspoon quantities of white and base to get a feel for how quickly hues change. Step 3: Use the bucket on the left to mix the shade. Pour in 2 parts base color. Slowly add black to this, while stirring, unti l the desired shade is reached .

r-- - ---------, ADD ".

l . . yr ----

---- -- ~

TO M A KE

THE TI NT : WI·IlTE

TO M A KE

TH E

5 1-l A D E: Figure 12

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BLACK.

!. BASE

Note that both the tint and shade are made by dark.ening lighter colors. Using the base color to make the tint and shade is easier than relying on the table~ mixture method. Remember that when creating a shade for anything but a base gray, use the base color's complement on the color wheel to create the shade. As an example, if the base color is blue, usc its complement (orange) to darken the base color to the desired depth of shade. The extent to which the tint and shade arc removed in hue from the value of the base color will have a definite relationship to the degree of texture, or three~dimensional illusion, created. In other words, the more textural desired for, say, a wall to look, the brighter the tint and the darker the shade should be. Conversely, if a subtle textural illusion is required, mix the tint and the shade in hues close to the base color. Avoid mix extremes fo r the tint and shade as these will appear unnatural for realistic scenery, and create a cartooned look (unless, of course, that is the look designed) . For most painting projects, the paint shou ld be mixed to a cons istency simi~ lar to whole milk. When the stir stick is lifted from the bucket, the paint should run from the stick smoothly, not in little drops. Beware of adding too much water to the mixture. Translucency will result. Too little water will prevent the paint from flowing off the brush. The paint should be opaque, spread easi ly, and not be sticky or difficult to spread and blend. Being a suspension, all mixed paints should be stirred frequently when in usc. If allowed to set, the paintsedi~ ment must be dug up from the bottom of the bucket before the color is appHed. Failure to maintain a well-mixed solution will result in an uneven application consisting of thin spots, and some colors may tend to separate slightly. Imagine the base color is not a simple medium gray but a complex greenblue green (an expansion of the twelve principal hues located between green and blue green on the color wheel). One can, of course, pull out the table-mixture recipe or proceed using t he base-color pigment as the common ingredient in the tint and shade.

Analogous Colors and the Common Denominator This common ingredient or root-color principle can be extended to allow two colors that would normally be combative side by side to compatibly coexist. Suppose that green and purple are reqUired to appear onstage in proxi mity. The duo can be rendered analogolls if an identical additive is introduced to each of them. Examining the properties of purple and green shows that blue is a color found in each. M ix up a batch of white tinted with blue, and add equal quantities to equal amounts of purple and green . What occurs is that the

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blue white acts as a (ommon denominator and renders the two extreme colors analogous. Carrying this theory further, virtually any color can exist with any other color provided they have been neutralized by a like root. In essence, the formulation of tints and shades derived directly from a base color is basically the same theoretical procedure. All of the above examples of color mixing have been illustrated because of their simplicity. The theories are quite simple, provided the colors arc kept relatively uncomplicated. Sophistication and expertise come with practice, observation, and patience.

5. Preparing the Surface to Be Painted Few things arc more annoying for the scene painter than to be confronted with scenery that has not been properly prepared for painting. When first built, framed scenery, such as the common scenic Rat, must be covered with a decent-weight muslin or canvas and evenly stretched, glued, and stapled to the outer frame. The material must then be sized (with glue and water, or size water) so that the fabric shrinks and becomes taut.

Flameproofing As required by fire codes, any cloth material used on the stage must be Rameproofed. Flamcproofing the muslin and canvas can be done in the paint shop, or the material can be ordered from the supplier already flame proofed . Some Rameproofing solutions will not react well to different size waters or primer paints, in that the canvas or muslin may actually begin to stretch after it is attached to its wooden frame . Experimenting by applying liquid starch to the material after Rameproofing shou ld prevent the subsequent sizing and priming from causing the material to sag. Any protruding staples must be thoroughly pounded into the wooden frame because protruding staples will catch the brush.

Primer Coat Before the actual scene pa inting may begin, painting surfaces may often need a primereont. The paint used as the primer should match the type of paint to be used for the actual scene painting and can be any color or a combination of leftover quantities (often referred to as slop paint). However, the pri mer

32

should normally be as light a color as possible so that a lightly colored base color wiJi cover it easily. Priming is best defined by listing its purposes: 1. On newly built or covered flats, priming seals the weave in the fabric, thus creating an even surface and eliminating the possibility of backlighting bleeding through to the su rface of the flat (also called light leaks). 2. Pri ming seals raw or unpainted wood surfaces. Untreated or unsealed surfaces absorb more paint than a primed surf.'lce. 3. On older scenic units and flats, priming with a medium-neutral color will help cover previous coats of paint. If stubborn or tenacious previous coats tend to bleed through the primer, a water-soluble sealant may have to be applied, and then the unit is reprimed. Mix the priming paint as one would normally mix an opaque paint consistency. If using white paint for priming, add some color to it so that it will stand out against the white canvas or muslin of newly covered scenery. As the water in the primer paint can cause wood fibers to expand, thus pushing outward toward the surface, recheck for any staples that have risen up, as these will need to get pounded in again. Exposed wooden areas willlikcly Ileed to be sanded down, coated with a sealant, and reprimed. Be sure that any sanding normally occurring as part of the bui lding stage has been completed and no unintentionally uneven joinery planes or rough ends and edges ex ist. On scenery that has been joined togcther, such as two or more flats that need to fold togcther, assure that all dutchmans (the material that covers the hinges and scams between the Rats) have been glued down with no protruding or lifting edges. (New dutchmans that cover the scams between older, heavily painted flats will need several coats of primer to smooth out their surface textu re so as to match the surfaces of the older flats . Th is step will be necessary regardless of the nature of the dutchman. Even cloth tape, which makes for a qUick and serviceablc dutchman, will need several primer coats in order to match the flats' surf.'lces.) Using a primer brush or the widest lay-in brush available, work the mixture well into the material. l be brush strokes should go in many directions (as in cross-hatching), somewhat resembling a crude figure-cight pattern (see fig. 13). When painting a large area, solicit help. If painting alone, work in rough squares, and work continuously. Do not work in haphazard patches and have to go back and fill in spaces. On newly covered units, the idea is to paint quickly to allow the entire surface to dry in unison. Failure to do so will cause unevcn tightcning and shrinkage of the fabric. If possible, allow the scenery to dry continentally for the even distribution and absorption of the primer paint. A slightly thicker mixture should be used on coarse, heavier weights of canvas.

33

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6. Basic Scene Painting and Texture After the primer coat has dried thoroughly and no thin spots or painter's holidays remain, the actual scene painting may begin. Some painters prefer to take t heif base color and apply a base coat as a further sealant. This step is an optional one and is dependent upon the condition of the painting surface and the covering power of the primer coat. Applying just the base also relates to the methods of preference employed by the individual painter, particularly in situations when subsequent colors are applied over a dried base color.

34

Figure 14 The first step in the painting of scenery is to do the lay-in work. Covering the surface with the base color alone or with its corresponding tint, shade, or temperature color, constitutes the lay-in stage. Several techniques of texture may be performed during this initial step, or the painter may restrict his or her application to simple background toning. Scenery is rarely, if ever, painted using only one hue of one color on a given surface . Nuances in tone or brightness must be incorporated not only to approach a realistic appearance but also to lend visual interest. I n addition, stage lighting is generally strong in intensity and often coming from so many different directions that it has a tendency to Ratten out even three-dimensional objects and will cause large, Rat surfaces to look dull and uninteresting and, occasionally, reRective. When a plain, one-colored surface, such as a wall, is studied in daylight or under artificial light, the unevenness of interior light causes subtle variations in tone often near the edges and corners. While such delicate shadings arc greatly minimized outdoors, owing to reflected sunlight, interior shadowy areas are intensified, conversely, because of the lack of ambient light. TIle room in figure 14 is depicted under daylight conditions with bright sunlight streaming through the window. Notice the wall with the window is the darkest and the wall opposite the lightest.1he source of light is singular and illuminates an enclosure. TIle shadings that appear in the corners and near the ceiling create shape and visual interest. As stage lighting cannot solely duplicate these varia-

35

tions in tone, the effects must be applied with paint. Even in stage settings depicting an exterior scene, some degrees of toning must be applied to break up the static appearance oflarge surfaces.

Focus and Toning Complicated theories of light source and reflection aside, the common practice in painting scenery, be it for interior or ex terior settings, is to paint the top if the scU/ery darker than the bottom. I n interior settings, the gradation of tones from dark to light is more in evidence than its exterior counterpart. This is done primarily to prevent the eye of the spectator from being drawn away from primary focus : the actor. As the eye is drawn to light rather than dark, the bottom areas of the scenery, that is, where the actor is likely to stand, are painted lighter than the top areas . The darker upper reaches help prevent the eye from drifting upward and pulling focus away from the players. As the stage lights can flatten three-dimensional shapes, recessed corners of the interior setting are also painted with darker tones so as to reinforce the setti ng's shape. This theory is not at all unlike one of the main reasons an actor applies make-up: to accentuate facial shape and features so as to be read as being dimensional under the effects of stage lighting. Unimportant areas of scenery should be made to fade away into shadows, particularly those areas high above the actors' heads. Extensive, brightly lit detail in insignificant places is most distracting and does not adhere to the fundamental purpose of scenery: to focus on the action, not d istract from it. The scene pa inter must be aware of this general rule: "darker at the top, lighter at the bottom.~ Many stage settings, regardless of the quality of the deSign, may be made or broken by the merit of its scene painting and adherence to its role of a supporting, albeit important, element in the production . The initial step of painting is the laying in of color to tone or texture the scenery. Tonillg is the process of applying a base color with its correspond ing shade and tint in order to reinforce the shape of the scenic unit and maintain focus to a specified area. Moreover, toning is a term used synonymously with breaking dlJWn, or taming a visually distracting clement or characteristic of the scenery. Texturing shares the responsibilities of focus and combating of light glare with toning but takes a step further to simulate three-dimensionally textured surfaces. While individual painters discard, adapt, or conceive numerous methods of rendering texture on scenery, twelve common methods of painting texture serve as the foundation for all variations.

36

graded wet blend scumbling spattering (and spatter and drag) sponging stippling rag rolling rolling flogging puddling dry brushing (also graining and combing) stenci ling (and stamping) spraying As illustrated in part 2 of this book, it is certainly not uncommon to employ more than one, if not several, of the above techniques on the same scenic unit. Even t he names of some of the following examples may change, depending on the exposure of the painter to various theater companies, counnics, or methods of practice; for example, 5eumbling is sometimes referred to as 5crumbling. Study and observation will prove that some techniques arc enhanced when used in combination. Observing the work of other painters is invaluable. When seeing a show painted by someone else, it is invaluable for the beginning painter if he or she can view that same scenery under work lights. Often, one may be pleasantly surprised and enHghtened by how a compelling illusion seen under stage lighting has been achieved by a relatively simple painting method . Pro cedura l~ethod s

Before embarking on t he following techniques of texture, a word about painting method is in order. Although all of the methods illustrated below use simply a base, tint, and shade, the three colors are opaque in nature, meaning the paint is intended as a covering agent and cannot be seen through . lhe painting of scenery from initial lay-in stages to final touch-ups may be performed in what can be distinguished as three different procedural methods: (1) opaque; (2) wash; and (3) textural. Experienced painters are not likely to think of these approaches as separate entities, as the th ree constitute standard tools that are combined, discarded, or used alone as the finished product will demand. For the novice paimer, however, it is wise to be aware of these three

37

approaches and appreciate theif individual pros and cons. 111erefore, although the following are illustrated only using opaque paims, all examples can be successfully performed using wash or textural approaches. It is simply a matter of painting style, preference, and the painter's decision to elect the most appropriate procedure according to the designer's image as provided on the painter's elevation (see also part 2, section 10, "Rendering Methods"). Lastly, another important consideration is holding the paintbrush. Most people will paint with the same grip that tenn is players use for a forehand shot. Young players are taught how to hold a racket by first placing it flat on the floo r and then picking it up. Accordingly, place the paintbrush fiat on the floor. Wrap the fingers around the handle and lift up the brush.1ts handle will fit diagonally across the palm of the hand (see fig.15a).

Figure 15a

38

Figure 15b

While this grip is common, it is also limiting, and the wrist may get tired quickly. An alternate grip that allows for more pivoting of the wrist and will not tire as easily is one with the brush handle outside of the palm grip. The fingers are almost Rat and rest diagonally across the fer rule, with the thumb supporting from the other side (see fig. I5b). (The textural technique of scu mbling is much easier to accomplish with this grip.) Both grips should be tried and alternated if need be.

Graded Wet Blend This method accomplishes a soft, linear blend ing ofcolor values. Although the term wet blend may refer to any number or method of brush-stroke proce-

39

dures, the intention with the graded wet blend is to produce an even progression of tone from light to dark. The tones should progress in a seamless fash ion without distinction or a strata separating them. Although this procedure can be achieved with a brush, using a sprayer and applying the paint continentally may be easier if available space permits. Roughly divide the area to be painted into three horizontal sections, the middle of which is slightly la rger than the other two. L ay in a top band of shade fairly heavily and quickly. Be generous with the amount of paint applied, as it will be blended later and must still be wet. Below this, lay in the larger band of base color, again quickly and heavily. FinaUy, paint in the remaining band with the tint color (see fig. 16).

Figure 16

40

Go back with a clean, moist brush, and gently feather the edges of one color band into another (see fig. 17). With a wide lay~in or primer brush slightly charged with water and pressing firmly, start at the shade end, and paint strokes in a horizontal direction. Proceed quickJy through the base area with continuous strokes, not lifting the brush from the surface until you work your way off the tint color of the flat (see fig. 18). If necessary, repeat this procedure with a clean brush and work from the opposite direction of the flat. Never work from the middle band out. A slight variation would be to paint the shade band, then the base band, and immediately feather and blend the co n ~ necting edges together. Recharge the bottom area of the uncontaminated base band with the base color, and proceed with the tint band, followed by its feath~

Figure 17

41

Figure 18 ering and blending. When working on a very wide fiat, it may prove easier to grade two colors at a time rather than three. To paint a flat whose edge will form a recessed corner, simply vary t he shape of the top band of shade and arc the following bands of color (see fig. 19). The common follow-up texturc for the graded wct blend is normally a fine spattering or spraying.

Scumbling Scumbling is used to simulate rough textures, such as plaster or stucco. With less gradation between the hues of the base, tim, and shade, an attractive and lightly textured background for wallpaper stencil ing may be ach ieved . With scumbling especia lly, the extent of the textural illusion is

42

Figure 19 directly related to the contrast in hue of the three colors and the amount of blending performed. That is, if one mixes the tint and shade colors toward their respective extreme ends of the mixture table, the impression of rough texture is intensified . (Interior decorators and painters use this and many of the following techniques with semi-transparent and transparent glazes, sometimes referred to as wall washes. The use of washes/glazes is more appropriate to homes and businesses as the nature of a transparent medium creates a softer ambience than opaque counterparts. And, the lighting is softer and often indirect in nature.) Though the rule "dark at the top, lighter at the bottom~ still applies, the scu mbling painting stroke varies greatly from the long, continuous strokes of the graded wet blend . Using a brush fo r each of the three colors is a necessity to

43

) Figure 20

assure clarity of color hue. Lay in the shade area, leaving an irregularly shaped edge toward the base color area (sec fig. 20). With another brush, immediately lay in the base color area without overlapping the two colors; leave the bottom of the base color section irregular toward the tint color area. Next, paint strokes of the shade into the base and the base into the shade (see fig. 21). ll1cse strokes are achieved by quickly twisting the wrist and flicking the brush while lifting it ojfthc painting surface between every stroke. Leaving the brush on the surface between strokes will not produce the crisp stroke pattern indicative of this painting method. Do 1101 overwork this mingling ofcolor as the effect will only turn muddy. A somewhat splotchy, irregular appearance is the goal.

44

) Figure 21

Next, lay in the tint color. For added contrast, bring a few strokes of shade into the tint area, and a lillIe tint into the shade (see fig. 22). Be careful not to bring too much tint up top as the completed scumblc should still be darker at top. A fourth color, or temperature color, can be introduced to heighten the textural effect and add a degree of coolness or warmth. The temperature color has as its common denominator a bit of the base color to which has been added a temperature-producing color. Scumbling. like the graded wet blend, is usually a foundation technique upon which further methods arc applied.

45

Figure 22

Spattering (and Spatter and Drag) Perhaps the most widely used method of texturing scenery, particularly by amateurs, is spattering. Some incorrectly refer to the technique as splattering, which carries with it a rather uncontrolled and sloppy connotation. Spattering is the act of flicking droplets of paint from a brush onto the painting surface. The brush may be struck against the palm of the hand or piece of wood or be snapped by sharply flicking the forearm and wrist as a unit. This method can cover vast areas quickly. When performed correctly by snapping the forea rm, beginning painters, after spattering the firs t few times, will notice soreness or

46

a tenderness on the outside of the forearm, just below the elbow, in a muscle called the carpi radialis. l1)is soreness is si milar to a minor form of the pain experienced from carpal-tun nel syndrome, although carpal tunnel is more likely to affect the opposite side of the forearm and radiate down toward the wrist. Most painters find that the initial tenderness fro m spattering is temporary until the musele becomes accustomed to the stroke. ]f discomfort continues, try spattering continentally, which, due to gravity, will greatly reduce the intensity of movement needed. ]f this fails to prevent soreness, avoid spattering altogether as a technique, and replace it with sponging or stippling (see next two technique sect ions). Beginningpainters can reduce or prevent discomfort to the arm or shoulder if they use the body with the forearm. Effective spattering uses the body's torso much in the same way a tennis players swings a forehand stroke or a pitcher throws a baseball (see figs. 23a and 23b). Neither of these players begins their stroke or throw by facing the target. Instead, their dormant shou lder is in the lead, pointing toward the target, while their active shoulder points away from it. If one imagines the athlete as right-handed, an initial clockwise rotation or wind-up begins the action, followed by the torso pivoting in a cou nter-clockwise rotation toward the target as the power of the stroke is put in motion. Lastly, the racket head or pitch follows the arc of the body, and the baU is unleashed .

a

b

Figure 23

47

Replace the racket or baseball with a brush, and this is the essence of the spatter action. As in sports, for stability keep the feet wider apart than shoulder width, and let the body work in concert with the arm in a flowing action. Spattering can be heavy, medium, or fine, depending on the size of droplets distributed (see fig. 24, heavy, medium, and fine). Droplet size and shape may be controlled by the amount of paint on the brush but can also be greatly affected by t he distance of the brush from the painting surface and the angle of the stroke. Spatter droplets need to fly in order to fo rm. Standing too close to the flat will prevent droplets from forming and cause stringy patterns. Although there is no prescribed distance a painter needs to be from the surface, an average of about five feet away should be adequate. For most spattering jobs, which are intended to be nonpatterned and result in an overall r: _ -

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NOTE: Be sure to make a few extra stenci ls. When a set is painted vertically in its assembled fo rm , the extra stencils may be cut in half or in sections fo r painting the pattern into and around corners of the walls. When the painting is to be done vertically, and only one stencil is used at a time, it may prove handy if tbe stencil is framed. Framing not only ma intains rigidity but also proves a convenient way to pick up the stencil and hold it when in use. To frame a stencil. The average individual stencil design will cover a gross area of approximately 10 inches x 12-14 inches. Cut four pieces of:J.4 inch x :J.4 inch pine to the lengths required by the dimensions of the stencil. Remember to allow in the calculations for the width of the wood. Arrange the pieces as shown in figure 813. P lace the stencil facedown onto the wood pieces, and staple through the paper into the wood using 'A inch staples (fig. 81b). Carefully nail the frame together with I1f.z inch finishing nails. ] f the stencil is not made of stencil paper or paper that has been laminated with plastic, seal the stencil front and back against moisture absorption with shel lac or enamel spray paint. Note that the centering guidelines that have been notched into the top, bottom, and side edges of the stencil (see also figllre 42) mllst be visible inside the frame. 1hese notches will be aligned with the horizontal and vertical chalk lines normally snapped onto the painting surface to serve as guides for the placement and positioning of the stencil. Before applying the stencil, the background should be textured to provide an interesting contrast to the stencil. The background may be lightly scumbled, sponged, stippled, or combed. However, the background texture should be done with washes or opaque colors close together ill value and hue. The purpose of the background is [0 contrast and enhance the stencil without detracting from it. H aVing prepa red the background, decide the direction or layout of the overall pattern.

Applying the Stencil Step 1. G uidelines (Fig. 82) Choose how the stencil is to be placed, that is, side by side, offset, in vertical columns, in diagonal columns, or other ways. Although this demonstration focuses on only a few stencil applications rather than an entire wall, use a chalk snap line to strike vertical and horizontal gU idelines (see fig. 82). These will assure the alignment of the stencil's perimeter vertical and horizontal notches.

108

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Figure 82 Step 2. Stencil Base (Fig. 83) The stencil base color may be appl ied in any number of ways. Dabbing the ends of a brush rather forcefully in a stippling manner will pound the paint through the holes quite nicely. It may be surprising how many times the stencil can be painted through and moved before having to recharge the brush. Work on the brighter, lower background areas of the scenery first, and gradually fa de out the stencil pattern when approaching the upper reaches of the scenic unit and its darker background (see fig. 83). A pattern applied opaquely in the top areas d raws the eye upward. Step 3. Stencil Contrast (Fig. 84) Apply the stenci l tint and shade colors using the same or contrasting method employed for the base color. Use the tint and shade lightly so as

110

Fig ure 83

to not totally cover the base color. Vary the placements of the tint and shade colors to avoid static repetition and to create stencil texture (see fig. 84). Step 4 . Final Tone (Optional; F igs. 85 and 86) Finish with a light application of one of the background colors over the finished stenciling by combing, fine spatter, using a cut roller, or other method. This not only provides further texture but serves as a toning device for too dominant a pattern. Producing wallpaper that is to have a tapestry appearance is relatively easy. After the stencil has been applied with the required colors, drag a combing brush vertically over the pattern with various washes (see fig. 85). A patterned paint roller, such as one wrapped with several rubber bands, may also be used (see fig. 86).

111

Figure 84

Pattern Arrangements As mentioned earlier, the repetitive placement of the wallpaper pattern can also ('lctor into its design and overall collective interest. 1l1e four standard arrangements are diaper, scale, ogee, and vertical stripes (see fig. 87, a through d, respectively). In addition, singular stencils may be placed in sequences of repetition, inversion, opposition, or alternation (see fig. 87, e through h, respectively). Each arrangement has its own significance, and one may be more appropriate to another when supporting architectural periods.

Spattering or Spraying A quick and easy way to create striped wallpaper is with spattering or spraying, done either vertically or continentally. Make a template: Nail at 6 inch intervals and perpend icular to a 6 foot piece of 1 inch x 3 inch pine, 6

112

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inch wide x 8 foot pieces ofl,4 inch plywood (see fig. 88, a). H aving completed the background paiming, lay the template on the continental scenery, or in the case of vertical scenery, rest the 1 inch x 3 inch piece on the top of the flat and allow the strips to hang down. Spatter or spray with the base, tint, and shade wallpaper colors. Remove the template, and move to [he next section of scenery. Further, optional treatments might be the application of a second different template over the background or applied stripes, framing of the stripes with a wash or opaque color, among others (see fig. 88, b).

Stamping a Pattern Alternatively, using a stencil may be substituted by "stamping" the paint onto the scenery. Synthetic sponges, cut into shapes, are pressed onto the scenery to cast an imprint; or shapes of sponge or thick carpet are glued to a board with handles, dipped into pan of color, and stamped against the scenery (sec fig. 89) . 'This latter method is extremely effective fo r fast application. The sponge and carpet can be cut with scissors, mat knives, or a band saw. Remember that unless designed or specified otherwise, all painted areas on the stage will need some degree of paimed or applied texturing to absorb stage lighting. Wallpaper is no exception. Whether stenciled or stamped, t he design pattern must be treated with contrasting tones, be they merely tints and shades, [0 create texture.

114

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11 5

10. Woodwork Graining Before attempting to paint any type of woodwork, research the exact wood Study its graining patterns and changes in color. Soft woods are less expensive than hard woods, and its t rees (pine, poplar, cedar, spruce) tend to be tall and straight. Wood grains are linear and free flowing. H ard woods arc slower-growi ng trees (such as, oak, cherry, walnut, and mahogany) and often gnarled and twisting in nature, whose growth rings and consequently grain lines are close together and oftcn quite intricate. Hard wood is dense and morc challenging to work with but, due to its tighter graining, will not split or splinter as easily as softer woods. H ard woods are commonly associated with fine furniture and paneled interiors that bespcak the economic affiuence of the owners. Softer woods freque ntly carry a rustic connotation, a more bucolic and frugal charm. Soft woods tend to be £'1.[ more textural in nature. Although the examples in the following painting lessons are of a wide-grained nature (such as poplar or pine), variations in color, blending, and graining can be su ited to the particular characteristics of the type of wood desired. The following demonstrations are divided into three categories: rendering methods (descriptions of the three common methods of reproducing a wood effect), wainscoting (the most basic of all interior treatments for decor), and paneling (in which multi leveled decor is illustrated). to be reproduced.

Rendering M ethods Regardless of the complexity of the assignment , reproducing woodwork on the stage maytakc the form of any onc or more ofthe following three approaches: (1) the wash method, (2) opaque method, or (3) dry-brush method. Although it is common to use a combination of methods on anyone painting project, dividing and illustrating the techniques into three separate approaches will simplifY the procedures for the beginning painter and possibly encourage the adoption of an individual format that has proven comfortable and workable.

Wash Method Step 1. N eutral B ase (Fig. 90) Base in the entire woodwork area with a light background color appro priate to the temperature of the wood to be produced . When dry, use a black

11 6

Figure 90 indelible marker to delineate the divisions of boards (see fig. 90) . Boards do not have to be of uniform width. Step 2. Graini ng (Figs. 91 and 92) Regardless of the type of graining (wood) to be replicated, there will be no obvious symmetry or balance to the lines. In figure 91 , a and b illustrate how and why graining lines appear as they do. The extent to which grain lines are linear or loop back in the opposite direction has to do not only with the type of tree and how straight, crooked, or gnarled it is but also the manner in which it is cut at the sawmill. In a process called quartersawing, the lumber is produced by first quartering the log and then sawing perpendicular to the growth rings (fig. 91, a). Boards are produced that are

117

(a) Q UART ERSAWING

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Figure 91 a, b

relatively narrow in width, but the grains are fairly straight. There can be considerable waste through this sawing method. The most common and economical of cuts, plain-sawn, occurs when a whole or half-round log is passed through the saw blade, and the growth rings are cut across. The grain contains considerably more variation as the grow th rings are more prominent. The graining parterns will resemble elliptical loops, or cups (fig. 91, b) . A cluster ofloops or cups is referred to as a heart grain. The replication of heart g rains through painting should not receive a hasty attention to detail, as there are general characteristics (~No's and Yeses"; see figure 91c) that should be studied if the wood is to appear realistic and credible . The tapering characteristics of t he g rain are controlled by the liner brush's chisel point. the ferrule ofthe brush should not be turned but kept at a comtant angle. Add the appropriate graining (based upon research and/or commerc ially available swatches) with a combing brush and liner brush, using a fairly dark wash (see fig. 92). Note that some boards are grained solely through combing, while other graining patterns are in combination with the liner brush or with the liner alone. As the ultimate goal of realistic scene painting is to capture the essence of an object, rather than total-and, perhaps, distracting-photographic duplication, take care not to "overgrain" the wood to the point of busyness.

118

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Figure 197 method may lie in the availability of an opaque projector. Once a commonplace machine in schools and various multimedia businesses, it is now somewhat of a dinosaur and has been replaced by more sophisticated projectors. To timeconscious scene painters, the opaque projector will never become obsolete, but the machines are getting more difficult to find. If one can be acquired, never part with it! Overhead prqjectors are still readily available and may be used as a substitute to the opaque onc. However, the painting elevation must first bc lascr copied and thcn madc into a transparcncy. Thc colors will wash out a littlc as the light passcs through the transparency, but as long as therc is enough of an enlarged image to outline on the scenery, it will work. As a great deal of scenery is painted continentally, sections of the design can projected onto brown paper and pounced onto the scenery. For varying reasons, however, the use of a projector may be impossible. Therefore, scene painters must hone their freehand drawing talents, and becoming adept at transferring a design to the painting surface by gridding is absolutely essential.

207

Step 1. G ridding. or Squaring (Fig. 198) Mark off 1 foot intervals on all four sides of the larger surface, again using the center vertical and horizontal points on the larger surface as initial reference guides. With a chalked snap line or bow line, grid the larger surface. (I f much of the sketch contains an expanse of sky, lay in all of the sky colors first, then grid over it when dry. In this case, notice that prior to the gridding, the flat has been painted with the background sky colors.) 7he grid lines on this example are darkened more than usualfor visual clarity.

Fig ure 198

Step 2. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 199) The design is sketched with charcoal sticks or chalk so that mistakes can be dusted or flogged off. The sketch is verified either with pencil or ink marker.

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Figure 199 Step 3. P ainting (Fig. 200) Lay in the specified areas; complete the detail painting. To make the scene appear hazy and distant, the sky base color is very finely spattered over the entire surface.

18. Perspective and the Vista Perspective Although perspect ive vistas can be transferred and drawn by using the grid method of transfer, knowledge of the basic principles of perspective is imperative. Perspective is the art of rendering an object on a two-dimensional

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Figure 200 plane-say, a sheet of paper--in such a way as to give the impression that the object is three-dimensional; an appearance of depth or protrusion is created that increases or decreases in size according to its relative positioning between the observer and the far-off horizon. Perhaps the simplest and most rudimenta ry example of the effect of perspective is to envision a set of railroad tracks . 'The observer stands between the tracks. Because the two rails are parallel to one another and are on flat ground, as they move away from the observer, they appear to converge at a spot on the horizon, which, phenomenally, will always occur at the eye level of the observer. 1his point at which the rails converge is called the vanishing point (v.p.), as the rails literally vanish over the horizon. Anyone can scratch the horizon line across a piece of paper, draw the crudest of converging ra ilroad tracks, and achieve some degree of an ilJusion of distance and depth on a two-dimensional plane. The t wo initial lines, here

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symbolized by railroad tracks, must, however, in real life have a parallel relationship in order to converge at the same vanishing point. All lines that arc parallel to Rat ground and placed above eye level (the horizon line) slope down to the vanishing point, while all lines below eve level will slope up to it (see fig. 201, a). 1hese parallel lines, such as those indicating the top and bottom of a building, will meet at the horizon line and establish their own vanish ing point. The tops and bottoms of doors and windows, if also parallel with the flat ground or floor on which the building rests also converge at this same vanish ing point (see fig. 201, b).

a Horizon Line: (eye: leve:l)

b Vanishing Point

(v.p.)

Figure 201 Moreover, two buildings placed on opposite sides of a street bur facing and parallel to one another share the same vanishing point (see fig. 202). The height of the horizon as drawn on paper or canvas may be artificially raised or lowered

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Figure 202

for artistic reasons, perhaps to place the observer in a position of subservience or superiority. As mentioned earlier, in real life, the horizon always coincides with the eye level of the observer. A test of this phenomenon can be tried out at the beach. Lie flat on the sand with chin resting on hands, and stare out at where the water meets the sky. The horizon will be at eye level. Sit up, stand, climb a tree or lifeguard tower, and the horizon will still be at eye level! Scene painters must be aware of these principles and trust in them. Locating a vanishing point from which to scribe and eventually paint defining and detail lines not only assure the rendering of convincing illusions but speed up the layout and painting process far more than relying on a grid-transfer method . D uring the Renaissance, when the science of perspective diminution and foreshortening were markedly advanced and refined, perspective vistas were elaborated to sometimes include three or more vanishing points. Often, points were located far off the picture plane, or parameters of view. To reproduce such a sophisticated illusion involving distant vanishing points when scene painting, one would have to rely on the grid method of transfer, as locating such removed vanishing points on a large scale might be next to impossible.lhere simply may not be space in the paint shop to locate the points, let alone accurately align with them.

212

Vanishing Points However, very convincing examples of distance and diminishing proportion can be illustrated when only one vanishing point is used. The works ofCanaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal, 1697-1768), to name but one artist, can serve as inspiration for those who might fear one-point perspectives will appear static and lacking in interest. Canaletto's drawings took on startling complexities because of his use of overlapping objects. Often, h is vanishing points seem nonexistent for they were most often either eclipsed by fo reground and middle-ground features that virtually block clean views of the horizon or occur severely off to one side of the center line, as illustrated in the simplified perspectives seen in figure 203 .

Figure 203

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The one-vanishing-point-pcrspcctivc illusion that is created solely 011 ajlat mrfoce containing no actual dimensional relief appears the most convincingly whcn thc obscrver's vicw is directly in front of the middle ofthc picture. 1n a typical theater, not many members of the audience will have seats in the centcr of the auditorium, and it is true that viewing a painted three-dimensional from an angle oft- to one side or another of the central line of sight tends to lessen the illusionary effect of perspective. Perhaps the designer should create a three-poi nt-perspective illusion? 1his way, all seating sections might get an equal shot at being conv inced. But convinced of what? All the audience really needs to (momenta rily) be convinced about is that they are observing a series of events located somewhere, in some ti meframe in which the rea/here-and-now has been suspended . And so, again, scenery should never strive for total realism. For, in a truly realistic perspective vista, should not the branches of crees sway? Should not there be some distant activity at the end of enormous palace courtyards? In actuality, ycs; in theater, no. Robert Edmund Jones labeled sccnery "an environmcnt of the action." In an attempt to satisfy every audicncc mcmber's conceivable scrutiny of the scenery, the deSigner (and painter) will have ovcrstcpped the bounds of scenic propriety and given thc setting extensive dimensions of importance and focus. A working sink with running water on the set impresses or matters littlc to an audience because the sink fits within the prosaic scope of daily lives. Feature what is not banal or commonplace, and it is a venture into the arena of hopes, dreams, magic, and wonder. Perhaps Anton Chekhov stated his views of writing and the play most aptly in '!he Seagull, when T rigorin states, "L ife should not be portrayed as it is, nor as it ought to be. But as it appears in our dreams.~ Consequently, to avoid an artistic temptation to achieve convincing realism, which in turn may lead to scenic d istraction, it is quite common to see the perspective vista rendered in a semi-realistic form, perhaps viewed as if through a slight haze or mist. Tintype sepia washes, bleeding strokes of dye, and muted scratchings of pen-and-ink lines may all be uscd in an attempt to capture the distinctive and styl ish elegance of a historical period and thus achieve a romantic-and removed-ambience. Usually, the laying out of the vista onto the painting surfacc takes longer than the phases of actually painting it. The first step is to grid out a copy of the designer's rendering or elevation .

214

Step 1. Grid the Rendering, Elevation, or Sketch (Fig. 204) Customarily, 1 foot )( 1 foot squares arc drawn to a scale of1f.z inch = 1 foot o inch. (Note that, in this example, the entire sur£:'lce was based earlier with a sky color and that the clouds were completed and once again, the

grid lilUS appear darker than normalfor visual darity.)

Figure 204

Step 2. Locate th e Rendering's Vanishing Point ( Fig. 205) Next, locate the van ishing point (sec fig. 205). To do this, align a drafting triangle or other straight edge with any major building facet that appears to slope upward as it moves into the distance. Draw in a light ink line, extending it as far as needed . Next, choose on the same building a m,yor line that appears to get lower as it travels away from the observer, and extend it with a marker. Where t he two extended lines meet and cross is the vanishing point. This intersection also indicates the picture's horizon line should it not already be in view. In one-point perspective, usually all other buildings on the street arc extended to converge at this same spot. Again, this assumes a vista that (1) features a street that is perfectly horizontal in nature (i.e., no hills or slopes) and (2) features a majority of buildings whose tops are parallel with their bottoms.

215

Figure 205

Step 3. Grid Out the Pa inting Surface, and Locate the Vanishing Point

(F;g.206) Grid the painting surface with lines made from a charcoal stick or, preferably, ones snapped on with blue chalk using a standard carpenter's snap line (or a bowline, as seen in figure 48, charged with blue chalk may also be used, but a snap line is quicker). After having located the v. p. on the painting surface (see fig. 206), back the area of the surface on soft scenery with a piece of wood that will not shift. A nail will be driven into the scenery at this v.p. On hard scenery, drive a nail through the wooden painting surface. Do not drive the nail in all the way, but leave about an inch sticking out from the face of the painting surface. As most of the perspective lines will converge at the nail, its protrusion will come in handy. Step 4. Locating t he Rendering's Major Perspective Lines (Fig. 207) On the rendering or elevation, extend as many perspective reference lines as needed (see fig. 207}. Note that the lines will emanate outward from the vanishing point and extend until they conveniently cross vertical or horizontal grid lines. The points at which the elongated lines intersect with a grid line receive a hash mark and may be measured on the ren-

216

Figure 206

Fig ure 207

217

deri ng. These same intersections are transferred to the painting surf..-.ce's respective grid lines where each is noted with a hash mark. Step 5. Transferring the Major Perspective Lines ( Fig. 208) Once all of the hash marks are transferred to the painting surface's grid lines, it is time to draw in the major perspective lines. Loop the end of the chalk-charged snap line over the protruding nail (step 3 above), which denotes the vanishing point, extend and tighten the other end of the snap line to overlap the grid reference points, and snap the chalk line. Continue this procedure to snap in all of the major perspective lines (see fig. 208). All lines can, of course, be dusted off should mistakes occur. NOT E: When painting scenery that can not have wooden supports, use either a chalked bowline or another person to help with the snap line.

Figure 208

Step 6. Sketch and 1nk (Fig. 209) Sketch and then ink in all details.

Step 7. Painting (Figs. 210, 211, and 212) As the vibrancy of colors tends to progressively fa de as objects become more distant, painting a perspective vista or any exterior scene with deep, rich colors only destroys the illusion of distance. Pale tones, pastels, and 218

I

~

219

dyes are frequently used for outdoor scenes. To maintain the period flavor associated with this particular vista, only sepia washes of varying hues are used. Fi rst, lay in all areas with the pale color (see fig. 210). Non: : When working exclusively with washes and dyes, one must remember that areas and features can only be made darker. To correct mistakes later, one must use a different medium, that is, opaque colors for covering purposes, or bleach for highlighting. Therefore, care must be taken to prevent painting the designated lighter areas with the darker dyes. A good rule to follow is to always begin with the palest wash or dye and work progressively through the values to the darkest ones. Apply the middle tone (sec fig. 211), and proceed to the darkest (see fig. 212).

Figure 211 Step 8. Highlight and Shadow Wash (Fig. 213) Finish sparingly with opaque and translucent highlight washes to complete architectural details. Cast shadows. (See also the color version of fig. 213 in the gallery.) Non:: D o not be reticent to effect textures by the appropriate method(s) of choice using a color mixed between the middle and darkest tones as the texturing color.

220

Figure 212

Figure 213

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19. Drops and Scrims Many amateur and educational theaters are forced by budgetary restraints to reuse a scenic drop or a repertoire of scenic drops year after year. Iflucky, the

same drop won't be needed in shows mounted back-to-back. But even the most magical of painted illusions lose their alJure, and with frequency and overuse become an inside joke, if not downright boring. The time will come to either pack it in mothballs or try to paim over it. Most drops are not left to hang between uses but are rolled for more compact storage. In order to allow the drop to be rolled, it likely is painted with dyes or washes of color, as opaque paints can clog the fabric weave and prevent the drop from roll ing without cracking. Attempting to "erase" previously dyed backdrops is a futile endeavor. Even the most vigorous cleaning and mild bleaching wiU fail to erase the majority of details and colors. Floating images wiU remain, as if a ghost of what once was. So, the obvious follow-up for the dyed backdrop is to paint over it with opaque colors. Even then, some of the more tenacious dyes might ghost through the dried paint. If a drop was first painted with opaque paints, it was likely stored hanging or lying Rat; all subsequent designs must be repeatedly layered with opaque colors, and the reused drop will eventually weigh as much as a threestory building. But for those fortunate enough to attack brand new drops, a basic step must be taken to prepare the fresh fabric for dyeing or painting. I nexperienced painters may become frustrated by the uncontrollable bleeding of dyes and washes that occurs and spreads throughout the weave of the drop. Although designers sometimes call for such a bleeding of color, such an effect is always a preplanned notion involVing a well-monitored technique. Painters can encourage the spreading of color by wetting the dro p with water before, during, and after the applications of the actual colors. Regardless of the painting technique employed, however, all new scenic drops shou ld be glazed with a primer ofliqllid starch. 1his will not only prevent the running of colors but also provide a tightly stretched and fi rm surface on which to paint.

Laying Out Lay Ollt the drop 011 the floor. Sweep clear the paint-shop Roor, and place lengths of gray bogus paper over an area a bit larger than the drop itself. Overlap the side edges of the lengths of paper as they are being positioned,

222

and tape the ends to the Roar to avoid the paper from shifting. Then, on the paper, snap a chalk line indicating where the top of the drop is to be placed. Parallel to this line, snap a second line at a distance from the first line that equals the height of the drop. Th is second tine serves as a guide for the bot~ tom of the drop. Placing a large right t riangle (painter's Roar triangle) or reliable scenery jack at the left end of the top line, extend the perpendicular edge until it crosses the bottom parallel line (see fig. 214). Mark the top and bottom lines at these points, remove the perpendicular gu ide(s), and snap a line to connect t he top and bottom guidelines. This third line indicates the left end of the drop as seen from the front. Measure from this third line along the top and bottom lines the same d istance as the length of the drop, and make hash marks. Connect these two points by snap line, and the guidelines fo r the placement of the drop are complete. Check the accuracy of the box by measuring from corner to corner. The distance between the lower-left and upper-right corners should equal the distance between the upper-left and lower-right corners. P lace the drop on the gray paper, adjust to match the snap lines and, at intervals of 6 to 9 inches, tack through the hems into the paint-shop Roar. If the Roar is not made of wood, construct a wooden frame the exact size of the drop.

Figure 214

Make theframe. Use lengths of 1 inch x 3 inch pine scarf-jointed or butted together with keystones to form the four long-running lengths required and place on the Roar as ifbuilding a large scenic Rat. Use a standard corner-block assembly to attach the four 90 degree corners, but substitute the corner block nails with screws for easy disassembling and storage of the frame (see fig. 215). Tack the drop to the face of the wood by first aligning the perimeter of the drop with the outer edges of the frame .

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NOTE: This .... ~n:: construction a,rcatly /'C:SIffl\bles that "r a ceil i,,!! nat. I)ra" ing IS silo .." must b¢ ni~ t() race ""..". The: rrame ",II 'cst on key>tones ttnd comoer blocl