The Thalassaemia Syndromes
The Thalassaemia Syndromes Fourth edition D.J.Weatherall and J.B. Clegg With contributions by: R. Gibbons D.R. Higgs J.M. Old Nancy F. Olivieri Swee Lay Thein W.G.Wood
© 2001 Blackwell Science Ltd Editorial Offices: Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0EL 25 John Street, London WC1N 2BS 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EH3 6AJ 350 Main Street, Malden MA 02148 5018, USA 54 University Street, Carlton Victoria 3053,Australia 10, rue Casimir Delavigne 75006 Paris, France Other Editorial Offices: Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag GmbH Kurfürstendamm 57 10707 Berlin, Germany Blackwell Science KK MG Kodenmacho Building 7–10 Kodenmacho Nihombashi Chuo-ku,Tokyo 104, Japan Iowa State University Press A Blackwell Science Company 2121 S. State Avenue Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA First published 1965 Second edition 1972 Third edition 1981 Fourth edition 2001 Set by Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong Printed and bound in Italy by Rotolito Lombarda SpA, Milan The Blackwell Science logo is a trade mark of Blackwell Science Ltd, registered at the United Kingdom Trade Marks Registry
The right of the Authors to be identified as the Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN 0-86542-664-3 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-publication Data Weatherall, D.J. The thalassaemia syndromes / D.J.Weatherall and J.B. Clegg, with contributions by R. Gibbons . . . [et al.]. – 4th ed. p.; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-86542-664-3 1. Thalassemia. I. Clegg, J. B. II. Title. [DNLM: 1. Thalassemia.WH 170 W362t 2001] RC641.7.T5 W4 2001 616.1¢52–dc21 00-056465
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Contents
Authors and contributors, vi
7
The b thalassaemias, 287
Preface to the fourth edition, vii
8
The db and related thalassaemias, 357
Preface to the first edition, ix
9
The b and db thalassaemias in association with structural haemoglobin variants, 393
Acknowledgements, x
Part 1 Historical background 1
Historical perspectives: the many and diverse routes to our current understanding of the thalassaemias, 3
10
Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin, 450
11
The a thalassaemias and their interaction with structural haemoglobin variants, 484
12
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia, 526
13
Thalassaemia intermedia, 550
Part 2 The biology of the thalassaemias Contributors: D.R. Higgs, Swee Lay Thein,W.G.Wood
Part 4 Diagnosis and management of thalassaemia Contributors: J.M. Old, Nancy F. Olivieri, Swee Lay Thein
2
Human haemoglobin, 65
3
Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin, 121
14
Avoidance and population control, 597
15
Management and prognosis, 630
4
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias, 133
16
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias, 686
5
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias, 192
6
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias, 237
Part 5 The future, 727 References, 733 Part 3 Clinical features of the thalassaemias Contributors: R. Gibbons, D.R. Higgs, Nancy F. Olivieri,W.G.Wood
Appendix:Addresses of patient support organizations, 823 Index, 827 v
Authors and contributors
J.B. Clegg, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford
D.R. Higgs, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford
R. Gibbons, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford J.M. Old, National Haemoglobin Reference Laboratory, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford
Nancy F. Oliveri, Hospital for Sick Children and the Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Ontario
Swee Lay Thein, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford
D.J. Weatherall, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford
W.G. Wood, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford
vii
Preface to the fourth edition
Why has there been a gap of 20 years between the third and fourth editions of this book? Although this is in part a reflection of our indolence, together with pressures from other scientific, literary and administrative activities, this is not the whole story. The first three editions covered the period between 1965 and 1981, a time of rapid evolution of research into human genetic disease. Indeed, work in the globin field over that period led the way towards the development of molecular medicine.The haemoglobin disorders had been well defined at the clinical and genetic levels and were custom-made for the new tools of molecular biology, as they became available in the late 1970s. In addition to haematologists, scientists from many different disciplines descended on the field, offering as it did the first opportunity to analyse disease at the DNA level. Hence there was a need for an extensive review of the genetics and phenotypic variability of the thalassaemias and related disorders, to direct these workers through this complicated maze. This is almost certainly why, much to our surprise, the third edition became a Citation Classic in Current Contents in August 1987. During this period the rate of discovery was so great that there never seemed to be a time when it was possible to write any review of the field which was not out of date before it was published! More recently the speed of development in the thalassaemia field has slowed down and we thought that it was now appropriate to take stock again, and to try to see what has been achieved and where the future lies. It is now apparent that the thalassaemias are not only the commonest monogenic diseases in humans, but that, because of major demographic changes in the pattern of disease in many of the developing countries, they will pose an increasingly serious health problem in the new millennium. Hence, the great challenge for the future, and one that extends right across the uncertain field of molecular medicine, is how to translate our remarkable knowledge of the molecular pathology of these diseases into better ways for their control and treatment. For, as well as
clarifying the many different mutations that underlie the thalassaemias, work over the last 15 years has underlined the complexity of the many genetic and acquired factors which may modify the phenotype of these disorders. In this new edition we have tried to guide clinicians who are responsible for the care of patients and their families through this maze, highlight our continuing areas of ignorance and define priorities for developing programmes for the control and treatment of thalassaemia in the future. Because of the vast amount of information which has been obtained about the genetic control of haemoglobin in general, and the thalassaemias in particular, and also because of our increasing senility, we have invited some younger colleagues with whom we have worked for many years to help us with this new edition. We must make it absolutely clear, however, that any deficiencies of this book are due entirely to our idiosyncrasies and prejudices as editors, reflecting as they do the tolerance rather than lack of competence of our colleagues. As this book goes to press the whole future of clinical research is being subjected to debate on both sides of the Atlantic. It is felt by many that the complexities of the biomedical sciences in the postgenome period will be such that it will not be possible for clinicians to make major contributions which require the increasingly complex tools of molecular and cell biology. The development of the thalassaemia field, which has probably told us more about the relationship between molecular pathology and what we see in our patients than any other family of diseases, has, apart from some of its early foundations based on the structure and genetic control of haemoglobin, depended on the work of clinical scientists who are able to apply the tools of molecular biology, or teams of clinicians and basic scientists who could communicate with each other. This is the only way in which translational research of this type can be pursued; the critical evaluation of clinical phenotypes and their subtleties is, in its own way, no less demanding than their analysis at the molecular level. ix
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Preface to fourth edition
If the thalassaemia field has taught us anything, it is of the importance of scientists, be they clinical or basic, who can sit astride the field, linking the findings in patients to those in the laboratory. Indeed, one of the disappointments of our review of the current state of this field is the frequency with which detailed molecular studies are accompanied by limited clinical data. Hence although we now know more about phenotype/genotype relationships for the thalassaemias than for any other genetic diseases, there is still a long
way to go.This information will become of increasing importance as we move to more experimental and invasive forms of therapy in the future; it will be vital to offer parents an accurate account of the likely course of their child’s illness before embarking on these journeys into the unknown. D.J.Weatherall J.B. Clegg Oxford, February 2001
Preface to the first edition
During the last few years there has been a rapid increase of knowledge about the genetic control of haemoglobin synthesis in health and disease. This has resulted in a marked revival of interest in thalassaemia and associated disorders of haemoglobin production. It is now clear that these conditions occur much more frequently, and in many more racial groups, than was previously realized. Furthermore the study of these disorders promises to answer some fundamental questions about the genetic mechanisms involved in defective protein synthesis. For these reasons thalassaemia has become the field of interest for workers of many different disciplines and there is a widening gap in communication between the clinical responsible for recognizing and treating these disorders and the basic scientist,
whose studies of the molecular control of protein synthesis have so many applications to these clinical problems. In this book, by presenting evidence from several of these disciplines, an attempt has been made to summarize present knowledge about this important group in inherited disorders of haemoglobin synthesis. In a work of this size it has not been possible to cover the vast literature of the thalassaemia field.The subject has been covered in several excellent reviews, both in English and Italian, and the present work has been designed to summarize the evidence which suggests that the clinical picture of thalassaemia may result from several different inherited defects of globin synthesis, very similar in type to the other inherited haemoglobinopathies.
xi
Acknowledgements
As in the case of previous editions, this book could not have been written without the help of our friends and colleagues in the thalassaemia field, both in this country and overseas. Lack of space prevents us from mentioning all of them by name; they encompass the entire subject and, indeed, the whole field of human genetics. We are also extremely grateful for the forbearance of our many patients who have allowed us to study them and their families. Because of the critical importance of the facial appearances in thalassaemia we have not followed the common custom of covering part of the face in our clinical figures. We have made every possible effort to obtain permission to reproduce these figures, and are particularly grateful to these patients for helping other sufferers from thalassaemia in this way. We are also very grateful to the colleagues who have joined us in writing parts of this new edition, particularly for their forbearance with our editorial quirks and constant pressure. It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the help of many colleagues, editors and publishers who have allowed us to reproduce material for this edition. As far as possible we have cited these sources under individual captions. We are particularly grateful to Dhira Sonakul for sending us copies of her beautiful atlas on the pathology of thalassaemia and for allowing us to borrow freely from it to illustrate parts of this book. Similarly, we thank Professors Caterina Borgna-Pignatti and Guido Lucarelli for preparing and allowing us to reproduce graphs of survival data in their patient populations, and Professor Ida Bianco for providing us with some information about early Italian publications which may have preceded the formal descriptions of thalassaemia in the early part
of the twentieth century. We also acknowledge valuable discussions on the population control of thalassaemia over the years with Professor Bernadette Modell, and on population screening with Dr Elizabeth Letsky. We are indebted to our many overseas colleagues who have enabled us to work in their countries and helped us to understand the particular problems of thalassaemia in different populations: Professor Graham Serjeant (Jamaica); Drs Shanthimali de Silva, Windsor Perera, Anuja Premawardhena and Mr Adrian Basnayake (Sri Lanka); Dr Michael Alpers (Papua New Guinea); Dr Donald Bowden (Vanuatu); Dr Abdul Salam Sofro (Indonesia); Professors Prawase Wasi, Suthat Fucharoen and Sornchai Looareesuwan (Thailand); Professor Georgi Efremov (Macedonia); Professor Antonio Cao (Sardinia); Dr Richard Perrine (Saudi Arabia); Professors Eliezer Rachmilewitz and Chaim Hershko (Israel); Professors Phaedon Fessas and Christos Kattamis (Greece); and Drs David Nathan, Elliot Vichinsky and Gary Brittenham (USA). We also acknowledge with gratitude the continued support from the Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust and Department of Health without whose financial support none of this work would have been carried out. Finally, we are grateful to Blackwell Science for their encouragement and forbearance with the slow gestation of this edition. It would never have seen the light of day without the enormous efforts and patience of our secretaries Janet Watt, Liz Rose and Milly Graver, and David Lockett for his computing skills. The fact that they are still with us after this edition is a miracle.
xiii
Notice to all readers
The authors have made every effort to ensure that the drug dosages in this book are accurate.They are, however, subject to change and may have been revised so we urge you, as a matter of routine and safe-practice, to check the recommended dosages before administering any drug.You should consult: • your local hospital formulary; • your national formulary; or • the pharmaceutical company’s literature.
xiv
Part 1 Historical background
Chapter 1 Historical perspectives: the many and diverse routes to our current understanding of the thalassaemias It is indeed so. Nature is nowhere wont to reveal her innermost secrets more openly than where she shows faint traces of herself away from the beaten track. Nor is there any surer route to the proper practice of medicine than if someone gives his mind over to discerning the customary law of Nature through the careful investigation of diseases that are of rare occurrence. william harvey (1578–1657)
Introduction The story of the accumulation of knowledge about the thalassaemias and other inherited diseases of haemoglobin poses some intriguing questions for historians of science and medicine in the twentieth century. In particular, they will ask how it was that the study of what, at least at first, appeared to be a group of rare genetic anaemias turned out to be the forerunner of a completely new era of medical science and practice. For, in effect, it was the elucidation of their molecular basis that was to lead to the notion of ‘molecular disease’, and, later, molecular medicine; that is, a change of emphasis from the study of illness in patients or their organs to a description of its pathology at the level of cells and molecules. It is beyond the scope of this book to provide a comprehensive account of the history of haemoglobin and its disorders. However, because of the central importance of thalassaemia in paving the way to unravelling the molecular basis of human single-gene disorders, and, in particular, explaining the reasons for their remarkable phenotypic diversity,we thought it worthwhile to begin with a brief account of some of the events that led up to, and formed the foundation for, our present understanding of the field.Various aspects of the history of thalassaemia and sketches of the lives of some of the physicians who played a prominent part in its investigation are given by Bannerman (1961), Weatherall (1980) and Wintrobe (1985). Any account of how we arrived at our present state of knowledge about thalassaemia is, of necessity,
rather involved, based as it is on such an extensive literature from Europe, North America and elsewhere. Because of difficulties of language, and lack of scientific communication during the Second World War, it has often proved difficult to give correct priorities for key discoveries and to develop an accurate historical picture of the precise order in which events occurred. Overall, however, the development of the field seems to fall into several distinct phases. The period between 1925 and 1940 saw the first descriptions of the clinical features of several different types of thalassaemia. From 1940 to 1960 there was an amalgamation of information from Europe and the United States that gave a clearer picture of their inheritance. By 1960 it was apparent that ‘thalassaemia’ is not one disease, but a very diverse group of genetic disorders, all of which result from abnormalities of haemoglobin synthesis. Furthermore, they were found to have a widespread distribution and not to be localized to the Mediterranean region, from where the name ‘thalassaemia’ is derived. Over the next 20 years there was steady progress on several fronts. Careful studies of families with different haemoglobin disorders led to an understanding of the genetic control of haemoglobin and, remarkably, to an almost complete description of the clusters of genes on different chromosomes that are involved. Much was learnt about the synthesis of haemoglobin and its abnormalities in the different forms of thalassaemia, information which led to a better appreciation of the pathophysiology of the disease and, incidentally, to improvements in its symptomatic treatment. It also became possible to make some educated guesses about its molecular pathology, so that by the late 1970s the thalassaemia field was, in effect, custom-built for the new tools of recombinant DNA technology. Not surprisingly, therefore, thalassaemia became the subject of intense interest to molecular biologists in the 1980s. Because the genetics of haemoglobin was already so well understood, the globin genes were an obvious target for some of the first attempts 3
4
Chapter 1
at isolating human genes; it soon became apparent that the picture of the arrangement of the globin genes that had evolved from earlier family studies was correct in almost every detail. Against this background, and because of the many different wellcharacterized disorders of haemoglobin synthesis that had been found in particular types of thalassaemia, several groups of research workers began a systematic analysis of the molecular basis for the disease. Over the next 10 years this work was to yield a remarkable picture of the diversity of human molecular pathology, and, as a bonus, provided some extremely valuable insights into how human genes are regulated and how these functions may break down in different inherited diseases. Happily, much of this information also had valuable practical applications for the population control, diagnosis and, at least to some extent, the management of many forms of thalassaemia. In the following sections we shall examine briefly these different threads in the development of knowledge about thalassaemia that came together at about the time the last edition of this book was written, and that underpinned the remarkable successes of the last decade.
The early history of thalassaemia Introduction Thalassaemia is such a common condition, particularly in the Mediterranean region and south-east Asia, that it must have been frequently seen by physicians before the first clinical descriptions in 1925. However, there is very little evidence that it was recognized as a specific entity before that time. Some suggested early descriptions The Greek physician Caminopetros noted one possible reference to thalassaemia in Hippocrates’ Coan Prognosis. Bannerman (1961) quotes an English translation as follows: ‘When children of seven years of age show weakness, a bad colour, and rapid respiration on walking, together with a desire to eat earth, it denotes destruction of the blood and asthenia.’ However, it is more likely that this was a description of iron-deficiency anaemia in early childhood; a desire to eat dirt, a condition known as pica, occurs in
iron-deficiency anaemia and is not characteristic of children with thalassaemia. Menke (1973) has made the more plausible suggestion that there is a description of sickle-cell thalassaemia in a volume of the Hippocratic Collections: Concerning Internal Diseases, entry 32. He quotes a Latin version given by Ermerins as follows: Another disease of the spleen. It begins indeed in the time of Spring but more especially from the blood. For when the spleen is filled with blood it bursts out into the abdomen, and sharp pains (then) attack the spleen, the breast, the shoulder, and under the shoulder blades.The entire body is of a leaden colour and over the shins are minor scratches from which originate large ulcers . . . Although this interesting clinical description might do almost equally well for other haemolytic anaemias such as favism (which Pythagoras recognized as resulting from the ill effects of the broad bean, and which is seasonal), generalized pains and leg ulcers are particularly characteristic of the sickle-cell disorders; enlargement of the spleen in older patients is more in keeping with sickle-cell thalassaemia than sickle-cell anaemia. Porotic hyperostosis Another approach to the question of whether thalassaemia occurred in historic or prehistoric times is the study of peculiar thalassaemia-like bone changes in skulls found in ancient burial places, or mummies in a good state of preservation (Hart 1980). There is a condition well known to anthropologists called ‘porotic hyperostosis’ in which the structural and radiological changes in the skull are very similar to those of severe thalassaemia. Bone changes of this type have been found in skulls excavated in Sicily and Sardinia as well as in those of the ancient native populations of America, the Incas of Peru, Indians from Colombia, Aztecs from Mexico, Mayan Indians from the Yucatan, and from many other sites (Chini & Valeri 1949). Indeed, several students of palaeontology believe that one contribution to the extinction of some of these ancient populations might have been a high incidence of a blood disease, possibly a genetic anaemia like thalassaemia. It should be remembered, however, that many of these skulls are from adults and that there are probably other genetic haemolytic
Historical perspectives anaemias, or even nutritional anaemias, that might produce bone changes consistent with porotic hyperostosis. In a recent analysis of a sample of skeletons from the 4000-year-old site of Khok Phanom Di on the coast of central Thailand, Tayles (1996) identified several with bone changes suggestive of severe anaemia. In a detailed and scholarly review of the differential diagnosis of the possible causes of these changes, she makes a very strong case for a form of thalassaemia, probably one of intermediate severity, which might have allowed survival into late childhood or early adult life. Convincing though these arguments are, the case for skeletal changes of thalassaemia in these ancient burial grounds will only be proven when it is possible to isolate DNA from the bones and identify thalassaemia mutations directly. Splenic anaemia By the beginning of this century, clinicians were becoming aware of the syndrome of splenic anaemia of infancy. One such clinical disorder became known as ‘anaemia infantum pseudoleucaemica’. It was first described by Rudolf von Jaksch-Wartenhorst (1855–1947), who spent most of his professional life in Prague and was one of the first clinicians to appreciate the importance of chemical and radiological investigations. His original paper (von Jaksch 1889) concerns a young boy with anaemia, leucocytosis, splenomegaly and fever in whom a subsequent autopsy did not show changes of leukaemia. He observed further cases later (von Jaksch 1890). It seems unlikely, however, that he was seeing thalassaemia in Prague at that time. Many other accounts of ‘von Jaksch’s anaemia’ appeared over the next 25 years (see, for example, those of Whitcher (1930) and Capper (1931)), but on reviewing these clinical descriptions the reader is struck by their extraordinary heterogeneity. There is little doubt that some of them deal with different varieties of leukaemia, while others may have been forms of nutritional deficiency, tuberculosis, congenital syphilis, or other infections. However, for 30 years or more after the turn of the century it was common practice to describe any unusual anaemia in infancy as ‘von Jaksch’s anaemia’, particularly if the spleen was enlarged. Early Italian writings on familial splenic anaemia of children may have included cases of thalas-
5
saemia. Bannerman (1961) has investigated some of the reports in the literature that the Italian workers (Silvestroni & Bianco 1959) thought might be descriptions of thalassaemia which predated that of Thomas Cooley in 1925. He concludes that most of them dealt with conditions such as leishmaniasis, tuberculosis or congenital syphilis, and in no case was there clear evidence that the authors had identified a disease that would be accepted today as a form of thalassaemia. While this is true, Dr Ida Bianco has recently analysed some further published material from the period coming up to the turn of the century (Dr Ida Bianco, personal communication), particularly that of Cardarelli (1880, 1890) and Somma (1884). In these and similar reports of children with splenic anaemia written at about this time, in some cases there is more than one affected family member, bone changes similar to thalassaemia, and generalized osteoporosis; the latter finding is particularly difficult to reconcile with an infective origin. These authors were clearly puzzled by this disease and, although they included malaria, tuberculosis and other infections in their differential diagnosis, they recognized that there might be constitutional factors involved. However, it was not until 1925 that the condition which later became known as thalassaemia was clearly separated from this heterogeneous collection of anaemias of infancy. The first clinical descriptions of severe thalassaemia Although the credit for the first clinical description of thalassaemia is given to the American paediatrician Thomas B. Cooley (Fig. 1.1) it is quite clear that the disease was identified as a distinct entity at about the same time by several Italian clinicians. Undoubtedly, Cooley was responsible for the first description of the severe, life-threatening form of thalassaemia, while the Italian workers described a milder variety of the condition. This raises another particularly interesting set of questions for students of the history of the disease. Why was the first clinical description of the severe form of thalassaemia made in the United States, where the disease is rare, instead of the Mediterranean, where it is extremely common? And why did the Italian clinicians identify the milder varieties of thalassaemia yet fail to recognize the severe forms, which must have been much more common in their population?
6
Chapter 1
Fig. 1.1 Thomas B. Cooley (1871–1945). Cooley was born at Ann Arbor, Michigan, graduated MD in 1895 and interned at the Boston City Hospital.After studying in Germany he returned to Boston to work in contagious disease.After further appointments in Ann Arbor and Detroit, and a period of service in France during the First World War, he settled in Detroit, where he spent the rest of his life in paediatric practice.
between 2000 and 10 000 deaths. The disease was originally present in 2600, or one-third, of the municipalities in Italy. About 4–5 million hectares of land remained uncultivated because of the ravages of the disease, which was particularly severe in the south of the country, in the Latium and in Sardinia (Fig. 1.4). It seems likely that these figures are a minimal estimate; it has been suggested that at the turn of the century malaria may have been affecting as many as two million out of a population of approximately 30 million (Pampana 1944). In Greece, during the period 1921–32, the number of deaths attributed to malaria varied between 3000 and 8000 per annum, and constituted, on average, 5.6% of total mortality in the population. Since malaria causes anaemia and splenomegaly in early life, it is not surprising that severe thalassaemia was not recognized as a distinct entity in Mediterranean countries during the early part of this century. Furthermore, there were other common infections which would have produced a similar clinical picture. Leishmaniasis was widespread in the Mediterranean populations; this disease is also characterized by severe anaemia and splenomegaly. There was also a high infant mortality due to other infectious diseases, particularly tuberculosis, and malnutrition and nutritional iron deficiency were widespread. A genetic anaemia, even though it might be affecting close to one per cent of the population in parts of Italy and some of the islands of the Mediterranean, would easily have been overlooked against this background of childhood illness. Thalassaemia in Cyprus
Childhood illness in the Mediterranean region in the late nineteenth century A possible explanation for this interesting conundrum is to be found in the pattern of illness in infancy and childhood in Italy and other Mediterranean countries in the latter half of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the present context malaria is of particular importance. An excellent account of the problem posed by malaria during this period is given by Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta (1980) (Figs 1.2 and 1.3). Reasonable frequency and mortality data for malaria in Italy are available from 1887 onwards. At the turn of the century and up to the mid-1930s there were over 200 000 cases notified each year, and
The history of thalassaemia in Cyprus provides a particularly telling example of why this condition was not recognized in the Mediterranean region until malaria control programmes and other public health improvements had decreased the rate of infant and childhood mortality from infectious disease. Thalassaemia was not known to occur on the island until 1944, when Alan Fawdry, a District Medical Officer of the Colonial Service, reported the clinical findings in 20 patients. This paper, remarkable for its scholarly discussion of the differential diagnosis of ‘splenic anaemia’, highlights the difficulty in identifying this disease in the island population against the background of chronic malaria. It was published at the end of an extremely successful three-year programme to
Historical perspectives
7
Fig. 1.2 Malaria control in Italy by fumigation of houses. One of the earliest attempts by Missiroli (1883–1951) to control adult anopheles by fumigation of houses after covering the roof with tarpaulin. This photograph appears in The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe by Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta (Oxford University Press, 1980) and is reproduced by permission of the publishers and the Wellcome Institute Library, London.
control anopheline breeding, during which time Fawdry found that anaemia secondary to malaria had almost disappeared; within this remarkably short period it became clear that there was a high frequency of a genetic anaemia with features of thalassaemia in the island population. It is not surprising therefore that the severe form of thalassaemia which kills children during the first years of life was first recognized in Mediterranean immigrants in the United States, where, in the 1920s, anaemia and splenomegaly due to infection would have been quite unusual. On the other hand, the milder form that was described independently in Italy at the same time is compatible with survival into late childhood and even into adult life. Hence it would have been identifiable, even in a population with a high frequency of death or morbidity resulting from infection in infancy. Haematology in Italy
Fig. 1.3 Malaria control in Europe in the 1920s.A postcard showing mosquito nets worn as veils. Reproduced from The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe by Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta (Oxford University Press, 1980) with permission of the publishers and the Wellcome Institute Library, London.
There may be other reasons why thalassaemia was not identified as a separate entity in Italy at the beginning of this century. Although haematology was a rapidly developing field, most of the Italian haematologists who were concerned with the study of the morphology of the blood cells were most active in Pavia and Siena, where there is little thalassaemia (Baserga 1958). And, although it is clear from many
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Chapter 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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Val d'Aesta Piemente Liguria Lombardia Trentino Venezia Friuti Emilia-Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche Latium Abruzzi Melise Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicilia Sardinia
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Hypo-mesoendemic Meso-hyperendemic
of the early reports of splenic anaemia in the Italian population that there was a familial aggregation of cases, this would not in itself have aroused the suspicions of the clinicians of the time; it was only many years later that the importance of inheritance in the causation of disease came to be appreciated. The first description of severe thalassaemia Cooley’s first account of what became known as thalassaemia appears in a single-page abstract in the Transactions of the American Pediatric Society in 1925 (Fig. 1.5), entitled ‘A Series of Cases of Splenomegaly in Children, with Anemia and Peculiar Bone Changes’. Co-authored by Dr Pearl Lee, it describes four young children with anaemia and splenomegaly, enlargement of the liver, discoloration of the skin and of the sclerae, and no bile in the urine. Their red cells showed increased resistance to hypo-
Fig. 1.4 Epidemiological stratification of the levels of endemic malaria in Italy based on pre-operational malarial control data of 1946. Reproduced from The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe by Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta (Oxford University Press, 1980), with permission.
tonic solutions and there was a moderate leucocytosis with nucleated red cells in the peripheral blood. In addition there was a peculiar mongoloid appearance caused by enlargement of the cranial and facial bones. In one case a splenectomy had been performed, without improvement. In this report, and in a more detailed version in a later paper, Cooley gave a complete description of what was almost certainly severe b thalassaemia (Cooley & Lee 1925; Cooley et al. 1927). He thought that the disease was congenital but probably not hereditary. Cooley’s great contribution was to describe a series of children with a specific clinical syndrome and to separate clearly this disorder from the heterogeneous groups of childhood anaemias which hitherto had gone under the general name of ‘von Jaksch’s anaemia’. Readers interested in learning more about the life and work of this austere and enigmatic character should read a delightful essay written by Zuelzer (1956).
Historical perspectives
9
Fig. 1.5 The first description of Cooley’s anaemia. From the Transactions of the American Pediatric Society, 37, 29–30, 1925.
Why ‘thalassaemia’? The term ‘thalassaemia’ was first used by Whipple and Bradford in 1932 in their classical paper on the pathology of the condition. The word is taken from the Greek ‘qalassa’, meaning ‘the sea’. The purist might have preferred ‘thalassanaemia’, but thalassaemia has stuck. Indeed, Whipple and Bradford were not too happy with their invention, preferring
the term ‘Mediterranean disease’. In an account of the work of George Whipple, Diggs (1976) leaves the reader in no doubt that it was Whipple who invented the word. He writes: I have always blamed Bradford rather than Whipple for suggesting a seemingly erudite but less meaningful and less understood word. Bradford was from a small town in Missouri. He knew the batting averages of the St. Louis
10
Chapter 1
Cardinals, was quite familiar with the north end of southbound mules and the ways of quail and pheasant. He was a sluggish left-handed first base in the Strong Memorial baseball team in Rochester while I covered the left field. In addition I knew that he did not know a word of Greek.When I wrote recently to ask him why in the name of heaven he changed the name of the disease to ‘thalassaemia’, a term which did not identify the sea involved, he replied that a good baseball player does not argue with the umpire. The story of how thalassaemia received its name was related to Maxwell Wintrobe and the authors by George W. Corner, who was at Rochester at the time when Whipple and Bradford were doing their early pathological work on Cooley’s anaemia (Weatherall 1980). He wrote: Because I was perhaps the most bookish of the young Rochester faculty, Dean Whipple made me his informal consultant on literary matters, several times asking my opinion on questions of nomenclature and etymology.Wishing to avoid the eponymic title ‘Cooley’s anaemia’, he sought a name that would associate the disease with the Mediterranean area, all the cases known at that time having occurred in families originating there. He had studied Greek at PhillipsAndover Academy, and he recalled the great story in the Anabasis of Xenophon’s army coming over the mountain and gazing at last upon the sea, the Ten Thousand shouting as one man,‘thalassa, thalassa!’.Whipple sent for me and asked whether I thought the name ‘thalassic anaemia’ correct and appropriate. I had in fact never studied Greek, but of course I knew about the retreat of the Greek army from Persia and could at least tell the Dean that both words of his proposed name were from Greek roots and therefore properly associated. I gave no thought to the geographical aspects of the problem. Not until long afterward did I learn that the view hailed so joyfully by the homeward-bound Greeks was actually the Black Sea.The weary men still had a voyage before them, and the Bosphorus to pass before reaching the Mediterranean Sea. As it turned out, however, the minor classical deficiencies of the Rochester School were not to matter. Later work was to show that the Black Sea is a very suitable location to give its name to thalassaemia;
it is (unlike the Mediterranean) surrounded by the disease on all sides! Further description During the decade following the original report by Cooley many cases of severe thalassaemia were described in the literature, in both North America and Europe.Although some of them continued to use the term ‘von Jaksch’s anaemia’, it is clear that many of them were describing Cooley’s anaemia. Interestingly, in the second edition of Janet Vaughan’s The Anaemias, published in 1936, there is a very comprehensive section entitled ‘Erythroblastic Anaemia of Cooley’, which, incidentally, contains a description of the bone and marrow pathology which has never been bettered, and an account of the disease in an English girl (Vaughan 1936). During this time it became widely accepted that the condition is found predominantly in Mediterranean peoples; where such ancestry could not be proved it was usually assumed! An extensive bibliography of the literature of this period is given in the review of Chini and Valeri (1949). Early descriptions of milder forms of thalassaemia In 1925, Fernando Rietti of Ferrara (Fig. 1.6) (Rietti 1925) described a mild form of haemolytic jaundice in which the red cells showed increased osmotic resistance. This was a very important observation because it clearly distinguished the disorder from hereditary spherocytosis. Indeed, the increased osmotic resistance of thalassaemic red cells has been an important diagnostic tool ever since Cooley’s and Rietti’s first observations. Similar descriptions were published shortly afterwards by other Italian workers, including Greppi (1928) and Micheli et al. (1935). Interestingly, Micheli mentions that he had noted abnormalities of the red cells of this type in the parents of a child with Cooley’s anaemia. But, although the latter was recognized for the first time in Italy one year previously, as Bannerman (1961) points out, it is very unlikely that these early Italian authors understood the true relationship of what became known as La Malattia di Rietti–Greppi–Micheli, or ‘haemolytic jaundice with decreased red-cell fragility’, to Cooley’s anaemia. The large body of Italian literature on the form of anaemia described by Rietti, Greppi and Micheli is reviewed by Chini and Valeri (1949). A condition
Historical perspectives
11
showed evidence of mild thalassaemia while in other families the condition appeared to be inherited as a single gene. However, it should be remembered that the diagnostic criteria for thalassaemia at the time were entirely dependent on red-cell morphology and osmotic-fragility testing. There seems little doubt therefore that most of these early reports of milder forms of thalassaemia dealt with what today would be called ‘thalassaemia intermedia’, a term that only started to appear in the literature in the 1950s (Sturgeon et al. 1955).
1940–1950: first descriptions of the pattern of genetic transmission of thalassaemia Early observations in Greece and Italy
Fig. 1.6 Fernando Rietti (1890–1954). Rietti was born in Ferrara and studied in Florence, where he obtained his doctorate in 1914. He spent the rest of his life at Ferrara, working at the Arcispedale Di Sant’ Anna. He published widely in the field of neurology and haematology. Reproduced from Thalassemia.A Survey of Some Aspects by Robin Bannerman (Grune and Stratton, New York, 1961), with permission.
which seems to have had many of the features of this disorder was also described by Silvestroni and Bianco (1945). They called it ‘anaemia microcitica constituzionale’, or constitutional microcytic anaemia, and subsequently wrote extensively on its clinical and genetic aspects (see Silvestroni & Bianco 1948, 1951; Silvestroni et al. 1957). In reviewing the literature on these milder forms of thalassaemia it is clear that they show considerable clinical and genetic heterogeneity. The degree of anaemia is variable, but in most cases splenomegaly is reported. Unlike those with Cooley’s anaemia many of these patients survived into adult life. The genetics was equally varied; in some cases both parents
The first definite evidence that Cooley’s anaemia is genetically determined was reported by Caminopetros in Greece in his important papers in 1938 (Caminopetros 1938a,b) (Fig. 1.7), and by Angelini in Italy at about the same time (Angelini 1937). Both these workers noticed that relatives of patients with Cooley’s anaemia, though not anaemic, have red cells with increased osmotic resistance. The work of Caminopetros was particularly important although, as pointed out by Fessas (1992), the results of his family studies were strange, because he usually found increased osmotic resistance in only one parent of children with thalassaemia major. On the other hand, he was certainly very explicit in his conclusions: The increased osmotic resistance is found constantly among seemingly healthy parents and siblings of the deceased . . . These findings speak for accepting the hereditary transmission of the pathologic element.The only possible explanation is a lesion of haemopoiesis, which is hereditary and idiopathic.Therefore, the disease must be considered as being transmitted by heredity, in fact as a recessive carrier, according to the laws of Mendel, as can be concluded by the transmission through seemingly healthy individuals (Caminopetros 1938a).
Consolidation of genetic data from the USA and Europe In the early 1940s steady progress was made in establishing the genetic basis for thalassaemia.This impor-
12
Chapter 1
Fig. 1.7 The paper by Caminopetros (1938b) in which he describes the Mendelian transmission of thalassaemia.
tant work was carried out quite independently in the USA and in Italy. It was only after the end of the War, when scientific communication became possible and several new haematology journals with a truly international flavour were established, that it was possible to amalgamate information from Europe and the USA. In 1940 Wintrobe and colleagues described typical
thalassaemic blood changes in some of the relatives of Italian patients with moderately severe thalassaemia attending the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. They realized that this was a mild form of thalassaemia, and in a footnote pointed out that they had seen this haematological picture in both parents of a child with Cooley’s anaemia. The story of this important observation is reviewed by Conley and
Historical perspectives Wintrobe (1976) and by Wintrobe (1985). Similar findings were published independently at about the same time in the USA by Dameshek (1940) and by Strauss et al. (1941). A series of more extensive genetic studies followed, notably by Smith (1948) and Valentine and Neel (1944, 1948). Valentine and Neel, whose work on the genetic transmission of thalassaemia was seminal, named the mild form of Cooley’s anaemia ‘thalassaemia minor’, and the severe type described by Cooley ‘thalassaemia major’. Dameshek pointed out that the microcytic anaemia in these cases is often accompanied by the presence of large, pale macrocytes and target cells and called the condition ‘leptocytosis’, or ‘target-cell anaemia’. James Neel has written an interesting account of how he was stimulated to carry out his important studies on the genetics of thalassaemia by reading Wintrobe’s account of the Baltimore family (Neel 1994). At about the same time, and without any knowledge of the activities of the American workers, important studies on the genetic transmission of thalassaemia were carried out in Italy (Gatto 1942; Silvestroni & Bianco 1944, 1946a,b). An extensive bibliography of this work was published by Silvestroni (1949).At first it appeared as if one parent might be affected, particularly in families of patients with ‘anaemia microcitica constituzionale’. In retrospect this is not surprising; these intermediate forms of thalassaemia are now known to result from interactions with ‘silent’ forms of b thalassaemia (see Chapter 13). But, when large numbers of patients with typical Cooley’s anaemia were studied in Ferarra, both parents were found to have mild redcell abnormalities and decreased red-cell osmotic fragility. Silvestroni and Bianco named this condition microcytaemia. By the end of the 1940s scientific communication had been freely established between Europe and the USA and it was possible for the results of these different studies to be more fully assessed and reviewed (Neel 1950; Bianco et al. 1952). By then it was clear that Cooley’s anaemia is the homozygous state for a recessive or partially dominant Mendelian gene and that the heterozygous state is characterized by extremely mild anaemia with osmotically resistant red cells. Different nomenclature for the carrier state was used in Italy and the United States. Gatto called it ‘thalassaemia minima’, while Silvestroni and Bianco used the term ‘microcytemia’. In English-speaking countries Valentine and Neel’s ‘thalassaemia minor’ was favoured. Thus by the early 1950s there was a genuine under-
13
standing of the genetic transmission of Cooley’s anaemia. It was also clear that the milder, or intermediate, forms of thalassaemia are inherited, but their genetic relationship to thalassaemia major and minor remained unclear. Thalassaemia is a heterogeneous disorder Reviews of the work of this period, those of Marmont and Bianchi (1948) and Chini and Valeri (1949) for example, leave no doubt that the Italian workers of the time were extremely puzzled by the clinical variability of thalassaemia. They invoked ‘modifying factors’ and other mechanisms which might somehow lead to variation in the thalassaemic phenotype. Hence, by 1949 it was already apparent that thalassaemia is not a single disorder but a complex syndrome characterized by wide phenotypic diversity, ranging from profound anaemia in early infancy, through milder anaemia with splenomegaly, to symptomless conditions identified only by morphological or osmotic abnormalities of the red cells. This complexity is mirrored in Chini and Valeri’s use of the term ‘Mediterranean haemopathic syndromes’ to describe these diverse disorders. The stage was now set for the further analysis of thalassaemia by studies of the haemoglobin of patients with different forms of the condition.
1949–1960: thalassaemia as a genetic disorder of haemoglobin The period after the late 1940s was a time of rapid progress in all aspects of the human haemoglobin field. By 1959 it was possible for Ingram and Stretton to set out their important theoretical model for the genetic basis of thalassaemia. The background information which allowed them to develop this hypothesis was derived from many different sources. There was already a large body of knowledge about the structure and genetic control of human haemoglobin, and studies of the haemoglobins of patients with different types of thalassaemia had been reported from many parts of the world. The field developed so quickly during the 1950s, and on so many different fronts, that in some cases it is difficult to give priorities for major discoveries. The genetic control of human haemoglobin It is beyond the scope of this book to recount the
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Chapter 1
early history of haemoglobin. This fascinating story, which starts with the observation by Michael Servetus in 1533 of how blood changes colour when it passes through the lungs, is recounted in several extensive reviews (Cournand 1964; Edsall 1972, 1980) and is summarized by Bunn and Forget (1986) and Weatherall and Clegg (1999).
+
1
2
Heterogeneity of human haemoglobin It had been known since 1866, when Korber showed that human placental blood is more resistant to alkali denaturation than that of adults, that normal human haemoglobin is heterogeneous (Korber 1886). In 1949 Pauling and his associates, following a suggestion by William Castle of Boston, studied the haemoglobin of patients with sickle-cell disease, a condition that had been recognized by Herrick as far back as 1910, and showed that it had different electrophoretic properties from that of normal adult human haemoglobin. Moreover, all the haemoglobin of individuals with sickle-cell disease was abnormal, whereas that of symptomless carriers was a mixture of both normal and abnormal types; these were called ‘haemoglobin (Hb) A’ and ‘HbS’, respectively. Pauling and colleagues recognized that their findings must mean that the structures of Hbs A and S are different, and hence used the term ‘molecular disease’ to describe sicklecell anaemia. An excellent account of this seminal discovery is given by Conley (1980). Early genetic studies The elegant genetic studies of Neel (1949), Beet (1949) and the Lambotte-Legrands (1951), taken together with the findings of Pauling and colleagues, suggested that the structure of human haemoglobin is controlled by a pair of genes, and that the sickle-cell gene is a mutant allele of the HbA gene. Soon afterwards HbC was described by Itano and Neel (1950) and later shown by Ranney (1954) to be an allele of HbS. There followed a spate of new electrophoretic haemoglobin variants whose inheritance appeared to follow a simple Mendelian pattern (Fig. 1.8). Several of them were also shown to be allelic with haemoglobin S. At first each new variant was named by a letter of the alphabet; when there were none left place names of the origins of the persons in whom the variant was first found were used. In 1958 Smith and Torbert described a large Balti-
3
4
5
6
7
Fig. 1.8 Filter-paper electrophoresis of haemoglobin.This technique, used in the 1950s, was the main approach to identification of abnormal haemoglobins before methods were developed which gave better resolution.The anode is on the right and the following samples are analysed (top to bottom): 1, normal adult; 2, normal cord blood with Hbs F and A; 3, cord blood with HbC trait; 4, cord blood with HbS; 5, cord blood with Hb Bart’s; 6, an adult with HbI and HbA (HbI a thalassaemia); 7, sickle-cell trait.
more family in which several members carried two abnormal haemoglobins, S and Hopkins 2, in addition to HbA. This important pedigree (Fig. 1.9) suggested that the genes for HbS and Hb Hopkins 2 were nonallelic, and hence that there must be two genetic loci involved in the control of adult haemoglobin synthesis. Furthermore, the patterns of segregation of these variants suggested that these two loci are not linked and, in fact, might be on separate chromosomes. Further heterogeneity In 1955, Kunkel and Wallenius described a minor
Historical perspectives
15
Fuller kindred—Hopkins-2 haemoglobin PROPOSITUS DF (JHH No A-97378)
Fig. 1.9 The family pedigree published by Smith and Torbert (1958) which showed the independent segregation of two haemoglobin variants, Hopkins-2 and S.This was the first indication that there were at least two separate loci for the regulation of haemoglobin production. Later it was shown that Hb Hopkins-2 is an a-chain variant and hence this family demonstrated that the a- and b-globin genes are unlinked and probably on different chromosomes.
1
2
I 1
3
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
II
1
2 3
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6 7
8
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III
1
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IV
haemoglobin fraction in adult red cells which they called HbA2. Later, a variant of this haemoglobin was described by Ceppellini (1959a,b), suggesting the existence of a third locus involved in the genetic control of adult haemoglobin. Structural studies While these genetic studies were being carried out, rapid progress was being made towards the elucidation of the chemical structure of haemoglobin. In 1956 Ingram showed that globin consists of two identical half-molecules. These findings agreed beautifully with X-ray crystallographic evidence (Perutz et al. 1960); in short, both approaches suggested that each half-molecule is made up of two different peptide chains. Further structural work confirmed that human adult haemoglobin consists of two pairs of identical peptide chains, which were called a and b (Rhinesmith et al. 1957; Braunitzer 1958; Braunitzer et al. 1961). Schroeder and Matsuda (1958) established that human fetal haemoglobin, although having a grossly similar structure to adult haemoglobin, has a different subunit composition. One pair of peptide chains is identical to the a chains of HbA; the others, which are quite unlike the b chains, were called g chains. By the early 1960s technical advances in protein sequencing had enabled the complete amino-acid sequences of the a, b and g chains to be determined. Furthermore, it was found that HbA2 contained a fourth type of globin chain, d, similar in structure to b, again combined with a chains (Ingram & Stretton 1961).
Hopkins-2 trait Sickle-cell trait Studied—normal
Not studied Dead Propositus
Ingram’s demonstration that sickle-cell haemoglobin differs from normal by a single amino-acid substitution in the b chain, reviewed by Ingram (1989), together with increased knowledge of the inheritance of the sickle-cell gene, was an elegant demonstration of the extension of Beedle and Tatum’s ‘one-gene–one-enzyme’ hypothesis to the concept of ‘one-gene–one-peptide-chain’. In the context of haemoglobin this meant that the primary products of the globin genes would be single peptide chains and hence, since haemoglobin is composed of different subunits, it must be regulated by more than one pair of genes. In 1960 Itano and Robinson re-examined the Baltimore family with Hbs S and Hopkins 2, and, using an ingenious method for dissociating and re-associating haemoglobin subunits in buffers of different pH, were able to show that Hb Hopkins 2 is an a-chain variant. Thus it appeared that the a and b chains of human haemoglobin are determined by distinct gene loci which are some distance apart on the same chromosome, or on different chromosomes. An early synthesis A picture of the genetic control of human haemoglobin was beginning to emerge. Four different loci, controlling the structures of the a, b, g and d chains, are involved. In fetal life the a-chain and g-chain loci are active and produce HbF. Later, g chains are replaced by b and d chains, which, on combination with a chains, form Hbs A and A2.
16
Chapter 1
Haemoglobin patterns in patients with thalassaemia The first observation that the haemoglobin constitution of thalassaemic patients might be abnormal predated Pauling’s discovery of sickle-cell haemoglobin by several years. In 1946 Vecchio noted that the haemoglobin of patients with Cooley’s anaemia was more alkali-resistant than normal adult haemoglobin. This suggested that these patients have more fetal haemoglobin than is usually found after the first year of life. Vecchio and colleagues extended and confirmed these findings, and Rich (1952) suggested that thalassaemia might result from a defect in HbA synthesis with persistent production of HbF. The fact that patients with thalassaemia major usually have elevated levels of fetal haemoglobin was confirmed by many workers over the next few years, and the chemical identity of the alkali-resistant haemoglobin of thalassaemia with that of genuine fetal haemoglobin was established.
not result in reversal of the haemoglobin A/S ratio. Furthermore, whereas in most families with sicklecell thalassaemia the thalassaemia gene appeared to behave as an allele of the sickle-cell gene, this was not the case in this family, in which the two genes segregated independently. The recognition of this ‘noninteracting form’ of thalassaemia, and its possible non-allelism with the sickle-cell gene, indicated that there must be at least two genetic loci involved in the generation of thalassaemia. Another key observation on the alteration of the haemoglobin patterns in patients with thalassaemia was made in 1955, when Kunkel and Wallenius reported that levels of HbA2 were raised in thalassaemia heterozygotes. This was confirmed by Gerald et al. (1961) and by many other workers subsequently. However, in a later paper, Kunkel and colleagues noted that in two out of 34 parents of children with thalassaemia major there were normal levels of HbA2 (Kunkel et al. 1957), again pointing to the heterogeneity of thalassaemia.
Sickle-cell thalassaemia The next clue to the general nature of thalassaemia came from the study of the haemoglobin patterns of patients with sickle-cell thalassaemia. This condition was first described by Silvestroni and Bianco in Italy (Silvestroni & Bianco 1944–45, 1946b) and called ‘microdrepanocytic disease’, and later recognized in the United States (Powell et al. 1950). The haemoglobin pattern of patients with this condition was first analysed by Sturgeon et al. (1952) and by Singer et al. (1955). They found that the red cells of patients who received the thalassaemia gene from one parent and the sickle-cell gene from the other have more HbS than HbA; that is, the reverse of what is found in the sickle-cell trait. This critically important observation suggested that the action of the thalassaemia gene was to reduce the amount of HbA relative to HbS, i.e. there was ‘interaction’ between the two genes. However, it soon became evident that interaction of this kind between haemoglobin variants and thalassaemia did not always occur, an observation which gave an important insight into the genetic heterogeneity of thalassaemia. In 1954 Zuelzer and Kaplan described a patient with HbC thalassaemia, in whom the relative amounts of Hbs A and C were similar to those found in the heterozygous state for HbC alone. Cohen et al. (1959) later reported a family in which there was a form of sickle-cell thalassaemia which did
Haemoglobins composed of homotetramers Further evidence that thalassaemia is not a single genetic entity was gathered during the mid-1950s. In 1955, Rigas and colleagues observed an electrophoretically ‘fast’ haemoglobin variant in the blood of two members of a Chinese family, both of whom had the clinical picture of thalassaemia.At that time new haemoglobins were still being assigned letters of the alphabet and so the variant was called HbH. A similar haemoglobin was noted independently in a Greek patient with thalassaemia by Gouttas and colleagues in Athens in the same year (Gouttas et al. 1955). Further reports of the association of HbH with thalassaemia came from south-east Asia in 1958 and it was noted that the form of thalassaemia in these families was not usually associated with elevated HbA2 levels (Minnich et al. 1958). Chemical analysis of HbH showed that it consists of a tetramer of four apparently normal b chains (Jones & Schroeder 1963); that is, it has the molecular formula b4. Hence HbH was, up to that time, a unique variant in that it had no a chains. However, in 1957 Fessas and Papaspyrou described an abnormal haemoglobin in the umbilical cord blood of an infant whose parents showed evidence of thalassaemia. Pending further identification it was called ‘F and P’. A similar variant was reported in 1958 by Ager and
Historical perspectives Lehmann in a nine-month-old infant with the blood picture of thalassaemia who was a patient in St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London. Because by now there were no letters of the alphabet left for new haemoglobins this was called Hb Bart’s. It was realized subsequently that this and the variant described by Fessas and Papaspyrou,‘HbF and P’, are identical. Chemical studies showed that Hb Bart’s is a g-chain tetramer (g4) (Hunt & Lehmann 1959; Kekwick & Lehmann 1960). Haemoglobin Bart’s thus appeared to be the fetal counterpart of HbH, i.e. a fetal haemoglobin variant without a chains. The heterogeneity of thalassaemia Hence several apparently unrelated observations about the haemoglobin of patients with thalassaemia were made between 1950 and 1960. First, it was established that many thalassaemia carriers, but not all, have raised HbA2 levels.The thalassaemia gene associated with an increased level of HbA2 ‘interacts’ with the sickle-cell gene. However, there are forms of thalassaemia with normal levels of HbA2 which do not interact with the sickle-cell gene, nor, or so it appeared, do their genetic determinants behave as though they are alleles of the sickle-cell gene. Finally, Hbs H and Bart’s seemed to be associated with a form of thalassaemia with low levels of HbA2, and both these variants were unusual in that they have no a chains and consist of tetramers of normal b or g chains. What was needed was a working hypothesis to explain these observations and hence to describe the general nature of the defect in thalassaemia and to account for its genetic heterogeneity. The concept of a and b thalassaemia Itano (1953) was the first to discuss the significance of the finding that the level of HbS in the sickle-cell trait is less than that of HbA. He had observed that the level of HbS in carriers falls into several modes which appear to be genetically determined, a finding that led him to propose his ‘structure/rate’ hypothesis. In short, he suggested that the rate of synthesis of a particular haemoglobin is in some way related to its primary structure. Pauling (1954) developed the idea that thalassaemia might result from the production of an abnormal haemoglobin with properties so closely similar to those of normal adult haemoglobin that the
17
differences might have escaped detection. He suggested that because the thalassaemia allele interferes with the manufacture of normal haemoglobin, but does not seriously affect the manufacture of abnormal haemoglobins, as observed in patients with sickle-cell thalassaemia, it must occupy the same locus on the chromosome as the alleles for other abnormal haemoglobins. He went on to suggest that the ‘thalassaemia gene’ might be responsible for the production of an abnormal haemoglobin of such a nature as to interfere with the inclusion of haem into the molecule. He further postulated that it should be possible to show a chemical difference between ‘thalassaemia haemoglobin’ and normal adult haemoglobin. Itano extended and refined the ‘structure/rate’ hypothesis and its relationship to thalassaemia and, in 1957, wrote ‘thalassaemia mutants at the haemoglobin locus are analogous to the mutants for abnormal haemoglobins, differing in their failure to alter the net charge of adult haemoglobin and in the greater inhibition they exert on the net rate of synthesis’ (Itano 1957). In 1959 Ingram and Stretton extended these ideas in an important paper which proposed a model for the genetic basis of thalassaemia.They suggested that there are two major classes, a and b, in the same way as there are two major types of structural haemoglobin variants; that is, with abnormal a or b chains.They examined published pedigrees and explained quite elegantly the interaction between b thalassaemia and b-chain haemoglobin variants and a thalassaemia and a-chain variants. Furthermore, they went on to interpret the synthesis of HbH as resulting from an inherited defect in a-chain synthesis, resulting in excess b-chain production. While, like Pauling and Itano, they believed that the reduced rate of a- or bchain synthesis might be due to a ‘silent’ (i.e. undetectable) mutation of the haemoglobin genes, they also proposed an alternative explanation, the ‘tap hypothesis’. In essence, this suggested that the defect might not lie in the structural gene, but in the area of DNA in the connecting unit preceding it. They concluded that the genetic data available at that time were compatible with either hypothesis. It is difficult to give clear-cut priorities for the elegant concepts and experimental work carried out in the late 1950s which culminated in the theoretical paper of Ingram and Stretton. In 1961, Itano and Pauling wrote a letter to Nature in which they claimed that the genetic and chemical studies on
18
Chapter 1
haemoglobin reported since 1957 had not substantially altered their inferences regarding the general nature of thalassaemia. This, they argued, was evidenced from the conclusions expressed by Ingram and his associates in their papers in the late 1950s. Incidentally, their paper had a sting in its tail; they added that Ingram’s papers were remarkable for the extent to which the custom of giving pertinent references to the ideas and findings of previous workers had been ignored! The ideas set out by Ingram and Stretton were undoubtedly influenced by other workers in the field at the time. Their paper was published in Nature on 19 December 1959. In May of the same year the Ciba Foundation had organized a symposium on ‘Human Biochemical Genetics in Relationship to the Problem of Gene Action’, in Naples, attended by many of the key workers in the haemoglobin field (Wolstenholme & O’Connor 1959). The structure/rate hypothesis and the likely genetic heterogeneity of thalassaemia were aired in great detail. From the lengthy published discussion after a paper by Hunt and Ingram on abnormal haemoglobins (which, incidentally, did not mention the notion of a and b thalassaemia) it is clear that many workers were thinking about the disease in this way. Indeed, Ceppellini, discussing the genetics of thalassaemia, said ‘thus two genetically independent varieties of thalassaemia, a type and b type, could be visualized’. During the same discussion Neel summarized such limited evidence as existed at the time for allelism between b thalassaemia and the b-globin genes. And later in the same year Lehmann’s group in London described a-chain deficiency in two generations of a family from Israel (Ramot et al. 1959). In short, the seminal ideas about the nature of thalassaemia that evolved during the late 1950s were the product of many talented scientists. Undoubtedly, Itano and Pauling were responsible for the concept, first hinted at by Rich (1952), that thalassaemia results from a defect in the production of adult haemoglobin. But it was the extension of this idea, particularly in the framework of what was being learnt about the genetic control of haemoglobin, to trying to interpret the changes in the haemoglobin pattern in patients with thalassaemia, by workers such as Lehmann, Gerald, Neel, Ceppellini and colleagues, that culminated in the theoretical summary published at the end of 1959 by Ingram and Stretton.
This interpretation of events is supported by the generous acknowledgement made to the ideas of others at the end of their paper. Thalassaemia is not confined to the Mediterranean region Even as early as the 1930s sporadic case reports had started to appear that suggested that thalassaemialike disorders are not confined to patients of Mediterranean background. Chernoff, in an extensive review in 1959, gave a very complete historical picture of the distribution of thalassaemia up to that time. By then it was quite clear that it occurs at a high frequency in south-east Asia, the Indian subcontinent and in parts of the Middle East. Mediterranean anaemia in Asia Some of the early studies in south-east Asia were the forerunners of a further level of complexity in the thalassaemia field that was to have important implications as attempts were made to relate genotype to phenotype. In 1954 Chernoff and colleagues described a new haemoglobin variant which was called ‘HbE’.As more was learnt about this abnormal haemoglobin, it became apparent that, in homozygotes, it is associated with the phenotype of a very mild form of b thalassaemia, similar to the trait. Furthermore, it can interact with b thalassaemia to produce a severe form of thalassaemia, haemoglobinE thalassaemia (Chernoff et al. 1956) (Fig. 1.10). Later work was to show that it is extremely common in parts of India, Burma and south-east Asia. In this sense HbE is a ‘thalassaemic haemoglobin’, that is, a structural variant that is associated with a thalassaemic phenotype. Over the next decade several more examples of haemoglobin variants with these properties were discovered. It is curious that Itano and Pauling, in their discussions of thalassaemia as a special form of haemoglobinopathy, never mentioned this work. Perhaps it was published just too late to add substance to their hypothesis. Many workers throughout the world began to attempt to estimate thalassaemia gene frequencies in their populations. An early start was made in Thailand by Chernoff, Minnich, Wasi and Na-Nakorn and their colleagues. They carried out extensive population surveys in the 1950s, and by the end of the decade
Historical perspectives
19
Fig. 1.10 The first children to be described as having haemoglobin E b thalassaemia. From Chernoff et al. (1956) with permission.
an extraordinary picture had emerged, both of the frequency and heterogeneity of thalassaemia in Thailand; indeed the Thais were later able to describe over 50 different genotypes of interactions of various a- and b-thalassaemia genes and HbE (Wasi et al. 1969). Other workers in south-east Asia, notably Vella and Wong in Singapore and Lie-Injo in Indonesia, obtained further evidence that both a and b thalassaemia are relatively common disorders in the populations of the Malay peninsula and Indonesia. Chatterjee and colleagues in Calcutta showed that the b-thalassaemia genes occur frequently in various Indian populations and Aksoy characterized the disease in Turkey. Details of some of these early population studies are given by Chernoff et al. (1956), Minnich et al. (1954, 1958), Vella (1958b), Weatherall and Vella (1960), Chernoff (1959), Lie-Injo (1959b), Aksoy (1959), Chatterjea (1959) and Wong (1966).
The frequency of the thalassaemias Meanwhile, work continued on the analysis of the frequency and heterogeneity of thalassaemia in the Mediterranean region. Over many years Silvestroni and Bianco carried out extensive population surveys in various parts of Italy (Fig. 1.11), and Fessas and colleagues in Greece both estimated the gene frequencies and characterized the different forms of thalassaemia in several Greek populations (see Fessas 1959; Silvestroni & Bianco 1959). Beta thalassaemia had been recognized in the American black population in the mid-1950s (Schwartz & Hartz 1955) and it became evident that both a and b thalassaemia occurs in individuals of African origin (Weatherall 1964a,b). During the late 1950s and early 1960s information about the occurrence of thalassaemia in the different
20
Chapter 1
Milan 1.3 Padua 2 Turin 0.9 Genoa 1.5
Rovigo 9.7 Ferrara 7.3 Codigoro 15.6 Bologna 0.8 Ravenna 3.7 Ancona 1.6
Florence 0.4
Rome 1.6
Naples 1.7 Lecce 6.2
Torre Annunziata 2.7
Palermo 4.4
Messina 2.8 Reggio Calabria 3.5
Agrigento 7.6
Caltanissetta 2.7 Catania 3.6 Siracusa 4.2
populations of the world started to become widely disseminated.There are several reasons why this happened. Between 1958 and 1964 there were at least three major international meetings on the abnormal haemoglobins and thalassaemia, and several new journals were founded, the contents of which were restricted to diseases of the blood. It is not surprising therefore that the next 20 years were to see a dramatic increase in the thalassaemia literature and, in particular, the publication of surveys which attempted to establish the gene frequency of thalassaemia in different populations. It should be remembered, however, that it was not easy to carry out large-scale, accurate population surveys during the 1960s and early 1970s. Although an elevated level of HbA2 had been established as the diagnostic yardstick for the carrier state for b thalassaemia, the methods that were available for its estimation during this time were both tedious and
Fig. 1.11 The distribution of thalassaemia in Italy (percentage of population). Results of surveys using osmotic fragility screening. From Silvestroni and Bianco (1959).
difficult to apply to large population studies. Starchblock electrophoresis, described by Kunkel and Wallenius (1955), remained the only reliable method for many years, until it was superseded by more rapid chromatographic and electrophoretic approaches. Since electronic red-cell counters were not widely available until the 1970s, and morphological changes of the red blood cells in thalassaemia could be easily confused with those of iron-deficiency anaemia, screening using haematological criteria was impractical. These problems were not new, however. As early as 1943, Silvestroni and Bianco had developed a one-tube osmotic-fragility test to enable them to identify the increased osmotic resistance of thalassaemic cells.The story of this rapid screening method, and its application to large populations in different parts of Italy (Fig. 1.11), is recounted by Silvestroni and Bianco (1959). The osmotic-fragility screening test was used
Historical perspectives widely in the 1950s and 1960s and undoubtedly gave some indication of the frequency of thalassaemia in many different populations (Fig. 1.11). However, this technique was quite difficult to standardize and, at least in some studies, gave erroneously high figures for the frequency of thalassaemia. For example, Vella (1962b) estimated that about 25% of the population in Malta are thalassaemia carriers. But when the same population was studied using HbA2 levels estimated by starch-block electrophoresis an incidence of only 3.5% was obtained (Cauchi 1970). And even those who attempted to study large populations by measuring HbA2 levels ran into some difficulties. Although there was a reasonable separation of thalassaemic from normal values, every population that was analysed in this way showed some overlap, with varying numbers of individuals with HbA2 values in the region of 3.5%, which were difficult to categorize (Weatherall 1964b;Weatherall et al. 1971). By the early 1960s therefore it was clear that different forms of thalassaemia are distributed throughout the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, parts of Asia, India and Burma, and in south-east Asia. Because of the difficulties of accurate diagnosis many of the published figures for the frequency of thalassaemia may not have been entirely accurate, but there was now no doubt about the common occurrence of the disorder and the public health problem that it was likely to pose, particularly once the high infant and early-childhood mortality caused by malaria, malnutrition and other infections came under control in the developing world.
1960–1980 The stage was now set for rapid progress on many different fronts. A good working model of the genetics of the disease had been established and relatively simple analytical techniques had been developed for analysing the levels of Hbs A2 and F and for detecting Hbs H and Bart’s. Hence, haematologists in hospital laboratories throughout the world could study the haemoglobin of thalassaemic patients. It soon became apparent that not only are the thalassaemias extremely common, but both in their clinical manifestations and patterns of inheritance they are remarkably heterogeneous. During the early 1960s considerable progress was made towards a better understanding of their pathophysiology and a start was made in attempting to understand their underly-
21
ing molecular pathology, work that was to culminate in a relatively complete understanding of their molecular basis during the 1980s. The evolution of knowledge about the genetic control of the human haemoglobins Work directed towards a better understanding of the genetic control of the different human haemoglobins progressed side by side with thalassaemia research throughout the 1960s and 1970s; the two fields of study were very closely related and fed off each other on more than one occasion. There were several long periods of uncertainty about the genetics of the thalassaemias which reflected gaps in an understanding of the numbers and arrangement of the globin genes. In the event it took nearly 15 years from the first description of the structures of the different human haemoglobins before a reasonably clear picture of their genetic control was obtained. The association and assembly of the globin gene products By 1960 it was clear was that there must be separate genes for the a, b, g and d chains and that the loci controlling the a and b chains are almost certainly on different chromosomes. During the early 1960s, studies of families with different haemoglobin variants clarified how the products of these genes interact to produce different fetal and adult haemoglobins. Several individuals were encountered who were doubly heterozygous for HbG, an a-chain variant, and the b-chain variant HbC (Atwater et al. 1960; Raper et al. 1960; Baglioni & Ingram 1961; McCurdy & Pearson 1961; Weatherall et al. 1962). In each case four major haemoglobin components were found. Since the genotype of such persons is aA, aG, bA, bC, and four types of dimer subunits are produced, a2A, a2G, b2A and b2C, their random combination should produce four molecular species: a2Ab2A; a2Gb2A; a2Ab2C; and a2Gb2C. This is precisely what was found in the red cells of these individuals. These observations provided clear evidence that, after synthesis of the globins, there is random combination of haemoglobin subunits. Further information about the control of the assembly of the peptide chains of haemoglobin was obtained from studies of the HbA2 and F of individuals who had inherited a-chain variants. Shooter et al.
22
Chapter 1
(1960) and Weatherall & Boyer (1961) found that adult heterozygotes of this kind had two minor haemoglobin components, with the molecular formulae a2d2 and a2Xd2. Similarly, Minnich et al. (1962), Weatherall and Boyer (1962) and Weatherall and Baglioni (1962) found that in newborn infants who were heterozygous for the a-chain variant, HbG, there were four distinct haemoglobins, a2g2, a2Gg2, a2b2 and a2Gb2. These observations suggested that achain synthesis in fetal and adult life is controlled by the same genetic locus, a chains combining in utero with g chains to produce HbF and in adult life with b chains to produce HbA; the switch from fetal to adult haemoglobin therefore involves a change from gto b-chain synthesis; a-chain production continues under the control of the same locus during intrauterine and adult life. The embryonic haemoglobins For a while, and largely because of the difficulty in obtaining blood samples from small fetuses, there was some doubt about the existence of a haemoglobin which precedes HbF in young embryos. However, in 1961 Huehns and his associates at University College Hospital in London described two embryonic haemoglobins which they called Hbs Gower 1 and Gower 2 (University College Hospital is in Gower Street). It turned out that Hb Gower 2 has normal a chains, the non-a chains, later called e chains, differing in several places from the g chains of HbF (Huehns et al. 1964b). Haemoglobin Gower 1, at first thought to be a homotetramer consisting of one type of globin chain, was later shown to consist of z chains (see below) and e chains. Some years later it was found that embryonic red cells and even cord-blood cells contain traces of a haemoglobin component with the formula x2g2, which was named Hb Portland (Hecht et al. 1967). When it became clear that babies with certain forms of a thalassaemia have relatively large amounts of Hb Portland the characterization of this variant became possible. It was found that the ‘x’ chains differ from all the other normal globin chains (Capp et al. 1970; Todd et al. 1970; Weatherall et al. 1970). This work suggested that the ‘x’ chains of Hb Portland are the products of another normal haemoglobin locus that is only expressed early in fetal life. Hence the ‘x’ chains were designated z chains (Capp et al. 1970).
The numbers and order of the globin genes During the 15 years or so that were required to define all the normal human globin chains there was slow but steady progress towards placing them in order on their respective chromosomes. As we shall see when we consider the genetic heterogeneity of thalassaemia, one of the most useful approaches to test for allelism or linkage is to examine children born of matings between a normal parent and one heterozygous for two variants at the globin-gene loci, different abnormal haemoglobins or one type of haemoglobin and a thalassaemia allele, for example. If the mutations of the two genes that we wish to investigate in this way are on the same chromosome, that is in cis, then, if the genes are linked, children born of a mating between a doubly affected person and a normal person should show either both variants or neither. On the other hand, if the two mutations of the linked genes are on opposite chromosomes, that is the linkage is in trans, the children will show one or other of the mutations, but never both or neither. Early studies of children born of matings between persons heterozygous for both b- and d-chain haemoglobin variants provided unequivocal evidence that the b- and d-globin-chain loci are linked (Ceppellini 1959a; Horton et al. 1961; Boyer et al. 1963b; Horton & Huisman 1963; Ranney et al. 1963). At about the same time Baglioni (1962) showed that the Hb Lepore variant, which we shall describe later, has non-a chains which consist of part d and part b chains, that is they are the product of a db-fusion gene. These observations, taken together, indicated that the d- and b-globin genes are closely linked, in the order db. Throughout the early 1960s it was assumed that each of the human globin chains is under the control of a single gene. However, careful chemical studies of g chains prepared from the blood of infants showed that position 136 is occupied not only by glycine, as had been reported in earlier structural studies, but also by alanine (Schroeder et al. 1968). Schroeder and colleagues also observed that, in infants heterozygous for an abnormal fetal haemoglobin, the abnormal fraction contained only glycine or alanine at position 136 in the g-chain variant, a finding that was soon confirmed for other fetal haemoglobin variants (Cauchi et al. 1969). These results suggested that there are at least two g-chain loci on each chromosome; one directs the production of Gg chains, that is, g
Historical perspectives chains containing glycine at position 136, the other the production of Ag chains, chains containing alanine at position 136. Up until the early 1970s it was not clear whether the g-chain genes were close to the b- and d-chain genes, although the close linkage of the b-chain locus to the genetic determinant for hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin, a condition that we shall consider later, suggested that they might be. This problem was resolved in 1972 when Huisman and colleagues described Hb Kenya, a gb fusion variant associated with the production of HbF containing only Gg chains (Huisman et al. 1972). By analogy with the haemoglobin Lepores it was suggested that the gb chain had arisen by unequal crossing over between misaligned chromosomes, such that the DNA coding for the N-terminal part of the Ag gene had become fused to that coding for the C-terminal end of the b gene. In the process the DNA coding for the other ends of the Ag and b genes and the entire d gene had been deleted. This interpretation suggested that the most likely order for the non-a-globin genes is Gg–Ag–d–b. When it was discovered that the human g-gene loci are duplicated, thoughts turned to whether any of the other human gene loci might have undergone the same process. Hints that this might be the case first came from the study of other species. Kilmartin and Clegg (1967) found that in the horse there are four different a chains which seemed to be the product of allelic genes and which were later shown to direct the synthesis of different quantities of gene products (Clegg 1970). At about the same time Huisman et al. (1967) found that the a-chain locus is duplicated in the goat. Based on these observations, and the curious finding that, overall, a-globin-chain variants tend to occur at lower levels than b-chain variants in humans, Lehmann and Carrell (1969) suggested that the human a-chain loci might be duplicated. In 1970 there were reports of families which, initially, provided evidence both for and against this suggestion. Two individuals of Hungarian origin were found to be heterozygous for two a-chain variants. In addition to the two variants, they were both found to have considerable quantities of HbA (Brimhall et al. 1970). This could only occur if there are two a-chain loci (or more) on each chromosome. Since one of these individuals had a child with neither a-chain variant, the possibility was raised that the loci are not closely linked. On the other hand, in the same year an
23
individual homozygous for the a-chain variant HbJ Tongariki was described. In this case no HbA was found (Abramson et al. 1970). During the 1970s a number of other individuals homozygous for a-chain variants, or compound heterozygous for two a-chain variants, were encountered, all of whom also had HbA in their red cells.The variants included Hb Constant Spring (Lie-Injo et al. 1974), Hbs Koya Dora and Rampa (de Jong et al. 1975) and HbJ Mexico (Trabuchet et al. 1976–77).The puzzle of HbJ Tongariki was not solved until some years later when it was found that this variant occurs at an a-chain locus on a chromosome on which its partner a-globin gene has been lost by one of the deletions that gives rise to a thalassaemia.These findings, taken together with the slow accumulation of information about the genetics of a thalassaemia that we shall describe later, left little doubt that in humans there are two a-globin genes per haploid genome and, furthermore, it seemed highly probable that they are closely linked. The chromosomal location of the globin-gene clusters In the late 1970s it was finally possible to determine the chromosomal location of the human globin-gene clusters. This work depended on the application of methods of somatic cell genetics. Fused human and mouse fibroblasts were used to obtain hybrid cell lines devoid of various human chromosomes. Correlation of the chromosome content with the presence or absence of human globin genes detected by nucleic-acid hybridization led to the assignment of the a gene to chromosome 16 and the gdb-gene cluster to chromosome 11 (Deisseroth et al. 1977, 1978). Thus by the late 1970s the order of the human haemoglobin genes in the a- and non-a-gene clusters was known, together with an approximate chromosomal location of the clusters. There was still no information about the relationship of the embryonic z and e genes to these clusters, although, based on no better evidence than that the other genes were in the order in which they were expressed during development, it was guessed that they would lie upstream, that is, to the left of the clusters. When direct gene mapping was used to analyse these clusters in the early 1980s, these predictions were found to be correct.
24
Chapter 1
The genetic heterogeneity of the b thalassaemias Characterization of b thalassaemia By the early 1960s sufficient numbers of homozygous and heterozygous b thalassaemics had been studied to establish a reasonably clear picture of the haemoglobin findings in this disorder.Those in homozygotes were not easy to interpret because their transfusional status was not always clear. However, it appeared that the fetal haemoglobin level could range widely, between 10 and over 90% of the total haemoglobin. Furthermore, although HbA2 values ranged from low normal to those found in heterozygotes, the mean level in most series was within the normal range (Carcassi et al. 1957a; Kunkel et al. 1957; Marinone & Bernasconi 1957; Silvestroni et al. 1957; Josephson et al. 1958; Fessas 1959; Went & MacIver 1961; Sitarz et al. 1963). The findings in b-thalassaemia heterozygotes were much more consistent. The mean HbA2 level in several large series ranged from about 3.5 to 6.5%, though in many of the early series there appeared to be a few patients with values in the normal range (Carcassi et al. 1957b; Kunkel et al. 1957; Silvestroni et al. 1957; Josephson et al. 1958; Fessas 1959; Vella 1959; Gerald et al. 1961; Weatherall 1964a). There were several extensive studies of fetal haemoglobin levels in heterozygotes published at about this time. In 130 cases of mixed ethnic background reported by Beaven et al. (1961) about half had no demonstrable increase in HbF, while the remainder fell into the 1–5% range, with a mean level of 2.1%; only seven cases had levels of 5% or over. Similar results were obtained in 50 Greek patients studied by Fessas (1959) and in 90 black patients reported by Weatherall (1964a). It appeared therefore that homozygous b thalassaemia is usually a transfusion-dependent disorder characterized by the production of very high levels of fetal haemoglobin and a variable amount of HbA2; the HbA2 level appeared to be of little diagnostic help. On the other hand, the level of HbA2 is almost invariably elevated to about twice normal in heterozygotes, while the fetal haemoglobin levels may be raised, but rarely to more than 5% of the total haemoglobin. And there were increasing hints that there might be forms of b thalassaemia with normal levels of HbA2.
The b-thalassaemia determinant is an allele of the b-globin gene One of the key issues at about this time was whether the genetic determinant for b thalassaemia is an allele of the structural locus for the b-globin chains. Evidence that this might be the case depended on studies of the children of matings between compound heterozygotes for b thalassaemia and b-globin structural variants, sickle-cell thalassaemia or HbC thalassaemia for example, and normal persons. If the b-thalassaemia and structural loci are alleles the offspring of such matings should either have bthalassaemia trait or carry the b-haemoglobin variant; there should be no normal or compound heterozygous children. In 1959, at the time of Ingram and Stretton’s paper on a and b thalassaemia, there were very few data of this type available. This important problem was addressed by both Ceppellini and Neel in the discussion session at a Ciba Foundation Symposium on the Biochemistry of Human Genetics in Naples (Wolstenholme & O’Connor 1959). Ceppellini presented several families which showed evidence of allelism, while Neel described one family with apparent non-allelism, which was published later that year (Cohen et al. 1959). Interestingly, the form of thalassaemia which segregated independently from the b-globin locus in this family was one which was not associated with an elevated level of HbA2. Weatherall (1964a) provided strong evidence for allelism for b thalassaemia and the b-globin locus in an extensive study of black families, and in the first edition of this book, published in 1965 (Weatherall 1965), it was possible to collate observations on 62 offspring of matings between sickle-cell thalassaemics and normals. Of the five offspring who were reported as normal, three came from the family of Cohen et al. (1959) and in two cases there were insufficient data to be certain about the type of thalassaemia involved. These findings, together with essentially similar data from studies of children born of patients with HbC thalassaemia (McCurdy & Pearson 1961; Weatherall 1964a), seemed to leave little doubt that the b-thalassaemia and b-structural genes are alleles. b thalassaemia is heterogeneous with respect to the level of b-chain production In the thalassaemia field, as in many branches of
Historical perspectives science, important advances have followed the development of new techniques at least as commonly as new ideas. In the early 1960s improved methods for separating and analysing haemoglobin variants became available. Fessas and Karaklis (1962), using a two-dimensional paper–agar electrophoretic system demonstrated the absence of HbA in cases of homozygous b thalassaemia. Starch gel electrophoresis, developed by Oliver Smithies for the separation of serum proteins (Smithies 1959), was first adapted for haemoglobin analysis by Shooter et al. (1960) and Weatherall and Boyer (1961). Although these workers used slightly different modifications it was clear that this technique offered major advantages over filter-paper electrophoresis, particularly for detecting minor haemoglobin variants. Applying this approach to the study of patients with sickle-cell and HbC thalassaemia, Weatherall (1964b) found that they fell into two clear-cut groups: those who produce HbA, usually in the 20 to 30% range, and those in whom no HbA can be detected. It appeared that the former group might be heterogeneous; in a few cases much lower levels of HbA were found. Furthermore, the ability to produce HbA always ran true within families. It appeared therefore that there must be two main forms of b thalassaemia, HbA- and non-HbAproducing. These observations were presented in 1963 at the first Cooley’s Anaemia Conference in New York. During the discussion that followed, Fessas mentioned that he had made similar observations in Greek patients with sickle-cell thalassaemia, data which were presented at the Ibadan symposium in 1963 (Fessas 1965). It seemed therefore that there are two distinct forms of b thalassaemia in different populations, in which there is either a reduced level of b-chain production or no b-chain production at all. During the late 1960s these were given the names b0 and b+ thalassaemia, respectively; the term b++ thalassaemia also came into limited use to describe b thalassaemia with relatively high levels of HbA (Fessas 1968). The discovery of db thalassaemia Further evidence for the heterogeneity of b thalassaemia stemmed from studies of the haemoglobin patterns of heterozygotes. During the early 1960s several workers observed thalassaemia carriers who had normal levels of HbA2 and levels of F in the
25
5 to 15% range; that is, much higher than usually observed in b-thalassaemia heterozygotes (Zuelzer et al. 1961; Fessas & Stamatoyannopoulos 1962; Weatherall 1964a). Because this condition ‘interacted’ with high HbA2 b thalassaemia to produce a more serious clinical disorder in compound heterozygotes, it appeared to be a form of b thalassaemia. Initially it was called the ‘high fetal haemoglobin variety of b thalassaemia’, or ‘F thalassaemia’. While these early descriptions were mainly in Mediterraneans and Africans it soon became apparent that it also occurs in Orientals (Flatz et al. 1965b;Wasi et al. 1969; Mann et al. 1972). By the mid-1960s this disorder had collected further synonyms, including normal HbA2 b thalassaemia and b thalassaemia type 2. Later, the homozygous state for F thalassaemia was observed (Brancati & Baglioni 1966; Fessas 1968; Silvestroni et al. 1968b; Ramot et al. 1970). All these patients, who had the clinical picture of a mild form of Cooley’s anaemia, had 100% fetal haemoglobin, and no Hbs A or A2. Thus this condition could now be defined as a variant of b thalassaemia in which there is complete absence of b- and d-chain production; therefore it was called db thalassaemia. The first description of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin Evidence that there is another condition resembling thalassaemia, with similarities to db thalassaemia, came from a completely different source. In 1955 Edington and Lehmann described a Nigerian patient with a mild form of sickle-cell anaemia characterized by unusually high levels of fetal haemoglobin. This appeared to be the result of the inheritance of the sickle-cell gene from one parent and a gene associated with the production of approximately 25% fetal haemoglobin from the other. Surprisingly however, the heterozygous parent with the high level of fetal haemoglobin seemed otherwise haematologically normal. Similar families were reported from Uganda by Jacob and Raper (1958), who, emphasizing the absence of thalassaemic red-cell changes in the individuals with high levels of HbF, suggested the name ‘hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH)’ for this condition. Similar forms of HPFH were subsequently observed in Ghana (Thompson & Lehmann 1962), Nigeria (Watson-Williams 1965), Jamaica (Went & MacIver 1958a; MacIver et al. 1961) and in Afro-
26
Chapter 1
Americans (Herman & Conley 1960; Bradley et al. 1961; Kraus et al. 1961; Oliva & Myerson 1961). The most complete description of HPFH in Blacks was reported by Conley et al. (1963), who summarized the findings in 19 Baltimore families. It was now clear that the heterozygous state for HPFH is characterized by fetal haemoglobin levels in the 15 to 25% range and slightly reduced levels of HbA2. There are no haematological abnormalities. In compound heterozygotes for HPFH and Hbs S or C there is no HbA, but again, the levels of HbF are unusually high — in the 20 to 30% range. The offspring of matings between such persons and normals are heterozygous for either HPFH or the b-globin variant, suggesting allelism or close linkage between the b structural gene and that for HPFH. Further information about the nature of HPFH came from the study of three Black homozygotes (Wheeler & Krevans 1961; Ringelhann et al. 1970; Siegel et al. 1970). These people all had 100% fetal haemoglobin with no Hbs A or A2. Although they appeared to be clinically and haematologically normal, their red cells were both small and poorly haemoglobinized. Thus it appeared that HPFH is an extremely mild form of db thalassaemia in which defective b-chain production is almost, but not entirely, compensated by increased HbF synthesis. Further heterogeneity of db thalassaemia: the identification of haemoglobin Lepore There were further twists to the story of defective dand b-chain synthesis. In 1961 Gerald et al. had discovered a haemoglobin variant associated with a thalassaemia-like disorder. One parent and four relatives of a child with the clinical picture of thalassaemia major carried about 10% of an abnormal haemoglobin which migrated in a similar position to HbS. This variant was named Hb Lepore, after the family in which it was first found. The first definitive chemical studies of Hb Lepore were reported by Baglioni (1962). He showed that it has normal a chains combined with non-a chains which consist of portions of both d and b chains. He suggested that the non-a chain of Hb Lepore has arisen by unequal crossing over at the closely linked d and b loci, with the production of a d–b fusion gene. It was assumed that it was a property of the d gene sequences that caused the product of the fusion gene to be produced
at a reduced rate, thus leading to the phenotype of b thalassaemia. There followed descriptions of Hb Lepore in other Italians (Pearson et al. 1959; Silvestroni & Bianco 1963; Wolff & Ignatov 1963; Barkham et al. 1964; Labie et al. 1966), Greeks (Fessas et al. 1962), Papuans (Neeb et al. 1961), Turkish Cypriots (Beaven et al. 1964), American blacks (Ranney & Jacobs 1964; Ostertag & Smith 1969), Yugoslavs (Duma et al. 1968), Romanians (Rowley et al. 1969), Indians (Chouhan et al. 1971), and others. Further chemical studies of Hb Lepore from these different population groups showed that there were at least three distinct varieties, Hb Lepore Washington Boston, the first variant to be studied chemically, Hb Lepore Hollandia (Barnabus & Muller 1962) and Hb Lepore Baltimore (Ostertag & Smith 1969). These variants differed from Hb Lepore Washington Boston in the position of the crossover event which generates the db fusion gene. Patients homozygous for Hb Lepore were discovered in Greece (Fessas & Stamatoyannopoulos 1964), New Guinea (Neeb et al. 1961), Yugoslavia (Duma et al. 1968), and Italy (Quattrin et al. 1967).As might be expected they produced only Hbs Lepore and F, with no Hbs A or A2. Although, with the possible exception of Yugoslavia, the forms of thalassaemia associated with Hb Lepore are uncommon, this chapter of the thalassaemia story is of considerable importance. First, it confirmed genetic studies that were carried out in the early 1960s which suggested that the d- and b-globin genes are closely linked, and it established the order of these genes along the chromosome.And, of course, the Hb Lepore disorders were the first forms of thalassaemia in which the molecular basis was understood, at least in outline. b Thalassaemia shows even greater heterogeneity As well as these well defined variants of b and db thalassaemia, during the 1960s and early 1970s there was growing evidence for even further heterogeneity. Much of this information came from unexpected findings in the parents or relatives of children with different clinical forms of b thalassaemia. As mentioned earlier, it had long been suspected that there must be at least some forms of b thalassaemia in which the HbA2 level is not elevated. Since in some
Historical perspectives cases there were no associated haematological changes the only evidence for the existence of a bthalassaemia gene lay in the consequences of its interaction with typical forms of thalassaemia associated with a raised HbA2 level. In other words, a family study of a patient with b thalassaemia intermedia would reveal that one parent had typical bthalassaemia trait, while the other was ‘normal’. It was from studies of families of this kind that the concept of a ‘silent’ b-thalassaemia gene arose (Silvestroni & Bianco 1951; Silvestroni et al. 1957; Aksoy 1959; Aksoy et al. 1961; Bernini et al. 1962; Schwartz 1969). However, as time went on it became apparent that there were other forms of ‘normal HbA2 b thalassaemia’, in which the red-cell findings in heterozygotes were indistinguishable from those with a raised HbA2 (Aksoy et al. 1975; Silvestroni et al. 1978; Kattamis et al. 1979). In order to describe these different types of b thalassaemia they were designated ‘normal HbA2’ b thalassaemia, types 1 and 2. Later genetic studies hinted that the more severe form, type 2, might often result from the inheritance of both b and d thalassaemia (Silvestroni et al. 1978). But this was not the end of the heterogeneity of the b thalassaemias. Rare reports had appeared over this period which suggested that there is yet another form of high HbA2 b thalassaemia with unusually high HbF levels in heterozygotes (Weatherall 1964a; Schokker et al.1966),or unusually high levels of HbA2 (Braverman et al. 1973; Schroeder et al. 1973b, 1974). The situation was complicated further by observations that in a few European families there was a thalassaemia-like disorder with many of the features of b thalassaemia intermedia which was inherited in a dominant fashion, that is, the result of a single mutant gene (Weatherall et al. 1973; Stamatoyannopoulos et al. 1974; Friedman et al. 1976a). Thus in the 20 years that followed the classification of the thalassaemias into a and b forms, substantial evidence for the heterogeneity of the b thalassaemias was obtained. It became apparent that there must be many different types of mutation that can affect the b-globin genes themselves, and another and equally diverse set of lesions that can underlie defective synthesis of both d and b chains. There was also some progress towards an understanding of how these different disorders can lead to such diverse clinical phenotypes. However, to understand how this came about we need to leave b thalassaemia for the
27
moment and discuss the development of knowledge about a thalassaemia and how the thalassaemias mediate their effects at the level of the red-cell precursors. Because, in the event, it turned out that all these pieces of the jigsaw had to be in place before it was possible to appreciate the many factors that can modify the action of mutations at the b- or b- and dglobin-gene loci. The accumulation of knowledge about a thalassaemia The exploration of the a thalassaemias between 1960 and their first analyses by the tools of molecular biology in the late 1970s is a good example of the confusion that can arise in a research field if some of the critical premisses on which it is based are uncertain (or wrong). Had the family that provided the first real evidence that humans have two a-globin genes per haploid genome, and not one, been discovered 10 years earlier, a great deal of hard work, not to mention many hours of speculation and review writing, would not have been necessary. But this was not to be; those who worked on a thalassaemia had to do the best that they could with the incomplete information that was available about the genetic control of human a globin. We shall not subject our readers to a blow-by-blow recapitulation of the tortuous discussions about the genetics of a thalassaemia of previous editions of this book, but simply outline the main steps that led to its clarification in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Haemoglobin Bart’s as a ‘marker’ of a thalassaemia There are several threads to the early part of this story. We have already recounted the first, that is, the discovery of Hbs H and Bart’s and the suggestion that they reflect accumulation of excess g and b chains due to defective a-chain synthesis. After its discovery, Hb Bart’s was found subsequently in newborn infants from many population groups (Vella 1958b; Tuchinda et al. 1959; Hendrickse et al. 1960; Minnich et al. 1962; Weatherall & Boyer 1962). Based on its structure it was reasonable to assume that it is the fetal counterpart of HbH and that, like the latter, it occurs when there is a deficiency of a chains, in this case in intrauterine life. Further evidence in favour of
28
Chapter 1
this notion came from the finding that the red cells of some adults with HbH disease also have traces of Hb Bart’s (Fessas 1960; Huehns et al. 1960; Sturgeon et al. 1961). A curious feature that puzzled many workers who found increased levels of Hb Bart’s in cord blood was the observation that the variant usually disappeared over the first six months of life and was not replaced by HbH (Minnich et al. 1962; Weatherall & Boyer 1962; Weatherall 1963, 1964b; Pootrakul et al. 1967b, 1970). This unexpected finding suggested that babies with a moderate increase in Hb Bart’s at birth might have milder forms of a thalassaemia. An argument was developed along the following lines. During the neonatal period, at the time of the switch from fetal to adult haemoglobin production, both g and b chains are competing for available a chains. Hence a mild deficiency of a chains will become evident during this time and will be reflected by a small excess of g chains, particularly if a chains bind b chains in preference to g chains. Once the switch from g- to b-chain production is complete, the deficiency of a chains might be too small to lead to the production of detectable amounts of HbH (Weatherall 1963). It was reasoning along these lines that led to the notion that the neonatal period might be the most useful time to demonstrate the milder forms of a thalassaemia.This concept led to many surveys of newborn infants for increased Hb Bart’s levels and hence to a crude assessment of a-thalassaemia gene frequencies. The haemoglobin Bart’s hydrops syndrome The third strand in the a-thalassaemia story also dates from 1960, when Lie-Injo and Jo (1960a,b) described a stillborn Indonesian infant whose haemoglobin consisted largely of haemoglobin Bart’s. Further cases were reported from Malaya by Lie-Injo et al. (1962), and this condition, which became known as the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome, subsequently became widely recognized in south-east Asia (Wong 1965; Pootrakul et al. 1967a; Todd et al. 1967). It appeared that these babies had inherited an extremely severe form of a thalassaemia which caused them to produce very high levels of Hb Bart’s and led to stillbirth with the clinical picture of intrauterine hypoxia and hydrops fetalis.
a Thalassaemia inherited together with haemoglobin variants The final thread that was to complete the background to the later and more successful studies of a thalassaemia came from the gradual accumulation of information about the haemoglobin patterns of individuals who had inherited a thalassaemia together with a- or b-haemoglobin variants. Although this approach had been seminal in the first studies of the genetics of b thalassaemia, it proved to be much more complicated in the case of a thalassaemia. During the early 1960s several patients were reported who had inherited the a-chain variant HbQ together with a thalassaemia (Vella et al. 1958; Dormandy et al. 1961; Lie-Injo & de V. Hart 1963). These individuals had the clinical picture of HbH disease; their haemoglobin consisted of Hbs Q and H and there was no HbA. This was important information, because, taken together with the findings in babies with the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome, it suggested that a severe form of a thalassaemia exists that is associated with no a-chain production. However the picture was soon complicated by the findings in a Black patient with HbI thalassaemia, described by Atwater et al. (1960). This patient was healthy, but had mild thalassaemic blood changes associated with a haemoglobin pattern consisting of about 70% HbI, the rest being HbA with a low level of HbA2. Clearly, if this patient had inherited an a-thalassaemia gene, and the finding of Hb Bart’s in several of their children suggested that she had (Baglioni & Ingram 1961), it must be milder and not characterized by a complete absence of a-chain production. This suggested that there might be a less severe form of a thalassaemia, at least in African populations. As mentioned earlier, Cohen and colleagues had reported a Black family with sickle-cell thalassaemia in 1959 in which the thalassaemia determinant segregated independently from the sickle-cell gene and did not interact with it, that is, the level of HbS in the doubly affected patient was similar to or even lower than that in the sickle-cell trait.The first evidence that this might be a form of a thalassaemia was obtained by Weatherall (1963, 1964b), who followed up a group of infants who had had increased levels of Bart’s in infancy and who had also inherited either the sicklecell or HbC traits. As they grew older and the Hb Bart’s disappeared these infants developed the picture of non-interacting sickle-cell or HbC thalas-
Historical perspectives saemia, very similar to that described earlier by Cohen and colleagues. It appeared therefore that the ‘non-interacting’ form of thalassaemia which occurs in Black populations is a mild type of a thalassaemia. Hypotheses on the genetics of a thalassaemia based on observations up to 1965 By the late 1960s, certain facts about a thalassaemia had been established. It was known that the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome results from the inheritance of two severe a-thalassaemia genes. Although the genetics of HbH disease was confusing there was enough evidence to conclude, in the first edition of this book, that ‘HbH disease appears to result from the interaction of one a-thalassaemia gene with a second gene which is not detectable by present techniques in the absence of the athalassaemia gene. It may well be that this ‘silent’ gene itself is an a-thalassaemia gene, another factor suggesting heterogeneity of the a thalassaemias’ (Weatherall 1965). It was also clear that a thalassaemia is widespread in Black populations, but the absence of HbH disease or the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome suggested that it must be a mild form. Hence the scene was set for workers in a population with a high incidence of the different clinical types of a thalassaemia to put all these apparently disconnected facts together. Further clarification of the genetics of a thalassaemia The critical studies came from the group in Bangkok (Wasi et al. 1964; Pootrakul et al. 1967a,b; Na-Nakorn et al. 1969; Pornpatkul et al. 1969; Na-Nakorn & Wasi 1970). These workers took two different though related approaches to the problem. First, they made extensive studies of the level of haemoglobin Bart’s in Thai newborns to see if, with large numbers of cases, they could demonstrate any segregation of values of levels of the variant at birth. In their earlier papers they had found increased haemoglobin Bart’s levels in 6.2% of newborns in Thailand, but later, using a more sensitive technique, found the figure was 20% (Pootrakul et al. 1967b, 1970). In the latter study they suggested that the relative amount of Hb Bart’s could be ‘graded’ into: traces, small amounts and moderate amounts, corresponding to 1 to 2, 5 to 6 and 25% of Hb Bart’s, respectively. Using the term ‘a
29
thalassaemia 1’ for the more severe a-thalassaemia allele, and ‘a thalassaemia 2’ for the milder one, they suggested that concentrations of Hb Bart’s in cord blood of 100, 25, 5 and 1 to 2% represent athalassaemia-1 homozygosity, a thalassaemia 1/a thalassaemia 2 (HbH disease), a-thalassaemia-1 trait and a-thalassaemia-2 trait, respectively. With this working hypothesis the Thai group went on to investigate the frequencies of different athalassaemia genes in northern Thailand. Using the Hardy–Weinberg distribution the frequencies that they obtained were compatible with a-thalassaemia1 and a-thalassaemia-2 loci being alleles, or closely linked. Furthermore, their findings provided strong evidence that HbH disease follows the interaction of these genes. Further evidence that this is the case was obtained by Na-Nakorn et al. (1969) who examined 31 offspring of HbH disease patients and found that all of them had Hb Bart’s; there was a tendency for the levels of Hb Bart’s to fall into two groups, with vales of 1 to 2 and 5 to 6%, respectively. One of the difficulties in understanding the genetics of HbH disease had been the many well-documented examples of parent-to-child transmission of this disorder. If the two a-thalassaemia genes are alleles this must result from a mating between a patient with HbH disease and a carrier of either a thalassaemia 1 or 2. Wasi and colleagues estimated that, in order to account for the observed incidence of parent-to-child transmission in Thailand, the overall incidence of the two a-thalassaemia genes must be about 21%; in the cord-blood surveys cited above, there is an overall incidence for a thalassaemia 1 and 2 of 20.4%, a remarkably close agreement to the predicted figure. a Thalassaemia associated with an a-chain termination mutation A further twist to the a-thalassaemia story occurred in 1970 with the discovery of the elongated a-chain variant, Hb Constant Spring (Clegg et al. 1971b; Milner et al. 1971). This novel haemoglobin was first identified in a Chinese family in Jamaica (Constant Spring is a district of Kingston) and genetic analysis suggested that it was associated with the clinical phenotype of a thalassaemia 2; that is, when it is inherited together with a thalassaemia 1 it produced HbH disease (Fig.1.12).Later studies in Thailand suggested that at least 1 to 2% of the population carry a haemoglobin variant similar to Constant Spring and there-
30
Chapter 1
HbA
HbA2
HbCS Father Mother Case 1
Case 2 Black/Chinese HbH disease Case 3
(a) αICARIA
Thr
Ser
Lys
Tyr
Arg
αA Thr
Ser
Lys
Tyr
Arg
αCS Thr
Ser
Lys
Tyr
Arg
U C
AC A
αWAYNE Thr
137
Ala
Gly
Ala
Ser
Val
Ala
Glu
Gln
Ala
Gly
Ala
Ser
Val
Ala
Glu
A UC[U] AAA UAC CGU UAA GCU GGA GCC UCG GUA GCA
G U C AC A G
Lys
C UCA AAU ACC GUU AAG CUG GAG CCU CGG UAG CA
Ser Asn
Thr
Val
Lys
Leu
Glu
Pro
Arg
138
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
139
(b)
fore, in Thailand at least, there must be two genetic forms of HbH disease, a thalassaemia 1/a thalassaemia 2, and a thalassaemia 1/Hb Constant Spring.A similar variant was found in Greece at about this time and, when samples from Greece, Thailand and Jamaica were compared in the authors’ laboratory, they were found to be identical (Fessas et al. 1972). Studies of the structure of Hb Constant Spring suggested that it results from a mutation of the aglobin-gene chain termination codon, UAAÆCAA, which leads to the insertion of an amino acid (glutamine) instead of the termination of chain synthesis (Fig. 1.12). The elongated a chain was thought to result from the translation of mRNA beyond the termination codon, which is not normally utilized, thus
147
148
172
Fig. 1.12 Haemoglobin Constant Spring (HbCS). (a) Starch gel electrophoresis of the first family with this disorder to be identified, sent to the authors by Dr Paul Milner.The two HbCS components can be seen in the three cases of HbH disease, migrating between HbA2 and the origin. (b) When it was found that the a chain of Hbs Constant Spring and Icaria has an elongated C-terminal end it was apparent that it might result from a point mutation in the a-globin gene termination codon.With the amino acid sequence of the extended a chain, together with information derived from an elongated a-chain variant due to a frameshift mutation, Hb Wayne, it was possible to deduce the structure of the region of a-globin mRNA after the chain termination codon, which is not normally translated.This structure was later shown to be correct by nucleotide sequencing. From Clegg et al. (1974).
destabilizing the a-globin mRNA and leading to defective a-chain synthesis (Clegg et al. 1971b). It was anticipated that a family of such variants might exist, due to different substitutions in the a-chain termination codon. This was subsequently found to be the case (Weatherall & Clegg 1975). Thus the a-chain termination mutations joined the Hb Lepores as forms of thalassaemia in which the molecular pathology was anticipated, at least in outline, well before the molecular era. Models of a thalassaemia based on lesions of one or other of a pair of linked a-globin genes As mentioned earlier, much of the work of the late
Historical perspectives 1960s was put on a more solid basis by the discovery of the family in which the presence of two structural a-globin variants showed that, beyond any reasonable doubt, there must be two a-globin loci per haploid genome. During the late 1960s and early 1970s several workers produced models for the genesis of the different forms of a thalassaemia based on the deletion or inactivation by other mechanisms of one or both of the putative linked a-globin genes as the basis for a thalassaemias 1 and 2, respectively. Although other models had to be considered, particularly if the two a-globin genes were not linked, the data that were available at the time were more compatible with the two a genes being closely linked (Lehmann & Carrell 1968; Lehmann 1970; Wasi 1970;Weatherall & Clegg 1972). Thus by the early 1970s there was a reasonable understanding of the genetics of a thalassaemia, at least in Oriental populations. But many questions remained. For example, there was genetic evidence that forms of HbH disease might occur in other parts of the world that were due to homozygosity rather than compound heterozygosity for a thalassaemia (McNiel 1967, 1971). Furthermore, it was still not clear how the milder forms of a thalassaemia in Black populations were related to the different forms in Orientals.And there remained some equally perplexing problems about the haemoglobin constitution of patients who had inherited both a thalassaemia and a-globin structural variants. However, many of the fundamental genetic problems had been solved. The field was ready for these models and hypotheses to be verified by the methods of molecular biology, which were to become available in the mid-1970s; gratifyingly to those who had struggled through the morass of uncertainties of the preceding years, most of them were! The classification of a thalassaemia The nomenclature of a thalassaemia also changed in the late 1960s; at the 12th Congress of the International Society of Haematology in 1968 Fessas suggested that, to keep in line with the descriptive b0and b+-thalassaemia classification, it would be sensible to change the term ‘a thalassaemia 1’, which was now thought to result from the loss of both linked aglobin genes, to a0 thalassaemia. Similarly, a thalassaemia 2 should be called ‘a+ thalassaemia’, since it was assumed that one of the two a genes had been lost or inactivated, and hence there is still a-chain
31
synthesis directed by the affected chromosome. Although subsequent molecular studies were to show that these predictions about the molecular pathology of a thalassaemia were correct, it took a long while for the a0/a+-thalassaemia notation to come into wide usage. We made a strong plea for this in the last edition of this book, but a thalassaemia 1 and 2 still keep turning up in the literature. Indeed the a0/a+-thalassaemia nomenclature has been heavily criticized recently (Huisman et al. 1997), though we find the arguments unconvincing. Why is thalassaemia so common? Early progress in population genetics Earlier, we discussed the remarkable explosion of information in the 1940s and 1950s that enabled Chernoff to write an extensive review in 1959, describing the world distribution of the thalassaemias. As the heterogeneity and genetics of thalassaemia was worked out in the 1960s and early 1970s, and with gradual improvement in techniques for population screening, these early impressions about the high frequency of the thalassaemias in many parts of the world were confirmed and extended. It gradually became apparent that these disorders must represent the commonest single-gene diseases in humans, and that they have a particularly high frequency in the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and Burma, and in south-east Asia in a line starting in southern China, passing down the Malay peninsula, and ending in the island populations of Melanesia. Although they were also found sporadically in every population group, it was soon apparent that there are no particularly high-frequency populations outside this tropical belt. And, surprisingly, this disease did not seem to be common in the indigenous populations of the New World. The extraordinarily high gene frequencies for the sickle-cell and b-thalassaemia traits puzzled population geneticists, particularly those who had become interested in mutation rates as a result of their investigations of the survivors of the atomic bombs which had been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. From their first population studies in the USA, and assuming that the fitness of a thalassaemia homozygote is zero and that the heterozygote is selectively neutral, Neel and Valentine (1947) calculated a mutation rate for thalassaemia of 1 in 2500.An even higher rate was proposed by Silvestroni (1949), who also suggested
32
Chapter 1
that some form of positive selection must have operated to maintain the frequency of thalassaemia heterozygotes. The malaria hypothesis In 1948, J.B.S. Haldane, addressing the Eighth International Congress of Genetics in Stockholm, proposed that the selective agent for maintaining the high frequency of thalassaemia might be malaria. He spoke as follows: Neel and Valentine believe that the thalassaemia heterozygote is less fit than normal, and think that the mutation rate is above 4 ¥ 10-4 rather than below it. I believe that the possibility that the heterozygote is fitter than normal must be seriously considered. Such increased fitness is found in the case of several lethal and sublethal genes in Drosophila and Zea.A possible mechanism is as follows.The corpuscles of the anaemic heterozygotes are smaller than normal, and more resistant to hypotonic solutions. It is at least conceivable that they are also more resistant to attacks by the sporozoa which cause malaria, a disease prevalent in Italy, Sicily and Greece, where the gene is frequent . . . Until more is known about the physiology of this gene in various environments I doubt if we can accept the hypothesis that it arises very frequently by mutation in a small section of the human species. (Haldane 1949b) In a recent and not over-generous review of Haldane’s contribution, Lederberg (1999) suggests that the concept of genetic resistance to infection was already well known by this time. He does not reference the paper that we have just quoted, but discusses a paper published in the same year based on a lecture given by Haldane at the Symposium on Ecological and Genetic Factors in Speciation among Animals, held in Milan (Haldane 1949a). Haldane does not mention thalassaemia or malaria in this paper. It is possible that Montalenti may have brought his attention to the work of Silvestroni and colleagues in Italy at this meeting. However, in a footnote recording the discussion, Montalenti acknowledges a verbal communication from Haldane to the effect that carriers of thalassaemia may be more resistant to malaria. Haldane is recorded as suggesting that they may also be advantaged in an environment in which iron defi-
ciency is common. Since the Milan meeting followed the one in Stockholm, it is clear that Haldane had already formulated his ideas on heterozygote advantage before these discussions. Certainly his account of what became known as the ‘malaria hypothesis’ in his paper that followed the meeting in Stockholm was the first clear exposition of this concept — one that was to become central to our later understanding of the population genetics of thalassaemia. According to Haldane’s hypothesis the high frequency of thalassaemia might therefore reflect an example of balanced polymorphism. P.M. Sheppard, in his excellent book Natural Selection and Heredity, describes, in simple language, the work of quantitative geneticists like R.A. Fisher and E.B. Ford, whose ideas formed the basis for our understanding of how genes achieve their frequencies in different populations. Ford defined polymorphism as ‘the occurrence together in the same habitat at the same time of two or more distinct forms of the species in such proportions that the rarest of them cannot be maintained merely by recurrent mutation’. Sheppard points out that this type of phenomenon usually reflects a situation of particular genetic and evolutionary interest, because the presence of two or more distinct forms means that there is a balance of selective forces maintaining each of them in the population. R.A. Fisher showed that, if this were not the case, one of the forms would increase in frequency to the exclusion of the other, because it is very unlikely that two variants that are morphologically or physiologically different would be equally well fitted to the environment in which they exist. The term ‘balanced polymorphism’ intimates that the gene frequency for the advantageous heterozygous state for a condition like thalassaemia will increase until its incidence is balanced by the loss of homozygotes from the population. For no better reason than that nobody has ever come up with a better idea, Haldane’s hypothesis has stood the test of time, though until the molecular era it was extremely difficult to obtain solid evidence to either confirm or refute it. Early attempts to test the malaria hypothesis As early as 1946 Vezzoso suggested that the distribution of thalassaemia in Italy is correlated with that of malaria. Certainly, this tended to hold true in the extensive population surveys for the distribution of the gene in Italy which were cited earlier in this
Historical perspectives chapter (see also Bannerman & Renwick 1962). But perhaps the most impressive evidence for the association between b thalassaemia and endemic malaria was obtained by Carcassi et al. (1957b) and Siniscalco et al. (1966) from population studies in Sardinia. In some ways Sardinia provides an ideal population for this type of study, since it has many villages which are of great antiquity and which have remained isolated for long periods. Furthermore, because of the high altitude of some of these villages, there are malaria-free populations of similar ethnic background to the lower-lying high malaria populations. Carcassi and Siniscalco and their colleagues showed a reasonably clear correlation between the frequency of malaria and b thalassaemia in the Sardinian population. Subsequently this work was subjected to heavy criticism, mainly based on uncertainties about the origins of the populations in the mountains and villages, although it is still far from clear whether all these concerns were justified. Unfortunately, however, when such correlations were sought in other parts of the world they were not found.There seemed to be little relationship between the distribution of thalassaemia and present or past malaria in Greece (Fraser et al. 1964; Stamatoyannopoulos & Fessas 1964), Cyprus (Plato et al. 1964), Malta, Sudan and New Guinea (Gilles et al. 1967; Livingstone 1967). Similar negative or equivocal results were obtained in Thailand (Kruatrachue et al. 1969, 1970).At the same time as these studies were being carried out, a body of evidence regarding the putative protection of sickle-cell heterozygotes against P. falciparum malaria was growing. This has been reviewed extensively at different stages of its evolution and we shall not discuss it further here (Allison 1954; Rucknagel & Neel 1961; Allison 1964; Motulsky et al. 1964; Allison 1965; Livingstone 1967, 1971). In short, extensive population studies provided suggestive though not unequivocal evidence that the sickle-cell trait might protect against severe malarial infection. Later on, a number of in vitro studies of this protective effect were reported, though again many uncertainties remained about the precise mechanism involved (Luzzatto et al. 1970; Friedman 1978; Pasvol et al. 1978; Friedman et al. 1979). The origins of thalassaemia As well as trying to understand the mechanisms for the high frequency of the thalassaemias many workers
33
began to wonder why the disease is so widespread among so many different populations. Not surprisingly perhaps, it was many years before the idea that it might have arisen independently in many parts of the world was considered. Thus there was much speculation about where thalassaemia might have first arisen. Some of the early ideas of this once hotly debated topic are summarized by Bannerman (1961). One of the first,and one that gained particular popularity,was the idea that the disease originated in an ancient race, ‘Palaeoinsulara Mediterranea’, which inhabited Sicily, Greece and parts of Italy, and from whence it spread by migration to other parts of the world. A number of variations on this theme were proposed. For example, it was suggested that thalassaemia was distributed by the Greeks of the 6th and 7th centuries BC who colonized Magna Grecia, including Sicily and southern Italy, and perhaps later spread eastwards within the empire of Alexander the Great. On the other hand, several writers who had observed thalassaemia in Persians proposed that the gene had arisen in the Orient and spread to the Mediterranean from the east; others, sitting firmly on the fence, suggested an Armenian origin with spread in both directions! Speculations along these lines continued for many years. In 1978, Todd, in his inaugural lecture to the University of Hong Kong, entitled ‘Genes, Beans and Marco Polo’ (Todd 1978), gave an absorbing, and often lurid, account of the movements of the Mongoloid peoples and concluded that it is likely that the thalassaemia genes had followed these populations. Until the new technology of the molecular era made it possible to re-examine the whole question of the world distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias, little further progress was made. The story of the notions about the origins and distribution of the thalassaemias is, like Galen’s interpretation of cardiovascular physiology, an interesting example of how, when incorrect ideas become widespread, they are extremely difficult to eradicate. As we shall see in Chapter 6, for the last 15 years it has been abundantly clear that the many different forms of thalassaemia are widespread in their distribution and have arisen independently in different populations throughout the world. Yet the Cambridge World History of Human Disease, published as recently as 1993, in its short insert on thalassaemia, states ‘It has been suggested that thalassaemia originated in Greece and spread to Italy when it was colonized by Greeks between the 8th and 6th century BC. At present, it is
34
Chapter 1
most frequent in areas where ancient Greek immigration was most intense.’ Haemoglobin synthesis in thalassaemia Although the analysis of the haemoglobin patterns of patients with different forms of thalassaemia was of enormous value in defining the thalassaemias as inherited disorders of globin production, it had its limitations. In the early 1960s it was realized that to understand the pathophysiology of the disease, that is, how abnormal gene action at the globin loci could result in the protean clinical manifestations of the thalassaemias, and to try to make some progress in understanding the types of mutations that might underlie the disease, a more dynamic approach was needed. Hence thoughts turned to the possibility of trying to study haemoglobin synthesis in the red-cell precursors of thalassaemic patients using some of the in vitro experimental systems that were being developed at the time to study normal haemoglobin synthesis. It had been known for many years, since the pioneering experiments of London, Shemin, Borsook and colleagues, that it is possible to incorporate radioactive amino acids into haemoglobin in red cells incubated in vitro, provided there are sufficient numbers of reticulocytes present in the blood sample. Several groups of workers in the late 1950s and early 1960s made use of these techniques to try to pinpoint the defect in haemoglobin synthesis in thalassaemia. The earliest studies were carried out by Bannerman and Grinstein, working with Carl Moore in St Louis (Bannerman et al. 1959; Grinstein et al. 1960). These workers showed that there was a defect in haem synthesis in thalassaemic red cells, but it was difficult to equate this finding with the observed interaction between the thalassaemia and sickle-cell genes, which was much more in keeping with the idea that thalassaemia results from a primary defect in globin synthesis. For this reason it seemed likely that the defect in haem production was secondary to defective globin production. Globin synthesis in thalassaemia The earliest attempts to study the mechanism of defective globin synthesis in thalassaemic red-cell precursors were made by Marks and colleagues at Columbia University. Although they were able to study some aspects of in vitro haemoglobin synthesis,
and to rule out abnormal ribosomal function as the basis for thalassaemia (Marks & Burka 1964a,b; Marks et al. 1964), a story that we shall continue later, further progress was held up by the lack of a method for quantifying the relative rates of a- and b-chain production in thalassaemic red-cell precursors. It was quite clear by the early 1960s that, because globin could be labelled with radioactive amino acids in an in vitro reticulocyte system, it should be possible to measure the relative rates of a- and b-chain synthesis, provided that a reliable method for separating these globins could be found which would give a quantitative recovery and which required relatively small quantities of starting material. At that time methods for separating the different globins were tedious, required large amounts of globin, often resulted in poor yields of either the a or b chains, and were quite unsuitable for analysis of the relatively small blood samples which were available from thalassaemic patients. In the early 1960s attempts were made by one of us to measure globin synthesis in thalassaemic reticulocytes by separating the chains by countercurrent distribution or by symmetrical recombination of the human a and b chains with canine globin chains. While equal labelling of a and b chains was obtained in experiments with normal reticulocytes, and there was clear evidence of unequal labelling of thalassaemic a and b chains, the results were not quantitative. In 1964 Heywood and colleagues also demonstrated unequal labelling of the a and b chains of haemoglobin after incubation of thalassaemic reticulocytes with radioactive amino acids. These workers separated the globin chains chromatographically, but the method they employed also made it impossible to quantify the relative rates of production of the a and b chains. The technique which enabled further progress to be made was developed by Clegg et al. (1965, 1966), who showed that the peptide chains of globin could be quantitatively fractionated by chromatography on carboscymethyl (CM) cellulose in 8 M urea. At the same time these workers found that if human reticulocytes were labelled in vitro and then lysed and the whole lysate converted to ‘globin’ it was possible to measure the total amounts of a and non-a chains synthesized, with a recovery of radioactivity and protein in excess of 95% (Weatherall et al. 1965) (Fig. 1.13). As this technique was further refined it became possible to separate the g and b chains and hence to provide an accurate assessment of the relative rates
Historical perspectives
35
1.0 Gradient β 100 c.p.m./ml
OD (280 nm)
0.8
0.6 α 0.4
50
0.2
10
20
(a)
40
50
60
Fraction number
β
α 1000
0.5
0.4
800
0.3
600
0.2
400
0.1
200
10 (b)
of globin synthesis, first in reticulocytes and, later, in bone-marrow red-cell precursors. In the first description of the application of this technique to the study of thalassaemia it was possible to provide a fairly complete picture of the pattern of normal globin synthesis and of abnormal globin production in a and b thalassaemia. It was found that in normal reticulocytes a- and b-chain production is almost synchronous, although there is a very slight excess of a-globin production. In HbH disease a marked defect in a-chain synthesis was demonstrated. Furthermore, it appeared that as well as b4
20
30
40
50
c.p.m./ml
Gradient OD (280 nm)
Fig. 1.13 Globin synthesis in b thalassaemia.These were the first experiments to demonstrate imbalanced globin production in b thalassaemia by in vitro labelling and separation by carboxymethyl cellulose chromatography. (a) Incorporation of radioactivity (open circles) into the a and b chains from a patient with hereditary spherocytosis. (b) The same experiment carried out on the red cells of a patient with b thalassaemia major, showing excess a-chain production. In these early experiments the conditions had not yet been developed in which the g and b chains could be separated. Weatherall et al. (1965).
30
60
Fraction number
molecules the red-cell precursors of patients with this condition contain a relatively large pool of free b chains which are available to combine with newly synthesized a chains to produce HbA. In b thalassaemia there is also marked globin imbalance and, overall, a large excess of a chains are produced. It was also found that there is defective d-chain compared with b-chain production in normal red cells (Weatherall et al. 1965). In these early experiments it was often observed that, after incubation of reticulocytes from normal or b-thalassaemia patients, the d or b globins had a lower
36
Chapter 1
specific activity than the a chains. At first we wondered if this reflected a ‘block’ of d- or b-globin synthesis at the ribosomal level, with an accumulation of finished globin. However, this idea had to be revised when it was demonstrated that there is rapid exchange of newly made a chains with Hbs A or A2. Hence it was difficult to learn much about the assembly of globin polypeptide chains by examining the patterns of radioactivity in completed haemoglobin molecules. Over the next few years this type of approach was used by several workers and these results were confirmed and extended. By using a combination of gel filtration and chromatographic techniques it was possible to demonstrate a pool of free a chains in the cells of b thalassaemics that exchange freely with unlabelled a chains in HbA. It was also found that excess a chains undergo two fates; some are rapidly degraded by proteolysis, while others become associated with the red-cell membrane. It was confirmed that in some forms of b thalassaemia there is a complete suppression of b-chain synthesis, while in others there is only a partial defect (Bank & Marks 1966; Bank & O’Donnell 1969; Modell et al. 1969; Pontremoli et al. 1969; Weatherall & Clegg 1969; Weatherall et al. 1969b). It was also found that there is marked globin imbalance in other common forms of thalassaemia such as sickle-cell and HbE thalassaemia (Weatherall et al. 1969b). Subsequently, in vitro globin synthesis was applied to study heterozygous forms of thalassaemia, particularly b thalassaemia. Several groups found that there is imbalanced globin synthesis in the reticulocytes, with a/b-chain production ratios ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 (Vigi et al. 1969; Schwartz 1970; Clegg & Weatherall 1972; Kan et al. 1972c; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Knox-Macaulay et al. 1973; Chalevelakis et al. 1975, 1976). About this time some puzzling observations were reported which suggested that globin synthesis might be more or less balanced in the bone marrow (Schwartz 1970; Kan et al. 1972c; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Gallo et al. 1975). However, Clegg and Weatherall (1972) found that there was some degree of globin imbalance in the bone-marrow precursors, together with a larger pool of free a chains than in normal bone marrow. When this problem was reexamined in detail by Chalevelakis et al. (1975, 1976) it became clear that there is imbalanced globin synthesis in bone marrow in heterozygous b thalassaemia and that previous reports of more balanced synthesis
probably resulted from the authors not taking into account the very rapid proteolysis of excess a chains in the marrow during the time in which the rates of globin synthesis were being measured. In 1970 Weatherall et al. were able to study the pattern of haemoglobin synthesis in an infant with the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome and could detect no a-globin synthesis or fragments of a-globin chains. Thus it appeared that the homozygous state for the severe form of a thalassaemia is characterized by a complete absence of a-chain production. At about this time several workers attempted to measure the relative rates of a- and b-chain production in heterozygotes for different forms of a thalassaemia (Kan et al. 1968; Schwartz et al. 1969). It was found that there is a significant reduction in a-chain synthesis in both ‘silent’ carriers and individuals with the a-thalassaemia trait, but that there is considerable overlap between the two groups. In a later study by workers in Thailand it was possible to obtain a reasonable separation between the a/b-chain synthesis ratios of heterozygotes for a0 or a+ thalassaemia, although the numbers reported were small (Pootrakul et al. 1975a). In the last edition of this book we concluded that, though many heterozygous a thalassaemics have significantly reduced a/b-globin synthesis ratios, because of the marked overlap between a0 and a+ thalassaemia, and between a+ thalassaemia and normal, it is unlikely that this technique is precise enough to determine accurately which type of a-thalassaemia gene is present in any individual case; unfortunately, time has proved us right. However, until the advent of DNA technology this remained the only approach for attempting to define the a-thalassaemia carrier states. Globin synthesis in fetal blood Another application of the analysis of globin synthesis, and one which was to have important practical implications for the control of thalassaemia, followed in the early 1970s. From earlier studies of the electrophoretic patterns of fetal blood it appeared that small quantities of HbA might be present very early in fetal life (Walker & Turnbull 1955; Huehns et al. 1964b). As methods for analysing globin synthesis were improved in the early 1970s it became clear that b-chain synthesis is activated by the 8th week or even earlier, and reaches a steady level of about 10% of total non-a globin up to 30 to 34 weeks
Historical perspectives (Hollenberg et al. 1971; Kan et al. 1972a; Pataryas & Stamatoyannopoulos 1972; Kazazian & Woodhead 1973;Wood & Weatherall 1973). In the study of Wood and Weatherall (1973) it was found that the relative rates of b- and g-chain synthesis are synchronized throughout the different haemopoietic organs in the fetus; that is, the amounts of g- and b-chain production do not differ between red cells produced in the fetal liver, spleen or bone marrow. Further work, by Kazazian and Woodhead (1974), Cividalli et al. (1974a) and Alter et al. (1976a,b), suggested that bchain synthesis makes up about 7% of total globin synthesis at five weeks, and increases to approximately 11% at 20 weeks. Prenatal diagnosis These observations led to the important notion that if small blood samples could be obtained from fetuses between 10 and 20 weeks’ gestation, and subjected to globin synthesis analysis, it might be possible to diagnose homozygous b thalassaemia in utero, assuming of course that the b-thalassaemia mutation is expressed early in fetal life. Reasoning along these lines led Chang et al. (1975) to examine globin synthesis in small blood samples obtained from aborted fetuses who were at risk of being homozygous for b thalassaemia. They found two cases in which the b/gchain synthesis ratios were approximately half of the value expected for the gestational ages, and one fetus in which there was no b-chain production. This study suggested that it might be possible to use this approach for prenatal diagnosis of b thalassaemia. Interestingly, the same method was used for the prenatal diagnosis of sickle-cell anaemia a year or two earlier (Kan et al. 1972a). Of course a major difficulty remained; how to obtain fetal blood samples. Two ways were explored — placental aspiration and direct aspiration of samples from the chorionic plate by fetoscopy. Unfortunately, many of the blood samples obtained by these methods contained mixtures of fetal and maternal red cells. Not daunted, several workers explored a number of ingenious ways to separate them, or at least to try to calculate the degree of contamination of one by the other. They included suppression of maternal reticulocyte production by transfusion (Alter et al. 1976b), a variety of mathematical corrections to allow for maternal–fetal admixture of red cells (Cividalli et al. 1974a; Chang et
37
al. 1975), and the application of physical or chemical methods for separation of fetal and adult cells (Kan et al. 1974b; Furbetta et al. 1978; Alter et al. 1979a). Although all these methods were used in some of the early attempts at prenatal diagnosis, they proved difficult, and hence thoughts turned to direct fetal blood sampling. As the technique of fetoscopy improved it became possible to obtain fetal blood directly, an advance which greatly facilitated the prenatal diagnosis of thalassaemia (Valenti 1973; Hobbins et al. 1974; Hobbins & Mahoney 1975; Benzie & Pirani 1977). The problem of contamination of fetal blood samples with small amounts of maternal blood remained, however. In the end it was solved by using methods based on the difference in size between fetal and adult red cells (Kan et al. 1974b), together with the acid-elution technique of Kleihauer et al. (1957) for identifying the relative numbers of maternal cells in fetal blood samples. By the end of 1978 groups of workers in the USA, England, Sardinia and Italy were able to publish the results of these early attempts at the prenatal diagnosis of b thalassaemia (Kan et al. 1975b,c; Alter et al. 1976a,b; Cividalli et al. 1976; Kan et al. 1976, 1977b; Alter & Nathan 1978; Fairweather et al. 1978; Furbetta et al. 1978). It appeared that, based on experience of well over 100 attempts, the technique seemed to be feasible for identifying homozygous b thalassaemia and sickle-cell anaemia; there had been remarkably few errors in diagnosis, and the only worrying feature was the relatively high fetal loss attributable to the procedure. This was a particularly pleasing chapter in the story of the exploration of the thalassaemias. For, in little over 10 years, an experimental technique that had been developed to explore the rates of globin synthesis, and hence the pathogenesis of the disease, had been applied in several countries for its effective prenatal diagnosis. It was to be another 10 years before this approach was largely superseded by fetal DNA analysis, a time during which in vitro globin biosynthesis was applied widely in many populations and led to a major decline in the number of births of infants with severe forms of thalassaemia. The pathophysiology of thalassaemia The early literature on thalassaemia stressed the haemolytic basis for the anaemia. Indeed Cooley first described the condition as a haemolytic anaemia.
38
Chapter 1
However, as pointed out by Bannerman (1961), Cooley and Lee soon felt that this was not a sufficient explanation and elaborated it a few years later, adding that some of the other features involving the bone marrow ‘may be the result of some metabolic disturbance which compels the tissues to make bricks without straw’ (Cooley & Lee 1932). In their early papers on the pathology of thalassaemia, Whipple and Bradford (1932, 1936) suggested that the disorder might result from a defect in the metabolism of pigment, similar to haemochromatosis, although they did not expand on this idea. Dameshek (1943) wrote: ‘the fundamental inherited abnormality appears to lie in a disturbance of the haemoglobin metabolism’, while a few years later Perosa (1949) listed the possible causes as either an impaired union of iron with porphyrin, defective porphyrin synthesis, or a lack, or abnormal synthesis,of globin.Indeed,Perosa,in a very detailed analysis of the evidence that was available at the time, came to the conclusion that an abnormality of globin synthesis was the most likely possibility. In their extensive review of the clinical and haematological findings and aetiology of Mediterranean anaemia, written in 1948, Marmont and Bianchi stressed the diverse manifestations of the disease, including iron loading of the tissues, faulty red-cell production in the bone marrow, high iron levels in the blood associated with hypochromic red blood cells, excess ferritin in the tissues, and a shortened red-cell survival.They also stressed the increased rate of fragmentation of the red blood cells. Though they tried, they found it impossible to ascribe these diverse findings to a single mechanism. In the end the best they could do was to describe the disorder as a form of ‘metabolic dyserythropoiesis’, a term first used by the British haematologist Janet Vaughan (1948). Once it was realized that the thalassaemias result from defective a- or b-chain production, thinking about their pathophysiology moved in two different though often overlapping directions. On the one hand workers in the field wanted to understand how mutations at the a- or b-globin gene loci could result in the widespread clinical manifestations, which seemed to affect nearly every system of the body and which were not confined to the red cells in which the globin genes are expressed. On the other, it seemed equally important to try to determine the different kinds of mutations that might underlie the defective production of a and b chains. Although both aspects of thalassaemia research moved along together after
the early 1960s, it turned out to be easier to answer the first set of questions; a definitive answer to the second had to await the molecular era in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Ineffective erythropoiesis Little progress towards a genuine understanding of the pathophysiology of thalassaemia was made until techniques became available for the study of red-cell survival and turnover with radioactive isotopes. Sturgeon and Finch in Seattle were the first workers to carry out careful iron and erythrokinetic studies on patients with thalassaemia major.Their work showed that there was a marked degree of ineffective erythropoiesis of a very similar pattern to that found in pernicious anaemia (Sturgeon & Finch 1957). This was confirmed by in vivo studies of haemoglobin turnover by Grinstein, Bannerman and colleagues (Bannerman et al. 1959). Later, Finch et al. (1970) found that the degree of ineffective erythropoiesis in thalassaemia is probably greater than in any other disorder. These findings implied that there is extensive destruction of red-cell precursors in the bone marrow as well as a shortened survival of red cells in the peripheral blood. Taken together with the massive expansion of the bone marrow, this work suggested that there is a major drive to erythropoiesis, but that the expanded bone marrow is incapable of effective red-cell maturation and production. Globin precipitation and inclusions in red-cell precursors A clue to the basis for the destruction of the red cells and their precursors came in 1963 from the elegant studies of Fessas in Athens. He showed that there are large, ragged inclusion bodies in the red-cell precursors of patients with b thalassaemia (Fig. 1.14). They were also found in the peripheral blood, but only after splenectomy, and their staining properties suggested that they contained haemoglobin. Fessas suggested that these inclusions might be precipitated a chains; in b thalassaemia, he reasoned, there could be an excessive production of a chains which might precipitate and produce intracellular inclusions. Because it was not yet known whether there was imbalanced globin production, he also suggested that they might be aggregates of abnormal b chains or complete haemoglobin molecules (Fessas 1963).
Historical perspectives
39
Fig. 1.14 The demonstration of redcell inclusions in b thalassaemia. Kindly supplied by Professor Phaedon Fessas.
The work of Fessas, which shows how much can be achieved by an astute observer with a microscope and a few simple stains, was absolutely seminal in our understanding of the pathogenesis of b thalassaemia, particularly since imbalanced globin production was demonstrated shortly after he had made these observations. The inclusion bodies in the bone marrow, and in the peripheral blood after splenectomy, are so large and well defined that it is difficult to understand why it took nearly 40 years from the first description of the disease for them to be recognized. A careful reading of earlier papers that deal with the morphology of the marrow and blood shows very little evidence that they were observed before 1963, however. It is possible that the unusual structures described in earlier electron-microscopic studies (Hoffman et al. 1956; Bessis et al. 1958) may have been inclusions of this kind. In reviewing their Italian patients, Silvestroni and Bianco touched on the phenomenon of erythrocytic inclusions and pointed out that they are not restricted to HbH disease and are seen in other forms of thalassaemia (see Fig. 7 of Silvestroni & Bianco 1959). However, these are brilliant cresyl blue preparations of peripheral blood cells from patients with both thalassaemia major and intermedia.The preformed inclusions described by Fessas are best demonstrated with methyl violet, and, although they can sometimes be seen on brilliant cresyl blue preparations, those shown in Silvestroni and Bianco’s paper do not resemble a-chain inclusions. In fact, they mentioned that they had published descriptions
of ‘intracorpuscular crystallization’ of haemoglobin as early as 1956. They concluded their discussion by saying ‘it is evidently a non-specific phenomenon of microcythaemic syndromes. Its appearance in severe microcythaemic syndromes indicates, as in other haemoglobinopathies, only a generic instability of many abnormal haemoglobins.’ Large, single inclusion bodies had also been observed in the red cells of patients with HbH disease after splenectomy (Rigas et al. 1955). They were first described in Thai patients by Minnich et al. (1954) although, because HbH disease had not been diagnosed at that time, they were not recognized as such. It was suggested that HbH precipitates in older red cells and that the haemolysis of this disorder is due to the trapping of cells containing large inclusion bodies in the spleen (Rigas & Koler 1961). A similar mechanism presumably occurs in b thalassaemia and hence this is why inclusion bodies are only seen in the blood after splenectomy. The notion that the major mechanism for damage to the red-cell precursors in the thalassaemias is globin precipitation was, of course, strongly supported by the finding of imbalanced globin synthesis, in both a and b thalassaemia (Weatherall et al. 1965). Furthermore, experiments of this kind showed that the free a chains which are produced in b thalassaemia are unstable and rapidly precipitate to become associated with the red-cell membrane (Bargellesi et al. 1968;Weatherall et al. 1969b). Subsequently it was found that some free a chains are
40
Chapter 1
destroyed by proteolysis. Thus it appeared that inclusion-body formation must reflect a balance between the magnitude of the excess of a chains and the red-cell precursors’ capacity to cope with them by proteolysis (Bank & O’Donnell 1969; Clegg & Weatherall 1972). The further consequences of unbalanced globin synthesis During the early 1960s there was a gradual accumulation of evidence that there is remarkable heterogeneity in the amount and constitution of haemoglobin in the red cells of b thalassaemics. Using the acidelution technique of Kleihauer et al. (1957) to stain red cells for fetal haemoglobin, several groups showed that the distribution of fetal haemoglobin is extremely heterogeneous (Frazer & Raper 1961; Mitchiner et al. 1961; Shepherd et al. 1962; Silvestroni et al. 1968a). The uneven distribution of HbF in sickle-cell anaemia and thalassaemia, compared with its more homogeneous distribution in hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin, was stressed by Shepherd et al. (1962) and Conley et al. (1963). Elegant in vivo labelling studies by Gabuzda et al. (1963) suggested that the relative turnover rates of HbA and F are different in b thalassaemia, and that HbF-containing cells survive relatively longer than those that contain predominantly HbA. These findings were confirmed by differential centrifugation studies which showed a greater proportion of HbF in the older, more dense red-cell populations (Loukopoulos & Fessas 1965). By now it was clear therefore that all the thalassaemias are associated with imbalanced globin production, that both excess a and b chains precipitate to form red-cell inclusions, and that there is marked heterogeneity of haemoglobinization of the red blood cells in b thalassaemia, with the more rapid destruction of those that contain relatively less HbF. The idea that the clinical haematological manifestations of thalassaemia are primarily a reflection of imbalanced globin production was refined and extended in l966 by Nathan and Gunn, who suggested that the abnormalities of red-cell maturation and survival could all be ascribed to the effects of unbalanced globin production, with precipitation of the particular globin subunits which are produced in excess. They argued that in b thalassaemia those cells which continue to produce g chains will be relatively
protected from the deleterious effects of a-chain precipitation because some of the excess a chains combine with g chains to make HbF (a2g2). This would account for the observation that HbFcontaining cells survive relatively longer than HbAcontaining cells in the blood. Nathan and Gunn also suggested that, in addition to causing abnormalities of cellular maturation, precipitating globin might interfere with membrane function and cause ‘leakiness’ of the red cells. This, together with the mechanical effects of inclusions on red cells in the microcirculation and spleen, might explain the haemolysis observed in all the thalassaemia syndromes. Although these concepts had to be refined and extended as more was learnt about the mechanisms of haemoglobin precipitation, work carried out over subsequent years confirmed that this general concept of the basis for the anaemia of thalassaemia is correct. In effect, all the important manifestations of thalassaemia are the result of globin imbalance and a complex combination of ineffective erythropoiesis and haemolysis. ‘Experiments of nature’ confirm importance of unbalanced globin production As we have seen, it has been a recurring theme throughout the thalassaemia story that careful study of the unusual experiment of nature is likely to yield results which may have much wider implications. There is no better example than the discoveries that provided incontrovertible evidence that the thalassaemias are primarily disorders of imbalanced globin synthesis. If globin imbalance is the major cause of the anaemia in severe b thalassaemia, individuals with this condition who had also been fortunate enough to inherit a thalassaemia might have less severe anaemia. In effect, the two conditions should cancel each other out; the red cells would be hypochromic, but because there would be less achain excess there would be less globin precipitation, and hence more effective erythropoiesis. In 1970 Kan and Nathan described a patient with a mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia whose parents both had raised levels of HbA2. However, globin synthesis studies showed that one of them had the expected imbalance associated with b thalassaemia, while the other had balanced synthesis. The authors suggested that the latter person might be carrying an a-thalassaemia determinant and that the
Historical perspectives patient’s mild course might result from the reduced amount of excess a-chain production consequent on the action of this a-thalassaemia gene. Interestingly, later analysis of this patient’s a-globin genes failed to demonstrate any evidence of a thalassaemia (Dr David Nathan, personal communication)! Similar individuals were reported later by Musumeci et al. (1979a) and Weatherall et al. (1980). Of course these observations depended on the interpretation of balanced globin synthesis ratios as indicating the presence of a thalassaemia in b-thalassaemia heterozygotes, but as soon as it was possible to analyse the DNA of families of this type it became clear that a thalassaemia can undoubtedly modify the clinical course of homozygous b thalassaemia (Weatherall et al. 1981b). A working model for the pathophysiology of thalassaemia By the end of the 1970s, therefore, a reasonable working model of how mutations at the a- or b-gene loci can produce the remarkably diverse phenotypic effects of the thalassaemias had been developed. The severe globin imbalance of b thalassaemia leads to a-chain precipitation, intramedullary destruction of red-cell precursors, and haemolysis. The latter is associated with progressive splenomegaly and its consequences, including trapping of red cells and haemodilution. The selective survival of red-cell precursors that synthesize relatively more g chains results in relatively large amounts of HbF in the blood of b-thalassaemic patients. The profound anaemia stimulates increased erythropoietin production, leading to expansion of the bone marrow and subsequent skeletal deformities.The widespread iron deposition in the organs is the result of increased iron absorption in the face of the marked dyserythropoietic anaemia, together with the effects of blood transfusion. Thus it became unnecessary to ascribe mysterious ‘pleotrophic effects’ to the action of the thalassaemia genes; a primary defect in globin production could explain most of the widespread clinical manifestations, and, incidentally, at least some of the phenotypic heterogeneity. Greater knowledge of the pathophysiology of thalassaemia leads to improved treatment The early textbook pictures of severe thalassaemia,
41
showing children with gross skeletal deformities, growth retardation and massive enlargement of the spleen and liver, are a sad reflection on how little could be done for this disease up until the early 1960s. In countries in which blood transfusion services were available, transfusions were given, usually when the patient’s haemoglobin level had fallen to an extremely low value. Otherwise children with severe thalassaemia died early in life. And even those who were transfused, usually when they were symptomatic, tended to succumb early to infections or other complications (see Bannerman 1961). This chaotic and completely unsatisfactory state of the management of thalassaemia is well exemplified in a series of papers presented at a meeting in New York in 1963 organized by the Medical Advisory Board of the Cooley’s Anemia Blood and Research Foundation for Children, Inc., and the New York Academy of Sciences.The current practices for transfusion of thalassaemic children were assessed from an enquiry sent to more than a dozen centres, caring in all for more than 150 patients with Cooley’s anaemia. The results showed that there were no consistent criteria for determining when a child with thalassaemia should be transfused. Overall, transfusions appeared to be administered either when a particular haemoglobin level was reached, or when patients became symptomatic. In centres at which blood was administered for symptomatic treatment, the pretransfusion haemoglobin level was often as low as 3.0 g/dl. And even if a particular haemoglobin level was chosen, it tended to be somewhere between 5 and 7 g/dl (Schorr & Radel 1964). It seems likely that these practices would have reflected those at almost any centre that was treating thalassaemic children up to the early 1960s. High-level transfusion regimens At the same meeting, Irving Wolman, of the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, presented findings from a preliminary study that set out to determine whether thalassaemic children who had been maintained at a near-normal haemoglobin level were better off than those who had been transfused only when symptomatic. Wolman suggested, albeit tentatively, that children in the highest haemoglobin group were taller,had smaller livers and spleens,showed less skeletal deformities and fewer fractures, had better dental development, and appeared to have smaller
42
Chapter 1
hearts. It appeared therefore that a high transfusion regimen might be capable of reversing many of the more distressing features of severe thalassaemia (Wolman 1964). Though these observations were encouraging, Wolman was quick to point out that the children who had received more transfusions, though they were more healthy, would have received considerably more iron than those maintained at a lower haemoglobin level. On the other hand, he speculated that, by maintaining a high haemoglobin level, there might be less stimulus to increased iron absorption from the intestine so that, in the long term, they might accumulate less iron than those who grow up with consistently low haemoglobin levels. At a similar meeting in New York 5 years later Wolman was able to present a further follow-up of this group of patients (Wolman & Ortolani 1969). By now it was clear that the children maintained on a high transfusion rate had grown well during their early years, although it appeared that they did not exhibit the normal adolescent growth spurt. On the other hand they continued to have less skeletal deformity and bone disease, and their spleens and livers were smaller. Worryingly, however, of a total 17 children who had been on the high-transfusion regimen for a sufficient number of years to warrant adequate evaluation, 6 had died, all from disorders which appeared to be related to the effects of iron loading. At the same meeting, Wolman’s results were confirmed by similar studies on other groups of children with b thalassaemia (Beard et al. 1969; Piomelli et al. 1969). Further follow-up studies, both in the United States (Necheles et al. 1974; Piomelli et al. 1974) and in Europe (Kattamis et al. 1970; Loukopoulos 1976; Rotoli 1976; Modell 1977; Esposito et al. 1978), left little doubt that children maintained on a hightransfusion regimen fared much better than those who are transfused on demand. In short, maintaining a high haemoglobin level depressed ineffective erythropoiesis and thereby appeared to retard the development of hepatosplenomegaly and skeletal deformity. However, while the high transfusion regimen was a major advance in the management of thalassaemia in childhood, it soon became apparent that Wolman’s early hopes that reducing intestinal iron absorption might result in less iron accumulation were not to be fulfilled. By the early 1960s there was growing literature on transfusion haemochromatosis in thalassaemia (see Fink 1964), and all the centres that used
the high transfusion programme during the late 1960s and early 1970s were observing deaths due to iron loading, particularly of the myocardium, once their patients reached their late teens or early 20s. Iron chelation Clearly, if further progress was to be made, a way of removing excess iron which accumulated as the result of blood transfusion had to be developed. In the early 1960s scientists working for the drug company Ciba Ltd. (later Novartis) introduced a potent ironchelating agent desferrioxamine, a sideramine obtained from Streptomyces pilosus. Desferrioxamine was introduced for the treatment of transfusiondependent thalassaemia by Sephton-Smith (1962, 1964). Early experiences with this drug (reviewed by Waxman & Brown 1969) were disappointing. It appeared to be incapable of achieving a negative iron balance, and because it had to be given by intramuscular injection it was poorly tolerated by thalassaemic children. Indeed, Waxman and Brown questioned the validity of its use as a chelating agent in iron-loading anaemias. However, an important study by Barry et al. (1974) at Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, revived interest in the use of desferrioxamine. Barry and colleagues described the results of a 7year trial in which a group of patients were treated with regular intramuscular desferrioxamine together with an intravenous injection at the time of transfusion. A control group was maintained simply on blood transfusion at a similar level to those that were receiving the drug. When the two groups were analysed after 7 years the serum ferritin level — a reasonable if imprecise indicator of the body-iron load — was significantly lower in the treated group, and, even more importantly, the liver iron concentration in the treated group was lower than in the controls (Letsky et al. 1973; Barry et al. 1974; Letsky 1976). Later analysis of the two groups approximately 10 years after the initiation of the trial suggested that there might be a significant decrease in the number of deaths in the treated group, although the numbers were too small to draw any dogmatic conclusions (Modell & Berdoukas 1984). However, it was undoubtedly this study, and the encouraging results obtained by hightransfusion regimens, which, in the mid-1970s, led several groups to review the whole question of the best way to administer desferrioxamine.
Historical perspectives In his pioneering study on the use of desferrioxamine for the removal of iron in thalassaemic children, Sephton-Smith (1962) had found that much more iron can be removed by continuous intravenous infusion of the drug, an observation that was later confirmed by Modell and Beck (1974). In 1976 Propper and colleagues in Boston found that if they gave an intramuscular dose of desferrioxamine they removed only 15–26 mg of iron; after continuous intravenous administration of the same dose over 24 h they were able to remove 74 mg of iron, almost the theoretical maximum that the drug can chelate. Because of the impracticability of using intravenous desferrioxamine, several groups of workers, stimulated by Propper and colleagues, examined the patterns of iron excretion after continuous infusions of the drug given subcutaneously (Hussain et al. 1976, 1977; Propper et al. 1977; Pippard et al. 1978a,b). In these studies it was found that there is marked variability in individual dose–response curves to desferrioxamine given subcutaneously. However, it was clear that, whether given by the subcutaneous or intravenous routes, a plateau of iron excretion is achieved during the period of the infusion and is maintained until the infusion is stopped. Based on these observations Pippard et al. (1978b) suggested that the drug could be given as a 12-hour subcutaneous infusion during sleep. It appeared that for many patients there was no real advantage in using a longer continuous infusion because the same amount of iron could be removed by doubling the dose of desferrioxamine, up to a dose of 4 g over 12 h, as by doubling the infusion time. Furthermore, administering the drug overnight was much more convenient and acceptable to young patients. During some of these studies it was also found that the administration of ascorbic acid significantly increased the urinary iron excretion in response to desferrioxamine (Modell & Beck 1974; O’Brien 1974; Nienhuis et al. 1976; Propper et al. 1977; Pippard et al. 1978b). Using these improved regimens, together with a variety of different pumps for the slow infusion of desferrioxamine, genuine progress was made towards controlling the iron loading of transfusiondependent thalassaemics, at least in those countries that could afford this expensive form of treatment. But problems remained, notably difficulties of compliance for a regimen that meant a nightly infusion of a drug via a clockwork pump. Although, as we shall see in later chapters, this type of regimen undoubt-
43
edly was capable of prolonging the lives of transfusion-dependent thalassaemics indefinitely, the relatively low compliance rate meant that many patients still died in their late teens or early 20s. Hence a search for an effective and safe oral chelating agent was started, a problem which, as we shall see, has still not been solved satisfactorily. Splenectomy The other major form of treatment for thalassaemia, splenectomy, has an even longer and more chequered history. This operation has been performed on patients with thalassaemia major for almost as long as the disease has been recognized (see Penberthy and Cooley (1935) and early reviews of the effects of splenectomy by Bouroncle and Doan (1964)). Over the years a rather confusing literature amassed round this subject, but, by and large, most studies seemed to demonstrate that a proportion of children with severe b thalassaemia have a reduction in transfusion requirements after the operation (Lichtman et al. 1953; Smith et al. 1955; Reemsta & Elliot 1956; Smith et al. 1960; Bouroncle & Doan 1964; Engelhard et al. 1975; Montouri et al. 1975; Modell 1977). Modell attempted to anticipate the development of hypersplenism by drawing a series of ‘standard curves’ for blood transfusions (Modell 1976, 1977). From these studies it appeared that the rate of fall of haemoglobin levels might be a useful guide to whether a splenectomy would be helpful; of 58 splenectomized patients analysed in this way, all but three had a permanent reduction in blood requirement. It had been known for many years that splenectomy, particularly if carried out early in life, made children more prone to serious infection (see Perla & Marmorston 1941). In a series of careful observations Carl Smith and colleagues in New York collected extensive evidence during the early 1960s that postsplenectomy infection was a frequent and serious complication in thalassaemic children (Smith et al. 1964). Since it was particularly common if the splenectomy had been carried out in early childhood, it became common practice to withhold the operation until children had reached at least the age of 5 years. Later, prophylactic penicillin and vaccination programmes were introduced to try to reduce the frequency of overwhelming infections in these children. As high-transfusion regimens were established, it soon became clear that splenomegaly was being seen
44
Chapter 1
less frequently (Smith et al. 1964; O’Brien et al. 1972; Necheles et al. 1974; Piomelli et al. 1974; Modell 1977). Indeed, it appeared that the presence of a large spleen in a transfusion-dependent thalassaemic child might well indicate that the transfusion regimen was inadequate. Improved management but problems remain These forms of symptomatic treatment undoubtedly transformed the lives of many thalassaemic children after the mid-1960s. But they did not completely overcome the problem of iron-loading and many young people with the disease continued to die. And for many countries in the developing world, where blood transfusion was difficult to organize and the prohibitive costs of desferrioxamine meant that it was not available for most of their patients, there was little genuine improvement in the outlook for thalassaemic children.The first report of a genuine ‘cure’ for thalassaemia came in 1982 when Thomas and colleagues from Seattle reported a successful bone-marrow transplant. Thus began a new era in the management of thalassaemia, a story which is still not complete.
1980 and after: the final unravelling of the molecular pathology of thalassaemia Background The story of the unravelling of the complex molecular pathology of the thalassaemias falls naturally into two periods. Up until the second half of the 1970s the cell nucleus remained an impenetrable black box, and it was only possible to try to make educated guesses about what might be going on at the level of the genes by studying protein synthesis, or, in the present context, haemoglobin synthesis, in the cytoplasm. In a few cases it was possible to deduce the molecular pathology from structural changes in haemoglobin associated with thalassaemia, the Lepore haemoglobins and the a-globin-chain termination mutations, for example. But for the most part all that could be done was to analyse the patterns of protein synthesis in thalassaemic cells, and, from what was found, speculate what might be happening at the DNA level. This all changed in the late 1970s when it became possible to isolate human messenger RNA and, later, the globin genes themselves.
Model building and globin synthesis Although, in retrospect, it might be said that we learnt relatively little about the molecular pathology of thalassaemia in the protein synthesis era, at least some clues emerged about its general nature. We shall not attempt to give a detailed account of the work of this period, but rather highlight just a few of the major findings (and blind alleys) which set the scene for the RNA and DNA work of the late 1970s. Much of it was directed at trying to explore a number of models of the molecular basis for thalassaemia which had been proposed in the early 1960s. The previous decade was a time of enormous excitement and productivity in the fields of molecular genetics and protein synthesis. By the early 1960s the general steps in protein synthesis had been worked out, and a great deal of research was directed at trying to understand the mechanisms of initiation, elongation and termination of peptide-chain synthesis. A variety of new techniques for studying in vitro protein synthesis were developed and the availability of relatively efficient cell-free protein synthesis systems enabled a start to be made at investigating the properties of globin messenger RNA. Structure/rate hypothesis It is not surprising therefore that thoughts about the molecular basis of the thalassaemias during this period tended to reflect current progress in the analysis of the complexities of protein synthesis. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the first hypothesis that attempted to account for defective globin production in thalassaemia revolved round the notion that this disorder might be very similar to sickle-cell disease or the other haemoglobinopathies resulting from structural haemoglobin variants — the only difference being that the amino acid substitution in thalassaemia would not alter the charge of the haemoglobin molecule and therefore might make it difficult to identify. Since some structural haemoglobin variants seemed to be synthesized relatively ineffectively compared with normal haemoglobin, it seemed reasonable to suppose that a structural change of this type might be responsible for thalassaemia.The main references to these ideas and to the work of their protagonists, Harvey Itano and Linus Pauling, were cited earlier. Perhaps the most complete statement of what
Historical perspectives became known as the structure–rate hypothesis was presented at a symposium on abnormal haemoglobins held in Ibadan in 1963 (Abnormal Haemoglobins in Africa, CIOMS 1965). There, Itano recapitulated the original hypothesis, and, based on work on the properties of the genetic code that had been published a year or two earlier, set out a number of possible mechanisms for how a structural change in a globin subunit might alter its rate of synthesis. One idea that he explored in considerable detail was the possibility of varying affinity of putative, abnormal thalassaemic b chains for a chains. After posing several alternatives, including rate-limiting steps in variant globin polypeptide chain assembly, Itano finished by suggesting that, because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, it is possible that a base substitution could generate a messenger-RNA codon that is identified by a transfer RNA that is in relatively low abundance. This, he argued, might lead to a reduced rate of globin production. In summarizing this important ‘state of the art’ lecture, Itano concluded that a mechanism involving degeneracy of the genetic code is the most likely explanation for defective globin synthesis in thalassaemia. This was a novel and interesting approach to the problem. Not only did it offer a possible explanation for the apparent inefficiency of synthesis of some structural haemoglobin variants, but it went further. In effect it left open the possibility that, even in the absence of an amino-acid substitution in a globin chain, there might still be a base change which altered a codon such that, although the normal amino acid is inserted in the right position, this process might be rate-limiting in globin synthesis because the altered codon now had to be recognized by a transfer RNA that is in short supply. At least it was an idea that could be tested, always provided that ways could be found to study the rates of assembly of globin polypeptide chains. There was no mention at the Ibadan symposium in 1963 that, at another haemoglobin meeting at Arden House in 1962, Guidotti had announced that he had sequenced a considerable number of the tryptic peptides of the b globin of a patient with b thalassaemia and found no abnormality in the amino-acid composition or sequence (Guidotti 1962).As far as we know this work was never formally published, although it was widely quoted in the years that followed as sounding the death knell of the structure–rate hypothesis.
45
Other models In October 1963 a meeting on thalassaemia was held in New York under the auspices of the New York Academy of Sciences. In one of the main presentations Vernon Ingram reviewed all the previously proposed molecular models for thalassaemia, and added a few new ones for good measure (Ingram 1964). Quoting Guidotti’s work as effectively seeing off the structure–rate hypothesis, and finding his own earlier (tap) hypothesis less appealing, Ingram went on to present a new model that attempted to explain both the diminished production of adult haemoglobin in thalassaemia and the persistence of fetal haemoglobin in hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH). In a rather complex series of speculations Ingram borrowed freely from the elegant operon model for the regulation of enzyme production which had been worked out so beautifully in microbial systems by Jacob and Monod (1961). Noting that at least two authors had already speculated that HPFH might be due to an operator gene mutation (Neel et al. 1961; Motulsky 1962), he suggested that, normally, the b, d and g genes might be under the regulation of an operator gene which is also involved in the regulation of the switch from g- to b-chain production. He postulated that b thalassaemia might result from a mutation at the b-globin locus such that abnormal messenger RNA is produced, which, in turn, results in a blockage of the ribosomes and defective globin synthesis. Except for restating Itano’s suggestions about degeneracy of the code he did not speculate further on what the abnormality of b-globin messenger RNA might be. But, using the operon model, he suggested that HPFH could be pictured as a mutation of a repressor molecule, such that it is incapable of combining with an environmental modifier of globingene switching. It is not surprising that the operon was freely adapted by many other workers in the early 1960s as a possible model for the regulation of globin-gene expression (Neel et al. 1961; Guidotti 1962; Motulsky 1962; Sturgeon et al. 1963; Zuckerkandl 1964). The sheer elegance of the work of Jacob and Monod suggested that, though E. coli is a long evolutionary step from human beings, it is possible that similar mechanisms might be responsible for the regulation of protein synthesis in higher organisms. In essence, an operon consists of a group of linked genes of similar metabolic function, the activity of which is controlled
46
Chapter 1
by a closely linked operator gene. The action of the operator is always in cis, that is, on the same chromosome. The operator itself is under the control of what was originally called a regulator gene, the product of which is a specific repressor that acts in both cis and trans, and when bound to the operator inhibits the expression of all the genes in the operon. Because of its steric properties the repressor can exist in several different states, depending on its interaction with various metabolites, thus allowing induction or repression of sets of genes of related function. The only thing that the globin-gene cluster had in common with an operon was that it consisted of a group of linked genes of related function! But, given the wonderful versatility of the operon it was possible, of course, to ascribe almost any observation in the haemoglobin field to a putative mutation involving either the operator itself, the regulator or its repressor product. The major problem was, of course, that none of these ideas were open to any form of experimental verification! In 1963 Nance proposed quite a different mechanism for the cause of thalassaemia, based largely on Smithies’ work on haptoglobin genetics (Smithies 1964) and Baglioni’s interpretation of how Hb Lepore had arisen (Baglioni 1962). In short, Nance suggested that there might have been a series of unequal but homologous crossovers at the gdb-gene complex. From this model he was able to derive many of the thalassaemia genotypes and phenotypes. Thus by the mid-1960s, although there was no shortage of models and hypotheses for the molecular basis of the thalassaemias, it was not obvious where to go next.The only hope for further progress seemed to rest on studies of haemoglobin synthesis. Globin synthesis in thalassaemia In the early 1960s several groups made a start at attempting to dissect some of the steps in haemoglobin synthesis in the thalassaemias, in either intact cells or cell-free systems. Some of the most important initial studies were made by Paul Marks and colleagues in New York (Burka & Marks 1963; Marks & Burka 1964a,b; Marks et al. 1964).They found that the distribution of radioactivity among polysomes isolated from labelled reticulocytes of normals and b-thalassaemics was essentially the same, indicating that, in general, similar-sized polysomes were active in protein synthesis in both cases. Later, Bank and
Marks (1966) found that b-thalassaemia polysomes in a cell-free system respond to the addition of poly(U) by directing polyphenylalanine synthesis in the same way as normal polysomes. Furthermore, a cell-free system containing b-thalassaemia polysomes was not significantly stimulated by supernate fractions from either normal or rabbit reticulocytes. It was concluded that the defect in b+ thalassaemia was probably in the mRNA/ribosome complex, either a qualitative reduction in b-globin mRNA, or a reduced rate of initiation or translation. Further confirmation that b+-thalassaemia ribosomes are normal came several years later from the work of Gilbert et al. (1970) and Nienhuis et al. (1971), who showed that messenger RNA prepared from rabbit reticulocytes directs the synthesis of rabbit a and b chains in a cell-free system, using either normal or bthalassaemia ribosomes. Globin assembly in thalassaemia When methods for measuring the relative rates of aand b-globin-chain synthesis were developed in the mid-1960s (Weatherall et al. 1965) it was hoped that it might be possible to learn something about the assembly of the globin polypeptide chains by studies of their relative specific activities after incubation of reticulocytes for short periods with radioactive amino acids. However, because of rapid exchange of globin subunits in experiments of this type it soon became clear that a more direct approach was required. In the early 1960s one of us had been fortunate enough to hear a seminar by Howard Dintzis describing his elegant experiments in rabbit reticulocytes, in which he proved unequivocally that globin polypeptide chain synthesis begins at the aminoterminal end and extends sequentially to the C terminus. By labelling reticulocytes, Dintzis was able to plot the growth of a globin chain, both in the soluble cell fraction and on the ribosomes (Dintzis 1961). Not only was it possible to determine, albeit approximately, the time it takes to synthesize a peptide chain but it was also feasible to describe the pattern of addition of amino acids to a growing globin polypeptide chain (Fig. 1.15). It occurred to us that these methods could be applied to human reticulocytes, and, in particular, to the reticulocytes of thalassaemic patients. In this way, we reasoned, it might be feasible at least to exclude some of the models that were currently being aired
Historical perspectives Ribosomes
Soluble haemoglobin
Time (t1) Time (t2)
R
Time (t3)
R
Time (t4)
Start
R
R
a
Finish
b
c
d
e
f
Start
g
Start (a)
47
a
Finish
Finish
b
c
d
e
Start
f
g Finish
Peptides
Peptides
100 90
Fig. 1.15 Assembly of the a- and b-globin chains in normal and b-thalassaemic red cells. (a) The classical experiment of Dintzis (1961) to demonstrate that peptide chains are synthesized sequentially from the N terminus.The wavy lines represent the addition of radioactivity to growing peptide chains at different times of incubation of reticulocytes with radioactive amino acids. If peptide chains are synthesized sequentially from the N terminus, in the soluble haemoglobin the C-terminal ends will be labelled first, and vice versa on the ribosomes. (b) Normal globinchain initiation and assembly in b thalassaemia.The hatched regions show the normal range of assembly and the dark line shows the results obtained from the red cells of patients with b thalassaemia. From Clegg et al. (1968b).
Relative amount of tritium (%)
80 70 60 50 40 30 3 minutes range
20
6 minutes range 10 0 (b)
NH2
9 minutes range 20
40
100 120 140 146 COOH Residue number
60
80
48
Chapter 1
about the molecular pathology of thalassaemia — rate-limiting steps in mRNA translation or termination, for example. In the event it took almost 5 years to adapt experiments designed to study globin synthesis in the numerous reticulocytes of phenylhydrazine-treated rabbits to the relatively small numbers available from normal humans and thalassaemics. The results of these difficult experiments, which used reticulocytes from patients with b thalassaemia, showed that the patterns and times of assembly of the b-globin polypeptide chains did not differ from normal. Since in this experimental system the pattern of globin labelling depends on the translation times for the a- or b-globin mRNAs and the release of finished peptide chains from the ribosomes, it appeared that the mechanisms of translation and chain termination were not affected by b+thalassaemia mutations, at least those that were analysed in this way (Clegg & Weatherall 1967; Clegg et al. 1968b; Weatherall & Clegg 1969) (Fig. 1.15). These findings essentially ruled out many of the previously suggested models for the pathogenesis of the thalassaemias and suggested that the primary defect was most likely to be a reduced amount of messenger RNA for the affected globin. (In retrospect it is interesting to reflect that from what is known now about the molecular pathology of the b+ thalassaemias in Thailand, from where the reticulocytes for these experiments were obtained, this conclusion was correct.) But it still remained possible that some forms of b thalassaemia result from defective initiation of globin polypeptide-chain synthesis. The measurement of peptide-chain initiation rates presented even greater problems, but evidence was obtained that this phase of protein synthesis, too, is normal in b+ thalassaemia. Careful studies of normal human reticulocytes suggested that b chains are made on larger polysomes than a chains (Hunt et al. 1968; Clegg et al. 1971a), a curious fact that was later explained when it was found that the rate of initiation on b-globin messenger RNA is faster than that on a (Lodish 1974). It was found that in b+ thalassaemia the distribution of nascent globin polypeptide chains on polysomes is identical to normal (Cividalli et al. 1974b; Lodish 1974). These findings, and further studies of globin-chain initiation in the b thalassaemias, suggested that this process is normal (Crystal et al. 1973). All these experiments had attempted to determine
the level of the defect in protein synthesis in forms of b thalassaemia in which some b globin was synthesized. In 1969 Baglioni and colleagues pursued the idea that b thalassaemias in which there was no bchain production might be caused by mutations that generate premature chain termination codons. If this were the case, it was reasoned, it might be possible to demonstrate short peptide fragments which would have resulted from the premature termination of peptide-chain synthesis. Several investigators followed this lead but no such fragments were identified (Baglioni et al. 1969; Dreyfus et al. 1972). A frustrating interlude: Ferrara b0 thalassaemia To this extent the results of these difficult studies were undoubtedly correct and were borne out by later molecular work. The only exception was the extraordinary saga of what became known as ‘Ferrara b0 thalassaemia’. In a series of biosynthetic and in vivo studies workers from Ferrara showed that the local form of b0 thalassaemia seemed to be unique in that the underlying defect could, at least in part, be corrected by a soluble factor from normal reticulocytes. And, even more remarkably, it appeared that patients with this disorder started to synthesize small amounts of normal b globin after blood transfusion (Conconi et al. 1972; Conconi & del Senno 1974). Intrigued by these findings many workers attempted to reproduce at least the in vitro results but this never proved possible (Pritchard et al. 1976; Ramirez et al. 1976; Ottolenghi et al. 1977). Many years later the form of b0 thalassaemia which is common in Ferrara was found to be the result of a simple premature chain-termination mutation. It is very difficult, even in retrospect, to understand how these findings arose; this brief and frustrating diversion constitutes one of the few still unexplained mysteries of the thalassaemia story. The end of the protein-synthesis era The end of the 1960s saw, to all intents and purposes, the last attempts to identify the molecular defects in the thalassaemias by means of studies of protein synthesis. It had been a period of difficult and frustrating experimentation, and most of those who were left in the field were by now fairly confident that the defect lay in globin messenger RNA, either that it is quantitatively deficient or that it is rendered suffi-
Historical perspectives ciently abnormal to be unable to participate in protein synthesis. Messenger RNA analysis in b thalassaemia Defective messenger RNA function In the early 1970s several groups attempted to measure the role of messenger RNA (mRNA) in b thalassaemia by isolating mRNA from thalassaemic reticulocytes and assaying it for b-globin-synthesizing activity in heterologous cell-free systems. The first experiments of this type were carried out by Nienhuis and Anderson (1971) using a rabbit reticulocyte lysate system, and by Benz and Forget (1971) using a mouse ascites tumour system. Both these groups showed that, whereas mRNA isolated from normal reticulocytes directed the synthesis of equal amounts of a and b chains, mRNA from reticulocytes of patients with b thalassaemia made fewer b chains than a chains. These observations were confirmed and extended by many other workers using similar or other cell-free systems (Dow et al. 1973; Kan et al. 1973; Natta et al. 1973; Nienhuis et al. 1973; Benz et al. 1974; Forget et al. 1974a; Gambino et al. 1974; Benz et al. 1975; Pritchard et al. 1976). While these studies clearly demonstrated that there is a deficiency of functional b messenger RNA in b-thalassaemic cells, because the cell-free systems used measured activity and not quantity, they were unable to clarify whether the observed reduction in biological activity of the mRNA was due to its being present in decreased amounts. The possibility still remained that b-thalassaemic cells contained normal amounts of b mRNA with a greatly impaired or nonexistent capacity to function normally in protein synthesis. The methods which allowed these questions to be finally resolved, and, incidentally, to move the thalassaemia field into the molecular era, came from a completely different direction. Quantification of messenger RNA In the early 1970s the discovery of an enzyme called reverse transcriptase in certain tumour viruses made it possible to synthesize complementary DNA (cDNA) from mRNA templates (Baltimore 1970; Temin & Mizutani 1970). By obtaining DNA from reticulocytes, it was possible to synthesize radioactively labelled a- and b-globin cDNAs which could
49
then be used to analyse the levels of mRNA in the reticulocytes of patients with thalassaemia by molecular hybridization. In the early experiments cDNAs were made from rabbit mRNA templates, and relied on cross-hybridization between rabbit and human nucleic acid sequences for their success. Later, highly purified cDNAs specific for individual a-, b- and gglobin mRNA sequences were made. The first workers to use these new methods successfully were Kacian et al. (1973) and Housman et al. (1973). Using reasonably pure cDNA hybridization probes Kacian examined five b+- and two b0thalassaemic patients. In five cases, considerably reduced levels of b-globin mRNA were observed, although in two the reduction was less than expected on the basis of cell-free experiments, raising the possibility that substantial levels of inactive b-globin mRNA might be present. Housman et al. (1974) and Forget et al. (1975), using purer cDNA probes, obtained similar results. These early hybridization experiments were thus in broad agreement that b mRNA levels are reduced in b+ thalassaemia and the results were more or less in line with the amount of globin imbalance seen in cell-free and whole-cell protein synthesis experiments. Encouraged by these findings, many workers attempted to analyse the reticulocytes of patients with b0 thalassaemia for b-globin mRNA.Although it was assumed that very little would be found, these studies turned out to be much more complicated, and, incidentally, gave the first real indication of the remarkable diversity of the molecular defects which were likely to underlie the b thalassaemias. Initial findings suggested that very little or no bglobin mRNA is present in b0 thalassaemias (Forget et al. 1974b; Housman et al. 1974; Ottolenghi et al. 1975; Forget et al. 1976; Ramirez et al. 1976;Tolstoshev et al. 1976; Comi et al. 1977; Godet et al. 1977; Benz et al. 1978; Old et al. 1978b; Ramirez et al. 1978). In some cases, however, low levels of hybridization to b cDNA probes were observed which could not always with certainty be ascribed to contaminating d mRNA sequences (Forget & Hillman 1977). On the other hand, Old et al. (1978b) and Benz et al. (1978) showed clearly that, given the availability of highly purified cDNA probes and the use of stringent hybridization conditions, b-globin mRNA levels were less than one per cent in some b0 thalassaemias. In 1975 Kan et al. (1975e) reported that substantial amounts of b-globin mRNA were present in reticulo-
50
Chapter 1
cytes and bone marrow of two Chinese patients with b0 thalassaemia, a finding that had been presaged in a paper by Kacian et al. (1973), in which a much less sophisticated hybridization analysis had been used. In the same paper, Kan et al. also described an Italian patient with b0 thalassaemia in whose red-cell precursors there appeared to be considerable amounts of b-globin mRNA. Further evidence that this was genuine b-globin mRNA came from work of Temple et al. (1977). Other workers also observed that some cases of b0 thalassaemia might have variable levels of non-functional b-globin mRNA. Old et al. (1978b) and Benz et al. (1978) analysed mRNA isolated from a number of patients from a wide variety of ethnic groups and found considerable heterogeneity at the molecular level. The overall results fell into three main categories: (1) no b-globin mRNA detectable; (2) significant amounts of (apparently) full-length but non-functional b-globin mRNA; and (3) structurally abnormal b-globin mRNA. Messenger RNA structure Attempts were now made to try to characterize the defective b-globin mRNAs found in some of these patients with b0 thalassaemia. Using cDNA probes specific for RNA sequences in the 5¢ and 3¢ noncoding regions of b-globin mRNA, Old et al. (1978b) were able to demonstrate that, in the case of a British homozygote with full-length b mRNA, the 3¢ and 5¢ non-coding sequences were intact, but that a hexanucleotide primer specific for the Met Val His coding sequence at the 5¢ (N-terminal) end of the b-chain mRNA bound very inefficiently to the bthalassaemia RNA.This suggested a defect in or near the chain initiation site. In contrast, a Saudi Arab and an Indian b0-thalassaemic had b-globin mRNAs which hybridized incompletely to the b-globin cDNA at the 3¢ non-coding sequences, suggesting a deletion or insertion of approximately 150 bases in the extreme 3¢ coding and non-coding sequences. These extremely encouraging findings were extended by Chang and Kan (1979), who determined the nucleotide sequence of non-functional b mRNA from a Chinese patient with b0 thalassaemia. They found that the AAG codon for lysine at position b17 had mutated to the chain termination codon UAG, thus leading to premature chain termination with the production of short, 16-residue N-terminal fragments
of the b chain. These findings were elegantly confirmed by translating the defective b-globin mRNA in a cell-free system in the presence of a UAG tyrosine suppressor tRNA; under these conditions full length b-globin polypeptide chains were synthesized (Chang et al. 1979). The final twist to this important period of exploration of the b thalassaemias came in the late 1970s when two groups of workers found substantial amounts of b-globin-like RNA sequences in the nucleus but not in the cytoplasm of red-cell precursors (Comi et al. 1977; Benz et al. 1978).These findings suggested that in these cases of b0 thalassaemia there might be a defect in processing, or, alternatively, extreme instability of b-globin mRNA. Messenger RNA in a thalassaemia Globin synthesis studies carried out in the mid-1960s and early 1970s established conclusively that a-chain synthesis is reduced in a+ thalassaemia and totally abolished in a0 thalassaemia. In the a0-thalassaemia homozygote studied by Weatherall et al. (1970), an exhaustive search for a-chain fragments also failed to provide any evidence for a nonsense mutation leading to premature chain termination. In a+ thalassaemia (studied in the form of HbH disease) the reduced rate of a-chain synthesis did not appear to be due to any defects at the translational level, since translation times measured by pulse labelling experiments were in the normal range (Weatherall & Clegg 1974). Later work showed that a-chain polysomes in a thalassaemia were the normal size, indicating normal rates of chain initiation (Cividalli et al. 1974b). These early studies thus provided indirect evidence that a deficiency or absence of functional aglobin mRNA is the cause of the reduced synthesis of a chains. Direct evidence that this is the case was obtained when it became possible to isolate globin mRNA and assay it in a variety of different heterologous cell-free systems (Benz et al. 1973; Grossbard et al. 1973; Pritchard et al. 1974; Natta et al. 1976; Pritchard et al. 1976). Although these experiments with cell-free systems showed that there is deficiency of functional a-globin mRNA in HbH disease, the possibility remained that substantial amounts of non-translatable aglobin mRNA might be present. However, with the development of quantitative assays for globin
Historical perspectives mRNAs it was shown conclusively by DNA hybridization that there is no a-globin mRNA in a0thalassaemia homozygotes (Kan et al. 1974d; Ramirez et al. 1975). Similarly, a reduced amount of a-globin mRNA was found consistently in reticulocytes from patients with HbH disease (Housman et al. 1973; Kacian et al. 1973; Natta et al. 1976; Hunt et al. 1980). Further corroboration of these findings came from experiments in which a and b mRNAs in HbH disease were fractionated by gel electrophoresis in 99% formamide, characterized by nucleotide sequencing and quantified (Forget et al. 1975; Kazazian et al. 1975). Many of these experiments also showed that aglobin mRNA is present in excess in globin mRNA obtained from normal reticulocytes (Old et al. 1978a; Hunt et al. 1980). These findings were, of course, consistent with the studies mentioned earlier which indicated that b-globin mRNA is initiated at a faster rate than a-globin mRNA, necessitating an excess of aglobin mRNA to achieve balanced globin synthesis (Hunt et al. 1968; Clegg et al. 1971a; Lodish 1971; Lodish & Jacobsen 1972; Lodish 1974) — if, as seemed likely, translation rates for a- and b-globin mRNAs are similar. This observation was of particular importance when attempts were made to determine the magnitude of the deficiency of a-globin mRNA in different forms of thalassaemia. The purity of the probes and sensitivity of these techniques were developed to such a degree that, by 1980, Hunt and colleagues were able to show a clear separation of levels of a-globin mRNA between normals, a+-thalassaemia or a0-thalassaemia carriers, and patients with HbH disease. Probing the globin genes in thalassaemia Gene deletions in a thalassaemia In the early 1970s thoughts were already turning to the possibility of exploring the notion that some forms of thalassaemia could be caused by gene deletions by using cDNA/DNA hybridization to probe for the presence or absence of globin genes. After demonstrating the complete absence of a-globin synthesis or a-globin fragments in a baby with the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome (Weatherall et al. 1970), we approached Dr John Paul’s group in Glasgow, who had had some experience of this type of molecular
51
hybridization, to discuss whether such an experiment might be feasible using blood and tissues from an infant with the same syndrome. A sample of fetal liver was obtained from an affected infant from Bangkok in whom we had been able to confirm that there was a complete absence of a-chain synthesis. DNA was isolated from the liver and hybridized with specific a- and b-cDNA probes complementary to human a- and b-globin mRNA (DNA) sequences. It was found that the hydropic fetal liver cells contained normal amounts of b-globin DNA, but a more or less complete absence of a-chain DNA. In DNA prepared from the tissues of normal infants, the expected amounts of a- and b-DNA sequences were present (Fig. 1.16). It turned out that Y.W. Kan had set up a similar collaboration with Harold Varmus in San Francisco at about the same time and had obtained an identical result using the tissues of a Chinese baby with the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome. The results of these experiments were published side by side in 1974 (Ottolenghi et al. 1974; Taylor et al. 1974). These studies were the first direct demonstration of a gene deletion as the cause of human disease and were subsequently confirmed (Ramirez et al. 1975) and extended using more stringent techniques; Old et al. (1977) showed that there are less than 0.2 a genes/diploid genome in homozygous a0-thalassaemia DNA. As there were known to be structural similarities between the a and z chains, it was suggested that this residual binding represented cross hybridization of the a-cDNA probe to zchain genes. These encouraging results were soon augmented by some elegant experiments by Kan et al. (1975a), who found that the hybridization pattern of HbH disease DNA to specific a-cDNA probes was indistinguishable from that of an artificial 1/3 mixture of normal and Hb Bart’s hydrops DNA, indicating that HbH disease DNA has only one-quarter of the normal complement of a genes. Since there are no a genes on the chromosome derived from the a0-thalassaemia parent, these results suggested that the chromosome derived from the a+-thalassaemia parent must only have one a gene, instead of the normal two.This experiment established conclusively that two of the common forms of a thalassaemia, a0 thalassaemia and a+ thalassaemia, seen in Oriental populations are the result of deletions of one or both a-chain genes from the haploid genome, respectively.
52
Chapter 1 Normal
Bart's hydrops
Globin genes in b thalassaemia As mentioned earlier, b-globin mRNA studies had already pointed to considerable molecular heterogeneity of the b thalassaemics. Using b-globin cDNA probes it was soon possible to verify that in the Chinese cases described by Kan et al. (1975e) and Temple et al. (1977), in which there were considerable levels of non-functional b-globin mRNA, the bglobin genes were intact. Subsequently a number of cases of homozygous b0 thalassaemia which were completely lacking in b-globin mRNA were analysed by solution hybridization. In each case the globin genes were found to be largely intact (Ramirez et al. 1976;Tolstoshev et al. 1976; Godet et al. 1977). Gene deletions in db thalassaemia and related disorders
Total DNA
Total DNA Hy
br
ize
rid
idi
b Hy
ze
cDNA Reverse
transcriptase
mRNA (αβγ)
Fetal or adult reticulocytes
Fig. 1.16 The experimental design to probe the a-globin genes by cDNA/DNA hybridization.This experiment by Ottolenghi et al. (1974) and a similar experiment by Taylor et al. (1974), which showed a major deletion of the a-globin genes in babies with the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome, were the first to demonstrate directly a deletion as the basis for a human genetic disease.The details of the experiment are described in the text.
While these seminal results from the application of cDNA/DNA hybridization to the study of a thalassaemia were being obtained, similar approaches were being applied to b thalassaemia. Although the findings were less spectacular they provided some valuable information in the period just before globin genes could be examined directly by mapping and sequencing.
During this period molecular hybridization was also applied to some of the variants of b thalassaemia, notably db thalassaemia and hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH). Globin synthesis studies in the homozygous state for db thalassaemia showed that there was a complete absence of d- and b-globin production (Russo et al. 1973a) and it was subsequently found that there is no d- or b-globin mRNA in reticulocytes from these patients (Forget et al. 1974b). Globin gene analysis was carried out on three Sicilian db-thalassaemia homozygotes by Ottolenghi et al. (1976) and repeated on one of them by Ramirez et al. (1976). The results of these experiments suggested that at least 75% of the normal band d-gene complement is deleted from the diploid genome. Similar studies were applied to some forms of HPFH at about the same time. Before describing them we must remind ourselves about what was known about this condition by the mid-1970s. In 1976 globin synthesis studies carried out by the authors in collaboration with Samuel Charache showed that HPFH homozygotes have imbalanced a- and bglobin synthesis and a complete absence of d- and b-chain production (Charache et al. 1976).This observation suggested that this form of HPFH is an extremely mild form of db thalassaemia in which the absence of d- and b-chain production is almost but not entirely compensated for by the production of g chains. Further clues to the likely molecular mechanisms involved in HPFH were obtained by studies
Historical perspectives of the structure of the associated HbF. In the type found in black populations, both Gg and Ag chains were present (Huisman et al. 1969; Ringelhann et al. 1970; Huisman et al. 1971; Ringelhann et al. 1977). However, a less common form of HPFH was identified in black populations a little later in which only Gg chains were present in the HbF and, in addition, there appeared to be some b-globin synthesis directed by the same chromosome as the HPFH determinant (Huisman et al. 1975b; Friedman & Schwartz 1976; Tatsis 1978; Higgs et al. 1979a). And, to complicate the situation even further, Huisman et al. (1970b) found that the HbF in a form of HPFH that had been first described in Greece by Fessas and Stamatoyannopoulos (1964) has non-a chains that consisted entirely of Ag chains. As mentioned earlier, another form of HPFH had been reported by Huisman et al. (1972) which was associated with the presence of Hb Kenya, a variant that turned out to have normal a chains combined with non-a chains that are gb-fusion chains. When the non-a globin of fetal haemoglobin was analysed it turned out to consist only of Gg chains. Thus it appeared that this variant had resulted from an abnormal crossover between the Ag- and b-globin genes, which had deleted the 3¢ end of the Ag gene, the entire d-chain gene and the 5¢ end of the b gene. Taken together, all these observations suggested that many forms of HPFH might result from differentsized gene deletions. By applying the cDNA/mRNA and cDNA/DNA hybridization techniques outlined earlier, several groups found there was a complete absence of bglobin mRNA in HPFH homozygotes and that at least two-thirds of the d- and b-globin gene sequences had been deleted (Kan et al. 1975d; Forget et al. 1976; Ramirez et al. 1976). In attempting to further extend these findings Ramirez et al. (1976) showed that DNA from a Sicilian db-thalassaemia homozygote hybridized to b cDNA to a slightly higher extent than the black HPFH DNA, suggesting that the latter has a bigger deletion. However, further refinement of these studies, achieved by using cDNA probes specific for the 5¢ and 3¢ ends of the b(db)-globin genes, showed that there was no hybridization with either probe in the homozygous HPFH DNA, suggesting a complete deletion of the b- and d-chain genes.
53
The end of the analysis of globin genes by indirect approaches Towards the end of the 1970s, techniques for direct analysis of the globin genes were becoming available. In effect this brought to an end a period of over 20 years in which the molecular pathology of the thalassaemias was studied by the indirect phenotypic approaches of globin synthesis and mRNA analysis. Considering the difficulties involved it had been a remarkably successful phase in the exploration of these diseases. By now it was known that the common Oriental a thalassaemias result from the deletion of either one or both of the linked a-globin genes. The other common form of a thalassaemia in Orientals had been identified as a mutation in the a-globinchain termination codon. It was known that the b thalassaemias are highly heterogeneous at the molecular level, that very few of them result from gene deletions, and that, at least in one case, the disease is caused by a mutation which produces a premature chain termination codon. And it had also been established that the db thalassaemias and some forms of HPFH are due to deletions of different sizes that involve the b- and d-globin genes and, in some cases, the Ag genes. The scene was set therefore for the direct exploration of the globin genes and for the final elucidation of the molecular pathology of the many different forms of thalassaemia. New technology: the structure and diversity of the human globin genes During the late 1970s and early 1980s several new analytical techniques were developed that were to revolutionize the study of the globin disorders and, later, the whole of human genetics. Southern blotting The discovery of restriction enzymes, that is, enzymes that cut DNA at specific base sequences, allowed DNA to be fractionated precisely and reproducibly. In 1975 Southern introduced a form of hybridization in which one of the components in the reaction, the DNA under study, is immobilized on a cellulose nitrate filter. The beauty of this method was that it made it possible to transfer DNA from gel electrophoresis to these filters by blotting (Southern
54
Chapter 1
1975). Hence fragments of DNA separated on the basis of their size by electrophoresis could be assayed for the presence or absence of specific genes. In this way it became feasible to produce maps of genes and their surrounding regions of DNA (Fig. 1.17). And the advent of recombinant DNA technology made it possible to clone, that is, selective purify and amplify, a chosen DNA sequence. These methods soon became extremely sophisticated, to the point that whole ‘libraries’ of cloned DNA fragments representing the entire human genome were available for study. By gene mapping it was possible to build up a picture of the physical organization and linkage of genes on chromosomes. Using this general approach a detailed map of the order and linkage of the globin genes was constructed in the late 1970s. This work provided direct physical evidence that, gratifyingly, confirmed all the gene arrangements which had been tentatively surmised from earlier genetic studies. What could not have been deduced from these studies, however, was that all the globin genes, and most mammalian genes for that matter, turned out to contain one or more non-coding inserts, or intervening sequences (Flavell et al. 1978; Lawn et al. 1978;
Mears et al. 1978b; Smithies et al. 1978; Bernards et al. 1979b; Little et al. 1979; Proudfoot & Baralle 1979). Since the intervening sequences were not found in mature messenger RNA it followed that they would have to be removed from the primary transcript during the maturation of mRNA in the cell nucleus. The structure of the globin genes Following the advent of gene cloning and sequences, by the beginning of the 1980s the complete nucleotide sequence of the five human non-a-globin genes and parts of their flanking regions had been determined (Baralle et al. 1980; Lawn et al. 1980; Slightom et al. 1980; Spritz et al. 1980). These studies showed that the 5¢ non-coding regions of these genes contain a number of regulatory regions that are homologous with those found in genes of other species. They also demonstrated that within the nona-globin gene cluster there are at least two genes with significant sequence homology to functional b genes but which have mutations that prevent their expression. Such pseudogenes, as they were called, were also found in corresponding places in the b-globin gene clusters of other species. At the same time equally
Gene for study Cloned DNA or cDNA Cellular DNA Radioactively labelled to make gene probe Cleaved with restriction enzyme
DNA fragments
Agarose gel electrophoresis
Transferred to nitrocellulose
Hybridization with labelled probe
Autoradiography on X-ray film to 'find' gene fragment
Fig. 1.17 Southern blotting.The principle behind the technique which made it possible to analyse the structure of the globin genes for the first time.
Historical perspectives rapid progress was made in analysing the arrangements of genes in the z/a-globin-gene cluster and in determining the sequence of the linked a-globin genes and of the DNA which surrounds them (Lauer et al. 1980; Liebhaber et al. 1980; Michelson & Orkin 1980; Proudfoot & Maniatis 1980). It is beyond the scope of this book to give detailed reference for the extraordinary amount of work that went into defining the fine structure of the globin genes during this extremely productive period. Excellent reviews of progress over this time are given by Proudfoot et al. (1980), Maniatis et al. (1980, 1981) and Bunn and Forget (1986). Restriction-fragment-length polymorphisms Another important discovery that was made at about this time was that sequence variations might be relatively common among the globin gene clusters (Jeffreys 1979). Jeffreys found two polymorphisms for the enzyme Hind III in the g genes of a number of individuals and estimated that perhaps one percent of nucleotide sites might be polymorphic. Subsequent work showed that although such restrictionfragment-length polymorphisms (RFLPs) are spread throughout the globin-gene clusters, they do not occur in a random fashion. Rather, it was established that they are present in linked groups called haplotypes (Antonarakis et al. 1982; Higgs et al. 1986). Within any particular population there are usually a small number of haplotypes that are common and a much larger number that are rare. As well as providing a valuable approach to studying population affinities and evolution, it turned out that linkage of particular haplotypes to different forms of thalassaemia offered a valuable approach to the study of thalassaemia mutations, both within individual families and in populations. In the event, as several research groups started to explore the globin genes by gene mapping in the late 1970s, one of the first observations that was to be of considerable clinical importance related to RFLPs. Kan and Dozy (1978b), using the restriction enzyme Hpa I, found that the b-globin gene of normal individuals is located on a fragment of DNA approximately 7.6 kb (kilobase or 1000 nucleotide bases). However, using the same enzyme for cutting the DNA of patients with sickle-cell disease, they found that the b globin was on a larger piece of DNA, approximately 13 kb. It appeared therefore that the
55
sickle-cell mutation was on a chromosome which also carried a polymorphism of the DNA outside the coding area for the b chain, and further studies showed that this was a very strong association. The same workers proceeded to study the DNA from amniotic-fluid fibroblasts of a fetus at risk for sicklecell disease. The DNA had both 7.6- and 13-kb bglobin gene-containing fragments, indicating that the fetus had sickle-cell trait (Kan & Dozy 1978a). It was clear that, if other polymorphisms of DNA could be found which are associated with particular mutations of the b-globin genes, the b thalassaemias for example, this approach might have more general application for the early prenatal diagnosis of these conditions. These predictions were found to be correct by Little et al. (1980), and over subsequent years this approach was used widely for the prenatal detection of at least some forms of b thalassaemia.
Mapping the globin genes in thalassaemia a Thalassaemia The scene was now set for the direct identification of some of the mutations that underlie different forms of thalassaemia. Since it was already known that at least some common forms of a thalassaemia are due to gene deletions it is not surprising that, during the first year or two that gene mapping was applied to the study of thalassaemia, progress in sorting out the molecular pathology of a thalassaemia was more rapid than for b thalassaemia. In 1978 Orkin et al. found that the a-genecontaining fragments generated by EcoR1 or Hind III digestion of normal DNA are missing in Hb Bart’s hydrops DNA. In fact, no fragments of any size in digests of restriction endonuclease-treated hydrops DNA hybridized to a-specific probes, confirming the earlier soluble hybridization studies that indicated that the a-gene sequences are completely deleted in homozygous a0 thalassaemia. It was subsequently found, using DNA from south-east Asian patients with HbH disease, that one of the pair of a genes in the haploid genome is deleted in a+ thalassaemia (Embury et al. 1979; Orkin et al. 1979b). Some discrepancies between the mapping data in these two studies suggested that there might be heterogeneity of the deletions which cause a+ thalassaemia. These predictions were confirmed when it was demon-
56
Chapter 1
strated that a+ thalassaemia can arise by at least two different mechanisms, both similar to that which generates the Lepore haemoglobins; these different variants appeared to have resulted from unequal crossing over between the two linked a-globin genes, resulting in two different-sized deletions, 3.7 and 4.2 kb, respectively (Embury et al. 1980). A consequence of unequal crossing over between mispaired a genes is that one of the chromosomes produced should contain three a genes, while the other would have a single a gene. Examples of haplotypes containing three a genes were discovered in the same year (Goossens et al. 1980; Higgs et al. 1980a). As soon as gene mapping became available it was used to investigate some of the long-standing puzzles about the nature of a thalassaemia in other populations, notably Africans. It was found that individuals of this ethnic background who have the clinical phenotype of heterozygous a0 thalassaemia are, in fact, homozygotes for deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (Dozy et al. 1979b; Higgs et al. 1980a,b). It turned out that the prevalence of a+ thalassaemia in some African populations is about 25%, and that the homozygous state for a+ thalassaemia is responsible for the presence of approximately 5–10% of Hb Bart’s in cord blood (Higgs et al. 1980b). These observations explained the results of earlier studies that had demonstrated a clearly definable athalassaemia-like disorder in association with the presence of Hb Bart’s in blacks. The reason for the lack of HbH disease in this population was also now clear; a0 thalassaemia is extremely rare. During this extremely productive period in athalassaemia research it also became apparent that a0 thalassaemia is very heterogeneous. By 1980 Lauer et al. had determined the overall structure of the z/aglobin gene cluster and had found that the z genes, like the a genes, are duplicated.At the time, the order of genes appeared to be z2–z1–ya–a2–a1. When zgene probes became available it was possible to study the extent of the long deletions that give rise to a0 thalassaemia. Pressley et al. (1980c) found that the two common a0 determinants seen in south-east Asia and the Mediterranean are due to differentsized deletions; while the former removes both a genes and the ya gene, but spares the two z genes, the latter, in addition, involves the z1 gene. This was a particularly interesting observation since, in the Greek hydropic infants studied by Pressley et al. (1980a), there was a significant amount of Hb Port-
land (z2g2) present in the peripheral blood.Thus the z chains could only have been derived from the expression of the z2 gene. It was suspected at the time, and later confirmed, that the z1 gene is, in fact, a pseudogene. Two other a0-thalassaemia determinants were characterized at about the same time and these appeared to be different from the common southeast Asian and Mediterranean varieties. Orkin et al. (1979b) and later Orkin and Michelson (1980) described a long deletion, extending for at least 25 kb, which started at codon 57 of the a1 gene and removed all the other genes in the a-globin-gene cluster. Another example of a chromosome containing a dysfunctional a gene was reported by Pressley et al. (1980a); in this case a deletion of 5.2 kb removed the a2 gene and 5¢ end of the a1 gene, leaving the 3¢ end of the latter intact. These seminal gene-mapping studies also demonstrated that there were at least some heterozygous athalassaemics in different populations in whom both a-globin genes are intact (Orkin et al. 1979b; Pressley et al. 1980b). It was assumed that these ‘non-deletion’ forms of a thalassaemia might result from point mutations or other changes that could not be detected by restriction-enzyme mapping. A year or two later, when cloning and sequencing technology was adapted to the study of the haemoglobin genes, these predictions turned out to be correct.As we shall see in later chapters there are many different nondeletional forms of a thalassaemia, as there are many different deletional forms of a0 and a+ thalassaemia. It is remarkable to reflect that in less than 3 years a relatively complete picture of the molecular pathology of the a thalassaemias was obtained by Southern blotting technology.Although many details remained to be worked out, and there were still some surprises to come, the basis for a genuine understanding of the reasons for the remarkable diversity of a thalassaemia had been laid. Interestingly, as these experiments were being carried out, a new and completely unexpected twist to the a-thalassaemia story emerged. In 1981 Weatherall et al. (1981a) described three children of North European extraction with moderate-to-severe mental retardation and dysmorphic features who also had a mild form of HbH disease. The family findings were quite unlike those observed in any other form of HbH disease. The authors suggested that the underlying molecular pathology which led to defective a-chain synthesis
Historical perspectives might also be involved in causing mental retardation. Although it was to be another 10 years before the heterogeneity and molecular basis of these conditions was clarified, the original predictions turned out to be correct, and opened up an interesting new chapter in the exploration of the genetic basis of mental retardation. b Thalassaemia Analysis of the b thalassaemias by gene mapping was not to be so productive, largely because very few of them turned out to be due to gene deletions. As mentioned earlier, work in the authors’ laboratory had suggested that in the case of a patient of North Indian origin there might be a defect at the 3¢ end of the bglobin gene.We reasoned therefore that this might be a good candidate for a partial deletion of the b-globin gene and subsequent restriction-enzyme mapping showed that this was the case; Orkin et al. (1979c) found that approximately 600 nucleotide bases had been lost from this region. Similar results were also obtained by Flavell et al. (1979), working on DNA from the same patient. Although subsequent work suggested that this particular mutation is common in individuals from North India, extensive mapping studies of other DNA samples obtained from patients with b thalassaemia showed no other cases that were due to deletions of the size which could be identified by this approach. db Thalassaemia and hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin Unlike the b thalassaemias, mapping of the db thalassaemias and different forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) turned out to be more productive. By now, from studies of the fetal haemoglobin found in these conditions, together with solution hybridization analyses, it was already clear that many of them must result from deletions of the gdbglobin-gene cluster that either leave both the Gg and Ag genes intact, or remove the Ag genes as well as the d and b genes. Studies of DNA from GgAgdbthalassaemia homozygotes showed that part of the dand the whole of the b-globin genes had been deleted (Mears et al. 1978a,b; Bernards et al. 1979a; Fritsch et al. 1979; Ottolenghi et al. 1979). On the other hand, the DNA of a Ggdb-thalassaemia homozygote showed a much more extensive deletion involving
57
the Ag-, d- and b-globin genes (Orkin et al. 1978; Fritsch et al. 1979; Orkin et al. 1979a). After some early uncertainties it was also found that the form of GgAg HPFH that is found in Afro-American populations also results from a long deletion which removes the d- and b-globin genes, and that the condition is heterogeneous in that at least two different-sized deletions are responsible for a similar clinical phenotype (Mears et al. 1978b; Fritsch et al. 1979; Ottolenghi et al. 1979; Bernards & Flavell 1980; Tuan et al. 1980). In 1981 Jones et al. described the molecular basis for a form of Ggdb thalassaemia found in an Indian patient. In this case a novel lesion was found, consisting of two short deletions and a complete inversion of sequences between the g- and b-globin genes. This was the first example of an inversion to be described in humans. The elucidation of the molecular basis for non-deletional forms of HPFH, that is, conditions in which there were no major deletions of the gdbglobin gene cluster, took longer and required cloning and sequencing the particular g genes involved. In 1984 Collins et al. found that the Greek form, in which there is persistent Ag-chain synthesis, almost certainly results from a point mutation in the 5¢ non-coding region of the Ag-globin gene. Many other mutations of this type involving these regions of the Gg- or Agglobin genes were found later. Cloning and sequencing thalassaemia globin genes Once it was established that restriction-enzyme maps of the b-globin genes of the majority of b-thalassaemics were normal it was clear that it would be necessary to clone and sequence the b-globin genes in order to identify the molecular pathology of b thalassaemia. The first successful identification of a mutation causing b+ thalassaemia by gene sequencing was reported by Spritz et al. (1981) and by Westaway and Williamson (1981). Both these groups, working on samples from Cypriot patients, identified a single nucleotide base substitution, GÆA, at nucleotide 110 of the first intervening sequence (IVS1) of the b-globin gene. At first this was a surprising result because it was not clear how a mutation in an intron could result in defective globin-gene function. It seemed possible, however, that it might lead to abnormal processing of precursor globin mRNA; that is, the new intron sequence might lead to abnormal splicing of mRNA during the process in which introns
58
Chapter 1
are removed and exons joined together to form the definitive mRNA template. This hypothesis was soon proved to be correct (Busslinger et al. 1981; Fukumaki et al. 1982). Despite this encouraging start, a major problem remained for workers who wished to define particular forms of b-thalassaemia mutations. Cloning and sequencing of thalassaemic globin genes from different, random individuals would be likely to lead to the repeated identification of genes with the same mutation, particularly if certain forms of thalassaemia are prevalent in the same population. This concern was soon found to be justified; within a period of only one year, six different groups found the same nonsense mutation at position 39 in the b-globin gene from unrelated individuals of Mediterranean background! Clearly it was important to try to avoid such a fruitless duplication of effort. This problem was soon solved by Orkin and colleagues. As mentioned earlier, Antonarakis et al. (1982) observed that the polymorphic restriction-enzyme sites in the b-globin cluster are not arranged in a random fashion but in a series of patterns, or haplotypes, that vary in frequency between different populations. Orkin and his coworkers reasoned that the different types of bthalassaemia mutations were likely to be found in association with particular haplotypes. Furthermore, these haplotypes could be used within families to ‘mark’ particular b-globin genes, and hence provide a way of sequencing the appropriate gene. These predictions turned out to be correct. For example, it was found that, in Mediterranean populations, different b-thalassaemic mutations are associated with particular haplotypes. Using this approach the definition of b-thalassaemia mutations moved extremely quickly, and, by the end of the 1980s, almost 100 different mutations had been determined. It became clear that in any population in which there was a high frequency of b thalassaemia, one or two mutations predominate.And, even more importantly, the pattern of mutations is quite different in different parts of the world. The definition of the different b-thalassaemia mutations, and those responsible for the nondeletional forms of a thalassaemia, has provided a wealth of information about abnormal gene action. As well as those that cause premature chain termination or scrambling of the genetic code as a result of the generation of shifts in the reading frame, many different mechanisms for abnormal RNA processing
were established and a variety of different mutations in the promoter or chain termination regions were found. Thus in a relatively short period work in the thalassaemia field had provided a remarkable picture of the repertoire of mutations that can underlie abnormal gene action in humans. Furthermore, a start could be made in trying to unravel the complex interactions of the b-thalassaemia mutations, and those of the a-globin genes, which form the basis for some of the remarkable clinical diversity of the thalassaemias (Weatherall et al. 1981b). Further technical advances There was another extremely encouraging development in the thalassaemia field during the 1980s which followed rapid improvements in the technology for analysing mutant globin genes. As we have seen, this started with Southern blotting and evolved to gene cloning and sequencing, methods that at first were quite time-consuming and cumbersome. Once mutations had been identified, a variety of methods were developed for their rapid detection. In some cases the base change itself might produce a new restrictionenzyme site and hence it could be identified directly by Southern blotting (Phillips et al. 1979; Little et al. 1980; Chang & Kan 1981; Geever et al. 1981).This was not always the case, however, and another approach to the rapid identification of single-base mutations was required. This problem was solved by synthesizing short oligonucleotide probes which, if labelled, could be used to identify point mutations directly (Wallace et al. 1981; Conner et al. 1983; Orkin et al. 1983a). These methods for mutation analysis were still quite time-consuming, however. But in the mid-1980s the field was revolutionized by the development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which made it possible rapidly to amplify any DNA sequence that needed to be studied (Saiki et al. 1985). The application of this approach to the analysis of the haemoglobin genes soon allowed specific mutations to be identified within a few hours. And further modification of PCR for the development of rapid methods of DNA sequencing made it feasible to sequence individual genes for diagnostic purposes. Clinical applications As methods for the diagnosis of different forms of
Historical perspectives thalassaemia evolved, they were soon used in day-today practice for carrier detection or prenatal diagnosis. Initially, fetal DNA was obtained from amniotic fluid cells, but the development of chorion villus sampling made it possible to obtain DNA much earlier in pregnancy. The methods used for prenatal diagnosis changed every few years from the late 1970s, reflecting the rapid improvement in the techniques of gene analysis over this period.The first diagnoses of sicklecell anaemia or b thalassaemia used restrictionfragment-length polymorphism linkage analysis to ‘track’ the thalassaemia genes from both sides of the family (Kan & Dozy 1978a; Kan et al. 1980; Little et al. 1980). This was followed by the direct identification of mutations by Southern blotting, an approach which was feasible in cases in which there was a gene deletion, or the mutation produced a new restrictionenzyme cutting site, or removed a previously existing one (Orkin et al. 1978; Dozy et al. 1979a). Later, specific oligonucleotide probes were used to identify particular mutations in fetal DNA (Orkin et al. 1983a; Pirastu et al. 1983a; Old et al. 1989). Finally, a variety of methods for prenatal diagnosis were developed, based on the use of the polymerase chain reaction or a variant of this technique (Saiki et al. 1985; Old et al. 1990). Centres that had established prenatal diagnosis programmes using globin synthesis switched to fetal DNA analysis, and in several countries, notably Sardinia, Cyprus, Greece, Italy and Great Britain, there was a major decline in the numbers of babies born with severe forms of thalassaemia. Not surprisingly, the molecular era of investigation of thalassaemia also raised the expectation that the disease might be amenable to gene therapy; that is, the definitive correction of the molecular defect of the globin genes (Cline et al. 1980; Mercola et al. 1980; Mulligan & Berg 1980). In 1979 Martin Cline, unable to obtain permission from an ethics committee in the USA to perform an experiment of this kind, attempted to transfer normal b-globin genes into the marrow cells of two patients, one in Israel, the other in Italy. Since at that time very little was known about the regulation of the globin genes, there were no efficient methods for gene transfer, and there were considerable doubts about the safety of the procedure, this story was viewed with deep concern by the scientific community (Anderson & Fletcher 1980). However, no harm was done, and at least this premature experiment had the effect of jolting scientists on
59
both sides of the Atlantic into the realization that, in the future, any form of gene therapy would have to come under close scrutiny by properly constituted control bodies. Nobody has attempted gene therapy for thalassaemia since this episode. The fact that this disease can be cured by marrow transplantation suggests that sooner or later this will be achieved. Much has been learnt about the regulation of globin genes, and about the properties of the haemopoietic stem cells which must be the target for successful gene transfer. But many problems remain, and early attempts at gene therapy have been restricted to diseases in which tighter regulation of the inserted genes is not so important as it is in the haemoglobin disorders.
Postscript This account of some of the major advances in the thalassaemia field over the last 70 years has taken us from the first descriptions of the disease to the beginnings of its exploration at the molecular level (Table 1.1); the complete story of what has followed will be told in subsequent chapters. The speedy progress in thalassaemia research is a remarkable reflection of the way in which the medical sciences have progressed over this period. Medical research has, in essence, moved from the study of patients and their diseased organs to the definition of disease at the molecular and cellular level. The molecular analysis of the haemoglobin disorders undoubtedly opened up the field of human molecular genetics, and studies of the molecular pathology of thalassaemia have yielded some remarkable insights into the repertoire of mutations that underlie human monogenic disease.As other single-gene disorders have been dissected in the same way, very similar patterns of mutations have turned up. But, perhaps most importantly, a careful analysis of the relationships between the genotype and phenotype in thalassaemic patients has yielded some valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms for the phenotypic diversity of monogenic disease. Future historians of twentieth-century medicine will undoubtedly ask why the haemoglobin disorders, which are not common in the more advanced countries in which research in molecular biology was established, were among the first to be defined at the molecular level — work that, in effect, opened up the era of molecular medicine. Although this is a difficult
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Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Chronology of some landmarks in the haemoglobin field up to 1981.Adapted from Weatherall and Clegg (1999). Year
Discovery
Authors
1628 1664 1669 1772 1775 1862 1866 1866 1884 1904
Harvey Boyle, Hooke Lower Priestley Lavoisier Hoppe-Seyler Stokes Körber Von Hufner Bohr
1910 1910 1913 1925–27 1925 1925 1932 1936 1937–44
Circulation of the blood The ‘vital quintessence’ of air Function of the pulmonary circulation Dephlogisticated air Oxygen Oxygen-binding pigment is named ‘haemoglobin’ Spectral change on deoxygenation of blood Fetal blood is alkali-resistant Stoichiometry of oxygen binding Sigmoid oxygen dissociation curve Curve modified by carbon dioxide Equation for oxygen binding Sickle-cell anaemia Structure of haem Molecular weight of haemoglobin Kinetics of oxygen binding Description of ‘thalassaemia’ Term ‘thalassaemia’ first used Cooperative behaviour of haemoglobin Inheritance of thalassaemia
1944–46 1948 1949 1949 1949–50 1950 1954 1955 1955 1955 1956 1956 1957 1958 1958 1959 1959 1960 1960–63
Sickle-cell thalassaemia Alkali-resistant haemoglobin in thalassaemia Sickle-cell haemoglobin Malaria hypothesis Genetics of sickle-cell anaemia Tactoid formation in sickle-cell disease Sickle-cell trait protects against malaria HbA2 is raised in some thalassaemias Haemoglobin-H disease Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin Haemoglobin consists of subunits Structure of haemoglobin S Ineffective erythropoiesis in thalassaemia Adult haemoglobin controlled by two gene loci Hb Bart’s Three-dimensional structure of haemoglobin a- and b-thalassaemia hypothesis Hb Bart’s hydrops Structure of a, b, g and d chains
1962 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1966 1967–69 1968 1970 1971 1971
Hb Lepore; a db-fusion variant Chelation therapy. Desferrioxamine Inclusion bodies in thalassaemia High-level transfusion for thalassaemia Imbalanced globin synthesis in a and b thalassaemia Fibre formation in sickle cells Consequences of globin imbalance Assembly of globin peptide chains in thalassaemia Multiple g-globin genes Genetics of a thalassaemia Globin mRNA function in thalassaemia Chain-termination mutations in a thalassaemia
Hill Herrick Kuster Adair, Svedberg Roughton, Hartridge Cooley, Rietti Whipple & Bradford Pauling Caminopetros, Neel,Valentine, Silvestroni, Bianco, Gatto, Smith Silvestroni, Bianco Vecchio Pauling et al., Castle Haldane Neel, Beet, Lambotte-Legrand Harris Allison Kunkel & Wallenuis Rigas et al. Eddington & Lehmann Ingram Ingram Sturgeon & Finch Smith & Torbert Ager & Lehmann Perutz Ingram & Stretton Lie-Injo & Jo Konigsberg et al., Schroeder et al., Jones et al., Braunitzer et al., Hill et al. Baglioni Sephton-Smith Fessas Waldman Weatherall, Clegg, Naughton Stetson, Murayama Nathan, Gunn Clegg,Weatherall et al. Schroeder et al. Na-Nakorn & Wasi Nienhuis & Anderson, Benz & Forget Milner, Clegg,Weatherall Continued
Historical perspectives
61
Table 1.1 Continued. Year
Discovery
Authors
1972
Prenatal diagnosis of sickle-cell anaemia by globin synthesis Hb Kenya; a bg-fusion variant Globin mRNA quantification Dominantly inherited b thalassaemia Liver iron level controlled by desferrioxamine Deletion of a-globin genes in thalassaemia Desferrioxamine infusions; iron balance in transfused patients Structure of globin mRNA
Kan et al.
1972 1973 1973 1974 1974 1976–78 1976–77 1979 1979 1979 1979–81
Restriction-fragment-length polymorphism for prenatal diagnosis Stop-codon mutation in b-globin mRNA b thalassaemia due to gene deletion Heterogeneity of a-gene deletions
1980–81
Globin genes sequenced
1981 1981
a thalassaemia/mental retardation Mutations in b thalassaemia in cloned DNA
question, the answer must, at least in part, reflect the chance coming together of several disciplines at the right time. Haemoglobin, because its function is so important and because it is easy to obtain relatively pure from red cells, was of particular interest to protein chemists and those who wanted to study protein synthesis and structure–function relationships. The seminal work of Pauling and the equally important studies on the genetics of sickle-cell anaemia came at a time when haematology and human genetics were just emerging as potentially exciting branches of medical research. It is not surprising therefore that the haemoglobin diseases attracted some of the most able workers in many parts of the world. Thus throughout the period after the early 1960s a handful of young clinical scientists in the USA, Europe and south-east Asia developed a dialogue with the relevant basic sciences, and were able themselves to apply each new technical advance as it was developed. This close relationship survived into the molecular era and was, in effect, the main reason why a number of talented molecular biologists were briefly attracted to the haemoglobin field in the 1980s. Against this background it is not surprising that the haemoglobin field led the way in the evolution of
Huisman et al. Kacian et al., Housman et al. Weatherall et al. Barry et al. Ottolenghi et al.,Taylor et al. Propper et al., Hussain et al., Pippard et al. Baralle, Forget et al., Proudfoot and Longley, Chang et al.,Wilson et al., Marotta et al. Kan & Dozy Chang & Kan Orkin et al. Embury et al., Orkin et al., Pressley et al., Higgs et al., Kan et al. Lawn et al., Spritz et al., Barralle et al., Slightom et al., Lauer et al., Maniatis et al. Weatherall et al. Spritz et al.,Westaway & Williamson
molecular medicine. For the thalassaemias were already so well characterized by the mid-1970s that, once methods for isolating and sequencing human genes became available, it was already clear which genes should be looked at and, in some cases, what was likely to be found. Another important feature of the thalassaemia story is how quickly advances in the research laboratory have been applied in the clinic, both for the diagnosis of different forms of thalassaemia and for their prenatal detection. Unfortunately, the story is not complete. Early hopes that the thalassaemias might be among the first disorders that would be amenable to correction at the molecular level by gene therapy have not been fulfilled. The globin genes require particularly tight regulation; more research towards a better understanding of these complex processes is required before this will be achieved. Thalassaemia provides yet another interesting lesson for biomedical research. By studying the abnormal it is often possible to clarify normal biological functions. A great deal has been learnt from work on the abnormal haemoglobins about how haemoglobin functions as an oxygen carrier. Similarly, by recognizing that several different types of thalassaemia are the result of mutations of key
62
Chapter 1
regulatory sequences, it has been possible to identify regions of DNA at considerable distances from the globin genes that are involved in their normal activation and control. The thalassaemia story is therefore a fine example of what can be achieved when the basic biological and clinical sciences freely interact. In the chapters that follow we shall try to provide our readers with a summary of our current state of knowledge of this complex syndrome. No doubt there are still new forms of thalassaemia to be discovered.
Haematologists and colleagues who care for patients with these diseases should be on a constant lookout for the unusual. For, if this brief survey of the story of thalassaemia has told us anything, it is that it is the unexpected finding in a patient with this kind of disorder which, if investigated in depth, is likely to lead to a genuine advance in our understanding of the complex mechanisms that underlie the clinical diversity of inherited disease, and which, as a bonus, may tell us a great deal about normal function.
Part 2 The biology of the thalassaemias
Contributors: D.R. Higgs Swee Lay Thein W.G.Wood
Chapter 2 Human haemoglobin
Introduction Since the thalassaemias are genetic disorders of haemoglobin synthesis, and because they are often co-inherited with different abnormal haemoglobins, this chapter introduces the principles of the structure, function, synthesis and genetic control of haemoglobin and discusses some of its more important structural variants. It is beyond our scope to deal with this subject in detail. Various aspects are covered more extensively in several recent reviews and monographs (Steinberg et al. 2001; Stamatoyannopoulos et al. 2001; Weatherall et al. 2001) and further references to the literature on some of the important structural haemoglobin variants are given in Chapters 9 and 11. In addition to the account in Chapter 1, those who wish to learn more about how the human haemoglobin field developed should consult the essays of Perutz (1998) and the reviews of Weatherall et al. (2000) and Weatherall and Clegg (1999). We are aware that some of our readers may not be familiar with the principles of protein structure and the genetic control of protein synthesis. For this reason we are prefacing this chapter with a brief introduction to this topic. Others may wish to bypass this section and move on to the description of the structure and function of haemoglobin, on p. 72.
An introduction to the structure and synthesis of proteins This short account is directed to those who are coming to this field for the first time.There are several excellent monographs and reviews which deal with protein structure and the genetic control of protein synthesis in greater detail (Perutz 1991; Alberts et al. 1994; Kyte 1995; Creighton 1997; Lewin 1997). Protein structure Proteins are the basic building blocks of all living organisms. In humans, it has been estimated that
there are about 105 different proteins, which perform functions ranging from maintaining the architecture of tissues, through ion membrane transport and defence against infection, to mediating the myriad of complex chemical reactions that drive our metabolism. Proteins can perform this diverse set of functions because they have widely differing structures. Remarkably, they are made up of the same backbone and the same 20 amino acids. It is the sequence in which the amino acids are linked together that distinguishes one protein from another and which determines their structure. The structure of proteins can be viewed at various levels of complexity, from primary, to tertiary or quaternary. Primary structure The basic structure of all proteins is a string of between 50 and as many as 5000 amino acids, linked together to form a polypeptide chain. As shown in Fig. 2.1, the links in the chain result from the formation of peptide bonds between each amino acid, with the loss of one water molecule per bond. These polypeptide chains are, in effect, simply repetitions of the basic amino acid unit, and hence they have a free amino group at one end, the N-terminus, and a free carboxyl group at the other, the C-terminus (Fig. 2.1). Each amino acid along the chain is called a ‘residue’, and individual residues are numbered sequentially, starting at the N-terminus. When the sequence of amino acids is written to describe the structure of a polypeptide chain, they appear either in an abbreviated form, ‘Ala’ for alanine for example, or in a one-letter code in which each amino acid is represented by a different letter; in this form alanine would be written ‘A’. The one-letter codes for amino acids are shown in Table 2.1. The reason that polypeptide chains do not exist as linear structures is that the side-chains of the individual amino acids all have different properties and tend to interact with one another to produce complex 65
66
Chapter 2
H2N
O
R2
C
C H
H C
H OH
R1
O N
OH
N
C
H
O
H
R3
H2O
OH
H2O
Peptide bond
Peptide bond
H2N
C H C
O
R2
H
C
C H
N
O C
H C
N
C
H C
R1
H
O
R3
OH
Fig. 2.1 Peptide-bond formation.This is a covalent amide linkage between amino-acid residues in a polypeptide chain which is formed by linking the a-carboxyl carbon of one residue with the a-amino nitrogen of another.
Table 2.1 One-letter code and abbreviated forms for amino acids. A C D E F G H I K L
Alanine (Ala) Cysteine (Cys) Aspartic acid (Asp) Glutamic acid (Glu) Phenylalanine (Phe) Glycine (Gly) Histidine (His) Isoleucine (Ile) Lysine (Lys) Leucine (Leu)
M N P Q R S T V W Y
Methionine (Met) Asparagine (Asn) Proline (Pro) Glutamine (Gln) Arginine (Arg) Serine (Ser) Threonine (Thr) Valine (Val) Tryptophan (Trp) Tyrosine (Tyr)
three-dimensional configurations. Amino acids are classified into different groups, depending on a variety of properties of their side-chains, in particular whether they are charged (acidic or basic) or whether they are uncharged (polar or non-polar). Amino acids with uncharged polar groups tend to be relatively hydrophilic (interact with water) and are usually found on the outside of proteins, while the side-chains on non-polar amino acids tend to be hydrophobic (repel water) and to cluster together on the inside. Amino acids with basic or acidic side-chains are especially polar, and hence they are nearly always found on the outside of protein molecules.
Secondary and tertiary structure As the result of complex interactions between the side-chains of their constituent amino acids, polypeptide chains tend to fold into a complex tertiary configuration, with straight regions interspersed with numerous bends. The straight segments in proteins that fold often develop some secondary structures, the commonest of which are the a helix and b strand. The a helix is a right-handed helix with about 3.6 amino-acid residues per turn. In b strands, the polypeptide chain is almost fully extended, with the CO and NH groups of each residue pointing to one side. Multiple b strands aggregate side by side, forming bonds between the CO of one strand and the NH of another, to form what are called ‘b sheets’. Some proteins, such as haemoglobin, are composed only of a helices and turns, others consist entirely of b sheets and turns, and yet others contain both conformations. In helical proteins, the helices are often designated by letters of the alphabet. The shapes of the complex tertiary structures, which are most easily characterized by X-ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, are absolutely critical for the stability and function of proteins. Their interiors are compact, with few cavities.The surfaces and interiors vary in their structure, depending on whether they exist in aqueous solutions or are embedded in membranes. As we
Human haemoglobin discussed earlier, for water-soluble proteins like haemoglobin, amino acids with side-chains that are normally ionized occur only on the surface, where they interact with water, and not in the interior, which is occupied almost entirely by amino acids with nonpolar side-chains. Quaternary structure Many proteins consist of multiple copies of the same or different polypeptide chains. In these structures individual peptide chains are referred to as ‘subunits’, and designated by Greek letters. Human adult haemoglobin, for example, has two different pairs of subunits, called a and b; it is written a2b2. The stability of the folded states of individual subunits and their interactions with others depend on the action of many different forces. Among the most important are hydrogen bonds between polar groups, and van der Waals interactions between non-polar atoms. Hydrogen bonds are weak, non-covalent, bonds in which a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom interacts with another atom. On the other hand, van der Waals forces are non-specific attractive forces which occur between two atoms, strongest when the atoms are 3–4 Å apart. Protein function Many proteins, particularly those which subserve different types of transport, contain binding sites for other molecules, or ligands, with which they interact. In some cases these simply consist of small regions on the surface of the protein that are complementary, both sterically (in shape) and physically, to the ligand. For binding very small ligands, oxygen for example, which could not be recognized in this way, proteins carry additional, or prosthetic, groups which are incorporated into their structure for this purpose. For example, in the case of haemoglobin, each polypeptide chain carries one haem, a ring of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen atoms called porphyrin, with an iron atom at its centre. The binding of ligands to proteins is often expressed as a dissociation constant; that is, the concentration of free ligand at which the protein binding site is occupied half the time at equilibrium. Some proteins bind multiple ligands. In many cases the binding of one ligand changes the binding affinity of another at a different site, a phenomenon called
67
‘allostery’. As we shall see later in this chapter, haemoglobin is a prime example of an allosteric protein, in that the binding of oxygen to one of its four subunits increases the affinity of each of the others. From these simple considerations it is clear that the structure and function of proteins is entirely dependent on having the appropriate order of amino acids in its constituent polypeptide chains, and, of course, on their being synthesized at the appropriate level in the right place at the right time. These critical factors depend on the genes that are involved in determining their structure and synthesis. Gene action and protein synthesis Essentially, genes are lengths of DNA which contain the information required to make their protein product. Although there are more complicated situations, the primary product of most genes is a single polypeptide chain. This means that, for proteins such as haemoglobin, in which there are different subunits, more than one gene must be involved in determining their structure. The information that genes carry includes not only the appropriate order of amino acids in a particular polypeptide chain, but also the directions required to ensure that it is synthesized in the appropriate cells at the correct time of development and in the right amount. The instructions required to synthesize a polypeptide chain are transported from the nuclei of cells to the cytoplasm by means of a type of ribonucleic acid (RNA) called ‘messenger RNA’ (mRNA) which has a structure exactly complementary to that of the DNA from which it is copied, or transcribed. The process whereby a protein chain is synthesized on an mRNA template is called translation. Thus, the flow of genetic information in cells can be written
DNA
RNA transcription
protein translation
Gene structure DNA consists of two chains of nucleotide bases wrapped around each other in the form of a double helix (Fig. 2.2). There are four bases, adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). The building-blocks of each chain are deoxyribonucleotides, which consist of a base, deoxyribose and phosphate, covalently joined.The backbone of DNA, which is constant throughout the molecule, consists
68
Chapter 2 Central axis
Base C
H C H
5'
4'
1'
H H
3'
H
2
O –
A
H G T
H
O–P=O
H
O C
H
C
Base C
T
C
A
G
A
T
G
C
5'
4'
1'
H H
H
3'
O –
H
2
T
A C
H
O–P=O
A T
Base O H C H
G
C
T C
G
5'
4'
1'
H H
3'
H
2
O –
T
H C A
H
O–P=O
H
O C
H
C
T
G
T
C A
5'
4'
1'
H H
G
Base
A
3'
O
C
H 2
H
H
of deoxyribose sugars linked by phosphates.The variable part of a DNA chain is the sequence of bases, which can be in any order along a sugar–phosphate backbone. Because of their particular shapes, A always pairs with T, and C with G in the double helix; the bases, and hence the two chains, or strands, are linked by hydrogen bonds. When DNA replicates, the strands separate and each acts as a template to produce two new, doublestranded identical copies. Genetic information is encoded by the order of the bases as a triplet, nonoverlapping code in which three bases determine a particular amino acid. It follows therefore that a gene must contain three times the number of nucleotide bases as the number of amino acids in its polypep-
G
Fig. 2.2 The structure of DNA. From Weatherall, D.J. The New Genetics and Clinical Practice, 3rd edn, Oxford University Press (1991).
tide-chain product. However, things are more complicated than this.The coding sequences, called exons, are interrupted by sequences of various lengths which do not have any coding function, called ‘intervening sequences’ (IVS), or introns. Furthermore, the genes contain other sequences at their 5¢ (left-hand, as conventionally written in single-strand form) and 3¢ (right-hand) ends which subserve important regulatory functions. Transcription and processing of messenger RNA When a gene is transcribed, mRNA is synthesized on one strand of its DNA template in a 5¢ Æ 3¢ fashion by the action of an enzyme called RNA polymerase.This
Human haemoglobin process is initiated by formation of a complex containing the enzyme and a large number of regulatory proteins, or transcription factors, at a region at the 5¢ end of the gene called the promoter (see below). Chemically, RNA is similar to DNA with two exceptions; the sugar of DNA is deoxyribose while in RNA it is ribose, and instead of thymine RNA contains the closely related pyrimidine, uracil (U). The synthesis of RNA on DNA templates involves the formation of complementary base pairs so that, as in the case of DNA replication, G pairs with C, though when mRNA is being made on a DNA template, A pairs with U instead of T. The primary transcript is a large mRNA precursor which contains a copy of the entire gene complex, both exons and introns. This molecule undergoes a series of processing steps before it is ready for delivery to the cell cytoplasm. The introns are excised, the exons joined together and a number of structural modifications are made at both ends. The processes of excision and splicing are complex and multistep, and involve highly conserved donor and acceptor sequences at the 5¢ and 3¢ exon/intron junctions. The initial step is cleavage of the 5¢ splice site to produce a lariat structure which contains the intron and the 3¢ exon. This is followed by the joining together of the two exons and release of the now free intron. Although this seems simple enough, it requires the formation of a complex called a spliceosome, which consists of five small ribonuclear particles (snRNPs) and a large number of protein-splicing factors; its assembly is achieved through a series of intermediate complexes called E,A, B and C. Immediately after initiation of transcription, the 5¢ end of the newly synthesized mRNA molecule is modified by the addition of a 7-methylguanosine residue linked to the terminal nucleotide by a 5¢–5¢ triphosphate bond. This process and the associated methylation of nearby bases and ribose residues are referred to as ‘capping’; thus the start site for RNA transcription on the gene is referred to as the ‘CAP’. The mRNAs are also modified at the 3¢ end by the addition of a string of adenylic acid residues (poly(A)). Protein synthesis Once mRNA has been processed, it moves into the cell cytoplasm to act as a template for protein synthesis. Because amino acids cannot interact directly with nucleic acids they are brought to the RNA template
69
on carrier molecules called transfer RNAs (tRNAs) (Fig. 2.3). There is a family of different tRNAs, each specific for a different amino acid by virtue of the three bases (anticodons) that they carry, which are complementary to the appropriate mRNA codons for their particular amino acids.There is a specific mRNA codon (AUG) for initiation of protein synthesis. This involves the formation of a complex consisting of several initiation factors, two ribosomal subunits and an initiator tRNA. Once this is in place, a second tRNA binds to the next codon along and a peptide bond is formed between the two amino acids carried by these tRNAs. The first tRNA is then released. This cyclical process, which involves the shifting of the growing chains of amino acids between specific donor and acceptor sites on the ribosomes, is then repeated in a 5¢ Æ 3¢ direction from codon to codon, until the termination codon is reached.The completed chain is then released from the last tRNA molecule and the ribosome units fall off the mRNA. Most mRNAs carry several ribosomes at any one time; the mRNAs with ribosomes attached along their length (polysomes) resemble a string of beads (Fig. 2.3). The term ‘genetic code’ is used to describe the relationship between the sequence of the bases in DNA or its RNA transcript and that of the amino acids in polypeptide chains. As mentioned earlier, amino acids are encoded by groups of three bases called codons. Of the 64 possible coding triplets, 61 identify particular amino acids, whereas the three others, UAA, UAG and UGA are signals for chain termination (Table 2.2). Thus, since only 20 different amino acids occur naturally in proteins, most of them must have one or more code words; in other words, the genetic code is degenerate. Regulation One of the most important questions that we shall be addressing in subsequent sections of this chapter, and indeed throughout this book, is how genes are regulated. For, as we shall see, many forms of thalassaemia reflect a breakdown of this function. Some genes are expressed at very low levels in almost every tissue. However, unlike these so-called ‘housekeeping genes’, globin genes are much more specialized and are only expressed in the red-cell precursors of the bone marrow. Indeed, many genes are only active in specific tissues and at particular times during development. How this is brought about, and the way in
70 C A C C C
Chapter 2 C C A A T
T A T A
A T T A A A A A
A T G
Flanking
IVS 1
NC
GT
Flanking
IVS 2
AG
GT
AG
5'
3'
5' CAP AAAAn AAAAn
Nucleus
Gene
NC mRNA precursor
Excision of introns Splicing of exons Processed mRNA
Cytoplasm
AAAAn Ribosome
Translation
UAA
UGC UUC GGG GGG
A UG UAA
Transfer RNA Amino acid
Growing chain
Processed chain
Finished chain
Table 2.2 The genetic code.The codons are given as they appear in mRNA.The abbreviations for the different amino acids are shown in Table 2.1. First position (5¢ end)
Third position (3¢ end)
Second position U
C
A
G
U
Phe Phe Leu Leu
Ser Ser Ser Ser
Tyr Tyr Stop Stop
Cys Cys Stop Trp
U C A G
C
Leu Leu Leu Leu
Pro Pro Pro Pro
His His Gln Gln
Arg Arg Arg Arg
U C A G
A
Ile Ile Ile Met
Thr Thr Thr Thr
Asn Asn Lys Lys
Ser Ser Arg Arg
U C A G
G
Val Val Val Val
Ala Ala Ala Ala
Asp Asp Glu Glu
Gly Gly Gly Gly
U C A G
Fig. 2.3 A schematic representation of gene action and protein synthesis.
which our hundred thousand or so genes are orchestrated, will be one of the major questions for biology in the next millennium. But a little is known already, and this information has major relevance to an understanding of the rapid progress which has been made in the thalassaemia field. Although the standard pictures of DNA (Fig. 2.2) give the impression of long, linear strings of bases, in fact, as it exists in living organisms, it is in a highly compact state; every cell in the body contains approximately 2 m! Each DNA molecule is packaged to form a chromosome. The structure of chromosomes, and the nomenclature used to describe them, is summarized in Fig. 2.4. Chromosomes are composed of chromatin. In this form, DNA is complexed with a family of positively charged proteins called histones, together with smaller amounts of other DNA binding proteins, called, collectively, nonhistone proteins. The histones organize DNA into a regular, repeating structure, the basic unit of which is the nucleosome. Each nucleosome contains a characteristic length
Human haemoglobin of DNA, approximately 200 base pairs, wrapped round an octamer containing two copies each of the histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Nucleosomes are organized into a fibre of approximately 30 nm in diameter, which has six nucleosomes per turn, and a packing ratio of 40. Genes which are buried away in regions of chromatin and which are heavily methylated are inactive. Activation must involve a local change in the configuration of the chromatin, which, among other things, makes genes accessible to a variety of enzymes, and regulatory proteins that are required for transcription. When this happens the DNA becomes sensitive to enzymes such as DNase. DNase-sensitive sites occur in regions that regulate transcription, at origins of DNA replication, and in other areas involving active genes. As we shall see later, groups of these sites mark major regulatory regions in the globingene clusters. Although we have only the flimsiest ideas of how genes are activated in the correct tissues at appropriate times during development, at least some of the major regulatory elements have been identified. When we come to describe these regulatory regions in the context of the globin genes it will become apparent that they fall into two major classes. First, there are those elements in the globin-gene clusters that act in cis, that is, on the same chromosome. Second, there are many regulatory proteins that act in trans, that is, on both homologous chromosomes. The important cis-acting sequences include: promoters, that is, regions of DNA involved in binding of RNA polymerase and a number of other proteins required to initiate transcription; enhancers, elements which increase the utilization of promoters and which can function in either orientation, that is, upstream or downstream, relative to the promoters; and silencers, regions of DNA which may be involved in downregulation of the activity of particular genes. In addition, some genes, including the globin genes, have regulatory sequences called ‘locus-control regions’ (LCRs), which are defined by their ability to confer site-of-integration-independent, tissuespecific expression, and which can act in either orientation over long distances. There are two groups of trans-acting regulatory molecules. First, there are those that are quite ubiquitous and which may be involved in the activation or suppression of many classes of genes in different tissues. Second, there is a group which are much more focused, and which are only involved in the regulation of genes that are
71
View along axis of solenoid
H1 polymer
(a)
Fig. 2.4 Chromatin and human chromosomes. (a) Chromatin.The top diagram shows a cross section of the solenoid model for the 300 Å filament, showing location of H1. Below is shown the side-view of the H1 polymer. From A. Klug, Proc. R.W.Welch Fdn. Conf. Chemical Res., 39, 145 (1985), with permission.
expressed in specific tissues or at particular times during development. In the sections which follow we shall see how these principles relate to the structure and regulation of the
72
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.4 (b) A normal human male karyotype.
(b)
human globin genes. In later chapters it will become apparent that many forms of thalassaemia result from a breakdown of the regulation of the globin genes, and, even more interestingly, how it is the study of these disorders that has led to a better understanding of how normal globin-gene regulation is achieved.
The structure and function of haemoglobin The different human haemoglobins Normal adults have a major haemoglobin called HbA, comprising about 97% of the total, and a minor component, HbA2 which accounts for 2–3% (Kunkel & Wallenius 1955).The main haemoglobin in fetal life is HbF, traces of which are found in normal adults. There are three embryonic haemoglobins, Hbs Gower 1 and 2 (Huehns et al. 1961, 1964b; Hecht et al. 1966; Gale et al. 1979) and Hb Portland (Kaltsoya et al. 1966; Capp et al. 1967, 1970; Todd et al. 1970; Weatherall et al. 1970). The production of these different haemoglobins is a reflection of a series of physiological adaptions to differing oxygen requirements at various stages of development. In addition, there are some minor haemoglobin components that are the result of postsynthetic modifications that may take place in vivo, or in vitro during storage in the laboratory. Most commonly encoun-
tered are HbA1c, the product of the reaction of HbA with glucose (Holmquist & Schroeder 1966; Bookchin & Gallop 1968; Bunn et al. 1976), HbA3, which may be a storage artefact involving the binding of glutathione to haemoglobin (Müller 1961), and the acetylated form of fetal haemoglobin, HbF1 (Schroeder et al. 1962). All the normal human haemoglobins are tetramers of two pairs of unlike globin chains (Table 2.3).Adult and fetal haemoglobins have a chains associated with b (HbA, a2b2), d (HbA2, a2d2) or g chains (HbF, a2g2), whereas in the embryo z chains combine with g (Hb Portland, z2g2) or e chains (Hb Gower 1, z2e2), and a Table 2.3 The normal human haemoglobins.These are the primary products of the globin-gene loci.They may undergo postsynthetic modification by acetylation (HbF1), sugars (HbA1c), or small molecules such as glutathione (HbA3). Embryonic g2e2 Haemoglobin Gower 1 z2g2 Haemoglobin Portland a2e2 Haemoglobin Gower 1 Fetal a2Gg2 a2Ag2
Haemoglobin F
Adult a2b2 a2d2
Haemoglobin A Haemoglobin A2
Human haemoglobin and e chains combine to form Hb Gower 2 (a2e2).The z and e chains are, in effect, the embryonic counterparts of the adult a and b, g or d chains, respectively. As described in Chapter 1, fetal haemoglobin is also heterogeneous. In normal infants and adults it is a mixture of molecules in which a chains are combined with g chains which have either glycine or alanine at position 136, referred to as Gg or Ag chains, respectively (Schroeder et al. 1968).
73
Structural features The primary structures of the a, b, g and d chains were established in the 1960s, largely as a result of the work of Braunitzer, Konigsberg, Hill, Schroeder and Jones and their colleagues (Braunitzer et al. 1961; Konigsberg et al. 1961; Goldstein et al. 1963; Schroeder et al. 1963; Jones 1964) (Fig. 2.5). Subsequently, amino acid sequences were deduced for the z and e chains (Gale
NA
A Helix
α chain β chain AB
B Helix
α β C Helix
CD
D Helix
α β Client
E Helix BLACKWELL SCIENCE OXFORD
Title
Weatherall/Clegg
α
Fig No.
Style
Size
β
Font
Updated S/S 7.5 pt Helvetica
Studio
2 May 00
Date
Artist
MW
Artist
O X F O R D designers & illustrators
Heme
• Te l : 0 1 8 6 5 5 1 2 3 3 1 • F a x : 0 1 8 6 5 5 1 2 4 0 8 •
EF
F Helix
FG
α β G Helix
GH
α β H Helix
HC
α β
Fig. 2.5 The amino-acid sequence of the a and b chains of human haemoglobin.The helices are labelled A–H and the areas between the helices AB, CD, etc. NA and HC represent the free amino and carboxyl terminal residues, respectively.
74
Chapter 2
et al. 1979; Aschauer et al. 1981; Clegg 1981; Clegg & Gagnon 1981). From these and other studies it was clear that, while the z and a chains have features in common, the b, g, d and e chains appear to be much more closely related to each other. This led to the
view, later reinforced by genetic studies, that the different globins arose from one ancestral globin by successive gene duplications and subsequent divergence of the duplicated genes. The three-dimensional structure of haemoglobin
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.6 Models of haemoglobin. (a) The central cavity and the orientation of the subunits. (b) A view of the subunit contacts and the haem pockets. By permission of Dr M.F. Perutz.
Human haemoglobin has been determined to a resolution of 1.7 Å by X-ray crystallography by Perutz and colleagues in Cambridge (Muirhead & Perutz 1963; Perutz 1963, 1965; Perutz et al. 1965, 1968a,b; Baldwin 1980a,b; Fermi et al. 1984) (Figs 2.6 and 2.7). The subunits in the molecule (an ellipse measuring approximately 64 ¥ 55 ¥ 50 Å) are orientated in a unit with a twofold symmetry axis which runs down a water-filled cavity in the centre of the molecule. Three-quarters of the polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule are in the form of an a helix. At places where the helical structure is interrupted — by proline residues for example — the chains can turn corners, enabling them to fold and form the compact fit characteristic of the tetrameric molecule. In this, the individual polypeptide chains have relatively few contact sites; consequently, there is relatively little interaction between them compared with the forces that are responsible for maintaining their individual secondary and tertiary structures. The individual subunit chains of haemoglobin have quite similar three-dimensional structures.
75
Eight helical regions (lettered A–H) are present in the b chain, and the a chain has analogous regions except that it lacks the residues of the D helix.Amino acid residues can thus be identified by their helical positions (Fig. 2.8). The interiors of the subunits are made up almost entirely of non-polar (hydrophobic) residues, which are in contact nearly everywhere with neighbouring residues by van der Waals forces. As described earlier, these are weak attractive forces arising from the induced fluctuating charges caused by the close proximity of atoms.They operate over only relatively short distances and have low energies. Hence they are only an effective force under physiological conditions when several atoms in a molecule interact. All the side-chains that are ionizable under physiological conditions are on the surface of the subunits. This is true also of most of the polar (hydrophilic) sidegroups. The surface of the molecule is thus covered with polar groups, and in general these make contact with water rather than other charged side-chains. The prosthetic group of haemoglobin, haem, is fer-
FG2
Val E11
Tyr HC2
CD2
F9 C7
C3 F8
G1
M
P
CD1 C5 CD7 E7
M F1 H16
E1
C1
G5
D1
V
E5
M
EF3 NA1 NH3+
Fig. 2.7 The a subunit of human haemoglobin showing the haem pocket and the position of the haem molecule. By permission of Dr M.F. Perutz and editors of the Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology.
NA2
A1
G15
EF1
B5
A16
E20
B1
G19 H5
AB1
H1 GH4
D7
76
Chapter 2 121 H
C terminus 146
120
130 140
145 110 102 N terminus 1
Val
2 3
His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu
4 5 6 7
100
112 Cys (unreactive)
G
99 98
(Reactive SH) cys 93 90
F
92
10 A
HN
80
N
Proximal histidine
Fe
Heme
73 E 70 o N
Distal histidine
N
20 23
67
B
H
28
60
26
C
D
30 40 42
50
roprotoporphyrin IX in which the iron atom is located at the centre of the porphyrin ring (Fig. 2.9). The haem residues lie in clefts in the surface of the globin subunits (Fig. 2.8). These pockets are lined with non-polar residues, and the haem is located between two histidines, one of which (the proximal histidine) is bonded directly through the imidazole nitrogen to the haem iron atom, while the other (the distal histidine) lies opposite to the site of combination with oxygen, but is not directly attached to the haem. The orientation of the haem in the cleft is such
63
Fig. 2.8 The human b chain.The relationship of the haem molecules to the proximal and distal histidines are shown together with the helical and non-helical segments. In addition, the position of the reactive (b93) and unreactive (b112) cysteines is shown. By permission of Dr E.S. Giblett and Blackwell Science.
that its non-polar vinyl groups are deeply buried in the hydrophobic interior, while the polar propionic acid groups are presented to the hydrophilic surface of the globin subunit. A large number of inter-atomic contacts (within 4 Å) between the haem and aminoacid side-chains of the E and F helices act to stabilize this structure. The residues surrounding haem are invariant throughout the animal kingdom, suggesting that this particular structure is essential for the normal functioning of haemoglobin as an oxygen carrier.
Human haemoglobin CH H C
CH
CH3
H3C
CH N
CH
CH2
N CH
Fe N
N CH3
H3C CH2
C H
CH2COOH
CH2 CH2COOH
Fig. 2.9 The haem molecule.
As will become apparent in a later section, mutations in the haem pocket can lead to profound alterations in oxygen-binding properties, and, indeed, in the stability of the entire haemoglobin molecule. The oxygenated and deoxygenated forms of haemoglobin have markedly different threedimensional structures, a consequence of the changes in relative orientation of the subunits during binding and release of oxygen. In the HbA tetramer each a chain is in contact with two b chains, contacts that are defined as a1b1 and a1b2. Because of the twofold symmetry, there are also the structurally identical a2b1 and a2b2 contacts. During oxygenation/deoxygenation most of the subunit movement takes place at the weaker a1b2 (a2b1) interfaces, while the stronger (40 contacts vs. 17) a1b1 (a2b2) interfaces remain relatively static (Perutz 1970a). Haemoglobin can exist in two quaternary states Effective contacts between subunits depend upon key regions of the two ab dimers being in the same relative orientation. This favours the formation of two specific quaternary states: oxy or ‘relaxed’ (R), and deoxy or ‘tense’ (T), without any stable intermediates (Baldwin 1980a,b; Perutz 1980). The nature and number of contacts change during oxygenation/deoxygenation because of movement that
77
occurs at the a1b2 and a2b1 interfaces. In the deoxy (T) state there are about 40 contacts overall, of which 19 are hydrogen bonds: this drops to 22 and 12, respectively, in the oxy (R) state. The structure of the a1b2 contact, like the haem pocket, has been highly conserved throughout evolution, and mutations in this region can have serious functional consequences. The more stable quaternary structure of the deoxyhaemoglobin that follows from the larger number of a1b2 and a2b1 contacts is augmented by other inter- and intra-subunit salt linkages that are not present in oxyhaemoglobin. The most prominent are between the COO– group of the C-terminal arginine of one a chain to the e-amino side-chain of lysine 132 (H10) in the other a chain, and an a–a link between the C-terminal arginine–guanidinium group and the COO– of aspartate 131 (H9). There is also a chloride ion-mediated link between the C-terminal guanidinium and the opposing a-N-terminal amino group. In oxyhaemoglobin, steric hindrance prevents any of these links from forming (Baldwin 1980a,b). The b chains form similar deoxy-specific links. Two involve the C-terminal histidine: one with the imidazole group and aspartate 94 (FG1) of the same b chain, the second with the carboxyl group and the e-amino group of lysine a40 (C5), which forms a salt bridge across the a1b2 (a2b1) interface. In oxyhaemoglobin the distances between the residues are too great to allow salt bridges to form. Function and structure–function relationships It has been known for many years that haemoglobin has a sigmoid-shaped oxygen dissociation curve (Fig. 2.10). In practical terms this means that it can absorb and release large quantities of oxygen in response to relatively small changes in partial pressure in the physiological range. This property is dependent upon interaction, or cooperation, between the haem groups; the oxygenation of one haem enhances the reactivity of the remainder, a phenomenon known as haem–haem interaction. Haemoglobin is thus an allosteric protein; combination of oxygen at one site facilitates combination at others. Furthermore, the oxygen affinity of haemoglobin is affected by the binding of small molecules such as 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG); it is also sensitive to small changes in pH, a phenomenon known as the Bohr effect, and to the intracellular Cl–-ion concentration. The molecular bases for these effects have become
78
Chapter 2 100 pH DPG Temp.
Oxygen saturation (%)
90 80 70
pH DPG Temp.
60 50 40 30 20 10 10
20
30 40 50 60 70 80 p50 Oxygen tension (mmHg)
90
100
Fig. 2.10 The oxygen dissociation curve of human adult haemoglobin.The left and right shifts in relationship to changes in pH, 2,3-DPG concentration and temperature are shown.
clear from the structural studies of Perutz and colleagues (Perutz 1970a,b, 1972; Perutz et al. 1994). Changes in conformation with oxygenation of haemoglobin It seems likely that the haem–haem interaction is dependent on small rearrangements which occur between subunits when oxygen is taken up or released. The iron atoms of the b-chain haems move apart about 7 Å during oxygenation, reorientations which depend on interactions between the a and b chains, since they do not occur in the abnormal haemoglobin, HbH, a tetramer of b chains which exhibits no haem–haem interaction or Bohr effect (see Chapter 5), and which consequently cannot act as an oxygen carrier under normal physiological oxygen tensions (Benesch et al. 1961). There are several reasons for believing that the a1b2 (and a2b1) contacts are particularly important in these cooperative interactions. First, the threedimensional structure shows that interaction between the a1 and b2 (or a2 and b1) subunits can be more direct than between the a1 and b1 or a2 and b2 subunits. Furthermore, oxygenation of the b2 subunit causes it to rotate further with respect to the a subunit than does oxygenation of the b1 subunit. The amino acid residues in the a1b2 (a2b1) contact have
remained invariant throughout mammalian evolution, whereas more than a third of those in the a1b1 (a2b2) contact have changed. Indeed, in most cases of an abnormal haemoglobin with impaired haem– haem interaction the mutation is usually found in, or near, the a1b2 (a2b1) contact. The molecular basis for these conformational changes in the subunits during oxygenation has been proposed by Perutz (1970a,b, 1972). When there is no oxygen bound to haem the atomic diameter of the iron atom is too great to allow it to align with the plane of the porphyrin ring; it sits 0.6 Å displaced towards the proximal F8 histidine residue. When an oxygen molecule is bound to the haem iron, the resulting changes in distribution of electrons orbiting the iron atom nucleus lead to an effective reduction in its atomic diameter, and hence it can move flush into the plane of the porphyrin ring. This movement results in a tilt of the haem in its pocket and this is amplified as a change in the tertiary structure of the subunit. Deoxyhaemoglobin has a more stable quaternary structure than oxyhaemoglobin, probably because of the presence of additional inter- and intra-subunit salt linkages (strong ionic bonds between charged residues, such as NH3+ . . . COO–). Thus the Cterminal b-chain carboxyl groups are linked to the eamino groups of the lysine residues at a40. Similarly the imidazoles of the C-terminal b-chain histidines are salt-bridged to the carboxyl residues of aspartic acid at position 94 of the same b chain. Physiological measurements indicate that the freeenergy change in going from the deoxy to the oxy conformation is about 10 to 12 cal/mol/tetramer, and this accords well with the total amount of energy locked up in the salt bonds (assuming 1 to 2 cal/bond) stabilizing the deoxyhaemoglobin molecule. The salt bonds thus represent a considerable amount of energy holding the deoxyhaemoglobin molecule in a high-energy or ‘tense’ (T) conformation (which has, in a graphic analogy, been likened to a set trap (Bunn et al. 1977)). The 0.6 Å movement of the iron atom into the plane of the haem upon oxygenation is the trigger which releases this energy. The movement of the iron is associated with the movement of the attached histidine. This in turn squeezes the haem pocket, which pushes out the penultimate tyrosine from its pocket between the F and H helices and rupture of the C-terminal salt bridges results. The transition of
Human haemoglobin the quaternary structure from the tense (T) to the relaxed (R) oxy conformation occurs abruptly as these salt bridges successively rupture, and constraints at the a1b2 (a2b1) contact area are relaxed. Since the achain haems are relatively more accessible to oxygen they are probably oxygenated first.The shift from the T to R structure then opens up the pockets of the unliganded b-chain haems, greatly increasing their affinity for oxygen. Modification of haemoglobin function by 2,3-diphosphoglycerate Organic phosphates also enhance the stability of deoxyhaemoglobin. In human red cells the major cofactor of this type is 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) (Benesch & Benesch 1967; Chanutin & Curnish 1967; Benesch & Benesch 1968, 1969). This binds specifically to the b chains of deoxyhaemoglobin (Benesch et al. 1968a) (more strictly to haemoglobin in the T state) through electrostatic bonds between the phosphates of the 2,3-DPG and the Nterminal amino groups and imidazole groups of the b143 histidines, and between the 2,3-DPG carboxyl group and the e-amino group of b86 lysine (Arnone 1972).When the quaternary state of haemoglobin changes from the T to the R state, bound 2,3DPG molecules are ejected. Thus the binding of oxygen and 2,3-DPG are mutually exclusive, and the effect of this is that 2,3-DPG lowers the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen (Fig. 2.10) as it acts to maintain or stabilize the deoxy configuration of the molecule. It is clear therefore that the level of 2,3-DPG is critical in determining the oxygen affinity of haemoglobin. Differences in oxygen affinity between fetal and adult blood are largely dependent on the fact that 2,3DPG has only a weak affinity for fetal deoxyhaemoglobin (Bauer et al. 1968; Tyuma & Shimizu 1969). Other situations where the interaction between haemoglobin and 2,3-DPG is important include the change in oxygen affinity which follows prolonged storage of blood, the adaptive changes which occur with increasing altitude or in response to anaemia and the relationship of sodium transport across the red-cell membrane to the oxygenation of haemoglobin (Benesch & Benesch 1969). In Chapter 5 we shall see how the relative lack of interaction of 2,3-DPG with fetal haemoglobin may have important implications for oxygen transport in the blood of patients
79
Table 2.4 Some conditions that modify 2,3disphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) levels and the oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin. Increased 2,3-DPG; increased p50, reduced oxygen affinity Anaemia Alkalosis Hyperphosphataemia Renal failure Hypoxia Pregnancy Congenital heart disease Thyrotoxicosis Some red-cell enzyme deficiencies Decreased 2,3-DPG; decreased p50, increased oxygen affinity Acidosis Cardiogenic or septicaemic shock Hypophosphataemia Hypothyroidism Hypopituitarism Replacement with stored blood
with severe forms of b thalassaemia. Some other clinical situations in which 2,3-DPG plays an important role are summarized in Table 2.4. The Bohr effect We have already mentioned that the binding of O2 to haemoglobin is sensitive to changes in pH, an effect that was first observed many years ago by Bohr (1904). Its physiological importance lies in its effect on the transportation of CO2 in the blood. Carbon dioxide released on respiration is too insoluble to be transported in any quantity except in the form of bicarbonate, by reaction with water: CO2 + H2O = HCO3– + H+ The protons released can combine with deoxyhaemoglobin, thus forcing the reaction in the direction of bicarbonate formation. The released protons lower the O2 affinity of the haemoglobin by stabilizing the deoxyhaemoglobin configuration and thus facilitate O2 unloading in the tissues (Perutz 1978). Conversely, in the lungs the opposite occurs. Oxygen binds to haemoglobin and displaces protons which drive the CO2–HCO3– reaction to the left, thereby facilitating the unloading of CO2 from the plasma.
80
Chapter 2
Hence, because of the Bohr effect, CO2 promotes O2 exchange, and vice versa. In addition to its role as O2 carrier, haemoglobin is also responsible for the direct transport of some (approximately 10%) of the CO2 in the blood. It has been shown by Kilmartin and Rossi-Bernardi (1969, 1971) that CO2 combines reversibly at physiological pH and temperature with the N-terminal amino groups of haemoglobin to form a carbamate ion: RNH2 + CO2 = RNH COO– + H+ Carbon dioxide binds more readily to deoxy- than to oxyhaemoglobin, and thus facilitates the reciprocal transport of O2 and CO2 through the circulation. The combination of CO2 with haemoglobin is, like the binding of 2,3-DPG and the Bohr effect, another example of an oxygen-linked reaction. These mutual interactions are all examples of allosteric effects. Indeed, haemoglobin can be considered as the model allosteric protein par excellence. The chloride effect Chloride also behaves as an allosteric effector, reducing the oxygen affinity of haemoglobin by stabilizing the deoxy (T) structure. It thus behaves in a similar fashion to 2,3-DPG. Unlike 2,3-DPG, however, chloride does not have specific binding sites within the haemoglobin molecule. Rather it appears to function by neutralizing electrostatic repulsion by excess positive charges in the central cavity of the tetramer (Perutz et al. 1994).
Globin-gene organization How did our present-day globin genes evolve? Globin genes arose early in evolution and are found in some fungi, plants and invertebrates as well as in all vertebrate species. Gene duplication, followed by selection of adaptive sequence changes, resulted in the production of diverse globins with specialized functions, allowing the original monomeric forms of haemoglobin to evolve into the tetrameric proteins that are now found in all higher animals. Structurally distinct a and b globins are found in all vertebrates, suggesting that they originated before ~450 million years ago (MYA). In fish and amphibians that have been examined, the genes for these two types of globin are linked together in a single cluster. Chromosomal rearrangements resulted in separation of
the a- and b-gene clusters by the time that birds evolved. Gene duplication and subsequent regulatory changes also allowed developmental-stage-specific expression of the globin genes. In the a-globin gene cluster, duplication, leading to a specialized embryonic (z)-globin chain, occurred around 400 MYA, while the a gene underwent at least three separate duplications, first in birds about 400 MYA, subsequently in early eutherian mammalian evolution, and lastly in the higher primates after their divergence from prosimians. In many species, repeated geneconversion events, that is, non-reciprocal genetic exchange, have maintained homology between the duplicated adult a genes. Duplication of the primitive b-globin gene occurred independently in birds and mammals (~180–200 MYA) to give rise to the embryonic e gene. Prior to the divergence of the mammals (~85 MYA) further duplication events of both genes gave rise to e and g protogenes in one case and the adult proto-d and -b genes in the other. A further duplication of the e gene at around this time gave rise to a pseudogene which is present in most mammalian species examined and which is known as yb in humans. In most mammals the proto-g gene has remained as an embryonically expressed gene and was only recruited to the fetal stage of development after the emergence of the primates (55–60 MYA). Duplication of this gene occurred 35–55 MYA and has been maintained in the lineages leading to the apes — gene conversions again maintaining the sequence identity of the two copies.
The human haemoglobin genes are organized into clusters The genes that regulate the synthesis and structures of the different globins are organized in two separate clusters (Fig. 2.11).The a-like globin genes, which are encoded on chromosome 16, are found in the order 5¢–z–yz–ya2–ya1–a2–a1–q–3¢. The b-like globin genes, on chromosome 11, occur in the order 5¢–e–Gg–Ag–yb–d–b–3¢. In understanding the genetic control of haemoglobin we have to try to account for how the expression of these genes is regulated in a tissue- and developmental-stage-specific fashion, and how the production of the different gene products determined on two different chromosomes is synchronized in such a way that there is no major excess of one or other pair of globin subunits at any stage during human
Human haemoglobin
81
1 kb
31 32 99 100
ζ
ψζ
ψα2
ψα1
α2
α1
θ1
30 31 G
γ
ε
A
γ
104
ψβ
105
δ
16
β
11 ζ2 ε2
ζ2 γ2
Hb Gower 1
α2 ε2
Hb Portland
α2 γ2
α2 β2
α2 δ2
HbF
HbA
HbA2
Hb Gower 2
Embryo
Fetus
Adult
Fig. 2.11 The a- and b-globin gene clusters on chromosomes 16 and 11, respectively. In the extended a- and b-globin genes the introns are shaded dark, the 5¢ and 3¢ non-coding regions are hatched, and the exons are unshaded.
50
100
HS–40 3
4
150
ζ
200
250
αα θ
x 17
6
1819
A D
5
a b c d e
7
B C B C
16
20
A
Fig. 2.12 The telomeric and subtelomeric region of chromosome 16p including the a-globin-gene cluster.The major polymorphic, telomeric variants (A–D) of 16p, as described in the text, are indicated with dotted lines (not to scale). Beyond the subtelomeric region the diagram shows the a-globin-gene cluster located at the tip of 16p, surrounded by non-globin genes including: the IL9 receptor pseudogene (3); genes of unknown function (4, 5, 16, 17); a DNA repair enzyme MPG (6); Rho-GDl-R (18), an inhibitor of the dissociation of GDP from Rho; and PDl (19), a protein disulphide isomerase. Further details given in Flint et al. (1997). Genes illustrated above the line are transcribed towards the centromere and those below towards the telomere.The
yz1, ya2 and ya1 pseudogenes within the a cluster are not shown. Erythroid-specific DNase-l-hypersensitive sites are shown as arrows above the line. X denotes the position of chromosomal translocation (Higgs et al. 1990).The shortest region of overlap for a-globin deletions (A) and natural deletions of the regulatory element (HS-40) are shown as shaded boxes.The area removed in the knockout experiment described in the text is indicated (C).The a-ZF deletion is marked as (a) and four rearrangements that do not perturb a-globin expression are indicated. Sources: b–e; summarized in Higgs et al. (1989); b is also described in Fei et al. (1989).The scale is in kilobase pairs and coordinate 1 is the first nucleotide in the sequence described by Flint et al. (1997).
development. Since an understanding of these issues is so central to an appreciation of the molecular basis for the different forms of thalassaemia, we shall describe the structure and functions of each of these clusters of globin genes in the sections that follow. It should be emphasized, particularly for newcomers to the field, that there is considerable normal variation within both globin-gene clusters. The extent of this structural heterogeneity must be appreciated by those who wish to explore the structure of the
globin genes and their flanking regions to search for abnormalities in patients with different forms of thalassaemia.
The a-globin gene cluster General structure In humans, the a-globin gene cluster (Fig. 2.12) occupies a region of about 70 kilobases (kb: 1000
82
Chapter 2
nucleotide bases) close to the tip of the short arm of chromosome 16, band 16p13.3. For convenience in describing the positions of the genes, the CAP site of the z gene is designated 0, distances towards the telomere are given minus prefixes, and distances towards the centromere are denoted with plus prefixes.Thus the a2 gene, at +20 kb, lies 20 kb away from the z gene on the centromeric side, and the a1 gene lies a further 3.7 kb away, at +24 kb (Fig. 2.12). Sequences which are essential for a-globin expression, notably the major a-globin-gene regulatory element, HS –40, are centred on a region 40 kb upstream of the z-globin gene. In addition to the three functional a-like genes, the cluster contains three pseudogenes (yz, ya2, ya1) and another gene, q. The latter is transcribed at a low level in erythroid cells, but so far no protein product has been identified; the protein predicted from its sequence is unlikely to be a functional globin (Clegg 1987). The complete DNA sequence of the terminal 300kb region of chromosome 16p has been determined (Flint et al. 1997). It shows that the a-globin gene cluster lies between 170 and 430 kb from the telomere, the variability depending on the length of the subtelomeric repetitive sequences (see below). The sequence is unusually GC-rich and also has a high density of genes. On the telomeric side of the cluster lies an interleukin-9 pseudogene (~125 kb away), a gene involved in DNA repair, 3-methyl-adenine DNA glycosylase (~74 kb), and three genes of unknown function (at –14, –70, –89 kb). Four further genes have been located on the centromeric side. Most of these genes are expressed in a wide variety of tissues and must therefore be regulated independently of the erythroid-cell-specific a-globin genes. The region around the a-globin cluster is rich in Alu repetitive sequences. Large numbers of these repeats flank the cluster and several copies are interspersed within it. Other families of repetitive sequences are less represented, although several partial L1 repeats are found within the cluster. Normal structural variation Variation at the 16p telomere The a-globin locus lies very close to the telomere of the short arm of chromosome 16 (Fig. 2.12).There are four polymorphic, subtelomeric alleles in which the
a-globin genes lie 170 kb (A), 245 kb (D), 350 kb (B) or 430 kb (C) from the 16p telomeric repeats (Wilkie et al. 1991a; Higgs et al. 1993). Their structures are quite different. For example, beyond the region of divergence the A and B alleles are more closely related to non-homologous chromosomes than to each other.The A allele is related to the subtelomeric regions of Xqter and Yqter whereas the B allele is more like 9qter, 10pter and 18pter. Despite these major structural differences at the 16p telomere, the haematological findings in individuals with A and B alleles are indistinguishable. Rarely, chromosomal translocations involving 16p13.3 place the a-globin locus at the tip of another chromosome, as seen, for example, in some parents of patients with the ATR-16 syndrome (see Chapter 12). To date we know of 15 individuals with such balanced translocations, none of whom has a thalassaemia. Hence, since the centromeric breakpoints of these translocations lie 102 Mb from the a-globin genes, it follows that the cis-acting sequences required for full a-globin regulation are not perturbed by rearrangements on this scale. Similarly, in two individuals with unbalanced translocations, and three copies of 16p13.3, the a/b-globin synthesis ratios were 1.5 and 1.6 (Wainscoat et al. 1981; Buckle et al. 1988; unpublished data), indicating that the additional, misplaced copy of the a-gene complex is expressed even though its genomic position has been altered. Ultimately, it will be of great interest to know exactly where these breakpoints lie with respect to the a-globin genes and how close other breakpoints would have to be to affect their expression. Variation in the number of globin genes As a result of unequal genetic exchange, otherwise normal persons may have 4, 5 or 6 a-globin genes (Goossens et al. 1980; Higgs et al. 1980a; Galanello et al. 1983c; Gu et al. 1987) and 3, 4, 5 or 6 z-like genes (Winichagoon et al. 1982; Felice et al. 1986;Trent et al. 1986a; Titus et al. 1988) (see Chapter 4). A surprisingly high frequency of the aaa chromosome (gene frequency ~0.01 to 0.08) is found in most populations that have been studied; the reason is not yet clear, although it is possible that an aaa chromosome offers a selective advantage. Although there appears to be an excess of a mRNA produced from the aaa arrangement (Higgs et al. 1980a; Liebhaber & Kan 1981) and excess a globin (Higgs et al. 1980a; Sampi-
Human haemoglobin etro et al. 1983; Higgs et al. 1984a; Henni et al. 1985; Camaschella et al. 1987a; Kulozik et al. 1987b), homozygotes (aaa/aaa) seem to be haematologically normal (Galanello et al. 1983c;Trent et al. 1985). As we shall see in Chapter 13, however, additional aglobin genes may have important phenotypic effects in those with b thalassaemia. Several members of a single reported family have a complex rearrangement in which three a-gene clusters are on one copy of chromosome 16 (Fichera et al. 1994); provisional data suggest that at least two and possibly all three are fully active. A carrier for this abnormal chromosome (aa: aa: aa/aa) has an a/bglobin synthesis ratio of 2.7. Patients who co-inherit this type of chromosome (aa: aa: aa) with a mild form of b thalassaemia produce sufficient excess a chains to have b thalassaemia intermedia (Fichera et al. 1994) (see Chapter 13). Chromosomes bearing a single z gene, z2 rather than the normal z2–yz1 arrangement, are relatively common, with a gene frequency of ~0.05 in West Africans (Winichagoon et al. 1982; Rappaport et al. 1984; Felice et al. 1986; Higgs et al. 1986; our unpublished data), and occur sporadically in other populations. There is no discernible phenotype associated with the –z/zz genotype (Winichagoon et al. 1982; Felice et al. 1986; Trent et al. 1986a) and, to date, only one homozygote (–z/–z) has been identified; there was no haematological abnormality. The triplicated z gene arrangement (zzz) has the structure z2–yz1–yz1 (Hill et al. 1985) and was originally identified in south-east Asia, where its frequency is 0.09 to 0.20 (Winichagoon et al. 1982; Chan et al. 1986a; Higgs et al. 1986). It is also particularly common throughout Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, where phenotypically normal homozygotes (zzz–zzz) have been described (Higgs et al. 1986; Trent et al. 1986a; Hill et al. 1987a). Elsewhere zzz is uncommon. Structural analysis of the zzz arrangement shows that it has arisen by an unusual interchromosomal recombination event (Hill et al. 1985, 1987a) between Ia and IId haplotypes (see later section). All of the zzz chromosomes studied from south-east Asia and the Pacific have this unusual structure (Hill et al. 1987a), suggesting that they have a common, single origin. Some of these chromosomes appear to have been subsequently modified, as indicated by the presence of a Bgl II polymorphism in 8–15% of cases (Hill et al. 1987a) and the occasional presence of the Hb Constant Spring mutation on the
83
linked a2 gene (Winichagoon et al. 1982) (see Chapters 4 and 11). A very rare example of a chromosome with four z genes (zzzz) was described by Titus et al. (1988). VNTRs and CA repeats The different classes of repeat sequences are described in Chapter 4. At least 10 variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs, also known as hypervariable regions, HVRs) have been identified in and around the a-globin locus (Flint et al. 1997). These include the 5¢ HVR at ~-70 kb (Jarman & Higgs 1988), HVRs within the z genes (Proudfoot et al. 1982), an interzeta HVR (Goodbourn et al. 1983) and one at the 3¢ end of the cluster (Jarman et al. 1986). In addition there are a number of dinucleotide CpA repeats around the cluster, including one within the ya1 gene (Fougerousse et al. 1992). The number of repeats in these arrays may be altered at mitosis or meiosis, producing highly polymorphic segments of the cluster. In the a-gene complex there appears to be no relationship between the structure of such regions and the associated phenotype. Whatever their function, if any, they are of great value as genetic markers throughout the genome and have been used to produce individual-specific genetic fingerprints (Jeffreys 1987; Fowler et al. 1988). Polymorphic base substitutions A large number of single-base polymorphic sites have been described in the a-globin-gene cluster, often affecting restriction-enzyme sites and hence producing restriction-fragment-length polymorphisms (RFLPs) (Higgs et al. 1986). Rather than being associated with each other in a random fashion, groups of polymorphisms are linked together in particular patterns, referred to as ‘RFLP haplotypes’. Haplotypes exist because their constituent polymorphic sites are in very strong linkage disequilibrium; in other words, they are so close together that they are rarely disrupted by recombination. For practical purposes, only the most common variants are currently incorporated into haplotypes. In the a complex, for example, 9 sites are used, 7 single-site restriction enzyme polymorphisms and two length variants (Fig. 2.13). Of the possible 768 combinations, only about 70 have been observed in world-wide surveys (reviewed by Flint et al. 1998). The practical value of these hap-
84
Chapter 2 0
10
ζ2
inter-ζ HVR
20
ψζ1ψα2 ψα1
30 kb
α2
α1
θ1
3' HVR
Xbal
Sacl
Bgll
SML
PZ/Z
Accl
Rsal
Pstl
Pstl
la
+
+
–
M
PZ
+
+
–
–
ld
–
+
–
L
PZ
+
+
–
–
lla
–
+
–
L
PZ
+
–
–
–
llc
+
+
–
M
PZ
+
–
–
–
lld
–
–
–
M
PZ
+
_
–
–
llg
+
–
–
M
PZ
+
_
–
–
llla
–
–
+
M
Z
–
_
–
–
lllb
+
–
+
M
Z
–
–
–
–
lllf
–
–
–
M
Z
–
–
–
–
IVa
+
–
–
S
PZ
+
–
+
+
Va
–
+
–
L
PZ
+
–
–
+
Vc
+
–
–
S
PZ
+
–
–
+
VIIa
–
+
–
M
Z
+
–
–
–
lotypes in population genetics and prenatal diagnosis is described in Chapters 6 and 14. DNA sequence analysis has also revealed six minor variants of the HS –40 regulatory element (Harteveld 1998). Again, these polymorphic variants are found in normal people and provide informative examples of in vivo mutagenesis, which makes it possible to relate the structure of this important regulatory region to its function. Gene conversions The DNA strand exchanges involved in misaligned but reciprocal recombination mentioned earlier may also resolve with non-reciprocal genetic exchange, a mechanism which is known as gene conversion (Strachan & Read 1996). During this process genetic information may be exchanged between allelic or non-allelic homologous sequences without any
Fig. 2.13 The positions of polymorphic restriction-enzyme sites (RFLPs) and hypervariable regions (HVRs) used in the construction of different a-globin haplotypes. Some individuals carry a variant of the yz1 gene; the sequence has been corrected by gene conversion and it is designated z1. PZ/Z refers to the presence of either the yz1 (PZ) or the z1 (Z) variants.Three allele sizes of the inter-z HVR are included in the haplotype: small (S), medium (M) or large (L). From Higgs et al. (1986).
crossovers or chromosomal rearrangements. Gene conversion between both the a1/a2 pair and the z2/yz1 pair may occur quite frequently. Sequence analysis suggests that it has occurred between the a1 and a2 (Michelson & Orkin 1983) and z2 and yz1 genes (Proudfoot et al. 1982; Hill et al. 1985) throughout evolution. A probable example of a conversion between the a2 and a1 genes has been documented in persons expressing an unexpectedly high level of HbI, an a-chain variant (a16LysÆGlu), in whom the same mutation is present on both a2 and a1 genes in cis (Liebhaber et al. 1984). Other possible examples of non-reciprocal exchange were described by Molchanova et al. (1994a), who observed identical sequence mutations affecting the a1 and a2 genes on independent chromosomes; one possibility is that they arose by conversion from one gene to another. Analysis of the downstream z-like gene in several populations has shown that its exists in two distinct
Human haemoglobin forms (Hill et al. 1985). In one, its structure is clearly that of a pseudogene (yz1), and in the other (z1) the yz1 gene has undergone a gene conversion by the z2 gene such that it becomes more similar to the functional z gene, although it still appears not to be expressed in vivo. The frequency of the z2–z1 chromosome varies from one population to another (0.14 to 0.57), and phenotypically normal persons homozygous for either z2–yz1 or z2–z1 chromosomes have been observed (Hill et al. 1985). Conversions of the z2 gene by yz1 have not yet been described, although several candidate chromosomes have been identified. In addition to these examples of gene conversion, it seems likely that, as occurs in other mammalian multigene families (Collier et al. 1993; Flint et al. 1998), short segmental conversions may also be responsible for transferring thalassaemic and nonthalassaemic variants within and between different chromosomal backgrounds.
85
deletions at both the 5¢ (10 kb) and 3¢ (6 kb) ends of the cluster, with no discernible effect on a-gene expression. Finally, in a large survey of newborn babies (Fei et al. 1989a), a small (2.5 kb) deletion between the z and yz genes was observed in two haematologically normal babies from Sardinia (see Fig. 2.12). Phenotypically ‘silent’ insertions also occur in the a-gene complex.An insertion of 0.5 to 0.7 kb between the a2 and a1 genes was identified in the non-thalassaemic chromosome of a Chinese individual (Nakatsuji et al. 1986). Most probably this arose from a reciprocal crossover between a normal chromosome (aa) and the common a-thalassaemia determinant (–a3.7, see below). In addition we have observed an insertion/deletion polymorphism in the 5¢-flanking region of the a complex that appears to involve members of the Alu family of repeats (Higgs et al. 1989).
The b-globin gene cluster Deletions and insertions
The b-globin gene cluster (Fig. 2.14) is on the short arm of chromosome 11, band 11p15.4. The two fetal g genes lie 15 and 20 kb downstream from the embryonic e gene, while the d and b genes are 35 and 43 kb further downstream. Upstream of the e gene, lies the locus-control region (LCR), the regulatory region that is essential for expression of all the genes in the complex. It spans ~15 kb and contains four elements (HS1 to HS4) which are marked by erythroid-cellspecific DNase1-hypersensitive sites. There are two other hypersensitive sites, one 5¢ to the LCR and one ~20 kb 3¢ to the b-globin gene. It has been suggested that they mark the boundaries of a b-globin gene domain. The b-gene clusters of man and mouse (and possibly chicken) are embedded in an array of olfac-
Two uncommon deletions involving the q1 gene remove either 1.8 kb or 6.0 kb from between the intact a1 gene and the a-globin 3¢ HVR (Fei et al. 1988a) (Fig. 2.12). Neither variant is associated with any phenotypic abnormalities in the neonatal period, and an adult heterozygous for the 1.8-kb deletion also appears to be normal.The individual with the 6.0 kb deletion also had a –z chromosome (Fei et al. 1988a). We have also studied a person who apparently has the same 6.0-kb deletion and in this case the –z arrangement is present in cis to the q1 gene deletion (Higgs et al. 1989). Similarly, Ballas et al. (1989a) found that both of these rearrangements may exist on the same chromosome. Thus these individuals have
–50
0
50
150 kb
100
LCR
OlfR ψOlfR OlfR
ε
γ Aγ ψβ δ β
G
ψOlfR
OlfR
Fig. 2.14 The b-globin gene cluster.The cluster is set among several genes for olfactory receptors (OlfR).The arrows indicate DNase-sensitive sites. LCR = locus-control region.
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Chapter 2
tory receptor genes (Bulger et al. 1999).This is a large family of ~1000 genes, widely distributed throughout the genome and expressed in the olfactory epithelium.Two olfactory receptor genes and a pseudogene lie 10–35 kb upstream of the human b LCR, while 3¢ of the cluster there are at least another two genes found close to breakpoints of HPFH 1 and HPFH 6 (see Chapter 4). General structure The entire b-globin complex has been sequenced. Microsatellite repeats of (CA)n, where n is usually 17 dinucleotides, are found within the cluster, while there is an (ATTTT)n repeat between the d and b genes. Both Alu and L1 families of repeat DNA sequences (see Chapter 4) are found within and around the cluster. Inverted pairs of Alu repeats occur 5¢ to the e gene and on either side of the g-gene pair; similar pairs also occur upstream of the d gene and downstream from the b-globin gene. There are two long stretches, each 6 kb, of L1 repeat sequences, one between the e and the Gg gene and the other downstream from the b gene.Their role is not known. Structural variation Chromosomal translocations Translocations involving the short arm of chromosome 11 are relatively common, but there have been few reports of any effect on b-globin production. A complex balanced translocation involving a breakpoint on chromosome 11 close to the b locus was observed in a mother and daughter with increased HbF levels of 5 and 8% (Jensen et al. 1984). As the mother’s parents were karyotypically and haematologically normal, it is possible that the altered chromosomal structure may have resulted in abnormal regulation of the cluster. A second example, in which the end of the short arm of chromosome 11, including the b-gene locus, was translocated close to the centromere of chromosome 22, was also associated with a stable red-cell dimorphism in which a small proportion of the cells were hypochromic and microcytic (Rees et al. 1994). It was suggested that the centromeric sequences may have caused position-effect variegation on the expression of the b cluster, resulting in its suppression in a small number of cells.
Variation in the number of globin genes As within the a-gene cluster, variations are frequently observed in the structure of the b-gene complex, most often involving the g genes. Unequal crossing over has resulted in chromosomes with one, three, four or five g genes rather than the normal GgAg arrangement. Loss of one gene (–Ag) occurs with a low incidence world-wide and has little effect other than lowering the GgAg ratio of HbF in newborn infants (Trent et al. 1981; Huisman et al. 1991). Lower haemoglobin levels and a reduced proportion of HbF are found at birth in homozygotes for a g-gene deletion (Huisman et al. 1983). Triplicated g genes are widespread, and four different types have been identified, all of the general structure GgGgAg. They differ depending on the position of the crossover point and on the presence or absence of an Xmn I site –158 to the Gg gene (Liu et al. 1988). Adults who are Xmn I positive on both chromosomes have slightly raised levels of HbF and a very high proportion of Gg chains. Quadruplicated g genes have been reported in Japanese, Turkish and Sri Lankan populations, and one individual with five g genes on a chromosome was described in an AfroAmerican (Fei et al. 1989a). Adults with additional g genes are haematologically normal, demonstrating that the insertion of up to an extra 15 kb of DNA between the LCR and the b-globin gene does not appreciably alter the regulation of the cluster. The genes are arranged GgGgGgAg and GgGgGgGgAg and, depending on where the crossover occurred, the inner genes are different AgGg hybrids. Just as in the normal GgAg arrangement, the 5¢ gene is preferentially transcribed, so in chromosomes with additional g genes there is polarity of expression, production decreasing from the 5¢ to the 3¢ gene. The quadruplicated g-gene arrangement has also been found in cis to a b0-thalassaemia allele. Interestingly, a homozygote for this condition, i.e. homozygous b thalassaemia with eight g-globin genes, was only mildly affected and maintained a haemoglobin level of over 10 g/dl after splenectomy (Yang et al. 1986). This suggests that the additional g genes can result in a higher production of g chains in adults than the normal two-gene arrangement, even in the presence of a normal promoter on the b gene. Unequal crossing over can also occur between the g and b genes and the d and b genes. This leads to the production of the fusion variants Hb Kenya and anti-
Human haemoglobin Kenya and Hb Lepore and anti-Lepore, respectively. These haemoglobins are described, together with their clinical and haematological associations, in Chapters 9–10.
Haplotype analysis provides information on the chromosomal background on which the b-thalassaemia mutations have occurred (Orkin et al. 1982a) and was of considerable value for their identification and prenatal diagnosis before it became possible to identify them directly. In addition, identical thalassaemic mutations on different haplotypes may be associated with small differences in clinical phenotype, indicating that modifying sequence elements, probably factors that affect HbF production, may also be in linkage disequilibrium with the b-globin gene (see later section and Chapter 10). Based on haplotype analysis, it became apparent that non-random association of polymorphic restriction sites in the b-gene cluster occurs within two regions, a 5¢ segment from the e gene to the 5¢ end of the d gene, and a 3¢ segment extending 19 kb in a 3¢ direction from the 5¢ end of the b gene. Between the 5¢ and 3¢ clusters there is a 9-kb region that displays random association with either segment and is therefore thought to be a recombination ‘hot spot’ (Chakravarti et al. 1984; Flint et al. 1998) (Fig. 2.15b). To date, five families showing recombination within this region have been observed (Gerhard et al. 1984; Old et al. 1986b; Camaschella et al. 1988; Hall et al. 1993a; Smith et al. 1998).
Gene conversions Gene conversions between the two g genes occur quite frequently, and are probably responsible for the overall similarity in their structure (Slightom et al. 1980; Shen et al. 1981; Metzenberg et al. 1991).Analyses of cord-blood samples from many populations have identified a small proportion of babies with unusually low (0.4–0.5) or unusually high (> 0.8) GgAg ratios, which reflect gene conversions that have generated AgAg or GgGg gene arrangements (Powers et al. 1984). Polymorphic base substitutions There are numerous polymorphic base substitutions within the b-globin-gene cluster. As with the a-gene cluster, many of them produce RFLPs which are combined in a limited number of haplotypes (Fig. 2.15) that are in linkage disequilibrium with bglobin-gene mutations (Antonarakis et al. 1982).
0 ε
Hind II
10
20 G
γ
Hind III
A
30
γ
ψβ
Hind III
Hind II
ε
Gγ
50 kb
40 δ
Hind II
β
Ava II Bam HI
Five prime (5' ) haplotype
(a)
Fig. 2.15 The restriction-fragmentlength polymorphisms and haplotypes of the b-globin gene cluster. (a) The organization of the common haplotypes.An increased rate of recombination in the region between the d- and b-globin genes has led to the subdivision of the full haplotype into 5¢ and 3¢ subhaplotypes. (b) Some of the common haplotypes of the b-globin gene cluster.
87
Three prime (3' ) haplotype Aγ
δ
ψβ
β
5'
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX (b)
3'
+ – – – + – + – –
– + + + – + – + +
– + – – – + – – –
– – + + – – – + +
– + + + – – – – +
+ + + – + – – + +
+ + – + – + + – +
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Chapter 2
Globin-gene structure, function and regulation General structure The structure of globin genes has been highly conserved throughout evolution. Their transcribed regions are contained in three exons, separated by two introns, or intervening sequences (IVS), of variable length (Fig. 2.16). From the CAP site, the start of transcription, the first exon encompasses ~50 bp of 5¢ untranslated sequence (UTR) and the codons for amino acids 1–31 in the a- and 1–29 together with the first two bases of codon 30 in the b-globin genes. Exon 2 encodes amino acids 32–99 and 31–104, respectively, the portion of the globin polypeptide that is involved in haem binding and the a1b2 (a2b1) contacts. The third exon encodes the remaining amino acids, 100–141 for a, 105–146 for b, together with a 3¢ untranslated region of ~100 bp (Fig. 2.16). In the aglobin genes both introns are small, 117–149 bp, while in the z gene IVS1 is ~886 and IVS2 is ~239 bp. The IVS1 intron varies in length from one allele to another, as a result of differences in the number of copies of a 14-bp tandem-repeat sequence. The first intervening sequence in the b-like genes is also small, 122–130 bp, while IVS2 is much larger, 850–904 bp. 0 α
1
7mG
β
500
31 32
30 31
1000
99
IVS 1
1
The removal of the intervening sequences from the initial transcript and joining the exon sequence to form mRNA is dependent on sequences at the border between the exons and introns. A survey of a large number of eukaryotic genes has demonstrated consensus sequences in these regions. At the 5¢ end of C AG/GT A AGT, where each intron the consensus is A G the oblique line denotes the excision site immediately preceding the invariant GT residues, shown in bold. At the 3¢ end, there is a rather looser consensus (CT)N CTAG/G, in which an invariant AG dinucleotide precedes the excision site. Among the globin genes, there is strong adherence to these consensus sequences (Table 2.5) and in all cases GT and AG dinucleotides are maintained. As mutations in these sequences frequently lead to thalassaemia (see Chapter 4), the globin genes provide excellent examples of their functional importance. The processing of globin mRNA involves the addition of a poly(A) tract of 75 to a few hundred residues at the 3¢ end of the mRNA. This poly(A) tail is involved in stability of the mRNA. A poly(A) additional signal, AAUAAA, is conserved in the 3¢ untranslated region of the RNA, approximately 1030 nucleotides upstream of where the initial transcript is cut and the poly(A) tract is added.This signal sequence is found in all of the transcribed human
1500 kb
100
141 AAA ~ 200
IVS 2
104
105
146
Fig. 2.16 A schematic representation of the a- and b-globin genes showing the position and size of the introns (IVS1 and IVS2). 7mG represents the site of modification by the CAP structure, and AAA indicates the poly(A) addition site.
Table 2.5 Consensus sequences at the donor and acceptor splice sites in the human globin genes.
Gene
5¢ UTR region (nts)
Donor splice site
IVS1 (nts)
Acceptor splice site
Donor splice site
IVS2 (nts)
Acceptor splice site
3¢ UTR region (nts)
Poly(A) signal
z a2 a1 e G g A g d b
58 40 40 53 53 53 48 50
GAG’GTGAGT GAG’GTGAGG GAG’GTGAGG CAG’GTAAGC AAG’GTAGGC AAG’GTAGGC CAG’GTTGGT CAG’GTTGGT
866– 117 117 122 121 121 138 130
CCAG’G GCAG’G GCAG’G TTTCATAG’ACT TCTCACAG’ACT TCTCACAG’ACT ACCCTCAG’ATT ACCCTTAG’GCT
AAG’GTGCGC AAG’GTGAGC AAG’GTGAGC AAG’GTGAGT AAG’GTGAGT AAG’GTGAGT AGG’GTGAGT ACG’GTGAGT
239– 142 149 855 886–904 866–876 898 850
CCAG’C ACAG’C ACAG’C CCTAACAG’CTC CTCAACAG’CTC CTCAACAG’CTC CTCCGCAG’CTC TCCCACAG’CTC
108 113 113 99 66 66 111 113
AATAAA AATAAA AATAAA AATAAA AATAAA AATAA AATAAA AATAAA
Human haemoglobin globin genes except q, where the sequence is AGUAAA. These general features of the a- and b-globin genes are shared by the other genes of the a- and b-globingene clusters. Such differences as there are are summarized in Table 2.5. Both sequence analysis and hybridization studies have shown that, despite the homology of their coding sequences, the sequences of the different introns have diverged considerably and share very little homology except for the duplicated Gg- and Ag-globin genes. There has been considerably more conservation of a sequence of IVS1 between some though not all of the non-a-globin genes; there is undoubted homology between IVS1 sequences for the b and d, g and e, and b and e gene-pair comparisons, but not in the case of the b/g genes. In the a-globin genes there has been considerable conservation of the sequences of IVS1 and IVS2 between a2 and a1 and the ya genes, but there is little homology between the intron sequences of these genes and those of the z and yz genes.
enhancer elements and a ‘master’ regulatory region which is involved in regulating the entire a- or bglobin gene complex.Although we have learnt a great deal about the different interactions of these sequences with both erythroid-specific and more generally active regulatory proteins, many of the details of how these complex interactions underlie the control of the globin-gene clusters remain to be worked out. Promoters Transcription of genes is dependent on the attachment of a transcription complex, including RNA polymerase, at their 5¢ ends. Correct positioning of the transcription machinery is brought about by recognition of specific DNA sequences in the region upstream of the transcriptional start site known as the promoter. In many tissue-specific genes, including all the globin genes, TATA and CCAAT homology boxes are found 30 and 70 bp upstream of the mRNA CAP site (Fig. 2.17) and are critical for the correct siting of initiation and a high level of transcription (Anagnou et al. 1985; Myers et al. 1986; de Boer et al. 1988; Antoniou & Grosveld 1990). The CCAAT site is duplicated in the two g-globin genes and both sites are necessary for maximum rates of initiation. The modification of the CCAAT sequence to CCAAC may be partially responsible for the low level of transcription of the d-globin gene (see Chapter 8). In addition to these two homology boxes, many erythroid-specific genes have a CACCC box in the
The regulation of globin-gene function The expression of globin genes and their regulation seem to depend on the interactions of a variety of different trans-acting regulatory proteins with specific sequences both adjacent to and at a distance from particular genes.The critical regulatory sequences for the globin genes include their promoters, a series of
–140
–120
–100
–80
–60
–20 –29
AGCCAATGA
–69
TATAAAC –28
α1
AGCCAATGA –69
CATAAAC –28
α2
AGCCAATGA
CATAAAC
–113
Gγ Aγ
–85
–30
–144
CCACCC –115
GACCAATGA –88
CCACCC –144
GACCAATAG GACCAATAG –115 –88
CCACCC
GACCAATAG GACCAATAG –68
δ
Fig. 2.17 The human globin-gene promoters.
–40
–61
ζ
ε
AATAAAG –30 AATAAAA –30 AATAAAA –31
–76
CATAAAA –31
ACACCC GGCCAATCT
CATAAAA
AACCAACCT
–90
β
89
0
90
Chapter 2
promoter, upstream of the CCAAT box. CACCCbox homologies are found in most of the b-globin promoters and are duplicated in the b gene itself but are not found in the a-globin promoters. The sequence is also missing from the promoter of the d gene; insertion of the b-gene CACCC box considerably upregulates its expression (Donze et al. 1996). Some naturally occurring mutations in the human bgene promoter have confirmed the importance of the TATA and CACCC sequences for globin-gene expression (see Chapter 4). Additional sequence motifs are commonly found in the more distal regions of the promoters of these genes, including binding sites for the erythroid transcription factors GATA-1 and NF-E2 and sites for the ubiquitous factors YY1, Sp1 and Oct-1 (see later section). Their precise role is not fully understood but it is believed that the combination of multiple factors is necessary for maximum rates of transcription. Enhancers In addition to the promoter sequences at the 5¢ end of genes, more distal sequences are frequently found to increase the levels of gene transcription in experimental expression systems. These ‘enhancers’ may lie 5¢ or 3¢ to the gene or within the gene itself. They are detected by transient transfection studies in which DNA constructs are transferred into appropriate cell types by electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation or lipofection, that is, packaged in fatty envelopes. The DNA fragments remain as episomal structures in the nucleus and the rate of transcription can be monitored. Analyses of the a- and b-globin complexes have revealed regions with typical enhancer activity, as defined in this way. These include the regulatory region of the a cluster (HS –40) and one of the elements of the b LCR (HS2) but not the other elements. A small region (800 bp) lying 3¢ of the Ag gene (Bodine & Ley 1987; Purucker et al. 1990; Balta et al. 1994) and two segments around the b-globin gene, one in the large intervening sequence and one 3¢ to the gene (Behringer et al. 1987; Kollias et al. 1987; Trudel & Costantini 1987; Antoniou et al. 1988; Wall et al. 1988), have enhancer properties. Loss of the Ag enhancer from the human cluster has no effect on the level or developmental regulation of the genes in transgenic mice (Liu et al. 1998) while deletion of the
enhancer 3¢ to b significantly reduces expression of the b gene in this system (Liu et al. 1997). Additional enhancer sequences have been identified 30 and 100 kb 3¢ to the b cluster, immediately beyond the 3¢ breakpoints of deletions which cause hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (Feingold & Forget 1989; Anagnou et al. 1995) (see Chapters 4 and 10). It has been suggested that these sequences may play a role in the increased g-gene expression in this condition. Major regulatory elements After cloning the human globin genes, experimental systems were developed to study the control of gene expression, including both transient and stable transfection of erythroid cell lines and transgenic mice. When individual human globin genes were stably transfected into cell lines, mouse erythroleukaemia (MEL) lines for example, expression was detectable but the levels were low and variable from clone to clone. Similarly, in transgenic mice the expression of the human b gene was only detectable in some lines, was not always erythroid-specific and, even in the highest expressing lines, did not approach the levels of the endogenous globin genes. No a-globin gene expression could be detected in any of the transgenic lines generated. It is now clear that the reason for this low and inconsistent expression was the lack of major regulatory elements in the DNA that was transferred in these experiments. The identification of a series of erythroid-specific DNase1-hypersensitive sites in the region upstream of the b-globin genes (Tuan et al. 1985; Forrester et al. 1987) suggested that this area might be of regulatory importance, a notion that was given further weight by the identification of forms of thalassaemia in which this region was deleted (Orkin et al. 1981b; Taramelli et al. 1986; Driscoll et al. 1989). Its importance was demonstrated conclusively when Grosveld et al. (1987) produced transgenic mice which contained this region attached to a b-globin gene. The mice not only exhibited erythroid-specific, copy-number-dependent b-globin gene expression in lines containing the transgene but the levels of expression were very high, more or less equivalent to the endogenous levels of RNA. These results were rapidly confirmed by others (Enver et al. 1989; Forrester et al. 1989; Ryan et al. 1989) and the upstream sequences, originally termed the dominant control
Human haemoglobin region or locus-activating region, were renamed the b-globin locus control region, or b LCR. Within the a-globin cluster, a major regulatory element, termed HS –40, has also been identified, 40 kb upstream of the z-globin gene (Higgs et al. 1990). Several deletions of this region, which spare the aglobin genes, all result in a thalassaemia with minimal output of a globin from the affected chromosome (Hatton et al. 1990; Liebhaber et al. 1990; Wilkie et al. 1990b) (see Chapter 4). Attachment of the HS –40 element to an a-globin gene results in high-level expression of the gene in transgenic mice, although copy-number dependence is not observed and expression frequently declines during development (Sharpe et al. 1992, 1993; Gourdon et al. 1994).
which expressed at 15–40% of the activity of the whole LCR; levels of expression directed by HS1 are less than 5% (Forrester et al. 1989; Collis et al. 1990; Fraser et al. 1990). Similar results are obtained when individual sites are deleted from the mouse LCR in its normal chromosomal environment, with reductions in globin-gene expression of 10–30% (Fiering et al. 1995; Hug et al. 1996). Structure. The major activity of each of the HS elements lies in a core region of 200–400 bp. Sequence analysis shows multiple binding sites for erythroid or ubiquitous transcription factors in each of the cores (Fig. 2.18).The HS2 element contains duplicated sites for the erythroid transcription factors NF-E2 and GATA-1 as well as sites for the ubiquitous factors USF and YY1, together with a G-rich site, which may bind Sp1 or a related factor. Deletion of each of these sites individually does not prevent position-independent expression but reduces the level of expression, particularly when the NF-E2 sites are affected (Ney et al. 1990a,b; Talbot et al. 1990; Caterina et al. 1991; Talbot & Grosveld 1991; Liu et al. 1992; Caterina et al. 1994). It appears therefore that multiple combinations of binding sites can confer position-independent expression and that a combination of sites is necessary for maximum expression. HS3 consists of duplicated units of GATA-1 sites flanking G-rich sites (Philipsen et al. 1990, 1993) (Fig. 2.18); EKLF appears to be the important factor that binds to the G-rich region (Gillemans et al. 1998). Unlike HS2, a single copy of HS3 can activate a linked globin gene, suggesting that this element contains a dominant chromatin-opening function (Ellis et al. 1996). HS4 contains binding sites for the erythroid factors GATA-1 and NF-E2 and, in addition, binds a number
The b-globin locus control region Five DNase-hypersensitive sites have been identified upstream of the b-globin genes (Fig. 2.14). The most 5¢ site (HS5) does not show tissue specificity, while HSs1–4, which together form the LCR, are largely erythroid-specific, although HS2 has been observed in several non-erythroid cell lines and HS4 has been found in an embryonic carcinoma cell line (Dhar et al. 1990). Maximum expression of a linked b-globin gene is obtained when the whole LCR is present intact, but if each site is excised as a 1–3-kb fragment and joined together as a mini- or micro-LCR, high levels of expression are still obtained (Forrester et al. 1989; Talbot et al. 1989; Collis et al. 1990).When each of the four HSs is assayed individually for their ability to direct b-globin gene expression, the major activity is found in sites 2 (Curtin et al. 1989; Ryan et al. 1989; Fraser et al. 1990; Talbot et al. 1990; Caterina et al. 1991), 3 (Fraser et al. 1990; Philipsen et al. 1990, 1993) and 4 (Fraser et al. 1990; Pruzina et al. 1991), each of
β-globin LCR HS4
GATA-1
NFE-2
HS3
YY1
α -globin HS-40 HS2
Sp1
91
USF
HS1
Uncharacterized
Fig. 2.18 The structures of the b-globin gene cluster locus control region (LCR) and the a-globin gene cluster HS-40.
92
Chapter 2
of ubiquitous proteins, Sp1, J-BP and the CACC box binding protein TEF-2 (Pruzina et al. 1991; Lowrey et al. 1992). Again, it appears that the GATA-1 and NFE2 sites are essential for the functioning of this element (Stamatoyannopoulos et al. 1995). Function. The LCR could function by providing an entry site for RNA polymerase, which would then track along the cluster until the appropriate gene promoter was reached, when transcription would begin (Tuan et al. 1992).Alternatively, it might simply keep the genes in an open chromatin conformation (Forrester et al. 1990), transcription being determined by localized factors at the relevant promoters (Martin et al. 1996). In contrast to these indirect mechanisms, a more widely favoured model suggests that the LCR loops round and physically interacts with the promoter through DNA binding proteins at each site or bridging proteins (Choi & Engel 1988; Dillon & Grosveld 1993; Engel 1993). These interactions could occur between the promoter and individual LCR elements or, alternatively, the four HS elements might combine into a single holocomplex which contacts the promoter (Fraser et al. 1993; Wijgerde et al. 1995). As yet there is no direct evidence to support direct interaction between the LCR and the promoter. Analysis of globin-gene transcription in transgenic mouse erythroid cells at the time of switching from g- to b-gene transcription using labelled oligonucleotides to the primary transcripts has suggested that, on each chromosome, only one gene is transcribed at a time (Wijgerde et al. 1995; Milot et al. 1996; Gribnau et al. 1998; Trimborn et al. 1999). This appears to preclude the possibility that different HS elements can interact with separate promoters in synchrony and is more compatible with the notion that the elements combine to form a holocomplex. Clearly, the precise mechanism of action of the LCR remains to be determined. A critical review of the possibilities, based on the results of studies which suggest that it might not be required for the activation of the murine b-globin locus (Epner et al. 1998; Reik et al. 1998), raises the question as to whether it may have different functions in mouse and man (Bulger & Groudine 1999; Grosveld 1999). The a-globin major regulatory element, HS –40 Mapping of DNase1-hypersensitive sites around the a-globin genes identified erythroid-specific sites at
the globin-gene promoters, as well as five sites in the upstream region at –4, –8, –10, –33 and –40 kb relative to the z-globin gene. Testing of each of these sites for their ability to enhance a-globin gene transcription in MEL cells or transgenic mice showed that only the element at HS –40 is active (Higgs et al. 1990). This site coincides with the region of overlap of several naturally occurring deletions which remove parts of the upstream region and inactivate the remaining globin genes (see Chapter 4). These observations suggest that the major regulatory element of the aglobin cluster is HS –40. However, whether this is the only regulatory element is as yet unclear. In transgenic mice bearing DNA fragments containing the human HS –40 element together with an a-globin gene, levels of expression are not copy-number dependent, do not reach the levels of the endogenous a-globin genes and do not remain developmentally stable (Sharpe et al. 1992, 1993; Gourdon et al. 1994). By these criteria therefore HS –40 is not equivalent to the b LCR, suggesting that additional aglobin regulatory elements may still remain to be found; since fragments containing 150 kb of the a-globin cluster do not show complete regulation, they must be a considerable distance from the gene themselves. Structure and function. The structure of HS–40 closely resembles HS2 of the b LCR (Jarman et al. 1991). A 350-bp core fragment retains most of the activity and contains a duplicated NF-E2 binding site flanked by GATA-1 sites, as well as several CACCC motifs and a YY1 binding site (Fig. 2.18). This structure is largely conserved in the mouse (Gourdon et al. 1995). The mechanism by which HS –40 activates the aglobin gene is not known. The chromatin structure of the whole region from the telomere to downstream of the a-globin cluster is in an open conformation in all tissues. The genes in the upstream region are widely transcribed, including a gene which contains HS –40 within one of its introns (Vyas et al. 1995). It is unnecessary therefore for there to be a major change in chromatin structure, as must occur with the bglobin cluster, in order to activate the a-globin genes in their normal chromosomal environment. Indeed, no differences have been observed in chromatin structure in the a-globin region between a normal chromosome 16 and one lacking HS –40 in an erythroid cell (Craddock et al. 1995). Nevertheless, HS –40 must contain some chromatin-opening function
Human haemoglobin since all transfected MEL cells and transgenic mice express the a-globin gene when, and only when, HS –40 is present. There is no evidence as to whether HS –40 interacts with the globin-gene promoters.
Transcription Transcription of the globin genes requires the formation of a transcription complex on the promoter region of the gene. This is a multiprotein complex which includes the enzyme RNA polymerase II (pol II), which transcribes DNA into an mRNA copy. Details of how this is brought about are rather sketchy at present and the early events may well differ between the a- and b-globin gene complexes. The a-globin genes lie in a region of open chromatin, surrounded by housekeeping genes that are transcribed in all tissues. The chromatin structure of this whole region is in an open conformation in all tissues and thus does not require any prior unpacking from the type of highly condensed structure that the b cluster adopts in non-erythroid cells. The stage in haemopoietic/erythroid cell differentiation at which the b-globin gene cluster becomes decondensed is not known for certain but is likely to be early, possibly before erythroid commitment (Jimenez et al. 1992). It is clear that the LCR is involved in this process since, when it is deleted, the whole cluster remains tightly repressed in erythroid cells over a distance of more than 150 kb (Forrester et al. 1990). Decondensation is associated with the appearance of DNase1hypersensitive sites in the b LCR, which are believed to involve the displacement of one or more nucleosomes and the attachment of various trans-acting factors. Hypersensitive sites at the promoter may not be present at this initial stage but they appear at the time the gene is actually transcribed. The complex interplay between networks of transcription factors and the mechanisms of chromatin modification that underlie eukaryotic transcription is reviewed in detail by Kadonaga (1998). Basal transcription machinery Once an open chromatin structure is produced, and in the presence of the appropriate erythroid transcription factors, transcription can proceed. The mechanism of transcription is under investigation by both biochemical and genetic approaches using a variety of organisms, particularly yeast. As this process is well conserved in eukaryotes, many of the
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findings are likely to apply to higher organisms although the precise details may differ. The basal transcription apparatus (see Buratowski 1994) recognizes the core promoter and consists of RNA polymerase II, TATA binding protein (TBP) and the general transcription factors TFIIB, TFIIE, TFIIF and TFIIH. TBP binds the TATA box, TFIIH contains a helicase for separation of the DNA strands and a kinase to phosphorylate the C-terminal tail of pol II, while TFIIB forms a bridge between TBP and pol II to correctly position the start site of transcription. RNA pol II itself consists of 12 well conserved subunits. TBP is also multipart, consisting of TFIID and eight or more TBP-associated factors (TAFs), many of which have been characterized. It is not yet clear whether these complexes are put together in a stepwise fashion, as originally suggested by biochemical assays of in vitro transcription, or whether within the cells there is a relatively stable holocomplex in which many of these factors remain bound. There is also uncertainty about whether such a complex is bound to the nuclear matrix or whether it is free to diffuse within the nucleus. In addition to this preinitiation complex, tissuespecific and gene-specific activator proteins bind to upstream promoter elements and flanking enhancer sequences, and interface with the transcription complex. This interaction appears to be via the TAFs during transcription in Drosophila, while in yeast it occurs through a ‘mediator’ complex consisting of an alternative set of proteins known as SRB (or SSNs). The precise details remain to be determined and as yet little or nothing is known about the interactions responsible for globin-gene transcription. Once transcription is initiated, the preinitiation complex is dissociated. TBP and, possibly, associated TAFs remain associated with the promoter and may provide the basis for the next round of initiation, while the other factors may be released individually or as a subcomplex. It is likely that additional factors may be required for elongation as the polymerase transcribes the DNA at a rate of ~2 kb per minute (Bentley 1995). Transcripts terminate downstream of the gene, not at a defined point but in a heterogeneous array, possibly as a concomitant of processing of the 3¢ end of the nascent transcript. Erythroid-specific transcription factors Current knowledge about the transcription factors that are involved in erythropoiesis and the regulation
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Table 2.6 Some transcription factors involved in the regulation of erythropoiesis and globin synthesis. GATA-1
Binds to (A/T)GATA(A/G) sequence elements Contains two zinc fingers (N and C)
FOG
‘Friend of GATA–1’ Multi-zinc-finger protein Interacts with GATA-1 to enhance transcription
NF-E2
Nuclear factor erythroid 2 B ZIP transcription factor Heterodimer: subunits p45 and p18 Binds to (T/C)TGCTGA(C/G)TCA(T/C)
EKLF
Erythroid Krüppel-like factor Zinc-finger transcription factor Binds to CCACACC element
SSP
Stage-selector protein A protein complex that binds to g-gene promoter
of haemoglobin synthesis has been reviewed extensively (Orkin 1996; Orkin & Zon 1997; Orkin 1998). In addition to the basic transcription machinery both the major regulatory regions, b LCR and a HS -40, and the globin-gene promoters contain sequence motifs for various ubiquitous and erythroid-restricted transcription factors (Table 2.6). Binding of the various factors to these sequences has mainly been demonstrated by in vitro ‘footprinting’ and electrophoretic mobility-shift assays. In these studies, nuclear proteins are extracted from erythroid or non-erythroid cells and allowed to interact with oligonucleotide fragments containing the sites of interest.The interactions are monitored by the ability of the bound proteins to protect the sites from digestion by DNase1 or by the altered mobility of the bound fragment after polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Many of these in vitro observations have been confirmed by ‘in vivo footprinting’ in which the protection of sequences in the region of interest against DNase1 or restriction-enzyme cleavage is assayed in intact nuclei. Binding sites for transcription factors have been identified in each of the globin-gene promoters and at the hypersensitive-site regions of the various regulatory elements. A number of the factors which bind in these areas are found in all cell types. They include Sp1, YY1 and USF. In contrast, transcription factors such as GATA-1, EKLF and NF-E2 are restricted in
their distribution, which may, in addition to erythroid cells, include megakaryocytes and mast cells. The overlapping of erythroid-specific and ubiquitousfactor binding sites in several cases suggests that competitive binding may play an important part in the regulation of erythroid-specific genes. The balance of competition could be affected by either quantitative changes in the various factors or posttranslational modifications. GATA-1 GATA-1 is an X-linked member of the GATA family of zinc-finger proteins, of which there are at least six members. GATA-2 and GATA-3 are also found in erythroid cells but at a lower concentration and, like other GATA factors, have a wider tissue distribution. GATA-1 sites are found in the promoters of all of the globin genes except a, and in the regulatory elements as well as in the promoters of all other erythroid-specific genes that have been studied. The importance of this factor for erythropoiesis was demonstrated by ‘knocking out’ its gene in embryonic stem cells and creating chimeric embryos containing cells that are either GATA-positive or negative (Pevny et al. 1991). The negative cells could contribute to most of the tissues of the developing embryo but were not present among the definitive erythroid cells. When lines of mice were developed in which the GATA-1 gene has been ‘knocked out’ it was shown that GATA-1-negative males died in utero at about 10.5–11.5 days of gestation (Fujiwara et al. 1996). The function of this gene in erythropoiesis therefore cannot be compensated by any other member of this family. Over-expression of GATA-1 in mice transgenic for the human b-globin gene cluster resulted in marked reduction of e-globin gene expression but no change in the g-to-b-gene switch (Li et al. 1997). NF-E2 NF-E2 is a heterodimer of two basic leucine zipper subunits, p45 and p18 (Andrews et al. 1993a; Ney et al. 1993). Binding sites for this factor are common in erythroid genes and their regulators.The p18 protein has a ubiquitous distribution and is a member of the maf family of transcription factors (Andrews et al. 1993b), while p45 is restricted to erythroid, megakaryocytic and mast cells. The genes for both of these subunits have been ‘knocked out’ in embryonic stem cells, and
Human haemoglobin lines of mice lacking each factor have been produced. The loss of p18 has no phenotypic effect and presumably can be substituted by another family member (Kotkow & Orkin 1996).‘Knockout’ of p45 has a profound downregulatory effect on globin-gene transcription in MEL cells (Kotkow & Orkin 1995). Surprisingly, it has little effect on erythropoiesis in vivo; mice that lack NF-E2 have only slightly reduced haemoglobin levels but are severely thrombocytopenic (Shivdasani et al. 1995). EKLF EKLF is an erythroid-specific zinc-finger protein which binds to the CACCC box of b-globin genes and may interact with GATA-1 to permit transcriptional activation (Gregory et al. 1996). Mice in which EKLF has been ‘knocked out’ have a characteristic b-thalassaemic blood picture, and b-gene transcription, but not a, is reduced to about 10% of normal (Nuez et al. 1995; Perkins et al. 1995). Other CACCC-box-containing, erythroid-specific genes, including carbonic anhydrase 1, porphobilinogen deaminase, pyruvate kinase, GATA-1 and mouse bh1 globin are unaffected in these mice. This suggests that EKLF is specific for the b-globin gene. However, it is expressed throughout development, including yolk-sac erythroid cells in which the b gene is inactive, indicating that either the b gene is inaccessible to the factor at this stage or that its structure has to be modified, by phosphorylation or the binding of another protein for example, before it becomes fully functional (Donze et al. 1995). Its presence in yolk-sac cells may be related to the requirement of LCR HS3 for EKLF for its function (Tewari et al. 1998). Over-expression of EKLF in mice transgenic for the b-globin cluster results in an earlier switch from g- to b-gene expression (Tewari et al. 1998). FKLF Screening of a fetal liver cDNA library for EKLFrelated proteins produced a transcription factor, FKLF, that preferentially activated e- and g-gene promoters. Higher levels of the factor were found in fetal liver than in adult marrow and it appeared to be predominantly expressed in erythroid cells (Asano et al. 1999). As this protein appears to be identical to TIEG2, which was reported to be widely expressed (Cook et al. 1998), functional in vivo assays will be
95
required to determine its importance in differential globin-gene expression. SSP SSP, the stage selector protein, which may play a part in globin-gene switching, was originally identified by competition between g- and b-gene expression in transiently transfected K562 cells (Jane et al. 1992, 1993). Constructs containing an intact g-gene promoter suppressed the activity of a linked b gene. Deletion of -53 to -35 bp relative to the CAP site derepressed the b gene, suggesting that this sequence is important in mediating the preferential interaction of the g promoter with the LCR element, HS2. Purification of a nuclear protein that binds to this sequence demonstrated that it is a heterodimer consisting of the ubiquitous factor CP2, first identified from its binding to the murine a-globin CCAAT box, and two molecules of an erythroid-specific 22 kDa protein called NF-E4 (Jane et al. 1995; Zhou et al. 2000). NFE4, like EKLF, is not developmental stage specific, but appears to specifically activate e and g genes.
RNA processing The primary RNA transcript of a gene is short lived; for globin genes it has been estimated to have a halflife of about 5 min. Its further processing involves modifications at both its 5¢ and 3¢ ends together with removal of the intervening sequences and uniting the exons to form a definitive template for protein synthesis.All these events take place in the nucleus. Capping At the 5¢ end of the mRNA, a 7-methylguanosine residue is added in a 5¢–5¢ linkage to the first base, a process known as capping (see pp. 69, 97). This may play a role in its stability and in ribosomal binding to the mRNA during translation. Poly(A) addition The 3¢ end of the primary transcript is cleaved at a specific point that is usually 10–25 nucleotides downstream of a highly conserved AAUAAA motif, after which a 200–300-bp tract of poly(A) residues is added to the end. The importance of the AAUAA/ poly(A) addition signal to this process is illustrated
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by a- or b-globin genes in which mutations in this sequence lead to thalassaemia (see Chapter 4). This process is carried out by another protein complex consisting of a cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF), a cleavage stimulation factor (CstF), poly(A) polymerase (PAP) and poly(A) binding protein (PABII) (Keller 1995). CPSF, which consists of at least three polypeptides, binds to the AAUAAA sequence and links up with CstF, which also contains three polypeptides, which binds to U or G+U-rich sequences downstream of the cleavage site. The bound RNA is cleaved by an unidentified ribonuclease, after which a short tract of poly(A) is added by PAP, followed by a rapid burst of poly(A) addition until the poly(A) tail is ~250 bp long. Although poly(A) addition may play a role in transcription termination and transport of the RNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, its major importance appears to lie in determining the stability of mRNA. Loss of the poly(A) tail is associated with rapid destruction of the mRNA, both in vitro and in vivo (Ross 1995). Splicing The other major goal of mRNA processing is the removal of the intervening sequences. This process is understood in greater detail than many other intranuclear events (Newman 1998; Misteli 1999). The initial step is cleavage of the 5¢ splice site after a nucleophilic attack by the 2¢ OH group on an A residue 10–60 nucleotides upstream of the 3¢ acceptor site. This forms a 2¢–5¢ phosphodiester bond to produce a ‘lariat’ structure containing the intron and the 3¢ exon. The 3¢ OH group on the 5¢ exon is now free to attack the 3¢ splice site, resulting in the joining of the two exons and release of the free lariat intron. Splicing is carried out by a large, multisubunit complex, the spliceosome, consisting of several proteins, some of which have been purified to homogeneity, and a number of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs). The snRNPs contain a small RNA (snRNA) of 56–217 nucleotides which is rich in uracil, together with a common set of proteins as well as those unique to each complex. The initial step in splicing is the binding of the UI snRNP to the 5¢ end of the splice site, brought about by the complementarity of the 5¢ end of the UI RNA to the splice con-
sensus sequence. In the second step, U2 snRNP binds to the sequence around the branch site of the lariat. Finally, U4/U6 and U5 snRNPs are added together with additional proteins to form the spliceosome, after which splicing can take place. Many b-thalassaemia mutations involve the splicing mechanism. Indeed, they provide excellent natural models for the consequences of incorrect mRNA processing. Their effects are considered in detail in Chapter 4.
Transportation of mRNA to the cytoplasm Once the primary transcript has been processed to mRNA, it is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Little is known about how this occurs, although, by analogy with other systems, it seems likely to be an active process, possibly involving carrier proteins as well as the protein complexes of the nuclear pore.There are hints that it may be linked to translation. The level of b-globin mRNA containing a premature stop-codon mutation (nonsense mutation) in exon 1 or 2 in the cytoplasm is reduced to less than 10% of normal. Such mRNA as survives appears to have normal stability (Humphries et al. 1984; Takeshita et al. 1984). It is not clear whether destruction takes place in the cytoplasm, in the nucleus or during transit between the two. Normal levels of primary transcript are found in the nucleus, but the levels of processed nuclear mRNA are reduced (Takeshita et al. 1984; Kugler et al. 1995), a situation that has also been reported for triosephosphate isomerase genes containing nonsense codons in the first few exons (Belgrader et al. 1994). Others, however, have reported that, when human b-globin genes containing nonsense codons are expressed in mice, the mRNAs appear to be degraded in the cytoplasm rather than the nucleus (Lim et al. 1992; Lim & Maquat 1992). As these experiments have involved different genes, species and tissues, it is not yet possible to reconcile these results. However, the suggestion that translation-linked transport from the nucleus to the cytoplasm is involved in producing the low levels of mRNA containing nonsense codons warrants further investigation. We shall return to this question in Chapters 4 and 13, when we discuss its relevance to the molecular basis of dominant b thalassaemia.
Human haemoglobin
Globin mRNAs The general structure of globin mRNA is shown in Fig. 2.19, illustrating the features of human b-globin mRNA elucidated by Forget, Proudfoot, Kan and coworkers (Proudfoot & Longley 1976; Chang et al. 1977; Forget 1977; Marotta et al. 1977; Proudfoot 1977).All globin mRNAs contain the modified 5¢ end CAP structure and the 3¢ poly(A) tail. In addition there are non-coding sequences at the 5¢ and 3¢ ends. For example, b globin has 53 nucleotides before the AUG initiation codon, and a further 132 nucleotides between the termination codon and the poly(A). Thus, although the b chain has 146 amino acids (which require 3 ¥ 146 = 438 nucleotides to code for them, in addition to the AUG initiator and UAA terminator, a total of 444 nucleotides in all), the b-globin mRNA is approximately 650–750 nucleotides long, depending on the exact size of the poly(A) tail. Many animal and viral mRNAs have a 5¢ structure containing methylated nucleotides (Shatkin 1976). Several versions, CAP-0, CAP-1 and CAP-2, have been found. CAP-2 is present in all globin mRNAs and, in general, appears to be present only in cytoplasmic mRNAs. CAP-1 is found in both nuclear and cytoplasmic mRNA, and it is probable that CAP-2 is derived from CAP-1. Enzymic removal of the CAP reduces the translational efficiency of globin mRNA in cell-free systems (Lodish 1976; Revel & Groner 1978), and CAP analogues inhibit its translation. Thus, it is likely that CAP is necessary for the maximum translational efficiency of globin mRNA. There is some evidence for a direct interaction between the CAP and a reticulocyte initiation factor (Shafritz et al. 1976), although whether it is truly involved in the regulation of chain initiation is not yet known. We shall discuss the effects of mutations of the CAP site in Chapter 4. A string of adenylic acid residues at the 3¢ end of mRNA is found in all globin mRNAs (Lim & Canel-
5'
lakis 1970; Burr & Lingrel 1971). The exact length seems to vary with the age of the mRNA, being longest in newly synthesized RNA and shortest in mRNA isolated from ‘old’ reticulocytes. Its functions were discussed earlier. Although deadenylated mRNA will function in a cell-free system (Sippel et al. 1974), its lifetime is much shorter than poly(A)-containing mRNA when it is incubated in Xenopus oocytes over a period of several days (Marbaix et al. 1975; Maniatis et al. 1976). The nucleotide sequences of the human a, b and g messenger RNAs (and, by extrapolation from the DNA sequences of the cloned genes, those d and e mRNAs) are now known in considerable detail (Proudfoot & Longley 1976; Baralle 1977; Chang et al. 1977; Forget 1977; Marotta et al. 1977; Wilson et al. 1977; Chang et al. 1978; Forget et al. 1979; Proudfoot & Baralle 1979). There is little overall homology in the non-coding sequences, although certain features, such as the CUUPyUG sequence found near to the 5¢ CAP, which may be involved in ribosome recognition, and the AAUAAA sequence found in all eukaryotic messengers about 20 bases from the poly(A) addition site, recur. The function of these non-coding regions is not clear. Obviously those at the 5¢ end include the ribosome binding site, and the differences between a and b mRNA 5¢ non-coding sequences presumably account, at least in part, for the fact that a chains are initiated more slowly than b chains on these messengers. It may also be relevant that the potential exists for forming hairpin loop structures in parts of these non-coding regions, which may help to stabilize the molecules by preventing degradation by exonucleases.
Globin synthesis Globin chains are synthesized in the cytoplasm by the interaction of mRNA, ribosomes, transfer RNAs and various cofactors in a series of reactions proceeding
m7G5' ppp5' m6 AmC(m)A
'CAP' structure
Fig. 2.19 The structure of a typical globin messenger RNA.
97
AUG
UAA
Initiator
Poly(A)n
Terminator
50 bases
444 bases
5' untranslated region
Coding region
132 bases
50–70 bases
3' untranslated region
3'
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through three separate phases: initiation; elongation; and termination (Fig. 2.3). A detailed description of the mechanisms of protein synthesis is given by Lewin (1997). Here, we outline the major steps in globin synthesis.
Most mRNAs are long enough to support a number of ribosomes active in synthesis along their length. Once a ribosome has moved away from the initiation site, another can bind and start synthesis, so forming polyribosome complexes.
Initiation
Termination
The initial step involves the formation of a tertiary complex between the initiation factor elF-2, GTP and the initiation transfer RNA, tRNAmet, which subsequently binds to the small 40 S ribosomal subunit. With the help of other initiation factors, globin mRNA and the large ribosomal subunit are added to this complex so that, in its final configuration, the mRNA is aligned with the ribosome with the AUG initiation codon opposite the UAC anticodon of the tRNAmet. AUG is the only codon for the amino acid methionine. Thus in all mammalian systems, just as in bacteria, the first amino acid incorporated into a protein chain is methionine; in bacterial systems the methionine has a blocked, formylated amino group but this is not found in mammalian cells. Once translation starts the initiation factors dissociate to participate in another initiation cycle.
Globin synthesis stops when the ribosome reaches a chain termination codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) in the message. At this point the polypeptide chain is split from the tRNA in another GTP-dependent hydrolytic reaction, which involves at least one protein cofactor. The ribosome is released from the mRNA and dissociates into subunits, which are then free to participate in another round of synthesis.
Elongation Protein synthesis now proceeds by stepwise addition of amino acids from the N-terminal end to form the growing peptide chain. This cycle involves at least three distinct stages. The first is a codon-directed binding of an aminoacyl-tRNA to a ribosome site next to that occupied by the initiator tRNAmet. Peptide transfer then takes place between the newly bound aminoacyl-tRNA and the tRNAmet. Lastly, the newly made peptidyl-tRNA and the mRNA are both shifted from the acceptor to the donor site on the ribosome. In this way the acceptor site is freed and the process can be repeated.At the same time the tRNA that donated the growing peptide chain is released. Two protein factors, EF-1 and EF-2, are involved in the elongation process. EF-1 participates in a GTP-dependent reaction by which aminoacyltRNAs bind to ribosomes, while EF-2, or translocase, catalyses the translocation step in another GTPdependent reaction. The N-terminal methionine incorporated during initiation is removed enzymatically from the globin chain after the addition of about 20 amino acids.
Regulation Although, as mentioned earlier, it is now apparent that globin synthesis is regulated mainly at the level of transcription, there appears to be some fine-tuning at the level of translation; b mRNA is a much more efficient initiator than a by a factor of about 1.5 (Lodish 1976). However, this imbalance is compensated by there being more a-globin mRNA than b in red-cell precursors. The net effect is that the number of a and b chains synthesized are almost equal but not quite; there is usually a slight over-production of a chains in normal precursors (Weatherall et al. 1965), which, presumably, are disposed of proteolytically to achieve a final balance. As mentioned earlier, the output of the a2-globin gene exceeds that of the a1 gene, probably reflecting the different levels of mRNA production at these two loci. Assessment of the ribosome loading of a2- and a1-globin mRNA has shown that they have identical translational profiles and therefore should be translated with equal efficiencies, predicting a dominant role for the a2-globin locus (Shakin & Liebhaber 1986). It follows that, in heterozygotes, naturally occurring structural mutations of the a2 gene should represent ~37% of the peripheral blood haemoglobin, and a1-gene mutants ~13%. However, two studies addressing this point came to different conclusions. In the first, it was found that a2-gene variants represented 24–40%, whereas a1-gene variants represented 11–23%, suggesting a predominant role for the a2 gene at both mRNA and protein levels (Liebhaber et al. 1986). In contrast, a more extensive
Human haemoglobin survey of a-globin variants by Molchanova et al. (1994a) found that in heterozygotes the average proportion of stable variants resulting from a2-gene mutants (23.5%) was only slightly higher than from a1-gene mutations (19.7%), suggesting a less efficient translation of the a2-globin mRNA and a more equal contribution from the two genes at the protein level. Further work will be needed to resolve this issue since this is clearly of importance in understanding the pathophysiology of the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia (see Chapter 4).
99
cations this is converted to protoporphyrinogen, which, on oxidation by oxygen in the presence of coproporphyrinogen oxidase, is finally converted to the red protoporphyrinogen molecule. Iron is then inserted by the enzyme ferrochelatase to form haem. The first and last two enzymes of this pathway are present in the mitochondria while the rest are found in the cell cytoplasm, and it is interesting to note that both oxidation steps take place in the mitochondria. Regulation is mediated mainly by the level of haem; increasing levels result in feedback inhibition of ALA synthase.
Haem synthesis Haem–globin interactions and the assembly of haemoglobin
The biosynthesis of haem in red-cell precursors (reviewed by Sassa 1995) takes place in a series of enzymatically controlled steps, beginning with the condensation of glycine and succinyl-CoA to form aamino b-keto adipic acid, which is then rapidly decarboxylated to form d-aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) (Fig. 2.20). This reaction, which is catalysed by the enzyme ALA synthase and requires pyridoxal phosphate and ferrous ion as cofactors, is the only step in the whole chain which requires energy (to convert succinate to succinyl-CoA), all the rest being essentially irreversible (with the possible exception of the formation of uroporphyrinogen III). Next, two molecules of ALA combine to form the monopyrrole porphobilinogen by the action of the enzyme ALA dehydratase, and then four of these porphobilinogen molecules are condensed to form the basic tetrapyrrole ring, uroporphyrinogen. After side-chain modifi-
Although the differential regulation of globin synthesis is achieved against a background of predetermined cytoplasmic mRNA levels, the overall level of protein synthesis in red-cell precursors may be modified to a considerable extent by haem, which is a powerful stimulator of globin synthesis (Lodish 1976). In conditions of haem deficiency a protein kinase specifically phosphorylates, and thereby inactivates, the initiation factor elF-2 (Farrell et al. 1977; Revel & Groner 1978). Although haem deficiency is not relevant to the thalassaemias, it is worth noting that the excess haem which is liberated in thalassaemic red cells from the dissociation of globin subunits plays an important role in generating pathological changes in their membranes (see Chapter 5). As mentioned earlier, there is usually a small pool
Mitochondrion Glycine + Succinyl CoA
Cytosol
ALA synthase
ALA ALA dehydratase
Haem
PBG Via hydroxymethylbilane
Ferrochelatase + Fe
Fig. 2.20 The pathway of haem 4 synthesis.The abbreviations uro gen 4 and copro gen represent uroporphyrinogen and coproporphyrinogen, respectively. ALA, d aminolaevulinic acid; PBG, porphobilinogen.
Protoporphyrin IX
Uro'gen III
Uro'gen decarboxylase
Proto'gen oxidase Proto'gen IX
Uro'gen I
Copro'gen oxidase
Copro'gen III
Copro'gen I
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of excess a chains in red-cell precursors. It was suggested that a chains from this pool associate with b chains on ribosomes to await their release as ab dimers (Baglioni & Campana 1967).While these may be true intermediates in haemoglobin assembly (Winterhalter et al. 1969), and kinetic studies indicate this is probably the case, it seems unlikely that their formation on ribosomes is obligatory, because in certain conditions, such as HbH disease (see Chapters 5 and 11), b chains can be freely released from ribosomes into the cell cytoplasm. Haem is probably incorporated into the a and b chains after their release into the cytoplasm (Felicetti et al. 1966), and tetramer formation follows immediately after their association into dimers (Winterhalter & Huehns 1964). It is often the case that the levels of b-chain haemoglobin variants in heterozygotes depart considerably from the expected 50%. At least some of these discrepancies undoubtedly reflect differential affinity of a chains for b chains of different structure. Indeed, there is clear evidence that a chains bind g chains less effectively than b chains. Throughout this book we shall see how the differential affinity of globin subunits one for another may have a profound effect on the relative levels of particular haemoglobin variants in individuals with different forms of thalassaemia in which one or other globin subunit is found in reduced amounts. We shall take up this story again in Chapter 3 and in greater detail in Chapters 9 and 11.
Developmental regulation of the globin genes The developmental changes in haemoglobin production are brought about by differential activation of the globin genes, which is largely determined at the level of transcription. This series of events, called ‘haemoglobin switching’, has been extensively studied, not only for its innate biological interest but also because a better understanding of its regulation might lead to its manipulation, which could be of therapeutic benefit to those with b thalassaemia or sickle-cell disease. However, despite all the effort that has been directed towards this end, we still have only the flimsiest of ideas about how switching is regulated. Because this information is so central to our better understanding of the thalassaemias, we shall outline some of the approaches that are being followed to solve this problem.
Haemoglobin production during development Human haemoglobin is heterogeneous at all stages of development, beginning with the youngest embryos that have been studied and continuing throughout adult life (Fig. 2.21). In embryos, haemoglobin synthesis is confined to the yolk sac, where Hbs Gower 1 (z2e2), Gower 2 (a2e2) and Portland (z2g2) are produced.At 5 weeks’ gestation, the z/z +a-chain synthesis ratio is 0.82 ± 0.04; by 6 weeks it has declined to 0.03 ± 0.02 (Peschle et al. 1985). The e/e +g ratio is 0.83 ± 0.05 at 5 weeks and declines more slowly to 0.31 ± 0.10 at 6 weeks, and 0.03 ± 0.02 at 7 weeks. Synthesis of b chain becomes detectable at about 6 weeks, when it comprises ~1.5% of the non-a chains, increasing to 5% at 7 weeks and ~10% by 10 weeks. At around 7–8 weeks’ gestation the liver becomes the major site of erythropoiesis, producing large enucleated red cells. Using more sensitive mRNA assays, q-gene transcripts are detected in yolk sac, fetal liver (Leung et al. 1987), adult blood (Albitar et al. 1989) and bone marrow (Ley et al. 1989). Very small amounts of z mRNA are also present throughout fetal life (for example, see Hill et al. 1985) and z globin (as Hb Portland) is present in the cord bloods of non-thalassaemic newborns (for example, see Chui et al. 1989). Throughout most of fetal life HbF production predominates, with a small amount (< 10%) of HbA.The different g chains are produced in a ratio of Gg to Ag of 3 : 1, which remains constant until late in gestation (Nute et al. 1973). At mid-term the bone marrow begins to take over as the major site of red-cell production, though erythropoiesis is also found in the spleen, as well as in other tissues (Kelemen et al. 1981).There are no differences in the relative proportions of fetal and adult haemoglobins produced in these sites (Wood & Weatherall 1973). Towards the end of gestation there is a gradual and reciprocal switch from HbF to A production. At birth, the cord blood normally contains ~70% HbF and this declines to ~20% by 3 months, 7.5% at 6 months, and less than 2% by the age of 1 year. At the same time there is a differential decline in Gg- and Agchain production, so that their relative proportions become closer to equal. Both fetal and adult haemoglobins are produced in the same cell during the switching period, with a gradual increase in the proportion of cells containing predominantly HbA. The proportion of HbF continues to decline throughout childhood and probably throughout adult life
Cell type
Human haemoglobin
Site of erythropoiesis
Megaloblast
Macrocyte
Liver
Normocyte
Normocyte Bone marrow
en
Sple
Yolk sac
α
α
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γ Percentage of total globin synthesis
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β
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30
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ζ
ε β
γ δ
6
12
18
24
30
36
6
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
Birth Post-conceptual age (weeks)
Fig. 2.21 Developmental changes in haemoglobin production. (a) The sites of erythropoiesis during development and the different globins produced at each stage. (b) Globin synthesis in blood obtained from a 20-week-old fetus.The cells were incubated with radioactive amino acids and the globins separated.Adult haemoglobin was added as ‘carrier’.There is approximately 10% b-chain synthesis at this gestational age.
cpm × 10–4
12
Postnatal age (weeks) 40
Radioactivity incorporated Optical density tracing
9
30
6
20
3
10 γ
0 (b)
(Rutland et al. 1983), at which time the small amount of HbF is only detectable in 3–5% of red cells, known as F cells (Fig. 2.22). The latter do not have any other features of fetal erythroid cells and the HbF constitutes no more than 20% of the haemoglobin content. Although the products of the a2 and a1 genes are
10
20
α
β
30 40 Fraction number
Transmission 280 nm (%)
(a)
50
60
identical, two methods exploiting the sequence divergence in their 3¢ non-coding regions have enabled the relative amounts of their mRNAs to be determined in reticulocytes (Liebhaber & Kan 1981; Orkin & Goff 1981a). In both fetal and adult life the steadystate level of a2-globin mRNA predominates over
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Fig. 2.22 F cells in normal adult blood. Normal adult blood treated with a fluorescently labelled anti-HbF antibody.
a1-globin mRNA by approximately 3 : 1, probably as a result of differences at the level of transcription of the two genes. More recently, these findings have also been confirmed using quantitative RT-PCR analyses (Molchanova et al. 1994a). Cellular aspects of haemoglobin switching Timing Theoretically, haemoglobin switching could reflect the replacement of one haemopoietic cell population by another, or, alternatively, changes in gene expression within the same cell lineage (Wood 1984). In the latter case, switching could result from an autonomous cellular programme or a response to an external signal supplied by other cells or by a circulating regulator, a hormone for instance. Haematopoiesis begins in the embryo in a region known as the ‘para-aortic splanchnopleura’ or the ‘aorta-gonad-mesonephros’ (Dzierzak et al. 1998). During early development, there are two waves of red-cell production, one in the yolk-sac cells, the other in the fetal liver and bone marrow (Cumano et al. 1996; Medvinsky & Dzierzak 1996). The lineage relationships between these populations have not yet been established. The switch from embryonic to fetal haemoglobin production may be principally the result of the replacement of one cell lineage programmed for embryonic haemoglobins by another
which is independently programmed for fetal and adult haemoglobins. Unlike fetal-to-adult haemoglobin switching, which only occurs in ruminants and primates, the embryonic switch occurs in all vertebrates. It is possible therefore that the regulatory mechanism involved in embryonic-to-postembryonic switching may be fundamentally different from the relatively recently evolved fetal-to-adult haemoglobin switch. The fetal-to-adult haemoglobin switch reflects a change from g- to b-gene expression within the same haemopoietic lineage, both genes being expressed in the same cell at the time of switching (Wood 1984). The process is protracted, beginning several weeks before birth and largely completed three to six months later. The timing is unaffected by birth, and although tens of thousands of blood samples from newborn infants have been examined world-wide, very few examples of premature or delayed switching have been reported. Infants of diabetic mothers show a delay, probably as a result of high fetal butyrate levels (Perrine et al. 1985, 1988). Whether this is due to a change in the time of onset of switching or a secondary chemical effect on g-gene expression has yet to be determined. Experimental approaches to modifying the time of switching have shown that, in sheep, fetal thyroidectomy or nephrectomy have little or no effect, while hypophysectomy, which results in a generalized developmental delay, retards switching although the
Human haemoglobin time of onset appears to be unaffected (Wood et al. 1976a). Similar delays are observed in adrenalectomized fetuses and can be reversed by injections of cortisol (Wintour et al. 1985). Thus the rate, if not the time of onset, of switching can be modified by hormonal factors. When adult marrow is injected into fetal sheep there is no reversion to fetal haemoglobin production (Zanjani et al. 1982).The converse experiment, transplantation of fetal liver haemopoietic cells to adult sheep, results in the production of fetal, and later adult, haemoglobin (Zanjani et al. 1979; Bunch et al. 1981; Wood et al. 1985). Similar results are obtained when human fetal liver is transplanted to adults (Delfini et al. 1983; Papayannopoulou et al. 1986).The time of switching is not related to the time after transplantation, but rather to the age of the fetal cells (Wood et al. 1985).These results suggest that the fetal and adult ‘environments’ do not play a major role in determining the type of haemoglobin that is made. Rather, they imply that the time of switching is an inbuilt property of haemopoietic cells, as if they have their own ‘developmental clock’. However, the time taken for switching to occur in these transplantation experiments is sufficiently short for the results to reflect the activities of longlived, committed progenitor cells. Therefore, further work is required before the timing of switching can be ascribed unequivocally to an inherent programme within haemopoietic cells. Indeed, it has been shown recently that, when such cells obtained from adult bone marrow are injected into mouse blastocysts, they can give rise to red cells later in development that contain embryonic rather than adult globins (Geiger et al. 1998). This observation suggests that the developmental potential of the adult stem cell may be more plastic than previously thought.
Determination
CFU-S SCL/tal-1
At which stage in haemopoietic-cell development is switching determined? It appears likely that the decision about whether a cell produces fetal or adult haemoglobin is taken early in erythropoiesis.The most primitive progenitor cell that is committed to the erythroid lineage is the early burst-forming-unit erythroid (BFU-E), a cell with a large proliferative capacity which can give rise to several thousand mature red blood cells in in vitro colonies (Fig. 2.23). When these cells are isolated from fetal tissues and cultured in serum-free medium in the absence of accessory cells, but with growth factors that allow their proliferation and maturation, they give rise to large, haemoglobinized colonies that contain fetal haemoglobin (Stamatoyannopoulos & Papayannopoulou 1981; Peschle et al. 1984). Similar colonies from adult bone marrow grown under the same conditions contain adult haemoglobin. It appears therefore that information about the haemoglobin type of red cells is already programmed into a cell that is 10 or more divisions away from activating its globin genes. It follows that the critical events which mediate differential globin-gene expression need not necessarily occur when genes are transcribed in early erythroblasts, but may happen much earlier in erythroid differentiation and in cells which are rare and difficult to isolate. The molecular basis for gene switching The role of cis-active sequences An analysis of the sequences that might be involved in haemoglobin switching requires either a series of naturally occurring mutations or an experimental model in which manipulations can be made. Initially, the mutations associated with persistent HbF pro-
Proliferation differentiation CFU-GEMM
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BFU-E GATA-2 GATA-1 C-myb
Maturation
CFU-E
Proerythroblast EKLF Epo NF-E2
Fig. 2.23 The different classes of progenitors during red-cell maturation. Below, some of the regulatory proteins are also shown. CFU = Colony-forming unit. BFU = burst-forming unit. E = erythroid.The action of the different regulators is described in the text (see pp. 93–5).
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duction appeared to offer valuable models, but, in the event, they have been surprisingly uninformative (see Chapters 4 and 10). Therefore it has been necessary to develop other systems to attack this problem. Early studies of globin-gene expression were limited to transfection of human DNA into cell lines. While this was useful for identifying essential regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, developmental regulation could not be achieved, appropriate cell lines were not always available, and there were concerns that results obtained from cells in culture might stem from artefacts and not reflect events in normal cells. Among the many technical advances of modern biology, the ability to incorporate human genes into mice has been among the most important, particularly for examining gene expression. Injection of cloned human DNA into the pronuclei of fertilized mouse eggs, at a time before the gametic nuclei fuse, results in its integration into the mouse genome in a random fashion. After transfer of the injected eggs to pseudopregnant females, up to 30% of the fetuses or newborn animals contain the injected DNA. In most cases, the human DNA fragment is incorporated as multiple copies in a tandem 5¢ to 3¢ or ‘head to tail’ array, although occasionally single copies are found. In some cases, integration takes place after the first cell division, resulting in mosaicism in which the human DNA is present in some but not all cells; the proportion may vary from tissue to tissue. However, breeding from these ‘founder’ mice usually generates transgenic lines in which inheritance of the transgene is Mendelian. The first globin-gene fragments used to generate transgenic mice consisted of the g- and b-globin genes, together with a small amount of flanking sequence. When their tissues were examined for human gene expression by RNA analysis, the levels were usually low, only a few per cent of the endogenous mouse mRNA, or there was none at all (Magram et al. 1985; Townes et al. 1985; Chada et al. 1986; Kollias et al. 1986). However, when a gene was expressed, it was usually in the appropriate tissue and both g and b genes were developmentally regulated. These experiments, while giving disappointing levels of expression, nevertheless led to the important conclusion that sequences involved in globin-gene expression at different developmental stages must lie in and around the genes themselves. The variably low or absent expression of the
human genes in these cell lines is now believed to reflect the site of integration; in an open region of chromatin, expression is possible, whereas, if the region is inactive in erythroid cells, so is the transgene.With the discovery of the LCR (see earlier), this problem was overcome. Constructs containing the LCR are highly expressed, the level being proportional to the copy number of the transgenes and equivalent per copy to that of the endogenous mouse genes (Grosveld et al. 1987; Ryan et al. 1989). This advance paved the way for detailed dissection of the cis regulation of the b-globin gene cluster. Expression of the entire human b-globin-gene cluster in mice In transgenic mice containing the whole b-globin gene complex, either as a 70-kb DNA fragment (Strouboulis et al. 1992) or in a yeast artificial chromosome (Gaensler et al. 1993; Peterson et al. 1993), a tightly regulated pattern of developmental regulation is observed. The e-globin gene is expressed largely in yolk-sac cells and is switched off by about day 12.5. The g genes are highly expressed in yolk-sac cells and their expression persists in the fetal liver until about day 16.5. They also show a switch from Gg to Ag expression during this period, as occurs during human development. The b-globin gene is virtually inactive in yolk-sac cells and is expressed in parallel with the mouse b genes. It appears therefore that many aspects of developmental regulation of human genes are reproduced in these mice; the major difference lies in the embryonic expression of the g genes and the fact that they are transcribed at a level five- to 10-fold greater than the e transgene. This probably reflects the fact that the mouse has no g genes of its own, making it a less than perfect model. e-Gene expression Studies of human e-gene expression in transgenic mice have shown a similar pattern when it is attached to LCR elements, on its own or together with the rest of the complex. In other words, the presence of other genes does not affect its transcription, indicating that it is autonomously regulated. The particular sequences responsible appear to lie within the 5¢ end of the gene (Shih et al. 1993), a region containing a number of positive and negative regulatory
Human haemoglobin sequences (Cao et al. 1989; Trepicchio et al. 1993, 1994; Dyer et al. 1996). Deletion of the region from –392 to –177 relative to the CAP site, a region that contains a negative regulator that may possibly overlap a positive element, prevents complete downregulation of the gene, resulting in continued low-level e-gene activity in adult life. Thus, one of the regulatory sites involved in its postembryonic suppression has been identified (Raich et al. 1990, 1992, 1995). Surprisingly, deletion of the part of this sequence believed to contain the element responsible for silencing the gene in adult cells (–304 to –179) from a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) containing the whole b-globin cluster results in marked suppression of e-gene transcription in embryonic yolk-sac cells. Furthermore, the loss of this sequence also downregulates expression of the g genes (Liu et al. 1997). Clearly, both expression and repression of the e gene is subject to several cis regulatory elements. g -Gene expression While the g genes are highly expressed in embryos and almost entirely repressed in adult mice containing the whole human globin-gene complex, with smaller constructs, g-gene repression in adults is more variable. When the LCR or micro LCR is attached to a 3.3-kb fragment containing the Ag gene (extending to +1951 bp from the CAP site, but lacking the downstream enhancer element), g mRNA levels decline between fetal liver and adult blood stages but continue to be expressed at relatively high levels. With micro LCR Agdb or GgAgdb constructs, a further reduction in adult levels of g-gene expression is observed, suggesting that the presence of a b gene downstream may be important in suppressing g-gene expression (Behringer et al. 1990; Enver et al. 1990). On the other hand, complete repression of g-gene expression in adults is observed when the LCR is attached to an Ag gene extended to +4308, as long as only low-copy-number mice are utilized (Dillon & Grosveld 1991). This fragment includes the Ag ‘enhancer’, and hence a role for this element in ggene silencing was implicated. However, when other g-gene fragments that include this element are analysed, they are incompletely switched off in adults (Lloyd et al. 1992; Roberts et al. 1997b; Stamatoyannopoulos et al. 1997). An element lying between 3342 and 4308 has been reported to act as a silencer in
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transient assays (Kosteas et al. 1996) and could also be involved in suppressing g genes in adults. What are these complex and apparently contradictory findings telling us about g-gene regulation? As some constructs containing the g gene alone show complete repression in adults, the g genes, like the e gene, appear to be largely autonomously regulated, a conclusion which is supported by evidence from transgenic mice containing rearranged b-globin loci from YAC inserts (Peterson et al. 1995). It also appears, however, that the presence of the b-globin genes must play at least some role in their developmental expression. b-Gene expression The main regulatory regions that have been defined within or adjacent to the b-globin genes were described earlier. They show appropriate developmental regulation in the absence of the LCR (Magram et al. 1985; Kollias et al. 1986) but, in an LCR-b gene construct, the b gene is also expressed in yolk-sac cells and stays on at a similar level throughout development (Behringer et al. 1990; Enver et al. 1990). As we have already seen, correct developmental regulation of the b gene is reacquired when a gglobin gene is placed between it and the LCR or one of its elements (Behringer et al. 1990; Enver et al. 1990). These findings suggest that upstream g-globin genes are necessary to keep the b gene silenced in embryonic cells, and indicate that there may be competition between the two genes, presumably for activation by the LCR. In fact, any gene in this position can fulfil this function; an a-globin gene (Hanscombe et al. 1991; Peterson & Stamatoyannopoulos 1993) or a non-globin gene (Anderson et al. 1993) can prevent the embryonic expression of the b gene. In the embryonic environment, the g genes are favoured in this competition, silencing the b gene, but if the g genes are absent the LCR is free to activate the b gene. The role of the different LCR elements The major functions of the LCR, together with the effects of deletion of its different components, were outlined earlier in this chapter. When HS2, 3 or 4 was individually linked to a 35-kb GgAgdb fragment in transgenic mice, some differences were observed in the relative levels of g- and b-gene expression at dif-
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ferent stages of development, HS3 appearing to favour b, and HS4 g, levels (Fraser et al. 1993). However, the lack of major developmental differences in mouse or human globin-gene expression when different sites are ‘knocked out’ of the complex suggests that individual HSs do not play a major selective role in activating individual genes (Fiering et al. 1995; Hug et al. 1996). The role of gene order As we have seen, it appears that the e and g genes are autonomously regulated, while b-gene expression requires competition from the g genes for its silencing in embryonic erythropoiesis. This might imply that gene-specific transcription factors mediate the expression of these genes by facilitating their activation by the LCR. However, there is compelling evidence that expression from within the b-globin gene is dependent on the order of genes and their proximity to the LCR. The closer the gene is to the LCR, the more likely it is to be expressed, even to the degree of overcoming normal developmental regulation (Hanscombe et al. 1991; Peterson & Stamatoyannopoulos 1993; Dillon et al. 1997). The role of trans-acting factors It has long been believed that the differential gene expression that underlies haemoglobin switching must reflect difference in protein transcription factors between embryonic, fetal and adult cells.Thus in fetal erythroblasts there may be a set of factors which bind to the g-gene promoters and facilitate transcription via an interaction with the LCR. In adult erythroblasts, an alternative set of factors might stabilize the interaction of the b-gene promoter with the LCR and hence result in expression of the b rather than g genes. Furthermore, some of these factors, when bound to DNA, might prevent or repress expression; fetal cells would contain b-gene repressors and adult cells g-gene repressors, for example. Stage-specific globin-gene regulatory proteins with these properties have proved to be extremely elusive, however. Candidates such as the stage-selector protein have been identified in chick and human cells (see earlier section), but even the erythroid-specific component of this complex is not developmental stage specific and hence its role in selective gene
expression remains to be ascertained. EKLF, which has been shown specifically to activate the b-globin gene (see p. 95), is clearly necessary for b-globingene-expression but it does not appear to be sufficient on its own. For example, it is present in embryonic cells, yet the b gene is inactive. This observation suggests that searching for novel nuclear protein factors between embryonic, fetal and adult cells may not necessarily identify stage-specific factors. Post-translational modification may be needed to activate a factor for binding to a specific sequence. Alternatively, it may be that relatively small quantitative differences in several factors, rather than the appearance of new factors, may effect differential gene expression. As some transcription factors can act as either activators or repressors, dependent on their concentration and the presence of other factors, the differences between cells from various developmental stages could be quite subtle. Furthermore, critical regulatory events may occur at a much earlier stage in erythroid differentiation than the time at which transcription of the genes actually begins. It is important to emphasize that stage-specific factors are not essential for the expression of a gene at the appropriate time. High levels of g-gene expression can occur in adult cells in conditions such as hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) (see Chapter 10). Many HPFH mutations are due to deletions of the d and b genes and therefore do not involve a change in the trans-acting factors. Nevertheless, levels of g globin in adult cells in these conditions are not much less than those of b chains in normal cells. Furthermore, when a chromosome from a fetal cell expressing its g but not its b genes is transferred to an ‘adult’ mouse erythroleukaemia cell line, it continues to express the g genes and does not switch on the b gene (Papayannopoulou et al. 1986; Stanworth et al. 1995). This suggests that in these circumstances, the chromatin conformation of the genes may be more important than the transacting environment in determining stage-specific expression. When these observations are taken together with the results from transgenic mice that demonstrate that switching is dependent on the structure of the globin-gene construct (Roberts et al. 1997b), it is clear that trans-acting factors cannot be solely responsible for switching, although they may be important to maximize expression of the appropriate gene.
Human haemoglobin Developmental regulation of the a-globin gene cluster In the a-globin cluster, both the embryonic z gene and the adult a genes are expressed together in the earliest embryonic cells, at least in mice (Leder et al. 1992) and probably in humans (Peschle et al. 1985). Regulation of the z-globin gene, like the e gene, is autonomous in that it is unaffected by the presence or absence of a genes (Spangler et al. 1990; Albitar et al. 1991). As this applies when the gene is controlled by HS-40, the b LCR or HS2, it appears that the critical regulatory sequences must lie in or around the zglobin gene itself. Sequences within the z-gene promoter, the transcribed sequence and the 3¢-flanking sequences may be necessary for complete silencing of the gene (Sabath et al. 1993; Liebhaber et al. 1996; Pondel et al. 1996; Russell et al. 1998; Wang & Liebhaber 1999), but the individual elements involved have yet to be identified. Small amounts of z mRNA can be found in fetal life and in cord blood (Hill et al. 1985; Chui et al. 1989). Although the a-globin genes are expressed at all stages of development, their level of transcription may be upregulated when the z gene is silenced. There is no change in a2 : a1-globin mRNA ratio between fetal and adult life and the steady-state level of a2-globin mRNA predominates over a1-globin mRNA by approximately 3 : 1, probably as a result of differences at the level of transcription of the two genes. These findings have been confirmed using quantitative RT-PCR analyses (Molchanova et al. 1994a).
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this problem has told us something of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved, it seems likely that they are but the tip of the iceberg of a series of complex interactions which are orchestrated throughout the developing organism. Defining all the genes involved, and their interplay during development, will undoubtedly be a long haul, and require new technologies and mathematical modelling of cellular circuitry of a kind that has yet to be developed.
The inherited disorders of haemoglobin The genetic disorders of haemoglobin can be broadly classified into three groups (Table 2.7): (1) haemoglobin variants, in which there is a structural alteration in one of the globin chains; (2) the thalassaemias, in which there is impaired synthesis of normal globins; and (3) a diverse group of conditions, which have the general title ‘hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin’ (HPFH), in which there is a defect in the developmental progression from fetal to adult haemoglobin production. As might be expected however, any simple classification is likely to have exceptions: in particular, some forms of thalassaemia are due to structural haemoglobin variants.And even the most uncomplicated forms of thalassaemia, in which normal a- or b-chain synthesis is affected, are
Table 2.7 General classification of genetic disorders of haemoglobin.* Structural variants
Postscript We have considered some of the experimental systems that have been utilized to attempt to help us to understand how the human globin genes are regulated at different stages of development. After struggling through this account readers will be left in no doubt about the complexity of these issues. But this should not come as a surprise. The changes in the globin genes are but one of a series of alterations in the pattern of protein production during the different developmental stages of erythropoiesis. Furthermore, they are occurring at a time when an extraordinarily wide range of similar changes are taking place through every organ system. Thus, while the reductionist approach that has been used to study
Common variants associated with disease Hbs S, C and E Rare variants Associated with disease ‘Silent’ Thalassaemias a thalassaemia b thalassaemia db thalassaemia egdb thalassaemia Structural variants that result in a thalassaemic phenotype Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) * More detailed classifications of the thalassaemias are given in Chapter 3 and in subsequent chapters which deal with individual varieties.
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ultimately the result of abnormal globin structure. Whereas normal tetrameric haemoglobin is a highly stable, very soluble protein, the individual a or b chains, which accumulate in excess in b or a thalassaemia, respectively, are not. They precipitate in developing red-cell precursors and their progeny, leading to their premature destruction, and it is this, rather than the reduced amount of haemoglobin made, that is responsible for the ineffective erythropoiesis and haemolysis characteristic of all the thalassaemias. Although this book deals primarily with the thalassaemias and HPFH we thought it important to include a short outline of the main properties and clinical associations of the structural haemoglobin variants.Their pathophysiology has much in common with the thalassaemias and because some of them are so common they are frequently inherited together with different forms of thalassaemia; in these compound heterozygous conditions, which are described in detail in Chapters 9 and 11, it is often the properties of the haemoglobin variant that determine the nature of the clinical manifestations.
Structural haemoglobin variants As of early 1998, 750 haemoglobin variants had been described (Huisman et al. 1998), 90% of which are single amino-acid substitutions in the a, b, g or d chains; no embryonic variants are known. The remaining 10% are abnormal haemoglobins with two substitutions in the same globin chain, deletions or insertions, N-terminal or C-terminal elongations, or hybrid globins. Not surprisingly, the majority (~75%) of structural variants described are due to mutations in the a or b chains of the major adult component, HbA. Even so, it has been calculated that only about 20% of all possible HbA variants have been discovered. The use of increasingly sophisticated electrophoretic methods for mass screening has resulted in the detection of large numbers of these variants, most of which have normal, or near-normal, functional properties.The ones that concern us here have, for the most part, come to light because of the clinical disorders that they cause. The structural haemoglobin variants have evolved a complex and at times exotic terminology. At first they were named by letters of the alphabet, and when these were all used up they were usually called by the
place names in which they were first discovered. Occasionally, it has not been possible to reach a compromise in cases in which there was uncertainty about the origin of the first patient. Similarly, it was at one time thought that it might be better to use the family names of the person from whom the variant was first isolated; fortunately this notion was soon dropped. This rather chequered history of the nomenclature of haemoglobin has left some interesting, if not confusing, names behind it. For example Hb Lepore Washington/Boston reflects the fact that Lepore was the family name of the patient in whom this variant was first isolated, while the two American cities are glorified because of uncertainties about the origins of the material on which the first structural studies were carried out. As for the haemoglobinopathies in general, structural variants can be classified into three overlapping groups (Table 2.8). By far the most important are Hbs S, C and E. These three variants are all thought to provide protection against P. falciparum malaria in the carrier state and so have reached very high frequencies in regions where malaria is, or was, endemic (Flint et al. 1993b, 1998). The carrier (heterozygous) states for all three are, for the most part, symptomless. But, because of their high frequency in many populations, homozygotes are common and, in the case of HbS especially, may suffer serious clinical symptoms.The other clinically important variants are much rarer, and fall into two major groups: those that alter oxygen affinity with resulting polycythaemia or methaemoglobinaemia, and unstable haemoglobins that cause haemolytic anaemia. In addition, there are
Table 2.8 Diseases resulting from structural haemoglobin variants. Haemolytic anaemia HbS, HbC Unstable haemoglobins Hereditary polycythaemia High-oxygen-affinity haemoglobins Hereditary cyanosis M haemoglobins Low-oxygen-affinity variants Thalassaemia phenotype Highly unstable haemoglobins Chain-termination haemoglobin variants Fusion-chain haemoglobin variants
Human haemoglobin
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a few structural variants that, for one reason or another, are synthesized ineffectively and so have a thalassaemic phenotype.
Sickle-cell disorders Haemoglobin S is found commonly in either the homozygous state or in the compound heterozygous state together with other structural haemoglobin variants or b thalassaemia. This, the first variant to be characterized at the amino-acid-sequence level (Ingram 1956), is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, parts of the Mediterranean, Middle East and India, and in populations derived therefrom (Flint et al. 1993b, 1998). In the homozygous state it causes considerable morbidity and mortality in these populations (Serjeant 1992), yet despite over 40 years’ research the links between the b6 glutamic acid-to-valine substitution and the pathophysiological sequelae are still not fully understood. Pathophysiology It is beyond the scope of this chapter to deal in detail with the molecular pathogenesis of sickling and the properties of sickle-cell haemoglobin, a topic which has been reviewed extensively in recent years (Noguchi et al. 1993; Bunn 1997; Hebbel 1997; Hebbel & Vercellotti 1997; Dover & Platt 1998; Steinberg 1998). Concentrated solutions of HbS form birefringent gels containing fibres of HbS molecules when deoxygenated (Edelstein et al. 1973; Finch et al. 1973). They result in reduced deformability of the red cell, and seriously affect its passage through the microcirculation (Fig. 2.24).This is the basis for the vaso-occlusion that characterizes sickle-cell disease. In addition, the altered structural properties of sickle red cells lead to a chronic haemolytic anaemia due to a shortened red-cell lifespan. Considerable effort has been made to characterize the fibre bundles seen in deoxy HbS solutions. X-ray diffraction techniques reveal that crystals of deoxy HbS have a double-stranded structure with haemoglobin tetramers arranged in staggered pairs (Wishner et al. 1975). Their three-dimensional structure is constituted by a rope-like polymer composed of 14 strands. The different conformations of sickle cells, banana-shaped or resembling a holly leaf, for
Fig. 2.24 A peripheral blood film from a patient with sicklecell anaemia showing sickled erythrocytes (Wright’s stain ¥340).
example, reflect different orientations of bundles of fibres along the long axis of the red cell. Of the many intertetramer contacts in these strands, one, between the b6 valine side-chain of one bS subunit and a hydrophobic pocket constituted by b85 phenylalanine and b88 leucine of a bS subunit of an adjacent HbS molecule (Fig. 2.25), is sufficiently strong to stabilize the unique HbS double-stranded structure (Mirchev & Ferrone 1997). In HbA the glutamate in the b6 position is too large and strongly charged to enable it to fit into the hydrophobic b85/88 pocket. The likely relationship of the double-stranded structures seen in deoxy HbS crystals and the fibre bundles seen in solution is still unclear, although evidence drawn from physicochemical studies on the particular residues affecting HbS solubility are consistent with the unique contacts seen in the crystal structure. HbS monomers are stable in solution under certain specific conditions of HbS concentration, pH, ionic strength and temperature. Nevertheless, quite small
110
Chapter 2 78
a
0°
x α1
β1
α2
β2
PRO 114 HIS 116
GLU 121 ASP 73
6
val
81
80 phe
β1
82
84 85
leu
83 88 86
63 A° VAL 6 GLU 121
HIS 20
GLU 22
α1 α2
(a)
73
74
79 10° x α1 β2 α2 THR 4
5
77
87
(b) PHE 85 LEU 88
5
GLY 16
β1
glu
β2 β1 β2
– α1 α2
(c)
changes in conditions away from the ideal can lead to rapid gel formation in a manner which is not fully understood. When a solution of HbS is deoxygenated, there is a delay before polymer formation occurs; the time is inversely dependent on HbS concentration to the 30–50th power.The transition therefore appears to occur in two stages which have been related to a double nucleation mechanism (Eaton & Hofrichter 1990). Gelation is initiated by a process called homogenous nucleation, during which single deoxy-HbS molecules aggregate. Aggregation of a few molecules is thermodynamically unstable, but once a certain number of molecules aggregate, called the critical nucleus, addition of further molecules produces a more stable aggregate, or polymer. The second nucleation phase, called heterogeneous nucleation, appears to take place on the surface of pre-existing polymer. As polymerization progresses, more surface area becomes available and therefore the reaction becomes autocatalytic. Oxygenation and deoxygenation of a red cell take about the same time as the sol-to-gel transition for HbS in solution (Eaton et al. 1976). Thus in the high-oxygen partial pressures of the arterial circulation deoxy HbS will quickly dissolve and remain in solution until it reaches the microcirculation, where O2 tension falls rapidly and deoxy HbS forms, haemoglobin solubility diminishes and sickle fibres form.
6
Fig. 2.25 A representation of the deoxy haemoglobin S polymer. (a,b) A single b-chain b6 valine residue interacting with the b85 phenylalanine and the b88 leucine residue of an adjoining tetramer. (c) The normal b6 glutamic acid residue, because of its charge and size, cannot make the same contact as the valine residue of HbS. From Schechter and Noguchi, Sickle Cell Disease: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice, New York, Raven (1999), with permission.
Polymerization of sickle haemoglobin produces damage to the red-cell membrane, the end result of which is an irreversibly sickled cell. The most important mechanism is cellular dehydration consequent on abnormalities of potassium/chloride cotransport and Ca++-activated potassium efflux. Sickled cells contain increased amounts of calcium and when the cell membrane is distorted there is a transient increase in its cytosolic concentration. This is sufficient to trigger the calcium-dependent (Gardos) potassium channel, providing a mechanism for the loss of potassium and water and leading to cellular dehydration. The latter is also enhanced by increased activity of the potassium/chloride cotransport system. These complex interactions combine to produce dehydrated, rigid red cells. The haemolytic component, which is mainly extravascular, has a complex pathophysiology. There is increasing evidence that the red-cell membrane undergoes damage by haemoglobin polymerization and by oxidation by the same mechanisms that occur in thalassaemia (see Chapter 5). This results in clustering of band 3, the anion transporter. This, in turn, results in IgG binding to membrane and the removal of red cells by macrophages with receptors for the Fc fragment of immunoglobulins. The vascular pathology of sickling is not entirely related to the rigidity of sickled erythrocytes
Human haemoglobin however; abnormal interactions between these cells and the vascular endothelium play a major role (Bunn 1997; Hebbel 1997). A variety of measurements have shown that sickle cells have sticky surfaces and that they attach themselves more readily than normal cells to cultured endothelial cells. Reticulocytes from patients with sickling disorders have, on their surface, the integrin complex a4b1, which binds to both fibronectin and a vascular-cell adhesion molecule which is expressed on the surface of endothelial cells, particularly after activation by inflammatory cytokines. Thrombospondin also binds to particular glycans on sickle cells. Other molecules, including von Willebrand factor, may also play an important role in the increased adhesion of sickled cells to the vascular endothelium. The rate and extent of polymer formation, and hence the rate of sickling, depend on many factors
111
including the degree of oxygenation, the cellular haemoglobin concentration and the presence or absence of HbF. The latter inhibits polymerization primarily because of a particular glutamine residue, g87, which in some way prevents a critical natural contact in the double strand of the sickle fibre. We shall return to this question when we consider the interactions of the sickle-cell gene with b thalassaemia, in Chapter 9. This outline summary of the pathophysiology of sickling has only touched on the tip of the iceberg of the complexity of this dynamic process. There is remarkable cellular heterogeneity with respect to polymer content, delay time and membrane damage, set in an equally variable and changing environment, in which the vascular endothelium, white cells, platelets, coagulation pathways and balance of local vasodilators and vasoconstrictors may all play a role in the sickling processes (Fig. 2.26).
Infection – inflammation
C-reactive protein
Tissue factor expression Release of biological modifiers Coagulation activation WBC activation Thrombin generation Endothelial modulation Platelet activation
RBC adhesion to endothelium
von Willebrand factor release
Fig. 2.26 The complexity of the numerous factors which interact to generate vaso-occlusion in sickle-cell anaemia. RBC = red blood cells;WBC = white blood cells. Reproduced from Embury et al. Sickle Cell Disease; Basic Principles and Clinical Practice, New York, Raven (1999), with permission.
Thrombospondin release
Vascular obstruction
Poor RBC deformability Clinical dehydration
Altered vascular tone Acidosis
RBC dehydration
RBC sickling Delayed blood flow
Hypoxia
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Chapter 2
Clinical features It is beyond the scope of this chapter to deal in detail with the protean clinical manifestations of the sickling disorders. Some of them are described in detail in Chapter 9, as they relate to sickle-cell b thalassaemia, and readers who wish to learn more about this complex disease are referred to the monographs of Serjeant (1992) and Embury et al. (1996) and to the extensive review of Dover and Platt (1998). Here we simply outline the main features of the disease to form a basis for the descriptions of the interaction of the sickle-cell gene with the different forms of thalassaemia that are described in later chapters. In describing the clinical features of the sickling disorders it is necessary to consider the sickle-cell trait, sickle-cell anaemia, and the interactions of the sickle-cell gene with other structural haemoglobin variants, particularly HbC. Sickle-cell trait Except in conditions of extreme oxygen deprivation, there are no clinical abnormalities which can be ascribed with certainty to the sickle-cell trait. Manifestations of intravascular sickling have been reported in persons exposed to low oxygen tensions in unpressurized aircraft or in other extreme conditions, but, otherwise, there are no clinical associations. Sickle-cell anaemia The homozygous state for the sickle-cell gene is characterized by chronic haemolytic anaemia, an increased propensity to infection, a number of complications due to chronic vascular occlusion, and acute exacerbations, or crises, which may take several different forms. Patients with sickle-cell anaemia are anaemic from the first few months of life. Pallor and mild icterus may be the presenting symptom, or the disease may be heralded by one or other form of vaso-occlusive crisis. One of the commonest in early life is the socalled ‘hand-and-foot’ syndrome, in which there is painful swelling of the phalanges as a result of an underlying dactylitis involving the growing ends of the small bones of the hands and feet.While there are often no sequelae, occasionally these episodes may lead to lifelong shortening of one of the digits. Some-
times, the presenting symptom may be an overwhelming infection, which is a major cause of morbidity and mortality at all ages. Remarkably, patients with sickle-cell anaemia seem to function extremely well at haemoglobin values of 6–9 g/dl, and although there may be some abnormalities of growth and development, overall, they go through a normal puberty and do not develop the skeletal deformities of under-treated patients with thalassaemia. This effective adaptation to their anaemia is due, at least in part, to the fact that HbS has a relatively low oxygen affinity with a rightshifted oxygen dissociation curve. There are relatively few physical signs in patients with uncomplicated sickle-cell anaemia. There are pallor and mild icterus and, in early life, splenomegaly. However, probably due to repeated bouts of infarction, the spleen regresses and is rarely palpable after childhood. Apart from some non-specific cardiac signs associated with a hyperdynamic circulation resulting from the anaemia, there are no other characteristic findings. Acute and life-threatening complications occur during the course of the illness. As already mentioned, serious infections, possibly related to hyposplenism, may occur at any time; these patients are prone to infection by a variety of organisms, particularly Salmonella, Klebsiella, H. influenzae and M. pneumoniae. Crises take several forms (Table 2.9). In vaso-occlusive crisis there is widespread bone pain, which probably results from marrow infarction with an overlying inflammatory reaction. Precipitating factors include cold, dehydration and infection.These episodes, which usually last for several days, are selflimiting. Lung crises are a common cause of mortality and are characterized by dyspnoea, hypoxaemia, pulmonary infiltrates on the chest X-ray and a falling haemoglobin and platelet count. They are thought to
Table 2.9 Sickle-cell crises. Hand-and-foot syndrome Painful Lung Brain Sequestration Spleen Liver Aplastic
Human haemoglobin reflect sequestration of sickled erythrocytes in the pulmonary circulation. The brain syndrome, which reflects strokes related to hypertrophic changes in the carotid circulation or cerebral haemorrhages, may present with almost any variety of acute neurological defect. In young children especially, acute sequestration of sickled erythrocytes in the spleen may cause the rapid splenic enlargement and anaemia characteristic of the splenic sequestration syndrome. A similar condition occurs in adults, in whom the red cells are sequestered into the liver, leading to its rapid enlargement and severe anaemia. Finally, patients may become rapidly anaemic as part of an aplastic crisis, a temporary period of red-cell aplasia often associated with parvovirus infection. Another distressing acute complication, though not usually classified as a ‘crisis’, is recurrent priapism, which may, if not adequately treated, lead to permanent deformity of the penis. As well as these acute complications, there are a number of serious long-term disabilities associated with chronic vascular occlusion.These include aseptic necrosis of the femoral or humeral heads, progressive renal failure, intractable leg ulcers and a characteris-
tic proliferative retinopathy. Chronic osteomyelitis due to infection with S. typhi also occurs in some populations. The haematological findings are characterized by moderate to severe anaemia, with haemoglobin levels in the 6–10 g/dl range, reticulocytosis in the 10–20% range, and the presence of variable numbers of sickled cells on the blood film. The haemoglobin consists of Hbs S and A2, with variable levels of HbF, ranging from a few per cent to over 25% of the total haemoglobin (Fig. 2.27). The laboratory findings are considered further in Chapter 9. The reasons for the variable levels of HbF are similar to those for b thalassaemia, and are discussed in Chapters 5, 10 and 13. The clinical course of this disease varies widely and there is very limited information about the reasons for this remarkable heterogeneity. Factors which seem to ameliorate the disease, at least to some degree, include unusually high levels of HbF, the coexistence of a thalassaemia, and, perhaps most importantly, the environment, climate and availability of adequate health care. These issues are reflected in the prognosis of the disease. While little is known about the mortality in the developing countries, it is +
(a)
113
+
(b)
HbA
HbA
HbS
HbC
HbA 2
Origin
Origin
_
_ 1
2
3
4
1
2
3
Fig. 2.27 Starch gel electrophoresis of haemoglobin variants. (a) (Left to right) 1. Sickle-cell trait; 2. normal; 3. sickle-cell disease; 4. normal. (b) (Left to right) 1. HbC trait; 2. HbC disease; 3. normal.
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Chapter 2
clear that in sub-Saharan Africa many children die early in life. Both in the USA and in Jamaica there appears to be a peak incidence of death between 1 and 3 years, usually as a result of infection. Recent data from the United States suggest that, in adults, the median age of death is 42 years for males, and 48 years for females. Among adults, those with the lowest levels of fetal haemoglobin and highest rates of painful crises and chest syndrome appear to have the greatest risk of dying at an early age. There is increased morbidity during pregnancy and a higher than normal rate of fetal loss. Haemoglobin SC disease After sickle-cell anaemia, this is the most important of the sickling disorders (Serjeant 1992). It is characterized by a much milder anaemia and fewer crises than sickle-cell anaemia. Indeed, many patients with this disorder pass through childhood and early adult life undetected. However, there are some important complications, including a high frequency of aseptic necrosis of the femoral and humoral heads, haematuria, proliferative retinopathy leading to diminution of vision or blindness, and a thrombotic tendency which, particularly in pregnancy and the puerperium, may lead to massive pulmonary thromboembolic disease and death. There are no major clinical findings except for splenomegaly.The blood picture shows a mild degree of anaemia with striking morphological abnormalities of the red cells characterized by many target forms and intracellular crystals, sickled forms, and a modest reticulocytosis, much lower than that which occurs in sickle-cell anaemia. Other interactions of the sickle-cell gene The sickle-cell gene has been found in association with many other b-globin variants. The clinical features are reviewed by Serjeant (1992) and Dover and Platt (1998). The interactions of the sickle-cell gene with b thalassaemia are described in detail in Chapter 9 and with a thalassaemia in Chapter 11.
Haemoglobins C and E Haemoglobin C This variant (b6 gluÆlys) occurs mainly in West
Africa (Itano 1951; Ranney 1954). In vitro studies show that haemoglobin C is less soluble, with a tendency to crystal formation, than HbA (Diggs et al. 1954; Hirsch et al. 1985). It also has a lower oxygen affinity than HbA. In HbC homozygotes the red cells contain less water and export higher levels of K+ ions than normal red cells. Possibly these changes result from the interaction of HbC crystals with the inner membrane surface, with consequential reduced deformability of the cell (Reiss et al. 1982). This in turn probably causes the associated haemolysis and increased red-cell turnover. Heterozygotes in which the proportion of HbC is about 30% are symptomatic. The homozygous state for HbC, HbC disease, is characterized by a mild haemolytic anaemia associated with moderate splenomegaly. It is rarely symptomatic, except during periods of stress, such as pregnancy. The haematological changes are characterized by a moderate reduction in the haemoglobin level, a reticulocytosis and a characteristic appearance of the peripheral blood film, which shows large numbers of target cells and intracellular crystals. This variant migrates in the same position as HbA2 on most of the commonly used electrophoretic media (Fig. 2.27), though the two can be separated by isoelectric focusing or HPLC. Haemoglobin E This is probably the most common haemoglobin variant in the world population, notwithstanding its confinement to parts of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia (Chernoff et al. 1954; Sturgeon et al. 1955). Its pathophysiology is not fully understood, partly because the phenotype results from a combination of mild thalassaemia (Traeger et al. 1980) and abnormal haemoglobin. The b-chain codon 26 GluÆLys mutation (GAGÆAAG) partially activates a cryptic splice site towards the 3¢ end of exon 1, resulting in a proportion of abnormally spliced mRNA (Orkin et al. 1982b). Thus, less bE globin is synthesized and a mild thalassaemia phenotype results. In addition, in vitro experiments have shown that HbE is mildly unstable and may be susceptible to oxidant damage. Haemoglobin-E heterozygotes, with about 30% HbE, are clinically normal and have only minor haematological changes. Homozygotes have a very mild anaemia, but are otherwise well; their haemato-
Human haemoglobin logical changes are similar to those of heterozygous b thalassaemia (see Chapter 7). It is the compound heterozygous state between HbE and b thalassaemia that gives rise to really serious clinical disease (Weatherall & Clegg 1981), with a phenotype ranging from mild anaemia to the most severe form of b thalassaemia major.This important and neglected condition is discussed in detail, together with a more extensive account of the properties of HbE, in Chapter 9.
Unstable haemoglobin variants The story of the discovery and first characterization of these variants is outlined in the reviews of White & Dacie (1971) and White (1976). These disorders have usually only been described in the heterozygous (carrier) state.At a gross level, then, they have a dominant phenotype. It seems likely that some of the most severely abnormal variants of this kind would be incompatible with survival in the homozygous state. Many haemoglobin variants show some features of instability, but a clear definition is not straightforward. From a clinical point of view the term ‘unstable haemoglobin disorder’ is reserved for those variants that cause clinically recognizable haemolysis. In the laboratory, they can be identified by a number of methods, such as the presence of Heinz bodies in red cells after splenectomy, heat instability of the variant in red-cell lysates, or instability in the presence of organic compounds such as isopropanol. Not all these methods detect all variants, so that qualifications such as ‘mild’ or ‘severe’ often accompany their description. Pathophysiology A number of different mechanisms result in instability (Carrell & Lehmann 1969; White 1976; Bunn & Forget 1986; Winterbourn 1990), but the majority of variants fall broadly into four categories: (1) substitutions that result in the replacement of an interior hydrophobic residue by a hydrophilic one; (2) disruption of secondary structure of one of the subunit chains; (3) replacement of residues in and around the haem pocket; and (4) gross alterations to subunit structure as, for example, occurs with some large deletions or C-terminal elongations of globins (Fig. 2.28). As noted earlier, the interior of a globin subunit is
115
largely a non-polar environment, with inter-residue contacts made via van der Waals forces. The consequence of introducing a polar residue into this hydrophobic milieu can, and often does, have drastic consequences for the tertiary structure of the haemoglobin molecule, especially if it allows water to enter the interior of the subunit. More subtle changes, even involving neutral-for-neutral changes, may cause instability if the stereochemical relationships between residues are substantially altered. Some of the most severe changes in subunit structure involve proline substitutions. About 75% of the globin subunits are a helix, and proline cannot form part of an a helix except in the first three residues.Almost 40 variants have been reported involving substitutions to proline and almost all are severely unstable. In contrast, substitution of a proline often does not result in instability, although there may be associated functional changes. The haem–globin association involves very specific interactions with non-polar residues in the pocket formed by parts of the CD, E, F and FG helical regions. Most of the residues are invariant; substitutions at them almost inevitably result in changes in the orientation of the haem relative to the globin subunit. In the worst cases (the majority) these changes are sufficiently pronounced to alter haem binding and affect the stability of the entire subunit. Unstable haemoglobins precipitate in red cells with the formation of rigid Heinz bodies, which affects cell deformability and ultimately leads to their premature destruction (Miller et al. 1971; Rachmilewitz 1974; Winterbourn & Carrell 1974; Milner & Wrightstone 1981; Flynn et al. 1983; Winterbourn 1990). Although the precise mechanism is unclear, it appears that an increased tendency to auto-oxidation to methaemoglobin may be the initial change that leads to haemoglobin precipitation. The formation of methaemoglobin (when the normal Fe++ iron of the haem is converted to Fe+++) is associated with the production of a superoxide ion.This, and the superoxide reduction product, H2O2, can then generate more methaemoglobin. Unstable haemoglobins show a greater inherent tendency to oxidize. Moreover, the methaemoglobin so formed can be converted into insoluble haemichromes by a two-stage process that ultimately forms irreversible bonding of amino sidechains to the normally unbonded (distal) side of the haem moiety. These properties, and the effects of these changes on red-cell membrane function, have
Chapter 2 .. Hb Koln Hb Nottingham
Hb Sabine Hb Olmsted αHb Bibba Hb Istanbul ° Hb Boras Hb Santa Ana
Hb Buenos Aires
F7 F8 F4
H19
CDI
F65
E7 E11
F1 G8 E18
E15
Hb Hammersmith Hb Bucuresti αHb Torino ..
116
Hb Zurich Hb Sydney Hb Bristol Hb Casper Hb Christchurch
Hb Bushwick Hb Shepherd's Bush
(a) Hb Gun Hill
Hb Niteroi
Hb Tochigi
Hb Tours
Hb Freiburg Hb Leslie Hb St Antoine Hb Lyon
Hb Leiden (b)
much in common with those of excess a or b chains that are produced in different forms of thalassaemia and hence they are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Clinical features Patients with unstable haemoglobin variants have a mild to moderately severe haemolytic anaemia asso-
Fig. 2.28 Unstable haemoglobin variants. (a) A three-dimensional representation of the b chain showing sites of amino-acid substitutions and the haem pocket. (b) A threedimensional representation of the b chain, showing sites of amino-acid deletions that cause unstable haemoglobins. From Milner and Wrightstone, The Function of the Red Blood Cells; Erythrocyte Pathobiology, p. 197,Alan R. Liss, New York (1981), with permission.
ciated with splenomegaly. Although this is usually compatible with a normal life, a few are so severely affected as to necessitate regular blood transfusion. The anaemia is exacerbated by intercurrent infection, the administration of oxidant drugs or, in some cases, by an elevated body temperature. Although there have been a few reports of splenectomy in this condition the numbers are too small to provide clear guidance as to its effectiveness. The blood picture
Human haemoglobin shows a variable reduction in the haemoglobin level, a reticulocytosis and non-specific morphological abnormalities of the red cells. Preformed Heinz bodies are only seen after splenectomy. Many unstable haemoglobin variants cannot be identified by conventional haemoglobin electrophoresis, but they can be demonstrated by their heat instability or the other tests mentioned earlier. Highly unstable globins As we shall see in later chapters, the clinical results of the synthesis of highly unstable globins, or truncated or elongated globin chains, vary considerably (Adams & Coleman 1990; Weatherall et al. 2000). Because of their extreme instability, the existence of the ‘variants’ has had to be inferred from radiolabelling studies or, in extreme cases, from DNA analysis. Whether these highly unstable globins cause the phenotype of haemolytic anaemia or the hypochromic red-cell characteristics of thalassaemia seems to depend on their degree of instability. As we shall see in Chapter 4, many forms of thalassaemia are due to mutations which cause premature termination of b-chain production. It turns out that those which would produce truncated b chains of up to about 72 amino acids long have the relatively mild phenotype of b-thalassaemia trait. Although originally this was thought to be because intracellular proteolytic mechanisms would be effective in degrading these truncated proteins and the resulting excess of a chains, it now appears that mutations of this type may actually interfere with the movement of messenger RNA into the cell cytoplasm and hence there may be no gene product synthesized. This is not the case for mutations which cause chain termination in exon 3 or are associated with the synthesis of some elongated globin chains. In this case, relatively long and highly unstable globin-gene products may be produced which are capable of binding haem, but not of combining with a chains to produce any kind of stable haemoglobin tetramer. Hence these large truncation products tend to precipitate in the red-cell precursors, together with excess a chains, to produce large inclusion bodies. This is the basis for the dominant forms of b thalassaemia that we shall describe in more detail in later chapters. If the unstable globin products are able to combine with normal a- or b-globin subunits to produce a tetramer that is sufficiently stable to survive through
117
the different stages of erythropoiesis and to appear in mature red cells, then its instability is reflected in a shortened red-cell survival and a haemolytic anaemia, rather than the ineffective erythropoiesis characteristic of the dominant forms of b thalassaemia. There may well be conditions with phenotypes which show a mixture of both characteristics. In short, highly unstable haemoglobin disorders show a wide spectrum of phenotypes ranging from severe dyserythropoiesis characteristic of thalassaemia, through intermediate disorders with mixed dyserythropoiesis and haemolysis, to haemolytic anaemias of varying severity (Thein 1999). We shall discuss these heterogeneous conditions again in Chapters 4, 7, 11 and 13.
Haemoglobin variants with altered oxygen affinity High-oxygen-affinity variants The first evidence that some forms of hereditary polycythaemia might result from haemoglobin variants was reported by Charache et al. (1966). Some of the unstable variants described in the previous section have an increased oxygen affinity; nevertheless, the accompanying clinical manifestations result from haemolysis and not from the functional alterations. A much larger group of variants are now known, however, in which increased oxygen affinity is not associated with instability. Many of them result in polycythaemia (Charache et al. 1966; Adamson 1975; Bunn & Forget 1986; Huisman et al. 1998), a condition characterized by erythrocytosis and an elevated haemoglobin level. Under normal physiological conditions of pH and temperature, normal red cells in vivo have a p50 (the partial O2 pressure at which haemoglobin is half-saturated with oxygen) of 26 mmHg. In individuals with polycythaemia due to an abnormal variant p50s may be as low as 10 mm. If, as is usually the case, the red-cell 2,3-DPG levels are normal, there is thus a substantial left shift to the oxygen-dissociation curve (Fig. 2.29). Pathophysiology As we have seen, haemoglobin can exist in two quaternary states, R and T, characteristic of the oxy and deoxy forms, respectively. When fully deoxygenated, haemoglobin assumes the T (tense) configuration,
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Chapter 2
100 90
Saturation (%)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20
Hb Chesapeake HbA
10 0
1
2
3 4 pO2 (mmHg)
5
6
7
Fig. 2.29 The oxygen dissociation curve of the high-affinity variant, haemoglobin Chesapeake, compared with that of haemoglobin A.
which has a relatively low oxygen affinity and a high affinity for allosteric effectors such as 2,3-DPG and Bohr protons. In oxyhaemoglobin, the converse applies; high oxygen affinity and low affinity for protons and 2,3-DPG.The transition between the two involves the intersubunit cooperation that is the basis of the haem–haem interaction (see p. 78). Most high-affinity variants thus involve substitutions that affect the R–T equilibrium. The majority of them occur at the a1b2 (a2b1) interface, 2,3-DPG binding sites or at the C-terminal end of the b chain. If an amino acid substitution in haemoglobin decreases the stability of the deoxy (T) structure, the transition to the R state will occur earlier during oxygenation and the tetramer will have a higher oxygen affinity. An example that has been well studied is Hb Kempsey (Bunn et al. 1974), a b-chain variant with an AspÆAsn substitution at the a1b2 contact residue b99 (G1). In HbA this residue is hydrogen-bonded to a42 (C7) tyrosine in the deoxy (T) state. During oxygenation, the a and b subunits in this region shift relative to one another so that the b99–a42 bond is broken and replaced by a link between b102(G4)Asn and a94(G1)Asp. In Hb Kempsey, the b99–a42 bond cannot form, resulting in a reduced stability of the T structure, so that even when fully deoxygenated the tetramer is still partly in the R state. Many high-oxygen-affinity variants have a decreased Bohr effect. For example, substitutions at the C-terminal end of the b chain may affect the formation of the important salt bridge between the b146
(HC3) histidine and the COO– group of b94(FG1) aspartate in deoxyhaemoglobin, a link that is responsible for 50% of the alkaline Bohr effect. Hb Hiroshima, b146 (HC3) HisÆAsp, is one such example (Imai et al. 1972). Also, variants that cannot fully assume the T structure upon deoxygenation, Hb Kempsey for example, fail to liberate all Bohr protons on deoxygenation. Several variants with increased oxygen affinity have substitutions that interfere with 2,3-DPG binding. 2,3-DPG stabilizes the deoxy (T) structure. In Hb Rahere b82 (EF6) LysÆThr, one of the crucial 2,3DPG binding sites is lost, and the deoxyhaemoglobin has little affinity for the ligand (Lorkin et al. 1975). Thus, in contrast to normal haemoglobin, 2,3-DPG cannot reduce (right shift) the oxygen affinity of Hb Rahere. Consequently, the whole blood oxygen affinity curve is shifted to the left. Clinical features All these variants are associated with a moderate degree of polycythaemia. This can be easily distinguished from the myeloproliferative forms of polycythaemia by the lack of changes in the white cells and platelets and absence of splenomegaly. It may occasionally be confused with secondary polycythaemias due to cardiac or pulmonary disease or erythropoietin-producing neoplasms. There is also another rare group of hereditary polycythaemias caused by various abnormalities of erythropoietin regulation. None of these other forms of polycythaemia are associated with an increased oxygen affinity of haemoglobin. The polycythaemia associated with haemoglobin variants of this type very rarely requires treatment. There is no evidence that these patients develop vascular occlusive disease. Although it might be expected that these variants might be associated with fetal hypoxia, there does not seem to be an increased frequency of stillbirth in affected families. Low-affinity variants There are far fewer variants with reduced oxygen affinity. Many of the unstable variants fall into this group (but, as above, their primary clinical disorder results from haemolysis) and some of the Hbs M (see below) also have low affinities. Hb Kansas b102(G4)AsnÆThr is one of the best studied (Reis-
Human haemoglobin mann et al. 1961; Bonaventura & Riggs 1968). Interestingly, this substitution is in the a1b2 (a2b1) interface, as are many of the substitutions in high-affinity variants. Although the mechanism is not clear, it appears that the Hb Kansas mutation destabilizes the R structure. Two other variants at this position, Hbs Beth Israel and St Mandé, have similar clinical phenotypes. Low-affinity variants have a right-shifted O2-dissociation curve and in the worst cases carriers are cyanosed from birth. These patients are not usually symptomatic, but the cause of their cyanosis has to be distinguished from that due to haemoglobin M or the family of red-cell enzyme defects that may cause this symptom; the latter can be excluded by a simple family history since they are inherited in a recessive fashion. Haemoglobins M This group of variants, 22 of which have been identified (Huisman et al. 1998), result in congenital cyanosis associated with methaemoglobinaemia (Nagel & Bookchin 1974; Bunn & Forget 1986). As shown in Figs 2.6 and 2.7, the haem moiety sits in a pocket between the E and F helices, with the iron atom of the haem linked to a histidine residue (the ‘proximal histidine’) of the a- and b-chain F helixes. On the opposite side of the haem, near the 6th coordination position of the iron atom where oxygen binds, lies another histidine (the distal histidine).This residue is not bonded to the iron, except in those conditions where irreversible haemichromes are formed. Pathophysiology Many of the M haemoglobins result from mutations at the proximal or distal histidines, to tyrosine residues. These and related substitutions stabilize the haem iron in the Fe+++ form, and it is then resistant to reduction. Perhaps surprisingly, in view of the homology between the structures of the a- and b-globin subunits, the HisÆTyr substitutions at the proximal (F8) haem binding sites do not have similar functional consequences; likewise, mutations at the E7 distal binding site. The major factor is which type of globin subunit is affected. The a-chain variants (M Boston: 58(E7)HisÆTyr and M Iwate 87(F8)HisÆTyr) in which only the b chains can bind oxygen have a reduced oxygen affinity, whereas the bchain variants (M Saskatoon 63(E7) and M Hyde
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Park 92(F8)), in which only a globin binds O2, have a near-normal oxygen-dissociation curve. X-ray crystallographic analyses go some way to explain these paradoxical findings. In the deoxy state, both variants with the proximal (F8)HisÆTyr mutation are structurally isomorphous with deoxy HbA. Thus, even though the haems of the affected subunits are oxidized, they must be in the ‘T’ state. In the bchain variant M Iwate, the molecule retains the T state even when fully oxidized, and it is likely that this is the case when it is fully oxygenated. This explains why it has a low O2 affinity and reduced Bohr effect (both characteristic of the T state in normal HbA). The a-chain variant M Hyde Park differs in that it can switch to the R state when fully oxidized. Since it displays a substantial Bohr effect it also seems likely that HbM Hyde Park can switch from the T to R state upon full oxygenation. In HbM Boston, which has a tyrosine substitution in the a-globin distal histidine, the deoxyhaemoglobin molecule is again isomorphous with deoxy HbA. Remarkably, X-ray data show that the a haem Fe+++ has bonded to the E7 tyrosine phenolate group (i.e. the substituent side-chain); that is, it is no longer bonded to the F8 proximal histidine, having shifted its position toward the distal side of the porphyrin ring. In the oxy form, HbM Boston is probably fully in the T state; consequently its oxygen affinity is low and the Bohr effect diminished. Clinical features Individuals heterozygous for the M haemoglobins are cyanosed from early in life; if the mutation involves the a-globin genes, cyanosis is present at birth, whereas in the b-chain variants it only becomes manifest after the second or third month of life.These conditions can often be distinguished from congenital methaemoglobinaemia resulting from an enzyme defect, simply from the family history; the pattern of inheritance for HbM is typically dominant, whereas methaemoglobinaemia due to enzyme deficiency is always recessive. Overall, individuals with one or other of the M haemoglobins are not symptomatic although they may be embarrassed by the persistent cyanosis. The M haemoglobins give a characteristic spectral abnormality provided that the haemoglobin is completely oxidized to the Fe+++ state. They cannot be demonstrated by haemoglobin electrophoresis under
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routine conditions, but they do separate if the red-cell lysate is first oxidized with ferricyanide.
Haemoglobin variants with elongated or shortened globin chains Although most haemoglobin variants are the result of single amino-acid substitutions (and thus single base changes), a few have arisen by more complex mutation processes such as unequal crossing over producing insertions or deletions. In addition, there is a small group of variants which, although due to single base changes, have extensions at the N-terminal or C-terminal ends (Table 2.10). For the most part, variants with internal deletions in a globin chain have impaired function or stability, some severely so, usually because of alterations in the helical (secondary) structure of the subunit.
Table 2.10 Examples of shortened and elongated globin variants. From Huisman et al. (1998). Elongated chains Single base-pair mutations or frameshifts at the 3¢ end of exon 3 Hb Wayne Codon 139 (–A) a1 or a2 Hb Constant Spring Codon 142 TÆA a2 Hb Cranston Codons 144–145 (+CT) b Hb Tak Codon 147 (+AC) b Single base-pair mutations or frameshifts at the 5¢ end of exon 1 Hb Thionville +1 (GTGÆGAG) a2 or a1 Hb Doha +1 (GTGÆGAG) b Hb S. Florida +1 (GTGÆATG) b Hb Marseille +2 (CACÆCCC) b Insertions Hb Catonsville Hb Zaïre Hb Grady
a37–a38·+·Glu a116–a117·+·His-Leu-Pro-Ala-Glu a118–a119·+·Glu-Phe-Thr
Shortened chains Deletions of one or more amino-acid residues Hb Taybe a38 or 39 ThrÆO Hb Leiden b6 or b7 GluÆO Hb Freiburg b23 ValÆO Hb Vicksburg b75 LeuÆO Hb Gun Hill b91–95 Leu-His-Cys-Asp-LysÆO Longer or shorter chains due to deletions and insertions Hb Montreal·–·Asp-Gly-Leu at b73–75·+·Ala-Arg-Cys-Gln Hb Galicia·–·His-Val at b97–98·+·Leu
Mutations in the first or second codons of the a or b chains sometimes result in an N-terminal extension of methionine, in addition to the altered N-terminal or second residue, because the new N-terminal sequence prevents removal of the initiator methionine. None of these variants has had functional studies reported. Of more interest are those variants with Cterminal extensions (Huisman et al. 1998). One or two, such as Hbs Wayne and Saverne result from single base deletions close to the end of the last exon; the resulting frame-shifted mRNA is then read until the first in-phase termination codon is reached, resulting in a and b globins with altered Cterminal sequences beyond residues 139 and 142, respectively. In Hb Wayne the a chain is extended to 146 residues, while in Saverne the b chain has an added 11 amino acids. Both these variants have increased oxygen affinities, and Hb Saverne is also unstable. Similar functional changes accompany two b-chain variants, Hbs Cranston and Tak, with 2-base insertions close to the end of the third exon. Both have 11-residue C-terminal extensions, and are characterized by increased oxygen affinity and slight instability. Finally, there is a group of variants that have 31 amino acid extensions to the normal a-globin sequence. These all result from mutations in the normal termination codon, leading to readthrough of a mRNA until the next in-phase termination codon is reached. Although stable, these variants are synthesized at very low levels, with a resulting thalassaemic phenotype (Weatherall & Clegg 1975). The most common of these chain-termination variants, Hb Constant Spring, is found throughout South-East Asia and, when it interacts with an a0-thalassaemia determinant, leads to a particularly severe form of HbH disease, a topic we shall consider further in Chapters 4 and 11.
The structural haemoglobin variants and thalassaemias form a phenotypic continuum Clearly, the structural haemoglobin variants and different forms of thalassaemia form a continuum of complex phenotypes. In the next chapter we shall outline how thalassaemia is classified, and how this is based on the interactions of the different varieties of the disease with the structural haemoglobin variants.
Chapter 3 Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin A useful working definition of the thalassaemias is that they are a family of genetic disorders, all characterized by a reduced rate of production on one or more of the globin subunits of haemoglobin. Like the other major class of inherited disorders of haemoglobin, the structural variants, nearly all the thalassaemias result from mutations at or close to the genes that encode for the different globins. Taken together, these two groups constitute the haemoglobinopathies (see Table 2.7, p. 107). Like most biological classifications, the division of these diseases into two watertight compartments is not entirely satisfactory. In reality, they form a continuum; at least a few common forms of thalassaemia result from structural haemoglobin variants that are either synthesized ineffectively or are so unstable that they cause a severe deficiency of one or other globin subunit, and hence a thalassaemic phenotype. This chapter outlines how the thalassaemias are classified and the principles of their genetic transmission, and therefore serves as an introduction to later sections which describe each of the different types in detail and provide references to the original work on which these concepts are based, in addition to those found in Chapter 1. Because structural haemoglobin variants often occur commonly in the same populations as the thalassaemias, and a wide spectrum of disorders result from their co-inheritance, we shall also introduce the principles of the genetic basis for these important interactions. As well as their clinical importance, because of their central role in clarifying the genetics of the thalassaemias, and hence in setting the scene for their subsequent investigation at the clinical and molecular level, they must be thoroughly understood by anyone who is approaching this increasingly complex field for the first time. The structural haemoglobin variants were discussed in the previous chapter. The information about their pathophysiology and clinical manifestations that is required to understand the consequences of their interactions with the thalassaemias will be found in later chapters. Readers who wish to learn
more about them are referred to recent monographs and reviews which cover the abnormal haemoglobin field in more detail (Higgs & Weatherall 1993; Huisman et al. 1997; Steinberg et al. 2001; Weatherall et al. 2001).
General characteristics of the thalassaemias As we saw in Chapter 1, studies of the interactions between different thalassaemia alleles and structural haemoglobin variants, later combined with in vitro analysis of the relative rates of synthesis of the different globins, allowed the thalassaemias to be subdivided into two broad groups, a and b thalassaemia. Although each can be further classified into different subgroups, all these disorders have one thing in common; there is always imbalanced globin synthesis. This is the hallmark of thalassaemia, and it is the deleterious consequences of the globin that is produced in excess that are responsible for the ineffective erythropoiesis and shortened red-cell survival that characterizes all the severe forms of the disease. These principles are summarized in Fig. 3.1. Since b-chain synthesis is only fully activated after birth, it follows that b thalassaemia is not expressed as a disease in intrauterine life, but only becomes manifest as g-chain synthesis declines during the first year after birth. It is characterized by persistent g-chain, that is HbF, production and an elevated level of HbA2 in heterozygotes. Since there is defective bchain synthesis, it might be expected that there would be a relative increase in d-chain production and therefore the increased level of HbA2 would be expected. However, the reasons for persistent g-chain production in b thalassaemia, and its marked variability from case to case, are much more difficult to explain, reflecting as it does both selective survival of cells with HbF and increased HbF production. It clearly distinguishes b thalassaemia from almost every other genetic or acquired haematological dis121
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Chapter 3 Normal α2 γ2 HbF
α2 β2 HbA β thalassaemia
α2 γ2
α2 β2 Excess
Selective survival of F-cells Increased level in blood
Precipitate in marrow Ineffective erythropoiesis
α thalassaemia α2 γ2
α2 β2 Excess
γ4 Hb Bart's Physiologically useless
β4 HbH Physiologically useless Precipitates in red cells Haemolytic anaemia
Fig. 3.1 The a and b thalassaemias.A simplified representation of the differences in the haemoglobin patterns between the two main forms of thalassaemia. Shaded boxes indicate defective globin synthesis.
order and is of prime importance in determining the severity of its phenotype. We shall discuss in detail what little is understood about this tantalizing problem in Chapters 5 and 10. Unfortunately, however, persistent g-chain production is insufficient to compensate for the deficit of b chains in the more severe forms of b thalassaemia. Hence there is always an excess of a chains, aggregates of which cause damage both to developing red-cell precursors and to mature red cells. Thus the central pathophysiological mechanism of b thalassaemia is a-chain excess and the damage that it causes at every stage of erythropoiesis (Fig. 3.1). Since a chains are shared by both fetal and adult haemoglobin, it is not surprising that the a thalassaemias are manifest in both fetal and adult life. However, unlike the surfeit of a chains that is produced in b thalassaemia, excess g and b chains that result from defective a-chain production (Fig. 3.1) are able to form soluble homotetramers, g4 (or Hb Bart’s) and b4 (or HbH). These molecules are
physiologically useless because of their very high oxygen affinity and, at least in the case of HbH, instability. Thus the clinical features of the more severe forms of a thalassaemia are a reflection of the properties of haemoglobins Bart’s and H and their effects on erythropoiesis, and in particular on red-cell survival. Although we shall consider the properties of these haemoglobins in detail in Chapters 5 and 11, it is worth pointing out here that their generation does not seem to be related directly to the deficit of a-chain production. In milder forms of a thalassaemia it may be difficult to demonstrate HbH, for example. It appears that a critical level of b-chain excess is needed before viable b4 molecules are formed. These general principles of the pathophysiology of the thalassaemias apply to all the different types of the disease that we shall encounter later in this book.
Classification As knowledge about the thalassaemias has grown, different approaches to their classification have evolved and gradually become more sophisticated. The disease can now be described at several levels. First, there is a phenotypic classification based on its severity: this classification says nothing about the genetic constitution of a particular patient, but simply describes, in very general terms, a constellation of clinical features. Second, the thalassaemias can be defined by the particular globin(s) that is (are) synthesized at a reduced rate. In effect, this constitutes a genetic classification in that, in most cases, it describes the gene (or genes) that must be affected by the thalassaemia mutation. Finally, it is now often possible to subclassify many thalassaemias according to the particular mutation that is responsible for defective globin synthesis. In clinical practice it is very useful to retain each of these classifications. Much of our approach to treatment is still determined by characterization of the disease at a clinical level. However, for an accurate assessment of the likely outcome it is becoming increasingly important to go to at least the next step, that is, a genetic classification by the particular globins involved. Indeed, in current day-to-day management of thalassaemia it is often extremely helpful to be able to analyse the disorder at the molecular
Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin level, particularly if its prenatal detection is contemplated. Clinical classification Based on clinical assessment, the thalassaemias can be divided into the major forms of the illness, which are severe and transfusion dependent, and the symptomless minor forms, which can only be identified haematologically and usually represent the carrier states, or traits. Although b thalassaemia major usually results either from the homozygous inheritance of a particular mutation or from the compound heterozygous state for two different mutations, it has become apparent that there are rare forms of moderately severe b thalassaemia that result from the action of a single mutant gene; that is, they are dominantly inherited. Another term,‘thalassaemia intermedia’, though it has an old-fashioned ring about it, is still retained and is extremely useful in clinical practice. It describes conditions which, though not as severe as the major forms, are associated with a more severe degree of anaemia than is found in the trait. In practice, this term encompasses a wide spectrum, ranging from disorders which are almost as serious as major forms to asymptomatic conditions which are only slightly more severe than the trait. Finally, some heterozygotes for thalassaemia mutations are clinically and haematologically normal; they are sometimes designated ‘silent’ carriers.
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Table 3.1 Genetic classification of the thalassaemias and related disorders. a Thalassaemia a0 a+ Deletion (–a) Non-deletion (aT) b Thalassaemia b0 b+ Variants with unusually high level of HbF or A2 Normal HbA2 ‘Silent’ Dominant Unlinked to b-gene cluster db Thalassaemia (db)+ (db)0 (Agdb)0 g Thalassaemia d Thalassaemia d0 d+ egdb Thalassaemia Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin Deletion (db)0 Non-deletion Linked to b-globin-gene cluster Ggb+ A + gb Unlinked to b-globin-gene cluster
Genetic classification The thalassaemias are classified according to their genetic basis by describing the globin subunit which is synthesized at a reduced rate.A classification of the syndromes at this level is shown in Table 3.1. The genetic classification of the thalassaemias divides them broadly into a, b, g, db, d and egdb varieties, depending on which globin or globins are underproduced. Newcomers to the field may be confused when they see that, as well as the thalassaemias, Table 3.1 includes ‘hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin’. As we shall see in Chapter 10, it seems reasonable to include this heterogeneous collection of conditions with the thalassaemias since many of them are, in effect, forms of b or db thalassaemia in which globin imbalance is almost entirely compen-
sated by a genetically determined persistence of relatively high levels of fetal haemoglobin production. In each of the later chapters that deal with particular forms of thalassaemia in detail, their classification is considered at greater length. But as a general introduction it may be helpful to outline the main features of the different genetic forms here. a Thalassaemia As we saw in Chapter 2, there are two a-globin genes per haploid genome, four in all. For this reason the a thalassaemias are classified according to the total output of each of the a-chain genes that constitute the haploid pairs.A normal a-globin genotype can be
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represented as aa/aa. When both a-globin genes on a chromosome are deleted or otherwise inactivated, the condition is called a0 thalassaemia; the heterozygous genotype can be written – –/aa. This is called a0 thalassaemia because there is no output of a globin from the affected chromosome. When one of the linked a genes is inactivated, the condition is called a+ thalassaemia, and the genotype is written –a/aa in cases in which one of the a-globin genes is deleted, or aTa/aa if one of them is inactivated by a mutation. In other words, the terms a0 and a+ thalassaemia describe an a-globin haplotype; that is, the state of the two linked a-globin genes on a particular chromosome; in a0 thalassaemia there is no output of a globin, and in a+ thalassaemia there is some output but usually only the product of a single a-globin locus. Previously, a0 and a+ were called a thalassaemia 1 and 2. However, as discussed in Chapter 1, we believe that classifying a thalassaemia into a0 and a+ varieties is simpler, more informative, and, as we shall see later, has the further advantage of being consistent with the way in which other forms of thalassaemia are treated. b Thalassaemia There are two main varieties of b thalassaemia, b0 thalassaemia, in which no b globin is produced, and b+ thalassaemia, in which some b globin is produced, but less than normal. Less severe forms of b thalassaemia are sometimes designated b++ to indicate that the defect in b-chain production is particularly mild. The diagnostic feature of b thalassaemia is an elevated level of HbA2 in heterozygotes, which is found in most forms of b0 and b+ thalassaemia. There are, however, less common forms of b thalassaemia in which the HbA2 level is normal in heterozygotes. These so-called ‘normal HbA2 b thalassaemias’ are themselves heterogeneous. Broadly, they are classified into two varieties: type 1, in which there are no associated haematological changes, and type 2, in which the haematological findings are typical of bthalassaemia trait with a raised HbA2. Type 1 is also called ‘silent b thalassaemia’.As we shall see in Chapters 4 and 7, both varieties are heterogeneous at the molecular level. db Thalassaemia The db thalassaemias, which differ fundamentally
from the b thalassaemias by virtue of the greater propensity for HbF production, are also heterogeneous. They are described in detail in Chapter 8. In some cases,no d or b chains are synthesized ((db)0 thalassaemia). At one time it was customary to further classify these conditions according to the structure of the g chains of the HbF that is produced. Using this approach the two main forms were described, GgAg and Gg (db)0 thalassaemia. To keep in line with other varieties of thalassaemia they are best described by the globin subunits which are defectively synthesized, that is, (db)0 and (Agdb)0 thalassaemia. There are also (db)+ varieties of db thalassaemia. In most of these conditions an abnormal haemoglobin is produced that has normal a chains combined with non-a chains that are constituted by the N-terminal residues of the d chains fused with the C-terminal residues of the b chain. These db-fusion variants, called collectively the ‘Lepore haemoglobins’, are synthesized inefficiently to produce the clinical phenotype of severe db thalassaemia. d Thalassaemia Many different mutations cause a reduced output of d chains and hence a low level of HbA2. Like the other thalassaemias, these can be divided into d0 and d+ thalassaemias.All the d thalassaemias are clinically silent and are of importance only in so far as when they are inherited together with b thalassaemia they may prevent an elevation of the level of HbA2. egdb Thalassaemia This is a rare disease that results from loss of either the whole or a major part of the b-like globin-gene cluster and its regulatory regions. Strictly speaking, therefore, it should be described as (eGgAgdb)0 thalassaemia. Homozygotes have not been encountered, presumably because the condition would not be compatible with life; heterozygotes have the clinical phenotype of b thalassaemia with a normal HbA2 level. g Thalassaemia There have been several reports of deletions involving one or more of the g-globin genes. They have only been identified during surveys of the relative levels of Gg and Ag chains in HbF and do not appear to be of clinical significance. As far as we know
Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin they are not associated with imbalanced globin production. Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) as a form of b or db thalassaemia These diverse conditions, described in Chapter 10, are all characterized by persistent fetal haemoglobin synthesis in adult life in the absence of major haematological abnormalities. As we shall see later, by virtue of their interactions with the b thalassaemias and from other evidence, it is apparent that many of them are extremely well compensated forms of b or db thalassaemia. They are important in the thalassaemia field because they can modify the clinical phenotype of the b thalassaemias and reduce their severity. As shown in Table 3.1, HPFH is best classified along similar lines to the thalassaemias. First, there are forms in which no d or b chains are produced, but in which there is almost complete compensation by a high output of g chains; these conditions are therefore designated (db)0 HPFH. Second, there is a family of HPFH variants in which there is b- and probably d-chain synthesis cis, i.e. directed by genes on the same chromosome, to the HPFH determinant. Hence these conditions are designated Ggb+ or Agb+ HPFH, depending on the structure of the HbF. Finally, there is a group, undoubtedly heterogeneous, in which much lower levels of HbF are found in otherwise normal individuals. Evidence is mounting that the genetic determinants for at least some types of this form of HPFH are not linked to the b-globin gene cluster. In the first two groups of HPFH, relatively high levels of HbF are produced in heterozygotes, usually 5–25% of the total haemoglobin; HbF in these conditions is relatively homogeneously distributed among the red cells. In the third group, levels of persistent HbF production are much lower, in the 2–5% range, and the HbF is usually heterogeneously distributed among the red cells. Thus, HPFH is also classified as either pancellular or heterocellular, although, as knowledge of its molecular pathology increases, this subdivision is becoming less useful. Molecular classification As their molecular pathology has been elucidated, as described in Chapter 4, a more accurate approach to
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the description of the different types of a and b thalassaemia has been possible. For example, in many cases the genotype of a patient with a clinical picture of b thalassaemia major can be described according to the particular mutation at the homologous pair of b-globin loci. Homozygotes for a common Mediterranean nonsense mutation would have the following genotype: aa/b39CÆTb39CÆT. This tells us that, in this particular mutation, thymine has replaced cytidine in the 39th codon in the b-globin gene. Alternatively, compound heterozygotes for this mutation and an RNAprocessing mutation that is found in the same population would have the genotype aa/b39CÆTbIVS1-1(GÆA). The latter mutation is a replacement of guanine by adenine at the first position in the first intervening sequence (intron) in the b-globin gene. The a thalassaemias can also be described at the molecular level.The a0 thalassaemias are often designated by the particular length of the deletion that removes both a-globin genes. For example, the deletion that is common in Mediterranean populations (MED) is different from that which is common throughout south-east Asia (SEA); these different a0 thalassaemias can therefore be described as – –MED and – –SEA. Similarly, there are two common forms of a+ thalassaemia, in which single a-gene deletions are due to loss of 3.7 or 4.2 kb of DNA from within the linked pair of a genes; they are written –a3.7 or –a4.2. Finally, if a+ thalassaemia results from the inactivation of one a-globin gene by a mutation, aTa, when the nature of the mutation is known, the T can be replaced by the precise molecular abnormality, in the same way as b thalassaemia. These molecular classifications are considered in more detail in the next chapter and in subsequent chapters which deal with particular varieties of thalassaemia.
Inheritance All the thalassaemias have a similar pattern of inheritance. The severe, symptomatic varieties usually result from the interaction of more than one genetic determinant. In most cases they are transmitted in a Mendelian autosomal fashion. In its simplest form the inheritance of thalassaemia is similar to that of sickle-cell anaemia and related disorders. Children with b thalassaemia major are homozygotes or compound heterozygotes for b-globin-gene mutations that cause only mild haematological abnormalities in
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their heterozygous parents. The offspring of matings between thalassaemia heterozygotes may be normal, thalassaemia carriers or homozygotes, in ratios expected of a Mendelian pattern of inheritance. The inheritance of a thalassaemia is more complicated because it involves the products of a linked pairs of a genes (aa). Both the important clinical forms of a thalassaemia, the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome and HbH disease, can be ascribed to the interactions of the different forms of a0 and a+ thalassaemia; the former results from the homozygous inheritance of a0 thalassaemia, – –/– –, while the latter often, though not always, is due to the compound heterozygous inheritance of a+ and a0 thalassaemia, – –/–a or – –/aTa (Fig. 3.2). Less commonly, HbH disease results from the homozygous inheritance of a non-deletional form of a+ thalassaemia, aTa/aTa. Overall, the output of a chains from an aTa pair is less than from –a; the homozygous state for the latter, –a/–a, results, like the heterozygous state for a0 thalassaemia, – –/aa, in a-thalassaemia trait, a symptomless mild anaemia. The carrier states for the a+ thalassaemias, –a/aa or aTa/aa, are usually clinically and haematologically ‘silent’, or almost so. These conditions are described in detail in Chapter 11. The statement that the heterozygous states for a+ thalassaemia are haematologically ‘silent’ is true only after the first 6 months of life. This raises another important principle in the thalassaemia field. Just as there are important changes in haemopoiesis during normal development, so the haematological picture of thalassaemia may vary at different stages. We have already seen how b thalassaemia may be ‘masked’ by g-chain synthesis during the first months of life. The opposite situation exists in the case of the carrier states for a thalassaemia. In newborns, probably because there is normally a mild overall deficit of a chains during the period of the switch from g- to b-chain production, some babies heterozygous for a+ thalassaemia, and all a0-thalassaemia carriers, have elevated levels of Hb Bart’s, which, as they grow older, is not replaced by an equivalent amount of HbH. In short, thalassaemia phenotypes are not ‘fixed’, but have to be described and interpreted in the context of the age of the affected individual. A semantic question which is often raised about the genetic disorders of haemoglobin production is whether they should be referred to as ‘dominant’ or
α0 thal. trait
α0 thal. trait
×
Normal
α0 thal. trait
α0 thal. trait
α0 thal. trait
Hb Bart's hydrops
α+ thal. trait
×
Normal
α0 thal. trait
α+ thal. trait
HbH disease
Normal α-globin genes Deleted or otherwise inactivated α-globin genes
Fig. 3.2 A representation of the interactions of a0 and a+ thalassaemia.The unshaded boxes represent normal aglobin genes; the dark-shaded boxes represent deleted or otherwise inactivated a-globin genes.
‘recessive’. A dominantly inherited disorder is one which is expressed in heterozygotes, whereas a recessive condition is completely silent. In fact, the sickling diseases and thalassaemias could be defined as ‘dominant’ or ‘co-dominant’, or ‘recessive’, depending on the particular techniques employed for pedigree analysis! If the latter relied on clinical manifestations then clearly these disorders would be classified as recessive, whereas if haematological criteria or haemoglobin analyses are applied they could be called co-dominant. However, since there are excellent methods for identifying carrier states for most of
Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin the haemoglobin disorders and thalassaemias, this question becomes relatively unimportant. Another genetic concept which is often raised in discussions about thalassaemia revolves round expressivity or penetrance of genes, terms that are often confused and used rather loosely. When geneticists talk of ‘penetrance’ they usually refer to a percentage that expresses the probability that an abnormal gene will exert at least one of its phenotypic effects in the person who inherits it. If penetrance is less than 100% it is said to be incomplete; this may result from variation between unrelated affected persons with respect to the precise genetic defect, or it may reflect the interaction of other genetic and environmental modifiers. On the other hand, expressivity describes variability in the severity and other phenotypic manifestations between those carrying the same genetic defect. As we shall see in later chapters, in thalassaemia pedigrees it is not unusual to encounter variable expressivity or penetrance. However, one of the great success stories of research in thalassaemia of recent years is how it has been possible to dissect the reasons for phenotypic variability, at both the clinical and molecular levels.We shall see that many of the apparent differences in expression can be explained by the interaction of other variant genes or acquired mechanisms which may modify the primary action of thalassaemia genes.While we are not always able to explain why there is variability of expression of a thalassaemia gene in a particular family, overall we probably know more about the mechanisms involved in such phenotypic diversity than for any other human single-gene disorder. The inheritance of thalassaemia together with structural haemoglobin variants As we saw in Chapter 1, studies of the haemoglobin patterns of patients who have inherited both thalassaemia and structural haemoglobin variants have been of seminal importance in the development of the concept of thalassaemia as a disorder of globin synthesis encoded at the globin-gene loci. And because in many populations there is a high frequency of the genes for different forms of thalassaemia and those for structural haemoglobin variants, and the two may interact to cause a variety of disorders of different degrees of severity, these complex conditions are of considerable clinical
127
importance. They are described in detail in Chapters 9 and 11. Here we shall briefly consider the genetic principles involved in their interactions. Interactions of a or b thalassaemia with b- or d-chain haemoglobin variants Although many different structural haemoglobin variants have been found together with the b thalassaemias only three b-chain variants, Hbs S, C and E, occur at a sufficiently high frequency to make their interactions of particular clinical importance. In heterozygotes for b-chain haemoglobin variants it is usual to find that the level of HbA exceeds that of the abnormal haemoglobin. For example, in the sickle-cell trait (bAbS) HbS usually makes up about 35% of the total haemoglobin. In an individual who has inherited the sickle-cell gene from one parent and a b-thalassaemia gene (bT) from the other (bT/bS) this pattern changes; the level of HbS is now considerably greater than that seen in the sickle-cell trait; this tells us that the b-thalassaemia mutation has reduced the output of bA chains compared with bS chains. In the case of b+ thalassaemia this reversal may result in a level of HbA of 5–30%, depending on the severity of the b-thalassaemia allele. If, on the other hand, a b0-thalassaemia allele is inherited together with the sickle-cell gene, no HbA is produced in the compound heterozygote and the haemoglobin pattern resembles that of sickle-cell anaemia. In all these cases there is said to be ‘interaction’ between the genes for the structural haemoglobin variant and thalassaemia (Fig. 3.3). Thus compound heterozygotes inherit b thalassaemia from one parent and HbS from the other. Since the mutant genes are alleles, it follows that the offspring of a mating between a patient with sicklecell b thalassaemia and a normal partner will either show the sickle-cell trait or the b-thalassaemia trait; there can be no normal or doubly affected children (Fig. 3.4) because the genes for bS and b thalassaemia are on opposite homologous chromosomes. The reader might be curious to know, as we were for many years, what might happen if a sickle-cell gene and a bthalassaemia gene were found together on the same chromosome, i.e. the b-chain locus carried both mutations. In fact this unusual gene has now been encountered (see Chapter 9), and, as might have been guessed, the haemoglobin pattern is quite different from that usually seen in sickle-cell b thalassaemia. In
128
Chapter 3 Normal αα/αα
Genotype
γγ/γγ
δ/δ
Haemoglobins
α2β2
α2δ2
(%)
97.0
3.0
+
β/β
Sickle-cell trait αα/αα
Genotype Haemoglobins (%)
γγ/γγ
δ/δ
β/βS
α2β2
α2βS2
α2δ2
67
30
3
HbA HbS
Sickle-cell β thalassaemia Genotype Haemoglobins (%)
αα/αα α2γ2
γγ/γγ
α2β2
Variable 0–25
δ/δ
βT/βS
α2βS2
α2δ2
70–95
5
HbC/A2
(a)
Origin (b)
-
Fig. 3.3 The interaction of the sickle-cell and b-thalassaemia genes. (a) The genotypes of normal individuals, those with the sickle-cell trait and those with sickle-cell b thalassaemia.The action of the b-thalassaemia gene is to reduce the output of HbA compared with HbS in those with sickle-cell b thalassaemia. (b) A starch-gel electrophoretic pattern (Tris-EDTAborate system, pH 8.5) of red-cell lysates prepared from persons with the following: 1, sickle-cell thalassaemia; 2, sickle-cell anaemia; 3, sickle-cell trait; 4, normal adult.The relatively low amount of HbA in sickle-cell b+ thalassaemia compared with the sickle-cell trait is shown.
β-globin genotypes Offspring
β/β T
×
β /β or
βT/βS S
β /β
Fig. 3.4 The genetics of sickle-cell b thalassaemia.A mating between a patient with sickle-cell b thalassaemia and a normal person results in offspring who have either bthalassaemia trait or sickle-cell trait; no normal or doubly affected individuals are observed.
this case it is more like that of the sickle-cell trait except that there is an extremely low level of bS because the action of the b+-thalassaemia gene is to reduce the output of bS chains (Fig. 3.5). The situation is quite different if a person inherits the sickle-cell trait together with various forms of a thalassaemia. Here there is no interaction, in that, because defective a-chain synthesis is shared equally between haemoglobins A and S, the level of HbA exceeds that of HbS at approximately the ratio seen
in the sickle-cell trait alone (Fig. 3.6).We use the word ‘approximately’ for a good reason. Curiously, what happens is that in those with the sickle-cell trait and a thalassaemia the level of HbS is lower than that usually found in the sickle-cell trait alone.Although it is not absolutely certain why, it seems likely that it reflects the differential affinity of bA and bS chains for a chains; when the latter are in limited supply they bind preferentially to bA rather than bS chains, and hence the relative level of HbA is increased over that of HbS. Because in some populations there are many different forms of a thalassaemia, this results in a variety of different abnormal haemoglobin levels in patients with the trait for a b-chain haemoglobin variant and a thalassaemia; this is well exemplified by the interactions of HbE with a thalassaemia that are described in Chapter 11. It follows that the genetic consequences for children of persons who have both a b-haemoglobin variant, such as HbS, and a thalassaemia are quite dif-
Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin Trans Genotype
Genotypes
αα/αα
Haemoglobins (%)
T
S
γγ/γγ
β /β
α2β2
α2βS2
α2δ2
25
70
5
γγ/γγ
β/βTS
α2β2
α2βS2
α2δ2
85
10
5
δ/δ
Cis Genotype
αα/αα
Haemoglobins (%)
δ/δ
Fig. 3.5 The different haemoglobin patterns in individuals with sickle-cell b thalassaemia depending on whether the two genes are in trans or cis.The b thalassaemia is the b+ variety.
Offspring
αα/–α β/βS αα/αα β/β
129
αα/αα β/β
×
αα/αα β/βS αα/–α β/β αα/–α β/βS
Fig. 3.7 The genotypes in children born of a mating between a normal individual and one with the sickle-cell trait and the a+-thalassaemia trait. Unlike the same kind of mating between a person with sickle-cell b thalassaemia and a normal person (Fig. 3.4) the two traits segregate independently in the offspring.
Trans Genotype
βTδ/βδX
×
βδ/βδ
Offspring
βTδ/βδ (β thal. trait)
or
βδ/βδX (Hb δXtrait)
βTδX/βδ
×
βδ/βδ
or
βδ/βδ (Normal)
Cis Genotype Haemoglobins (%)
–α/–α
γγ/γγ
β/βS
α2γ2
α2β2
α2βS2
α2δ2
γ4
78
20
2
δ/δ
Genotype Offspring
T X
β δ /βδ (β thal. trait Hb δX trait)
Newborn
Fig. 3.6 The haemoglobin pattern in individuals with the sickle-cell trait who are also homozygous for a+ thalassaemia. Unlike sickle-cell b thalassaemia there is no interaction and the pattern is of the sickle-cell trait with a slightly lower level of HbS than normal and hypochromic microcytic red cells. Haemoglobin Bart’s is present at birth, but not during later development (shaded).
ferent from those with sickle-cell b thalassaemia. Since the a- and b-globin genes are on different chromosomes the children of individuals with sickle-cell a thalassaemia born of normal partners may have any combination of the traits that are present in their affected parent, or they may be normal (Fig. 3.7). Just as there are b-chain variants so there is a family of structurally abnormal d-chain haemoglobin variants. In persons who are heterozygous for both b thalassaemia and a d-chain variant, the levels of both HbA2 and the abnormal form of HbA2 (a2d2x) are elevated. This tells us that the output of the d-chain genes on both pairs of homologous chromosomes, i.e. cis and trans to the b-thalassaemia determinant, is increased. It follows therefore that the augmented output of d chains in b thalassaemia is not a direct result of the gene carrying the thalassaemia mutation
Fig. 3.8 Findings in the children of individuals heterozygous for both b thalassaemia and a d-chain structural variant (haemoglobin X, a2d2x).The findings in the children depend on whether the variants are in cis or trans.
being next to the d-chain locus on the same chromosome, but is part of a more general ‘compensatory’ mechanism involving both homologous chromosomes. In short, a simple genetic observation has been of great value in clarifying the cellular consequences of the thalassaemia mutations; although their primary action is to reduce the output of a or b chains in cis they may have effects on other haemoglobin gene loci in both cis and trans. The d-chain mutation may be on the same chromosome as the b-thalassaemia mutation (cis) or on the opposite pair of homologous chromosome (trans). Because the d- and b-globin genes are closely linked, the findings in the children of such doubly affected persons will vary depending on the site of the two mutations. If they are in cis the children will either all be normal or doubly affected, while if in trans they will either have the d-chain mutation or b thalassaemia; there will be no normal and no doubly affected children (Fig. 3.8).
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Chapter 3
Interactions of a or b thalassaemia with a-chain haemoglobin variants Before considering these complex phenotypes we should remind ourselves about the differences in the haemoglobin constitution of carriers for a- or b-chain haemoglobin variants. Unlike the b-globin genes, for which there is only one per haploid genome, there are two linked a-globin genes on each chromosome 16. If one of the a genes in the diploid pair of chromosomes carries a mutation for a structural variant, HbG Philadelphia for example, the genotype is written aGa/aa. It follows that the abnormal haemoglobin will constitute approximately 25% of the total haemoglobin; that is, significantly lower than that usually found in persons heterozygous for a b-chain variant. The level of the a-chain variant is not always exactly 25% of the total haemoglobin; the two aglobin genes have different outputs and some haemoglobin variants are synthesized less effectively than normal haemoglobin. But, on average, carriers for b-haemoglobin variants have higher levels of abnormal haemoglobin than those for a-chain variants, an observation that provided the first clue to the possibility that the a-globin genes are duplicated. It follows, of course, that homozygotes for a-chain variants, in the example we have used with the genotype aGa/aGa, the haemoglobin consists of both Hbs A (a2b2) and G (aG 2 b2), in roughly the same amounts. There is a further twist to the genetics of a-globin variants. Although some are found on a chromosome with a normal a-globin gene partner, others may involve the only a-globin gene on the chromosome, the partner having been deleted as part of the mechanism for producing a+ thalassaemia. In the case of HbG Philadelphia, it turns out that the mutation may be found on a chromosome with two intact a genes or with only a single a gene. Heterozygotes for the latter type of chromosome (aG–/aa) have higher levels of the abnormal a-chain variant than those in which the mutation occurs on a chromosome with two intact aglobin genes (aGa/aa). Homozygotes for mutations on chromosomes of this kind (aG–/aG–) produce no G HbA or A2, but only Hbs G (aG 2 b2) and G2 (a2 b2). Indeed, some a-globin chain variants, Hbs Q, Hasharon and J Tongariki for example, are always found on chromosomes with one a gene.These different a-globin genotypes are illustrated in Fig. 3.9. It also follows, of course, that if an a-chain variant is encoded on a chromosome that also carries an a+-thalassaemia deletion, aG– for example, the co-
inheritance of a-thalassaemia alleles on the partner chromosome will lead to an even greater deficit of normal a globin and hence an even higher relative level of the a-chain variant. For example, the inheritance of HbG on chromosomes in which the linked a– gene is deleted, together with a0 thalassaemia, leads to the genotypes aG–/– –. In these cases there is a moderately severe form of thalassaemia characterized by the presence of only HbG and G2, together with HbH (b4) resulting from the relatively large excess of b chains; this disorder is therefore called ‘HbGH disease’ (Fig. 3.9). It is clear therefore that because of the duplication of the a-globin genes, and the fact that a-globin gene mutations can exist on chromosomes with or without a partner a-globin gene, a broad spectrum of phenotypes exist, characterized by increasing amounts of a particular a-chain variant associated with more marked thalassaemic phenotypes, at the most severe end of which is the characteristic phenotype of HbH disease associated with no HbA production. These conditions, which are described in Chapter 11, provide an excellent example of gene dosage effects, evidenced by a wide spectrum of different ratios of normal to abnormal haemoglobin. Indeed, before it was possible to explore the a-globin genes directly, analyses of the levels of mutant a-chain haemoglobin variants were the only way that it was possible to try to guess at what was happening at the molecular level. Occasionally, persons with b thalassaemia are found who have also inherited a-chain structural haemoglobin variants. As might be expected, there is no interaction in this case, and the level of a-chain variants in heterozygotes remains much the same as it is in those without b thalassaemia. There are slight differences in the relative amounts of the normal and variant haemoglobin consequent on the presence of the b-thalassaemia gene, probably reflecting varying affinities of different a-globin subunits when there is a paucity of b chains (see Chapter 9). Variation in the numbers of globin genes as a modifier of the thalassaemia phenotype Variation in the numbers of a-globin genes, while it may have no effect in normal persons, may have important phenotypic consequences for those with different forms of thalassaemia (see Chapter 13). For example, it is not uncommon to find that the aglobin genes are triplicated, and hence the genotypes aaa/aa or aaa/aaa are generated. Rarely, individu-
Thalassaemia: classification, genetics and relationship to other inherited disorders of haemoglobin αα/αGα
Genotype Haemoglobins
(%) –α/αGα (or αα/–αG)
Genotype Haemoglobins
131
γγ/γγ – β/β – δ/δ α2β2
α2γ2 αG 2 γ2
α2Gβ2
α2δ2
αG 2 δ2
72
(Newborn)
25
2
1
γγ/γγ – β/β – δ/δ α2β2
α2γ2
α2Gβ2
α2δ2
αG 2 δ2
2
1
αG 2 γ2 (%)
Haemoglobins
(%)
Haemoglobins
(%)
α2β2
α2γ2 αG 2 γ2 γ4
α2Gβ2
α2δ2
αG 2 δ2
49
(Newborn)
48
2
1
α2β2
αG 2 γ2 γ4
α2Gβ2
α2δ2
αG 2 δ2
0
(Newborn)
98
0
2
γγ/γγ – β/β – δ/δ
γγ/γγ – β/β – δ/δ
γγ/γγ – β/β – δ/δ
αG/––
Genotype Haemoglobins
als are found who have four a-globin genes per haploid genome, aaaa/aa. Since we have seen that the major pathophysiological mechanism that underlies the b-thalassaemic phenotype is imbalanced globin synthesis, it follows that individuals with b thalassaemia who inherit chromosomes containing more than the usual number of a-globin genes will be disadvantaged, always assuming that these additional genes are active. For example, triplicated a-globin genes, when inherited with the b-thalassaemia trait, may produce a clinical disorder with the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia. The g-globin genes may also vary in number, either triplicated or single, but very little is known about the phenotypic consequences of this type of variability on b thalassaemia (see Chapter 13).
33
αG–/αG–
Genotype
(%)
(Newborn)
–α/αG–
Genotype
Fig. 3.9 The interactions of an a-chain variant, haemoglobin G, with the heterozygous or homozygous states for a+ thalassaemia.The gradual increase in the proportion of the a-globin variant with a decreasing number of normal aglobin genes is shown.The homozygous state for HbG on a chromosome with a missing a gene (aG–) and the genotype of HbGH disease are also shown. Haemoglobin Bart’s is present at birth, but not during later development (shaded).
64
α2β2
αG 2 γ2 γ4
α2Gβ2
β4
αG 2 δ2
0
(Newborn)
88
10
2
tance of a structural haemoglobin variant. First, the variant may be synthesized at a reduced rate and hence mimic a thalassaemia mutation. Second, it may be produced at a normal rate but be so unstable as to be incapable of forming a viable haemoglobin tetramer. In these cases the variant globin may precipitate and form inclusion bodies in the red-cell precursors similar to those due to excess a globin in the b thalassaemias. As we shall see later, this is probably one mechanism for the generation of the dominant forms of b thalassaemia. Theoretically it should also be possible to produce a thalassaemia phenotype from mutations that result in over-production of either a or b globin. So far, however, this type of lesion has not been encountered. The complexity of the thalassaemia syndromes
Thalassaemias due to the inheritance of structural haemoglobin variants There are two main mechanisms whereby a thalassaemic phenotype can be produced by the inheri-
From this brief introduction to the genetics of the thalassaemias and their interactions with abnormal haemoglobins it is clear that there is enormous potential for phenotypic variability in the thalas-
132
Chapter 3
saemia syndromes. Not only is there wide variation in the severity of defective globin production due to the many different mutations that can produce a or b thalassaemia, but there are many different structural haemoglobin variants, each with different functional properties and rates of synthesis, with which the thalassaemia genes can interact. When variability of the numbers of normal genes for the globins is added, there is the potential for the generation of a bewilderingly complex series of phenotypes. In Thailand, for example, it has been estimated that there are over 60 different genetic combinations of thalassaemia and structural haemoglobin variants. The heterogeneity of the thalassaemia syndromes, while of enormous biological interest, also raises considerable practical problems, particularly for genetic counselling and prenatal diagnosis. On the other hand, the clarification of the molecular and genetic
basis for many of these disorders has provided us with a wealth of information about abnormal gene action and of the reasons for the marked phenotypic heterogeneity of monogenic diseases. In closing this introduction to thalassaemia genetics we make no apologies for restating that it is vital for workers in this field to grasp these principles. More recent studies that have made it possible to define individual mutations of the globin genes in thalassaemia have been an invaluable step forward towards an understanding of the mechanisms of abnormal gene action. But they only describe events at individual globin loci. To fully appreciate their clinical consequences it is essential to consider the complex interplay of all the globin genes which, together with many different environmental factors, shape the remarkably diverse phenotypes of the thalassaemia syndromes.
Chapter 4 The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias
Introduction In Chapter 1 we considered the different routes that led to the application of the remarkable technical developments of molecular biology to the study of the thalassaemias in the mid-1970s, and how, as methods for isolating and analysing the globin genes became more sophisticated, it gradually became possible to define their molecular pathology. Here we shall summarize what has been achieved, so that in subsequent chapters the reader can appreciate how the molecular lesions that underlie the thalassaemias relate to their phenotypes and, equally important, the extent to which it is possible to explain their clinical heterogeneity at the molecular level. It is beyond the scope of this book to describe all the methods that have been used to analyse the globin genes. In Chapter 16 we outline a few of the most useful for day-to-day diagnostic work, but those who wish to learn more about the technology that is now available to study human genes are referred to several monographs which deal with this rapidly growing subject in a way that is accessible to those who are new to the field (Raskó & Downes 1995; Jankowski & Polak 1996). Before tackling this complex story, readers may also find it helpful to familiarize themselves with the structure and regulation of the globin genes, as summarized in Chapter 2. In addition, we thought it would be helpful to introduce this topic with a short account of the general nature of mutations, particularly for those who are not familiar with this field.Those who wish to explore it in more detail are referred to the monographs of Cooper and Krawczak (1993) and Lewin (1997).
Mutations and their underlying mechanisms The word ‘mutation’ simply means any permanent inheritable change that may occur in the sequence of our DNA. Mutations always alter our genotype, that is, our genetic make-up, but they may or may not alter
our phenotype, that is, our observable characteristics. The different forms of a gene which are produced by mutations are called ‘alleles’. Each homologous pair of chromosomes may carry different alleles at a particular gene locus. Individuals of this kind are called ‘heterozygotes’, while those who carry identical alleles are called ‘homozygotes’. Alleles which are fully or almost completely expressed in heterozygotes are said to be ‘dominant’, while those that are only expressed in the homozygous state are called ‘recessives’. Sometimes, alleles express themselves independently of each other, a condition called ‘co-dominance’. Many mutations are harmless and do not alter the phenotype. Others may interfere with the structure, function or synthesis of the protein products of particular genes and cause disease. Mutations in single genes are found at frequencies of approximately 7–9 per thousand live births. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 of which are called ‘autosomes’ and one of which constitutes the sex chromosomes, X and Y. Females have two X chromosomes while males have an X and a Y chromosome. About one-third of mutations are recessive and involve the autosomes, one-third are dominant, also involving the autosomes, and one-third are sex-linked and affect the X chromosome. There are many different types of mutations and they can interfere with gene action at any level from transcription, through translation, to the function of the product (Table 4.1). Point mutations The simplest type of mutation is the substitution of one nucleotide for another, referred to as a ‘point mutation’. As described in Chapter 2, the chains that constitute our DNA include strings of purine (adenine or guanine) or pyrimidine (thymine or cytosine) bases. An important feature of the Watson– Crick model is that the bases of opposite strands fit together accurately to form complementary purine– 133
134
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 A functional classification of different types of mutations based on the level at which they modify gene action.The different classes of mutations are described in the text. Transcription: deletions, insertions, inversions, fusion genes, point mutations
(a)
Remove or inactivate gene or several genes in cluster Involve major regulatory regions Promoters Locus-control regions. Enhancers Trans-acting factors Processing of mRNA: point mutations, small deletions, insertions Splicing Intron–exon junctions Consensus sequences Cryptic splice sites within introns and exons Poly(A) addition site
HIS CAC
LYS AAG
HIS CAC
LYS AAG
TYR HIS UAU CAC
Normal
UAA Stop
Mutation
THR LYS LYS SER ILE AAG AGU AUC ACU AAG
Normal
– 2 base deletion AAG AGU AUC (b)
U
AAG
Mutation
Stop
Fig. 4.1 Point mutations. (a) Nonsense mutation leading to a premature termination codon. (b) Frameshift mutation ending in the same result as (a).
Translation: nonsense or frameshift mutations, other point mutations, insertions Initiation Elongation Termination Structure of gene products: mis-sense mutations, deletions, insertions, frameshift, others Processing Function Stability
pyrimidine pairs, adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine. Two kinds of point mutations affecting only a single base pair are possible. In a transition, purines are replaced by purines and pyrimidines by pyrimidines. In other words, T:A changes to C... G, or vice versa. In a transversion, purines are replaced by pyrimidines and vice versa; T:A changes to A:T or G... C; C... G changes to G... C or A:T ((·)indicates a hydrogen bond, as defined in Chapter 2. Two hydrogen bonds are formed between A and T, and three between G and C). Point mutations are usually classified by their effects on function. If they have no effect they are called ‘neutral’. If they change one amino acid codon to another, leading to a protein with an abnormal structure, they are called ‘mis-sense’ mutations. If, on the other hand, they result in a premature chaintermination codon, which makes it impossible for any normal product to be synthesized, they are referred
to as ‘nonsense’ mutations (Fig. 4.1a). A similar endresult may occur in another way. It is possible to lose, that is, delete, or gain, by insertion, one or more base pairs in the coding sequence of a gene. Since it is a triplet code, the insertion or loss of one, two or four base pairs throws the reading frame out of phase. ‘Frameshift’ mutations of this kind change the amino acid sequence beyond the point of the mutation and, quite frequently, generate a new premature chaintermination codon, with the same effect as a nonsense mutation (Fig. 4.1b). Point mutations interfere with gene action at different levels.Those that involve the promoter regions of genes may reduce the level of transcription. The processing of the messenger-RNA precursor may be affected in a variety of ways. As mentioned in Chapter 2, there are invariant sequences at the junctions between introns and exons which play a major role in the mechanisms whereby the intron sequences are removed and the exon sequences joined together (see Table 2.5). This process is completely inactivated if these sequences are changed by point mutation. If the consensus sequences close to the intron/exon junctions are changed, splicing may also be interfered with to a varying degree. Even more remarkably, point mutations may produce new donor or acceptor sites within exons or introns, leading to the production of abnormally spliced and functionally useless messenger RNA (Fig. 4.2). Occasionally, point mutations interfere with the capping or polyadenylation of
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias
nature’s way of redistributing genes during meiosis. Despite the fundamental importance of this process its precise mechanisms are still not fully understood.
Normal splicing β gene
GT IVS 1 AG
GT IVS 2
AG
Homologous unequal recombination
TTGGTCT A
10% β+ thalassaemia
135
90%
Fig. 4.2 A mutation resulting in both normal and abnormal messenger RNA due to the generation of a new splice site in an intron.The new splice site is used in preference to the normal site, resulting in only 10% of normal messenger RNA and gene product.
messenger RNA. As outlined above, nonsense or frameshift mutations result in translation of an abnormal protein; the process of translation may also be affected by point mutations that involve the initiation or termination codons. Most mutations which involve transcription, processing or translation of messenger RNA cause a reduction or absence of the protein product of a particular gene. In the case of mis-sense mutations the product is usually synthesized normally but has an abnormal structure. While this may be harmless, in some cases the change in protein structure results in its instability or abnormal function and hence in a disease phenotype. Larger gene rearrangements Although point mutations are by far the commonest cause of molecular pathology, there are a number of larger disruptions which, as we shall see later in this chapter, underlie inherited diseases. They include deletions (that is, partial or complete loss of genes, gene fusions, insertions of new genetic material) and inversions (that is, lengths of DNA which are in the opposite orientation to normal). Clearly, lesions of this size will have a major effect on gene function and, indeed, in many cases they completely inactivate genes or even entire gene clusters. Many of these larger genetic lesions result from inappropriate recombinational events. Genetic recombination (the formation of new combinations of linked genes by crossing over following breakage and rejoining between their loci) is, of course,
As we saw in Chapter 2, the linked a-globin genes, a1 and a2, have evolved by gene duplication and they also have flanking regions of homology, the sequences of which may have been maintained during evolution by the process of gene conversion and unequal crossing over. Such regions tend to potentiate homologous unequal recombination by chromosomal slippage at meiosis. As described in further detail later in this chapter, unequal crossing over following chromosomal misalignment can give rise to a single a gene on one chromosome and three on the homologous partner. There are other examples of this type of mechanism in regions of the genome which contain closely linked homologous loci. There are also examples of unequal recombination of this type between repetitive-sequence elements (see below). Gene fusion products resulting from homologous unequal recombination As discussed later in this chapter, chromosomal slippage and homologous unequal recombination can give rise to a fusion gene on one chromosome and a mirror image on the opposite pair.This is the basis for the Lepore haemoglobin variants and for different types of colour-blindness. Non-homologous recombination Major DNA rearrangements occurring in regions of minimum sequence homology also occur. Several types of junction have been observed: ‘flush junctions’, in which there is simple breakage and rejoining; insertional junctions, which contain novel nucleotides; and junctions with limited homology (see Cooper and Krawczak (1993) for a more detailed discussion). Repetitive sequences Later in this chapter we shall see that some of the abnormal recombinational events that have given rise to large deletions of the globin genes have been
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Chapter 4
related to repetitive DNA sequences.There are many types of repetitive DNA in the human genome. For example, there are frequent stretches of simple dinucleotide repeats (CA)n. In addition, there are long stretches of tandemly repeated DNA segments containing many copies of oligonucleotide (10–30 bp) repeats. These form useful genetic markers known as variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs). Some stretches of repetitive DNA consist of much longer repeats, spanning many hundreds of kilobases. In addition to these tandemly repeated sequences, there are two major types of interspersed repeats in humans. These are called SINES (short interspersed elements) and LINES (long interspersed elements). The most abundant family of SINES are Alu elements, which make up 3–6% of the entire genome. The characteristic LINE family is Kpn I, or L1, repeats.The designation Alu or Kpn I refers to the restriction enzymes that were originally used to identify these repeats, while L1 is a characteristic transposable element, as described below. Repetitive sequences tend to encourage recombinational instability. There are now many examples of deletions which involve Alu repeats. Transposable elements Although some gene insertions are the result of simple reduplication of sequences within particular genes, there is another family that results from the insertion of transposable, or mobile, genetic elements. Although at first these were thought to be restricted to maize they have now been found in a wide range of organisms, including humans. Both LINES and SINES are examples of transposable elements. Some of them act through an RNA intermediate, others directly from DNA to DNA. The former, sometimes called retrotransposons, encode polypeptides that have reverse transcriptase activity, that is, the potential to synthesize DNA on an RNA template. In other words they have the properties of retroviruses, which are able to insert their genetic material into the genomes of their hosts. While in lower organisms these elements have been viewed as a vehicle for the rapid generation of adaptive change, it is not clear what their function is, if any, in higher organisms. But there are several examples of the insertion of genetic material, apparently by mechanisms similar to these, as the basis for human molecular pathology (reviewed by Kazazian 1998).
Regulatory mutations Most of the mutations that have been described so far, though they may be expressed at different levels of gene function, involve the gene itself or its immediate flanking regions. There are, however, mutations that involve important regulatory elements, which may have profound effects on the function of genes at some distance away on the same chromosome or on another chromosome. For example, we saw in Chapter 2 how the globin-gene clusters are regulated by elements that lie some distance upstream, the LCR in the case of the b-globin gene cluster and HS –40 for the a-globin genes. As we shall see later, deletions of these regions severely downregulate (< 1%) their associated gene clusters. We also saw how there are families of regulatory DNA binding proteins, which are often encoded on other chromosomes and which may be either tissue-specific or ubiquitous in action. There are a number of examples of diseases that result from mutations of regulatory proteins of this type. As would be expected, since they may be involved in the regulation of many different genes, they may have widespread effects and cause extremely complex phenotypes. We shall encounter an excellent example of a family of mutations of this type when we discuss the syndrome of a thalassaemia and mental retardation in Chapter 12.
The a thalassaemias In Chapter 3 we saw how the a thalassaemias are currently classified according to the output of a chains from the linked pair of a-globin genes on chromosome 16. In the a0 thalassaemias there is no output of a globin from the linked pair, while in a+ thalassaemia there is a reduced output. Here we shall describe the molecular lesions which give rise to these different forms of a thalassaemia. The clinical disorders that result from their interactions are described in Chapter 11. As we saw in Chapter 2, analysis of the human aglobin cluster has revealed a remarkable degree of structural variability due to point mutations, deletions and insertions of DNA. These polymorphisms, which do not seem to interfere with a-globin production, are found in all populations. Variants that cause a thalassaemia are largely limited to tropical and subtropical countries in which malaria is, or has been, endemic (see Chapter 6). However, some rare
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias and very informative mutations have been found outside these regions. In contrast to the b thalassaemias, which, as we shall see later, usually result from point mutations in the b-globin genes, the a thalassaemias are most often due to deletions involving one or both of the a-globin genes. Rarely, deletions that remove the a-globin gene regulatory element (HS –40) are responsible. This contrast in molecular pathology represents another difference between the properties of the a and b clusters, which may reflect their different chromosomal environments (see Chapter 2).
a + Thalassaemia resulting from deletions Heterogeneity The a-globin genes are embedded within two highly homologous 4 kb duplication units, the sequence identity of which has been maintained throughout evolution by gene conversion and unequal crossover events (Lauer et al. 1980; Zimmer et al. 1980; Michelson & Orkin 1983; Hess et al. 1984).These regions are divided into homologous subsegments (X, Y and Z) by non-homologous elements (I, II and III, Figs 4.3 and 4.4). Unequal crossing over between Z segments (Fig. 4.3), which are 3.7 kb apart, produces a chromosome with only one a-globin gene (–a3.7, rightward
137
deletion) (Embury et al. 1980), that is, a deletional form of a+ thalassaemia, and one with three a -globin genes (aaaanti3.7) (Goossens et al. 1980; Higgs et al. 1980a).There are three varieties of this type of a+ thalassaemia, depending on exactly where within the Z box the crossover took place, that is –a3.7I, –a3.7II and –a3.7III (Higgs et al. 1984b) (Fig. 4.4). These subregions are defined by sequence differences in the Za2 and Za1 boxes that can be detected by Southern blot hybridization. Non-reciprocal crossovers between homologous X boxes, which are 4.2 kb apart, also gives rise to an a-thalassaemia determinant (–a4.2) (Embury et al. 1980) and an aaaanti4.2 chromosome (Trent et al. 1981). Further recombination events between the resulting chromosomes (a, aa, aaa) give rise to quadruplicated a genes (aaaaanti3.7, aaaaanti4.2) (Trent et al. 1981; De Angioletti et al. 1992) or to other unusual rearrangements. Three additional rare deletions that produce a+ thalassaemia have also been described (Fig. 4.4). One that removes the entire a1 gene and its flanking DNA (–a3.5) has been observed in two Asian Indians (Kulozik et al. 1988a); the breakpoints have not yet been reported in detail and thus it is not clear whether this represents a non-homologous recombination event (see later) or whether further sequences homologous to the Z box lie downstream of the a1 gene. Another deletion, referred to as (a)a5.3, was
Rightward crossover (Z box): Z αααanti 3.7
–α3.7 Z Leftward crossover (X box):
Fig. 4.3 The mechanism by which the common deletions underlying a+ thalassaemia occur. Crossovers between misaligned Z boxes give rise to the –a3.7 and aaaanti3.7 chromosomes. Crossovers between misaligned X boxes give rise to –a4.2 and aaa4.2 chromosomes.
X αααanti 4.2
–α4.2 X
138
Chapter 4 66–75% 25–33% α2
ψα2 I X
α1
αα
II III YZ
Reference
PCR analysis
5.3
Lacerra et al. (1991)
Lacerra et al. (1991)
–α4.2
Embury et al. (1980)
Dodé et al. (1993), Baysal & Huisman (1994)
3.7 I
Embury et al. (1980), Higgs et al. (1984b)
Dodé et al. (1993), Baysal & Huisman (1994)
3.7 II
Higgs et al. (1984b)
Dodé et al. (1993), Baysal & Huisman (1994)
3.7 III
Higgs et al. (1984b)
Dodé et al. (1993)
2.7
Zhao et al. (1991)
3.5
Kulozic et al. (1988a)
X Y Z α
–α
–α –α
–α –α
Fig. 4.4 Deletions that cause a+ thalassaemia.Above: the a-globin genes are shown with the duplication units divided into X, Y and Z boxes with regions of non-homology (I, II, III). Below: the extent of each deletion, represented by a black bar.The thin bar at the end of each thick bar denote the regions of uncertainty for the deletion breakpoints. Primary references for the characterization and examples of PCR analysis of these deletions are shown on the right-hand side of the diagram.
observed in a family from Italy (Lacerra et al. 1991). It removes the 5¢ end of the a2 gene; the 5¢ breakpoint lies 822 bp upstream of the mRNA CAP site of the ya1 gene, while the 3¢ breakpoint is located in IVS1 of the a2 gene. Sequence analysis indicates that this deletion has arisen by illegitimate recombination. A third rare allele was described in a Chinese patient with HbH disease (Zhao et al. 1991).This 2.7-kb deletion removes the a1 gene, but, since the breakpoints have not been sequenced, the mechanism by which it occurred is unknown.
How often have the deletional forms of a + thalassaemia arisen? The variety of independent recombination events giving rise to –a and aaa chromosomes identified in extant human populations suggest that recombination between the homologous X boxes and homologous Z boxes is relatively frequent. Several indirect observations support this notion. Both –a and aaa chromosomes are present in most populations. Moreover, the –a determinant is associated with many different a-globin variants in cis (Higgs et al. 1989), as well as different HVR alleles and a-globin restriction-fragment length-polymorphism (RFLP) haplotypes (Goodbourn et al. 1983; Winichagoon
et al. 1984; Flint et al. 1986) (the RFLPs and haplotypes of the a-globin genes are described in Chapter 2). In population isolates such as Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu the -a determinants are only found on the common a-globin haplotypes for that population, suggesting that they have arisen de novo (Flint et al. 1986). Some a-globin variants (e.g. HbG Philadelphia, a68 AsnÆLys) are found on both normal (aa) chromosomes and those bearing an a-thalassaemia determinant (–a), suggesting a connection between the two through recombination or gene conversion (Strachan & Read 1996). Similar observations have been made for the poly(A) signal mutation found in Saudi Arabia (see later section), which is present on both aa and aaa chromosomes (Thein et al. 1988b). It is interesting that the relative frequencies of the various types of a+ thalassaemia observed throughout the world correlate with the length of the homologous segments that serve as target areas for the crossovers involved (–a3.7I {1436 bp} > –a4.2 {1339 bp} > –a3.7II {171 bp} > –a3.7III {46 bp}). Correlations between frequency of recombination and target size have been noted in other systems (Jinks-Robertson et al. 1993). However, since the a+-thalassaemia determinants have come under intense selection in many areas (Flint et al. 1986), these observations may not truly reflect recombination rates.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias Direct evidence for a high rate of recombination between the duplicated a genes has recently been obtained using sperm typing by PCR (Lamb & Clegg 1996). Analysis of DNA extracted from the spermatozoa of a Caucasian donor indicated a frequency of ~1.7 ¥ 104. Expression from the deletion a+-thalassaemia chromosomes Although the relative expression of mRNA from the a2- and a1-globin genes on a normal chromosome is approximately 3 : 1, there are several lines of evidence that the a gene in the various -a chromosomes behaves like neither a1 nor a2. For example, homozygotes for the –a4.2 determinant, who essentially have two a1 genes (–a4.2/–a4.2), appear to express more a globin than the predicted 25% of normal (Bowden et al. 1987a), and homozygotes for -a3.7III, with the equivalent of two a2 genes (–a3.7/–a3.7), express less than the predicted 75% of normal (Bowden et al. 1987a). Direct measurements of a mRNA levels in patients with the –a3.7 determinant also suggest that the remaining a gene is expressed at a level roughly halfway between a normal a2 and a1 gene (Liebhaber et al. 1985). Since the transcriptional units of all the recombined genes (–a3.7I, –a3.7II, –a3.7III, –a4.2) are virtually identical to either the native a1 or a2 genes, the alteration in expression probably results from a change in the rate of transcription. Assuming that this is a cis effect, it could be brought about by the new combinations of flanking sequences, a release of transcriptional interference from the upstream gene (Proudfoot 1986), or by a change in chromosome conformation as a result of the deletions. Another possibility is that the promoters of the a2 and a1 genes compete for interaction with the regulatory a-globin element (HS – 40), similar to the way in which the g and b genes are thought to compete for the b-globin gene LCR (see Chapter 2 and later in this chapter). In this case a single promoter in the –a chromosome would have continuous access to HS –40 and might, consequently, be expressed more efficiently. Although there is no a priori reason to anticipate changes in z-globin expression in patients with the –a haplotype, it is useful to know that none of the –a mutations is associated with any significant change in z-globin expression (Chui et al. 1986).
139
a 0 Thalassaemia due to deletions of the a-globin genes Heterogeneity As shown in Figs 4.5 and 4.6 many different length deletions have been found in patients with a0 thalassaemia. Unfortunately, these different mutations have attracted a rather complex and inconsistent nomenclature. Some of them are characterized by the name of the individual in whom they were first discovered, some by population origin and yet others by the particular size of the deletion. Though many of them are extremely rare or have only been observed on one occasion, two, those found in the Mediterranean region (MED) and in south-east Asia (SEA), reach high frequencies. This probably reflects both the time at which the lesions first occurred and intense heterozygote selection, presumably by P. falciparum malaria (see Chapter 6). Extent of deletions Recently, all of the DNA stretching for 300 kb from the 16p telomere was cloned, characterized and sequenced (Flint et al. 1997). This enabled us to define the full extent of several deletions that include the z, a and q genes.They extend from 100 kb to over 250 kb (Fig. 4.6) and remove other genes that flank the a cluster, including a DNA repair enzyme (methyl adenine DNA glycosylase), an inhibitor of GDP dissociation from Rho (RhoGDIg), a protein disulphide isomerase (PDI-R), and several anonymous housekeeping genes. Despite this, patients with these deletions appear phenotypically normal, apart from having a thalassaemia. In patients with more extensive deletions of 16p13.3, a thalassaemia is associated with developmental abnormalities and mental retardation (see Chapter 12). Functional consequences All of the deletions described in this section either completely or partially (–(a)5.2 and –(a)20.5) delete both a-globin genes (Figs 4.5 and 4.6), and therefore no a-chain synthesis is directed by these chromosomes in vivo. Homozygotes have the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome (see Chapter 11). Several deletions remove both a-globin genes and the z gene
140
Chapter 4 –10
0
10
ζ2
ψζ1 ψα2 ψα1 α2 interζHVR
20
30 α1 θ1 3' HVR
Reference --MC
Vickers and Higgs (1989)
--CAL
Fortina et al. (1991b)
--UO
Vullamy, T. (Personal Communication)
--DUTCH I
Harteveld et al. (1997a)
--THAI
Fischel-Ghodsian et al. (1988)
--MEDII
Kutlar et al. (1989b)
--FIL
Fischel-Ghodsian et al. (1988)
--RT
Sabath et al. (1994)
PCR analysis
Ko et al. (1998)*
--BRIT
Higgs et al. (1985)
--YEM
Shalmon et al. (1994)
–(α)20.5
Nicholls et al. (1985)
--MA
Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1989e)
--CI
Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1988c)
--SA
Vandenplas et al. (1987)
--MED
Pressley et al. (1980c)
Bowden et al. (1992)
--SEA
Pressley et al. (1980c)
Bowden et al. (1992)
--CANT
Villegas et al. (1994)
--SPAN
Villegas et al. (1989)
--GEO
Fei et al. (1992)
–(α)5.2
Pressley et al. (1980a)
Bowden et al. (1992)
Fortina et al. (1994)
Fig. 4.5 Deletions that cause a° thalassaemia.Above: the a-gene complex is shown (scale in kilobases, 0 indicates the z2globin mRNA CAP site). Below: the extent of each deletion is shown by a black bar. Regions of uncertainty for each breakpoint are shown by white boxes.To the right are the shorthand notations, primary references for the characterization and examples of PCR analysis for each deletion. *Although Ko et al. (1998) originally reported that their primers amplified the - -THAI deletion it has subsequently been shown that, in fact, these deletions inadvertently characterized the - -FIL mutation (Higgs et al. 1999).The - -BRIT deletion may be the same as a rare a0-thalassaemia defect described in an AfroAmerican patient by Steinberg et al. (1986).
(Felice et al. 1984; Chan et al. 1985; Di Rienzo et al. 1986; Fischel-Ghodsian et al. 1988; Fortina et al. 1988; Vickers & Higgs 1989; Fortina et al. 1991b; Fei et al. 1992; Waye et al. 1992); although heterozygotes survive and appear to develop normally, homozygotes could not survive even the early stages of gestation, since neither embryonic (z2g2, z2e2, a2e2) nor fetal (a2g2) haemoglobin can be made (see Chapter 11). Some, but not all, heterozygotes for deletions in which the embryonic gene remains intact continue to produce very small amounts of z globin in both fetal (Chui et al. 1989) and adult life (Kutlar et al. 1989b; Tang et al. 1992). This may be analogous to the persistent g-globin production documented in
patients with downstream deletions of the b complex (see later in this chapter and Chapter 10). However, the amount of z globin in adults with these types of a thalassaemia is considerably less than that of g globin in patients with comparable deletions of the b-gene complex. It seems that this increase of embryonic globin expression is not simply due to an increased rate of erythropoiesis since, in one study, no e- or z-globin transcripts were detected in several patients with erythroid hyperplasia (Ley et al. 1989). At the 3¢ end of the complex most of these deletions include the q1 gene, the function of which is not yet known. In one child homozygous for – –SEA, who has been treated with blood transfusion, both q1
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 50
3
100
4
200
250
ζ ααθ
6 5
150
7
141
17 18 19 16
20 α- ZF -- JT -- DUTCH II -- VR -- JY -- HW -- BR -- LCU -- CL
Barbour et al. (2000) Horsley et al. (2000) Harteveld et al. (1997b) Horsley et al. (2000) Horsley et al. (2000) Waye et al. (1992) and Horsley et al. (2000) Harris et al. (1990) and Horsley et al. (2000) Horsley et al. (2000) Lamb et al. (1993) and Horsley et al. (2000)
Fig. 4.6 Rare, large deletions that cause a thalassaemia but no associated abnormalities.Above the terminal 300 kb of chromosome 16p, as described in the legend to Fig. 2.12 (Chapter 2) (scale in kilobases). Below, black bars indicate the extent of each deletion. Regions of uncertainty for the breakpoints are shown by white boxes.To the right are the shorthand notations and primary references for each deletion.
genes are deleted, yet development appears to be normal (Fischel-Ghodsian et al. 1987). How did the a0-thalassaemia deletions arise? Detailed analyses of several determinants of a0 thalassaemia have shown that they often result from illegitimate or non-homologous recombination (Nicholls et al. 1987). Such events may involve short regions of partial sequence homology where the breakpoints are rejoined, but they do not involve the extensive sequence matching required for the kind of homologous recombination that underlies the a+ thalassaemias. Sequence analysis has shown that members of the dispersed family of Alu repeats are frequently found at or near the breakpoints of these deletions. Alu-family repeats occur frequently in the genome (3 ¥ 105 copies) and are particularly common in and around the a-globin gene cluster, where they make up ~25% of the entire sequence (Flint et al. 1997) (see earlier section). They may simply provide partially homologous sequences that facilitate DNA strand exchanges during replication, or possibly a subset may be more actively involved in the process. To date at least eight deletions causing a thalassaemia have been found to have one or both breakpoints lying in Alu sequences. Similar illegitimate recombination
events in the b locus less frequently involve Alu sequences, suggesting that this type of recombination may be, to at least some extent, locus specific (Henthorn et al. 1990). Sequence analysis of the junctions of the a-globin deletions has revealed a number of interesting features, including palindromes, direct repeats, regions of weak homology and the frequent occurrence of the motif GAGG. One of the deletions (– –MED) also involves a more complex rearrangement that introduces a new piece of DNA bridging the two breakpoints. The inserted DNA originates from upstream of the a cluster and appears to have been incorporated into the junction in a manner which suggests that the upstream segment lies close to the breakpoint regions during replication (Fig. 4.7) (Nicholls et al. 1987). At least two of the largest deletions (– –HW and – –BR, Fig. 4.6) result from chromosomal breaks in the 16p telomeric region that have been ‘healed’ by the direct addition of telomeric repeats (TTAGGG)n. This mechanism is described in further detail below. Deletions of the a-globin-gene regulatory element It has been shown that expression of the a-globin genes is critically dependent on a segment of DNA that lies 40 kb upstream of the z2-globin gene (Higgs
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Chapter 4
–27
–28 S
11 S
ζ2
28 B
ψζ
ψα1 α2
ψα2
L3
ψζ2 α1 S
B
L3 5' 3'
3' 5'
Alu I
ATCTCCCTGAAGCTGGGGCTCCAGCTGTG 5' ψζ – – MED ATCTCCCTGAAGCTGAaacatacaggtcctcccaccaggcacacatgaggctctgccagggcctc Alu I
tcttgttaggtttgcctctattagcttgtgtttttagagccctacactgatgtgttagaaagatg – – MED ccctctcctttctgCTACAGAACACCTAAGACGGGGGGCCTGGATCC 3' α
ATAGTGAACACCTAAGACGGGGGGCCTGGATCC AluI
GTYAACATGGAGAACCCTGACCTCAGGTGATTGAACTCCTGGGCTTAAGTGATCCTCCCACCTTG GCCTCCCAATGTTCTGGGATTACACGCATGAGCCCCCTCACCCAGCTACCAGCTCTGCCTTTAAT TCTCAGGTGACATCTTGGGGAATCAGGTGGCACTGCATCTGTCCTCACGGCTTTGGCACTTTTTG TAGCAGTGTACCCAACTTGTTGGCTGCACTTGGGCCATGGCCAGATGGGGTCCTTGGCCAGGCAG GCACTCTCTAGCTCACaacatacaggtcctcccaccaggcacacatgaggctctgccagggcctc tcttgttaggtttgcctctattagcttgtgtttttagagccctacactgatgtgttagaaagatg ccctctcctttctgTAGCTNAGGTTRAC Fig. 4.7 A mechanism for the generation of the deletion which underlies a form of a0 thalassaemia.This deletion, - -MED shown in Fig. 4.5, involves a complex rearrangement and introduces a new piece of DNA bridging the two breakpoints.As shown, the inserted DNA originates from upstream of the a cluster and appears to have been incorporated into the junction in a manner that suggests that the upstream segment lies close to the breakpoint regions during replication. From Nicholls et al. (1987).
et al. 1990). This region is associated with an erythroid-specific DNase1-hypersensitive site and is referred to as HS –40. It is described in detail in Chapter 2.
The first hint that such a remote regulatory sequence might exist came from studies of a patient with a thalassaemia (Hatton et al. 1990). Analysis of the abnormal chromosome (aa)RA from this patient
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias –100
–80
–60
–40
–20
0
20
ζ2
α2 α1
143
40
(αα) RA (αα) MCK (αα) SN (αα) CMO (αα) FL or IdF (αα) TAT (αα) MB (αα) MM or AMB (αα) AS (αα) IC (αα) TI (αα) IJ
Hatton et al. (1990) Higgs et al. (Unpublished) Villegas et al. (Unpublished) Flint et al. (1994) Flint et al. (1994) Flint et al. (1994) Flint et al. (1996) Ramao et al. and Villegas, A et al. (Unpublished) Higgs et al. (Unpublished) Flint et al. (1994) Wilkie et al. (1990b) Liebhaber et al. (1990)
Fig. 4.8 Deletions extending upstream of the a cluster that cause a thalassaemia by removing the a-globin regulatory element (HS -40).Above: the a-gene cluster is shown (scale in kilobases; 0 indicates the z2 globin mRNA CAP site).The stippled box represents the shortest region of overlap between all deletions, including HS -40.The oval represents the 16p telomere.The extent of each deletion is indicated by black bars and the uncertainty of breakpoints is shown by white boxes. Primary references and shorthand notations are shown on the right.
demonstrated a 62-kb deletion from upstream of the a complex, which includes HS – 40 (Fig. 4.8). Although both a genes on this chromosome are intact and entirely normal they appear to be nonfunctional. Since this observation, 10 more patients with a thalassaemia due to a deletion of HS – 40 and a variable amount of the flanking DNA have been described (see Fig. 4.8 for references). A 20 –24 kb segment of DNA containing HS –40 is deleted in all of these chromosomes and in each case the phenotype is a0 thalassaemia; some patients have a0thalassaemia trait (aa/(aa)), others have HbH disease (–a/(aa)). Interspecific hybrids, each containing an abnormal copy of chromosome 16 from these patients, have been made by fusing Epstein–Barr (EB) virus cell lines with mouse erythroleukaemia (MEL) cells. In contrast to normal copies of chromosome 16, the abnormal chromosomes produce less than one per cent of human a-globin mRNA, indicating that deletions which remove HS –40 severely downregulate expression of the a-globin genes and are responsible for the associated a0 thalassaemia. More recently a specific ‘knockout’ of HS –40 (Bernet et al. 1994) from such a chromosome, together with many experiments in transgenic mice (Higgs et al. 1998), have con-
firmed that HS –40 is the major element deleted by these arrangements. The mechanisms by which these mutations have arisen are quite diverse. In the (aa)RA chromosome the deletion resulted from recombination between partially homologous Alu repeats that are normally 62 kb apart (Hatton et al. 1990). The (aa)MB chromosome (Flint et al. 1996) resulted from a subtelomeric rearrangement; the breakpoint was found in an Alu element located ~105 kb from the 16p subtelomeric region.The broken chromosome was stabilized with a new telomere acquired by recombination between this Alu element and a subtelomeric Alu repeat associated with the newly acquired chromosome end. In five cases ((aa)CMO (aa)IdF (aa)TAT (aa)IC and (aa)TI) (Fig. 4.8) the chromosomes appear to have been broken and then stabilized by the direct addition of telomeric repeats to non-telomeric DNA (Flint et al. 1994). Sequence analysis suggests that these chromosomes are ‘healed’ by the action of telomerase, an enzyme that is normally involved in maintaining the integrity of telomeres (Blackburn 1992; Flint et al. 1994). In the three remaining examples (aa)IJ (aa)MCK and (aa)SN (Fig. 4.8), the mechanism has not yet been established. However, it is interesting that in both
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Chapter 4
(aa)IJ and (aa)MCK the deletions appear to have arisen de novo, since neither parent has the abnormal chromosome. A deletion extending downstream of the a-gene cluster During a study to identify thalassaemia in families from the Czech Republic, Indrák et al. (1993) reported a new deletion (> 18 kb) involving the a1 and q1 gene, a–ZF (Fig. 4.6). Heterozygotes have a mild hypochromic, microcytic anaemia (Hb 12.6 g/dl, MCH 22 pg, MCV 68 fl) with a reduced a/b-globin synthesis ratio (0.62–0.66) and HbH inclusions.These findings suggest that, although the a2 gene appears to be intact, it has been inactivated by the deletion. Further analysis of this deletion (Higgs et al. 1998; Barbour et al. 2000) has confirmed that the remaining a2 gene on the a–ZF chromosome is structurally intact, including all its critical cis-acting sequences, and has no inactivating point mutations. Nevertheless, functional studies in which the abnormal chromosome was isolated as an interspecific hybrid with MEL cells, confirmed that the a2 gene has been inactivated by the deletion; such hybrids produce no human a mRNA. Detailed in vivo analyses of this mutation have shown that the a gene and its promoter have been made inaccessible to DNase1 and other endonucleases. Furthermore, the CpG island associated with the gene, which spans the a-gene promoter, has become fully methylated whereas normally this region is unmethylated. At present the mechanism by which this occurred is not clear but it is of interest that the region of the chromosome abutted to the a2 gene by the deletion corresponds to an Alu-dense, methylated region that contains no DNase1-hypersensitive sites (Flint et al. 1997). Perhaps the simplest explanation is that the juxtaposition of the a2 gene next to a piece of relatively inert chromatin has induced a chromosomal position effect. In such situations it is thought that a repressive chromatin structure spreads over a gene that is normally active and prevents its expression (Shaffer et al. 1993). Further studies will be needed to test this hypothesis. It is not clear whether this mutation has simply identified an unimportant block of ‘heterochromatin’, or if this region normally plays an important role in regulating the a-gene cluster. Studies in transgenic mice have shown that, although this region
contains no positive regulatory sequences, a-globin mRNA expression from a large construct containing it occurs at higher levels than those which do not span this area, and in a more stable manner (Higgs et al. 1998). Further studies are under way to assess the role of this fascinating area of the a-gene cluster. Non-deletional types of a thalassaemia In all surveys reported so far, a thalassaemia is much more frequently due to deletions, as described in previous sections, than to single-point mutations or oligonucleotide insertions and deletions involving the canonical sequences that control gene expression, the so-called ‘non-deletion variants’, in which the affected gene is denoted aT. Non-deletional types of a thalassaemia were first described in 1977 (Kan et al. 1977a) and shown to result from a variety of mechanisms (Higgs et al. 1981).At present we know of 41 well defined types of non-deletion a+ thalassaemia (Table 4.2); 25 occur in the a2 gene, seven in the a1 gene, and six on a –a chromosome. In three cases the mutation has not yet been assigned to the a1 or a2 genes.As a group,they appear to have a more severe effect on a-globin gene expression and the haematological phenotype than simple deletions that remove one or other of the a genes (–a) (see Chapter 11).This may be because the majority of mutations affect the a2 gene, the expression of which may predominate over the a1 gene; this may also lead to a bias in ascertainment. In addition, unlike the situation in which one a-globin gene is deleted, there does not appear to be a compensatory increase in expression of the remaining functional a-globin gene when its partner is inactivated by a point mutation. Furthermore, some highly unstable variants may have multiple secondary effects on red-cell structure and function, producing a more severe phenotype than would be predicted from the decrease in a-gene expression. At present these ideas are based on a small number of observations and further evaluation of the pathophysiology of each mutation is needed. Mutations that affect RNA splicing Three mutations affect RNA splicing. One (aIVS1; 5bp del a) results from a pentanucleotide deletion at the 5¢ donor site of IVS1 of the a2-globin gene (Orkin et al. 1981a; Felbar et al. 1982). This involves the invariant GT sequence and eliminates splicing from the
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias normal donor site, while activating a cryptic donor consensus in exon 1. Aberrantly spliced mRNA can be detected in a transient expression system and in bone marrow. In contrast, in peripheral blood very little, if any, mRNA from the altered a2-globin gene can be detected, suggesting that the aberrantly spliced RNA is unstable. Heterozygotes for this mutation have the phenotype of a-thalassaemia trait and homozygotes have a correspondingly more severe form of a+ thalassaemia. A mutation of the acceptor site of IVS1 of the a2 gene (IVS1-116(AÆG)a) was described by Harteveld et al. (1996c). Abnormal splicing leads to the retention of IVS1 which introduces a premature stop at codon 31. The low levels of abnormal mRNA found in reticulocytes are thought to be due to posttranscriptional instability.Although all 11 carriers for this mutation have reduced a/b-globin synthesis ratios (0.78–0.85) their haematological findings are remarkably normal (Harteveld et al. 1996c). It remains to be seen if this applies in further cases. A third splicing defect is caused by a mutation at IVS1-117 of the a1-globin gene (aIVS1-117(GÆA)a) (Çürük et al. 1993a). In this case, the nature of the abnormal splicing has not been established. Furthermore, the evidence that this mutation causes a thalassaemia is based solely on its consistent effect of lowering the level of HbS in sickle-cell heterozygotes; it will be interesting to document the haematological effect of this mutation. Mutations affecting the poly(A) addition signal The highly conserved sequence motif AATAAA is present 10–30 bp upstream of most poly(A) addition sites and forms part of the signal for mRNA cleavage and polyadenylation of primary transcripts (see Chapter 2). This sequence is required for transcriptional termination; when mutated, transcription may proceed into neighbouring genes and ‘interfere’ with their expression. Four mutations of the a2-gene polyadenylation signal (PA) have been described (Table 4.2). The first to be identified (AATAAAÆAATAAG, or aPA6:AÆG) was found in the Saudi Arabian population. Heterozygotes have the haematological phenotype of the more severe forms of a-thalassaemia trait, while homozygotes have HbH disease, with 5–15% HbH in their peripheral blood (Pressley et al. 1980b; Dr J. Zhao, personal communication).
145
Homozygotes for other non-deletion mutations that inactivate the a2 gene do not always have HbH disease and, even when they do, it is often mild with low levels of HbH. In contrast, homozygotes for the aPA6:AÆGa chromosome always have HbH disease with high levels of HbH. It is interesting that a2 mRNA is reduced but not absent and therefore, if the a1 gene were fully active, a severe form of athalassaemia trait rather than HbH disease might be expected. The implication of these findings is that the poly(A) site mutation downregulates both a2 and a1 genes on the same chromosome. Occasionally, the aPA6:AÆG mutation is duplicated, producing a chromosome with three a genes, aPA6:AÆGaPA6:AÆGa, which still interacts with the aPA6:AÆGa chromosome to produce HbH disease (Thein et al. 1988b). Further analysis of the aPA6:AÆG mutation has shown that it has at least two effects. It reduces the amount of a2 mRNA and, in a transient assay, readthrough transcripts extending beyond the mutated poly(A) addition site are detected. Extended transcripts were also detected in reticulocytes of patients with this defect using RT-PCR (Molchanova et al. 1995). It is possible that transcription extending through the normal termination point could run on and interfere with expression of the linked a1 gene. Given the reduction in a-chain synthesis associated with the aPA6:AÆGa chromosome it is surprising that compound heterozygotes for this mutation and a common a0-thalassaemia determinant are not more severely affected (Dr J. Zhao, personal communication). Since the original description of the aPA6:AÆG allele, three other poly(A) signal mutations have been described (Table 4.2). At present there are insufficient data to know whether these mutations downregulate a-globin gene expression in a similar way. In particular no homozygotes have been identified. Compound heterozygotes for these mutations and a0 thalassaemia have HbH disease, as expected (Fei et al. 1992;Yüregir et al. 1992). Mutations affecting initiation of mRNA translation Several non-deletion mutations affect mRNA translation, five of which disrupt the initiation consensus sequence CCRCCATG (Table 4.2). Two mutations, which involve the initiation (IN) codon, occur on chromosomes with a single a gene. In one (–aIN:AÆG),
163691 163692–163693
162913 166716
Initiation codon Initiation codon
Initiation codon
Exon I Exon II Exon II Exon III Exon III Termination codon Termination codon
Termination codon Termination codon
Termination codon
a2 a1
a2
–a a2 a1 a2 a2 a2 a2
a2 a2
a2 163599
163598 163597
163005–163006 163146–163154 166986–167000 163509–163520 163519 163597 164597
162913
163912 162909–162910
mRNA translation† –a Initiation codon –a3.7II Initiation codon
Poly(A) signal Poly(A) signal
a2 a2
Location§ 163008–163012 163122 166927 163673–163688 163693
Affected sequence
mRNA processing a2 IVS1 (donor) a2 IVS1-116 (acceptor) a1 IVS1-117 (acceptor) a2 Poly(A) signal a2* Poly(A) signal
Affected gene
TER;AÆT (Paksé)
TER;AÆC (Koya Dora) TER;TÆG (Seal Rock)
CD30/31; 2-bp del CD39/41; del/ins CD51–55; 13-bp del CD113–116; 12-bp del CD116; GÆT TER;TÆC (Constant Spring) TER;TÆA (Icaria)
IN; 1-bp del
IN;TÆC IN;AÆG
IN; ÆG IN; 2-bp del
PA; 4 AÆG PA; 2-bp del
IVS1; 5-bp del IVS1; 116 AÆG IVS1; 117 GÆA PA; 16-bp del PA; 6 AÆG
Mutation
Table 4.2 Non-deletion mutants that cause a thalassaemia.
- Mse 1 - Mse 1
aKDa aSRa
- Mse 1
+ Bfa 1 - Mse 1 - Mse 1
- Bst NI
- Nco 1
- Nco 1 - Nco 1
- Nco 1
- Hph 1 + Sac 2 - Fok 1 - Hae III
Identification
aCSa aIca
aTSaudia
aHpha
Alternative notation
Laotian
Indian Black
Black Yemenite-Jewish Spain Spanish Black South-east Asian Mediterranean
Vietnam
Black North African; Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean
Mediterranean Dutch Caucasian Asian Indian Arab Middle East; Mediterranean Mediterranean Asian Indian
Distribution
Safaya & Rieder (1988)† Oron-Karni et al. (1997)† Ayala et al. (1997)† Ayala et al. (1996) Liebhaber et al. (1987) Clegg et al. (1971b) Clegg et al. (1974); Efremov et al. (1990) de Jong et al. (1975) Bradley et al. (1975); Merritt et al. (1997) Waye et al. (1994e)
Pirastu et al. (1984b) Paglietti et al. (1986); Moi et al. (1987)† Waye et al. (1996)†
Olivieri et al. (1987) Morlé et al. (1985, 1986)
Yüregir et al. (1992) Hall et al. (1994); Harteveld et al. (1994)
Orkin et al. (1981a) Harteveld et al. (1996c) Çürük et al. (1993a) Tamary et al. (1997) Higgs et al. (1983a)
Reference
146 Chapter 4
Exon III
Exon III
Exon III
Exon III
Exon III
Exon III
Exon III
Exon III
a
a2
–a3.7
a1
a2
a2
a2
a2
Unknown Unknown Unknown
163580
163564
163561
163559
167370
163547
163547
Not determined Not determined Not determined
CD129;TÆC (Tunis-Bizerte){LÆP} CD129;TÆC (Utrecht){LÆP} CD130; GÆC (Sun Prairie){AÆP} CD131;TÆC (Questembert){SÆP} CD 136;T Æ C (Hb Bibba){LÆP}
CD14;TÆG (Evanston){WÆR} CD29;TÆC (Agrinio){LÆP} CD30; 3-bp del {DE} CD38/39; 3-bp del; (Taybe){DT} CD59; GÆA (Adana){GÆD} CD59; GÆA (Adana){GÆD} CD60/61; 3-bp del (Clinic){DK} CD62; 3-bp del CD66;TÆC (Dartmouth) CD104; GÆA (Sallanches){CÆY} CD109;TÆG (Suan Dok){LÆR} CD110; CÆA (Petah Tikva){AÆD} CD125;T ÆC (Quong Sze){LÆP} CD125;TÆA {LÆQ}
+ Hpa II
+ Nci 1
Black Greek‡ Pacific
Caucasian
Yugoslavia
Asian Indian
Netherlands
Tunisia
Israel
South-east Asia
+ Msp 1
aQSa
South-east Asia Middle East
+ Sma 1
aPTa
aSDa
+ Bsp M1
+ Dde 1
Black Mediterranean China Arabia Turkey China Spain Greece Cambodia French
Mathew et al. (1983) Trent et al. (1986c) Hill et al. (1987b)
Prchal et al. (1995)
Rochette et al. (1995)
Harkness et al. (1990)
Harteveld et al. (1996a)
Oran Kani (personal communication) Darbellay et al. (1995)
Goossens et al. (1982)
Sanguansermsri et al. (1979) Honig et al. (1981)
Honig et al. (1984) Hall et al. (1993b) Chan et al. (1997) Pobedimskaya et al. (1994) Çürük et al. (1993b) Chan et al. (1997) Ayala et al. (1998) Harteveld (1998) Fairweather et al. (1999) Morlé et al. (1995)
* This mutation has been found in both a2-like genes on an aaa3.7 chromosome present in Saudi Arabian individuals. † The elongated a chains associated with Hb Wayne, which results from a frameshift (deletion of either C at a138 or A at a139 of the a2-globin gene), and Hb Grady, which results from a crossover in phase (with insertion of three residues at a118), are not known to be associated with a thalassaemia although the critical interactions that would clearly reveal this have not been described. ‡ Its interaction with a0-thalassaemia determinants to produce the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome suggests that both a-globin genes may be affected. § These numbers refer to the sequence published in Flint et al. (1997); location in brackets assumes a2 defect. ‘-’, removes;‘+’, creates restriction enzyme site.
Uncharacterized a Unknown a Unknown a Unknown
163499
Exon III
a2 (163502)
163484
162954 163000 163002–163004 163143–163145 167011 163207 167013–167018 163215–163217
Post-translational –a Exon I a2 Exon I a2 Exon I a1 Exon II a1 Exon II a2 Exon II a1 Exon II a2 Exon II a2 Exon II a2 Exon III
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 147
148
Chapter 4
the mutation abolishes translation of mRNA. It was identified through its interaction with a second a-thalassaemia chromosome (–aIN:AÆG/–a); affected persons had the typical haematological features of HbH disease, with 2.4 and 7.2% HbH (Olivieri et al. 1987). In the other case (-aIN:2bp del) a 2-bp deletion from the consensus sequence reduced the level of mRNA translation by 30–50% (Morlé et al. 1985, 1986).This mutation produces HbH disease in homozygotes (–aIN:2bp del/–aIN:2bp del), who have a mild hypochromic microcytic anaemia (Hb 9.7–9.9, MCV 63, MCH 18–20) with 4.5–5.6% HbH (Tabone et al. 1981). Two mutations (aIN:TÆCa and aIN:1bp dela) abolish translation of mRNA from the a2 gene. Six of seven homozygotes for the aIN:TÆCa haplotype have a severe form of a-thalassaemia trait, but one had a mild form of HbH disease, with 2.6% HbH (Cao et al. 1991; Galanello et al. 1992). Compound heterozygotes for this mutation with common a0 thalassaemias have HbH disease with substantial amounts of HbH (~8–24%) in the peripheral blood. One mutation, aaIN:AÆG, abolishes translation of mRNA from the a1-globin gene (Moi et al. 1987). In the single family reported, compound heterozygotes (– –/aaIN:AÆG) had relatively low levels of HbH (1.5% and 3%), suggesting that the mutation of the a1 gene causes a less severe degree of a-chain deficit than a similar mutation of the a2 gene. The finding of this mutation adds weight to the argument that the a2 gene is expressed at a higher level than the a1 gene. In-frame deletions, frameshifts and nonsense mutations In 1988 Safaya and Rieder described an AfroAmerican with HbH disease and HbG Philadelphia (–a68 AsnÆLys) who synthesized only aG and no aA chains. The patient was shown to have the genotype -a/–aG, and it was concluded that the –a chromosome was inactivated by a further mutation. Sequence analysis showed that the remaining a gene has a dinucleotide deletion from one or other of the Glu (GAG) or Arg (AGG) codons (30 and 31). The loss of two nucleotides leads to a frameshift and a new sequence in exon II from codons 31–54, followed by a new, in-phase termination codon (TAA) at position 55. Hence the –aCd30/31:2bp del chromosome is an inactive a0-thalassaemia determinant.
Mutations affecting the a-globin gene translational reading frame have also been found on chromosomes with two a genes (aa); three affect the a2-globin gene. In one (aCd39/41 del/insa) there is a deletion of 9 bp (codons 39–41) replaced by an 8nucleotide insertion which duplicates the adjacent downstream sequence. The mutation changes the mRNA reading frame, introducing a new termination signal (TGA) 10 codons downstream. In another case a 12-bp deletion of the a2 gene results in the loss of four amino acids (codons 113–116) from the a chain, which is reduced from its normal length of 141 amino acids to 137. It is thought that this results in an unstable a chain which is rapidly broken down and unable to form a haemoglobin tetramer, like some variants described later. In a heterozygote this mutation produced the phenotype of a-thalassaemia trait. The third mutation in this group has a single base change (aCd116:GÆTa) which results in a premature termination codon and inactivation of the a2 gene. Again, carriers have a-thalassaemia trait. A single Spanish family with a frameshift mutation in the a1-globin gene has been described by Ayala et al. (1997). Direct sequence analysis of the a1 gene revealed a 13-bp deletion, between codons 51 and 55 (aaCd51–55:13bpdel/aa). This mutation results in an mRNA reading frameshift which introduces a new stop signal at codon 62. Two affected persons have athalassaemia trait. Chain-termination mutations There are potentially nine single nucleotide variants of the natural termination codon (TAA) of the a2globin gene; two (TGA and TAG) generate new stop (nonsense) mutations and the others encode amino acids (Fig. 4.9). When mutations change the stop codon to one that encodes an amino acid it allows mRNA translation to continue to the next inphase termination codon (UAA) located within the polyadenylation signal (AAUAAA), in each case extending the a chain by 31 amino acids from the natural C-terminal arginine (codon 141). Of the six predicted a2 variants, five have been described, each with a unique amino acid at a142: Hb Constant Spring (a142 Gln), Hb Icaria (a142 Lys), Hb Koya Dora (a142 Ser), Hb Seal Rock (a142 Glu) and Hb Paksé (a142 Tyr). An extended a-globin chain variant with leucine at position 142 is predicted but has not yet been described.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias Hb Seal Rock GAA(Glu)
Hb Paksé UAU(Tyr) UAC(Tyr)
UAU(Leu)
HbA UGA(Ter) UAG(Ter)
HbA UAA α 142
Hb Icaria AAA(Lys)
Hb Constant Spring CAA(Gln)
Hb Koya Dora UCA(Ser)
Fig. 4.9 The potential and actual a-chain-termination mutant haemoglobins that can be produced by a single base change in the a-globin mRNA termination codon, a142 UAA. Redrawn from Weatherall and Clegg (1975).
The mechanism by which chain-termination mutations cause a thalassaemia has been difficult to elucidate although there are now sufficient observations to provide a plausible explanation. Nevertheless, we still do not fully understand how the unusual haematological phenotype associated with these mutations arises (see Chapters 5 and 11 for further discussion). Heterozygotes clearly have a thalassaemia, but the MCV is higher than normally seen in this condition (for examples see Weatherall & Clegg 1975; Schrier et al. 1997). Homozygotes have an unexpectedly severe form of thalassaemia, considering that only two of the four a genes are inactive (Lie-Injo et al. 1974; Pootrakul et al. 1981c), and compound heterozygotes (aTER:TÆCa/– –) have an unusually severe form of HbH disease (for example, see Fucharoen et al. 1988a). Hb Constant Spring (CS) is the most extensively studied of this group. Heterozygotes for this mutation (aTER:TÆCa/aa) have ~1% HbCS in their red cells rather than the ~25% usually found in carriers of a-chain variants (Weatherall & Clegg 1975). It seems likely that the a2 gene containing this mutation is transcribed normally, although this has not been formally demonstrated. Substantial amounts of the abnormal aCS mRNA are found in erythroid precursors from the bone marrow but the level decreases during erythroid maturation and is virtually absent from reticulocytes (Liebhaber & Kan 1981; Hunt et al. 1982). The synthesis of aCS globin follows the same pattern, decreasing from bone marrow to reticulocytes (Kan et al. 1974c; Weatherall & Clegg 1975).
149
From these findings it was suggested that aCS mRNA is unstable, possibly due to disruption of a sequence(s) in the 3¢ non-coding region that is translated inappropriately as a result of the chaintermination mutation (Hunt et al. 1982). Recent experimental data support this interpretation. Weiss & Liebhaber (1994) showed that translational readthrough disrupts a putative RNA/protein complex associated with the a2-globin 3¢ UTR which is required for mRNA stability in erythroid cells. Recent studies on the pathophysiology of the forms of a thalassaemia associated with Hb Constant Spring, and the reasons that they may differ from other forms of a thalassaemia, are summarized in Chapter 5. Unstable a-chain variants associated with a thalassaemia It is well established that some globin variants alter the tertiary structure of the haemoglobin molecule, making the dimer (ab) or tetramer (a2b2) unstable. Such molecules may precipitate within the red cell, forming insoluble inclusions (Heinz bodies) which damage the red-cell membrane. As outlined in Chapters 2 and 11, this results in a chronic haemolytic anaemia with equal loss of a- and b-like globin chains from the red cell. Some a-globin variants are so unstable that they undergo very rapid, postsynthetic degradation. In this case, since they do not form dimers or tetramers, there is no associated loss of normal b chains, which remain, in excess, within the red cell. These patients, by definition, have a thalassaemia. Many of these variants are so unstable that they cannot be detected by conventional protein analysis. Therefore patients often present with non-deletional a thalassaemia that can only be explained when the mutation is identified by DNA sequence analysis. The haematological findings are complex because the mutations may involve the a1 or a2 gene, cause different degrees of globin instability and be influenced by interacting alleles. For example, some variant a chains may be fully or temporarily stabilized when incorporated into a dimer or tetramer; the co-inheritance of a thalassaemia will reduce the normal pool of free a chains and drive abnormal a chains into dimers or tetramers. In this case, subsequent instability may cause loss of both a-like and b-like chains, changing the clinical picture from a tha-
150
Chapter 4
Table 4.3 Phenotypes of unstable a-chain variants. Variant
Base change
Residue/substitution
Phenotype
Hb Agrino Hb Taybee Hb Torino Hb Hirosaki Hb Adana Hb Sallanches Hb Suan Dok Hb Pehah Tikva Hb Quong Sze Hb Tunis-Bizerte (Hb Utrecht) Hb Sun Prairie Hb Questembert Hb Bibba Hb Toyama
CD29 CTGÆCCG CD38/39·–·ACC — CD43 TTCÆTTG CD59 GGCÆGAC CD104 TGCÆTAC CD109 CTGÆCGG — CD125 CTGÆCCG CD129 CTGÆCCG CD130 GCTÆCCT — — —
a29 (B10) LeuÆPro a38/39 (C3/4) ThrÆO a43 (CE1) PheÆVal a43 (CE1) PheÆLeu a59 (E8) GlyÆAsp a104 (G11) CysÆTyr a109 (G16) LeuÆArg a110 (G17) AlaÆAsp a125 (H8) LeuÆPro a129 (H12) LeuÆPro a130 (H13) AlaÆPro a131 (H14) SerÆPro a131 (H19) LeuÆPro a136 (H19) LeuÆArg
a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait Heinz-body haemolytic anaemia Haemolytic anaemia a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait a+-thalassaemia trait Heinz-body haemolytic anaemia Heinz-body haemolytic anaemia
lassaemia to a haemolytic anaemia. The easiest way to appreciate the effect of these mutations is to observe their effects in simple heterozygotes; they usually have the phenotype of a-thalassaemia trait with low or undetectable amounts of the a-globinchain variant. To date, 17 unstable a-globin-chain variants have been shown to produce this phenotype to a greater or lesser extent (Table 4.3). The mutations most frequently affect the haem pocket, internal hydrophobic regions of the molecule that normally maintain its conformation, or hydrophobic residues involved in the formation of a1b1 contacts. The patterns of precipitation and association of these highly unstable a-globin chains with b chains are extremely variable and produce a series of complex phenotypes (Table 4.3). Indeed, studies of haemoglobin synthesis in some of these conditions have led to them being characterized as disorders of b-globin-chain production (Ho et al. 1996b). We shall return to the problem of the phenotypic distinctions between disorders due to unstable a-globin-chain variants in Chapter 11.
The b thalassaemias In the previous chapter we described how the b thalassaemias are classified into b0 and b+ varieties, reflecting an absence or reduction of b-globin synthesis, respectively.We also discussed how the latter may be further divided into b+ and b++, reflecting variabil-
ity in the degree of severity of the defect in b-globin production. As shown in Table 3.1, the b thalassaemias are further subdivided into several categories, depending on the clinical manifestations and levels of Hbs F and A2 in heterozygotes. Here we shall describe the different kinds of mutations that underlie these conditions. Almost 200 b-thalassaemia alleles have now been characterized. Unlike the a thalassaemias, the vast majority of b thalassaemias are caused by point mutations within the b-globin genes or their immediate flanking sequences. A few b-thalassaemia mutations which segregate independently of the b-globin gene cluster have been described, presumably involving trans-acting regulatory factors. The main classes of mutations that underlie b thalassaemia, together with their level of function, are summarized in Table 4.4.
Gene deletions or insertions which cause b thalassaemia In contrast to the a thalassaemias, the b thalassaemias are rarely caused by major gene deletions. There are two notable exceptions: a family of upstream deletions, which downregulate the b-globin LCR (see Chapter 2); and another which involve only the b-globin genes themselves. Since the upstream deletions involve the whole b-globin gene complex and cause (eGgAgdb)0 thalassaemia, they are described in a later section.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias
151
Translation Initiation site Nonsense Frameshift
and d genes in cis, so enhancing their expression. Indeed, studies of an individual heterozygous for the 1.39 kb b-thalassaemia deletion and a d-chain variant showed that there is a disproportionate increase of HbA2 (d chain) derived from the d-globin gene cis to the b-globin gene deletion (Codrington et al. 1990). This mechanism may also explain the moderate increases in HbF which characterizes this group of deletional b thalassaemias and those due to point mutations affecting the promoter regions. Although the increases in HbF are variable, and modest in heterozygotes, they are adequate to compensate for the absence of b-globin production in homozygotes; two homozygotes for different deletions of this kind are not transfusion dependent and have a mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia (Schokker et al. 1966; Craig et al. 1992).
Post-translational stability Highly unstable b-chain variants
An insertion involving the b-globin genes
Table 4.4 Main classes of mutations that cause b-thalassaemias. Transcription Deletions Insertions Promoter 5¢ UTR Processing of mRNA Junctional Consensus sequence Cryptic splice sites in introns Cryptic splice sites in exons Poly(A) addition site Other 3¢ UTR sites
Determinants unlinked to b-globin-gene cluster Determinants of unknown molecular pathology
Deletions restricted to the bglobin genes Fourteen deletions affecting only the b-globin gene have been described (Fig. 4.10). They range in size from 290 bp to > 60 kb. Of these, only the 619-bp deletion at the 3¢ end of the b gene is common, and even that is restricted to the Sind and Punjabi populations of India and Pakistan, in whom it accounts for ~20% of b-thalassaemia alleles (Thein et al. 1984b; Varawalla et al. 1991a). The other deletions, although extremely rare, are of particular functional and phenotypic interest because they are associated with an unusually high level of HbA2 in heterozygotes. These deletions differ widely in size, but remove in common a region from positions –125 to +78 relative to the mRNA CAP site in the b promoter, which includes the CACCC, CCAAT and TATA elements. The mechanism underlying the unusually high levels of HbA2 and the variable increases in HbF in heterozygotes for these deletions appear to involve the removal of the 5¢ promoter region of the b-globin gene. This may release competition for the upstream LCR, leading to its increased interaction with the g
Earlier in this chapter we described how transposable elements may occasionally disrupt human genes and result in their inactivation. There is one example of the insertion of such an element, a retrotransposon of the family called L1, associated with the phenotype of b thalassaemia. This resulted in a chromosomal rearrangement involving the insertion of 6–7-kb DNA into IVS2. Sequence analysis of the inserted fragment showed that it is similar to an L1 transposon and the L1 element is in reverse orientation with respect to the b-globin gene. The insertion breakpoint is located at the 3¢ end of IVS2 within a recombinational region previously identified to be part of an ancestral L1 element. The affected gene expresses full length b-globin transcripts at a level corresponding to about 15% of normal b-globin mRNA (Divoky et al. 1996). A similar insert has been found in the factor VIII gene in a patient with haemophilia.
The non-deletional forms of b thalassaemia These conditions account for the vast majority of b-thalassaemia alleles. They result from single base substitutions, small insertions, and deletions within the b-globin gene or its immediate flanking sequences. They may affect any level of gene expression (Table 4.5). Their sites are summarized in Fig. 4.11.
152
Chapter 4 β
δ
5'
L1 3'
1 kb 619 bp 1 As Indian
HbA2
HbF
4.7–6.2
0.4–1.9
4.6–8.1
2.7–9.4
8.6
0.2
7.2–8.4
1.8–6.9
7.6, 8.6
5.8, 8.8
6.7
4.5
8.1–9.0
3.3–5.7
6.6, 8.5
1.9, 2.0
7.1–7.8
3.2–4.7
6.4–8.1
2.5–7.2
5.3–7.6
5.1–14.4
2.7–5.1
18.0–27.0
7.7, 7.5
1.0, 4.0
290 bp 2 Turkish, Jordanian, Iranian 532 bp 3 Black 1.39 kb 4 Black, British 1.61 kb 5 Croatian 3.5 kb 6 Thai 4.2 kb 7 Czech 7.6 kb 8 Turk 10.3 kb 9 As Indian 12.0 kb 10 Australian (Anglo-Saxon) 12.6 kb 11 Dutch 30 kb 12 Vietnamese ~45 kb 13 Filipino ~67 kb 14 Italian
Fig. 4.10 Deletions restricted to the b-globin gene.The hatched box represents the 6.4 kb Kpn repeat 3¢ of the b gene. Deletions are represented by the horizontal shaded boxes below.The vertical shaded box represents the region (from position –175 to +28 relative to the b mRNA CAP site) lost in all the deletions, with the exception of the 619 bp variety.The corresponding levels of HbA2 (%) and HbF (%) observed in heterozygotes for the different deletions are shown on the right. References to the deletions are: 1 Orkin et al. 1980; 2. Diaz-
Mutations affecting b-globin gene transcription Promoter mutations This group of mutations are single base substitutions in the conserved DNA sequences that form the bglobin promoter (Fig. 4.11). Transient expression systems show that they result in an output of b-globin mRNA ranging from 10 to 25% of normal, a level compatible with the relatively mild phenotype of these b+ thalassaemias (Treisman et al. 1983). They emphasize the role of the conserved promoter sequences in the binding of transcription factors involved in expression of the b-globin genes. For example, binding of EKLF, a zinc-finger transcription factor, to the CACCC element is critical for normal
9.0
Chico et al. 1987; Spiegelberg et al. 1989;Thein et al. 1992; 3. Waye et al. 1991; 4. Padanilam et al. 1984;Thein et al. 1989; 5. Dimovski et al. 1993; 6. Lynch et al. 1991; 7. Popovich et al. 1986; 8. Öner et al. 1995 (the mutation includes a 7.6-kb upstream deletion extending 1.5 kb 5¢ of the b gene to ~4.5 kb 3¢ of the b gene); 9. Craig et al. 1992; 10. Motum et al. 1992; 11. Gilman, 1987a; 12. Motum et al. 1993a (the deletion of ~27 kb noted by Dimovski et al. 1994 is probably similar); 13. Motum et al. 1993b; 14. Lacerra et al. 1997.
expression (see Chapter 2). It has been found that the mutation at position -87 specifically ablates EKLF binding (Feng et al. 1994). To date, no mutations have been observed within the conserved CCAAT box at position -70. These lesions have been described in diverse ethnic groups and variation in phenotype has been observed. Africans homozygous for the –29 AÆG mutation have an extremely mild disease (Antonarakis et al. 1984; Safaya et al. 1989), while Chinese homozygous for the same mutation have thalassaemia major (Huang et al. 1986). A modulating factor appears to be the presence or absence of the CÆT polymorphism at position –158 upstream of the Gg-globin gene (Xmn-I Gg site), which is associated with increased fetal haemoglobin production
–101 –32 –30 –28
–86
–92 –90
ggtacggctg tcatcactta gacctcaccc
+40
+33
+20 +22
+10
+1
tgtggagcca caccctaggg ttggccaatc tactcccagg agcagggagg gcaggagcca gggctgggca taaaagtcag ggcagagcca tctattgctt
*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10
11 12 13
ACATTTGCTT CTGACACAAC TGTGTTCACT AGCAACCTCA AACAGACACC ATG GTG CAC CTG ACT CCT GAG GAG AAG TCT GCC GTT ACT GCC
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3
5
14 15
Exon 1
128 130
116
110
CTG TGG GGC AAG GTG AAC GTG GAT GAA GTT GGT GGT GAG GCC CTG GGC AG gttggtatca aggttacaag acaggtttaa ggagaccaat
0 31 32 33
agaattggg catgtggag cagagaagac tcttgggttt ctgataggca ctgactctct ctgcctattg gtctatttt ccacccttag G CTG CTG GTG
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 GTC TAC CCT TGG ACC CAG AGG TTC TTT GAG TCC TTT GGG GAT CTG TCC ACT CCT GAT GCT GTT ATG GGC AAC CCT AAG GTG AAG
Exon 2
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
5
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104
1
CCT CAT GGC AAG AAA GTG CTC GGT GCC TTT AGT GAT GGC CTG GCT CAC CTG GAC AAC CTC AAG GGC ACC TTT GCC ACA CTG AGT
654
GAG CTG CAC TGT GAC AAG CTG CAC GTG GAT CCT GAG AAC TTC AGG gtgagtctat gggacccttg atgttttctt tccccttctt
754
taaagaataa cagtgataat ttctgggtta aggcaatagc aatatttctg catataaata
754
ttctatggtt aagttcatgt ..........
848 850
843
837
tttctgcata taaattgtaa ctgatgtaag aggtttcata ttgctaatag cagctacaat ccagctacca ttctgctttt attttatggt tgggataagg
105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113
ctggattatt ctgagtccaa gctaggccct tttgctaatc atgttcatac ctcttatctt cctcccacag CTC CTG GGC AAC GTG CTG GTC TGT GTG Exon
114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 CTG GCC CAT CAC TTT GGC AAA GAA TTC ACC CCA CCA GTG CAG GCT GCC TAT CAG AAA GTG GTG GCT GGT GTG GCT AAT GCC CTG
142 143 144 145 146 * GCC CAC AAG TAT CAC TAA GCTCGCTTTC TTGCTGTCCA ATTTCTATTA AAGGTTCCTT TGTTCCCTAA GTCCAACTAC TAAACTGGGG GATATTATGA
AGGGCCTTGA GCATCTGGAT TCTGCCTAAT AAAAAACATT TATTTTCATT GCaatgatgt atttaaatta tttctgaata ttttactaaa aagggaatgt
Continued
Fig. 4.11 Sequence of the b-globin gene with sites of recessively inherited mutations. Sequences in the 5¢ and 3¢ UTRs and coding regions are shown in upper case.The regulatory elements in the promoter region (ATAAA, CCAAT, proximal and distal CACCC) and the poly(A) site (AATAAA) in the 3¢ UTR are underlined. Boxed sites represent minor deletions, upward arrows indicate the sites of insertions, shaded bases indicate sites of base substitutions, and bases in bold indicate the sites of substitutions leading to stop codons. For details of the changes refer to Table 4.5.
3
154
Chapter 4
+1
gacctcaccc tgtggagcca caccctaggg ttggccaatc tactcccagg agcagggagg gcaggagcca gggctgggca taaaagtcag ggcagagcca
*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 Exon 1
Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys Ser Ala ^ tctattgcttACATTGCTT CTGACACAAC TGTGTTCACT AGCAACCTCA AACAGACACC ATG GTG CAC CTG ACT CCT GAG GAG AAG TCT GCC
11 13 14 14 15 16
17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3
Val Thr Ala Leu Trp Gly Lys Val Asn Val Asp Glu Val Gly Gly Glu Ala Leu Gly Ar GTT ACT GCC CTG TGG GGC AAG GTG AAC GTG GAT GAA GTT GGT GGT GAG GCC CTG GGC AG gttggtatca aggttacaag acaggtttaa
0 g ggagaccaat agaaattggg catgtggag cagagaagac tctttgggttt ctgataggca ctgactctct ctgcctattg gtctatttt ccacccttag G
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Leu Leu Val Val Tyr Pro Trp Thr Glu Arg Phe Phe Glu Ser Phe Gly Asp Leu Ser Thr Pro Asp Ala Val Met Gly Asn Pro CTG CTG GTG GTC TAC CCT TGG ACC CAG AGG TTC TTT GAG TCC TTT GGG GAT CTG TCC ACT CCT GAT GCT GTT ATG GGC AAC CCT
Exon 2
59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly Lys Lys Val Leu Gly Ala Phe Ser Asp Gly Leu Ala His Leu Asp Asn Leu Lys Gly Thr Phe Ala AAG GTG AAG GCT CAT GGC AAG AAA GTG CTC GGT GCC TTT AGT GAT GGC CTG GCT CAC CTG GAC AAC CTC AAG GGC ACC TTT GCC
2
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 Thr Leu Ser Glu Leu His Cys Asp Lys Leu His Val Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Arg
ACA CTG AGT GAG CTG CAC TGT GAC AAG CTG CAC GTG GAT CCT GAG AAC TTC AGG gtgagtcttat gggacccttg atgttttctt
tcccctctt ttctatggtt aagttcatgt ..........
taaagaataa cagtgataat ttctgggtta aggcaatagc aatatttctg
catataaatatttctgcata taaattgtaa ctgatgtaag aggtttcata ttgctaatag cagctacaat ccagctacca ttctgcttt attttatggt
105 106 107 108 109 110 Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Leu
Exon 3
tgggataagg ctggattatt ctgagtccaa gctaggccct tttgctaatc atgttcatac ctcttatctt cctcccacag CTC CTG GGC AAC GTG CTG
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 Val Cys Val Leu Ala His His Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Pro Val Gln Ala Ala Thr Gln Lys Val Val Ala Gly Val Ala GTC TGT GTG CTG GCC CAT CAC TTT GGC AAA GAA TTC ACC CCA CCA GTG CAG GCT GCC TAT CAG AAA GTG GTG GCT GGT GTG GCT
139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 * Asn Ala Leu Ala His Lys Tyr His AAT GCC CTGGCC CAC AAG TAT CAC TAA GCTCGCTTTC TTGCTGTCCA ATTTCTATTA AAGGTTCCTT TGTTCCCTAA GTCCAACTAC TAAACTGGGG GATATTATGA AGGGCCTTGA GCATCTGGGAT TCTGCCTAAT AAAAAACATT TATTTTCATT GCaatgatgt atttaaatta tttctgaata ttttctaaa
Fig. 4.11 Continued.
under conditions of erythropoietic stress (see Chapters 2 and 10); this site is occupied by T on the chromosome carrying the –29 AÆG mutation in Africans, and C in the Chinese. The CÆT mutation at position –101 to the b-globin
gene appears to cause an extremely mild deficit of b-globin. The allele is so mild that it is ‘silent’ in heterozygotes, who have normal HbA2 levels and normal red-cell indices. We shall consider it further, together with its interactions, in Chapter 13.
+Fok I
b+ b++ b+ b++ b++ b++ b+ b++ b+ b+ b+ b+ b+ b+ b+ b+ b+ b++(silent) b++(silent) b++(silent) ? b++ b++(silent) b+
3 –90 (CÆT) 4 –88 (CÆT)
5 –88 (CÆA) 6 –87 (CÆG) 7 –87 (CÆT) 8 –87 (CÆA) 9 –86 (CÆG) 10 –86 (CÆA) 11 –32 (CÆA) 12 –31 (AÆG) 13 –31 (AÆC) 14 –30 (TÆA)
15 –30 (TÆC) 16 –29 (AÆG) 17 –28 (AÆC) 18 –28 (AÆG)
19 –27 (AÆT)
5¢ UTR 20 CAP +1 (AÆC) 21 CAP +8 (CÆT) 22 CAP +10 (–T) 23 CAP +20 (CÆT)‡ 24 CAP +22 (GÆA)
25 CAP +33 (CÆG) 26 CAP +40 to +43 (–AAAC)
+Nla IV +Dde I
+Nla III
ASO –Avr II –Avr II –Avr II –Avr II –Avr II
ASO ASO
b++(silent) b+ (silent)
I–Transcriptional mutations Promoter regulatory elements 1 –101 (CÆT) 2 –92 (CÆT)
Identification
Type
Mutation
Asian Indian Chinese Greeks Bulgarian Mediterranean, Bulgarian Greek Cypriot Chinese
Chinese US Blacks, Chinese Kurds Blacks, south-east Asians Corsican
Portuguese US Blacks,Asian Indians Kurds Mediterranean German, Italian US Blacks Thai, Lebanese Italian Taiwanese Japanese Italian Mediterranean, Bulgarian
Mediterranean Mediterranean
Distribution
Ho et al. (1996c) Huang et al. (1991)
Wong et al. (1987) Ma et al. (1999) Athanassiadou et al. (1994) Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1989a) Öner et al. (1991a); Cai et al. (1992)
Continued
Cai et al. (1989) Antonarakis et al. (1984); Huang et al. (1986) Poncz et al. (1983) Orkin et al. (1983b);Antonarakis et al. (1984); Huang et al. (1986) Badens et al. (1999)
Rund et al. (1991) Treisman et al. (1983); Meloni et al. (1992) Kulozik et al. (1991b); Meloni et al. (1992) Coleman et al. (1992) Kazazian (1990);Thein et al. (1990b) Meloni et al. (1992) Lin et al. (1992b) Takihara et al. (1986) Huisman et al. (1997) Fei et al. (1988b)
Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1989a) Kazazian (1990); Divoky et al. (1993a); Kimberland et al. (1995); Rosatelli et al. (1995) Faustino et al. (1992) Orkin et al. (1984a);Thein et al. (1988a)
References
Table 4.5 Point mutations causing b thalassaemia. (Identification refers to particular restriction enzymes that identify mutation or allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probe.)
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 155
–Bsp MI –Bsp MI –Bsp MI –Hph I
–Del I/Sau I
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b+ b+
6 IVS1-2 (TÆG) 7 IVS1-2 (TÆC) 8 IVS1-2 (TÆA) 9 IVS2-1 (GÆA)
10 IVS2-1 (GÆC) 11 IVS2-2 (–T) 12 IVS1- 3¢ end del 17 bp 13 IVS1- 3¢ end del 25 bp 14 IVS1- 3¢ end del 44 bp 15 IVS1-130 (GÆC)
16 IVS1-130 GÆA 17 IVS1-130 (+1) CD30 (AGGÆAGC) (ArgÆSer) 18 IVS2-849 (AÆG) 19 IVS2-849 (AÆC) 20 IVS2-850 (GÆC) 21 IVS2-850 (GÆA) 22 IVS2-850 (GÆT) 23 IVS2-850 (–G)
Consensus splice sites 24 IVS1-5 (GÆC)
25 IVS1-5 (GÆT)
26 IVS1-5 (GÆA)
+EcoR V
–Dde I
–Bsp MI –Bsp MI
b0 b0
4 IVS1-1 (GÆA) 5 IVS1-1 (GÆT)
–Bsp MI
b0
b0 b0
II–RNA processing Splice junction 1 IVS1- (–2) CD30 (AGGÆGGG) 2 IVS1- (–1) CD30 (AGGÆACG) (ArgÆThr)
Identification
3 IVS1-(–1) CD30 (AGGÆAAG)
Type
Mutation
Table 4.5 Continued.
Asian Indian, south-east Asian, Melanesian Mediterranean, N. European Mediterranean, Algerian
US Blacks US Blacks Yugoslavian N. European Japanese Italian
Egyptian Middle East
Mediterranean Asian Indian, south-east Asian, Chinese Tunisian US Blacks Algerian, Italian Mediterranean, US Blacks Iranian Chinese Kuwaiti Asian Indian, UAE Mediterranean Italian, Japanese, UAE
Sephardic Jews Mediterranean, US Blacks, N.African, Kurds, UAE Bulgaria, UAE
Distribution
Lapoumeroulie et al. (1986)
Atweh et al. (1987a); Eigel et al. (1989)
Treisman et al. (1983); Hill et al. (1988)
Antonarakis et al. (1984);Atweh et al. (1985) Padanilam & Huisman (1986) Jankovic et al. (1992) Çürük et al. (1995) Ohba et al. (1997) Rosatelli et al. (1992c)
Nozari et al. (1995) Ma et al. (1999) Kazazian & Boehm (1988) Orkin et al. (1983c) Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1989b) Renda et al. (1992a);Yamamoto et al. (1992); El-Kalla & Mathews (1997) Deidda et al. (1990); Öner et al. (1990) El-Kalla & Mathews (1997)
Chibani et al. (1988) Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1989d) Bouhass et al. (1990); Murru et al. (1991) Baird et al. (1981a);Treisman et al. (1982)
Waye et al. (1998) Chibani et al. (1988);Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1989c); Vidaud et al. (1989); Rund et al. (1991); El-Kalla & Mathews (1997) Kalaydjieva et al. (1989); El-Kalla & Mathews (1997) Orkin et al. (1982a) Kazazian et al. (1984)
References
156 Chapter 4
b+ b+ ?
b++ b++ b+
39 IVS2-705 (TÆG) 40 IVS2-745 (CÆG) 41 IVS2-837 (TÆG)
Cryptic splice sites in exons 42 CD10 (GCCÆGCA) 43 CD19 (AACÆAGC) Hb Malay (AsnÆSer) 44 CD24 (GGTÆGGA) 45 CD26 (GAGÆAAG) (GluÆLys, HbE)
Turkish Armenian
b+ b+
54 Term CD +90, del 13 bp 55 Term CD +47 (CÆG)
–Hinf I –Dde I
Greek
b++ (silent)
Others 53 Term CD +6, CÆG
US Blacks Mediterranean Malay Kurd French, US Blacks Kurd, UAE
b++ b++ b++ b++ b+ b+
–Sau 96 I or –Hae III
–Mnl I
+Rsa I
3¢ UTR RNA Cleavage — Poly(A) signal 47 AATAAAÆAACAAA 48 AATAAAÆAATGAA 49 AATAAAÆAATAGA 50 AATAAAÆAATAAG 51 AATAAAÆAA — AA 52 AATAAAÆA——
46 CD27 (GCCÆTCC) (AlaÆSer, Hb Knossos) b+
b0 b0/b+
37 IVS1-116 (TÆG) 38 IVS2-654 (CÆT)
Asian Indian South-east Asian US Black, Japanese South-east Asian, European Mediterranean
Mediterranean Chinese, south-east Asians, Japanese Mediterranean Mediterranean Asian Indian
b+
Cryptic splice sites in introns 36 IVS1-110 (GÆA) +Mae I
Mediterranean
b+
Mediterranean Lebanese Saudi Arabian German Chinese Algerian Italian US Blacks, Egyptian, Iranian Japanese
35 IVS2-848 (CÆG)
+Sfa NI –Bsp MI
b+ b+ b++ (silent) b+
b+ b++ b+
27 IVS1-6 (TÆC) 28 IVS1- (–3) CD29 (GGCÆGGT) 29 IVS1-128 (TÆG) 30 IVS1-129 (AÆG) 31 IVS2-5 (GÆC) 32 IVS2-843 (TÆG) 33 IVS2-844 (CÆG) 34 IVS2-848 (CÆA)
Jankovic et al. (1991); Maragoudaki et al. (1998) Basak et al. (1993) Author’s laboratory Continued
Orkin et al. (1985) Jankovic et al. (1990b) Jankovic et al. (1990b) Rund et al. (1991) Ghanem et al. (1992); Kimberland et al. (1995) Rund et al. (1992); El-Kalla & Mathews (1997)
Pawar et al. (1997) Yang et al. (1989);Thein et al. (1990b) Goldsmith et al. (1983); Hattori et al. (1989) Flatz et al. (1965a); Fairbanks et al. (1980); Orkin et al. (1982b) Arous et al. (1983); Orkin et al. (1984b); Baklouti et al. (1986); Olds et al. (1991)
Dobkin et al. (1983) Orkin et al. (1982a) Varawalla et al. (1991b)
Spritz et al. (1981);Westaway & Williamson (1981) Metherall et al. (1986) Cheng et al. (1984);Takihara et al. (1984)
Orkin et al. (1982a);Tamagnini et al. (1983) Chehab et al. (1987) Wong et al. (1989a) Vetter et al. (1997) Jiang et al. (1993) Beldjord et al. (1988) Murru et al. (1991); Rosatelli et al. (1994) Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1988a);Wong et al. (1989a) Hattori et al. (1992)
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 157
b0 b0 b0 b0
Frameshift 1 CD1 –G 2 CD2/3/4 (–9 bp, +31 bp) 3 CD5 –CT 4 CD6 –A
–Dde I –Dde I/–Mst II
–EcoR I
–Hinf I –Hph I
Mediterranean Algerian Mediterranean Mediterranean, US Blacks
Chinese,Thai Black Japanese Slovenian Czechoslovakian
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0
11 CD43 GAGÆTAG 12 CD61 AAGÆTAG 13 CD90 GAGÆTAG 14 CD112 TGTÆTGA 15 CD121 GAAÆTAA*
–Mnl I –Acc I –Ava II +Mae I/+Bfa I
+Mae I
English Asian Indian, Japanese Portuguese, Japanese Chinese, Japanese Reunion Island Thai Thai Saudi Arabian Mediterranean
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0
Japanese Yugoslavian Chinese N. European Japanese Italian, Swedish Iranian Italian
–Nco I –Nco I –Nco I
Distribution
b0
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0
III–RNA translation Initiation codon 1 ATGÆGTG 2 ATGÆACG 3 ATGÆAGG 4 ATGÆAAG** 5 ATGÆATC 6 ATGÆATA 7 ATGÆATT
Identification
Nonsense codons 1 CD6 GAGÆTAG, CD4 ACTÆACA, CD5 CCAÆTCA 2 CD7 GAGÆTAG 3 CD15TGGÆTAG 4 CD15 TGGÆTGA 5 CD17 AAGÆTAG 6 CD22 GAAÆTAA 7 CD26 GAGÆTAG 8 CD35 TACÆTAA 9 CD37 TGGÆTGA 10 CD39 CAGÆTAG
Type
Mutation
Table 4.5 Continued.
Rosatelli et al. (1992b) Badens et al. (1996) Kollia et al. (1989) Chang et al. (1983); Kazazian et al. (1983)
Author’s laboratory Kazazian et al. (1984); Ohba et al. (1997) Ribeiro et al. (1992); Ohba et al. (1997) Chang & Kan (1979); Ohba et al. (1997) Ghanem et al. (1992) Fucharoen et al. (1990a) Fucharoen et al. (1989a);Thein et al. (1990b) Boehm et al. (1986) Orkin & Goff (1981b);Trecartin et al. (1981); Fiori & Mach (1982) Atweh et al. (1988) Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1988a) Fucharoen et al. (1990d) Divoky et al. (1993b) Indrák et al. (1992);Yamamoto et al. (1992)
Dr. C. Rosatelli (personal communication)
Hattori et al. (1991) Jankovic et al. (1990a) Lam et al. (1990) Waye et al. (1997a) Ohba et al. (1997) Saba et al. (1992); Landin et al. (1995) Nozari et al. (1995)
References
158 Chapter 4
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0
34 CD42/43 +T 35 CD42/43 +G 36 CD44 –C 37 CD45 –T 38 CD47 +A 39 CD47/48 +ATCT
40 CD51 –C
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0
b0 b0 b0 b0
5 CD8 –AA 6 CD8/9 +G 7 CD9/10 +T 8 CD11 –T 9 CD14 +T 10 CD14/15 +G 11 CD15 –T 12 CD15/16 –G 13 CD16 –C 14 CD22/23/24 –7 bp (–AAGTTGG) 15 CD24 –G; +CAC 16 CD25/26 +T 17 CD26 +T 18 CD27/28 +C 19 CD28 –C 20 CD11 –C 21 CD28/29 –G 22 CD31 –C 23 CD35 –C 24 CD36/37 –T 25 CD37 –G 26 CD37/38/39 del 7 bp (–GACCCAG) 27 CD38/39 –C 28 CD38/39 –CC 29 CD40 –G 30 CD40 +86 bp 31 CD40/41 +T 32 CD41 –C 33 CD41/42 –TTCT
–Xho I
–Ava II –Ava II –Ava II
–Acc I
Hungarian
Mediterranean Asian Indian, Japanese Greek,Arab Mexican Azerbajian Chinese Malay German Asian Indian Turkish Egyptian Tunisian Japanese Chinese,Thai Egyptian Portuguese Japanese, Egyptian Chinese Malay Kurd, Iranian Kurdish Turkish Czechoslovkian Belgian Japanese Portuguese Chinese Thai Chinese, south-east Asian, Indian Japanese Japanese Kurdish Pakistani Surinamese Asian Indian
Continued
Oshima et al. (1996) Ohba et al. (1997) Kinniburgh et al. (1982); Rund et al. (1991) El-Kalla & Mathews (1997) Codrington et al. (1990) Garewal et al. (1994); El-Kalla & Mathews (1995) Ringelhann et al. (1993)
Schnee et al. (1989) Indrak et al. (1991) Heusterspreute et al. (1996) Ohba et al. (1997) Cabeda et al. (1999) Ko et al. (1997a) Fucharoen et al. (1991b) Kimura et al. (1983); Kazazian et al. (1984)
Chan et al. (1988) Fucharoen et al. (1990b) Vetter et al. (1997) Kazazian et al. (1984) Özçelik et al. (1993) Deidda et al. (1991) Fattoum et al. (1991) Hattori et al. (1998) Cai et al. (1991); Lin et al. (1991) El-Hashemite et al. (1997) Cabeda et al. (1999) El-Hashemite et al. (1997); Ohba et al. (1997) Ko et al. (1997a) Yang et al. (1989) Rund et al. (1991); Nozari et al. (1995)
Orkin & Goff (1981b); Filon et al. (1995) Kazazian et al. (1984); Ohba et al. (1997) Waye et al. (1994c) Economou et al. (1991)
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 159
b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0 b0
41 CD53/54 +G 42 CD54 –T 43 CD54/55 +A 44 CD56–60 +14 bp 45 CD57/58 +C 46 CD59 –A 47 CD61/63 del 7 bp (–GGCTCAT) 48 CD64 –G** 49 CD67 –TG 50 CD71/72 +T 51 CD71/72 +A 52 CD72/73 –AGTGA, +T 53 CD74/75 –C 54 CD76 –C 55 CD82/83 –G 56 CD83–86 del 8 bp (–CACCTTTG)** 57 CD84/85 +C 58 CD84/85/86 +T 59 CD88 +T 60 CD88 –TG 61 CD89/90 –GT 62 CD95 +A
63 CD106/107 +G 64 CD120/121 +A†
+Mse I –Hae II
Identification
US Black, Egyptian Philippino
Japanese Swedish Asian Indian Iranian Asian Indian Italian Italian Swiss Filipino Chinese Chinese British Turkish Italian Czech,Azerbaijan Japanese Japanese Japanese Asian Indian Japanese Japanese South-east Asian
Distribution
Fucharoen et al. (1990d) Landin & Berglund (1996) Garewal et al. (1994) Ghaffari et al. (1997) El-Kalla & Mathews (1995) Meloni et al. (1994) Dr. C. Rosatelli (personal communication) Chehab et al. (1989) Eng et al. (1993) Chan et al. (1989) Cheng et al. (1984) Waye et al. (1997b) Basak et al. (1992a) Di Marzo et al. (1988); Giambona et al. (1995) Schwartz et al. (1989); Çürük et al. (1992b) Hattori et al. (1998) Ohba et al. (1997) Ohba et al. (1997) Varawalla et al. (1991b) Hattori et al. (1998) Ohba et al. (1997) Winichagoon et al. (1992b); Cai & Chehab (1996) Wong et al. (1987); Hussein et al. (1993) Hopmeier et al. (1996)
References
* Unlike the majority, some heterozygotes for the CD121 GÆT mutation do not have an unusually severe phenotype. † This frameshift leads to predicted truncated variant of 13 amino-acid residues with an abnormal carboxy terminal. Heterozygotes do not appear to have an unusually severe phenotype. ‡ Occurs in cis to the IVS2-745 CÆG mutation. b+ Also occurs in cis to 7201-bp deletion involving delta gene. b++ Occurs in cis to 59 –A. ** Probably de novo.
Type
Mutation
Table 4.5 Continued.
160 Chapter 4
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias –101 –92 CACCC
–86
CA CACCC
T T T
–32–30 CCAAT
G/A G/T/A
GC ATAAAA
A
C/G
+1
+10
+30
+20
161
+40
ACATTTGCTTCTGACACAACTGTGTTTCACTAGCAACCTCAAACAGACACCATG
C
T del
A
G
4 bp del
G/C G
T/A
A/C
Fig. 4.12 Mutations in the promoter and 5¢ untranslated region (UTR) of the b-globin gene. Positions of the four conserved motifs and the initiation codon are indicated. Single base substitutions and minor deletions at the positions indicated result in b+ thalassaemias, the majority of which are very mild.
Mutations of the 5¢ UTR
exons and introns also contain ‘cryptic’ splice sites, sequences which mimic the consensus sequence for a splice site but which are not normally used. Mutations can occur in these sites, however, creating a sequence that resembles more closely the normal splice site. During RNA processing the newly created site is utilized preferentially, leading to aberrant splicing.
Several mutations in the 5¢ UTR have been characterized since the original description of the CAP +1 AÆC allele (Wong et al. 1987). They include single base substitutions and minor deletions distributed along this stretch of 50 nucleotides. As in the case of the –101 CÆT mutation, this class of mutations is ‘silent’; the extremely mild phenotype is exemplified by a homozygote for the CAP +1 AÆC mutation who has the haematological picture of b-thalassaemia trait (Wong et al. 1987). In vivo and in vitro studies show that the +33 CÆG mutation leads to a reduction of b-globin mRNA of about 33% of normal, more than is associated with mutations involving the promoter elements (Ho et al. 1996c). Compound heterozygotes for mutations in the 5¢ UTR and the more severe b-thalassaemia alleles tend to have a mild disease (see Chapter 13).
Mutations that affect either of the invariant dinucleotides in the splice junction completely abolish normal splicing and produce the phenotype of b0 thalassaemia. Genes with these mutations appear to transcribe normally, but, although some alternative splicing occurs at ‘cryptic’ donor or acceptor sites, the mis-spliced mRNA does not allow the translation of functional b globin.
Mutations affecting mRNA processing
Consensus-sequence mutations
Intervening sequences (IVS) must be removed from the precursor mRNA and the coding regions joined to produce a functional template. As described in Chapter 2, sequences critical in this process include the invariant dinucleotides, GT at the 5¢ (donor) and AG at the 3¢ (acceptor) splice junctions between exons and introns (Breathnach & Chambon 1981; Mount 1982). The regions flanking these invariant dinucleotides are fairly well conserved and hence consensus sequences can be recognized at exon– intron boundaries (see Table 2.5). They encompass the last three nucleotides of the exon and the first six nucleotides of the intron for the 5¢ donor site, and the last 10 nucleotides of the intron and the first nucleotide of the exon for the 3¢ acceptor site. Both
Mutations within the consensus sequences at the splice junctions reduce the efficiency of normal splicing to varying degrees and produce a b-thalassaemia phenotype that ranges from mild to severe. For example, mutations at position 5 of IVS1 GÆC, T or A, considerably reduce splicing at the mutated donor site. They appear to activate three ‘cryptic’ donor sites, two in exon 1 and one in IVS1, which are utilized preferentially to the normal donor site (Treisman et al. 1983). On the other hand, the substitution of C for T in the adjacent nucleotide, IVS1 position 6, only mildly affects RNA splicing even though it activates the same three cryptic donor sites as the IVS1-5 mutations (Treisman et al. 1983). The IVS1-6 TÆC mutation, often referred to as the Portuguese form
Junctional mutations
162
Chapter 4 b-globin mRNA is produced, resulting in a b0thalassaemia phenotype (Metherall et al. 1986). Three b-thalassaemia alleles have substitutions within IVS2 that generate new donor sites (Orkin et al. 1982a; Dobkin et al. 1983; Cheng et al. 1984). In each case, an upstream acceptor site at position 579 is activated such that the normal 5¢ donor site at exon 2/IVS2 is spliced to the activated site at position 579, while the newly created donor site is spliced to the normal 3¢ acceptor site at IVS2/exon 3. This results in the retention of part of IVS2 in the mis-spliced b mRNA. Variable amounts of splicing from the normal donor to the normal acceptor also occur, resulting in phenotypes that range from b+ to b0 thalassaemia. Several heterozygotes for the IVS2-654 CÆT mutation (Fig. 4.13) with an unusually severe phenotype have been described (Naritomi et al. 1990; Zeng et al. 1995; Ho et al. 1996a, 1998b). In a father and son, the ratio of aberrant to normal b mRNA was 10fold that in asymptomatic heterozygotes for the same mutation (Ho et al. 1996a). It was suggested that the unusually severe disease in these heterozygotes results from the accumulation of the mis-spliced mRNA, which, presumably, translates into a highly unstable b-chain variant with a dominant-negative effect (see later section). However, it was not possible to demonstrate translation of the aberrant mRNA. Further in vivo and in vitro studies (Ho et al. 1998b,
of b thalassaemia, is particularly common in the Mediterranean and accounts for the majority of the mild b thalassaemias in this region (Tamagnini et al. 1983). Cryptic splice-site mutations in introns Several splice mutations involve base substitutions within introns rather than consensus splice sites. The first to be characterized was a GÆA substitution at position 110 of IVS1 (Spritz et al. 1981; Westaway & Williamson 1981). This region contains a sequence similar to a 3¢ acceptor site although it lacks the invariant AG dinucleotide. The change at position 110 creates an AG with the result that 90% of the RNA is spliced to the newly created site (Busslinger et al. 1981). The mis-spliced mRNA retains 19 nucleotides from IVS1 and introduces a premature termination codon at position 36. Due to the early in-phase termination, it is likely that the aberrantly spliced mRNA is subjected to nonsense-mediated decay (see Maquat 1996 for review). Hence, the majority of the low level of b-globin mRNA present in erythroid cells is of the normal type. Since only a small amount of normal b mRNA is produced, the phenotype is a severe b+ thalassaemia. Another bthalassaemia gene, with a TÆG substitution in position 116 of IVS1 leading to a new 3¢ acceptor site, has been characterized. In this case, little or no normal
Normal β allele
β mRNA
β−globin chain 146 aa
Exon 1
Exon 2
Exon 3
5'
3'
β IVS2-654 C–T allele Normal β allele
Exon 1
Exon 2
3'
Aberrantly spliced β mRNA IVS2-579
5'
5'
TAA (Stop)
IVS2-654 C ←T Exon 3
3'
Variant β-globin chain
5'
73 nt
104 120 aa 3'
(predicted)
Fig. 4.13 The IVS2-654 CÆT mutation is an example of a mutation within an intron that creates a new splice site. In this case, the mutation creates a donor splice site which is spliced to the normal 3¢ acceptor site, while an acceptor site is activated upstream at position 579 of intron 2 and spliced to the normal donor site at the exon 2/intron 2 junction.This results in the incorporation of 73 nucleotides of intron 2 into the aberrantly spliced mRNA.A shift in the reading frame results in the generation of a premature termination codon at position 121 and the predicted synthesis of a truncated variant b chain with an abnormal carboxy-terminal end from codon 105.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 1999) showed that the b654T mRNA is very unstable. The discrepancy between the reticulocyte a/b mRNA ratios, which were within the range observed in asymptomatic heterozygotes, and the considerably imbalanced a/b-chain synthesis implies that the unusually severe phenotype is due to a second defect that acts at the translational or post-translational level. It appears that the higher levels of b654T mRNA in the thalassaemia intermedia cases were simply a reflection of the higher levels of reticulocytes and younger donor population of red cells in these cases (Ho et al. 1998b). Cryptic splice sites in exons One of the cryptic splice sites used in alternative splicing in mutations
163
inactivating the IVS1 donor site contains the sequence GT GGT GAG G, spanning codons 24 to 27 in exon 1 (Treisman et al. 1983). Three mutations within this region activate this cryptic site, which then acts as an alternative donor site in RNA processing (Fig. 4.14). The codon 24 GGTÆGGA substitution is translationally silent (Goldsmith et al. 1983), while the codon 26 GAGÆAAG and codon 27 GCCÆTCC changes result in the variants, HbE and Hb Knossos, respectively (Orkin et al. 1982b, 1984b). The mutations in codons 26 and 27 are associated with only a minor activation of the alternative splicing pathway. Hence there is only a moderate reduction of the normally spliced b-globin mRNA which
Normal 146 aa Exon 1
Exon 2
Exon 3
5'
3'
28 29 30
30 31 32
CTG GGC AG gt...
...ag G CTG CTG
24 25 26 • Hb A GGA GGT GAG • Hb E GTT GGT AAG • Hb Knossos GGT GGT GAG
Exon 1
27 GCC GCC TCC
Exon 2
• HbA • HbE (cod 26 Glu ← Lys) • Hb Knossos (cod 27 Ala ← Ser)
5' 24
146 aa +
Exon 3 3'
25
26
27
24 54 aa (predicted)
30 31 32
GGT GGT GAG GCC ...ag G CTG CTG
• Hb Malay
17 18 19 AAG GTG AGC
Exon 1
Exon 2
5' 17
• Hb Malay (cod 19 Asn ← Ser)
146 aa +
Exon 3 3'
18
19
20
30 31 32
17 29 aa (predicted)
AAG GTG AAC GTG ...ag G CTG CTG
Fig. 4.14 Examples of aberrant splicing due to mutations that create an alternate donor splice in the first exon.Three mutations (CD24 GGTÆGGA, CD26 GAGÆAAG, CD27 GCCÆTCC) activate an alternate splice site at CD25 generating a truncated variant haemoglobin (predicted) but the majority of the b-globin mRNA is correctly spliced and leads to haemoglobins incorporating the different amino acid substitutions (HbE and Hb Knossos).The mutation in CD24 does not lead to a change of amino acid. Similarly, Hb Malay (CD19 AACÆAGC) activates an alternate donor splice site at CD17/CD 18.
164
Chapter 4
encodes for the particular b-globin variants; the associated phenotype is a very mild form of b thalassaemia. Abnormal splicing into the codon 24–27 region does not produce any recognizable b globin. Similarly, an AÆG mutation in codon 19 activates another cryptic donor site in this region, resulting in a reduced level of the normally spliced b-globin mRNA which encodes for Hb Malay (Yang et al. 1989) (Fig. 4.14). The reduction in normal splicing is therefore the molecular basis for the mild b+-thalassaemic phenotype associated with all these structural variants. The bE gene is particularly prevalent in south-east Asia, reaching a frequency of 75% in north-east Thailand. Its interaction with b thalassaemia accounts for a large proportion of severe b thalassaemia in southeast Asia (see Chapter 9). Poly(A) addition-site mutations Four nucleotide substitutions and two minor deletions affecting the conserved AATAAA sequence in the 3¢ UTR have been described. Transient expression studies in two cases showed that only 10–20% of the RNA transcript is cleaved appropriately; the majority is not processed until transcription proceeds beyond the next AATAAA signal, which lies 1 to 3 kb 3¢ from the b-globin gene (Orkin et al. 1985). These elongated transcripts are unstable, although some normal ones are also produced.These mutations generally lead to a phenotype of mild b+ thalassaemia. Functional analysis of RNA derived from peripheral blood of patients with two different mutations affecting the poly(A) site indicates that an intact AATAAA signal is not an absolute requirement for correct cleavage of the transcript (Rund et al. 1992). Furthermore, the extended mRNAs are translatable in vivo. Other mutations in the 3¢ UTR Mutations affecting other sites in the 3¢ UTR, a CÆG substitution at nucleotide 6 and a 13-bp deletion at nucleotide 90 downstream of the termination codon, also result in b+ thalassaemia. Mutations affecting mRNA translation Mutations which are expressed at the level of mRNA translation involve either the initiation or elongation
phases of globin synthesis. Unlike the a thalassaemias, no chain-termination mutations have been found. Initiation Five mutations affecting the initiation codon have been described, all of which produce b0 thalassaemia. They are single base substitutions, one affecting the first (A), two the second (T) and two the third (G) nucleotide of ATG (Jankovic et al. 1990a; Lam et al. 1990; Hattori et al. 1991; Saba et al. 1992; Ohba et al. 1997). Elongation Approximately half the b-thalassaemia alleles are characterized by premature b-chain termination, reflecting frameshift or nonsense mutations. They nearly all result in premature termination in exons 1 or 2, with two exceptions which terminate in exon 3 (Fig. 4.15). The preponderance of these in-phase termination mutations in exon 1 and 2 is probably related to their ‘positional’ effect on nonsensemediated decay of the abnormal b-globin mRNA (for review see Maquat 1995). Mutations that result in premature termination in exons 1 and 2 are associated with very low levels of the mutant b-globin mRNA in erythroid progenitors (Takeshita et al. 1984; Baserga & Benz 1988; Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1989d). In heterozygotes, about half the normal amount of b globin is produced, the product of the normal allele, resulting in a mild hypochromic anaemia. In contrast, mutations that produce inphase termination later in the b sequence, in exon 3, are associated with substantial levels of abnormal bglobin mRNA comparable to that from the normal b allele.The mutant b mRNA, presumably, is translated to produce variant b globin (Hall & Thein 1994), which, as we shall see later, precipitates in the red-cell precursors, resulting in the more severe phenotype of dominantly inherited b thalassaemia (Ho et al. 1997). The position effect of these premature termination codons (PTCs) on the accumulation of mRNA is referred to as nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), which could be an mRNA surveillance mechanism to eliminate mRNAs encoding truncated polypeptides. It is not clear how this is achieved, but it could be related to coupling between transcription and translation at the nuclear membrane (Sachs 1993). This
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias 1
30
60
90
120
Normal N/S 15, 17 F/S 6, 8, 8/9, 16 N/S 39 F/S 41/42, 44 F/S 71/72
Fig. 4.15 Mutations that underlie dominant b thalassaemia.The mechanisms are described in the text. The amino acid residues are numbered at the top. Below is the normal b chain.
150 146
14, 16 17–21 38 58, 59
Rec. Rec. Rec. Rec. Rec.
72 120 126
N/S 121 N/S 127 F/S I, D, 128 F/S 94, 109, 114. 123. 126
153 156
Hb Tac F/S 147 Hb Cranston F/S 145 N/S Nonsense
question has been addressed in detail by Thermann et al. (1998) and Zhang et al. (1998a), who propose that only those termination codons located > 50–55 nucleotides upstream of the 3¢-most exon–exon junction (after splicing) cause a reduction in the quantity of mRNA. Nonsense codons that reside 54 bp or more upstream of the 3¢-most intron of the b-globin gene, intron 2, reduce the abundance of nuclear mRNA to 10–15% of normal. The level of cytoplasmic mRNA is also reduced to 10–15% of normal, indicating that decay occurs in the nucleus.The mechanisms by which this is executed are still not clear but are thought to involve the interaction of a ‘tag’ marking the 3¢-most exon–exon border and the cytoplasmic translation-termination complex. The milder phenotypes associated with exon 1 or 2 mutations may have come under intense selection; the more severe disorders due to exon 3 mutations would not have been expanded in this way. This may explain the preponderance of exon 1 and 2 mutations in thalassaemic populations today. Trans-acting determinants Population studies have shown that ~1% of the bthalassaemia genes remain uncharacterized despite extensive sequence analysis including the flanking regions. It has been postulated that the mutations might be found in the upstream b LCR or in the enhancer region, 700–1100 bp 3¢ of the b gene. However, in several families, linkage studies demonstrate that the b-thalassaemia phenotype segregates
165
Dom. Dom. Dom. Dom.
157 Rec. 157 Rec.
F/S Frame shift
Dom. Dominant
Rec. Recessive
independently of the b-globin gene cluster, suggesting that the genetic determinant is trans-acting (Murru et al. 1992; Thein et al. 1993; Pacheco et al. 1995; Gasperini et al. 1998). Two large families from Sardinia have recently been reported (Gasperini et al. 1998) in which heterozygotes for the b codon 39 CÆT thalassaemia allele have the phenotype of thalassaemia intermedia. Family studies suggested that the second putative mutation was not linked to the b-globin gene cluster.
Variants of b thalassaemia ‘Silent’ b thalassaemia Rarely, the phenotype of b-thalassaemia trait results from homozygosity or compound heterozygosity for very mild or ‘silent’ b-thalassaemia alleles (Wong et al. 1987; Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a). The ‘silent’ b thalassaemias cause only a minimal deficit of b-globin production and do not produce a detectable haematological phenotype when present in a single copy; the only abnormality is a very mild imbalance of globin synthesis. It is not surprising therefore that these mutations are usually identified in the compound heterozygous states with a severe bthalassaemia allele, where they cause thalassaemia intermedia, or in homozygotes, who have a typical bthalassaemia trait phenotype. ‘Silent’ b-thalassaemia alleles include the CÆT mutation at position –101 to the b gene (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1989a), some of the promoter mutations (Rosatelli et al. 1995) and
166
Chapter 4
Table 4.6 ‘Silent’ b-thalassaemia alleles. Position
Mutation
Hb (g/dl)
MCV (fl)
MCH (pg)
HbA2 (%)
HbF (%)
Distribution
Reference
–101
CÆT
11–17
70–92
23–33
3.0–4.4
0.1–3.4
Mediterraneans
–92 CAP +1 CAP +8 CAP +10
CÆT AÆC CÆT (–T)
12–16 12–14 51.1 14–16
79–86 76–81 98 94–102
25–30 25–27 33.7 30–33
3.4–4.0 3.4–3.6 3.0 2.5–2.7
130
Black Chinese Belgian Indian Indian Yunnanese Malay 2 German Turkish Thai Malay 1 Cantonese Italian
40 701 40 471 40 730 40 073 56 192 ~39.3 ~40 ~38 37 075 37 252 ~35 ~35 39 768
76 508 ~140 ~94 40 903 63 651 ~130 > 80 ~90 73 286 ~138 > 65 > 67 92
35.807 ~100 50 0.830 7.459 ~90 > 40 52 36.234 ~101 > 30 > 30 52
Black Ghanaian Indian Italian Sicilian South-east Asian
51 086 46 495 45 026 ~50.5 51 504 60 202
~154 ~148.5 ~94 ~91 64 414 ~88
~106 ~105 ~48.5 40 12.910 ~28
Thalassaemia
Gg(Agdb)0
Thalassaemia
(db)0 HPFH
The db thalassaemias (db)+ Thalassaemias Haemoglobin Lepore was defined by Gerald & Diamond (1958) as a structural haemoglobin variant associated with a thalassaemia-like disorder. In 1962
Baglioni showed that the non-a chain of haemoglobin Lepore is a hybrid of d and b chains. It was shown subsequently that the db-fusion chain of haemoglobin Lepore is synthesized inefficiently and gives rise to a form of thalassaemia in which both b- and d-chain production are affected, i.e. a db thalassaemia. Because some db-chain fusion product
174
Chapter 4
–40 –30 0
kb 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Alu repeat
β thalassaemia Small deletions 1 Turkish 2 Filipino 3 UK Asian 4 Dutch 5 Australian 6 Southern Italian δβ fusion 7 Hb Lepore δ thalassaemia 8 Corfu γβ fusion 9 Hb Kenya (δβ)0 thalassaemia 10 Mediterranean 11 S.E. Asian 12 E. European 13 Black 14 Macedonian/Turkish 15 Indian 16 Spanish 17 Japanese (Aγδβ)0 thalassaemia 18 Black 19 Chinese 20 Belgian 21 Indian 22 Yunnanese 23 Malaysian 2 24 German 25 Turkish 26 S.E. Asian 27 Italian (δβ)0 HPFH 28 Black 29 Ghanaian 30 Indian 31 Italian 1 32 Italian 2 33 Vietnamese/S.E.A. (εGγAγδβ)0 thalassaemia 34 Anglo-Saxon 35 Dutch 36 English 37 Scottish–Irish 38 Hispanic 39 Mexican, Canadian, Yugoslavian
ε
Gγ A γ
ψβ δ
β
% HbF in heterozygotes 0.2–6.9 1.9–2.0 1.0–9.1 3.2–4.7 4–11 2.5–7.2 9.0 0.5–6.5 1.1–2.8 5–10 5.9–19.0 9.9–20.0 13.0–24.0 25.0 4.2–3.5 16.6 5.0–13.0 7.0–8.0 4.0–16.5 9.3–23.0 14.2–23.0 9.7–18.1 9.3–16.7 9.9–12.5 10.0–13.5 17.2–22.9 12.0–17.0 18.6–31.0 22.4–26.6 17.0–25.0 14.0–30.0 16.0–20.0 14.1–26.6
Fig. 4.16 The deletions that generate db thalassaemia and the deletional forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin.The upper set of arrows indicate DNase1-sensitive sites.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias Gγ
Aγ
δ
βδ
175 β
Anti-Lepore Gγ
Aγ
Gγ
δ
β
Aγ
δ
β
Lepore Gγ
Gγ
Aγ
Aγ
δ
δβ
β Aγ
δ
β
Anti-Kenya Gγ
Aγ
Fig. 4.17 The generation of the Lepore and anti-Lepore haemoglobins and haemoglobin Kenya.
is synthesized, it is designated a form of (db)+ thalassaemia. Baglioni suggested that the db-fusion gene was formed by unequal crossing over between the d- and b-chain genes (Fig. 4.17). This was later confirmed by gene mapping (Flavell et al. 1978; Mears et al. 1978a). Three different forms of Hb Lepore have been described, containing different relative amounts of the d and b chains; Hb Lepore Hollandia has a breakpoint between amino acids 22 and 50, Hb Lepore Baltimore between amino acids 50 and 86 and Hb Lepore Boston/Washington between amino acids 87 and 116. Later, it was possible to confirm these protein structural studies by direct analysis of the globin genes of patients with different forms of haemoglobin Lepore. Southern blotting, and later direct sequence analysis, defined the crossover region in Lepore Boston/Washington as being between d87 and bIVS2-8 (Baird et al. 1981b; Mavilio et al. 1983; Fioretti et al. 1992; Ribeiro et al. 1997). The breakpoints for Hbs Lepore Baltimore and Hollandia have been defined as being between codons d68 and b84 and d22
δ
Gγ
δ
β
β
Aγ
Kenya Gγ
Aγ β
and nucleotide 16 of b IVS1, respectively (Miranda et al. 1994; Waye et al. 1994d; Huisman et al. 1997; Ribeiro et al. 1997). In the case of Hb Lepore Boston– Washington the unequal recombination event generating the deletion must have taken place in a segment of only 125 bp. Despite this relatively short segment, which makes repeated crossover events unlikely, evidence which is cited in Chapter 8 suggests that Hb Lepore Boston–Washington has, in fact, arisen on a number of different occasions. We shall consider the structure of the d-globin gene promoter, which is probably responsible for the reduced rate of production of the Lepore haemoglobins, when we consider their pathophysiology in Chapter 8. Misaligned crossing over between the b and d genes can also result in the production of a bdfusion gene lying between normal copies of the two genes (Fig. 4.17). A number of examples of these so-called anti-Lepore haemoglobins have been reported, such as Hb Miyada (Ohta et al. 1971a) and HbP Nilotic (Badr et al. 1973). They are described in Chapter 8.
176
Chapter 4
Phenocopies of (db)+ thalassaemia The combination of independently inherited d- and b-thalassaemia genes may occasionally give rise to the phenotypic picture of (db)+ thalassaemia. Corfu db thalassaemia The original description of the Corfu type of db thalassaemia identified a 7.2-kb deletion involving the d gene (see Fig. 4.16), which was believed to inactivate the b-globin gene and to be responsible for the high level of HbF in the homozygote (Wainscoat et al. 1985). Subsequently, it was shown that, in this patient, the b-globin gene carried the IVS1-5 (GÆA) mutation, accounting for the reduced b-chain production (Kulozik et al. 1988b). When the deletion was discovered in Italian patients without the b-thalassaemia mutation (Galanello et al. 1990a) it became clear that it acts only on the d-globin gene, with normal b-chain production and no increase in HbF in heterozygotes, i.e. it is a deletional form of d thalassaemia (see earlier section). Homozygotes with the combined deletion and bthalassaemia mutation have the clinical picture of thalassaemia intermedia. Whether the deletion plays any role in producing relatively high levels of HbF in homozygotes remains to be established (TraegerSynodinos et al. 1991). Sardinian db thalassaemia In this disorder there is no deletion and the HbF contains predominately Ag chains. Analysis of the Ag and b genes (Ottolenghi et al. 1987) demonstrated two separate mutations in cis; the common b0CD39 (CÆT) premature stop codon in the b gene and a point mutation at position –196 in the Ag gene, an established non-deletion HPFH mutation (see below). Other db-thalassaemia phenocopies Two Chinese families with the phenotype of db thalassaemia/HPFH with an intact b-globin gene cluster have also been described (Zeng et al. 1985a; Atweh et al. 1986). The HbF in these patients contains both Gg and Ag chains. Sequencing of the b-globin gene in one of these cases identified a point mutation in the TATA box at position -29 that leads to b+ thalas-
saemia (Atweh et al. 1987b). The same mutation does not lead to high HbF levels in African or in other Chinese families. No non-deletion HPFH mutations were observed in the g-gene promoters but a nonpolymorphic base substitution was found in the regulatory element 3¢ to the Ag gene (Balta et al. 1994). If this element plays a role in g-gene silencing it is possible that such a mutation may be involved in the high HbF levels in these patients, but this has yet to be demonstrated. (db)0 Thalassaemia At least nine different deletions have been described that underlie the phenotype of (db)0 thalassaemia (Fig. 4.16, Table 4.9). Several have been found in single families while others are more common. The Mediterranean (or Sicilian) type occurs throughout the Mediterranean region, where it is by far the most common form of db thalassaemia. Several families with the Spanish type have been described, including 10 homozygotes, suggesting that it is the most common form in Spain, while the Turkish/Macedonian inversion–deletion types have been found in Greece and Italy as well as Turkey and Macedonia. Sicilian (db)0 thalassaemia (Mediterranean/Southern Italian db thalassaemia) Delta beta thalassaemia is frequently encountered among the populations of the Mediterranean. Gene mapping studies demonstrated a deletion that gave abnormal-sized bands with a probe from IVS2 of the d gene (Bernards et al. 1979a; Fritsch et al. 1979; Ottolenghi et al. 1982a; Tuan et al. 1983). It extended beyond the b-globin gene and encompassed ~13 kb in total. Cloning and sequencing of the breakpoint showed that the deletion begins within d IVS2, 188 bp upstream of exon 3, and ends within an L1 repeat (Henthorn et al. 1990). Laotian (db)0 thalassaemia (South-East Asian db thalassaemia) Three independent reports of (db)0 thalassaemia from south-east Asia describe a 12.5-kb deletion that is similar to, but clearly different from, Mediterranean db thalassaemia. It starts in IVS2 of the d gene and ends in the same L1 repeat. Restriction-enzyme analysis of the Laotian (Zhang et al. 1988a) and Thai
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias (Trent et al. 1988) cases are indistinguishable at that level of resolution, but sequence analysis was not reported. Craig et al. (1994) sequenced the breakpoints of a deletion found in a Vietnamese patient and showed that it lies within that of the Sicilian type, but is truncated by 47–48 bp at the 5¢ end, and 747–748 bp at the 3¢ end. It is not entirely clear whether this is identical to the Laotian case, in which fine mapping suggested that the 5¢ breakpoint lay 18–24 bp downstream of that sequenced in the Vietnamese case. It is possible that closely related but subtly different recombinations between the d IVS2 and L1 regions have produced very similar deletions and, not surprisingly, similar phenotypes. Eastern European (db)0 thalassaemia A 9.1-kb deletion resulting in db thalassaemia was characterized in a single family of east European origin.The breakpoint was cloned and sequenced and shown to extend from 1.6 kb 5¢ to the d-gene CAP site into IVS1 of the b-globin gene (Palena et al. 1992). Black (db)0 thalassaemia A deletion of ~12.5 kb that removed the d and b genes was found in an Afro-American woman who had a bS gene on the other chromosome (Anagnou et al. 1985). No simple heterozygotes for this condition were found but the normal MCH, balanced globin synthesis and a pancellular distribution of the HbF pointed to an HPFH phenotype. Restriction mapping of the 5¢ and 3¢ breakpoints indicated that this deletion is very similar to, but differs from, HPFH 5 (see later section). A similar deletion was described in a second Afro-American family (Waye et al. 1994a) in which, in the absence of bS, a phenotype of db thalassaemia was observed. Sequencing of the breakpoints showed that these two deletions were identical and differed slightly in position from those of HPFH 5 (Dr NP Anagnou, personal communication). 0
Turkish/Macedonian (db) thalassaemia Delta beta thalassaemia was described in two families from Macedonia by Efremov et al. (1975). Gene mapping demonstrated a deletion extending 18–23 kb from 5¢ to the d-globin gene to 3¢ to the b gene (Efremov et al. 1986b). However, some inconsistencies in expected band sizes were observed. Subse-
177
quently, Kulozik et al. (1992) described a Turkish family with db thalassaemia in which there were two deletions, with inversion of the sequences between them. The 5¢ deletion begins 53 bp 5¢ to the d gene CAP site and ends 11.5 kb downstream, beyond the b gene and just 5¢ to the L1 repeat.The second deletion, of 1.6 kb, begins beyond the inverted L1 repeat. The restriction map of this complex rearrangement is similar to that described for the Macedonian cases, suggesting that the two may be the same. Craig et al. (1994), using PCR to identify deletion mutants, described further cases of this inversion–deletion in one Greek and two Italian families. Using the same technique to re-analyse the original Macedonian cases, they found that the Macedonian and Turkish cases had identical deletions (Craig et al. 1995). Indian (db)0 thalassaemia A unique deletion causing db thalassaemia was found in a single individual of Indian origin. Cloning and sequencing of the breakpoints demonstrated that the deletion begins about 1 kb 3¢ of the Ag gene and terminates in an L1 repeat, about 11 kb 3¢ to the b gene, encompassing 32.6 kb in total (Mishima et al. 1989; Gilman et al. 1992). Spanish (db)0 thalassaemia Cases of db thalassaemia, including homozygotes, were first reported from Spain in 1979 (Gimferrer et al. 1979).The 5¢ end of the deletion was mapped to an Alu repeat upstream of the d-globin gene (Ottolenghi et al. 1982a,b). The 3¢ breakpoint was shown to lie 8.5–9.0 kb beyond the HPFH 1 deletion (Camaschella et al. 1987b) (see later section) and it has been cloned and sequenced (Feingold & Forget 1989). Japanese (db)0 thalassaemia A Japanese db-thalassaemia homozygote, from a consanguineous marriage, was shown to have a deletion that starts ~2 kb 3¢ to the Ag gene and extends beyond the b gene (Matsunaga et al. 1985). Cloning and sequencing of the breakpoint demonstrated that the 3¢ end of the deletion is further 3¢ than any of the other characterized deletions, including the Spanish db-thalassaemia deletion (Shiokawa et al. 1988).
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Chapter 4
Turkish-2(db)0 thalassaemia A second deletion causing (db)0 thalassaemia was reported from Turkey by Öner et al. (1996).The deletion begins downstream of the Ag gene, at a position close to the 5¢ ends of the Indian and Japanese types. It extends for ~30 kb, ending in an L1 repeat 3¢ to the b gene.
described in a single Belgian family (Losekoot et al. 1991a), 30 bp downstream from that of the Black (Agdb)0-thalassaemia breakpoint. It extends for ~50 kb, terminating just 4 bp upstream from the 3¢ end of the HPFH 3 deletion (see later section) and 1 bp from the midpoint of the 160-bp palindrome that lies in this region (Fodde et al. 1990). Italian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia
Deletions that remove not only the d- and b-globin genes but also the Ag gene result in db thalassaemia in which the HbF contains only Gg chains. At least nine different varieties have been reported (Fig. 4.16).The Black, Chinese and Indian types have been found in many families within their respective populations.
An Italian patient with (Agdb)0 thalassaemia, originally described in 1989, has recently been characterized and shown to have a deletion beginning in exon 2 of the Ag gene and extending for ~52 kb.The 3¢ breakpoint of this deletion is close to those of Indian HPFH (HPFH 3) and Belgian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia, in the region of the L1 repeat and 160 bp palindrome (De Angioletti et al. 1997).
Black (Agdb)0 thalassaemia
Indian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia
Numerous examples of patients with high HbF containing only Gg chains have been reported in AfroAmerican populations, some originally described as Gg HPFH, others as Gg db thalassaemia (Altay et al. 1977b). Molecular analyses of 10 families demonstrated that they all had the same deletion, ~34 kb beginning within the 3¢ end of the Ag gene (Henthorn et al. 1985). Cloning and sequencing of the junction showed that its 5¢ end was within IVS2 of the Ag gene, 87 bp from exon 3, while the 3¢ end was located within the L1 repeat 3¢ of the b-globin gene.
A complex double-deletion/inversion rearrangement has been reported in several Indian families with (Agdb) thalassaemia (Jones et al. 1981a) with similarities to that found in the Macedonian/Turkish (db)0 thalassaemia described above. There is a loss of 834 bp from IVS2 and exon 3 of the Ag gene and deletion of 7.46 kb between exon 3 of d and the 3¢ untranslated region of the b gene (Jennings et al. 1985). Additional families with this deletion have been described from India (Matthews et al. 1981; Trent et al. 1984b), Kuwait (Amin et al. 1979) and Iran (Craig et al. 1994), suggesting that it may be widespread in the Middle East and across the Indian subcontinent.
(Agdb)0 Thalassaemia
Chinese (Agdb)0 thalassaemia The first Chinese family with (Agdb)0 thalassaemia was reported by Mann et al.(1972).Genomic mapping demonstrated that the 5¢ breakpoint of the deletion lay within the Ag gene (Jones et al. 1981b). When the junction was cloned and sequenced, the 5¢ end was shown to be in IVS2 of the Ag gene, while the 3¢ end was ~100 kb away, approximately 11 kb on the 5¢ side of the HPFH 2 deletion (Mager et al. 1985). An insert of 36–41 bp from an L1 repeat lay between the two junctions. Additional families with the same deletion were described by Trent et al. (1984b) and Craig et al. (1994).
Yunnanese (Agdb)0 thalassaemia A single family from Yunnan province of China was described in which there were several heterozygotes and a homozygote from a consanguineous mating with a large deletion starting just upstream of the Ag gene (Zhang et al. 1993). The 5¢ breakpoint was close to an Nco I site 0.14 kb upstream of the Ag CAP site and the deletion extended ~66 kb, terminating ~13 kb upstream of the 3¢ breakpoint of the Chinese (Agdb)0 thalassaemia.
Belgian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia
Malaysian-2 (Agdb)0 thalassaemia
A third deletion that starts within the Ag gene was
George
et
al. (1986)
described
an
(Agdb)0-
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias thalassaemia homozygote who had been adopted and whose relatives were therefore not available. The deletion in this patient also began close (~200-400 bp) to the Ag-gene CAP site and extended beyond the b gene to an undetermined extent. The size of the abnormal fragments hybridizing with a g-gene probe demonstrates that this deletion is clearly different from the Yunnanese type, even though the two have very close 5¢ breakpoints. German (Agdb)0 thalassaemia A three-generation German family with (Agdb)0 thalassaemia was described by Anagnou et al. (1988). The deletion starts ~2 kb 3¢ to the Gg gene and ends ~27 kb 3¢ to the b gene, close to the 3¢ breakpoints of the HPFH 3 and HPFH 4 deletions and the Belgian (Agdb)0-thalassaemia deletion (Kosteas et al. 1996). Sequence data demonstrated that the 3¢ end of the deletion lies 120 bp downstream of the breakpoint in HPFH 4 (Dr NP Anagnou,personal communication). Turkish (Agdb)0 thalassaemia A Turkish family with (Agdb)0 thalassaemia, including a homozygote, was reported by Reyes et al. (1978) and Dinçol et al. (1981). Gene mapping demonstrated a large deletion beginning between the Gg and Ag genes (Fritsch et al. 1979; Orkin et al. 1979a). Sequencing of the breakpoints showed that the 5¢ site lay 1 kb 3¢ to the Gg gene and extended for 36 kb, terminating 48 bp beyond the L1 repeat 3¢ to the b gene (Henthorn et al. 1990). South-east Asian (Malay-1, Thai, Cantonese) (Agdb)0 thalassaemia A deletion with a 5¢ breakpoint close to that of the Turkish case was described in a Malaysian family by Trent et al. (1984b). Direct comparison of the two samples demonstrated that the deletions were different but the 3¢ extent of the deletion was not determined. A second family with the same 5¢ restriction map was described by Fucharoen et al. (1987). Another deletion beginning close to the 3¢ end of the Gg gene was described in a family from Canton (family C (Zeng et al. 1985a)); the extent was not ascertained. There were similarities in several abnormal restriction-fragment sizes between the Cantonese and Malay-1 deletions, with some apparent differences in weaker bands. Sequencing of the
179
breakpoint junctions will be necessary to confirm the reasonable assumption that the Malay and Cantonese deletions are identical. Winichagoon et al. (1990b) described a Thai family in which there was a large deletion starting close to the 3¢ end of the Gg gene, extending for ~100 kb and ending just short of the Chinese (Agdb)0-thalassaemia deletion. The abnormal restriction fragments identified with a g-globin gene probe were similar to those of the Malay-1 deletion. The identity of the Malay and Thai cases was demonstrated by direct comparison with the Malay sample by Fucharoen et al. (1987). Haemoglobin F levels are higher in the Malay, Cantonese and Thai deletion families than in the other forms of (Agdb)0 thalassaemia, again consistent with them being identical. There is a pancellular distribution of HbF (Trent et al. 1984b; Winichagoon et al. 1990b), leading to some descriptions of this condition as HPFH 6 (Kosteas et al. 1997). An enhancer-like sequence has been identified in the region between the endpoint of the south-east Asian and Chinese (Agdb)0 thalassaemias; the retention of this element could be responsible for the higher HbF levels in the former condition (Dr NP Anagnou, personal communication).
Hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) (db)0 HPFH Early studies using solution hybridization suggested that some forms of African HPFH were due to a deletion of the d- and b-globin genes (Kan et al. 1975d; Ottolenghi et al. 1976; Ramirez et al. 1976) and this was confirmed when restriction-enzyme mapping was introduced (Fritsch et al. 1979; Ottolenghi et al. 1979; Bernards & Flavell 1980; Tuan et al. 1980). Furthermore, although the cases studied by Fritsch et al., on the one hand, and Tuan et al. and Bernards and Flavell, on the other, appeared to be phenotypically identical, there was clearly heterogeneity at the molecular level, with one deletion extending about 5 kb further at the 5¢ end than the other. The extent of the deletion at the 3¢ end remained unknown at that time. Since then, conditions resembling HPFH have been recognized and analysed in other populations and four additional deletions have been characterized, one from India, two from Italy and one that is found in south-east Asia (Fig. 4.16).
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Black HPFH (HPFH 1) The deletion in this condition begins about 3.75 kb upstream of the d-globin gene (Fritsch et al. 1979; Tuan et al. 1979, 1983) in an Alu repetitive sequence (Jagadeeswaran et al. 1982) and extends for approximately 105 kb (Collins et al. 1987). The breakpoint has been cloned and the newly juxtaposed sequence from the 3¢ end characterized (Feingold & Forget 1989).There is no sequence homology between the 5¢ and 3¢ ends; an additional five ‘orphan’ nucleotides have been inserted at the breakpoints. The sequence situated 1 kb beyond the 3¢ breakpoint contains an erythroid-specific DNase1hypersensitive site (Elder et al. 1990). This region contains a CpG dinucleotide that is specifically hypomethylated in erythroid cells, as well as a number of sequence elements previously described in enhancers, including a 14/18 match to a motif found in the Ag enhancer and 3¢ to the chicken b-globin gene. This element functions as an enhancer in transient transfection assays using a g-promoter-CAT reporter assay (Feingold & Forget 1989) and in transgenic mice in the presence of the b LCR, where it is necessary to produce an HPFH phenotype (Arcasoy et al. 1997) (see below). Ghanaian HPFH (or HPFH 2) The deletion begins ~5 kb upstream of that which causes HPFH 1 deletion (Bernards & Flavell 1980; Tuan et al. 1980). The 3¢ end is also shifted ~ 5 kb to the 5¢ side of the HPFH 1 3¢ breakpoint (Vanin et al. 1983) such that the overall size of these deletions is almost the same. From pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, the HPFH 1 and 2 deletions have been estimated to be ~106 and 105 kb, respectively (Collins et al. 1987). The breakpoint of the HPFH 2 deletion has been cloned and sequenced (Mager et al. 1985; Henthorn et al. 1990). It starts within IVS2 of the yb gene and ends in an L1 repeat element, with three homologous base pairs at the junction itself and no orphan nucleotides. Indian HPFH (or HPFH 3) Six Indian families with HPFH (Schroeder et al. 1973b; Wainscoat et al. 1984b) have been studied at the molecular level and shown to have the same deletion (Kutlar et al. 1984; Wainscoat et al. 1984b). The 5¢
end lies just upstream of the yb gene in an Alu repeat. It extends for 48.5 kb, much shorter than the HPFH 1 and HPFH 2 deletions, and ends within a perfect 160-bp palindrome that lies between an L1 repeat and a set of 41-bp repeats (Henthorn et al. 1986). Italian HPFH (or HPFH 4) Analysis of three families with HPFH from southern Italy showed that they all had the same deletion that removed the d and b genes (Saglio et al. 1986). The 5¢ breakpoint lies between the yb and d genes, close to that of the HPFH 1 deletion. The deletion extends for 40 kb, with the 3¢ end lying ~2 kb upstream of the HPFH 3 deletion. Sequence analysis of the breakpoint region has not been reported. Sicilian HPFH (or HPFH 5) Two brothers with an HPFH phenotype from a Sicilian family were shown to have a much smaller deletion, only ~13 kb (Camaschella et al. 1990c). The 5¢ end lies within an Alu repeat while the 3¢ breakpoint is located 692–695 bp downstream of the b-globin gene poly(A) site. The breakpoints share a 4-bp homology, and there are five ‘orphan’ nucleotides inserted. The deletion ends within the enhancer 3¢ to the b gene, removing one of the four GATA-1 sites (Camaschella et al. 1990c). The functional significance of this observation remains unclear. South-east Asian HPFH Motum et al. (1993a) described two unrelated Vietnamese persons with HPFH in whom there was a 30-kb deletion that differed from any previously described. An apparently identical deletion was subsequently described in families from Vietnam, Cambodia and China (Dimovski et al. 1994), suggesting that this condition may occur throughout south-east Asia and may be responsible for cases of HPFH previously reported from this region (Wasi et al. 1968b; Winichagoon et al. 1994). This form of HPFH is the only one described in which the d gene remains intact. The deletion starts 2 kb upstream of the b-globin gene and extends for ~30 kb, with its 3¢ terminus within 5 kb of those of the HPFH 3 and 4 deletions.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias (Agb)+ HPFH Hb Kenya Structural analysis of the abnormal b-like chain of Hb Kenya demonstrated that it was a hybrid gb chain, analogous to the hybrid db chain of Hb Lepore (Huisman et al. 1972; Kendall et al. 1973). The amino acids from position 1 to 80 were those of a g chain while those from 87 to 145 were b-like in sequence. As the persistent HbF in this condition was virtually all of the Gg type, it was suggested that a nonhomologous crossover between the Ag and b genes had given rise to the Agb Kenya chain. This interpretation has been confirmed by analysis of DNA from the propositus in the original report; restrictionenzyme analysis was consistent with a deletion of ~22.5 kb and the loss of sequences stretching from exon 2 of the Ag gene to exon 2 of the b gene (Ojwang et al. 1983). No examples of the hypothetical anti-Kenya (Fig. 4.17) globin gene have yet been described. Ggb+ and Agb+ non-deletional forms of HPFH
Background When it became possible to analyse the b-globin gene cluster at the molecular level, it soon became clear that not all types of HPFH were due to gene deletions. In 1975, Huisman et al. (1975b) and colleagues described a family in which the propositus had a haemoglobin pattern of approximately 50% HbS, 25% HbA and 25% HbF, with a low level of HbA2. The bS gene was inherited from a parent with normal HbF levels while the other parent had HbA and a high level of HbF. This implies that bA and g chains were being produced from the same chromosome. Furthermore, the g chains were almost entirely Gg. The condition was therefore characterized as Ggb+ HPFH. Reports on a number of other forms of HPFH that were not due to gene deletions, and in which the HbF contained only Gg or Ag chains, soon followed. Greek HPFH, first characterized in 1964 (Fessas & Stamatoyannopoulos 1964), was shown to have mostly Ag chains (Clegg et al. 1979) and to have an intact b-globin cluster (Bernards & Flavell 1980; Tuan et al. 1980; Jones et al. 1982). Homozygotes for Greek HPFH, with HbA and 24% HbF, were subsequently discovered (Camaschella et al. 1989a). A British family with an Ag form of HPFH included
181
homozygotes with ~20% HbF, normal levels of HbA2 and the remainder HbA, pointed to there being active g, d and b genes on the same chromosome (Weatherall et al. 1975). In this case, too, there was no deletion within the b-globin cluster (Jones et al. 1982). Molecular studies The molecular basis of the first of these conditions was reported by Collins et al. (1984), who showed that the Gg gene from a Ggb+ HPFH chromosome carried a CÆG mutation at position –202 to the Gg gene. At that stage there was no direct evidence that this base substitution was itself responsible for the condition, but similar reports rapidly followed. Giglioni et al. (1984) demonstrated a CÆT substitution at –196 in the Ag gene of an Italian HPFH patient; Greek HPFH was shown to have a GÆA substitution at Ag-117 (Collins et al. 1985; Gelinas et al. 1985); and the British form of HPFH was found to have a TÆC substitution at –198 in the Ag gene (Tate et al. 1986). It was soon shown that these changes were not simple polymorphisms but were always associated with high levels of HbF (Waber et al. 1986; Metherall et al. 1988). Furthermore, the same rare mutation turned up in different population groups in individuals with similar phenotypes, suggesting independent origins (Gelinas et al. 1986). Finally, direct evidence that the point substitutions were responsible for persistent g-gene expression was provided in transgenic mice. Whereas a normal LCR-gb-gene construct showed suppression of the g locus in adults, the same construct carrying the Ag-117 HPFH mutation showed high levels of g mRNA in adult life (Berry et al. 1992; Ronchi et al. 1996). Heterogeneity To date, 13 mutations in the promoters of the Gg or Ag genes have been described (Fig. 4.18, Table 4.10). Haemoglobin F levels range from marginal increases (2 to 5%) to values that equal or exceed those found in deletional forms of HPFH. The lesions cluster in three regions. One, around positions –114 to –117, involves the distal CCAAT box, while a second, at –175, may involve an overlapping Oct1/GATA-1 site. A third group, from -195 to -202, does not directly involve a known protein binding site but may disrupt binding to a neighbouring G-rich box.
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Chapter 4
↓
↓
Black/Sardinian –175 T C 17–30% Tunisian –200 Japanese –114 +C C T 18–27% 11–14%
↓
Australian –114 C G 9% Algerian –114 C A 1–30%
↓
↓
Black –202 C G 15–25%
Gγ
–200
–150
–100
–50
Aγ
Greek/Black –117 G A 10–20%
↓
Brazilian –195 C G 5–7%
↓
↓
British –198 T C 3–10%
Black –114 to 102 deleted 30–32% Georgia –114 C T 3–5%
↓
↓
Black –202 C T 2–4%
Black –175 T C 37–39%
↓
↓
Italian/Chinese –196 C T 12–21%
Fig. 4.18 The point mutations in the g-globin genes that generate nondeletional forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin.
Table 4.10 Non-deletional forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin. Type
Position
Substitution
% HbF in heterozygotes
% Gg or Ag
Xmn I at –158 in cis
–202 –200 –175 –114 –114
CÆG +C TÆC CÆT CÆG
15–25 18–27 17–30 11–14 8.6
88–97 100 90–100 86–92 90
– + – + –
–202 –198 –196 –195 –175 –117 –114 to –102 –114
CÆT TÆC CÆT CÆG TÆC GÆA Deleted CÆT
2–4 3–10 12–21 5–7 37–39 10–20 30–32 3–5
86–96 90–96 81–95 86–91 62–82 85 81–90 87–91
– – – ? + – – ?
Gg
mutations Black Tunisian Black/Sardinian Japanese Australian Ag mutations Black British Italian/Chinese Brazilian Black Greek/Black Black Georgia
Two mutations have been found in both the Gg and genes. A CÆT change at –114 produces higher HbF levels when it occurs in the Gg gene than in the A g gene (and slightly higher levels than a CÆG mutation in the same position of the Gg gene). In contrast, a TÆC mutation at –175 produces high HbF levels whether the Gg or Ag genes are affected.A 13-bp deletion of –102 to –114 also results in HbF levels of about 30%, while an additional base inserted at position –200 of the Gg gene produces HbF levels of up to 28% in heterozygotes and 48% in homozygotes (Table 4.10). Ag
Phenotype/genotype relationships Individuals with g-promoter mutations have balanced globin synthesis and a normal MCH (see Chapter 10). This tells us that the combined output from the genes on the affected chromosome is approximately normal and therefore that the increased g-chain production is matched by a decrease in b-chain output. This reciprocity only occurs in cis; when a non-deletion HPFH gene is inherited together with HbS or HbC on the opposite chromosome, the abnormal haemoglobin comprises
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias about 50% of the total. A cis-active reciprocal relationship between one of the g genes and the b gene could be explained if there were competition between the two genes for access to an element in cis, the most likely candidate being the LCR.
binding sites for different proteins frequently overlap (Fig. 4.19). Altered binding of Sp1 (see Chapter 2) to the G-rich area upstream of the -195 to -202 region has been reported in gel-shift assays comparing normal and mutant oligonucleotides. However, binding increased in the Gg-202 (GÆC) (Sykes & Kaufman 1990) and Ag198 mutations (Ronchi et al. 1989; Fischer & Nowock 1990; Gumucio et al. 1991) but decreased in the Ag-202 (CÆT) (Sykes & Kaufman 1990) and Ag-196 mutations (Ronchi et al. 1989; Gumucio et al. 1991).The Gg202 (GÆC) mutation also creates a new binding site for the stage-selector protein (Jane et al. 1993). It has also been suggested that mutations in this region disrupt an intramolecular triplex which may be the binding site for a repressor (Ulrich et al.1992). The -175 mutation abolishes the binding of the Oct1 protein and alters the binding of GATA-1, which also includes this residue in its binding site. However, different reports suggest that this binding is either slightly increased (Mantovani et al. 1988), decreased (Martin et al. 1989), or unaffected (Gumucio et al. 1988).
Mechanisms of increased haemoglobin F production It seems probable that the non-deletion HPFH mutations alter the binding of various transcription factors to the g-gene promoter. For instance, if adult red-cell precursors contain factors which bind to the g-gene promoter to repress expression, a mutation might decrease the avidity of the factor for its recognition sequence, hence partially relieving the repression. Alternatively, the change may allow the binding of a positively acting factor present in adult red-cell precursors which normally would not be able to bind. Attempts have been made to analyse the proteins that bind to this region and to document the changes that occur with the mutant sequences. They have demonstrated the complexity of the region, in which
–200 –202
5'
–198
–196 –195
–175
TCTTGGGGGCCCCTTCCCCACACTATCTCAATGCAAATATCTGT –200 SP1 Sp1
CP1 CDP NF-E3
GATA-1
183
–180 GATA-1
–140
OCT-1 GATA-1
CP1 CDP
TTGCCTTGACCAATAGCCTTGACAAGGCAAACTTGACCAATAGT CTT –120 13bp deletion –90
CCACCC
CACCC binding factor ? EKLF-like
SP1
SSP
GGCCAGGGGCCGGCGGCTGGCTAGGGA –60
3'
–40
–117 –114
Fig. 4.19 Relationship of some mutations that generate non-deletional forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin to g-gene promoters.The function of the DNA binding regulatory proteins are described in the text.
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The distal CCAAT box can bind at least two CCAAT binding proteins, CP1 and CDP; binding of both proteins is increased by the Ag-117 mutation (Gumucio et al. 1988; Mantovani et al. 1988; SupertiFurga et al. 1988). This mutation also decreases the binding of GATA-1 to the 3¢ side of the CCAAT box as well as the binding of NF-E3, an uncharacterized protein (Mantovani et al. 1988; Superti-Furga et al. 1988). CP1 binding is abolished in the Gg-114 (CÆT) mutation (Fucharoen et al, 1990f) while CP1, CDP, and NF-E3, but not GATA-1, binding is lost in the 13bp deletion of this region. Clearly, no consistent themes run through these binding studies and, as with the deletional forms of HPFH, different mechanisms may operate for each mutation. Furthermore, the results of these in vitro studies may not truly reflect the pattern of binding in vivo, when the DNA is in chromatin. The results are not always reproducible, reflecting the use of different oligonucleotide probes and differences in nuclear protein extraction procedures. Several of these mutations have also been studied in transient-transfection assays or in vitro transcription assays, usually involving a comparison of the normal and abnormal promoter to drive transcription of a reporter gene such as chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT). The results have been variable, with either little or no difference seen or a three- to eightfold increase in expression (Rixon & Gelinas 1988; Lanclos et al. 1989; Nicolis et al. 1989; Fischer & Nowock 1990; Gumucio et al. 1990; Ulrich & Ley 1990; Lloyd et al. 1992). The increased expression of 50–100-fold seen in vivo has not been reproduced, again reflecting the inadequacies of these expression systems. Direct evidence that the base substitution is directly responsible for the HPFH phenotype comes from studies in transgenic mice. High levels of Aggene expression in adults was seen in mice carrying the Ag-117 mutation, either as an LCR-Ag-117 construct (Berry et al. 1992; Ronchi et al. 1996) or as an intact b cluster (Peterson et al. 1995). No adult g expression was observed in the same constructs lacking the HPFH lesion. No adult expression was seen in the absence of any LCR element (Starck et al. 1994) and reduced levels were obtained when only HS2 was present (Roberts et al. 1997b), suggesting that an intact LCR is necessary to obtain maximum effect.
Other sequence changes in the b-globin-gene cluster affecting haemoglobin F production Point mutations Other sequences within the b-globin cluster may affect HbF levels to a minor degree in normal individuals, but have a greater effect in patients with sickle-cell anaemia or b thalassaemia. The best characterized is the CÆT change at position –158 in the promoter of the Gg gene, which creates an Xmn I cleavage site (Gilman et al. 1984; Labie et al. 1985a). The most consistent change caused by this substitution in normal persons is a high proportion of Gg chains in the HbF. A similar effect is seen with a GÆA substitution at Gg –161 (Gilman et al. 1987). The change at Gg –158 does not usually raise the HbF level in otherwise normal individuals. However, using the more sensitive F-cell assay it has been shown that HbF levels are related to the status of the Xmn-I site, with Xmn-I+/+ individuals having the highest levels (Sampietro et al. 1992). Analysis of Yugoslav patients with ‘Swiss’-type HPFH, in which slightly raised HbF levels of 1–5% are found, showed seven families in which the increased HbF was associated with XmnI+/+ or ± genotypes (Efremov et al. 1987). However, nearly half of the normal members of this population had these genotypes with no increase in HbF level, suggesting that the presence of this substitution may be necessary but not sufficient to increase the level of HbF. Rearrangements A gene conversion which has created a GgGg arrangement instead of GgAg (Gilman & Huisman 1984) occurs frequently among Afro-Americans (~5%), who have a high proportion of Gg chains but normal levels of HbF (Kutlar et al. 1990). Most of these persons are Xmn-I negative. However, two families originally described as having the Atlanta type of HPFH (Altay et al. 1976–77; Huisman et al. 1985) were subsequently shown to have the GgGg arrangement on one chromosome in which both Gg genes were Xmn-I positive (Efremov et al. 1994b). Members of these families have HbF levels of 2–6% as adults, and much higher levels in early childhood.
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias Restriction-fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) The different RFLP haplotype of the b-gene cluster are described in Chapter 2. Patients with sickle-cell anaemia with haplotypes containing the Xmn I site tend, as a group, to have higher HbF levels. In Africa, those with the ‘Senegal’ haplotype, which contains this site, have ~12% HbF on average, compared with those with the Benin and Bantu (CAR) haplotypes, who have 8–10% HbF. Much higher levels of HbF (20–35%) are found in this disorder in eastern Saudi Arabia and India, where the bS gene also occurs on a chromosome that is Xmn I positive (Kulozik et al. 1987a; Miller et al. 1987). Thus, while the Gg-158 site may contribute towards increasing HbF levels, other factors must be acting in the Arabian and Indian populations. Among b-thalassaemics, those with the same 5¢ haplotype as the Senegal and Arab–Indian sicklers, which are Xmn I positive, have a high proportion of Gg chains (Labie et al. 1985b). Homozygotes for hap+ + – + + + + +), where the bold + is the Gg lotype IX (+ Xmn I site, have very high levels of HbF and tend to have a milder disease (Labie et al. 1985b; Thein et al. 1987b). Again, the Gg-158 site cannot be the only + + – + + + + –) is also determinant; haplotype III (+ positive for this site and has a high proportion of Gg chains but is not associated with high levels of HbF (Labie et al. 1985b). Given the proximity of the Gg-158 site to other substitutions within the g-gene promoters that cause an HPFH phenotype, the CÆT substitution may be directly responsible for the minor increases in HbF in normal individuals and the more marked effects in those with sickle-cell anaemia and b thalassaemia. However, this has not been verified experimentally.A small increase in promoter activity was observed with –158T in a transient assay in one study (Lanclos et al. 1989) but not in another (Motum et al. 1993c). It is also possible that the –158T residue is in linkage disequilibrium with other, so far unidentified, sequence changes within the b-globin gene cluster. Other structural changes The problem of linkage disequilibrium also applies to other sequence polymorphisms that tend to associate with increased HbF levels. Sequence variations
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are common throughout the b-globin gene cluster, many of which reach polymorphic frequencies. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the region 520–540 bp upstream of the b-globin gene has a variable sequence that can be written as (AT)x(T)y, where x = 7 to 9 and y = 4 to 9 (Elion et al. 1992). It has been proposed that this region binds a putative repressor protein, BP1 (Berg et al. 1989), and that binding is increased in the (AT)9(T)5 variant characteristic of the Indian bS chromosome. It has therefore been suggested that decreased bS output may predispose to increased g-chain output from these chromosomes (Elion et al. 1992). However, as noted earlier, there is no consistent correlation between sequence variation at this ATA motif and a b-thalassaemia phenotype, and evidence that this is any more than a neutral polymorphism is unconvincing. Numerous single base substitutions have been described upstream of the Gg gene and in g IVS2. Different combinations are found among the various bS haplotypes found in sickle-cell anaemia. Chromosomes associated with increased HbF have similar combinations that differ from those found on those associated with low HbF (Lanclos et al. 1991). Polymorphisms also occur in the region between 1.15 and 1.65 kb upstream of the Gg gene, which contains binding sites for GATA-1, Sp1 and a cyclic AMP response element (CRE). They are closely linked to four different bS haplotypes and also show altered affinities in factor-binding assays and different activities in an enhancer-dependent reportergene assay (Pissard & Beuzard 1994). This suggests that they may be of functional significance and hence could affect HbF levels in patients with sickle-cell anaemia. Polymorphic sequence changes have also been observed within the HS2 element of the b-globin LCR (see Chapter 2), including an (AT)xN12(AT)y motif, where x = 8 to 10 and y = 10 to 12 (Beris et al. 1992; Öner et al. 1992; Merghoub et al. 1996). One pattern has been associated with higher levels of HbF in sickle-cell anaemia and b thalassaemia (Öner et al. 1992) as well as with increased HbF and F-cell levels in those with the sickle-cell trait who share the same bS haplotype (Merghoub et al. 1996). There are no functional data to suggest that this is a direct effect rather than a reflection of linkage disequilibrium.
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HPFH due to determinants which are not linked to the b-globin gene cluster Several families have been reported in which increased levels of HbF, usually demonstrated in an interaction with b thalassaemia or sickle-cell disease, apparently segregate independently of the b-globin gene cluster (Gianni et al. 1983; Giampaolo et al. 1984b; Martinez et al. 1989; Thein & Weatherall 1989; Oppenheim et al. 1990; Seltzer et al. 1992).Analysis of these families is difficult because of the potential genetic heterogeneity and incomplete penetrance. Furthermore, the distribution of HbF levels in these families may be continuous, rendering phenotypic identification of normal and affected individuals extremely difficult. Thus the pattern of inheritance is rarely clear; examples of autosomal or sex-linked, dominant, or co-dominant, and recessive varieties have all been reported. Analysis of HbF levels in healthy Japanese adults led Miyoshi et al. (1988) to suggest that an X-linked gene was involved in increasing HbF levels, with a frequency of 11% affected males and 21% of female carriers. Support for this notion came from analyses of the levels of reticulocytes in which HbF can be demonstrated, called F reticulocytes, in males and females with the sickle-cell trait, and from sib-pair studies in the same population. Dover et al. (1992) suggested that a co-dominant, bi-allelic F-cell production locus with high and low alleles resides on the X chromosome and is linked to markers at Xp22.2–22.3. Furthermore, it was proposed that this locus accounts for 40% of the variability in HbF levels in those with the bS gene, an effect of much greater magnitude than b-globin haplotype, age, sex or a-gene status, which, together, could only account for ~10% of the variability (Chang et al. 1995b). The value of a single large family in the study of unlinked HPFH was underlined by Thein and Weatherall (1989). Starting from a patient homozygous for b0 thalassaemia who had an extremely mild course, with 10–12 g/dl HbF, a family study was carried out that showed clear-cut evidence for an HPFH-like gene unlinked to the globin cluster. The family study was extended (across four continents!) until nearly 200 members were accumulated. Initially, the pattern of inheritance was unclear and assignments of phenotypes were difficult, not only reflecting the large number of b-thalassaemia carriers but also because a thalassaemia was found in the family.
Nevertheless, by using statistical analysis to take account of the influence of a and b thalassaemia, Gg -158 status, age and sex, it was possible, by multiple regression analysis, to demonstrate a major gene affecting F-cell levels (Thein et al. 1994). By using polymorphic markers covering the whole genome it proved possible to localize this gene to a small area of chromosome 6, 6q22.3–q24 (Craig et al. 1996; Garner et al. 1998). Other families with a form of HPFH unlinked to the b-globin cluster do not show linkage to chromosome 6 or the X chromosome, suggesting that other autosomal loci exist (Craig et al. 1997). The mechanism by which either the chromosome 6 or X-chromosome-linked genes affect HbF and Fcell levels remains unknown. It is possible that these loci code for trans-acting factors that bind within the b-globin gene cluster and directly affect g-gene transcription. It is equally plausible that there are genes that act much more indirectly, perhaps by altering the kinetics of erythropoiesis and mimicking the increased HbF seen in stress erythropoiesis.
Lessons from the molecular pathology of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin and db thalassaemia Mechanisms producing gene deletions in the b-globin cluster The nature of the breakpoints The deletions responsible for Hbs Lepore and Kenya are believed to arise by crossing over between misaligned, partially homologous genes (Fig. 4.17). The same process produces the anti-Lepore haemoglobins, Hbs Miyada and P Nilotic and, potentially, anti-Kenya haemoglobins, although the latter have not been described. This mechanism is similar to that responsible for generating –a and aaa and –g and ggg gene arrangements. As there is less homology between g and b and d and b genes, these events are likely to be less common than rearrangements among the nearly identical, duplicated a and g genes. The deletions responsible for (db)0 thalassaemia Agdb)0 thalassaemia and HPFH (as well as those for ( b and d thalassaemias) do not involve homologous regions at their 5¢ and 3¢ breakpoints, and result from illegitimate recombinations. It is not clear whether
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias the latter simply reflect chance breakage and rejoining or whether there may be a common underlying mechanism. Small regions of homology consisting of only a few nucleotides are common at the breakpoints, while in many cases the two sequences are joined directly. In others, however, there are several ‘orphan’ nucleotides inserted that are usually of unknown origin, although in one case they appear to have originated from an L1 repeat sequence. Several of the deletions involve repetitive sequence elements, such as the inverted Alu repeats between yb and d, and the L1 and truncated L1 repeats that lie downstream of the b-globin gene. However, their involvement does not appear to occur more frequently than would be expected by chance for sequences occupying ~20% of the region (Henthorn et al. 1990). Furthermore, although breakpoints within the genes occur more frequently than expected, in this case there is potential for ascertainment bias. Length of the deletions The staggered ends of the breakpoints of HPFH 1 and HPFH 2, as well as those of eGgAgdb thalassaemias 1 and 2 (see later section), suggested to Vanin et al. (1983) that these deletions may have resulted from the loss of a complete chromosomal loop. The variation in the positions of the deletions indicates either that the anchorage points of the loops are not fixed or that DNA is moved through them, perhaps during replication. Breakage and rejoining at the base of the loops would then generate deletions of similar overall lengths, but with different and staggered breakpoints at their 5 and 3¢ ends. This idea was further supported when the sizes of the eAgGgdb thalassaemia (Taramelli et al. 1986), HPFH Collins et al. 1987) and Chinese (db)0 thalassaemia (Mager et al. 1985) deletions were determined and shown to range from 95 to 105 kb. Three other deletions, Filipino b thalassaemia, Spanish (db)0 thalassaemia and Thai (Agdb)0 thalassaemia, are also of a similar overall size. However, when further deletions were characterized, it became less clear that there are discrete size classes (Fig. 4.16). There are four deletions of ~50 kb, six are evenly spread between 20 and 40 kb, a cluster of seven between 11.5 and 13.5 kb, and seven between 7 and 10 kb. There is no obvious correlation between their size and the resulting phenotype.
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The mechanisms for increased haemoglobin F production It was always hoped that the characterization of the deletions in the various disorders with increased HbF production in adult life would provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the increase and, at the same time, provide insights into how haemoglobin switching is regulated. However, an appraisal of Fig. 4.16 quickly demonstrates that there is unlikely to be a simple explanation for how the loss of different downstream sequences results in the continued activation of the g genes. Several hypotheses have been proposed, including loss of specific regulatory regions, movement of enhancer sequences into the proximity of the g genes, and removal of competition from the d- and b-gene promoters. Loss of regulatory regions Huisman et al. (1974) first proposed that a regulatory region responsible for the repression of the g genes in adult life might lie between the Ag and d genes. This was based on the assumption, subsequently shown to be correct, that the db and g fusion proteins of Hbs Lepore and Kenya reflected a gene order GgAgdb, and that the fusion proteins result from deletions of the missing sequences. Thus, since Hb Kenya has an HPFH phenotype but Hb Lepore is a form of b thalassaemia, the negative regulator of g-gene expression would lie in the Ag-d region. As more deletions were characterized, this idea became less tenable. Bernards and Flavell (1980) modified it to suggest that there are two mutually exclusive domains within the cluster, one fetal and one adult, marked by ‘domain’ boundaries; loss of parts of the adult domain would make it defective and shift the equilibrium toward g-gene expression. Even with the large number of deletions now characterized, it is still not possible to delineate any single area which, when deleted, results in b thalassaemia, db thalassaemia or HPFH phenotypes. Overlapping deletions in Turkish deletion b thalassaemia, Corfu d thalassaemia, Hb Lepore and Indian b0 thalassaemia, all of which show only minimal increases in HbF in adults, demonstrate that the loss of no single element within the region from 2 kb downstream of the Ag gene to 5 kb downstream of the b gene can result in persistent HbF production. The Australian and Dutch b-thalassaemia deletions extend further in the
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3¢ direction; some (but not all) of these cases have slightly higher levels of HbF. Furthermore, these conditions have only been described in single families and the influence of other factors such as the sequence at Gg -158 (see below) or unlinked genes modifying the HbF response, has not been excluded. Other comparisons of deletions with the level of HbF in heterozygotes are equally uninformative. The east European (db)0-thalassaemia deletion (~18% HbF) differs from Hb Lepore (~3% HbF) only by the removal of 1.5 kb immediately upstream of the d gene, including its promoter. In contrast, the Mediterranean (~10% HbF) and south-east Asian (~10% HbF) (db)0-thalassaemia deletions differ from Hb Lepore only by the deletion of sequences 3¢ to the b gene. When sequences both 5¢ to d and 3¢ to b are deleted, much higher levels of HbF are found in adults (Italian 2 HPFH with ~20% HbF and black (db)0 thalassaemia with 22% HbF). It is possible therefore that there are two or more regions around the d- and b-globin genes that act in combination and are involved in keeping the g genes switched off in adult life. Effect of enhancer sequences An alternative explanation for increased HbF production associated with some of these deletions is that newly opposed sequences at the 3¢ end contain enhancer-type elements that are brought close to the g genes and influence their expression (Tuan et al. 1983; Feingold & Forget 1989). In the Hb Kenya deletion, for example, fusion of the Ag and b genes might allow the b IVS2 and 3¢ enhancers to activate the promoter of the Agb gene and the Gg gene. Support for this suggestion came from analysis of the sequences immediately 3¢ to the large HPFH 1 deletion. This region is marked by an erythroid-specific DNase1hypersensitive site extending from 1.1 to 1.4 kb 3¢ to the HPFH 1 breakpoint (Elder et al. 1990); this sequence has enhancer activity in a classical transient-transcription assay (Feingold & Forget 1989). Furthermore, this site is no longer hypersensitive on a chromosome from which the LCR has been deleted, suggesting that it is influenced by this regulatory element even though it lies > 150 kb away (Forrester et al. 1990).As a result of the HPFH 1 and 2 deletions, this sequence is brought to within 10–15 kb of the g genes. A 0.7-kb region with similar enhancer activity in
transiently transfected erythroid cells has been identified immediately 3¢ to the HPFH 3 3¢ breakpoint (Kosteas et al. 1996). This element has sequences homologous to the simian virus 40 enhancer as well as to the human Ag and chick b enhancers. Its activity was restricted to the g and e promoters, having no effect on the d- or b-gene enhancers. The HPFH 3 deletion moves this sequence to within ~5 kb of the Ag gene; a similar degree of proximity occurs in the Italian 2 and SEA HPFHs as well as the Belgian and Turkish, and Italian (Agdb)0-thalassaemia deletions. A third region with enhancer activity in transientexpression systems lies between the breakpoints of the Thai and Chinese (Agdb)0-thalassaemia deletions, and is deleted in the latter (Kosteas et al. 1997). In 10 Chinese (Agdb)0-thalassaemia cases from five families, HbF ranged from 9% to 23% (mean 13% HbF). HbF levels in the three members of the Thai family ranged from 17% to 23% (mean 20%) and this condition has also been referred to as HPFH 6 (see earlier section). While the difference in HbF levels between the two conditions is consistent with a positive effect of this enhancer element, additional families with the Thai defect are needed to confirm that high HbF levels are always associated with this deletion. An open reading frame in the enhancer sequence shares 36% homology with the open reading frame in the HPFH 1 enhancer, and both appear to be related to an olfactory receptor gene. Furthermore, this element appears to enhance only g genes and not e or b genes in these transient-transfection assays. Indirect evidence that sequences within the human b-cluster region are necessary to produce the HPFH phenotype was produced in transgenic mice. Rearrangements of a YAC containing the whole of the b-globin cluster on insertion into transgenic mice have mimicked the deletional forms of HPFH. The LCR, Gg and Ag sequences remain intact, but the truncated inserts lack any of the human 3¢ sequences that would normally be opposed by the deletion. Instead, at the 3¢ end of the transgene there are mouse sequences from the random site of integration. These transgenes are expressed in embryonic and fetal life but are switched off in adult life: that is, they do not contain any of the putative 3¢ enhancers and do not show an HPFH phenotype (Peterson et al. 1995). As enhancers detected in transient-transfection assays do not always show the same activity when they are incorporated into a chromosome, particu-
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias larly if they come under the influence of strong regulatory elements such as the LCR (Ryan et al. 1989; Collis et al. 1990; Roberts et al. 1997b), it was important to test this element in vivo. Arcasoy et al. (1997) produced transgenic mice involving various constructs containing the b LCR core elements, the two g genes and the enhancer from 3¢ to the HPFH 1 and 2 deletions (Fig. 4.16). Only mice containing the construct with all three elements produced significant amounts of g-gene expression in adult life. This demonstrates unequivocally that this enhancer element is essential for activating the g genes in this experimental model and provides strong evidence that it is likely to function in the same way in individuals with HPFH. Similar experiments with the other two enhancer elements are required to confirm their functional importance.
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If these enhancers are active in vivo and increase g-gene expression when they are close to the genes, could similar elements be responsible for the increased HbF in all the other deletion conditions? Figure 4.20 shows the 3¢ extent of the deletions, with the three enhancer-like sequences marked with arrows. It is not possible to estimate how many such sequences would be necessary to cover all the deletions because the distance over which an enhancer is effective is unknown. However, a number of deletions that result in a b-thalassaemia phenotype without raised levels of HbF terminate in the region between 50 and 75 kb in this diagram, as well as several db-thalassaemia deletions. So, if there were further active enhancer-like elements in this area, additional factors must be responsible for their differential phenotypic effects.
β thalassaemia γβ,δβ fusions,δ thal. GγAγ
(δβ)0 thalassaemia thalassaemia
Gγ (Aγδβ)0 GγAγ
Fig. 4.20 3¢ breakpoints of some deletions of the b-globin gene cluster. Positions of downstream enhancers are marked with arrows.
0
50
100 3' breakpoint positions
(δβ)0 HPFH
150
200 kb
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Competition between promoters It has been suggested that, since globin-gene expression appears to involve interaction of the LCR with gene promoters, the g genes may be in competition with the d and b genes during adult life. In normal circumstances, this competition would favour the d and b genes as a result of chromatin conformation or the action of trans-acting factors, or both. However, when both the d- and b-gene promoters are deleted, the g promoters may be free to interact with the LCR, albeit at submaximal levels, resulting in persistent HbF production (Wood 1989; Townes & Behringer 1990). This suggestion is supported by analyses of non-deletion HPFH in which there seems to be clear evidence for competition between the b and g genes. As there are several b-thalassaemia mutations in which the b-globin promoter is deleted and which do not have HbF levels as high as those seen in db thalassaemia and HPFH, but which do have very high levels of HbA2, it is necessary to postulate that both d and b promoters would have to be deleted for such an effect to be seen. For most of the HPFH and dbthalassaemia deletions this is the case. The southeast Asian form of HPFH is a clear exception, however; the d gene is intact and yet HbF levels of > 20% are found in heterozygotes. Furthermore, in three of the (db)0 thalassaemias (Mediterranean, south-east Asian, Macedonian/Turkish), the 5¢ end of the deletion lies within the body of the d gene, leaving the promoter intact. Competition between b- and g-gene production could not, on its own, explain the phenotypic differences between (db)0 thalassaemia and HPFH. Neither is it compatible with the data from transgenic mice that show autonomous regulation and switching off of g-gene expression during development in constructs that lack the b-globin gene (Dillon & Grosveld 1991; Peterson et al. 1995). However, in that the mouse does not have a fetal haemoglobin and the human g gene is expressed largely in embryos in mice, it is not clear whether this model system faithfully reflects all aspects of human globin gene regulation. Conclusions It is clear therefore that there is no simple explanation for persistent g-gene expression in the deletional forms of HPFH and db thalassaemia.While there may be a unifying mechanism linking them all which has so
far escaped us, it is equally possible that all of them play a role, the relative importance of each varying from deletion to deletion. Given the large number of elements within the b-globin cluster that affect the regulation of its genes, both positively and negatively, it is not surprising that other elements capable of these functions lie in the region downstream of the genes. The precise balance between regulatory sequences which tend to increase the interaction of the LCR with the g-gene promoters compared with those that might disrupt this function may ultimately determine the amount of HbF in red cells and hence the degree of compensation for the lack of b-globin production. If these interactions are probabilistic, they may also explain the heterocellular distribution of HbF in the db thalassaemias.The lower probability of LCR and g-gene interaction in this condition may result in some cells not producing any HbF while others contain relatively large amounts. If the probability is higher, then most if not all cells will produce HbF, resulting in higher HbF levels and the pancellular (but still heterogeneous) distribution in HPFH.
(e Gg Agdb)0 Thalassaemia Several deletions have been described which appear to remove either the whole of the b-globin cluster or large parts of it, and inactivate any remaining genes (Fig. 4.16). Total deletions have been found in those of Mexican (Fearon et al. 1983), Canadian and Yugoslavian (Diaz-Chico et al. 1988a) and Scottish–Irish (Pirastu et al. 1983b) ancestry, clearly explaining the lack of globin production. Similarly, no globins were produced in an Anglo-Saxon patient in whom a large deletion terminated within the b-globin gene itself (Orkin et al. 1981b). An English patient was reported to have a deletion of the 5¢ end of the complex, terminating in the Gg gene, also with an inactive b gene (Curtin et al. 1985). In a Dutch patient with (eGgAgdb)0 thalassaemia there was an extensive deletion which spared the bglobin gene, but nevertheless led to its inactivation (Taramelli et al. 1986). It was later work on this deletion that led to the identification of the b-globin LCR (see Chapter 2).The critical importance of this region in vivo was confirmed by the discovery of the Hispanic forms of (eGgAgdb)0 thalassaemia, in which the deletion removed HS2, HS3 and HS4 of the b LCR, sparing all of the globin genes, but inactivating them (Driscoll et al. 1989).
The molecular pathology of the thalassaemias It is presumed that the homozygous inheritance of these long deletions would be lethal. In the heterozygous state they produce the clinical phenotype of bthalassaemia trait with a normal HbA2 level.We shall consider their pathophysiology and clinical features in Chapter 8. When we wrote the last edition of this book we could not have anticipated the extraordinary numbers and diversity of the mutations that would be found to underlie the thalassaemias. In the chapters which follow we shall summarize how the conse-
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quences of these mutations are manifested at the level of cells and organs, and their frequency and distribution among different populations. The remainder of the book will describe how they interact to produce the diverse phenotypes that make up the thalassaemia syndromes. The remarkable heterogeneity of mutations at the different globin loci that we have described in this chapter, and the fact that many patients will have inherited more than one of them, should be ample warning to readers that relating phenotype to genotype in these diseases will not be easy.
Chapter 5 The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias
Introduction The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines the rather clumsy word ‘pathophysiology’ as ‘the branch of medicine that deals with the disordered physiological processes associated with disease or injury’.Its increasing usage reflects the importance ascribed to trying to understand disease in terms of the breakdown of normal homeostatic function. In the thalassaemia field this entails an explanation of how the many different mutations of the a- and b-globin genes,described in the previous chapter,give rise to an extraordinarily diverse family of clinical phenotypes. And, as is the case for any monogenic disease, it must ultimately take us one step further, and try to account for the wide diversity of clinical manifestations that can arise from the same mutations. It follows, therefore, that the exploration of the pathophysiology of a single-gene disorder has to evolve through several stages. First, the consequences of abnormal gene action at the affected locus have to be understood,and other genes,which may modify the action of the primary genetic defect, must be identified. Next, the functional consequences of damage acquired by cells, tissues and organs as the result of the primary genetic lesions have to be characterized. Finally, the effects of the environment on the disease must be considered. This not only involves an understanding of how their habitats and social backgrounds can alter patients’ responses to their illness but, in the case of diseases like thalassaemia which have come under strong selection, also includes an appreciation of their evolutionary history and of how the genotypes of affected ethnic groups may differ one from another as a consequence of selective pressures, and how this too may modify patients’ responses to the disease and its complications.The main factors to be considered in the pathophysiology of thalassaemia are summarized in Table 5.1. In this chapter we shall describe and contrast the pathophysiology of the two main classes of thalassaemia and outline their interactions one with 192
another. We hope this will help the reader to appreciate the complex interplay between genotypes and phenotypes that underlies the conditions that are described in later chapters, where particular aspects of their pathophysiology are discussed in more detail. Although there are differences in detail, the principles described in this chapter apply to every form of thalassaemia.
The b thalassaemias The pathophysiology of b thalassaemia is reasonably well understood, at least in outline (Fig. 5.1).The basic defect, as described in the previous chapter, is a reduction in the output of b chains.This leads to imbalanced globin synthesis and to the production of an excess of a chains. Although HbF synthesis persists after birth to a varying degree in all the severe forms of b thalassaemia,its overall output is insufficient to compensate for the deficiency of HbA. In other words the output of b and g chains is never sufficient to match that of a chains; unbalanced globin production and an excess of a chains is therefore the hallmark of b thalassaemia. Unbound a chains precipitate in the red-cell precursors in the marrow and in their progeny in the peripheral blood, leading to defective erythroid precursor maturation and ineffective erythropoiesis, and a shortened red-cell survival. The resulting anaemia causes an intense proliferative drive in the ineffective bone marrow, which leads to its expansion. This results in skeletal deformities and a variety of growth and metabolic abnormalities. The anaemia may be further exacerbated by haemodilution caused by shunting of blood through the vastly expanded marrow, and also by splenomegaly due to entrapment of abnormal red cells in the spleen.The hyperplasia of the bone marrow leads to increased iron absorption and iron loading, often exacerbated by the need for regular blood transfusion. This leads to progressive iron deposition in the tissues, organ failure and, if the iron is not removed, death. In the sections which follow we shall examine each
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias Table 5.1 Pathophysiology of thalassaemia. Effect of primary mutation on globin output Imbalanced globin synthesis Consequences of excess globin on red-cell metabolism and survival Anaemia Consequences of abnormal red cells on organ function Anaemia, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, hypercoagulable state Consequences of profound anaemia Erythropoietin production and marrow expansion Skeletal deformity. Metabolic abnormalities Adaptivity changes in cardiovascular function Consequences of abnormal iron metabolism Iron loading. Damage to liver, endocrine organs and myocardium Susceptibility to specific infections Effects of cell selection Raised levels of HbF. Heterogeneity of red-cell populations Effects of secondary genetic modifiers Variation in phenotype, particularly through HbF response Variations in bilirubin, iron and bone metabolism Effects of therapy Iron overload, bone disease, blood-borne infection, drug toxicity Effects of evolutionary history Variation in genetic background, response to infection Ecological and ethnological factors
of these mechanisms in more detail and try to relate them to the overall clinical picture and heterogeneity of the b thalassaemias.
Imbalanced globin synthesis Although early studies of the thalassaemias that analysed their interactions with the structural haemoglobin variants suggested that they might be the result of defective a- or b-globin synthesis, it was not until methods for the quantitative measurement of a- and b-chain production became available that it was possible to put these ideas on to a solid experimental footing.The methods for in vitro radioactive labelling and separation of the a and b chains of human haemoglobin that were devised in the mid-1960s (Clegg et al. 1965; Weatherall et al. 1965; Clegg et al. 1966) have been used widely to study haemoglobin synthesis in reticulocytes and their precursors in patients with different forms of b thalassaemia major (Weatherall et
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al. 1965; Bank & Marks 1966; Bargellesi et al. 1967; Modell et al. 1969; Weatherall et al. 1969b) and minor (Vigi et al. 1969; Schwartz 1970; Clegg & Weatherall 1972; Kan et al. 1972c; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Knox-Macaulay et al. 1973; Chalevelakis et al. 1975, 1976). How is globin synthesis assessed? Before we outline what was learnt from these studies it is important that readers coming to this field for the first time appreciate the principles (and pitfalls) of analysing haemoglobin synthesis in the test-tube. After newly made globins have been labelled by incubating bone marrow or peripheral blood with radiotagged amino acids, and separating them chromatographically, two types of measurement can be made. First, the total amount of radioactivity that cochromatographs with each globin can be determined. This gives an approximate assessment of the amount of each type of globin synthesized during the period of the incubation. However, if any of the globins are degraded during this period, it may give a false impression of the overall rates of globin production. It is also possible to determine the specific activity of each type of globin, that is, the counts incorporated/mg protein/min. Since, during a short period of in vitro incubation, relatively few newly synthesized, and hence labelled, globin molecules are added to a large pre-existing pool, this measurement tells us something about the stability and rate of turnover of globin chains. If, for example, two different types of globin are synthesized at the same rate, neither of which is being destroyed and turning over more rapidly than its partner, they will have the same specific activity; if, on the other hand, a particular globin type is preferentially destroyed it will have a higher specific activity than its partner. In the former case the newly labelled globin is added to a large pool of previously synthesized and unlabelled globin molecules that reflects their overall rate of production; in the latter, the more rapidly turning over labelled molecules are added to a smaller pool of unlabelled globin, reflecting their instability, and hence they will have relatively higher counts/mg protein. We can take these analyses one step further. Instead of studying globin synthesis at a single timepoint we can plot the rate of incorporation of radioactivity into different globins over a period of time. If
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α2γ2 HbF Selective survival of HbF-containing precursors
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Increased levels of HbF in red cells
Splenomegaly (pooling, plasma volume expansion)
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High oxygen affinity of red cells
Reduced O2 delivery
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Ineffective erythropoiesis
Anaemia
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Endocrine deficiencies Cirrhosis Cardiac failure
they are stable there will be a linear pattern of synthesis, whereas if they are turning over rapidly their incorporation curves will tend to reach a plateau at the point at which their rate of synthesis is balanced by their rate of destruction.When assessing the literature on globin synthesis in thalassaemia, all these points must be taken into consideration. Globin synthesis in b thalassaemia In normal red-cell precursors and reticulocytes, aand b-globin synthesis is almost synchronous; there is a very small pool of free a chains, indicating a slight excess of a-chain production (Weatherall et al. 1965) (Fig. 5.2). In red-cell precursors from patients with different forms of b thalassaemia major there is always more radioactivity incorporated into the a chains than into the combined b- and g-chain fractions (Fig. 5.3); the ratio of a/b + g radioactivity varies considerably, with a published range of 1.5–30; in b0 thalassaemia no b chains are synthesized. Furthermore,
Fig. 5.1 An outline summary of the pathophysiology of b thalassaemia.
the specific activities of the a chains are greater than those of the b chains, indicating that there must be a relatively faster turnover and destruction of a chains during the period of the experiment. The finding of excess a-chain synthesis implies that there should be a substantial amount of free a chains in the red cells, a prediction that was confirmed by both gel filtration (Modell et al. 1969) and DEAEcellulose chromatography (Weatherall et al. 1969b) (Fig.5.4).It appears from the gel-filtration studies that soluble a chains exist as both monomers and dimers. Furthermore, a chains from this pool can combine with b and g chains to produce HbA and HbF (Modell et al. 1969). The free a chains are also unstable and become associated with the red-cell membrane, even after short periods of red-cell incubation (Bargellesi et al. 1968; Weatherall et al. 1969b). It is not certain how much of this denatured material is removed by proteolysis during the red cell’s lifespan; degradation of free a chains occurs in vitro in thalassaemic reticulocytes, but whether this reflects the in vivo rate of
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias
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Fig. 5.3 Haemoglobin synthesis in homozygous b thalassaemia.An identical experiment to that shown in Fig. 5.2 was carried out using reticulocytes of a patient homozygous for b thalassaemia. Clearly there is marked imbalance of globin synthesis with an excess of a chains over non-a chains produced during the 1-h incubation period.
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Fig. 5.2 Globin synthesis in nonthalassaemic reticulocytes.The reticulocytes were incubated with radioactive leucine for 1 h, after which the globins were separated by CMcellulose chromatography.The amount of radioactivity incorporated into the a and b chains is approximately equal, indicating that during the period of the experiment almost equal numbers of a and b chains were synthesized.
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chain removal is uncertain (Bank & O’Donnell 1969; Weatherall & Clegg 1972). Early studies of globin synthesis in b thalassaemia described apparent discrepancies between the relative rates of production of globins in the peripheral blood and bone marrow. In some reports they were similar (Bargellesi et al. 1967; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Nienhuis et al. 1973), in others a/b + g synthesis ratios were higher in the blood than in the marrow, while in b0 thalassaemia a/g ratios were higher in the marrow (Braverman & Bank 1969; Friedman et al. 1972). On the other hand, Nathan and Benz (1976) found less imbalance in the blood than in the marrow; in b0 thalassaemia a/g ratios were very much higher in the
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blood than in the marrow. Similar findings were reported by Weatherall et al. (1974a), who also observed that the a/b + g, b/g and a/g ratios changed quite markedly depending on the period of incubation. These discrepancies between the apparent rates of globin synthesis between the marrow and blood appeared at first to be even more marked in heterozygous b thalassaemia. Schwartz (1970) reported that there was balanced globin synthesis in heterozygous b-thalassaemic marrow, while in the peripheral blood synthesis appeared to be imbalanced, a finding later noted by several other groups (Kan et al. 1972c; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Gallo et al. 1975). However, these apparent inconsistencies were
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eventually reconciled to provide a fairly clear picture of disordered globin synthesis in b thalassaemia. Most haemoglobin synthesis occurs in red-cell precursors in the bone marrow, and in reticulocytes represents only about 1% of the total output. As we shall see later, precursors which synthesize relatively greater amounts of HbF preferentially survive their passage through the bone marrow and peripheral blood of patients with b thalassaemia. Thus the peripheralblood reticulocytes represent a highly selected population which have survived because they are synthesizing more HbF. Hence it might be expected that there would be relatively more g-chain than bchain synthesis in the peripheral blood than in bone marrow (Weatherall et al. 1974a; Nathan & Benz 1976) (Fig. 5.5).
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Fig. 5.4 The demonstration of free a chains in homozygous b-thalassaemic reticulocytes. Red cells were incubated with radioactive leucine for 20 min, washed and lysed and the lysate applied to a Sephadex G75 column. The main haemoglobin protein peak is shown by the continuous line.The experiment at the top shows the pattern obtained from a nonthalassaemic patient. In addition to a major radioactive peak with the same molecular weight as haemoglobin, there is a small tail.This material was added to unlabelled haemoglobin and the globins separated by CM-cellulose chromatography as shown in the insert. Most of this radioactive ‘tail’ consists of free a chains but there is only a very small pool in normal reticulocytes.The experiment shown below is identical except that in this case the red cells were obtained from an individual homozygous for b thalassaemia. In this case there is a relatively large amount of low molecular weight radioactivity, and again this consists almost entirely of free a chains.This experiment demonstrates a large pool of free a chains in the red cells of the thalassaemic patient.
It must also be remembered that haemoglobin synthesis is a dynamic process and that the results of in vitro radioactive labelling experiments reflect an equilibrium between production and destruction of globin molecules; if some of the excess of a chain is lost by proteolysis during the course of an experiment the apparent ratios of production may give quite erroneous results (Weatherall et al. 1974a).As we shall see later, proteolysis is much more active in red-cell precursors than in reticulocytes. Hence it is likely that the rate of proteolytic degradation of excess a chains is greater in the bone marrow than in the peripheral blood. Indeed, when time-course experiments were carried out on the rates of incorporation of radioactive amino acids into a,b and g chains it was found that this was linear in the peripheral blood, while in the
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bone marrow, although incorporation into b and g chains was linear, incorporation into a chains tended to plateau early over a 1-h incubation period (Weatherall et al. 1974a; Chalevelakis et al. 1975), findings that were later substantiated (Hanash & Rucknagel 1978). Finally, there is an important technical artefact that has to be taken into account when assessing the relative rates of globin synthesis in the bone marrow; there are other proteins synthesized that co-
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Fig. 5.5 A comparison of haemoglobin synthesis in the bone marrow and peripheral blood of an individual homozygous for b thalassaemia.The experimental conditions were identical to those described in Figs 5.2 and 5.3. (a) The results of a bone-marrow incubation; (b) results of peripheral blood incubation. Clearly the relative amount of radioactivity incorporated into the b chains is greater in the bone marrow than in the peripheral blood. These findings suggest that the cell populations synthesizing relatively more HbF survive their passage through the bone marrow and therefore that there are relatively more HbF-producing reticulocytes in the peripheral blood.
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chromatograph with the b chains and which, if not removed, may alter the apparent synthesis ratios (Clegg & Weatherall 1972; Chalevelakis et al. 1975, 1976; Hanash & Rucknagel 1978; Cividalli et al. 1979). When these observations are taken into account it is clear that there is always marked imbalance between a- and b-chain production in both homozygotes and heterozygotes, regardless of whether bone marrow or blood is studied. What have these experiments told us about globin
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synthesis in b thalassaemia? First, it is imbalanced, in both b thalassaemia major and minor.The excess of a chains that are produced enter an unstable pool from which they either combine with b or g chains, become associated with the red-cell membrane or are subjected to proteolytic attack, a process which is more active in the bone marrow than in the peripheral blood. It is also apparent that red-cell precursors that synthesize more HbF survive preferentially and hence there is relatively more g- than b-chain synthesis in reticulocytes than in their nucleated precursors; at every stage of erythroid maturation there is likely to be a marked heterogeneity of cell populations with respect to the relative amount of b- and g-chain synthesis. While these studies have given us a reasonably clear picture of the dynamics of globin-chain production in b thalassaemia, they provide only an approximation of the absolute amount of globin synthesis. To obtain a more accurate measure of the rate of production of globin and degree of imbalance it would be necessary to isolate early red-cell precursors from the marrow and to carry out a time-course experiment, measuring a/b + g ratios at varying times over, say, 30 min, and then to extrapolate the ratios back to zero time. As far as we know this difficult experiment has never been done and therefore it seems likely that most of the published data have, if anything, underestimated the degree of globin imbalance in b thalassaemia. Overall, however, these studies have left us with a fairly clear picture of the degree of globin imbalance in the different varieties of b thalassaemia and related disorders, as well as the a thalassaemias, and have clarified other important issues, notably the turnover and initial fate of globin that is produced in excess.
The fate of the excess of a chains in b thalassaemia Morphological studies Fessas (1963) reported that there are inclusion bodies in the erythroblasts of the bone marrow and peripheral blood of patients with b thalassaemia, and suggested that they might result from precipitation of excess a chains. He went on to show that they consist of haemoglobin-like material consisting mainly, but perhaps not exclusively, of precipitated a chains (Fessas et al. 1966). Later work by Rachmilewitz and
Thorell (1972) demonstrated that each inclusion consists of a focus of precipitated haemichromes, haemoglobin subunits in which both the fifth and sixth coordination positions of the haem iron are liganded to nitrogenous bases. Much later Yuan et al. (1993) and Wickramasinghe et al. (1996), using an immunoelectromicroscopic technique, confirmed that the inclusion bodies in b thalassaemia consist entirely of precipitated a globin. In an analysis of marrow aspirated from patients with thalassaemia major,Yataganas and Fessas (1969) found that the proportion of erythroblasts containing intracellular precipitates and the average quantity of precipitation per cell increased with increasing nuclear diameter. They concluded that a-chain precipitation commences early during erythroid maturation, increases as these cells mature, and that a proportion of the late red-cell precursors do not contain detectable precipitates, observations which were confirmed using different methods by Wickramasinghe et al.(1973).Yataganas et al. (1972) found an inverse correlation between the amount of a-chain precipitate and soluble haemoglobin in individual red cells, and in a further study showed that the a-chain precipitates are not confined to the cytoplasm but are sometimes present in the nucleus (Yataganas et al. 1974). These early descriptions of a-chain inclusions were augmented by ultrastructural studies of erythroblasts from thalassaemic patients (Polliack & Rachmilewitz 1973; Polliack et al. 1974a;Yataganas et al. 1974;Wickramasinghe & Bush 1975;Wickramasinghe 1976).The a-chain precipitates appear as foci of amorphous material, the electron density of which is higher than that of the cell cytoplasm (Fig. 5.6). They vary in size, are usually multiple and tend to become confluent. They are rarely seen in basophilic erythroid precursors but are found in about 3% of early polychromatophilic cells, in 20% of late polychromatophilic cells, and in virtually all circulating late polychromatophilic erythroblasts. They differ in several ways from the Heinz bodies that can be produced experimentally by phenylhydrazine treatment of red cells. In particular, in thalassaemic red-cell precursors there are no large marginated inclusions attached to the red-cell membrane. In addition, many of the early erythroid precursors show vacuoles that contain little or no electron-dense material, or membrane-bound vesicles. Wickramasinghe and Bush (1975) suggested that the latter represent small autophagic vacuoles.
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias In addition to these cytoplasmic changes there are nuclear abnormalities, confined largely to late polychromatic erythroblasts (Polliack et al. 1974a,b; Wickramasinghe 1976). They include loss or reduplication of parts of the nuclear membrane and a-chain precipitates or particles containing iron. Wickramasinghe (1976) suggested that the intranuclear precipitates represent intracytoplasmic a-chain precipitates which are trapped in the nuclear territory during mitosis, or, alternatively, precipitates which enter the interphase nucleus through a defect in the nuclear membrane. Loss of a chains by proteolysis As mentioned earlier, studies of globin synthesis suggest that excess a chains precipitate and become associated with the membrane, and that some of them are rapidly lost by proteolytic destruction (Bank & O’Donnell 1969; Weatherall et al. 1969b; Wood et al. 1975). The proteolytic systems of human red cells and their precursors have received only limited attention. In rabbit reticulocytes there is a proteolytic pathway that is dependent on adenosine triphosphate (ATP); during the transformation of reticulocytes to mature erythrocytes this activity is gradually lost, a finding which has been also noted in human red cells and their precursors (Etlinger & Goldberg 1977; Speiser & Etlinger 1982; Rieder et al. 1988).With respect to bthalassaemic reticulocytes it has been observed that degradation of newly synthesized a chains is not only ATP dependent but also requires the presence of ubiquitin (Shaeffer 1983, 1988). In this degradative pathway the C terminus of ubiquitin is activated in an ATP-dependent reaction, and, through a series of enzymatic steps, activated ubiquitin molecules are covalently linked to the e-amino groups of lysine residues of the protein destined for proteolysis.These conjugates are then recognized through their ubiquitin tag by the 26S proteasome, a multisubunit protease complex. The protein substrate is then degraded in a further ATP-dependent process. Interestingly, Shaeffer and Cohen (1997) have shown how, by the use of ubiquitin aldehyde, a synthetic inhibitor of isopeptidases, it is possible to increase the rate of ATP-dependent proteolysis of a-globin subunits in b-thalassaemic cells. The ubiquitin–proteasome pathway has been reviewed in detail recently (Ciechanover 1998).
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Individual variation in the rate of a-chain proteolysis Presumably the size of the a-chain precipitates reflects a balance between their rates of proteolytic digestion and the speed with which they form insoluble aggregates which are no longer susceptible to attack in this way. Since, as we shall see, damage to the red-cell precursors and red cells by these precipitates is the major factor in causing the anaemia of b thalassaemia, an increased capacity for their proteolytic removal might be beneficial. Very little is known about individual variation in the rate of proteolysis as a potential basis for the phenotypic heterogeneity of the b thalassaemias, and the few reported experiments that have addressed this important question have given rather equivocal results (Braverman et al. 1982). In one study there appeared to be a correlation between proteolytic activity and the steadystate haemoglobin level in patients with HbE thalassaemia (Promboon et al. 1988). Clearly these potentially important observations need to be followed up and the activities of other proteolytic systems of red cells, which could also have a role in modifying the anaemia of b thalassaemia, must be dissected further. Possible candidates include the cytosolic calcium-dependent proteases and calpains, their inhibitors (Murachi et al. 1981; Melloni et al. 1982; Macotpet et al. 1988) and the ubiquitin system (Ciechanover 1998).
a-Globin precipitation and the anaemia of b thalassaemia Defective red-cell maturation and survival in b thalassaemia Ineffective erythropoiesis Although there is a shortened red-cell survival, the most important factor in the anaemia of b thalassaemia is ineffective erythropoiesis, with large-scale destruction of red-cell precursors in the bone marrow (Crosby & Akeroyd 1952; Sturgeon & Finch 1957; Erlandson et al. 1958; Larizza et al. 1958; Malamos et al. 1961; Finch et al. 1970; Murachi et al. 1981). This conclusion is based largely on ferrokinetic and erythrokinetic studies, although the destruction of erythroblasts is also reflected in the pattern of bilirubin metabolism (Grinstein et al. 1960). The remarkable
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.6 Electron-microscopic appearance of the bone marrow in homozygous b thalassaemia. (a) Inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm and nucleus (¥ 1550). (b) Similar to (a) at a magnification of ¥ 13 600. Continued.
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(c)
Fig. 5.6 Continued. (c) Inclusion bodies and myelin figures in the cell cytoplasm (¥ 15 000). (d) A reticulocyte with irregular indentations of the membrane and cytoplasmic projections containing Heinz (inclusion) bodies (HB). Note the amorphous, partially confluent Heinz body (star), mitochondria (M) with degenerative changes containing haemosiderin, small vacuoles (V) and parallel arrays of tubules (T) (¥ 10 875). From Polliack and Rachmilewitz (1973), with permission.
(d)
degree of ineffective erythropoiesis, the only other disease reaching comparable levels being pernicious anaemia, is well exemplified by the study of Finch et al. (1970). In 10 severe b thalassaemics the plasma iron turnover (PIT) and erythrocyte iron turnover (EIT) showed a wide discrepancy; the PIT was higher than in any other disease, reaching a level of 10 times greater than normal, while the EIT was only slightly elevated. These findings reflect major destruction of developing red cells in the marrow, together with extensive hypertrophy of the erythron. The latter has been confirmed in more recent studies that estimated
the level of circulating transferrin receptor as a measure of erythropoiesis (Huebers et al. 1990; Beguin 1992; Olivieri & Brittenham 1997). Erythrokinetic studies have also demonstrated suppression of erythropoiesis after blood transfusion (Cavill et al. 1978). Haemolysis There is also a reduced red-cell survival in b thalassaemia, although this is less important than ineffective erythropoiesis in determining the severity of
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the anaemia. Using either the Ashby or 51Cr-labelling methods, survival times have ranged from 7 to 22 days (Kaplan & Zuelzer 1950; Sturgeon & Finch 1957; Erlandson et al. 1958; Vullo & Tunioli 1958; Blendis et al. 1974; Cavill et al. 1978). There are two populations of red cells, one which is very rapidly destroyed (Kaplan & Zuelzer 1950; Bailey & Prankerd 1958; Hillcoat & Waters 1962). There is evidence, discussed later in this chapter, that the shortlived population contains mainly HbA or a-chain precipitates, while the longer-lived cells are richer in HbF. External counting indicates that some, but by no means all, of the premature red-cell destruction occurs in the spleen (Prankerd 1963; Blendis et al. 1974). Is excess a-chain production the main cause of the anaemia of b thalassaemia? In a study which examined both in vitro chain synthesis and in vivo red-cell survival, Vigi et al. (1969) found a good correlation between the magnitude of excess a-chain synthesis in the peripheral blood of b thalassaemics and the degree of shortened red-cell survival. Earlier, in their seminal analysis of the red cells of splenectomized patients with severe b thalassaemia, Nathan and Gunn (1966) observed that the largest inclusions were found in the most lightly stained cells, i.e. those which contain relatively less HbF. These findings, taken in conjunction with haemoglobin synthesis studies described earlier, showing that there is relatively more g-chain synthesis in the peripheral blood than in the bone marrow, suggest that a-chain precipitation is the major cause of the intramedullary destruction of red-cell precursors, and that those which synthesize relatively more g chains are protected, presumably because excess a chains combine with g chains to form fetal haemoglobin. This interpretation is entirely consistent with the in vivo observation that cells containing relatively more HbF turn over more slowly than those containing mainly HbA (Gabuzda et al. 1963), and with differential centrifugation experiments on red cells of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia, which show that the older populations are richer in HbF while the lighter cells contain predominantly HbA and HbA2 and a-chain precipitates (Loukopoulos & Fessas 1965; Weatherall et al. 1979).
How does a-chain precipitation interfere with erythroid maturation? Knowledge of the cellular events that lead to the intramedullary destruction of red-cell precursors in b thalassaemia has come from several sources. Early studies focused on the patterns of erythroid maturation. More recently, with the availability of large numbers of erythroid precursors obtained at the time of bone-marrow transplantation, it has been possible to analyse the structure and function of their membranes. Kinetics of red-cell maturation The complex abnormalities of red-cell maturation that have been demonstrated by in vitro labelling experiments using red-cell precursors from the bone marrows of b thalassaemics were summarized by Wickramasinghe (1976). There is a major accumulation of early polychromatophilic cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle which may be caused by substantial prolongation of G1 and/or failure of G1 cells to enter S.Wickramasinghe et al. (1973) investigated the possibility that a-chain precipitates might be responsible for this abnormality by examining the relationship between the number of intracytoplasmic precipitates and the DNA synthetic activity of individual early polychromatic erythroblasts. They found that there is a reduced incorporation of 3H-thymidine into polychromatic erythroblasts which contain moderate or large quantities of a-chain precipitates. An unexpected finding was that even in precursors that did not contain precipitates there was a marked reduction in DNA synthesis. In other words it appeared that many cells without detectable inclusions were also arrested in G1.This could reflect the loss of inclusions from the cell after they had caused the arrest or, as seems more likely, this type of maturational arrest may be produced by an expanded pool of soluble a chains. The suggestion of Yataganas et al. (1974) that the abnormality of proliferation might be related to the presence of nuclear rather than cytoplasmic precipitation was not borne out by the later studies of Wickramasinghe and Bush (1975), who observed that intranuclear a-chain precipitates rarely occur in dividing early polychromatophilic erythroblasts. Whether intranuclear iron deposition plays a role in the defect in cell division is also unclear (Polliack et al. 1974a,b). In normal marrow the non-dividing late polychro-
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias matophilic erythroblasts appear to be formed solely as a consequence of division of earlier chromatophilic precursors (Wickramasinghe 1976). On the other hand, in patients with b thalassaemia a significant proportion of late erythroblasts must be the progeny of early polychromatophilic erythroblasts which have been arrested in G1, without an intervening cell division.Autoradiographic studies have shown that there is a gross defect in protein synthesis in late erythroblasts containing the largest quantities of precipitate, though approximately 20% of cells without detectable precipitates also fail to incorporate labelled amino acids. Interestingly, even very early red-cell precursors, in which there is minimal haemoglobin synthesis, seem to have a reduced proliferative capacity (Dörmer & Betke 1978). It appears therefore that at least part of the ineffective erythropoiesis of b thalassaemia is the result of intramedullary death of late polychromatophilic erythroblasts which are grossly defective in protein synthesis, and from the loss of earlier precursors which are arrested in G1. It is probable that both these effects are due to excess a chains, although whether they reflect precipitation in the nucleus or cytoplasm or whether the damage results from a more subtle mechanism is still not clear. Mechanisms of damage to red-cell precursors More recently, research in this field has focused on abnormalities of the membrane of red-cell precursors and on the mechanisms whereby these changes lead to their premature removal by the cells of the reticulo-endothelial system. Much of this work has followed increased knowledge about the structure and function of normal red-cell membranes (Platt 1994; Lux & Palek 1995). In health, the red-cell membrane is a mixture of phospholipids, esterified cholesterol and glycolipids, arranged in a bilayer and traversed randomly by transmembrane protein channels and receptors. The membrane contains 10–15 major proteins that fall into two classes. First, there are integral membrane proteins, which traverse the bilayer, interact with the hydrophobic lipid core and are tightly bound; they include band 3, the anion-exchange protein, and glycoprotein surface antigens. Second, there are peripheral membrane proteins, which are confined to the cytoplasmic membrane surface; they include spectrin and actin, and some red-cell enzymes.
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It appears that there are a number of simultaneous processes underlying the premature destruction of red-cell precursors in b thalassaemia. It has been found that there is an accelerated rate of apoptosis, that is, programmed cell death (Yuan et al. 1993). How might this be mediated? Excess a chains accumulate at the membrane and its skeleton where they probably cause alterations in membrane deformability, stability and cellular hydration (Shinar et al. 1987; Schrier et al. 1989).These abnormalities are associated with changes in the membrane characterized by a reduced spectrin/band 3 ratio, and partial oxidation and defective function of band 4.1 (Advani et al. 1992b). They seem to reflect the early accumulation of a globin and its colocalization with band 4.1 and spectrin at sites of membrane discontinuity. It seems likely that these changes reflect the fact that haem, haemichromes and iron components of a globin serve as foci for generation of reactive oxygen species that result in the partial oxidation of band 4.1 and the decrease in spectrin/band 3 ratio. The deficiency of band 3 in the youngest erythroid precursors occurs without any evidence of interaction with a globin, nor is there membrane discontinuity of band 3. It has been suggested therefore that a globin interferes at an earlier stage, in the complex processes of synthesis, trafficking and membrane insertion of band 3 (Aljurf et al. 1996). Interestingly, it appears that the protein 3 defect tends to disappear at the intermediate or late normoblast stage, suggesting either that it is temporary or, as seems more likely, that red-cell precursors that are most deficient in band 3 are destroyed during early erythroid maturation. It has also been observed that aggregates of red-cell membrane proteins, including spectrin and proteins 3 and 4.1,occur in erythroid progenitors of patients with b thalassaemia and in late erythroblasts isolated from the bone marrow of b-thalassaemic mice (Shinar & Rachmilewitz 1993). It is presumed that they result from abnormal cytoskeleton assembly and it is suggested that they might result in IgG and complement binding, in the same way that has been observed inerythrocytes of patients with b thalassaemia (see later section). Red-cell precursor damage is multifactorial Although many questions remain therefore, the intramedullary loss of red-cell precursors in b thalassaemia appears to be an extremely complex process
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involving precipitation of a globin with subsequent effects on red-cell plasticity, maturation and membrane structure and metabolism, together with accelerated apoptosis, all of which combine to render the precursor both unable to mature and susceptible to premature destruction.
results from two major mechanisms, the generation of haemichromes from excess a chains with subsequent structural changes to the red-cell membrane, and damage to the membrane mediated through the degradation products of a chains. Haemichrome
Removal of damaged red-cell precursors The marrow shows intense phagocytic activity, with many large foamy cells resembling Gaucher’s cells, which are also found in the spleen. Ultrastructural studies (Zaino et al. 1971; Zaino & Rossi 1974) demonstrate that they contain intracytoplasmic tubules and phagocytosed mature and immature red cells (Fig. 5.7). Further details of the fine structure of the macrophages in thalassaemic marrow are given by Wickramasinghe and Hughes (1978). How does a-chain precipitation result in a shortened red-cell survival? As we have seen, free a chains tend to oxidize, first to methaemoglobin and later to irreversible haemichromes which precipitate in the red cells as inclusion bodies (Rachmilewitz 1974). There is a good correlation between the magnitude of excess a-chain synthesis in the peripheral blood of b thalassaemics and the degree of shortened red-cell survival (Vigi et al. 1969). Red cells containing inclusions are only seen in the blood after splenectomy and it is therefore clear that either they must be trapped in the spleen, or the inclusion bodies must be removed in the spleen and the damaged cells returned to the circulation (Rifkind 1966; Jacob 1970). Electron-microscopic studies have shown rigid inclusion-containing parts of cells being retarded during their passage from splenic cords to sinusoids in thalassaemic spleens (Slater et al. 1968). While these early studies focused on the mechanical consequences of globin precipitation, more recently interest has shifted to the functional effects of globin imbalance on red-cell membrane metabolism. As mentioned earlier, much of this work has stemmed from a rapid increase in knowledge about the structure and function of the normal and abnormal red-cell membrane (Rachmilewitz et al. 1985; Rouyer-Fessard et al. 1989; Shinar & Rachmilewitz 1990a,b, 1993; Schrier 1994; Rund & Rachmilewitz 1995; Schrier 1997). It appears that, as well as mechanical factors, premature destruction of the red cells
The formation of membrane-bound haemichrome creates a copolymer of macromolecular dimensions which promotes clustering of band 3 in the membrane, first shown in sickle-cell erythrocytes (Waugh et al. 1987) and later observed in the red cells of b thalassaemics (Yuan et al. 1992a; Turrini et al. 1994). It seems likely that these clusters are opsonized with autologous IgG and complement and hence removed by macrophages (Turrini et al. 1991;Yuan et al. 1992b; Mannu et al. 1995). a-Chain degradation products The products of degradation of free a chains, i.e. aglobin protein, haem, haemin (the oxidized form of haem) and free iron, may also play a role in damaging red-cell membranes. Excess globin binds to different membrane proteins and probably alters both their structure and function. The pattern is different in a and b thalassaemia, an observation which may explain some of their phenotypic differences (Shinar et al. 1989; Yuan et al. 1995) (see p. 231). Although binding to spectrin does not seem to cause major alterations in function, protein 4.1 shows a decreased ability to enhance the binding of spectrin to actin in b-thalassaemic red cells, an important function for maintenance of the normal stability of the cytoskeleton (Shinar et al. 1989). Band 4.1 is also partially oxidized (Advani et al. 1992b). These mechanisms may also be responsible for the increased susceptibility to fragmentation under sheer stress, observed in b- but not in a-thalassaemic red cells (Schrier et al. 1989). Normally the red cell is protected from iron by chelation of free iron via its carrier, transferrin, and its storage protein, ferritin, a vital function in order to prevent iron from catalysing lipid and protein peroxidation. The mechanisms of iron toxicity are summarized by Hershko (1989) and are discussed further in a later section. By generating oxygen free radicals it has
(a)
Fig. 5.7 Gaucher-like cells in thalassaemia. (a) Kupffer cells with Gaucher-like structure within hepatic sinusoids (centre).The surrounding hepatocytes contain haemosiderin pigment (dark staining) (¥ 2678). (b) A Gaucher-like cell in the spleen showing membrane-bound fusiform saccules filled with microtubules in the cytoplasm (¥ 18 600). Figures kindly prepared by Professor David Ferguson.
(b)
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the potential to damage several membrane components including lipids and protein, as well as intracellular organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes. Abnormally high levels of iron are present in the cytosol and in the membrane of the red cells of b thalassaemics (Repka et al. 1993; Shinar & Rachmilewitz 1993). Early studies showed that, as judged by serum a-tocopherol levels,many b thalassaemics are vitamin E deficient, this suggesting that it may be consumed in neutralizing oxidative damage to the red cell (Rachmilewitz et al. 1979). Recent experimental studies have confirmed that excess iron accumulation is catalytically active in propagating free-radical reactions (Grinberg & Rachmilewitz 1995; Grinberg et al. 1995). These findings correlate with those of others (Hebbel 1985) on the generation of free radicals in the red cells of patients with sickle-cell anaemia, thus indicating a similar pattern of oxidative damage in these two haemoglobin disorders. More direct evidence for the deleterious effects of iron on red-cell membrane function in b thalassaemia has been obtained by Browne et al. (1997). Mice with b thalassaemia were treated with intraperitoneal injections of the iron chelator deferiprone for 4 weeks. This resulted in an improvement in red-cell survival, a reduction in oxidation of membrane proteins and an improvement in the metabolic activities of the red cells and, as measured by osmotic-gradient ektacytometry, there was a trend towards improved hydration of the red cells. The potentially toxic effects of haem and its products on the red-cell membrane are summarized by Vincent (1989) and Jarolim et al. (1990). These agents can catalyse the formation of a variety of reactive oxygen species and they are potent photosensitizers, able to transfer the energy of their excited states to oxygen, forming superoxide radicals. Haem can damage membrane lipids and protein, in the free state or complexed with haem proteins. It may react with hydrogen peroxide to form oxygen intermediates; oxidized haem gives rise to protoporphyrin cation radicals while ferrous haem catalyses the formation of hydroxyl radicals. All these agents are capable of causing major oxidative damage to various components of the membrane. Haemin is of particular importance in membrane damage because it combines directly with skeletal proteins to produce local oxidative damage to sur-
rounding lipids and protein. It can also induce potassium leak, decreased osmotic fragility, alterations in the conformation of band 4.1 and its oxidative state and association with spectrin, and weakening of spectrin dimer–dimer associations; all these changes have been observed in thalassaemic red cells (Avissar et al. 1984; Liu et al. 1985; Rachmilewitz et al. 1985; Shinar et al. 1989). These observations have been supported by in vitro experiments in which haem-containing a globin has been inserted into normal red cells.After 20 h of incubation, these cells show considerable cytosolic and membrane changes indicative of oxidative damage, including increased levels of methaemoglobin, excess hydrogen peroxide generation and reduced glutathione stability, which correlates with the rate of a-chain oxidation and the amount of membranebound globin (Scott et al. 1990, 1993). In keeping with observations on thalassaemic cells, this model also demonstrates elevated levels of haem and non-haem iron, and increased lipid peroxidation. These findings provide additional support for the role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of the b-thalassaemic red cell. It appears therefore that, at least as judged by studies of membrane structure and function, oxidative denaturation plays an important role in the premature destruction of red cells in b thalassaemia (Shinar & Rachmilewitz 1990a). These changes are also mirrored by an abnormal distribution of membrane phospholipids, with most of the phosphatidylcholine (PC) on the inner bilayer leaflet, and phosphatidyl-ethanolamine (PE) on the outer leaflet. Furthermore, there is a reduction in the percentage of PE together with an increase in the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Both PE and PUFAs are known to be particularly susceptible to peroxidation and their relative decrease in thalassaemic redcell membranes suggests that they may have been damaged in this way. We shall return to the question of oxidative damage to the red-cell membrane later in this chapter when we discuss the differences in the patterns of membrane changes between a and b thalassaemia. In vitro evidence of membrane damage As well as the reduction in their survival the red cells of b thalassaemics show in vitro evidence of red-cell
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias membrane damage. Cividalli et al. (1971) demonstrated a marked increase of sodium permeability, and similar findings, together with an increased leakage of potassium, elevated levels of calcium, a higher rate of glycolysis and lactate formation, and low and unstable levels of ATP, were reported by Nathan et al. (1969), Shalev et al. (1984) and Bookchin et al. (1988). Overall, the b-thalassaemic red cell is dehydrated compared with normal or a-thalassaemic erythrocytes (Bunyaratvej et al. 1994). Several workers have found that many of these changes are more marked in the upper, younger cells obtained after centrifugation, which contain more inclusion bodies than those from the lower layers (Loukopoulos & Fessas 1965; Nathan & Gunn 1966; Nathan et al. 1969). This provides further evidence that these abnormalities are due directly to damage caused by a-chain precipitation as the cells traverse the microcirculation (Nathan et al. 1969). The complex relationship between haemichrome formation and the activity of the hexose monophosphate shunt and antioxidant enzymes is discussed by Cappellini et al. (1999). Membrane function in the red cells of b-thalassaemia heterozygotes These changes are mirrored by similar though milder abnormalities of membrane function in b-thalassaemia heterozygotes (Gunn et al. 1972; Chapman et al. 1973; Knox-Macaulay & Weatherall 1974; Vettore et al. 1974).There is an increased flux of K+, an effect which is accentuated when the red cells are incubated for 24 h at 37°C, but minimal increase in intracellular Na+. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels are normal or slightly reduced, but on incubation the cells lose ATP more rapidly than normal, an effect which can be reversed by the addition of glucose. It appears therefore that the cells can compensate for their increased cation pumping by increasing the transport-regulated component of glycolysis and hence can maintain normal ATP levels except under conditions of stress. Interestingly, in the studies of Chapman et al. (1973), Knox-Macaulay and Weatherall (1974), Falezza et al. (1977) and Vettore et al. (1977a,b,c) similar functional abnormalities were found in other hypochromic anaemias such as irondeficiency and sideroblastic anaemia. It is likely therefore that some of these changes reflect underhaemoglobinized red cells rather than globin imbal-
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ance. In favour of this concept is the observation that similar changes were found in the cells of individuals who had inherited both a and b thalassaemia, in which there was minimal globin imbalance (KnoxMacaulay et al. 1972). These findings also explain the increased osmotic resistance of thalassaemic red cells and how this further increases after incubation for 24 h.With excessive loss of K+ and water, and cellular dehydration, there is a decrease in red-cell volume and hence in osmotic activity. This phenomenon is accentuated after incubation, but if glucose is added it provides adequate energy for ATP regeneration and hence for maintaining the Na+–K+ pump to counteract excess loss of K+ and water from the cells. The observation that increased osmotic resistance can be demonstrated even in the presence of glucose by inhibition of the Na+–K+ membrane pumps by ouabain or ethrynic acid is further evidence in favour of this mechanism (Knox-Macaulay & Weatherall 1974). The red cells of b thalassaemics have therefore a shortened survival that reflects both excess a-chain production and under-haemoglobinization. In the severe forms of the disease damage is also mediated by mechanical trauma and complex interactions which combine to overcome the red cells’ defence mechanisms which, except in the case of senescent cells, normally protect haemoglobin and the red-cell membrane components from oxidative damage. The end result is a dehydrated, rigid cell. Some of the complex interactions that lead to red-cell damage of this kind are summarized in Fig. 5.8 and Table 5.2. We shall return to the practical implications of these issues when we describe the potential role of antioxidants in the management of b thalassaemia in Chapter 15.
Secondary effects of ineffective erythropoiesis and anaemia Response to anaemia Because methods for estimating erythropoietin (Epo) levels in blood and urine were, until recently, extremely tedious and difficult to standardize, evidence about the physiological response to the anaemia of b thalassaemia has been slow in coming. The pioneering studies of Hammond et al. (1962) suggested that there are significantly elevated levels of Epo in the blood and urine of patients with haemo-
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Excess globin chains
Denaturation
Degradation
Methaemoglobin
Irreversible haemichromes
K↓ Ca ↓
Reversible haemichromes
MCH ↓ MCHC ↓
Ferritin Haemosiderin
Fe
Haem PPIX
Inclusion body
. H2O2 O2– OH
Oxidation
Haemin
Lipid bilayer damage
Globin chains α +β
β
α
Sp. band 3 crosslinking Abnormal Abnormal spectrin association Sp.-lov binding
Band 3 clustering
Pufa Pe oxidation
Sp. Actin 4.1 instability
Spectrin deficiency Ankryin deficiency Abnormal Sp.-4.1 binding
Autologous IgG + complement binding
Phosphatidylserine exposure
Fragmentation and instability Increased rigidity Decreased deformability
Immune removal
Activation of prothrombinase complex
Mechanical removal
Hypercoagulability
Fig. 5.8 A representation of the main pathways that are involved in membrane damage and shortened red-cell survival in the a and b thalassaemias.The figure also shows one of the proposed mechanisms for generating a hypercoagulable state. Iov, inside-out vesicles; MCH, mean cell haemoglobin; MCHC, mean cell haemoglobin concentration; Pe, phosphatidyl ethanolamine; Pufa, polyunsaturated fatty acid; Sp, spectrin. From Weatherall (1998).
globin values of 7.0 g/dl or less. Interestingly, the level of Epo in plasma and urine was higher in patients with hypoplastic anaemia than thalassaemics with comparable haemoglobin levels. More recently published data on Epo levels in b thalassaemia, though often difficult to interpret because of the different transfusion status of the patients, have given similar results although there are some puzzling inconsistencies (Manor et al. 1986; Andre et al. 1991; Kalmanti et al. 1991; Dore et al. 1993; Sergiacomi et al. 1993; Galanello et al. 1994; Cazzola et al. 1995). Some of these studies included patients with thalassaemia intermedia and hence the results were not confused by transfusion. In many, though not all, there was a reasonable correlation between the steady-state haemoglobin and serum Epo levels
and there was an appropriate response to transfusion reflected by a marked reduction in the level of Epo production. However, the same discrepancy that had been noted by Hammond and colleagues with respect to different Epo responses at the same haemoglobin level in patients with aplastic anaemia and those with b thalassaemia has been confirmed. In one study the Epo response was different in children and older patients, suggesting that it is less effective with increasing age (Manor et al. 1986). Another, which attempted to assess the relationship between Epo production and both haemoglobin and HbF levels, reported that these two variables were independently correlated (Galanello et al. 1994); patients with thalassaemia intermedia with particularly high HbF levels showed an expansion of erythropoiesis to as
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias Table 5.2 Summary of mechanisms of damage to red cells and precursors in b thalassaemia. Red-cell precursors; infective erythropoiesis Imbalanced globin synthesis. a-Chain precipitation Inclusion-body formation Haemichrome formation Oxidative damage to membrane components by haem, haemin and iron Defective maturation of erythroid precursors Accelerated apoptosis Enhanced phagocyte activity Red cells; haemolysis a-Chain precipitation Inclusion-body formation—mechanical trauma Haemichrome formation. Band 3 clusters. IgG binding Oxidative damage to membrane by haem, haemin and iron. Band 4.1 oxidation Low ATP and potassium; increased calcium Dehydration and rigidity Metabolic consequences of hypersplenism
much as 4–9 times normal at the same haemoglobin level as patients with much lower levels of HbF. It was concluded that HbF exerts an independent regulatory effect on Epo production. The possibility that some patients have a suboptimal erythropoietin response received further credence when it was found that there is a modest increase in haemoglobin level following the long-term administration of recombinant Epo (Rachmilewitz et al. 1995). It is difficult to reconcile all these findings. While it seems certain that there is a marked Epo response to the anaemia of b thalassaemia, and that this is the main factor involved in erythroid expansion, whether this is always optimal, and whether it persists over the lifespan of a thalassaemic patient, remains to be determined. And further work is needed to define its relationship to HbF production and to other factors that may determine the position of the oxygen dissociation curve of the complex heterogeneous red-cell populations of b thalassaemics, a problem which we shall return to later in this chapter. Erythroid expansion The expansion of the ineffective erythroid mass that occurs in b thalassaemia, estimated to range between 10 and 30 times normal in some cases (Finch et al. 1970; Fessas & Loukopoulos 1974), is of profound
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importance in the generation of many of the more distressing clinical features of the disease, particularly bone deformity and, occasionally, the production of extramedullary tumour masses (see Chapter 13). It also imposes an excessive metabolic burden, particularly on young children, with the result that they fail to grow, muscular development is poor, and body fat and weight are reduced. Shunting of blood through this massively expanded marrow may be partly responsible for the increase in plasma volume (Blendis et al. 1974), which, together with splenomegaly, is undoubtedly responsible for exacerbating the anaemia. Anaemia and hypervolaemia combine to produce cardiomegaly and the high-output state which is seen in profoundly anaemic thalassaemic patients. It also seems likely that the increased metabolic burden and cell turnover are responsible for other features of the disease such as temperature elevation, anorexia and other non-specific symptoms.A poor nutritional state, together with an increased rate of cell turnover, probably explains the occurrence of folate deficiency, another factor which may worsen the anaemia (Jandl & Greenberg 1959;Luhby & Cooperman 1961;Luhby et al. 1961; Vatanavicharn et al. 1978). The increased rate of destruction of red-cell precursors is mirrored by an elevated level of urates in the urine, and serum uric acid levels that are higher than in control subjects; clinical features of gout are uncommon, however (Paik et al. 1970; Fessas & Loukopoulos 1974). Splenomegaly and hypersplenism Mechanisms One of the functions of the spleen is to act as a filter, retaining defective blood cells and foreign particles in a bed of phagocytes (Weiss 1995). Approximately 5–10% of splenic blood is diverted into the red pulp and slowly percolates through a non-endothelialized mesh containing macrophages, after which it reenters the circulation through narrow slits, measuring 1–3 µm, in the endothelial sinuses. Sometimes called ‘work hypertrophy’, a term which at least hides our total ignorance of the mechanisms involved, the exposure of the reticuloendothelial elements of the spleen to abnormal red cells like those of b thalassaemics leads to its progressive enlargement. This concept is supported by the observation that children who have received regular blood transfusions from early in life,
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and hence who do not have many abnormal red cells in their circulation, do not develop significant splenomegaly. The early observations of Fessas (1963) that blood cells carrying inclusions only appear in the peripheral blood after splenectomy also pointed to the central importance of the spleen in the pathophysiology of the anaemia. Extramedullary haemopoiesis may also contribute to splenomegaly, and hepatomegaly. Morphological and metabolic studies of red cells from patients who have undergone splenectomy, when separated into young and old populations by centrifugation, also provide valuable evidence about the role of the spleen in the anaemia of b thalassaemia. Cells from the upper layer contain more inclusion bodies than the older populations from the lower layers; the former have a lower haemoglobin content and more crateral distortions, and show abnormalities of membrane function, higher rates of glycolysis and lactate formation, and low, unstable levels of ATP. It is presumably these younger, inclusion-containing populations that are trapped in the spleen (Loukopoulos & Fessas 1965; Nathan & Gunn 1966; Nathan et al. 1969). Consequence of splenomegaly All the formed elements of the blood may be trapped in the spleen, producing anaemia, thrombocytopenia and neutropenia. The anaemia has a complicated basis, with shortening of the red-cell survival, a dilutional element caused by pooling of a proportion of the red-cell mass in the spleen, and the ill-understood effect of increasing the plasma volume. Several studies have reported red-cell mass and survival data in thalassaemic children with large spleens (Lichtman et al. 1953; Smith et al. 1955; Reemsta & Elliot 1956; Blendis et al. 1974). There is shortening of the homologous red-cell survival, evidence of entrapment of red cells in the splenic pool and a marked expansion of the total blood volume. Cells trapped in the splenic pool accounted for between 9 and 40% of the total red-cell mass in the study of Blendis et al. (1974). The spleen is also the site of extensive extramedullary haematopoiesis in patients with severe forms of b thalassaemia. Interestingly, Blendis et al. (1974) noted that splenectomy may be associated with a growth spurt, suggesting that an enlarged spleen might have a deleterious effect on development. Whether this follows
the beneficial effect of removing a large mass of ineffective erythropoietic tissue, with its associated metabolic demands, or a more subtle effect of hypersplenism remains to be determined. Many children with severe b thalassaemia that are inadequately transfused, or those with thalassaemia intermedia, have palpable hepatomegaly. Experienced clinicians have noted that this may tend to become more marked after splenectomy, particularly if the patient is not receiving adequate blood transfusion. There are no convincing explanations for either of these findings. They could reflect the effects of hepatic extramedullary erythropoiesis (see Fig. 7.13, Chapter 7) or sequestration of abnormal red cells in the liver. Recent studies by the authors of children with this clinical picture in Sri Lanka suggest that the former explanation is more likely. Plasma volume expansion As mentioned earlier, plasma volume expansion is a common finding in severe b thalassaemia, particularly if patients are inadequately transfused. This has the effect of worsening the anaemia and posing a greater load on the myocardium. It is not due entirely to splenomegaly; the plasma volume does not always return to normal after splenectomy (Blendis et al. 1974). It has been suggested that it results from the expanded bone marrow acting as a vascular shunt, a mechanism that is thought to result in plasma volume expansion in other diseases. Iron overload Generalized iron loading of the organs has been recognized as a complication of thalassaemia for many years (Whipple & Bradford 1936; Howell & Wyatt 1953; Ellis et al. 1954; Erlandson et al. 1964b; Fink 1964). The excess iron is derived both from intestinal absorption and from transfusion; in adequately transfused children the latter mechanism predominates, while in patients who have been inadequately transfused and in those with intermediate forms of b thalassaemia increased absorption from the gut is the major route. Mechanisms and rate of iron loading Current views on iron metabolism in thalassaemia are based on knowledge about normal iron homeostasis
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias (Brittenham 1994; Kühn 1994). The main pathway of internal iron flux is from transferrin, the iron transport protein, to the erythron and thence to the monocyte/macrophage system, which ingests effete red cells, and back to plasma transferrin. Approximately 0.5% of the total body iron is acquired or lost each day. Because humans cannot increase the rate of excretion of iron, balance is regulated by the control of absorption. The two major factors that influence the rate of absorption from the intestine are the amount of iron in the body stores and the level of erythropoietic activity. A normal adult has a total body iron of about 5 g, of which approximately 3.5 g are in the erythron, 1 g in the storage compartments and 0.5 g in the tissues. From these physiological considerations it is easy to see why iron loading occurs in b thalassaemia. A unit of blood contains approximately 200 mg of iron and, since there is no way of excreting excess iron, a regular transfusion regimen rapidly increases the body iron load. At the same time, iron absorption increases dramatically in the presence of ineffective erythropoiesis and erythroid expansion; the drive to increased iron absorption overcomes the physiological mechanisms whereby it is normally reduced in the presence of increased body stores. The degree of iron load derived from transfusion depends on the type of regimen. Modell (1976) estimated that by the time children maintained asymptomatic on a high transfusion programme reach the age of 11 years they will have accumulated approximately 28 g of iron. Although it is only at about this level of loading that patients begin to show signs of hepatic, cardiac and endocrine disturbances similar to those seen in adults with primary haemochromatosis, organ damage starts much earlier. In a group of babies and children studied by serial liver biopsies it was found that tissue damage occurs soon after transfusions are initiated (Iancu et al.1977a,b;Iancu & Neustein 1977). For example, in three babies aged 5, 6 and 13 months, although the hepatic architecture was normal, most of the hepatocytes contained a number of round or oval structures, single and membrane bound, which were identified as secondary lysosomes; two of these biopsies already showed increased total iron content. To what extent this early iron loading reflects increased absorption associated with anaemia before the beginning of regular transfusion or the effect of the first transfusions is not clear. The pathology of hepatic iron loading is considered further in Chapter 7.
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Though iron absorption studies in patients with transfusion-dependent thalassaemia give variable results, presumably depending on the transfusion regimen that is being followed, overall there is an increased rate of absorption in children who are anaemic, which is corrected after adequate transfusion (Smith et al. 1955; Larizza et al. 1958; Erlandson et al. 1962; Bannerman 1964; Necheles et al. 1969; Heinrich et al. 1973). For example, Heinrich et al. (1973) found that inorganic iron absorption was markedly increased 64–300 days after transfusion, whereas it fell into the normal range when measured 3–17 days afterwards. In intermediate forms of b thalassaemia, in which the picture is not complicated by the effects of blood transfusion, there is increased iron absorption and subsequent iron overload, although this occurs at a slower rate than in transfusion-dependent patients (Pippard et al.1979).Combined measurements of iron absorption and ferrokinetics have demonstrated a consistent relationship between the magnitude of the increase in erythropoiesis and radioactive iron absorption in patients of this kind (Pootrakul et al.1988). Mechanisms of tissue damage in iron loading Although vital for living processes iron can, under certain circumstances, generate extremely toxic free radicals, which cause widespread tissue damage. In health, it is tightly bound to storage or transport proteins; binding of plasma iron to transferrin, for example, prevents its catalytic effect in free-radical production (Hershko & Peto 1987). However, with increasing iron loading transferrin becomes saturated and a potentially toxic, non-transferrin-bound fraction of plasma iron (NTPI) becomes detectable in plasma (Hershko et al. 1978; Gutteridge et al. 1985; Wagstaff et al. 1985).The rate of low molecular weight iron uptake from this source by cultured rat heart cells is over 300 times that of transferrin iron (Link & Pinson 1985). Furthermore, transferrin iron uptake is inhibited by high tissue iron concentration due to the downregulation of transferrin receptor production, whereas NTPI uptake is actually increased in high tissue iron concentrations (Randell et al. 1994). The advances in free-radical chemistry which have clarified the toxic properties of iron are summarized by Gutteridge and Halliwell (1989) and the effects of free-radical damage mediated by iron are reviewed by Hershko and Weatherall (1988), Hershko et al.
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(1998b) and Grinberg and Rachmilewitz (1995). Activation of the respiratory burst in macrophages and granulocytes is associated with a marked increase in the production of superoxide (O2–) and peroxide (O22–). At physiological pH, peroxide is rapidly protonated to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide are poorly reactive in aqueous solution, but the hydroxyl radical (·OH) is highly reactive and toxic. Hydrogen peroxide readily crosses biological membranes and can propagate oxygen-related damage. Free hydroxyl radicals are produced from O2 and H2O2 as follows: Fe+++ + O2 Æ Fe++ + O2– Fe++ + H2O2 Æ Fe+++ + ·OH + OH– Hydroxyl radicals, and possibly other oxygen-derived species, may cause considerable damage by degrading DNA and hyaluronic acid, and by membrane peroxidation (Slater 1984; Hershko & Weatherall 1988). The end result of the lipid damage is loss of fluidity, a fall in membrane potential, increased permeability to H+ and other ions, and eventual rupture leading to release of cell and organelle contents including lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes. The damaging effects of lipid peroxidation are discussed in detail by Gutteridge and Halliwell (1989).
Antioxidant Intracellular Superoxide dismutases Catalase Glutathione peroxidase Membrane Vitamin E
It has been found that the low molecular mass iron that is present in the serum of patients with iron overload (Hershko et al. 1978) is also present in many other tissues. Although iron is usually tightly associated with haem and non-haem proteins such as ferritin, transferrin and haemoglobin, imposing an oxidant stress on iron-containing proteins can cause them to release some ‘free’ iron. It thus seems likely that oxidant damage itself generates at least some of the iron necessary to complete the toxic sequences of the reactions outlined above (Gutteridge & Halliwell 1989). Although there are several defence mechanisms against free-radical damage (Table 5.3), including such first-line antioxidant systems as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase, it appears that in heavily iron-loaded patients they are inadequate to prevent oxidative damage. Autopsies of patients who have died of b thalassaemia have shown widespread iron deposition (Whipple & Bradford 1936; Astaldi et al. 1951; Ellis et al. 1954; Sansone et al. 1955; Fink 1964; Putignano et al. 1973; Modell & Matthews 1976). Although iron is deposited throughout many organs, the most important pathological consequences result from its involvement of the liver, heart and endocrine glands.
Mode of action Removal of superoxide radical (O2–) Removal of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Removal of hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides
b-Carotene
Lipid-soluble, lipid-radical, chain-breaking antioxidant Singlet oxygen and ·OH scavenger
Extracellular Transferrin Lactoferrin Ceruloplasmin Haptoglobin/haemopexin Albumin Superoxide dismutases Urate; uric acid Glucose
Iron binding Iron binding at low pH Oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric state Bind free haemoglobin/haem Binds copper tightly and iron weakly As above Inhibitors of radical reactions High rate constant for reaction with ·OH radicals
Table 5.3 Some important antioxidant systems. Modified from Gutteridge and Halliwell (1989).
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias Liver As mentioned earlier, Iancu and colleagues have carried out serial liver and other tissue biopsies from thalassaemic children from very early in life and described both the light- and electron-microscopic appearances of the tissue damage mediated by iron deposition (Iancu & Neustein 1977; Iancu et al. 1977a,b; Masera et al. 1980; Iancu 1989). In the first year, liver biopsies show ferritin particles in the cytocell and siderosomes of hepatocytes.With progressive transfusion therapy there is increasing siderocytosis of both parenchymal and reticuloendothelial cells (Fig. 5.9a). Fibrosis, initially interhepatocytic, progresses to capillarization of sinusoids and cirrhosis (Fig. 5.9b). Finally, hepatocytes disappear within connectivetissue scars containing clumps of haemosiderin.
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There are extensive autopsy data, collected over many years, which indicate that in children who have not had adequate iron chelation therapy, severe hepatic fibrosis and siderosis are common accompaniments of iron loading (Frumin et al. 1952; Howell & Wyatt 1953; Ellis et al. 1954;Witzleben & Wyatt 1961). Furthermore, it is clear, both from the sequential studies described above and from autopsy data, that serious hepatic damage may be mediated very early in life (Wollstein & Kreidel 1930; Panizon & Vullo 1952) (see Chapter 7). Parkes et al. (1995) have shown that human liver cells in culture upregulate the transport of nontransferrin-bound iron in response to iron loading, a factor that may be of considerable importance in generating liver damage in diseases like thalassaemia.
(a)
Fig. 5.9 Liver pathology in b thalassaemia. (a) Early iron deposition in a 2-year-old child, showing liver cells at the periphery of lobules.The left-hand section is magnified ¥ 100 and the right-hand section ¥ 450. (b) Severe iron loading with early cirrhosis in HbE b thalassaemia; Prussian blue stain, ¥ 100. From Sonakul (1989), with permission.
(b)
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Heart While for obvious reasons there have been no sequential biopsy studies of the heart in thalassaemic patients there are extensive autopsy data on the distribution and patterns of iron loading. Detailed descriptions of the myocardium and conducting tissues of the heart have been reported by Engle (1964), Buja and Roberts (1971), Modell and Matthews (1976) and Sonakul et al. (1988a). Although the dry weight of iron is less than in the liver it is widely distributed together with lipofuscein in small granules which may represent lysosomes (Fig. 5.10). Curiously, the iron is not distributed uniformly in the myocardium but is found at a much greater concentration in the epicardial region. Hence assessment of cardiac iron loading by endomyocardial biopsy may give falsely low values. Additional changes observed at autopsy have included extensive myocardial fibre disruption and variable fibrosis (Howell & Wyatt 1953; Witzleben & Wyatt 1961; Schellhammer et al. 1967). There have been several studies of heart cells maintained in culture to examine the kinetics of cardiac iron loading and the likely effects of iron chelation (Link & Pinson 1985; Parkes et al. 1993). Parkes and colleagues found that previous iron loading of rat myocardiocytes promoted a dose- and time-dependent increase in the rate of uptake of non-transferrinbound iron, an effect which, interestingly, resulted in a reduction in spontaneous beating of the cells by over 50%. The rate of uptake of non-transferrin-bound iron reverted to control levels after treatment with therapeutic concentrations of iron chelators. These results suggest that a vicious circle may be created whereby iron loading exacerbates the uptake of toxic, non-transferrin-bound iron leading to cardiac damage and further iron loading, in a similar fashion to that described for liver cells earlier in this section. It seems likely that the generation of free hydroxyl radicals results in the damage to the lysosomal membrane of myocytes and leads to the disruption of the sarcolemmal membrane and inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (Link et al. 1994, 1996; Hershko et al. 1998b). While it is clear that iron loading of the myocardium is the major factor in the pathophysiology of cardiac disease in thalassaemic patients, there are a number of other mechanisms which may be involved. There is increasing evidence that right-heart strain
(a)
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Fig. 5.10 Iron deposition in the myocardium. (a) Paranuclear deposition of iron in the early stages of iron loading. (b) Distribution of iron throughout the myocardial fibres which occurs with heavy iron loading. (c) Iron encrusting of the elastic lamina of a small coronary artery. Prussian blue stain; (a,b) ¥ 450, (c) ¥ 100. From Sonakul (1989), with permission.
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias may be provoked by pulmonary hypertension resulting from either structural damage to the lungs or multiple pulmonary emboli (see later section). Furthermore, as we shall see in Chapter 7, in the past recurrent pericarditis was a fairly frequent complication, although it has been seen less frequently over recent years. However, recent studies have suggested that myocarditis, not necessarily associated with iron overload, may be a fairly frequent complication; in a study of 1000 patients, approximately 5% developed serious cardiac disease secondary to myocarditis with no evidence of iron overload (Kremastinos et al. 1996). These infective complications which involve the heart may vary in different populations. For example Wasi (1972) found an elevated level of antistreptolysin O titres in thalassaemic patients with pericarditis in Thailand, and suggested that at least some of them might represent rheumatic pericarditis. As far as we know, this suggestion has not been followed up and there have not been reports of similar serological changes from other populations. Endocrine glands There is widespread haemosiderosis involving most of the endocrine organs in iron-loaded thalassaemics (Ellis et al. 1954; Erlandson et al. 1964b; Fink 1964). This early work focused on the high frequency of pancreatic involvement and subsequent diabetes as a complication of severe thalassaemia (Ellis et al. 1954; Erlandson et al. 1964b; Bannerman et al. 1967); more recently these studies have been confirmed and detailed analyses of carbohydrate homeostasis in thalassaemic patients have been reported (Toccafondi et al. 1970b; Lassman et al. 1974a; Flynn et al. 1976; Saudek et al. 1977; De Sanctis et al. 1988a,b,c; Merkel et al. 1988). Later, it was found that iron-loaded patients with b thalassaemia may suffer from a variety of other hormone deficiencies involving any endocrine organ, including the gonads (Kuo et al. 1968; Canale et al. 1974; Lassman et al. 1974b; Flynn et al. 1976; McIntosh 1976a,b; Tuchinda et al. 1978; Masala et al. 1984; De Sanctis et al. 1989; Vullo et al. 1990; Perignon et al. 1993; Jensen et al. 1997; Low 1997). More detailed studies of individual endocrine gland function have confirmed that there may be variable hormone deficiencies of the pituitary (Zaino et al. 1969; Toccafondi et al. 1970a; Canale et al. 1974; Costin et al. 1979; Saenger et al. 1980; Pintor et al. 1986;
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Sklar et al. 1987; De Sanctis et al. 1988a, 1989; Chatterjee et al. 1993b; Roth et al. 1997), adrenal (Kuo et al. 1968; Canale et al. 1974; McIntosh 1976b; Sklar et al. 1987), thyroid (Gabrielle 1971; Lassman et al. 1974b; Oberklaid & Seshadri 1975; Flynn et al. 1976; Spitz et al. 1984), parathyroid (Flynn et al. 1976; Aloia et al. 1982; Spitz et al. 1984; De Sanctis et al. 1992) and gonads (Canale et al. 1974; Lassman et al. 1974b; Flynn et al. 1976; Modell 1976; De Sanctis et al. 1988b; Wang et al. 1989). Several authors have suggested that, in very severely iron-loaded patients, end-organ fibrosis may be an important factor in producing endocrine insufficiency (Canale et al. 1974; Flynn et al. 1976). Autopsies have revealed varying degrees of testicular interstitial fibrosis with small, heavily pigmented undifferentiated seminiferous tubules, hyalinized slings and an absence of Leidig cells (Canale et al. 1974). As we shall see when we discuss the clinical manifestations of endocrine deficiency in b thalassaemia in Chapter 7, it is now clear that growth failure, delayed sexual maturation and bone disease, all in part reflecting hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism, due to the extreme sensitivity of the hypothalamic/pituitary axis to iron excess, are the most important manifestations of iron loading of the endocrine system. Diabetes remains a problem, while hypothyroidism and hypoparathyroidism are encountered less frequently. While this type of pathology undoubtedly explains the definable endocrine deficiencies in b thalassaemia it does not explain the remarkable pigmentation which was observed by Cooley in his first description of the disease. Like other iron-loading diseases, darkening of the skin is due to increased melanin rather than iron.The skin rapidly lightens on treatment with chelating agents and it has been suggested (Graziano 1976) that the increased melanin deposition results from a free-radical mechanism similar to that responsible for sunlight-induced melanin synthesis; this reaction may be catalysed in thalassaemic children by the slight increase of iron in their skin. Iron involvement of other organs While the most serious effects of iron overload are manifest in the liver, heart and endocrine system, there is increasing evidence that it may be of importance in other ways. In Chapter 7 we shall discuss the increasing evidence that it may cause pulmonary
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pathology, and in the next section we shall mention briefly its possible role in growth retardation and bone disease. It is also clear that it affects the exocrine pancreas, although whether this is of functional importance is not yet clear (see Chapter 7). Bone disease The characteristic deformities of the skull and face, and other skeletal features of severe thalassaemia, were emphasized in many of the early descriptions of the disease by workers in the USA and Europe. It has been clear for many years that they can be prevented by adequate blood transfusion (Johnston & Roseman 1967; Piomelli et al. 1969). It seems likely therefore that these changes are largely due to expansion of the bone-marrow mass,a process that can lead to a variety of distressing complications. Spontaneous fractures, or fractures following minor trauma, are relatively common in poorly transfused children (Wolman 1964; Herrick & Davis 1975; Novikova & Abrakhanova 1975; Michelson & Cohen 1988). Uncontrolled maxillary overgrowth can lead to a grotesque appearance (Logothetis et al. 1971a) and can also result in severe dental deformities, particularly malocclusion (Asbell 1964). While most of these skeletal deformities are largely prevented by regular transfusion, bone disease, as manifested by a varying degree of osteoporosis and its complications, remains an important problem for b-thalassaemia patients (Jensen et al. 1998). Mechanisms The pathophysiological mechanisms whereby expanded marrow causes bone deformity and osteoporosis are not known. There is a paucity of information about the histological features of the bones of thalassaemic patients. Pootrakul et al. (1981a) studied two patients with serial biopsies, metabolic measurements and ferrokinetic analyses. Limited histological data are reported, but there was evidence of healing as bone-marrow activity was reduced by transfusions. Rioja et al. (1990) examined iliac crest biopsies from 70 transfusion-dependent children. In each case radiological examination had revealed typical skeletal changes, including expansion of the medullary spaces and widespread osteoporosis; ricket-like lesions were not observed. Iron deposits were detected histochemically in the bone marrow, at
the marrow/bone interface, along cement lines and in mineralizing perimeters. Minor changes only were present in trabecular bone; osteomalacia was not observed. In contrast, the cortical bone exhibited severe osteoporotic changes, including fissures and focal defects in mineralization. Virtually nothing is known about the mechanisms that underlie the relationship between hyperplasia of the bone marrow and skeletal pathology. The regulation of bone formation, a ‘coupled’ interaction between osteoblasts and osteocytes, is extremely complex and not fully understood. The stimulus for local remodelling appears to be a product, or products, of bone resorption and there is increasing evidence that cytokine release may be involved. Osteoblasts are responsive to many different cytokines (Smith 1996; Rodan 1998). Osteoclast activity, on the other hand, although regulated directly by hormones such as calcitonin, appears to be more passive and is controlled to a considerable degree by osteoblast activity, though the way these interactions are coupled is not clear. The recent discovery of osteoprotegerin and its ligand, which may play a major role in regulating bone mass, should enable rapid progress to be made in determining the mechanisms of this process (Simonet et al. 1997; Lacey et al. 1998). It is possible therefore that at least some of the stimuli to the remodelling and associated osteoporotic changes that occur in response to marrow expansion in b thalassaemia are mediated by locally produced cytokines, possibly the products of marrow cells. Whether the marked increase in vascularization associated with marrow hypertrophy also plays a role is equally uncertain. To what extent is the bone disease of b thalassaemia related to additional metabolic disturbances? There is no evidence for a major abnormality of vitamin D metabolism in this disease (Dandona et al. 1987; Rioja et al. 1990). Clinical hypoparathyroidism with metabolic bone disease has been reported (Gabrielle 1971; Oberklaid & Seshadri 1975; Flynn et al. 1976) but is unlikely to be a factor in the large majority of cases. It has also been suggested that ascorbate deficiency secondary to iron overload plays a role in osteoporosis (Charlton & Bothwell 1976; Michelson & Cohen 1988); in Bantu populations with dietetic iron loading severe osteoporosis is a frequent complication. It is not clear, however, whether ascorbate deficiency plays a major part in the bone disease of b thalassaemia. Recently it has become clear that hypogo-
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias nadism plays an important role in the genesis of the osteoporosis that is observed in patients with severe forms of b thalassaemia, particularly in those in whom there is evidence of severe iron loading (Fabbri et al. 1991;Anapliotou et al. 1995; Jensen et al. 1998). In two extensive series of patients with primary or secondary hypogonadism there was a reasonable correlation between gonadal function and the degree of osteoporosis. There is also some preliminary evidence that polymorphisms of the COLIAI and vitamin D receptor genes may play a role in modifying the likelihood of developing osteoporosis (see Chapter 7). Clearly, therefore, much remains to be learnt about the pathophysiology of the skeletal deformities and thinning of the bones that occur in b thalassaemia. However, until more is known about the regulation of osteoblast and osteoclast activity, and the relationship between marrow hypertrophy and skeletal pathology, it may be very difficult to make further progress. What is becoming clear, however, is that hormonal deficiency secondary to iron loading, particularly if it involves the gonads via the hypothalamic/pituitary axis or, less commonly, the parathyroids, may contribute significantly (Wonke 1998). Whether variability at gene loci involved with bone or hormone metabolism is also important requires further study. Finally, as we shall discuss in Chapter 15, there is increasing evidence that long-term chelation therapy may also have important effects on growth and bone metabolism. Bleeding, thrombosis and coagulation defects Bleeding The earlier literature on thalassaemia suggested that a bleeding tendency occurs occasionally in severely affected patients, particularly if they have not been adequately transfused. The most common problem is recurrent epistaxis (Hilgartner & Smith 1964; Esposito et al. 1976; Bertorello et al. 1977; Caocci et al. 1978). It has also been suggested that there is an increased incidence of intraocular haemorrhage (Toselli et al. 1969). In the study of Hilgartner and Smith no specific coagulation factor deficiencies could be demonstrated, despite poor liver function due to iron loading in some of their cases. Hypersplenism may be associated with severe thrombocytopenia and bleeding. In older, iron-loaded patients defective liver function with a prolonged prothrombin time may be responsi-
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ble.Abnormal platelet function was observed in some of these early reports (Eldor 1978a,b). Thrombotic complications While recent reviews of coagulation in thalassaemia have stressed the importance of thrombotic complications, it is not clear how commonly they are encountered in practice. There were early reports of an increased frequency of transient ischaemic attacks and cerebrovascular accidents (Logothetis et al. 1972a; Sinniah et al. 1977; Paolini et al. 1983). However, many of these incidents occurred in severely anaemic children. Later, it was reported that both peripheral arterial and venous thromboses and an increase in pulmonary emboli found at autopsy are found quite frequently in splenectomized patients with HbE thalassaemia (Sonakul et al. 1980; Sumiyoshi et al. 1992). In a review of 735 Italian patients, 32 were reported to have experienced one or more important thromboembolic events (BorgnaPignatti et al. 1998a). Thrombotic mechanisms It has been known for many years that after splenectomy there is an inverse relationship between the steady-state haemoglobin level and the platelet count; patients who remain anaemic tend to have a persistently high count and Hirsh and Dacie (1966) reported that they are at high risk for thromboembolism. A number of studies have examined the role of spontaneous platelet activation and aggregation, particularly after splenectomy (Winichagoon et al. 1981; Eldor et al. 1991; Laosombat et al. 1992; Opartkiattikul et al. 1992a; Del Principe et al. 1993). There appears to be a significant shortening of platelet lifespan in thalassaemic patients (Eldor et al. 1989). The notion that this might reflect increased activation and turnover was strengthened by the finding of significantly increased levels of urinary metabolites of thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin (Eldor et al. 1991). It has also been observed that there is an increased interaction between thalassaemic red cells and endothelial cells (Butthep et al. 1992; Hovav et al. 1999) and evidence for an increased rate of activation of the coagulation system (Caocci et al.1978;Mazzone et al. 1984; Cappellini et al. 1996; Ruf et al. 1997). Using thalassaemic red cells as a source of phospholipids, enhanced thrombin generation has been demon-
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strated in a prothrombinase assay (BorensteinBen Yashar et al. 1993; Cappellini et al. 1996).This procoagulant effect of thalassaemic red cells appears to be due to an increased expression of anionic phospholipids such as phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine. This effect was also observed in studies using annexin V, a protein with a high affinity and specificity for these phospholipids which blocks the procoagulant effect of isolated thalassaemic red cells (Helley et al. 1996). It appears therefore that the procoagulant surface of thalassaemic red cells may accelerate thrombin generation in vivo, which, in turn, triggers platelet activation. Recent experimental studies have confirmed that this may be an important mechanism in the hypercoagulable state of b thalassaemia (Ruf et al. 1997). Other coagulation changes have been observed in b thalassaemia. Some but not all studies have shown a reduction in antithrombin III, protein C and protein S (Musumeci et al. 1987; Leonardi et al. 1990; Shirahata et al. 1992). More recently it has been found that there are low levels of heparin cofactor II, a protein with similar properties to antithrombin III, a finding that can be reversed by blood transfusion (O’Driscoll et al. 1995).The mechanism for this change is also not clear; it could result from binding of the heparin cofactor to abnormal erythrocytes. Recently, Eldor et al. (1999) have obtained evidence which suggests that the features of a chronic hypercoagulable state is present from early life in patients with b thalassaemia, and may contribute to later cardiac and pulmonary complications. Is the hypercoagulable state important? Although there seems little doubt that thalassaemic red cells have potential procoagulant properties, the frequency of clinical manifestations based on these laboratory abnormalities is still not clear. The recent Italian study of Borgna-Pignatti et al. (1998a), mentioned earlier, suggests that they may be commoner than hitherto realized. The case of splenectomized patients with HbE b thalassaemia in Thailand is also of particular interest in this context (see Chapter 9). In this setting there appears to be a definite increase in the frequency of pulmonary thromboembolic disease (Sonakul et al. 1988b). This study and the beautifully illustrated atlas produced by Sonakul (1989) reveal a complex pathology with pulmonary arterial obstructive lesions and evidence of thromboembolism (Fig. 5.11). These findings are
associated with rather non-specific cardiopulmonary abnormalities (Israngkura et al. 1987) together with arterial hypoxia, which may or may not be reversed by aspirin, an observation which might implicate platelet aggregation in the genesis of the pulmonary artery lesions. Clearly the whole question of thrombotic vascular disease of the lungs and its cardiac consequences requires a great deal more study, not just in this group of patients but in other forms of b thalassaemia. Infection The risk of infection Though an increased risk of infection in thalassaemia has been questioned (Valassi-Adam et al. 1976), and it has been the impression of clinicians that the incidence in early childhood is reduced by blood transfusion (Modell 1976), children still die from infection. In an attempt to assess its importance, Modell et al. (1980) reported on 48 episodes of serious infections among 129 patients with thalassaemia major and intermedia. The incidence of pneumonia was one for every 54 patient years, and for other serious infections was one for every 63 years. Severe infection was believed to be the primary cause of death in 10 of 55 patients who died with thalassaemia major. The role of splenectomy Undoubtedly, thalassaemic children are at increased risk of infection from iatrogenic causes; as we shall see later, infections derived from blood products, particularly viral hepatitis, are common in some populations. Carl Smith was the first to point out that splenectomy in young thalassaemic children may be followed by an increased incidence of severe and often overwhelming infection (Smith et al. 1962, 1964).The highest incidence is in the first 2 years after splenectomy and the greatest period of risk is in the first few years of life. The hazard of overwhelming infection after splenectomy, or in children with sicklecell anaemia in whom splenic function is defective, has been confirmed in many studies (Eraklis et al. 1967; Erikson et al. 1968; Ein et al. 1977). Several organisms may be involved, although the encapsulated bacteria S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and N. meningitidis are by far the most important. Very little is known about the pathogenesis. In a recent review
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Cohen (1996) suggests that the two most important factors are the role of the spleen in generating an antibody response to polysaccharide antigens and its ability to act as a phagocytic filter, especially for the removal of damaged or senescent erythrocytes, an observation which may explain the association of increased rates of infection with babesia and malaria in certain populations. Other factors may play a role; there is evidence of complement dysfunction, and of defective production of tuftsin, a small peptide that has opsonic properties for bacteria. With the exception of work in Thailand (Wasi et al. 1971), studies that have examined immunoglobulin levels in splenectomized and non-splenectomized b thalassaemics have shown no significant difference (Caroline et al. 1969; Valassi-Adam et al. 1976; Constantoulakis et al. 1978). The role of iron in infection
(a)
This is a difficult and contentious subject. In two critical reviews (Hershko & Weatherall 1988; Hershko et al. 1988) the evidence for this association was analysed in detail. It was concluded that iron overload is not associated with an impressive increase in the incidence or severity of bacterial infections. The one exception is infection with Yersinia enterocolitica, a normally non-virulent pathogen which is unable to produce its own siderophore but which has receptors for ferrioxamine and hence which may be pathogenic in the presence of iron bound to desferrioxamine (Robins-Browne & Prpic 1985). Cellular and humoral immunity Cell-mediated immunity has been examined by following skin responses to a variety of antigens; no differences between thalassaemic and normal children were observed (Suvatte et al. 1978). The same group demonstrated normal transforming properties of peripheral blood lymphocytes, both pre- and postsplenectomy. Neutrophil function tests have also
(b)
Fig. 5.11 Pulmonary arterial occlusion in HbE b thalassaemia. (a) Old thrombi forming a polypoid structure in a small artery. (b) Old thromboemboli forming ‘cushions’ attached to the walls of small arteries. Elastic-Masson stain, ¥ 100. From Sonakul (1989), with permission.
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been carried out before and after splenectomy, and found to be normal (Caroline et al. 1969; Genova et al. 1975;Tovo et al. 1977;Tuchinda et al. 1978).The distribution of circulating B and T lymphocytes is the same in thalassaemic patients as in controls of the same age (Kulapongs et al. 1978). These authors also noted a modest reduction in serum opsonic activity. Similar non-specific changes have been reported, including defects in the alternative pathway for complement (De Ciutiis et al. 1978), and increased levels of immune complexes (Casali et al. 1978) and inhibitors of granulopoiesis (Luban & Miller 1978). Recently, more sophisticated approaches have been applied to study neutrophil and monocyte function and the modulation of natural killer cell activity, and to relate these activities to iron loading. There appears to be defective phagocytic and lytic activity of peripheral blood monocytes in b thalassaemics which is broadly correlated with the degree of iron loading (Ballart et al. 1986); the same association has been found for neutrophil dysfunction (Cantinieaux et al. 1987). Pittis et al. (1994) have noted defective phagolysosomal fusion in peripheral blood monocytes from thalassaemic patients, which can be partially corrected by iron chelation. Iron-loaded patients may also exhibit impaired neutrophil chemotaxis and migration (Matzner et al. 1993). Iron loading has also been related to defects in natural killer activity together with a subnormal cellular release of a interferon. It is difficult to draw many firm conclusions about the pathophysiology of infection in b thalassaemia. Research in this field has been carried out in populations with widely differing states of nutrition and exposure to pathogens, and on very heterogeneous groups of patients. It is clear that splenectomy is an important risk factor and that iron-loaded patients who are treated with desferrioxamine are susceptible to infection with Yersinia enterocolitica; the relationship of this complication to chelation therapy is described in more detail in Chapter 15. Blood-borne infections, particularly viral, are also common in some populations (see Chapter 7). Beyond this we know very little. Indeed, it is not clear whether, with these exceptions, thalassaemic children are more prone to infection than any child with a chronic, debilitating disease.
Fetal haemoglobin production and other ‘adaptive’ factors Fetal haemoglobin Why is there persistent fetal haemoglobin production in b thalassaemia? Although as we learn more about the mechanisms of fetal haemoglobin production in b thalassaemia it becomes increasingly difficult to regard it as an ‘adaptive’ process, nevertheless HbF makes up the bulk of such haemoglobin as is produced by many patients with the disease. Furthermore, the amount that is made plays a major role in determining its phenotypic severity. But why does fetal haemoglobin production persist after birth in the b thalassaemias to a greater extent than in almost any other disease? In Chapter 2 we discussed what is known about the regulation of the switch from fetal to adult haemoglobin during normal human development. We saw how it is never quite complete; normal adults have small amounts of fetal haemoglobin in their blood, apparently confined to a subset of red cells which have been called ‘F cells’. An ‘F cell’ is simply a red cell in which HbF can be demonstrated by chemical or immunological means. There is no evidence that it is derived from a separate stem-cell population and it is possible that most adult red cells contain some HbF but that it is only in F cells that it reaches detectable levels.What is clear is that the mechanism of suppression of gchain synthesis in adult life is, in effect, slightly ‘leaky’, and that the amount produced after the first year of life varies widely between different red-cell precursors, even though the level of HbF and the number of F cells is remarkably constant in each of us. The relative numbers of F cells in the blood may increase in response to some types of acute erythroid hyperplasia and increased red-cell turnover, or ‘stress erythropoiesis’ as it is sometimes called. For example, there is an increase in the middle of pregnancy at the time when the red-cell mass is rapidly expanding (Boyer et al. 1975; Popat et al. 1977), in patients recovering after myelotoxic treatment for leukaemia (Sheridan et al. 1976) or after bone-marrow transplantation (Alter et al. 1976c), and in babies following transient erythroblastopenias (Alter et al. 1979b), or after infection (Boyer & Dover 1979). A more dramatic response is observed in baboons made anaemic by venesection (De Simone et al. 1978, 1979). On the
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias
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other hand, it does not usually rise in patients with chronic, well compensated haemolytic anaemias, although modest increases have been reported in patients with severe megaloblastic anaemia (Beaven et al. 1960). These observations suggest therefore that in certain conditions of ‘erythroid stress’, reflecting regeneration or hyperplasia, and in some forms of dyserythropoiesis with maturational arrest, the propensity to produce HbF may be increased (Beaven et al. 1960). Stamatoyannopoulos et al. (1987) have suggested that F cells represent the progeny of progenitor cells which have undergone an ‘accelerated’ pathway of erythroid differentiation. Normally, very few cells follow this route, but under conditions of increased erythroid demand a higher proportion do so, leading to an increased number of F cells and higher levels of HbF. The other observation that is particularly relevant to the problem of HbF production in b thalassaemia is that red-cell precursors and their progeny that synthesize relatively more g chains enjoy preferential survival, in both the marrow and peripheral blood. Evidence that this is the case has been outlined in earlier sections of this chapter. In short, the in vivo turnover of HbF is much slower than that of HbA (Gabuzda et al. 1963). Globin synthesis studies indicate that there is a selective survival of cells that are synthesizing HbF, in both the blood and marrow (Weatherall et al. 1974b), and differential centrifugation studies show that the older, longer-surviving cell populations in the blood of b thalassaemics contain significantly more HbF than younger cell populations (Loukopoulos & Fessas 1965; Nathan & Gunn 1966; Weatherall et al. 1979) (Fig. 5.12). In severe b thalassaemia, therefore, those cells which synthesize relatively more g chains, and hence in which there is less globin imbalance, are selected, both in the bone marrow and in the blood. Because there is wide variation in the amount of g-chain synthesis between different red-cell precursors there is a marked heterogeneity of cell populations in the peripheral blood with respect to the amount of HbF that they contain; the higher the concentration, the greater chance they have of surviving. The reason for the differences in the level of g-chain production between different red-cell precursors is not clear. Perhaps it is simply a reflection of the heterogeneity of the cellular distribution of HbF that occurs in normal people after the first year of life.
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Fig. 5.12 Differential centrifugation experiments showing the heterogeneous distribution of haemoglobins F and A2 among the red cells of three patients with severe b+ thalassaemia intermedia.WB, whole blood uncentrifuged. Clearly the denser cell population contains relatively more HbF while the lighter population contains relatively more HbA2. From Weatherall et al. (1979).
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Based on these observations,in previous editions of this book and elsewhere we set out a theoretical model to account for the production of fetal haemoglobin in b thalassaemia (Weatherall 1976;Weatherall et al. 1977).As mentioned earlier, the small amount of fetal haemoglobin in normal adults, found in approximately 5% of the peripheral blood cells, constitutes approximately 150 mg HbF/dl of whole blood. If a patient with severe b thalassaemia synthesizes no more fetal haemoglobin than normal, but simply expands their total erythroid mass by 10–30-fold they would be capable of producing up to 4.5 g/dl of HbF. Within this expanded bone marrow, many of the red-cell precursors do not survive. But those that synthesize relatively more g chains come under intense selection. Combining these mechanisms it is undoubtedly possible to account for the production of 2–4 g/dl of HbF, particularly if the increased drive to erythropoiesis also makes g-chain synthesis more likely, as occurs in other conditions of erythroid ‘stress’. In short, the red cells in severe b thalassaemia represent the tip of the erythropoietic iceberg, a highly selected population, many of which only survive to reach the circulation because of their relatively high content of HbF. These considerations can account for the elevation of HbF in severe b thalassaemics without the need to invoke even more complicated mechanisms. The concept that the red cells of the profoundly anaemic, untransfused b-thalassaemic patient are the end product of intense selection in a stressed, dyserythropoietic marrow is supported by globin synthesis studies on the blood of patients with HbE thalassaemia who have received transfusions to maintain their haemoglobins at a near-normal level. They synthesize a, g and bE chains; the relative amount of g-chain production is markedly reduced after transfusion (Rees et al. 1998b). Thus it appears that the relatively high levels of HbF which are nearly always found in this condition require both erythroid expansion and the selective survival of precursors that are synthesizing relatively more HbF; if these conditions are reversed by transfusion the red-cell precursors show a more typical pattern of adult globin-chain synthesis. Why does the output of fetal haemoglobin vary so much? While providing an explanation for the baseline output of HbF in b thalassaemia, these mechanisms
do not explain the wide variation in the amount produced. There is growing evidence that much of this is genetically determined. This should not surprise us; the level of fetal haemoglobin and the percentage of F cells in healthy people is under genetic control (Popat et al. 1977; Garner et al. 2000). In addition, there are other genetic factors that can modify fetal haemoglobin production in patients with b thalassaemia (Table 5.4), all of which are described in greater detail in other parts of this book. Particular b-thalassaemia mutations, notably those that involve small deletions of the 5¢ end of the b-globin gene, are associated with higher levels of fetal haemoglobin production than single-point mutations of the b-globin gene.There are a variety of different cis-acting forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH), other forms of HPFH that are not encoded in the b-globingene cluster, and many different deletions that give rise to db thalassaemia or HPFH,all of which are associated with much higher levels of g-chain production and, incidentally, much milder phenotypes. There is also some modest post-translational tuning of the level of HbF;a chains have a greater affinity for b than g chains and if they are in short supply, due to coexistent a thalassaemia for example, the relative amounts of HbA and HbF may be modified in b thalassaemia. The picture that is emerging, therefore, is that the remarkably variable levels of HbF in b thalassaemia are the result of erythroid hyperplasia and cell selec-
Table 5.4 Some mechanisms of haemoglobin F production in b thalassaemia. Basic mechanisms Erythroid hyperplasia and expansion of marrow ?Ineffective erythropoiesis Selective survival of F cells Individual variability Genetic Variability in F cells Particular b-thalassaemia mutations* Co-inheritance of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin† Acquired Cytotoxic agents. Butyrate analogues‡ * See Chapter 7. † See Chapter 10. ‡ See Chapter 15.
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias tion set in a background of many different genetic (and possibly environmental) factors that can modify g-chain production after the neonatal period. This problem, which is central to current thalassaemia research because of its therapeutic implications, is discussed in greater detail in Chapters 4, 10, 13 and 15. Compensation for the anaemia of b thalassaemia A complex battery of compensatory mechanisms are normally brought into play in response to anaemia (Weatherall 1996). Lowering the haemoglobin concentration reduces proportionally the oxygencarrying capacity of the blood. In response, there is an increase in the production of erythrocyte 2,3diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG), which shifts the dissociation curve to the right, so enhancing tissue oxygen delivery. With increasing severity of anaemia there is a progressive increase in 2,3-DPG, which may facilitate oxygen delivery by as much as 40% for the same haemoglobin concentration. A price is paid for this adaptive function, however. In effect, it results in a lower venous oxygen content and hence a lower reserve of oxygen available for further increase in oxygen demand, as might occur on exercise for example. It seems likely that moderate anaemia is compensated for mainly by a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve. However, when the haemoglobin level falls below 7–8 g/dl there is an increase in cardiac output, both at rest and after exercise. There is an associated increase in stroke rate; a hyperkinetic circulation develops, characterized by tachycardia, arterial and capillary pulsation, a wide pulse pressure and haemic (flow) murmurs. Studies involving orthostatic stress or the administration of pressor amines suggest that redistribution of blood volume and vasodilatation with reduced afterload play a dominant role in the hyperkinetic response to chronic anaemia. These compensatory mechanisms may be impaired in b thalassaemia. Red cells containing relatively large amounts of HbF have a reduced p50, i.e. a higher oxygen affinity, than cells containing HbA. This is because HbF interacts with 2,3-DPG much less readily than with HbA. Some information about HbF and 2,3-DPG values in a small series of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia that were studied in the author’s laboratory is summarized in Table 5.5. Clearly, they are at a distinct disadvantage because they are unable to compensate for their anaemia by a
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Table 5.5 Oxygen dissociation analysis (pH 7.4, PCO2 40 mmHg, 37°C) on blood samples from four untransfused homozygous b thalassaemics. Hb (g/dl)
HbF (%)
p50
5.7 10.5 8.3 4.1
61.6 70.0 79.0 96.8*
23.0 22.0 23.0 18.5
* Patient homozygous for b0 thalassaemia. (The normal p50 range is 27–32 mmHg.)
right shift in their oxygen dissociation curve; all of them have high levels of HbF and p50 values which are lower than normal. Gallo et al. (1970) and de Furia et al. (1974) have studied the oxygen dissociation curves and 2,3-DPG concentrations in a series of transfused thalassaemics. They also found inappropriately low p50 values and 2,3-DPG concentrations for the diminished red-cell mass.They suggest that these abnormalities are due to increased levels of HbF and postulate that there might also be decreased 2,3-DPG synthesis due to abnormal glucose metabolism in thalassaemic cells. Correra et al. (1984) found inappropriately low redcell 2,3-DPG and p50 values in transfused b thalassaemics and suggested that the red cells of chronically transfused patients may be unable to adapt to the decline in haemoglobin that occurs during the intertransfusion interval. Thus anaemic patients with b thalassaemia cannot compensate to the same degree as those with other forms of anaemia. For example, a patient with sicklecell anaemia, because of the low oxygen affinity of HbS, is able to compensate for anaemia by a right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve; i.e., they can oxygenate their tissues more readily at a given haemoglobin level. Although it is not absolutely clear how important these adaptive mechanisms are in practice, and they may be less so in well-transfused patients, they undoubtedly are of importance in patients with thalassaemia intermedia with particularly high levels of HbF and in those whose cardiac function is compromised by iron loading.
The a thalassaemias The pathophysiology of the a thalassaemias has much in common with the b thalassaemias.In this section we
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shall focus on the main differences between the two, which stem largely from the properties of the globin that is produced in excess.As is the case for the b thalassaemias, the broad principles of the pathophysiology of the a thalassaemias are quite well understood, though a number of problems remain to be worked out. The clinical phenotypes of a thalassaemia reflect the degree of defective a-chain synthesis and are best understood in terms of gene dosage effects.As we saw in the previous chapter, there are two major classes, a+ and a0 thalassaemia, in which either one or both of the linked a-globin genes are inactivated, either by a deletion (–) or by a mutation (T). Loss of a single aglobin gene, –a/aa or aTa/aa, has virtually no effect on the phenotype. The heterozygous state for a0 thalassaemia, – –/aa, or the homozygous state for a+ thalassaemia, –a/–a or aTa/aTa, results in a very similar phenotype to the carrier state for b thalassaemia. Loss of three of the four a-globin genes, –a/– – or aTa/– –, results in a disorder of moderate severity, HbH disease. Finally, the homozygous state for a0 thalassaemia, – –/– –, is incompatible with survival, the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome. The fundamental defect in a thalassaemia is, like b thalassaemia, imbalanced globin synthesis. However, there are two major pathophysiological differences between the conditions. First, since a chains are shared by both fetal and adult haemoglobin the a thalassaemias, unlike the b thalassaemias, are manifest in fetal life, and cells that synthesize HbF do not come under selection. Second, the properties of the excess g and b chains that are synthesized consequent on defective a-chain production are quite different from the excess a chains that are produced in b thalassaemia (Fig. 5.13). Rather than precipitating in the red-cell precursors they form the soluble tetramers, g4, Hb Bart’s, and b4, HbH. Finally, because the aglobin genes are duplicated and the a thalassaemias reflect a broad spectrum of gene dosage effects, as outlined above, we can expect a wider range of phenotypes as a direct reflection of the underlying molecular pathology.
Globin-chain imbalance The relative rates of a- and b-chain production have been studied in reticulocytes and bone marrow obtained from patients with each of the clinical phenotypes of a thalassaemia as outlined above
γ
Fetus
Adult
β
α
Excess
α2 γ2
γ4 Hb Bart's
α2β2
Excess
β4 HbH
High oxygen affinity – Hypoxia Instability of homotetramers. Inclusion bodies. Membrane damage. Shortened red-cell survival – Haemolysis Splenomegaly – Hypersplenism
Fig. 5.13 An outline of the pathophysiology of a thalassaemia.
(Weatherall et al. 1965; Clegg & Weatherall 1967; Kan et al. 1968; Schwartz et al. 1969; Weatherall & Clegg 1969; Clegg et al. 1971b; Knox-Macaulay et al. 1972; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Ramot et al. 1973; Russo et al. 1973b; Wood & Stamatoyannopoulos 1976–77; Hunt et al. 1980). In all these studies there was marked imbalance of globin synthesis, with an excess of non-a chains compatible with the degree of severity of the clinical phenotype. In a study of globin synthesis in the peripheral blood reticulocytes and nucleated red cells of a liveborn baby with the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome, i.e. homozygous for a0 thalassaemia, it was found that only g- and b-chain production could be demonstrated; there was no a-chain synthesis (Weatherall et al. 1970). Similar findings were reported by Sophocleous et al. (1981). Surprisingly, although these infants had approximately 20% of the embryonic haemoglobin, Hb Portland (z2g2), in the peripheral blood, no radioactively labelled z chains could be demonstrated.This may reflect the particular method used for separation of the globins, or it may indicate that there is heterogeneity among the red-cell populations of these babies and that those with relatively large amounts of embryonic haemoglobin survive longer than those with lower levels. In the first studies of globin synthesis in HbH disease, it was also possible to examine the kinetics of globin production in the face of b-chain excess (Weatherall et al. 1965; Clegg & Weatherall 1967). Overall, it was found that there is a marked imbal-
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias
In a subsequent study, in which globin synthesis was examined both in bone-marrow cells of different ages separated by centrifugation and in peripheral blood reticulocytes,Wood and Stamatoyannopoulos (1976– 77) found that the a-/b-chain production ratio is constant at all stages of erythroid maturation in HbH disease. These findings provided a fairly clear picture of the synthesis of HbA and HbH in HbH disease. In short, there is imbalanced globin synthesis and the resulting excess of b chains exist in two forms: the majority form b4 tetramers but there is also an intracellular pool of b chains which are capable of combining with newly made a chains as they become available. In addition, there is clear-cut evidence that HbH must be lost from red cells during their time in the circulation.
β
OD 280 nm Radioactivity
Gradient
1000
0.8
800
0.6
600 α
0.4
400 200
0.2
0
10
20
30 40 50 Fraction number
(a)
60
β Gradient
α
50
.400
40
.300
30
.200
20
.100
10
0 (b)
10
20
50 30 40 Fraction number
60
Counts/min/ml
.500 Optical density (280 nm)
Fig. 5.14 Globin synthesis in HbH disease. (a) Red cells were incubated for 60 min together with radioactive leucine and the globins separated by CM-cellulose chromatography (see Fig. 5.2).The elution profiles are shown; clearly there is a marked deficiency of a-chain synthesis. (b) A similar experiment to that described in (a) except that, after incubating the reticulocytes, Hbs A and H were separated by column chromatography and then the globin subunits of HbA were separated under the same conditions as described above.There is now very much more radioactive labelling of the a chains than the b chains.This result indicates that newly synthesized a chains combine with unlabelled b chains from a large intracellular pool of the latter to synthesize HbA.Thus the excess b chains in the red cells of patients with HbH disease exist both as HbH (b4) and as a small pool capable of combining with newly made a chains.
Optical density (280 nm)
1.0
Counts/min/ml
ance, with a-/b-chain synthesis ratios of 0.2–0.5, with a mean of about 0.4. However, if, after incubation of reticulocytes with radioactive amino acids, HbA and HbH were first separated, there was much more radioactive labelling of the a chains than the b chains of HbA. This indicated that there is a relatively large intracellular pool of b chains and that these combine with newly synthesized a chains as they become available. It was also observed that the specific activities of the b chains were very much greater than those of the a chains.This suggested that labelled HbH, or the total intracellular pool of b chains, were not present in the amounts that would be expected from their levels in the peripheral blood, thus providing unequivocal evidence of intracellular destruction of HbH during the lifespan of the red cells (Fig. 5.14).
225
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Chapter 5
Globin synthesis in what we now know must have been heterozygotes for a0 or a+ thalassaemia was reported by Kan et al. (1968), Schwartz et al. (1969), Pootrakul et al. (1975a) and Hunt et al. (1980). All these studies showed some degree of globin imbalance, although there was overlap between a0 and a+ thalassaemia heterozygotes with respect to the a-/bchain synthesis ratios (see Chapter 11).
The consequences of defective a-globin synthesis Homotetramer formation As we saw in Chapter 1, it was appreciated early during the development of knowledge about the heterogeneity of the thalassaemias that the excess b and g chains that result from defective a-chain production are able to form homotetramers rather than precipitate like the excess a chains in b thalassaemia. Haemoglobin H was first described in 1955 (Gouttas et al. 1955; Rigas et al. 1955) and shown to be a tetramer of normal b chains, b4, by Jones et al. (1959). Haemoglobin Bart’s was first identified by Ager and Lehmann (1958) and later shown to be a tetramer of normal g chains, g4, by Hunt and Lehmann (1959) and Kekwick and Lehmann (1960). The notion that HbH and Hb Bart’s might reflect defective a-chain synthesis in adult and fetal life was formally set out by Ingram and Stretton (1959) and Ramot et al. (1959). While this hypothesis was attractive,subsequent studies disclosed a puzzling dilemma: several workers observed that babies who had increased levels of Hb Bart’s in their cord blood, in the 2–10% range, if followed into later life did not produce detectable amounts of HbH (Minnich et al. 1962; Weatherall & Boyer 1962; Weatherall 1963; Pootrakul et al. 1967b, 1970). It was suggested that perhaps these babies might be carriers for milder forms of a thalassaemia, and an argument to explain the non-appearance of HbH was developed along the following lines. During the neonatal period, at the time of the switch from fetal to adult haemoglobin production, both g and b chains are competing for available a chains. Hence a mild deficiency of a chains will become evident during this stage of development and be reflected by a small excess of g chains, particularly as a chains bind b chains in preference to g chains. Indeed, using sensitive electrophoretic methods, traces of Hb Bart’s can be found in many
normal babies at the time of birth (Fessas & Mastrokalos 1959; Weatherall 1963; Huehns et al. 1964a). Once the switch from g- to b-chain production is complete, the deficiency of a chains may be too small to produce detectable amounts of HbH (Weatherall 1963). This concept was useful in that it led to the notion that the neonatal period might be the most useful time to demonstrate the a-thalassaemia carrier state. Later studies, in which it was possible to analyse the a-globin genes directly, confirmed that this concept is correct, though showed that not all babies heterozygous for a+ thalassaemia, the mildest form of the condition, have levels of Hb Bart’s at birth which are detectable by standard electrophoretic methods. The properties of haemoglobin homotetramers Haemoglobin H shows no haem/haem interaction or Bohr effect and has an oxygen affinity 10 times that of HbA. The oxygen dissociation curve of purified HbH resembles a rectangular hyperbola (Benesch et al. 1961). The curve of whole blood from patients with HbH disease may show two components due to the combined presence of HbA and HbH. Consequently, patients carrying large amounts of HbH have a whole-blood oxygen dissociation curve which is shifted to the left; less oxygen is given up at physiological tensions, a factor which causes a reduced capacity to compensate for the anaemia associated with HbH disease. 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate binds equally to the oxy and deoxy forms of HbH (Benesch et al. 1968a,b). In other words the interaction of 2,3-DPG with HbH is not oxygen linked. This is because HbH does not change its quaternary conformation on oxygenation. Haemoglobin H is unstable and thermolabile (Scott et al. 1970). It contains two reactive SH groups per b chain; the b chains in HbA have only one reactive SH group, in the oxy form. Gabuzda (1966) suggested that the relative susceptibility of HbH to oxidation might result from the presence of the eight free thiols, which could confer a lower net reduction–oxidation potential on the molecule. The temporal pattern of the precipitation of HbH in red cells was studied in detail by Rigas and Koler (1961) and by Nathan and Gunn (1966). The former workers pointed out that single preformed inclusions of HbH are only seen in the peripheral blood after splenectomy (Fig. 5.15). Furthermore, when they and, later, Nathan and Gunn separated the red cells of patients with HbH disease into different age popula-
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.15 HbH inclusions. (a) Multiple inclusions generated by incubation of red cells with brilliant cresyl blue.A few large inclusions, which are most easily seen after staining with methyl violet and which only appear in large numbers in the peripheral blood after splenectomy, are also present. (b) An electron micrograph of the inclusion bodies generated by brilliant cresyl blue in the cells of a patient with HbH disease (¥ 6425). (c) Precipitation of HbH in erythroblasts from the bone marrow of a patient with HbH disease (¥ 14 300).The electron-microscopy preparations were kindly supplied by Professor Sunitha Wickramasinghe.
(c)
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Chapter 5
tions by centrifugation, it was found that the preformed inclusions are mainly in the older, denser cell populations, while soluble HbH is much more abundant in the younger, lighter cells and is absent or considerably reduced in the older cells. Rigas and Koler demonstrated that the rate of inclusion-body formation was greatly accelerated in the presence of agents such as amyl or sodium nitrite which produce methaemoglobin; this effect was counteracted by the addition of reduced glutathione or sodium ascorbate. It was discovered later that, as in the case of excess a-globin chains in b thalassaemia, the generation of HbH is associated with haemichrome formation (Rachmilewitz 1969; Rachmilewitz et al. 1969). The notion that HbH precipitates during the lifespan of red cells is compatible with in vivo labelling experiments in which it has been found that it has a much faster turnover and disappears from the circulation much more rapidly than HbA (Gabuzda et al. 1965). As we shall discuss later, the precipitation of HbH is not confined to the older erythrocytes in the peripheral blood. It seems likely that once a HbH tetramer is formed it survives its passage through the bone marrow and into the peripheral blood, where it tends to precipitate in older red cells. On the other hand, some of the excess of b chains that are synthesized in the marrow become associated with the red-cell precursor membrane. We shall see how these processes contribute to the pattern of anaemia of a thalassaemia in the next section. Less is known about the properties of Hb Bart’s. It has an extremely high oxygen affinity and no haem/haem interaction or Bohr effect (Horton et al. 1962), findings very similar to those for HbH. In the red cell it oxygenates independently from HbA (Bellingham & Huehns 1968). However, it is thought not to be as unstable as HbH. Newborn infants with relatively high levels of Hb Bart’s do not have HbHlike inclusions and differential centrifugation experiments have not shown a major loss in older cell populations (unpublished data). A possible explanation for its greater stability was offered by Rachmilewitz and Harari (1972), who demonstrated that the rate of haemichrome formation of Hb Bart’s is considerably slower than for HbH. These abnormal properties of the haemoglobin homotetramers of a thalassaemia are of profound importance in determining its pathophysiology. Particularly in the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome, and to a lesser degree in HbH disease, patients may have a
considerable proportion of their haemoglobin in this form. Hence the oxygen-carrying capacity of their blood may be seriously compromised; while their haemoglobin levels may appear to be relatively high, a considerable proportion of what is being measured is physiologically useless. Globin imbalance and mechanisms of anaemia The mechanisms of the anaemia of a thalassaemia are fundamentally different from those in b thalassaemia. As we saw earlier in this chapter, the latter is characterized by major intramedullary destruction of red-cell precursors with ineffective erythropoiesis, while the haemolytic component is probably less important. It appears that in a thalassaemia the ability to produce soluble tetramers from excess g or b chains results in more effective erythropoiesis and hence haemolysis plays a more important role. From the limited erythrokinetic studies that have been reported in patients with HbH disease it is apparent that red-cell production is considerably more effective than in severe b thalassaemia, although there is still a significant degree of ineffective erythropoiesis (Pearson & McFarland 1962). Red-cell survival, as judged by 51Cr studies, is shortened, reported figures ranging from 8 to 17 days for the 51Cr half-life (Rigas & Koler 1961; Pearson & McFarland 1962; Woodrow et al. 1964; KnoxMacaulay et al. 1972; Tso et al. 1982). Initially there were concerns about the validity of these data because of uncertainty about the rate of elution of 51Cr from HbH, but later studies did not suggest that there is a significant loss of the isotope from the red cells (Tso et al. 1982). The pattern of red-cell survival curves is much more uniform than that found in b thalassaemia, reflecting the more homogeneous nature of the cell populations that are being destroyed (Malamos et al. 1962; Nathan & Gunn 1966). External scanning studies have shown that the spleen is the site of much of the red-cell destruction (Rigas & Koler 1961;Woodrow et al. 1964). These observations, while they suggest that haemolysis is the predominant mechanism of the anaemia of a thalassaemia, at least in HbH disease, raise questions about the pattern of erythropoiesis in this condition. Earlier studies using light microscopy showed that there are a few inclusion bodies even in the red-cell precursors (Fessas & Yataganis 1968). On electron microscopy they appear to be highly con-
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias densed, branching intracytoplasmic bodies, which can be seen in early and late polychromatic erythroblasts and reticulocytes (Fig. 5.15). Autoradiographic analysis has also demonstrated the addition of newly synthesized protein, possibly b chains, into these inclusions (Wickramasinghe et al. 1980). In mature erythrocytes the pattern of the inclusions is different from that observed in b thalassaemia. Clearly the precipitation of HbH during the lifespan of the red cell is a dynamic and complex process. The biosynthetic studies of Weatherall et al. (1965) showed that both free b chains and b4 tetramers are present in the red cells of patients with HbH disease. It seems likely that once soluble tetramers have formed they are relatively stable until later in the lifespan of the red cell. On the other hand, it is clear that some free b chains precipitate early in the red-cell precursors and may be responsible for the element of ineffective erythropoiesis that has been described in this condition. The pattern of anaemia, haemolytic rather than dyserythropoietic, may reflect the relative rate of stable homotetramer formation compared with loss of excess b chains on the membranes of red-cell precursors.
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(Gabuzda 1966; Nathan et al. 1969; Scott et al. 1970; Knox-Macaulay et al. 1972). The rates of glucose utilization and lactate formation are increased and both young and old cells have increased cation permeability, the most marked changes being in the older populations which contain single inclusion bodies in splenectomized individuals. Red-cell ATP levels are normal or slightly reduced but fall more rapidly than normal after sterile incubation. These cells also have an increased rate of methaemoglobin production. Reduced glutathione (GSH) levels are also lower in the old cell populations as is hexose monophosphate shunt (HMPS) activity. It has been suggested that, since HbH is particularly sensitive to oxidative precipitation, its reactive thiols may participate in cellular reduction reactions and thus substitute for glutathione.Thus HMPS activity would be reduced in a situation in which glutathione is spared, i.e. in the younger cell population, but be increased with cell ageing as HbH precipitates and becomes less available. The totally unexpected finding of elevated glutathione peroxidase levels (Beutler et al. 1977) has never been adequately explained. Membrane damage
Mechanisms of red-cell damage Mechanical destruction We have seen how HbH precipitates during the ageing of the red cells to form large single Heinz bodies. Early ultrastructural studies focused on the mechanisms of removal of these cells by the spleen (Wennberg & Weiss 1968). Two major mechanisms were demonstrated. First, the intracellular precipitates are removed and, second and more commonly, the red cells appear to be split into two or more fragments during their passage from splenic cords to sinuses. These elegant studies describe how relatively large hypochromic cells can be divided into two small, dense cells, leaving behind fragments which may be phagocytosed by splenic macrophages. In short, they provide a mechanical basis for how the spleen removes preformed inclusions and for the poikilocytosis which is seen after splenectomy. Metabolic changes Damage to the red-cell membranes in HbH disease is reflected by a variety of metabolic abnormalities
More recent studies have focused on the mechanisms of red-cell membrane damage in a thalassaemia, how these differ from b thalassaemia, and their consequences (Schrier et al. 1989; Shinar et al. 1989;Advani et al. 1992a; Schrier 1994, 1997). The mechanisms of membrane damage by excess a chains in b thalassaemia were reviewed earlier in this chapter.They include the formation of haemichromes with direct damage to the red-cell membrane and the action of haemoglobin degradation products in causing oxidative damage to a variety of membrane structures. It turns out that, while the red-cell membranes in b thalassaemia are more mechanically unstable, possibly due to oxidation of protein (band) 4.1, in a thalassaemia the membranes are hyperstable and there is no evidence of oxidation or any dysfunction of this protein. Furthermore, the state of cellular hydration is different in the two forms of thalassaemia. Accumulation of excess a chains in b thalassaemia leads to cellular dehydration, whereas accumulation of b chains in a thalassaemia appears to result in increased hydration (Schrier et al.1989;Olivieri et al.1992e;Bunyaratvej et al. 1994). It has been suggested that these findings reflect the results of the action of different
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kinds of oxidized globin chains on the K+–Cl– cotransporter, and possibly on other transport pathways. The mechanical properties of red cells induced by free a or b chains have been studied in normal red cells loaded with haem-containing globin (Scott et al. 1990; Shalev et al. 1996). It was found that entrapment of a chains causes a significant decrease in cellular and membrane deformability, associated with reduced amounts of spectrin and ankyrin, and a decrease in membrane-reactive thiol groups. On the other hand, the entrapment of b chains does not result in any significant changes in membrane protein function or thiol concentrations,but causes changes in cellular deformability, similar to those described in the red cells of patients with HbH disease by Schrier et al. (1989). Because the cytoplasmic domain of band 3 of the red-cell membrane is the high-affinity binding site for native haemoglobin, as well as for its denatured metabolites, its interaction with b globin in a thalassaemia is of particular interest. It has been found to be abnormal in red cells of patients with HbH disease, with a similar pattern to that found in other unstable haemoglobin disorders (Shinar et al. 1989). These observations have been augmented by in vitro studies which examined the same spectrin–ankyrin band 3 interactions using entrapped a or b globin in normal red-cell membranes (Shalev et al. 1995). It was shown that inside-out vesicles (IOVs) derived from membranes incubated with b globin bound only 4% as much spectrin as IOVs from unincubated control membranes. On the hand, IOVs from membranes incubated with a chains were almost normal, that is, they bound between 83 and 86% of control values. Shinar and Rachmilewitz (1993) have offered a possible explanation for the differences in behaviour between a and b subunits in the thalassaemias and related disorders. They suggest that the larger b subunits, which precipitate in a thalassaemia and in unstable b-chain haemoglobinopathies, tend to bind more tightly to protein band 3,the ‘native’ binding site on the membrane. On the other hand, the small a subunits, which precipitate early in the lifespan of red cells in b thalassaemia, are more widely dispersed over the cytoplasm before reacting with specific sites on the membrane. These observations are in keeping with the different electron-microscopic appearances of a- and b-chain binding to thalassaemic red cells (Rachmilewitz et al. 1985). In a further series of experiments using the red-cell IOV loading model Shalev et al. (1996) confirmed that
b chains produce defective spectrin binding that may result in damage to ankyrin, similar to that observed with unstable haemoglobins (Platt & Falcone 1988). They suggest that this results from structural changes in the 62-kDa domain of ankyrin, the spectrin binding site, mediated by b chains. It is also likely that the membranes of athalassaemic cells undergo oxidative damage by broadly similar mechanisms to those described earlier in this chapter for b thalassaemia. The nature of the haem carrier protein plays an important role in this process (Shinar & Rachmilewitz 1993). For example, it has been shown that b-globin chains lose haem eight times faster than a-globin chains, but that a chains are more likely to auto-oxidize. Hence pathological haem loss may be a feature of both globin chains and participate in red-cell damage in a as well as b thalassaemia. Clearly, these experiments provide strong evidence for a fundamental difference in the mechanisms of membrane damage between a and b thalassaemia. However, more work is required before the precise details of how this injury is mediated are understood. There is one form of a thalassaemia which causes particularly characteristic red-cell changes. As described in the previous chapter, there is a family of haemoglobin variants, of which Hb Constant Spring was the first to be discovered,which are caused by mutations in the stop codon of the a2 gene.They result in the very low output of an a chain with 31 additional amino acid residues at the C-terminal end. Homozygotes are anaemic, with evidence of haemolysis, and their red cells are large and quite different from those seen in any other form of thalassaemia (reviewed by Weatherall & Clegg 1975).Recent studies suggest that these cells are markedly overhydrated relative to those of the deletional forms of a thalassaemia. Furthermore, the derangement of volume regulation and cellular hydration seems to occur early in erythroid maturation and is fully expressed at the reticulocyte stage.The membrane rigidity and mechanical stability of these cells is increased compared with those of patients with HbH disease and other forms of a thalassaemia. It has been found that their membranes are associated with oxidized b and aCS chains (Schrier 1997). At first sight this is a surprising observation, particularly as detailed studies of the synthesis of Hb Constant Spring have shown that, although it is produced at a very low rate, it is relatively stable throughout the lifespan of the erythrocyte (Derry et al. 1984). Yet it has been suggested that it is the binding of oxi-
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias dized aCS chains to the membrane that is responsible for the associated abnormalities in membrane function (Schrier 1997). These observations may not be incompatible, however. If, because of their steric properties, aCS chains associate more slowly with b chains than is the case for normal a chains, but once they have combined the resulting molecule is stable, some aCS chains, together with b chains, may also become associated with the membranes of early red-cell precursors. In other words, in early erythroid progenitors, in which the level of aCS chains is highest, they may either slowly combine with b chains to form a stable tetramer, or become associated with the red-cell membrane. It appears therefore that damage to the red-cell membrane occurs in both a and b thalassaemia, but that because of the particular properties of free a and b chains in their interactions with its different components there are considerable differences in the end results. However, despite some overlap, the fundamental distinction between the two major forms of thalassaemia lies in the degree of ineffective erythropoiesis as compared with haemolysis, which is considerably greater in b than in a thalassaemia.
Consequences of the anaemia of a thalassaemia compared with b thalassaemia Although there are similarities in the clinical pictures of a and b thalassaemia there are also some funda-
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mental differences (Table 5.6). As already described, this in part reflects the properties of the abnormal homotetramers of g or b chains that are produced in a thalassaemia. These effects are seen at their most extreme in the homozygous state for a0 thalassaemia, the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome. Thus, although these stillborn babies are usually not grossly anaemic compared with those with hydrops fetalis due to other causes, the clinical picture, described in detail in Chapter 11, is one of profound intrauterine hypoxia. This reflects the fact that Hb Bart’s, with its extremely high oxygen affinity, constitutes approximately 80% of the haemoglobin. In HbH disease, which results from a deficit of approximately three of the four a-globin genes, there is a variable haemolytic anaemia, which, in some cases,is associated with sufficient erythroid expansion to produce skeletal changes similar to those observed in b thalassaemia (Wasi et al. 1969). Patients with high levels of HbH, because of its high oxygen affinity, may not be able to compensate for their anaemia as well as those with similar haemoglobin levels due to other causes. The bombardment of the spleen with abnormal erythrocytes invariably causes splenomegaly, which may be progressive and result in the features of hypersplenism, similar to those that occur in b thalassaemia. Because the degree of ineffective erythropoiesis is less in the a thalassaemias than in b thalassaemia it appears that the rate of iron loading in untransfused patients is also slower. Indeed, early observations
Table 5.6 Some important differences between a and b thalassaemia. a Thalassaemia
b Thalassaemia
Mutations
Gene deletions common
Gene deletions rare
Properties of excess globin
Soluble g4 or b4 tetramers Slow rate of haemichrome formation Band 4.1 not oxidized Binds to band 3
Insoluble a-chain aggregates Rapid rate of haemichrome formation Oxidation of band 4.1 Less interaction with band 3
Red cells
Overhydrated Rigid Membranes hyperstable p50Ø
Dehydrated Rigid Membranes unstable p50Ø
Anaemia
Mainly haemolytic
Mainly dyserythropoietic
Bone changes
Rare
Common
Iron loading
Rare
Common
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suggested that iron loading of the tissues was unusual in HbH disease (Wasi et al.1969) and that there is much less tissue haemosiderosis than in autopsy material obtained from patients with homozygous b thalassaemia or HbE thalassaemia (Sonakul et al. 1978). However,later studies described a steady rise with age in the serum ferritin levels in patients with HbH disease (Tso et al. 1984), indicating that the erythroid hyperplasia is associated with some increase in the rate of iron loading. However, with the exception of patients who are maintained on regular transfusion, the widespread effects of iron loading on the pancreas, endocrine organs, liver and myocardium, characteristic of b thalassaemia, have not been observed. The erythroid hyperplasia is also reflected by increased requirements for folate; although there have been few reports of clinical folate deficiency, subclinical deficiency has been documented (Vatanavicharn et al. 1978). As mentioned earlier, some forms of b thalassaemia may be associated with an increased risk of thromboembolic disease. In the last edition of this book we discussed a curious condition which we had observed in a patient with HbH disease who, following splenectomy, developed the combination of superficial migrating thrombophlebitis with deep venous disease (see Chapter 11). A further group of similarly affected patients with HbH disease was reported by Tso et al. (1982) and, subsequently, we have observed several other patients with this disorder, who, in addition, have had recurrent pulmonary emboli. All these patients have been splenectomized and have relatively high platelet counts, although not in excess of those often observed after this operation. Whether the removal of the spleen results in the persistence in the circulation of red cells with membrane damage similar to that which may generate the prethrombotic element of b thalassaemia is not clear. Indeed, very little attention has been paid to the study of haemostasis and coagulation in the a thalassaemias.
Secondary changes in haemoglobin constitution As we saw earlier, one of the cardinal features of the b thalassaemias is persistent fetal haemoglobin production. Does anything like this happen in a thalassaemia? Babies homozygous for a0 thalassaemia, with the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome, undoubtedly
have persistent z-chain production, and their cord bloods, when they are stillborn late in pregnancy, contain from 10 to 20% of Hb Portland (z2g2) (Todd et al. 1970; Weatherall et al. 1970). Since in our original radiolabelling experiments we were not able to demonstrate labelling of Hb Portland in the blood of these babies, we do not know for sure whether this represents the true level of synthesis late in pregnancy or whether it may be lower and the levels observed reflect selective survival of cells that synthesize relatively larger amounts of this type of embryonic haemoglobin. However, there seems little doubt that embryonic z-globin synthesis does persist at a very low level in a0 thalassaemia; trace amounts of z globin can be identified in the blood of heterozygotes of all ages (Chung et al. 1984; Chui et al. 1986). Unlike the case of b thalassaemia, in which there is marked dyserythropoiesis and erythroid expansion, and in which red-cell precursors that synthesize g chains come under intense selection, there seems no a priori reason why there should be persistence of HbF in the a thalassaemias; HbF and HbA both have a chains and hence their synthesis will be equally affected. Curiously, however, there is increased gchain synthesis in some of the a thalassaemias, though not to the same level as is observed in the b thalassaemias. Many patients with HbH disease have Hb Bart’s as well as HbH, even in later childhood and adult life (Ramot et al. 1959; Huehns et al. 1960; Sturgeon et al. 1961; Fessas et al. 1966). Indeed, occasionally the level of Bart’s may exceed that of HbH (Ramot et al. 1959). It should be remembered, however, that the level of Hb Bart’s may be partly determined at the post-translational stage of globin synthesis during the combination of subunits one with another to form dimers and tetramers. In the face of a deficiency of a chains, and if the g-chain loci remain active, both b and g chains will be competing for a depleted pool of a chains. Since a chains associate with b chains in preference to g chains the overall result may be a greater excess of g4 than b4 molecules; since the latter are more unstable the final level of Hb Bart’s in the blood of patients with HbH disease may not be a direct reflection of the rate of g-chain production. These complex issues are highlighted in the interactions between a thalassaemia and b-globin chain variants like HbE, which are extremely common in south-east Asia and which are described in detail in Chapter 11. Individuals who have the genotype of HbH disease and who also are carriers of HbE
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias produce only Hbs A, E and Bart’s; the latter may constitute up to 10% of the total haemoglobin. Why do they produce Hb Bart’s rather than HbH? Clearly, the g-chain genes must remain active and thus g, bA and bE chains are competing for a limited number of a chains. It seems likely that bA chains compete better than bE chains for the relatively few a chains, so leaving an excess of g and bE chains.The g4 tetramer is stable but the b4E tetramer is probably not (Tuchinda et al. 1967). Hence these patients have only Hbs Bart’s, A and E. Similarly, the rare occurrence of the homozygous state for sickle-cell disease in association with the genotype for HbH disease is characterized by the production of Hbs S, F and Bart’s (Weatherall et al. 1969a). Although early studies suggested that individuals who have defective a-chain synthesis with the sickle-cell gene might produce trace amounts of a molecule with the structure bS4, Hb Augusta 1 (Huisman 1960a,b), more recent studies have not confirmed these findings. Indeed, it seems likely that the variant b-globin chains of Hbs S, E and C are unable to form stable b4 tetramers. Clearly, therefore, there is a persistent g-chain production in the more severe forms of a thalassaemia, although whether this reflects a higher level than that seen in many conditions with erythroid hyperplasia and some degree of ineffective erythropoiesis is difficult to be sure. While the relatively high levels of Hb Bart’s in some of the interactions with HbE suggest that this may be the case, the complex post-translational events relating to the relative affinities of different globin subunits that we have just considered suggest that factors other than the rates of g-chain production are involved in the final level of both HbF and g4 tetramers in the peripheral blood. Finally, another characteristic feature of b thalassaemia is the absolute increase in d-chain production, both cis and trans to the b-thalassaemia determinant. As might be expected, since HbA2 shares a chains with HbA, the HbA2 level tends to be normal or reduced in the more severe forms of a thalassaemia such as HbH disease. In truth, very little is known about the overall level of d-chain production in a thalassaemia. Using a combined chromatographic and electrophoretic approach, a haemoglobin was isolated from the blood of a patient with HbH disease which consisted entirely of the d chains of HbA2 (Dance et al. 1963). It is not known how commonly this variant is produced in a thalassaemia, or whether it has the molecular formula d4; no molecular weight
233
determinations have been reported. Again, this may be a post-translational phenomenon; d chains are known to have a lower affinity for a chains than b chains and hence, in the face of a deficiency of a chains, b chains will be bound in preference to d chains, a phenomenon which may explain the presence of free d chains in the blood of patients with a thalassaemia. There is no reason to suppose that dchain production is increased. In summary, the final haemoglobin constitution of patients with a thalassaemia reflects a primary deficiency of a chains, the production of homotetramers of g and b chains, and a complex series of alterations in the levels of both fetal haemoglobin and associated bchain variants, which reflect, at least in part, the different affinities of globin subunits one for another.
Genotype/phenotype relationships As we have seen, the principles that underlie the pathophysiology of a thalassaemia are in many ways similar to those for b thalassaemia. The major pathological process is imbalanced globin synthesis, the clinical consequences of which hang largely on the deleterious effects of the particular globin subunit that is produced in excess. Based on these observations, and a knowledge of the molecular pathology of the a thalassaemias as described in the previous chapter, it is possible to make some sense of the pathophysiology and genetic heterogeneity of these diseases. They are described in detail in Chapter 11; here we shall outline the principles involved. As we have seen, the a thalassaemias are, overall, elegant examples of gene dosage effects,reflecting the clinical consequences of the loss of between one and four a-globin genes. Much of their clinical heterogeneity is explicable in this way, but there are also further subtleties that depend on the fact that the output of the two linked a-globin genes is not equal, and that they may be inactivated either by deletions or by point mutations. The most marked heterogeneity is observed among the a thalassaemias of intermediate severity, that is, the various forms of HbH disease.This disorder has a remarkably variable clinical phenotype, ranging from a transfusion-dependent disorder to one which is symptom free and associated with very little clinical disability (Minnich et al. 1958; Na-Nakorn 1959; NaNakorn et al. 1965; Wasi et al. 1969). In large series of
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Chapter 5
patients reported from Thailand the steady-state haemoglobin values ranged from 3 to 12 g/dl (Wasi et al. 1969; Piankijagum et al. 1978). Similar heterogeneity has been observed in more recent reports (Styles et al. 1997). Furthermore, although HbH is unstable and some of the variability in its reported levels may reflect technical problems in its estimation, there is no doubt that its level varies enormously in patients with HbH disease, published figures showing anything between 2 and 40% of the total haemoglobin (NaNakorn et al. 1965;Wasi et al. 1969). Studies which have related the molecular pathology of HbH disease to its clinical phenotype typify some of the successes and frustrations of the thalassaemia field over recent years. For while it has been possible to relate some of this clinical heterogeneity to underlying mutations of the a-globin genes, many questions remain unanswered. Overall, the forms that result from the coinheritance of a0 with a+ thalassaemia of the deletional varieties (– –/a–) are milder than those which result from the interactions of a0 with a+ thalassaemia of the non-deletional forms (– –/aTa) (Galanello et al. 1983b; Fucharoen et al. 1988a; Kattamis et al. 1988; Styles et al. 1997). These differences probably reflect two major pathophysiological processes. First, the a-chain output is different depending on whether the a+-thalassaemia mutation that is inherited together with a0 thalassaemia is of the deletion or non-deletion variety. If the upstream (a2) gene is deleted, its downstream partner can increase its output; if it is inactivated by a mutation, this does not seem to be possible. Hence, in compound heterozygotes for a0 and a+ thalassaemia of the nondeletion variety, there is a greater degree of globin imbalance, compatible with the higher levels of HbH that are found in this condition.These differences are also reflected in the homozygous states for the deletional and non-deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia. In the former case the clinical phenotype is athalassaemia trait, while in the latter it may be HbH disease (Pressley et al. 1980b). The second possibility for heterogeneity reflects the nature of the mutation that inactivates the aglobin gene in the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia. As we have already seen, the production of elongated a-globin chains in the case of the chaintermination mutants such as Hb Constant Spring may have a particularly deleterious effect on red-cell membrane function. This, together with the fact that Hb Constant Spring is due to a point mutation which
leaves the a2 gene intact, may explain the more severe clinical phenotype associated with HbH disease due to the interaction of a0 thalassaemia with a+ thalassaemia due to the inheritance of this variant (Fucharoen et al. 1988a; Styles et al. 1997). HbH disease also provides a good example of how environmental factors may combine with a genetic disease to modify the phenotype. Because of the instability and sensitivity to oxidants of HbH it tends to precipitate after the administration of drugs such as sulphonamides (Rigas & Koler 1961). It is not clear how often its marked heat lability causes the same phenomenon in the presence of the types of fevers encountered with infections in tropical countries (see Chapter 11). Many questions about the pathophysiology of HbH disease and other forms of a thalassaemia remain unanswered, however. It is not known why the degree of anaemia or level of HbH varies so much within a particular genotype. Similarly, it is not clear whether the degree of anaemia is related to the level of HbH. We do not understand why only a small proportion of patients with the condition develop serious thromboembolic complications after splenectomy. We shall return to these and the many other unanswered questions about the pathophysiology of the a thalassaemias in Chapter 11.
The relationship between pathophysiology and clinical diversity A greater knowledge of the pathophysiology of the main forms of thalassaemia has been the major factor in helping us better to understand the remarkable clinical diversity of its different forms.We shall discuss the various interactions and genetic and environmental modifiers that are responsible for the different intermediate forms of thalassaemia in Chapter 13. Although there are many gaps in our knowledge about why this disease is so variable in its presentation and course,at least some principles have been established. Throughout this chapter we have seen that the cardinal feature of all the thalassaemias is imbalanced globin synthesis. Thus anything that lessens the degree of imbalance will have a beneficial effect on the clinical phenotype. These principles have been established for the b thalassaemias, at least to some extent (Table 5.7). It turns out that patients with severe forms of b thalassaemia who have also been
The pathophysiology of the thalassaemias Table 5.7 Some factors which modify the b-thalassaemia phenotype. From Weatherall (2001). Genetic Primary Severity of the b-globin-gene mutation Secondary Co-inheritance of a thalassaemia Increased level of HbF; several determinants Tertiary Iron, bilirubin or bone metabolism Genetic background based on evolutionary adaptation Acquired Splenomegaly and hypersplenism Consequences of organ damage due to iron loading Nutritional factors Ecological and ethnological factors
fortunate enough to inherit a thalassaemia have, in general, a milder disease. This is because the athalassaemia determinant has the effect of reducing the overall degree of globin imbalance. Similarly, patients with different forms of b thalassaemia who have also inherited genes that encourage more effective HbF production are also protected.Again this is an elegant example of how a reduction in globin imbalance, in this case by g chains making up for b chains, can transform the clinical picture of severe thalassaemia. It is also becoming apparent that, as well as modification of the b-thalassaemic phenotype by heterogeneity at the loci that regulate the a- or g-globin genes,other,more subtle,genetic polymorphisms may play a role in determining the phenotype. As we shall see in later chapters these include polymorphisms at loci which are involved in the regulation of iron, bilirubin and bone metabolism. There seems little doubt that, as the complications of older patients with thalassaemia are explored in more detail, more of these secondary modifiers will be discovered. Finally, as outlined in the next section, it is becoming increasingly clear that the remarkable genetic differences between populations in which thalassaemia is common which have resulted from their evolutionary history, particularly with respect to the presence of infective agents such as malaria, may also have had an important effect on a thalassaemia patient’s ability to cope with infection and other environmental factors. The way in which these complex interactions modify the genotype of b thalassaemia are summarized in Table 5.7.
235
The heterogeneity of thalassaemia: genes, environment and evolution In this chapter we have outlined and contrasted the major features of the pathophysiology of the a and b thalassaemias. We have seen how the fundamental disease process, that is, imbalanced globin synthesis, is the same in the two conditions but how, because of the different properties of the particular globins that are produced in excess, their pathophysiology differs. We have also seen how their clinical phenotypes may be modified according to the different underlying molecular lesions together with a number of other genetic and environmental factors. These principles of the pathophysiology of the two main forms of thalassaemia provide the basis for a clearer understanding of the remarkable heterogeneity of the disease. The central issue is always imbalanced globin production. It follows that milder defects in a- or b-chain production, because they result in less imbalance, will be associated with milder clinical phenotypes. But we can take this argument one step further. Since the cardinal feature of severe thalassaemia is the production of an excess of one type of globin over another, it follows that the coinheritance of both a and b thalassaemia should tend to cause them to cancel each other out.That is,patients with severe forms of b thalassaemia who co-inherit a thalassaemia might be expected to have a milder clinical condition, and vice versa. As we shall see in later chapters this is indeed the case; an important part of the heterogeneity of the b thalassaemias can be ascribed to variation in the severity of the underlying b-globin-gene mutation together with the interaction of a thalassaemia.Furthermore,as pointed out earlier, there is remarkable variability in the level of HbF production in b thalassaemia.This again plays a major role in determining the phenotype. In the chapters which follow we shall describe the bewilderingly complex series of interactions between the a and b thalassaemias, either with themselves or with structural haemoglobin variants, which comprise the thalassaemia syndromes. However, we should not delude ourselves into thinking that even this sophisticated knowledge of events at the molecular and cellular level can, in itself, provide anything like a complete picture of the remarkable clinical diversity of these diseases. Many other genetic, acquired and environmental factors must be involved.
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Table 5.8 Genetic polymorphisms associated with variation in susceptibility to malaria. Haemoglobin Structural variants Thalassaemia Red-cell membrane Band 3 deletion; ovalocytosis Blood groups; Duffy,ABO(H), Le(a), Kidd Glycophorins Red-cell metabolism Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency HLA/DR Iron transport TNFa ICAM 1 ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; TNFa, tumour necrosis factor a.
It is becoming clear that there is a remarkable diversity in the genetic backgrounds of patients with the different forms of thalassaemia. A good example is their response to infection. As we shall see in the next chapter, one of the major factors which has maintained the thalassaemias at their high frequency is heterozygote resistance to severe forms of malaria. But thalassaemia is not the only polymorphism which has been maintained in this way: there is increasing evidence that many others, involving not just the red cell and its contents but also many of the arms of the immune system and its effectors, have also arisen (Table 5.8). Because of our relatively short (at least in evolutionary terms) exposure to malaria, these polymorphisms tend to be different in each population, just as thalassaemia mutations differ in the same way (Weatherall et al. 1997). Thus thalassaemic children from various parts of the world may vary profoundly in their response to infection. No doubt genetic heterogeneity involving other responses to the disease will have been mediated in the same way. The environmental and cultural backgrounds of thalassaemic patients may also differ widely and play a major role in modifying the severity of the illness and the reaction of patients and their family to these diseases. Exposure to infection or malnutrition
αα/αα ––/αα –α/αα
Proteolysis
β0,β+,β++
EXCESS α-CHAINS
γ–CHAINS (HbF, α2γ2)
Inclusion bodies Ineffective erythropoiesis haemolysis
Anaemia Bone disease
VDR OR COL
Iron loading
Jaundice
Infection
HFE
UGT1
Co-selection HLA-DR TNF-α ICAM-1
Fig. 5.16 A summary of the factors which may modify the pathophysiology and clinical phenotype of the b thalassaemias.The magnitude of the excess of a chains may be modified by the degree of b-chain deficiency, the number of a-globin genes and the ability to synthesize g chains after birth. It could also be affected by the degree of proteolysis. There are a number of other genetic factors which may also modify the phenotype to some degree. COL, heterozygosity of the loci directing collagen synthesis; HFE, hereditary haemochromatosis locus; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; OR, oestrogen receptor;TNF, tumour necrosis factor; UGT-1, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1;VDR, vitamin D receptor.
may result in a completely different course of the disease in children in poorer countries from those in richer, Western societies. And different cultural and religious attitudes to the disease may have a profound effect on an individual patient’s response to their condition. It is against this highly complex background of events at the molecular and cellular level, overlaid with broader aspects of genetic and environmental heterogeneity (Fig. 5.16), that we must examine the clinical disorders that comprise the thalassaemia syndromes.
Chapter 6 Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
Introduction The idea that thalassaemia reached high frequencies in many parts of the world as a result of malarial selection is now generally accepted. But in 1981, when the last edition of this book was published, there was still much scepticism about the ‘malaria hypothesis’, as it was known. Although this was first mooted in 1948 by J.B.S. Haldane, really convincing experimental or epidemiological evidence, certainly as it applied to the thalassaemias, was sparse. And even what seemed to some the best circumstantial evidence — the geographical overlap between endemic malaria and thalassaemia — did not survive close inspection. Central and South America have malaria but the indigenous populations are remarkably free of haemoglobinopathies. In contrast, parts of the central and eastern Pacific, which have always been malaria free, have relatively high frequencies of thalassaemia. That important observation, made in the early 1980s, proved a turning-point for the malaria hypothesis. For the first time the newly emerged DNA technologies were brought to bear on a population genetics problem. While previously only phenotypes could be identified, now genotypes could be characterized with base-pair precision. And haplotypes, clusters of DNA polymorphisms that enabled different chromosomal types to be identified, could be used to provide information about the origins of mutations and about population relationships. The upshot of this new approach was to show decisively that the variety of thalassaemia in the central and eastern Pacific was a single, extremely unusual, molecular variant of a+ thalassaemia (the –a3.7III deletion), identical to that which had arisen in Melanesia, where malaria was common. Canoes, not malaria, were responsible for the arrival of thalassaemia in Tahiti, and the malaria hypothesis survived a crucial challenge. We shall discuss the detailed evidence for the hypothesis later in this chapter. Suffice it to say here
that the new methods have provided a much clearer insight into the world distribution of the various haemoglobinopathies. Paradoxically, however, they appear to have left one important aspect somewhat overshadowed. In the previous edition we remarked on the rather unsatisfactory state of much of the gene frequency data for a and b thalassaemia. Sadly, despite, or perhaps because of, the new technology we are — with a few notable exceptions — still in the dark about the true gene frequencies of the thalassaemias in many parts of the world, although a detailed repertoire of molecular variants is often available! The reasons for this are many and varied.Accurate prevalence data usually need large-scale surveys, preferably not hospital based, and involving a lot of hard work and expense. In many countries, local variations in geography and climate mean that malarial endemicity, and therefore thalassaemia frequencies, may vary widely. Population movements and malaria eradication programmes will often have broken the link between the two, so that pockets of thalassaemia, or its absence, cannot always be readily predicted. Furthermore, because thalassaemia was one of the first common genetic diseases to be recognized, many surveys were carried out with less than ideal methods, with little incentive to repeat all the hard work as better methods later became available. So it is rarely the case that full diagnostic criteria have been used for the different forms of thalassaemia being surveyed. Add to this variations in technique, and even in definitions of ‘normal’, and it becomes obvious why prevalence data are so imprecise, and perhaps why the relatively straightforward determination of genotypes has largely replaced assessment of the nature and extent of phenotypic variation. In this chapter we shall discuss what is known about the distribution and frequency of the common forms of a and b thalassaemia.The distribution of the db thalassaemias is considered in Chapter 8, the interactions of structural haemoglobin variants with the b thalassaemias in Chapter 9, hereditary persistence of 237
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Chapter 6
fetal haemoglobin in Chapter 10, and the dominant b thalassaemias in Chapter 13.
Overall distribution Thalassaemia has a high incidence in a broad region extending from the Mediterranean basin and parts of Africa, through the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia and Melanesia and out into the Pacific (Fig. 6.1). These are the regions where most of the public health problems occur (together with some countries in Central and South America that had substantial immigration from Europe, mainly
α and β thalassaemia
Fig. 6.1 World distribution of a and b thalassaemia.
Italy, in the last century). But it is also evident that thalassaemia occurs, albeit at very low frequencies, in many other parts of the world. Indeed, wherever serious attempts have been made to find it, they have usually been successful. We now know that this follows to some extent from the molecular basis of the disease. Unlike sickle-cell anaemia, for example, which results from a unique single-base mutation in the b-globin gene, any mutation that leads to a reduced output of globin will be a thalassaemia mutation. Not surprisingly, therefore, there are many of them, because there are so many ‘targets’ in the a and b genes for such mutations. In effect, the mutation
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias rate for ‘thalassaemia’ is quite high, and the consequence, helped along by population movements, is the sporadic occurrence of thalassaemia in most populations that have been looked at. These mutations are, of course, the raw material for malarial selection to act upon in the endemic regions of the world. Early descriptions of the distribution of thalassaemia genes appear in the reviews by Chernoff (1959) and Bannerman (1961). An excellent account of data published before DNA technologies appeared can be found in the monograph by Livingstone (1967) together with an updated tabular survey covering almost 150 countries or areas and with over 2000 references (Livingstone 1985).The topic is also reviewed in several WHO publications (WHO 1983, 1985, 1989b, 1994) and by Angastiniotis and Modell (1998). In a series of annual workshops, held under the auspices of the WHO, an attempt has been made to estimate the frequency of the a and b thalassaemias and the common haemoglobin variants throughout the world. These data are summarized in the latest of these publications (WHO 1994) and in a review of the work of this programme by Angastiniotis and Modell (1998). These publications, in which the sources of the gene frequency data are not referenced, are not designed to provide absolutely accurate information about the frequency of different forms of thalassaemia and haemoglobin disorders in each population, but rather to give an overall view of the global problem of the disease together with advice for its control and management. The data are based on a certain amount of published work
Table 6.1 Global summary of approximate numbers of annual births of babies with severe haemoglobin disorders. Modified from WHO (1994).
239
together with personal figures supplied by local clinicians (Dr Bernadette Modell, personal communication). As we shall see throughout this chapter, where it has been studied in detail, the distribution of the haemoglobin disorders is always patchy, and hence the WHO figures may be inaccurate, at least for some populations. However, they provide a useful guideline to an approximation of the clinical problems that these diseases will pose in the future. An overall assessment of the numbers of patients with the important haemoglobin disorders derived from the WHO Working Party is shown in Table 6.1.
b Thalassaemia Distribution and frequency In the sections that follow we shall largely confine ourselves to the high-incidence areas where thalassaemia poses serious health issues. Since haemoglobin E is associated with a mild thalassaemic phenotype, and can interact with b-thalassaemic alleles to cause a severe form of b thalassaemia (see Chapter 9), we include a description of its distribution and frequency in this account. Europe Italy Some of the earliest and largest surveys were those carried out in Italy by Silvestroni, Bianco and their
WHO region
Population (millions)
Births (millions)
Births of homozygotes or compound heterozygotes (thousands)*
Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
650 730 3150 780 30
30.0 17.5 84.0 11.0 0.5
230 5.0 120.0 1.6 0.2
Total
5340
143.0
356.8†
* The disorders vary according to the region. In Africa sickle-cell anaemia accounts for most of the cases, while in Asia b thalassaemia, HbE b thalassaemia and a0 thalassaemia are the most important disorders. In Europe b thalassaemia is the predominant haemoglobin disorder. † These figures may be an underestimate; accurate gene frequencies for many populations are not available, and birth rates are based on current figures rather than World Bank projections.
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colleagues between 1944 and 1981 (Silvestroni & Bianco 1947, 1959, 1963, 1966, 1968, 1975; Silvestroni et al. 1978, 1981a,b). Because methods in use changed during the course of these surveys, they are not strictly comparable; nevertheless they reveal considerable variation in b-thalassaemia frequencies in Italy, with the highest incidences found in the Po delta in the north and in the southern regions of Campania, Calabria, Puglia, Lucania and Sardinia. In the Po delta the incidence ranges from 7 to 19%. Barrai et al. (1984) estimated frequencies for the Po provinces of Rovigo and Ferrara as ~8%, and also included a comparison between the osmotic-fragility method extensively employed in the early surveys and quantitative HbA2 methods. They concluded that estimates of heterozygote frequencies by the former method may have been inflated by at least 8%. Elsewhere in northern and central Italy b-thalassaemia frequencies are in the range of 0.5–2%. In addition to the extensive surveys of Silvestroni and Bianco, other large surveys have been carried out in Italy. Brancati (1961) studied 33 000 people in 121 areas of Calabria. There was remarkable variation in the frequency of the disease (from less than 4% to over 9%, reaching just under 20% in a few places), which was commoner in low-lying areas and particularly on the coast of the Ionian Sea. A similar high incidence has been recorded in Calabria by Quattrin et al. (1970, 1973). Six per cent of over 25 000 individuals studied were found to be carriers for some form of thalassaemia, almost 90% of which was b thalassaemia, the remainder being a mixture of other haemoglobinopathies including Hb Lepore and db thalassaemia. Sicily and Sardinia There are limited data available for Sicily, with the frequency of b thalassaemia ranging from ~3 to 9% in five studies (Schiliro 1987; Pepe et al. 1992). Schiliro (1978) makes the point that Sicily is something of a Mediterranean halfway house, with a fair selection of most of the haemoglobinopathies found in the region: of 7143 haematological patients, almost 30% had some haemoglobin disorder with the majority being heterozygotes for b thalassaemia.The high incidence of b thalassaemia in Sardinia, first reported by Carcassi et al. (1957b), was confirmed in later studies by Cao et al. (1978, 1981) using modern quantitative methods. They found that one in eight of the popula-
tion were carriers for b thalassaemia. Only a handful of other b-cluster disorders, like db thalassaemia, Hb Lepore and HbS, were recorded. Greece Beta thalassaemia is also common in Greece, but as in Italy there is an uneven distribution. Malamos et al. (1962) studied 1600 Greek Air Force personnel drawn from all over the country and found ~5% with the b-thalassaemia trait. Stamatoyannopoulos and Fessas (1964) looked at four mainland areas (Korditsa, Elasson, Petromagoula and Arta) and two islands (Corfu and Serifos); the incidence of b thalassaemia ranged from 6 to 19%. Barnicot et al. (1963) found an incidence of 3.9% for the Chalkdiki peninsula, and somewhat higher values for Atalanta (7.6%) and Korditsa (9.8%). Schizas et al. (1977) estimated an average Greek mainland figure of ~7%. In general, low-altitude fertile areas have the highest incidence, while in the mountains and the north frequencies rarely exceed 2% (Tegos et al. 1987). Mediterranean islands Beta thalassaemia is also widespread throughout the islands of the Mediterranean. We have already noted its impact in Sardinia. On Crete, frequencies of between 4 and 9% were reported, and on Rhodes it reaches 25% in the Massori and Laerma regions (Barnicot et al. 1963). In Cyprus, b thalassaemia presents a public health problem as serious as that in Sardinia (Plato et al. 1964; Ashiotis et al. 1973; Bate 1975). Ashiotis et al. (1973) found an overall incidence in Greek Cypriots of 15%, and a similar figure is reported for the Turkish Cypriot population (Ashiotis et al. 1973; Cin et al. 1984).Angastiniotis and Hadjiminas (1981) give an overall figure of 17.2% based on a survey of 14 624 people in the Cyprus Thalassaemia Centre in Nicosia. On Malta 3.5% of 1500 individuals surveyed were found to be b-thalassaemia carriers (Cauchi 1970). Western Mediterranean Thalassaemia is less common at the western end of the Mediterranean. There appears to be little in southern France except in individuals of Italian or Spanish origin (Orsini et al. 1974). Surveys in Spain have revealed a patchy distribution throughout the
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias country apart from the Basque region, where it is absent. Elsewhere it occurs at frequencies of 1–2%, reaching a high of 3.4% in Murcia (Pellicer & Casado 1970). It is also quite common in the Barcelona region and on the island of Minorca (Gimferrer & Baiget 1979). These authors (Baiget & Gimferrer 1986) also make the point that the distribution of b thalassaemia in Spain largely fits with areas previously known to be occupied by the Moors, or in areas where malaria was endemic (except Galicia in the north-west). In Portugal, thalassaemia frequencies vary from about 1% in the south of the country to less than 0.5% in the north (Faustino et al. 1992).
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can be found in Efremov and Huisman (1983). These authors reiterate the point made earlier, that many of the data can only be regarded as a rough guide to the true frequency because some surveys were conducted with limited methodology, which also often failed to differentiate between the different forms of thalassaemia. In general, though, it is clear that b thalassaemia is found at the highest frequencies in and around the Mediterranean. As we shall see in a later section, the molecular characterization of variants has enabled us to get a much clearer picture of the origins and movements of these different thalassaemia genes around Europe during the past few thousand years.
East Europe Early reports (Fraser et al. 1966) that there might be a significant incidence of b thalassaemia in what was then Yugoslavia have been borne out by later studies. Sadikario et al. (1969) looked at 2861 children from Macedonia and found that 4.7% were b-thalassaemia carriers. More localized surveys within Macedonia revealed frequencies varying from 1.6 to 5.0% (Efremov et al. 1982). Further north, in Croatia, the frequency falls to about 1%, with intermediate values in Serbia and Bosnia Herzegovina (Efremov 1992). At the time we wrote the previous edition, it was only just becoming apparent to haematologists in the West that thalassaemia was a serious problem in countries bordering on the Black Sea. Most reports were found in local journals and we were fortunate in getting the help of Dr K.N. Kantchev of Burgas to translate the Bulgarian literature for us. b Thalassaemia is most common in the south-west of the country with frequencies of about 2%, declining to 0.05% in the north-east. It reaches 3.4% in a few isolated pockets (Rashkov 1978), with an average overall of between 2 and 3% (Tasheva et al. 1987). Central Europe Moving further north into central Europe it is clear that thalassaemia is found at low levels in many countries, Romania (Predescu et al. 1968), Czechoslovakia (Efremov & Huisman 1983; Indrák et al. 1992), Hungary (Efremov & Huisman 1983; Szelényi et al. 1983), Germany (Laig et al. 1990b) and the UK (Knox-Macaulay et al. 1973), although no large-scale systematic surveys have been carried out in these regions. A summary of much of the European data
The Middle East and west Asia Beta thalassaemia is widespread throughout the Middle East. In Turkey the average frequency is about 1.7% (Çavdar & Arcasoy 1971) ranging from 0.8% in Erzurum to 10.8% in western Thrace (Aksoy 1991) although higher incidences, particularly in western parts of the country, are known (Aksoy et al. 1985). The disorder is found throughout Lebanon at frequencies ranging from 0.5% to 2.5%, with the highest prevalence in the mountainous areas. It has also been reported in Jordan where it averages ~3.5% (Saba et al. 1992) and in the Arabian peninsula. The oasis populations of Saudi Arabia, where the sickle-cell gene is the predominant b haemoglobinopathy, have a low frequency of b thalassaemia. It is, however, clear that b thalassaemia occurs in significant proportions in other parts of the country because of the regular occurrence of patients with HbS b thalassaemia. Perrine et al. (1981) screened 2341 infants from the oases of eastern Saudi Arabia and found six cases of HbS b0 thalassaemia compared with 43 cases of sickle-cell disease. Elsewhere in the Arabian peninsula, b thalassaemia has been reported at frequencies of ~2% in Oman, the United Arab Emirates and the Yemen (White et al. 1986). Much lower frequencies (< 1%) have been reported in a large series from Kuwait (Ghosh et al. 1993). In Yemenite Jews now residing in Israel low frequencies have been reported, and this is also the case with Iranian and north African Jews. On the other hand, much higher frequencies (15–20%) have been reported in Kurdish Jews, and in Bnei Israel and Cochin Jews from India (Ramot et al. 1964). It seems likely that the differences in thalassaemia prevalence
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in these Jewish groups have arisen since their exile from ancient Israel in 721 BC after the destruction of the first Temple, probably because they moved to areas where malarial selection pressures were so different. The disorder is virtually absent in Ashkenazi Jews. In the Arab communities of Israel, frequencies > 10% have been reported in some areas. Overall carrier frequencies for b thalassaemia are ~1–2%, but this covers considerable extremes. There is evidence that b thalassaemia is a serious public health problem in Iran (Pouya 1959; Nasab 1979) and Iraq (Taj-Eldin et al. 1968). We have already noted its occurrence in Jews from Kurdistan, a region straddling eastern Turkey, western Iran and northern Iraq. Nozari et al. (1990) reported that b thalassaemia is widespread in the north and northwestern parts of Iran with frequencies reaching 4–5%, and there is clinical evidence of a high incidence of the disease in the Fars region in the south. Moving north we encounter the various republics of the former Soviet Union. In the previous edition we gained some insight into the distribution of b thalassaemia in various parts of the country from Professor Y.N. Tokarev and colleagues at the Central Institute of Haematology and Blood Transfusion in Moscow. The major foci of the disorders are found in the Transcaucasian region and central Asia. Particularly high frequencies were noted in Armenia (0–2%), Georgia (3%),Azerbaijan (6%), Uzbekistan (3%), Tadjikistan (5%) and Dagestan (3.5%) (summarized in Tokarev & Spivak 1982). Since the breakup of the USSR it has become easier for researchers in Western countries to establish links with clinical centres in the various republics. Some of the fruits of these collaborations can be seen later in this chapter when we discuss the distribution of the molecular variants of thalassaemia. The Indian subcontinent Beta thalassaemia is probably the commonest inherited haemoglobin disorder on the Indian subcontinent, with an uneven distribution among the different endogenous populations (Sukumaran 1975). In addition, Hbs S and E are common among some tribal groups. HbS was probably originally present in the Indus valley and was dispersed into India following invasions from the north (Labie et al. 1990). It reaches its highest frequencies in the Nilgiri district of Madras (up to 20%), parts of Andhra Pradesh (up to
17%), Madhya Pradesh (up to 20%), Maharashba (10%), Gujerat (up to 30%) and Orissa (up to 25%) (Livingstone 1985). It seems likely that the HbE in India reflects ancient population movements from the high-prevalence regions (Burma, Thailand, Cambodia) to the west. Chatterjea (1966) summarized the early literature on thalassaemia in India. More recent reviews can be found in Saha and Banerjee (1973), Sukumaran and Master (1974) and Sukumaran (1975). The average incidence is 3.3% (Modell & Petrou 1983), although there are considerable individual variations. In early surveys of Bengalis, Chatterjea (1959) found a carrier frequency of 3.7% for b-thalassaemia trait, and a high preponderance of HbE b thalassaemia (Chatterjea 1966). Ajmani et al. (1976) in a survey of 205 West Bengalis found 8.8% with b-thalassaemia trait and ~3.5% with HbE trait. Further north, in Assam, b thalassaemia is found at carrier frequencies that range from 0.3% in the Khasi population to 5.5% in Assamese (Flatz et al. 1972). HbE frequencies in these two populations are 45% and 20%, respectively. Similarly, Das and Deka (1975) and Das et al. (1980) found that HbE reached gene frequencies of over 50% among the mongoloid Bodo tribes living in the Brahmaputra valley. HbE has also been reported in Bhutan (Glasgow et al. 1968) and in Nepal at carrier frequencies of between 0.5 and 4% (Adams 1974; Gupta et al. 1977, 1979). Beta thalassaemia was also more common in the south-east of the country with frequencies varying from 0 to 8% among different population groups (Adams 1974). In north-western India carrier frequencies of 4.4% were recorded in Chitrapur Saraswats and 13.6% in Lohnas (Sharma et al. 1971). In a similar type of study of the Banushali community of Bombay, b thalassaemia was reported in 14.9% of 599 screened (Mehta et al. 1972). A high incidence was also noted in the Bohra Muslim community of Udaipur, Rajasthan. The incidence of b thalassaemia in the tribal populations has not been extensively studied. It has been reported in the populations of Dadra and Bagar Haveli region (Joshi et al. 1978). Jain et al. (1983) recorded 3% in the Bhils of southern Rajasthan and 7.9% in the Damar tribe (who had no HbS). In Madhya Pradesh, which has the largest tribal population in India, 50 individuals were identified with b-thalassaemia trait out of 2781 screened (~2%). In this same group the carrier frequencies for Hbs S
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias and E were 16.8 and 0.6%, respectively. In the Santal and Bhumji tribal populations of West Bengal b thalassaemia was found in about 6% of 197 individuals, with only one example of HbE trait (Giri et al. 1982). There is less information available from Pakistan. Studies on over 1000 people in Karachi suggested that the incidence of b-thalassaemia trait is about 1.4% (Farzana et al. 1975; Hashmi & Farzana 1976). In a survey of 500 healthy adults from the northern parts of Punjab and North-West Frontier Province, Khattak and Saleem (1992) reported an incidence of 3.3% in Punjabis rising to almost 8% in the 201 Pathans studied. There are no data available for Afghanistan. Early reports from Sri Lanka revealed a considerable amount of HbE (~20%) in the Veddahs (Wickremasinghe et al. 1963). In a recent survey of school children from different parts of the island it was found that, even though in the small population the distribution is patchy, the incidence of b-thalassaemia trait is about 2%, while that for HbE is 0.5–1% (De Silva et al. 2000). There are few frequency data available for Bangladesh, although it is clear from the many cases of b thalassaemia and HbE b thalassaemia seen during a visit by one of the authors many years ago and in the Bangladeshi community in the UK that both HbE and b thalassaemia must be quite common. Africa The haemoglobinopathies in much of Africa, particularly south of the Sahara desert, are dominated by sickle-cell anaemia. Nevertheless, b thalassaemia occurs sporadically throughout the continent. In a later section we shall discuss some of the reasons for this uneven distribution. North Africa Beta thalassaemia is found throughout the populations of north Africa. In parts of Algeria it reaches frequencies of 3% (Belhani et al. 1977; Godet et al. 1977; Labie et al. 1990) with an average of 1–2%. Cabannes et al. (1969a) reported similar frequencies in a number of sedentary northern Saharan populations (Berbers, Arabs, Harratin) and the disease is also seen in Morocco (Grozdea et al. 1966) and Libya, where frequencies of ~7% have been recorded (Jain
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1985). Beta thalassaemia has been reported in Tunisia (Chibani et al. 1988; Fattoum et al. 1991) though no prevalence data are given. In Egypt incidences of between 2.6% and 4% have been reported (Habib & Böök 1982; Novelletto et al. 1989; Novelletto et al. 1990) and the disease is a serious public health problem with a predicted 1000 live births annually (Hussein et al. 1993). Similar high frequencies have been suggested by small surveys in Sudan. Vella (1965) reported 6% of hospital patients to be likely b-thalassaemia heterozygotes. Ibrahim et al. (1970), studying members of the Beni Amer tribe (by ‘persuasive techniques’!), recorded about 5% with b thalassaemia; a similar frequency was reported by Saha et al. (1978) for residents of Khartoum. Similarly, Mourant et al. (1974) reported ~5% b thalassaemia in the Kunama and Baria tribes of north-west Eritrea. Further south, there are few studies of east African populations that have frequency data for b thalassaemia. An exception is that of Nowicki et al. (1975), who reported an incidence of ~3.5% in the Chuabo and Macua groups of Mozambique. West Africa There are numerous reports of b thalassaemia in West Africa, though few substantive surveys. One of the most systematic is that of Coquelet et al. (1978), who screened 10 000 students arriving in France from sub-Saharan Africa. In general, gene frequencies were low in central and eastern Africa. The highest incidences were recorded in the Baoule of Ivory Coast (4.6%), the Mossi of Upper Volta (2.6%) and the Djerma of Niger (2.6%), a similar frequency being reported by Cabannes et al. (1967a). Beta thalassaemia was also seen in individuals from Dahomey, Togo, Mali, Senegal and Chad. In similar studies on West Africans in France by Labie et al. (1978), an average frequency of 3.1% was reported for 540 immigrants from Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. Hiernaux (1976) reported a frequency of ~5% in the Sara Majingay of southern Chad. Beta thalassaemia has been well documented in Liberia. Early surveys were carried out by Olesen et al. (1959) and Neel et al. (1961). Willcox (1975) found an incidence of 9% in a northern population, and even higher frequencies in the southern Kru-speaking peoples. Bienzle et al. (1983b) studied 1578 individuals from four Liberian populations.The incidence of b
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thalassaemia ranged from 1.6% in the Kissi west Atlantic group to 12.9% in the Sapo Kru, with an overall average of 8.9%, only slightly lower than the 9.8% for HbS. Ringelhann et al. (1968) recorded an average incidence of 4% for four populations in Ghana, with the highest frequency in the Kassena tribe close to the northern border with Upper Volta. Weatherall et al. (1971) recorded lower frequencies of 1.7% for the north and 1.3% for a southern Ghanaian population. The gene frequency is lower in Nigeria. Folayan Esan (1970) screened 3002 blood donors in Ibadan and found 23 (0.8%) with b-thalassaemia trait. There have been a number of studies from the Ivory Coast in addition to that of Coquelet et al. (1978) mentioned earlier. Cabannes et al. (1967b, 1969b, 1974) found frequencies ranging from 2% to a high of nearly 5% in a large survey of the Akan. Lower frequencies were noted in the Koulango, who are of Upper Voltaic origin. South-east Asia The haemoglobinopathies are widespread throughout south-east Asia, although gene frequency data for many countries are sparse. Large parts of the mainland, from Burma in the west to Vietnam in the east
China
Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam Much more is known about thalassaemia in Thailand as a result of the work of Na-Nakorn, Wasi and Flatz and their colleagues. The overall incidence of b thalassaemia is 4.8%, with the highest incidence of ~11% in northern Thailand and the lowest in Khmer-speakers of the north-east (Flatz et al. 1965b), where, in contrast, HbE frequencies reach 50%. Similarly, east of Thailand in Laos the frequency of b thalassaemia averages about 6% (Sicard et al. 1979) and HbE
Vietnam 4·6 5·7
0 2
Beta thalassaemia has been recognized in Burma for many years (Perabo 1954) and is found at a frequency of about 0.5% (Aung-Than-Batu et al. 1968). In contrast HbE reaches a carrier frequency of ~26% in Burmese, 24% in Shans and Mons and 4–10% in Karens and Kachins (Aung-Than-Batu & Hla-Pe 1971).
1·2 25·40 1·25 9
Burma
Thailand
Burma
% Haemoglobin E % β thalassaemia
Laos
1·26 0.5·5
are dominated by HbE; consequently as well as homozygous b thalassaemia, HbE b thalassaemia is a serious public health problem throughout the region (Fig. 6.2).
30·50 3
13·17 3 23 6
6·40 1·12
32·63 1·5
Philippines
Cambodia 3·32 2
11 ?
Brunei
4·45 1·5
Malaysia
Singapore 5 6
0 2
0 2 4 5
4 5
2 0
0 0 0 6
1
Indonesia 8 2·5 ?
11 4 0 ?
6 4
1 6
0 0
Fig. 6.2 Distribution of b thalassaemia and HbE in south-east Asia. Data obtained from references in text and from unpublished studies by the authors.
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias carrier frequencies vary from 20% in the north of Laos, to 50% in the south bordering Cambodia (Sicard et al. 1979). The frequency of HbE in Cambodia itself varies from 30 to 60% (Goueffon & du Saussay 1967; Sanguansermsri et al. 1987; Bashir et al. 1992a), averaging ~33% (Satta et al. 1970). Beta thalassaemia is much less common: in a study of 264 rural Cambodians, Sanguansermsri et al. (1987) found 3.4% with raised HbA2 levels. In Vietnam, b thalassaemia occurs at an average frequency of ~2% (de Traverse et al. 1959; Pornpatkul et al. 1980). HbE frequencies vary markedly, with the highest (72%) in the Stieng group located close to the border with central Cambodia, and the lowest in Vietnamese from the south. China Few data were available from China when the previous edition of this book was written. Much of the information, which had come from Chinese in Hong Kong and Singapore, was summarized in the paper of McFadzean and Todd (1971). It has since become clear that b thalassaemia is a major public health problem, particularly in the south of the country. Zeng and Huang (1987) surveyed over 360 000 people from 12 provinces and found an average incidence of 0.66% with the highest frequencies in Guizhou (2.21%), Sichuan (2.18%), Guangxi (1.52%) and Guangdong (1.08%). A similar overall figure of 0.67% was reported by Yang et al. (1985). The incidences for most of the regions studied were similar to those reported by Zeng et al. except for Yunnan, where a much higher frequency of 5% is given in the earlier study. A recent summary given to the authors by Professor B. Liu of the West China University of Medical Sciences also reports an incidence of ~2% in the southern provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou, which collectively have a population of over 200 million. A crude estimate would therefore suggest that there are 4 million heterozygotes, and 20 000 homozygous live births per annum in this part of China. In contrast to the countries to the west, HbE is almost unknown in China and, when seen, can usually be traced to an origin in the highfrequency areas of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. In Taiwan a survey of 4100 women showed that 1.1% of them were b-thalassaemia heterozygotes (Ko et al. 1989), a reflection of the mainland ethnic background of most Taiwanese.
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Malaysia Thalassaemia is encountered frequently amongst the Chinese and Malays of the Malay peninsula (Vella 1958b, 1959; Lie-Injo & Chin 1964; Wong 1966). Remarkably, considering the public health problems encountered, there appear to be no reliable gene frequency data available. The incidence of HbE is, however, well documented. Lie-Injo and Chin (1964) reported frequencies of 26 and 45% in the Semai and Temiar aboriginal Malays. Much lower frequencies of 3–10% were seen in the non-aboriginal population (Vella 1962a; Lie-Injo 1970; Lie-Injo & Duraisamy 1972; Ganesan et al. 1976). In a study of hospital patients with thalassaemia major, George et al. (1992a) reported that HbE b thalassaemics outnumbered b-thalassaemia homozygotes by about 4 to 1 (whereas in Chinese the ratio was 1 to 3). Assuming that fewer HbE b thalassaemics are ascertained than homozygous b thalassaemias, this might imply that the frequency of b thalassaemia in Malays is probably less than 1%. Indonesia Thalassaemia is widespread throughout island southeast Asia, though there are few prevalence data available in the literature except for HbE (Lie-Injo 1959b; Vella & Tavaria 1961; Lie-Injo et al. 1968). A series of studies in Indonesia by Wahidiyat et al. (1987), Sofro et al. (1985), Untario et al. (1986), Untario (1988) and Sofro (1995) revealed that the incidence of b thalassaemia varied between 4.5 and 7.8%. More recently the authors have had the opportunity to collaborate with Dr A.S.M. Sofro on another detailed survey of several regions of Indonesia. There are remarkable variations of the frequencies of both b thalassaemia and HbE. The highest incidences (10%) of b thalassaemia were seen in central and south Sumatra, with the lowest (0%) in parts of central and north Sulawesi. Intermediate levels were found in south Sulawesi, Kalimantan on the island of Borneo, Lombok, Ambon and Flores. HbE was equally patchily distributed. The highest frequencies are the islands of Savu (25%), Sumbawa (8%) and Madura and in eastern Java (10%) in the south of the archipelago. Elsewhere, frequencies vary between 0 and 5%. The overall average frequencies for b thalassaemia and HbE are 3.7% and 2.7%, respectively. Given that the population of Indonesia is at present
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approaching 200 million and is projected to reach 265 million by 2025 it is obvious that homozygous b thalassaemia and HbE b thalassaemia present massive public health problems in this region. Philippines Beta thalassaemia was found in the Philippines at low frequency (< 1%) in a survey of 403 residents of Manilla (Motulsky et al. 1964). Melanesia Beta thalassaemia was first recognized in Melanesians from New Guinea in 1961 (Ryan 1961). Since then numerous surveys have been carried out and some quite high frequency pockets have been identified. In general b thalassaemia is rare in the malariafree highland populations, averaging 0.2% in a survey of almost 1000 individuals from four regions. On the coast, where malaria prevalences can be very high, the frequency averaged 5% in surveys of 2600 individuals from 11 regions (summarized in Hill et al. 1988). Elsewhere in Melanesia b thalassaemia is uncommon, except for the island of Maewo in Vanuatu, where carrier rates of 13% have been reported (Bowden et al. 1987b). There are no reports of b thalassaemia in the indigenous island populations of the central and eastern Pacific. The Americas The indigenous populations of the Americas are remarkably free of haemoglobinopathies. Wherever they are found in any significant frequency, there is usually evidence of admixture from immigrant populations from Africa or Europe. But, because of the scale of immigration in some countries, thalassaemia, HbE and sickle-cell disease contribute to a substantial public health problem. Beta thalassaemia occurs in several populations in the Americas. In North America it is found mainly in the immigrant populations of Greeks and Italians and more recently southeast Asians, while in American blacks its incidence reflects that of West Africa. In a 1977 survey, Pierce et al. (1977) reported that 1.4% of healthy adults were b-thalassaemia heterozygotes. In reviewing the data available for Mexico, Ruiz Reyes (1983) concluded that b thalassaemia is extremely rare in the Mayan and Amerindian groups
of Mexico. Lisker (1981) (summarized in Ruiz Reyes 1983) surveyed 3311 ‘pure’ Indians belonging to 20 linguistic groups and found only three HbS heterozygotes. Similar qualitative findings were noted by Matson et al. (1963). There are few other frequency data for Central America. In contrast there have been substantial studies for some regions of South America, notably in Venezuela and Brazil. Arends (1984) reviewed a large number of studies on 26 000 Venezuelans, comprising Indian, black and mixed populations. Three b-thalassaemia heterozygotes were seen in 722 members of the Waros tribe of the Orinoco delta, and one individual in 170 Sharapu from Tukoko. Otherwise in over 4500 individuals from 20 tribes, b thalassaemia was absent. In contrast, b thalassaemia was often seen, at frequencies up to 1.4%, in mixed and black populations. For Venezuela as a whole Arends (1984) estimated that there would be over 30 000 b-thalassaemia heterozygotes and over 100 homozygotes in the population of 14.5 million. Sickle-cell anaemia represents a more serious problem, with over 2000 cases estimated. Beta thalassaemia is not recognized in surveys of Brazilian Indian populations (Salzano & Tondo 1982). The frequencies in non-Indian Brazilians range from 0.8% to 1.1% in southern mixed populations. Most carriers are of Italian descent (Zago & Costa 1985). The pattern of b thalassaemia in individuals of European descent is also seen in Argentina.Abreu de Miani and Peñalver (1983) found that 0.8% of 4000 blood donors screened in Buenos Aires were heterozygotes and that 97% of these individuals had identified Mediterranean ancestry, mostly Italian. In Surinam, on the other hand, it seems likely that b thalassaemia was introduced from Africa via the slave trade. Pik et al. (1965) studied 70 negroid individuals from four regions and found carrier frequencies of between 0.9 and 2.3%. HbS frequencies in these groups varied between 10 and 20%. Native Indians now make up only ~2% of the population of Bolivia. Restrepo (1971) found no abnormal HbS or thalassaemia in 766 people from five tribes. In the black population the frequency of b thalassaemia was about 0.5%, while mulattos and mestizos, who constitute the bulk of the population, had ~0.1%. Haemoglobinopathies in the Caribbean are dominated by HbS and HbC. Frequencies of b thalassaemia are generally low, for example 0.3% in Guadeloupe and Martinique (Gentilini et al. 1975).
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias Finally, we shall end this section with one of the few data sets that cover much of the world. Coquelet et al. (1983) studied abnormal haemoglobins and thalassaemia in 35 000 individuals from 99 countries who were examined at the Centres Eurafricain, Euraméricain, Eurasiatique de Biologie Humaine (CEABH) in Paris. Whatever one may say about the limitations of particular studies, at least in this one we assume any there were were consistent across nations! Briefly, their findings were as follows. Among 9417 black Africans the average b-thalassaemia frequency was 0.58% (range for three regions 0.2–1.1%); for 7370 individuals from north Africa and the Mediterranean ‘orientale’ (Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Cyprus, Greece), 1.18% (range for 10 countries 0.3–7.1%); for 1793 individuals from Arabia, the Middle East and India, 1.56% (range for 11 countries 0–3.3%); for 2277 individuals from north and south Asia, 1.36% (range for 10 countries 0–3.4%); for 4738 from the Americas, 0.2%; and for Europe (7383 individuals), 0.18%.
Molecular variation of b thalassaemia When the previous edition of this book was written the impact of the recombinant DNA revolution was only just beginning to make itself felt in the thalassaemia field. Classification of b0 and b+ thalassaemia was about as much as prevailing methods would allow, and even this was difficult in heterozygotes. Indeed, the most reliable approach was the old established one of studying interaction of b-thalassaemia determinants with b structural variants like HbS and HbE. In the intervening period, characterization of mutations at the molecular level has become commonplace. As we somewhat despondently noted in the introduction to this chapter, we often now have an extremely detailed picture of the different molecular variants that make up the spectrum of the thalassaemia syndromes in a particular country, while remaining in almost complete ignorance about the true scale of the problem. But the new molecular information has enabled us to tackle questions that were virtually unanswerable previously.We can now make sensible inferences about the origins and movements of particular variants, and as we shall show later we have been able to use this information to address the old
247
issue of the relationship between thalassaemia and malaria. Distribution of b-thalassaemia alleles Almost 200 mutations that cause b thalassaemia have been described. Many of them are rare, often encountered only once, but a substantial proportion are extremely common, albeit sometimes with a limited geographical distribution. In Table 6.2 and Fig. 6.3 we have listed the most frequently reported variants, with a crude geographical breakdown of their distribution. Two features stand out: variants are not uniformly distributed, but have obvious geographical specificity; and, although most populations have a fair number of different variants, two or three usually account for most of the thalassaemia; 20 alleles constitute more than 80% of bthalassaemia determinants (Table 6.3). Each region has one, or at most two, mild alleles (see Chapter 13). So in Europe and the Middle East four variants, codon 39 CÆT (28%), IVS110 GÆA (25%), IVS1-1 GÆA (10%) and IVS1-6 TÆC (10%), account for almost three-quarters of the b thalassaemia in the region, the first two, in fact, for over 50%. Two of the four are b0 thalassaemias (CD39, IVS1-1 GÆA) and the other two are b+. A similar situation is seen in India and south-east Asia. There, three variants, IVS1-5 GÆC (33%), CD41/42 (27%) and IVS1-1 GÆC (9%), account for over two-thirds of the b thalassaemias in the combined region. In addition a further set of three variants, CD8/9 +G (9%), CD15 GÆA (2%) and the 619-bp 3¢ deletion (16%), comprise most of the remainder in India, and three different variants, –29 AÆG (7%), CD16 –C (10%) and IVS2-654 CÆT (14%), bring up the total in the rest of south-east Asia.As in Europe, they comprise a mix of b0 and b+ types. In Africa, the distribution is even more restricted with just two variants, –29 AÆG (60%) and –88 CÆT (21%), accounting for over three-quarters of the b thalassaemia. It is interesting to note that both these variants are b+ types, largely accounting for the relative mildness of b thalassaemia in black Africans. In addition, compound heterozygotes of these mild b thalassaemias and HbS are likely to have a less severe phenotype than HbS b0-thalassaemia interactions. It is intriguing that in India, where most of the b-thalassaemia variants are b0, the HbS mutation occurs on a haplotype that allows higher levels of HbF production in
248
Chapter 6
Table 6.2 World distribution of b thalassaemia mutations: (a) Africa. Egypt 26, 41
References Mutation
Type
–101 CÆT –90 CÆT –88 CÆA –88 CÆT –87 CÆA –87 CÆG –87 CÆT –86 CÆG –30 TÆA –29 AÆG –28 AÆG –28 AÆC –28 AÆT –31 AÆG CAP +1 AÆC CAP +22 GÆA In codon TÆC In codon TÆG In codon AÆG In codon GÆA CD5 –CT CD6 –A CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD9/10 +C CD14 +T CD14/15 +G CD15 GÆA CD16 –C CD17 AÆT CD19 AÆG CD22/23/24 (–7) CD24 TÆA CD25/26 +T CD27 GÆT CD27/28 +C CD28 TÆG CD29 CÆT CD30 GÆC CD30 AÆG IVS1-1 GÆC IVS1-1 GÆT IVS1-1 GÆA IVS1-2 TÆG IVS1-2 TÆC IVS1-2 TÆA IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-5 GÆT IVS1-5 GÆA IVS1-6 TÆC IVS1-110 GÆA IVS1-116 TÆG
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + 0
Algeria 6, 32
Tunisia 11, 17
US Blacks 23
21.4 0.8
0.3 3.0
1.7 1.7 1.7
17.7
2.7 60.3
1.8 10.7 0.9
0.8
2.4 0.9 0.8
11.8
0.3
0.7
1.8
10.5
0.9 0.9
2.6 1.0 0.3
0.8
0.8
1.6 15.1 35.3
0.7 3.3 24.9
0.9 6.3 12.5
Continued
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias Table 6.2(a) Africa Continued. References Mutation IVS1-128 TÆG IVS1-130 GÆC IVS1 –25 bp (+252 to +276) CD35 CÆA CD35 –C CD36/37 –T CD37 –G CD37 GÆA CD38/39 –C CD39 CÆT CD41 –C CD41/42 –TCTT CD43 GÆT CD44 –C CD47/48 +4 CD51 –C CD55 +A CD61 AÆT CD71/72 +A CD76 –C CD82/83 –G CD90 GÆT IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-4/5 –AG IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-705 TÆG IVS2-745 CÆG IVS2-843 TÆG IVS2-848 CÆA IVS2-849 AÆC IVS2-849 AÆG IVS2-850 GÆC IVS2-850 –G CD106/107 +G CD121 GÆA CD121 GÆT CD123–125 (–8) CD127 CÆT CD127/128 (–3) Poly(A) (AAAÆAAG) Poly(A) (AAAÆGAA) Poly(A) (AATÆAAC) Poly(A) (AAAÆAGA) 290-bp deletion (–124 to +167) 619-bp deletion (+1065 to 1683) 1393-bp deletion (–485 to +908) 1605-bp deletion (–984 to +620) Unknown/others Chromosomes
Egypt 26, 41
Algeria 6, 32
Tunisia 11, 17
US Blacks 23
Type + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + 0 0 0 0
3.0
1.7
1.7
21.6
27.7
3.6
0.8
3.4
5.0 6.7
0.8
0.7 0.3 0.3
4.5 0.9
1.7
0.8 1.6 2.4
1.6
0.8
1.6 10.9
8.8
23.2
119
305
112
126
249
250
Chapter 6
Table 6.2(b) Southeast and northeast Asia.
References Mutation
Type
–101 CÆT –90 CÆT –88 CÆA –88 CÆT –87 CÆA –87 CÆG –87 CÆT –86 CÆG –30 TÆA –29 AÆG –28 AÆG –28 AÆC –28 AÆT –31 AÆG CAP +1 AÆC CAP +22 GÆA In codon TÆC In codon TÆG In codon AÆG In codon GÆA CD5 –CT CD6 –A CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD9/10 +G CD14 +T CD14/15 +G CD15 GÆA CD16 –C CD17 AÆT CD19 AÆG CD22/23/24 (–7) CD24 TÆA CD25/26 +T CD27 GÆT CD27/28 +C CD28 TÆG CD29 CÆT CD30 GÆC CD30 AÆG IVS1-1 GÆC IVS1-1 GÆT IVS1-1 GÆA IVS1-2 TÆG IVS1-2 TÆC IVS1-2 TÆA IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-5 GÆT IVS1-5 GÆA IVS1-6 TÆC
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + +
Burma
China
7
8, 25, 29 35, 38, 57
Malaysia Malays 22
Indonesia
Thailand
Taiwan
Japan/ Korea
36
19, 20, 34, 52
9, 37
60
Chinese
0.2
4.2
2.3 12.4
3.1 2.0
1.4 11.3 1.4
0.3 5.8 6.7 16.1
1.7 4.3 7.5 0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2 6.8
7.4
16.6
7.1 10.2
2.8 4.2
1.7
1.0 21.2 5.4
10.0
0.2
2.7
1.7
35.8
1.3
9.2
1.4
10.2 1.7
3.8
1.4
54.2
9.6
0.3
1.0
1.0 28.4
1.8
45.9
Continued
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
251
Table 6.2(b) Southeast and northeast Asia Continued.
References Mutation
Type
IVS1-110 GÆA IVS1-116 TÆG IVS1-128 TÆG IVS1-130 GÆC IVS1-25 (+252 to +276) CD35 CÆA CD35 –C CD36/37 –T CD37 –G CD37 GÆA CD38/39 –C CD39 CÆT CD41 –C CD41/42 –TCTT CD43 GÆT CD44 –C CD47/48 +4 CD51 –C CD55 +A CD61 AÆT CD71/72 +A CD76 –C CD82/83 –G CD90 GÆT IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-4/5 –AG IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-705 TÆG IVS2-745 CÆG IVS2-843 TÆG IVS2-848 CÆA IVS2-849 AÆC IVS2-849 AÆG IVS2-850 GÆC IVS2-850 –G CD106/107 +G CD121 GÆA CD121 GÆT CD123–125 (–8) CD127 CÆT CD127/128 (–3) Poly(A) (AAAÆAAG) Poly(A) (AAAÆGAA) Poly(A) (AATÆAAC) Poly(A) (AAAÆAGA) 290-bp deletion 619-bp deletion 1392-bp deletion 1605-bp deletion Unknown/others
+ 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + 0 0 0 0
Chromosomes
Burma
China
7
8, 25, 29 35, 38, 57
Malaysia Malays 22
Indonesia
Thailand
Taiwan
Japan/ Korea
36
19, 20, 34, 52
9, 37
60
Chinese
0.3
0.8 4.1
22.1
42.3 0.4
7.1
5.8
1.7
53.5
1.7
2.8
0.2 40.2
2.4
38.2 0.3
7.2
0.3
15.7 10.8 2.1
12.1
4.1
19.7
11.9
6.0
39.2
13.6
2.9 0.2 3.9
1.0
5.1 95
710
98
8.5 71
59
3.8 533
15.7 301
279
252
Chapter 6
Table 6. 2(c) West Asia and the Middle East. Turkey 2, 3, 4, 42
References Mutation
Type
–101 CÆT –90 CÆT –88 CÆA –88 CÆT –87 CÆA –87 CÆG –87 CÆT –86 CÆG –30 TÆA –29 AÆG –28 AÆG –28 AÆC –28 AÆT –31 AÆG CAP +1 AÆC CAP +22 GÆA In codon TÆC In codon TÆG In codon AÆG In codon GÆA CD5 –CT CD6 –A CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD9/10 +G CD14 +T CD14/15 +G CD15 GÆA CD16 –C CD17 AÆT CD19 AÆG CD22/23/24 (–7) CD24 TÆA CD25/26 +T CD27 GÆT CD27/28 +C CD28 TÆG CD29 CÆT CD30 GÆC CD30 AÆG IVS1-1 GÆC IVS1-1 GÆT IVS1-1 GÆA IVS1-2 TÆG IVS1-2 TÆC IVS1-2 TÆA IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-5 GÆT IVS1-5 GÆA IVS1-6 TÆC IVS1-110 GÆA IVS1-116 TÆG
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + 0
Lebanon 10, 56
0.5
Israel 63
UAE 16, 44
Jordan 59
Iran 58
Kurdistan 48
Azerbaijan 13, 31, 49, 50
1.4 0.2 0.9 0.6
1.2
0.6
3.5
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2 2.2
0.7
1.1
6.0
28.8
0.5
3.3 0.8
2.4 0.6 5.9 2.0 0.1
3.1 5.0
1.7 0.2 2.5
4.7
3.3
3.4 8.5
0.3 3.7 4.6
30.4 6.4 0.3
0.2
0.7
2.1
1.6 0.5 0.9 0.3
0.1
0.2
3.3
5.0
1.1
0.8 0.8
0.9 1.2 0.4
3.0
0.9
3.7
11.8
5.5
1.0 0.5 0.1 13.3 40.6 0.1
3.1
1.4
56.6
5.5
7.4
6.2 46.6
12.1 23.7
3.0 1.3
6.6 22.0
4.6 6.5
1.3 1.9
3.7
1.6 0.3
13.6
4.5 11.9
Continued
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
253
Table 6. 2(c) West Asia and the Middle East Continued. References Mutation IVS1-128 TÆG IVS1-130 GÆC IVS1 –25 (+252 to +276) CD35 CÆA CD35 –C CD36/37 –T CD37 –G CD37 GÆA CD38/39 –C CD39 CÆT CD41 –C CD41/42 –TCTT CD43 GÆT CD44 –C CD47/48 +4 CD51 –C CD55 +A CD61 AÆT CD71/72 +A CD76 –C CD82/83 –G CD90 GÆT IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-4/5 –AG IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-705 TÆG IVS2-745 CÆG IVS2-843 TÆG IVS2-848 CÆA IVS2-849 AÆC IVS2-849 AÆG IVS2-850 GÆC IVS2I-850 –G CD106/107 +G CD121 GÆA CD121 GÆT CD123–125 (–8) CD127 CÆT CD127/128 (–3) Poly(A) (AAAÆAAG) Poly(A) (AAAÆGAA) Poly(A) (AATÆAAC) Poly(A) (AAAÆAGA) 290-bp deletion 619-bp deletion 1392-bp deletion 1605-bp deletion Unknown/others Chromosomes
Turkey 2, 3, 4, 42
Lebanon 10, 56
Israel 63
UAE 16, 44
Jordan 59
Iran 58
Kurdistan 48
Azerbaijan 13, 31, 49, 50
Type + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + 0 0 0 0
0.3 0.2 0.6
6.8
3.7
1.1
1.9
1.3
0.9 5.5 3.8
8.8
1.2
11.6
4.3
1.2
9.4
0.9
2.2
5.5
1.7
2.1
3.7
38.9
2.4
3.7 6.9
6.8
7.7
2.7
3.7
2.5
3.8
20.0
13.8
15.9
12.1
3.7
0.8
2.2
0.2
2.8
15.3
1.9
10.0 817
0.6 161
2.3 446
4.4 235
91
36.1 108
1.7 59
7.7 377
254
Chapter 6
Table 6. 2(d) Europe. Portugal 12, 18, 51
References Mutation
Type
–101 CÆT –90 CÆT –88 CÆA –88 CÆT –87 CÆA –87 CÆG –87 CÆT –86 CÆG –30 TÆA –29 AÆG –28 AÆG –28 AÆC –28 AÆT CAP +1 AÆC CAP +22 (GÆA) In codon TÆC In codon TÆG In codon AÆG In codon GÆA CD5 –CT CD6 –A CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD9/10 +C CD14 +T CD14/15 +G CD15 GÆA CD16 –C CD17 AÆT CD19 AÆG CD22/23/24 (–7) CD24 TÆA CD25/26 +T CD27 GÆT CD27/28 +C CD28 TÆG CD29 CÆT CD30 GÆC CD30 AÆG IVS1-1 GÆC IVS1-1 GÆT IVS1-1 GÆA IVS1-2 TÆG IVS1-2 TÆC IVS1-2 TÆA IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-5 GÆT IVS1-5 GÆA IVS1-6 TÆC IVS1-110 GÆA IVS1-116 TÆG IVS1-128 TÆG
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + 0 +
Spain 1,40
France 39
UK 24
Germany 33
Italy 47 0.4
1.2
1.5 0.1
8.7 2.9 1.0
1.2
7.9
4.3 0.1
21.0
11.5
10.5
8.7
2.6
10.4
0.2
19.0 11.5
12.6 16.5
8.6 25.7
4.3 4.3
7.7
0.1 10.1 23.5
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
Yugoslavia 15
Czechoslovakia 27
Hungary 45
Bulgaria 28, 43
Greece 30
Sardinia 46
Sicily 14
255
Cyprus 5
0.5
0.5
2.6
2.0
0.2
3.1 6.2 3.6 3.6
0.3 2.8 1.1
2.1
31.0
4.1
13.9
< 0.1
3.1
6.0
6.9
9.8 27.3
8.8 43.1
0.1 0.5
28.9 26.8
6.4 78.4
0.4 0.8
1.0
0.8
0.4 13.8 2.1 1.2 4.2
0.1 0.2
1.2
10.3
45.2
21.5 38.8
5.4
Continued
256
Chapter 6
Table 6. 2(d) Europe Continued. References Mutation IVS1-130 GÆC IVS1 –25 bp (+252 to +276) CD35 CÆA CD35 –C CD36/37 –T CD37 –G CD38/39 –C CD39 CÆT CD41 –C CD41/42 –TCTT CD43 GÆT CD44 –C CD47/48 +4 CD51 –C CD55 +A CD61 AÆT CD71/72 +A CD76 –C CD82/83 –G IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-4/5 –AG IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-705 TÆG IVS2-745 CÆG IVS2-843 TÆG IVS2-848 CÆA IVS2-849 AÆC IVS2-849 AÆG IVS2-850 GÆC IVS2-850 (–G) CD106/107 +G CD121 GÆA CD121 GÆT CD123–125 –8 CD127 CÆT Poly(A) (AAAÆAAG) Poly(A) (AAAÆGAA) Poly(A) (AATÆAAC) Poly(A) AATAAAÆAATAGA 290-bp deletion (–124 to +167) 619-bp deletion (+1065 to 1683) 1393-bp deletion (–485 to +908) 1605-bp deletion (–984 to +620) Unknown/others Chromosomes
Portugal 12, 18, 51
Spain 1,40
France 39
UK 24
Germany 33
Italy 47
Type 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + 0 0 0 0
0.8
37.3
0.4
50.0
41.9
34.8
51.3
41.0
4.3 0.7
0.4 1.0
1.0 1.0
5.1
2.8
3.9
5.2
0.1 13.0 0.4 4.3
0.1
0.4
3.9
9.5
252
103
105
13.0
33.3
23
39
0.4 893
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
Yugoslavia 15
3.7
Czechoslovakia 27
7.5 2.2
Hungary 45
Bulgaria 28, 43
Greece 30
34.5
19.6
20.9
Sardinia 46
Sicily 14
95.7
36.1
0.7
1.0
257
Cyprus 5
2.5
3.4
0.1
7.5 14.0
6.9
2.1
2.0
< 0.1
1.7
4.3
3.4
8.2
3.0
0.4
3.1
5.7
1.7
0.4
11.8
3.7
0.4 5.4 242
0.5
2.2 93
29
8.8
1.6
194
642
1.9 3000
97
937
258
Chapter 6
Table 6.2(e) Indian subcontinent. Gujerat 53
Reference Mutation
Type
–101 CÆT –90 CÆT –88 CÆA –88 CÆT –87 CÆA –87 CÆG –87 CÆT –86 CÆG –30 TÆA –29 AÆG –28 AÆG –28 AÆC –28 AÆT –31 AÆG CAP+1 AÆC CAP +22 GÆA In codon TÆC In codon TÆG In codon AÆG In codon GÆA CD5 –CT CD6 –A CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD9/10 +G CD14 +T CD14/15 +G CD15 GÆA CD16 –C CD17 AÆT CD19 AÆG CD22/23/24 (–7) CD24 TÆA CD25/26 +T CD27 GÆT CD27/28 +C CD28 TÆG CD29 CÆT CD30 GÆC CD30 AÆG IVS1-1 GÆC IVS1-1 GÆT IVS1-1 GÆA IVS1-2 TÆG IVS1-2 TÆC IVS1-2 TÆA IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-5 GÆT IVS1-5 GÆA IVS1-6 TÆC IVS1-110 GÆA IVS1-116 TÆG IVS1-128 TÆG IVS1-130 GÆC IVS1 –25 (+252 to +276) CD35 CÆA
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + 0 + 0 0 0
Punjab 21, 53, 55
Maharastra 21, 53
Tamil Nadu 53, 54
1.6
3.7
0.5
1.8
4.0
12.5
1.8
1.5
0.3 1.9
14.0
2.0
0.3
1.8
16.8
14.9
1.8 1.8
41.1
34.1
59.6
0.3
2.9
85.9
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
Haryana 55
Uttar Pradesh 55
Rajasthan 55
Bihar 55
Bengal 55
259
Pakistan 53, 55, 61, 62
1.7
4.9
0.2
1.7
3.3
1.2
2.1 1.7
11.5
10.0
15.2
1.7
4.9 4.9
4.0
3.0
1.6
2.0
3.2
3.3 1.8
0.8 6.1
10.2
57.6
2.0
49.2
66.0
24.1
2.3 0.5 10.4 0.5
66.7
76.0
32.4
Continued
260
Chapter 6
Table 6.2(e) Indian subcontinent Continued. Reference Mutation CD35 –C CD36/37 –T CD37 –G CD37 GÆA CD38/39 –C CD39 CÆT CD41 –C CD41/42 –TCTT CD43 GÆT CD44 –C CD47/48 +4 CD51 –C CD55 +A CD61 AÆT CD71/72 +A CD76 –C CD82/83 –G CD90 GÆT IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-4/5 –AG IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-705 TÆG IVS2-745 CÆG IVS2-843 TÆG IVS2-848 CÆA IVS2-849 AÆC IVS2-849 AÆG IVS2-850 GÆC IVS2-850 –G CD106/107 +G CD121 GÆA CD121 GÆT CD123–125 (–8) CD127 CÆT CD127/128 (–3) Poly(A) (AAAÆAAG) Poly(A) (AAAÆGAA) Poly(A) (AATÆAAC) Poly(A) (AAAÆAGA) 290-bp deletion 619-bp deletion 1392-bp deletion 1605-bp deletion Unknown/others Chromosomes
Gujerat 53
Punjab 21, 53, 55
Maharastra 21, 53
Tamil Nadu 53, 54
Type 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + 0 0 0 0
8.6
12.8
1.8
9.3
0.3 1.8
0.3
1.8
25.9
15.7
5.3
197
375
0.8
7.0 57
1.0 1.0 205
The percentage gene frequencies of each mutation identified are given for the total number of thalassaemic chromosomes examined. This table is compiled from studies attempting to establish the prevalence of different mutations in populations. Therefore the table should not be taken as a guide to whether or not a mutation is present in a population. We have presented only quantitative data, where available, for mutation frequencies. References: 1. Amselem et al. (1988); 2. Atalay et al. (1993); 3. Aulehla-Scholz et al. (1990); 4. Basak et al. (1992); 5. Baysal et al. (1992); 6. Bennani et al. (1994); 7. Brown et al. (1989); 8. Chan et al. (1987a); 9. Chang et al. (1994); 10. Chehab et al. (1987); 11. Chibani et al. (1988); 12. Coutinho Gomes et al. (1988); 13. Çürük et al. (1992b); 14. Di Marzo et al. (1988); 15. Efremov et al. (1982); 16. El-Kalla and Mathews (1993); 17. Fattoum et al. (1991); 18. Faustino et al. (1992); 19. Fucharoen et al. (1989b); 20. Fukumaki et al. (1992); 21. Garewal et al. (1994); 22.
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
Haryana 55
Uttar Pradesh 55
Rajasthan 55
Bihar 55
Bengal 55
261
Pakistan 53, 55, 61, 62
0.1 8.5
13.1
12.0
3.0
9.6
6.3 0.4
0.6
16.9
3.3
4.0
3.3 59
61
0.8 6.1
50
33
13.1
9.6
0.7
125
2490
George et al. (1992a); 23. Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1991); 24. Hall et al. (1992); 25. Huang et al. (1990); 26. Hussein et al. (1993); 27. Indrák et al. (1992); 28. Kalaydjieva et al. (1989); 29. Kazazian et al. (1986a); 30. Kollia et al. (1992); 31. Kuliev et al. (1994); 32. Labie et al. (1990); 33. Laig et al. (1990b); 34. Laig et al. (1989); 35. Liang et al. (1994); 36. Lie-Injo et al. (1989); 37. Lin et al. (1991); 38. Liu et al. (1989); 39. Milland et al. (1987); 40. Molina et al. (1994); 41. Novelletto et al. (1990); 42. Öner et al. (1990); 43. Petkov et al. (1990); 44. Quaife et al. (1994); 45. Ringelhann et al. (1993); 46. Rosatelli et al. (1992b); 47. Rosatelli et al. (1992c); 48. Rund et al. (1991); 49. Tagiev et al. (1993); 50. Tagiev et al. (1994); 51. Tamagnini et al. (1993); 52. Thein et al. (1990b); 53. Varawalla et al. (1991a); 54. Venkatesan et al. (1992); 55. Verma et al. (1997); 56. Zahed et al. (1997); 57. Zhang et al. (1988b); 58. Nozari et al. (1995); 59. Sadiq et al. (1994); 60. Ohba et al. (1997); 61. Ahmed et al. (1996); 62. Khan and Riazuddin (1998); 63. Filon et al. (1994).
Chapter 6
↓
↓
↓
IVS – I – 110G A CD 39 C T IVS – II – 1 G A IVS – I – 5 – G C CD 8 – AA CD 44 – C ↓
↓
↓
↓
IVS – I – 110G A CD 39 C T IVS – I – 6 T C IVS – I – 1– G A IVS – II – 745 C G CD 6 – A
↓
↓
262
IVS – I – 5 G C CD 8/9 + G IVS – I – 1 G T 619 bp DEL CD 26 G A(HbE) ↓
↓
↓ ↓
–29 A G –88 C T
↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
CD 41/42 – TTCT CD 17 A T IVS – II – 654 C T –28 A G CD 26 G A(HbE) IVS – I – 5 G C CD 19 A G
Fig. 6.3 Distribution of the common b-thalassaemia alleles.The boxed mutations are mild alleles.
homozygotes or compound heterozygotes with b thalassaemia. In India and Africa, therefore, the particular combinations of b-thalassaemia mutations and HbS haplotype are those that minimize the severity of the compound heterozygous state. Nevertheless, it seems likely that the co-existence of b thalassaemia in India and Africa with HbS, and in south-east Asia with HbE, is (or was until the intervention of modern medicine) a transient affair. As Livingstone (1967, 1985) has argued, a higher relative fitness of bS and bE genes in malarial regions would ultimately result in the replacement of b-thalassaemia genes by the structural variants.
a Thalassaemia Prior to the introduction of DNA analysis, population surveys for a thalassaemia were based entirely on measurement of Hb Bart’s levels in cord bloods. Although relatively straightforward, this assay has certain drawbacks, which only became apparent when the molecular basis of the a thalassaemias was established. The most important is that single-genedeletion heterozygotes do not always have detectable Hb Bart’s in the neonatal period (Higgs et al. 1980b), unlike homozygotes (–a/–a) and a0-thalassaemia heterozygotes (– –/aa), which usually have Hb Bart’s
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias Table 6.3 The common b-thalassaemia alleles which comprise over 80% of all b-thalassaemia determinants. Modified from Huisman et al. (1997). Allele
Main ethnic groups
–88 CÆT –31 AÆG –29 AÆG –28 AÆG CD6 –A CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD17 AÆT CD19 AÆG IVS1-1 GÆT IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-6 TÆC IVS1-110 GÆA CD39 CÆT CD41/42 –TTCT CD44 –C CD90 GÆT IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-745 CÆG 619-bp deletion
African Japanese African Chinese,Thai, Israeli North African Arab Indian,Arab Chinese,Thai Thai Indian,Thai Indian,Thai, Indonesian, Malay,Arab Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean,Arab Chinese,Thai, Indian, Malay Arab Japanese Arab,Turkish Chinese,Thai Mediterranean North Indian
levels in the 3–6% range. In practice, this meant that the gene frequency of –a could not be reliably determined, especially in low-incidence regions where –a/–a homozygotes were rare. In addition, where a thalassaemia was common — south-east Asia for example — and where, as we now know, both –a (a+) and a0 determinants are present, a raised Hb Bart’s, say, 5%, could represent either the –a/–a or – –/aa genotypes. The introduction of Southern blotting clarified some of these issues, but highlighted others, particularly that of non-deletion a thalassaemia. Moreover, Southern blotting is an expensive technique, so it has by no means replaced Hb Bart’s screening in population surveys. Thus, for a number of reasons, reliable data on population frequencies for the various forms of a thalassaemia are not always available. But it is clear that a thalassaemia is common throughout the malarial (and even parts of the non-malarial) world (Fig. 6.4 and Table 6.4). Indeed it seems likely that it is probably the most common of all single-gene disorders, as a result of selection by malaria. This is a topic we shall return to later in the chapter.
263
Because of the difficulties in screening for a thalassaemia phenotypically, we shall describe what is known of its distribution and frequency, combining the information from the level of Hb Bart’s in neonates with the limited amount of data that are available from studies at the DNA level.
Distribution and frequencies Europe Italy Although some of the earliest surveys (Silvestroni & Bianco 1962) suggested that a thalassaemia was relatively uncommon in Italy, this has not been borne out by more recent work. Iolascon et al. (1982) found that 25 of 1147 (2.17%) consecutive newborns from the Naples area had Hb Bart’s levels exceeding 1%. Izzo et al. (1979) noted 1.63% of 550 newborns from Apulia had Hb Bart’s levels > 2% (with a further 6.18% having detectable but ‘non-measurable’ levels). In Naples, Pepe et al. (1982) recorded somewhat lower figures of 1.6% with traces of Hb Bart’s, with a further 0.2% having levels > 1%. This compares with an early study of Pinto et al. (1978), who found 2.7% of 319 cord bloods from Campania had Hb Bart’s levels > 1%. Further north, Velati et al. (1983) found that ~3.1% of 3037 cord bloods collected in Milan had detectable Hb Bart’s; in Turin the figure was 1.5% and for Genoa ~6.1%. Velati et al. make the point that each of these three cities has a very heterogeneous population mix, Genoa in particular having many individuals of Sardinian origin, where a thalassaemia is common (see below). Despite this, Pinto et al. (1978) noted that only two of 40 cases of HbH disease recorded in Italy up to the end of 1977 had been seen in the north, the remainder being evenly divided between the south, Sicily and Sardinia. Sicily In Sicily, Maggio et al. (1982) reported 3.5% of over 1000 cord bloods collected from five western hospitals had Hb Bart’s levels > 1%, while a further 1.5% had levels of less than 1%. The heterogeneity of molecular defects underlying these figures has recently been elucidated in a study of over 1000 adults by Fichera et al. (1997). Their data reveal a gene fre-
264
Chapter 6
––MED –α 3.7 I 5–15% αTα
––SEA 5–15% –α 3.7 I –α 4.2 α Tα
60% (–α 3.7) αTα 5–40% (–α 3.7 I) αTa
–α 4.2 5–80% –α 3.7 III αTα 15–80% (–α 3.7 I) (–α 3.7 II) (–α 4.2)
α+ thalassaemia α0 thalassaemia
Fig. 6.4 World distribution of a+ and a0 thalassaemia.
quency for a+ thalassaemia of 4.1%.The a3.7I deletion was the most frequently seen (87%) variant but –a4.2, –a3.7II, a2 IVS1 5 bp deletion (also known as aHph1a) and a2 initiation codon TÆC (also known as aNco1a), were also seen at low frequency. Two defects, – –MED and – –CAL, accounted for the a0 variants present. Three a-thalassaemia determinants that were specifically sought: –a(20.5) and two poly(A) mutations (AATAAAÆG;AATAÆG) were not found. Sardinia Early studies in Sardinia (Bianco et al. 1972) suggested that a thalassaemia might be quite common
on the island. Detectable Hb Bart’s was noted in 4.3% of a series of 465 cord bloods. A similar incidence of 4.79% was noted in a survey of 11 160 cord bloods in northern Sardinia (Meloni et al. 1981). Extensive surveys by Professor Cao’s group (Galanello et al. 1980) revealed an even higher incidence in southern Sardinia: 12.6% of 2291 cord bloods had Hb Bart’s levels exceeding 1%, most falling into two groups with either 1–2% or ~5% Hb Bart’s, and four individuals had ~25% (indicative of HbH disease). Professor Cao and colleagues have explored the molecular basis of a thalassaemia in Sardinia in some detail (Pirastu et al. 1982; Cao et al. 1991; Galanello et al. 1992), mainly by characterizing
Distribution and population genetics of the thalassaemias
265
Table 6.4 World distribution of a+-thalassaemia. Country Africa (Bantu-speaking) Africa (Beninian Gulf) Africa (Gambia) Africa (Kenya) Africa (San) Africa (southern) Africa (west Atlantic) Africa (Zambia) Australia (Aboriginal) China (south) Cyprus (Greek) Egypt Greece India India,Andhra Pradesh (Konda Doya) India,Andhra Pradesh (Konda Reddi) Indonesia Italy Melanesia Micronesia Nepal (non-Tharu) Nepal (Tharu) Polynesia Portugal Sardinia Saudi Arabia Sicily Spain Taiwan Thailand (north-east) Thailand (northern) Turkey
–a3.7
–a4.2
8
0 0 0
19
0
6 9
0 0 0
17
0 45
Fig. 11.10 Serum ferritin levels of patients with haemoglobin H disease according to sex and age.The solid lines connect the median control values of the different age groups and the dotted lines the upper and lower values of the corresponding control range. Splenectomized subjects are shown as open circles. Redrawn from Tso (1994).
Macaulay et al. 1972; Shchory & Ramot 1972; Ramot et al. 1973; Russo et al. 1973b; Wood & Stamatoyannopoulos 1976-77; Hunt et al. 1980). In all these studies there has been a marked imbalance of globin synthesis, a/b ratios ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 with a mean of approximately 0.4, mirroring the reduction in a-globin mRNA levels (see Fig. 5.14, Chapter 5). In a study in which globin synthesis was examined both in bone-marrow cells of different ages separated by centrifugation and in peripheral reticulocytes, Wood and Stamatoyannopoulos (1976–77) showed that the a-/b-globin production ratio is similar at all stages of erythroid maturation. These findings, together with further studies of the kinetics of globin synthesis in this disorder described in Chapter 5, provide a fairly clear picture of the formation of Hbs A and H in HbH disease. There is imbalanced globin synthesis and the excess of b chains exist in two forms. The majority of them form the b4 tetramers of HbH but there is a small intracellular pool which is capable of combining with newly made a chains as these become available. Furthermore, there is clear-cut evidence that HbH is not present in the blood in amounts reflecting the rate at which it is synthesized, indicating that it must be lost from the red cells during their time in the circulation.
505
Red-cell metabolism The metabolic properties of red cells in HbH disease have been studied by Gabuzda (1966), Nathan et al. (1969), Scott et al. (1970) and Knox-Macaulay et al. (1972). The rates of glucose utilization and lactate formation are two to three times normal, a finding which must in part reflect the young cell population. Both young and old cells have increased cation permeability, the most marked change being in the older population, which contains single inclusion bodies in splenectomized individuals. It is possible that the rapid rate of glucose utilization is partly due to the stimulation of the cation pump as a result of these changes in membrane permeability. Red-cell ATP levels are normal or slightly reduced and fall more rapidly than those in normal red cells after sterile incubation. The red cells also have an increased rate of methaemoglobin production. Reduced glutathione (GSH) levels are lower in the older cell population than in young red cells. Furthermore, hexose monophosphate shunt (HMPS) activity is more marked in the older population. It has been suggested that, since HbH is particularly sensitive to oxidative precipitation, its reactive thiols may participate in cellular reduction reactions and thus substitute for glutathione. Thus HMPS activity would be reduced in a situation in which glutathione is spared, i.e. in the younger cell population, but increased with cell ageing as HbH precipitates and becomes less available. Some glutathione may well precipitate with haemoglobin. A totally unexplained metabolic abnormality of the red cells was reported by Beutler et al. (1977). It was found that the level of glutathione peroxidase is markedly elevated, in the range found in association with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. The functional significance of these changes in relationship to the pathophysiology of a thalassaemia is discussed in Chapter 5. Genotype/phenotype relationships Although there are still only a limited number of studies, such information as there is suggests that there are subtle differences between the clinical manifestations of HbH disease, depending on the underlying genotype.
506
Chapter 11
Haematological findings Several studies have compared the haematological findings in patients with deletional forms of HbH disease (– –/–a) and those with non-deletional forms, including – –/aCSa (HbH/Hb Constant Spring) (Fucharoen et al. 1988a; Styles et al. 1997) and – –/aHpha (Galanello et al. 1983a, 1992). It appears that in the forms of HbH disease due to the interaction of non-deletional alleles there is a significantly lower haemoglobin level and red-cell count and a higher mean cell haemoglobin (MCH). Haemoglobin constitution In the relatively small numbers of patients studied it appears that HbH disease due to interactions of the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia, notably that associated with Hb Constant Spring, is characterized by significantly higher levels of HbH and numbers of red cells containing HbH inclusions (Winichagoon et al. 1980; Styles et al. 1997). Overall clinical severity From these limited data it appears that there may be significant variability in the clinical course among these different genetic forms of HbH disease. These differences were particularly marked in the study of Styles et al. (1997); in comparing the deletional forms of HbH disease with HbH/Hb Constant Spring she found that patients with the latter genotype were more likely to have splenomegaly or have undergone splenectomy, and to have received transfusions. Clearly more data on larger series of patients with different molecular forms of HbH disease are needed before any definitive conclusions can be drawn. But from such evidence as there is it appears that interactions of the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia are, overall, associated with a more severe phenotype. Pathophysiology The pathophysiology of a thalassaemia is described and contrasted with that of b thalassaemia in Chapter 5. We saw how the anaemia of HbH disease is the result of a mild degree of ineffective erythropoiesis associated with a shortened red-cell survival due to the damaging effects of the interaction between pre-
cipitated b chains and the red-cell membrane, combined with the physical barriers encountered by older red cells containing inclusions of precipitated HbH during their passage through the microcirculation, particularly in the spleen. We also considered the abnormal functional properties of Hbs H and Bart’s, a topic to which we alluded earlier in this chapter. Throughout the literature from Thailand, which we considered earlier in this section, fluctuations in the haemoglobin level are emphasized, a finding which we have not observed frequently in patients with this disorder in Western countries. Although it is possible that some of this variability reflects superimposed folate or iron deficiency, the Thai writers have been struck by the importance of infection in determining a fall in the steady-state haemoglobin level. One possibility, which has not been fully explored, is that the marked heat lability of HbH might cause its in vivo precipitation at high body temperatures. In Chapter 9 we raised the same question in the case of HbE, pointing out that that variant is also heat labile and suggesting that it has the potential for increased instability at body temperatures only slightly above normal. In a report by Chinprasertsuk et al. (1994) it was found that, in a series of patients with pyrexial illnesses with body temperatures ranging from 38 to 41°C, there was a drop in mean haemoglobin levels from 8.6 to 5.6 g/dl, splenic enlargement and a significant increase in the numbers of preformed inclusion bodies. Further work on the precise relationship between the instability of HbH and different temperatures needs to be carried out together with appropriate in vivo studies of its level in the peripheral blood during periods of raised body temperature at different levels. Pathophysiological considerations have important implications for the assessment of the function of patients with a thalassaemia, at any stage of development.We have already seen how, because of the properties of Hb Bart’s, infants who are homozygous for a0 thalassaemia are much more hypoxic than their peripheral blood haemoglobin values would suggest. The same discrepancy is sometimes observed in adults with HbH disease. If, for example, their steadystate haemoglobin level is 8 g/dl, and they have 20% HbH in their red cells, they are, in effect, functioning with a haemoglobin value of 6.6 g/dl.While these subtleties may not be important in young people they may be of considerable importance to older patients with a compromised coronary artery circulation. We
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants have, for example, observed an elderly patient with an acquired form of HbH disease (see Chapter 12) who, with a steady-state haemoglobin level of over 9 g/dl and with 40% HbH, suffered all the symptoms of profound anaemia together with severe angina. As mentioned earlier, there is increasing evidence that the slightly lower haemoglobin levels and higher values of HbH associated with interactions of the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia result in more severe clinical phenotypes, which, in some cases, are transfusion dependent (Styles et al. 1997). Thus, in assessing any patient with HbH disease it is not sufficient to simply determine the steady-state haemoglobin but it is also important to measure the level of HbH on a carefully prepared red-cell lysate. Autopsy findings There have been very few reports of the autopsy findings in this condition. In her atlas showing autopsy changes in different forms of thalassaemia, including HbH disease, Sonakul (1989) provides some data about the distribution of iron in different tissues. Prognosis Although it is known that most patients with HbH disease survive into adult life, as far as we know there have been no long-term studies which analyse longevity compared with normal individuals in the same population.
The milder a-thalassaemia phenotypes In previous editions we described how, spanning the clinical and haematological gap between patients with HbH disease and normal individuals, there is a wide range of hypochromic anaemias of different severity which almost certainly reflect the action of different a-thalassaemia alleles. Up to the early 1980s it was only possible to characterize these conditions by their associated haematological findings (Pornpatkul et al. 1969), the presence of raised levels of Hb Bart’s at birth (Hunt & Lehmann 1959; Weatherall 1963), the presence of HbH inclusions in adult blood (McNiel 1968; Pornpatkul et al. 1978) or the demonstration of a reduced a-/b-globin synthesis ratio (Kan et al. 1968). Unfortunately, these diagnostic criteria failed to identify a significant proportion
507
of a-thalassaemia carriers and, in addition, could not discriminate between those with different forms of the disease. The application of these ‘blunt’ diagnostic tools led to a large volume of confusing literature, some of which is outlined in Chapter 1 and which was reviewed in detail in the last edition of this book. The reasons for these difficulties soon became apparent once it was possible to define the different molecular forms of a thalassaemia. For, as it became feasible to study reasonable numbers of individuals with well defined a-globin genotypes, it became apparent that there is an overlapping continuum of haematological findings and haemoglobin constitutions stretching across these interactions of milder a-thalassaemia alleles. Essentially, this reflects the heterozygous and homozygous states for the deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (–a/aa and –a/–a), the heterozygous state for a0 thalassaemia (– –/aa), the equivalent states for non-deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (aTa/aa or aTa/aTa) and the various compound heterozygous states for the deletion and non-deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (–a/aTa). We shall discuss this complex problem by first comparing and contrasting the findings in the different mild forms of a thalassaemia and then summarizing their main diagnostic features. It is important to emphasize at the outset that virtually none of them can be identified with certainty except by DNA analysis. Because of the greater heterogeneity of the nondeletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (aTa/aTa), or compound heterozygotes for the deletion and nondeletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (–a/aTa), we shall consider first the effect of a-globin-gene deletions, comparing normal persons (aa/aa) with those with the heterozygous (–a/aa) or homozygous state (–a/–a) for a+ thalassaemia, or the heterozygous state for a0 thalassaemia (– –/aa). As discussed by Ganczakowski et al. (1995) and Williams et al. (1996b) we make no distinction between the –a3.7 and –a4.2 forms of a+ thalassaemia. Although the haematological effects of such deletions will be illustrated by reference to specific studies, it is important to remember that these measurements can vary from one normal (aa/aa) population to another (Owen & YanochikOwen 1977) and, in practice, slight variations may also be obtained even in healthy, non-thalassaemic individuals (Ross et al. 1988).
508
Chapter 11
Haematological changes The heterozygous and homozygous states for deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia, and heterozygous a0 thalassaemia Adult values In general, those with simple gene deletions (– a/aa, –a/–a and – –/aa) have lower levels of total haemoglobin, MCHC, MCV and mean cell haemoglobin (MCH), but higher RBC than normal (see Table 11.4 and Fig.11.5). The degree of abnormality varies from one parameter to another.The greatest differences are seen in MCH; those with a thalassaemia clearly make less haemoglobin per cell than normal. Nevertheless, adequate haemoglobin levels are maintained, within ~1.0–1.5 g/dl of normal, at all stages of development (Table 11.4). It appears that the main compensatory mechanism for the underproduction of haemoglobin is an increase in the production of red cells, in a similar way to that described for b-thalassaemia heterozygotes in Chapter 7. There is now adequate information to compare the haematological findings in adults with these deletional forms of a0 and a+ thalassaemia (Table 11.4 and Fig. 11.5). Although there is a good correlation between the predicted reduction in a-chain synthesis and haemoglobin, MCV, MCH there is considerable overlap. Therefore these parameters are of only limited value in distinguishing one genotype from another. However, it is clear that, with the exception of the –a/aa genotype, most homozygotes for deletional types of a+ thalassaemia, or heterozygotes for a0 thalassaemia, can be distinguished from normal on the basis of their MCH, which is usually less than 26 pg and always below 27 pg (Higgs et al. 1989; Higgs 1993). The peripheral blood film is also quite variable from one genotype to another but usually shows hypochromia, with occasional poikilocytes and target cells (Fig. 11.6). The reticulocyte count is usually raised, in the 2–3% range.As discussed in more detail in a later section, it is possible to generate HbH inclusions in a few red cells in a0 thalassaemia carriers (– –/aa), but rarely in heterozygotes or homozygotes for a+ thalassaemia. Red-cell survival and erythrokinetic studies have not been carried out in many of these mild a thalassaemias. The red-cell 51Cr half-life
estimates in two a-thalassaemia carriers reported by Wasi et al. (1974) were 25 days and 29.5 days (normal range 25–30 days). Changes during development Developmental changes in the haematological findings follow the same patterns as those of normal individuals (aa/aa) (Fig. 11.11). The haemoglobin level, PCV, MCH and MCV fall rapidly after birth and begin to rise slowly in the second year. Throughout development it is possible to distinguish the haematological findings in patients with aa/aa, –a/aa and –a/–a genotypes. For all parameters there is a greater difference between those with –a/–a and –a/aa genotypes than those with the –a/aa and aa/aa genotypes. The smaller data set for individuals with the – –/aa genotype most closely resembles the –a/–a genotype. Few differences are seen between males and females prior to puberty, after which there are significant sex-dependent differences in all genotypic groups (Table 11.4). Changes during pregnancy The changes in the haemoglobin levels and red-cell indices in women heterozygous or homozygous for the deletional form of a+ thalassaemia, taken from a study of Dr. Mary Ganczakowski and present authors (unpublished), are shown in Fig. 11.12. They mirror those observed in heterozygotes for b thalassaemia (see Chapter 7). There is a fall in the haemoglobin level, starting towards the end of the first trimester, which mirrors that in normal women. There are no major changes in the red-cell indices between the pregnant and non-pregnant state. Just as the case for heterozygous b thalassaemia, it is clear that severe anaemia does not occur in these milder forms of a thalassaemia during pregnancy and, when it is found, complicating factors such as folate or iron deficiency should be sought. Heterozygous non-deletion a+ thalassaemia and compound heterozygosity for deletional and nondeletional forms of a+ thalassaemia As shown in Table 11.4 and Fig. 11.5, as a group, the heterozygous states for the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia (aTa/aa) show slightly more marked haematological changes than those for the deletional
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants
509
16
Haemoglobin (g/dl)
15 14
*
13
*
12
*
11
*
*
10 9
0.3 0.6 1
2
3 3
5
7
9
11
13
15
8–21 26–30 21–26 >30
Fig. 11.11 Developmental changes in the haemoglobin (a) and MCH (b) in individuals with the aa/aa (), –a/aa () and –a/–a () genotypes.The data indicated by stars are for the – –/aa genotype. Open boxes, males; stippled boxes, females.
Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (pg)
Age (years)
(a)
36 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 0.3 0.6 1
2
3 3
*
*
* 5
7
9
11
13
*
15
8–21 26–30 21–26 >30 (b)
Age (years)
13.0
Fig. 11.12 Changes in the level of haemoglobin in pregnant women with the aa/aa (), –a/aa () and –a/–a () genotypes. Results in shaded area indicate normal values prior to pregnancy.The vertical line denotes the usual time of birth. From Dr M. Ganczakowski and the authors (unpublished).
Mean Hb (g/dl)
12.5 12.0 11.5 11.0 10.5 10.0
17
forms. However, the numbers are relatively small and there is a considerable overlap between genotypes. Similarly, the haematological findings in compound heterozygous states for the deletion and non-dele-
25
30
36 40 +5 Gestation (weeks)
+12
+17
tional forms (aTa/–a) are very similar to those in the heterozygous states for the deletional forms of a0 thalassaemia. The homozygous states for the non-deletional
510
Chapter 11
forms of a+ thalassaemia (aTa/aTa) have very variable haematological changes. As shown in Fig. 11.5 and Table 11.4 the degree of haemoglobinization of the red cells and other haematological findings are very similar to those of patients with HbH disease. Indeed, as we saw in an earlier section, there are several varieties of HbH disease associated with this genotype. Those due to the chain termination mutations produce a completely different clinical picture, which is described later in this chapter.
Haemoglobin analysis The heterozygous and homozygous states for deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia, and heterozygous a0 thalassaemia Adults The haemoglobin constitution of adults with these conditions is indistinguishable from normal, although as a group they may have slightly lower levels of HbA2. However, in a small survey (Maude et al. 1985) there appeared to be no significant differences in the levels of Hbs A2 and F between those with aa/aa, –a/aa and –a/–a genotypes at different stages of development (Fig. 11.13). In the previous edition of this book we discussed the value of the demonstration of a few HbH inclusions as a diagnostic aid to some of the carrier states for a thalassaemia. Galanello et al. (1984) found that occasional cells containing HbH can be detected in up to 65% of individuals who must have been carriers for different forms of a thalassaemia. In our experience, using standard HbH preparations (Gibbons et al. 1991) inclusions are usually found in heterozygotes for different forms of a0 thalassaemia (– –/aa) (Fig. 11.6) but rarely in heterozygotes or homozygotes for the deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia. However, various modifications of the standard HbH preparation may significantly increase the sensitivity of this assay (Maungsapaya et al. 1985; Kuptamethi et al. 1988). Although it has been found that some adult a-thalassaemia carriers may have trace amounts of Hb Bart’s which can be demonstrated in an immunological assay (Wasi et al. 1979), and small amounts of embryonic z-globin chains can be detected in carriers for a0 thalassaemia (Chui et al. 1986), which, it has been suggested, can be used as a simple assay for detecting some forms of a-
thalassaemia carrier states (Ausavarungnirun et al. 1998), neither of these approaches have been widely used. Their value in clinical practice remains to be substantiated. Changes during development Before the application of molecular genetic methods for the diagnosis of a thalassaemia there was good evidence that a raised level of Hb Bart’s (g4) in the neonatal period (Fig. 11.13) reflects the presence of a thalassaemia (Weatherall 1963 and reviewed in Wasi et al. 1974). The mechanisms involved, and the reasons why Hb Bart’s is not replaced by HbH in later development in the milder forms of a thalassaemia, are discussed in Chapter 5. However, while it was clear that normal infants produce traces of Hb Bart’s at birth it was not known whether all individuals with a thalassaemia have a raised level of Hb Bart’s at this stage of development. Similarly, the relationship between the amount of Hb Bart’s and the underlying a-thalassaemia genotype was uncertain. These issues have now been clarified by studies correlating the level of Hb Bart’s with the a-globin genotype. Most surveys using assays that are sufficiently sensitive to detect a minimum of 0.5–1% Hb Bart’s at birth detect a large proportion of neonates with a thalassaemia but do not identify all cases of the –a/aa genotype (Higgs et al. 1980b; Bowden et al. 1987a; Zhao et al. 1988). Therefore, surveys based solely on the presence of Hb Bart’s in the cord blood consistently underestimate the frequency of a+ thalassaemia. Furthermore, although the levels of Hb Bart’s are generally related to the degree of a-chain deficit they do not accurately distinguish the various a genotypes (see later section). For example, even though homozygotes for the leftward, 4.2-kb, deletion (–a4.2), have significantly higher levels of Hb Bart’s at birth than homozygotes for the rightward, 3.7-kb, deletion (–a3.7), there is considerable overlap between the groups. During the first 6 months after birth, the level of Hb Bart’s in babies with a thalassaemia declines (Fig. 11.13) and eventually becomes undetectable by conventional assays (Weatherall 1963) although, as mentioned earlier, minute amounts may be detected in adults with a thalassaemia using an immunological assay (Wasi et al. 1979). Similarly, small amounts of embryonic z chains can be detected in some adults
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants
511
3.5
Haemoglobin A2 (%) Haemoglobin F (log e +4)
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 0.5 0
1
2
3
4 5 Age (years)
6
4 5 Age (years)
6
7
8
9 (a)
Fig. 11.13 Developmental changes in the haemoglobin constitution in a thalassaemia. (a) HbA2 (above) and HbF (below) in patients with the aa/aa (), –a/aa () and –a/–a () genotypes (data from Maude et al. 1985). (b) The level of Hb Bart’s in infants with a thalassaemia during the first few months of life. Redrawn from Weatherall (1963).
Haemoglobin Bart's (%)
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
with a thalassaemia (Chui et al. 1986). The problems of detecting HbH inclusions in relationship to different genotypes was discussed earlier. Deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia commonly occur in areas where b-globin variants (e.g. Hbs S, C and E) are also found at a high frequency. The presence of a thalassaemia can alter the proportion of variant haemoglobin found in the peripheral blood and therefore, where a thalassaemia co-exists with b variants, the proportion of Hb variant can be a useful guide to the presence of a thalassaemia (see below).
1
2
3
7
8
9
Heterozygous non-deletion a+ thalassaemia and compound heterozygosity for the deletional and non-deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia Adults With the exception of those cases which are due to mutations of the a-globin-chain termination codon, the heterozygous states for the non-deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia (aTa/aa) are not associated with any changes in the haemoglobin constitution in adult life. In carriers for the a-globin chain termination
(b)
Chapter 11
mutants trace amounts of the variant can be demonstrated, although they are usually missed unless a sensitive electrophoretic technique is used (see later section). In our experience, using standard HbH preparations, inclusions are usually found in those with the genotypes aTa/aa and –a/aTa. The haemoglobin findings in homozygotes for the non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia (aTa/aTa) are extremely variable. In some cases there are no abnormalities except, possibly, for a slightly reduced level of HbA2. However, in others the degree of achain deficiency may be such as to result in the haemoglobin findings typical of HbH disease (see earlier section), while in the case of the homozygous state for the a-chain termination mutation which causes Hb Constant Spring, there may be persistent Hb Bart’s together with a relatively high level of the variant; we shall return to this condition later in this chapter. In those with no changes in the haemoglobin pattern it is usually possible to demonstrate HbH inclusions. The haemoglobin findings associated with the nondeletion a+ thalassaemias that result from the production of highly unstable a-chain variants (see Chapter 4) are also variable. Just as described for the dominant b thalassaemias in Chapters 4, 5 and 13, there seems to be a continuum of disorders reflecting the degree of instability of the a-gene product. In some cases, Hbs Agrinio (Hall et al. 1993b) and Lleida (Ayala et al. 1996) for example, it is impossible to detect any abnormal haemoglobin and its structure is assumed from the abnormal DNA sequence. In other cases, Hbs Sallanches (Morlé et al. 1995) and Suan Dok (Sanguansermsri et al. 1979) for example, trace amounts of the haemoglobin variant can be found in the peripheral blood. However, in many cases these variants can only be detected by isoelectric focusing.
a-/b-Globin mRNA estimation and globin synthesis Assays using heterologous cell-free assays consistently showed that mRNA from reticulocytes of patients with a thalassaemia direct the synthesis of less a than b globin (Benz et al. 1973; Grossbard et al. 1973; Gambino et al. 1974; Pritchard et al. 1974). Subsequently, it has been found that this results from under-representation of accumulated mRNA in most determinants of a thalassaemia (Housman et al. 1973; Kacian et al. 1973; Kan et al. 1974d; Natta et al. 1976).
Hunt et al. (1980) were the first to analyse the a-/bglobin mRNA ratios in carriers of a thalassaemia and, although the precise genotypes of the patients studied were not known, they demonstrated clear differences between normal individuals and obligate carriers (Fig. 11.14). Subsequently, studies using reverse transcription PCR-based quantification of a- and b-globin mRNA in patients with accurately known genotypes have confirmed these observations (Lin et al. 1994; Smetanina et al. 1996). Although Hunt et al. (1980) showed no overlap in the a-/b-globin mRNA ratios of normal individuals and those with a-thalassaemia genotypes, the more recent studies demonstrated wider variation (Lin et al. 1994; Smetanina et al. 1996). Nevertheless, Smetanina et al. (1996) confirmed that the a-/b-globin mRNA ratios of those with two functional a-globin genes (– a/–a and – –/aa) are quite distinct from normal. The a-/b-chain biosynthesis ratios in patients with different a-globin genotypes, measured by in vitro haemoglobin synthesis (Clegg & Weatherall 1967; Pootrakul et al. 1967b; Kan et al. 1968;Weatherall et al. 1970), broadly reflect the a-/b-globin mRNA ratios.
3.0
2.5
α-β-globin RNA ratio
512
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Normal
α+ thal.
α0 thal.
HbH disease
Fig. 11.14 a-/b-globin messenger RNA ratios.The results were obtained by cDNA hybridization with total RNA prepared from the peripheral blood of non-thalassaemics or obligate carriers with mild (a thalassaemia 2) or severe (a thalassaemia 1) a-thalassaemia trait, or HbH disease. Redrawn from Hunt et al. (1980).
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants Data accumulated from the current literature are summarized in Table 11.4 and Fig. 11.15. Again, those with two functional a genes (– a/–a and – –/aa) can be clearly distinguished from normal. It is interesting that the same trends in a-/bglobin mRNA, globin synthesis and red-cell indices are seen when comparing individuals with four, three or two functional a genes. In each case those with two a-globin genes can be clearly distinguished from those with four genes. The values in those with three genes (– a/aa) overlap the two groups, but are more closely related to those with four genes (aa/aa).
The clinical heterogeneity of the homozygous states for nondeletional a + thalassaemia As a group, the homozygous states for the nondeletional forms of a+ thalassaemia are extremely heterogeneous (Table 11.4).As we have seen, in some cases the overall deficit of a-chain production is sufficient to result in the phenotype of HbH disease. In others the phenotype is closer to that of the homozygous state for a+ thalassaemia or the heterozygous state for a0 thalassaemia, although the degree of anaemia and hypochromia may be more severe (Paglietti et al. 1986). Finally, patients homozygous for the a-chain termination mutations, which result in the production of elongated a-chain variants, the commonest of which is Hb Constant Spring, are associated with a clinical phenotype which is quite different from that of any other form of a thalassaemia.
513
Haemoglobin Constant Spring and associated a-chain termination variants The relationship between Hb Constant Spring and HbH disease was first reported by Milner et al. (1971) and its structure was described by Clegg et al. (1971b). The homozygous state for Hb Constant Spring was first described by Lie-Injo et al. (1974) and further details of this patient were reported by Weatherall and Clegg (1975). The condition was found in a 12year-old Malay boy who had no symptoms and was ascertained during a population study because his younger brother was found to have Hbs Constant Spring and Bart’s at birth. Subsequently, several other homozygotes were described (Lie-Injo et al. 1975; Pongsamart et al. 1975; Pootrakul et al. 1981c). Clinical features None of the homozygotes were symptomatic. In all cases there was mild pallor and scleral icterus, and there was splenomegaly with mild hepatomegaly in about half of them. Heterozygotes are asymptomatic. Haematological findings The haematological changes in homozygotes are unusual for patients with a thalassaemia.The haemoglobin level ranges from 9 to 11 g/dl. The red-cell count is relatively low, 3.9 ± 0.9 ¥ 1012/l, and the MCV tends to be normal, 88 ± 6 fl, while the MCH is only slightly reduced, 26 ± 3 pg. The peripheral blood
Fig. 11.15 The a-/b-chain biosynthesis ratios in different a-globin genotypes. The data are derived from the references in the legend to Table 11.4.
α/β globin chain biosynthesis ratio
1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
αα/αα
–α/αα αTα/αα –α/–α ––/αα αTα/–α αTα/αTα –α/–– αTα/–– α-globin genotypes
514
Chapter 11
film shows mild anisocytosis and hypochromia, with anisochromia and a few fragmented red cells. Approximately 6% of the cells show marked basophilic stippling. The reticulocyte count is consistently raised in the region of 6.0 ± 3.3%. The serum haptoglobin level is reduced and the 51Cr red-cell survival time is shortened, with values of 17.3 and 20.5 days, in two patients. Taken together, these findings suggest that these patients have a mild haemolytic anaemia. The haematological findings in heterozygotes are typical of the genotype aa/aTa (see Table 11.4). Haemoglobin constitution In homozygotes the haemoglobin consists of Hbs A,A2, and Constant Spring with small amounts of Hb Bart’s. Haemoglobin Constant Spring can be seen as two discrete bands migrating more slowly than HbA2 on electrophoresis at alkaline pH (Fig. 11.16). Overall, the levels of Hb Constant Spring have varied between 2.6 and 11.6%, while those of Hb Bart’s ranged from 1.8 to 3.6%. One newborn infant with this condition had 14.2% Hb Bart’s at birth, which fell to 4.6% at 8 months (Lie-Injo et al. 1975).
In heterozygotes or in compound heterozygotes with a0 thalassaemia trace amounts of variant are seen on electrophoresis, though they are easily overlooked (Fig. 11.17). At birth there is an elevated level of Hb Bart’s, in the range 1–4% (Pootrakul et al. 1975b). Structure The isolation, purification and characterization of Hb Constant Spring was described in detail by Clegg et al. (1971b) and Weatherall and Clegg (1975). It is an a-chain variant which is elongated by 31 residues at its C-terminal end.This unusual ‘tail’ has several sites which are susceptible to proteolytic attack and hence it tends to break up into smaller components, either in vivo or after various manipulations or storage in vitro (Fig. 11.18). The components most easily observed on electrophoresis are the version with 31 additional residues, aCS1, and that missing the terminal tripeptide Val-Phe-Glu, aCS2. aCS3, which has a shortened a chain ending at the tryptophan residue at position a154, migrates slightly faster than HbA2, while aCS4 can be observed as a very faint band migrating more slowly than aCS2. Haemoglobin synthesis
+
HbA
HbA2 HbCS1 HbCS2 -
1
2
3
4
Fig. 11.16 The homozygous state for haemoglobin Constant Spring. Starch gel electrophoresis (pH 8.5, benzidine stain) of red-cell lysates from the following (left to right): 1, Hb Constant Spring homozygote; 2 and 3, the heterozygous parents; 4, normal adult.The arrow shows the position of the application of the haemoglobin to the gel.
A surprising finding is that the a-/b-globin synthesis ratios in homozygotes are 1.5 ± 0.16 rather than the reduced figure that would be expected in a thalassaemia.This probably reflects the fact that globin synthesis only remains linear in the cells of Hb Constant Spring homozygotes for approximately 30 min. This, together with the rapid removal of excess b chains, probably accounts for the relatively high a-/b-chain synthesis ratios observed in longer incubations (Derry et al. 1984). Similar mechanisms, together with the instability of Hb Constant Spring mRNA, probably reflect the wide range of a-/b-globin synthesis ratios observed in heterozygotes and compound heterozygotes (Fig. 11.19) (Weatherall et al. 1973; Pongsamart et al. 1975). The pathophysiological significance of these unexpected observations was discussed in Chapter 5. Pathophysiology More recent insights into the pathophysiology of the red-cell changes associated with Hb Constant Spring
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants
1
2
3
4
5
515
6 Origin
Hb Constant Spring HbA2
HbA Hb Bart’s HbH + Fig. 11.17 Haemoglobin Constant Spring associated with haemoglobin H disease. Overloaded descending starch gel electrophoresis (pH 8.5, benzidine stain) of the following lysates (left to right): 1, Hb Constant Spring carrier; 2, normal; 3 and 4, Hb Constant Spring/HbH disease; 5, HbH disease without Hb Constant Spring; 6, HbH disease with Hb Constant Spring.
are discussed in Chapter 5 and by Schrier (1997) and Schrier et al. (1997). In short, the erythrocytes of patients with the forms of HbH disease associated with Hb Constant Spring are even more overhydrated than those of patients with other forms of HbH disease. This probably accounts for the relatively higher MCV. Furthermore, the membranes of the red cells containing Hb Constant Spring are even more rigid and hyperstable than in other forms of a thalassaemia. These changes have been related to both the accumulation of excess b chains and the attachment of partially oxidized aCS chains to the red-cell membrane and its skeleton. As suggested in Chapter 5, these changes may reflect the slow association of aCS with b chains and the early association of aCS chains with the membranes of the red-cell precursors. However, once aCS and b chains have associated to form Hb Constant Spring the variant appears to be relatively stable. Other a-chain termination mutations The clinical phenotypes associated with the other achain termination mutations have not been studied in the same detail as those for Hb Constant Spring. The homozygous state for Hb Koya Dora and the interactions of this variant with different a-thalassaemia
alleles and with Hbs S and E have been characterized, at least to some extent (de Jong et al. 1975; Gupta et al. 1991; Çürük et al. 1993a). It appears that the homozygous state is characterized by similar haematological changes and levels of the variant haemoglobin to those for Hb Constant Spring. Heterozygotes have extremely mild haematological changes and approximately 0.5–2% of the variant. Hb Icaria has been observed only in the heterozygous state (Fig. 11.20) or in its interaction with different a-thalassaemia alleles (Clegg et al. 1974; Efremov et al. 1990;Traeger-Synodinos et al. 1993; Kanavakis et al. 1996). Heterozygotes have extremely mild haematological changes and approximately 0.5% of the achain variant. Similar observations have been made in the case of heterozygotes for Hbs Seal Rock and Paksé.
Diagnostic problems and other practical issues It is quite clear from this review of the homozygous and heterozygous states for the milder athalassaemia alleles that they cannot be identified with certainty at any stage of development other than by direct analysis of the a-globin genes. Unfortunately, many routine diagnostic laboratories may not
516
Chapter 11 141 .......Tyr. Arg. GLN. ALA. GLY. ALA. SER. VAL. ALA. αA
...
149 CS 3 VAL.PRO.PRO. ALA. ARG. TRP. ALA. SER. 157 GLN.ARG. ALA. LEU. LEU.PRO.SER. LEU. 165 CS 2 172 HIS. ARG.PRO. PHE. LEU.VAL. PHE.GLU.
(a)
+ HbH
Hb Bart’s
HbA
HbCS3
HbCS1
HbCS2 (b)
1
2
3
4
Fig. 11.18 The structure of haemoglobin Constant Spring. (a) The structure of the elongated a chain.The normal a chain ends with the arginine residue at position 141, while Hb Constant Spring is elongated by 31 residues.The Hb Constant Spring components 2 and 3 are probably generated by enzymatic degradation at the sites indicated. (b) Electrophoretic analysis of the various Hb Constant Spring components prepared by exchange chromatography. Lane 2 shows the purified Hb Constant Spring fraction showing the three main components indicated in A; there is a small amount of contaminating HbA. Lane 1 shows mainly HbA, while lane 3 contains mainly Hbs H and Bart’s. Lane 4 is an HbA marker.
have the facilities for this type of analysis and hence we thought it would be useful to discuss some guidelines for helping to deal with these thorny diagnostic problems. The a thalassaemias pose particular difficulties in certain settings: an unexplained mild hypochromic anaemia on routine blood testing; a mild hypochromic anaemia with normal HbA2 level in a parent whose partner has a typical b-thalassaemia trait as part of prenatal counselling; during studies of the relatives of patients with HbH disease; and as part of a screening programme for thalassaemia in newborn infants. In all these situations there are some clues as to the presence of a thalassaemia and the likely identity of the particular allele. The finding of a microcytic, hypochromic anaemia in an individual who is iron replete, and in whom the HbA2 level is normal, should always raise the possibility of a thalassaemia.This is particularly the case if the MCH and MCV are low and the red-cell count is high; as discussed in Chapter 7 in the case of bthalassaemia trait, iron deficiency, when it causes the MCV and MCH to fall into the thalassaemic range, is nearly always associated with a more severe degree of anaemia. The distinction between b thalassaemia with a normal HbA2 level and one or other form of a thalassaemia can usually be made by globin synthesis. If this suggests a thalassaemia the ethnic background of the patient may be helpful in establishing which type.A hypochromic microcytic picture of this kind in individuals of African origin, where a0-thalassaemia trait (– –/aa) is extremely uncommon, nearly always reflects the homozygous state for a+ thalassaemia of the deletional variety (–a/–a). On the other hand, in persons of Mediterranean or south-east Asian descent, where both a+ and a0 thalassaemia are common, it is not safe to make this distinction without globin-gene analysis. In prenatal counselling there are two important questions relating to putative a thalassaemia. First, there is the common problem in which one parent has typical b-thalassaemia trait and the other has a similar blood picture but with a normal HbA2. While, as discussed in Chapter 7, it may be possible to identify the co-existence of b and d thalassaemia in the latter case by a family study, this is not always the case.The most direct approach here, in the absence of DNA analysis, is to distinguish between normal HbA2 b thalassaemia and a thalassaemia by globin synthesis. A related problem is to determine whether
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants
517
β 300
α
cpm/ml
200
1.0 OD 280 nm
Fig. 11.19 The synthesis of haemoglobin Constant Spring.The experimental conditions are described in Chapter 5.The figure shows haemoglobin synthesis in the reticulocytes of a compound heterozygote for Hb Constant Spring and a0 thalassaemia (Hb Constant Spring/HbH disease). It is clear that there is no synthesis of Hb Constant Spring in the peripheral blood.As discussed in Chapter 4 this probably reflects the instability of Hb Constant Spring messenger RNA.
0.5
100
αCS1
αCS2 0
0 10
20
30 40 Fraction number
+
50
60
HbH
HbA
HbA2 HbCS Hb Icaria Origin -
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Fig. 11.20 Haemoglobin Icaria. Starch gel electrophoresis (pH 8.5, benzidine stain) of the following (left to right): 1, normal adult; 2 and 3, Hb Icaria heterozygotes; 4, Hb Constant Spring heterozygote; 5, normal adult; 6, Hb Constant Spring heterozygote; 7, Hb Constant Spring homozygote; 8, normal adult.
partners who both have thalassaemic red-cell changes with normal HbA2 levels are at risk for having an infant with the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome. Here the difficulty is to decide whether both of them are carriers for a0 thalassaemia or whether one or other of them is a homozygote for a+ thalassaemia. Although the ethnic background of the persons may be of some help, if this is not the case the only approach is to refer blood samples to a laboratory which is able to analyse the a-globin genes. Some laboratories still use the level of Hb Bart’s at
birth as an indicator of the presence of different athalassaemia alleles. While it is now clear that low levels, in the 1–2% range, usually reflect the heterozygous state for a+ thalassaemia, the absence of detectable Hb Bart’s does not rule out this diagnosis. By and large, higher levels, in the 4–10% range, usually indicate the heterozygous state for a0 thalassaemia or the homozygous state for a+ thalassaemia. Higher levels, in excess of 12%, suggest that an infant may go on to develop one or other form of HbH disease. But, as is clear from discussions in the previ-
518
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ous sections, these figures only reflect a general rule of thumb, and there is a great deal of overlap in the levels of Hb Bart’s at birth between different athalassaemia genotypes.
Interactions between a thalassaemia and haemoglobin structural variants Historically, interactions between a thalassaemia and structural variants of the a and b globins were of considerable importance in helping us to understand the genetics of haemoglobin and the thalassaemias (see Chapter 1).
Interactions between a thalassaemia and a-globin structural variants When a patient with a normal b-globin genotype (bA/bA) and a full complement of a genes inherits one structural a-chain variant (aa/aVa:bA/bA or aa/aaV:bA/bA) the amount of abnormal haemoglobin produced will depend on the rate at which it is synthesized, its stability, its affinity for bA chains (see below) and on whether the mutation affects the a2 or a1 gene. As discussed in Chapters 2 and 4, although the ratio of a2/a1 mRNA is 3/1, there is still some dis-
aa/aVa
bA/bA
aa/aaV aa/aVaV –a/aVa –a/aaV –a/aVaV – –/aaV –aV/aa –aV/–a – –/aVa –aV/–aV – –/–aV
bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA bA/bA
agreement about the relative contributions of the two a-globin genes to the overall level of haemoglobin production. In addition, there is considerable methodological variation in the quantification of haemoglobin variants. Not surprisingly, the reported proportions of a-globin variants range from 0% in the case of the highly unstable Hb Quong Sze to ~35% for HbJ Toronto, with an average value of about 25%. Even if the highly unstable a-chain variants are excluded there is still considerable variation but, in general, mutations affecting the a2 gene are found at higher levels than those affecting the a1 gene (Huisman et al. 1997). Most a-globin variants are symptomless, although some are associated with a high oxygen affinity, congenital cyanosis or haemolytic anaemia (see Chapter 2). Some heterozygotes for highly unstable variants, Hb Quong Sze for example, may have the phenotype of a thalassaemia and hence they are best considered as determinants of non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia.They were considered in an earlier section. The effect of co-inheriting a thalassaemia with achain variants is to increase the proportion of the variant and to reinforce any associated clinical phenotype (Table 11.5). These principles are exemplified by HbG Philadelphia (a68(E17) AsnÆLys) (see also Chapter 3). Carriers of this common a-chain variant may have a full complement of four a genes
Predicted* % of variant Hb
Haematological phenotype
25†–37.5‡ 12.5†–25‡ 50 30†–50‡ 16.6†–30‡ 66 30†–50‡ 50 50 50†–70‡ 100 100
Normal Normal Normal a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait HbH disease
* Assuming that the aV variant is synthesized efficiently, completely stable and associates with bA chains with the same kinetics as aA chains. † Assuming that the relative contribution of a2 and a1 is 1/1. ‡ Assuming that the contribution of a2 and a1 is 3/1. By reference to Huisman et al. (1996), all of these assumptions almost never apply to any known variant and estimated values often differ greatly from these predicted values.
Table 11.5 Interactions between aglobin variants and a thalassaemia.
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants (aGa/aa), 20–25% of the variant haemoglobin, and no haematological abnormalities (Bruzdzinski et al. 1984; Molchanova et al. 1994a). In some, the HbG Philadelphia mutation is on a –a3.7 haplotype (–aG), giving rise to –aG/aa, –aG/–a and –aG/–aG genotypes, which are associated with 30–35%, ~45% and 100% HbG Philadelphia, respectively (Milner & Huisman 1976; Sancar et al. 1980; Pardoll et al. 1982): such patients have the haematological phenotypes of heterozygous or homozygous a+ thalassaemia. Rarely, the –aG haplotype may interact with a0 thalassaemia to produce HbH disease (– –/–aG). Such patients produce only Hbs H and G and have the typical clinical and haematological findings of HbH disease, a condition called HbG-H disease (Rieder et al. 1976; Sancar et al. 1980). An account of all the mutations linked to an athalassaemia determinant is given in Chapter 4; their interactions with other a-globin haplotypes are very similar to those just described above for HbG Philadelphia. The interaction between HbI (a16LysÆGlu) and a thalassaemia was initially very puzzling (Atwater et al. 1960; Schwartz & Atwater 1972). Most often this variant accounts for 24–28% of the total haemoglobin (Huisman et al. 1996). However, in the family first reported by Atwater and colleagues, in which there was also evidence for a thalassaemia, the level was 70%. It is now known that, rarely, the HbI mutation may occur on both the a2 and a1 genes on the same chromosome, presumably as a result of gene conversion (Liebhaber et al. 1984). Thus the patient with the –a/aIaI genotype had ~70% HbI, as we would now predict. The interactions between a thalassaemia and highly unstable a-globin variants were described earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 4. In general, the –a/aVa and –a/aaV genotypes in these cases
Table 11.6 Proportion of haemoglobin variant and haematological phenotypes in patients with positively charged b-globin variants.
aa/aa –a/aa –a/–a – –/aa – –/–a
bA/bV bA/bV bA/bV bA/bV bA/bV
519
give rise to a-thalassaemia trait, and the – –/aVa genotype is associated with HbH disease. There is a tendency for such interactions to fall at the severe end of the clinical spectrum of patients with HbH disease, including HbH hydrops (see earlier section).
Interactions between a thalassaemia and b-globin structural variants Pathophysiology When a person inherits a normal a-globin genotype (aa/aa) and two b genes, one of which encodes a structural variant (bA/bV), the amount of abnormal haemoglobin produced will depend on its rate of synthesis, stability and the pattern of subunit assembly to form ab dimers (Bunn & McDonald 1983; Bunn 1987). It is not surprising therefore that, just as is the case for a-globin variants, heterozygotes for b-chain variants show a wide range of different levels of the abnormal haemoglobin (Huisman et al. 1996). Some are synthesized less efficiently than bA and represent less than 50% in heterozygotes, while others are unstable and may be present at 30% or less. Differences in the rates of ab-subunit assembly also account for the lower levels of variant haemoglobins in heterozygotes. The formation of ab dimers is a rate-limiting step in the assembly of haemoglobin. This process is thought to be facilitated by the electrostatic attraction between positively charged a globin and negatively charged b-globin subunits. Many common b-globin variants acquire a positive charge (e.g. bS: 6GluÆVal) thereby reducing their ability to compete with bA chains for a chains. In such cases less variant haemoglobin than HbA accumulates; the opposite
Predicted level of variant
Hb haematological phenotype
50%* Ø ØØ ØØØ ØØØØ
Normal a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait a-Thalassaemia trait HbH disease
* Assuming that the variant is synthesized efficiently, is completely stable and associates with aA chains with the same kinetics as bA chains.
520
Chapter 11
situation is seen with negatively charged b-globin variants (Fig. 11.21). These observations are supported by in vitro subunit competition assays using mixtures of normal (bA) and variant (e.g. bS and bC) subunits (Bunn & McDonald 1983; Bunn 1987). In the presence of a thalassaemia, in which limiting amounts of a chains are synthesized in the red cell, these effects are exaggerated.The accumulated levels of positively charged b variants are further decreased in proportion to the deficit in a-globin chains (Bunn & McDonald 1983; Bunn 1987). In contrast the levels of negatively charged variants may increase. This is a good rule of thumb although there are exceptions, HbN Baltimore for example, and the situation becomes complex when more than one b variant is involved or if a-globin variants are also present. The co-inheritance of a thalassaemia may influence the levels of HbA2 in the presence of b-globin variants. The d-globin subunit is considerably more positively charged than the b-globin subunit. In a thalassaemia the amount of HbA2 should decrease therefore, and, in general, this is what is found (Wasi et al. 1969, 1974). However, in the presence of a variant, positively charged b-globin subunit which has less affinity for a subunits, there may be sufficient free a chains to interact with all d subunits, thereby increasing the level of HbA2. Such increases have been observed in individuals with sickle-cell trait (Whitten & Rucknagel 1981) and sickle-cell disease (see below). The presence of a thalassaemia may also influence the levels of HbF (a2g2) and Hb Bart’s (g4) in some interactions. Several observations suggest that ag dimers form less readily than ab dimers.As discussed earlier there is more Hb Bart’s in newborns with a thalassaemia than HbH in adults with the same genotype. There is some evidence that the proportion of HbF in newborns is lower in infants with a thalassaemia than those with four a genes (Stallings et al. 1983). Chui et al. (1990) described an Italian boy who co-inherited HbH disease (– –/–a) and the –117 Agglobin HPFH mutation (see Chapters 4 and 10).They found that approximately 90% of the a chains combined with b-globin chains to form HbA (~78%), and 10% of the a chains associated with g chains to form HbF (9.5%). Although there were sufficient free g chains to produce approximately 11% Hb Bart’s, there were insufficient free b chains remaining to produce detectable amounts of HbH on electrophoresis, although HbH inclusions were found.
Taken together these findings support the hypothesis that a globin has a higher affinity for b than g globin. However, the interpretation of these complex interactions is by no means certain, since there are other patients with similar interactions who produce different patterns of haemoglobin expression (see e.g. Rombos et al. 1989). Clinical phenotypes of patients with a thalassaemia and b-globin variants The clinical phenotype of patients with a thalassaemia and stable b-chain variants is, as shown in Table 11.6, determined by the particular athalassaemia allele. In general, heterozygotes for b-chain variants who are also heterozygous for a+ thalassaemia of the deletion or non-deletional varieties, –a/aa or aaT/aa, show minimal haematological changes and, as a group, a slightly lower level of the bchain variant than normal. Those that are homozygous for the deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia, –a/–a, have hypochromic, microcytic red cells and mild anaemia, and significantly lower levels of the bchain variant, while those who inherit the a-thalassaemia genotype associated with HbH disease, – –/–a, have the clinical picture of this condition associated with extremely low levels of the b-chain variant. The same general principles apply to the co-inheritance of the non-deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia. Heterozygous or homozygous a + thalassaemia in carriers for b-chain structural variants Before it was possible to analyse the a-globin genes directly, extensive evidence accumulated which suggested that individuals with the sickle-cell or HbC trait who had hypochromic, microcytic red cells, with or without mild anaemia, and significantly reduced levels of the b-chain variant had co-inherited one or other form of a thalassaemia (Weatherall 1963; Tuchinda et al. 1964; Weatherall 1964b; Wasi et al. 1969; Charache et al. 1974; Steinberg et al. 1975; Henson & Huisman 1978). This suggestion was confirmed when it became possible to analyse the aglobin genes (Higgs et al. 1979b) (Fig. 11.21). Those who had inherited the sickle-cell trait together with the heterozygous or homozygous states for a+ thalassaemia, –a/aa or –a/–a, had significantly reduced levels of HbS compared with those with the sicklecell trait alone; those homozygous for a+ thalas-
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants 70
60 Per cent of total haemoglobin
J Baltimore
50
40
30
N Baltimore J Iran Korle-Bu C O Arab S D Los Angeles
E
20
0
αα/αα
–α/αα
–α/–α
– –/–α
Fig. 11.21 Effect of a thalassaemia on the proportion of negatively charged () and positively charged () b-globin variants in heterozygotes. In all cases HbA constitutes the bulk of the remaining haemoglobin. In three-gene deletion a thalassaemia, a small amount of HbH (b4) is present. Redrawn from Bunn (1987).
saemia had a significant reduction in the MCH and MCV and were mildly anaemic. This type of interaction should be suspected, therefore, in any individual who is heterozygous for a bchain structural haemoglobin variant and, in the absence of iron deficiency, has a hypochromic microcytic blood film and an unusually low level of the particular variant. Because of the considerable overlap in haematological values and the levels of the variant haemoglobins between different a-thalassaemia genotypes, a precise diagnosis can only be made by direct DNA analysis. Heterozygosity for b-chain variants and the genotype of haemoglobin H disease When a patient inherits only one functional a gene (or its equivalent) and a b-globin variant they usually have the clinical and haematological picture of HbH disease. Splenomegaly is particularly prominent in some patients (Giordano et al. 1996). Such interactions have been described with HbC (Giordano et al. 1996), HbE (Thonglairuam et al. 1989), HbS
521
(Matthay et al. 1979; Weatherall & Clegg 1981) and Hb Hope (Dr D.K. Bowden, personal communication). Haemoglobin analysis usually demonstrates HbA with a very reduced amount (10–20%) of the variant haemoglobin. The reported levels of HbH are quite variable in this interaction and sometimes undetectable by routine Hb electrophoresis. Nevertheless, HbH inclusions can usually be demonstrated following incubation with brilliant cresyl blue. Haemoglobin Bart’s may be detectable and is characteristically found at levels of 1–6% in carriers for HbE with HbH disease, a condition referred to as A + E + Bart’s disease (– –/–a, bA/bE or – –/aCSa, bA/bE) (Thonglairuam et al. 1989) (see below). Rare interactions between HbH disease and bglobin variants support the electrostatic model for haemoglobin subunit assembly. Su et al. (1992) reported HbH disease in a Chinese patient with Hb Hamilton (b145 ValÆIle), which has the same charge as HbA, and it appeared that the level of this variant was not significantly reduced. Rahbar and Bunn (1987) described an Iranian female with HbH disease and HbJ/Iran (b77HisÆAsp), a negatively charged subunit. In this case the interaction with a thalassaemia produced an increased level (65%) of the variant haemoglobin. Finally, Chan et al. (1987b) described a Chinese female with a severe transfusion-dependent haemolytic anaemia (Hb 3.4–6.8 g/dl) resulting from the interaction of HbH disease with Hb New York (b113 ValÆGlu), an unstable, negatively charged bglobin variant. In this case the co-inheritance of a thalassaemia increased the formation of Hb New York and thus exacerbated the haemolytic anaemia. Interactions of a thalassaemia with the common b-chain variants Because Hbs S and E occur at such high frequency in some populations (see Chapter 6), and because there is also a high frequency of a thalassaemia in at least some of them, it is quite common for individuals to inherit both types of disorders. For this reason we shall describe some of the more clinically important interactions of this type (Table 11.7). Haemoglobin A + E + Bart’s disease This condition, which reflects the heterozygous state for HbE in association with genotypes which cause
522
Chapter 11 Table 11.7 Some interactions of haemoglobin E with a thalassaemia.
Genotype
Clinical findings
Haemoglobin
aa/aa, bbE
Normal Red cells slightly hypochromic
A+E (HbE about 27%)
–a/aa, bbE
Normal Hypochromic red cells
A+E (HbE 20–25%)
– –/aa, bbE
Normal Hypochromic red cells
A+E (HbE about 17–20%)
– –/–a, bbE
Similar to HbH disease
A + E + Bart’s (HbE about 14%)
–a/aa, bEbE
As for HbE disease
E + trace Bart’s
– –/–a, bEbE
Severe thalassaemia intermedia
E + F + Bart’s (HbE 80%, HbF 13%)
– –/aCSa, bbE
Similar to HbH disease
A + E + Bart’s + Constant Spring (as for – –/–a, bbE above with 1–2% Hb CS)
– –/aCSa, bEbE
Similar to HbH disease
E + Bart’s (1–2% Hb CS)
– –/–a, bEb0
Severe thalassaemia intermedia
E + F + Bart’s
– –/aCSa, bEb0
Severe thalassaemia intermedia
E + F + Bart’s (1–2% Hb CS)
HbH disease, – –/–a or – –/aCSa, occurs frequently in Thailand and other parts of south-east Asia (Wasi et al. 1967, 1974; Thonglairuam et al. 1989). The clinical manifestations are similar to those of HbH disease. There is a variable degree of anaemia and splenomegaly. In a series of 70 patients with this genotype the mean haemoglobin value was 7.3 g/dl and the red-cell morphology was similar to that seen in HbH disease (Wasi et al. 1974). However, unlike the latter disorder, there are relatively few red-cell inclusion bodies. The haemoglobin pattern consists of Hbs A, E, Bart’s and F, and, occasionally, small amounts of HbH are found. Haemoglobin Bart’s is usually found in adults with this disorder, constituting about 8% of the total haemoglobin; the average amount of HbE is in the region of 14%. It has never been adequately explained why adults with this condition produce Hb Bart’s rather than HbH. Elevated levels of HbF are very commonly found, but only in the range of 1–2% of the total haemoglobin. Clearly the g-chain genes remain active and thus g, bA and bE chains are competing for a limited number of a chains. Since bA chains compete
better than bE chains for the relatively few available a chains this may result in an excess of g and bE chains. While the g4 tetramer is stable the b4E tetramer is probably not (Tuchinda et al. 1967) and so these patients have Hbs Bart’s and E. a Thalassaemia in homozygotes for bE and compound heterozygotes for bE and b0 thalassaemia Homozygotes for HbE are usually mildly affected but compound heterozygotes for bE and b0 thalassaemia display a wide variety of phenotypes and some may be as severely affected as patients with homozygous b thalassaemia (see Chapter 9). A study by Winichagoon et al. (1985) investigated whether the co-inheritance of a thalassaemia contributed to the variable phenotype. Among 42 bE/b0 thalassaemia compound heterozygotes they found seven with a thalassaemia (–a/aa, bE/b0). The mean level of haemoglobin was higher in patients with a thalassaemia than in patients with four a genes (aa/aa, bE/b0) and their condition was thought to be clinically milder since they had not required blood transfusion,
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants had less splenomegaly and attended the clinic less frequently. Although the haematological and clinical characteristics of patients with –a/aa, bE/b0 thalassaemia were shifted to the mild end of the spectrum, this study could not clearly differentiate these patients from many others with HbE b thalassaemia without a thalassaemia (see Chapter 9). Less commonly, patients with the genotype of HbH disease co-inherit two bE alleles or bE and b0thalassaemia alleles (Fucharoen et al. 1988c). To date four genotypes have been identified (– –/–a, bE/bE; – –/–a, bE/b0; – –/aCSa, bE/bE; and – –/aCSa, bE/b0), although many other interactions are possible. In a study of 19 patients by Fucharoen et al. (1988c), it was not possible to distinguish the clinical findings associated with these genotypes from others with bE/b0 thalassaemia (aa/aa, bE/b0), HbA + E + Bart’s disease (– –/–a, bA/bE) or HbH disease (– –/–a, bA/bA). The haemoglobin levels ranged from 6.1 to 10.4 g/dl. The MCV (58–74 fl) and MCH (15–21 pg) values were markedly reduced in all cases. Reticulocyte counts were raised, 0.8–11.4%, and the peripheral blood films showed anisopoikilocytosis, polychromasia and target cells. Haemoglobin analysis characteristically showed HbE (67.7–94.5%), with HbF (1.3–24.9%) and Hb Bart’s (1.2–7.3%). Hence this group of inter-
523
actions are also referred to as HbE +F + Bart’s disease (Wasi et al. 1974;Weatherall & Clegg 1981). When Hb Constant Spring is one of the athalassaemia determinants it may also be present in the range 0.3–4.3%. Like HbA + E + Bart’s disease, HbH inclusions are rare in E + F + Bart’s disease, further evidence that bE chains do not form homotetramers. a Thalassaemia and sickle-cell anaemia The pathophysiology and clinical features of the sickle-cell disorders were summarized in Chapter 2. Wherever sickle-cell disease occurs a thalassaemia nearly always co-exists, so that it is common to coinherit the two conditions. There have been many studies over the past 10–15 years to evaluate the influence of a thalassaemia on sickle-cell disease.The haematological effects are now well characterized and reasonably well understood. On the other hand the effects of a thalassaemia on the clinical manifestations of sickle-cell disease are subtle and have been inconsistent between different studies (Table 11.8). Patients with a+ thalassaemia and sickle-cell disease (– a/aa, bS/bS and –a/–a, bS/bS) have higher levels of haemoglobin and higher red-cell counts
Table 11.8 The influence of a thalassaemia on the clinical features of sickle-cell disease. Clinical feature
Reported effect of a thalassaemia
References
Painful crisis Acute chest syndrome Leg ulceration Peptic ulceration Aplastic crisis Splenectomy Splenic sequestration Splenomegaly Hepatomegaly > 3 cm Priapism Peripheral retinal closure Proliferative sickle retinopathy Obstetric complications Physical development Stroke
No direct effect Less frequent; no effect Less frequent; no effect No significant effect No significant effect No significant effect More frequent; no effect More common Reduced No effect Reduced
Higgs et al. (1982); Steinberg et al. (1984); Platt et al. (1991) Higgs et al. (1982); Steinberg et al. (1984) Higgs et al. (1982); Steinberg et al. (1984) Higgs et al. (1982) Higgs et al. (1982) Higgs et al. (1982) Mears et al. (1982); Emond et al. (1984) Higgs et al. (1982) Higgs et al. (1982) Higgs et al. (1982) Fox et al. (1993)
No effect
Fox et al. (1993)
No effect No effect Possibly reduced risk
Aseptic necrosis Survival
Increased Prolonged; no effect
Higgs et al. (1982) Higgs et al. (1982) Piomelli et al. (1986); Miller et al. (1988b);Adams et al. (1994) Steinberg et al. (1984); Ballas et al. (1989); Milner et al. (1991) Higgs et al. (1982); Mears et al. (1983)
524
Chapter 11
than patients without a thalassaemia (aa/aa, bS/bS). In addition they have lower reticulocyte counts and levels of serum total bilirubin, suggesting that a thalassaemia reduces haemolysis. This has been confirmed by studies of red-cell survival in both –a/–a, bS/bS (deCeulaer et al. 1983) and –a/aa, bS/bS (Serjeant et al. 1996) genotypes. The co-inheritance of a thalassaemia results in relatively lower MCH and MCV values in patients with sickle-cell disease. However, the main mechanism by which a thalassaemia is thought to reduce haemolysis is by decreasing the concentration of HbS in the red cell, thereby reducing polymerization. The red cells of patients with both conditions have a reduced MCHC and, as judged from density gradient studies, are better hydrated (Embury et al. 1984, 1985a) with fewer dense forms (Noguchi & Schechter 1981).As a consequence, the red cells are deformable and have a greater membrane redundancy so that they are better protected against sickling-induced membrane stretching and cation loss (reviewed in Steinberg 1991). Consistent with these findings, patients with a thalassaemia and sickle-cell disease have fewer irreversibly sickled cells in their peripheral blood (Higgs et al. 1982). By the same logic that explains how a thalassaemia reduces haemolysis in sickle-cell disease it would be predicted that it might also reduce microvascular disease. Certainly, vaso-occlusive events may be marginally less frequent, as is the case for the acute chest syndrome and ankle ulceration. However, the frequency of painful crises is unaffected and aseptic necrosis of bone may be more frequent (see Table 11.8), possibly because improvements in redcell deformability are offset by the rheological consequences of an increased packed cell volume. Although it has been suggested that a thalassaemia prolongs survival in patients with sickle-cell disease (Mears et al. 1983), this is an extremely difficult question to answer in a highly selected clinical population; this effect is not observed in all studies (Higgs et al. 1982). The co-inheritance of a thalassaemia alters the haemoglobin composition of patients with sickle-cell disease.As already explained, the relatively low affinity of bS for a-globin subunits may release sufficient a chains to combine with all available d chains, accounting for the increased levels of HbA2 observed in patients with –a/aa, bS/bS and –a/–a, bS/bS genotypes. There are less consistent alterations in the levels of
HbF compared with patients with sickle-cell anaemia without a thalassaemia. They may be elevated (Embury et al. 1982), unchanged (Steinberg et al. 1984) or reduced (Higgs et al. 1982).The level of HbF in patients with sickle-cell disease is the end result of several complex interactions (see Chapters 4, 9 and 10). The simplest explanation for the small effect of a thalassaemia is that, by inhibiting haemolysis, it reduces the selective pressure for cells containing HbF, which survive longer because of their ability to resist intracellular sickling. The haematological differences between sicklecell homozygotes with or without a thalassaemia evolve over the first few years of life; those in MCV are present from birth and in red-cell count by 1 month. Patients with a thalassaemia have reduced numbers of reticulocytes from 3 months (Stevens et al. 1986). The differences in haemoglobin levels develop more slowly; in the study of Stevens et al. (1986) no difference was seen by 8 years of age, whereas Felice et al. (1987) observed characteristically higher levels in children with the –a/–a, bS/bS genotype from the age of 8 years onwards. Elevated levels of HbA2 were observed in patients with a thalassaemia by the age of 1 year, but HbF levels did not differ significantly, even at the age of 15 years, in the study of Felice et al. (1987). Other interactions between a thalassaemia and haemoglobin S Because of the rarity of a0-thalassaemia alleles in African or Indian populations in which the sickle-cell gene is common, the association of the genotype for HbH disease with the sickling disorders is unusual. It is most likely to occur either in persons of mixed ethnic background or in populations such as those of Saudi Arabia and other countries in which there is a high frequency of the sickle-cell gene and nondeletional forms of a+ thalassaemia which, in the homozygous state, result in HbH disease. A description of what was almost certainly an example of the interaction of the homozygous state for a+ thalassaemia and homozygosity for the sicklecell gene was reported by Weatherall et al. (1969a). The patient was a 4-year-old girl from the oasis population of eastern Saudi Arabia. She was mildly anaemic with hypochromic red cells. Haemoglobin analysis revealed Hbs S, F and Bart’s, in the proportions 40.7, 43.7 and 14%, respectively. Both the child’s
The a thalassaemias and their interactions with structural haemoglobin variants parents had the sickle-cell trait and both showed marked hypochromia and variation in the shape and size of their red cells. The unexpectedly high levels of Hbs F and Bart’s in this child are not surprising, considering that relatively high levels of HbF are extremely common in the sickle-cell population of eastern Saudi Arabia (see Chapters 4 and 10). Although this child was studied before direct DNA analysis of the a-globin genes was possible, subsequent studies in Saudi Arabia showed that all cases of HbH disease result from the homozygous state for a non-deletional form of a thalassaemia (Pressley et al. 1980b). The association of the sickle-cell trait with HbH disease has been reported in individuals from two populations, one of mixed Chinese and African origin (Matthay et al. 1979), the other from eastern Saudi Arabia (Weatherall & Clegg 1981). The findings in both these patients were similar, with one exception. Both had mild to moderate hypochromic anaemias with haemoglobin values in the 7–9 g/dl range. In both cases red-cell inclusions were generated after incubation with brilliant cresyl blue. Their haemoglobin patterns consisted of approximately 60% HbA, 15–17% HbS and 5–10% HbF. In the child reported by Matthay et al. no HbH could be demonstrated, although there was 3.4% Hb Bart’s. In the Saudi patient there was approximately 10% HbH. It is not clear why in one case of this interaction the patient produced only Hb Bart’s while in the other there was a relatively high level of HbH. In the child of Chinese and African origin the genotype was – –/–a, whereas in the Saudi child the genotype was, presumably, aTa/aTa. However these differences are not really accounted for by the molecular pathology and, as is the case for HbH disease in general (see earlier section), it is not absolutely clear why some patients make predominantly Hb Bart’s while others produce HbH. In none of these patients with co-existing sickling disorders and a thalassaemia has it been possible to identify haemoglobins with the structure b4S. Molecules with this structure were described by Huisman
525
(1960a,b) and called Hb Augusta 1, but they do not appear to have been identified subsequently.
Postscript Over the past 20 years we have obtained a comprehensive picture of the molecular basis of a thalassaemia and we now know that a substantial proportion of the world’s population has one or other of the genetic conditions summarized in this chapter. Because a thalassaemia is so common, the chance finding of a hypochromic, microcytic anaemia is often the cause of inappropriate investigation and concern for unaware or inexperienced physicians. Fortunately, once the diagnosis has been made, only a small proportion, albeit large numbers, of patients need further attention. Most patients with HbH disease are well, whereas a few have thalassaemia intermedia. There is a need to document the natural history of HbH disease and to establish more fully the correlation between genotype and phenotype to improve our ability to predict clinical severity. Ultimately, this would enable more precise prenatal counselling and would allow us to develop the best strategies for managing the relatively few patients who will be severely affected by this disorder. The most important task for the future is to establish cheap, effective screening programmes to avoid pregnancies leading to the lethal Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis and the rare HbH hydrops fetalis syndromes, which also impose considerable risk on the mother. At-risk couples are still not always identified, even in countries with advanced medical services. Current observations on the clinical and haematological interactions of a thalassaemia with b thalassaemia (Chapter 13) and b-chain abnormalities such as sickle-cell disease suggest that reducing a-globin synthesis may offer another therapeutic approach to the amelioration of these conditions. Hopefully, such approaches should evolve from our continued attempts to understand more completely the mechanisms by which the a-globin genes are regulated.
Chapter 12 a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia
Introduction All the different forms of a thalassaemia described in the previous chapters follow a simple Mendelian pattern of inheritance and, although they can occur in any population, are only found at high frequencies in parts of the world where malaria was, or in some cases still is, a major killer. As we saw in Chapter 6, there is now very substantial evidence that these high gene frequencies are related to resistance on the part of individuals with the milder forms of a thalassaemia to malarial infection. It has been apparent for some time, however, that there are other forms of a thalassaemia which do not have any particular geographical pattern of occurrence and which are not inherited in the usual Mendelian way. Since the last edition of this book was written it has become clear that there are two conditions in which mild forms of a thalassaemia are associated with mental retardation. Studies of these disorders have provided valuable information about the regulation of the a-globin genes and, in addition, are starting to offer important insights into the pathogenesis of some forms of mental retardation and developmental abnormalities. Another unusual form of a thalassaemia, that associated with myelodysplasia, has been recognized for much longer. Although less progress has been made towards an understanding of its pathogenesis and relationship to haemopoietic neoplasia, it too has important implications for our further understanding of the regulation of the aglobin genes and, perhaps more importantly, for providing some badly needed insights into the aetiology of the myelodysplasias. In this chapter we shall review what is known of these unusual forms of a thalassaemia and what their study is telling us about the regulation of the a-globin genes. It should be emphasized that these disorders are completely unlike the other forms of thalassaemia described in this book. The thalassaemic phenotype is not the main feature of these conditions. Rather it is a result of situations in which the a-globin 526
genes, as innocent bystanders, have been caught up in a pathological process that leads to a completely different disorder.
a Thalassaemia and mental retardation The rare association between a thalassaemia and mental retardation might easily have been dismissed as the chance occurrence of two common conditions. However, when Weatherall et al. (1981a) described three mentally retarded children with a thalassaemia and a variety of developmental abnormalities interest was stimulated by the unusual nature of the a thalassaemia. The children were of North European origin, where a thalassaemia is uncommon (see Chapter 6), and, although it might have been expected that there would be clear signs of this inherited anaemia in their parents, in the event it appeared to have arisen de novo in the affected offspring. It was concluded that the combination of a thalassaemia and mental retardation, together with the associated developmental abnormalities, represented a new syndrome and that a common genetic mechanism might be responsible for these diverse clinical manifestations. It is now clear that these original suspicions were well founded, although it has subsequently emerged that there are two distinct syndromes in which a thalassaemia is associated with mental retardation (ATR) (Wilkie et al. 1990a,c). The first, ATR-16, is characterized by large (1–2 Mb) chromosomal rearrangements that delete many genes from the short arm of chromosome 16: it is therefore an example of a contiguous gene syndrome. In the second, ATR-X, a complex phenotype, including a thalassaemia, results from mutations in an Xencoded factor which is a putative regulator of gene expression. Mutations in this gene downregulate agene expression and also perturb the expression of other, as yet unidentified, genes.
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia
The ATR-16 syndrome
527
Clinical features
To date we know of 17 individuals who have the ATR-16 syndrome (Table 12.1). Often, clinicians have been alerted to this condition by observing the unusual association of a thalassaemia and mental retardation in persons originating from outside the areas in which thalassaemia commonly occurs (see Chapter 6).There are two common patterns of inheritance. In 11 cases neither parent has a thalassaemia (aa/aa ¥ aa/aa) and the affected offspring has the phenotype of severe a-thalassaemia trait (genotype – –/aa). In five cases one parent has the phenotype of mild a-thalassaemia trait, while the other is normal (– a/aa ¥ aa/aa); the child has HbH disease (genotype – –/–a). In all such cases initial molecular genetic analyses have shown that the patients fail to inherit the entire za-globin cluster from one or other of the parents.
For reasons which are described below, the clinical features, including the degree of mental retardation, are extremely diverse. The main findings in the cases reported to date are summarized in Table 12.2. Chromosomal abnormalities In some cases conventional cytogenetic analysis may immediately demonstrate the underlying genetic abnormality. Since the a-globin complex lies very close to the 16p telomere (Fig. 12.1) any chromosomal abnormality affecting this region may give rise to a thalassaemia (Wilkie et al. 1990a). In some patients with ATR-16 gross chromosomal abnormalities resulting in deletions (Wilkie et al. 1990a), the formation of ring chromosomes (e.g. Neidengard & Sparkes 1981; Quintana et al. 1983; Callen et al. 1989)
α-globin cluster TSC2 PKD1
3' HVR D16S85 cDNA +128
MS625 D16S264
MS637 D16S307
MS205 D16S309
CMM103 Fr3-42 D16S252 D16S21
NKISP1 CMM65 D16S146 D16S84 c40
PNL56S D16S145
EKMDA2 D16S83
GE OD BO LF CU Aa DO (GR) (WA) WI HA DA (BE) MR
Deletions known to result from chromosomal translocations Mechanism unknown or resulting from chromosomal truncation Maximum extent of deletions that cause α thalassaemia with no associated abnormalities (see Chapter 4)
Fig. 12.1 Summary of ATR-16 deletions.Above, the 16p telomere is indicated as a black oval and the positions of the aglobin cluster and the genes encoding tuberous sclerosis (TSC2) and the adult form of polycystic kidney disease (PKD1) are indicated.The positions of other ‘anchor’ markers are also shown. Below, the extent of each deletion is shown with the patient code alongside (see Table 12.1). Solid bars indicate regions known to be deleted and broken lines indicate the region of uncertainty of the breakpoints (S. Horsley et al. 2001; R. Daniels et al. 2001).
M
M
M
F
F
M
F M M M
F
M
F
M
F
F
M
OD
DA
CU
MR
Aa
BO
DO HA WI LF
CH(BE)
W(BE)
C(WA)
M(GR)
J(GR)
C(BE)
GE
Severe
MR+
Borderline
Borderline
Borderline
NA
NA
Mild Borderline Borderline Unknown
Mild
Borderline
Mild
Mild
Mild
Moderate
MR
Trait
HbH
Trait
Trait
Trait
Trait
Trait
HbH HbH Trait NA
HbH
Trait
Trait
Trait
Trait
HbH
Phenotype
– –/aa
– –/–a
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/–a – –/–a – –/aa NA
– –/–a
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/aa
– –/–a
Genotype
NA
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal* Normal Normal Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Abnormal
Abnormal
Abnormal
Normal
Maternal
Maternal
Maternal
Unknown
Unknown
Maternal Paternal Paternal Maternal
Paternal
Maternal
Paternal
Maternal
Paternal
Maternal
Origin
46,XX +der(16)t(16;16) Maternal (q24;p13.3) 45,XY –16 –22 +der(16) Maternal (16qter-16p13.3::22q11.2122qter)
46,XY del(16)(p13.3) +?
46,XY del(16)(p13.3) +? 46,XY del(16)(p13.3) +? 46,XY del(16)(p13.3) +? 46,XY –16 +der(16)t(X;16) (p11.4;p13.3) 46,XX +der(16)t(16;16) (q24;p13.3) 46,XX +der(16)t(16;16) (q24;p13.3) 46,XX –16, +der(16)t(16;20) (p13.3;q13.3) 46,XY del(16)(p13.3) +?
46,XY –16, +der(16)t(1;16) (p36;p13.3) 45,XY –15, –16 +der(16) t(15;16) (q13.1;p13.3) 46,XY –16 +der(16)t(9;16) (21.2;p13.3) 46,XX –16, +der(16)t(9;16) (21.2;13.3) 46,XX –16, +der(126)t(10;16) (q26.13;p13.3) 46,XY del(16)(p13.3)
Conventional cytogenetics Chromosomal abnormality
* At low resolution. MR, mental retardation; trans, translocation; unbal, unbalanced. MR+, mental retardation not classified. NA, not assessed.
Sex
Case
Table 12.1 Cytogenetic and haematological data and origin of ATR-16 mutations.
Inherit 16 : 10 unbal trans De novo truncation Unknown Unknown Unknown Inherit unbal trans Inversion/ deletion Inversion/ deletion Inherit unbal trans Inherit 16 : 21 unbal trans Inherit 16 : 21 unbal trans Inversion/ deletion Inherit unbal trans
De novo
De novo
Inherit 16 : 1 unbal trans De novo
Parental mechanism
Rönich & Kleihauer (1967) and unpublished European Polycystic Kidney Disease Consortium (1994)
Unpublished
Unpublished
Buckle et al. (1988); Wilkie et al. (1990a) Wilkie et al. (1990a); Lamb et al. (1993) Wilkie et al. (1990a) Wilkie et al. (1990a) Wilkie et al. (1990a) K. May (personal communication) Rönich & Kleihauer (1967) and unpublished Rönich & Kleihauer (1967) and unpublished Unpublished
Wilkie et al. (1990a); Rack et al. (1993) Rack et al. (1993)
Lamb et al. (1989); Wilkie et al. (1990a) Wilkie et al. (1990a)
Reference
528 Chapter 12
Moderate Mild Mild Mild Borderline Mild Mild Borderline Borderline U NA NA +* Borderline Borderline Borderline Severe
OD DA CU MR Aa BO DO HA WI LF CH(BE) W(BE) C(BE) C(WA) M(GR) J(GR) GE
+ + + + + + + + + NA NA NA – + + + NA
Normal BW + + – – + – + + – NA NA NA + + + + –
Neonatal problems – – – – – + – – – NA NA NA – – – + –
Microcephaly – – – + – – + – – NA NA NA NA + – – –
Short stature + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + –
Facial dysmorphism + + – – – + – – + + NA NA – – – – –
Genital abnormalities – + + + – + – + + NA NA NA NA + + + –
Skeletal abnormalities
CHD TS, RC, E
CAL SPC, HT SPC SPC UG, HPN IC, P IC E AN, IC T, CS, CHD, H NA NA S S, PVC, LFW, SD, NW
Miscellaneous abnormalities
+* Mental retardation not classified. † See also Table 12.1. AN, accessory nipple; BW, birth weight; CAL, café au lait patches; CHD, congenital heart disease; CS, choanal stenosis; E, epilepsy; H, hydrocephalus; HPN, high-placed nipples; HT, hypoplastic enamel of teeth; IC, impaired coordination; LFW, left facial weakness; M, myopia; MR, mental retardation; NA, data not available; NW, neck webbing; P, ptosis; PL, pigmented lesions (hypo- and hyper-); PVC, paralysed vocal cord (unilateral); RC, renal cysts; S, strabismus; SD, sacral dimple; SPC, single palmar crease;T, tracheobronchomalacia;TS, tuberous sclerosis; U, unable to assess at time of death; UG, unsteady gait.
MR
Case†
Table 12.2 Clinical findings in patients with ATR-16 syndrome.
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia 529
530
Chapter 12 (a) Mild α thal.
Mild α thal.
OD MR HbH disease
MR
(b)
(c)
α
α α
αα
α
αα
16 Genotype –α/αα
Fig. 12.2 High-resolution cytogenetic analysis in an individual with ATR-16 syndrome demonstrating a translocation between chromosomes 9 and 16.The normal and abnormal copies of chromosome 16 are arrowed.
and translocations (e.g. Buckle et al. 1988) have been observed. Although such abnormalities may arise as de novo genetic events, often one parent carries a preexisting balanced translocation which the child inherits in an unbalanced fashion (see Figs 12.2 and 12.3 for examples), resulting in monosomy for 16p and loss of the a-globin-gene cluster. In many cases of ATR-16 initial high-resolution cytogenetic analysis appears entirely normal. However, it is important to remember that even chromosomal rearrangements involving large fragments of DNA (5–10 Mb) may not be detected by routine cytogenetics. In this situation the pattern of inheritance of variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs) (as defined in Chapter 2) within the a cluster may reveal the underlying molecular defect. In the example given in Fig. 12.3 (originally described in Lamb et al. 1989) the parental 16p alleles can be distinguished from each other.The mother in this family carries an unbalanced (16 : 1) translocation which both of her children inherited in an imbalanced fashion. Her son OD (Table 12.1) is monosomic for
–α/αα
––/–α
–α/–α/αα
Fig. 12.3 Familial subcytogenetic translocation (from Lamb et al. 1989). (a) Pedigree showing parents with mild a thalassaemia only, a son (OD) with mental retardation and severe a thalassaemia (HbH disease), and a daughter with mental retardation. (b) Schematic representation of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis using a fully informative marker closely linked to the a-globin cluster. Each track corresponds to the individuals shown above. (c) Segregation of 1 : 16 translocation and a-globin complex (a) in each family member.The resulting genotype is shown. Note that both children have inherited the paternal chromosome carrying the (–a) allele; it has not been determined whether the mother’s normal or translated chromosome 16 bears her (–a) allele.
16p, and therefore has a thalassaemia (in this case HbH disease), whereas her daughter is trisomic for 16p. Both children have mental retardation, dysmorphic facies and a variety of associated developmental abnormalities. VNTRs are not always informative and, more recently, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) studies have been used to analyse ATR-16 families. In this type of analysis large segments (~40 kb) of chromosome 16 in cosmid vectors are used as probes to demonstrate the presence or absence of the corresponding sequences in the 16p telomeric region with fluorescence microscopy (Buckle & Kearney 1994). By analysing the chromosomes of both parents and
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia the affected child it is possible to define the extent of 16p monosomy and the mechanism by which it has arisen. In the example shown in Fig. 12.4a FISH analysis demonstrated that the mother of children with the ATR-16 syndrome carries a 5:16 translocation (unpublished observation) which was inherited in an unbalanced fashion, as in Fig. 12.3, by her offspring. In the second example (case HA in Wilkie et al. 1990a) both parents were shown to be normal but FISH analysis demonstrated a de novo loss of material from the end of chromosome 16 (Fig. 12.4b) in their child HA (Table 12.1). These types of chromosomal abnormality that can only be detected by FISH or molecular analyses are referred to as ‘cryptic’ chromosomal abnormalities. Using a combination of conventional cytogenetics, FISH and molecular analysis, at least three types of chromosomal rearrangements — inherited or de novo translocations, inversion/deletions and truncations — have now been found in patients with ATR-16 (Fig. 12.1 and Table 12.1). At present none of the breakpoints associated with the 16p translocations has been sequenced. Similarly, the inversion/deletion event (CHBE, WBE, CBE) has only been partially characterized. The telomeric truncation seen in BO (Table 12.1) has been fully analysed (Lamb et al. 1993). In this important case it appears that the chromosome was broken, truncated and ‘healed’ by the direct addition of telomeric repeats (TTAGGG)n (Fig. 12.5), as described for some less extensive 16p deletions in Chapter 4. A review of the literature has also identified other less well characterized chromosomal abnormalities that may cause the ATR-16 syndrome. For example, Pawlowitzki et al. (1979) described a child with the unbalanced karyotype 46,XX, –16,+der(16),t(16;20)(p13;q11) who at the age of 9 months had severe hypochromia (MCH was 17.6 pg): it is likely that this child had a thalassaemia, but this was not investigated. There are a number of other reports of possible chromosome 16p deletions, including ring (16), associated with mental retardation, but haematological data were either not given (Pergament et al. 1970; Bauknecht et al. 1976; Golden et al. 1981; Nielsen et al. 1983; Quintana et al. 1983; Anneren & Gustavson 1984; Nazarenko et al. 1987; Chodirker et al. 1988) or were equivocal (Neidengard & Sparkes 1981; Emanuel et al. 1982). Further analysis of DNA from the ring (16) patient of Neidengard and Sparkes (1981) indicates that the
531
a-globin complex has been deleted from the ring chromosome (Callen et al. 1989), the breakpoint lying between EKMDA2 and NIKSP1 (see Fig. 12.1; unpublished results), and the ring (16) patient of Quintana et al. (1983) is also missing the a-globin complex from the involved chromosome (Callen et al. 1989). Although such cases of a thalassaemia and mental retardation have doubtless been overlooked, it is nevertheless likely that the syndrome is rare, because each case found to date has been the result of a unique and independent chromosome mutation. How do chromosomal abnormalities give rise to the ATR-16 syndrome? In the light of these observations it is clear that individuals with ATR-16 may have quite variable degrees of chromosomal imbalance and consequently it is not surprising that there is considerable variation in the associated clinical phenotypes (Table 12.2).The degree of 16p monosomy varies from ~1 to 2 Mb (Fig. 12.1) but at least 11 patients have additional chromosomal aneuploidy; in some cases imbalance of the non-16 material may dominate the clinical picture. For example in DA (Table 12.1) loss of material from chromosome 15, while forming the abnormal derivative t(15 : 16) chromosome, produced the striking phenotype associated with the Prader–Willi syndrome. In only one patient (BO) can all of the clinical features be attributed solely to loss of material from 16p (Lamb et al. 1993). However, in two other patients (DO and WI, see Fig. 12.1 and Table 12.1) current data suggest that the predominant abnormality may similarly result from 16p monosomy. Several of these patients have a similar facial appearance, similar degrees of mild mental retardation and some associated developmental abnormalities in common (Fig. 12.6 and Table 12.2). By studying such a group of patients it should be possible to understand how 16p monosomy gives rise to the associated developmental abnormalities. Initially it seemed possible that hemizygosity for the embryonic z-globin gene might give rise to neonatal hypoxia and consequent developmental abnormalities. However, we now know that many patients with relatively small (up to 200-kb) deletions (see Chapters 4 and 11 and Fig. 12.1) including the entire z–a cluster may be developmentally normal.Another
532
Chapter 12
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.4 Cytogenetic findings in ATR16 syndromes. (a) An example of an unbalanced translocation in a parent of a child with the ATR-16 syndrome. (b) Loss of 16p material in an individual with the ATR-16 syndrome.
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia
Fig. 12.5 Sequence analysis of the BO breakpoint. The chromosome has broken and been ‘healed’ directly by the addition of telomeric (TTAGGG) repeats (see Lamb et al. 1993). (See also Fig. 12.1.)
possibility is that deletion of a large number of genes from one copy of chromosome 16 could unmask mutations in its homologue; the more genes that are deleted the greater the probability of this occurring. However, this is unlikely to be the explanation for most ATR-16 cases since it is estimated that normal individuals only carry a few harmful mutations of this type in the entire genome (Vogel & Motulsky 1986). A further possibility is that some genes in 16p are imprinted (Hall 1990) so that deletions could remove the only active copy of the gene. At present there is no evidence for imprinting of the 16p region (reviewed by Schneider et al. 1996), and in the few ATR-16 cases we have analysed there appear to be no major clinical differences between patients with deletions of the maternally or paternally derived chromosomes (Table 12.1). It therefore seems more likely that there are some genes in the 16p region that encode proteins whose effect is critically determined by the amount produced; so-called dosage-sensitive genes (see Fisher & Scambler 1994). Examples include those encoding proteins that form heterodimers, those required at a critical level for a ratedetermining step of a regulatory pathway, and
533
tumour suppressor genes, TSC2 for example (see below). Removal of such critical, dosage-sensitive genes might account for many of the clinical effects seen in patients with ATR-16. Some of these points can be addressed from currently available data. It is clear that removal of up to ~250 kb of 16p, including an estimated 20 genes (Horsley et al. 2001), has little or no effect on phenotype other than producing a thalassaemia (see Chapter 4 and Fig. 12.1 for summary). Furthermore, patients with deletions of up to 1 Mb of 16p may be quite mildly affected (Daniels et al, in preparation). However, the single patient with 16p monosomy for the terminal 2 Mb of 16p (BO) is more severely affected (IQ 53). One patient (GE) whose deletion extends just beyond the BO breakpoint was shown to have the phenotype of severe mental retardation, tuberous sclerosis and polycystic kidney disease (European Polycystic Kidney Disease Consortium 1994). Subsequently, patients with even quite small interstitial deletions (3–6 kb) around the TSC2 and PKD1 loci have been shown to have the variable but often severe syndrome of tuberous sclerosis (European Chromosome 16 Tuberous Sclerosis Consortium 1993), providing clear examples in which removal of a critical gene from the terminal region of 16p can account for most, if not all, of the clinical features. These findings suggest that the accumulated loss of many genes from chromosome 16p may have a relatively mild effect. However, this region may contain less abundant, critical genes that exert a severe effect when only one copy is deleted. Characterization of further patients with 16p monosomy and identification of all expressed sequences within 16p13.3 will be of considerable help in localizing such critical genes in this area. The ATR-16 syndrome has served as an important model for improving our general understanding of the molecular basis for mental retardation. It provided the first examples of mental retardation due to a cryptic chromosomal translocation and truncation. Further work has shown that such telomeric rearrangements may underlie a significant proportion of unexplained mental retardation (Flint et al. 1995). The current challenge is to understand in detail the mechanisms by which monosomy causes developmental abnormalities; the ATR-16 syndrome provides an excellent model for addressing this issue.
534
Chapter 12
Fig. 12.6 The facial appearance of patients with the ATR-16 syndrome. Common features include relative hypertelorism, a small chin and mouth, a ‘beaked’ nose, downslanting palpebral fissures and crowded teeth.
The ATR-X syndrome As further patients with a thalassaemia and mental retardation were identified throughout the 1980s, it became clear that a distinct group exists in whom no structural abnormalities of the a cluster or 16p can be found. In contrast to the ATR-16 syndrome, patients in this ‘non-deletional’ group are phenotypically uniform: they are male and have severe mental retardation with a remarkably similar facial appearance (Wilkie et al. 1990c; Gibbons et al. 1991). That this group constitutes a distinct and recognizable dysmorphism was confirmed when additional cases were identified on the basis of their facial features alone (Wilkie et al. 1991c). Ultimately, it was shown that this unusual syndrome of a thalassaemia with severe mental retardation results from an X-linked abnormality and the condition is now referred to as the ATR-X syndrome.
Clinical and haematological features Over 100 cases of the ATR-X syndrome from over 70 families have now been characterized and a definite phenotype is emerging (Table 12.3).The majority of children have profound and global developmental delay. They have marked hypotonia as neonates and in early childhood, and all milestones are delayed. Some are never able to walk and in most cases speech is not developed, and there is only situational understanding with complete dependence for almost all activities. However, in one family with four affected male cousins, one has profound mental retardation, whereas the others have IQs of 41, 56 and 58 (Guerrini et al. 2000). The basis for this marked variation is unknown but indicates that mutations in the ATR-X gene may be responsible for a wider spectrum of intellectual disability than previously thought.
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia
535
Fig. 12.7 The facial appearance of patients with the ATR-X syndrome.The main features are described in the text.
Table 12.3 Summary of the major clinical manifestations of the ATR-X syndrome. Clinical feature
Total*
%
Severe mental retardation† Normal birth weight Neonatal hypotonia Seizures Characteristic face Microcephaly Genital abnormalities Skeletal abnormalities Cardiac defects Renal/urinary abnormalities Gut dysmotility Short stature
108/110 65/72 59/68 36/104 86/96 67/88 83/94 83/91 21/98 16/98 66/86 51/74
98 90 87 35 90 76 88 91 21 16 77 69
112 patients * Total represents no. of patients on whom appropriate information is available and includes patients who do not have thalassaemia but in whom ATR-X mutations have been identified. † Two patients too young (5 0.4 0.6 + 0 30 13 < 0.001 + 7 27 1.4 >5 nd 12 0.02 nd v. rare 0.03 nd 0¶ 1.1 0.03 0.09
Unpublished Gibbons et al. (1997) Gibbons et al. (1997) Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Picketts et al. (1996) Picketts et al. (1996) Picketts et al. (1996) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Unpublished Villard et al. (1996b) Villard et al. (1996c) Villard et al. (1996c) Villard et al. (1996c) Unpublished Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Picketts et al. (1996) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Villard et al. (1996a) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Unpublished Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Ion et al. (1996) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b) Gibbons et al. (1995b)
* Mutations: D, deletion; M, missense; N, nonsense; S, splice site. † +, mutation demonstrated to have arisen de novo within family; GS, gonosomal mosaicism; GL, germline mosaicism. ‡ Genital abnormality ranges from normal; to +, very mild: high-lying testes; to + + + +, ambiguous genitalia or male pseudohermaphrodite. § This previously unpublished relatively conservative amino acid change in a non-conserved location may represent a polymorphism rather than a disease-causing mutation. ¶ 0/5000 red cells had HbH inclusions but a-/b-globin chain ratio = 0.85, 15% below control samples. nd, not determined.
32 33
31
26 27 28 29 30
24 25
21 22 23
17 18 19 20
16
15
13 14
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia 543
M M F M
M
M M M M F
M M M M M
M
M M
M
M M M M
F M M M
M
M
M M M
M
60 46 49 72
5 74
56 76 70 80 73
66 72 47 65 81
17 82 18 85
19 68
18 68 61 77
11 12 13 14 15
16 84
59 30 42 63
6 7 8 9 10
20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27
28 78
29 86
30 76 31 56 32 65
33 68
1 2 3 4
CA
CA CA CA
CA
CA
OR IT CA CA
OR IN OR OR
CA
SP SP
CA
CA CA LE CA CA
CA
CA
CA
CA CA CA
+
–
+ –
+
+ – + –
+
+ +
–
– –
+
+ – +
10.2
7.9 8.3 9.7
8.8
9.0
6.0 7.5 5.9 12.7
10.6 4.0 4.3 N/A
10.7
N/A N/A
6.9
7.7 8.6 N/A N/A 11.3
N/A N/A 6.1 10.0 4.6
8.7
N/A N/A N/A 7.8
59
N/A 69 84
82
89
N/A 66 97 69
75 N/A N/A 78
59
N/A N/A
69
N/A N/A 71 80 66
N/A N/A 66 97 63
74
N/A N/A N/A 93
16
23 N/A 27
28
29
N/A 19 21 19
26 N/A N/A N/A
N/A
N/A N/A
19
N/A N/A 21 N/A 16
N/A N/A 15 29 15
22
N/A N/A N/A 16
N/A
N/A N/A N/A
14
7
50 N/A 4 57
9 1 N/A 66
80
80 12
60
60 30 40 50 90
N/A N/A 93 N/A 60
N/A
30 20 1 N/A
37
4 1 N/A
10
1
N/A 4 4 20
3 N/A 2 27
37
27 N/A
18
N/A 15 20 18 57
10 N/A 42 10 20
N/A
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Age Sex Ethnicity Splenomegaly Hb (g/dl) MCV (fl) MCH (pg) %BCB %HbH
Table 12.6 Haematological and clinical data on patients with ATMDS.
N/A
N/A 0.53 N/A
0.29
0.66
N/A 0.43 0.09 0.09
0.67 N/A N/A 0.1
0.05
N/A N/A
0.39
N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.07
N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.13
N/A
N/A N/A N/A N/A
46XY
46XY 46XY
46XX
46XY
46XY
46XY 46XY
a/b Ratio Karyotype
Myelodysplasia Sideroblastic anaemia Sideroblastic anaemia post AML Sideroblastic anaemia
Erythroleukaemia Erythroleukaemia Erythroleukaemia Atypical haemolytic anaemia Atypical haemolytic anaemia Atypical CML AML Erythroleukaemia Erythroleukaemia Myeloproliferative disorder Erythroleukaemia Erythroleukaemia Sideroblastic anaemia Sideroblastic anaemia Myeloproliferative disorder Myeloproliferative disorder Sideroblastic anaemia Myelodysplasia (RAEB) Myeloproliferative disorder AML Myelofibrosis Myelofibrosis Myeloproliferative disorder ALL Sideroblastic anaemia Myelofibrosis Myeloproliferative disorder Myeloproliferative disorder Sideroblastic anaemia
Diagnosis
D.R. Higgs, unpublished
Kueh (1982) Massa et al. (1987) Higgs et al. (1983b) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (JP) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (AC) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (RC) D.R. Higgs, unpublished D.R. Higgs, unpublished D.R. Higgs, unpublished
Tanaka et al. (1979) Dash & Dash (1980) Nakatsuji et al. (1980) Yoo et al. (1980)
Veer et al. (1979)
Villegas et al. (1979) Villegas et al. (1979)
Lindsey et al. (1978)
Andre et al. (1972) Beaven et al. (1978) Boehme et al. (1978) Boehme et al. (1978) Weatherall et al. (1978)
White et al. (1960) White et al. (1960) White et al. (1960) Bergren & Sturgeon (1960) Bergren & Sturgeon (1960) Beaven et al. (1963) Labie et al. (1968) Rosenzweig et al. (1968) Rosenzweig et al. (1968) Hamilton et al. (1971)
Reference
M M M M
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
64 56 74 76
37 38 39 40
41 87
42 72
43 68
44 63
45 60
46 72
47 63
48 73
49 57
50 78
51 60
52 78
53 75
54 83
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA OR CA CA
OR CA
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
+
–
+
–
–
– +
– –
8.5 2.15
11.0
7.9
11.9
10.3
12.2
9.7
8.9
9.0
6.9
5.6
5.2
8.9
11.9
8.2
9.2 6.0 8.2 9.3
8.9 8.4 7.3
75 11
69
73
79
70
85
76
67
65
80
67
N/A
91
59
80
76 78 69 84
78 98 59
22 5
19
23
23
23
29
23
N/A
18
24
10
N/A
29
17
26
22 24 21 29
N/A N/A 18
38 27
75
42
25
4
30
25
N/A
N/A
48
35
20
6
40
20
N/A N/A 64 1
N/A 34 70
15 14
38
15
15
N/A
2
23
1
3
8
9
3
N/A
17
N/A
1 N/A 3 N/A
33 2 27
0.28 0.22
0.09
N/A
0.13
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.09
0.18
N/A
0.6
0.09
0.62
N/A N/A N/A 0.47
0.15 N/A 0.18
46XY
46XY
46XY
47XY del20 +8 46XY
46XY
46XY 46XY20q-
46XY
Myelodysplasia (RAEB) Myelodysplasia (RAEB) Myelodysplasia (RAEB)
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (CMML) Myelodysplasia
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (RA)
Essential thrombocythaemia Myelodysplasia (RA)
Myelodysplasia (RA) Sideroblastic anaemia Myelodysplasia (RAEBT) Myelodysplasia (RA) Refractory anaemia Erythroleukaemia Myelodysplasia
Average SD
Abbondanzo et al. (1988) Yoshida et al. (1990) Bürgi et al. (1992) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (CS) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (MG) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (DW) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (CW) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (DB) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (JP) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (JS) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (WW) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (EP) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (GL) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (AS) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (LF) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (HW) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (FC) D.R. Higgs, unpublished (AK)
Anagnou et al. (1983) Tokuda et al. (1984) Annino et al. (1984)
M, males; F, females. Ethnicity: CA, Caucasian; IN,Asian Indian; IT, Italian; LE, Lebanese; OR, Oriental; SP, Spanish. Splenomegaly was either present (+), absent (–) or not recorded. ALL, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia; AML, acute myeloid leukaemia; CML, chronic myeloid leukaemia; CMML, chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia; N/A, not available; RA, refractory anaemia; RAEB, refractory anaemia with excess blasts. These data were compiled by C. F. Craddock (Craddock 1994).
66 14
M M M
34 72 35 29 36 75
546
Chapter 12 40
Table 12.6 summarizes the findings in 54 patients with ATMDS, including all cases so far described together with 22 previously unpublished cases studied in our laboratory. The patients are predominantly males (50/54) with a mean age of 66 years at presentation. It is of interest that two of the four females had an atypical underlying haematological disease: one had acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (Kueh 1982); another, (no. 41), developed MDS after treatment for essential thrombocythaemia, whereas most patients with this syndrome have primary MDS. The predominant clinical features, which are those associated with myelodysplasia, include symptoms of anaemia, an increased proneness to infection, and bleeding due to thrombocytopenia. Some of these patients have high levels of HbH and, as discussed in Chapter 11, may show symptoms of anaemia at relatively high haemoglobin values. About 30% of patients have splenomegaly. Most of them eventually develop acute myeloid leukaemia or refractory cytopenias, as would be expected in a group of patients with MDS. Haematological findings Patients are always anaemic at presentation; the mean haematological values for the cases reported in Table 12.6 are: haemoglobin 8.5 g/dl; red-cell count 4.3 ¥ 1012 /1; MCH 22 pg; and MCV 75 fl. These abnormalities are even more striking when compared with a control population of patients with MDS (Dr D. Oscier, personal communication), who tend to have slightly high MCH values, approximately 31 pg, at presentation (Fig. 12.10).The red-cell diameter width (RDW) was increased in all patients studied, with a mean value of 29.1 microns (normal range 6.7–7.7 microns). These findings are reflected in the red-cell morphology (Fig. 12.11). The red cells are hypochromic and microcytic and in many cases there is marked anisopoikilocytosis. In some it appears that there are at least two populations of cells, one quite well haemoglobinized and another with ‘ghost cells’ containing very little haemoglobin (Fig. 12.11).
MCH (pg)
Clinical features
30
20
ATMDS
Normal
MDS
Fig. 12.10 The MCH values in patients with ATMDS, normal individuals and a group of patients with myelodysplasia (MDS).The mean is shown as a thick horizontal bar. 1 SD (ATMDS and MDS) or 2 SD (normal) values are shown as thin vertical lines.
Haemoglobin analysis All patients with ATMDS have detectable amounts of HbH in the peripheral blood at some stage in the disease, the recorded levels at presentation ranging between 1 and 57% (mean 15%). Often it is not possible to obtain accurate estimations because of previous blood transfusion. In some, trace amounts of Hb Bart’s have been found. In the presence of these highaffinity haemoglobins the whole-blood oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to the left (Weatherall et al. 1978) (Fig. 12.12). At presentation, the proportion of red cells containing HbH inclusions after incubation with brilliant cresyl blue varies between 0.5 and 93% (mean 38%). Like the a-/b-globin synthesis ratios, the proportions of HbH and cells containing HbH inclusions vary during the course of the illness. a-/b-Globin RNA and synthesis ratios The ratio of a- to b-globin mRNA in the peripheral blood was extremely low in the case illustrated in Fig. 12.12 (Weatherall et al. 1978) and was severely reduced in three other cases studied by us (0.06–0.50) (Higgs et al. 1983b). The a-/b-globin synthesis ratio was similarly reduced (mean 0.28, range 0.05–0.67) in all 22 patients in which it has been reported. In the most severely affected individuals a-chain synthesis was almost abolished (Fig. 12.13).The a-/b-chain synthesis ratio may vary quite considerably during the course of the disease (Higgs et al. 1983b).
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia
547
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Fig. 12.11 Peripheral blood film (a) and peripheral blood stained with brilliant cresyl blue (b) from a patient with ATMDS and an a-/b-chain biosynthesis ratio of less than 0.1. Bone-marrow samples from the same patient (c,d) show erythroid expansion with dyserythropoietic features including binuclearity and cytoplasmic vacuolation.The neutrophils appear hypogranular.
Cellular and molecular basis Some patients with this condition have less than 10% of the normal levels of a-globin mRNA and a-globin synthesis (see Table 12.6 and Fig. 12.13). The values are lower than those encountered in patients with one functional a-globin gene (– –/–a), implying that all four a genes are downregulated. In the case illustrated in Fig. 12.13, cDNAa hybridization to DNA
obtained from an erythroid bone-marrow sample showed no evidence for a loss of a-globin genes (Old et al. 1977). Structural analysis of the a-globin genes and ~130 kb of their flanking regions on chromosome 16p has revealed no abnormalities in severely affected patients (Higgs et al. 1983b; Craddock 1994). Furthermore, provisional analysis of the pattern of methylation appears normal (Anagnou et al. 1983; Craddock 1994). Although we have not excluded
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Chapter 12
+ 3000
Protein profile Radioactivity labelled α and β chains
cpm 10.5 ml
HbH
HbA
2000
0.5 0.4 0.3
1000 0.2
HbA2
0.1
Ca.B 20
Origin -
(a) 100
Per cent saturation
80
60
40
0 (b)
Normal pH 7.4 pH 7.1 pH 7.4 20
40 60 pO2 mm Hg
40 50 Fraction number
60
70
Fig. 12.13 Separation of radioactively labelled a and b chains (o-o) from a patient with ATMDS.The conditions are as solid in Chapter 5.The protein profile is shown as a solid line.The study shows a severely reduced level of achain synthesis (the a-globin peak is around fraction 58).
Hb–O2 dissociation curve 5/12/75
20
30
80
100
Fig. 12.12 Haemoglobin constitution and function in acquired haemoglobin H disease. (a) Haemoglobin electrophoresis (starch gel, pH 8.5, amido black stain) showing about 40% HbH. (b) Oxygen dissociation curve of whole blood showing marked shift to left.The patient was an 81-year-old male with a myeloproliferative disorder that terminated in leukaemia. From Weatherall et al. (1978).
small rearrangements or single nucleotide changes, the presence of two cis-acting mutations seems a very unlikely basis for ATMDS. It is more likely therefore that the a genes are downregulated by a trans-acting mutation, either in a factor that normally controls agene expression or in a gene that exerts a dominant negative effect. It is possible that in the ATMDS clone there is trans-acting defect that completely abolishes a-gene expression. The very low levels of a mRNA and achain synthesis (Fig. 12.13) might be the product of a small number of normal haematopoietic clone(s) or MDS clone(s) unaffected by the a-thalassaemia mutation. Clonal evolution in this situation would explain the variations in HbH and a-/b-globin synthesis observed during the course of the disease. Alternatively, the ATMDS mutation might cause variable downregulation of a-globin expression in all cells within a single MDS clone. This would provide a less satisfactory explanation for changes in HbH and globin synthesis during progression of the disease. At present we are unable to distinguish between these two possibilities.
a Thalassaemia with mental retardation or myelodysplasia This issue is of importance in designing further experiments to analyse ATMDS. For example, Helder and Deisseroth (1987) made interspecific hybrids between bone marrow from ATMDS patients and APRT-deficient mouse erythroleukaemia (MEL) cells. After selection, such hybrids retained human chromosome 16 derived from the ATMDS patient and it directed normal levels of human a-globin synthesis. While this might provide further evidence that ATMDS results from a trans-acting mutation, the interpretation critically depends on whether the human cell that originally fused with the MEL cell could have been from an unaffected clone. The problem now is to localize and ultimately identify the acquired trans-acting abnormality in ATMDS. This would be of great importance to our understanding of a-gene regulation and might also elucidate the molecular pathway to clonal evolution in MDS. Are there any clues to help this search? One of the most striking features of ATMDS is the marked male sex bias not seen in previous studies of MDS (Juneja et al. 1983; Noël et al. 1993). Superficially, this might suggest involvement of the X chromosome, with only one somatic mutation required to create a null mutation in XY males. However, this
549
argument also applies to females because, in each haemopoietic stem cell, one X chromosome is inactivated by Lyonization. It is interesting that another acquired clonal haematopoietic disorder, paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria, results from mutations in an X-linked gene and this occurs with equal frequency in males and females. The X-chromosome hypothesis might apply to a gene which escapes X inactivation, so that females have two active copies, and is not present on the Y chromosome, or if there were a high frequency of Y-chromosome loss in the MDS clones. In the absence of any lead of this kind we are left to search for non-random chromosome abnormalities. To date no consistent chromosome abnormalities have been found in the four ATMDS patients studied in this way. Finally, are there any candidate genes? It would be expected that the general erythroid transcription factors, GATA-1 and NF-E2 for example, would affect a- and b-globin expression equally. However, the ATR-X gene (see earlier) encodes a putative transcriptional regulator that specifically affects a-globin expression. To date, provisional analysis of this gene in several patients has detected no abnormality.
Chapter 13 Thalassaemia intermedia
Introduction In Chapter 7 we described how the heterozygous states for the b thalassaemias are characterized by a fairly homogeneous clinical and haematological picture. In particular, there is only a mild degree of anaemia, the spleen is not usually palpable, there is no jaundice, and either there is a normal level of HbF or it is only minimally raised. On the other hand, the transfusion-dependent homozygous or compound heterozygous forms of b thalassaemia are associated with severe anaemia, icterus, splenomegaly and relatively high levels of HbF. However, it has been quite clear since the studies of the Italian workers, Greppi, Rietti and Micheli, in the mid-1920s, that there are forms of thalassaemia of intermediate severity which do not resemble what were later recognized as the heterozygous or homozygous forms of the illness. La Malattia di Rietti–Greppi–Micheli (see Chapter 1) was characterized by moderate anaemia, jaundice and splenomegaly, a condition much more severe than heterozygous b thalassaemia. Interestingly, Wintrobe’s first description of a milder form of thalassaemia in the USA was an intermediate form of the illness of this kind (Wintrobe et al. 1940). In Marmont and Bianchi’s extensive review of the early Italian literature, published in 1948, they point out that there are many patients in Italy with Mediterranean anaemia of intermediate severity. Similarly, in their summary of the Italian literature Chini and Valeri (1949) point out that many of the early case reports describe patients with moderately severe anaemia and splenomegaly, a condition which they call the anaemic form of the ‘Mediterranean haematologic disorder’. Extensive studies of this type of thalassaemia were carried out in the late 1940s by Silvestroni and Bianco, who used the descriptive term ‘anaemia microcitica costituzionale’ (Silvestroni & Bianco 1944–45, 1945, 1948, 1951; Bianco et al. 1952). Their papers include many descriptions of patients with thalassaemia with varying degrees of anaemia 550
and splenomegaly; in retrospect it seems likely that many of these cases represented what was later to be called b thalassaemia intermedia. In the American and British literature the term ‘thalassaemia intermedia’ has been used to describe the clinical and haematological findings in patients whose illness is not as severe as thalassaemia major but which is more severe than the carrier state (Sturgeon et al. 1955). Over the last 20 years it has become apparent that this clinical picture can result from the interaction of many different thalassaemia alleles, one with another or with those for structural haemoglobin variants. Hence, the term is simply a useful descriptive title for a particular clinical phenotype and has no clear-cut genetic meaning. However, because we are still not at the stage at which we can always describe precisely the genetic interactions which can produce this clinical picture, it seems useful to retain the term. Because the intermediate forms of thalassaemia are extremely common, and because their pathophysiology and clinical manifestations have been neglected over the years, we have devoted this chapter to summarizing the genetic interactions which can produce this condition, its main features and complications, and what little is known about its pathophysiology and natural history. As will be apparent from Table 13.1, which shows the known genetic interactions which can underlie this form of thalassaemia, many of the conditions that comprise this syndrome are described elsewhere in this book. Hence, this chapter will focus on the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia which, globally, after HbE b thalassaemia are by far the most important and challenging varieties of the condition. Over recent years several groups have reviewed different aspects of this field (Wainscoat et al. 1987; Fiorelli et al. 1988; Cao et al. 1990; Camaschella & Cappellini 1995;Weatherall & Clegg 1996; Rund et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a).
Thalassaemia intermedia
551
Table 13.1 Thalassaemia intermedia. 1
2
3
4
5
6
Mild deficit in b-globin production Homozygous mild b+ thalassaemia Compound heterozygosity for severe b0 or b+ and mild b+ thalassaemia Interactions of b0 with ‘silent’ or ‘mild’ b thalassaemia Homozygosity for ‘silent’ b thalassaemia Reduced globin imbalance due to co-inheritance of a and b thalassaemia Homozygous or compound heterozygous b0 or b+ thalassaemia with two or three a-gene deletions Homozygous or compound heterozygous severe b0 or b+ thalassaemia with non-deletion a2-gene mutation Homozygous or compound heterozygous severe b+ thalassaemia with one or two a-gene deletions Severe b thalassaemia with increased capacity for g-chain synthesis Homozygous or compound heterozygous b0 or b+ thalassaemia with heterocellular HPFH Homozygous or compound heterozygous b0 or b+ thalassaemia with particular b-globin RFLP haplotype Mechanism unknown Deletion forms of db thalassaemia and HPFH Homozygous (db)0 or (Agdb)0 thalassaemia Compound heterozygosity for b0 or b+ and (db)0 or (Agdb)0 thalassaemia Homozygosity for Hb Lepore (some cases) Compound heterozygosity for Hb Lepore and b0 or b+ thalassaemia (some forms) Compound heterozygosity for (db)0, Ggb+ or Agb+ HPFH and b0 or b+ thalassaemia Compound heterozygosity for (db)0 thalassaemia and (db)0 HPFH Compound heterozygosity for b or db thalassaemia and b-chain structural variants Hbs S/, C/, E/b or db thalassaemia Many other rare interactions Other b-thalassaemia alleles or interactions Dominant b thalassaemia b-Thalassaemia trait associated with aaa- or aaaa-gene arrangements Highly unstable b-globin chain variants
How is thalassaemia intermedia defined? There is no adequate definition of thalassaemia intermedia and it has an extraordinarily diverse clinical spectrum. As mentioned earlier, the haematological findings in heterozygous b thalassaemia are characterized by a mild degree of anaemia; splenomegaly is very much the exception. Hence, any patient with a haemoglobin level persistently below 9–10 g/dl, particularly if there is associated splenomegaly, falls into the intermediate class of b thalassaemias. It is at the more severe end of the spectrum that a genuine difficulty in definition arises. Some children go through early life with haemoglobin levels in the 5–6 g/dl range and manage to survive and develop, albeit poorly. Although they are often classified as having thalassaemia intermedia, particularly if they present relatively late, many of them have a miserable childhood and develop gross skeletal deformities. Thus most clinicians feel that they should receive blood transfusions to avoid these distressing
complications. Whether they should be classified as having severe thalassaemia intermedia or thalassaemia major is merely a question of semantics. However, some patients with b thalassaemia have haemoglobin values between 6 and 9 g/dl, and grow and develop reasonably well and reach adult life. Hence it is useful to retain the term ‘thalassaemia intermedia’ for this type of case. It should be remembered that a patient of this kind may become transfusion dependent if complications such as hypersplenism develop or if the anaemia is exacerbated by other factors such as folic acid deficiency, nutritional deficiency or intercurrent infection. Clearly, the term thalassaemia intermedia can cover a very broad and shifting clinical spectrum, from almost complete health to a condition characterized by severe growth retardation and skeletal deformity requiring transfusion therapy; it is a descriptive diagnosis that can be made only after a considerable period of observation and which often requires revision. We shall return to this problem in Chapter 15.
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Genetic mechanisms responsible for the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia As shown in Table 13.1 there are many different interactions and mutations that can give rise to the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia. Here we focus on those in which either both or at least one of the thalassaemia alleles involves the b-globin-gene locus. Conditions which produce a similar clinical picture, the db thalassaemias and their interactions, and the interactions of b thalassaemia with structural haemoglobin variants for example, are described in Chapters 8 and 9.
The interactions of silent or mild b-thalassaemia alleles In the current thalassaemia literature it is customary to divide the mild b-thalassaemia alleles, which can interact one with another or with more severe alleles to produce thalassaemia intermedia, into the ‘silent’ and ‘mild’ b+ thalassaemias. While useful in practice, this is a somewhat artificial classification. Although many of the so-called ‘silent’ alleles show no haematological changes in heterozygotes, if large numbers are studied it is apparent that at least some of them have slightly reduced mean cell volume (MCV) or mean cell haemoglobin (MCH) values, and slightly elevated HbA2 levels and a-/b-globin synthesis ratios. However, there is so much overlap with normal values that, for practical purposes, it is reasonable to classify these extremely mild alleles as ‘silent’, not in the least because, perhaps with the exception of the measurement of globin synthesis, they would not be identified by standard screening methods to detect b-thalassaemia heterozygotes. On the other hand the ‘mild’ b+-thalassaemia alleles have obvious changes in the red-cell indices and elevated HbA2 levels. Previously, the silent b thalassaemias have been classified as type 1 normal HbA2 b thalassaemias. Since we now understand the molecular pathology of many of these conditions, and it is clear that the forms of b thalassaemia with normal HbA2 levels with typical haematological features of b-thalassaemia trait, which constitute type 2, are usually compound heterozygotes for b and d thalassaemia, this classification has now outlived its usefulness.
Table 13.2 ‘Silent’ b-thalassaemia alleles. –92 CÆT –101 CÆT 5¢ UTR +10 –T 5¢ UTR +33 CÆG CAP +1 AÆC IVS2-844 CÆG 3¢ UTR +6 CÆG
Table 13.3 Mild b-thalassaemia alleles. –90 CÆT –88 CÆA –88 CÆT –87 CÆA –87 CÆG –87 CÆT –86 CÆG –31 AÆG –30 TÆA –30 TÆC –29 AÆG
–28 AÆG (mild in Blacks; severe in Chinese) 5¢ UTR +22 GÆA CD19 AÆG Malay CD24 TÆA CD26 GÆA HbE CD27 GÆT Knossos IVS1-6 TÆC ?3¢ UTR 47 CÆG Poly(A) AATAAAÆAACAAA Poly(A) AATAAAÆAATUAA Poly(A) AATAAAÆAATAGA Poly(A) AATAAAÆAATAAC
One of the problems in characterizing these mild forms of b thalassaemia is that many of them have only been recorded as a single case report, usually as part of an interaction with a more severe form of b thalassaemia. The reported mutations that underlie silent and mild forms of b thalassaemia are summarized in Tables 13.2 and 13.3. In the sections that follow we shall review what is known of the phenotypes and interactions for those varieties in which there has been sufficient experience to provide a reasonably reliable picture of the clinical findings in heterozygotes and their various interactions with more severe b-thalassaemia alleles (Table 13.4). Interactions of silent b thalassaemias As mentioned earlier, the term ‘silent’ b thalassaemia is a misnomer. In the few large series that have been reported, heterozygotes have, on average, mild abnormalities of the red-cell indices and/or HbA2 levels, and imbalanced a-/b-globin synthesis ratios. However, these changes are so small and variable that in any individual case it is quite possible for a carrier to have no significant abnormalities.
Mutation
MTI
MTI
MTI MTI MTI TI MTI
TI
TI
–92 CÆT
STI
TI
–88 CÆT
STI
–87 GÆG
TI
TI
–87 CÆT
* HbE interactions are described in Chapter 9.
CD8 –AA CD8/9 +G CD15 GÆA IVS1-1 GÆA IVS1-5 GÆC IVS1-5 GÆT IVS1-110 GÆA CD36/37 –T CD39 CÆT CD41 –C CD41/42 –TTCT CD44 –C IVS2-1 GÆA IVS2-654 CÆT IVS2-745 CÆG IVS2-748 CÆA IVS2-849 AÆG
–101 CÆT
?TI
–86 –30 CÆA TÆC
TI
MTI
MTI
STI
5¢ UTR –29 5¢ UTR +22 AÆG +10 –T GÆA
MTI
MTI
TI
5¢ UTR +33 CÆG
MTI/STI
TI TI TI/STI
CAP +1 AÆC
CD19 AÆG
TI
TI
TI
TI
STI MTI
STI
STI
TI
MTI
STI
IVS2CD26 CD27 IVS1-6 844 b term+6 GÆA* GÆT TÆC CÆG CÆG
STI
AATAAA AATAAA AATAAA Ø Ø Ø AATAAG AACAAA A—AAA
Table 13.4 Some interactions of silent, mild and severe b-thalassaemia alleles as the basis for thalassaemia intermedia (TI).Where data are available the severity is classified as mild (MTI) or severe (STI).TI indicates a variable phenotype, or insufficient information. Data from Huisman et al. (1997), Ho et al. (1998a) and references cited in text.
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These alleles are so mild that, in the rare cases where homozygotes have been encountered, the condition may be little more severe than b-thalassaemia trait. However, when they are inherited together with severe b-thalassaemia alleles the resulting clinical picture may be one of b thalassaemia intermedia of varying severity. Thus the usual clinical setting in which they are encountered is a family in which there is a patient with b thalassaemia intermedia, one of whose parents appears at first sight to be haematologically normal.
b CAP +1 AÆC This mutation was first observed in an Asian Indian homozygote who had the clinical phenotype of bthalassaemia trait (Wong et al. 1987). The heterozygous phenotype is completely silent but interactions with different b-thalassaemia alleles produce the clinical phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia of varying severity (Ho et al. 1998a). For example, although its interaction with b IVS1-5 GÆC produces mild to moderately severe forms, that with b CD41/42 –TTCT results in a severe variety.
b –101 CÆT This mutation, which occurs in the distal CACCC box, seems to downregulate globin-gene transcription very slightly (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1989a). It is fairly widespread among Mediterranean populations and in Israel and Turkey (Ristaldi et al. 1990a; Bianco et al. 1997a,c; Rund et al. 1997). Bianco and her colleagues have presented detailed haematological and haemoglobin synthetic data on a large series of heterozygotes who, in addition, were all shown not to have deletional forms of a thalassaemia. About a third of them had completely normal haematological findings and haemoglobin analyses, whereas the remainder had either a very slightly reduced MCH, a marginally elevated HbA2 in the 3.2–3.5% range, or slight globin imbalance, with a/b ratios of approximately 1.2–1.3. Similar data are reported by Maragoudaki et al. (1999). The homozygous state has not been characterized. The compound heterozygous states with a variety of different severe b-thalassaemia alleles have been reported. These include: CD39 CÆT; IVS1-110 GÆA; IVS1-1 GÆA; IVS2-745 CÆG; CD44 –C; CD36/37 –T; IVS1-5 GÆT; and others (Ristaldi et al. 1990a; Bianco et al. 1997c; Rund et al. 1997). Without exception they result in an extremely mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia with steady-state haemoglobin values in the 9–12 g/dl range, a marked reduction in the MCV and MCH, elevated HbA2 levels in the 4.5–6.0% range, HbF values ranging from 10 to 45% with the majority in the 10–20% range, and a-/b+gglobin synthesis ratios of approximately the same magnitude as those of b-thalassaemia heterozygotes. Approximately two-thirds of these patients had very mild splenomegaly, palpable 2–3 cm below the costal margin.
b 5¢-Untranslated region (UTR) +10 (–T) This mutation seems to be completely silent in heterozygotes, while the compound heterozygous state with the allele b CD39 CÆT is characterized by a mild form of thalassaemia intermedia, with a haemoglobin level of approximately 9.0 g/dl, HbA2 4.8%, HbF 5.8% and imbalanced globin synthesis (Athanassiadou et al. 1994). b CAP +33 CÆG This variant is almost silent in the heterozygous state although the HbA2 level may be slightly elevated and the a-/b-globin synthesis ratio varies from 1.5 to 1.8 (Ho et al. 1996c). It has been reported in the compound heterozygous state with several bthalassaemia alleles, including IVS1-1 GÆA and IVS1-110 GÆA (Ho et al. 1996c; Traeger-Synodinos et al. 1996). Overall, these interactions are extremely mild, with haemoglobin values ranging from 7 to almost 12 g/dl, hypochromic red cells, elevated HbA2 levels in the 5–7% range, but only slightly elevated HbF values, in the 1–4% range. There is clearly demonstrable globin imbalance. As expected, these interactions appear to be more severe with b0thalassaemia alleles. IVS2-844 CÆG This allele was first described in an Italian family in a patient with an extremely mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia in which the other b-globin allele appeared to be normal (Murru et al. 1991). Heterozygotes show no abnormalities, while homozygotes have the haematological and haemoglobin characteristics of b-thalassaemia trait (Rosatelli et al. 1994). It
Thalassaemia intermedia has been observed in interactions with the splice mutation b IVS2-745 CÆG, resulting in a mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia (Rosatelli et al. 1994), or with b0-thalassaemia alleles, resulting in a variable phenotype ranging from severe to extremely mild b thalassaemia intermedia (Bianco et al. 1997c). b Termination codon +6 CÆG This mutation seems to be completely silent in heterozygotes but the a-/b-globin synthesis ratio ranges from 1.2 to 1.9 (Jankovic et al. 1991; Maragoudaki et al. 1998). It has been observed in a compound heterozygote for the b allele IVS1-1 GÆA, with the clinical picture of a moderately severe thalassaemia intermedia, a haemoglobin level of 7.7 g/dl, and HbA2 and HbF levels of 4.7 and 10.0%, respectively. This patient had an occasional requirement for blood transfusion and had mild thalassaemic bone changes. However, other reports of interactions with b0- or b+thalassaemia alleles all described mild forms of b thalassaemia intermedia (Maragoudaki et al. 1998). From such data as are available, therefore, it appears that the interactions of these silent forms of b thalassaemia with more severe b-thalassaemia alleles always give rise to the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia. Overall, it can be expected to be a relatively mild form although, particularly in the case of co-inheritance with b0-thalassaemia alleles, the interaction may occasionally result in a disorder at the more severe end of the spectrum. Interactions of mild b-thalassaemia alleles As shown in Table 13.3 numerous mild b-thalassaemia alleles have been identified. However, in many cases there are very few published data about their haematological characteristics or about the results of their interactions with other b-thalassaemia alleles. b –88 CÆT This mutation, which decreases the rate of transcription of the b-globin gene, probably because of decreased binding by transcription factors, is relatively common among Africans and Afro-Americans (Orkin et al. 1984a; Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a). Its heterozygous phenotype is typical of bthalassaemia trait, although compared with more severe b-thalassaemia alleles the MCH, within the
555
range 23–25 pg, is higher. The homozygous condition is characterized by a relatively mild form of thalassaemia intermedia, with haemoglobin values in the range 9.8–12.3 g/dl, HbA2 values in the 4–8% range, and surprisingly high levels of HbF for the mild degree of globin imbalance, in the range 40–72%.The high HbA2 and F values may reflect the inadequate binding of transcription factors to the b-globin-gene promoters, thus freeing them for interaction with the g and d promoters; this concept is strengthened by the observation that heterozygotes for this condition appear to have significantly higher levels of HbA2 than those for more severe b-thalassaemia alleles. This allele is also found on a chromosome with the CÆT change (Xmn I polymorphism) at Gg –158, which also may contribute to the high HbF response to a mild form of b thalassaemia (see Chapter 10). Its interactions with Hbs S and C is described in Chapter 9; its mildness is further underlined by the relatively high level of HbA in these compound heterozygotes. There have been a few descriptions of the interaction of this allele with other b-thalassaemia alleles in African or Afro-American populations. In the compound heterozygous state with the other common promoter allele in this ethnic group, b –29 AÆG, the phenotype was extremely mild, with a haemoglobin value of 13.3 g/dl, thalassaemic red-cell indices, 7.4% HbA2 and 57% HbF (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a). b –87 CÆG This condition has been observed mainly in Mediterranean populations, notably in Italy and Turkey. It also seems to result in less effective binding of transcription factors to the b-globin gene (Treisman et al. 1983). The heterozygous phenotype is a typical bthalassaemia trait, although both the MCV and the MCH appear to overlap with normal values in some cases. The HbA2 level is in the 4.2–4.5% range, but unfortunately there are insufficient published data to determine whether the HbF is significantly higher than usually found in heterozygotes. The homozygous state was described in a short report by Camaschella et al. (1990a). The patient was a 62-year-old male with normal development, mild jaundice and ‘moderate’ splenomegaly. The skull X-ray was normal. The haemoglobin level was 7.4 g/dl and there was marked hypochromia and microcytosis; the HbA2 level was 5% and the HbF level 65%. Another
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homozygote is mentioned by Diaz-Chico et al. (1988b); the patient’s condition is described as being ‘mild’, with no transfusion requirements and an HbF value of 31%; no other clinical details are given. This mutation has been observed in the compound heterozygous state with several different bthalassaemia alleles, such as CD39 CÆT (Rosatelli et al. 1989; Meloni et al. 1992) and IVS1-110 GÆA (Meloni et al. 1992; Ho et al. 1998a). The best characterized of these interactions are with the codon 39 nonsense mutation (Rosatelli et al. 1989). These patients have thalassaemia intermedia with steadystate haemoglobin levels of about 10 g/dl and a remarkably wide variation in fetal haemoglobin values, in the range 25–80%; some have thalassaemic bone changes and most have mild to moderate splenomegaly. They have received sporadic transfusions, usually associated with intercurrent illness. b –87 CÆT The compound heterozygous state for this mutation and the b-thalassaemia allele IVS1-110 GÆA was reported by Kulozik et al. (1991b). The patient was a 20-year-old male of German/Italian descent who appeared to have a moderately severe form of b thalassaemia intermedia, as evidenced by marked hepatosplenomegaly and bone changes despite his steady-state haemoglobin level of approximately 9 g/dl. Haemoglobin analysis showed an HbF level of 62.5% and an elevated HbA2 at 5.1%. His mother, who was the carrier of the –87 CÆT mutation, was not anaemic and although her red cells were said to be slightly hypochromic and microcytic the MCV was 86 fl while the MCH was 26 pg. She did however, show an elevated HbA2 of 5.5% and a slightly elevated HbF at 3.4%.Thus the findings in this patient are very similar to those described above for the interactions of the b –87 CÆG mutation with the IVS1-110 GÆA allele. b –31 AÆG An individual homozygous for this mutation has been reported in a Japanese family (Takihara et al. 1986). The heterozygous phenotype is a typical bthalassaemia trait.The homozygote has a moderately severe form of thalassaemia intermedia with a steadystate haemoglobin level of 7.2 g/dl, red cells with marked microcytosis and hypochromia, an HbA2 value of 5.9% and an HbF level of 14%. No interac-
tions with other thalassaemia alleles have been observed. b –30 TÆA This mutation has been found in Turkish, Macedonian and Tunisian families (Fei et al. 1988b; Fattoum et al. 1991). Heterozygotes have typical b-thalassaemia trait. Homozygotes show a mild form of thalassaemia intermedia, with steady-state haemoglobin levels in the 10.0 g/dl range, moderate hypochromia and microcytosis, HbA2 levels of approximately 4%, and HbF levels of 12–14%. These patients have not required blood transfusion. No interactions with other b-thalassaemia alleles have been reported. b –29 AÆG This is the most common b-thalassaemia mutation in Africans and Afro-Americans. It has been observed in the homozygous state and in the compound heterozygous state together with Hbs S, C, O Arab and N Baltimore (see Chapter 9). Heterozygotes show changes typical of the b-thalassaemia trait, with relatively high HbA2 levels and HbF values which are slightly higher than those of many b-thalassaemia alleles (see Chapter 7). Homozygotes are, by and large, asymptomatic or become anaemic during periods of stress such as intercurrent infection or pregnancy. None have been transfusion dependent, although some show evidence of progressive iron loading (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a,b; Safaya et al. 1989). Their steady-state haemoglobin levels are between 10 and 12 g/dl, their blood films show moderate microcytosis and hypochromia, and they all have elevated HbA2 levels, ranging from 3 to 10%, and HbF values in the 50–70% range, with an occasional exception in the 10–15% range (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a).The reasons for the unusually high HbA2 and F values are probably similar to those which we discussed earlier for the –88 CÆT allele. Because the –29 AÆG allele is so common in Afro-American populations there have been some opportunities to study its interactions with other bthalassaemia alleles. Several cases of the compound heterozygous state with b CD24 TÆA have been reported (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a). There is very little information about the codon 24 mutation but its interaction with this allele produces a fairly mild form of thalassaemia intermedia, with haemo-
Thalassaemia intermedia globin values ranging from 9 to 13.5 g/dl, typical thalassaemic blood changes, HbA2 values in the 2.6–9.3% range and HbF values in the 24–67% range. These findings suggest that the codon 24 splice mutation may itself be a relatively mild form of b thalassaemia. There is a single case report of compound heterozygosity for this allele and b IVS2-848 CÆA, which probably diminishes splicing at the adjacent invariant AG dinucleotide, though not completely. This 48-year-old female was found to have a more severe form of thalassaemia intermedia, with a haemoglobin value of 5.8 g/dl and thalassaemic redcell changes. Surprisingly, the MCV was 97 fl and the MCH 25 pg. The HbA2 and HbF values were 4.0 and 74.0%, respectively. Very little is known about the IVS2-848 CÆA allele, but this interaction suggests that it causes a severe form of b+ thalassaemia. The b –29 AÆG allele has also been observed in a single Chinese homozygote with severe, transfusiondependent thalassaemia major (Huang et al. 1986). It has been suggested that the different phenotype from that observed in black populations may reflect the fact that, in the latter, the mutation is on a chromosome carrying the Xmn I Gg polymorphism while this was not the case in the Chinese patient. It is not clear whether this major phenotypic difference between the two populations can be explained solely by the presence or absence of this particular polymorphism. As we shall see later in this chapter, homozygosity for the Xmn I Gg polymorphism has been implicated in some mild phenotypes associated with b0 thalassaemia. Hence this suggestion is not entirely improbable; further information about the phenotypic expression of these mild b-thalassaemia alleles in different chromosomal settings is needed before this question can be answered with certainty. b Codon 19 AACÆAGC; b19 AsnÆSer, Hb Malay This substitution, as well as leading to the production of a neutrally charged haemoglobin variant, creates an alternative splice site between codons 17 and 18 and hence decreases the efficiency of the normal donor site at IVS1. It is found mainly in south-east Asians of Malaysian origin. The heterozygous state is characterized by a typical b-thalassaemia trait, although the red-cell indices tend to be higher than those associated with more severe b-thalassaemia alleles. The haematological findings are as follows: haemoglobin 12–16 g/dl; MCV 66–79 fl; MCH 22–
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26 pg; HbA2 3.3–3.8%; HbF not elevated. Homozygotes have a mild form of thalassaemia intermedia characterized by splenomegaly, haemoglobin levels in the 8.5–9 g/dl range, extremely hypochromic, microcytic red cells, HbA2 levels of 5–7% and HbF values of 10–25% (Yang et al. 1989;Thein et al. 1990b). The mild forms of b thalassaemia intermedia that result from the interaction of this variant with HbE are described in Chapter 9. b Codon 26 (GAGÆAAG; b 26 GluÆLys, HbE) The mild thalassaemias associated with the heterozygous and homozygous states for HbE, and the varieties of thalassaemia intermedia which result from its interaction with severe b-thalassaemia alleles, are described in detail in Chapter 9. b Codon 27 (GCCÆTCC; b27 AlaÆSer, Hb Knossos) This form of silent b thalassaemia results from two different mutations. First, a codon 27 change activates an alternative splice site, resulting in a slight reduction in the quantity of normal b-globin messenger RNA. In addition, however, the d-globin gene in cis has a deletion of a single A in codon 59,leading to premature termination at codon 60, i.e. d0 thalassaemia (Fessas et al. 1981; Arous et al. 1983; Orkin et al. 1984b; Olds et al. 1991). The d0/bKnossos allele appears to be widespread in the Mediterranean and adjacent regions. The heterozygous state is associated with slightly reduced MCH and MCV values, a low or low-normal HbA2 level, and no increase in HbF. Globin synthesis is balanced.The homozygous state is characterized by mild anaemia, with haemoglobin values in the 9– 12 g/dl range, hypochromia and microcytosis with significantly reduced MCV and MCH values, the absence of HbA2 and, in some cases, a slight elevation of HbF, in the 2–4% range. There is imbalanced globin synthesis, with a/b ratios in the 1.5–2.5 range. In one of the reported cases the tip of the spleen was just palpable but in others there has been no detectable splenomegaly or any other clinical features of thalassaemia (Baklouti et al. 1986; Olds et al. 1991). The Hb Knossos allele has been found in the compound heterozygous state with several more severe b-thalassaemia alleles, including IVS1-6 TÆC, codon 8 –AA, IVS1-110 GÆA, IVS1-1 GÆA and IVS2-1 GÆA (Arous et al. 1983; Galacteros et al. 1984; Olds
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et al. 1991; Huisman et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a). All these interactions are associated with the clinical picture of a mild to moderate thalassaemia intermedia. In the case of the interaction with the IVS1-110 GÆA allele, the disorder has been severe enough to require occasional blood transfusion during intercurrent infection, and splenectomy. The haemoglobin level ranges between 7.5 and 9.5 g/dl, the red cells are markedly hypochromic and microcytic, and HbA2 values range from low normal to 8%. There is a similar broad range of HbF values, ranging from 3.5 to 40%. In the few cases for which globin synthesis data are available there appears to be marked imbalance, with a-/non-a-chain synthesis ratios in the 2–5 range. One sibship has been reported for a compound heterozygote for this allele and the b IVS1-110 GÆA allele (Ho et al. 1998a). Although both patients had thalassaemia intermedia there was a considerable phenotypic difference between them. One had never been transfused and had only mild splenomegaly and a steady-state haemoglobin of 8 g/dl; the other had much more marked splenomegaly and a lower steady-state haemoglobin and had required irregular transfusions over several years. Although the major phenotypic difference between these patients was the steady-state level of HbF there was no obvious genetic explanation for this finding. The interaction with the HbS allele is described in Chapter 9, and with Hb Lepore in Chapter 8. b IVS1-6 TÆC This splice mutation, sometimes called the Portuguese variant, is one of the commonest forms of mild b thalassaemia and is widespread among Mediterranean populations (Orkin et al. 1982a; Tamagnini et al. 1983; Wainscoat et al. 1983b). There have been extensive studies of the homozygous and heterozygous states and many examples of its interaction with different structural haemoglobin variants (Tamagnini et al. 1983; Öner et al. 1990; Scerri et al. 1993; Efremov et al. 1994a; Rund et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a). In the first description of homozygotes from Portugal they were reported to have a mild to moderate form of thalassaemia intermedia. Many of them had grown and developed normally and although they all had splenomegaly they had rarely required transfusion. These observations were confirmed in a later
study of 29 homozygotes from different ethnic groups (Efremov et al. 1994a); two-thirds had never been transfused and none had required regular transfusion. On the other hand, in a later report from Israel, Rund and her colleagues described a much more variable clinical phenotype (Rund et al. 1997). At one extreme nine patients had baseline haemoglobin levels as high at 10.6 g/dl, none had been splenectomized, and transfusion had either been rare or never been required. Although some had mild thalassaemic bone changes, many had gone through a normal puberty and were fertile. At the other extreme, however, there were nine patients with baseline haemoglobin values of 6–7 g/dl who were transfused either infrequently or regularly, even though they had undergone splenectomy. This group had growth retardation, pronounced bone changes and thalassaemic facies and absent puberty, and required chelation therapy for iron overload. Fifteen homozygotes were described as being of intermediate severity, with haemoglobin levels of 7–8 g/dl, which improved after splenectomy. There have also been reports of severely affected homozygotes from the Lebanon (Chehab et al. 1987). Efremov et al. (1994a) found that the only feature that could explain the phenotypic diversity was the steady-state HbF level, which, at least in part, could be related to different b-globin restriction-fragment-length polymorphism (RFLP) haplotypes. The steady-state haemoglobin levels in homozygotes range between 5 and 11 g/dl; there is always marked hypochromia and microcytosis. The HbA2 values are always elevated, in the 4–9% range; the HbF values, while usually in the 15–40% range, may also be much lower, between 5 and 10%. The heterozygous state for this mutation is characterized by findings typical of heterozygous b thalassaemia, with haemoglobin levels in the 11–13 g/dl range, reduced values for the MCH and MCV, elevated levels of HbA2 averaging approximately 4%, and only a slight elevation of HbF in some cases (Öner et al. 1990). Because this particular mutation is so common there have been many opportunities for studying its interaction with other b-thalassaemia alleles, particularly the more severe forms that are common to the Mediterranean region. Unfortunately, however, many of these reports do not give complete genotypic data, including the state of the a-globin genes, nor are there the kind of detailed clinical data that are
Thalassaemia intermedia required to provide an adequate picture of the natural history and severity of these important interactions. What is clear, however, is that they cover a remarkably broad clinical spectrum (Diaz-Chico et al. 1988b; Rund et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a). The most extensive published experience describes the interactions between this allele and the IVS1-110 GÆA and CD39 CÆT alleles. Other less common interactions between a wide variety of severe b-thalassaemia alleles are described by Rund et al. (1997) and Ho et al. (1998a). Overall, it appears that the interactions with b0-thalassaemia alleles are more severe and result in a picture at the most severe end of the spectrum of thalassaemia intermedia. On the other hand, interactions with b+-thalassaemia mutations are more varied in their phenotype, some of them being described as moderately severe, others mild. However, where the a-globin genes have been studied (Ho et al. 1998a), it is clear that the latter interactions are genuinely mild in those cases in which there is also a deletional form of a thalassaemia. Rund et al. (1997) also comment on the heterogeneity of these interactions and suggest that they may be further modified by the level of HbF production; in compound heterozygotes of this type there appears to be an inverse relationship between the steady-state level of HbF and the haemoglobin level. It is possible that some of this variability can be related to the presence of the Xmn I polymorphism –158 to the Gg gene; we shall return to this question later. Poly(A); AATAAAÆAACAAA A number of mutations involving the poly(A) addition site, which result in their inefficient cleavage and polyadenylation, have been reported (see Chapter 4). From what little is known about their phenotypic expression it appears that they are probably mild alleles. This particular mutation (Orkin et al. 1985; Altay et al. 1991) is associated with typical bthalassaemia trait in heterozygotes. Recently, a homozygote has been encountered (Dr J. Old, personal communication). This 35-year-old Indian had suffered no symptoms suggestive of thalassaemia and was found to have pallor and a moderate degree of splenomegaly but no skeletal abnormalities. His steady-state haemoglobin level was 7.3 g/dl with red cells showing marked hypochromia and microcytosis. The HbF and A2 values were 13.3 and 9.2%, respec-
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tively. The findings in his heterozygous relatives were indistinguishable from those of a typical bthalassaemia trait, with HbA2 levels of approximately 4%. When this allele is found in combination with the b0-thalassaemia allele, IVS2-1 GÆA, there is a moderately severe form of thalassaemia intermedia with steady-state haemoglobin levels ranging from 6.2 to 8.3 g/dl, hypochromic red cells, normal to slightly elevated HbA2 levels and HbF values between 30 and 50%. So far this mutation has been found in individuals of African and Turkish backgrounds (Altay et al. 1991). Poly(A); AATAAAÆAATAAG This mutation has been found in Kurdish Jewish families (Rund et al. 1990, 1991). It interacts with other mild b-thalassaemia alleles, –20 AÆC for example, to produce a very mild form of thalassaemia intermedia; none of these patients have required transfusion or splenectomy and they have minimal bone changes (Rund et al. 1997). On the other hand, a more severe phenotype is generated when this variant is inherited together with the b0-thalassaemia allele. Poly(A); AATAAAÆAATAGA This mutation, which has only been observed in Malaysia, is associated with an extremely mild interaction with HbE and therefore is probably a mild bthalassaemia allele (Jankovic et al. 1990b). No other interactions are reported. Poly(A); AATAAAÆAATGAA In heterozygotes this allele is associated with fairly typical thalassaemic red-cell indices and an HbA2 level ranging between 3.8 and 4.1%. In the compound heterozygous state with the CD29 CÆT bthalassaemia allele, it produces a mild form of thalassaemia intermedia (Jankovic et al. 1990b).
Interactions between a and b thalassaemia After the first report of a patient thought to be heterozygous for both a and b thalassaemia (Fessas 1961) there was considerable speculation about whether the clinical picture of severe b thalassaemia
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might be modified by the co-inheritance of different a-thalassaemia alleles. First, by the use of careful haematological studies, and later by the addition of globin synthesis analyses, it was possible to define a remarkably heterogeneous collection of clinical syndromes incorporating almost all the theoretical possibilities for different combinations of the a- and b-thalassaemia genes (Pearson 1966; Todd et al. 1967; Wasi et al. 1969; Kan & Nathan 1970; Knox-Macaulay et al. 1972; Bianco et al. 1973; Özsoylu et al. 1973; Shahid et al. 1974; Altay et al. 1977a; Bate & Humphries 1977; Loukopoulos et al. 1978; Musumeci et al. 1978; Furbetta et al. 1979; Weatherall et al. 1981b). Despite the difficulties in distinguishing between the different a-thalassaemia alleles by globin synthesis, it was still possible to obtain some valuable information about these interactions. In particular, it became clear that the severe homozygous or compound heterozygous states for b thalassaemia could be significantly ameliorated by the co-inheritance of one or more a-thalassaemia determinants (Kan & Nathan 1970; Musumeci et al. 1978; Weatherall et al. 1981b).Indeed,it became apparent that these remarkable experiments of nature were living proof, if such were needed by then, that the major pathophysiological factor in the generation of the b-thalassaemia phenotype is imbalanced globin synthesis. Once it became possible to analyse the a-globin genes directly, we were able to re-study some of these critical families and to show quite unequivocally that the interaction of either deletional or non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia has a beneficial effect on the clinical phenotype of severe b thalassaemia (Weatherall et al. 1981b). The next step was to try to determine the clinical importance of these interactions. This entailed comparing the a-globin genotypes of patients with thalassaemia major or thalassaemia intermedia in different ethnic groups (Furbetta et al. 1983; Wainscoat et al. 1983a,b; Winichagoon et al. 1985; Thein et al. 1988a; Galanello et al. 1989). Although in some of these studies the b-globin-gene mutations were not defined, overall, they showed that the inheritance of one or more a-thalassaemia alleles has an important effect in modifying the phenotype of severe b+ thalassaemia, though is less effective in ameliorating the b0 thalassaemias (Table 13.1). More recently, a different approach to this problem has been taken. In this case, detailed molecular
studies have been carried out in an attempt to define all the known variables involved in generating the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia. This has involved studies of the mutations at both the a- and b-globin-gene loci, together with attempts to exclude genetic factors that are involved in an unusually high level of fetal haemoglobin production in b thalassaemia. These extensive, time-consuming and often frustrating analyses have provided further information about the phenotypic effects of the interactions of a and b thalassaemia, although the numbers involved have been relatively small (Camaschella & Cappellini 1995; Rund et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a). It is these data, sporadic studies and the population analyses outlined above that form the basis for our current and rather limited knowledge about the phenotypic effects of these important interactions. Furthermore, it should be emphasized that, despite all this work, the number of examples for any particular genotype are still relatively small and therefore it is often very difficult to make clinically useful generalizations about the likely course of any particular combination of a and b thalassaemia. b-Thalassaemia trait modified by the co-existence of a thalassaemia Although these interactions do not result in any clinical disability they are important in the context of both thalassaemia intermedia and population screening for b thalassaemia. In particular, they provide a valuable indicator that there may be a-thalassaemia genes segregating within families with b thalassaemia, and hence that the homozygous and compound heterozygous phenotypes may be modified. Although there were hints in the literature prior to 1980 that the co-inheritance of a- and b-thalassaemia traits might alter the phenotype of the latter, it was only with the advent of globin-gene mapping that it became possible to study these interactions in detail and to determine the effects of different athalassaemia alleles on the phenotype of heterozygous b thalassaemia. In the first study of this type, Kanavakis et al. (1982) noted that the co-inheritance of b thalassaemia with homozygous a+ thalassaemia (–a/–a) had a highly significant effect on the red-cell indices; in the b-thalassaemia heterozygotes with four a genes the mean MCV and MCH were 66.2 and 21.2, respectively, while similar figures for those who were homozygous for a+ thalassaemia were 76.0 and
Thalassaemia intermedia
saemia and a0 thalassaemia also have higher MCV and MCH values than those who are heterozygous for either trait alone (Table 13.5 and Fig. 13.1). These studies indicate that homozygosity for a+ thalassaemia or heterozygosity for a0 thalassaemia together with heterozygous b thalassaemia can result in a normal or almost normal haematological picture; the only clue to the presence of a b-thalassaemia gene is an elevated HbA2 level. As well as for studying families with a and b thalassaemia these observations 95 90 85 80 MCV (fl)
24.8, respectively. There was no significant difference in the HbA2 and F values between the two groups; the HbA2 values were all elevated in the 5% range. These data correlated well with the a-/b-globin synthesis ratios; the mean value for b-thalassaemia heterozygotes with four a genes was 2.2, and for those with two a genes it was 0.8. There was a significant, though much less marked, increase in the MCV and MCH in b-thalassaemia carriers who were heterozygous for a+ thalassaemia (–a/aa). Similar data were obtained by Melis et al. (1983) and by Rosatelli et al. (1984). In eight individuals heterozygous for b0 and a+ thalassaemia the MCV ranged from 77 to 90 fl, and the MCH from 26 to 30 pg.These workers also observed normal MCH and MCV values in two b0-thalassaemia heterozygotes who were also heterozygous for a0 thalassaemia, although they could not exclude co-existent nondeletion a thalassaemia. Interestingly, in the study of Kanavakis et al. the two individuals who were heterozygous for b thalassaemia and for a+ thalassaemia with the highest MCH and MCV values were also thought to have co-existent non-deletional forms of a thalassaemia. Kanavakis et al. also described four additional individuals who were heterozygous for b thalassaemia and who also had the genotype of HbH disease, i.e. they had both a0 and a+ thalassaemia. Two of the siblings described by Knox-Macaulay et al. (1972) probably had this genotype (Fig. 13.2). In these cases the red cells are extremely hypochromic and microcytic with marked reductions in the MCV and MCH; the HbA2 level is still elevated in the bthalassaemia range, however. More recently it has been established that heterozygotes for b thalas-
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75 70 65 60 55 –α/αα
–α/–α
––/αα
––/–α
Fig. 13.1 The effect of the co-inheritance of different athalassaemia alleles on the mean cell volume of individuals with the b-thalassaemia trait.The shaded box shows the range for the b-thalassaemia trait alone.The different a-thalassaemia alleles found in association with bthalassaemia trait are indicated below. References in text.
Table 13.5 Haematological findings in b-thalassaemia heterozygotes, related to number of a-globin genes. Condition
n
Hb (g/dl)
MCV (fl)
MCH (pg)
HbA2 (%)
HbF (%)
a/b ratio
aa/aa aa/–a –a/–a –a/– – aa/aaa*
53 36 11 6 7 11 3
12.5 ± 1.2 13.0 ± 1.4 13.9 ± 1.1 11.8 ± 0.8 11.7 ± 1.9 9.1 ± 0.9 9.3 ± 0.9
65 ± 4 67 ± 4 77 ± 3 55 ± 3 65 ± 5 70 ± 8 65 ± 3
21 ± 1 22 ± 1 25 ± 1 18 ± 1 21 ± 2 21 ± 2 21 ± 1
4.9 ± 0.7 5.2 ± 0.7 5.1 ± 0.6 4.6 ± 0.2 5.0 ± 0.9 4.9 ± 0.6 4.6 ± 0.3
1.3 ± 1.1 1.2 ± 0.3 1.1 ± 0.7 — 2.3 ± 1.5 4.3 ± 2.1 6.8 ± 2.9
2.2 ± 0.3 1.4 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.1 2.1 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 0.6 4.0 ± 0.4
aaa/aaa
* Seven cases presenting with phenotype of thalassaemia trait, 11 presenting as thalassaemia intermedia. MCH, mean cell haemoglobin; MCV, mean cell volume. Data from references in text.
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2
I α/β MCH (pg) HbA2 (%) II
0.67 23.0 1.85 1
1.05 α/β MCH (pg) 19.8 HbA2 (%) 3.21 – HbH
1.20 25.0 4.17
2
3
4
1.01 30.4 1.94 –
0.20 20.0 0.22 12.3
1.03 18.9 3.42 –
α0-thalassaemia trait
α+-thalassaemia trait
β-thalassaemia trait
Fig. 13.2 The presumed interaction of a0 and a+ thalassaemia with b thalassaemia. Individual II3 has typical HbH disease. Individuals II1 and II4 were originally thought to have both a0- and b-thalassaemia traits. From what is now known about these interactions it seems more likely that, as shown, they had a0- and a+-thalassaemia traits (HbH disease) together with b-thalassaemia trait. Modified from Knox-Macauley et al. (1972).
have important implications for population screening, as described in more detail in Chapters 7 and 14. They have never been adequately explained. Kanavakis et al. (1982) pointed out that the red cells in b-thalassaemia heterozygotes, with a-/b-globin synthesis ratios of approximately 2/1, are typically hypochromic and microcytic. At the other end of the spectrum, that is, the co-inheritance of bthalassaemia trait with the genotype of HbH disease, in which three a-globin genes are lost, the red cells are equally or even more hypochromic and microcytic and the a-/b-globin synthesis ratio is almost exactly reversed, i.e. in the region of 0.5.As the globin synthesis ratio approaches unity, with less imbalance if there are two, rather than one, a genes deleted, the red cells become increasingly well haemoglobinized; they are hypochromic in the presence of imbalanced globin production, whether it reflects excess a- or bchain production. The relative level of HbA2 remains the same, regardless of whether there is balanced or imbalanced globin production although, in absolute terms, the amount of d chain produced in the hypochromic red cells is smaller. It is usually assumed that, in heterozygotes, the compensatory increase in b-chain production from the b locus in trans to the b-thalassaemia locus is mediated at the transcriptional or translational
levels, although there is no evidence that this is the case. Since these remarkable changes in haemoglobinization of the red cells are observed in b0thalassaemia heterozygotes who are also heterozygous for the deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia, it appears that there is a major increase in b- (and a-) globin production from the normal loci. It follows therefore that when there is unbalanced globin synthesis the normal a- and b-globin-gene loci do not achieve their full capacity for compensating for the defective output of their partners.While this could be mediated at the translational or transcriptional levels, it is also possible that it simply reflects the effect of globin excess on the cell-cycling properties of the erythroid progenitors and hence on the number of terminal divisions that they undergo. Unfortunately, we know nothing about the factors which set the final level of haemoglobin in the red cell; as pointed out by Stohlman (1964) it is not clear whether it is the concentration of haemoglobin that determines the number of terminal cell divisions, or vice versa. It is disappointing that we still have not been able to translate these simple observations about the interactions of the a and b thalassaemias into a better understanding of this fundamental step in erythropoiesis. Our lack of understanding of the mechanisms involved notwithstanding, the definition of the effects of these interactions on the red-cell indices has extremely important implications for the elucidation of the cause of thalassaemia intermedia, for attempting to determine the prognosis for different forms of thalassaemia in individual families, and for population screening (see Chapters 7 and 14). The co-inheritance of the homozygous or compound heterozygous state for severe b thalassaemia and different varieties of a thalassaemia Following the work reviewed earlier, suggesting that inheritance of one or more a-thalassaemia alleles might reduce the severity of the homozygous or compound heterozygous b thalassaemia, a number of studies were carried out to analyse the a-globin genes of patients with thalassaemia intermedia. In five patients with moderately severe b thalassaemia intermedia due to the homozygous or compound heterozygous inheritance of b+ thalassaemia, it was found that three were also heterozygous for a+ thalassaemia of the deletion type (–a/aa), while two appeared to be heterozygous for a non-deletion a+-
Thalassaemia intermedia thalassaemia allele (Weatherall et al. 1981b). These studies were followed by investigations of groups of patients with thalassaemia major or intermedia of Cypriot, Sardinian or Asian background in order to determine whether there was a significantly increased frequency of different forms of a thalassaemia in the group with disease of intermediate severity (Wainscoat et al. 1983a,b; Thein et al. 1988a; Galanello et al. 1989). The main conclusions were as follows: homozygotes for b0 thalassaemia who coinherit the loss of two a-globin genes, usually –a/–a, or a non-deletional form of a+ thalassaemia involving the a2-globin genes, are more likely to have the clinical phenotype of thalassaemia intermedia than major. On the other hand, b0-thalassaemia homozygotes who inherit a single a-globin-gene deletion usually have thalassaemia major, albeit with a slightly later clinical presentation. In the case of homozygous or compound heterozygous b+ thalassaemia, the coinheritance of the deletion of two a-globin genes is usually associated with a milder clinical phenotype, and this may sometimes be the case if only a single aglobin-gene deletion is inherited. The contrasting effects of the inheritance of a single a-globin-gene deletion with those resulting from the inheritance of a non-deletional a-thalassaemia allele are because the latter causes a greater overall reduction in achain production (see Chapters 4, 5 and 11). Other studies (Antonarakis et al. 1988; Oggiano et al. 1988; Kulozik et al. 1993; Gringras et al. 1994; Camaschella & Cappellini 1995) confirmed and expanded these observations. However, the importance of the co-inheritance of a thalassaemia in generating b thalassaemia intermedia varies between different populations. For example, while the co-inheritance of deletional forms of a+ thalassaemia seems to play a role in the generation of thalassaemia intermedia in Italian patients (Camaschella & Cappellini 1995), it rarely accounts for the mild forms of b thalassaemia in Israel (Rund et al. 1997). The latter finding, of course, reflects the relatively low frequency of a thalassaemia in this population. Relatively few studies that have tried to analyse the role of the a-globin genotype in modifying b thalassaemia have defined the severity of the disease. Ho et al. (1998a), in an attempt to address this problem, divided their patients into three groups based on blood transfusion requirement. This approach, while relatively simple, begs the question regarding some of the most important complications of the disease, in particular retarded development, bone deformity,
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and so on. However, using these criteria, and with a knowledge of the underlying b-globin-gene mutations, it is clear that there is considerable clinical heterogeneity, even within interactions with a thalassaemia and identical b-thalassaemia genotypes. For example, in patients who were compound heterozygotes, IVS1-6 TÆC/IVS1-110 GÆA, that is, for a mild and severe b+-thalassaemia mutation, the co-inheritance of the heterozygous state for a+ thalassaemia was associated with both mild and moderately severe phenotypes. The co-inheritance of this type of a thalassaemia with homozygosity for the IVS1-110 GÆA mutation resulted in a severe form of thalassaemia intermedia. On the other hand, the effect of a single missing a gene on compound heterozygosity for IVS1-5 GÆC and the frameshift mutation 8/9 +G, a severe b+ and a b0-thalassaemia mutation, resulted in an extremely mild phenotype. What can be concluded from these limited studies? In the report of Galanello et al. (1989), at least as judged by the steady-state haemoglobin levels, the patients described as having b thalassaemia intermedia would, by the criteria used by Ho et al. (1998a), be classified as mild. Overall, therefore, there is a reasonable correlation between the inheritance of homozygous b0 or severe b+ thalassaemia together with homozygous a+ thalassaemia and the mildness of the phenotype. On the other hand, the loss of a single a-globin gene has minimal phenotypic effect on homozygosity for b0 thalassaemia, and an unpredictable effect on compound heterozygosity for b+ or b0 or homozygosity for b+ thalassaemia. As more is learnt about the latter interactions, and about the subtle differences in severity of the b+ thalassaemias (Kulozik et al. 1993), it may be possible to be more precise about the prediction of these clinical phenotypes. It is equally clear that, because of its relative infrequency in many populations, a thalassaemia plays only a modest role in the generation of the intermediate forms of thalassaemia. Homozygous b+ or b0 thalassaemia associated with compound heterozygosity for a+ and a0 thalassaemia There have been a few reports of the occurrence of homozygous b thalassaemia with the genotype of HbH disease in the same individual (Loukopoulos et al. 1978; Furbetta et al. 1979). We have also studied a family in which three Greek Cypriot siblings are affected in this way.
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In the Greek Cypriot patient described by Loukopoulos et al. (1978) the combination produced the phenotype of a moderately severe form of b thalassaemia intermedia. Early in life the patient was pale with mild jaundice but had a normal body habitus; there were no bone deformities and sexual development was normal. There was a moderate degree of hepatosplenomegaly. The haemoglobin values ranged between 6 and 8 g/dl, though, curiously, later in life they tended to range between 9 and 10 g/dl. Haemoglobin analysis showed approximately 48% HbA, 40% HbF, 9.6% HbA2 and 2% Hb Bart’s; no HbH was demonstrated. The most extraordinary feature about this patient’s blood picture was the
gross degree of hypochromia and microcytosis, with MCH values in the 8–9 pg range and MCV values in the 41–48 fl range (Fig. 13.3). The a-/b-globin synthesis ratio was greater than unity. We have observed three siblings with almost identical clinical pictures, but with steady-state haemoglobin levels of 5–6 g/dl, despite which growth and development was normal. A splenectomy carried out between the ages of 20 and 30 years resulted in no improvement in the haemoglobin level and was followed by severe thromboembolic complications in two cases. In the patient reported by Furbetta et al. (1979) excellent evidence was presented for the patient being homozygous for b0 thalassaemia together with
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13.3 Grossly hypochromic red cells in a patient homozygous for b thalassaemia who also has the genotype of haemoglobin H disease.
Thalassaemia intermedia the genotype of HbH disease.At the age of 12 months this child was pale and somewhat growth retarded with splenomegaly and early thalassaemic bone changes. The haemoglobin level was 7.4 g/dl, again with remarkably hypochromic and microcytic red cells. The haemoglobin pattern consisted of Hbs F and A2, with no HbA; HbA2 made up 7.5% of the total. The extremely high HbA2 values in these patients are of interest. They seem to be a feature of other interactions between a and b thalassaemia. As pointed out in Chapter 5 there is remarkable heterogeneity in the peripheral blood of severe b thalassaemics with respect to the cellular distribution of Hbs F, A and A2; the HbF-rich population has a low level of HbA2, and vice versa. It is possible that the unusually high levels of HbA2 in these particular cases reflect the survival of red-cell populations with relatively high levels of d-chain production, which do not normally reach the peripheral blood in homozygous b thalassaemia. The interactions between the a thalassaemias and HbE are described in Chapter 9.
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and what determined their survival was globin imbalance and the formation of HbH (Fig. 13.2). Similarly, the remarkable patient described by Loukopoulos et al. (1978), who was homozygous for b thalassaemia together with the genotype of HbH disease, while having grossly hypochromic red cells associated with a severe degree of potassium leakage, had almost normal red-cell survival; iron kinetic studies suggested only a very mild degree of ineffective erythropoiesis. The latter was mirrored by the presence of a myeloid/erythroid ratio in the bone marrow of 0.55, very similar to that observed in the bthalassaemia trait and much higher than the ratios, in the 0.1 range, which are found in b thalassaemia intermedia. And, as pointed out by Loukopoulos and colleagues, the association of one a-thalassaemia gene with two b-thalassaemia genes seems to be much less effective in altering the overall picture of homozygous b thalassaemia than the addition of one bthalassaemia gene to the genetic background of HbH disease. This observation is in keeping with the findings that excess a chains are probably more injurious to erythroid precursors and their progeny than excess b chains (see Chapter 5).
Pathophysiology of the a/b thalassaemias Although some of the more extreme examples of the interaction of a and b thalassaemia are rare, they represent unique experiments of nature which have told us a great deal about the pathophysiology of thalassaemia in general. In particular, they underline the central importance of globin imbalance in determining the severity of a thalassaemic illness. This principle is illustrated most beautifully in some of these families. For instance, in the study of Knox-Macaulay et al. (1972) it was shown that a sibling with HbH disease and two others who were almost certainly heterozygous for a0, a+ and b+ thalassaemia had similar degrees of anaemia and morphological changes of their red cells and, even more interestingly, almost identical abnormalities of membrane function as evidenced by the relative rates of potassium leak. On the other hand, they showed completely different red-cell survival times. Those with relatively balanced globin synthesis had normal redcell survival while the sibling with HbH disease, and hence unbalanced globin synthesis, had a markedly shortened red-cell survival. Clearly, at least in this family, the functional abnormalities of the membranes of the red cells were of secondary importance
The role of haemoglobin F in generating thalassaemia intermedia In previous editions of this book we discussed the notion that variation in the ability to produce HbF in the postnatal period might be a major factor in the generation of the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia. While many threads of evidence pointed in this direction, perhaps the most convincing were reports of patients apparently homozygous for b0 thalassaemia with the clinical course of b thalassaemia intermedia. This picture was observed in many ethnic groups, including Britons (KnoxMacaulay et al. 1973), Algerians (Godet et al. 1977), Italians (Bianco et al. 1977), Arabs (Cividalli et al. 1978; Weatherall et al. 1981b) and Indians and Pakistanis (Weatherall et al. 1981b). In many of these reports the parents of the patients both had elevated HbA2 levels, though in many cases globin synthesis data were not given and therefore it was not possible to exclude the co-existence of an a-thalassaemia determinant. However, in a few families studied in detail, the a-/b-globin synthesis ratios in the parents of patients of this type were typical of heterozygous b
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thalassaemia and therefore the co-existence of an athalassaemia gene seemed unlikely (Weatherall et al. 1981b). Furthermore, although in some of these families, or in others with mild forms of b+ thalassaemia intermedia, a determinant for heterocellular hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) appeared to be segregating (Knox-Macaulay et al. 1973; Cappellini et al. 1981; Weatherall et al. 1981b), this was not always the case; detailed studies of the fetal haemoglobin of parents or relatives did not always evidence for a second determinant of this type (Weatherall et al. 1981b). Once it became possible to examine the globingene clusters directly using DNA technology this problem could be explored in more detail. For example, it was feasible to ask whether the determinants for a greater ability to produce HbF lay within the b-gene cluster, or whether they were outside the cluster or even on other chromosomes.The identification of RFLP haplotypes provided valuable markers across the cluster; if increased facility for producing HbF segregated with a particular haplotype the determinant must lie within the b-globin-gene complex. In addition, questions could be asked about the relationship of particular b-thalassaemia or related mutations to the production of HbF. A wide variety of studies of this kind, combined with structural analyses of the Gg/Ag-chain composition of HbF, have provided some valuable information about the mechanisms that set the level of fetal haemoglobin synthesis in b thalassaemia and have gone some way to accounting for different forms of b thalassaemia intermedia. However, as we shall see, many questions remain unanswered. We have already considered some of these issues in Chapters 5 and 10. Here, we shall summarize the evidence that
links increased fetal haemoglobin production to thalassaemia intermedia. Determinants within the b-globin-gene cluster In Chapter 10 we reviewed the evidence that varying ability to produce HbF in sickle-cell anaemia is related to particular RFLP haplotypes of the bglobin-gene cluster. At about the same time as this work was being carried out evidence was obtained that the same relationship exists with respect to HbF synthesis in b thalassaemia (Labie et al. 1985b; Thein et al. 1987b). Some of the data from the extensive studies of Thein et al. are summarized in Table 13.6. These focused on the 5¢ b haplotype, generated by the following enzymes (using + or – to indicate the presence or absence of a restriction-enzyme cleavage site), in the order 5¢ to 3¢, as follows: Hind II e, Hind III Gg, Hind III Ag, Hind II yb, and Hind II 3¢ yb. When large groups of patients with thalassaemia major or thalassaemia intermedia of Asian Indian or Italian backgrounds were compared, it was found that one particular haplotype, – + – + +, had a strong association with b thalassaemia intermedia. For example, in the Asian group 14 out of 28 b-globin chromosomes from thalassaemia intermedia patients had this haplotype while it was found in only 10 out of 84 chromosomes from the thalassaemia major groups. The majority of those who were homozygous for this haplotype had a relatively mild clinical course, and in patients with thalassaemia major with this haplotype there was a significant tendency for a late presentation. Furthermore, there was a reasonable relationship between heterozygosity and homozygosity for this haplotype and the absolute level of HbF. But, although there was a trend, the
5¢ b haplotype
b thalassaemia major
b thalassaemia intermedia
+–––– + – – – – (b0 del type) –+–++ –++–+ ++–++ –+––+ +–––– Total
52 (61.9%) 21 (25.0%) 10 (11.4%) 1 (12.%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 84
10 (35.7%) 1 (3.1%) 14 (50.0%) 0 (0%) 1 (3.6%) 1 (3.6%) 1 (3.6%) 28
5¢ b haplotype: (+) indicates the presence of a restriction enzyme cleavage site and (–) its absence. The order of the sites 5¢ to 3¢ is as follows: Hind II e, Hind III Gg, Hind III Ag, Hind II yb and Hind II 3¢ yb.
Table 13.6 Distribution of b-globin haplotypes of Asian patients with homozygous b thalassaemia. (From Thein et al. 1987b)
Thalassaemia intermedia relationship between the haplotype and HbF levels in heterozygotes was not statistically significant. Similar data were obtained for the Italian populations studied, although because the frequency of this haplotype was much lower the results were less impressive. A further series of studies showed that this subhaplotype is in linkage disequilibrium with the CÆT polymorphism at position –158 in the Gg-globin gene, i.e. Xmn I(+).This change had been previously associated with increased expression of the Gg gene in patients with sickle-cell anaemia or b thalassaemia of diverse origins (Gilman & Huisman 1985; Harano et al. 1985; Labie et al. 1985b). Taken together, these studies suggested that homozygosity or heterozygosity for the Gg Xmn I(+) polymorphism might play an important role in underlying the milder forms of homozygous b0 thalassaemia in Afro-Asian populations, though less in Italians. Later studies in Sardinia gave essentially similar findings (Galanello et al. 1989). Out of 61 patients homozygous for b0 thalassaemia who were also homozygous or heterozygous for the Mediterranean haplotype IX, which contains the – + – + + 5¢ subhaplotype, 56 showed the phenotype of thalassaemia intermedia, while only five manifested thalassaemia major. Interestingly, in this population this haplotype is linked to a particular b0thalassaemia allele, namely the frameshift (–1 bp) at codon 6 (Galanello et al. 1989). It appears therefore that the homozygous state for the Gg Xmn I(+) site may be sufficient to ameliorate the clinical picture of homozygous b thalassaemia, regardless of the type of b-thalassaemia mutation, that is, b0 or b+. Further experience suggests that heterozygosity for this site has a more limited effect, restricted to b+ rather than b0 thalassaemia. These conclusions were validated in later comparisons of patients with thalassaemia major and intermedia (Camaschella et al. 1995; Ho et al. 1998a). In the study of Ho et al. (1998a) it was clear that there is a strong association of the Gg Xmn I(+) polymorphism with the b0-thalassaemia IVS1-1 GÆT mutation in Asian Indians. Overall, homozygotes for this mutation have a slightly milder disease than other forms of b0 thalassaemia. This is manifest by a later onset of transfusion requirements, though many of them subsequently become transfusion dependent in later life. Of the seven patients homozygous for this mutation who had the clinical phenotype of thalassaemia intermedia, two fell into the mild category,
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two into the moderately affected, and three into the severe category. In the 16 patients in this study with thalassaemia intermedia who were homozygous for b0 thalassaemia due to a number of different alleles, nine had mild disease, seven of whom were Gg Xmn I(+) homozygotes, compared with four of seven patients in the severe group. As discussed in Chapter 10, although there is no direct evidence, it is believed that the Xmn I(+) polymorphism in the promoter region of the Gg gene is associated with an increased capacity for fetal haemoglobin production in conditions of erythroid ‘stress’. It is clear from these limited data that homozygosity for this polymorphism may sometimes be associated with a milder clinical course in homozygous or compound heterozygous b thalassaemia. These observations leave many questions unanswered. It is not absolutely certain that these haplotype associations reflect the action of the Gg Xmn I polymorphism; they could be marking another region in the b-globin-gene cluster that is related to an increased propensity for fetal haemoglobin production. Furthermore, it is not clear why there is such phenotypic heterogeneity among patients who carry this polymorphism. As discussed in Chapter 10, it is clear that different chromosomes which carry the Xmn I site change are associated with widely differing levels of fetal haemoglobin production in patients with sickle-cell anaemia. As also described in Chapter 10 a great deal of work has gone into trying to define other polymorphisms or other structural changes in the b-globin-gene cluster that may be associated with increased fetal haemoglobin synthesis, either in the steady state or related to stress (Labie & Elion 1996; Steinberg 1996). So far no other candidates have been found. Thus apart from the deletional and non-deletional forms of HPFH, and occasional cases of g-globin-gene triplications or quadruplication (Yang et al. 1986), there is currently no definite evidence for regions other than Gg –158 CÆT (Xmn I polymorphism) that play a major role in elevating g-chain synthesis in b thalassaemia intermedia. b-Thalassaemia mutations and haemoglobin F production Overall, there are very few b-thalassaemia mutations which, by themselves, seem to play a role in elevating the HbF level to a sufficient degree to produce a
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milder phenotype.This appears to occur in the case of the rare forms due to partial or complete deletions of the b-globin gene and may be of relevance in the particular mild phenotypes associated with point mutations involving the b-globin-gene promoters. Deletional forms of b thalassaemia At least 17 different b-thalassaemia alleles have been described which are characterized by a partial or complete deletion of the b-globin gene (see Chapter 4).These do not include the longer deletions of the bglobin-gene cluster that give rise to egdb thalassaemia, but are simply those which are restricted to the b-globin gene itself. Particularly if they involve the b-globin-gene promoter region, they tend to be associated with unusually high levels of HbA2 and significantly increased levels of HbF in heterozygotes (Thein 1993; Huisman et al. 1997). As described in Chapter 10, it is thought that the absence of the bglobin-gene promoters causes upregulation of the d and g genes through freeing particular DNA binding proteins which may be present in rate-limiting quantities. The only common deletional form of b thalassaemia is that associated with the loss of 619 bp at the 3¢ end of the b-globin gene, which occurs frequently in northern India. This is a severe, transfusiondependent disorder. This may well be because it spares the b-globin-gene promoters. On the other hand, the so-called Dutch deletion, which removes the entire b-globin gene and part of the region between the b and d genes, has a completely different homozygous phenotype (Schokker et al. 1966; Gilman et al. 1984). In the family described by Schokker et al. two homozygotes were asymptomatic except for occasional bouts of jaundice.They had marked radiological abnormalities of the skeleton, however. Their haemoglobin levels were 12.1 and 14.3 g/dl, respectively, and the morphological changes of their red cells were typical of thalassaemia intermedia. Haemoglobin analysis revealed only Hbs F and A2, with no HbA. The heterozygotes in this family had HbA2 values ranging between 5 and 7% and all had HbF values in the 6–10% range. A similar mildly affected homozygote, of Indian extraction, was reported by Craig et al. (1992). In this case the underlying deletion was slightly shorter, 10 329 bp, but it had a similar 5¢ extension into the region between the d- and b-globin genes to the Dutch deletion. Again, the homozygote
had a mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia with a steady-state haemoglobin level of 8.8 g/dl; the haemoglobin consisted of 98% HbF and 2.0% HbA2.All the heterozygotes in this family had HbF levels in the 3–5% range and unusually high levels of HbA2. Clearly, at least some of these deletional forms of b thalassaemia are associated with an extremely mild phenotype in their homozygous states. Whether this reflects the removal of the b promoters, or whether there are other important regulatory regions for g-chain production in the region between the d- and b-globin genes, a question which we discussed in relationship to Hb Lepore in Chapter 8, remains to be seen. Point mutations of the b-globin gene There is indirect evidence that certain point mutations that underlie b thalassaemia may also be involved in producing an unusually effective fetal haemoglobin response. As pointed out in Chapter 5, one of the main mechanisms for the elevation of fetal haemoglobin in b thalassaemia is cell selection. It follows therefore that this should be greater in those forms that are associated with the most severe globin imbalance; in the milder forms of b thalassaemia, with relatively high levels of b-chain production, there should be much less selection of red-cell precursors that synthesize g chains and therefore lower levels of HbF. This expectation is well illustrated in the mild form of b thalassaemia due to the IVS1-6 TÆC mutation, in which homozygotes have thalassaemia intermedia with levels of HbF in the 10–20% range. On the other hand, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, and as discussed in Chapter 10, the promoter mutations of the b-globin genes, which, in the homozygous state, are also associated with very mild forms of thalassaemia intermedia, are characterized by much higher levels of HbF production. This is usually reflected as 50% or more of HbF, and since the steady-state haemoglobin value is 2–3 g/dl higher than homozygotes for the IVS1-6 mutation, it is clear that the absolute amount of HbF produced is remarkably high, despite the mildness of these bthalassaemia mutations. In previous editions of this book, in which we analysed in detail all the homozygous and compound heterozygous states for b thalassaemia in AfroAmerican populations, we were puzzled by the remarkably high levels of fetal haemoglobin in such
Thalassaemia intermedia mild forms of the disease. This did not seem to be a population-specific characteristic since the same responses were not observed in sickle-cell anaemia. The answer is now clear; nearly all these cases were undoubtedly homozygotes or compound heterozygotes for promoter mutations. It appears therefore that, even in the presence of a very mild bthalassaemia allele, if it also tends to increase the likelihood of g-chain production, possibly in this case because of the involvement of the b-globin-gene promoter, the final level of HbF production may be quite high, despite only a moderate degree of globin imbalance. However, the pathophysiology of these consistent findings is still not entirely clear. One of the problems in determining the reasons for the extremely high levels of HbF in association with mild homozygous or compound heterozygous b thalassaemia in patients of African origin is that, in many instances, the mutation occurs on a chromosome with the Gg Xmn I(+) polymorphism which, as we have seen, appears to carry the propensity for increased fetal haemoglobin production. In the study of Gonzalez-Redondo et al. (1988a) one of their patients who was homozygous for the b –88 CÆT promoter mutation was also homozygous for a haplotype which does not have the Gg Xmn I(+) polymorphism, yet this 23-year-old male still had a steady-state haemoglobin of 11.0 g/dl, with 56.6% fetal haemoglobin. Three of the patients with the lowest fetal haemoglobin values in this study were also heterozygous for the deletional form of a thalassaemia, which may also modify the level of HbF. The homozygous state for the –87 CÆG form of b+ thalassaemia, reported by Camaschella et al. (1990a), found in a 62-year-old transfusion-independent patient with mild thalassaemia intermedia, was associated with a steady-state haemoglobin level of 9.4 g/dl and 65% fetal haemoglobin. In this case the patient was found to be homozygous for a b-globin-cluster RFLP haplotype that does not have the Gg Xmn I(+) polymorphism, and hence the authors suggest that the extremely high level of fetal haemoglobin production is more likely to be related to the b-globin-gene promoter mutation. Taken altogether, and considering that heterozygotes for the promoter gene mutations tend to have a slightly higher level of fetal haemoglobin than those for other forms of b thalassaemia, these observations suggest that at least part of the unusual elevation of fetal haemoglobin in these mild forms of b thalas-
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saemia is related to the underlying b-thalassaemia mutation. Homozygous or compound heterozygous b thalassaemia with heterocellular HPFH As mentioned in Chapter 10, there is very good genetic evidence that certain forms of heterocellular HPFH can interact with b thalassaemia or the sicklecell gene to raise the level of HbF above that usually seen in the traits for these conditions. There have been relatively few opportunities to study the interaction of these determinants with the homozygous or compound heterozygous states for b thalassaemia, but such evidence that exists suggests that they may have the capacity to considerably ameliorate these conditions. It should be remembered, however, that until the molecular basis for these forms of heterocellular HPFH is determined these interactions have to be assumed, based on a careful family study. The key features are a milder phenotype of what is usually a severe form of b thalassaemia together with higher than usual levels of HbF in the parents and the observation that one or more of the unaffected relatives also have significant elevations of HbF. There have only been a few reports of patients and families which meet these criteria. In the family reported by Cappellini et al. (1981) the proband was a 52-year-old male who had never had symptoms ascribable to thalassaemia except for slight jaundice during intercurrent infections. Radiological examination of his bones was normal. His haemoglobin level ranged between 11.6 and 12.4 g/dl and he had typical thalassaemic red-cell changes. Haemoglobin analysis showed 97.2% HbF, the remainder being HbA2. Among his children, grandchildren and lateral relatives there were bthalassaemia heterozygotes with unusually high HbF levels and otherwise normal individuals with elevated levels of HbF in the 1–2% range. A subsequent genetic analysis of an extended pedigree indicated that this determinant for HPFH is not linked to the bglobin-gene cluster (Gianni et al. 1983). It appears therefore that in this family a b0-thalassaemia homozygote almost certainly inherited at least one genetic determinant for heterocellular HPFH and hence presented with the phenotype of an extremely mild b thalassaemia intermedia. In the family reported by Thein and Weatherall (1989) the propositus was a 33-year-old Asian Indian
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male who presented at the age of 18 years with mild anaemia and jaundice. For reasons which are not absolutely clear he underwent splenectomy, after which his steady-state haemoglobin level was 12.1 g/dl with a typical thalassaemic blood picture. Globin synthesis analysis showed no b-chain production and an a-/g-chain synthesis ratio of 2.86. Studies of several generations of this large family revealed heterozygotes with unusually high levels of HbF in some cases, together with otherwise normal individuals with raised levels of HbF. Later genetic analyses of an extended family pedigree showed that the determinant for elevated HbF is not linked to the b-gene cluster or the X chromosome but that it is on chromosome 6 (Craig et al. 1996) (for further discussion of this family see Chapter 10). Another approach to this problem was reported by Ho et al. (1998a). As part of a large study of the molecular basis of thalassaemia intermedia eight sibling pairs were identified with this condition. Unexpectedly, there was considerable difference in the severity of the disease between siblings in seven pairs, despite the fact that these patients had identical b-thalassaemia mutations and, except for one family, intact a-globin genes. The major difference between them, and the only finding that could account for the varying severity of their disease, was the steady-state HbF level, the differences between siblings ranging from 1 g/dl to as much as 8–9 g/dl. In three of the seven families it was possible to identify a heterocellular HPFH determinant. In this study, in addition to these seven sibships, co-inheritance of an HPFH determinant was implicated in a further six patients, five homozygous for b0 thalassaemia and one for a severe form of b+ thalassaemia. Despite the absence or severe deficit of b chains, these patients were only mildly affected, and able to maintain haemoglobin levels, almost all of which was fetal in type, of 9– 13 g/dl. In all these patients other factors such as the upstream polymorphisms of the Gg-globin gene were excluded as a cause of the unusually high level of HbF. If, as appears from many of these pedigrees, a single dose of a gene for heterocellular HPFH can have this remarkable ameliorating effect on severe b thalassaemia it is difficult to understand how this is achieved. In the heterozygous state, either alone or together with b thalassaemia, the augmentation of fetal haemoglobin production is extremely small. Yet when it interacts in severely affected homozygotes or
compound heterozygotes the determinant appears to have the effect of raising the fetal haemoglobin by several g/dl. Although there is enough evidence to point to these interactions being an important cause of thalassaemia intermedia, an understanding of how the increased HbF production is mediated will have to await the isolation of the genes involved.
Heterozygous b thalassaemia with the phenotype of thalassaemia intermedia There are two main mechanisms whereby heterozygous b thalassaemia can be associated with the phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia (Table 13.1). First, there are cases in which b thalassaemia is complicated by the inheritance of chromosomes carrying more than the usual number of a-globin genes. Second, there are particular b-globin-gene mutations which, because they produce products with unusual properties, give rise to severe phenotypes in heterozygotes. The latter are now called the dominant b thalassaemias. Heterozygous b thalassaemia with increased numbers of a-globin genes In earlier chapters we described how unequal crossing over between the linked a-globin genes on chromosome 16 may generate chromosomes with single or triplicated a-globin genes. The triplicated arrangement is found in most populations, indicating that this type of event is relatively common. There have been a few frequency studies. In most cases it occurs at no higher than about 1% of the population; however, we have recently observed the aaa arrangements in just over 3% of the Sri Lankan population. Both triplicated and quadruplicated a-globin-gene arrangements seem to have very little effect in otherwise normal individuals but, when inherited with a single b-thalassaemia allele, there appears to be sufficient globin imbalance to produce a family of b thalassaemias, all of which are more severe than the heterozygous state for b thalassaemia alone. Heterozygous b thalassaemia with aaa/aa There are extensive published data on the phenotypic consequences of this interaction (Galanello et
Thalassaemia intermedia al. 1983c; Kanavakis et al. 1983; Sampietro et al. 1983; Kulozik et al. 1987b; Camaschella et al. 1987a, 1995; Bianco et al. 1997c; Rund et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a). It results in a variable phenotype. At one end of the spectrum it is little different from the b-thalassaemia trait alone, although the HbF values tend to be slightly higher. On the other hand, some individuals have a picture of mild thalassaemia intermedia with haemoglobin values ranging from 8 to 10 g/dl and splenomegaly from 2 to 5 cm below the costal margin. In some cases this has necessitated splenectomy. This broad clinical spectrum is well exemplified in the 31 cases reported in detail by Bianco et al. (1997c). Eight would have been classified as having the bthalassaemia trait, 16 a very mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia, and seven a more severe form of the latter, requiring splenectomy. In this study the associated b-thalassaemia alleles were characterized and there was no obvious association with the phenotype although in most cases they were b0thalassaemia mutations. The reasons for this clinical diversity are not clear. Homozygous b thalassaemia with aaa/aa In the study of Kanavakis et al. (1983) there were five b-thalassaemia homozygotes in the family studies which involved triplicated a-globin-gene arrangements. In four out of five of these patients the phenotype was that of an unexpectedly mild form of b thalassaemia intermedia. While this result has to be interpreted with caution, particularly since these families were ascertained during a study of patients with thalassaemia intermedia, there were no other factors found in these families which would ameliorate the severity of b thalassaemia. The authors speculate that there may be some forms of triplicated a-globin genes in which one or more of the genes are non-functional and hence are associated with a phenotype of non-deletional a thalassaemia.A triplicated a-gene arrangement behaving as an athalassaemia allele was encountered in Saudi Arabia by Pressley (1980), who described a family in which a mother and two offspring with aaa/aa had HbH disease. In this population this condition usually results from homozygosity for a non-deletional form of a thalassaemia and it appears that the triplicated a-gene haplotype in this family behaves identically to the (aaT) haplotype. It is possible therefore that there is heterogeneity of the expression of the tripli-
571
cated a-globin-gene arrangement and, in some cases, it could behave as an a-thalassaemia allele. A word of caution is necessary, however. To our knowledge there have been no further reports of triplicated a-globin-gene arrangements behaving as athalassaemia alleles and these studies were carried out before it was possible to sequence the a- or bglobin genes. Furthermore, they were based on a study of thalassaemia intermedia so the population sample would have been biased. Clearly, further information about this intriguing possibility is required. Heterozygous b thalassaemia with aaa/aaa The homozygous state for the triplicated aglobin-gene arrangement in association with heterozygous b thalassaemia has been observed mainly in Mediterranean populations (Galanello et al. 1983c; Thein et al. 1984a; Oron et al. 1994; TraegerSynodinos et al. 1996; Bianco et al. 1997c; Ho et al. 1998a). Most of these patients have been heterozygous for b0- or severe b+-thalassaemia mutations. In all cases the clinical picture has been a moderate to severe form of thalassaemia intermedia, with haemoglobin values in the 6–9 g/dl range, moderate splenomegaly and, in some cases, bone changes and growth retardation. Interestingly, despite these relatively severe phenotypes, and presumably a marked degree of globin imbalance, high levels of HbF seem to be unusual; in most series they have ranged between 2 and 10%. Heterozygous b thalassaemia associated with aaaa/aa As might be expected, the inheritance of six a-globin genes together with heterozygous b thalassaemia has much the same phenotype whether it is the homozygous inheritance of the triplicated a-globin gene or the compound heterozygous inheritance of the quadruplicated and normal a-globin-gene complement (Thompson et al. 1989). This genotype is associated with the phenotype of a mild to moderate form of thalassaemia intermedia, with haemoglobin values in the 7–9 g/dl range and splenomegaly of 3–4 cm (Beris et al. 1999). Surprisingly, in one of the patients reported by Bianco et al. (1997c), the spleen was said not to be palpable despite a steady-state haemoglobin value of 7.5 g/dl.
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Dominant b thalassaemia associated with aaa/aa In the one reported case of this interaction (Thein et al. 1990a) the patient had a severe form of thalassaemia intermedia and became transfusion dependent in adult life. Presumably this reflects the more severe effect of the particular b-thalassaemia allele (see next section) together with the unusual degree of imbalanced globin synthesis.
Dominant forms of b thalassaemia Early reports In 1973 an unusual form of b thalassaemia was identified in an Irish family, several members of which had moderate anaemia, intermittent jaundice, splenomegaly, marked thalassaemic changes of their red cells and intense erythroid hyperplasia together with morphological abnormalities of the red-cell precursors in the bone marrow (Weatherall et al. 1973). Many of the latter, and the nucleated red cells in the peripheral blood of two family members who had been splenectomized, showed inclusion bodies similar to those seen in the severe forms of b thalassaemia.The disorder was transmitted in an autosomal dominant fashion. Similar clinical features associated with inclusions in the normoblasts and peripheral red cells after splenectomy were observed in a Swiss French family by Stamatoyannopoulos et al. (1974), who proposed the term ‘inclusion body b thalassaemia’ for this condition. However, since inclusions of this type are a well recognized feature of all the more severe forms of b thalassaemia, it became customary to call it ‘dominant b thalassaemia’. As more families were described, and methods became available for studying its molecular pathology, some interesting insights were obtained into how what is usually a recessively inherited disorder can change to a dominant one. Using b-globin RFLP linkage analysis it was found that these disorders segregate with the b-globin gene, suggesting that they are due to mutations at or near this locus (Thein et al. 1990a). Subsequently, sequence analyses of the bglobin genes demonstrated that, while they are quite heterogeneous at the molecular level, many of them seem to involve mutations of exon 3 of the b-globin gene. These include frameshifts, premature chain termination (nonsense) mutations and complex
rearrangements which lead to the synthesis of truncated or elongated and highly unstable b-globin-gene products (Beris et al. 1988; Fei et al. 1989b; Kazazian et al. 1989; Thein et al. 1990a; Kazazian et al. 1992). The different mutations that underlie the dominant b thalassaemias are described in detail in Chapter 4. Mechanism of the dominant b-thalassaemia phenotype By comparing the lengths of the abnormal gene products due to nonsense or frameshift mutations in the bglobin gene it has been possible to develop a hypothesis to explain why most heterozygous forms of b thalassaemia are mild, while those due to mutations involving predominantly exon 3 are more severe (Thein et al. 1990a) (discussed in detail in Chapter 4). Nonsense or frameshift mutations that would produce truncated b chains up to about 72 residues in length are usually associated with a mild phenotype in heterozygotes. It is now believed, however, that the mRNAs associated with these mutations are not transported to the cytoplasm, and hence no gene product is made. On the other hand mRNAs with mutations in exon 3 are transported and translated normally. They produce long, unstable products; it is likely that the associated phenotypes reflect their haem-binding properties and instability. Those with only 72 residues or less cannot bind haem whereas those truncated to residue 120 or longer should bind haem since only helix H of the b chain is missing. Furthermore, such haem-containing products should have some secondary structure and hence be less susceptible to proteolytic degradation. The lack of helix H, which would expose one of the hydrophobic patches of helix G and those of helices E and F, would also lead to aggregation. It was suggested therefore that the large inclusions in the red-cell progenitors of these patients consists of aggregates of precipitated b-chain products, possibly together with excess a chains (Thein et al. 1990a), a prediction which was later confirmed (Ho et al. 1997). These conditions, unlike the unstable haemoglobin disorders, in which intact haemoglobin molecules precipitate in the red cells during their lifespan and cause a haemolytic anaemia, are characterized by ineffective erythropoiesis due to the early precipitation of these unstable b-globin products together with a chains in the red-cell precursors.Although not studied formally, it seems likely that the mechanism
Thalassaemia intermedia Recessive
Dominant
α2 β*2
α2 β*2
Excess
Proteolysis Effective erythropoiesis Thal. minor
Anti-a globin chain
Excess
573
Long unstable product
Inclusion bodies Ineffective erythropoiesis Thal. intermedia
(a)
Anti-b globin chain
(b)
Fig. 13.4 A comparison of the molecular pathology of recessive and dominant b thalassaemia. (a) A schematic representation showing how the small excess of a chains does not cause severe ineffective erythropoiesis in the recessive forms of b-thalassaemia trait, whereas the production of long unstable products together with excess a chains results in the formation of inclusion bodies and ineffective erythropoiesis in the dominant forms. (b) Electron-microscopic appearances of inclusion bodies in dominant b thalassaemia labelled with anti-a- and anti-b-chain antibodies showing that, unlike the inclusions in the recessive forms of b thalassaemia (see Fig. 7.15, Chapter 7), the inclusions contain both a and b globin. *Indicates b thalassaemia mutation.
of destruction of red-cell precursors is broadly similar to those described in Chapter 5 for the a and b thalassaemias (Fig. 13.4). Mechanisms underlying phenotypic diversity Some of these disorders are very much milder than others and, at one end of the spectrum, they differ very little from the standard forms of heterozygous b thalassaemia. In fact there is a spectrum of heterozygous conditions due to defective b-globin-chain production. At one end, there are those which are associated with no b-globin synthesis, or a very low output of b chains. These conditions are associated with the usual picture of b-thalassaemia trait. Then there are the dominant b thalassaemias, in which highly unstable gene products have enough secondary structure to form dimers which may aggre-
gate one with another, form inclusions and damage the red-cell precursors, causing ineffective erythropoiesis. Finally, at the other end of the spectrum, there are the unstable b-haemoglobin disorders in which viable tetramers are formed which survive their passage through the bone marrow and which only precipitate in the peripheral blood, and hence which result in a haemolytic anaemia. One of the difficulties in relating genotypes to phenotypes in this family of diseases is the lack of good haematological data that accompany many of the reports of their molecular characterization. For example, in many cases said not to show red-cell inclusions the bone marrows were not examined and the patients had intact spleens; since inclusions are rarely seen in the peripheral blood in patients with b thalassaemia with intact spleens, and they can only be generated in the case of unstable haemoglobin disor-
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Chapter 13
ders, without this information it is impossible to say whether there is early precipitation of globin. However, allowing for difficulties of this kind, it is likely that the account of the pathophysiology of these conditions outlined above is an oversimplification of an extremely complex problem. For example, Hb Chesterfield (b28 LeuÆArg) appears to be associated with a mixed picture of ineffective erythropoiesis and haemolysis (Thein et al. 1991). This mutation is in exon 2. Other substitutions of b28, LeuÆPro in the case of Hb Geneva for example, give rise to the phenotype of a severe haemolytic anaemia with Heinz bodies in the erythrocytes, typical of an unstable haemoglobin disorder (Sansone et al. 1967). Similarly the substitution b28 LeuÆGln (Hb St Louis) also produces a haemolytic anaemia rather than a thalassaemic phenotype (Thillet et al. 1976). These two substitutions must result in the production of a partially viable tetramer. These observations make it particularly difficult to understand why Hb Chesterfield is associated with a dominant thalassaemic phenotype. Perhaps the abnormal b chains are so unstable that very few viable tetramers are made and hence they form aggregates with resultant damage to the red-cell precursors. These discrepancies underline the extreme subtlety of the behaviour of these abnormal b chains with respect to whether they are subject to immediate proteolysis, survive long enough to form aggregations on the red-cell membrane, or are able to produce a haemoglobin tetramer, albeit an unstable one. Another curious feature of these conditions is that, although the degree of anaemia may be in the same range as that found with other forms of b thalassaemia intermedia, with only a few exceptions the level of HbF is rarely elevated above the 2–5% range. In most cases the HbA2 level is elevated but this is also observed with unstable b-chain variants. Although where careful globin synthesis studies have been carried out there is usually imbalanced synthesis, with an excess of a chains and an expanded pool of free a chains (Weatherall et al. 1973), this is of a similar magnitude to that found in b-thalassaemia trait. These observations, together with the relatively low level of HbF, reflecting relative lack of preferential survival of precursors that synthesize more g chain, may be a further indication that the primary pathophysiological defect in these conditions is not so much imbalanced globin synthesis as the deleterious effects of the early precipitation of abnormal b
globin with its resultant damage to the membranes of the red-cell precursors.
Genotype/phenotype relationships in thalassaemia intermedia Given the remarkable number of different genetic interactions that can produce the clinical phenotype of b thalassaemia intermedia (Fig. 13.5) it is not surprising that this is an extremely heterogeneous condition. Unfortunately, there are no series of any one interaction of sufficient magnitude to determine how much of the clinical heterogeneity seen in this disorder is genetic in origin. In order to carry out a study of this kind it would be necessary to compare the clinical phenotypes of patients of similar ages, ideally who had or who had not been splenectomized and who could be observed in a steady state over a reasonably long period. It would also be essential for them to be folate replete and, as far as possible, to ensure that other acquired factors which might modify the phenotype were excluded. The problem of distinguishing between genetic and acquired or environmental factors which may modify the phenotype of b thalassaemia, particularly in its intermediate forms, is one which is still relevant to the entire abnormal haemoglobin field and, for that matter, to all the monogenic diseases. Since there are virtually no twin or sibling pair studies we have very little information about the relative roles of nature and nurture in determining the phenotypes for any of the globin disorders. In this context, Ho et al. (1998a) described the findings in eight sibships with b thalassaemia intermedia. Obviously they had the same b-globin genotypes and in only one case was there a single-deletion form of a+ thalassaemia. In fact there were considerable differences between their phenotypes. As mentioned earlier, the only factor which seemed to account for this discrepancy was the steady-state level of HbF, which could, in some but not all cases, be related to the co-existence of a gene for heterocellular HPFH. This wide clinical heterogeneity within this carefully controlled group of patients underlines the problems of trying to relate genotype to phenotype in thalassaemia intermedia and how it is only possible to provide an approximate prognostic picture of the likely clinical course for any particular genetic interaction. It is against this background of extreme complexity
Thalassaemia intermedia
575
Total 86 (100%)
Fig. 13.5 A breakdown of the molecular pathology of b thalassaemia intermedia. Eighty-six patients were studied in the authors’ laboratory.The high frequency of single bthalassaemia alleles with an intermediate phenotype in this population may be due to ascertainment bias.The different molecular pathologies together with their frequency in this population are shown. In 12% of cases the phenotype could not be explained. From Ho et al. (1998a).
Single β-thalassaemia alleles (Heterozygotes) 22 (25.6%)
Two β-thalassaemia alleles (Homozygotes/compound heterozygotes) 64 (74.4%)
1 or 2 mild βthalassaemia alleles 32 (37.2%)
Xmn l-Gγ +/+ 13 (15.1%)
No mild alleles 28 (32.6%)
Implicated HPFH 4 (4.6%)
and lack of knowledge about many of the factors which can modify the phenotype that we have to discuss the clinical manifestations of its intermediate forms.
Clinical features In this section we shall discuss the main clinical features of b thalassaemia intermedia. It would have been helpful to be able to describe these manifestations against the background of a clinical classification of the severity of this heterogeneous disorder. Unfortunately, however, this has not been possible, not least because, as mentioned earlier, the phenotype tends to change with age in many cases. Ho et al. (1998a) attempted to grade the severity of the disease according to age at presentation, haemoglobin value at presentation and in the steady state, age of first transfusion and frequency of transfusion, presence of splenomegaly/hepatomegaly, bone changes and growth, and overall clinical status. In the event, it was only possible to evolve a simpler classification based on the steady-state haemoglobin level: ‘mild’, if a haemoglobin value of greater than 7.5 g/dl could be maintained without transfusion, the transfusion frequency was less than once every 2 years, or less than 6-monthly if transfusion was started after the age of 10 years; and ‘severe’, if transfusion requirements began at the age of 4 years or above with a frequency between 6 weeks and 4
Severe β+/β0and uncharacterized β-thalassaemia allele 4 (4.0%)
No known modulating factors 7 (8.1%)
Domintantlyinherited β thalassaemia 8 (9.3%)
α thalassaemia αα/α4 (4.6%)
Recessive β thalassaemia 14 (16.3%)
ααα/αα or ααα/ααα 10 (11.6%)
αα/αα 4 (4.6%)
months, or between 3 and 4 months if transfusion requirements commenced before the age of 4 years. Those with transfusion requirements between these extremes were classified as ‘moderately’ affected. A rather complex clinical classification of this type is useful for comparing genotypes with phenotypes, but only provided that the patients are iron and folate replete and do not show major discrepancies with respect to age and spleen size. But in practice there is so much individual variation between the haemoglobin level and other important clinical features, and between patients of apparently identical genotypes, that such an approach is of limited value. Early clinical descriptions As mentioned earlier, it seems likely that many of the case reports of the Rietti–Greppi–Micheli syndrome in the early Italian literature were example of b thalassaemia intermedia of varying severity. Excellent clinical descriptions of this condition are to be found in the papers of Silvestroni, Bianco and their coworkers (Silvestroni & Bianco 1944–45, 1945, 1951; Bianco et al. 1952). Much of the early Italian literature, together with further reports of cases of what are almost certainly b thalassaemia intermedia, were reviewed by Marmont and Bianchi (1948). Later series included those of Gabuzda et al. (1963), Pearson (1964), Erlandson et al. (1964a), Bannerman et al. (1967), Aksoy (1970), Aksoy et al. (1978a),
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Chapter 13
Bianco et al. (1977), Gallo et al. (1979) and Pippard et al. (1982b). The extensive literature on b thalassaemia in African and Afro-American populations, outlined in previous editions of this book, also contains some excellent clinical descriptions of the milder forms of b thalassaemia intermedia (Scott et al. 1962; Heller et al. 1966; Friedman et al. 1972; Braverman et al. 1973; Charache et al. 1974; Friedman et al. 1974; Schroeder et al. 1974; Ahern et al. 1975; Kreimer-Birnbaum et al. 1975;Willcox 1975). Unfortunately, the clinical descriptions of this disorder of more recent years have been less complete and this is one of the major reasons why it is so difficult to relate genotype to phenotype (Wainscoat et al. 1987; Fiorelli et al. 1988; Cao et al. 1990; Camaschella & Cappellini 1995; Weatherall & Clegg 1996; Rund et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1998a). In the sections that follow we shall try to put together a picture of this condition, based on a mixture of information gleaned from these early papers, the more limited recent publications that relate the disease to its genotype at the molecular level, and some personal observations which attempt to combine the two approaches. Age at diagnosis The age of presentation remains one of the most useful indicators of the likely course of homozygous or compound heterozygous b thalassaemia. Kattamis et al. (1975), in a series of 54 severely affected b thalassaemics, noted that the mean age of presentation was 13.1 months, with a range from 2 to 36 months. However, in comparing 121 severely affected bthalassaemic children with 37 who had b thalassaemia intermedia, Modell and Berdoukas (1984) noted that 60% of the severely affected patients presented in the first year, 29% in the second year and only 9% later. On the other hand only 11% of patients with thalassaemia intermedia presented in the first year, while 30% presented in the second year and 59% later than the second year.Although the age of presentation will depend on many factors, including the socioeconomic environment in which children are brought up, we have been struck by how late many children with the intermediate forms of thalassaemia present, even if they run a relatively severe course. The late onset of presentation in thalassaemia intermedia is observed even in the case of b0thalassaemia homozygosity (Cao 1988). In a series of 34 patients of this type it was found that those who
were to be transfusion dependent presented at a mean age of 8.5 ± 9.1 months, while those who were to remain independent of transfusion presented at a mean age of 17.4 ± 11.8 months. Interestingly, the presenting haemoglobin levels were not significantly different. All these patients were homozygous for the common b CD39 CÆT nonsense mutation. A curious feature of the study of Modell and Berdoukas (1984) was that, although the reticulocyte count showed little difference between babies who had thalassaemia major compared with intermedia, the bilirubin levels during the early years of life were significantly higher in those with thalassaemia intermedia. This is difficult to explain; Modell and Berdoukas suggest that, because bone-marrow erythroblasts may mature further and generate more haemoglobin in thalassaemia intermedia, the higher level of bilirubin may reflect the relative increase in haemoglobin catabolism. Course during early years of life There are few good published data on the haemoglobin levels over the first few years of life. Although some children maintain a steady-state haemoglobin value which seems to vary little during the early years of life, others do not. While it is believed that a falling haemoglobin over the first few years may reflect increasing hypersplenism (Modell & Berdoukas 1984), it is not clear whether this is so in all cases. From our own experience many children with the intermediate forms of thalassaemia do not reach a steady-state haemoglobin for several years and it is very important not to reach a conclusion about whether this will be a mild or severe form of the condition without a relatively long period of observation. Clinical features The clinical manifestations of b thalassaemia intermedia are extremely variable. In some cases the disorder presents early in life with anaemia, while in others it may not appear until later due to a complication such as hypersplenism. Many patients have been found to have this disorder on routine clinical examination. Growth and development may be normal or there may be some retardation as occurs in homozygous b thalassaemia. The major symptoms in early childhood are anaemia and mild jaundice. There is nearly always some degree of splenomegaly and
Thalassaemia intermedia
Complications Hypersplenism Increasing splenomegaly leading to hypersplenism is a relatively common feature of b thalassaemia intermedia. In most of the larger series cited above, a significant proportion of the patients had undergone splenectomy for worsening of their anaemia, thrombocytopenia or neutropenia. There is frequently a history of the patient becoming transfusion dependent and then having a splenectomy after which they did not require further transfusion. The mechanism and pathophysiology of the splenomegaly and hypersplenism are the same as described earlier for homozygous b thalassaemia (see Chapters 5 and 7).
patients have, until recently, been rare. Bannerman et al. (1967) described a 41-year-old Sicilian with b thalassaemia intermedia who had gross iron loading with associated cardiac failure, diabetes mellitus, hypopituitarism and porphyrinuria. However, Erlandson et al. (1964a) did not consider that iron loading was a major problem in this disorder, although no details of her patients’ iron status are given. In a study from the authors’ laboratory (Pippard et al. 1979) the degree of iron loading in 15 patients with b thalassaemia intermedia was examined.There was a highly significant increase in plasma ferritin levels with age and the majority of the patients over 20 years old in the series had totally saturated iron binding capacities (Fig. 13.6). Liver biopsies of three of the older patients showed excessive iron deposition associated with portal cirrhosis in each case (Fig. 13.7). Since many of these patients had received little or no blood it was assumed that the iron must have been derived from increased absorption and this was found to be the case (Tables 13.7 and 13.8). In an extension of these studies it was found that the steady-state haemoglobin level was a poor guide to the risk of iron overload. However, the extent of erythroid hyperplasia, judged by ferrokinetic studies or, more simply, by analysis of the erythroid/myeloid ratio after bone-marrow aspiration, was more useful in predicting both the rate of iron loading and the need for iron chelation therapy (Pippard & Weatherall 1984). Later studies, though disappointingly few, tend to confirm these observations. Pootrakul et al. (1981b) described increasing ferritin levels in patients with HbE thalassaemia and suggested that the rate of iron loading might be more rapid after splenectomy (see
6000 5000 Ferritin (µg/l)
often hepatomegaly.The bone changes are extremely variable and range from almost none at all to severe skeletal deformity identical to that observed in poorly managed homozygous b thalassaemia. Some babies who have presented relatively late with haemoglobin values in the 6–7 g/dl range, or lower, are clearly destined for transfusion from the beginning.When observed over a few months there is failure to thrive, listlessness, proneness to infection and a poor appetite. From developmental studies over a short period it is clear that these infants are not putting on weight or growing and developing normally, and hence they should be considered to have thalassaemia major, and treated accordingly. The course for those infants who, despite their relatively low haemoglobin levels, are fully active and thriving is usually one of a chronic, well compensated anaemia which may be exacerbated during periods of infection or folate deficiency or, most commonly, by increasing hypersplenism. While patients with this condition may require no blood transfusions, or occasional transfusion during periods of exacerbation of their anaemia, there is increasing evidence that b thalassaemia intermedia is a condition associated with many distressing clinical complications.
577
4000 3000 2000 1000
Iron loading Curiously, although patients with thalassaemia intermedia have an expanded bone-marrow mass and increased iron absorption, reports of iron loading in transfusion-independent or rarely transfused
0
10
20 30 Age (years)
40
Fig. 13.6 The relationship between age and serum ferritin levels in a group of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia. From Pippard et al. (1979).
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Chapter 13
Fig. 13.7 A section of liver showing early iron loading in a patient with b thalassaemia intermedia (Perl’s stain ¥ 300). Table 13.7 Iron absorption and data on iron status in 15 patients with thalassaemia intermedia. From Pippard et al. (1979). % 59Fe absorption Patient number
Age (years)
Previous transfusions (units)
Serum iron (µmol/l)
Total iron binding capacity (µmol/l)
Ferritin (µg/l)
5 mg Fe++
Labelled meal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
4 7 8 9 9 12 13 15 16 18 23 23 24 30 42
0 0 2 0 40 25 0 10 0 4 6* 48 25 40 15
30.5 18.5 18.5 23.0 38.0 47.5 29.0 16.0 25.5 45.5 37.0 40.0 36.0 27.5 42.0
49.5 51.0 42.0 51.0 38.0 48.0 37.5 39.0 37.5 51.0 43.5 48.0 48.0 30.0 48.0
139 197 117 146 399 277 211 2270 703 679 1120 1240 3099 5200 1590
— 28 35 53 88 69 47 17 — 85 73 78 76 37 89
— 31 — 54 — — — — — 26 — — 45 — —
* For 4 years had venesections, one unit every 2 weeks.
Chapter 9). Cossu et al. (1981), in a small series of patients with thalassaemia intermedia, reported an increasing ferritin level with age associated with an increased amount of urinary iron excreted in response to desferrioxamine. Buonanno et al. (1984) observed increasing serum ferritin levels with age and, from the results of liver biopsies, reported that there was histological evidence of liver damage before the serum ferritin values became markedly elevated. In a more extensive series of 38 adult
patients with b thalassaemia intermedia Fiorelli et al. (1990) attempted to evaluate the factors that might be responsible for the observed heterogeneity of their iron status. The level of transferrin saturation, serum ferritin and desferrioxamine-induced urinary iron excretion were spread over a wide range and did not correlate with age or steady-state haemoglobin levels. In this study significant differences in the degree of iron loading were observed between patients who had undergone splenectomy compared
Thalassaemia intermedia Table 13.8 Iron balance in five patients with thalassaemia intermedia (Pippard et al. 1979).
Balance
% retention of food iron†
% retention of 59Fe++ food iron
+5.7 +7.2 +2.6 +8.6 +7.7
56 73 26 39 54
31 54 — — 45
Iron (mg in 24 h)
Patient number*
Food
Stool
Urine
2 4 8‡ 11 13‡
10.6 10.2 11.7 23.7 15.4
4.7 2.8 8.7 14.5 7.1
0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6
579
* Numbers refer to patients shown in Table 13.7. Ê Food Fe – Stool Fe ˆ ¥ 100 † Retention = Ë ¯ Food Fe ‡ Food intake estimated from food tables for those patients, who were also on ascorbate supplements during the iron balance period.
with those with intact spleens; the iron burden was considerably greater in the splenectomized group. Overall, a considerable proportion of patients showed evidence of significant iron overload. In a study from Turkey Gumruk et al. (1992) were not able to demonstrate increased iron absorption in a group of children with b thalassaemia intermedia and concluded that the serum ferritin values were not high enough to necessitate chelation therapy. However, the mean age of their patients was 13.4 ± 7.5 years. Apart from the iron absorption results these findings are not surprising, since the earlier work of Pippard et al. (1979) showed quite clearly that iron accumulation occurred much more slowly in thalassaemia intermedia than in thalassaemia major and that significantly elevated serum ferritin values were unusual over the first 15 years of life (see Fig. 13.6). Pootrakul et al. (1988) found that there was a reasonably close agreement between the degree of erythroid hyperplasia and the rate of iron loading in patients with HbE thalassaemia and other forms of thalassaemia intermedia. There have been several reports suggesting that there may be progressive liver damage. Frigerio et al. (1984) noticed a reasonable correlation between the serum ferritin and N-acetylb-D-glucosaminidase levels in patients with b thalassaemia intermedia. These changes were thought to reflect enhanced lysosomal fragility due to iron damage. While these data are still limited they leave little doubt that severe iron loading, which we shall see later is from the gastrointestinal tract, is a common feature of b thalassaemia intermedia. This can
undoubtedly lead to liver damage and cirrhosis and to other complications of iron overload. It is also clear that serum ferritin values, though they provide an overall guide to the rate of iron loading, do not provide really useful information about when the associated manifestations of liver damage will occur. Clearly more information is needed about this important topic. Endocrine function There have been very few reports of endocrine deficiency consequent on iron loading in thalassaemia intermedia. In the patient studied by Bannerman et al. (1967) there were severe diabetes mellitus and hypopituitarism. McIntosh (1976b) described a woman with thalassaemia intermedia and multiple endocrine deficiencies; replacement therapy was followed by a normal pregnancy. Interestingly, many of the larger series contain a significant number of patients with diabetes mellitus (Erlandson et al. 1964a; Pippard et al. 1982b). Of the 15 patients reported by Pippard et al. one was frankly diabetic and three showed a reduced first-phase insulin response associated with high-normal fasting plasma glucose concentrations during standard glucose tolerance tests, findings which suggest that they had an impairment of pancreatic b-cell function. Similar results were obtained in three out of 11 patients with thalassaemia intermedia studied by De Sanctis et al. (1986).There are very few data on the function of the other endocrine glands. Bannerman and colleagues’ patient had unequivocal hypopituitarism. In our own
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series (Pippard et al. 1982b) tests of adrenal, pituitary and thyroid function were relatively normal except that two individuals showed a subnormal luteinizing hormone response to stimulation with luteinizing hormone-release hormone (LHRH). Plasma prolactin levels were all within normal limits. In several series of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia there was a history of normal puberty and menarche although the latter was sometimes delayed (Erlandson et al. 1964a; Pippard et al. 1982b). These observations suggest that, unlike inadequately chelated, transfusion-dependent homozygous b thalassaemics, many patients with b thalassaemia intermedia have relatively normal endocrine function up to and beyond puberty. However, when they reach the third or fourth decades there appears to be a significant incidence of diabetes mellitus, and other minor endocrine deficiencies occur. Clearly, we require much more information about these changes in older patients. Interestingly, Jensen et al. (1997) suggest that, even within a population of patients with transfusiondependent forms of b0 or b+ thalassaemia, the severity of the disease in relationship to endocrine function and glucose tolerance may be modified by the co-existence of a thalassaemia or by the presence of less severe b-thalassaemia alleles. Cardiac complications Because in the absence of regular blood transfusion the rate of iron loading is much slower in b thalassaemia intermedia than in thalassaemia major, it would be expected that, if cardiac complications occur at all, they would only appear in adult life. Although there have been single case reports of cardiac failure in this disorder in patients aged between 25 and 40 (Bannerman et al. 1967; Mancuso et al. 1985), and the patient described by Mancuso et al. seemed to respond to intense treatment with desferrioxamine, there have been few systematic studies of cardiac function. Fiorelli et al. (1988) provided some information about the cardiac status on 18 of their patients with thalassaemia intermedia in Italy. All had cardiomegaly and systolic flow murmurs compatible with the degree of anaemia. Their ECGs showed some modifications of the QRS complexes, compatible with ventricular hypertrophy. No consistent abnormalities of rhythm or conduction were
observed. In five of the 18 patients, echocardiograph analysis showed enlarged diastolic dimensions and some rather non-specific functional alterations. In 15 patients studied in our own centre, echocardiographic analysis showed essentially similar changes; three of 15 patients had enlarged diastolic dimensions. However, both the ejection fractions and fractional shortening were normal in all cases. Holter monitoring over a 24-h period showed that six out of seven patients studied had some non-specific abnormalities including periods of bradycardia, tachycardia and supraventricular extrasystoles. All these patients were adults with elevated serum ferritin levels and, in some cases, liver iron values (Pippard et al. 1982b). Olivieri et al. (1992d) reported studies on a 29-yearold Italian male who, though he had not received transfusions after the age of 5 years, nevertheless presented with hepatomegaly, abnormal liver function tests, an elevated serum ferritin level and marked iron loading of the liver as judged by liver biopsy and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the liver.This patient was treated with the oral chelating agent deferiprone (L1). Before treatment he showed an abnormal resting electrocardiogram with atrial bigeminy, which reverted to sinus rhythm during exercise. The left ventricular ejection fraction was 60% at rest with no increase at peak exercise. Mild right ventricular dilatation, and abnormalities in diastolic function were also observed. After treatment, the resting left ventricular ejection fraction remained normal with a normal increase on exercise. The abnormalities of ventricular diastolic function did not change during treatment except for improvement in the atrial contribution, 14% before treatment as compared with 17% afterwards. Although these are relatively mild changes the fact that they changed after treatment suggests that there were some functional cardiac anomalies secondary to iron loading. Unfortunately, there are no series of adult patients with b thalassaemia intermedia studied by sequential cardiac investigations and therefore we have no knowledge about the number of patients who might be at risk for developing cardiac disease in adult life. This important question needs further investigation. In discussing the pathophysiology of HbE thalassaemia in Chapter 9, we referred to the syndrome of pulmonary hypertension and right-heart failure, particularly in patients who had undergone splenectomy. This complication has also been described in b thalas-
Thalassaemia intermedia saemia intermedia (Aessopos et al. 1995). These workers analysed seven patients who presented with congestive cardiac failure and pulmonary hypertension.All but one had undergone splenectomy. In each case there was dilatation of the main pulmonary artery and cardiac enlargement, signs of right ventricular hypertrophy on the ECG, and a dilated right ventricle, with good left ventricular function as judged by echocardiography. Right-heart catheterization showed a markedly raised pulmonary pressure with increased pulmonary vascular resistance. The pulmonary capillary wedge pressure was in the normal range. The authors conclude that the pulmonary hypertension in these patients is almost certainly related to their b thalassaemia although, as in the case of HbE b thalassaemia, the precise mechanisms remain to be determined. The possible aetiology of right-heart failure in b thalassaemia is discussed further in Chapters 5, 7 and 9. Gallstones A high incidence of pigment stones, sometimes associated with biliary colic and cholecystitis, has been a feature of all the series of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia (Erlandson et al. 1964a; Gallo et al. 1979; Fiorelli et al. 1988; Goldfarb et al. 1990). Many patients are chronically jaundiced, probably due to a combination of ineffective erythropoiesis and haemolysis. It appears that persistent hyperbilirubinaemia, and the formation of pigment stones, is one of the commonest complications. Folic acid deficiency There are many well documented cases of folate deficiency (Erlandson et al. 1964a; Bannerman et al. 1967; Pippard et al. 1982b). It may cause worsening of the anaemia and megaloblastic erythropoiesis. The degree of anaemia may be profound. Three patients reported by Modell and Berdoukas (1984) presented in heart failure with haemoglobin values of 3.7, 4.1 and 3.1 g/dl, respectively. After treatment with folic acid the haemoglobin level rose in each case to 9.0 g/dl or more. Skeletal deformities and bone and joint disease Some patients with b thalassaemia intermedia develop severe skeletal deformities, very similar to
581
those seen in thalassaemia major (Fig. 13.8) (see Chapter 7). There is also an increased frequency of fractures following minor trauma, particularly in older patients. There are other distressing bone and joint complications about which less has been written. In their study of ‘thalassaemic osteoarthropathy’ Gratwick et al. (1978) described a curious form of periarticular disease in patients with either thalassaemia major or intermedia. It was characterized by dull aching pains in the ankles which were exacerbated by weight bearing and relieved by rest. There was no evidence of inflammatory disease of the joints. Radiological changes included widening of the medullary spaces, thin cortices with coarse trabeculation, and evidence of microfractures. Histological analysis confirmed the presence of the latter and showed osteomalacia and increased osteoblastic and osteoclastic surface areas with iron depositions in the calcification front and cement lines. We have observed this complication in several patients; X-rays of one of them are shown in Fig. 13.9. This 29-year-old Cypriot woman developed severe pain in her ankles 2 years before the period of study. An arthrodesis had been performed on her right ankle with relief of pain, but following the operation she walked on long crutches for 3 months and subsequently developed severe and incapacitating pain and limitation of movement of both shoulders associated with a severe destructive arthropathy. In our early series of 15 patients with b thalassaemia intermedia (Pippard et al. 1982b) three others experienced intermittent joint pains, a symptom which was not associated with the gross radiological changes seen in the Cypriot woman. Another complication secondary to severe bone disease was reported by Korovessis et al. (1990).They described four female patients who developed secondary acetabular protrusion, possibly the result of rarefaction of the pelvis due to bone-marrow hyperplasia. They pointed out that this was the first report of non-traumatic acetabular protrusion in patients with thalassaemia. In an extensive study, which included bone biopsy and electron-microscopic analysis of biopsy specimens of the synovial membrane of patients with thalassaemia intermedia, a number of morphological changes were demonstrated, including iron deposition and impairment of the vessels of the microcirculatory bed (Musaev et al. 1991).
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(a)
(c)
(b)
Fig. 13.8 Clinical features of severe b thalassaemia intermedia. (a,b) Facial appearances; (c) chronic leg ulcer.
Thalassaemia intermedia
(a)
Fig. 13.9 Radiological changes in b thalassaemia intermedia. (a) Moderate thalassaemic changes in the hands. (b) The right elbow showing the lacy appearance of the lower end of the humerus. (c) Left shoulder showing severe bone changes. (d) Pelvis showing bone changes in the upper end of the femora and femoral necks and the lacy appearance of the pelvic bones.
(b)
583
(c)
(d)
Although these data are sparse, it is apparent that bone disease in thalassaemia intermedia may be extremely severe, particularly in older patients. It does not simply involve the usual skeletal changes observed in under-transfused patients with b thalassaemia major, but also includes distressing forms of osteoarthropathy, which presumably reflect gross thinning of the bones over a long period of time.
This neglected topic needs much more extensive evaluation. Finally, as well as localized pain round bones and joints, patients with thalassaemia intermedia may have quite severe generalized bone pain. This symptom is highlighted by Modell and Berdoukas (1984) and we have observed it in a number of our own patients.The mechanism is not known.
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Extramedullary erythropoiesis The production of tumour masses composed of extramedullary erythropoietic tissue is a well documented feature of b thalassaemia intermedia (Erlandson et al. 1964a; Ben-Bassat et al. 1977; Genovese et al. 1979; Pippard et al. 1982b; Yu et al. 1991; Alam et al. 1997).We were surprised to find that these large tumour masses were not always correlated with gross radiological changes of the skeleton. The commonest site is in the paraspinal region (Fig. 13.10) but in one of our patients there were associated pleural masses. Alam et al. (1997) provide a valuable summary of the radiological characteristics of these lesions. Although they do not usually cause any symptoms, Bate and Humphries (1977) described a patient with severe b thalassaemia intermedia who developed spinal cord compression associated with extramedullary haemopoietic tissue. Although uncommon, there have been several reports of this
Fig. 13.10 A mass of extramedullary erythropoietic tissue in the posterior mediastinum of a patient with b thalassaemia intermedia.
complication (David & Balusubramaniam 1983; Cardia et al. 1994) and one example of a cauda equina lesion (Mancuso et al. 1993). Though haemorrhage from extramedullary haemopoietic tissue must be rare, a case of massive haemothorax has been documented (Smith et al. 1988). These extramedullary haemopoietic masses may cause considerable diagnostic problems, particularly if they present in unusual sites. We discussed the way in which they may simulate a cerebral tumour in patients with HbE b thalassaemia in Chapter 9. Sproat et al. (1991) describe the problems posed by a patient who presented with a painful presacral mass in which the diagnosis could only be confirmed by a needle biopsy guided by computed tomography (CT). Occasionally, extramedullary haematopoietic tissue may aggregate at the anterior end of the ribs, producing a particularly curious deformity (Rao et al. 1989). From the limited published experience it appears that it is usual to diagnose this complication by conventional radiology (Alam et al. 1997). In a study of masses of extramedullary haemopoietic tissue in three patients, one of whom had thalassaemia intermedia, Papavasiliou et al. (1990) found a good correlation between the radiological or CT appearances of the masses and MRI analysis. They produce a low-intensity signal, similar to that of the adjacent marrow of the thoracic spine, and are surrounded by a characteristic high-intensity signal rim attributed to a surrounding layer of fat. The latter finding has been confirmed by Martin et al. (1990). In another study, a group of patients underwent total body CT; the volume of the foci of ectopic erythropoiesis was calculated by an algorithm. There was a good correlation between the level of serum transferrin receptors and the volume of the ectopic erythropoietic masses (Sergiacomi et al. 1993). Hitherto, it has been thought that the appearance of extramedullary erythropoietic masses is a relatively rare complication. In an attempt to determine the frequency, 29 adult patients were subjected to total body CT analysis. Ectopic erythropoiesis, located mainly in the paravertebral gutters in the thorax, was detectable in 65.5% of the patients. There seemed to be a good relationship between the development of this tissue and an early age of presentation, the necessity for splenectomy and the presence of high levels of fetal haemoglobin (Dore et al. 1992).
Thalassaemia intermedia It appears that some of these extramedullary lesions may undergo fatty transformation with time or if the haemoglobin level is raised, by splenectomy for example (Martin et al. 1990).
585
levels, secondary gout seems to be an uncommon complication (Gratwick et al. 1978; Pippard et al. 1982b). Leg ulcers
Infection In Chapter 5 we summarized the evidence that children with b thalassaemia are unusually prone to infection, and discussed the limited information about the underlying mechanisms. We returned to this theme in Chapters 7 and 9 when we discussed the role of infection in severe, transfusion-dependent forms of b thalassaemia and HbE b thalassaemia. It is not clear whether patients with other forms of b thalassaemia intermedia are particularly susceptible to infection although this seems likely. Infective episodes were a common feature in the series of Erlandson et al. (1964a), Pearson (1964), Gallo et al. (1979), Pippard et al. (1982b) and Mela et al. (1988). It is quite clear from these reports that infection may be associated with a marked fall in haemoglobin level and this seems to be the commonest indication for blood transfusion. There are few data regarding the overall patterns of infection in thalassaemia intermedia. However, it is clear that specific infections which are common in the b thalassaemias occur in this condition. For example, there are a number of well documented cases of severe Yersinia infections associated with the administration of desferrioxamine (Kelly et al. 1987; de Mazzoleni et al. 1991), and aplastic or hypoplastic episodes associated with parvovirus infection have been recorded (Brownell et al. 1986). It appears that patients who have been transfused are, like others with transfusion-dependent forms of b thalassaemia, prone to hepatitis B and C (Mela et al. 1988). But, although a number of studies have been carried out to search for an immune basis for increased susceptibility to infection (Guglielmo et al. 1984), no consistent abnormalities have been found. The observation of increased serum levels of interleukin 8 in patients with thalassaemia major and intermedia may reflect hyperactivity of thalassaemic macrophages in relationship to chronic haemolysis (Dore et al. 1995). Hyperuricaemia and gout Although in several reported series some patients with b thalassaemia intermedia had elevated uric acid
The occurrence of chronic ulcers, usually just above the medial malleolus, was reported in the early Italian literature and has been documented in more recent series (Gallo et al. 1979; Gimmon et al. 1982; Modell & Berdoukas 1984; Fiorelli et al. 1988; Camaschella & Cappellini 1995). We have seen this complication quite frequently in Cypriot patients with thalassaemia intermedia in the UK (Fig. 13.8). Its relationship to the rheological properties of the red cells is discussed by Gimmon et al. (1982). Pregnancy A detailed account of a single pregnancy was described by Walker et al. (1969). The patient, with typical thalassaemia intermedia, became profoundly anaemic after becoming pregnant and required transfusions to prevent the development of cardiac failure. She was delivered at 37 weeks by Caesarean section and a further transfusion was given immediately postpartum.The infant was healthy. Later series confirmed that pregnancy may be associated with severe, sometimes life-threatening anaemia (Afifi 1974; Dolfin et al. 1983).Among the 24 Egyptian women reported by Alifi, there was a 50% fetal loss among those who were untransfused, compared with a ‘normal fetal wastage’ among those maintained at a haemoglobin in excess of 9 g/dl throughout pregnancy. Thromboembolic disease In Chapters 5 and 7 we discussed the increasing suspicion that many forms of b thalassaemia may be associated with a hypercoagulable state and an increased proneness to thrombotic episodes. We also pointed out that, while this may be the case, there are very limited data about the frequency of this complication; the b thalassaemia intermedia literature is equally uninformative. In their review of thromboembolic events in b thalassaemia, Borgna-Pignatti et al. (1998a) identified 32 patients with this complication out of a total 735 subjects, of whom 683 had thalassaemia major and 52
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Chapter 13
thalassaemia intermedia, corresponding to an incidence of 3.95 and 9.61%, respectively. The spectrum and distribution of thrombotic episodes described in this study are discussed in detail in Chapter 7. In the five thrombotic episodes encountered in patients with thalassaemia intermedia there appeared to be no particular associated risk factors, with the possible exception of chronic liver disease. Apart from this report there are only a few isolated case reports of severe thrombotic disease, particularly after splenectomy. For example, Skarsgard et al. (1993) described three patients, one of whom had thalassaemia intermedia, who presented with abdominal pain, nausea and fever approximately 1–2 weeks postsplenectomy. Abdominal Doppler ultrasound and/or CT showed an intraluminal filling defect with partial obstruction to flow in one main branch of the portal vein, splenic vein thrombosis with complete occlusion of the main portal and proximal superior mesenteric veins, and a complete thrombosis of the splenic vein. It should be pointed out, however, that in this report there were two other patients who developed the same complications who had different blood disorders. However, with the exception of HbE b thalassaemia, which was discussed in Chapter 9, there have been no other reports of thrombotic complications in patients with thalassaemia intermedia. On the other hand, recent studies indicate that, like patients with b thalassaemia major, those with thalassaemia intermedia may have a chronic hypercoagulable state associated with platelet activation which correlates with red-cell anionic phospholipid exposure (Ruf et al. 1997). In short, it appears that prethrombotic changes, described in Chapters 5 and 7 as being associated with the severe forms of b thalassaemia, are also demonstrable in patients with thalassaemia intermedia. But, until more clinical information is available, it is impossible to make any judgements about the clinical relevance of these laboratory findings. Similarly, it is not clear how they relate to reports of the occurrence of recurrent priapism following splenectomy for this condition (Macchia et al. 1990; Dore et al. 1991). Haematological findings There is a variable degree of anaemia, with haemoglobin values in the 5–10 g/dl range. The red-cell indices are typically thalassaemic with low MCH and
MCV values. In splenectomized patients we have observed higher MCH values than would be expected from the appearances of the peripheral blood film. However, this may reflect the presence of large numbers of small distorted cells which are not counted in the electronic cell counter. The peripheral blood film shows major abnormalities in the shape and size of the red cells, indistinguishable from those of transfusion-dependent b thalassaemia. There are always some nucleated red cells in the peripheral blood and, following splenectomy, they may reach very high levels. Except in the presence of hypersplenism the white-cell count and platelet counts are usually normal. The reticulocyte count is elevated and, in some forms of b thalassaemia intermedia, on staining with methyl violet, nucleated red cells show ragged inclusion bodies, similar to those observed in homozygous b thalassaemia. Bone-marrow examination shows marked erythroid hyperplasia and, again, many of the red-cell precursors contain inclusion bodies.The morphological changes are the same as those in transfusiondependent b thalassaemia. Red-cell survival, ferrokinetics and erythrokinetics Red-cell survival studies have been reported in two series of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia (Erlandson et al. 1964a; Gallo et al. 1979). In the earlier report there was a moderate reduction in redcell survival time while in the more recent study there was considerable shortening, with 51Cr T1/2 values ranging from 10 to 16 days. As mentioned earlier there is a marked increase in iron absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (Heinrich et al. 1973; De Alarcon et al. 1979; Pippard et al. 1979; Pippard & Weatherall 1984). The results of iron absorption and balance analyses carried out on five patients in the authors’ laboratory are shown in Tables 13.7 and 13.8. They were all in a positive balance of between 2.6 and 8.6 mg Fe per day. Using a sophisticated iron kinetic-based measure of erythropoiesis, Cavill et al. (1978) studied two patients who had not received transfusion for 5 years. They found that the marrow iron turnover was approximately six times normal but that most of this increased activity was ineffective; the mean red-cell production rates were 0.86 and 2.22 ¥ 106 cells per litre of blood per second, respectively, as compared with a normal value of 0.51 ¥ 106. These findings indicate a fairly
Thalassaemia intermedia extreme degree of ineffective erythropoiesis. Similar results were reported by Najean et al. (1985). Barosi et al. (1987) found that erythropoietic activity was invariably related to haemoglobin levels and correlated with the level of HbF. In an extensive series of studies Pootrakul et al. (1988) observed ineffective erythropoiesis and marked expansion of the erythroid mass, the extent of which correlated with the degree of increased iron loading. More recently the estimation of the serum transferrin receptor level has been used to determine the degree of erythroid expansion in different forms of thalassaemia. In a study by Dore et al. (1996) of untransfused subjects with a steady-state haemoglobin level of 9.6 g/dl the mean basal transferrin receptor level was 30.3 as compared with 12.8 in a series of age-matched healthy controls. These observations suggest a highly significant increase in the size of the erythron. Interestingly, the response of the serum transferrin level to erythropoietin was quite inconsistent, a topic to which we shall return in the next section. Erythropoietin response There have been several studies of serum erythropoietin (Epo) levels in b thalassaemia intermedia (Dore et al. 1993; Camaschella et al. 1996; Nisli et al. 1997). Dore and colleagues found that the mean level of serum Epo was significantly higher than in normal controls and the levels were lower in transfusiondependent subjects. In untransfused patients there was an inverse relationship between serum Epo values and the haemoglobin level. These results were confirmed by Nisli and colleagues, who also observed that if transfusion-dependent patients with thalassaemia major were studied at the same haemoglobin concentrations as those with thalassaemia intermedia the mean serum Epo level was significantly higher in the former group. Camaschella and her colleagues found more variation in the Epo levels. Six patients showed inappropriately low Epo levels and, even excluding these cases, there was no clear relationship between the haemoglobin levels and those of erythropoietin or transferrin receptors. These workers also found that in two groups of patients with similar haemoglobin levels, but low or high levels of HbF, the latter group have higher serum Epo values. Curiously, no difference in the serum transferrin receptor levels were
587
observed between the two groups. These findings are surprising; higher levels of Epo might be expected to occur in those with more HbF, because of its greater oxygen affinity. Furthermore, this should have been reflected by a higher erythroid mass as determined by the level of transferrin receptors. The authors conclude that the relationship between anaemia, the level of HbF and the erythroid mass in thalassaemia intermedia is more complex than expected! This should not surprise us. As we saw in earlier chapters, the relationship between the erythropoietin response and the degree of anaemia is inconsistent in most forms of b thalassaemia as compared with other forms of anaemia. The reasons for this discrepancy remain to be determined. Mechanisms of red-cell destruction In Chapter 5 we considered the effects of globin imbalance on the survival of red-cell precursors and mature red cells in a and b thalassaemia. It seems likely that the mechanisms of damage to the red cells and their precursors are similar across the spectrum of the b thalassaemias (Schrier 1997). In short, it appears that it reflects excess a-chain production, the effects of inclusion body formation, the interaction of a chains with the various components of the red-cell membrane, and the deleterious effects of the degradation products of excess haemoglobin subunits, notably haem, haemin and iron. In the red-cell precursors, haem, haemichromes and iron components of a globins serve as foci for the generation of reactive oxygen species that result in the partial oxidation of band 4.1, and for a decrease of the spectrin/band 3 ratio. In the red cells the formation of membrane-bound haemichrome creates a copolymer of macromolecular dimensions which promotes clustering of band 3 in the membrane. These clusters are opsonized with autologous IgG complement and hence removed by macrophages. In addition, band 4.1 is partially oxidized.These changes are aggravated by excess iron accumulation and the generation of oxygen free radicals, with subsequent damage to several membrane components, including lipids and protein, as well as intracellular organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes. Much of the work that has yielded these concepts has been carried out on the cells of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia (Shinar et al. 1989;Advani et al. 1992b; Scott et al. 1992; Mannu et al. 1995); the
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changes in calcium homeostasis in thalassaemic cells, described in Chapter 5, were defined in the cells of similarly affected patients (Bookchin et al. 1988). Shaeffer (1988) has demonstrated that the ATPdependent proteolysis of excess a chains in b thalassaemia intermedia is ubiquitin dependent. In magnetic resonance spectroscopy analyses of the red cells of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia compared with those of heterozygous b thalassaemics and normals, it was found that there were similar concentrations of ATP and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in the three groups. However, the profile of glucose metabolism was quite different in the red cells of patients with b thalassaemia intermedia; there was a threefold faster rate of glucose metabolism, which was thought to reflect increased activity of the pentose phosphate pathway, possibly as a consequence of the elevated oxidative state of the red cells (Ting et al. 1994). It appears therefore that the major pathways to red-cell damage are similar in all forms of b thalassaemia and that, ultimately, it is the magnitude and properties of the excess a chains that are the major factors which determine the survival of the red-cell precursors and their progeny. Since, for one reason or another, the level of globin imbalance is usually less in b thalassaemia intermedia than in the more severe forms of the disease, it follows that, overall, the degree of disordered erythropoiesis and peripheral red-cell destruction is less marked.
Haemoglobin constitution Considering the extraordinarily diverse genotypes that may underlie the phenotype of thalassaemia intermedia it is not surprising that it is characterized by a wide range of different haemoglobin constitutions. Indeed, there is no one pattern that could be called typical. For this reason, it is only possible to make a few generalizations based on the different genetic interactions outlined in Table 13.1. In the thalassaemia intermedias that result from the homozygous state for mild b+-thalassaemia mutations the level of HbF tends to be low compared with other types of b thalassaemia that result from the interaction of two alleles. This is exemplified in the homozygous state for the common Mediterranean mutation, IVS1-6 TÆC, in which the fetal haemoglobin level tends to be in the region of 20% of the total, though there is considerable scatter (Efremov et al.
1988). As pointed out earlier, the exceptions to this rule are the homozygous or compound heterozygous states for promoter mutations of the b-globin gene. In this case there tends to be an unexpectedly high level of fetal haemoglobin, usually in excess of 50% of the total (Gonzalez-Redondo et al. 1988a). In both these disorders homozygotes have, as a rule, increased levels of HbA2. In homozygotes for b0 thalassaemia intermedia the haemoglobin is made up almost entirely of the fetal variety and the HbA2 level is usually in the normal range (Thein et al. 1988a). These forms of b0 thalassaemia intermedia, such as the Dutch variety, which are due to deletions of the 5¢ end of the b-globin gene, are often associated with unusually high levels of Hbs F and A2 in heterozygotes (Thein 1993). In the interactions between the homozygous or compound heterozygous state for b+ or b0 thalassaemia in association with the heterozygous states for a+ or a0 thalassaemia the haemoglobin pattern does not seem to alter from that found with the bthalassaemia mutations alone. On the other hand, the interaction between these forms of b thalassaemia and the genotype of HbH disease produces a quite different haemoglobin pattern. In this case, while the amounts of Hbs A and F do not differ significantly from those seen in homozygous or compound heterozygous b+ or b0 thalassaemia, there is an unusually high level of HbA2 and traces of Hb Bart’s can be demonstrated (Loukopoulos et al. 1978; Furbetta et al. 1979; our unpublished observations). The haemoglobin findings in individuals with different dominant forms of b thalassaemia are summarized in Table 13.9. Overall, they have levels of HbF in the 3–5% range; their HbA2 level, while usually elevated, has been almost normal in a few well documented cases.
Haemoglobin synthesis Several studies have reported a-/non-a-globin synthesis ratios in patients with b thalassaemia intermedia (Bianco et al. 1977; Gallo et al. 1979; Pippard et al. 1982b). They were all carried out before the days when it was possible to determine the underlying mutations and therefore it is impossible to relate these data to more recent work of the molecular pathology of b thalassaemia intermedia. Over recent years it has not been customary to measure globin synthesis ratios in these conditions and therefore
— —
— — Agnana — Manhattan Geneva
CD121 GÆT (GluÆTerm) CD127 CÆT (GlnÆTerm)
IVS2-2,3 +11, –2 IVS2-4,5 –AG
CD94 +TG CD100 –CTT, +TCTGAGAACTT CD109 –G CD114 –CT +G
1–3
1.2 36* 42* 4.6 5.8
3.7
4.0 2–20
? ? 2–12 8
?
9.9 4–7 12
≠ 8
14 2.4–4 ? ≠ (?)
3.0
2.4 1.6 3.6 1.6 12.9
10 18
2.4–3.9 4.0 0.9 1.0 3.0 0.8–7.0
12 1.3–2.0 6–7 4.0 13.0 24 10 18 1.9 3.6 2.3 2500 ng/ml.The circles show cardiac disease-free survival among patients in whom less than 33% of ferritin measurements exceeded 2500 ng/ml. Squares show survival among those in whom 33–67% of ferritin measurements exceeded 2500 ng/ml.Triangles show survival among those in whom more than 60% of ferritin measurements exceeded 2500 ng/ml. From Olivieri et al. (1994). (b) Survival related to hepatic iron concentration. Group 1 is assessed as having effective chelation therapy, group 2 ineffective. Based on hepatic iron concentrations as discussed in the text and as shown in Fig. 7.8, Chapter 7. From Brittenham et al. (1994).
elevated hepatic iron concentrations (Cohen et al. 1989b). The importance of adequate iron chelation in patients with heavy iron loads of the liver who are being treated for hepatitis C is discussed later in this chapter.
(b)
Management and prognosis 1
80–84
75–79
Survival probability
0.8
Fig. 15.4 Survival probability (%) as of January 1996 of thalassaemic patients born in Italy between 1960 and 1984. Kindly prepared for the authors by Dr Borgna-Pignatti.
639
70–74
0.6 65–69 0.4 60–64 0.2
0
5
Endocrine function The consequences of iron loading of the endocrine glands were discussed in Chapters 5 and 7. The impact that iron chelation therapy has had on endocrine function and growth is still under evaluation. Many of the studies that examined this question have only reported short periods of observation on treatment and have also been complicated by the relatively advanced age at the start of DF therapy and the short duration, or inadequate compliance with subcutaneous DF administration (BorgnaPignatti et al. 1985; Sklar et al. 1987; Maurer et al. 1988; Kwan et al. 1995; Rodda et al. 1995; Roth et al. 1997). Overall, at least as estimated by serum ferritin values, the most recent data suggest that adequate chelation therapy has some beneficial effect on growth, development and sexual maturation, probably the most significant indicators of endocrine function (Bronspeigel-Weintrob et al. 1990; Grundy et al. 1994; Italian working Group on Endocrine Complications in Non-endocrine Diseases 1995; Papadimas et al. 1996; Jensen et al. 1997). However, the findings are not entirely consistent. For example, Gabutti and Piga (1996) found that in patients born after 1977, and maintained with a serum ferritin level below 2000 mg/l, pubertal development was normal in 73% of girls and 58% of boys. On the other hand, in another series of Italian patients born between 1960 and 1987, hypogonadism was noted in 55% of 578 patients who had reached
10
15 20 Age (years)
25
30
35
puberty (Borgna-Pignatti et al. 1998b). However, Bronspeigel-Weintrob et al. (1990) found a good correlation between the age of commencing chelation therapy and sexual development and growth; those who started before the age of 10 years fared better than those who started later. In discussing the disappointingly high frequency of retarded sexual function in thalassaemic patients, even if maintained on adequate chelation therapy (see Chapter 7), we suggested that the anterior pituitary may be unusually susceptible over time to ironinduced damage and, unlike the heart and liver, the consequences of iron deposition within gonadotropes may be irreversible. Further work is required to answer these difficult questions. This must entail the measurement of body iron burden by measuring the hepatic iron concentration; Dr N.F. Olivieri et al. (unpublished) have preliminary data that suggest that levels of between 9 and 13 mg/g liver, dry weight, may be associated with a high risk of the development of pituitary failure. Further work is required to assess both the body iron burden and anterior pituitary function in patients followed from infancy. Diabetes mellitus Adequate chelation therapy appears to reduce the likelihood of the development of pancreatic damage and diabetes mellitus (Brittenham et al. 1994).
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The reversal of iron-induced organ dysfunction Several reports have suggested that intensive DF therapy can reverse iron-induced cardiac and liver dysfunction (Freeman et al. 1983; Marcus et al. 1984; Rahko et al. 1986;Aldouri et al. 1990).We shall discuss the practical applications later in this chapter. What is the optimal body iron level in patients with b thalassaemia major? Because the magnitude of body iron burden is the principal determinant of the clinical outcome, its control is the prime goal of iron chelation therapy. A level must be achieved which will both minimize the risk of adverse effects from the iron chelating agent and yet, at the same time, prevent the complications of iron overload. As discussed later, there appears to be a good relationship between the dose of DF and the risk of adverse reactions. Hence, therapy directed towards maintaining a normal body iron, corresponding to a hepatic iron level of about 1–9 mm iron/g liver, wet weight, or about 0.2–1.6 mg iron/g liver, dry weight, might reduce the likelihood of complications of iron overload yet greatly increase the probability of dose-related drug toxicity. In the absence of any data from prospective clinical trials to answer this important question, guidance about the risk of complications associated with lower levels of body iron have had to be derived from clinical experience with hereditary haemochromatosis (HH). In this condition, iron overload is the result of ineffective regulation of iron absorption. Minor iron loading develops in about one-quarter of heterozygotes, but their body iron stores do not increase beyond about two to four times the upper limit of normal (Cartwright et al. 1979). In contrast, homozygotes, who develop much greater iron burdens, have an increased risk of cardiac disease, hepatic fibrosis, diabetes mellitus, endocrine abnormalities and, indeed, every complication of iron overload. Just as in the case of thalassaemia, in HH the greater the body iron excess, the higher the risk of adverse consequences. Despite the complex factors that modify the toxic manifestations of iron overload, discussed in Chapter 7, these considerations suggest that a conservative goal for iron chelation therapy in patients with thalassaemia major is to maintain an ‘optimal’ body iron
corresponding to hepatic storage iron concentrations of about 18–38 mm iron/g liver, wet weight, or about 3.2–7 mg iron/g liver, dry weight, that is, in the range found in heterozygotes for HH. As discussed below, the risk of DF toxicity associated with body iron levels within this range is probably minor but it is almost certainly increased at lower body iron burdens. Patients with higher liver iron concentrations, up to about 80 mm iron/g liver, wet weight, or about 15 mg iron/g liver, dry weight, are considered to be at increased risk of hepatic fibrosis, diabetes mellitus and other complications and need more intensive iron chelation therapy. Those with yet higher body iron burdens are recognized as having a greatly increased risk of cardiac disease and early death, and are candidates for continuous intravenous ambulatory DF therapy (see below).These ranges are shown graphically in Fig. 7.8, Chapter 7. The relationship of serum ferritin levels to optimal body iron loads is discussed below. Practical aspects of chelation therapy with desferrioxamine (Table 15.1) Initiation of therapy Uncertainties exist about the optimal age to start chelation therapy. Reports of abnormal linear growth and metaphyseal dysplasia in children treated with intensive regimens of DF before the age of 3 years (De Virgiliis et al. 1988; Piga et al. 1988; Olivieri et al. 1992c; Rodda et al. 1995) have led to recommendations for starting later (Rodda et al. 1995). On the other hand, as discussed in Chapter 7, early hepatic biopsies have revealed moderate to severe iron overload at an early age. Furthermore, elevated hepatic iron concentrations associated with fibrosis, not always evidenced by determinations of serum ferritin levels or abnormal liver function tests, have been observed in transfused children of less than 3 years of age (Berkovitch et al. 1993; Angelucci et al. 1995a; Saxon et al. 1997). Another factor to be taken into consideration is data suggesting that early chelation therapy may reduce the frequency of failure of growth and sexual maturation (Olivieri et al. 1990a). Clearly, therefore, the time of the initiation of therapy cannot be determined on absolutely sound grounds (Olivieri & Brittenham 1997). Very recent
Management and prognosis
Modes of administration Most patients and their parents find it most convenient to administer DF by means of an overnight infusion with the rate set to empty the syringe in 8–12 h. A variety of small portable syringe-driver pumps or disposable infusers are available. The drug is infused through a disposable ‘butterfly’ set with a fine (25 g) needle, which can be sited anywhere on the body, although most patients prefer the abdomen, thigh or upper arm. It is most important to follow a careful aseptic technique while setting up the infusion and the dose of DF must be diluted to a maximum concentration of 1 g/5 ml. At the end of the infusion there may be a small, tender nodule that normally takes 1–3 days to resorb although occasionally larger and longer-lasting swellings occur. It is usually possible to maintain iron balance with an infusion given four to five nights each week, with a rest at the weekends. The management of local reactions to the drug is considered later. Ascorbate As described in Chapter 5 and earlier in the present
120 Urinary iron excretion (mg/24 h)
data emerging from prospective studies of young children aged 1–2 years, following the start of transfusions but before the initiation of chelation therapy, suggest that there are very variable tissue iron concentrations and degrees of tissue damage during this period (Saxon et al. 1997). We recommend therefore that, ideally, hepatic iron concentrations should be measured after approximately 1 year of regular transfusion. Iron chelation therapy is indicated in patients whose hepatic iron concentrations exceed 7 mg/g liver, dry weight. The initial dose should depend on the hepatic iron concentration, but if a liver biopsy is not possible at the start of therapy, treatment with subcutaneous DF, not exceeding 25–35 mg/kg body weight/24 h, should be initiated approximately 1 year after the start of regular transfusion. The basis for this recommendation, and a titration scheme which offers effective chelation, while attempting to circumvent drug toxicity, is discussed below and in Table 15.1. We shall return to the dose regimens for DF in patients who are already iron loaded or have symptoms of organ dysfunction in a later section.
641
100 80 60 40 20
0
1
2 4 Desferrioxamine (g/12 h infusion)
6
Fig. 15.5 The effect of ascorbic acid on urinary iron excretion after the administration of desferrioxamine.The closed circles show the course of excretion before administering ascorbate and the open circles the course after ascorbate treatment. From Pippard et al. (1978b).
chapter, ascorbate deficiency is common in patients with b thalassaemia and there is excellent evidence that the efficacy of DF is improved by the administration of ascorbate (Chapman et al. 1982). It is not clear whether the increased rate of iron excretion observed during co-administration of ascorbate (Fig. 15.5) is due to the drug’s action in the cellular compartment alone or in both cells and plasma. One potential mechanism by which ascorbate might increase the rate of iron loss is by facilitating the chelation of non-transferrin-bound plasma iron (see Chapter 5) by DF. On the other hand, ascorbateinduced expansion of this pool has the potential to enhance free-radical formation and to aggravate the toxicity of iron (Nienhuis 1981). For this reason some authors discourage the use of ascorbate for the potentiation of the action of DF (Fosburg & Nathan 1990). One approach is to measure the tissue ascorbate concentration and, if this is reduced, to administer ascorbic acid on the same day as the infusion of DF. In practice, most patients receive up to 100 mg ascorbate on the day of the infusion, approximately 30 min–1 h before it is started. This seems to be a reasonable compromise and as far as we know it has not led to any side-effects. Given the current lack of evidence about the risks of ascorbate-related iron toxicity, this rather ad hoc approach is the best that can be recommended.
If severe spinal or metaphyseal changes present, reduce DF to 25 mg/kg/night ¥ 4 nights/wk even if HIC ≥ 7 mg/g dry weight Reassess in 6 months
Radiographs as above
Serum ferritin, Fe, and TIBC Serum ALT Hepatitis screen WBC ascorbate concentration
HIC < 3.2 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 3.2 but < 7 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 7 mg/g dry weight
Liver biopsy under U/S guidance; assessment as above
Same as above
Initiate DF at 25 mg/kg/night ¥ 5 nights/week
HIC ≥ 3.2 mg/g dry weight
If WBC ascorbate low, administer vitamin C po 100 mg/night during DF infusion
Increase DF to 35 mg/kg/night ¥ 6–7 nights/ week
Discontinue DF; reassess HIC in 6 months Continue DF at 25 mg/kg/night ¥ 5 nights/week
If WBC ascorbate low, administer vitamin C po 100 mg/night during DF infusion
Defer chelation; reassess HIC in 6 months
HIC < 3.2 mg/g dry weight
Yearly, before age 5 years
Should be reviewed by paediatric radiologist and endocrinologist with experience in toxicity of DF
Should be obtained after approx. 1 year of regular transfusion
Liver biopsy under U/S guidance with quantitative liver iron, histology, PCR for hepatitis C RNA Radiographs of cartilage in wrists, knees, thoracolumbosacral spine; bone age Standing and sitting heights Serum ferritin, Fe, and TIBC Serum ALT Hepatitis screen WBC ascorbate concentration
Treatment recommendations
Results
At start of therapy
Comment
Assessment
Time-point
Table 15.1 Management of iron chelating therapy in thalassaemia.Adapted from Olivieri & Brittenham (1997).
642 Chapter 15
Radiographs as above Standing and sitting heights Serum ferritin, Fe, and TIBC Serum ALT Hepatitis screen WBC ascorbate concentration
Liver Bx under U/S guidance; assessments as above
Same as above
HIC ≥ 3.2 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 3.2 but < 7 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 7 but < 15 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 15 mg/g dry weight If abnormal, reassess HIC promptly
If abnormal, reassess HIC promptly
Radiographs as above Standing and sitting heights Serum ferritin, Fe, and TIBC Serum ALT Hepatitis screen WBC ascorbate concentration
Same as above
HIC < 3.2 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 3.2 but < 7 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 7 but < 15 mg/g dry weight HIC ≥ 15 mg/g dry weight
Liver biopsy under U/S guidance with quantitative HIC, histology, PCR for hepatitis C RNA
If WBC ascorbate low, administer vitamin C po 100 mg/night during DF infusion
Maintain DF at 50 mg/kg/night ¥ 7 nights/wk Titrated DF as above
Maintain DF at 40 mg/kg/night ¥ 6–7 nights/wk
Discontinue DF; reassess HIC in 6 months Maintain DF at 40 mg/kg/night ¥ 5 nights/wk
If WBC ascorbate low, administer vitamin C po 100 mg/night during DF infusion
Maintain DF at 40 mg/kg/night ¥ 6–7 nights/wk Maintain DF at 40–50 mg/kg/night ¥ 7 nights/wk Titrate DF as above
Discontinue DF; reassess HIC in 6 months Maintain DF at 40 mg/kg/night ¥ 5 nights/wk
ALT, alanine aminotransferase; BX, biopsy; DF, desferrioxamine; HIC, hepatic iron concentration; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; po, orally; TIBC, total iron binding capacity; U/S, ultrasound;WBC, white blood cells.
Every 18 months, after 10 years
Every 18 months, from age 5–10 years
Management and prognosis 643
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Table 15.2 Assessment of body iron burden in thalassaemia.Adapted from Olivieri and Brittenham (1997). Test
Organ
Indirect Serum/plasma ferritin concentration
Most tests widely available Non-invasive Lacks sensitivity and specificity Poorly correlated with hepatic iron concentration in individual patients Lacks sensitivity Less than half of outpatient aliquots collected correctly Ratio of stool/urine iron variable; poorly correlated with hepatic iron concentration
Serum transferrin saturation Tests of 24-h desferrioxamine-induced urinary iron excretion Imaging of tissue iron Computed tomography Magnetic resonance
Comments
Liver Liver Heart
Anterior pituitary Evaluation of organ function
Direct Cardiac iron quantification: biopsy Hepatic iron quantification: biopsy
Superconducting susceptometry (SQUID)
Variable correlation with hepatic iron concentration reported Variable correlations with hepatic iron concentration reported Treatment-induced changes confirmed by liver biopsy Only method available to image cardiac iron stores; changes observed during chelating therapy are consistent with reduction in cardiac iron Only method available to image pituitary iron; signal moderately well correlated with pituitary reserve Most tests lack sensitivity and specificity; may identify established organ dysfunction Most tests not widely available Imprecise due to inhomogeneous distribution of cardiac iron Reference method; provides direct assessment of body iron burden, severity of fibrosis and inflammation Safe when performed with ultrasound guidance Non-invasive; excellent correlation with biopsy-determined hepatic iron
Monitoring progress; the assessment of body iron burden Current methods for assessing the body iron burden were discussed in Chapter 7 and have been reviewed in detail by Olivieri and Brittenham (1997) (Table 15.2). While it is the practice of many centres that look after children with b thalassaemia to rely on serum ferritin levels, and to try to maintain values of less than 2000 mg/l, as discussed in Chapters 5 and 7 and reviewed by Olivieri and Brittenham (1997) this approach has limited precision. Because of the wide scatter of liver iron concentrations with ferritin levels in the region of 2000 mg/l it is quite possible to have dangerously high body iron burdens with serum ferritin values that appear to be in the ‘safe’ range. Similarly, there is the danger of inducing DF toxicity in patients with serum ferritin values of
500–1000 mg/l. For these reasons we believe that the regular estimation of liver iron levels is, currently, the best approach to following the progress of children receiving chelation therapy. Of the many reasons why clinicians seem loath to follow this approach, the perceived dangers of liver biopsy are probably the most important. For example, in a series of 6379 adults with a variety of conditions two deaths were recorded and intraperitoneal haemorrhage requiring blood transfusion occurred in 40 cases (Sherlock et al. 1985). In contrast, in a study of children with thalassaemia a 0.5% rate of major complications was reported, including bleeding and biliary peritonitis; there were no fatalities (Angelucci et al. 1995). In a study in Toronto, the centre with the most experience of liver biopsies in thalassaemic children, 198 percutaneous biopsies in 105 regularly transfused
Management and prognosis children were analysed (Saxon et al. 1997). The children, with a mean age of 10.9 ± 4.8 (range 1.4–18.4) years, were observed over 30 consecutive months. A total of 55 patients underwent two biopsies; 19 patients underwent three. Before all procedures the international normalized prothrombin ratio (INR), platelet counts and clotting function were assessed as adequate (INR less than 1.3, platelet count greater than 100 ¥ 109/l). Conscious sedation was achieved with midazolam, 0.1–0.2 mg/kg body weight given intravenously, and intravenous pethedine, 1 mg/kg, was administered 5–10 min before the procedure. All biopsies were performed under ultrasound guidance by one of two radiologists, using an 18-gauge Angiomed needle (Bard, Canada); up to three passes per procedure were obtained. The children were admitted for the biopsy on the day of transfusion, observed for 6 h while the transfusion was administered, and discharged home in the late afternoon. Immediately after the biopsy the specimen was frozen at –70°C without further treatment; quantification of hepatic iron was carried out at one centre and samples for histological assessment were prepared from the fresh biopsy specimens. No complications were observed and there was no increase in admission time. All biopsies were adequate (0.6 mg dry weight) for quantification of hepatic iron. It appears therefore that in centres which are carrying out this procedure regularly it is safe. However, it requires expertise and experience on the part of the operator and those who are involved in the ultrasound guidance. If measurement of the hepatic iron concentration is not feasible, and access to SQUID (see Chapter 7) is not possible, the serum ferritin level has to be used to attempt to maintain the body iron level in the optimal range. As discussed earlier, a serum ferritin level of above 2500 mg/l may be used as a threshold value to identify patients at an increased risk of cardiac disease and early death (see Olivieri et al. 1994b). The concentrations corresponding to the optimal range for hepatic iron, shown in Fig. 7.8, Chapter 7, are less clearly defined. Preliminary analysis of studies of a large number of adults with thalassaemia major after more than 15 years of DF therapy has suggested that very rigorous control of body iron burden, as suggested by maintenance of serum ferritin concentrations under 1000 mg/l, is associated with a very low incidence of iron-induced complications. On the other hand, as mentioned earlier, iron-
645
related morbidity may increase significantly with even slightly less effective iron chelation therapy (Lai et al. 1995). Another approach to monitoring progress by the serum ferritin level is to calculate a ‘toxicity’ index, defined as the mean daily dose of DF (mg/kg) divided by the serum ferritin concentration (mg/l), estimated every 6 months; it should not exceed 0.025 (Porter et al. 1989b). Desferrioxamine toxicity Local cutaneous reactions These are by far the most commonly observed adverse effects, and may sometimes be quite difficult to manage. Irregular absorption from the site of injection may account for pain and formation of lumps under the skin; hypertonicity of the solution may increase their frequency but they are observed even with adequate dilution of DF. Itching and weal formation are also common. The reason for these side-effects is not always clear; sometimes they appear to result from contaminants in particular batches of the drug. Poor injection technique may also be a factor. Severe sensitivity reactions; desferrioxamine allergy Rarely, patients may have more severe, generalized sensitivity reactions to DF. These reactions must be very uncommon. Modell and Berdoukas (1984) were only able to find two cases out of 200 in the UK in which patients had developed reactions of this type, and were only able to quote one patient in Italy and two from the USA. The reactions take the form of acute episodes characterized by wheezing, tachypnoea, tachycardia, hypertension and, occasionally, coma. Although this points to an allergic mechanism, evidence supporting an immunological basis for this is lacking, while a direct, immunoglobulin-E-dependent activation of dermal mast cells by DF has been demonstrated (Shalit et al. 1991). These severe reactions may be managed effectively using rapid intravenous desensitization similar to protocols recommended for penicillin allergy (Miller et al. 1981; Bousquet et al. 1983; Lombardo et al. 1996a).
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Chronic systemic side-effects The majority of serious toxic effects of DF are observed in patients who are receiving doses in excess of 50 mg/kg body weight, or in those on smaller doses in the presence of very modestly elevated body iron burdens (De Virgiliis et al. 1988; Porter & Huehns 1989). Ocular manifestations include cataracts and retinal damage. Several patients with cataracts have been reported (Waxman & Brown 1969; Modell 1979; Davies et al. 1983). The condition usually improves after stopping the drug, which can be safely restarted at a lower dose after 2–3 weeks or when symptomatic recovery is complete (Porter & Huehns 1989). Overall, this seems to be a mild complication in that none of the reported patients have had visual loss associated with the opacities of their lens. Retinal damage was first reported by Davies et al. (1983) in two patients who were receiving a very high dose of DF intravenously. The retinal changes were associated with an inability to see in dim light and impaired peripheral vision. The visual acuity was normal, with a normal visually evoked response (VER), but there was peripheral field loss with bilateral annular scotomata. On stopping the drug the retinal changes improved although some visual field loss remained. Retinal signs have now been described in detail by a number of authors (Borgna-Pignatti et al. 1984b; Olivieri et al. 1986; Freedman et al. 1989). Most of these reports described night-blindness, annular field loss together with electro-oculogram (EOG), Granzfield electroretinogram (ERG) and VER abnormalities. Fundal pigmentation has been a feature, which does not regress on stopping DF. Some degree of optic atrophy has also been observed, in one case leading to blindness (Olivieri et al. 1986).The fact that some of these symptoms may resolve, there may be partial regression of signs on stopping DF, and that they are particularly likely to occur in patients with low body iron loads, suggests that these changes are undoubtedly due to the drug. Given the importance of DF for survival in thalassaemia, it is difficult to know how to manage these complications. It has been suggested that if they are symptomless and there are only minor electrophysiological changes the drug can be continued, though with great caution; in symptomatic cases this is clearly not advisable (Porter & Huehns 1989). What little is known about the mechanisms of retinal damage, and
its relationship to the pathogenesis of retinitis pigmentosa, to which it bears some resemblance, is discussed by Porter and Huehns (1989). Ototoxicity is another important complication of DF therapy. It was first noticed by Marsh et al. (1981) and there were further reports by Guerin et al. (1985). Olivieri et al. (1986) and Freedman et al. (1989) studied a total of 89 patients receiving DF; 13 had symptomatic high-frequency hearing loss and another eight were asymptomatic but had abnormal audiometry. The major risk factors for ototoxicity were the dosage of DF, a low body iron burden and the patient’s age. These observations have been confirmed more recently (Porter et al. 1988; Wonke et al. 1989). Again, management is difficult. In patients who are symptomatic, or who have abnormal audiometry, it is very important to reduce the dose of DF and, if the body iron burden is low as judged by liver iron or serum ferritin levels, the dosage should be reduced even further. If, despite this, the patient’s audiometry continues to deteriorate the drug must be stopped. One of the major concerns of DF therapy in young children is its effect on linear growth, often associated with evidence of cartilaginous dysplasia of the long bones and spine (Piga et al. 1988; Brill et al. 1991; Olivieri et al. 1992c; Orzincolo et al. 1992; Hartkamp et al. 1993; Sher et al. 1993; Hatori et al. 1995; Olivieri et al. 1995a; Rodda et al. 1995) (Fig. 15.6). These complications may result in short stature, primarily related to disproportionate truncal growth and loss of sitting height, probably due to the effect of DF on spinal cartilage. Some patients complain of back pain. The radiological changes of the spine are shown in Fig. 15.6. Because of these distressing complications it has been suggested that it is better to start DF early in life, using reduced doses to balance between risk and benefit. This practice is supported by studies of children who received low-dose DF (15–35 mg/kg/night) from the age of 3 years, all of whom had normal sitting heights, standing heights and spinal X-rays. In contrast, in a second cohort, in which DF was administered at standard doses (50 mg/kg) from an equally early age and had induced a comparable reduction in body iron burden, the mean sitting height was markedly abnormal and X-ray abnormalities were frequently observed (Olivieri et al. 1995a).These data suggest that abnormal linear growth is probably a
Management and prognosis
647
(Blake et al. 1985) or acute aphasia with visual loss (Dickerhoff 1987). The increased susceptibility to infection in patients receiving DF, in particular due to Yersinia spp., was discussed in Chapter 7. It has also been suggested that patients receiving this drug may be more prone to infection with Pneumocystis carinii (Kouides et al. 1988), mucormycosis (invasive zygomycosis) (Boelaert et al. 1987) and other agents. On the other hand, it has been reported that the progression of HIV infection towards the advanced stages of the disease may be significantly slower in patients receiving doses of DF exceeding 40 mg/kg/day (Costagliola et al. 1992). There have been occasional reports of an acute pulmonary syndrome during the administration of relatively high doses of DF.This consists of restrictive dysfunction, interstitial infiltrates on chest X-ray and alveolar damage with fibrosis on lung biopsy (Castriota Scanderbeg et al. 1990; Freedman et al. 1990; Tenenbein et al. 1992). Other miscellaneous effects, including potential zinc and copper deficiency, thrombocytopenia, nausea and vomiting, and renal toxicity are reviewed by Porter and Huehns (1989). A practical approach to monitoring for DF toxicity is shown in Table 15.3. The use of desferrioxamine in pregnancy Fig. 15.6 Changes in the spine induced by desferrioxamine. This X-ray is from a 26-year-old patient who received intensive chelation treatment from early childhood.There is striking calcification of the intervertebral discs together with a dysplastic appearance of the spine, with irregularity and undulation of the vertebral end-plates, short pedicles, narrow disc spaces and a narrowed interpedicular distance. We are grateful to Dr David Lindsell for reviewing these X-rays.
direct toxic effect of prolonged administration of higher doses of DF, unrelated to changes in body iron. Furthermore, because improvement in growth of patients with spinal abnormalities has not been observed, even following the reduction of the dosage of DF, it is clearly important to prevent this type of drug toxicity. Other, and much less common, side-effects ascribed to DF have included loss of consciousness
Concerns about the teratogenicity of DF are based on studies in which effects on bone formation were demonstrated when doses of approximately five times the maximum human dose were administered to pregnant mice. At least 40 patients have been reported to have received DF during several weeks or months of gestation and, to date, no toxic or teratogenic effects have been observed. Only 11 have been documented to have used the drug in the early stages of pregnancy (Singer & Vichinsky 1999).These authors suggest that DF may be used in pregnancy, especially during the second and third trimester. Although a safe general principle is to avoid any drugs in pregnancy that are not absolutely necessary, concern has been raised that if DF is abandoned during the entire pregnancy, tissue iron accumulation could worsen, possibly aggravated by increased transfusion requirements as a result of the pregnancy. Of course the fetus and placenta will deviate approximately 800 mg of iron from the mother but this only
648
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Table 15.3 Monitoring of desferrioxamine-related toxicity.Adapted from Olivieri & Brittenham (1997). Toxicity
Investigations
Frequency
Alteration in therapy
High-frequency sensorineural hearing loss
Audiogram
Yearly; if patient symptomatic, immediate reassessment
Interrupt DF immediately; directly assess body iron burden; discontinue DF ¥ 6 months if HIC 3.2–7 mg/g dry weight tissue; repeat audiogram every 3 months until normal or stable; adjust DF to HIC as per Table 15.1
Retinal abnormalities
Retinal examination
Yearly; if patient symptomatic, immediate reassessment
Interrupt DF immediately; directly assess body iron burden; discontinue DF ¥ 6 months if HIC 3.2–7 mg/g dry weight tissue; review every 3 months until normal or stable; adjust DF to HIC as per Table 15.1
Metaphyseal and spinal abnormalities
X-rays of wrists, knees, thoracolumbar-sacral spine; bone age of wrist
Yearly
Reduce DF to 25 mg/kg/day ¥ 4/wk; directly assess body iron burden; discontinue DF ¥ 6 months if HIC £ 3 mg/g dry weight tissue; reassess HIC after 6 months; adjust DF to HIC as per Table 15.1
Decline in height velocity and/or sitting height
Determination of sitting and standing heights
Twice yearly
Reduce DF to 25 mg/kg/day ¥ 4/wk; directly assess body iron burden; discontinue DF ¥ 6 months if HIC £ 3 mg/g dry weight tissue; reassess HIC after 6 months; adjust DF to HIC as per Table 15.1; regular (6-monthly) assessment by paediatric endocrinologist
DF, desferrioxamine; HIC, hepatic iron concentration.
represents 4 units of blood. Given our current state of knowledge we still feel that DF should be avoided in pregnancy, wherever possible. This should certainly be the case in women in whom regular surveillance has shown that they have body iron loads that, as judged by the hepatic iron concentration, are at a safe level (see previous section) shortly before the pregnancy. If this is not the case, and if regular transfusion throughout pregnancy is required, the drug might be used with caution after the first trimester. Use of desferrioxamine to rescue patients with severe iron loading and organ damage As discussed earlier, there is limited evidence that there may be some improvement in both liver and cardiac function in patients who are heavily iron loaded and in whom there is evidence of defective organ function. These patients are most easily managed by the administration of DF intravenously through implantable venous ports, although they need to pay scrupulous attention to the care of access sites and require regular visits for surveillance by experienced medical personnel. There are a number of intravenous delivery systems available includ-
ing Port-a-Cath or Hickman lines. Because of the dangers of high-dose DF administration it is recommended that the drug is given by continuous infusion at a dose of up to 50 mg/kg/day (Davis & Porter 2000). Alternatives to subcutaneous infusions Regimens of continuous ambulatory intravenous desferrioxamine infused through implantable subcutaneous ports, in which the infusion site cannot be manipulated by the patient, overcome the disadvantages of drug preparation and self-administration, eliminate the irritation associated with subcutaneous infusions, and improve compliance (Olivieri et al. 1992a). This system requires that the site is changed weekly by medical personnel at a clinic visit. Those unwilling to visit the clinic frequently, and those for whom standard pumps are unwieldy, may benefit from new systems in which the desired concentrations of continuous subcutaneous or intravenous desferrioxamine can be infused using a lightweight, disposable, silent balloon infuser (Baxter), which exerts continuous pressure without a battery or other mechanical device (Araujo et al. 1996; Lombardo et al. 1996b).
Management and prognosis Prevention of desferrioxamine toxicity Clearly, DF is a relatively safe drug which has transformed the prognosis for transfusion-dependent patients with b thalassaemia. With our increasing understanding of its use it is now possible to administer the drug with minimal likelihood of side-effects. It is clear that these are most likely to occur at low body iron burdens and therefore, as discussed earlier, it is important to evaluate the hepatic iron concentration at regular intervals. If for any reason this is not possible it should be monitored by a serum ferritin estimation and the dosage of DF should be monitored by the use of a toxicity index, as described earlier in this chapter. Patients should also have regular assessments of their height and weight, plotted on standard percentile charts (Tanner & Whitehouse 1976), expert examination of their eyes and hearing, and radiological examination of their bones. An approach to the long-term management of a child receiving DF is outlined in Table 15.3. Finally, it should be remembered that compliance is still the major difficulty in managing patients on DF (Piga et al. 1987; Olivieri & Brittenham 1997). It may be improved by intensive social and psychological support (Piga et al. 1987; Zani et al. 1995).
Alternative chelating agents Because of the considerable expense and inconvenience of DF therapy there has been a major effort directed towards developing other chelating agents which, ideally, would be active when given orally. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss this topic in detail. Readers who are interested in learning about the problems that have been encountered, particularly the complex chemistry of potential oral chelating drugs, are referred to the reviews of Porter et al. (1989a) and Porter (1996). The other parenterally administered chelating agent that received extensive evaluation in the period while DF was being developed was diethylene triamino-pentaacetic acid (DTPA). Sephton-Smith (1964) showed that this agent was at least as effective and sometimes more so than DF in inducing iron excretion when administered intravenously. Unfortunately, it turned out that it is not as specific as DF for iron and caused a significant increase in the excretion of other metals, notably magnesium (Muller-Eberhard et al. 1963). Furthermore, other toxic effects
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were encountered (Fairbanks et al. 1963).Although if administered at the same time as transfusion DTPA was usually well tolerated, it caused an unacceptably high frequency of rigors, fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, pruritus and muscle cramps (Barry et al. 1974). Modell (1979) found that DTPA can be given by subcutaneous infusion provided that it is diluted before administration. Wonke et al. (1989) have recommended its use, with zinc supplementation, for treating patients with DF-induced auditory complications. Over recent years several orally active iron chelators have been evaluated. The compounds N,N¢-bis(2-hydroxybenzoyl) ethylenediamine, N,N¢diacetic acid (HBED), the arylhydrazone pyridoxal isonicotinoyl hydrazone (PIH), and the di-ethyl hydroxypyridinone CP94 have all been subjected to limited clinical trials (Brittenham 1990; Porter et al. 1991; Grady et al. 1993; Porter 1996). However, these drugs are not under clinical development at the present time. Deferiprone The only orally active iron chelator to reach extended clinical trials is 1,2-dimethyl-3-hydroxypyridin-4-one (deferiprone; L1) (Hider et al. 1982). Pharmacology The pharmacology of L1 is reviewed by Olivieri and Brittenham (1997). The drug forms a neutral 3/1 chelator/ferric iron complex at pH 7.4. It may mobilize iron from ferritin, haemosiderin, lactoferrin and diferric transferrin. Animal studies have reported widely variable efficacy in iron chelation. In transfused patients with thalassaemia major 75 mg L1/kg body weight induces urinary iron excretion approximately equivalent to that achieved with 30–40 mg DF/kg. However, because faecal iron excretion induced by L1 is much less than that induced by DF, the short-term efficacy of L1 is inferior to that of DF. Effectiveness of deferiprone The effectiveness of deferiprone was initially evaluated using the serum ferritin concentration (Kontoghiorghes et al. 1990; Olivieri et al. 1990a; Tondury et al. 1990; Agarwal et al. 1992; Al-Refaie et al. 1995). The earlier studies reported no sustained
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decrease in serum ferritin concentration over 1–15 months of deferiprone treatment (Agarwal et al. 1990; Kontoghiorghes et al. 1990; Tondury et al. 1990). Subsequently, however, there were two reports of a significant reduction of serum ferritin concentration in patients with thalassaemia, the most substantial decrease occurring in those whose prestudy ferritin concentrations exceeded 5000 mg/l (Agarwal et al. 1992; Al-Refaie et al. 1992). A reduction in hepatic iron stores by deferiprone was first demonstrated in a patient with thalassaemia intermedia (Olivieri et al. 1992d); subsequently, a favourable effect of deferiprone on tissue iron concentration was reported in thalassaemia major (Olivieri et al. 1995b). Although support for both a long-term, open-label study and a randomized trial of deferiprone and DF was terminated prematurely by the corporate sponsor in 1996, follow-up of hepatic storage iron concentrations in both cohorts provided information about the long-term effectiveness of deferiprone in thalassaemia major. In one-third of patients in the long-term treatment cohort of deferiprone-treated patients (Olivieri et al. 1995b) hepatic iron stabilized at, or increased to, concentrations which place patients at risk for cardiac disease and early death (Brittenham et al. 1994). Changes in compliance did not account for the ineffectiveness of long-term deferiprone treatment (Olivieri 1996a). In the only randomized trial of deferiprone and DF, 38 of 51 patients remained on study at termination; a final hepatic iron concentration was obtained in 37 patients. After 33 months, the hepatic iron level of the DF-treated patients had not changed significantly from baseline, while in deferiprone-treated patients it increased approximately 100% over baseline. Compliance with deferiprone, measured with computerized bottles, was significantly better than with desferrioxamine (Olivieri 1996a). These results, supported by the findings of another report, in which the hepatic iron of liver biopsies obtained after an extended period of deferiprone therapy exceeded the threshold for cardiac disease and early death in 50% of patients (Hoffbrand et al. 1998), raise concerns that long-term therapy with deferiprone may not provide adequate control of body iron in a substantial proportion of patients with thalassaemia major, findings which were further substantiated by Tondury et al. (1998). Experience of the combined use of DF and deferiprone is so far limited to a small pilot study (Wonke et al. 1998b).
Toxicity During limited toxicity studies of deferiprone in rodents, adrenal hypertrophy, gonadal and thymic atrophy, bone-marrow atrophy and pancytopenia, growth retardation and embryotoxicity were observed (see Brittenham 1992;Berdoukas et al. 1993; Olivieri & Brittenham 1997).The first adverse effects to be observed in humans included arthralgia, neutropenia and agranulocytosis (Hoffbrand 1996; Olivieri & Brittenham 1997). Preliminary results of a multicentre safety trial of deferiprone were reported by Cohen et al. (1998). The original designers of the trial were able to recruit 187 patients,who were unable or unwilling to use DF, from four centres; 162 patients completed 1 year of therapy. Patients with a history of neutropenia or chronic active hepatitis wer excluded. Nine subjects developed neutropenia, and one agranulocytosis. Other reasons for discontinuing the drug included nausea, voluntary withdrawal, high liver enzymes, a low platelet count, fatigue and depression. The ALT levels rose within 3 months of therapy in a high proportion of cases. Other side-effects included arthralgia, which occurred in 6% of cases, and nausea or vomiting which occurred in 24%. In this study therefore the incidence of haematological toxicity attributable to L1 therapy was 7.4% over 1 year of treatment, even in these carefully monitored patients. Equally worrying was the rise in liver enzymes; ALT levels increased to twice the baseline value on at least one measurement in 48% of subjects. Liver biopsies were not carried out in patients in this study. Chronic co-administration of iron dextran and 1,2-diethyl-3-hydroxypyridin-4-one, a closely related hydroxypyridinone, results in increased iron accumulation in the liver and heart, worsening of hepatic fibrosis and development of cardiac fibrosis in gerbils (Carthew et al. 1994). In guinea-pigs, chronic administration of deferiprone was associated with hepatic, myocardial and musculoskeletal necrosis, in the absence of iron overload (Wong et al. 1997). In the Toronto long-term treatment cohort a retrospective review indicated that deferiprone treatment was, unexpectedly, associated with progression of hepatic fibrosis (Olivieri et al. 1998a). The estimated median time to progression of fibrosis for the entire cohort exceeded 3 years.While several authors subsequently claimed that they did not observe progressive liver fibrosis in patients treated with deferiprone, these studies were either uncontrolled (Hoffbrand et al.
Management and prognosis 1998), or of too short a duration, compared with the median time to fibrosis of 3.2 years in the Toronto study, to be comparable (Stella et al. 1998; Tondury et al. 1998). In view of the possibility that fibrosis can be induced by deferiprone, it is particularly important to determine whether this agent might cause cardiac toxicity. In studies of the efficacy of deferiprone and DF in the reversal of iron-induced damage to cell organelles in cultured rat heart cells in vitro, at relatively high concentrations both chelators were equally effective. On the other hand, at low concentrations similar to those obtained in vivo, deferiprone and related compounds were less effective than DF (reviewed by Olivieri & Brittenham 1997). As mentioned earlier, there is good experimental evidence that compounds closely related to deferiprone can cause cardiac fibrosis in experimental animals. Unfortunately, there are very limited data on the possible cardiotoxic effects of the drug in humans. In one well documented patient, the only one so far reported to have undergone cardiac biopsy during L1 therapy, acute congestive cardiac failure developed after deferiprone therapy had been administered for 3–5 years; cardiac biopsy showed extensive fibrosis. These findings are of concern, particularly since the hepatic iron level in this patient had been maintained within concentrations associated with a reduced risk for cardiac disease (Olivieri et al. 1998c). The role of deferiprone in the management of thalassaemia remains uncertain, therefore. This should not surprise us; DF went through an equally long and tortuous period of development and it was many years before the optimal method of administration was determined, and even longer before its full spectrum of side-effects became apparent. Since liver fibrosis in thalassaemia may be caused by many factors, including iron and hepatitis, uncontrolled, long-term observational studies of the drug, even if they include liver biopsy, may not unmask potential fibrotic complications. Hence, before deferiprone can be recommended for general clinical use, further evaluation of long-term effectiveness and toxicity in prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trials will be necessary (Olivieri & Brittenham 1997; Pippard & Weatherall 2000).
Splenectomy Splenectomy has been performed on patients with
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thalassaemia major for almost as long as the disease has been recognized (see Penberthy & Cooley 1935). The early literature is reviewed by Bouroncle and Doan (1964). Over the years a large and rather confusing literature grew up around this subject but, by and large, most series seemed to conclude that a proportion of children with severe forms of thalassaemia had a reduction in transfusion requirements after the operation, though it was not always sustained (Lichtman et al. 1953; Smith et al. 1955; Reemsta & Elliot 1956; Smith et al. 1960; Bouroncle & Doan 1964; Engelhard et al. 1975; Montouri et al. 1975; Modell 1977). When more effective transfusion regimens were introduced it was suggested that children maintained at adequate haemoglobin levels have smaller spleens and a lower incidence of hypersplenism (O’Brien et al. 1972; Necheles et al. 1974; Piomelli et al. 1974; Modell 1977). This important question was addressed again by Modell and Berdoukas (1984).They observed a small group of patients over the first 6 years of life, when hypersplenism most often develops. In order to assess its magnitude they utilized a transfusion quotient, the rationale of which is outlined in a later section. They concluded that those children who had been maintained on the highest transfusion programmes were least hypersplenic. More recently it has become clear that children maintained from early life on an adequate transfusion regimen rarely have significant hypersplenism (Olivieri & Brittenham 1997; Viens et al. 1998). Furthermore, in the study of Viens et al. (1998) splenectomy seemed to offer no advantage regarding growth, iron loading or allo-immunization in patients of this kind. Another long-standing question about splenectomy is whether it has deleterious effects on iron metabolism and, in particular, whether it increases the rate of iron loading. This is based on the belief that the spleen serves both as a scavenger by increasing red-cell destruction and iron redistribution, and as a storage depot by sequestering released iron in a potentially non-toxic pool. However, in one of the few studies that address this question adequately, Risdon et al. (1975) observed no difference between splenectomized and non-splenectomized patients with regard to liver pathology. Another important question that had to be addressed when considering the role of splenectomy was whether it is possible, by moving from a low to a high transfusion regimen, to halt the progression
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of hypersplenism. This problem was the subject of a study of seven non-splenectomized patients by Modell and Berdoukas (1984). Although the change to a high transfusion programme appeared to halt the progression of hypersplenism, in no case did the increased annual blood requirement return to the normal range. From these limited data it does not appear as though it is possible to completely reverse hypersplenism and that, although its speed of progression may be retarded, patients who have developed this complication at one time or another are always likely to require more blood than the theoretical norm for their body weight. Since many children, particularly in the developing countries, are still maintained on a suboptimal blood transfusion programme, it is clear that there will still be a role for this operation, at least for the foreseeable future. In the sections which follow we shall discuss the assessment of patients for splenectomy first, and then review the hazards of the operation. We shall confine the discussion to splenectomy in patients who are receiving regular blood transfusions; we shall return to the problem of splenectomy in thalassaemia intermedia later in the chapter. Assessment for splenectomy The assessment of whether a patient will benefit from splenectomy can be made either on clinical grounds or from the results of sophisticated splenic function tests, or both. In the previous edition of this book we discussed the growing battery of investigations of splenic function, which involve assessment of the red-cell survival and sites of destruction, measurements of the size of the red-cell pool in the spleen and attempts to estimate the amount of splenic erythropoiesis. In the event, these time-consuming investigations have only been carried out in centres with a special interest in the pathophysiology of the spleen, and have played very little role in the assessment of thalassaemic patients for splenectomy. As further experience has been gained it has become clear that, in practice, the most useful way to assess splenic function in transfusion-dependent patients is by a careful assessment of their blood requirements over time. The size of the spleen, alone, is rarely a clear-cut indication for splenectomy.Although it has been suggested that it is unusual to observe hypersplenism
unless the spleen is palpable at more than about 6 cm below the costal margin (Modell & Berdoukas 1984), and very large spleens are associated with an increased plasma volume as well as a large red-cell pool, size alone is not usually a sufficient basis on which a decision for splenectomy should be made. If a very large spleen is causing considerable physical discomfort, and particularly if it is associated with pancytopenia, these factors alone may be sufficient to warrant its removal. But in the majority of cases it is essential to obtain evidence that the hypersplenism is reflected in an increased transfusion requirement. The first studies which attempted to assess the degree of hypersplenism in transfusion-dependent b thalassaemics were carried out by Modell and colleagues (Modell & Matthews 1976; Modell 1977; Modell & Berdoukas 1984). By measuring the preand post-transfusion haemoglobin levels, the mean haemoglobin level over a year was calculated; that is, the average of the mean pre- and post-transfusion haemoglobin values. In this way it was possible to derive a curve for the rate of haemoglobin fall between transfusions and hence to calculate the annual blood requirements to maintain a particular haemoglobin level (see Chapter 7). It turned out that, in the case of splenectomized thalassaemic children, the annual blood requirement was somewhere in the range 150–300 ml/kg, depending on whether the child was on a moderate or high transfusion regimen. However, this relationship did not hold for unsplenectomized patients, whose blood consumption turned out to be anywhere between 200 and 1200 ml/kg/year. Furthermore, it was calculated that if a thalassaemic patient’s observed blood consumption is divided by the expected consumption the figure is almost always greater than unity in unsplenectomized patients. From these data Modell and colleagues developed a ‘transfusion quotient’, which expressed the increase in blood requirements over that expected due to the activity of the spleen. They suggested that if there is more than a 50% increase in consumption, that is, a transfusion quotient of two or more, there is significant hypersplenism and splenectomy should reduce the level of blood consumption to somewhere near the standard curve. It was also found that there is a poor relationship between blood consumption and the results of 51Cr red-cell survival and it was concluded that this investigation is of little value in assessing the degree
Management and prognosis of hypersplenism. These studies were an important contribution to our understanding of the role of the spleen in thalassaemia and in the natural history of the evolution of hypersplenism. At the same time as these data were being collected similar work suggested that if the transfusion requirement exceeds 200–250 ml of packed red cells/kg/year, at a minimum haemoglobin level of 10 g/dl, splenectomy is likely to be beneficial (Cohen et al. 1980; Graziano et al. 1981). As we shall see later, both these approaches to the assessment of transfusion-dependent patients for splenectomy, which are based on the same principle, have turned out to be a useful guide in practice as to whether a patient is likely to have an adequate response to splenectomy. Hence it is important to maintain very careful records from the beginning of a transfusion regimen. If the haemoglobin level is being maintained in the range that is recommended earlier in this chapter, an increase in the transfusion requirement exceeding 200 ml of packed cells/kg/year provides reasonable evidence that a child will benefit from removal of the spleen.
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in whom it had not had succumbed to other complications of thalassaemia. These findings were substantiated by several other studies that were initiated at about the same time. It was found that if splenectomy had been carried out in children whose red-cell requirements exceeded 200 ml/kg/year, and if they had been maintained at an average haemoglobin value of 10 g/dl subsequently, there was a reduction in blood requirements in almost every case (Piomelli et al. 1985; Cohen et al. 1989a). Even more encouragingly, it appeared that the reduction in blood requirements to something approaching the predicted 200 ml of red cells/kg/year remained stable over many years (Cohen et al. 1989a). It should be emphasized that most of these studies have been carried out in centres in which it has been possible to maintain children at an adequate haemoglobin level and to manage other complications of the disease successfully over a long period. If this is not possible, and particularly if children are not transfused adequately, the results of splenectomy are far less impressive.We shall return to this question in the next section when we consider the complications of splenectomy.
Results of splenectomy Because patients were not always maintained on what would now be considered to be adequate transfusion regimens, or because of the heterogeneity of the populations studied, early reports on the results of splenectomy for severe forms of b thalassaemia were difficult to evaluate. Overall, however, at least some patients seemed to benefit, though the length of follow-up was rarely sufficient to establish whether the improvement was sustained (Smith et al. 1960; Engelhard et al. 1975). Later studies suggested that, if the criteria that are defined in the previous section are adhered to when assessing patients for splenectomy, the results are encouraging. In a series of 58 patients subjected to splenectomy because their transfusion requirements were 50% or more above their theoretical norm, Modell (1977) reported that there was a reduction to the theoretical level in all but three cases, all of whom had been maintained on a low transfusion regime. Further follow-up data on this series were reported by Modell and Berdoukas (1984). It appeared that the reduced blood requirement had been maintained in the majority of patients who had been kept on a high transfusion regimen and that the small number
Complications In competent hands, splenectomy is a safe operation. Even when there is massive splenomegaly, splenic infarcts are very unusual and therefore the spleen does not become adherent to the peritoneal surfaces, as is the case with splenomegaly due to neoplastic disorders. There is a small risk of postoperative infection, particularly related to subphrenic collections of blood, and the usual dangers of wound infection. Provided the children are adequately transfused very few of them seem to develop particularly high platelet counts in the period immediately after splenectomy and the risk of thrombotic disease in the immediate postoperative period appears to be very small. Infection Without doubt the major complication of splenectomy is severe and sometimes overwhelming infection. This is not confined to patients with thalassaemia and occurs after splenectomy for a variety of indications (Erikson et al. 1968). The possible mechanisms are discussed in Chapter 5. There have been
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many well documented reports of severe and overwhelming infection in children with b thalassaemia who have had their spleens removed (Penberthy & Cooley 1935; Lichtman et al. 1953; Glenn et al. 1954; Clement & Taffel 1955; Gofstein & Gellis 1956; Reemsta & Elliot 1956; Smith et al. 1957; Mainzer & O’Connor 1958; Wolff et al. 1960; Smith et al. 1962, 1964; Wasi 1972; Engelhard et al. 1975; Modell 1977). Although it was thought that postsplenectomy infection is more severe in the early years of life (Wahidijat et al. 1972), and this is probably the case, an analysis of the ages at which infection occurs in thalassaemic children shows a broad scatter (Engelhard et al. 1975; Modell 1977). It should be emphasized that the increased proneness to infection covers most systemic infections and is not restricted to overwhelming septicaemia (Modell & Berdoukas 1984). Splenectomized children are particularly prone to serious and sometimes overwhelming infection due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis. Because removal of the spleen may reduce the primary immune response to encapsulated organisms, and because of the evidence that severe and overwhelming infections are commoner in the early years of life, it is customary to delay the operation until children are aged 5 years or more. There is some evidence that those who are maintained on an adequate transfusion regimen are at less risk of postsplenectomy infection. Although earlier studies (Smith et al. 1962, 1964) suggested that there may be an increased incidence of recurrent attacks of pericarditis in thalassaemic children who have had their spleens removed, this relationship remains controversial and difficult to assess. It was not observed in the relatively small series reported by Modell and Berdoukas (1984). This question was discussed in Chapter 7. Overall, the pattern of postsplenectomy infection seems to be similar in different populations (reviewed by Modell & Berdoukas 1984). The lack of information about the perceived risk of severe malaria in splenectomized patients was discussed in Chapter 7. Surprisingly, there are no published data on the risks to splenectomized children in countries where malaria is still endemic, or in those in which there is an increasing frequency of drug-resistant malaria.
Iron loading Although, as mentioned earlier, it had been suggested that the spleen may act as a storage depot by sequestering iron in a potentially non-toxic pool (Witzleben & Wyatt 1961; Berry & Marshall 1967; Okon et al. 1976), there has never been any good evidence that splenectomy has a deleterious effect on the rate of accumulation of iron. As also discussed earlier, Risdon et al. (1975) were unable to demonstrate any difference between splenectomized and non-splenectomized patients with regard to liver pathology at similar body iron burdens. It is currently believed that the excess iron resulting from increased blood requirements consequent on hypersplenism is much more important than the loss of a potential iron store.We shall return briefly to this question when we discuss the problems of splenectomy in thalassaemia intermedia. Thrombotic complications The increased propensity to thromboembolic complications in thalassaemic children was discussed in Chapters 5 and 7. Except for the problem of pulmonary thrombotic complications in patients with HbE b thalassaemia and other forms of thalassaemia intermedia, to which we shall return later, there is only limited evidence that children who have undergone splenectomy and been maintained at an adequate haemoglobin level have a greater risk of thrombotic complications in the long term than those who have been splenectomized for other conditions. However, it is only in recent years that this aspect of thalassaemia has received much attention. In a recent multicentre review from Italy, BorgnaPignatti et al. (1998b) observed 27 thromboembolic episodes in 683 patients with b thalassaemia major. Interestingly, 13 of these patients had been splenectomized and their mean haemoglobin level had been maintained at 11.7 g/dl (range 9–14 g/dl). This study also confirmed the likelihood of thromboembolic disease in patients with thalassaemia intermedia maintained at a lower steady-state haemoglobin level. Unfortunately, however, the overall number of patients who had undergone splenectomy in this large series is not given and hence it is not possible to assess the risk of thromboembolic disease that can be ascribed to splenectomy.Thus, apart from some of the anecdotal reports of postsplenectomy thromboem-
Management and prognosis bolic disease cited in Chapters 5 and 7, it is not clear whether there is an excess risk of thrombotic disease in b-thalassaemic patients who have been adequately transfused after surgery. We shall return to the question of the risk of thrombosis in those whose postsplenectomy haemoglobin levels are maintained at a lower level when we discuss the management of thalassaemia intermedia. Progressive hepatic enlargement It has been the impression of clinicians with considerable experience of splenectomy in thalassaemic patients that it may be followed by progressive hepatic enlargement, together with an increase in transfusion requirement. This complication was described in a series of patients who had been maintained on a low transfusion regime in a report from Israel by Engelhard et al. (1975). It is also documented by Modell and Berdoukas (1984), who observed a syndrome characterized by increased blood requirement, gross, soft hepatomegaly, and stunting of growth in six out of 14 splenectomized patients from Cyprus, maintained at a mean haemoglobin level of 7 g/dl. In each case the spleen had been removed more than 5 years previously. We have observed the same clinical picture in patients with HbE b thalassaemia in Sri Lanka, in some of whom the liver was enlarged up to 15 cm below the costal margin. The one thing that these reports have in common is the relatively low steady-state haemoglobin levels in the years following splenectomy. Modell and Berdoukas suggested that the hepatomegaly may reflect the trapping of abnormal thalassaemic cells in a large hepatic pool, causing engorgement and hypertrophy. Apart from the hepatic sequestration crises of sickle-cell anaemia (see Chapters 2 and 9) we know of no evidence that this type of pathology can occur. It seemed possible that the hepatomegaly reflects intensive extramedullary haemopoiesis as a response to continued anaemia. Recently, we have had the opportunity to examine several liver biopsies from patients with this clinical picture who have undergone splenectomy for HbE b thalassaemia. The predominant finding is, indeed, very extensive erythropoiesis, particularly involving the hepatic sinusoids. Thus, although there may be other causes of hepatic enlargement in patients of this type, it
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seems very likely that, in the absence of the spleen, there is a major shift to the liver as an organ of extramedullary erythropoiesis. Haematological sequelae As mentioned earlier, where it has been studied the red-cell survival appears to increase after splenectomy. The peripheral blood films of patients who are maintained at a relatively low haemoglobin level show the remarkable changes in red-cell morphology which are described in detail in Chapter 7. There is an increase in the number of nucleated red cells, many of which show typical inclusion bodies consisting of precipitated a chains. Persistent thrombocytosis is unusual except in patients who are maintained at a low haemoglobin level.There may be a moderate leucocytosis although the differential count is usually normal. Practical implications As we have seen, any child with transfusion requirements in excess of 200 ml red cells/kg/year should be considered for splenectomy. The operation should be carried out at the child’s ideal haemoglobin level to minimize postoperative thrombocytosis. The possibility of subphrenic collections and thrombotic complications should be minimized by early mobilization and breathing exercises. The major issue is how to reduce the possibility of infection. Patients should be immunized before the operation with polyvalent pneumococcal, meningococcal and H. influenzae vaccines. It is now customary to also give prophylactic oral penicillin daily to avoid colonization of strains not covered by the vaccines, particularly in young children. Since there are no adequate trial data it is difficult to decide whether to continue penicillin prophylaxis when splenectomized patients grow older. For this reason practices vary; it is currently our policy to maintain it indefinitely. It is equally important to warn patients and their families about the risks of infection after splenectomy. Many countries now supply a card or other documentation that states that the patient has undergone splenectomy, which they should carry with them at all times. Since pneumococcal septicaemia may kill within hours it is also important to warn patients’ primary-care physicians of this risk
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and to advise that if they become acutely ill they receive a large, parenteral dose of penicillin before being moved to hospital. For those rare patients who develop thrombotic complications the first-line treatment is with heparin, followed by warfarin or a similar agent, together with the use of antiplatelet agents. Since from what little information is available on this complication it appears that if there has been a thrombotic episode it may recur, these patients should be maintained on anticoagulant therapy and antiplatelet agents. Alternatives to splenectomy Because of the risks of infection following splenectomy, particularly in young children, alternative approaches to the management of hypersplenism have been explored. These include partial splenectomy and splenic embolism. Partial splenectomy There have been several reports of the use of partial splenectomy for the management of thalassaemia major (Kheradpir & Albouyeh 1985; de Montalembert et al. 1990). In the series of de Montalembert et al. the operation was performed on 30 patients with b thalassaemia major with a follow-up period of 1–4 years. Although the results were initially quite encouraging, recurrence of hypersplenism occurred in nine of the 24 patients, necessitating a complete splenectomy. The authors conclude that this operation should be restricted to children under the age of 5 years, who have the greatest risk of overwhelming postsplenectomy infection. However, since these episodes can be largely prevented by adequate measures, the place for this procedure must be very limited. Splenic embolization and related procedures As another approach to reducing the degree of hypersplenism, partial splenic embolization (Politis et al. 1987) or partial vascular disconnection of the spleen (Revillon & Girot 1985) has been proposed. Although these are interesting alternatives, because of the lack of control over the end result, and because there are now effective means of prevention of postsplenectomy infection, it seems unlikely that these methods will be used widely in the future.
Prophylactic cholecystectomy during splenectomy It was suggested by Feretis et al. (1985) that, because of the increased frequency of gallstones and gallbladder disease in patients with b thalassaemia, it might be appropriate to carry out a prophylactic cholecystectomy at the same time as splenectomy. In a controlled study these authors found that the procedure was not associated with increased postoperative morbidity. However, it seems unlikely that cholecystectomy is indicated in patients with b thalassaemia major who are to be maintained at a relatively high haemoglobin level and hence in whom the bone marrow is suppressed, making the production of pigment stones much less likely. Clearly, the biliary tract should always be carefully assessed at surgery but in the absence of disease there seems little place for prophylactic cholecystectomy, certainly in transfusion-dependent children.
Other aspects of symptomatic treatment Delayed development and endocrine deficiency The difficult problem of growth retardation and failure of sexual development in transfusiondependent patients with b thalassaemia was discussed in Chapter 7. It was emphasized that delayed growth may have many different causes and that delayed sexual maturation is primarily the result of central hypogonadism with secondary sex steroid deficiency. As was pointed out in Chapter 7, and discussed earlier in this chapter, it seems likely that once the iron-mediated damage is done there is very little chance of it being reversed. It is vital to investigate patients with disturbances of growth and development extremely thoroughly to rule out nonendocrine causes, particularly the toxic effects of DF. Once this has been done it is important to obtain the help of those with expertise in the endocrinological investigation and management of children or young adults. Overall, there are limited published data on the results of the management of growth retardation and failure of sexual development. Hitherto, it has usually been the practice to institute therapy with androgen or oestrogen replacement, although even this apparently straightforward treatment can be fraught with difficulties (see Vullo et al. 1990). However, it is still
Management and prognosis used in many centres. Over recent years, and with increasing evidence that both growth failure and lack of sexual development may reflect iron-mediated damage to the hypothalamic/pituitary/gonadal axis, attempts have been made towards a more physiological approach to hormone replacement. For example, pulsatile gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) infusions have been used in an attempt to induce puberty (Chatterjee et al. 1988, 1993a). More recently Chatterjee and Katz (2000) have found that those patients with severe organ damage due to iron load are apulsatile with respect to their gonadotrophin profiles and are likely to have irreversible damage to the hypothalamic/pituitary axis. On the other hand those with less severe iron load seem to have potentially reversible hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism. Wonke et al. (1998a) have described a regimen for the management of genuine growth-hormone insufficiency using recombinant growth hormone (rhGH), self-administered by daily subcutaneous dosages of 0.6–0.9 IU/kg body weight/week. Based on growth velocity increments their patients can be divided into responders, partial responders and non-responders. The same authors also describe a protocol for defining growth-hormone resistance by measuring levels of IgF1 and IgF-BP3 (see Chapter 7) in the serum. Principles of management of the resistant cases are based on the use of increasingly large doses of rhGH. Clearly it is too early to evaluate the applicability of these more sophisticated approaches to the management of growth retardation and hypogonadism to the thalassaemic population at large. But what is clear is that, once iron-related damage to the hypothalamic/pituitary axis has occurred, it may be very difficult to help many patients. This is further evidence, if any were needed, of the importance of extremely careful management of iron chelation during the critical early years of puberty. The management of diabetes, thyroid and hypothyroid deficiency is more straightforward, and simply involves standard replacement therapy. Cardiac disease The clinical features and investigation of cardiac disease in iron-loaded patients with b thalassaemia were discussed in Chapter 7. The principles of management are to remove iron by intensive chelation
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therapy by the intravenous route, as described earlier in this chapter, and to manage the symptoms of failure with the judicious use of diuretics, digoxin, inotropes and agents that reduce afterload. The extent to which patients with established cardiac disease can be rescued by intensive intravenous chelation therapy is not absolutely clear; in some reports the length of follow-up after initial improvement was too short to assess the full efficacy of this form of treatment. However, there have been sufficient reports of the reversal, or partial reversal, of cardiac dysfunction in iron-loaded patients who have received intensive intravenous DF therapy to suggest that this form of therapy is well worth a trial in any patient who presents with this distressing complication (Freeman et al. 1983; Marcus et al. 1984; Rahko et al. 1986; Aldouri et al. 1990). There has been one report of a successful combined heart and liver transplant in a patient with thalassaemia major with advanced cardiac and hepatic disease (Olivieri et al. 1994a). Bone disease The complex mechanisms that underlie bone disease in b thalassaemia were discussed in Chapter 7. In inadequately transfused patients the main approach to therapy is to establish the patient on a standard transfusion regimen as outlined earlier in this chapter. The prevention and management of bone disease resulting from DF toxicity are also discussed earlier in this chapter. The major difficulty arises in the forms of osteoporosis which seem to result mainly from hypogonadism. Osteoporosis is a progressive condition and, since its treatment is unsatisfactory, prevention and early diagnosis are particularly important. All symptomatic thalassaemic patients should have regular estimations of their bone density and those who are osteopenic should be treated with oral calcium and vitamin D supplementation, advised to take active exercise and told not to smoke. Those in whom there is unequivocal evidence of hypogonadism should be treated by hormone replacement therapy. Although biphosphonates are under evaluation for the management of osteoporosis their role in thalassaemic patients remains to be determined (Wonke 1998).
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Vitamin supplementation The value of ascorbic acid in iron chelation therapy was discussed earlier in this chapter. In Chapter 7, we reviewed the question of folate requirements in patients with b thalassaemia major. Undoubtedly, patients who are maintained at a relatively low haemoglobin level should be maintained on folate supplements. Those that are treated with an adequate transfusion regime, and in whom the bone marrow is relatively depressed, probably do not require folate supplementation. However, since even these patients have some increase of bone-marrow activity, and the folate content of diets varies so widely, we believe that all patients with severe forms of b thalassaemia should receive folate supplementation. This is particularly important at times when there are increased folate requirements, during intercurrent illnesses and, in particular, pregnancy. The role of vitamin E in the pathophysiology of the thalassaemic red cell was discussed in Chapters 5 and 7. A number of studies have tried to assess the possibility of increasing red-cell survival by the use of vitamin E supplementation. Overall, these studies proved to be disappointing (see, for example, Rachmilewitz et al. 1979) and, certainly in the well transfused patient, there is no evidence that vitamin E has any therapeutic role. Infection It is beyond the scope of this section to cover every form of infection which may affect thalassaemic patients.We have already discussed the prevention of postsplenectomy infection and focus here on a few life-threatening situations. Severe postsplenectomy infection Streptococcus pneumoniae remains the commonest cause of overwhelming infection in patients who have undergone splenectomy.The onset of symptoms may be extremely rapid and patients may collapse and become moribund within a few hours. After a blood culture has been taken these patients should receive maximum body weight-related doses of crystalline penicillin, by either the intravenous or intramuscular routes. While penicillin-insensitive pneumococci are rarely encountered in the richer
countries, this is not the case in the developing world. Hence, although a lack of response to penicillin may indicate that the infection is due to another organism, in some countries the possibility of penicillin resistance has to be considered. There is still considerable uncertainty about how to manage patients with septicaemia due to penicillin-resistant pneumococci. Because there are different grades of insensitivity it is suggested that large doses of penicillin should still be administered, but if this fails a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone is usually the next choice of antibiotic. It should be remembered, however, that neither penicillin nor the cephalosporins can be used for the treatment of pneumococcal meningitis and in this case the firstline drug is probably vancomycin. Not all severe, life-threatening infections in debilitated thalassaemic patients or in those who have undergone splenectomy are pneumococcal in origin. Where there are any doubts, or where there is a lack of response to therapy directed at the pneumococcus, it is wiser to begin a regimen similar to that which would be used to cover any serious infection in a compromised host. There are several well validated regimens, either the combination of an antipseudomonal penicillin with an aminoglycoside, piperacillin with gentamycin for example, or the use of a single, extended spectrum cephalosporin such as ceftazidine. The latter has the added advantage that it may be effective against penicillin-resistant pneumococci. Infections due to Yersinia As mentioned in Chapters 5 and 7, patients who are receiving DF may occasionally develop severe infections due to Yersinia enterocolitica or related species. They usually present with severe abdominal pain and diarrhoea, vomiting, fever and sore throat and the disease can rapidly progress. This infection should be suspected in any patient receiving DF who presents with this clinical picture. The drug should be stopped and stools cultured for Yersinia spp. Empirical treatment should commence immediately with either an aminoglycoside or cotrimoxazole at full body weight dosage. The clinical manifestations and management of this complication are the subject of a comprehensive review by Adamkiewicz et al. (1998).
Management and prognosis Blood-borne infections As mentioned earlier in this chapter, in many populations there is a relatively high frequency of bloodborne viral infections, particularly hepatitis B and C. Unfortunately, infections with HIV are also becoming commoner. Since both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) can induce chronic active hepatitis, leading to cirrhosis and a relatively high incidence of hepatic carcinoma, the prevention and treatment of these disorders have become a major part of the management of thalassaemia. Their prevention was described earlier in this chapter. Here we shall consider briefly the management of established cases. It has been estimated that there are probably 300 million people in the world chronically infected with HBV, the highest prevalence being in tropical Africa, Central and South America, China, Japan and Indonesia. The persistence of the virus and the development of chronic active hepatitis after the acute phase vary considerably, depending on the age of the patient; from 2 years onwards the infection only persists in approximately 2–5% of cases. The diagnosis of the acute phase involves the identification of HBs, that is, the surface antigen, in the serum. This also is found in the chronic phase and the two are distinguished by the additional presence of high-titre IgM anti-HBc (core antigen) in the acute phase. Patients with chronic hepatitis B are initially HBe-antigen positive, although eventually this is cleared and antibody appears in the serum. In many cases the appearance of anti-HBe is associated with the control of viraemia and resolution of the hepatitis; the continued production of HBs antigen depends on the presence of viral DNA integrated into cellular DNA sequences. The diagnosis of chronic active hepatitis is made by liver biopsy. Hepatitis C usually produces a mild form of hepatitis without jaundice. However, 50% of patients develop chronic infection and hepatitis, 20% of whom develop cirrhosis with a risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. The presence of persistent viraemia is determined by polymerase chain reaction amplification of HCV-RNA from the serum. Again, the diagnosis of chronic active hepatitis depends on the appearances on liver biopsy. The management of post-transfusion hepatitis is both expensive and not entirely satisfactory (Telfer
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et al. 1997;Wonke et al. 1998a). In the case of hepatitis B the administration of a interferon has been shown to cause transient inhibition of viral replication and, in 40% of cases, treatment for at least 6 months produces permanent inhibition with conversion from HBe antigen to antibody, followed several years later by clearance of HBs antigen. Patients with high concentrations of transaminases and severe chronic active hepatitis on biopsy are most likely to respond. In the case of hepatitis C, a interferon in doses in the range 3–5 MU three times weekly for 6–12 months normalizes transaminase levels in 50–80% of cases but, unfortunately, about half these patients relapse. Long-term control is obtained in about 25–40% of thalassaemic patients (Di Marco et al. 1997; Wonke et al. 1998a). The use of longer-term treatment and trials of ribavirin, either alone or combined with a interferon, are still under evaluation (Telfer et al. 1997). Preliminary results suggest that ribavirin given as a single agent is ineffective, but when combined with a interferon the results are much more promising. There are a number of important issues to be considered in the management of hepatitis C in thalassaemic children.As mentioned earlier in this chapter, there is increasing evidence that iron loading of the liver tends to increase the severity of this condition and therefore it is very important to establish the hepatic iron concentration, which should be done at the time of the first liver biopsy, and to treat patients who have increased levels of iron with vigorous chelation therapy. The drug regimens for hepatitis C are associated with a variety of side-effects. Patients receiving a interferon may suffer from pyrexia, rigors, fatigue, depression, marrow suppression and weight loss. Furthermore, this drug may induce hypothyroidism; patients who are heavily iron loaded may already have some thyroid dysfunction. Hence it is very important to monitor thyroid function while on therapy. Ribavirin may cause a haemolytic anaemia or a variety of skin eruptions. Taking into account these unwanted reactions, together with the cost of these agents, it is clear that the treatment of this condition raises a number of important issues, particularly for poorer countries. Furthermore, it is clear that we do not know enough about its natural history to be certain that it always requires treatment, particularly if it is contracted very early in life (Jonas 1999).The hepatitis C field is a rapidly changing scene and clinicians are advised to consult the current
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natural history and trial literature before embarking on treatment. Unfortunately, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are becoming increasingly prevalent in many of the developing countries in which thalassaemia is common. The dangers and approaches to the prevention of infection by blood products were considered earlier in this chapter. Accounts of the particular problems of HIV in the developing countries are given by the WHO (1994) and by Gilks (1995). There are particular difficulties in the diagnosis as the result of the cost of HIV antibody testing and difficulties in the maintenance of quality control. Although very little has been published about the patterns of AIDS in thalassaemic children (see Chapter 7) there is no reason to believe that it will not produce the same types of problems that are seen throughout the developing world. These include presentation with acute and chronic respiratory infection, a gastrointestinal syndrome associated with chronic diarrhoea and weight loss, generalized lymphadenopathy, a high frequency of extremely aggressive forms of tuberculosis, repeated pneumococcal infections and systemic salmonellosis. The prevention and treatment of AIDS are a constantly changing scene. There is increasing evidence that the use of antiviral agents such as zidovudine, didanosine and zalcitabine both retard the development of AIDS in seropositive individuals and prolong life in established cases. Currently, combination therapy using several antiviral agents has shown distinct promise although the cost of this type of regimen may preclude its use in many of the poorer countries. Malaria may be contracted either by a bite from an infected mosquito or from infected blood. Although donor screening is carried out widely in many tropical countries transfusion-borne infections still occur. Because of the frightening recrudescence of drug-resistant malaria in many parts of the world it seems likely that this will become an increasing problem for thalassaemic patients in tropical countries in the future. Indeed, because of global warming malaria may re-occur in countries where it has not existed for many hundreds of years. Again, it is beyond our scope to cover this in detail and it has been the subject of several extensive reviews (Bradley et al. 1995). Here we shall discuss a few
aspects which are particularly relevant to patients with thalassaemia. In many countries, donor or other forms of screening for malaria, if they are practised at all, are not totally reliable and in areas of high endemicity bloodborne malaria infection is still quite common. In these populations it is wiser to give prophylactic antimalarials appropriate to the local sensitivity of the parasite to patients who are receiving blood transfusion, or at least to keep them under extremely careful observation for several weeks after the transfusion; paradoxically, the incubation time is longer, up to 12 days, for transfusion-borne infections than following a mosquito bite. Unfortunately, malaria control programmes have broken down completely in many countries where there is a high frequency of thalassaemia. Although attempts at vector control are being made, together with early treatment and regular assessment, these measures are unlikely to have a major effect for some years to come. Similarly, there is no guarantee that vaccines will become available. Hence, it is important that children with thalassaemia take all the simple measures that are possible to prevent being infected. These include avoiding exposure to mosquito bites in the evening, the use of bed nets, and, in parts of the world where the transmission rate is sufficiently high, malaria prophylactics. Malaria should be suspected in any thalassaemic child in an at-risk population who develops unexplained fever and chills. Severe malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum infection, particularly if it involves the brain, is a major medical emergency. It should be remembered that although this form of malaria is frequently associated with high levels of parasites in the peripheral blood this is not always the case. As well as leading to coma, with all the associated complications of the unconscious patient, the severe forms of malaria are complicated by profound anaemia, disturbances of fluid and electrolyte balance, progressive renal failure, metabolic acidosis, pulmonary oedema, hypotension, hypoglycaemia and bleeding disorders. Because of widespread chloroquine resistance the first-line drug for severe malaria is quinine, although even quinine resistance is being encountered. The only agent for which resistance has not yet been reported is artemisinin (qinghaosu), the active ingredient of the Chinese herb Artemisia annua. Clinicians in countries in which
Management and prognosis malaria is common (and, because of increased international travel, even where it is not) must keep themselves constantly informed about regional variations in drug resistance. It is important to emphasize that very little work has been done on the role of antimalarial prophylaxis in the management of thalassaemia in countries in which the disease is prevalent, or in which there appears to be a recrudescence. Because of the current pattern of drug resistance this will be a particularly important issue in the next few years. Skeletal and dental deformity The severe skeletal deformities which were such a problem in this disease in the past are not usually encountered in children maintained on adequate blood transfusion regimens. However, in populations in which this is not possible, recurrent fractures are a common occurrence and healing is often slow and delayed. The fracture should be treated in the usual way and if possible an appropriate transfusion regimen initiated (see later section). Similarly, the orthodontic problems which were so common in the past (Asbell 1964) and the gross facial deformities which were described in graphic detail by Jurkiewicz et al. (1969) are now seen much less frequently. The complications which arise from deformities of the skull, such as deafness and sinus obstruction, were discussed in Chapter 7; they too are prevented by adequate transfusion. Haemorrhagic and thrombotic complications As discussed in Chapters 5 and 7, haemorrhagic complications, such as recurrent nose bleeding, which was seen so commonly in the past, are no longer a major feature of thalassaemic children who are maintained on adequate transfusion regimens. Indeed, apart from rare cases of thrombocytopenia due to hypersplenism, or liver failure due to iron loading or chronic active hepatitis, a bleeding tendency is very unusual. As also discussed in Chapters 5 and 7, although there is increasing evidence that patients with thalassaemia are at risk from thrombotic complications due to a hypercoagulable state, this does not seem to be a feature of children who are maintained at an adequate haemoglobin level, presumably because of the
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suppression of endogenous red-cell production. We shall return to the management of these complications in a later section which deals with some of the problems particular to thalassaemia intermedia. Psychosocial aspects The psychosocial aspects of the severe forms of thalassaemia have been receiving increasing attention over recent years. In their monograph on the management of thalassaemia Modell and Berdoukas (1984) describe their experience in caring for patients in the Cypriot community in London and discuss the emotional problems of the children and their parents after the diagnosis has first been made and subsequently throughout childhood.They also describe the totally different problems of the adolescent. One of the difficulties with this field is, of course, that the particular psychosocial problems vary enormously between different countries and between different environments and social groups within countries. Thus it is difficult to offer anything but a few broad generalizations about this subject. These are based on our own experiences and on the small literature that exists so far (Cazzetta 1990; Georganda 1990; Masera et al. 1990; Nash 1990; Tsiantis 1990; Klein et al. 1998; Weissman et al. 1998). This subject is also discussed in a report of a Working Party of the WHO (1990). Readers who wish to understand the sensitive and complex relationships between doctors and patients with thalassaemia are strongly advised to read David Nathan’s Genes, Blood and Courage (Nathan 1995). Methodology So far the methodology for studying the psychosocial aspects of thalassaemia has been derived from the standard approaches of the social sciences (WHO 1990). Because of the growing concern about this problem the WHO undertook a large multicentre study in 1995 to evaluate the psychosocial aspects of thalassaemia and sickle-cell anaemia. Because it was found that the questionnaires used by the WHO were either inappropriate or rather cumbersome a more suitable programme was developed by Ratip (quoted by Klein et al. 1998).This attempts to define the major psychosocial burdens but also puts them into perspective as seen through the very different eyes of
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patients and parents. A study carried out on the Toronto thalassaemic population using this approach showed just how important it is not to generalize about psychosocial problems based on studies in any one group of patients or their relatives. For example, they found that the clinical and psychosocial burden was not correlated for parents and children, parents’ perceptions of their child’s psychological burden correlate well while the child is young but not when the child reaches adulthood, the psychological burden felt by children is affected by that felt by their parents and vice versa, and, while the overall burden is similarly perceived by children and their parents, the value placed on its individual aspects may differ considerably between family members. Infancy and early childhood Most of the problems of this phase of development focus round the adaptation of the family to the fact that they have a chronically ill child and the child’s initial reaction to therapy. Parents may need extremely careful counselling for a whole variety of untoward reactions towards the knowledge that their child will require lifelong therapy. There is often considerable guilt entailed, a complete lack of understanding of the ‘ill luck’ aspects of genetic disease, and a considerable amount of anger as to why this has happened to them in particular. As well as skilful counselling it is at this stage that it may be useful for families to join thalassaemia societies to meet other parents and to come to realize that they are not alone and to share their problems with those who have been through them before. Later childhood and school-days By this time the parents are usually reasonably well adapted to their children’s problems. However, one of the most difficult transitions for a child with chronic disease is from the relative seclusion of their home environment and that of their immediate friends to the wider stresses of school and the outside world. At this stage the child needs a lot of support and the school must be thoroughly informed about the nature of the illness and the fact that the child should be able to lead a completely normal life together with their fellow students. Despite a therapeutic team’s best efforts, however, some children
develop severe behavioural and emotional problems at this stage which require expert assessment and treatment. An approach to assessing these children, based on the pioneering studies of Michael Rutter in London, is described by Tsiantis (1990). It is particularly helpful at this stage to try to unravel the relationships of the child with its parents and to uncover the problems of overprotective behaviour or, at the other end of the spectrum, excessive pressure on a child through too many demands. Adolescence Adolescence offers a particular challenge to many patients with chronic diseases such as thalassaemia. It is the period when they become naturally angry and start to question every aspect of their lot, including their treatment, social relationships and thoughts of the future. It is a particularly difficult time for those who develop any form of hypogonadism and, as well as their physical treatment, they need strong and sympathetic support by clinicians and backup staff with experience of the particular problems of this stage of life. Whether this needs a specially designed adolescent facility is far from clear, but what it essential is adequate continuity of emotional support between childhood and adult life, and thalassaemia centres should be organized such that there is no break of continuity in medical staff. Comment Over recent years there has been an increasing realization among medical educationalists in the richer countries that some of the pastoral skills of patient care have been lost during the period of the development of high technology medical practice. Attempts are being made to redress this situation by an increasing emphasis on communication skills, better clinical method and other aspects of good doctoring. Nowhere are these attributes more valuable than in the management of patients with chronic illnesses like thalassaemia. These patients are extremely demanding of time and they must be managed by a team which includes clinicians who genuinely understand the disease, backed up by social workers and nurses who are able to take over some of the pastoral role of the management of these patients. Because many of them have to come to hospital regularly the thalassaemia centre often has
Management and prognosis to take over the role of the primary-care clinician and to look after every aspect of care, clinical, psychological and pastoral. Given the rather limited knowledge that we have of the psychological aspects of chronic illnesses and their management, and the fact that these problems vary enormously between different ethnic groups, it is very difficult to provide more guidance than the simple suggestions that we have outlined in the previous sections. This is a field where a great deal of work needs to be done. In sitting in thalassaemia clinics in some of the poorer countries we have been very struck by the extraordinary diversity of attitude to disease in different countries. In some, a chronic disease like thalassaemia is seen as a stigma and these children are excluded from the community. We need to know much more about these cultural differences and how they are translated to immigrant populations in other countries. In short, our knowledge of the total effect of chronic illness on a patient’s life is extremely limited. Thalassaemia societies and associations There is no doubt that support societies for patients and their parents with different forms of thalassaemia are an enormous help, and do much to cover the deficiencies of medical practitioners in the management of these diseases. However, they must be well organized and well informed. Their medical advisers must keep them up to date but they must avoid the temptation of telling families what they want to hear rather than the real facts, however unpleasant they may be. Similarly, it is very important that these societies, as they grow in size and influence, must not try and pressure the medical profession into using untested forms of treatment, however attractive they may appear.At their best, these societies are of enormous value to thalassaemic patients but only if they are constantly in touch with those who can provide them with an objective and scientifically based view of current practice. The addresses of the international and national societies are given in the Appendix, p. 821.
Bone-marrow transplantation Background Bone-marrow transplantation (BMT) from HLA-
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identical siblings has been an established form of treatment for neoplastic disorders of the bone marrow, and some non-malignant conditions, for many years. The first successful transplantation for a patient with b thalassaemia was carried out by Thomas et al. (1982). The patient, a 14-month-old child who had never received a blood transfusion, is still alive and well and is, in effect, the longest surviving patient who has been cured of thalassaemia. As pointed out by Giardini (1997), at the same time, a 14-year-old thalassaemic patient who had already received 150 red-cell transfusions, received a bonemarrow transplant in Pesaro, but this was followed by recurrence of the patient’s thalassaemia after the graft had been rejected. Since these pioneering studies extensive experience has been gained of marrow transplantation for patients with b thalassaemia. By 1997 over 1000 transplants had been performed at three centres in Italy (Argiolu et al. 1997; Di Bartolomeo et al. 1997; Galimberti et al. 1997). In addition this form of therapy was taken up in other centres around the world and, although the numbers were much smaller, a considerable amount of experience of this approach has been obtained (Vellodi et al. 1994;Walters & Thomas 1994; Clift & Johnson 1997; Roberts et al. 1997a). In reviewing the reasons for the steady improvement in the results of bone-marrow transplantation Giardini (1997) suggests that, as well as increasing experience, the major factors have been the establishment of more effective pretransplant regimens, the introduction of cyclosporin, more effective treatment of cytomegalovirus infection, improved aseptic techniques and a better understanding of the use of systemic antibiotic therapy. In assessing the current role of marrow transplantation for the treatment of thalassaemia we have relied mainly on the Italian experience since it is far greater than that of other centres throughout the world. It is summarized extensively in a review by Lucarelli et al. (1995). Overall results During their early analyses of bone-marrow transplantation for thalassaemia the Pesaro group found a number of factors which appeared to influence the outcome (Lucarelli et al. 1990, 1991). Thus, in assessing the overall results, it is useful to classify them using the criteria of Lucarelli and colleagues.
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Patient subclasses Based on a history of the adequacy of iron chelation therapy, the presence of liver fibrosis, and whether or not patients have hepatomegaly, the Pesaro group have classified patients into three classes: class 1 has a history of adequate iron chelation and has neither liver fibrosis nor hepatomegaly; class 2 is characterized by having either hepatomegaly or liver fibrosis; class 3 has both complications. Results in relationship to prior classification (Fig. 15.7) Among class 1 children who have undergone transplantation early in the course of their disease,
1
Survival
92% 90%
Thalassaemia-free survival
0.8
Probability
disease-free survival is assessed at 90–93%, with a risk of mortality related to the procedure of 3–4% (Lucarelli et al. 1993, 1995). Comparable results have been reported from other centres in this low-risk group of patients (Argiolu et al. 1997; Di Bartolomeo et al. 1997). For class 2 patients, which form the intermediate-risk group, the survival and disease-free survival rates are 86% and 82%, respectively. For what is considered to be the high-risk group, that is, class 3, the survival and disease-free survival rates are 62 and 51%, respectively (Lucarelli et al. 1996). In the early experience of the Italian group the patients were mainly transplanted during the first few years of life. Later, they reported on the results of an older group, aged greater than 16 years, where the survival rate and disease-free survival rates were
0.6
0.4 Non-rejection mortality Rejection
0.2
8% 3% 0
15
4
8
6
(a)
10
12
14
Years 1 Survival
Probability
0.8
87% 84%
Thalassaemia-free survival
0.6
0.4
0.2
Non-rejection mortality 14% Rejection
0 (b)
2
4
6
8 Years
4% 10
12
14
16
Fig. 15.7 Survival after bone-marrow transplantation in the three classes of patients based on different prognostic risk factors as described in the text. (a) 126 class 1 patients; (b) 297 class 2 patients; (c) 143 class 3 patients aged less than 17 years; (d) 109 adults, aged over 16 years.These figures were kindly prepared for the authors by Professor Guido Lucarelli.
Management and prognosis 65% and 63%, respectively (Lucarelli et al. 1992, 1995).
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frequency of mild to severe grades of acute GVHD ranged between 13 and 27%. Important risk factors seem to be a patient age of less than 4 years, male sex, whether prophylaxis has been attempted with cyclosporin and methyl prednisolone or with methotrexate and methyl prednisolone, elevated alanine aminotransferase levels, and seropositivity for herpes viruses. The probabilities of developing moderate to severe chronic GVHD were 8% and 2%, respectively. Risk factors for the latter appeared to be a previous acute episode, female sex, the use of allo-immune donors for male patients, and the same relationship to drug prophylaxis as for the acute form. It appears that the most significant risks associated with BMT are concentrated within the first year. The Pesaro group have followed up some of their patients
Complications Apart from the major complications that occur in the immediate post-transplant period, most of which relate to infection or rejection, the major problems, as with all forms of bone-marrow transplantation, is the development of acute or chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Graft-versus-host disease In a review of the frequency and risk factors for GVHD, Gaziev et al. (1997a) reported that the overall
1
Survival
0.8
Probability
74% Thalassaemia-free survival
0.6
57%
0.4 Rejection 28% 0.2
20% Non-rejection mortality 4% 5
0
10 Years
15
20 (c)
1
0.8
Probability
Survival
67% 63%
0.6
Thalassaemia-free survival Non-rejection mortality
0.4
35%
0.2 Rejection 4% 0
Fig. 15.7 Continued.
2
4
6 Years
8
10
12 (d)
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for over 15 years. The majority of them appear to be well and have shown normal pubertal development and growth patterns (De Sanctis et al. 1997). A small number have had to remain on long-term immunosuppressive therapy due to a chronic GVHD. Drug toxicity Apart from the inevitable myelosuppressive properties of the drugs involved in bone-marrow transplantation, the major difficulty that has been experienced is the unpredictability of the pharmacological properties of busulphan, used in most preparative regimens. It appears that hyperabsorption is associated with hepatic veno-occlusive disease, while a reduced rate of absorption may lead to rejection and recurrence of a thalassaemic blood picture. A variety of approaches have been proposed to obtain better control of busulphan levels during induction (Shulman & Hinterberger 1992). Mixed chimerism Although this phenomenon does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the course of patients who have received bone-marrow transplantation, there is no question that if they are studied in detail approximately 10% of them show mixed chimerism, that is, both normal and thalassaemic cell populations in the peripheral blood. It appears that attempts to reduce the dose of either busulphan or cyclophosphamide in the conditioning regimen are associated with higher rates of chimerism. Furthermore, there appears to be a higher frequency of rejection within the first 2 years after transplantation if chimerism is present. On the other hand some patients with dual cell populations in their peripheral blood seem to have survived in good health for well over 2 years, suggesting that the co-existence of both donor and host cells may be a reflection that mutual tolerance has been induced (Andreani et al. 1996). Long-term risk of malignant disease So far the longest follow-up of patients after marrow transplantation is between 15 and 20 years. There does not appear to have been a case of haematological malignancy, although the number of patients followed for the appropriate length of time is still relatively small (Gaziev et al. 1997b).
The use of unrelated, phenotypically matched donors This difficult topic, as it relates to marrow transplantation in thalassaemia, is reviewed by Giardini (1997). While there have been a few successful marrow transplantations of this type (La Nasa et al. 1997) there is still too little experience to be able to draw any useful conclusions. It is a subject of a number of pilot studies in several countries. The management of pre-existing complications of thalassaemia after bone-marrow transplantation Patients who have undergone BMT for b thalassaemia who already are iron loaded before the procedure may require further treatment, despite the fact that their rate of iron loading should, theoretically, return to normal (Lucarelli et al. 1993; Muretto et al. 1994). Experiences of the use of DF after transplantation, reported by Giardini et al. (1995) and Angelucci et al. (1997), suggested that it might be more effective to reduce the body iron after transplantation by the use of regular phlebotomy, in a similar way to that used in patients with hereditary haemochromatosis. Mariotti et al. (1997) have reported preliminary data that suggest that there may be improvement in cardiac function in heavily iron-loaded patients by regular phlebotomy. Preliminary studies have also been reported on the use of a-interferon therapy for chronic non-A non-B hepatitis after bone-marrow transplantation for thalassaemia, with encouraging results. Although there is increasing experience of managing these complications in thalassaemic patients who have undergone marrow transplantation, it requires them to be subjected to further long courses of relatively unpleasant treatment. Particularly in view of the trauma associated with the transplantation itself, and the better results that are obtained if the procedure is done early in life, before these complications have arisen, the case for making an early decision as to whether to proceed to transplantation becomes all the more pressing. The present place for bone-marrow transplantation in thalassaemia The use of BMT in thalassaemia has not been without its controversies. They revolve mainly round some
Management and prognosis rather complex ethical issues and uncertainties about the overall results in centres other than those like Pesaro, where a very large experience of the procedure has been gained (Lucarelli & Weatherall 1991; Weatherall 1992; Roberts 1994; Giardini 1995). The central problem, though complex, is easily stated. Is it right to subject a baby or young child to a procedure which still has a small but significant mortality rate, and a not inconsiderable morbidity, when, in countries which are rich enough to be able to offer this procedure, these patients can be maintained indefinitely in good health by adequate transfusion and chelation therapy? And can we be confident that there is no long-term risk of secondary malignancies of the bone marrow in children treated in this way? The answer to the second question will not be clear for some time, although it is beginning to look as though the risk must be very small. Given the greatly improved results in experienced hands, the question of marrow transplantation must now be the subject of very careful discussion between the clinician and the family of a patient who is diagnosed as having b thalassaemia for the first time. The Italian workers have undoubtedly shown that BMT, performed early and in patients who have not yet developed complications, is a genuine therapeutic option for the treatment of this disease and, even for older patients, is still a possibility if they find that they are not able to tolerate the rigours of symptomatic treatment. The ethical issues are still difficult, however, particularly since the decisions have to be made by parents on behalf of their children, and before they are fully aware of the rigours of caring for a child for many years and the problems that they will encounter during the symptomatic management of thalassaemia. The other problem which has clouded these issues is the inability of some marrow transplant centres to reproduce the excellence of the results reported by the Pesaro group. This may well simply reflect relative lack of experience. Other centres are now finding that, with increasing experience, their results are matching those of the Italian group (Dr Irene Roberts, personal communication). But it is quite clear that this procedure should not be embarked on by any centre unless it is likely to attract a large patient population and to be able to gain considerable experience of the procedure. However, there is little doubt from the pioneering studies of Lucarelli and colleagues, and from the increasing experience of
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other countries, that BMT is now a genuine option for children with b thalassaemia, and one that must be discussed openly and with a clear explanation of the pros and cons, at an early stage after the diagnosis is made. Practical implications It is beyond our scope to discuss the practical and financial problems of establishing a bone-marrow transplantation centre for thalassaemia. Similarly, we shall not enlarge on the outline presented earlier of the various conditioning regimens and approaches to managing graft-versus-host disease and other complications. Anyone who is considering setting up a marrow transplant programme should spend time in an established centre, become familiar with the state of the art approaches to the procedure and its follow-up, and only proceed if it is clear that sufficient cases are going to be treated each year for adequate experience to be obtained.There is no place for treating the ‘occasional case’ and transplantation must be carried out in a properly designed and staffed centre. Peripheral blood stem cells in bone-marrow transplantation There is a great deal of interest at the time of writing about the possibility of using peripheral blood stem cells for marrow transplantation. In the haemoglobinopathy field there has been particular focus on the possibility of using cord blood stem cells. This subject has been reviewed recently by Gluckman et al. (1999). In discussing the limited world-wide experience of cord blood stem-cell bone-marrow transplantation, particularly that of the Eurocord Consortium (Miniero et al. 1999), Gluckman et al. point out that only five out of 10 patients for which detailed data are available showed engraftments. Obviously it is too early to draw conclusions, although the authors suggest that at the present time cord blood transplantation should be reserved for younger patients in order to increase the dose of cells infused. Currently, there is no case for the use of cord blood transplantation from unrelated donors. Clearly, it is too early to try to anticipate the role of this new approach, particularly given the current success rates for conventional bone-marrow transplantation.
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Therapeutic problems of particular varieties of thalassaemia Thalassaemia intermedia In the previous edition of this book, we discussed the limited information that was available about the appropriate way to manage patients with the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia, and stressed that nearly every aspect required further careful study. It is sad to reflect that, 20 years on, it is necessary to repeat this plea. Furthermore, it has become apparent that this is not an insignificant problem. Globally, HbE b thalassaemia, which typifies many of the problems of the assessment and management of the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia, is one of the commonest forms of the disease. In this section we shall review briefly what is known about the management of the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia and highlight those areas in which further work is urgently required. Assessment and management over the early years of life At the beginning of this chapter we outlined the early management of patients with b thalassaemia and pointed out how important it is not to commence a transfusion regimen before carefully assessing the steady-state haemoglobin level and general wellbeing of the baby. We also emphasized that the key factors at this critical stage of development are the level of the infant’s activity, feeding and, in particular, the rate of growth and development. This approach remains the only way of assessing the early course of b thalassaemia intermedia and of determining whether it is safe for an infant to remain untransfused, or whether a long-term transfusion regimen should be embarked on. The role of accurate genotyping In Chapter 13 we described what is known about genotype/phenotype relationships in the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia, and similar issues were discussed as they relate to HbE b thalassaemia in Chapter 9. In short, it is clear that although certain genotypes are often associated with a mild course, there is still considerable clinical variation
within each particular interaction. Perhaps the only exception is the homozygous or compound heterozygous state for the promoter mutations which are particularly common in African populations. But for the remainder, and this includes the common IVS1-6 TÆC mutation in the Mediterranean populations, the clinical phenotypes are so heterogeneous as to make accurate prediction of the course of the illness in any particular patient very unreliable. Further assessment during early development Once the decision not to transfuse a baby with a potential intermediate form of b thalassaemia has been made they should be kept under extremely careful surveillance during the early years of life. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the decision to change to a transfusion regimen should not be made on the basis of the steady-state haemoglobin level alone.As well as assessment of activity and rates of growth and development it is essential to monitor the skeleton for early signs of bone deformity involving the face. Again this has to be done on clinical grounds; there are no other guidelines to help the clinician. If, during early childhood, there appears to be a genuine falling off in growth velocity, evidence from the child’s lifestyle that its activity is being curtailed by anaemia, or early changes in bone structure, it may be necessary to establish a transfu-sion regimen identical to that described earlier for patients with the major forms of b thalassaemia. If, on the other hand, growth and development are adequate and there are no early bone changes, these children should be kept under careful surveillance and complications should be treated as and when they arise. Hypersplenism Although most of the published reviews on thalassaemia intermedia emphasize the high frequency of hypersplenism (Pippard et al. 1982b; Modell & Berdoukas 1984; Wainscoat et al. 1987; Fiorelli et al. 1988; Camaschella & Cappellini 1995) there are very few data on series of sufficient size to determine whether splenectomy is of genuine benefit. Of the 26 patients reviewed by Pippard et al. (1982b) 16 had undergone splenectomy at a mean age of 12 years, for worsening anaemia. In seven, this appeared to have removed the need for regular transfusions. Two
Management and prognosis further patients, aged 8 and 16 years, were later transfused because of increasing anaemia and bone deformity; in neither case was there a sustained increase in the steady-state haemoglobin level. Although Modell and Berdoukas (1984) suggested that splenectomy generally restores the haemoglobin level to its highest previous value, data were only provided for a single patient. In the series of 18 patients described by Fiorelli et al. (1988), eight were splenectomized ‘for increasing splenomegaly leading to hypersplenism’ at a mean age of 14 years; in only two did the operation prevent the need for subsequent blood transfusion. Although Camaschella and Cappellini (1995) recommend splenectomy for a falling haemoglobin level, no data are presented or references cited. As far as we know there are no published data on folate-replete patients whose steadystate haemoglobin level has been observed for a relatively long period, on whom splenectomy was carried out, and for whom an adequate follow-up study was pursued. A study of four patients pre- and postsplenectomy by Blendis et al. (1974) and a presplenectomy study by the present authors both indicated that there was major pooling of the red cells in the spleen of patients with thalassaemia intermedia. Splenectomy in these cases resulted in a significantly higher steady-state haemoglobin than before the operation. It is against this background of lack of data and ignorance that we have to assess the most appropriate way to identify and manage hypersplenism in this condition. As pointed out by Modell and Berdoukas (1984) it is quite common to observe a steady fall in the mean annual haemoglobin level associated with progressive splenomegaly in patients with thalassaemia intermedia over the age of 2 years. But, as these authors emphasize, the effects of hypersplenism may be more subtle than this. There may be further compensatory hypertrophy of the bone marrow, leading to general malaise and defective growth and development, even though the haemoglobin level may not change dramatically. These suggestions are supported by the small study of Blendis et al. (1974), who observed a significant reduction in the degree of ineffective erythropoiesis after splenectomy in three out of the five patients studied. In assessing patients with thalassaemia intermedia for splenectomy it is absolutely vital to make sure that they are folate replete, as judged by serum and redcell folate analyses. If this is the case, and there is pro-
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gressive enlargement associated with either a fall in the steady-state haemoglobin level observed for at least a year, or a falling off in the rates of growth with or without associated general symptoms of anaemia or malaise, splenectomy should be considered. From the limited data that are available it seems likely that the fall in haemoglobin may be arrested or there may be a restoration of the growth curves towards the normal pattern, even if the haemoglobin level does not rise. It is useful to monitor the state of the bone marrow after surgery by regular measurements of the nucleated red-cell count or circulating transferrin receptor levels. The potential problem of an increased risk of thromboembolic disease is discussed in a later section. Considering the complications of splenectomy, particularly the increased proneness to infection and thromboembolism, splenectomy should certainly not be embarked on without an extremely careful period of observation. We desperately need more data to determine the genuine value of this procedure; clearly, the postoperative haemoglobin level is only one of many parameters that have to be considered.And, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, we need much better documentation of the frequency and significance of the ‘large liver syndrome’ which seems to follow splenectomy, particularly in patients with thalassaemia intermedia in whom the postoperative haemoglobin level remains relatively low. Extramedullary haemopoiesis The frequent occurrence of extramedullary haemopoietic tumour masses and some of the complications that they may cause were discussed in detail in Chapter 13. Although this complication may occur in any form of thalassaemia intermedia the most experience of its clinical manifestations and complications has been obtained in patients with HbE b thalassaemia, particularly in Thailand. When these masses are found on a routine chest X-ray and are asymptomatic nothing is required beyond occasional surveillance. However, those that present with spinal cord compression or with symptoms similar to a cerebral tumour require urgent treatment. In reviewing 12 cases of this kind Issaragrisil et al. (1981) pointed out that, although these tumour masses regress when patients are started on a transfusion regimen to maintain the haemoglobin level in excess of 9–10 g/dl, this
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Fig. 15.8 Resolution of extramedullary haemopoiesis with hydroxyurea therapy. MRI showing: left, anterolateral mass with signal intensity similar to that of bone marrow; right, after treatment. From Saxon et al. (1998).
process may be too slow to manage those who present with neurological complications. The Thai authors observed very rapid resolution of these lesions following X-ray therapy and recommend this as standard treatment for this complication. They suggest that if a patient presents with spinal cord compression X-rays should be carried out to rule out a fracture and, if possible, myelography should be performed to confirm that the cord is compressed and to determine the level of the lesion. Exploratory laminectomy is rarely required. Once having established the diagnosis a dose of 2000–3000 rads should be administered as soon as possible. Recently, Saxon et al. (1998), using magnetic resonance imaging, have demonstrated a striking reduction in a spinal haemopoietic mass in a patient treated with increasing doses of hydroxyurea (Fig. 15.8). This treatment produced a modest rise in both the fetal haemoglobin and steady-state haemoglobin levels, but probably insufficient to cause a reduction in the red-cell mass. Thus it seems possible that hydroxyurea may have a direct effect on these extramedullary tumour masses and, at least as judged by this case report, may offer a safe and effective approach to their management. Because of the potential hazards of deep X-ray therapy it may be sensible to use hydroxyurea as first-line manage-
ment in this condition and restrict X-ray therapy for those who do not respond, or in whom the response is too slow in the face of progressive neurological damage. Iron loading The mechanisms and factors which determine the increased rate of iron loading in patients with thalassaemia intermedia were discussed in Chapter 13. The body iron status of every patient with thalassaemia intermedia should be assessed at regular intervals, as described earlier in this chapter for transfusiondependent patients. While serum ferritin values may be a useful guide, for those that are elevated much above 800 mg/l a liver biopsy should be carried out, with careful assessment of the histology and concentration of iron. The long-term objective should be to maintain safe body iron levels, as defined earlier in this chapter. The prevention and management of iron loading in patients with thalassaemia intermedia were discussed by Cossu et al. (1981) and Pippard et al. (1982b). The use of dietary manipulation to reduce the rate of iron loading remains unproven and if, after a suitable period of observation, it is clear that the rate of iron loading has exceeded, or is likely to exceed, accept-
Management and prognosis able levels a regimen of iron chelation therapy should be instituted. Cossu et al. (1981) showed that, by using subcutaneous infusions of DF under the same conditions as described earlier in this chapter for transfusiondependent patients, it was possible to produce a negative iron balance and to reduce the serum ferritin levels. They suggested that the frequency of dosage should be worked out for each individual patient and that once a safe body iron level had been established it should be possible to continue on an intermittent treatment of this type, tailored to the patient’s particular needs. We have found that, once the iron load has been reduced to a safe level, it can be controlled by a bolus injection of DF, either weekly or at longer intervals. In the study of Pippard et al. (1982b), a 23-yearold male was reported who had undergone venesection at 2-week intervals for 4 years, with the removal of an estimated 12 g of iron. As far as we know there have been no other reports of this approach to the management of iron loading in thalassaemia intermedia and it was only possible in this patient because of a well sustained haemoglobin level. Further studies along these lines seem warranted, though they will have to include assessments of the effect of venesection on the degree of erythroid expansion. Leg ulcers As described in Chapter 13, leg ulcers seem to be particularly common in patients with thalassaemia intermedia. Because nothing is known of their aetiology it is difficult to offer sensible advice about their management. Small ulcers usually heal with simple measures, which include pressure dressings and, where possible, elevation of the leg and rest. Since it seems possible that, at least in part, they may reflect the abnormal rheology of thalassaemic blood, possibly combined with the relative hypoxia resulting from a reduced haemoglobin level, the most logical approach to the management of ulcers which do not heal should be a period of transfusion. However, there have been no controlled studies using this approach, and because of the associated hazards and problems of stopping transfusion, this should be reserved for particularly resistant cases. Interestingly, long-standing leg ulcers have been noted to heal during the administration of arginine butyrate in an
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attempt to raise the fetal haemoglobin level (see later section). It will be interesting to see whether further studies confirm this interesting observation. The case reports of healing ulcers following the application or injection of growth factors (Voskaridou et al. 1999) also need further verification. Bone and joint complications The severe skeletal deformities with changes in the skull and facial bones which are well documented in b thalassaemia intermedia are undoubtedly the result of marrow expansion and can be prevented by blood transfusion. An important question is whether, once established, these changes can be reversed to any extent by starting a transfusion regimen in a hitherto untransfused patient who has been maintained at a relatively low haemoglobin level. Although some remodelling may occur in young children, as they grow older the extent is unpredictable and for this reason it is extremely important to try and prevent this complication by extremely careful monitoring of the facial appearance, growth and development during the early course of the disease. The problems that accompany the widespread osteoporosis and periarticular disease that are so common in thalassaemia intermedia were discussed in detail in Chapter 13. It is also pointed out in Chapter 7, and earlier in this chapter, that there is increasing evidence that osteoporosis is common in patients with thalassaemia major who have been maintained on adequate transfusion regimens. Hence if the pathophysiology is similar in the major and intermediate forms of thalassaemia, and this is by no means certain, the bone changes cannot be entirely explained by marrow expansion. While it is customary to start patients with thalassaemia intermedia with severe bone pain or pathological fractures on a transfusion regimen there is no definite evidence that this is helpful and clinical trials on this important question are urgently needed. Given our current lack of knowledge about this problem, it seems reasonable to treat patients with symptomatic bone disease with oral calcium and vitamin D supplementation, to encourage exercises and, as in the case of the transfusion-dependent patients, if there is evidence of hypogonadism to provide hormone replacement therapy. Currently, there are a number of studies examining the use of inhibitors of bone resorption,
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notably biphosphonates, in patients with transfusiondependent b thalassaemia who have developed osteoporosis. As far as we know there has been no experience of the use of this agent in patients with thalassaemia intermedia. Gallstones As mentioned in Chapter 13 pigment stones are extremely common in patients with thalassaemia intermedia and are frequently associated with attacks of biliary colic or cholecystitis. Patients who suffer this complication require cholecystectomy. Infection From the limited data that are available there is no evidence that the pattern of infection is any different in thalassaemia intermedia from that in thalassaemia major. The guidelines outlined earlier in this chapter should be followed for the treatment of infective episodes, remembering that these are often associated with a profound fall in the haemoglobin level and hence patients with thalassaemia intermedia who develop infections should be observed extremely carefully in hospital. Folate deficiency As described in Chapter 13 this is a particularly common feature of thalassaemia intermedia. Patients should be maintained on regular folate supplements and folate deficiency should be suspected if there is a fall in the haemoglobin level. Thrombotic complications As described in Chapter 13 there is increasing evidence that patients with b thalassaemia intermedia have a hypercoagulable state, although as we pointed out, the evidence that this frequently leads to thrombotic episodes is still limited. Major thrombotic episodes, particularly postsplenectomy, should be treated initially with heparin followed by an anticoagulant such as warfarin to maintain the prothrombin time in the therapeutic range. If this episode has not followed a precipitating event, surgery or a long period of immobilization for example, it may be wiser to maintain the patient on longterm anticoagulant therapy, although there are insuf-
ficient data to be sure about the likelihood of a recurrent episode. The syndrome of progressive right-heart failure and hypoxaemia in patients with HbE b thalassaemia who have undergone splenectomy was discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Based on the assumption that some of these changes might reflect abnormal platelet aggregation in the pulmonary arterial circulation two studies of the effect of aspirin on the hypoxaemia in this condition have been undertaken (Fucharoen et al. 1981b; Israngkura et al. 1988). Unfortunately, there has been no follow-up of these studies reported and, as mentioned in Chapters 5 and 9, the frequency of right-heart failure secondary to pulmonary arterial disease is still not known. Until more work has been carried out, with a follow-up of patients with this condition, we can only suggest that, if it is encountered, treatment is instituted with antiplatelet drugs, and/or attempts to reduce the platelet count by either transfusion or the use of hydroxyurea, together with appropriate measures for the symptomatic treatment of heart failure. Unrelated medical conditions Patients with thalassaemia intermedia may, of course, suffer from diseases unrelated to thalassaemia.These are managed in the usual way and rarely have any effect on the cause of the genetic disease. One complication we have encountered is chronic renal failure, which may exacerbate the anaemia. We have cared for one patient of this type who, eventually, had a renal transplant. Erythropoietin production from the transplanted kidney was adequate, and there was no significant difference between the steady-state haemoglobin levels before the onset of renal failure and after surgery.
The a thalassaemias The haemoglobin Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome The clinical picture, maternal complications and methods of early diagnosis of this condition are described in Chapter 11. Because of the high frequency of associated congenital abnormalities and maternal complications during pregnancy, in many countries in which there is a high frequency of a0 thalassaemia the potential for this condition is considered to be an important indication for prenatal
Management and prognosis screening and diagnosis. However, as described in Chapter 11, several infants with this condition have now survived after receiving early transfusion and supportive treatment during the neonatal period. In some cases congenital malformations or delayed postnatal neurological development has been reported (Beaudry et al. 1986; Bianchi et al. 1986; Carr et al. 1995). In contrast, the development of other infants, in whom the risk of hydrops fetalis had been established before birth, and transfusion had been established either prenatally or soon after birth, has been reported as normal. All the reported cases of this type have subsequently required a regimen of regular transfusion and iron chelation therapy, similar to that for patients with b thalassaemia. They are listed in Chapter 11. As discussed in Chapter 11, it seems very likely that babies with this disorder become hypoxic very early during fetal development. It is not clear whether this is the cause of the associated fetal abnormalities. Furthermore, although many of the latter can be determined by ultrasound examination this is not always possible.Therefore the management of this condition in parents who particularly wish the pregnancy to continue is fraught with difficulties. However, it does appear as though some infants who are given early, intrauterine transfusion may be able to survive and develop normally, though they are, of course, transfusion dependent. However, if parents do wish these babies to be rescued, it must be done with the clear knowledge that there is a significant risk of associated congenital abnormality, and that even with the earliest possible intrauterine transfusion it is unlikely that these can be avoided. All these complex issues, and the risk of a difficult pregnancy, must be discussed in great detail and on more than one occasion with parents who have to make this very difficult decision. The question of intrauterine stem-cell therapy is considered later. Haemoglobin H disease As described in Chapter 11, the majority of patients with HbH disease go through life with a reasonable haemoglobin level and only become anaemic at times of stress, such as infection or after receiving oxidant drugs. They should be warned of the risk of drugs of this type and maintained on folate supplementation.
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Some patients with this disorder appear to develop hypersplenism as they get older and this may be associated with worsening of the anaemia. Early reports showed some enthusiasm for splenectomy (Gouttas et al. 1955; Minnich et al. 1958; Lie-Injo & de V. Hart 1963; Wasi et al. 1969) and, when measured, red-cell survival studies indicated an increased 51Cr half-life after the operation (Woodrow et al. 1964). In the series described by Wasi et al., which concerned 50 patients who had been splenectomized, it was reported that the haemoglobin level was raised on average by 2–3 g/dl. However, Wasi et al. (1974) point out that the haemoglobin level tends to fluctuate considerably in patients with this condition. For this reason, in the last edition of this book we questioned the value of splenectomy except in patients who had particularly large spleens and were becoming progressively anaemic. As mentioned in Chapter 11, it is also important when assessing patients of this type to try to obtain a reasonably accurate estimate of the level of HbH in the blood. As we pointed out, HbH is physiologically useless and patients who have relatively large amounts, in excess of 20% of the total haemoglobin, may be more incapacitated than their steadystate haemoglobin suggests. Unfortunately, however, these patients have to be assessed on an individual basis; there have been no extensive series of splenectomies reported since the early papers, and clinicians have only this small and anecdotal experience to guide them. Another reason for reluctance to carry out splenectomy unless absolutely necessary is the rare, but serious, complication of migrating thrombophlebitis and deep venous thrombotic disease, which was described in detail in Chapter 11. We have now seen two deaths from this condition and, following the early report from Hong Kong of similar cases by Tso et al. (1982), further examples have been observed in their Chinese population. Because of the bad prognosis for this complication we believe that, despite the paucity of data, patients who develop this curious syndrome should be maintained on anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs indefinitely. In short, given the paucity of evidence and the undoubted risk involved, we believe that the rarer symptomatic forms of HbH disease should be managed by regular transfusion using the same approach as that for b thalassaemia major.There may
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be an occasional place for splenectomy but it should be avoided where possible, and, if it is carried out, patients should be monitored very carefully for any evidence of venous thrombotic disease.
should be more frequent, with fluoroscein angiography to assess the speed of evolution of the retinal lesions. The management of crises
Sickle-cell thalassaemia As discussed in Chapter 9, patients with sickle-cell b0 thalassaemia, or sickle-cell b+ thalassaemia in which the b-thalassaemia allele is of the severe variety, may have a clinical picture indistinguishable from that of those with sickle-cell anaemia. It is beyond our scope to deal with every aspect of the management of the sickling disorders and we shall briefly mention only those that have particular clinical importance. Readers who wish to study this subject in greater detail are referred to reviews and monographs which deal with the management of this condition more fully (Serjeant 1992; Bunn 1997; Ballas 1998; Dover & Platt 1998). Prevention of infection Since infection is the major cause of mortality and morbidity at all ages in patients with sickling disorders it is vital to make the diagnosis as early as possible. Ideally, babies of ‘at-risk’ parents should be screened at birth, when it is possible to diagnose sickle-cell b0 thalassaemia with certainty based on the absence of HbA in the cord blood; the diagnosis of sickle-cell b+ thalassaemia can usually be made by the second or third month (Serjeant 1992). Once the diagnosis is established the family should be educated about the importance of the early detection and management of infection. Prophylactic penicillin should be given to all children younger than 5 years of age and they should receive pneumococcal, H. influenzae and hepatitis B vaccines. They should also receive prophylactic folic acid at a dose of 1 mg daily. The steady state Most patients with sickle-cell anaemia or the severe forms of sickle-cell b thalassaemia adapt well to their relatively low haemoglobin levels and no special treatment is required. They should have regular ophthalmological examinations from school age onwards and these should be repeated every few years unless a sickling retinopathy is discovered, when follow-up
The different forms of acute exacerbation of the sickling disorders, called crises, were described in Chapters 2 and 9. Their management is reviewed in detail by Okpala (1998), Golden et al. (1998) and Ballas (1997). Mild painful crises may be managed at home with first-line analgesics such as aspirin or paracetamol together with adequate fluids. But, because the pain can be so severe, all but the particularly mild forms of painful crisis should be treated in hospital with careful observation and adequate analgesia. It is important to search for a precipitating factor such as infection although very frequently this is not found. The basis of treatment is adequate hydration, analgesia and very careful clinical and haematological surveillance (Okpala 1998). First-line analgesics may be inadequate and it may be necessary to administer diamorphine by slow, titrated intravenous infusion. If this is necessary, it is very important that the patient should remain under close observation, with regular monitoring of respiration and blood gases. The haemoglobin level and reticulocyte count should be estimated at least daily but, unless there is a fall in the haemoglobin level or evidence of an impending aplastic crisis as reflected by a drop in the reticulocyte count, transfusion is not required. These episodes usually settle in 2 or 3 days. Details of other regimens, including approaches to self-management, are reviewed by Ballas (1997). Among the more serious forms of crises, those which are associated with rapid sequestration of sickle cells in particular organs are particularly life threatening. Since the spleen regresses and becomes fibrotic after the first few years of life, the splenic sequestration crisis is confined to infancy (Serjeant 1992). It is characterized by the rapid onset of the symptoms and signs of severe anaemia associated with progressive increase in the size of the spleen, often over a few hours. Since infants can sequester a high proportion of their red cells in the spleen in these episodes they may become profoundly anaemic. Mothers should be taught to palpate the spleen and to bring the baby to hospital if it appears to be enlarging. This condition requires urgent blood
Management and prognosis transfusion and, since it tends to recur, should probably be followed by splenectomy. Hepatic sequestration crises tend to occur in older patients and are characterized by rapid enlargement of the liver with a fall in haemoglobin level. They also require urgent transfusion to a safe haemoglobin value. The most serious form of sequestration crisis in older patients is the lung syndrome (Golden et al. 1998). This is characterized by dyspnoea and chest pain and the presence of pulmonary infiltrates, and may be very difficult to distinguish from pneumonia. Patients with these symptoms should be kept under very close observation with regular blood gas and haematological estimations. A falling PO2, particularly if it is associated with a falling platelet count and haemoglobin level, is very suggestive of the evolution of a lung crisis. These patients require monitoring on an intensive care unit and should undergo urgent exchange transfusion or, if the initial haemoglobin is low, should receive red cells sufficient to raise their haemoglobin level to a value at which the number of sickleable cells is less than 30% of the total. We shall return to the question of whether it is always necessary to carry out exchange transfusions in this situation. It should be remembered that a chest infection or, rarely, a fat embolus can simulate a pulmonary sequestration episode. If there is any doubt about infection, antibiotics should not be withheld. The other serious complication, which is well documented in sickle-cell b thalassaemia as well as in sickle-cell anaemia, is neurological involvement and stroke. As described in Chapter 9, this often follows curious hypertrophic changes in the carotid circulation, which can be anticipated by regular Doppler examination, or from microaneurysms developing round regions of infarction. This condition requires urgent treatment with transfusion. Originally it was believed that it was always necessary to lower the number of sickleable cells below 30% by exchange transfusion in patients who are not severely anaemic, but recent clinical trials (Vichinsky et al. 1995) have suggested that this may not be necessary; the same result may be obtained by hypertransfusion. The same principle may also apply to other complications inducing the chest syndrome. After an episode of this type children should be maintained on transfusion indefinitely. During an aplastic crisis there may be a profound fall in haemoglobin level associated with a reticulocytopenia. Since this condition is most often due to par-
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vovirus infection it may affect more than one family member. It requires urgent treatment by blood transfusion. Recurrent priapism is also observed in patients with sickle-cell b thalassaemia. It has been found that nearly two-thirds of major episodes are preceded by ‘stuttering’ attacks and it has been suggested that effective therapy at this stage may reduce the risk of sustaining a major attack (see Serjeant 1992). Preliminary, though still unsubstantiated, data suggest that stilboestrol, 5 mg daily, may be effective in preventing a major event in those who have had minor episodes. Fully developed priapism is a serious complication because, if not rapidly relieved, it frequently leads to permanent impotence. It has been suggested that conservative treatment should be restricted to 24 h at the most. During this time the patient should be hydrated, given adequate analgesia and exchange transfused. If there is no improvement after these measures surgery should not be delayed. The most efficient procedure is a cavernosus spongiosum shunt, a relatively minor procedure that produces a very good cosmetic result. Anticoagulants have shown little value in clinical trials (reviewed by Serjeant 1992). Recent studies, reviewed by Okpala (1998), indicate that a-adrenergic stimulants such as etileforme, injected locally, may be effective. Further information is required. Chronic complications The management of leg ulcers is unsatisfactory. Clinical trials have shown that transfusion does not speed the rate of healing and skin grafting does not always give good results. Most heal with bed rest and simple debridement, although relapses are common. Small vessel disease leading to aseptic necrosis of the femoral heads may require total hip replacement. Unfortunately the results are variable and unpredictable and, currently, it is not understood why the failure rate is so high. For this reason simple measures like analgesia and weight restriction should be persisted with as long as possible. Sickle-cell retinopathy, which probably also results from small vessel disease consequent on sickling, may require laser treatment if it is progressive. Recurrent haematuria is a worrying symptom for the patient, although it nearly always settles and there is no evidence that any form of treatment short-
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ens the period of bleeding. Terminal renal failure, which occurs in older patients with sickling disorders, should be managed as any other form of renal insufficiency; several studies have now shown that renal transplantation is possible (reviewed by Serjeant 1992). The prevention of crises and other complications Until recently the only way of preventing crises in sickle-cell anaemia was by long-term transfusion to maintain the patient’s haemoglobin level at approximately 10 g/dl and hence to suppress endogenous erythropoiesis. This is still the best approach to treating children who have had neurological complications or patients who are having painful crises at sufficiently short intervals to make life intolerable.As mentioned earlier, it was originally thought that it was necessary to partially exchange transfuse patients of this type, and to carefully maintain the number of sickleable cells below 30%, a theoretical figure derived from a blood viscosity study. Recent clinical trials suggest that it is safe to transfuse patients to this haemoglobin level without prior exchange transfusion (Vichinsky et al. 1995). In addition, a multicentre study has shown that it is possible to prevent strokes by transfusing children who have abnormal findings on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography of their carotid and cranial arterial systems (Adams et al. 1998). Recently, another approach has been shown to reduce the frequency of painful crises and, incidentally, the acute chest syndrome. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of the administration of hydroxyurea to adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia showed that there was a highly significant reduction in the number of painful crises, blood transfusions required and episodes of the chest syndrome (Charache et al. 1995, 1996). It is not clear whether this result reflects the modest increase in fetal haemoglobin production in these patients, a reduced white-cell count, alteration in the degree of hydration of the red cells or, indeed, a combination of these factors. But this is the first time that any form of treatment has been shown to reduce painful crises in a properly designed trial. The drug has been licensed for use in adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia in the USA and it has also been shown to be effective when given to children. Until more is known about the very long-term side-effects, if any, its use in children should be limited to those with a particularly
severe clinical course. We shall return to this topic later in this chapter. Bone-marrow transplantation There is far less experience with marrow transplantation for the sickling disorders than for b thalassaemia. Indeed, because of the unpredictable course of both sickle-cell anaemia and sickle-cell b0 thalassaemia, many clinicians feel that it is premature to begin large-scale transplantation for these conditions. Hence, the early series have usually included patients who are older than those in whom the best results are obtained in b thalassaemia, and who already have a history of complications from their disease. For example Walters et al. (1996) give detailed information about bone-marrow transplantation in 23 patients with sickle-cell disease; two died and the procedure did not stop the progression of central nervous system involvement in patients who had had a stroke before the transplantation. Given our current state of knowledge and experience we would advise great caution before submitting young children with sickle-cell b thalassaemia to marrow transplantation. The factors which are known to modify the clinical course of this condition were summarized in detail in Chapter 9. But, as we pointed out, even the clinical course of sickle-cell b0 thalassaemia is not predictable and, currently, we have no way of knowing which patients will develop severe complications of the disease.
Experimental therapy There are several promising areas of research which, at the time this book goes to press, are sufficiently advanced to suggest that they may play an important role in the treatment of these conditions in the future. It is beyond our scope to cover all this work in detail, and we shall simply outline the current state of development of those potential lines of treatment which seem of most promise. They are summarized in Table 15.4.
The reactivation or stimulation of fetal haemoglobin production As outlined throughout this book, and as discussed in detail in Chapters 5, 9, 10 and 13, there is abundant evidence that patients with the more serious forms of
Management and prognosis Table 15.4 Selected approaches to the future treatment of the thalassaemias. References in text. Gene manipulation Reactivation/augmentation of HbF production Selective suppression of a-globin production Gene therapy Viral or retroviral transfer Liposome-mediated transfer Receptor-mediated transfer Targeted gene transfer Artificial chromosomes Suppressor RNAs Ribozymal modification of mRNA Stem-cell biology for transplantation and/or gene therapy Human peripheral blood stem cells Human embryonic stem cells
b thalassaemia who produce unusually high levels of HbF tend to have a milder disease. The reasons are quite clear. Any patient whose red-cell precursors produce relatively more g chains will be at an advantage, simply because g chains bind a chains to produce HbF, so reducing the degree of globin imbalance. Although HbF has certain disadvantages as an oxygen carrier, notably its left-shifted oxygen dissociation curve, it is still quite adequate for the needs of extrauterine life. For this reason there has been a major interest in discovering ways of either augmenting or reactivating g-chain production. Since all the evidence suggests that babies with b thalassaemia switch from g- to b-chain production at the normal time, and that the high levels of HbF in their peripheral blood are largely a reflection of cell selection and bone-marrow hypertrophy, possibly set against a genetic predisposition to produce more or fewer g chains, what we are talking about in most cases is the reactivation of g-chain production. This research field has attracted a very large literature over recent years. Here we can only summarize the modest advances that have been made. Those who wish to study this topic in more detail are referred to several recent reviews, which will direct them to much of the published experimental data in this field (Olivieri 1996b; Jane & Cunningham 1998; Olivieri & Weatherall 1998; Swank & Stamatoyannopoulos 1998; Bunn 1999). The regulation of the switch from fetal to adult haemoglobin production is discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
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Background The notion that it might be possible to reactivate fetal haemoglobin production after it has been completely switched off came from observations of transient increases in the level of HbF in patients recovering after treatment with cytotoxic agents for leukaemia (Sheridan et al. 1976), following marrow transplantation (Alter et al. 1976c), or in animals after phlebotomy or the administration of erythropoietin (DeSimone et al. 1982; Al-Khatti et al. 1987). Similarly, it was found that, in sheep, HbC, which is normally only expressed transiently during the perinatal period, can be induced in adult animals by phlebotomy or exposure to acute hypoxia, both of which stimulate erythropoietin secretion (Benz et al. 1978). These observations suggested that rapid erythroid regeneration may be one mechanism by which it is possible to stimulate or reactivate HbF production. The most vigorously cycling cells are mature erythroblasts and late erythroid progenitors. Since Sstage-cytotoxic drugs kill cycling cells and result in a reduction in the pools of more mature erythroid progenitors, this is followed by rapid, compensatory erythroid cell regeneration. It was found that in both anaemic monkeys and patients with sickle-cell anaemia the S-stage-specific drug, hydroxyurea, was capable of causing a modest elevation in fetal haemoglobin production (Letvin et al. 1984; Platt et al. 1984). A similar result was obtained in baboons using cytoarabinoside (Papayannopoulou et al. 1984). While these early studies utilized rapid erythroid regeneration as an approach to stimulating HbF production, others focused on agents which might directly stimulate g-chain production. The first drug of this type to be explored was 5-azacytidine, a potentially potent inducer of fetal haemoglobin synthesis, possibly by acting through demethylation of regulatory sequences in the b-globin-gene locus and, at the same time, inducing rapid erythroid regeneration. While the use of this agent selectively increased gchain synthesis in a patient with b thalassaemia, and had some effect on its production in a small number of patients with sickle-cell anaemia (Charache et al. 1983; Ley et al. 1983), it proved too toxic for further clinical trials. In 1985, while investigating the reason for the delay in the switch from adult to fetal haemoglobin in the infants of diabetic mothers, Perrine and her col-
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leagues (Perrine et al. 1985) found that this effect was mediated by butyrate, a four-carbon fatty acid. Infusion of this agent into sheep fetuses was subsequently shown to cause a delay in the switch from g- to bglobin production (Perrine et al. 1988). Subsequently, arginine butyrate was administered intravenously to a patient homozygous for Hb Lepore; this was followed by a dramatic response with a major rise in both the haemoglobin and HbF values (Perrine et al. 1993). What little has been determined subsequently about the mechanisms of action of the butyrate compounds is reviewed by Swank and Stamatoyannopoulos (1998). These early studies generated a large number of clinical trials for the treatment of both sickle-cell anaemia and b thalassaemia using agents that would stimulate fetal haemoglobin production, either by promoting rapid erythroid regeneration or by reactivating the g-globin genes directly. Clinical studies of the augmentation of fetal haemoglobin production It is impossible for us to review and give references for every clinical trial that has been carried out with the object of stimulating fetal haemoglobin production. Those that were carried out up to 1995 are reviewed by Olivieri (1996b) and more recent trials are summarized by Olivieri and Weatherall (1998), Swank and Stamatoyannopoulos (1998) and Bunn (1999). As mentioned earlier, a large-scale controlled trial of the use of hydroxyurea in adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia resulted in an approximate doubling of the mean level of HbF and F cells; the HbF rose from a baseline of approximately 5 to an average of 9% (Charache et al. 1996). There was a broad scatter in HbF levels in the treated group and in some cases the rise was much greater. More recently it has been found that the same effect can be obtained in children (Ferster et al. 1996; Jayabose et al. 1996; Scott et al. 1996). In studies in which hydroxyurea has been administered to patients with different forms of b thalassaemia, there have only been minimal responses in haemoglobin or HbF levels (Hajjar & Pearson 1994; Huang et al. 1994; Bachir et al. 1995; Cohen et al. 1995; Zeng et al. 1995; Fucharoen et al. 1996). Because of reports of a suboptimal erythropoietin response to anaemia in b thalassaemia (see Chapter
5), and because of the early work in animals that showed that a rapid erythroid expansion may favour HbF production, there have been several studies to assess the effects of recombinant erythropoietin in thalassaemia or sickle-cell anaemia, either alone or in combination with hydroxyurea (Goldberg et al. 1990; Rachmilewitz et al. 1991; Olivieri et al. 1992b; Rodgers et al. 1993; Loukopoulos et al. 1995). The results have been variable and, overall, the increase in haemoglobin and HbF has been unremarkable, although it is interesting that in the patients with sickle-cell b thalassaemia studied by Loukopoulos et al. (1995) considerable clinical benefit appears to have been observed. The administration of butyrate compounds has also been associated with varying responses. In the initial study, quoted above, there was a quite dramatic response to arginine butyrate in a patient who was homozygous for Hb Lepore and who could not be transfused because of blood-group sensitization. Because of difficulties in the long-term treatment with this agent this patient was treated over a long period with a combination of sodium phenylbutyrate and, later, hydroxyurea. She had a dramatic response to this combination of drugs, with a total rise of haemoglobin to 10–11 g/dl, reflecting an increase of HbF of approximately 5 g/dl. She has remained non-transfusion dependent and well for over 5 years (Olivieri et al. 1997). Interestingly, her younger brother has had an equally dramatic response to a combination of sodium phenylbutyrate and hydroxyurea (Fig. 15.9). One other patient, in this case a compound heterozygote for Hb Lepore and b thalassaemia, showed a good response to hydroxyurea alone, with a rise in the haemoglobin of 4 g/dl (Rigano et al. 1997). However, in a further study involving arginine butyrate involving 10 patients with different types of b thalassaemia, only modest, or no, changes in the haemoglobin or HbF levels were noted (Sher et al. 1995). In a pilot study of 11 patients with b thalassaemia treated with oral sodium phenylbutyrate, four showed a rise in total HbF of approximately 1 g/dl (Collins et al. 1995); the same agent also produced a modest rise in HbF in some patients with sickle-cell anaemia (Dover et al. 1994). There have been some reports of the efficacy of pulsed doses of butyrate in patients with sickle-cell anaemia and thalassaemia (Faller & Perrine 1995), and, recently, more detailed results of this approach have been published (Atweh et al. 1999).These authors describe a regimen
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Transfusion
Hb (g/l)
120
100
80
nRBC/100 WBC
60 1200 800 600 300
α-non-α-globin chain ratio
Fig. 15.9 Pharmacological manipulation of fetal haemoglobin production.The patient was a transfusion-dependent homozygote for Hb Lepore Washington/Boston.The arrows indicate blood transfusions.Treatment was started with sodium phenylbutyrate (SPB) and later hydroxyurea was added. There was a rise in the absolute amount of HbF of approximately 5 g/dl and the child remains transfusion independent 4 years later. From Olivieri et al. (1997).
Absolute HbF (g/l)
80 60 40 20
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
in which arginine butyrate was infused through a central venous line over 8–12 h for 4 days, followed by 10–24 days’ rest. This pulse regimen induced fetal haemoglobin gene expression in nine of 11 patients; the mean HbF in this group increased from 7.2 to 21.0% after a mean duration of 29.9 weeks.There was a modest rise in the total haemoglobin level which was just significant. There did not appear to be any major side-effects. But, unlike the hydroxyurea trial mentioned earlier, it is not known whether this form of therapy resulted in any improvement in the clinical features of sickle-cell disease.
0
1
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Start SPB Months
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6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Start hydroxyurea
The future This long and painstaking saga in thalassaemia and sickle-cell anaemia research has taught us one thing for certain; it is undoubtedly possible under certain circumstances to stimulate or reactivate HbF synthesis after birth. The results of the adult sicklecell anaemia/hydroxyurea trial are extremely encouraging and the patients reported by Olivieri et al. (1997) have been virtually cured of their disease over a long period of follow-up. But, for the rest, the results of the trials directed at different forms of b
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thalassaemia have been rather disappointing to date. Furthermore, myelotoxic agents have the long-term potential for generating haematological malignancies; butyrate is, though relatively non-toxic, difficult to administer; and erythropoietin is extremely expensive and has to be given in relatively large doses with all the associated concerns about further marrow expansion and the potential dangers of raising the steady-state haemoglobin in patients with sickling disorders. However, the position may well be rather similar to how it was in the field of leukaemia treatment in its early days. Single agents were both toxic and relatively ineffective, and it was only when the ideal combinations were worked out, by carefully designed clinical trials, that the disease came under control. Since there are no other obvious approaches to stimulating fetal haemoglobin production on the horizon, the next step is to attempt to find out why some patients respond better than others, possibly by analysing the associated molecular lesions, and to try to discover combinations of these agents which are more effective. As should have been clear from the discussion of thalassaemia intermedia in Chapter 13, an increase in the haemoglobin level of 1–2 g might make all the difference between symptomatic disease and good health in this group of patients. Another, though longer-term approach to augmenting fetal haemoglobin production lies in defining the trans-acting loci which are involved in the generation of heterocellular hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin.While it is a long shot, it is possible that some of these factors are the products of loci that are involved in the regulation of HbF production. Their characterization would offer a totally different pharmacological approach to the control of HbF production. There are, in addition, other ways in which this might be achieved but this would require some form of genetic manipulation, a topic which we shall consider in the following section. Finally, an approach which is being explored by several groups follows the well-trodden road of medicinal chemistry; hundreds of compounds are being screened using in vitro assay systems in the hope that one of them might have the properties of stimulating HbF production.
In utero haematopoietic stemcell transplantation This different approach to stem-cell transplantation is based on the concept that in early gestation the fetus is immunologically immature and tolerant to foreign antigen and, in theory at least, it should be possible to engraft allogeneic or xenogeneic cells without the need for immunosuppression or ablation of the bone marrow. Since it is possible to identify the important forms of thalassaemia early during gestation these disorders were an obvious target for early attempts at this new form of therapy. So far, the results have been extremely disappointing. Recent experience in in utero stem-cell transplantation has been reviewed by Flake and Zanjani (1999). So far five attempts have been made at intrauterine stem-cell therapy for b thalassaemia; there were two intrauterine deaths, including one septic abortion, and the others have shown no evidence of engraftment. Similarly, of three attempts for the Hb Bart’s hydrops syndrome, one pregnancy was terminated at 24 weeks because of lack of peripheral donor cell expression, one showed no evidence of engraftment, and the other, though alive at 1 year and showing microchimerism, is fully transfusion dependent. The sources of stem cells in these cases were either fetal liver or paternal CD34-enriched populations. These results are extremely disappointing and suggest that many of the early premises on which this approach were based will have to be revised.We shall discuss the ethical issues involved in this kind of experimental treatment at the end of the chapter.
Somatic cell gene therapy As outlined in Chapter 1, in the early days of the elucidation of the molecular pathology of the thalassaemias it was assumed that this knowledge would soon lead to methods for the definitive cure of these diseases by genetic manipulation. Gene therapy, it appeared, was just round the corner. In retrospect, it is easy to see why this thinking was naïve. If patients were not to be treated repeatedly, the target cell for gene therapy would have to be the haemopoietic stem cell, an elusive entity which was impossible to identify and which was known to constitute only a very small proportion of bone-marrow cells. There was also the problem of finding a vector which would
Management and prognosis transfer normal globin genes into haemopoietic stem cells, where they would have to express themselves at the high level required to correct either a or b thalassaemia over a long period. And, as if all this were not enough, very little was known about the regulatory regions of the globin genes that would be needed for their appropriate expression in their new home. At the time of writing at least some of these problems are closer to solution, but there is still a long way to go before somatic cell gene therapy for thalassaemia becomes a reality. Over the last 15 years a great deal has been written about gene therapy, including its history; it must be the only field of medicine which has had its past enshrined before it has successfully treated one patient! It is a constantly changing field and all we can do here is outline some of the principles involved, together with some of the approaches that are being taken towards successful transfer of the globin genes. Readers who want to pursue this subject further will find the basic principles set out in a very readable fashion in two edited monographs (Lever & Goodfellow 1995; Lemoine & Cooper 1996). General approaches to gene therapy There are two main approaches to gene therapy. First, any cells other than germ cells might have their genetic make-up altered. Somatic cell gene therapy of this kind would change an individual’s genetic constitution only during their lifetime and would not affect their children; it would be no different in principle from any form of organ transplantation. Alternatively, germline gene therapy would entail injecting ‘foreign’ genes into fertilized eggs; the inserted genes would be distributed among somatic and germ cells and hence would be transmitted to future generations. For a variety of ethical and technical reasons current research in most countries is restricted by law to somatic cell gene therapy. Ideally, gene therapy would emulate transplantation surgery, that is, removing a gene carrying a mutation and replacing it with a normal one. Another way of achieving the same end, gene correction, would entail the specific alteration of a mutated sequence using nature’s way of exchanging genetic material, that is, by site-directed recombination. Because of the technical difficulties of these approaches, much current research in gene therapy is directed towards gene augmentation, that is, intro-
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ducing a gene into cells in a way that will allow it to produce sufficient of its product to compensate for the lack of expression of its defective counterpart. Because most of the thalassaemias are recessive disorders they are well suited to correction in this way. It will not, however, be of value for dominantly inherited disorders in which abnormal gene products interfere with cellular function. Another approach which is being explored is to leave the defective gene alone and attempt to alter its mRNA product. Requirements for gene therapy The requirements for gene therapy are easily stated but extremely difficult to fulfil. First, it is necessary to isolate a particular gene together with its regulatory sequences. Second, it must be possible to obtain sufficient numbers of cells into which the gene is to be inserted and to find an effective way of returning them to the patient. Third, there must be an efficient mechanism for inserting the gene into the target cells.And, finally, the inserted gene must produce sufficient amounts of its product over a reasonable length of time, and the procedure must not have any deleterious effects on the genome of the recipient cell. Regulation When thinking about gene therapy it is useful to categorize genes into two classes. There are housekeeping genes, that is, genes that are expressed in most tissues at all stages of development and which do not require precise regulation.Alternatively, there are genes like the globin genes that are tissue specific in their expression, developmentally regulated, and which require very tight control over the levels of their products. As described in detail in Chapter 2, the main regulatory regions for the a- and b-globin-gene clusters have been identified. However, even here there are problems because when constructs containing these regulatory regions together with the appropriate human genes are inserted into mice they are not always stable and rearrangements may take place. Furthermore, it is not yet possible to obtain highlevel expression of the a-globin genes.Thus, although the problems of regulation and the type of construct that will be required for gene therapy are known in
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outline, more work is required before it will be possible to be confident that everything needed for longterm, stable, high-level expression has been identified (Higgs et al. 1998). Approaches to gene transfer DNA can be conveyed into cells in a variety of ways. There are several physical methods, including calcium phosphate or cation lipid mediated, or electroporation; that is, inserting the DNA in a powerful electric field. Unfortunately, these approaches are too inefficient to transfect sufficient numbers of target cells. Because they integrate their DNA into the gene of their hosts, much research in gene transfer has focused on retroviral vectors; that is, retroviruses from which many of the viral genes have been removed or altered so that no viral proteins are made in the cells which they infect (Miller 1990; Sadelain 1997). Viral replication functions are provided by ‘packaging’ cells that contain helper viruses that produce all the viral proteins that are required, but which themselves have been disabled so that they are unable to produce infectious viruses (Fig. 15.10). The main advantage of these vectors is the high efficiency
Provirus psi
gag
pol
env
LTR
LTR Helper virus
×
gag
psi
neo
psi LTR
pol
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Transfer vector LTR
Human DNA LTR
Fig. 15.10 A simplified model retrovirus vector for gene transfer.The provirus, shown above, is modified by the replacement of the gag, pol and env genes by the gene that is to be transferred, often together with a selectable marker, in this case neo, a gene for neomycin resistance. Packaging is mediated by a helper virus which retains the viral genes but in which the packaging sequence, psi, is removed, so rendering it unable to package its own proteins. env, glycoproteins of viral envelope; gag, structural proteins of viral capsid; LTR, long terminal repeats; pol, reverse transcriptase.
of gene transfer in replicating cells. On the other hand it is difficult to insert large pieces into them, and most retroviruses are unable to infect non-dividing cells. Furthermore, integration is random and there is a danger of unwanted side-effects, insertional mutagenesis for example. Despite these problems a number of workers in the late 1980s showed that tissue-specific expression of a retrovirally encoded human b-globin gene could be obtained in murine bone-marrow chimeras (Karlsson et al. 1988; Miller et al. 1988a; Dzierzak et al. 1998). Unfortunately, these studies were bedevilled by low levels of gene transfer and expression, and enthusiasm for this approach waned. However, with the discovery of the b-globin locuscontrol region and the advantage of a deletion in the second intron of the b-globin gene, together with improved knowledge of the regulation of the Moloney murine leukaemia virus vector, considerable improvements in globin-gene transfer were obtained (Miller et al. 1988a; Sadelain et al. 1995) and it was possible to increase viral titres and to improve the efficiency of transfection. For example, in transduced murine erythroleukaemia (MEL) cells bearing single-copy vectors, human b-globin expression was induced to 70–80% of that of the endogenous mouse b-globin gene (Leboulch et al. 1994; Sadelain et al. 1995). However, further studies indicated that transcription was not dependent on the integration site and was heavily affected by flanking chromatin. Similar high levels of expression were also obtained using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, although in this case about half the MEL cell clones showed a rearranged vector (Einerhand et al. 1995). However, these experiments did establish quite unequivocally that the incorporation of elements of the b-globin locus-control region (LCR) increased trans-gene expression in virally transduced cells. On the other hand, they suggested that the modification of the size of the LCR in this system makes it function more like a classical enhancer rather than conferring position-independent expression. Further details of some of these problems are discussed in a review by Sadelain (1997). Recently, the introduction of lentivirus vectors and the further modification of the b globin/LCR constructs have resulted in major improvements in the expression of human b globin in mice with b thalassaemia (reviewed by Bodine 2000).
Management and prognosis Other types of vectors are also being explored. For example, the possibility of transferring and maintaining DNA by the use of extrachromosomal elements is a distinct possibility. Such elements are formed after fusion of mouse cells with a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) containing a human gene. Unfortunately, they segregate poorly during cell division and are lost from the cells. But recent progress in defining the sequences required for both centromere and telomere function in mammalian cells may, in the long term, make it possible to construct mammalian artificial chromosomes for gene therapy. Targeted sequences have been introduced into cells by physical methods and, under appropriate conditions, homologous recombination can be obtained with specific sequences (Shesely et al. 1991). However, this approach, which in many ways is ideal, is far too inefficient to be practical at the current state of its development.
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programme which allows competitive repopulation of the genetically modified cells; in the case of b thalassaemia such a competitive advantage would be imparted to cells expressing high levels of normal b globin.While this is true there would be no advantage to earlier progenitors carrying normal b-globin genes, nor would it apply to sickle-cell anaemia. Thus it may be necessary to confer an advantage on the graft through incorporating a drug resistance gene, for methotrexate for example, into a second transcription unit, the other encoding the b-globin gene. The problems of chimerism and transplant biology are discussed in detail by Blau (1998) and the possibility of the generation of haemopoietic progenitors from human embryonic stem (ES) cells, which would be a major step forward, is discussed by Keller and Snodgrass (1999) The current status of all these aspects of gene therapy for thalassaemia is reviewed by Persons and Nienhuis (2000).
Target cells Because of the very low number of target cells in the bone marrow, most of which are non-cycling, a variety of new approaches have been explored to try to tackle this fundamental barrier to gene therapy.The wide variety of methods which are being employed to try to alter the cycling properties of these cells are reviewed by Sadelain (1997). It is now clear that they are extremely heterogeneous with respect to their level of expression of the amphotropic receptor required for transduction by retroviral vectors. The cloning of these receptors will enable the study of factors which may be used to enhance their surface expression (Cosset & Russell 1996). There is also considerable interest in the use of peripheral blood stem cells as targets for gene transfer. Attention is focusing on particular subsets, including CD34+ cells and their various subgroups, although whether these populations can retain long-term haemopoietic potential remains to be determined. Transplantation strategies As pointed out by Sadelain (1997), when it actually comes to attempting to replace bone-marrow cells transfected with normal globin genes for the treatment of thalassaemia, it will be necessary to develop a
Other approaches to genetic manipulation for the treatment of thalassaemia Other novel approaches directed towards thetherapy of the thalassaemias are summarized in Table 15.5. They include various ways of improving gene replacement by homologous recombination, or targeted mutagenesis as a way of repairing defective genes. Another approach to repairing the defect in thalassaemia would be to aim to restore normal splicing in cases of splicing mutations (Dominski & Kole 1993). Here the idea is to develop 2¢-O-methylribo-oligonucleotides complementary to mutated b-globin-gene pre-mRNAs and in this way to reverse the aberrant splicing. Other approaches to the same end are also being investigated. For example, Lan et al. (1998) described a new way of correcting the molecular defect in sickle-cell anaemia which combines the double benefit of deleting the sickle-cell mutation and, potentially, augmenting fetal haemoglobin levels in the red cells. Essentially, the experiment was carried out as follows. A source of nucleated red-cell precursors was obtained from erythroid colonies and then a trans-splicing group 1 ribozyme was used to alter the mutant b-globin-gene transcript in these cells. Lan et al. created a ribozyme that was able to convert the bS-globin transcript to RNAs encoding g globin. This approach is reviewed in detail by
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Weatherall (1998a). As pointed out in this commentary, although this ingenious experiment worked well in cultured cells, the jump to an in vivo approach to gene correction therapy will require a great deal more work. When will gene therapy be feasible for the treatment of thalassaemia? This field has been very active over recent years. It is generally believed that gene therapy will be successful for short-term gains such as the treatment of cancer or vascular disease before it is possible to correct genetic diseases. Although there has been genuine progress, it seems likely that we shall have to wait for many years before it can be applied for the treatment of thalassaemia. One of the prerequisites of all ethical committees that deal with this field is that the prognosis of the disease can be predicted with some accuracy, and that other forms of treatment are inadequate. Both these issues will have to be debated very clearly before the first trials of gene therapy for thalassaemia. And there will have to be extensive studies in experimental animals before moving to trials on humans. There are still considerable uncertainties about the safety of any of the current approaches to gene therapy; this will be a major issue, particularly considering the other forms of treatment that are available for thalassaemia. Much will depend on whether it is possible to improve the results of bone-marrow transplantation from non-related donors and, if this is possible, the relative costs of this procedure compared with somatic cell gene therapy. We are a long way off from having to make these difficult decisions, but all the signs are that sooner or later we shall have to.
Ethical issues relating to experimental forms of treatment Clearly, new forms of experimental treatment must be attempted or there will be no progress in the thalassaemia field. However, as the results of symptomatic treatment and bone-marrow transplantation for the thalassaemias continue to improve, and prenatal diagnosis becomes even safer and more accurate, parents will have a number of very clear-cut options about the future planning of families with potential thalassaemic children. And it is,
of course, the parents who must make the final decisions about whether to allow their unborn infants or affected children to undergo these experimental procedures. In most countries any form of somatic gene therapy requires the agreement of a detailed protocol by a national regulatory body. Any completely new experimental treatment should come under equally careful scrutiny. One of the major tasks which faces any regulatory body or ethics committee in examining experimental protocols is a risk–benefit analysis. In the case of inherited diseases for which there are no forms of treatment this may be relatively easy. But, for diseases like thalassaemia for which much can be done already, the situation becomes more complicated. As mentioned in the previous section, there will have to be very strong evidence from animal experimentation that any approach to somatic cell gene therapy for thalassaemia carries a good chance of success and minimal risk. Recently there have been a number of deaths due to attempts at gene therapy for monogenic disease, and much more will have to be learnt about the safety of gene transfer vectors, particularly their immune properties and the possibility of the induction of neoplasms, and, indeed, every aspect of the procedure. In discussing risk–benefit in the case of intrauterine stem-cell therapy Flake and Zanjani (1999) suggest that at the present time the risks appear to be small relative to potential benefits. It is difficult to see how the authors arrived at this conclusion in the case of the a and b thalassaemias, given the abysmal results to date. It is also frightening to observe that, both in their paper and in recent discussions about the possibility of intrauterine gene therapy for a thalassaemia, in no case is the high frequency of associated fetal abnormalities mentioned. There is a genuine danger that technology is moving too quickly in some areas of modern medicine. Overall, most countries have, after a long debate, made some sensible recommendations as to the criteria needed before somatic cell gene therapy is embarked on. It is vital that the same types of public discussion and control are set in place for every form of experimental therapy. The recent publications about the possibility of intrauterine somatic cell gene therapy for a thalassaemia suggest that there may be a major communication gap between the technologists who wish to apply these approaches
Management and prognosis and clinicians who have a broad knowledge and experience of the diseases that will form the basis for these experiments. It is vital therefore that those that have responsibility for the care of patients with tha-
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lassaemia embark on a broad-ranging discussion with their families, biomedical scientists and the public at large before setting off into these unknown territories.
Chapter 16 The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias Since the last edition of this book there have been major technical advances in the identification of the abnormal haemoglobin disorders and the thalassaemias. However, a diagnosis of these conditions that is sufficiently accurate for most clinical purposes, except prenatal detection, can usually be established from a detailed personal and family history, and a complete clinical and haematological examination of the patient and members of their family, together with a few simple studies of their haemoglobin constitution. Over recent years the evolution of fully automated high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Bissé & Wieland 1988; Galanello et al. 1995; Riou et al. 1997; Wild & Stephens 1997) has led to substantial improvements in the speed, accuracy and reproducibility of qualitative and quantitative haemoglobin analysis. However, these systems have limitations, and most of them are expensive and their use can only be justified in reference centres in which there is a high throughput of samples. Similarly, although many of the molecular diagnostic techniques are now available in the form of kits, these are also costly and require considerable experience in their day-to-day use. Hence we believe that these approaches, together with globin synthesis analysis, which is still extremely valuable as a preliminary approach to identifying thalassaemia-like disorders with normal HbA2 levels, should be restricted to reference laboratories which are carrying out large numbers of investigations and so can become aware of the pitfalls of these different approaches. In this chapter we shall discuss the differential diagnosis of the different forms of thalassaemia and describe some of the techniques which are of particular value in hospital laboratories and reference centres. Strategies for carrier screening and population studies are described in detail in Chapter 14. It is beyond our scope to cover every practical aspect of the diagnosis of the thalassaemias. For more detailed coverage of other haematological and haemoglobin analytical techniques the reader is advised to consult 686
one of the monographs which deal with these topics in greater detail (Schmidt & Huisman 1974; Dacie & Lewis 1975; Lehmann & Kynoch 1976; Huisman & Jonxis 1977; Chanarin 1989). There are several laboratory manuals on general techniques of DNA analysis (Mathew 1991).
General diagnostic approaches and differential diagnosis of the thalassaemias Patients homozygous for b or db thalassaemia or with HbH disease usually present with the symptoms of the disease, whereas carriers for a or b thalassaemia are usually found during examination of the relatives of more severely affected patients, as part of screening programmes or during the investigation of mild, iron-refractory hypochromic anaemias. The homozygous and compound heterozygous states for b thalassaemia Diagnosis These conditions usually present in early life and the severity of the anaemia, ethnic background of the patient and associated physical findings of enlargement of the spleen and liver and early bone changes are helpful clues to the diagnosis (see Chapter 7 for a full discussion). There is nearly always a severe degree of anaemia and the mean cell volume (MCV) and mean cell haemoglobin (MCH) values are usually reduced, although because of the marked variation in shape and size of the red cells it is difficult to obtain accurate red-cell indices, particularly after splenectomy. The reticulocyte count, although elevated, is low relative to the degree of anaemia. If the patient has been splenectomized the peripheral blood should be incubated with methyl violet to demonstrate achain inclusions in the normoblasts and red cells. They can be found in the red-cell precursors in
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias the bone marrow in all cases of homozygous b thalassaemia, though it is not usually necessary to carry out a bone-marrow examination as part of the initial work-up. Having established that the haematological changes are typical of b thalassaemia the next step is to determine the level of HbF. This will be significantly elevated in nearly every case of severe b thalassaemia unless a large blood transfusion has been administered immediately before the analysis. The complete absence of HbA indicates homozygous b0 thalassaemia, while the diagnosis of b+ thalassaemia is suggested by the finding of small amounts of HbA. A word of caution is necessary here, however. Transfused blood survives for a surprisingly long period in many patients with b thalassaemia; by the use of methods which are described later in this chapter for identifying cells which contain either HbF or HbA we have observed a considerable population of transfused red cells in the peripheral blood for periods exceeding 3 months. Haemoglobin A2 analysis is of no diagnostic help but it is important to carry out qualitative haemoglobin electrophoresis, using cellulose acetate, citrate agar or isoelectric focusing, to rule out structural variants such as the Lepore haemoglobins. These simple investigations will serve to diagnose the vast majority of homozygous b thalassaemics and may allow their classification into b+ or b0 thalassaemia. In situations where the patient has been heavily transfused globin synthesis studies or DNA analysis will distinguish b0 from b+ thalassaemia. The diagnosis is confirmed by the finding of heterozygous b thalassaemia in both parents. Differential diagnosis (see also Chapter 7) There are very few conditions which cause genuine difficulty in the diagnosis of the severe forms of b thalassaemia.The presence of anaemia from early in life, with the associated red-cell abnormalities and high levels of HbF, is unique to the b thalassaemias. The other anaemias of early life, such as severe nutritional anaemia, congenital haemolytic anaemia due to red-cell enzyme defects and the congenital aplastic anaemias, all have completely different haematological pictures. Similarly, conditions associated with high levels of HbF, such as juvenile chronic myeloid leukaemia and some of the congenital aplastic anaemias, can be distinguished easily by the associated white-cell and platelet changes. We have seen
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several cases of congenital sideroblastic anaemia misdiagnosed as b thalassaemia, particularly if the patient has been transfused heavily before an adequate diagnosis has been made. The haematological picture is quite different and the bone marrow in b thalassaemia does not show the marked morphological abnormalities of the red-cell precursors that are observed in the different classes of congenital dyserythropoietic anaemia. Homozygous db thalassaemia, haemoglobin Lepore thalassaemia and hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin Homozygous db thalassaemia is diagnosed by the finding of typical thalassaemic red-cell changes associated with 100% HbF and the absence of both Hbs A2 and A. In the past, the distinction between the (Agdb)0 and (db)0 forms was made by amino acid analysis of the cyanogen bromide cleaved peptide, gCB3 (Huisman & Jonxis 1977; Clegg et al. 1979), or by electrophoresis of globin under conditions that separate the Gg and Ag chains (Alter 1979; Alter et al. 1980). Currently, however, it is simpler to establish a molecular diagnosis by Southern blot analysis or by using one of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques (see later section). The homozygous and compound heterozygous states for Hb Lepore are easily identified by the severity of the anaemia and the finding of variable amounts of Hb Lepore on haemoglobin electrophoresis. The distinction of homozygous db thalassaemia from homozygous hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) may be difficult. In the former there is usually splenomegaly, a moderate degree of anaemia and more globin imbalance than in the homozygous state for HPFH. The red cells also tend to be more hypochromic and microcytic in homozygous db thalassaemia. Compound heterozygotes for HPFH and b thalassaemia are usually asymptomatic or mildly anaemic; the proportions of Hbs A and F are dependent on the type of b-thalassaemia and HPFH mutations. On the other hand, considerable variation has been observed in the clinical phenotypes of db-thalassaemia/b-thalassaemia compound heterozygotes, ranging from a mild anaemia to thalassaemia major; they tend to be more severely affected than db-thalassaemia homozygotes. It is often easier to distinguish these conditions in related
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carriers by analysis of the haematological changes and intercellular distribution of HbF. Differential diagnosis The differential diagnosis for the db thalassaemias, the Hb Lepore thalassaemias and HPFH follows the same lines as that for the b thalassaemias. Heterozygous b or db thalassaemia As for the homozygous states, the heterozygous carriers of b thalassaemia are identified by careful haematological studies followed by electrophoretic analysis of haemoglobin. The blood film shows morphological changes of the red cells including hypochromia, microcytosis, anisochromia and anisopoikilocytosis in most cases. By far the most useful investigation in screening for heterozygous b or db thalassaemia is to determine the MCV and MCH. Details of the ranges and their discriminatory values are given in Chapter 14. It is very unusual to find a b- or db-thalassaemia carrier with a normal MCH and MCV value except in the presence of co-existent a-thalassaemia trait (see below). Once it has been established that there are thalassaemic red-cell indices, the HbA2 level should be measured, by either quantitative cellulose acetate electrophoresis, column chromatography or HPLC. It is also important to carry out qualitative haemoglobin electrophoresis on cellulose acetate or isoelectric focusing (IEF) to identify structural variants like Hb Lepore. Haemoglobin F estimation is of interest but not of any great diagnostic value except in persons in which the HbA2 level is normal. In such cases a chemical estimation of the level of HbF should be carried out to determine whether the patient is a db-thalassaemia carrier. If the HbF level is in the 5–20% range it is helpful to determine the intercellular distribution to distinguish between HPFH and db thalassaemia. It is rarely necessary to assess globin synthesis for the diagnosis of heterozygous b thalassaemia if the HbA2 is elevated. However, it should be remembered that a person with many of the characteristics of heterozygous b thalassaemia can also carry an athalassaemia gene. This should be suspected if the MCV and MCH values are close to normal (see Chapter 13). The diagnosis can be confirmed by family studies and DNA analysis. It should be remembered that the HbA2 level may
be moderately elevated if an individual has both the sickle-cell trait and a-thalassaemia trait. In this situation, the HbA2 may be in the 3.5–4.0% range.The relative increase in this case is a post-translational phenomenon due to a greater affinity of a for d chains compared with bS chains, which is accentuated by limiting amounts of a chains (see Chapter 11). The simplest way of obtaining a correct diagnosis is to quantify the HbS level. In uncomplicated sickle-cell trait, it is less than 40% of the total haemoglobin. Coexisting a-thalassaemia trait reduces the level of HbS whereas co-existing b-thalassaemia trait results in a level of HbS of more than 60% of the total haemoglobin. Again, the diagnosis can be confirmed by family studies, which demonstrate the segregation of the two traits. Some b thalassaemias are associated with normal levels of Hbs A2 and F in the heterozygous state, accompanied by minimal reduction in the MCV and MCH values (the so-called ‘silent b thalassaemia’, see Chapters 4, 7 and 13). The homozygous states for these conditions are characterized by a mild form of thalassaemia intermedia with elevated HbF levels in the 10–30% range and elevated HbA2 levels. As discussed in Chapters 4 and 13, globin synthesis studies in heterozygotes usually show slightly unbalanced synthesis ratios. Distinction of b- and db-thalassaemia traits from iron deficiency In practice the commonest problem that is encountered in the diagnosis of the b-thalassaemia carrier states is their distinction from iron-deficiency anaemia. This should rarely pose a problem if the haematological findings are carefully examined. To produce MCH and MCV values as low as those found typically in b-thalassaemia carriers, iron deficiency is usually associated with a much lower haemoglobin level than that found in association with these traits. However, occasionally the distinction can be more difficult. The measurements of the serum iron and total iron binding capacity (TIBC) are usually sufficient to distinguish between the two. The serum ferritin level is also a valuable guide to iron deficiency. It should be remembered that iron deficiency is often found together with bthalassaemia trait; the effect on the HbA2 level was discussed in Chapter 7. Because electronic cell counters are now used to
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias screen for thalassaemia, there has been much interest in determining whether it is possible to develop mathematical models which will discriminate between iron-deficiency anaemia and b thalassaemia from the red-cell indices. Various formulae based on the blood count have been devised (Mentzer 1973; England & Fraser 1979). We feel that, while these are interesting theoretical studies, the simple analytical techniques required to measure HbA2 levels must now be available to any laboratory which has the resources to own an electronic cell counter. Furthermore, the various discriminatory functions are not completely reliable and are not applicable to children, pregnant women or patients with polycythaemia complicated by iron deficiency, and will only predict the correct diagnosis in 80–90% of patients (d’Onofrio et al. 1992). We recommend that all individuals with thalassaemia-like red-cell indices should have their HbA2 level determined. The problem of the significance of ‘borderline’ levels of HbA2, in the 3.2–3.5% range, is discussed in Chapter 7. Haemoglobin H disease Haemoglobin H disease is characterized by anaemia accompanied by typical thalassaemic changes of the red cells in which HbH inclusions can be generated (see Chapter 11). The diagnosis should be confirmed by haemoglobin electrophoresis; HbH can be demonstrated by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate or starch gel either at alkaline pH or, uniquely, at neutral or acid pH. Haemoglobin electrophoresis on cellulose acetate at alkaline pH shows an abnormal band anodal to HbA comprising 1–40% of the total Hb. Haemoglobin A2 levels are usually reduced. If one of the a-chain termination mutants such as Constant Spring is involved it can be demonstrated by starch gel or cellulose acetate electrophoresis, or IEF (see Chapter 11). The haemoglobin Bart’s hydrops syndrome This condition, which is described in detail in Chapter 11, usually offers no diagnostic problems. While the clinical findings may resemble other causes of hydrops fetalis, the typical thalassaemic blood changes with a marked normoblastaemia together with the finding of up to 80% Hb Bart’s are found in no other condition.
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a-Thalassaemia carrier states The diagnostic problems involved in identifying the different a-thalassaemia carrier states and the homozygous states for a+ thalassaemia were discussed in detail in Chapter 11. In summary, the heterozygous states for the deletion (–a/aa) and non-deletion (aTa/aa) forms of a thalassaemia usually show minimal haematological changes and no abnormalities of the haemoglobin pattern. In some, but not all, cases there is an elevated level of Hb Bart’s in the 1–3% range in the neonatal period. The heterozygous states for a0 thalassaemia (– –/aa), and the homozygous states for a+ thalassaemia (–a/–a) are characterized by significantly reduced levels of the MCV and MCH together with hypochromic red cells. There are no changes in the haemoglobin pattern in adult life but in the neonatal period from 5 to 10% Hb Bart’s is found. The latter conditions can also be identified by globin synthesis; the a-/b-chain ratios are discussed in Chapter 11. However, the ratios are the same in the two forms of a thalassaemia and therefore although this approach identifies the condition as a type of a thalassaemia it does not allow a definitive diagnosis. Similarly, and as discussed in Chapter 11, there may be a few cells with HbH inclusion bodies, particularly in heterozygotes for a0 thalassaemia, but their absence does not exclude the diagnosis. In short, the only definite way of identifying the different a-thalassaemia carrier states and homozygous states for a+ thalassaemia is by DNA analysis (see later section).
An approach to the laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias The diagnosis of thalassaemia may be required either because a patient presents with a clinical picture which raised suspicions or as part of a programme of carrier screening. The general approach to the laboratory diagnosis of these conditions, outlined in Table 16.1 and Fig. 16.1, is the same regardless of the way in which the disorder first presents. It entails three distinct phases. First, there is the primary screen, which is based on haematological changes. This is followed by a secondary screen which involves HbA2 and, sometimes, HbF estimations, followed by haemoglobin electrophoresis to identify any structural haemoglobin variants. It may also involve some further haematological studies to identify particular types of
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Table 16.1 Laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias (abbreviations are defined in the text). Primary screen Automated blood cell counter. Hb, MCH, MCV Secondary screen Haemoglobin A2 estimation Cellulose acetate; micro-column chromatography; HPLC Haemoglobin F estimation Alkali denaturation Identification of abnormal haemoglobins; haemoglobin electrophoresis Cellulose acetate; citrate agar; starch gel; IEF Demonstration of inclusion bodies Methyl violet; brilliant cresyl blue Globin synthesis Intercellular distribution of HbF Definitive diagnosis a Thalassaemia Deletions: GAP PCR; Southern blotting Non-deletional forms: PCR; DGGE; SSCA + sequencing b Thalassaemia PCR/ASO; dot blot; reverse dot blot;ARMS; PCR/restriction-enzyme DGGE db Thalassaemia; hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin Southern blotting; GAP PCR Haemoglobin variants Restriction enzymes;ARMS-PCR; sequencing
inclusion bodies in the red cells and, sometimes, globin synthesis.At this stage it is possible to make an adequate diagnosis of many of the different forms of thalassaemia, but in many cases it is necessary to go one step further, that is, to obtain a definitive diagnosis. This entails the identification of the underlying mutation, or mutations, by DNA analysis. The primary screen The primary screen for all forms of thalassaemia involves an accurate blood count, ideally carried out on a well calibrated electronic cell counter which will provide accurate red-cell indices. In the symptomatic forms of thalassaemia this should always be followed by a careful examination of a stained blood film. We discussed carrier screening in detail in Chapter 14. We concluded that individuals with hypochromic, microcytic red-cell indices, that is, with MCH values below 27 pg or MCV values below 80 fl, should be investigated further. We also mentioned the question
of whether a primary screen for carriers could be carried out using a single-tube osmotic fragility test, a particularly attractive option when expense might preclude the possibility of electronic red-cell counting (Silvestroni & Bianco 1959). The effectiveness of this approach has been evaluated using 0.36% saline instead of the more commonly used 0.32% saline solutions (Kattamis et al. 1981a) or glycerine saline (Gottfried & Robertson 1974; Flatz & Flatz 1980). It has also been the subject of a series of more recent papers from India, which describe the reliability of what the workers call NESTROFT (naked-eye single-tube red-cell osmotic fragility test) (Raghaven et al. 1991; Gomber et al. 1997; Manglani et al. 1997; Thool et al. 1998). In the most recent of these papers,Thool et al. (1998) suggest that using a 0.36% buffered saline NESTROFT gives almost 100% positive diagnoses and has a negative prediction value of about 83%, with a sensitivity of 95.2%. Of course, false-positive tests do not really matter and the major concern is false-negative tests. In all these studies the frequency of false negatives was quite low but undoubtedly some carriers were missed. Furthermore, they represent studies done as part of a research programme and there is still uncertainty about the robustness of this approach in day-to-day clinical use. But, while further studies need to be carried out, and osmotic fragility screening may be useful for population studies, we strongly recommend that laboratories that are screening for b thalassaemia carry out the initial screen using red-cell indices obtained from electronic cell counting. The secondary screen In symptomatic patients who are anaemic with thalassaemic changes of their red cells, the secondary screen simply involves haemoglobin electrophoresis to search for HbH and to rule out any other structural haemoglobin variants, and a chemical estimation of the level of HbF, which will be raised in almost all forms of b thalassaemia. The HbA2 level is of little diagnostic help in the more severe forms of thalassaemia. These simple investigations will be sufficient to provide a diagnosis in the vast majority of cases. Asymptomatic individuals with hypochromic microcytic red-cell indices, i.e. with MCH values below 27 pg or MCV values below 80 fl, should be investigated for thalassaemia trait. Further investiga-
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691
Haematological studies (Red cell indices suggestive of thalassaemia)
• Hb electrophoresis
• HbA2 estimation
Variant Hb
Elevated HbF
Normal
Confirmatory tests
• Quantitate HbF • F cell distribution
Normal, low or borderline
Elevated HbA2
Iron studies
Hb S, C, E D-Punjab, O-Arab Lepore
Fig. 16.1 A simplified flow chart showing the major steps in the diagnosis of the different forms of thalassaemia. Family studies should be carried out whenever possible.The precise identification of the molecular pathology always requires DNA analysis. • indicates basic investigations required for the diagnosis of the thalassaemias.
Elevatated
δβ thalassaemia Interaction HPFH of Hb variant with β thalassaemia, δβ, HPFH
tions should include haemoglobin electrophoresis on cellulose acetate at alkaline pH (pH 8.2–8.6), which enables the provisional identification of Hbs A, F, S/G/D, A2/C/E/O Arab, H, Lepore and a number of less common haemoglobin variants. Good electrophoretic techniques should demonstrate HbF levels of > 2% and a split HbA2 band, which is useful in differentiating an a-chain from a b-chain variant. The secondary screen must also include an estimation of the HbA2 level. An increased HbA2 level, i.e. > 3.7%, together with hypochromic microcytic red cells is diagnostic of heterozygous b thalassaemia. Haemoglobin A2 values of < 3.2% are usually considered to be normal, while those between 3.2% and 3.7% (borderline) should be interpreted with care (see Chapter 7). After those individuals with elevated HbA2 values have been defined, a group will remain who have thalassaemic red-cell indices with normal, low or borderline HbA2 levels. It is important to exclude iron deficiency, since iron deficiency severe enough to cause mild anaemia can produce falsely low HbA2 levels. If iron deficiency is suspected it should be corrected and the
Normal
Iron deficient
• HbH inclusions • Globin chain synthesis
Correct iron deficiency and re-test
Homozygous α thalassaemia β thalassaemia trait Normal A2 β thalassaemia
Heterozygous β thalassaemia
HbA2 estimation repeated. Some of those who are iron replete with low or normal HbA2 levels will have elevated HbF levels, indicating that they are heterozygous for db thalassaemia. Of the remainder, the majority will be a0-thalassaemia carriers or a+thalassaemia homozygotes, or heterozygotes for the forms of b thalassaemia with normal HbA2 values (see Chapter 7). Individuals with a0-thalassaemia trait may have a few red cells with HbH inclusions but their absence does not exclude a thalassaemia. It is possible to distinguish a-thalassaemia carriers from heterozygotes for normal HbA2 b thalassaemia by globin synthesis studies. If the HbF level is elevated, as suggested by cellulose acetate electrophoresis, it should be quantified. It is helpful to examine the intercellular distribution by the Kleihauer method or by the more sensitive technique of immunofluorescence using an anti-gchain antibody. The intercellular distribution of HbF is determined to differentiate HPFH from db thalassaemia — in individuals with HPFH it is homogeneous, or pancellular (with the exception of heterocellular HPFH),
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whereas an uneven or heterocellular F-cell distribution is typical of heterozygous db thalassaemia. However, with better understanding of the molecular basis of these disorders, this distinction has become less useful. It appears that the intercellular distribution is a reflection of the overall numbers of red cells containing HbF and the sensitivity of the technique used to stain for it. Thus, a heterocellular distribution with the acid elution method of Kleihauer may become pancellular with the more sensitive immunofluorescence assay. Modest increases of HbF levels (1–4%) with a heterocellular distribution in otherwise normal individuals with normal haematology fall into the group of conditions referred to as ‘heterocellular’ HPFH (see Chapter 10). Haemoglobin electrophoresis on cellulose acetate at alkaline pH should distinguish most of the common haemoglobin variants; additional investigations that may be useful in the identification of the less common ones include electrophoresis on citrate agar at acid pH and isoelectric focusing. The b thalassaemias, db thalassaemias and HPFH may be coinherited with any of the common haemoglobin variants, producing a spectrum of genetic interactions. A guideline to interpreting them is shown in Table 16.2, but family studies should always be carried out. Definitive diagnosis The definitive diagnosis of the thalassaemias involves determination of the underlying mutations through DNA analysis. Some of the methods used in our laboratory are outlined later in this chapter.
Laboratory methods Preparation of haemoglobin solution for electrophoresis Blood can be collected into any of the standard anticoagulants. Packed red cells are washed three times with 3–5 volumes of 0.9% saline and then lysed with 1–1.5 volumes of distilled water and 0.4 volumes of CCl4. The mixture is shaken in a centrifuge tube either by hand for not less than 4 min or by a vortex mixer for 30 s. The mixture is then centrifuged at 3000 g for 20 min. At this stage the clear supernatant haemoglobin solution is carefully pipetted off and is ready for haemoglobin electrophoresis.
Where samples are being examined for small amounts of HbH or unstable haemoglobin it is probably better to avoid shaking with organic solvents and, after washing the cells, to lyse them with a minimum of 4 volumes of distilled water and to separate the cellular debris by high-speed centrifugation (e.g. 18 000 g for 20 min at 4°C). Although we find that distilled water is quite satisfactory for most purposes, lysates can also be prepared by the addition of 1.5 volumes of 5 mM phosphate and 0.5 mM EDTA solution to the washed red blood cells. After allowing the samples to stand for a few minutes, 0.1 volume of 9% saline is added and the mixture is centrifuged at 4°C. Lysates prepared in this way may be stored at –20°C for up to 4 weeks; they can be stored at –70°C indefinitely. Red-cell lysates can be kept at 4°C without deterioration for periods of up to 7–10 days. If they are to be stored for longer times it is better to dialyse them against 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, for 24 h at 4°C. The dialysed lysate can be stored indefinitely at –70°C. In most cases the haemoglobin can be kept as oxyhaemoglobin although the carbonmonoxy form is more stable. The latter is particularly useful for preserving HbH but is not suitable for HbF analysis. Haemoglobin solutions that have been kept for any length of time may become oxidized, with the production of variable amounts of methaemoglobin. The latter produces additional bands on electrophoresis but this problem can be overcome by the addition of potassium cyanide to the haemoglobin solution since cyanmethaemoglobin has the same charge as oxyhaemoglobin. This is achieved by adding a drop of 1% solution of potassium cyanide to 1–2 ml of red-cell lysate. It is possible to post whole blood for haemoglobin analysis provided that shipment only takes 24–48 h. Another useful form of transportation is in the form of washed red cells which have been treated with carbon monoxide. Ideally, samples should be maintained on ice for transportation but washed cells are usually satisfactory if maintained at ambient temperature for periods of up to a week. Qualitative cellulose acetate electrophoresis Cellulose acetate electrophoresis is rapid and simple and we find that it is an extremely useful technique for preliminary analysis of haemoglobin variants. There are a variety of commercially available tanks
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Table 16.2 Some characteristic findings in the genetic interactions between b thalassaemia, db thalassaemia or hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (A) and the common b-chain variants (B). (A) Thalassaemia type
Homozygote
Heterozygote
b0 thalassaemia
Thalassaemia major: HbF 98%; HbA2 2%; no HbA
Thalassaemia minor: HbA2 3.7–7.0%; HbF 1–3%; a/b 2.0
b+ thalassaemia (severe)
Thalassaemia major: HbF 70–95%; HbA2 2%; trace of HbA
Thalassaemia minor: HbA2 3.7–7.0%; HbF 1–3%; a/b 2.0
Mild b+ thalassaemia
Thalassaemia intermedia to thalassaemia major: HbF 20–80%; HbA2 2–5%
Thalassaemia minor: HbA2 3.5–7.0%; a/b 1.5–2.0
‘Silent’ b thalassaemia
Asymptomatic to mild thalassaemia intermedia: HbF 10–30%; HbA2 2–5%
Usually ‘silent’: HbA2 3.3–3.5%; a/b 1.2–1.5
Normal HbA2 b+ or b0 thalassaemia
Thalassaemia major: HbA2 absent to trace; HbF 95–100%; HbA absent to trace
Thalassaemia minor: HbA2 normal; HbF 1–3%; a/b 2.0
Deletion HPFH
Asymptomatic; normal to increased Hb levels with mildly hypochromic microcytic red blood cells; HbF 100%; a/g ~ 1.5 Asymptomatic; normal Hb levels with normal red blood cell indices; HbF 20–40%; HbA2 1–1.5%; a/non-a ~ 1.2
Mild anaemia; normal RBC indices; HbA2 normal; F-cell distribution–pancellular
Non-deletion HPFH
db thalassaemia
Normal to mild anaemia; borderline red blood cell indices; HbA2 normal; F-cell distribution–pancellular
Mild anaemia to thalassaemia major: hypochromic microcytic red blood cells; HbF 100%; a/g 2.5–5.0 Severe thalassaemia intermedia to thalassaemia major: HbF 80%; Hb Lepore 20%
Mild anaemia; hypochromic microcytic red blood cells: HbA2 normal; HbF 5–20%; F-cell distribution–heterocellular Thalassaemia minor: Hb Lepore 8–20%; HbF 2–4%
HbS/b0 thalassaemia
Sickle-cell anaemia
HbS 75–100%; HbF 0–20%; HbA2 4–6%; no HbA
HbS/b+ thalassaemia (severe type)
Sickle-cell anaemia
HbS 50–80%; HbF 0–20%; HbA 10–30%; HbA2 4–6%
HbS/b+ thalassaemia (mild type)
Sickle-cell trait
HbS 50–65%; HbA ~ 25%; HbA2 4–6%; HbF ~ 5%
HbE/b0 thalassaemia
Thalassaemia intermedia to thalassaemia major
HbE 30–40%; no HbA, rest HbF
HbE/b+ thalassaemia
Thalassaemia intermedia to thalassaemia major
HbE 50–70%; HbF 15–30%; HbA trace to 10%
Hb Lepore
(B)
and trays for this purpose. The Mylar-backed plates, which are supplied by Helena Company, Beaumont, Texas, on which eight samples can be run simultaneously and loaded with a simple mechanical applicator, are very simple to use. Several plates can be analysed simultaneously at a relatively low cost. Because of their adaptability for both qualitative and
quantitative work, we also use Shandon Model U77 electrophoretic tanks. These have the advantage that they are designed to take different-sized cellulose acetate strips and can be used for simple analytical studies or for quantification of HbA2 or various other haemoglobin fractions. In practice we use cellulose acetate electrophoresis
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for rapid screening for haemoglobin variants or increased levels of HbF, and for the demonstration of Hbs Bart’s and H.
Commercial kits Premixed reagents for citrate buffer can be obtained from Helena Laboratories, or from Isolab Inc.
Buffer systems A Tris–EDTA–borate system, pH 7.9, is used for screening for haemoglobin variants and a phosphate system, pH 6.5, is used for separation of Hbs H and Bart’s.
Slide method
Phosphate system (pH 6.5) Potassium di-hydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) 3.11 g, disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4 2H2O) 1.87 g, dissolved in 1 l distilled water.
For analysis on microscope slides 1 g Difco agar in 100 ml of buffer containing 1 drop of 5% KCN is heated in boiling water until the agar has melted. Then 1.5 ml of the solution is deposited evenly on the microscope slide, which can then be kept for several days at 4°C. Red-cell lysates to be analysed are applied from the tip of a round toothpick and about 50–100 V are delivered for about 30–45 min. The slides can be stained with the following: bromophenol blue, 100 mg dissolved in 1 l distilled water containing 10 ml glacial acetic acid. The stain is poured off the slides after about 20–-30 min and the slides are then washed with distilled water.
Method
Larger-scale analysis on perspex trays
Cellulose acetate strips measuring 25 mm ¥ 120 mm (Shandon, Celogram) are soaked in the appropriate buffer and gently blotted. The strips are placed in the Shandon electrophoretic tank and secured at each end by a double layer of Whatman no. 3 filter-paper. One to two ml of an 8–10 g/100 ml solution of haemoglobin is applied in a short (1-cm) line midway between the centre of the strip and its cathodal end. After the samples have soaked into the strip the haemoglobins are separated using a current of about 5 mA (about 220 V) across the strip.
First 2 g of agar is dissolved in 200 ml of citrate buffer, pH 5.9, and heated until the agar has completely dissolved. The molten agar is poured into trays 25 cm ¥ 30 cm ¥ 0.1 cm and allowed to cool in a draught-free area. Haemoglobin solutions of at least 10 g/100 ml are applied to the centre of the gel by means of pieces of Whatman no. 3 (1 cm ¥ 0.5 cm) filter paper. Filterpaper wicks are placed on the surface of the agar at each end and allowed to dip into electrode chambers containing at least 2 l of citrate buffer. As soon as the haemoglobin has migrated into the gel the pieces of filter-paper are removed with fine-pointed forceps and the whole gel is sprayed with a plastic spray (Krylon, no. 130L) to prevent drying during electrophoresis. Alternatively, a thin sheet of cellophane may be placed over the gel. Better separation of haemoglobin fractions is obtained if, after 3–4 h, the agar gel tray and buffer tank electrodes are reversed. After a further 3–4 h the plastic spray is peeled off and the gel immersed in bromophenol blue for 5–10 min. After staining (using bromophenol blue, as for the slide method, while still on the electrophoretic tray), the gel is placed in a shallow trough of distilled water so that it is just immersed. A piece of waxed paper is then gently pushed between the agar gel and tray until the gel has floated clear on to the paper.The
Tris–EDTA–borate system (pH 7.9) Tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane 5.1 g, EDTA (acid) 0.3 g, boric acid 6.4 g, dissolved in 1 l distilled water.
Agar gel electrophoresis Agar gel electrophoresis can be carried out using commercial kits, in shallow trays or on individual microscope slides. Buffer system (citrate, pH 5.9) Sodium citrate 147 g is dissolved in 600 ml of water and titrated to pH 5.9 with 50% citric acid. The total volume is then made up to 1 l with distilled water.This stock buffer is diluted to 1/10.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias gel and paper are allowed to dry with weights at several points round the edge of the paper supporting a protective sheet of glass, which is elevated about 1–3 cm above the agar gel. In this way permanent preparations can be obtained. Estimation of haemoglobin A2 and other variants Haemoglobin A2 levels can be estimated visually by paper or starch gel electrophoresis but in the authors’ experience this is not satisfactory and some form of quantitative method is required. These include electrophoresis on cellular acetate or column chromatography. The various advantages and disadvantages of these different approaches have been analysed in detail by Schmidt et al. (1975), Efremov (1977), Brosious et al. (1978) and Schmidt and Brosious (1979). Electrophoresis The simplest method is cellulose acetate electrophoresis and the following modification of the method of Marengo-Rowe (1965) has been found to give excellent results: cellulose acetate strips measuring 25 mm ¥ 120 mm (Shandon, Celogram) are soaked in a Tris–EDTA–borate buffer, pH 8.9 (Tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane 14.4 g, EDTA (acid) 1.5 g, boric acid 0.9 g, distilled water to 1 l) and gently blotted. The strips are placed in a Shandon electrophoretic tank (Shandon Model U77) and secured at each end by a double layer of Whatman no. 3 filterpaper. 10 ml of 8–10 g/100 ml solution of haemoglobin is applied in a short (2-cm) line midway between the centre of the strip and its cathodal end. After the samples have soaked into the strip, HbA and A2 are separated completely in 2 h using a current of 5 mA (about 220 V) across the strip.The HbA and A2 zones are cut out and eluted in 15 and 1.5 ml of buffer, respectively.After 30 min (to ensure total elution) the optical density at 415 nm is determined and the level of HbA2 calculated from the formula: OD 415 nm HbA 2 ¥ 100
(
)
10 ¥ OD 415 nm HbA + OD 415 nm HbA 2 It has been found that, under these conditions, HbA2 values ranging from 0.3 to 7.5% give optical densities within a range which follows Beer’s law for
695
oxyhaemoglobin solutions at this wavelength. Forty estimations on a single sample gave a range of 2.28–2.88 (SD 0.22%). The distribution of HbA2 levels in 200 healthy individuals obtained by this technique ranged from 1.5 to 3.5% (mean 2.48) (Weatherall et al. 1971). Prolonged storage has little effect on HbA2 values determined in this way. For the determination of Hbs A and C or S in heterozygotes, or similar estimations on other mixtures of haemoglobin variants, the same cellulose acetate electrophoretic system can be used, but for this purpose 2 ml of haemolysate is applied to cellulose strips measuring 25 mm ¥ 180 mm. Better separation of the major components is obtained using buffer systems described for qualitative cellulose acetate electrophoresis. Haemoglobins A and S are eluted in 3 ml and HbA2 in 1.5 ml. Storage experiments have indicated that the accurate quantification of HbS can only be achieved in haemolysates which have been prepared for less than 7 days. After this time there is progressive reduction in the relative amount of HbS in samples stored at 4°C or frozen. Amounts of Hbs H and Bart’s as low as 0.5% of the total haemoglobin can be accurately determined by cellulose acetate electrophoresis using either a Tris–EDTA–borate or phosphate buffer system, pH 7.9 and 6.5, respectively, as described above. After separation the fractions are eluted to 2-ml volumes of buffer and their OD415 nm determined. Column chromatography Haemoglobin A2 levels may be estimated by DEAEcellulose chromatography at room temperature. Commercial microcolumns are produced by Helena Laboratories or Isolab, but they require careful quality control to obtain consistent results. Haemoglobin A2 estimations may also be carried out in this way using disposable Pasteur pipettes (0.5 cm ¥ 6 cm). The tapered end of the pipette is loosely packed with cotton, and the pipette is placed vertically inside a test-tube. The column and cotton plug are moistened with 0.05 M Tris–HCl buffer, pH 8.5, and the column is then packed with a slurry consisting of a suspension of DE52 DEAE cellulose. Once the column has settled excess buffer is removed from the top and a sample of three drops of red-cell lysate (see previous section), diluted with seven drops of 0.05 M Tris–HCl buffer, pH 8.5, is applied to
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the top of the column. After the sample has entered the column the walls are rinsed with the same buffer, which is allowed to flow into the absorbent. A simple reservoir is then attached to the top of the pipette by a suitable piece of plastic tubing on the stem of a simple filter funnel.All the effluent that has been collected thus far in the test-tube is discarded. The first 6–8 ml of effluent is collected in a 10-ml volumetric flask and the volume is adjusted to 10 ml with distilled water. This effluent contains HbA2. When all the HbA2 has completely eluted, the buffer in the reservoir is changed to 0.05 M Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.0.The first 5–10 ml of effluent, which contains the remaining haemoglobins, is collected in a 25-ml volumetric flask and diluted to 25 ml. The optical densities of the two samples are then read at 415 nm using the Tris buffer as a blank calculated as follows: The percentage of HbA2 is OD HbA 2
(OD in remaining Hb ¥ 2.5) + OD HbA 2 ¥ 100 = % HbA 2
Starch gel electrophoresis Although starch gel electrophoresis is used less commonly now that more rapid methods are available it is still extremely valuable for defining minor fractions or studying the non-haemoglobin proteins of the red cell (Fig. 16.2). Starch gel electrophoresis can employ either a vertical or a horizontal system (Smithies 1959). There are now a variety of vertical starch gel trays on the market, all of which have a set of removable teeth incorporated into the base.When removed these produce a series of wells in the starch for insertion of the sample. The advantage of the vertical system is that more sample can be loaded and minor components studied in greater detail. Furthermore the degree of resolution is higher than in the horizontal system. On the other hand most of the vertical starch gel trays require a considerable quantity of starch and are therefore expensive to run for routine purposes. A horizontal system is cheaper and gives adequate resolution. A horizontal starch gel tray can be easily constructed from perspex. The size is not critical and depends on the number of samples to be studied, but a tray measuring 15 cm ¥ 15 cm ¥ 0.5 cm will be found to be adequate for most purposes. For routine haemoglobin electrophoresis the Tris–EDTA–borate system, pH 8.65, gives satisfac-
tory results. For separation of Hbs Bart’s and H a phosphate buffer system, pH 7.0, gives the best resolution. For the study of minor components and isozyme patterns the discontinuous system of Poulik (1957) is useful although gels made with this buffer tend to be more friable than those made with the Tris–EDTA–borate system. Starch gel electrophoresis can be adapted for globin separation using the 6 M urea barbital system described by Chernoff and Pettit (1964). Buffer systems Different systems are available. The continuous and discontinuous systems are equally good for routine use. Tris–EDTA–borate system (pH 8.6, 0.08 M) (Boyer et al. 1963a) 0.9 M Tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane, 0.5 M boric acid, 0.02 M EDTA (acid). The stock buffer is diluted 1/20 for making gels, 1/5 for the anodal chamber and 1/7 for the cathodal chamber. Discontinuous Tris–citrate system (pH 8.5, 0.04 M) (Poulik 1957) 45.9 g Tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane, 5.0 g citric acid, 5 l distilled water for the gel buffer, while the chamber buffers are made as follows: 92.5 g boric acid, 25.0 ml 10 N sodium hydroxide, 5 l distilled water. Phosphate system (pH 6.5–7.1, 0.005 M (Gammack et al. 1961) This is the best buffer system for demonstrating small amounts of Hb Bart’s and H. 0.04 M disodium hydrogen phosphate is titrated to pH 7.1 with orthophosphoric acid. For preparation of gels 40 ml of the resultant buffer is diluted with 300 ml distilled water. The undiluted buffer is used for the electrode chambers. The separation usually takes about 4 h. Method Starch (Connaught Laboratories or similar brand of hydrolysed starch) is mixed with the appropriate amount of buffer so as to produce enough molten starch to just overfill the tray. The maker’s instructions should be followed regarding the amount of starch to be used, although this is usually 9–12 g/ 100 ml buffer and varies slightly between different lots. The starch, suspended in the appropriate buffer, is thoroughly shaken in 1-l Erlenmeyer flasks and
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias
697 +
HbA HbS HbC CA HbB2
Fig. 16.2 Vertical starch gel electrophoresis, pH 8.5, amido black stain, showing a variety of haemoglobin variants. Left to right: 1 and 2, normal adult; 3, HbC trait; 4, b-thalassaemia trait; 5, sickle-cell anaemia; 6, HbSC disease; 7, sicklecell b thalassaemia; 8, an adult with a d-chain variant (HbB2).The figure shows a duplicate analysis on a tray which will carry 16 samples.The non-haem protein which migrates behind HbA2 is the major red-cell carbonic anhydrase (CA).
then heated to boiling with continuous shaking until a translucent gel appears. The flask is then degassed under vacuum until all the large bubbles have been dispersed and a uniform mixture containing small bubbles is obtained. Excessive degassing results in a dry gel and poor migration. The molten gel is then poured into the appropriate tray, after which a preheated glass plate is placed over the gel, the excess being allowed to run over the sides. Excessive pressure on the gel should be avoided since thin gels tend to crack or pull away from the sides of the mould on cooling. After cooling the tray is turned over and the bars containing the teeth removed, so producing a series of wells into which the haemoglobin solution is introduced with Pasteur pipettes. For routine work the best resolution is obtained with solutions of about
HbA HbS HbC CA HbB2 2–4 g/100 ml; the minor components are better visualized with more concentrated haemolysates. The samples are kept in place by sealing with just-molten pure petroleum jelly and in the vertical system the gels are set upright, after unscrewing the ends, in suitable buffer chambers. Contact at the upper end is obtained by a wick of double- or triple-thickness Whatman no. 3 filter-paper placed over the end of the gel, while the lower end of the gel stands immersed in the chamber buffer. The duration of electrophoresis is variable depending on the buffer system and voltage. The Tris–EDTA–borate and Tris–citrate– borate systems are run for about 12–18 h with a current of about 25 mA across the gel (4 V/cm) while good resolution can be obtained with the phosphate system in 2–4 h with a similar current.Where possible the electrophoresis should be performed at 4°C.
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If the horizontal system is used trays can be obtained commercially which, like those for the vertical system, incorporate teeth within the base. In that case the method of sample loading is the same as that for the vertical gels. However, simple inexpensive trays can easily be made from plastic and the samples applied on small pieces of Whatman no. 3 filter-paper, which are soaked in haemolysate and inserted into the gel with the aid of a razor-blade or flat knife. Gel slicing and staining After the electrophoretic runs gels are removed from the tray and placed on a clean, smooth bench surface. Horizontal slicing can be achieved either with a specially devised slicer designed after a cheese cutter or using a sharp flat blade. After slicing, the gels are placed with the cut surface uppermost in suitable trays or plastic boxes and stained. For staining the following solution is made up: glacial acetic acid 200 ml; methanol 900 ml; distilled water 900 ml. A stain is prepared by dissolving 0.4 g amido black in 500 ml of this solution. It is poured over the starch gel and left until each of the major haemoglobin fractions is darkly stained. It is then poured off and can be used again. The gel is washed with several changes of the glacial acetic acid/methanol/distilled water mixture until the background is clear. Gels treated in
this way can be kept in cellophane wraps indefinitely (Fig. 16.2). Isoelectric focusing (IEF) Generally, IEF produces a separation of haemoglobins similar to that by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate membranes but the bands are sharper and the resolution of some haemoglobins is better. IEF is not usually required for secondary screening but is a useful supplement to cellulose acetate electrophoresis in reference centres where there is a large throughput of samples. Precast agar gels are commercially available. We use the ‘Isolab system’, which allows the differentiation between Hbs A, F, S, C, D Punjab but does not differentiate between Hbs G Philadelphia and Lepore, or between Hbs E, A2 and O Arab. An increased percentage of HbA2 may be visible but this technique is not reliable for the quantification of HbA2. IEF is a valuable technique to differentiate Hb Bart’s from other ‘fast’ variants such as Hbs J and N in umbilical cord blood samples. It is also useful for screening dried blood samples spotted on membranes (such as Guthrie cards) because interference from methaemoglobin, which can prevent adequate resolution of the haemoglobin bands on electrophoresis, is reduced. Figure 16.3 shows an IEF gel with various haemoglobin variants.
Fig. 16.3 Haemoglobin analysis by isoelectric focusing. Separation of normal haemoglobin and variants by isoelectric focusing (IEF) using precast agar plates (Isolab Inc.,Akran, USA). Lanes 1, 14 and 21 show the standard control sample (Hbs A, F, S and C) used in this system.The various genotypes detected by IEF are represented as follows: lane 2,A/S with increased HbA2 level; lanes 3–6, normal A/A; lane 7,A/E with increased HbF level; lane 8, E/E with increased HbF; lane 9, A/S; lane 10, normal A/A; lane 11,A/S; lane 12, normal A/A; lane 13, Hb Bart’s with no HbA or HbF; lane 15, normal A/A; lane 16, S/S with increased HbF; lane 17,A/C; lane 18, fetal blood, all HbF, no HbA; lanes 19 and 20, normal AA.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) The introduction and evolution of automated HPLC systems has brought a radical change in the identification and quantification of haemoglobin variants. Several automated HPLC systems are commercially available; they are expensive to buy and, for an evaluation of the different systems, the reader is advised to consult the reports of Galanello et al. (1995), Waters et al. (1996), Bain and Phelan (1997), Wild and Stephens (1997) and Riou et al. (1997). We use the Bio-Rad Variant and the ‘b thal short program’ to screen and quantify the levels of Hbs A2, F, S and C. There are limitations to this system. Since Hbs Lepore and E are co-eluted with HbA2, a precise quantification of these haemoglobin variants is not possible; they should be thought of if the sample gives an HbA2 level of more than 10%, which is most unusual in b-thalassaemia carriers.There may also be a false increase of HbA2 levels in HbS carriers due to co-elution of minor components with HbA2 (thought to be due to post-translational modifications of HbS). Haemoglobins H (b4) and Bart’s (g4) may be detected, but not quantitatively because they are eluted prior to the start of the integration. This system is not reliable for measuring low levels of HbF. Automated HPLC systems give accurate and reproducible HbA2 estimations (except when certain haemoglobin variants are present) but the peak shape, baseline and resolution should always be checked before using the computed peak areas. Haemoglobin H inclusions Haemoglobin H inclusions can be generated in vitro by the redox action of certain dyes. They are found in HbH disease, and sometimes in a0-thalassaemia carriers and in the Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome. They must be distinguished from the preformed single HbH inclusions found in the blood of splenectomized patients with HbH disease. Due to batch variation of the dyes, any new batch should always be checked with a positive control. Blood (preferably anticoagulated with EDTA and used within 24 h of venesection) is incubated with 1% brilliant cresyl blue (in 0.9% NaCl) at room temperature (or better at 37°C) for 4 h. One part of blood is incubated with two parts of dye and a normal control should always be included. Blood films are
699
made, allowed to air dry and examined under oil immersion. Haemoglobin H inclusions are distinguished by the ‘golf ball’ appearance of the cells. Typical inclusions are found in 30–100% of the red cells in HbH disease. As mentioned above they may also be found in a few red cells (1/1000 to 1/10 000) of individuals with a0thalassaemia trait, but their absence does not exclude the diagnosis. a-Chain inclusions Alpha-chain inclusions can be seen in the cells of homozygous b thalassaemics or of patients with thalassaemia intermedia. In non-splenectomized persons they can only be found in the red-cell precursors in the bone marrow, but after splenectomy they can be seen in nucleated red cells in peripheral blood and in non-nucleated cells. Equal parts of blood and 1% solution of methyl violet in 0.9% NaCl are mixed and incubated at room temperature for periods ranging from 30 min to 2 h. Blood films are made and allowed to dry and examined under oil immersion. The preformed Heinz bodies can also be easily seen using wet preparations under a cover slip. Determination of the relative amount of haemoglobin F No one technique is entirely satisfactory for the determination of the level of HbF. In practice we find that for accurate determination of relatively low levels the 2-min alkali denaturation technique of Betke et al. (1959) as slightly modified in our own laboratory (Pembrey et al. 1972) gives highly reproducible results over the range 0.5–50%. The original 1-min alkali denaturation test of Singer et al. (1951) is quick and useful but it tends to give slightly high values in the low range, i.e. below 5% HbF, and like the 2-min method of Betke et al. (1959) is inaccurate in the higher ranges. Probably the most useful of the alkali denaturation methods for work in the higher ranges of HbF, i.e. in excess of 50% of the total haemoglobin, is the method of Jonxis and Visser (1956). If very accurate estimations of the level of HbF are required, particularly in the high ranges, a variety of chromatographic techniques are available; these are reviewed by Huisman and Jonxis (1977).
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Method of Singer et al. (1951) Haemoglobin solutions are prepared as for haemoglobin electrophoresis (see below). 3.2 ml of 0.083 N sodium or potassium hydroxide (pH 12.7) are pipetted into a test-tube at room temperature. 0.2 ml of the haemoglobin solution, at a concentration of approximately 10 g/100 ml, is pipetted into the alkali, the mixture agitated vigorously and a stopwatch started. After exactly 1 min, 6.6 ml of acidified 50% saturated ammonium sulphate (50% saturated ammonium sulphate, 800 ml; 10 N HCl, 2 ml) is added and after further vigorous shaking the mixture is filtered. The amount of alkali-resistant haemoglobin is estimated by comparing the optical density (540 nm) of the filtrate with a standard made by adding 0.2 ml of the original haemoglobin solution to 4.8 ml of 0.04% (v/v) ammonia solution.This gives a standard equivalent to 100% haemoglobin. The comparison of standard and control may also be made in a colorimeter with an Ilford 625 filter. Whichever method is used for determining the concentration of haemoglobin it is usually necessary to dilute the standard 1/5 or 1/10 so as to compare the optical densities in approximately the same range. The normal adult range using this method is 0.8–2.5% of alkali-resistant haemoglobin. Modification of the method of Betke et al. (1959) The following modification of this method has been found to give highly reproducible values for alkali-resistant haemoglobin in the range 0.5–50% (Pembrey et al. 1972). 0.6 ml of a red-cell lysate (approximately 8.0 g/ 100 ml) is added to 10.0 ml of Drabkin’s solution (KCN 0.05 g, K3FeCN6 0.20 g, distilled water to 1 l). The dilute haemoglobin solution obtained in this way is used for both test and standard. 0.2 ml of 1.2 N sodium hydroxide is added to 2.8 ml of the haemoglobin solution and the mixture is gently agitated for 2 min. 2.0 ml of saturated ammonium sulphate is then added and, after shaking, the mixture is allowed to stand for at least 5 min before it is filtered through a double layer of Whatman no. 6 filterpaper. The whole procedure is carried out at room temperature. A blank is prepared as follows: cyanmethaemoglobin solution 1.4 ml, distilled water 1.6 ml and saturated ammonium sulphate 2.0 ml. The
best results are obtained if the optical density of both test and blank are read at 415 nm. To achieve this it is necessary to dilute the blank 1/10. The percentage fetal haemoglobin is calculated as follows: OD 415 nm of test ¥ 100 OD 415 nm of standard ¥ 20 It is most important to ensure that the filtrate is fully clarified, and if necessary it should be refiltered before the optical density is determined. Estimation of haemoglobin F by HPLC or electrophoresis Although HbF can be separated from other haemoglobins by HPLC we have found that this method gives unreliable results with HbF levels of less than 5%. This approach can be modified to separate the Gg from the Ag chains. Other electrophoretic methods such as IEF also allow the clear separation of HbF but, again, they are not suitable for measuring low levels. The normal adult range is 0.2–0.8% alkali-resistant haemoglobin. The acid elution technique for the intercellular distribution of haemoglobin F (Kleihauer et al. 1957) The method is based on the principle that HbF is relatively stable at low pH whereas HbA is denatured under these conditions. Blood films are exposed to a low pH buffer, washed and stained. The HbFcontaining cells appear deeply stained whereas the cells which contain HbA appear as ‘ghosts’. Reagents The following agents and stains are required. (a) Citric acid–phosphate buffer pH 3.3. Solution A (0.1 M). Dissolve 21.01 g of citric acid monohydrate in 1000 ml of distilled water. Solution B (0.2 M). Dissolve 35.60 g Na2HPO4 in 1000 ml of distilled water. Combine 73.4 ml of Solution A with 26.6 of Solution B to give a buffer of pH 3.3; check pH and correct if necessary. (b) Ethanol: 80 vol%.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias Stains (a) 0.1% of erythrosin in water. (b) Ehrlich’s acid haematoxylin. Dissolve 4.0 g of crystalline haematoxylin in 200 ml 95 vol% ethanol and add 8 ml 10% sodium iodate.Add to this solution 200 ml of water and boil the mixture. After cooling, add 200 ml of glycerine, 6.0 g of aluminium sulphate and 200 ml of glacial acetic acid. Allow solution to stand for at least 14 days. Method Thin smears are prepared from capillary blood or venous blood collected into anticoagulants such as heparin, oxalate, citrate or EDTA. Smears are air dried for between 10 and 60 min, fixed in 80 vol% ethanol for 5 min at 20–22°C, rinsed with tap water and air dried. Films are then immersed in the citrate phosphate buffer for 5 min at 37°C and gently agitated for 1 to 3 min. Slides are rinsed with tap water, dried and stained with Ehrlich’s acid haematoxylin for 3 min, rinsed with water and dried again. They are counterstained with erythrosin for 3 min.After a final rinse, films are dried and examined under ordinary light microscopy without oil immersion. Haemoglobin F-containing cells are densely stained with erythrosin, HbA-containing cells appear as ghost cells, while intermediate cells are stained more or less pink. Reticulocytes containing HbA may appear as intermediate cells and/or may show intracellular granulation. Inclusion bodies (Heinz bodies, precipitated a chains or b chains) are seen in eluted cells as compact inclusions of different sizes. Haemoglobin A is eluted regardless of whether it is oxyhaemoglobin, methaemoglobin, cyanmethaemoglobin, reduced haemoglobin or carboxylhaemoglobin. The analysis of the intercellular distribution of HbF in db thalassaemia or HPFH is sometimes helped by raising the pH of the buffer to 3.4. Immunological detection of haemoglobin F Production of monoclonal antibody against the g chain of HbF has greatly improved the detection and quantification of small amounts of HbF in haemolysate as well as within intact red cells. The radial immunodiffusion method for measurement of HbF in haemolysate is simple, but rapid determination of HbF is not feasible. Monoclonal anti-g-chain
701
antibody can be used to detect erythrocytes containing HbF (F cells) in fixed blood smears after immunofluorescence staining (Wood et al. 1975), or by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) after labelling of the intracellular HbF (Thorpe et al. 1994). A protocol routinely used in our laboratory for the detection of small amounts of HbF in intact red cells is carried out in the following way. The monoclonal antibody against the g chain of HbF (a2g2) is a gift from Professor Peter Beverley. Staining is performed on blood smears prepared from whole EDTA blood. It is very important to ensure that the glass slides are grease-free and that only 1-2 ml whole blood is used, so that only one-cell-thick smears are produced. Blood can be stored up to a week prior to making the smears, but it is preferable to prepare them from fresh blood before haemolysis has occurred. Once prepared, air-dried smears can be stored in tissuepaper at room temperature for long periods. (We have successfully stained blood smears that are up to 5 years old.) ‘Old’ slides need a longer incubation in trypsin; as long as 40 min may be necessary. It is advisable to carry out a time course on a control slide prior to the study. A frequently encountered problem is lysis of the cells, especially after trypsinization, and this is usually due to the incorrect pH of the calcium chloride. We have recently found that trypsin tablets (available from the Sigma Chemical Company) are simple to use and reliable. This method is a very good alternative to F-cell estimation by FACS and extremely valuable if there is no access to a FACS scan apparatus. Figure 16.4 shows the F-cell distribution in various conditions associated with increased HbF levels. Materials The following are prepared. Cleaned microscope slides. Use prewashed and precleaned slides from BDH: Superfrost (Cat. no. 406/0169/02). Clean slides with acetone followed by ethanol and allow to air dry for at least 1 h. Prepare 4–5 very thin smears, one-cell thick, per individual using 1–2 ml of fresh blood on the cleaned slides. Allow smears to dry for at least 2 days or, for the best result, for more than 1 week.
702
Chapter 16 190897 003 120
100
Counts
80
60
40 98.6% 20 M1 0 100
(a)
101
102 FL1-H HbF 27.8% (HPFH 2)
103
104
103
104
28A0297 689 200
160
Counts
120
80
168.8% 40
(b)
0 100
M1
101
102 FL1-H
Fig. 16.4 F-cell estimation by (left) staining and (right) fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). (a) A heterozygote for hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH 2). (b) Heterocellular HPFH. M1; gate width for normal cell population.
Acetone/ethanol/methanol (6/2/2 v/v) Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) Sigma P-4417 Trypsin solution. 0.1% trypsin in 0.1% calcium chloride (CaCl2) at pH 7.8. Prepare 10 ml solution (10 mg
of trypsin (ICN; Cat. no. 150213) + 10 mg CaCl2 + 10 ml distilled water) and store at –20°C in 1-ml aliquots. Alternatively, use trypsin tablets (Sigma; Cat. no. T7168). Dissolve one tablet in 1 ml deionized water, store at –20°C in 10-ml aliquots. Before use, make up to 500 ml (i.e. add 490 ml) with deionized water.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias Prewarm to 37°C before use. Note: pH of CaCl2 is very important. Anti-monoclonal antibody. Undiluted supernatant. Tetramethylrodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC) conjugate antimouse IgG (Sigma T-6653). Store frozen in 10-ml aliquots. Working solution: dilute 1/32 in PBS. Humidity chamber. Moist tissue in plastic chamber. Glycerol/PBS (1/1v/v) or antifade Vectashield, mounting medium for fluorescence (Vector; Cat. no. H1000). Method The following steps should be followed. 1 Mark on the smear a small area of approximately 5 mm diameter using a diamond cutter. 2 Fix smears in acetone/ethanol/methanol fixative for 20 min.Air dry for 2 min (do not overdry). 3 Rehydrate in PBS for 5 min (use plenty of PBS in a large glass container) and then rinse very briefly in distilled water.Air dry. 4 Cover the circled area with 8 ml prewarmed (37°C) trypsin solution and incubate at 37°C for 15 min in humidity chamber. Note: time of trypsinization varies with age of slides but generally 15 min is sufficient. 5 Wash in PBS for 5 min with gentle agitation and rinse in distilled water.Air dry. 6 Cover trypsinized area with 5–10 ml anti-g antibody, incubate at 37°C in humidity chamber for 30–40 min. 7 Wash as before and air dry. 8 Cover circled area with 5–10 ml fluorescent antimouse IgG and incubate at 37°C for 20–30 min in the humidity chamber. 9 Wash as before with PBS, rinse in distilled water, air dry. 10 Mount in glycerol/PBS or antifade. We generally count ~1000 red cells, which corresponds to four to five high-power fields. The number of fields, of course, depends on the density of cells. Hence, it is very important to master the art of making thin blood smears.
703
Determination of proportion of F cells by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) Materials The following are required. 4% PBS/formaldehyde. For 10 ml, add 1 ml of ‘40% formaldehyde stock’; 1 ml 10 ¥ PBS; and 8 ml of deionized water NB: Formaldehyde is sold as 40%; ‘40% formaldehyde stock’ is thus 16% formaldehyde and final fixative is actually 1.6% PBS/formaldehyde. Ice bucket at –15°C to –20°C. Fill a quarter of the ice bucket with dry ice. Make a mix of 9/10 wet ice and 1/10 NaCl and add to the dry ice. Use a thermometer and do not just estimate temperature. Precooled acetone. Keep in ice bucket at –15°C to –20°C. Precooled acetone/water (50/50). Keep in ice bucket at –15°C to –20°C. 10% albumin. Make from 35% solution, Bovine Fraction V; Sigma A-8918. Anti-g-globin-chain antibody. Dilute antibody (neat supernatant) with 10% albumin (1/1) before use. FITC conjugate. Antimouse IgG (whole molecule, absorbed with human serum proteins); Sigma No. F-2012. Store in 50-ml aliquots at –20°C. Before use, add 1 ml PBS and 1 ml albumin 10% to 50-ml aliquot. PBS. (Sigma phosphate-buffered saline tablets; Sigma P-4417.) Fixation and permeabilization of erythrocytes Attention to details of timing and temperature of the acetone and acetone/water steps are very important; inadequate fixation with over-permeabilization will lead to lysis of the red cells, while underpermeabilization will result in poor staining. The following steps should be followed. 1 Wash 80–100 ml blood (collected in EDTA) three
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Chapter 16
times with PBS, for 2 min at 1500 r.p.m. in microfuge at room temperature. 2 Fix the red cells by adding 40 ml packed red cells to 1 ml 4% PBS/formaldehyde. Gently vortex and leave for 20 min at room temperature. 3 Pellet the red cells by centrifuging at very low speed (1500 r.p.m.) for 2 min at room temperature, remove most of the supernatant and resuspend the cell pellet by gentle vortexing. 4 Transfer all the red cells to a 10-ml polypropylene Falcon tube containing 3 ml of acetone/water (50/50) precooled at –15°C and incubate for 2 min at 5°C. 5 Pellet the cells again by centrifuging for 2 min at 1000 r.p.m. at 4°C, remove supernatant and resuspend pellet by gentle vortexing. Add 3 ml of acetone precooled at –15°C and incubate for 5 min at 5°C. 6 Repellet the cells by centrifuging for 4 min, 1000 r.p.m. at 4°C, remove supernatant and resuspend pellet by gentle vortexing. Add 3 ml of acetone/water 50/50 precooled at –15°C and incubate for 2 min at 5°C. 7 Repellet the cells by centrifugation for 2 min at 1000 r.p.m. at 4°C, remove supernatant and resuspend pellet by gentle vortexing. 8 Set the centrifuge at 20°C and wash the cells in 10 ml PBS at room temperature.
saemia disorders, particularly the a-thalassaemia carrier states or the interactions of a and b thalassaemia. The methods used in our laboratory for measuring rates of globin synthesis are little changed from those that were described in the original publications in the mid- and late 1960s, except for the addition of a few minor modifications to conditions to suit specific purposes (Clegg et al. 1965, 1966, 1968a; Clegg 1983). One significant improvement, however, is the introduction of a technique for the removal of white cells from peripheral blood samples (Beutler et al. 1976) prior to incubation with radioactive amino acids. This is particularly useful for samples with low reticulocyte counts, where background contamination from white-cell proteins can cause serious problems with the accurate determination of a-/b-globin synthesis ratios. Reagents All chemicals should be analytical reagent (AR) grade whenever possible. a Cellulose. SIGMA C-8002. Microcrystalline cellulose. Sigma cell type 50 S-5504.
Immunostaining of erythrocytes The following steps are followed: 1 Pellet the cells by centrifugation at 1000 r.p.m. for 2 min at 20°C. Remove the supernatant and incubate the pellet for 20 min with 60 ml diluted anti-g antibody at room temperature, with gentle agitation. 2 Wash with 10 ml PBS at room temperature as before and incubate the pellet for 20 min with 60 ml diluted FITC antimouse IgG at room temperature, with gentle agitation. 3 Wash the cells with 10 ml PBS at room temperature, as before, and resuspend the pellet in 2–3 ml PBS for analysis by flow cytometry. If the sample is not used immediately, store at 4°C in the dark. Measurement of a-/b-globin synthesis ratios As mentioned earlier, routine haematological and haemoglobin electrophoresis studies may not always suffice to characterize adequately some of the thalas-
Reticulocyte saline (RS). 0.13 M NaCl, 0.005 M KCl, 0.0074 M MgCl2.6H2O. 3H-leucine.
l-4,5-3H-leucine (Amersham) 50 Ci/mM in aqueous solution containing 2% ethanol. Incubation mixture (IM) The mixture is made up as follows: 1 54 ml amino acid mixture, made up in RS; 2 2.7 ml 0.25 M MgCl2 with 10% glucose, made up in RS; 3 27 ml 0.164 M Tris HCl pH 7.75 made up in H2O; 4 21.6 ml 0.01 M trisodium citrate, made up in dialysed group AB plasma; and 5 32 ml 0.01 M NaHCO3, made up in dialysed AB plasma. Dialysed plasma AB plasma dialysed exhaustively at 4°C against multiple changes of RS.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias Amino acid mixture Amino acids (10 ¥ concentration): weight in mg dissolved in final 100 ml H2O. Alanine Arginine Aspartic acid Asparagine Glycine Glutamine Histidine Isoleucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Proline Serine Threonine Tryptophan Tyrosine Cysteine
178 87 379 264 398 1169 372 39 263 45 264 161 173 202 61 145 48
To be diluted 1/10 before use. Check pH and adjust if necessary to 7.75 with NaOH. If a labelled amino acid other than leucine is used, omit the unlabelled amino acid from this mixture and replace with leucine (1312 mg). The final incubation mixture can be sterilized by filtration, first through a glass-fibre filter and then through a 0.22-mm pore-size Millipore filter and stored frozen at –20°C. Incubation of reticulocyte-rich peripheral blood cells and preparation of globin Ten to 20 ml of peripheral blood in heparin is centrifuged at about 3000 g at 4°C for 10 min and the plasma removed. As much as possible of the buffy coat (white cells that have spun up to the plasma–redcell interface) are removed with a wooden stick. The blood is then washed three times in reticulocyte saline (RS) at 4°C and in between each wash more buffy coat is removed. Finally the cells are suspended in RS and spun hard at 35 500 r.p.m. in a Beckman SW40 rotor at 4°C for 30 min to enrich the reticulocyte fraction. The top 700 ml (0.7 ml) reticulocyte-rich fraction is removed and added to 50 ml RS. While the red cells are being washed a slurry of 3 parts a cellulose and 1 part microcrystalline cellu-
705
lose in 30 ml RS is allowed to swell for 10 min before being poured into a plugged 10-ml syringe to make a 3–4-ml column. The red-cell suspension is layered on to the top of the column and washed in with more RS. The eluate contains mature red cells and reticulocytes, but not white cells, which remain bound to the cellulose. The eluted cells are recovered by centrifugation at 3000 g at 4°C, suspended in 1.3 ml of incubation mixture (IM), and 0.075 ml of a solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate (10 mg/10 ml RS) is added. This cell suspension is preincubated for 10 min at 37°C in a shaking water bath to start the metabolism of the cells, after which 200 mCi 3H-leucine are added, and the incubation is continued for 60 min. The incubation is stopped by the addition of an excess of cold (4°C) RS and the cells are washed three times in ice-cold RS. After the final wash the supernatant is removed and globin prepared from the cells. The cell pellet is lysed in 3 ml distilled water and the lysate is dropped into 20 volumes of acid–acetone containing a few ml of mercaptoethanol (2% conc. HCl in acetone) at –20°C, and the mixture allowed to stand at –20°C for 20 min for full globin precipitation. (A sufficient excess of acid–acetone over sample and low temperature of precipitation are important. Failure to observe these points may result in globin which is unsatisfactory for subsequent chromatography.) The globin precipitate is washed four times in acetone at –20°C, using only gentle spins (15, 20, 25 and 30 s sequentially) at the centrifugation steps, as compacting the precipitate will prevent adequate removal of the acid–acetone. Finally, the globin is washed in ether, pelleted by centrifugation for 35 s and allowed to air dry. It may be stored at –20°C. Chromatographic separation of globin An 8 M urea solution (freshly prepared from AR reagent — the solution should not be heated) is filtered through Whatman no. 3 paper and made 0.05 M in 2-mercaptoethanol and sufficient Na2HPO4 added to establish the required initial Na+ concentration (see below). The pH is then adjusted to the required value with 20% H3PO4. This solution is the starting buffer (SB). A CM 23 carboxymethyl cellulose slurry (2.5 g in
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Chapter 16
50 ml SB) is prepared and poured into a 1.5 cm ¥ 25cm column to give a bed height of about 15–20 cm. The column is washed at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min with SB for about 1 h. In the meantime the globin sample (15–60 mg) is dissolved in 2 ml of SB and dialysed for 1 h against two changes of 50 ml SB. The dialysed sample is then applied to the column and washed in with 2–3 ml SB. SB is then pumped through the column at 0.5 ml/min for 30–40 min to allow unbound material (non-haem proteins, membrane proteins, residual haem derivatives, etc.) to elute from the column before the gradient is started. Fractions (5 ml) are collected and the absorbance of the effluent is monitored at 280 nm. For most purposes a linear Na+ ion gradient, made by mixing 200 ml SB with 200 ml limit buffer is satisfactory, but in certain circumstances this can be modified. We have found, for example, that an exponential gradient made in a three-chamber apparatus is especially useful for extended g-/b-chain separations and bone-marrow incubations. Radioactivity is determined by counting aliquots of the collected fractions in an appropriate scintillant. It is usually best to add some water to prevent urea precipitation. For routine purposes we use 0.4 ml sample, 0.1 ml H2O and 5 ml emulsifier scintillant (Packard 299). Specific activities are determined by dialysing the contents of the peak tubes against three 12-h changes of 0.5% HCOOH, measuring the 280-nm absorbance and counting a known volume. Corrections are made for the differences in absorbance of a, b and g chains. We use the values originally given by Schwartz et al. (1969): a 0.56; b 0.84; g 1.12. After plotting out the radioactivity profile the total counts in each globin peak can be determined by adding the counts for the appropriate tubes, after subtracting the background counts. This method is more reliable than pooling tubes from peaks, measuring the volume and then counting an aliquot, since inspection of the radioactivity profile can often indicate problems that may have arisen during chromatography. Buffer conditions Normal separations: starting buffer (200 ml) 0.008 M Na2HPO4, pH 6.4; limit buffer (200 ml) 0.034 M Na2HPO4, pH 6.4. For extended g/b separations use three gradient chambers with the first two containing
starting buffer and the third limit buffer. Starting buffer (2 ¥ 200 ml) 0.012 M Na2HPO4, pH 6.0; limit buffer (200 ml) 0.040 M Na2HPO4, pH 6.0. The CM-cellulose system can be used over a wide range of pH and salt concentrations and we strongly urge anyone trying these methods for the first time to experiment to establish the optimum conditions for their own particular circumstances. Attention should also be paid to the accuracy of the pH of the starting buffer. The interpretation of the results of globin synthesis using this approach are discussed in detail in Chapter 5. Other methods for measuring globin synthesis Several other chromatographic or electrophoretic approaches to globin synthesis have been described, largely directed at prenatal diagnosis in the pre-DNA period (see Alter 1989). Although they give a quantitative assessment of globin production, because it is not possible to obtain specific activity data, their use is limited.
DNA analysis Some of the numerous techniques of DNA analysis that have been developed to diagnose the various globin-gene mutations and deletions are reviewed in the following section. In most cases there are several methods available for the diagnosis of any one particular mutation and the practical details of the methods described here are simply the ones we have had most experience of in our laboratory, and those which have given us reliable results over the years. a Thalassaemia The a-thalassaemia alleles consist of either deletion mutations in and around the globin-gene cluster or point mutations within one of the two globin genes. The deletion breakpoints of four of the most common deletions have now been sequenced and these alleles can now be diagnosed by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using the technique sometimes known as gap PCR.The other deletion alleles have to be diagnosed by Southern blot analysis and this approach remains in use in many laboratories for the molecular diagnosis of a thalassaemia because of its ability to diagnose all alleles in one test.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias PCR for deletion mutations The five most common a0-thalassaemia deletion genes, the – –FIL, – –MED, –(a)20.5, – –THAI and the – –SEA alleles, can be diagnosed by a PCR-based technique called gap PCR (Bowden et al. 1992; Dodé et al. 1993; Baysal & Huisman 1994; Ko & Li 1999; Liu et al. 2000) (Table 16.3). Gap PCR is the simplest of amplification techniques, using t wo primers complementary to the sense and antisense strand of the DNA regions flanking the deletion. Amplified product is obtained only from the thalassaemia deletion allele as the primers are too far apart to amplify successfully the normal DNA sequence. Therefore the normal allele (a) is detected by amplifying the DNA sequences spanning one of the breakpoints, using a primer complementary to the deleted sequence. The two common a+-thalassaemia deletions, –a3.7 and –a4.2, can also be detected by PCR methods (Dodé et al. 1993; Baysal &
Table 16.3 Thalassaemia deletion mutations which have been diagnosed by gap PCR.
707
Huisman 1994; Liu et al. 2000) but none of the published protocols are yet sufficiently robust for them to be recommended as the sole diagnostic approach. PCR for point mutations The non-deletion a+-thalassaemia mutations can be identified by PCR using the technique of selective amplification of the a-globin genes (Molchanova et al. 1994b). Each gene’s amplified product is then analysed for the appropriate known mutation or sequenced to identify new ones. Several of the nondeletion mutations alter a restriction-enzyme site and may be analysed for restriction-enzyme digestion, in a similar manner to that reported for the mutation creating the variant Hb Constant Spring (Ko et al. 1993b). In theory any other technique for the direct detection of point mutations, such as allelespecific oligonucleotide hybridization or allele-
Disorder
Deletion mutation
Reference
a0 thalassaemia
– –SEA – –MED –(a)20.5 – –FIL – –THAI
Molchanova et al. (1994b) Molchanova et al. (1994b) Molchanova et al. (1994b) Ko & Li (1999) Liu et al. (2000)
a+ thalassaemia
–a3.7 –a4.2
Baysal & Huisman (1994) Baysal & Huisman (1994)
b0 thalassaemia
290-bp deletion 532-bp deletion 619-bp deletion 1393-bp deletion 1605-bp deletion 3.5-kb deletion 10.3-kb deletion 45-kb deletion
Faa et al. (1992) Waye et al. (1991) Old et al. (1990) Thein et al. (1989) Dimovski et al. (1993) Lynch et al. (1991) Craig et al. (1992) Waye et al. (1994b)
Hb Lepore
Hb Lepore
Craig et al. (1994)
(db)0 thalassaemia
Spanish Sicilian Vietnamese Macedonian/Turkish
Craig et al. (1994) Craig et al. (1994) Craig et al. (1994) Craig et al. (1994)
(Agdb)0 thalassaemia
Indian Chinese
Craig et al. (1994) Craig et al. (1994)
HPFH
HPFH 1 HPFH 2 HPFH 3
Craig et al. (1994) Craig et al. (1994) Craig et al. (1994)
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Chapter 16
specific priming, may be used for the diagnosis of non-deletion a+-thalassaemia. However, the only strategy reported to date for the diagnosis of all the known point mutations involves the combined application of the indirect detection methods of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and single-strand conformation analysis (SSCA), followed by direct DNA sequencing (Harteveld et al. 1996b). Southern blot analysis All of the common a-thalassaemia deletion mutations plus the triple and quadruple gene alleles can be diagnosed routinely by Southern blot analysis using a combination of restriction enzyme digests and gene probes. A list of the characteristic abnormal restriction fragments which are used in our laboratory for diagnostic purposes is presented in Table 16.4. A BamH I digest hybridized to an a-globin-gene probe is used to identify the single, double, triple and
quadruple a-globin-gene alleles and it also provides a diagnostic test for the Mediterranean a0thalassaemia deletion gene –(a)20.5. A BamH I digest hybridized to a z-globin-gene probe provides a diagnostic test for the – –SEA a0-thalassaemia allele and, similarly, a Bgl II digest hybridized to a z-globin-gene probe is used to identify the – –MED allele. Diagnosis of most of the a-thalassaemia alleles requires the interpretation of the results from two different enzyme digests and probe hybridizations, usually a BamH I/a-probe blot and a Bgl II/z-probe blot. This is because several alleles have similar-sized abnormal Bgl II/z-probe fragments, and some have similar sizes to normal gene fragments. For example both the –a3.7 and aaa alleles yield a 16-kb Bgl II/z fragment, the –a4.2, – –SA and – –BRIT alleles yield similar-sized 7–8kb Bgl II/z fragments, and the – –SEA allele yields fragments which can be confused with a 10.5-kb normal fragment. A combination of BamH I and Bgl II digestions (Fig. 16.5) can be used for the diagnosis of all the common a-thalassaemia deletion genes
Restriction enzyme/gene probe Allele
BamH I/a
Bgl II/a
BamH I/z
Bgl II/z
Sst I/LO
aa
14
12.6 7.4
10–11.3 5.9
12.6 or 5.2 10–11.3
5.0
aaa
18
12.6 7.4
10–11.3 5.9
12.6 or 13 10–11.3
5.0
aaaa
22
12.6 7.4
10–11.3 5.9
12.6 or 20 10–11.3
5.0
–a3.7
10.3
16
10–11.3 5.9
16 10–11.3
5.0
–a4.2
9.8
8.0 7.4
10–11.3 5.9
10–11.3 8.0
5.0
–(a)20.5
4.0
10.8
5.9
10.8
5.0
––
None
None
5.9
13.9
5.0
– –SEA
None
None
20 5.9
10.5
5.0
– –SA
None
None
5.9
7.0
5.0
– –BRIT
None
None
5.9
7.5
5.0
– –THAI
None
None
None
None
8.0
FIL
None
None
None
None
7.4
MED
––
Fragment sizes are given in kilobase pairs. Characteristic abnormal fragments are underlined.
Table 16.4 The diagnosis of thalassaemia and other alleles by Southern blotting.
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias 5.2 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
B
9
16
5'
αα
11.3 11.0
10.0/10.5 11.0/11.3 ζ
12.6 11.0 10.5
HVR
ζ
5
6
7
ψ a1 a2
a1
3'
a1 10.4
SEA ζ
4
Bgl II 7.4
ψζ
10.5 ––
3
B 12.6
10.8 –(α)
2
7.4
B
20.5
8.0
1
709
HVR
ψζ
3' HVR
13.9
8 ––
MED ζ
13.9 12.6 11.3
12.6 11.0 10.8
10.4
10–11.3 –α
16.0
3.7 ζ
HVR
ψζ
ψ a1
a
8.7 –α
4.2 ζ
HVR
ψζ
ψ a1
a1
Fig. 16.5 Two Southern blots showing Bgl II-digested DNA from persons with normal and a-thalassaemia alleles hybridized to a z-globin-gene probe, together with maps illustrating positions of the Bgl II sites.The genotypes and approximate band sizes in kilobase pairs (in parentheses) for each DNA track are: Upper blot: 1, –a3.7/–a3.7 (16/11.3/11.0); 2, aa/aa (12.6/11.0); 3: –a3.7/aa (16/12.6/11.0); 4, aa/aa (12.6/11.3/11.0); 5, aa/aa (12.6/11.3/11.0); 6, –a3.7/–a4.2 (16/11.0/10.5/8.0); 7, –a3.7/–a4.2 (16/11.0/10.5/8.0); 8, –a4.2/aa (12.6/11.3/10.5/8.0); 9, –a4.2/aa (12.6/11.0/10.5/8.0). Lower blot: 1,– –MED/aa (13.9/12.6/11.3/10.4); 2, – –SEA/aa (12.6/11.3/10.5/10.4); 3, – –SEA/aa (12.6/11.3/10.5/10.4); 4, aa/aa (12.6/10.5); 5, aa/aa (12.6/10.5); 6, – –BRIT/aa (12.6/11.3/7.5); 7, –a4.2/aa (12.6/11.0/8.0); 8, –(a)20.5/aa (12.6/11.0/10.8). The inter-z-gene hypervariable region gives rise to normal DNA fragments of variable band sizes.There are four common Bgl II band sizes (10.0, 10.5, 11.0 and 11.3 kb), one per chromosome.A duplicated z-globin-gene allele gives two bands per chromosome.The yz gene contains two small variable regions, which give rise to occasional variation in the size of the 12.6kb Bgl II fragment.There is a polymorphic Bgl II site, which, when present, reduces the 12.6-kb and –a3.7 16-kb fragments to a 5.2-kb fragment.The polymorphic site is usually linked to a 10.5-kb normal fragment.
except for the – –THAI and – –FIL deletions. These two alleles are diagnosed using an Sst I digest hybridized to a DNA probe (named LO) located down-stream from the z-globin gene (Fischel-Ghodsian et al. 1988). b Thalassaemia Although about 200 different b-thalassaemia mutations have been characterized, analysis of the fre-
quency of the mutations in most at-risk populations have shown that only approximately 20 occur at a frequency of 1% or greater and thus account for the majority of the mutations world-wide (Huisman 1990) (see Chapter 6). All of the mutations are regionally specific and the spectrum of mutations for individual populations has now been determined; each has been found to have just a few common mutations together with a larger and more variable number of rare ones.
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Chapter 16
The strategy for identifying b-thalassaemia mutations in most diagnostic laboratories depends on knowing the spectrum of common and rare mutations in the ethnic group of the individual being screened. Usually the common ones are analysed first using a PCR technique which allows the detection of multiple mutations simultaneously. This approach will identify the mutation in more than 90% of cases and then a further screening for the possible rare mutation will identify the defect in most of the remaining cases. Mutations remaining unidentified after this second screening are characterized by direct DNA sequence analysis, usually following the localization of the site of the mutation by the application of a non-specific detection method such as DGGE.Although a bewildering variety of PCR techniques have been described for the diagnosis of point mutations, most diagnostic laboratories are using one or more of the techniques described below. PCR: allele-specific oligonucleotides The hybridization of allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes to amplified genomic DNA bound to a nylon membrane in the form of dots was the first PCR method to be developed. The method is based on the use of two oligonucleotide probes for each mutation, one complementary to the mutant DNA sequence and the other complementary to the normal gene sequence at the same position. The probes are usually 5¢ end-labelled with either 32Plabelled deoxynucleoside triphosphates, biotin or horseradish peroxidase. The genotype of the DNA sample is determined by the presence or absence of the hybridization signal of both the mutation-specific and normal probe. The technique has been applied in many laboratories with great success, especially for populations with just one common mutation and a small number of rare ones, such as Sardinia (Ristaldi et al. 1989). However, when screening for a large number of different mutations the method becomes limited by the need for separate hybridization and washing steps for each mutation. To overcome the problem of screening for multiple mutations, a method of reverse dot blotting has been developed in which the roles of the oligonucleotide probe and the amplified genomic DNA are reversed (Saiki et al. 1989). Unlabelled oligonucleotide probes complementary to the mutant and normal DNA
sequences are fixed to a nylon membrane strip in the form of dots or slots. Amplified genomic DNA, labelled by either the use of end-labelled primers or the internal incorporation of biotinylated dUTP, is then hybridized to the filter. This procedure allows multiple mutations to be tested for in one hybridization reaction. It has been applied to the diagnosis of b-thalassaemia mutations in Mediterraneans (Maggio et al. 1993), Afro-Americans (Sutcharitchan et al. 1995) and Thais (Newton et al. 1989), using a two-step procedure with one nylon strip for the common mutations and another for the less common ones. PCR: primer-specific amplification A number of different methods have been developed based on the principle of primer-specific amplification, which is that a perfectly matched PCR primer is much more efficient in annealing and directing primer extension than a mismatched one. With the method known as the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) (Newton et al. 1989), the target DNA is amplified using a common primer and either of two allele-specific primers, one complementary to the mutation to be detected (b-thalassaemia primer) and the other complementary to normal DNA at the same position in the sequence (normal primer). A second pair of primers complementary to a different part of the b-globin gene is included in the PCR to amplify a fragment simultaneously in order to control the amplification step of the procedure. The method provides a quick screening method which does not require any form of labelling, as the amplified products are visualized simply by agarose gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining, as is described in detail in the next section. Details of the mutation-specific and normal-sequencespecific primers used in our laboratory to diagnose the common b-thalassaemia mutations are presented in Tables 16.5 and 16.6. More than one mutation may be screened for at the same time in a single PCR reaction (multiplexing), provided the ARMS primers are coupled with the same common primer (Tan et al. 1994). Fluorescent labelling of the common primer allows the sizing of the amplification products on an automated DNA fragment analyser (Zschocke & Graham 1995). If the normal and mutant ARMS primers for a spe-
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias
711
Table 16.5 Primer sequences used for the detection of the common b-thalassaemia mutations by the allele-specific priming technique. Mutation
Oligonucleotide sequence
Second primer
Product size (bp)
–88 (CÆT) –87 (CÆG) –30(TÆA) –29 (AÆG) –28 (AÆG) CAP +1 (AÆG) CD5 (–CT) CD6 (–A) CD8 (–AA) CD8/9 (+G) CD15 (GÆA) CD16 (–C) CD17 (AÆT) CD24 (TÆA) CD39 (CÆT) CD41/42 (–TCTT) CD71–72 (+A) IVS1-1 (GÆA) IVS1-1 (GÆT) IVS1-5 (GÆC) IVS1-6 (TÆC) IVS1-110 (GÆA) IVS2-1 (GÆA) IVS2-654 (CÆT) IVS2-745 (CÆG)
TCACTTAGACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCTCAT CACTTAGACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCACCCG GCAGGGAGGGCAGGAGCCAGGGCTGGGGAA CAGGGAGGGCAGGAGCCAGGGCTGGGTATG AGGGAGGGCAGGAGCCAGGGCTGGGCTTAG ATAAGTCAGGGCAGAGCCATCTATTGGTTC TCAAACAGACACCATGGTGCACCTGAGTCG CCCACAGGGCAGTAACGGCAGACTTCTGCC ACACCATGGTGCACCTGACTCCTGAGCAGG CCTTGCCCCACAGGGCAGTAACGGCACACC TGAGGAGAAGTCTGCCGTTACTGCCCAGTA TCACCACCAACTTCATCCACGTTCACGTTC CTCACCACCAACTTCAGCCACGTTCAGCTA CTTGATACCAACCTGCCCAGGGCCTCTCCT CAGATCCCCAAAGGACTCAAAGAACCTGTA GAGTGGACAGATCCCCAAAGGACTCAACCT CATGGCAAGAAAGTGCTCGGTGCCTTTAAG TTAAACCTGTCTTGTAACCTTGATACCGAT TTAAACCTGTCTTGTAACCTTGATACCGAAA CTCCTTAAACCTGTCTTGTAACCTTGTTAG TCTCCTTAAACCTGTCTTGTAACCTTCATG ACCAGCAGCCTAAGGGTGGGAAAATAGAGT AAGAAAACATCAAGGGTCCCATAGACTGAT GAATAACAGTGATAATTTCTGGGTTAACGT* TCATATTGCTAATAGCAGCTACAATCGAGG*
A A A A A A A B A B A B B B B B C B B B B B B D D
684 683 626 625 624 597 528 207 520 225 500 238 239 262 436 439 241 281 281 285 286 419 634 829 738
bSCD6 (AÆT) bCCD6 (GÆA) bECD26 (GÆA)
CCCACAGGGCAGTAACGGCAGACTTCTGCA CCACAGGGCAGTAACGGCAGACTTCTCGTT TAACCTTGATACCAACCTGCCCAGGGCGTT
B B B
207 206 236
The above primers are coupled as indicated with primers A, B, C or D: A CCCCTTCCTATGACATGAACTTAA; B ACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCAC; C TTCGTCTGTTTCCCATTCTAAACT; or D GAGTCAAGGCTGAGAGATGCAGGA. The control primers used for all the above mutation-specific ARMS primers except the two marked * are primers D plus E: CAATGTATCATGCCTCTTTGCACC. For IVS2-654 (CÆT) and IVS2-745 (CÆG), the Gg-Hind III restriction-fragmentlength polymorphism (RFLP) primers (Table 16.6) are used as control primers.
cific mutation are coamplified in the same reaction they compete with each other to amplify the target sequence. This technique is called competitive oligonucleotide priming (COP) and requires the two ARMS primers to be labelled differently. Fluorescent labels permit a diagnosis to be made by means of a colour complementation assay (Chehab & Kan 1989). A variation of this method is simply to use ARMS primers that differ in length and thus a diagnosis can made by analysis of the two product sizes.
This technique, called mutagenetically separated polymerase chain reaction (MS-PCR), has been applied to the prenatal diagnosis of thalassaemia in Taiwan (Chang et al. 1995a). PCR: restriction-enzyme analysis More than 40 b-thalassaemia mutations are known to create or abolish a restriction endonuclease site (Table 16.7). The majority of these can be
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Table 16.6 Primer sequences used for the detection of the normal DNA sequence by the allele-specific priming technique. Mutation
Oligonucleotide sequence
Second primer
Product size (bp)
–87 (CÆG) CD5 (–CT) CD8 (–AA) CD8/9 (+G) CD15 (GÆA) CD39 (CÆT) CD41/42 (–TCTT) IVS1-1 (GÆA) IVS1-1 (GÆT) IVS1-5 (GÆC) IVS1-6 (TÆC) IVS1-110 (GÆA) IVS2-1 (GÆA) IVS2-654 (CÆT) IVS2-745 (CÆG)
CACTTAGACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCACCCCA CAAACAGACACCATGGTGCACCTGACTCCT ACACCATGGTGCACCTGACTCCTGAGCAGA CCTTGCCCCACAGGGCAGTAACGGCACACT TGAGGAGAAGTCTGCCGTTACTGCCCAGTA TTAGGCTGCTGGTGGTCTACCCTTGGTCCC GAGTGGACAGATCCCCAAAGGACTCAAAGA TTAAACCTGTCTTGTAACCTTGATACCCAC GATGAAGTTGGTGGTGAGGCCCTGGGTAGG CTCCTTAAACCTGTCTTGTAACCTTGTTAC AGTTGGTGGTGAGGCCCTGGGCAGGTTGGT ACCAGCAGCCTAAGGGTGGGAAAATACACC AAGAAAACATCAAGGGTCCCATAGACTGAC GAATAACAGTGATAATTTCTGGGTTAACGC TCATATTGCTAATAGCAGCTACAATCGAGC
A A A B A A B B A B A B B D D
683 528 520 225 500 299 439 281 455 285 449 419 634 829 738
bSCD6 (AÆT) bECD26 (GÆA)
AACAGACACCATGGTGCACCTGACTCGTGA TAACCTTGATACCAACCTGCCCAGGGCGTC
A B
527 236
See Table 16.5 footnote for details of primers A–D and control primers.
detected quickly by restriction endonuclease analysis of amplified DNA. The presence or absence of the enzyme recognition site is determined from the pattern of digested fragments after agarose or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. As a screening method, this approach is limited by the small fraction of thalassaemia mutations that affect a restriction-enzyme site and also because some of the restriction enzymes involved are very expensive to purchase. Mutations which do not naturally create or abolish restriction sites may be diagnosed by the technique of amplification-created restriction sites (ACRS). This method uses primers that are designed to insert new bases into the amplified product in order to create a restriction-enzyme recognition site adjacent to the mutation sequence. This permits known mutations that normally do not alter a recognition site to be detected by restriction-enzyme digestion of the PCR product. This technique has been applied to the detection of Mediterranean b-thalassaemia mutations (Lindeman et al. 1991). Gap PCR Deletion mutations in the globin-gene sequence may be detected by PCR using two primers complementary to the sense and antisense strand in the DNA
regions which flank the deletion (Faa et al. 1992). For large deletions, amplified product using flanking primers is obtained only from the deletion allele as the distance between the two primers is too great to amplify normal DNA. In such cases the normal allele may be detected by amplifying sequences spanning one of the breakpoints, using a primer complementary to the deleted sequence and one complementary to flanking DNA (Waye et al. 1994b). As well as deletion thalassaemia, the deletions in the globin-gene cluster which result in Hb Lepore and a number of db-thalassaemia and HPFH mutations can be diagnosed by this method (Table 16.4) (Craig et al. 1994). The diagnosis of the Indian (Agdb)0-thalassaemia deletion is shown in Fig. 16.6. PCR methods for unknown mutations A number of techniques have been applied for the detection of thalassaemia mutations without prior knowledge of the molecular defect. The most widely used of these methods is denaturing gradient-gel electrophoresis (DGGE), which allows the separation of DNA fragments differing by a single base change according to their melting properties (Losekoot et al. 1991b). Another approach is by heteroduplex analysis using non-denaturing gel electrophoresis. Unique heteroduplex patterns can
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias Table 16.7 b-Thalassaemia mutations detectable by restriction-enzyme digestion of amplified product.
713
Position
Mutation
Ethnic group
Affected site
–88 –87 –87 –87 –86 –86 –29 +43 to +40 Initiation CD Initiation CD Initiation CD CD5 CD6 CD15 CD17 CD26 CD26 CD27 CD29 CD30 CD30 IVS1-1 IVS1-1 IVS1-2 IVS1-2 IVS1-2 IVS1-5 IVS1-6 IVS1-116 IVS1-130 IVS1-130 CD35 CD37 CD38/39 CD37/8/9 CD39 CD43 CD47 CD61 CD74/75 CD121 IVS2-I IVS2-4,5 IVS2-745
CÆT CÆG CÆT CÆA CÆG CÆA AÆG –AAAC TÆC TÆG AÆG –CT –A –T AÆT GÆT GÆA GÆT CÆT GÆC GÆA GÆA GÆT TÆG TÆC TÆA GÆA TÆC TÆG GÆC GÆA CÆA GÆA –C –GACCCAG CÆT GÆT +A AÆT –C GÆT GÆA –AG CÆG
African/Asian Indian Mediterranean Italian African/Yugoslavian Lebanese Italian African/Chinese Chinese Yugoslavian Chinese Japanese Mediterranean Mediterranean Asian Indian Chinese Thai South-east Asian (HbE) Mediterranean (Hb Knossos) Lebanese Tunisian/African Bulgarian Mediterranean Asian Indian/Chinese Tunisian African Algerian Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Turkish Egyptian Thai Saudi Arabian Czechoslovakian Turkish Mediterranean Chinese Surinamese African Turkish Polish, French, Japanese Mediterranean Portuguese Mediterranean
+Fok I –Avr II –Avr II –Avr II –Avr II –Avr II +Nla III +Dde I –Nco I –Nco l –Nco I –Dde I –Dde I +Bgl I +Mae I –Mnl I –Mnl I –Sau96 I –BspM I –BspM I –BspM I –BspM I –BspM I –BspM I –BspM I –BspM I +EcoR V +SfaN I +Mae I –Dde I –Dde I –Acc I –Ava II –Ava II –Ava II +Mae I –Hinf I –Xho I –Hph I –Hae III –EcoR I –Hph I –Hph I +Rsa I
be generated for each mutation by annealing an amplified target DNA fragment with an amplified heteroduplex generator molecule, a synthetic oligonucleotide of about 130 bases in length containing deliberate sequence changes or identifiers at known mutation positions (Savage et al. 1995). Other methods, such as mismatch cleavage (CMC), single-
stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis and protein truncation test, are also good ways of detecting unknown mutations but they have not been applied to the haemoglobinopathies. The above techniques simply pinpoint the presence of a mutation or DNA polymorphism in the amplified target sequence. Sequencing of the am-
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Chapter 16 G
ε
γ
A
γ
ψβ
δ
β
5'
3'
1
371
2 Indian (Aγδβ)0
INVERSION
3
Normal Deletion
665 371
1
2 Normal 3 665
Fig. 16.6 The diagnosis of the Indian (Agdb)0-thalassaemia inversion deletion by gap PCR.The amplification products after gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining are shown from six persons with suspected (Agdb)0 thalassaemia.The results show that three are heterozygous for the deletion.The diagram shows the positions of the two primers (2 and 3) which generate the deletion-specific product (371 bp) and the two primers (1 and 2) that generate a normal DNA-specific product (665 bp). Primer 1 is complementary to the inverted sequence of the deletion and thus faces in the opposite direction when annealed to the normal DNA sequence. Hence it cannot generate a normal fragment with primer 2. Primer 3 is complementary to the deleted sequence; it cannot generate a mutation-specific product with primer 2.
plified product is then required to identify the localized mutation. This can now be done very efficiently using an automated DNA sequencing machine utilizing fluorescence detection technology. The specialized equipment required for this technique is currently very expensive, but, as the more efficient second-generation machines are developed, the cost will come down and direct DNA sequencing will probably become the primary method of mutation detection. Once a rare mutation has been identified by DNA sequencing, the DNA sample can be used as a control to develop ASO or ARMS primers for its detection in further cases. With this approach we have developed ARMS primers to detect a large number of mutations for use in our laboratory, and this technique is described in greater detail below. b-Globin-gene haplotype analysis At least 18 restriction-fragment-length polymorphisms (RFLPs) have been characterized within the b-globin-gene cluster (Kazazian & Boehm 1988). However, most of these RFLP sites are nonrandomly associated with each other and thus they combine to produce just a handful of haplotypes (Antonarakis et al. 1982). In particular they form a 5¢ cluster which is 5¢ to the d gene and a 3¢ cluster
which extends downstream from the globin gene. In between is a 9-kb stretch of DNA containing a relative hotspot for meiotic recombination. The recombination between the two clusters has been calculated to be approximately one in 350 meioses (Chakravarti et al. 1984). Hybridization studies have shown that each thalassaemia mutation is strongly associated with just one or two haplotypes (Orkin et al. 1982a), probably because of their recent origin compared with the haplotypes (Flint et al. 1998), and thus haplotype analysis has been used to study the origins of identical mutations found in different ethnic groups. The b-globin-gene cluster haplotype normally consists of five RFLPs located in the 5¢ cluster (Hind II/e gene; Hind III/Gg gene; Hind III/Ag gene; Hind II/3yb; and Hind II/5yb) and two RFLPs in the 3¢ cluster (Ava II/b gene; BamH I/b gene) (Old et al. 1984). Although originally analysed by Southern blotting, all the RFLPs except the BamH I polymorphism can be easily detected by PCR, as illustrated in Fig. 16.7. The method is described in detail in the laboratory methods section and the primer sequences together with the sizes of the fragments generated are listed in Table 16.8. The BamH I RFLP is located within an L1 repetitive element creating amplification problems and a Hinf I RFLP located just 3¢ to the b-globin gene is used instead, because these two
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias
715
1
2
3
4
5
6
–/– –/+ +/+
–/– –/+ +/+
–/– –/+ +/+
–/– –/+ +/+
–/– –/+ +/+
–/– –/+ +/+
Hind II ε
Hind III
Hind III
Hind II
Hind II
Ava II
Hinf I
G
A
5' ψβ
3' ψβ
β
β
γ
ε
γ G
γ
A
γ
ψβ
δ
7 –/–
–/+ +/+
β
5'
3' 1
2
3
4 5
6 7
Fig. 16.7 PCR analysis of the seven b-globin-gene RFLPs which make up the standard b-globin-gene haplotype. Each gel shows the digestion products of amplified DNA from patients homozygous for the absence of the RFLP site (–/–), heterozygous for the presence of the site (–/+) and homozygous for the presence of the site (+/+), using the primers listed in Table 16.8.The approximate location of each RFLP site is shown underneath the gel pictures.
RFLPs have been found to exist in linkage disequilibrium (Semenza et al. 1989). Three other RFLPs are included in Table 16.8. An Ava II RFLP in the gene is extremely useful in haplotype analysis of Mediterranean b-thalassaemia heterozygotes. The (–) allele for this RFLP is frequently found on chromosomes carrying the IVS1-110 GÆA mutation while it is very rare on normal b-globin chromosomes (Wainscoat et al. 1984a) and thus it is a very useful informative marker for individuals heterozygous for this mutation. The Rsa I RFLP located just 5¢ to the b-globin gene is useful for linkage analysis because it appears to be unlinked to either the 5¢ cluster or the 3¢ cluster RFLPs and thus may be informative when the 5¢ haplotype and the 3¢ haplotype are not. Finally the Gg-Xmn I RFLP, created by the non-deletion HPFH CÆT mutation at position –158, is included because of its use in the analysis of sicklecell gene haplotypes and in individuals with thalassaemia intermedia. db Thalassaemia, haemoglobin Lepore and hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin The db thalassaemia, Hb Lepore and HPFH deletion
mutations were characterized originally by restriction-enzyme mapping and Southern blotting. Consequently each deletion mutation may be diagnosed by the identification of characteristic abnormal DNA fragments which span the breakpoint of the deletion. Selection of the right restriction-enzyme digest and gene probe depends upon identifying the ethnic origin of the individual to be studied and characterization of the phenotype in the heterozygous state. A similar strategy is required for PCR-based diagnosis by GAP PCR, which can now be applied for Hb Lepore (Camaschella et al. 1990b) and eight thalassaemia and HPFH deletion mutations, for which both breakpoint DNA sequences have been characterized (Craig et al. 1994), as described in Table 16.3 and illustrated in Fig. 16.6. The practical details of this technique are described in a later section. Haemoglobin variants More than 700 haemoglobin variants have been described to date, of which the clinically most important ones requiring routine diagnosis are HbS, HbC, HbE, HbD Punjab and HbO Arab. The mutations for these five abnormal haemoglobins can be
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Table 16.8 Primers used for the analysis of b-globin-gene cluster restriction-fragment-length polymorphisms (RFLPs). RFLP and primers: 5¢ primer 3¢ primer
Product size (bp)
Hind II/e 5¢TCTCTGTTTGATGACAAATTC 5¢AGTCATTGGTCAAGGCTGACC
760
Xmn I/Gg 5¢AACTGTTGCTTTATAGGATTTT 5¢AGGAGCTTATTGATAACCTCAGAC
657
Hind III/Gg 5¢AGTGCTGCAAGAAGAACAACTACC 5¢CTCTGCATCATGGGCAGTGAGCTC
326
Hind III/Ag 5¢ATGCTGCTAATGCTTCATTAC 5¢TCATGTGTGATCTCTCAGCAG
635
Hind II/5¢wb 5¢TCCTATCCATTACTGTTCCTTGAA 5¢ATTGTCTTATTCTAGAGACGATTT
795
Ava II/wb Sequence as for Hind 5¢ RFLP
795
Hind II/3¢wb 5¢GTACTCATACTTTAAGTCCTAACT 5¢TAAGCAAGATTATTTCTGGTCTCT
913
Rsa I/b 5¢AGACATAATTTATTAGCATGCATG
1200
Coordinates on GenBank sequence U01317
Absence of site (bp) 760
315 445
55
657
455 202
55
326
235 91
65
635
327 308
65
795
691 104
55
795
440 355
55
913
479 434
55
411 plus constant fragments of 694 & 695
330 81 plus 694 & 695
55
328
228 100
65
320 plus constant fragment of 154
213 107
55
18652–18672 19391–19411 33862–33883 34495–34518 35677–35700 35981–36004 40357–40377 40971–40991 46686–46709 47457–47480 46686–46709 47457–47480 49559–49582 50448–50471 61504–61527
5¢CCCCTTCCTATGACATGAACTTAA
62680–62703
Ava II/b 5¢GTGGTCTACCCTTGGACCCAGAGG 5¢TTCGTCTGTTTCCCATTCTAAACT
328
Hinf I/b 5¢GGAGGTTAAAGTTTTGCTATGCTGTAT 5¢GGGCCTATGATAGGGTAAT
474
62416–62439 62720–62743
identified by a variety of techniques, as described below. The majority of the other abnormal variants have never been sequenced at the DNA level, and, although the mutations can be presumed from the amino acid change in most cases, DNA sequencing is required to confirm the nucleotide change before other diagnostic methods can be developed for screening purposes.
63974–64001 64429–64447
Presence Annealing of site temperature (bp) (°C)
& 154
Haemoglobin S The sickle-cell mutation has been diagnosed by a wide variety of DNA analysis techniques because it has been used as a prototype for the development of almost every new diagnostic method. Two different PCR techniques are currently used for prenatal diagnosis in our laboratory and both are described in a later section. The methods used are ARMS-PCR
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias ARMS - PCR
Dde I – PCR
Normal-specific primer
AS
AS
AA
717
AS
SS
AS
AA
SS
Mutation-specific primer AS
AS
AA
SS
861
376 175
207
67
↓
CD6 A T
↓
CD6 A T
IVS-1 IVS 1
IVS 1
IVS-2 IVS 2 861
βA βS
175
201
67
B
E
D
207 376
67
Fig. 16.8 The diagnosis of the sickle-cell anaemia mutation by two direct detection methods.The left-hand diagram shows a diagnosis by Dde I digestion of amplified DNA; the right-hand diagram shows a diagnosis by ARMS-PCR. Maps depict the location of the PCR primers used (as listed in Tables 16.5, 16.6 and 16.8) and the sites of the Dde I sites with respect to the bSgene mutation at codon 6.The DNA samples shown in each gel are the same: lane 1,AS genotype; lane 2,AS genotype; lane 3,AA genotype; lane 4, SS genotype.
and restriction endonuclease digestion, as shown in Fig. 16.8. HbS (b6 GluÆVal) is caused by an AÆT substitution in the second nucleotide of the 6th codon of the b-globin gene. The mutation destroys the recognition site for three restriction enzymes, Mnl I, Dde I and Mst II. The latter is now unavailable commercially and an isoschizomer such as Cvn I, OxaN I or Sau I has to be used instead. Mst II was the enzyme of choice for detection of the bS allele by Southern blot analysis (Orkin et al. 1982c) because it cuts infrequently around the globin gene, producing large DNA fragments. However, this is not a problem if the analysis is done by PCR and the cheaper enzyme Dde I may be used (Old et al. 1989). Dde I is a frequent cutter and several constant sites can be included in the amplified b-gene fragment to act as a control for the complete digestion of the amplified product. The
primer sequences currently used in our laboratory are present in Table 16.9. The bS mutation can also be detected by a variety of other PCR-based techniques such as ASO/dot blotting or the ARMS method. The primer sequences for the latter method are included in Table 16.5. Haemoglobin C The HbC (b6 GluÆLys) mutation, a GÆA substitution at codon 6, also occurs inside the recognition sites for Mnl I, Dde I and Mst II. However it does not abolish the site for Dde I or Mst II because the mutation affects a non-specific nucleotide in the recognition sequence.Thus Dde I or Mst II cannot be used to detect the bC mutation and another method such as ASO hybridization to amplified DNA or the allelespecific priming technique must be used. The primer
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sequences used for the ARMS method are included in Table 16.5.
primer sequences for the latter technique are listed in Tables 16.5 and 16.6.
Laboratory methods
Haemoglobins D Punjab and O Arab The mutations giving rise to the abnormal variants HbD Punjab (b121 GluÆGln) and HbO Arab (b121 GluÆLys) both abolish an EcoR I site at codon 121 (Trent et al. 1984a) and their detection is carried out very simply by amplification of a fragment containing the site and digesting with EcoR I. As there are no other EcoR I sites within several kilobases of the globin-gene site, care should be taken to always run appropriate control DNA samples. The primer sequences used for this approach are listed in Table 16.9. Haemoglobin E The HbE mutation, a GÆA mutation at codon 26, abolishes an Mnl I site and may be diagnosed by PCR and restriction enzyme analysis (Thein et al. 1987a). The primer sequences for this approach are listed in Table 16.8.The point mutation may also be diagnosed by the use of ASO probes or ARMS primers. The
Direct detection of b-thalassaemia mutations by the ARMS technique The allele-specific priming technique known as the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) was developed as a quick, simple and inexpensive method for the prenatal diagnosis of b thalassaemia (Old et al. 1990; Old 1996b). For prenatal diagnosis two primers must be designed that will generate specific amplification products, one with the mutant allele and the other with the normal sequence. The nucleotide at the 3¢ terminus of each primer is complementary to the base in the respective target sequence at the site of the mutation. In addition, a deliberate mismatch to the target sequence is included at the second, third or fourth base from the 3¢ end. This enhances the specificity of the primer since all 3¢ terminal mismatches on their own (except for C-C, G-A and A-A) will allow some extension of the primer and thus generate non-specific amplifica-
Table 16.9 Oligonucleotide primers for the detection of bS, bE, bD Punjab and bO Arab mutations by restriction-enzyme (RE) digestion.
Primer sequence 5¢–3¢
Annealing temperature (°C)
Product size (bp)
Absence of site (bp)
Presence of site (bp)
bS CD6 (AÆT) (loses Dde I site)
ACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCAC GAGTGGACAGATCCCCAAAGGACTCAAGGA
65 65
443
386 67
201 175
bE CD26 (GÆA) (loses Mnl I site)
ACCTCACCCTGTGGAGCCAC GAGTGGACAGATCCCCAAAGGACTCAAGGA
65
443
231 89 56 35 33
171 89 60 35 33
bD Punjab CAATGTATCATGCCTCTTTGCACC CD121 (GÆC) GAGTCAAGGCTGAGAGATGCAGGA (loses EcoR I site)
65 65
861
861
552 309
bO Arab CAATGTATCATGCCTCTTTGCACC CD121 (GÆA) GAGTCAAGGCTGAGAGATGCAGGA (loses EcoR I site)
65 65
861
861
552 309
Mutation and affected RE site
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias 1
2
3
4
5
6
719
7
861
326
2 3 5
1 4
6
IVS 1
B
7 IVS 2
E
D
Fig. 16.9 The screening of a DNA sample for seven common Mediterranean b-thalassaemia mutations by ARMS-PCR.The diagram shows the b-globin gene and the positions of the seven mutations: 1, IVS1-110 GÆA; 2, IVS1-1 GÆA; 3, IVS1-6 TÆC; 4, CD39 CÆT; 5, CD6-A; 6, IVS2-1 GÆA; 7, IVS2-745 CÆG.The gel shows the amplification products from DNA of a b-thalassaemia heterozygote and products generated by control DNAs, run in pairs for each mutation screened as numbered above.The results show that the individual carries the mutation IVS1-110 GÆA. For mutations 1–6, the control primers D and E produced an 861-bp fragment. However for mutation 7, IVS2-1 GÆA, the Hind III/Gg-gene RFLP primers were used, giving a control band of 326 bp.The primers used are listed in Table 16.5.
tion product (Kwok et al. 1990). The mutationspecific ARMS primers for the most common bthalassaemia mutations and b-globin variants are listed in Table 16.5. All are the same length (30 mers) so that all can be used at one annealing temperature (65°C) enabling multiple mutations to be screened for simultaneously. Primers for the specific detection of the corresponding normal alleles are listed in Table 16.6. These are required for prenatal diagnosis in cases where both partners of a couple at risk for b thalassaemia carry the same mutation. Normal ARMS primers must be tested with DNA from an individual homozygous for the particular mutation before diagnostic use in order to check that the primer works correctly. Each ARMS primer requires a second primer to generate the allele-specific product and, in addition, two control primers must be included in the PCR reaction in order to generate an unrelated product
that indicates that the reaction mixture was set up properly and everything is working correctly. The DNA sample is amplified with each mutant ARMS primer in a separate amplification reaction and the products are visualized after electrophoresis. Figure 16.9 illustrates screening of a sample for seven Mediterranean thalassaemia mutations at one time. A control DNA known to carry each mutation was also amplified for comparison and run beside the unknown sample in each case. The unknown DNA sample produced an amplified product with only the IVS1-110 GÆA mutant primer (first track). For couples of Cypriot origin, this mutation is usually screened for first because it is so common and then, if it is not found, all the others are screened for simultaneously afterwards. Similarly, for Asian Indian couples, the four most common mutations IVS1-5 GÆC, IVS1-1 GÆA, CD8/9 +G and CD41/42 –TCTT (Varawalla et al. 1991b) are screened for first.
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The 619-bp deletion gene is also detected by the ARMS test, as the control pair of primers is designed to span the deletion, which generates a characteristic 242-bp fragment in place of the normal 861-bp fragment (Old et al. 1990). The DNA from an individual doubly heterozygous for the 619-bp deletion and, say, the IVS1-5 mutation will produce three bands: the 861-bp fragment from the IVS1-5-allele, an IVS1-5 specific fragment of 285 bp from the mutant IVS1-5 ARMS primer and the 242-bp fragment. Reagents The reagents required are listed as follows. 1 The PCR buffer used is the standard Perkin–Elmer buffer: 50 mM KCl, 10 mM Tris–HCl (pH 8.3 at room temperature), 1.5 mM MgCl2, 100 mg/ml gelatin. A 10¥ buffer can be prepared by adding together 0.5 ml 1 M Tris–HCl, pH 8.3, 1.25 ml 2 M KCl, 75 ml 1 M MgCl2, 5 mg gelatin and 3.275 ml distilled water. The 10¥ buffer is heated at 37°C until the gelatin dissolves and is then frozen in aliquots. 2 Stock deoxynucleotide mixture: 1.25 mM each dNTP. Add together 50 ml of a 100-mM solution of each dNTP and 3.8 ml of distilled water. The 1.25 mM dNTP stock should be stored at –20°C in 0.8-ml aliquots. 3 Ready-made 100-mM dNTP solutions are now easily obtainable commercially (e.g. from Roche Diagnostics Limited, Lewes, UK), although purists may still wish to make up their own stocks from dNTP salts (which are less expensive) as follows: Dissolve to approx. 200 mM, neutralize carefully with 0.05 M Tris base to a pH of 7.0 by checking droplets on pH paper, read the optical density of a diluted aliquot at the correct wavelength (259 nm: A; 253 nm: G; 271 nm: C; 260 nm: T), calculate the concentration from the extinction coefficient (for a 1-cm path length: 1.54 ¥ 104: A; 1.37 ¥ 104: G; 9.1 ¥ 103: C; 7.4 ¥ 103: T), and finally adjust to 100 mM with distilled water. 4 PCR reaction mixture stock solution (4 ml). Add together 0.5 ml 10¥ PCR buffer, 0.8 ml 1.25 mM dNTP stock solution and 2.7 ml distilled water. 5 Dilute aliquots of primer stock solutions to make working solutions at a concentration of 1 OD U/ml. Our primers are synthesized commercially (OSWEL DNA service, Southampton, UK) and are HPLC purified.The primers are stored at –20°C. 6 Taq DNA polymerase: AmpliTaq (Perkin-Elmer
UK, Applied Biosystems Division, Warrington, UK) is the gold standard but cheaper thermostable DNA polymerases may be used successfully (e.g.Advanced Biotechnologies, Leatherhead, UK). 7 ARMS primers should be 30 or more oligonucleotides long in order to use a high annealing temperature of 65°C for the prevention of non-specific amplified products. The mutation-specific primer has its 3¢ terminal base complementary to the mutation, the normal specific primer should be complementary to the corresponding normal sequence. If the 3¢ terminal mismatch is a strong one then a weak additional mismatch is engineered at either the second, third or fourth nucleotide from the 3¢ end. If the 3¢ terminal mismatch is a weak one, then a strong mismatch should be added to increase the specificity of the ARMS reaction. Strong ones are C-C, G-A and A-A mismatches, weak ones are T-T, T-C, T-G, G-G and A-C mismatches. 8 The common and control primers should also be 30 bases long and selected to have a G + C content of approximately 50%. It is important to ensure that there are no known mutations or polymorphic DNA sequences located in the DNA sequences chosen for any of the primers. Any such occurrence is liable to reduce the effectiveness of the primer and may lead to an erroneous result.The size of the control product should be such that it runs well away from the expected ARMS products. 9 Both positive and negative control DNAs for each mutation being screened for must always be amplified and run on the gel alongside the test samples. Primers designed to detect the normal DNA sequence at the site of a mutation must be tested using control DNA from an individual homozygous for the mutation in question. Method The standard PCR conditions recommended by Perkin-Elmer for their ‘AmpliTaq’ enzyme can be used. These are: 10 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.3, 50 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.01% gelatin, 0.2 mM each primer, and 200 mM each of dATP, dCTP, dGTP and dTTP. The reaction volume can be scaled down from the recommended 100 ml to just 25 ml, which then requires only 0.5 units of ‘AmpliTaq’ enzyme and 0.1–0.5 mg of genomic DNA to complete the reaction. The method is as follows: 1 Set up the reaction mixture as follows using a
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias dedicated set of automatic pipettes which are never used for handling the amplified product: 2 Pipette 20 ml of the PCR reaction mixture stock solution into a 0.5-ml Eppendorf tube. 3 Add 1 ml of each control primer, 1 ml of the common primer, and 1 ml of the appropriate ARMS primers. 4 Add 0.5 units of ‘AmpliTaq’ enzyme. This is supplied at a concentration of 5 U/ml and therefore only 0.1 ml is required. This is difficult to estimate and therefore it is best to make a dilute solution of enzyme at a concentration of 0.5 U/ml using distilled water. 5 If the same four primers are being used in every tube (for example when screening a number of DNA samples for one mutation), then all four primers and enzyme can be mixed together (1 ml each primer and 0.1 ml U enzyme per tube) and then 4.1 ml of primer/enzyme mixture can be added to each tube. 6 Add 1 ml DNA solution (at approx. 0.1– 0.5 mg/ml). 7 Add 25 ml light paraffin oil. 8 Place the tubes in a PCR machine and program for 25 cycles at: 94°C for 1 min 65°C for 1 min 72°C for 1.5 min with a final extension period of 3 min at 72°C after the last cycle. 9 The annealing temperature of 65°C is appropriate for primers of 30 nucleotides in length. No initial denaturation step is necessary before the programme of 25 cycles unless the target DNA is GC rich. 10 Remove the tubes from the PCR machine and pipette 5 ml of ficoll/bromophenol blue dye (15%/0.05%) into each tube. 11 Vortex the mixture to incorporate the blue dye and spin for 5 s in a microfuge. 12 Remove a 20-ml aliquot of the blue aqueous mixture underneath the paraffin oil layer, and load into the well of submerged agarose minigel. For most purposes a 3% agarose gel is used, made up of 1.5% agarose and 1.5% NuSieve agarose (FMC BioProducts, Kent, UK, marketed through Flowgen). For the separation of small DNA fragments very similar in size, increase the percentage agarose gel to 4% (3% NuSieve/1% agarose) or even 4.5% (3.5% NuSieve/1% agarose). 13 After electrophoresis at 100 V for approximately
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45 min in standard Tris–acetate buffer, the gel is stained in ethidium bromide solution (0.5 g/ml) and photographed on a UV transilluminator (312 nm), using an electronic camera system or a Polaroid CU-5 instant camera fitted with an orange filter (e.g. Wratten 22 A). Interpretation of results The relationship of fragment intensities should be constant for all DNA samples of the same genotype. Any deviation from the expected pattern of band intensities should be treated as suspect (e.g. a trace of maternal DNA contamination in a fetal DNA sample or a false-positive ARMS-PCR result) and the sample retested. Pitfalls As mentioned, sometimes an ARMS primer may produce a positive signal that is less intense relative to the control fragment than expected. If the same faint band is observed in the negative control sample, the signal is probably a false-positive result occurring either when there has been a subtle change of reaction conditions or if the ARMS primer has started to lose its specificity. The latter has occurred occasionally with the stock primer solutions and possibly results from some degradation of the 3¢ end of the oligonucleotide, in which case the primer needs to be resynthesized. Negative results No amplification product from the control primers may result from the DNA samples being too dilute (reprecipitate in a smaller volume), the DNA being too concentrated (try a 1/10 dilution) or the DNA containing impurities (re-extract with phenol/ chloroform). Restriction endonuclease digestion of PCR product This is a simple and reliable technique for the diagnosis of point mutations, insertions or deletions which result in the creation or abolition of a restriction endonuclease site. Primers are designed to span the recognition site and produce easily identifiable fragments after digestion and electrophoresis of the products in an agarose gel. A mixture of 1.5%
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Chapter 16
agarose and 1.5% NuSieve agarose will give good separation of fragments in most cases but for good resolution of very small fragments of 100 bp or less a 4% gel in the ratio of 1% agarose/3% NuSieve may be used. This technique is routinely applied in our laboratory for the diagnosis of the abnormal variants HbS, HbD Punjab and HbO Arab. It is useful for confirming the diagnosis of b-thalassaemia mutations where possible and for confirmation of a prenatal diagnosis of thalassaemia by linkage analysis of single RFLPs or globin haplotypes. RFLPs can often be used for prenatal diagnosis of thalassaemia in the rare cases where one or both of the mutations remain unidentified after screening using a direct detection method such as ARMS. The technique can also enable the prenatal diagnosis of uncharacterized dbthalassaemia deletion mutations through the apparent non-Mendelian inheritance of RFLPs (due to the hemizygosity created by the inheritance of deleted sequences on one chromosome). Method The procedure is as follows: 1 Set up a total reaction volume of 25 ml as described for the ARMS-PCR test except for the addition of only two primers as specified for the RFLP under study. 2 Place the tubes in a PCR machine and program for 30 cycles at: 94°C for 1 min 55°C or 65°C for 1 min (see Tables 16.6 and 16.7) 72°C for 1.5 min with a final extension period of 3 min at 72°C after the last cycle. 3 Remove tubes from the PCR machine and add 5–10 units of the appropriate restriction enzyme plus 2 ml of the recommended 10¥ concentration restriction-enzyme buffer. 4 Incubate at 37°C for a minimum of 1 h. 5 Add 5 ml of blue dye, mix and spin. 6 Load sample on to an agarose gel made of 1.5% agarose and 1.5% NuSieve GTG agarose, and electrophorese, stain and photograph as described for ARMS-PCR.
Gap PCR Gap PCR is the simplest of PCR techniques in theory but in practice is one of the more troublesome methods to perfect because of the different stringent amplification conditions required for each deletionspecific primer pair. It is used routinely in our laboratory for the diagnosis of the large deletions in the b-globin-gene cluster listed in Table 16.3. However, for the a-thalassaemia deletion mutations, gap PCR is used for screening purposes but never for prenatal diagnosis without confirmation of the diagnosed genotype by Southern blot analysis, for reasons outlined in the section on prenatal diagnosis. Method The procedure is as follows: 1 Adjust the reaction mixture to a final volume of 22 ml in a 0.5-ml tube with the following components, as required: 1 ml genomic DNA (100 ng/l) 1 ml forward primer — flanking sequence (10 pmol/l) 1 ml reverse primer — flanking sequence (10 pmol/l) 1 ml primer — deleted sequence (10 pmol/l) 1 ml primer — inverted sequence (10 pmol/l) 2.5 ml 1.25 mM (dNTP mixture) 2.3 ml of the 10¥ concentration PCR buffer recommended for the primers Sterile distilled H2O to a final volume of 22 ml. 2 Overlay with 25 ml mineral oil. 3 Prepare enzyme mixture: 0.2 ml reaction buffer (10¥ concentration) 0.1 ml AmpliTaq (5 U/l) 2.7 ml sterile distilled H2O to a final volume of 3 ml. 4 Mix enzyme mixture and hold on ice. 5 Place reaction mixtures in thermal cycler and perform one cycle as follows, adding 3 ml of the enzyme mix after 2 min of the 94°C denaturation step: 4 min at 94°C 1 min at 55–65°C (as recommended) 1.5 min at 72°C. 6 Continue for 33 cycles with the following steps per cycle: 1 min at 94°C
The laboratory diagnosis of the thalassaemias 1 min at 55–65°C (as recommended) 1.5 min at 72°C. 7 Finish with one cycle as follows: 1 min at 94°C 1 min at 55–65°C (as recommended) 10 min at 72°C. 8 Hold at 15°C until gel electrophoresis. 9 Remove tubes from thermal cycler and add 5 ml of
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blue dye (15% ficoll/0.05% bromophenol blue). Mix and centrifuge. 10 Load a 20-ml aliquot on to a 1–3% agarose gel (depending on expected fragment sizes) and electrophorese at 100 V for 45 min in Tris–borate–EDTA (TBE) buffer (89 mM Tris, 89 mM boric acid, 10 mM EDTA, pH 8.0). Stain and photograph as described for ARMS-PCR.
Part 5 The future
The future
Just as was the case 100 years ago, as medical practice moved uneasily into the twentieth century, it faces the new millennium in what some commentators have described as a state of total disarray. Not for the first time, history seems to be repeating itself. In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century remarkable discoveries in the developing fields of infectious disease and immunology had raised hopes for the early control of the major infectious killers that were decimating large populations. For example, in March 1892 at a meeting of the Berlin Physiological Society Robert Koch announced the discovery of the organism that causes tuberculosis. The news of this work rapidly spread throughout the world and leader writers for the London and New York Times wrote that Koch’s discovery would soon lead to a treatment for tuberculosis, perhaps along the lines of Pasteur’s successful vaccines. During this period the costs of medical care were increasing and rapidly becoming beyond the means of all but the richer members of Western societies. And as time went on and the fruits of the new developments in medical research seemed to be having little effect on the diseases of the time there was increasing public disillusionment with doctors. In his long preface to the play The Doctor’s Dilemma, first produced in 1906, Bernard Shaw castigated every aspect of medical research and practice, focusing on the disastrous attempts to treat tuberculosis and the conspiratorial aspects of the professions, medicine in particular. Nothing changes. Today there is growing cynicism about the likely clinical value of the remarkable developments in molecular and cell biology of the last 20 years. Vast populations live in poverty and without access to the most basic medical care, and none of the richer Western countries have been able to cope with the spiralling costs of health care. When we consider the future of the thalassaemia field we have to place it in the context of these problems. If history has taught us anything it is that developments in the basic science laboratory often take a
long time to bear fruit in the clinic; it was over 70 years from the discovery of the tubercle bacillus to the announcement of a definitive cure for tuberculosis. Similarly, we shall have to consider how we are going to finance the costs of exciting new therapeutic developments; even in richer countries they will have to compete with the spiralling costs of health care as the numbers of their aged populations increase, while in the case of the developing countries, where the thalassaemias reach their highest frequencies, they will have to take second place behind the provision of basic health care. It is against the background of these doubts and uncertainties that the future of the thalassaemia field must be assessed.
Priorities for thalassaemia research If for no other reason the compilation of a new edition of this book has been a valuable exercise for the authors in that it has highlighted some of the major gaps in our knowledge about the thalassaemias. In particular, it has emphasized how, by focusing on the molecular aspects of these diseases over recent years, we have tended to neglect some of the less glamorous aspects of the field which, nevertheless, are of critical importance for the future of our patients. As pointed out in Chapters 6 and 14, major demographic changes in the pattern of disease following improvements in nutrition, hygiene and basic medical care have produced a state of affairs in many developing countries in which children with thalassaemia who would previously have died of infection or malnutrition in the first few years of life are now surviving to present for diagnosis and treatment. Because we have neglected to carry out extensive population surveys in our haste to define the molecular pathology of the disease in different populations, we only have the flimsiest of ideas about the true burden of the disease in many countries. The fields of 727
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The future
international health demography and health-care economics are becoming very sophisticated and, if we are to make the case for adequate services for the diagnosis and care of thalassaemic patients, both to governments of individual countries and to the major international health agencies, we need much better information about the frequency and distribution of the different forms of thalassaemia. We are fortunate in the thalassaemia field because the carrier states for the different forms of the disease can all be identified by relatively cheap haematological tests and therefore we do not have to rely on the more expensive forms of screening at the DNA level. However, there is still room for improvement in both the simplicity and accuracy of our current screening procedures. The second aspect of the field that we still have not explored adequately is the relationship between the genotype and phenotype and the reasons for the remarkable heterogeneity of all the thalassaemias. Haemoglobin E b thalassaemia is a prime example. As we saw in Chapter 9, this disease will affect hundreds of thousands of children throughout the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia in the future, yet we still know very little about its natural history and the reasons for its remarkable clinical diversity. Without this information it is very difficult to make sensible recommendations about how it should best be managed. We still have much to learn about the reasons for the heterogeneity of other forms of thalassaemia, information which is badly needed if we are to extend our screening and prenatal diagnosis programmes and provide parents with adequate counselling. The next problem is how we are going to control thalassaemia, particularly in poorer countries where it is going to become so common in the immediate future. Decisions will have to be made about whether to develop screening and prenatal diagnosis programmes and how these may be adapted to the individual needs of particular countries. It is no use waiting for further developments in the basic biological sciences to provide a definitive cure for the thalassaemias by gene therapy. Similarly, we have no way of knowing how long it will be before it is possible to carry out bone-marrow transplantation or some form of stem-cell therapy using unrelated donors. These things may happen, but even when they do they may be prohibitively expensive, at least for the foreseeable future. Therefore we have to maximize our
current technology to tide us through what may be a very long wait before better forms of treatment become available. This will require obtaining better data about the frequency and health burden that will be posed by the thalassaemias so that individual governments, helped by international health agencies, can be persuaded to provide the funding to develop screening programmes together with centres for prenatal diagnosis and treatment. Again because of uncertainties about when more definitive methods of therapy will become available, we need to maximize our current methods of symptomatic treatment with particular respect to optimizing transfusion regimens and developing simpler, cheaper and more effective chelating agents. Finally, we must further encourage work towards a more definitive cure for the thalassaemias, particularly in the richer countries, which can afford this kind of research yet which may be more interested in diseases that are more relevant to their own populations. We must try to persuade Western governments and their pharmaceutical companies that the needs of the developing countries are of increasing relevance and importance.
Screening and diagnostics The whole process of genetic screening will be transformed by the technological developments which will follow the Human Genome Project. Remarkable advances in miniaturization technology are making it possible to develop microchips which will encompass large numbers of human mutations and which will enable rapid screening of large populations. Thus, while it is important that we continue to look for cheaper and more accurate haematological or biochemical ways to screen for the common forms of thalassaemia, we should, at the same time, continue to explore this new technology. For example, it is possible that, as the costs of these new approaches fall, as they inevitably will, it may be feasible for one or two laboratories in each high-frequency country to provide services for population screening which are cheaper and more effective than the use of simple approaches carried out in many different hospitals or centres throughout these countries. Indeed, even using technology which is already developed, highperformance liquid chromatography for example, it may be cheaper and more cost effective to provide
The future this type of equipment for one or two central laboratories and to develop ways of transporting samples for screening rather than to establish more widespread screening programmes. The economics and logistics of these approaches need urgent study. It will surely be to the long-term advantage of the companies that manufacture this equipment to join forces with some of the countries of south-east Asia to help them develop pilot studies of this kind. At the present time the developing countries in which the thalassaemias will present a major health burden in the future are receiving confusing advice about how best to plan for the future. What is urgently needed are some adequate pilot studies to find out which technology would best suit individual populations for screening and counselling, followed by advice from health demographers and planners about the most cost-effective and efficient way to proceed. In this context the major international agencies such as the World Health Organization and World Bank could be of enormous help. But they, in turn, need advice about the importance of these diseases in the future. Currently, there is little evidence that they have understood the increasing burden on scarce health-care resources that these diseases will pose in the future.
Control As outlined in Chapter 14, every country in which the thalassaemias will become a major problem in the future will have to decide how they wish to control the disease. If they decide to develop a screening and prenatal diagnosis programme they have the experience of the remarkably successful ventures in some of the Mediterranean countries on which to model their plans. If, on the other hand, for religious or other reasons they wish to try to evolve programmes of premarital screening and avoiding marriages between carriers, they would be well advised to develop small pilot programmes in well defined communities to see whether this approach is likely to be successful. As pointed out in Chapter 14, there is very little experience of this way of controlling genetic disease to date. Finally, if countries decide not to develop programmes for the control of the disease, but to treat it when it occurs, they will, based on good population data, have to work out the economics and how to develop their clinical services appropriately.
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These are all difficult decisions but none of them can be made without adequate knowledge of the likely burden of the disease based on good population screening data.
Symptomatic treatment The remarkable success story of the way in which transfusion-dependent thalassaemic children can grow and develop normally if adequately transfused and chelated tends to dominate every discussion about the symptomatic management of thalassaemia. Thus it is assumed that adequate management requires that the haemoglobin level is maintained such that endogenous haemopoiesis is almost entirely shut off. Currently this means that the pretransfusion haemoglobin level should not be allowed to fall below 9.5 g/dl.As discussed in Chapter 15, there is good evidence that children maintained in this way will grow and develop normally provided they receive adequate chelation therapy. If this approach becomes the gold standard for the management of every form of thalassaemia in the future it means that hundreds of thousands of children with the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia, HbE b thalassaemia for example, will receive regular transfusion. The burden which this will impose for a country like Indonesia was discussed in Chapter 14. But is it really necessary to maintain this level of haemoglobin in all these patients? We are learning that many patients with HbE b thalassaemia grow and develop normally, without skeletal deformity or other unpleasant manifestations of the disease, at much lower steady-state haemoglobin levels. If we are to use our limited resources to best advantage we must try and understand more about the other factors which determine the rates of growth and development in relationship to the haemoglobin level. There is a great deal of important work to do on this neglected aspect of the management of thalassaemia. The case for developing cheaper and more effective chelating agents remains as strong as ever. As well as patients who are transfusion dependent it is clear that many of those with the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia develop iron loading through increased intestinal absorption and will require chelation therapy, albeit less frequently than those who are transfusion dependent. Although because of its efficacy and low toxicity desferrioxamine has
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been a remarkable success story, it remains expensive and because of the way it has to be administered will always be associated with difficulties of compliance. Not least because other therapeutic indications for chelation therapy have not appeared, the pharmaceutical industry has been slow to develop more effective oral chelating agents. Here again some encouragement and financial help from the international health agencies would be extremely valuable. As further potential oral chelating agents become available it is vital that they are adequately tested, both in animals and by properly designed clinical trials, before they become generally available. The story of the current uncertainties about the value and safety of deferiprone, outlined in Chapter 15, should be a constant reminder of the importance of the critical study of any new oral chelation agents. They must be evaluated adequately, and it is vital that the international and national support societies do not pressure clinicians into the premature use of these agents, however well meaning their motives may be. Finally, since it is becoming clear that even well chelated children develop endocrine damage, further work is needed to try to determine how this might be avoided and the optimal way in which it should be managed.The same principles apply to the increasing problem of metabolic bone disease. The other major help that could be given to the developing countries by the international health agencies working through their governments is in the funding and organization of improved transfusion services. Blood-borne infections will remain a major problem for many countries for the foreseeable future; the current predictions for the world distribution of HIV infection and the frightening increase in drug-resistant malaria are constant reminders, if any were needed, that this problem will be with us for a long time to come.
Definitive treatment The search for more definitive forms of treatment for the thalassaemias will be pursued in two major directions. First, it will follow fields of haematology which are endeavouring to find ways of improving marrow transplantation between unrelated and unmatched donors and, at the same time trying to learn how better to isolate and purify stem cells for their use in transplantation. It is likely that there
will be major progress in these fields in the near future. Progress is likely to be slower in the field of somatic cell gene therapy. But patients with thalassaemia and their clinicians should not be too dispirited if they do not see a great deal of work going on focused directly at somatic cell gene therapy for thalassaemia. It is now clear that the first successes for gene therapy are likely to be those that are aimed at short-term gene expression for the management of cancer and vascular disease. For correcting genetic disease we are likely to see the earliest definitive results in disorders like haemophilia or some of the inherited immune deficiencies, in which a relatively low level of gene expression is all that is required to correct the disease. While this work is under way a great deal more will be learnt about the safety and effectiveness of different gene transfer vectors. In the meantime the globin research field has still a considerable amount to learn about the factors that are required for tight regulation of the globin genes. The correction of thalassaemia requires high-level, finely regulated gene expression and, as mentioned in Chapter 2, although a great deal has been learnt about this process there are still some major gaps in our knowledge. However, as stem-cell biology improves, better gene transfer vectors become available and more is learnt about the sequences that are required for long-term, stable expression of the b-globin genes, it should be possible to make some genuine progress in somatic cell gene therapy. But this is likely to be still some time away and even when it is possible it may be an extremely expensive procedure. Given these difficulties, the most attractive way forward for major research efforts into the management of thalassaemia for the immediate future may be in learning better how to stimulate fetal haemoglobin synthesis. While this may be very difficult in the case of the severe, transfusion-dependent forms of the disease it does not seem beyond the bounds of possibility that it may be possible to raise the fetal haemoglobin output by 1 or 2 g/dl, which would be sufficient to greatly improve the phenotype of the intermediate forms of b thalassaemia, particularly HbE b thalassaemia. While it is disappointing that, despite the enormous effort that has been made, we still don’t understand the regulation of the switch from fetal to adult haemoglobin, we have learnt some very encouraging facts from this type of research. The characterization of the molecular basis for many
The future forms of hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin has told us that the adult red cell seems to have most of the regulatory machinery required for fetal haemoglobin synthesis.The fact that in the Gg or Ag b+ forms of this condition a simple point mutation in the g-globin-gene promoter is enough to allow the persistence of high levels of g-chain production is even more encouraging. It suggests that the relative amounts of g- and b-chain production in adults is in dynamic equilibrium, presumably directed one way or the other by the levels of particular regulatory molecules. It is clear that certain perturbations of erythropoiesis tend to favour the expression of the g-globin genes and that this effect can be produced by a variety of drugs. Taken together, these facts are extremely encouraging and suggest that it may be possible to improve our current rather primitive efforts at stimulating g-globin synthesis after birth. It appears, therefore, that we can look forward to the future for our patients with thalassaemia with a good degree of optimism. The haemoglobin field led
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the development of molecular medicine, and information obtained from the analysis of the human globin genes at the molecular level was applied remarkably quickly to their prenatal detection in the clinic. The next stage, the use of this information for the treatment of the disease, was bound to take longer. But there are hints of the directions which might be most productive in this respect in the future. In the meantime there is much to do to maximize what can be done for the control and management of thalassaemic patients.We must emphasize again that, if writing this new edition of our monograph has told us anything, it is that we have tended to neglect some of the basic clinical questions posed by the thalassaemias over recent years in our haste to study them at the molecular level. It is essential that we go back to clinical basics and tackle these problems now so that as more definitive approaches to treatment become available we really understand some of the major factors which are involved in determining the clinical variability of this extraordinarily diverse group of diseases.
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Zuelzer, W.W. (1956) Thomas B. Cooley (1871–1948). J. Pediatr. 49, 642. Zuelzer, W.W. & Kaplan, E. (1954) Thalassemia hemoglobin Cdisease: a new syndrome presumably due to the combination of the genes for thalassemia and hemoglobin C. Blood 9, 1047. Zuelzer, W.W., Neel, J.V. & Robinson, A.R. (1956) Abnormal hemoglobins. Prog. Hematol. 1, 91. Zuelzer, W.W., Robinson, A.R. & Booker, C.R. (1961) Reciprocal relationship of hemoglobins A2 and F in beta chain thalassemias, a key to the genetic control of hemoglobin F. Blood 17,393. Zuppinger, K., Molinari, B., Hirt, A. et al. (1979) Increased risk of diabetes mellitus in beta-thalassaemia major. Hel. Paediatr. Acta 4, 197. Zurlo, M.F., De Stefano, P., Borgna-Pignatti, C. et al. (1989) Survival and causes of death in thalassaemia major. Lancet ii, 27.
Appendix Addresses of patient support organizations (WHO, 1994)
INTERNATIONAL Thalassaemia International Federation (TIF), PO Box 28807 2083 Nicosia, Cyprus Fax: +357 2 314552 Email:
[email protected] NATIONAL Argentina Dra Aurora Feliu Torres Hospital de Pediatria Dr JP Garrahan Haemato-Oncologia Pichincha 1850 Buenos Aires Tel: +54 1 941 8532
Australia Miss Christine Savva Thalassaemia Society of Victoria 6 Tiernan Street Footscray 3001,VA Tel: +61 3 687 4777 Fax: +61 3 687 4295 Ms Patricia Fleming Australian Thalassaemia Association Haematology Department ICPMR,Westmead Hospital Westmead, NSW 2145 Tel: +61 2 633 7034 Fax: +61 2 891 5376 Miss Jenny Kelly Thalassaemia Society of New South Wales PO Box 80 Marrickville, NSW 2204 Tel: +61 2 871 1701
Dr Sylvia Barber — President Australian Thalassaemia Association c/o The Queen Elizabeth Hospital 28 Woodville Road Woodville South, SA 2204 Tel: +61 8 450 222 Fax: +61 8 243 6806 Miss Irene Triantafillidis Thalassaemia Society of South Australia 288 Franklin Street Adelaide, SA 5000 Tel: +61 8 231 1132
Azerbaijan INSAN Social and Charitable Centre Azerbaijan Thalassaemia Society ab/box N70 Baku Centre 370000 Tel: +7 8922 663 048 Fax: + 7 8922 923 297
Brazil Mrs Neuza C. Cattassini — President Abrasta Associacao Brasileira dos Talassemicos 113 Rua da Quitanda 6 andar, Sala 62 CEP 01012-010 São Paulo SP Tel: +55 11 366 151 Fax: +55 11 524 902/341 712 Mr Luis Carlos Salvaterra Associacao de Pais e Amigos dos Thalassemicos R Parana 203 Bairo Sao Benardo Campinas SP 13030 Tel: +55 192 391 301
Canada Ms Naushy Mullani Ontario Thalassaemia Association 3 Massey Square, No. 2901 Toronto, Ontario Tel: +1 416 694 6796 (home)
Bahrain Mr Abdulla Saif President Bahrain National Hereditary Anaemia Society PO Box 11399 Manama Tel: +9 73 529 500 Fax: +9 73 643 579
Belgium Mrs Oriella di Stefano President Ligue des Jeunes Thalassémiques 88/5 Rue Waleffe 4220 Seraing-Jemeppe Tel: +32 41 333 977
Mrs Mary Sammarco The Vancouver Thalassaemia Society of BC 6620 Bouchard Court Richmond, British Columbia BC V7C 5H5 Tel: +1 604 274 1052 Mrs A.C. Kritikos Quebec Society of Thalassaemia Inc. 505 Jean Talon East Montreal, Quebec H2R 1T6
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Cyprus The Cyprus Thalassaemia Association 1 Philippou Hadjigeorgiou Flat 5 PO Box 8503 Nicosia Tel: +357 2 429 141 Fax: +357 2 315 792
Egypt Dr M. Gadalla Egyptian Thalassaemic Friends Association c/o Ciba-Geigy Scientific Office PO Box 1071 Cairo 11511 Tel: +20 2 919 388 / 917 143 Fax: +20 2 919 388
Costas Papageorgiou Panhellenic Association for the Protection of Thalassaemia Patients Akadimias 64 T.T. 106 79 Athens Tel: +30 1 362 5102 / 325 2547 Fax: +30 1 323 6115
India
Mr Elias Sofianos President Panhellenic Thalassaemia Federation Tzavella 1 Z.P. 106 81 Athens Tel: +30 1 364 4682 Fax: +30 1 645 0510
Mr Varsha Bihani Bhoruka Research Centre for Haematology and Blood Transfusion Futnani Chambers, Gat 4 Corporation Place Calcutta 87 Tel: +91 33 449 619 / 448 902
Mr Karnaros Panellina Kinisi yia ti Mesogiaki Anemia PO Box 70014 16610 Glyfada Athens Tel: +30 1 894 7395 / 681 5605
France Mr Louis Thiemongue President France Hémoglobinoses (Alpes-Maritimes) Centre de Transfusion Sanguine Avenue de Docteur Donat F-06700 Saint Laurent du Var Tel: +33 932 23750 Fax: +33 932 23783 Mr Elias Benamou Association France Hémoglobinoses 86 Avenue du Rove, Bât. D F-13015 Marseille Tel: +33 91 60 91 00
Thalassaemia Parents’ Association Kassavitti 4 KA 38221 Magnisia Mr Anastasios Eliopoulos Thalassaemia Parents’ Association Antonopoulos 98 KA 38221 Volos Miss Georgia Galanopoulou Sylogos Pashontou apo Mesogiakin Iera Metropoli Korinthou Metropoliticos Naos Ayiou Pavlou PO Box 303 Korinthos 20 100 Tel: +30 741 23324
Greece Mr Dimitris Paspalis Association of Parents and Patients of Thessaloniki T. Papageorgiou 2 Thessaloniki 54 631 Tel: +30 31 228 931 Miss Evaenia Georganda Panhellenic Thalassaemia Patients’ Association 1 Tzavella Street GR-106 81 Athens Tel: +30 1 364 4682 Fax: +30 1 645 0510
Hong Kong Mrs Ngan-Wah Yeung The Cooley’s Anemia Foundation of Hong Kong PO Box 44379 Block A, Flat G, 21st Floor Shau Ki Won Centre 9 Factory Street Shau Ki Won
Mr Tapas Sengupta The Thalassaemia Society of India 1/B Grant Street (Nr. Chandni Market) Calcutta 700 013
Mr Thakorbhai B. Desai Parents’ Association Thalassaemic Trust Unit Kanji Khetshi New Building, 3rd Floor Tatya Gharpure Marg Bombay 400 004 Tel: +91 22 363 347 Mr M.B.Agarwal Thalassaemia & Sickle Cell Society of Bombay Vijay Sadan, Flat No 1 168B Dr Ambedkar Road Dadar TT, Bombay Tel: +91 22 414 2272 / 4453 Fax: +91 22 414 0058 Mr Chandrakant Koticha Rajkot Voluntary Blood Bank and Research Centre c/o Jayshree Traders ‘Ajay Mansion’ PO Box 508 Malaviya Road Rajkot 360002 Tel: +91 281 82636 / 82176 Fax: +91 281 47015 / 47016 Dr J.S.Arora National Thalassaemia Welfare Society KG 1/97 Vikas Puri New Delhi 110018 Tel: +91 11 550 7483
Addresses of patient support organizations Dr S.M. Merchant Research Laboratories BJ Wadia Hospital for Children Acharya Donde Marg Parel Bombay 400 012 Tel: +91 22 413 7000 / 412 9786 Mr C.L. Juneja The Thalassaemia Foundation of India 181/B, MIG DDA Flats Rajouri Garden Extension New Delhi 110027 Tel: +91 11 502 367 Mr Guninder Singh Chandok Thalassaemia and Sickle Cell Society of Bangalore Jai Rattan Nivas 11 A/22, Cunningham Road Bangalore 560 002 Tel: +91 812 258 661 Mr M.S. Rekhi Thalassaemia Children Welfare Association 3047, Sector 20-D Chandigarh
Israel
Malaysia
Mr Gilad Silberstein M. Jakobsohn Ltd. 38 Kalisher St. PO Box 29096 Tel Aviv 61290 Tel: +972 3 510 3131 Fax: +972 3 517 3585
Malaysian Association of Thalassaemia Jabatan Pediatrik University Kebangsaan Malaysia Salam reja Mude 50300 Kuala Lumpur
Italy Mr Silvano Fassio Lega Italiana per la Lotta Contro le Emopatie e Tumori dell’Infanzia Via Giobert 27 I-14100 Asti Tel/Fax: +39 141 557 034 Ms Silvia Olla President Nuiva Associazione Talassemici Italiani Lungotevere Flaminio, 48 I-00 196 Rome Tel: +39 6 322 4823 Fax: +39 6 482 0974 / 503 7923
Ms Khee Swee Hong President Pertubuhan Thalassaemia Pulau Pinang 56 Jalan Gen Guan He 11400 Penang Tel: +60 4 686 412
Rep. of Maldives Dr Naila Firdous Society for Health Education M Kothanmaage (South) Maaveyo Magu Male 20-03 Tel: +960 327 117 Fax: +960 322 221
Malta Mr Deepak Chopra Thalassaemics India (Regd) C-1/59 Safdarjung Development Area New Delhi 110016
Indonesia Mr Ruswandi Yayasan Thalassaemia Indonesia J1 Melat No. 40 Gilandak Barat Jakarta Selatan 12430 Tel: +21 750 0788 / 799 5936
Iran Dr Mina Izadyar Director Iranian Thalassaemia Society Apt. 10, No 113 Ghaem Farahani Avenue PO Box 15875 6156 Teheran Tel: +98 21 646 2977 Fax: +98 21 677 094
Kuwait Dr Laila Al-Fezae Pediatric Department Sabah Hospital PO Box 25328 13114 Safat Tel: +965 254 3377 / 531 2400 Fax: +965 531 9533
Mrs Simone Buhagiar President Thalassaemia Awareness Maltese Association Comprehensive Genetics Programme University of Malta Tal-Qroqq Msida Tel: +356 314 392 /239 807 Fax: +356 310 577
Lebanon Mrs Randa Daouk Chronic Care Center PO Box 213 Hazmieh Beirut Tel: +961 1 868 109 Fax: +961 1 866 301 / 866 302 Mr Samih Shahine Lebanese Association Mea Eng Department Lim, Beirut Tel: +961 1 316 316 Ext 2854
Pakistan Mr Amin Bandhani Fatimid Thalassaemia Centre 393 Britto Road, Garden East PO Box 3412 (New Town) Karachi Tel: +92 21 716 733
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Lt. Gen. (Rtd) Fahim Ahmad Khan Pakistan Thalassaemia Welfare Society (Regd) 22 Ata-ul-Haq Road Westridge-I Rawalpindi Tel: +92 51 862 227 / 862 393 Fax: +92 51 565 206
South Africa
United Kingdom
Mr D Brijball President South African Thalassaemia Association 26 Robin Street Kharwastan, Durban 4092 Tel: +27 31 413 442
Mr Costa Paul United Kingdom Thalassaemia Society 107 Nightingale Lane London N8 7QY Tel: 44 208 348 2553 Fax: 44 208 348 0437
Romania
Thailand
United States of America
Mrs Michaela Dogaru Asociata Romania Pentrou Protectia Bolnavilor de Thalasemie Majora 50 Vioiceni Street Bloc A 15 bis, so 1 Ap 18, Sector 2 73418 Bucharest
Prof.Voravarn S.Tanphaichitr Secretary Thalassaemia Foundation of Thailand Department of Pediatrics Siriraj Hospital Bangkok 10700 Tel: +66 2 411 3010 Fax: +66 2 412 1371
Lucille Gash President,Thalassemia Action Group c/o Daniele 25 Bassett Lane Palm Coast, 33137-8823 Tel: +1 904 446 3442 Fax: +1 201 935 3366
Russia
Tunisia
Professor Yuri N.Tokarev Research Institute for Pediatric Haematology Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation 113 Leninsky Drive Moscow 117513 Tel: +7 095 434 8141 Fax: +7 095 434 8678
Professor Slaheddine Fattoum A.L.P.H.A.T.T. Hôpital d’Enfants Bab Saadoun-1007 Tunis Tel: +1 262 521 / 663 500 / 664 125 Fax: +1 262 521 / 572 572
West Indies Turkey
Saudi Arabia Professor Mohsen A.F. El-Hazmi National Working Group WHO Collaborating Centre College of Medicine and King Khalid University Hospital PO Box 2925 Riyadh 11461 Tel: +966 1 467 0830 Fax: +966 1 467 2575 Saudi Thalassaemia Friend’s Society King Abdulaziz University King Fahd Medical Research Centre PO Box 9029 Jeddah 21413 Tel: +966 2 688 1821 / 2057
Mr Robert Ficarra Cooley’s Anemia Foundation, Inc. Suite 911 105 East 22nd Street New York, NY 10010 Tel: +1 212 598 0911 Fax: +1 212 944 7327
Professor Ayten Arcasoy Ankara Thalassemia Society Kibris Sok 10/5 Guvenevieri Asagni Ayranci Ankara Tel: +9 319 1440 Opr Dr Duru Malyali TADAD Thalassemi Dayanisma Dernegi Posta Kutusu 403 Kadikoy 81310 Istanbul Tel: +1 358 0071 / 512 6819 Fax: +1 339 9496 / 991 1934 Professor Huseyin Sipohioglu President Akdeniz Talasemi Dernegi Anafartalar 15/8 07050 Antalya Tel: +31 124 400 / 128 158
Mrs I. Ramapaul The Society for Inherited and Severe Blood Disorders (Trinidad & Tobago) Ltd. Haematology Treatment Centre General Hospital PO Box 421 Port of Spain Trinidad Tel/Fax: +1 809 625 4765 Mrs L. Bhagwandin Thalassaemia Association of Trinidad & Tobago Ltd. 352 Southern Main Road Enterprise, Chaguanas Trinidad
Index
Page numbers in italic refer to Figures and those in bold refer to Tables adolescents 662 adrenal insufficiency 302, 306 Africa a thalassaemia distribution 271–2 b thalassaemia distribution 243– 4 molecular variants 247 HbS distribution 273, 280, 281 public health issues 598 sickle cell disease/malaria frequency studies 273 agar gel electrophoresis 694–5 buffer system 694 methods 694–5 AIDS management 660 see also human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Algeria a thalassaemia distribution 272 b thalassaemia distribution 243 allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization (ASO) b thalassaemia mutations analysis 710 haemoglobin variants detection 717, 718 prenatal diagnosis 619–20, 621, 622, 623 alleles 133 allostery 67, 77, 80 a chain a1:a2 production ratio 101–2, 107 a thalassaemia defective synthesis 122 genetic classification 123–4 messenger RNA analysis 50 assembly 46, 47 b chain interactions 21, 22, 72, 72 oxygen binding 78 oxygenation/deoxygenation movements 77, 79 b thalassaemia excess production see b thalassaemia d chain association 22 g chain association (fetal haemoglobin) 21, 22 haem interactions 100 haemoglobin tetrameric associations 72, 72 historical aspects 15, 18 red-cell inclusions see red-cell inclusion bodies structure primary 73, 74 three dimensional 75, 75 synthesis mRNA translation 98–9 thalassaemias 34, 35–6
variants 23, 108 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 130, 518, 518–19 haemoglobin expression levels 130 heterozygous b thalassaemia coinheritance 447, 447–8 homozygous b thalassaemia coinheritance 445, 445–7 notation 130 unstable 149–50, 150 see also a-chain genes, mutations a-chain genes a1 gene 82, 84 gene product 98, 99 a2 gene 82, 84 gene product 98, 99 chromosomal location 23 chromosomal organization 23 evolutionary aspects 80 gene conversions 84 historical aspects 15 homologous unequal recombination 135 HS–40 (major regulatory element) 92–3 increased number 82–3, 130–1 b thalassaemia heterozygous states coinheritance 355, 570–2 dominant b thalassaemia heterozygous state co-inheritance 572 homozygous b thalassaemia (thalassaemia intermedia phenotype) co-inheritance 571 inheritance patterns 126, 126 mutations 30–1, 108 chain termination 29–30, 148–9, 149 frameshift 148 non-deletional 144, 146–7 nonsense 148 point 136 poly(A) addition 145, 146 regulatory element deletions 141–4, 143 RNA splicing 144–5 translation initiation 145, 146, 148 unstable a globin variants 149–50, 150 see also deletions number 23, 31 structure 88, 88 switching (developmental change regulation) 22, 107 see also a-globin gene cluster a-globin gene cluster 81–5 CpA repeats 83 deletions 85 gene conversion 84–5 globin gene number variation 82–3
haplotypes 83, 84 insertions 85 normal variation 82, 83–4 polymorphic base substitutions 83–4 structure 81, 81–2 Alu repeats 85 pseudogenes 82 z globin gene 82 translocations 82 variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) 83, 84 a helix 66 haemoglobin molecule 75 a interferon therapy 659, 666 a thalassaemia 123, 484–525 acquired form with myelodysplasia see a thalassaemia/myelodysplasia syndrome allele interactions 485 a-chain termination mutations 29–30, 148–9, 149, 515 see also Hb Constant Spring anaemia 231–2 mechanism 228–9 milder a thalassaemias 507, 516 b thalassaemia co-inheritance 235, 560 pathophysiology 565 see also thalassaemia intermedia classification 31 genetic (a globin haplotype) 123–4 molecular 125 DNA analysis 706–8 genetic aspects 29–31 genotype notation 124 genotype/phenotype relations 233– 4 geographical distribution 238, 262–73 global distribution 264, 265 malaria endemicity relationship 277, 277–8 migration/founder effects 278–9 globin gene deletions see deletions globin gene mapping 55–7 globin messenger RNA analysis 50–1 haemoglobin Bart’s see haemoglobin Bart’s haemoglobin homotetramers formation 122, 224, 226, 484 properties 226, 228 haemoglobin patterns 122, 122 secondary changes 126, 232–3 haemoglobin structural variant interactions 28–9, 127–30, 518, 518–25, 519 a chain 518, 518–19 b chain see b-chain structural variants
827
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a thalassaemia (cont.) HbH disease see haemoglobin H disease heterozygous state diagnosis 689, 691 malaria protection 277, 277–8, 278, 282 neonatal detection 226 historical background 17–18, 27–31 inheritance patterns 126, 126 iron loading 231–2 management 672–4 mental retardation association 526 prenatal diagnosis 624 see also ATR-16 syndrome;ATR-X syndrome milder phenotypes 507–18 clinical heterogeneity 513–15 diagnostic problems 515–18 genotypes 507 globin synthesis 512–13 haematological findings 508–10 haemoglobin analysis 510–12 molecular pathology 136–50 older notation (1 and 2) 29, 30, 31, 124 pathophysiology 223–34, 224, 231 prenatal counselling 516–17 prenatal diagnosis 611, 612, 615, 619, 622 programme strategies 623– 4 red-cell damage 229–31 red-cell inclusion bodies 228–9 sickle cell b thalassaemia co-inheritance 409 sickle cell disease co-inheritance 128–9 haemoglobin expression patterns 128, 129 inheritance patterns 128–9, 129 terminology 31, 124 unbalanced globin synthesis 121, 224–6 unstable a globin variants 149–50, 150 see also a+ thalassaemia; a0 thalassaemia a+ thalassaemia 31, 124, 136, 224, 484 a0 thalassaemia interactions 126, 126 carrier states 126 deletional forms (-a/aa;-a/-a) 55–6, 124, 137, 137–9, 138, 224, 484 adult haemoglobin values 508 developmental changes 508, 509, 510–11, 511 diagnosis 689 globin mRNA synthesis 512, 513, 513 haemoglobin analysis 510–11 pregnancy-associated changes 508, 509 deletional/non-deletional compound heterozygotes (aTa/-a) haematological changes 509 haemoglobin analysis 511–12 deletions see deletions globin synthesis, heterozygotes 226 milder phenotypes 507 molecular designations 125 mRNA analysis 50 non-deletional (aT) types 56, 124, 144, 146 –7, 224, 484 non-deletional heterozygotes (aTa/aa) diagnosis 689 haematological changes 508–9 haemoglobin analysis 511–12
non-deletional homozygotes (aTa/aTa) 509–10 clinical heterogeneity 513 PCR analysis 707–8 a0 thalassaemia 31, 124, 125, 136, 224, 484 --MEDs 125, 139, 141, 142, 707 --SEAs 125, 139, 707 a+ thalassaemia interactions 126, 126 deletions see deletions gap PCR detection 706–7, 707 globin mRNA analysis 50, 51 heterogeneity 56 heterozygous state (--/aa) adult haemoglobin values 508 developmental changes 508, 509, 510–11, 511 diagnosis 689 globin synthesis 226, 262–3, 512, 513, 513 haemoglobin analysis 510–11 pregnancy-associated changes 508, 509 mental retardation association 139, 624 milder phenotypes 507 molecular analysis 139–41, 140, 141 Southern blot analysis 708–9, 709 a thalassaemia/myelodysplasia syndrome 541, 544–5 clinical features 546 globin synthesis 546, 548 haematological findings 546, 546 blood film 546, 547 haemoglobin analysis 546, 548 molecular pathology 547–9 Alu repeats 136, 187 a-globin-gene cluster 85 a-globin-gene deletions association 141 HS –40 deletions 143 b-globin-gene cluster 86 recombination events 141 amino acids classification 66 codes 66 protein primary structure 65–6, 66 amniotic fluid analysis 615 Hb Bart’s hydrops diagnosis 493 amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) b-thalassaemia mutations analysis 710–11, 711, 712 method 718–21, 719 prenatal diagnosis 620–1, 621, 622, 623 amplification-created restriction sites (ACRS) 712 anaemia a thalassaemia 228–9, 231–2 milder forms 507, 516 b thalassaemia 192, 201–2, 231–2, 319, 686, 687 compensatory mechanisms 223 erythropoietin response 207–9 heterozygous states 334, 335, 339, 350 hyperkinetic response 223 db thalassaemia (Agdb)0 homozygous state 383, 388 (db)0/(Agdb)0 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 385–6 (egdb)0 thalassaemia 390–1
Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 493 Hb Lepore homozygous state 361, 363 HbE b thalassaemia 422, 435 aplastic crises 429 megaloblastic 429 HbH disease 494, 506 thalassaemia intermedia 551, 576, 577 treatment initiation 630–1 see also haemolytic anaemia; ineffective erythropoiesis anaemia infantum pseudoleucaemica 5 androgen replacement therapy 656 antibiotics, postsplenectomy infections 658 anticoagulaton 672 anti-i reactivity 327 antioxidant systems 212, 212 antithrombin III 218 aplastic crisis HbE b thalassaemia 429 sickle cell anaemia 113 apolipoprotein E4 300, 301 Arab populations a thalassaemia distribution 267 b thalassaemia distribution 241–2 Artemisia annua 660 artemisin (qinghaosu) 660 ascorbic acid b-thalassaemia-associated deficiency 316 desferrioxamine co-administration 641, 641 aspirin 431, 672, 674 Atlanta type heterocellular HPFH 476, 479 ATR-16 syndrome 82, 527–34, 528, 541 chromosomal abnormalities 527, 527, 530, 530–1, 532, 533 phenotypic associations 531, 533 clinical features 527, 529, 531, 534 inheritance patterns 527, 530, 530 ATR-X syndrome 534–41 ATR-X mutations 540, 542–3 ATR-X protein intracellular distribution 539–40 clinical features 534–6, 535, 535, 536 haematological findings 536, 537 molecular analysis 537–9, 538 phenotype/genotype relationships 540–1 X-linkage 536–7 Australian Ggb+ HPFH -144CÆG 468, 470 autosomes 133 avoidance measures 597–629, 728, 729 5-azacytidine 677 behavioural impact 317–18 Belgian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 178 Benin 272 b chain a chain interactions 21, 22 oxygen binding 78 oxygenation/deoxygenation movements 77, 79 assembly 46, 47, 48 b thalassaemia 25, 121, 122, 192 messenger RNA analysis 49–50 fetal synthesis 36–7 haem interactions 100 haemoglobin tetrameric associations 72, 72
Index historical aspects 15 homotetramers formation 16, 122, 224 structural variants see b-chain structural variants structure primary 73, 74 three dimensional 75, 76 synthesis heterozygotes 36 mRNA translation 98 thalassaemia 34, 35–6 b-chain structural variants 108 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 519, 519–25 a+ homozygotes/heterozygotes 520–1, 521 clinical phenotype 520 HbE 521–3, 522 HbH disease 521 HbS 520, 521, 523, 523–5 pathophysiology 519–20 cis to b-thalassaemia mutation 444–5 thalassaemia co-inheritance 127–30 b-chain-gene 85 chromosomal location 23 chromosomal organization 22 chromosomal translocation 86 deletions see deletions developmental change (switching) 22, 102, 105 evolutionary aspects 80 fusion variants 86–7 historical aspects 15 locus-control region 91, 91–2 premature termination mutations 117 promoter 90 structure 88, 88 see also b-globin-gene cluster b-globin-gene cluster 23, 81, 85, 85–7 chromosomal translocations 86 gene conversions 87 haplotypes 87, 87 HbF enhanced production determinants 184–5, 566–7, 567 point mutations 184 rearrangements 184 RFLPs 185 thalassaemia intermedia phenotype 568–9 heterocellular HPFH 476, 479–80 locus-control region (LCR) 85 mutations 52, 151, 152–3, 155–60 C–T at position -101 154, 165 chain termination 164–5, 165 consensus sequence 161–2 cryptic splice-site 162, 162–4 deletions see deletions HbF production effects 184 –5 insertions 151 mRNA processing 161 mRNA translation 164 –5 point 150, 184 poly(A) addition site 164 promoter region 154, 161 splice junction 161 5' UTR 161, 166 3' UTR 164, 166
number variation 86–7 polymorphic base substitutions 87 RFLPs 87, 87, 185 analysis 714–15, 716 structure 86–7 Alu repeats 86 L1 repeats 86 microsatelite repeats 86 b sheet 66 b strand 66 b thalassaemia 123 a chain excess 35, 36, 122, 192, 194–6, 196, 198–9, 200, 201, 331 proteolytic degradation 194–5, 196, 198, 199, 204, 206 shortened red-cell survival 202, 203, 204, 206–7 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 235, 560 pathophysiology 565 see also thalassaemia intermedia a-globin variant co-inheritance numerical variants 131 structural variants 130 anaemia 192, 201–2, 231–2 compensatory mechanisms 223 erythropoietin response 207–9 anti-Lepore Hb interaction 375–6 + (HbA-producing) 25, 124, 287 b gene sequencing 57–8 b++ (high HbA-producing) 25, 124, 287 b0 (non-HbA-producing) 25, 124, 287 b-globin mRNA analysis 49–50 Ferrara form 48 HbE/a thalassaemia interactions 521–3 b chain deficit 24, 25, 36, 121, 122, 192 carrier state see b thalassaemia heterozygous states classification 287–8, 288 clinical 123 genetic 124 molecular 125 clinical features 287–356 see also b thalassaemia major; thalassaemia intermedia d thalassaemia co-inheritance 378 diagnosis 686–7 DNA analysis 709–15, 718–21 haemoglobin variants co-inheritance 692, 693 differential diagnosis 687 dominant forms 117, 123, 165, 167, 168–9, 170, 287, 572–4 blood film 590, 590 chain termination mutants 165, 170, 572 clinical features 590, 592 distribution 170 genotype/phenotype relationships 572, 573 haemoglobin constitution 588, 589 historical background 572 phenotypic diversity 572, 573–4 red-cell inclusion bodies 590, 591 Dutch form 354, 568, 588 gene mutations 57–8, 150, 151
829
see also b-globin-gene cluster; molecular pathology genetic heterogeneity 24–7 genotype/phenotype relations 287–8 geographical distribution 239–47 common alleles 263 global surveys 238, 247 mild b+ alleles 592–3, 593 molecular variants 247, 248–61, 262, 262 globin messenger RNA analysis 49–50, 52 haemoglobin constitution 327, 327–31 in vitro synthesis 331–3, 332, 332 patterns 121–2, 122 haemoglobin variants co-inheritance 127–30 abnormal oxygen affinity 444 a-chain variants 445, 445–8, 446, 447 b-chain variants in cis 444–5 d-chain variants 448–9, 449 rare variants 440–1, 442–3 unstable variants 444 Hb Lepore compound heterozygotes 369–70 HbA 331 HbA2 24, 26–7, 121, 124, 329–31, 330 haemoglobin Knossos 166–7 high variants 166, 376 mild b thalassaemia alleles 552 molecular mechanisms 151 normal variant type 1 (silent b thalassaemia) 27, 124, 166, 552 normal variant type 2 27, 124, 166 normal variants 27, 124, 166, 167, 287 HbE 18, 19 see also haemoglobin E b thalassaemia HbF see haemoglobin F historical backgound 8, 13, 17–18 HPFH relationship 125 inheritance patterns 25, 125–6 milder forms alleles 346, 346, 347, 552, 552, 592–3, 593 see also b thalassaemia heterozygous states; thalassaemia intermedia molecular pathology 150–70 mutations unlinked to b-globin-gene complex 355–6 undefined disorders 356 pathophysiology 192–223, 194, 231 modifying factors 235–6, 236 Portuguese variant 161–2, 558 prenatal diagnosis see prenatal diagnosis red-cell damage 208, 209 bone marrow phagocytosis 204, 205 haemichrome formation 204, 207 membrane damage 203, 204, 206–7 premature destruction 203, 204, 206–7 red-cell inclusion bodies 39–40, 198–9, 200, 201, 320, 322, 590, 591 severe form see b thalassaemia major sickle cell thalassaemia see sickle cell b thalassaemia silent forms 13, 27, 287, 288 alleles 552, 552
830
Index
b thalassaemia (cont.) molecular basis 165–6, 166 trans-acting genes 165 unbalanced globin synthesis 35–6, 39– 40, 121–2, 192, 193–8, 195, 196 modifying factors 234 –5, 235 see also db thalassaemia b thalassaemia heterozygous states 287, 333–56 additional a-globin genes co-inheritance 355 thalassaemia intermedia phenotype 570 –2 a thalassaemia co-inheritance pathophysiology 565 thalassaemia intermedia phenotype 560–3, 561, 561, 562 anaemia 334, 339, 350 biochemical changes 345 classification 288, 333 clinical features 333– 4 unusually severe course 355 see also b thalassaemia dominant forms complications 339– 41 d thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 352, 352–3 (db)0/(Agdb)0 thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 385–7 diagnosis 688 differentiation from iron deficiency 688–9, 691 problems 341 screening procedures 691 folic acid deficiency 340 –1 Gilbert’s syndrome co-inheritance 350 globin synthesis 345 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency co-inheritance 350 haematology 335 bone marrow 337 red-cell indices 334, 335, 336 reticulocyte count 336 haemoglobin constitution 341–5 developmental changes 348–9, 349 HbA2 16, 17, 24, 166, 287, 333, 341–3, 342, 343 borderline levels 353– 4 deletional forms 347–8, 348 d chain synthesis 342–3 developmental changes 348–9, 349 elevation 341–3, 342, 342 normal variant phenocopies 353 normal variant type 1 (silent b thalassaemia) 351, 352 normal variant type 2 351, 352, 352–3 specific mutations 347, 347 unusually high levels 166, 354 HbF see haemoglobin F hereditary elliptocytosis co-inheritance 350 –1 hereditary haemochromatosis coinheritance 338 hereditary methaemoglobinaemia coinheritance 351 hereditary spherocytosis co-inheritance
351 HPFH compound heterozygotes 344, 354 Black/Sardinian Ggb+ HPFH -175TÆC 469 British Agb+ HPFH (Ag -198TÆC) 473 (db)0 see (db)0 HPFH Greek/Sardinian/Black Agb+ HPFH (Ag-117 GÆA) 471–2 infection susceptibility 341 iron metabolism 337–9 absorption 338 ferrokinetics/erythrokinetics 339 iron loading 338 iron status 337–8 life expectancy 341 molecular forms, phenotype relationships 345–8, 346, 347 pathophysiology 350 Pelger–Huet abnormality co-inheritance 351 pregnancy 334, 339–40, 340 pyruvate kinase deficiency co-inheritance 351 red cells metabolism 345 morphology 336–7, 337 survival 337 b thalassaemia major 287, 288–333 age at presentation 288, 289 autopsy findings 318–19 tissue iron concentrations 319 behavioural patterns 317–18 biochemical changes 325–6 bleeding tendency 217 blood transfusion see blood transfusion bone disease 192, 216–17, 306–7 bone marrow expansion 192, 209 cardiac disease 214, 214–15, 291, 295, 296, 296–300, 297, 298 clinical features impact of iron chelation therapy 291 inadequately transfused patients 290, 290–1, 291 well-transfused patients 291 complications 292 diagnosis 289–90, 686–7 endocrine dysfunction 215, 291, 302–6 adrenal insufficiency 306 delayed puberty 304–5 diabetes mellitus 305 growth retardation 302–4, 303 hypoparathyroidism 306 hypothalamic/pituitary axis dysfunction 304–5 hypothyroidism 306 exocrine pancreatic damage 315 gallstones 317 genotypes 287 gout 317 haematology 319–24 bone marrow 321, 322, 323 serological changes 327 well-transfused patients 320 haemoglobin constitution 327, 327–33 haemoglobin Lepore/b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 369 hypersplenism/splenomegaly 192,
209–10, 293–5, 294 see also splenectomy ineffective erythropoiesis 192, 199, 201, 325 mechanisms 202–4 infection susceptibility 218–20, 307–11 intelligence 317–18 iron metabolism 324–6 absorption 324–5 iron overload see iron overload liver disease 311–15 lung disease 215–16, 300–1 management see Chapter 15 neuromuscular abnormalities 317 plasma volume expansion 210, 294, 295 platelets 320 pregnancy 318 presenting symptoms 288–9 red cells 319–20, 320, 321 metabolism 324 survival 323–4 thrombotic complications 217–18, 301–2 vitamin/trace metal deficiencies 316–17 folate 315 vitamin B12 315–16 white cells 320 b thalassaemia minor see b thalassaemia heterozygous states b thalassaemia trait see b thalassaemia heterozygous states bilirubin metabolism 325 Black Agb+ HPFH (Ag -114 to -102 deletion) 468, 475 Black Agb+ HPFH (Ag -175 TÆC) 468, 475 Agb+ HPFH (Ag -202 CÆT) 468, Black 473–4 Black (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 178 Black Americans, b thalassaemia frequency 246 Black (db)0 HPFH (HPFH 1) 180, 187, 188, 189, 452, 453 HbC compound heterozygotes 459, 461 HbF structure 454 HbS compound heterozygotes 459, 459 Black (db)0 thalassaemia 177 Black Ggb+ HPFH -202CÆG 467, 468 Black Sea area 241 Black/Sardinian Ggb+ HPFH -175TÆC 468, 469 b0 compound heterozygotes 469 HbS compound heterozygotes 469 heterozygous state 469 bleeding tendency b thalassaemia 217, 290 sickle cell b thalassaemia 403 blood filters 633 blood products 633–4 blood transfusion 41–2, 288, 289, 293, 633–6, 729 blood products 633–4 dangers 635–6 donor screening programmes 636 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis prenatal/neonatal therapy 673 HbH disease 673 historical aspects 41 information for parents 632
Index initiation of treatment 631, 633 haemoglobin levels 633 iron overload see iron overload malaria transmission 311, 636 neocytes 633– 4 red-cell life expectancy 633 regimens 634 infection susceptibility impact 307–8 sickle cell b thalassaemia 676 target haemoglobin levels 634–5, 729 minimal levels 635 thalassaemia intermedia 669, 671 transfusion haemochromatosis 42 transfusion reactions 635–6 viral blood-borne infection 308, 309, 310, 311, 635, 636 blood-borne infections 307, 312, 635, 730 treatment 659–61 Bohr effect 77, 79–80 high oxygen-affinity haemoglobin variants 118 bone density measurement 657 bone disease 730 b thalassaemia major 192, 216–17, 290, 293, 306–7 pathophysiology 216–17 Hb Lepore homozygous state 361 HbE b thalassaemia 434 historical studies 4 –5 management 657, 671–2 sickle cell b thalassaemia 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 400 thalassaemia intermedia 581, 583, 583, 671–2 bone pain 581 bone marrow b thalassaemia heterozygous states 337 fetal erythropoesis 100, 102 phagocytic activity 321, 323 sickle cell b thalassaemia 400–1 bone-marrow expansion/erythroid hyperplasia 38, 41 b thalassaemia 192, 209, 321, 323, 323 heterozygous states 337 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 488 HbE b thalassaemia 429, 430 HbH disease 499–500 sickle cell b thalassaemia 405 thalassaemia intermedia 587 bone-marrow transplantation 663–7, 728, 730 busulphan toxicity 666 ethical aspects 667 graft-versus-host disease 665–6 historical background 663 indications 666 –7 iron loading management following 666 malignant disease long-term risk 666, 667 mixed chimerism 666 peripheral blood stem cells 667 practical aspects 667 results 663–5, 664, 665 sickle cell b thalassaemia 676 unrelated matched donors 666 viral hepatitis management following 666 Bosnia Herzegovina 241
brain syndrome sickle cell anaemia 113 sickle cell b thalassaemia 398 Brazil 281 a thalassaemia distribution 272–3 Brazilian Agb+ HPFH (-195 CÆG) 468, 474 British Agb+ HPFH (Ag -198TÆC) 468, 472–3, 474 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 473 heterozygous state 472, 473 homozygous state 472 Buddhism 601–2 Burma 31 b thalassaemia distribution 244 busulphan toxicity 666 butyrate compounds 677 CA repetitive sequences 83, 86, 136 calcium supplements 657, 671 Cambodia b thalassaemia distribution 244–5 HbE distribution 245 Caminopetros 11, 12 Campylobacter jejuni 428 Cantonese (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 179 CAP structure 69 globin gene messenger RNA 95, 97 capping globin genes RNA processing 95 point mutation effects 134–5 carbamate ion formation 80 carbon dioxide transport 80 cardiac disease b thalassaemia major 214, 214–15, 295, 296, 296–300, 297 clinical features 299 detection 299–300 pathology 297–8, 298 pathophysiology 298–9 risk assessment 300 desferrioxamine in prevention 637–8, 638 HbE b thalassaemia 431, 433 iron deposition damage 214, 214–15, 291, 295, 296, 296 chelation therapy protective effect 297, 300 mechanisms 296–7 management 657 myocarditis 297, 299 pericarditis 297 pulmonary hypertension 297 thalassaemia intermedia 580–1 cardiac failure b thalassaemia major 299 HbE b thalassaemia 431 thalassaemia intermedia 580, 581 cardiac transplantation 657 Caribbean a thalassaemia distribution 272–3 HbS origins 281 cDNA/DNA hybridization experiments 51–2, 52 ceftriaxone 658 cellulose acetate haemoglobin electrophoresis 687, 688, 689, 694
831
buffer systems 694 method 694 screening procedures 691, 692 Central Europe 241 Chad 243 chain termination mutations a thalassaemia 29–30, 148–9, 149, 515 see also Hb Constant Spring b thalassaemia 164–5, 165 dominantly inherited forms 165, 170, 572 chelation therapy 291, 636–51, 729–30 body iron burden assessment 644, 644–5 optimal level 640 cardiac complications protective effect 297, 300 deferiprone 649–51 historical aspects 42–3 information for parents 632 liver disease impact 314 thalassaemia intermedia 671 see also desferrioxamine Chile 273 China a thalassaemia distribution 269–70 b thalassaemia distribution 245 prenatal diagnosis programmes 621 Chinese (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 178 clinical features 378 chloride effect 80 chloroquine 660 cholecystectomy 656 chorionic villus sampling 59, 611, 611, 616–17, 624 complications 616 DNA yield 616, 617 Hb Bart’s hydrops diagnosis 493 maternal tissue contamination 622, 626 chromatin 70, 71 decondensation 93 chromosomal translocations a-globin genes 82 b-globin-gene cluster 86 chromosomes 70, 71, 133 normal karyotype 72 cis position b-chain structural variants b thalassaemia co-inheritance 444–5 DNA regulatory elements 71 haemoglobin switching regulation 103– 4 sickle cell b thalassaemia haemoglobin expression patterns 127–8, 129 citrate agar haemoglobin electrophoresis 687 screening procedures 692 co-dominance 126, 133 COLIAI polymorphism 307 column chromatography 688 HbA2 estimation 695–6 Congo 272 consensus sequence mutations 161–2 control at population level 597–629, 728, 729 ethical aspects 598–604 Cooley,Thomas B. 5, 6, 8
832
Index
Cooley’s anaemia 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 haemoglobin studies 16 see also b thalassaemia major copper levels 316, 317 cord-blood stem-cell bone-marrow transplantation 667 Corfu db thalassaemia 167, 171, 176 clinical features 377–8 co-trimoxazole 658 counselling 598, 662 post-screening test 608–9, 610–11 prenatal 516–17 see also genetic counselling coxsackie B virus 428 Cretan type heterocellular HPFH 476, 479 Crete 240 Croatia 241 Cuba 273 cyanosis, congenital 119 cyclophosphamide 666 cyclosporin 663 Cyprus 33 a thalassaemia distribution 266 b thalassaemia distribution 240 historical aspects 6–7 prenatal diagnosis programme 614, 618, 627 public health issues 597 screening programme 601, 605, 606 cytoarabinoside 677 cytomegalovirus 635, 663 Czech type heterocellular HPFH 476, 479 Czechoslovakia 241 Dahomey 243 deferiprone 649–51 effectiveness 649–50 pharmacology 649 toxicity 650–1 delayed development 304–5 desferrioxamine-treated patients 639 management 656–7 pubertal growth delay 302, 303 deletions 135 a-chain genes 51, 52, 137 a+ thalassaemias 137, 137–9, 138 a0 thalassaemias 139–41, 140, 141, 142 a globin expression 139 in-frame 148 regulatory elements 141–4, 143 a-globin-gene cluster 85 downstream region 144 a thalassaemia 51–2, 52, 55–6 a+ thalassaemia 137, 137–9, 138 a0 thalassaemia 55, 56, 139–41, 140, 141 designation 125 extent 139, 141 functional consequences 139– 41 HS –40 regulatory element 141– 4, 142 mental retardation association 139 recombinational rearrangements 141, 142 telomeric repair events 141 b-globin-gene cluster 52, 53, 150, 151, 154 (db)0 HPFH 452 enhancer sequences 189, 189 (eGgAgdb)0 thalassaemia 190
mechanisms 186–7 b thalassaemia 57, 150 b-globin-gene cluster 150, 151, 154 LCR 150 breakpoint characterisitics 186–7 d-chain gene 52, 53 db thalassaemia 52–3, 57, 171, 174, 186 HbH 51, 55, 224, 494 HPFH 52–3, 57, 171–2, 173, 174, 179, 180 mapping, prenatal diagnosis 618–19 z-chain gene 139–40 d amino laevulinic acid (ALA) synthase 99 d chain a chain association 22 in b thalassaemia 35 heterozygous states 342–3 haemoglobin tetrameric associations 72, 72 historical aspects 15 primary structure 73, 74 synthesis 360, 361 a thalassaemia 233 variants 108 b thalassaemia/db thalassaemia coinheritance 448–9 thalassaemia co-inheritance 129, 129 d-chain gene 15, 85 chromosomal location 23 chromosomal organization 22 deletions 52, 53 evolutionary aspects 80 mutations 108, 171, 172 promoter region 361 regulation 22 transcription 360 d thalassaemia 391–2 b thalassaemia co-inheritance 378 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 352, 352–3 d+ 124, 171 d0 124, 171 (db)0 HPFH compound heterozygotes 465 genetic classification 124 haematology 392 haemoglobin analysis 392 HPFH co-inheritance 391 molecular pathology 171, 172 db fusion genes (db)+ thalassaemia 173, 175 Hb Lepore 22, 26, 357 inefficient globin synthesis 370 see also haemoglobin Lepore Washington Boston Hb Parchman 376 mechanism 175, 175 potential crossover variants 376, 376–7 (db)0 HPFH 125, 171, 179–80, 452–65 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 462–4 clinical/haematological findings 463 haemoglobin constitution 459, 463–4 haemoglobin synthesis 464 HbF structure 464 inheritance 456, 464 pathophysiology 464 Black (HPFH 1) 86, 180, 187, 188, 189,
452, 453, 454, 459, 459, 461 classification 452 d thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 465 Ghanaian (HPFH 2) 180, 187, 188, 189, 452, 453, 454, 459, 459, 460, 461 HbB2 (HbA2') compound heterozygotes 464–5 HbC compound heterozygotes 454, 459, 461–2 clinical/haematological findings 462 haemoglobin constitution 454, 462 Hb F structure 462 inheritance 462 HbE compound heterozygotes 462 HbS compound heterozygotes 458–61, 459 clinical features 459 haematological findings 459 haemoglobin cellular distribution 460, 460, 461 haemoglobin constitution 454, 460 haemoglobin synthesis 460–1 HbF structure 461 inheritance 461 pathophysiology compared with sickle cell disease 461 heterozygous state 456–8 haematological findings 456, 457 haemoglobin constitution 457, 457, 458 haemoglobin synthesis 457–8 HbF cellular distribution 457, 458 HbF structure 458 homozygous state 453–6 clinical features 453 haematological findings 453, 453–4 haemoglobin analysis 454, 454 haemoglobin synthesis 454–5, 455 HbF structure 454 inheritance 456, 456 pathophysiology 455–6 red-cell properties 455 Indian (HPFH 3) 180, 188, 452, 464 Italian (HPFH 4) 180, 453 relationship to (db)0 thalassaemia 456, 482, 482, 483 Sicilian (HPFH 5) 180, 453 south-east Asian 180, 453 structural haemoglobin variant compound heterozygotes 464 db thalassaemia 25, 123 classification 358, 358 genetic 124 clinical features 357–92 Corfu form (normal HbA2) 167, 171, 176, 377–8 b thalassaemia trait phenocopies 353 deletions 52–3, 57, 171, 174, 186 (db)+ see haemoglobin Lepore Washington Boston diagnosis 687–8, 691 haemoglobin variants co-inheritance 692, 693 DNA analysis 715 gap PCR 707, 712, 714 geographical distribution 240, 389–90 haemoglobin variants co-inheritance 448
Index d-chain variants 449 HbC association 420 –1 HbE interactions 439 – 40 heterogeneity 26 heterozygous states diagnosis 688–9, 691 differentiation from iron deficiency 688–9 historical background 357 HPFH relationship 125 molecular pathology 171–2 pathophysiology 387–9 prenatal diagnosis 619, 622 Sardinian 176, 377 sickle cell gene interactions 411–15 south-east Asian 176–7 terminology 357 see also (Agdb)0 thalassaemia; (db)0 thalassaemia (db)0 thalassaemia 124, 171, 357, 358, 378 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 385–7 clinical features 385–6, 388 complications 386 haematology 385–6 haemoglobin constitution 386 haemoglobin synthesis 387 HbF 386–7 deletions 186 diagnosis 687 eastern European 177 geographical distribution 378–9 Hb Lepore compound heterozygotes 370 heterozygous state 380–2 clinical features 380 geographical distribution 380 haematological findings 380, 381 haemoglobin analysis 380 –1, 381 haemoglobin synthesis 382 HbF 381, 382 homozygous state 379–80, 380 clinical features 379, 387 haematological findings 379 haemoglobin analysis 379 haemoglobin synthesis 380, 380 HbF 379–80, 387 Indian 177 Japanese 177 Laotian 176–7 molecular pathology 176–8 Sicilian 176 Spanish 177 Turkish-2 178 Turkish/Macedonian 177 (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 124, 171, 357, 358, 378, 382–7 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 385–7 clinical features 385–6, 388 complications 386 haematology 385–6 haemoglobin constitution 386 haemoglobin synthesis 387 HbF 386–7 Belgian 178 Black 178 Chinese 178, 378
deletions 196 diagnosis 687 German 179 heterozygous state 384, 384–5 homozygous state 383–4 clinical features 383, 388 haematological findings 383–4 haemoglobin analysis/synthesis 384 Italian 178 Malaysian 2 178–9 molecular pathology 178–9 south-east Asian 179 Turkish 179 Yunnanese 178 denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) 708, 710 b thalassaemia, unknown mutations analysis 712–13 dental deformity 216 management 661 desferrioxamine 42–3, 44, 729–30 administration methods 43, 636–7, 641, 648 prolonged subcutaneous infusion 636–7, 637 pumps/infusers 637, 641, 648 ascorbate co-administration 641, 641 clinical effectiveness 637–9, 639 cardiac complications 300, 637–8, 638 diabetes mellitus 639 endocrine function 639 liver disease 638, 638 initiation of treatment 640–1 pharmacology 636 practical aspects of treatment 642–3 pregnancy 647–8 reversal of iron-induced organ damage 640, 648, 657 thalassaemia intermedia 671 toxicity 645–7 allergic reactions 645 chronic systemic side-effects 646–7, 647 dose relationship 640 growth retardation 303, 304 local cutaneous reactions 645 monitoring 648 prevention 649 treatment monitoring 644–5 see also chelation therapy diabetes mellitus b thalassaemia major 302, 305 pancreatic iron deposition 215 desferrioxamine in prevention 639 HbE b thalassaemia 434 thalassaemia intermedia 579, 580 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) b thalassaemia, increased level 223 clinical conditions affecting level 79 haemoglobin function modification 77, 79 HbH oxygen dissociation curve 226, 504 high oxygen-affinity haemoglobin variant binding 118 direct DNA sequencing 708 dissociation constants 67 DNA analysis 706–23
833
a thalassaemia 706–8, 707, 709 b thalassaemia 707, 709–15 db thalassaemia 707, 712, 714, 715 haemoglobin variants 715–18 Hb Lepore 707, 715 HPFH 707, 712, 715 laboratory methods 718–23 DNA regulatory elements 71 DNA structure 67–8, 68 DNA transcription 68 DNase 71 dominance 126, 133 eastern Europe 241 eastern European (db)0 thalassaemia 177 echocardiography 299 EF-1 98 EF-2 98 Egypt 272 EKLF 94, 95, 106 d-globin-gene binding site 360, 361 knockout mice 95 promoter mutation effects 154 elF-2 98, 99 elongation mutations 120, 120, 164–5 embryonic haemoglobins 22, 72, 72–3, 100, 101 evolutionary aspects 80 globin-chain tetrameric associations 72, 72 haematopoietic tissues 100, 102 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 490 switch to fetal haemoglobin 102 endocrine dysfunction 730 b thalassaemia major 215, 291, 302–6 desferrioxamine in prevention 639 HbE b thalassaemia 433–4 iron deposition damage 215, 291, 302–6 thalassaemia intermedia 579–80 endothelial interactions, sickle cell red cells 110–11 enhancers 71 globin genes 89, 90 HbF, deletion-associated increased production 188–9, 189 e chain embryonic haemoglobin tetrameric associations 72, 72–3 historical aspects 22 primary structure 73–4 e-chain gene 85 chromosomal location 23 developmental change (switching) 104–5 evolutionary aspects 80 (egdb)0 thalassaemia 123 b thalassaemia trait phenocopies 353 clinical features 390–1 genetic classification 124 haematology 391 haemoglobin analysis 391 molecular pathology 190–1 pathophysiology 390 erythroid-specific transcription elements 93–5, 94 b-globin-locus-control region binding sites 91 globin-gene-promoter binding sites 90
834
Index
stage-specific factors 106 erythron 211 erythropoietin b thalassaemia 207–9 thalassaemia intermedia 587 Escherichia coli 428 ethical issues 598–604 bone-marrow transplantation 667 dysgenic effects of interventions 602–3 eugenic concerns 598–600 experimental therapies 684–5 prenatal diagnosis 600, 603– 4 religious beliefs 600–2 screening 600, 603– 4 Ethiopia 243 eugenics issues 598–600 Europe a thalassaemia distribution 263–6 b thalassaemia distribution 239– 41 molecular variants 247 evolution of globin genes 80 exocrine pancreatic damage 215, 315 exons 68, 69 cryptic splice-site b-globin-gene mutations 163, 163–4 globin genes 88 expressivity 127 extramedullary haemopoietic masses b thalassaemia major 290 HbE b thalassaemia 429, 430 HbH disease 496 neurological complications 669–70 thalassaemia intermedia 584, 584–5 management 669–70, 670 F cells 101, 102, 220, 221 fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) 703–4 genetic control 476–7 HPFH/db thalassaemia screening procedures 691–2 immunofluorescence staining 701–2, 702 normal adults 476 sickle cell b thalassaemia 408 F thalassaemia see db thalassaemia facial appearance b thalassaemia major 216, 290, 291 thalassaemia intermedia 582 fat embolism 400 –1 FC locus 476 Ferrara b0 thalassaemia 48 ferritin 212 ferritin serum level b thalassaemia 295, 295, 325 heterozygous states 337–8 body iron burden assessment 644, 645 HbH disease 504, 505 thalassaemia intermedia 577, 577, 670 fetal blood sampling, prenatal diagnosis 612, 613–14, 614, 615 fetal DNA analysis 611, 614–17 allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization (ASO) 619–20, 621, 622, 623 amniotic fibroblast DNA 615 amplification refractory mutation system
(ARMS) 620–1, 621, 622, 623 chorionic villus DNA 616–17 deletion mapping 618–19 fetal cells in maternal blood 628 gap PCR 621–2, 624 methods 617 polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods 620, 624, 626 prenatal diagnosis programme strategies 622, 623 programmes in developing countries 621 reliability 624, 625, 626 restriction enzyme analysis 619 restriction fragment length polymorphism linkage analysis 617–18, 618, 619 reverse dot blotting 621, 622, 626 sources of error 622 Southern blot analysis 624 fetoscopy 37 FKLF 95 fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) 703–4 folate deficiency b thalassaemia 315 heterozygous states 340–1 pregnant heterozygotes 340, 340 HbE b thalassaemia 429 HbH disease 495 sickle cell b thalassaemia 402 thalassaemia intermedia 581, 672 folate supplements 658 HbH disease 673 sickle cell b thalassaemia 674 thalassaemia intermedia 672 fractures, pathological b thalassaemia 290, 293, 306 management 661 thalassaemia intermedia 581 frameshift mutations 134, 135, 135 a-globin-gene 148 France 240 free radical damage antioxidant systems 212, 212 b thalassaemia red-cell membranes 204, 206 iron overload 211–12 cardiac complications 298 liver 311 Fuller kindred 14, 15, 15 fusion genes homologous unequal recombination 135 see also db fusion genes gallstones b thalassaemia 317 HbE b thalassaemia 434 HbH disease 494, 495 prophylactic cholecystectomy 656 sickle cell b thalassaemia 402 thalassaemia intermedia 581 management 672 Gambia 272 g chain Ag deletions 53 a thalassaemia homotetramer formation 17, 122, 224
persistent production 122, 232–3 b thalassaemia 194, 195, 196, 198, 202 persistent production 121, 122 red-cell-precursor selective survival 221, 222 db thalassaemias G g and Ag 357 G g only 357 terminology 357 developmental changes 100 fetal production 37, 100 G A g: g ratio 100 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 490 haemoglobin tetrameric associations 72, 72 historical aspects 15 primary structure 73, 74 reactivation of production 676 structural variants 22 Ag chains 23, 73 Gg chains 22, 73 g-chain genes 15, 85 chromosomal location 22, 23 developmental change (switching) 102, 105 evolutionary aspects 80 gene conversions 87 HPFH 181–2, 182, 182 Ag 181 Gg 181 mutations 108 HbF production effects 184–5 numerical variation 86, 131 g thalassaemia 392 genetic classification 124–5 gb fusion gene, haemoglobin Kenya 23 gap PCR b thalassaemia mutations analysis 707, 712, 714 db thalassaemia mutations analysis 707, 712, 714, 715 HPFH mutations analysis 707, 712, 715 method 722–3 prenatal diagnosis 621–2, 624 thalassaemia deletion mutations 707 a thalassaemias 707, 707 GATA-1 90, 94 b-globin locus-control region binding sites 91, 92 globin gene promoter binding sites 94 HS –40 binding site 92 knockout mice 94 GATA-2 94 GATA-3 94 gene conversions a-globin-gene cluster 84–5 b-globin-gene cluster 87 gene frequency studies 31–2 a thalassaemia 29 malaria hypothesis 32–3, 273 Mediterranean region 19–21, 20 south-east Asia 18–19, 21 see also population genetics gene therapy 59, 680– 4, 728, 730 bone marrow target cells 683 gene transfer 682, 682–3 globin-gene constructs 681–2
Index safety 684 transplantation strategies 683 genes 67 activation 71 alleles 133 regulation 69–72 structure 67–8, 68 transcription/messenger RNA processing 67, 68–9, 71 translation 67, 69, 70 genetic code 68, 70 genetic counselling phenotype prediction 609 screening programmes 608–9 genetic disorders of haemoglobin 107–20 classification 107, 107 genetic recombination 135 homologous unequal 135 a0 thalassaemias 137, 137–9, 138, 141 non-homologous 135 repetitive sequences 135–6 transposable elements 136 gentamycin 658 geographical distribution 31, 237–84 Afro-Americans 19 a thalassaemia 262–73, 277–9 global distribution 264, 265 migration effects 278–9 b thalassaemia 239–47, 262, 262 common alleles 263 mild b+ alleles 592–3, 593 molecular variants 247, 248–61, 262 db thalassaemia 389–90 (db)0 378–9, 380 Hb Lepore 371–2 HbC b thalassaemia 419 HbE b thalassaemia 275, 276, 439 HbH disease 493–4 HbS 275, 276 Africa 273, 280, 281 Indian subcontinent 242, 243, 247, 262, 280–1 Middle East 241 historical background 18–21 malaria 274 see also malaria hypothesis Mediterranean region 19–21 Greece 19 Italy 19, 20 population migrations 278–9, 280–1 sickle cell b thalassaemia 409–10 south-east Asia 19 thalassaemia intermedia 592–4, 593 world distribution 238, 238–9 see also population genetics Georgia Agb+ HPFH (Ag-114 CÆT) 468, 475 German (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 179 Germany 241 Ghana 244 Ghanaian HPFH (HPFH 2) 180, 187, 188, 189, 452, 453, 454 HbC compound heterozygotes 459, 461 HbS compound heterozygotes 459, 459, 460 Gilbert’s syndrome, b thalassaemia trait coinheritance 350
globin chains haem intractions/haemoglobin assembly 99–100 structure 15 globin genes 3–4, 15 b thalassaemia 24, 25, 52 chromosomal location 23 cloning 57–8 deletions see deletions developmental regulation (haemoglobin switching) 100–7, 101 duplication 22–3, 74, 80 enhancers 89, 90 evolutionary aspects 74, 80 gene product association/assembly 21– 2 historical background 15, 22–3 mapping 55–7 messenger RNAs 97, 97 capping 95, 97 poly(A) tail 95–6, 97 processing 95–6 splicing 96 transport to cytoplasm 96 molecular analytical techniques 53–5 mutations 108 elongated/shortened chains 120, 120 highly unstable globins 117, 572 see also haemoglobin variants organization 22–3, 80–7, 81 gene clusters 80–1, 81 promoters 89, 89–90, 94 regulation of function 89–93 regulatory elements 71–2, 90–3 HS –40 92–3 locus-control region 71, 91, 91–2 sequencing 57–8 structure 54–5, 88, 88, 88–9 transcription 93–5 basal machinery 93 erythroid-specific transcription elements 93–5, 94 transgenic mouse studies 104 globin synthesis 97–9, 195 a thalassaemia messenger RNA analysis 50–1 milder types 512, 512–13 a thalassaemia/myelodysplasia syndrome 546, 548 anti-Lepore haemoglobins 374–5, 375 b thalassaemia 35–6, 39–40, 121–2, 192, 193–8, 195, 196, 234–5, 235 (Agdb)0/(db)0 compound heterozygotes 386–7 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 560, 562–3 a-chain variants/homozygous b thalassaemia interaction 445, 445, 446, 446–7 heterozygous states 345 in vitro synthesis 331–3, 332, 332 messenger RNA analysis 49–50 mild alleles 552 silent alleles 552 (db)0 HPFH b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 464
835
heterozygous state 382, 457–8 homozygous state 380, 380, 387–8, 454–5, 455 (db)0 thalassaemia 387 elongation 98 fetal blood 36–7 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 490, 492 Hb Constant Spring homozygous state 514, 517 Hb Kenya 466, 466 Hb Lepore b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 370 heterozygous state 368 homozygous state 364 HbC b thalassaemia 418–19 HbE b thalassaemia 438, 438 HbH disease 35, 224–5, 225, 504–5 initiation 98 measurement methods 193–4, 704–6 polypeptide chain assembly 46–8, 47 prenatal diagnosis 37, 612–13, 613 errors 624 regulation 98–9 sickle cell b thalassaemia 408–9 termination 98 thalassaemia 34–6, 35 thalassaemia intermedia 588–90 unbalanced 35–6, 39– 40, 121–2, 192, 193–8, 195, 196, 234–5, 235 additional a genes 83 clinical manifestations 38, 39–40 red-cell heterogeneity in haemoglobinization 40 red-cell inclusion bodies 38–9, 39, 108, 198–9, 200, 201 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency 350 gonadal dysfunction iron deposition damage 215 osteoporosis 216–17 see also hypogonadism gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 303 pulsatile infusion 657 gout 317, 585 graft-versus-host disease 665–6 Greece 33 a thalassaemia distribution 265–6 b thalassaemia distribution 240 prenatal diagnosis programme 614, 615 screening programme 605, 606 Greek/Sardinian/Black Agb+ HPFH (Ag-117 GÆA) 468, 470–2 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 471–2 genetics 472 heterozygous state 470–1 homozygous state 470 growth hormone deficiency 302, 303 growth retardation b thalassaemia major 290, 302–4, 303 endocrine dysfunction 215 iron overload 291 desferrioxamine-treated patients 639, 640
836
Index
growth retardation (cont.) HbE b thalassaemia 427 sickle cell b thalassaemia 397 thalassaemia intermedia 576 haem 75– 6, 77 b thalassaemia red-cell membrane damage 206 globin association haemoglobin assembly 99–100 unstable haemoglobin variants 115 haem pocket structure see haemoglobin haem–haem interactions 77, 78 synthesis 99, 99 haemichrome formation Hb Bart’s 228 HbH 228, 502–3 thalassaemia intermedia red-cell destruction 587 haemin 206 haemoglobin 65, 72–120 adult 72, 72–3 allosteric properties 77, 80 assembly (haem–globin interactions) 99–100 carbon dioxide transport 80 embryonic 22, 72, 72–3 historical background 13–17, 14, 21–3 genetic heterogeneity 14–15, 16, 17, 18 genetic loci 15, 16 thalassaemia 16–17 inherited disorders 107–20 classification 107, 107 oxygen binding 77 Bohr effect 79–80 chloride effect 80 conformational change 78–9 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) modification 77, 79, 79 quaternary states 77 deoxy (tense;T) 77, 78, 79 high-affinity haemoglobin variants 117–18 oxy (relaxed; R) 77, 79 solutions preparation for electrophoresis 692 structure 73–7 function relationships 77–80 haem pocket 75–6, 77, 77 historical aspects 15, 16 homotetramers 16–17 oxygenated/deoxygenated forms 77, 78–9 primary 73, 73–4 subunits 67 tetramers 72, 72, 75, 100 three dimensional 74, 74–7, 75, 76 switching (developmental change) 100, 101 a-globin gene cluster 107 b-gene expression 105 cis-active sequences 103– 4 e-gene expression 104–5 g-gene expression 105 gene order 106 LCR elements 105– 6 molecular basis 103–7
progenitor cells 103, 103 timing 102–3 trans-acting factors 106 synthesis 34 –7 haemoglobin A 72, 72 b thalassaemia 331 fetal/neonatal production 36, 100 genetic variants 108 globin chains 15 historical aspects 14 quaternary states 77 sickle cell b thalassaemia 127, 128, 394, 395, 395 tetramer structure 77 haemoglobin A1c 72 haemoglobin A2 72, 72 b thalassaemia see b thalassaemia; b thalassaemia heterozygous states b-chain structural variants/a thalassaemia co-inheritance 520 d chain variant/b thalassaemia heterozygotes 129 d thalassaemia 124 (db)0 HPFH heterozygotes 457, 457 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 463–4, 552 db fusion gene products 376–7 geographical distribution 20, 21 globin chains 15 Hb Kenya 465, 465 Hb Lepore HbS compound heterozygotes 413 HbH disease 502 historical aspects 15 isolated elevation 354–5 laboratory estimation methods 695–6, 699 screening procedures 690, 691 interpretation 691 screening programmes 607–8 reference laboratories 608 sickle cell anaemia 113, 113 sickle cell b thalassaemia 408 haemoglobin A2 Zagreb 449 haemoglobin A2' see haemoglobin B2 haemoglobin A3 72 haemoglobin Agrinio 512 haemoglobin anti-Kenya 86–7, 186 haemoglobin anti-Lepore 87, 175, 175, 186, 372–6, 374 b thalassaemia interaction 375–6 formation mechanism 360 haematological findings 374 haemoglobin constitution 374 haemoglobin synthesis 374–5, 375 molecular analysis 374 haemoglobin Atlanta 373 haemoglobin Augusta 1 525 haemoglobin B2 448 b thalassaemia co-inheritance 448–9, 449 (db)0 HPFH compound heterozygotes 464–5 db thalassaemia co-inheritance 449 haemoglobin Baden 444 haemoglobin Bart’s (g4) 484 a thalassaemia 122 HbE interactions 521–2
heterozygotes 126, 510 a-chain-gene deletions 51, 52, 55 b-chain structural variants/a thalassaemia co-inheritance 520 Hb Constant Spring 514, 515 HbH disease 232, 502 historical aspects 16–17, 27–8 laboratory methods 695, 698 newborn levels 28, 29, 226, 262–3, 517–18 Black populations 56 see also geographical distribution, a thalassaemia oxygen-carrying capacity 228, 493 properties 226, 228 haemoglobin Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome 28, 29, 51, 52, 126, 126, 139, 224, 231, 484–91 clinical features 484, 485–6, 486 autopsy findings 486–7, 487 developmental abnormalities 485–6, 488, 493, 672, 673 diagnosis 492–3, 689 genetic heterogeneity 490 geographical frequencies 491 globin synthesis 36, 224 haematological findings 488, 490 blood film 486, 488 haemoglobin constitution 488, 490 at birth 488, 490, 491 during development 490 haemoglobin synthesis 490, 492 long-term survival 487–8, 489, 673 management 672–3 prenatal/neonatal blood transfusion 673 maternal complications 487, 488 pathophysiology 493 prenatal counselling 516–17 prenatal diagnosis 493, 612, 672 haemoglobin Beth Israel 119 haemoglobin C 108, 113, 114, 276 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 520, 521 clinical features 114 (db)0 HPFH compound heterozygotes 459, 461–2 clinical/haematological findings 462 haemoglobin constitution 454, 462 HbF structure 462 inheritance 462 distribution 114 DNA analysis 717–18 Hb Lepore association 419–20 HbG double heterozygotes 21 historical aspects 14 laboratory methods 695, 698, 699 prenatal diagnosis 613 screening procedures 691 haemoglobin C thalassaemia 415–21 Afro-American populations 415, 415, 416 b+ thalassaemia 415, 415 mild form 416, 416 severe form 417–18 b0 thalassaemia 415, 415, 416–17 severe form 417–18 clinical features 415–18 db thalassaemia 420 –1
Index geographical distribution 419 haemoglobin analysis 406, 418 haemoglobin studies 16 haemoglobin synthesis 418–19 historical background 415 inheritance 419 Mediterranean populations 415, 415, 417–18 pathophysiology 419 haemoglobin Chesterfield 574 haemoglobin Constant Spring 23, 29–30, 30, 83, 120, 513–15 chain termination mutation 149, 230 geographical distribution 270, 271, 273 HbH disease 29, 30, 234, 506, 513 haemoglobin analysis 512 heterozygous state haematological findings 514 haemoglobin constitution 514, 514, 515 homozygous state 513 clinical features 513 globin synthesis 514, 517 haematological findings 513–14 haemoglobin constitution 514, 514 pathophysiology 514–15 red-cell membrane abnormalities 230 –1 structure 514, 516 haemoglobin Coventry 373 haemoglobin Cranston 120 haemoglobin Crete 444, 448 haemoglobin D Ibadan 448 haemoglobin D Los Angeles thalassaemia 440, 441 haemoglobin D Punjab 440 DNA analysis 718 laboratory methods 698 haemoglobin D screening procedures 691 haemoglobin Dhonburi 444 haemoglobin Duarte 444 haemoglobin E 108, 114–15, 163, 421–2 allele interactions/thalassaemia intermedia 557 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 521–3, 522 clinical features 114–15, 422 (db)0 HPFH compound heterozygotes 462 DNA analysis 718 geographical distribution 114, 239, 275, 276 historical studies 18, 19 Indian subcontinent 242, 243 south-east Asia 244 –5 Hb Lepore compound heterozygotes 439–40 HbH disease haemoglobin production 232–3 Hb Bart’s 233 molecular pathology 422 oxygen affinity 421 prenatal diagnosis 613 screening procedures 691 haemoglobin E b thalassaemia 18, 19, 421– 40, 728, 729 age at diagnosis 427 a thalassaemia interactions 439, 522–3 aplastic crises 429
b thalassaemia allele interactions 422, 423 blood film 435–6, 436 bone disease 434 bone marrow expansion 429, 430 tumour masses 429, 430, 669 cardiopulmonary dysfunction 431, 432, 433 cellular pathophysiology 422–34 clinical features 424–7, 425, 426 heterogeneity 424, 426, 439 coagulation abnormalities 433 complications 427–34 db thalassaemias 439–40 (Agdb)0 440 (db)0 440 diagnosis in newborn 439 endocrine dysfunction 433–4 gallstones 434 geographical distribution 439 growth retardation 427 haematological findings 435– 6, 436, 436 haemoglobin analysis 437, 437–8 haemoglobin synthesis 36, 438, 438 HbF persistent production 222 hepatomegaly 429 historical background 421 hypersplenism 428–9 infection susceptibility 427–8 inheritance 438–9 iron loading 429–31, 431, 577, 579 leg ulceration 434 myleofibrosis 429 post-transfusion hyperpyrexial reaction 434 prognosis 434–5 public health issues 597 red-cell metabolic abnormalities 436–7 thrombotic complications 217 pulmonary manifestations 218, 219 haemoglobin electrophoresis haemoglobin solutions preparation 692 HbA2 estimation 695 screening procedures 690, 691 haemoglobin F 72, 72, 100 adult production 101, 102 genetic control 476–7 b thalassaemia 16, 24, 40, 41, 121, 196, 197, 198, 202, 220–3, 222, 327–9, 687 diagnosis 687 genetic determinants of level 481–2 Gg/Ag ratio 328–9 molecular mechanisms 151 oxygen dissociation curve 223, 223 persistent production 220–2, 221 phenotypic severity relationship 220 production variation 222–3 b thalassaemia heterozygous states 333, 343–5, 344, 350 deletional forms 348, 354 db thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 386–7 developmental changes 348–9, 349 specific mutations 348 very high levels 354
837
b-chain structural variants/a thalassaemia co-inheritance 520 b-gene chromosomal translocation 86 db thalassaemias 124, 171, 357 (Agdb)0 homozygous state 384 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 386–7 (db)0 heterozygous state 381, 382, 388 (db)0 homozygous state 379–80 developmental changes 100–1 F cells see F cells g-chain-gene deletions 86 Gg:Ag ratio 124 Hb Lepore 359 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 370 HbS compound heterozygotes 413 heterozygous state 367, 368, 371 homozygous state 364–5, 365, 371 HbE b thalassaemia 437–8 increased production b-globin-gene mutations 184–5 clinical studies 678–9, 679 enhancer sequences 188–9, 189 loss of regulatory regions 187–8 molecular mechanisms 187–90 therapeutic reactivation 676–80, 730–1 laboratory methods 698, 699 estimating relative amounts 699–701 immunological detection 701–3, 702 screening procedures 690, 691 intercellular distribution 691–2 quantification 691 sickle cell b thalassaemia 395, 406 cellular distribution 408 high levels 406–7, 407 sickle cell disease 113, 113, 566, 567 genetic determinants 480–1, 481 HbS polymerization inhibition 111 switch from embryonic haemoglobin 102 switch to adult haemoglobin 102 thalassaemia intermedia see thalassaemia intermedia see also hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin haemoglobin F1 (HbF1) 72 haemoglobin G a chain association 21, 22 HbC double heterozygotes 21 screening procedures 691 thalassaemia co-inheritance 130, 131 haemoglobin G Philadelphia 130, 138, 447, 448 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 518–19 a-globin mutations 148 haemoglobin G Waimanalo 447 haemoglobin Geneva 574 haemoglobin GH disease 130 haemoglobin Gower 1 22, 72, 72, 100 haemoglobin Gower 2 22, 72, 72, 73, 100 haemoglobin H 484 a thalassaemia 122 carriers 510 b4 tetramer formation 225, 226, 505 genetic aspects 29 globin gene deletions 51, 55, 224, 494 haemichrome formation 502–3
838
Index
haemoglobin H (cont.) Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 490 historical aspects 16, 17, 27–8 instability 502–3, 506 laboratory methods 695 oxygen dissociation curve 78, 226, 503– 4 properties 226, 228, 503–4 red-cell inclusions 39, 226, 227, 228, 229 laboratory detection 699 screening procedures 690, 691 haemoglobin H disease 493–507 a thalassaemia/b-chain structural variants co-inheritance 521 HbE interactions 522 a thalassaemia/HbQ co-inheritance 28 a thalassaemia/myelodysplasia syndrome 541 a thalassaemia/unstable a-chain-variants co-inheritance 519 a-chain variants 130, 148 autopsy findings 507 b thalassaemia co-inheritance heterozygous state 561, 562, 562 homozygous b+ or b0 563–5, 564 blood transfusion 673 clinical features 494 complications 495–6 course 494 presentation 494 variability 233–4, 493 diagnosis 689 extramedullary haemopoietic masses 496 folate deficiency 495 gallstones 494, 495 genetic aspects 29, 30, 31 inheritance patterns 126, 126 genotypes 494 phenotype relationships 234, 505– 6 geographical distribution 493– 4 Africa 272 Europe 263, 265, 266 Jamaica 273 Middle East 266, 267 south-east Asia 269, 270, 271 globin synthesis 35, 224 –5, 225, 225, 504–5 haematological findings 496, 497–9, 499–500, 500 blood film 496, 501 bone marrow 499–501, 502 deletional/non-deletional forms 506 haemoglobin constitution 500, 502, 503, 506 developmental changes 502 haemolytic anaemia 231 Hb Bart’s levels 232, 233 Hb Constant Spring 29, 30, 234, 506, 512, 513 HbE carriers 232–3 hydrops fetalis 491–2 hypersplenism 495 infection susceptibility 495 iron status 232, 495, 504, 505 leg ulcers 495 management 673– 4 mental retardation 56–7
non-deletional forms 126 oxygen dissociation curve 504 pathophysiology 506–7 pregnancy 496 prognosis 507 red-cell damage 229 membrane changes 230 red-cell inclusion bodies 39, 227, 229, 500–1, 502 red-cell metabolism 505 red-cell survival 228, 504 sickle cell disease interactions 524–5 thromboembolic complications 232, 495–6 haemoglobin H hydrops fetalis 491–2 molecular pathology 492 haemoglobin Hamilton 521 haemoglobin Hasheron 130, 445, 445, 447 haemoglobin Headington 448 haemoglobin Hiroshima 118 haemoglobin Hope 444 haemoglobin Hopkins 2 14, 15, 15 haemoglobin I 28, 84 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 519 haemoglobin Icaria 515, 517 haemoglobin Inkster 447 haemoglobin J Iran 521 haemoglobin J Lome 464 haemoglobin J Mexico 23 haemoglobin J Oxford 448 haemoglobin J Paris 447 haemoglobin J Rovigo 447 haemoglobin J Sardegna 447 haemoglobin J Tongariki 23, 130 haemoglobin J Toronto 518 haemoglobin Kansas 118–19 haemoglobin Kempsey 118 haemoglobin Kenya 53, 86, 175, 186, 187, 188 gb-fusion gene 23 Gg(gb)+ HPFH 181, 452, 465–6 clinical/haematological findings 465 haemoglobin constitution 465, 465–6 haemoglobin synthesis 466, 466 HbF structure 466 HbS compound heterozygous state 465, 466 molecular properties 181 haemoglobin Knossos 163, 166–7, 352–3, 378 allele interactions/thalassaemia intermedia 557–8 b thalassaemia heterozygous states 336 haemoglobin Koya Dora 23, 268 heterozygous state 515 homozygous state 515 haemoglobin L Ferrara 445 haemoglobin Leiden 444 haemoglobin Lepore Baltimore 175, 359, 360 geographical distribution 371, 372 heterozygous state 367, 368 haemoglobin Lepore Hollandia 175, 359, 360 heterozygous state 368 homozygous state 361, 363, 363, 364 haemoglobin Lepore Pylos 359
haemoglobin Lepore The Bronx 175, 359 haemoglobin Lepore Washington Boston 26, 87, 108, 124, 135, 171, 173, 175, 187, 188, 240, 357, 358–78 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 369–70, 371 clinical features 369 haematological findings 369 haemoglobin analysis 370 haemoglobin synthesis 370 b thalassaemia phenotype 360, 362 (db)0 thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 370 db fusion gene 22, 26, 173, 357 formation mechanism 175, 175, 186, 360 inefficient globin synthesis 370 product synthesis 359–60, 361 diagnosis 687–8 DNA analysis 715 gap PCR 707, 715 geographical distribution 371–2 haemoglobin constitution 359, 362 haemoglobin variants co-inheritance 448 HbC association 419–20 HbE compound heterozygotes 439–40 HbF 359 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 370 heterozygous state 367, 368, 371 homozygous state 364–5, 365, 371 reactivation therapy 678, 679 heterozygous state 365–8, 371 clinical features 366 haematological findings 366, 366–7 haemoglobin analysis 367, 367–8 haemoglobin synthesis 368 historical background 358–9 homozygous state 361, 363–5 clinical features 361, 363, 363–4 haematological findings 364 haemoglobin analysis 364 haemoglobin synthesis 364 Lepore haemoglobin forms 175 molecular pathology 173, 175 oxygen affinity 359 pathophysiology 370–1 phenocopies 176, 377 prenatal diagnosis 613, 619 fetal cells in maternal blood 628 properties 359 screening procedures 691 sickle cell compound heterozygotes 411–14 clinical features 411, 413–14 diagnosis 413 haematological findings 412, 413 haemoglobin pattern 413 structure 359 haemoglobin Lincoln Park 373, 374 haemoglobin Lleida 512 haemoglobin Lulu Island 444 haemoglobin M 119–20 clinical features 119–20 pathophysiology 119 haemoglobin M Boston 119 haemoglobin M Hyde Park 119
Index haemoglobin M Iwate 119 haemoglobin Malay 164 allele interactions 557 b thalassaemia heterozygous states 336 haemoglobin Mississippi 444 haemoglobin Miyada 175, 186, 372–3, 374 synthesis 374 –5, 375 haemoglobin N Baltimore 520 haemoglobin New York 521 haemoglobin O Arab 441, 448 DNA analysis 718 prenatal diagnosis 613 screening procedures 691 haemoglobin O Indonesia 446, 446, 447 haemoglobin P Congo 373, 374 haemoglobin P India 374 haemoglobin P Nilotic 175, 186, 373, 374 b0 thalassaemia interaction 375–6 haemoglobin Paksé 515 haemoglobin Parchman 376 haemoglobin Peterborough 448 haemoglobin Portland 22, 56, 72, 72, 100 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 490, 493 haemoglobin Portland II 490 haemoglobin Pylos 372, 411 haemoglobin Q 130 HbH disease 28 haemoglobin Q India 447 haemoglobin Q Thailand 447 haemoglobin Quong Sze 270, 518 haemoglobin Rampa 23, 447, 448 haemoglobin S 108, 109 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 520, 521, 523, 523–5 Black/Sardinian Ggb+ HPFH -175TÆC compound heterozygotes 469 (db)0 HPFH compound heterozygotes 458–9, 459 clinical features 459 haematological findings 459 haemoglobin cellular distribution 460, 460, 461 haemoglobin constitution 454, 460 haemoglobin synthesis 460–1 HbF structure 461 inheritance 461 pathophysiology compared with sickle cell disease 461 deoxyhaemoglobin polymer formation 109–10, 110, 111 DNA analysis 716–17, 718 expression in sickle cell b thalassaemia 127, 128 genetic aspects 15 geographical distribution 109, 275, 276 Africa 273, 280, 281 Indian subcontinent 242, 243, 247, 262 Middle East 241 population migrations 280 –1 Hb Kenya compound heterozygous state 465, 466 heterozygote malaria protection 33, 273– 4 cellular mechanisms 274 –5 historical aspects 14, 15, 15 HPFH co-inheritance 450 laboratory methods 695, 698, 699
prenatal diagnosis 613, 716–17 screening procedures 691 structure 15 see also sickle cell b thalassaemia; sickle cell disease haemoglobin St Louis 574 haemoglobin St Mandé 119 haemoglobin Saki 444 haemoglobin Sallanches 512 haemoglobin Saverne 120 haemoglobin SC disease 114 haemoglobin Seal Rock 515 haemoglobin Shelby 444 haemoglobin structural variants 107, 107, 108–20, 121 a thalassaemia interactions 28–9, 127–30, 518, 518–25, 519 a thalassaemia phenotype 107, 109 b thalassaemia co-inheritance 127–30, 393–449 abnormal oxygen affinity 444 a-chain variants 445, 445–8, 446, 447 b-chain variants in cis 444–5 rare variants 440–1, 442–3 unstable variants 444 classification 108, 108 db thalassaemia co-inheritance 393, 448 DNA analysis 715–18 elongated/shortened globin chains 120, 120 high oxygen-affinity 117–18 clinical features 118 pathophysiology 117–18 laboratory estimation methods 695 low oxygen-affinity 118–19 nomenclature 108 prenatal diagnosis strategies 624 thalassaemia co-inheritance 127–30 screening procedures 692, 693 thalassaemia phenotype production 108, 131 unstable 115–17, 116 dominant b thalassaemias 572, 573, 573 see also haemoglobin E b thalassaemia; sickle cell b thalassaemia haemoglobin Suan Dok 512 haemoglobin Sydney 373, 374 haemoglobin Tak 120 haemoglobin Vicksburg 444 haemoglobin Wayne 120 haemoglobinopathies see haemoglobin structural variants haemolysis 37, 38, 41 sickle cell red-cells 110 haemolytic anaemia a thalassaemias 228–9 haemoglobin variants 108 HbC disease 114 HbH disease 228, 231 sickle cell anaemia 112 sickle cell b thalassaemia 396, 397, 403 unstable haemoglobin variants 116, 117 dominant b thalassaemias 572, 573 Haemophilus influenzae 308, 654 postsplenectomy risk 218 vaccination 655, 674 haemorrhagic complications management
839
661 hand–foot syndrome 112, 396, 398, 399 Heinz bodies 115, 117, 149, 198 HbH disease 229, 499 heparin 672 hepatitis B 307, 308, 428, 585, 635, 659 diagnosis 659 treatment 659 vaccination 635, 674 hepatitis C 307, 309, 428, 585, 635, 659 diagnosis 659 thrombotic risk with b thalassaemia 302 treatment 659–60 hepatitis D 309 hepatitis E 309 hepatitis G 309–10 hepatomegaly 315 Hb Lepore homozygous state 361 HbE b thalassaemia 429 postsplenectomy 655 sickle cell b thalassaemia 397 thalassaemia intermedia 577 hepatosplenomegaly b thalassaemia major 290, 290 HbH disease 494 hereditary elliptocytosis 350–1 hereditary haemochromatosis 338 b thalassaemia trait co-inheritance 338 gene mutations 338 optimal body iron burden 640 hereditary methaemoglobinaemia, b thalassaemia trait co-inheritance 351 hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) 23, 45, 106, 107, 123, 450–80 classification 125, 451–2, 452 deletional forms see (db)0 HPFH; haemoglobin Kenya diagnosis 687–8, 691 DNA analysis 715 gap PCR 707, 712, 715 HbF cellular distribution 451 structure 53 history 25–6, 450–1 molecular pathology 52–3, 57, 171–2, 173, 174, 179, 180, 186, 467, 468 non-deletional forms 57, 452, 467–75 Agb+ 451, 452, 452 Black (Ag-114 to -102 deletion) 468, 475 Black (Ag-175 TÆC) 468, 475 Black (Ag-202 CÆT) 468, 473–4 Brazilian (Ag-195 CÆG) 468, 474 British (Ag-198 TÆC) 468, 472–3, 473, 474 Georgia (Ag-114 CÆT) 468, 475 Greek/Sardinian (Ag-117 GÆA) 468, 470–2 Italian (Ag-196 CÆT) 468, 474 Ggb+ 452, 452, 467, 468, 469–70 Australian (Gg-144CÆG) 468, 470 Black (Gg-202CÆG) 467 Black/Sardinian (Gg-175TÆC) 468, 469 Japanese (Gg-114CÆT) 468, 469
840
Index
hereditary persistence of fetal haemoglobin (HPFH) (cont.) Tunisian (Gg-200+C) 468, 469 heterocellular 451, 475–82, 476, 566, 691, 692 Atlanta type 476, 479 b thalassaemia amelioration 469– 70 b-globin disorder interactions 477, 478 b-globin-gene cluster determinants 476, 479–80 Cretan type 476, 479 Czech type 476, 479 family studies 478–9 Hb S interactions 477–8, 478 non-b-globin-gene cluster determinants 480 Seattle type 476, 479 Swiss type 451, 475 relationship to db thalassaemias 450, 452, 456, 482, 482, 483 sickle cell b thalassaemia inheritance 407, 407 unbalanced globin synthesis 52 hereditary spherocytosis, b thalassaemia trait co-inheritance 351 heterogeneity of thalassaemia 13, 131–2, 234–6 haemoglobin studies 14–15, 16, 17, 18 heterozygous state 133 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 688 HbF estimation 700 method 698–9 Hinduism 602 histones 70, 71 historical aspects 3–62, 60–1 a thalassaemia 17–18, 27–31 b thalassaemia 17–18 db thalassaemias 357 early history 4–11 genetic transmission patterns 11–13, 12 geographical distribution 18–21 haemoglobin studies 13–17, 14, 21–3 HbE b thalassaemia 421 HPFH 25–6, 450–1 Mediterranean region 6, 7, 8 coexistent childhood malaria/malnutrition 6 Cyprus 6–7 Greece 11 Italy 6, 7–8, 8, 11 milder thalassaemias 10–11, 12 molecular pathology 3, 4, 44–55 pathophysiology 37– 41 phenotypic variability 13, 17 severe thalassaemia 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 sickle cell b thalassaemia 393– 4 terminology 9–10, 13 thalassaemia intermedia 11, 550, 575– 6 treatment methods 41–4 homologous unequal recombination 135 a globin genes 135 gene fusion products 135 homozygous state 133 hormone replacement therapy 656, 671
Howel–Jolly bodies 403 HS elements, b-globin locus control region 91 HS–40 92–3 deletions 137, 141–4, 143 erythroid-specific transcription elements binding sites 94 function 92–3 structure 92 HS–40 knockout mice 143 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 307, 310, 310–11, 635, 636, 659, 730 AIDS management 660 Hungary 241 hydroxyurea 670, 676 HbF production stimulation 677, 678 hypercoagulable state b thalassaemia 217–18 HbE b thalassaemia 433 thalassaemia intermedia 672 hypersplenism 41 b thalassaemia 192, 209–10, 290, 290, 293–5 complications 294–5 consequences 210 mechanisms 209–10 presentation 289 transfusion requirement relationship 293, 294 db thalassaemia (Agdb)0 homozygous state 383 (db)0/(Agdb)0 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 385–6 Hb Lepore homozygous state 361, 363 HbE b thalassaemia 424, 425, 426, 427, 428–9 HbH disease 495, 673 sickle cell b thalassaemia 397, 402 thalassaemia intermedia 551, 576, 577 management 668–9 unstable haemoglobin variants 116 hyperthyroidism 354 hyperuricaemia 585 hypervariable regions (HVRs) see variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) hypogonadism 662 b thalassaemia major 215, 302, 303, 304 desferrioxamine-treated patients 639 management issues 656–7 ostoeporosis management/prevention 657 thalassaemia intermedia 671 hypoparathyroidism 302, 306 hypothalamic/pituitary axis dysfunction b thalassaemia major 304–5 iron overload effects 304, 305 management issues 657 hypothyroidism 302, 306 immune function 219–20 immunofluorescence, F cell staining 701–2, 702 in utero haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation 680, 684 Indian (db)0 thalassaemia 177 Indian HPFH (HPFH 3) 180, 452 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes
188, 464 Indian subcontinent 31, 238 a thalassaemia distribution 267–8 b thalassaemia distribution 242–3 molecular variants 247 HbS distribution 242, 243, 247, 262, 280–1 prenatal diagnosis programme 614 public health issues 597 Indonesia 597 a thalassaemia distribution 270–1 b thalassaemia distribution 245–6 HbE distribution 245–6 ineffective erythropoiesis 38 b thalassaemia 192, 199, 201 iron metabolism kinetics 325 HbE b thalassaemia 422 highly unstable globins 117 dominant b thalassaemias 572, 573 thalassaemia intermedia 587 infection b thalassaemia heterozygous states 341 b thalassaemia major 218–20, 290, 307–11 immune function 219–20 presentation 289 HbE b thalassaemia 427–8 HbH disease 495 impact of transfusion regimen 307–8 iron overload relationship 219, 220, 308 management 658–61, 672 postsplenectomy 218–19, 220, 653–4 prophylaxis 655 sickle cell b thalassaemia 398, 674 thalassaemia intermedia 585, 672 inheritance patterns 125–32 expressivity/penetrance 127 initiation factors 98 initiation mutations, b-globin-gene cluster 164 insertions a-globin-gene cluster 85 b-globin-gene cluster 151 insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) 303 intelligence 317–18 introns (intervening sequences; IVS) 68, 69 globin genes 88, 89 inversions 135 Iran b thalassaemia distribution 242 screening programme 601, 610, 628 Iraq 242 iron metabolism 210–11 b thalassaemia 324–6 absorption 324–5 serum ferritin 325 serum iron 325 b thalassaemia heterozygous states 337–9 absorption 338 thalassaemia intermedia 586–7 see also iron overload iron overload a thalassaemia 231–2 b thalassaemia 192, 210–16, 295–300 heterozygous states 338 well-transfused patient 291 blood transfusion regimens 211 body iron burden
Index assessment 295, 325, 644, 644–5 levels associated with complications 295, 296, 296 optimal level 640 bone disease relationship 216, 217 cardiac complications 214, 214–15, 296–300, 433 chelation therapy protective effect 297, 300 pathology 297–8, 298 pathophysiology 298–9 thalassaemia intermedia 580 –1 desferrioxamine in complications prevention 637–9, 638 endocrine dysfunction 215, 291, 302–6, 433–4 exocrine pancreatic damage 315 growth retardation 302–3 HbE b thalassaemia 429–31, 431, 433–4, 435 HbH disease 232, 495, 504 hepatitis C severity influence 659 infection susceptibility 219, 220, 308 liver disease 211, 213, 213, 311–15, 313 liver iron levels 325– 6 assessment 312 pathogenesis 41 pituitary dysfunction 304, 305 post-bone-marrow transplantation management 666 postsplenectomy 654 pulmonary pathology 215–16, 433 red-cell membrane damage 204, 206 serum ferritin levels 295, 295 thalassaemia intermedia 577, 577–9, 578, 578, 579 cardiac function 580–1 management 670–1 tissue damage mechanisms 211–12 tissue iron concentrations (autopsy findings) 318–19, 319 iron, serum levels, b thalassaemia 325 heterozygous states 337–8 iron-deficiency anaemia differentiation from b- and dbthalassaemia traits 688–9, 691 historical aspects 4, 6 Islam 601, 602 isoelectric focusing 687, 689 method 698, 698 screening procedures 692 Israel 241–2 Italian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 178 Italian HPFH (HPFH 4) 180, 453 Italian/Chinese Agb+ HPFH (-196 CÆT) 468, 474 Italy 601 a thalassaemia distribution 263 b thalassaemia distribution 239–40 malaria hypothesis 32–3 screening programme 610 Ivory Coast 243, 244 J-BP 92 Jamaica 273 Japan 270 Japanese (db)0 thalassaemia 177
Japanese Ggb+ HPFH -114CÆT 468, 469 Jewish populations a thalassaemia distribution 266–7 b thalassaemia distribution 241–2 joint disorders/pain sickle cell b thalassaemia 396 thalassaemia intermedia 581 management 671–2 Jordan 241 karyotype 72 Kenya 272 Klebsiella pneumoniae 428 Kleihauer technique 691 method 700–1 KpnI repeats 136 Kuwait 241 L1 repeats 136, 187 b-globin-gene cluster 86 insertions 151 laboratory diagnosis 686, 689–92, 690 co-inherited thalassaemias with haemoglobin variants 692, 693 definitive diagnosis 692 DNA analysis 706–23 methods 718–23 electronic cell counting 690 flow chart 691 methods 692–706 osmotic fragility tests 690 primary screen 690 secondary screen 690–2 Laos 269 Laotian (db)0 thalassaemia 176–7 Lebanon 241 leg ulceration (Agdb)0/(db)0 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 386 HbE b thalassaemia 434 HbH disease 495 sickle cell b thalassaemia 396, 401, 675 thalassaemia intermedia 582, 585 management 671 leptocytosis/target cell anaemia 13 Liberia 243 LINES (long interspersed elements) 136 lipid peroxidation 212 liver fetal erythropoiesis 100, 102 iron level assessment 312, 325–6 liver biopsy 325, 644–5, 659, 670 liver disease b thalassaemia major 211, 213, 213, 311–15 blood-borne viral infections 312 iron overload 291, 311–12, 313 desferrioxamine in prevention 314, 638, 638 HbE b thalassaemia 431, 431 liver function tests 314–15 liver transplantation 657 locus-control region (LCR) 71, 85, 91–2 downregulation mutations 150 erythroid-specific transcription elements binding sites 94 function 92
841
g-chain-gene expression 189 globin gene transcription regulation 93 haemoglobin switching (developmental change) 105–6 HS elements 91, 93 structure 91, 91 lung disease b thalassaemia major 300–1 iron overload 215–16 HbE b thalassaemia 218, 219, 431, 432, 433 lung syndrome in sickle cell b thalassaemia 398 management 675 see also sickle cell disease Macedonia 241 macrophage respiratory burst 212 magnesium levels 316 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ironinduced cardiomyopathy 300 malaria geographical distribution 274 heterozygote resistance 108, 236, 273 associated genetic polymorphisms 236 mechanism 282– 4 sickle cell disease 274–5 see also malaria hypothesis historical aspects Italian epidemiology 6, 8 Mediterranean region 6, 7 impact of control on thalassaemia/sickle cell disease 602, 603 management 660–1 prophylaxis 661 thalassaemic children susceptibility 311 transfusion-borne infection 311, 636, 660 malaria hypothesis 32–3, 237, 273–82 a thalassaemia, selection versus migration in Melanesia 277, 277–8, 278 b thalassaemia analysis of molecular variants 276–7 epidemiology 275–7 selection time-scale 279–80 gene frequency information 273 population migrations 278–9, 280–1 Malattia Rietti–Greppi–Micheli 10, 333, 550, 575 Malay-1 (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 179 Malaysia a thalassaemia 270 b thalassaemia distribution 245 HbE distribution 245 Malaysian 2 (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 178–9 Mali 243 Malta 21, 33 b thalassaemia distribution 240 management 630–85, 631 a thalassaemia 672–4 blood transfusion see blood transfusion bone disease 657, 661 bone-marrow transplantation see bonemarrow transplantation cardiac disease 657 chelation therapy see chelation therapy; desferrioxamine
842
Index
management (cont.) continuity of care 632 definitive treatment 730–1 delayed development 656–7 dental deformity 661 diagnosis 630–1 haemoglobin levels assessment 631 endocrine dysfunction 656–7 experimental therapies 676–85, 677 ethical issues 684–5 risk–benefit analysis 684 haemorrhagic complications 661 historical development 41– 4 infection 658–61 optimal body iron burden 640 parent suport counselling 662 early interviews 631–2 genetic explanations 632 information-giving 630, 631 pastoral care 662–3 prophylactic cholecystectomy 656 psychological aspects 661–3 cultural differences 663 sickle cell b thalassaemia 674 – 6 skeletal deformity 661 social worker support 632 splenectomy 651–6 splenic embolization 656 symptomatic treatment 729–30 thalassaemia intermedia 668–72 thalassaemia societies 632, 663 thrombotic complications 661 treatment initiation 630–1 vitamin supplements 658 Mauritania 243 Mediterranean region 31, 238 historical aspects 5, 10 childhood illness 6 malaria 6, 7, 8 thalassaemias distribution 19–21, 20 megaloblastic anaemia 354 HbE b thalassaemia 429 Melanesia 238 a thalassaemia distribution 271 malaria endemicity relationship 277, 277–8, 278 b thalassaemia distribution 246 meningitis 308 mental retardation, a thalassaemia association 526 extent of deletions 139 see also ATR-16 syndrome;ATR-X syndrome messenger RNA 67 b-globin-gene cluster translation mutations 164–5 globin genes 97, 97 nonsense mutations 96 transport to cytoplasm 96 processing 68–9 b-globin-gene cluster mutations 161 capping 95 globin genes 88–9, 95–6 point mutation effects 134, 135 poly(A) addition 95– 6 splicing 96
protein synthesis 69, 70 methaemoglobin formation 115 methaemoglobinaemia haemoglobin M 119 haemoglobin variants 108 Mexico 281 b thalassaemia distribution 246 microcytaemia 13 Micronesia 271, 278, 279 microsatellite repeats 83, 86, 136 Middle East 31, 238 a thalassaemia distribution 266–7 b thalassaemia distribution 241–2 molecular variants 247 sickle cell b thalassaemia 241 mis-sense mutations 134 molecular pathology 133–91 a thalassaemia 136–50 b thalassaemia 150–70 malaria hypothesis 276–7 molecular variants distribution 247, 248–61, 262 clinical applications 58–9 d thalassaemia 171, 172 db thalassaemia 171–9 egdb thalassaemia 190–1 globin genes 53–5 historical background 44–55 HPFH 171–2 notation 125 population genetics 237 thalassaemia classification 125 monocyte function 220 Montreal screening programme 605, 610 Morocco 243 Mozambique 243 mutagenetically separated PCR (MS-PCR) 711 mutations 133–6 frequency 133 functional classification 134 large rearrangements 135–6 point 134–5, 135 regulatory 136 see also molecular pathology myelofibrosis 429 myocarditis 297, 299 Namibia 272 Neisseria meningitidis 308, 654 immunization 655 postsplenectomy risk 218 nested polymerase chain reaction 628 NESTROFT screening procedure 690 neuromuscular abnormalities 317 neutral mutations 134 neutrophil function 220 New Guinea 33 NF-E2 90, 94–5 b-globin locus-control-region binding sites 91, 92 HS –40 binding site 92 knockout mice 94–5 Niger 243 Nigeria a thalassaemia distribution 272 b thalassaemia distribution 244
non-homologous recombination 135 nonsense mutations 134, 135, 135 see also molecular pathology north Africa 243 nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, protein tertiary structure 66 nucleosome 70–1 Oct-1 90 ocular changes 401, 401 ophthalmological monitoring 674 oestrogen replacement therapy 656 olfactory receptor genes 85, 86 Oman 241 operon model 45–6 Orthodox Church 601 osmotic fragility test geographical distribution studies 20, 20–1 historical aspects 10, 11, 12, 13 NESTROFT 690 screening procedures 606, 690 osteomyelitis 308 sickle cell b thalassaemia 396, 398 osteoporosis 657 b thalassaemia major 216–17, 307 thalassaemia intermedia 671, 672 oxygen affinity of haemoglobin 77, 78 b thalassaemia 223, 223 (db)0 HPFH homozygous state 455 Hb Bart’s 493 HbE 421 HbF 223 HbH 226, 503–4 Hb Lepore 359 pancreatic iron deposition 215, 315 Pappenheimer bodies 403 Papua New Guinea 271, 282 paracetamol 674 parvovirus infection 400, 585 pathophysiology 108, 192–236, 193 a thalassaemia 223-234, 224, 231 b thalassaemia 192–223, 194, 231 heterozygous states 350 db thalassaemia 387–9 (egdb)0 thalassaemia 390 Hb Lepore thalassaemias 370–1 historical aspects 37–41 Pelger–Huet abnormality 351 penetrance 127 penicillin 655, 658, 674 peptide bonds 65, 66 pericarditis 297, 308 peripheral blood stem-cell bone-marrow transplantation 667, 728, 730 peritonitis 308 Philippines a thalassaemia distribution 271 b thalassaemia distribution 246 pigmentation changes 215, 290, 296 piperacillin 658 pituitary dysfunction b thalassaemia major 215 thalassaemia intermedia 579 see also hypothalamic/pituitary axis dysfunction
Index plasma volume expansion 210, 294, 295 platelet count b thalassaemia major 320 HbE b thalassaemia 435 see also splenectomy, complications platelet function abnormalities 431, 433 pneumonia 218, 308 sickle cell b thalassaemia 396 point mutations 134–5, 135 a thalassaemia alleles 144, 146–7, 707–8 b thalassaemias 150 b-globin-gene cluster 150, 184 HbF enhanced production 184, 568–9 thalassaemia intermedia 568–9 polar body analysis 629 poly(A) addition a-globin-gene mutations 145, 146 b-globin-gene-cluster mutations 164 globin genes RNA processing 95–6 point mutation effects 134–5 poly(A) tail 69 globin gene messenger RNA 95–6, 97 polycythaemia 108, 117, 118 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 58 a thalassaemia alleles deletion mutations 707, 707 point mutations 707–8 b thalassaemia 710 allele-specific oligonucleotides 710 gap PCR 712 methods for unknown mutations 712–14 primer-specific amplification 710–11, 711, 712 restriction enzyme analysis 711–12, 713 db thalassaemias diagnosis 687 HbS detection 716–17 prenatal diagnosis 611, 614, 620, 624, 716–17 errors 624, 626 nested PCR methods 628 Polynesia a thalassaemia distribution 271 migration/founder effects 278–9 polyribosomes 98 population genetics 31–2, 237–84 global gene frequency data 239, 239 malaria hypothesis see malaria hypothesis molecular variants analysis 276–7 migration/founder effects 278–9 see also geographical distribution population migrations a thalassaemia distribution in Polynesia 278–9 HbS distribution 280–1 population screening see screening porotic hyperostosis 4–5 Portugal a thalassaemia distribution 266 b thalassaemia distribution 241 post-transfusion hyperpyrexial reaction 434 postsplenectomy infection 653– 4 prophylaxis 655 severe infection treatment 658
pregnancy b thalassaemia heterozygous states 334, 339–40, 340 b thalassaemia major 318 desferrioxamine use 647–8 HbH disease 496 milder a thalassaemias 508, 509 sickle cell b thalassaemia 402–3 thalassaemia intermedia 585 preimplantation diagnosis 628–9 prenatal counselling 516–17 prenatal diagnosis 37, 55, 59, 598, 611–29, 728–9 a globin-gene haplotypes 84 b thalassaemia 55 ethical issues 600, 603–4 fetal blood sampling 612, 613–14, 614, 615 fetal cells in maternal blood 628 fetal DNA analysis see fetal DNA analysis globin synthesis measurement 612–13, 613 guidelines 603–4 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis 493, 672 PCR techniques 716–17 population results 626–8, 627 preimplantation 628–9 psychological impact 626 rare thalassaemias 624 religious beliefs 600–2 sickle cell disease 55 social/psychological pressures 628 strategies 622–4, 623 a thalassaemias 612, 623–4 b thalassaemia mutations 622–3 structural haemoglobin variants 624 priapism 398 management 675 promoter mutations 134 Ag gene 181 b-globin-gene cluster 154, 161 b thalassaemia Dutch form 354, 568 HPFH 190 silent b thalassaemia 165 Gg gene 181 HbF enhanced production, thalassaemia intermedia phenotype 568, 569 promoters 71 globin genes 89, 89–90, 94 protein C 218 protein function 67 protein S 218 protein structure 65–7 primary 65–6, 66 protein function 67 quaternary 67 secondary 66–7 tertiary 66–7 protein synthesis 67–72, 70 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 428 psychosocial aspects 661–3 adolescents 662 cultural differences 663 infancy/early childhood 662 pastoral care 662–3 school problems 662
843
pubertal growth delay 302, 303 public health issues 597–8, 727–8, 729 future thalassaemia/sickle cell population estimates 598, 599 pulmonary arterial obstruction 431, 432 pulmonary embolism 217, 301 see also thromboembolic complications pulmonary hypertension b thalassaemia major 297 HbE b thalassaemia 431 thalassaemia intermedia 581 pyruvate kinase deficiency, b thalassaemia trait co-inheritance 351 qinghaosu (artemisin) 660 quinine 660 radionuclide studies, iron-induced cardiomyopathy 300 recessivity 126, 133 recombinant growth hormone (rGH) therapy 657 red-cell inclusion bodies 38–9, 39, 108 a thalassaemia 228–9 b thalassaemia 198–9, 200, 201, 320, 321, 322, 323 diagnosis 686–7 dominant forms 590, 591 heterozygous state 337 HbE b thalassaemia 435, 436 HbH disease 39, 226, 227, 228, 229, 500–1, 502 laboratory methods 699 sickle cell b thalassaemia 405 see also Heinz bodies red-cell indices screening 606 red-cell membrane damage a thalassaemia 229–31 b thalassaemia 203, 204, 206–7 Hb Constant Spring 230–1 HbH disease 230 red-cell metabolism b thalassaemia 324 heterozygous states 345 HbH disease 505 red-cell morphology b thalassaemia heterozygous states 336–7, 337 b thalassaemia major 319–20, 320, 321 red-cell pyrimidine 5’ nucleotidase activity 607 red-cell survival b thalassaemia 323–4 heterozygous states 337 HbE b thalassaemia 422 HbH disease 504 neocyte transfusions 633 sickle cell b thalassaemia 405 thalassaemia intermedia 586 refractory anaemia of pregnancy 334 religious beliefs 600–2 renal disorders 402, 675–6 repetitive sequences 83, 86, 136 genetic recombination 135–6 research priorities 727–8
844
Index
restriction endonuclease digestion b thalassaemia mutations analysis 711–12, 713 haemoglobin variants detection 717, 718, 718 HbS prenatal diagnosis 717 method 722 prenatal diagnosis 619 restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) 55, 611 a-globin-gene cluster 83–4, 84 b-globin-gene cluster 87, 87, 185, 714–15, 716 prenatal diagnosis 617–18, 618, 619 retrovirus vectors 682, 682 reverse dot blotting HbS detection 717 prenatal diagnosis 621, 622, 623 errors 626 Rhodes 240 ribavirin 659 ribosomes 98, 99 Rietti, Fernando 10, 11 RNA polymerase 68, 71 RNA polymerase II 93 RNA structure 69 Roman Catholicism 600, 601 Romania 241 Salmonella osteomyelitis 398 Sardinia a thalassaemia distribution 264–5 b thalassaemia distribution 240 prenatal diagnosis programme 617, 623, 627 screening programme 601, 605, 610 Sardinian db thalassaemia 176, 377 Saudi Arabia a thalassaemia distribution 267 b thalassaemia distribution 241 school problems 662 screening 598, 728–9 cost-benefit issues 610 dysgenic effects 602–3 ethical issues 600, 603–4 guidelines 603–4 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis syndrome 672 methods 606–8 audit 608 further investigations 607–8 initial screen 606–7 options for couple at risk 610–11, 611 post-test counselling 608–9, 610–11 procedure 690–2 programme development criteria 604–5 programme outcome 609–10 prospective 605 psychological impact 626 public education programmes 605–6 religious beliefs 600–2 retrospective 605 strategy development 606 Seattle type heterocellular HPFH 476, 479 Senegal a thalassaemia distribution 272 b thalassaemia distribution 243 Serbia 241
severe thalassaemia historical aspects 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 see also b thalassaemia major sex chromosomes 133 sexual maturation delay see delayed development Sicilian (db)0 thalassaemia 176 Sicilian HPFH (HPFH 5) 180, 453 Sicily a thalassaemia distribution 263–4 b thalassaemia distribution 240 prenatal diagnosis programmes 621 sickle cell b thalassaemia 393–411 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 409 aplastic crisis management 675 bleeding tendency 403 blood film 403, 404 bone-marrow/fat embolism 400–1 bone/joint problems 398, 399, 400, 400 brain syndrome 398 bS mutation cis to b-thalassaemia gene 410 childhood course 396 clinical features 395–7, 396, 397 presentation 396 variability 394, 409–10 complications 397–8 fertility 402 folic acid deficiency 402, 674 gallstones 402 genetic counselling 410–11 geographical distribution 241 haematological findings 403, 404, 404, 405, 405 haemoglobin constitution 405–8 HbA 16, 17, 394, 395, 395, 405–6, 406 HbA2 408 HbF 395, 406–8, 407 HbS 16, 17, 405, 406 haemoglobin synthesis 36, 127, 408–9 cis/trans effects 127–8, 129 haemolytic anaemia 396, 397, 403 hepatic sequestration crisis 675 historical aspects 4, 16, 24, 25, 28–9, 393–4 HPFH co-inheritance 407, 407 hypersplenism 402, 674 infection 398 prevention 674 inheritance patterns 127–8, 128, 410 leg ulcers 401, 675 lung syndrome 398, 675 management 674–6 blood transfusion 676 bone-marrow transplantation 676 crises 674–5 hydroxyurea treatment 676 metabolic changes 401 molecular pathology 394–5 neonatal screening 674 neurological complications 402, 675 ocular changes 401, 401 ophthalmological monitoring 674 population distribution 409–10 post-mortem studies 403 pregnancy 402–3 priapism 398, 675 prognosis 403
renal disorders 402, 675–6 sleep-related upper airway obstruction 402 splenic sequestration crisis 674 stroke 398, 675 vasocclusive crises 398, 674 sickle cell (db)0 thalassaemia 414, 415 sickle cell disease (sickle cell anaemia) 4, 109–14 a thalassaemia co-inheritance 128–9, 520, 521, 523, 523–4 haemoglobin expression patterns 128, 129 impact on symptoms 524 inheritance patterns 128–9, 129 aplastic crisis 113 brain syndrome 113 clinical features 112 sickle cell anaemia 112–14 sickle cell trait 112 future population estimates 598, 599 gene frequency information 273 haematological findings 113, 113 haemolytic anaemia 112 hand–foot syndrome 112 Hb Lepore interactions see haemoglobin Lepore HbF 113, 113, 566, 567 genetic determinants 480–1, 481 HbS polymerization inhibition 111 production stimulation 677, 678, 679 HbH disease 233 heterozygotes HbA levels 127 malaria protection see haemoglobin S infection susceptibility 112 long-term complications 113 lung crises 112–13 pathophysiology 109–11, 111 haemolysis 110 red-cell sickling 109, 109, 110, 111 vascular endothelial interactions 110–11 prenatal diagnosis 37, 55, 59, 615, 616, 617, 619, 620, 626 fetal cells in maternal blood 628 prognosis 113–14 screening programme outcome 609–10 splenic sequestration syndrome 113 vaso-occlusive crisis 112, 112 see also haemoglobin SC disease sickle cell (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 414, 415 silencers 71 silent b thalassaemia 123, 124, 287 allele interactions 552–5 b 5'-untranslated region (UTR) +10 (–T) 554 b CAP +1 AÆC 554 b CAP +33 CÆG 554 b termination codon +6 CÆG 555 b–101 CÆT 554 IVS2-844 CÆG 554–5 alleles 552, 552 b–101 CÆT 154, 165 molecular basis 165–6, 166 type 1 (normal HbA2) 351, 352 SINES (short interspersed elements) 136
Index single-strand conformation analysis (SSCA) 708 skeletal deformities 41 b thalassaemia 192, 216–17 management 661 see also bone disease skull changes 290, 292 ‘hair on end’ appearance 290, 292 sleep-related upper airway obstruction 402 south America 238 a thalassaemia distribution 272–3 b thalassaemia distribution 246–7 population studies 281–2 south-east Asia 31, 238 a thalassaemia distribution 19, 268–71 b thalassaemia distribution 144, 244–6 molecular variants 247 historical studies 18–19, 21 public health issues 597, 598 south-east Asian (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 179 south-east Asian (db)0 HPFH 180, 453 south-east Asian db thalassaemia (Laotian (db)0 thalassaemia) 176–7 Southern blot analysis 53–4, 54, 263, 611 db thalassaemias diagnosis 687 HbS 717 prenatal diagnosis 617, 618, 619 errors 624 Soviet union 242 Sp1 90, 94 b-globin locus-control region binding sites 91, 92 Spain a thalassaemia distribution 266 b thalassaemia distribution 240–1 Spanish (db)0 thalassaemia 177 spinal haemopoietic mass 669–70 splenectomy 43–4, 651–6 b thalassaemia major 293 clinical assessment 652–3 complications 653–5 preventive measures 655–6 haematological sequelae 655 HbH disease 673, 674 infection risk 218–19, 220, 653–4 HbE b thalassaemia 428 prophylaxis 43, 308, 655 iron loading impact 654 liver enlargement 315, 655 partial 656 prophylactic cholecystectomy 656 results 653 thalassaemia intermedia 668–9 thrombotic disease following 654–5 splenic anaemia of infancy 5 splenic embolization 656 splenomegaly see hypersplensim splice junction mutations 161 splice-site cryptic mutations 162, 162–4 spliceosome 69, 96 splicing a thalassaemia mutations 144–5 globin genes RNA processing 96 HbE synthesis disorders 422 point mutation effects 134, 135 SQUID magnetometry 325 Sri Lanka 601, 602
starch gel electrophoresis 25, 689, 696–8, 697 buffer systems 696 gel slicing/staining 698 method 696–8 Streptococcus pneumoniae 308, 428, 654 postsplenectomy infection 218, 658 vaccination 674 stroke 398, 675 structure/rate hypothesis 17, 18, 44–5 Sudan 33 b thalassaemia distribution 243 TAFs (TBP-associated factors) 93 Taiwan 270 Tanzania 272 tap hypothesis 17, 45 target cells b thalassaemia heterozygous states 336 HbE b thalassaemia 435 TATA binding protein (TBP) 93 TEF-2 92 telomeric repair events 141 terminology 9–10, 13 a thalassaemia 31, 124 db thalassaemia 357 haemoglobin variants 108 TFIIB 93 TFIIE 93 TFIIF 93 TFIIH 93 Thai (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 179 Thailand 33, 597, 601 a thalassaemia distribution 268–9 b thalassaemia distribution 244–5 gene frequency studies 18–19 HbE distribution 244 prenatal diagnosis programmes 621 thalassaemia 121 classification 107, 107, 122–5 clinical 123 genetic 123, 123–5 molecular 125 definition 121 future population estimates 597–8, 599 globin synthesis 34–6, 35 haemoglobin variants 131 history see historical aspects inheritance 125–32 haemoglobin variants co-inheritance 28–9, 127–30 management see management origins 33–4 pathophysiology 108, 192–236 see also under individual varieties thalassaemia intermedia 123, 550–94 age at diagnosis 576 b thalassaemia dominant forms 572–4 clinical presentation 590, 590, 591, 592 haemoglobin constitution 588, 589 molecular pathology 167 b thalassaemia heterozygotes with increased a-globin gene number 570–2 aaa/aa 570–1 aaa/aa with dominant b thalassaemia 572
845
aaa/aaa 571 aaaa/aa 571 b thalassaemia homozygote with increased a-globin gene number (aaa/aa) 571 b thalassaemia–a thalassaemia interactions 559–65 b thalassaemia compound heterozygotes 562–3 b thalassaemia homozygotes/HbH disease 564, 564–5 b thalassaemia homozygous state 562–3 b-thalassaemia trait/a thalassaemia 560–3, 561, 561, 562 haemoglobin constitution 588 pathophysiology 565 bone/joint disorders 581, 583, 583, 671– 2 cardiac function 580–1 chelation therapy 671 classification and causes 551 clinical features 575–88 variability 550, 551 complications 577–86 course 576 definition 551 endocrine function 579–80 erythropoietin response 587 extramedullary erythropoiesis 584, 584–5, 669–70, 670 facial appearance 582, 671 folate deficiency 581, 672 gallstones 581, 672 genetic interactions 551 genotype/phenotype relationships 574–5, 575, 668 haematological findings 586 haemoglobin synthesis 588–90 haemoglobin values 551 HbF enhanced production 565–70, 588 b-globin gene point mutations 568–9 b-globin-gene cluster determinants 566–7, 567 b-thalassaemia deletional alleles 568 heterocellular HPFH/b thalassaemia interactions 569–70 historical background 10–11, 550, 575–6 hypersplenism 576, 577 splenectomy 668–9 hyperuricaemia/gout 585 infections 585, 672 iron loading 577, 577–9, 578, 578, 579 management 670–1 iron metabolism 586–7 leg ulceration 582, 585, 671 management 668–72 blood transfusion 669, 671 early surveillance 668 initial assessment 668 treatment initiation 631 mild b-thalassaemia-allele interactions 552, 555–9 b CD19 (AACÆAGC;AsnÆSer;Hb Malay) 557 b CD26 (GAGÆAAG; b 26 GluÆLys; HbE) 557
846
Index
thalassaemia intermedia (cont.) b CD27 (GCCÆTCC;AlaÆSer; Hb Knossos) 557–8 b IVS1-6 TÆC 558–9 b–29 AÆG 556 b–30 TÆA 556 b–31 AÆG 556 b–87 CÆG 555–6 b–87 CÆT 556 b–88 CÆT 555 haemoglobin constitution 588 poly(A);AATAAAÆAACAAA 559 poly(A);AATAAAÆAATAAG 559 poly(A);AATAAAÆAATGAA 559 population variation 592–4, 593 pregnancy 585 red-cell destruction mechanism 587–8 red-cell survival 586 silent b-thalassaemia-allele interactions b 5'-untranslated region (UTR) +10 (–T) 554 b CAP +1 AÆC 554 b CAP +33 CÆG 554 b termination codon +6 CÆG 555 b–101 CÆT 554 IVS2-844 CÆG 554–5 thromboembolic disease 585–6, 672 thalassaemia major definition 123 historical aspects 13 thalassaemia minima, definition 333 thalassaemia minor definition 123 historical aspects 13 thalassaemia societies 632, 663 thromboembolic complications b thalassaemia 217–18, 301–2 HbE b thalassaemia 217–19 HbH disease 232, 495–6 management 661, 672 postsplenectomy 654–5 thalassaemia intermedia 585–6, 672 Togo 243 trace metal deficiencies 316–17 trans-acting regulatory elements 71 transcription 71 basal apparatus 93 globin genes 93–5 point mutation effects 135 transcription factors 69 transfer RNAs 69, 70 globin synthesis 98 transferrin 211, 212 receptor levels 201 transfusion see blood transfusion transfusion haemochromatosis 42 see also iron overload transfusion reactions 635–6 transgenic mouse studies b-globin gene cluster expression 104, 105
e-gene expression 104 g-gene expression 105 translation 67, 69, 70 globin mRNA 97–9 elongation 98 initiation 98 regulation 98–9 termination 98 initiation factors 98 translation mutations a-globin-genes 145, 146, 148 b-globin-gene cluster 164–5 elongation 164–5 initiation 164 point mutations 134–5 transposable elements 136 b-globin-gene cluster insertions 151 Tunisia 243 Tunisian Ggb+ -200+C 468, 469 heterozygous state 469 homozygous state 469 Turkey a thalassaemia distribution 267 b thalassaemia distribution 241 Turkish (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 179 Turkish/Macedonian (db)0 thalassaemia 177 Turkish 2 (db)0 thalassaemia 178 UK b thalassaemia distribution 241 prenatal diagnosis methods 618, 620–1, 621 ultrasound, Hb Bart’s hydrops prenatal diagnosis 493 United Arab Emirates 241 unstable haemoglobin variants 115–17, 116 b thalassaemia co-inheritance 444 clinical features 116–17 dominant b thalassaemias 572, 573, 573 highly unstable globins 117 pathophysiology 115–16 Upper Volta a thalassaemia distribution 272 b thalassaemia distribution 243 urine pigments 325 USA 246 USF 94 b-globin locus-control region binding sites 91 vancomycin 658 variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) 136 a globin gene cluster 83, 84 vasoocclusive episodes sickle cell anaemia 112, 112 sickle cell b thalassaemia 398 venesection 671 Venezuela 273
Vietnam a thalassaemia distribution 269 b thalassaemia distribution 244–5 vitamin B12 deficiency b thalassaemia 315–16 pregnant heterozygotes 340, 340 HbE b thalassaemia 429 vitamin D supplements 657, 671 vitamin E deficiency 316 vitamin E supplements 658 vitamin supplements 658 von Jaksch’s anaemia 5, 8, 10 warfarin 672 west Africa 243–4 west Asia a thalassaemia distribution 266–7 b thalassaemia distribution 241–2 white cell count 320 X-ray crystallography 66 Xmn-I site polymorphism 154, 184, 185, 381, 479, 480, 555, 557, 559, 592 HbF enhanced production relationship 567, 569 Yemen 241 Yersinia infection 308 desferrioxamine treatment-associated susceptibility 219, 220 thalassaemia intermedia 585 treatment 658 yolk sac, embryonic haemoglobin production 100, 102 Yunnanese (Agdb)0 thalassaemia 178 YY1 90, 94 b-globin locus-control region binding sites 91 HS –40 binding site 92 Zambia 272 z chain a thalassaemia carriers 510 embryonic haemoglobin tetrameric associations 72, 72 expression with a+ thalassaemia 139, 232 expression with a0 thalassaemia 140 Hb Bart’s hydrops fetalis persistent synthesis 490, 493 historical aspects 22 primary structure 73–4 z-chain gene 82 chromosomal location 23 deletions 139–40 evolutionary aspects 80 number variation 56, 83 structure 88 switching (developmental change regulation) 107 variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) 83 zinc levels in b thalassaemia 316–17
