The Semiotics of French Gestures (Advances in Semiotics)

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THE SEMIOTICS OF FRENCH GESTURES title: author: publisher: isbn10 | asin: print isbn13: ebook isbn13: language: subject publication date: lcc: ddc: subject:

The Semiotics of French Gestures Advances in Semiotics Calbris, Geneviève. Indiana University Press 0253312973 9780253312976 9780585027418 English Gesture--France, Semiotics. 1990 P117.5.F8C35 1990eb 440/.141 Gesture--France, Semiotics.

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Advances in Semiotics Thomas A. Sebeok, General Editor

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THE SEMIOTICS OF FRENCH GESTURES GENEVIÈVE CALBRIS TRANSLATED BY Owen Doyle INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS Bloomington and Indianapolis

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© 1990 by Geneviève Calbris All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The Association of American University Presses' Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. Manufactured in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Calbris, Geneviève. The semiotics of French gestures / Geneviève Calbris; translated by Owen Doyle. p. cm. (Advances in semiotics) Abridgement of the author's thesis. Bibliography: p. Includes index. ISBN 0-253-31297-3 1. Gesture - France. 2. Semiotics. I. Title. II. Series. P117.5.F8C35 1990 88-46027 440'. 141dc20 CIP 1 2 3 4 5 94 93 92 91 90

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CONTENTS Foreword By Ivan Fonagy

xi

Preface

xv

Acknowledgments

xviii

Notation

xix 1

I. Determining the Relevant Features of a Gestural Expression: An Intracultural Experimental Study Goal and method

1

Test

8

Results

10

Positive or negative role of the complementary facial signifierErrors due to the principal signifierErrors due to the signifiedSemantic data deduced from mismatches 26 II. The Iconic and Cultural Nature of Gesture: An Intercultural Experimental Study Goal

26

Comparison of results

26

Identification of certain gesturesMismatchesPositive role of facial expression Cultural nature of facial expressionCultural and iconic nature of gesture III. Physical Components of the Gestural Sign

41

Relevant physical features

42

A dictionary of gestures arranged according to relevant physical features

48

Symbolic corollaries to relevant physical features

57

IV. Semantic Fields of the Gestural Sign

84

Time

85

LocalizationDuration Aggressiveness

93

Cluster of signifiedsNetwork of expressions Judgment

97

Certainty-DoubtDisbelief Positive-mediocre-negative qualitiesAgreementDisagreement

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Page vi V. Mimic Representation

104

ConventionalityEncodingEtymology- revealing gesturesSynthesisSelection TransferGestural representation of acting and being acted onDynamic or static characterization of the signified'Static' or 'dynamic' gesture? Before or after action?Space-time interaction VI. The Relationship between Signifier and Signified: Motivation

116

Motivation and conventionalityMotivation and isomorphismMotivation and variants Motivation and polysemyDouble motivation of a signMotivation and gestural redundanceMotivation and gestural economyRelationships between motivations VII. An Application: The Motivation of Refusal

154

Active refusalPassive refusalRefusal through different signifieds VIII. Gesture and Speech

162

Phono-gestural parallelismGesture in discourseGesture and the analysis of discourseGesture and language Conclusion

205

Appendixes

211

References

228

Index

231

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ILLUSTRATIONS Illustration 1. Partial (a) and full (b) views of the emblem 'C'est mon petit doigt qui me l'a dit' Illustration 2. Ceinture! From Calbris 1987: 58, by Zaü Illustration 3. Warning (e) and Refusal (f). From Calbris 1979: 99 Illustration 4. Recent past. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 140, by permission of CLE International Illustration 5. Distant past. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 140, by permission of CLE International Illustration 6. Certainty: (1) Implied double negative and (2) Logical consequence. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 123, by permission of CLE International Illustration 7. Refusal. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 123, by permission of CLE International Illustration 8. Le bras d'honneurPhallic Forearm Jerk. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 103, by permission of CLE International Illustration 9. Telephone. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 138, by permission of CLE International Illustration 10. Synthetic mimic gestures: Headphones, Mumps, Hair coils Illustrations 1114. Threat, Threatening warning, Warning, Advice. Illustrations by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 36-37, by permission of CLE International Illustration 15. Super! Extra! From Calbris 1987: 85, by Zaü Illustration 16. Du bidon, du vent!Rubbish, hot air. From Calbris 1985b: 16 Illustration 17. Ambiguous gut-punch: Vengeful repartee or Speed-Strength-Power From Calbris 1987: 67, by Zaü Illustration 18. Couci-couaSo-so. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 19, by permission of CLE International Illustration 19. Antithesis. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 22, by permission of CLE International

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The relevant body segment is indicated by the corresponding utterance Figure 2. Rotation of the head in profile Figure 3. The head raised a given extent corresponds to different motivations, depending on the direction of gaze Figure 4. A synthesis of two movements Figure 5. Static or dynamic representation of a circular configuration Figure 6. Various notions evoked by vertical loops Figure 7. Gestural representation of hesitation Figure 8. Gestural localization of time with respect to the present moment Figure 9. Gestural localization of time with respect to a given moment Figure 10. Gestural representations of a cylinder Figure 11. Parallel attenuation in the signifier and signified: Opposition to the outside Figure 12. Parallel shift in signifier and signified Figure 13. Parallel extension of signifier and signified progressive unfolding) Figure 14. Parallel extension of signifier and signified (regressive unfolding) Figure 15. Nuances in Hand/Forefinger/Thumb substitution and Head/ Hand-Forefinger-Thumb substitutions Figure 16. Cutting: Variants in different planes Figure 17. A synthesis of three axes Figure 18. Polysemy of lateral head-shake Figure 19. Polysemy off lateral head-tip Figure 20. Appropriateness of signifier for signified in (physico-semantic) nuances of negation Figure 21. Combination of two principles of polysemy: Plural motivation and semantic shifts Figure 22. Double motivation of lateral head-shake (?) as a signifier of agreement, perfection, and certainty Figure 23. Complex gestures: Movement and configuration Figure 24. Complex gestures: Combination of movements Figure 25. Complex gestures: Other cases Figure 26. Osmosis between the functional signifiers of a polysemous gesture Figure 27. A schema of the 'rhythm hierarchy' in speaker behavior. From Condon 1976: 297

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Figure 28. The unity of speech and body motion in speaker behavior. From Condon 1976: 297 Figure 29. Schematic illustration of the superposition of simple melodies. From Fónagy 1983: 294 Figure 30. The emblem couci-couça is a synthesis of other gestural variants Figure 31. Specification by gesture

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Descriptions of filmed gestures and their corresponding clichés Table 2. Distribution of verbal and nonverbal items Table 3. Group A, Series 1: List 1 (22 subjects) Table 4. Group A, Series 2: List 2 (22 subjects) Table 5. Group B, Series 1: List 2 (25 subjects) Table 6. Group B, Series 2: List 1 (25 subjects) Table 7. List OnePercentage results for Group A, Series 1, and Group B, Series 2 Table 8. List TwoPercentage results for Group A, Series 2, and Group B, Series 1 Table 9. Shift in meaning: a1?A?a2 Table 10. Components of the signified 'Que dalle': Nothing Table 11. Comparable expressions and gestures: List One Table 12. Comparable expressions and gestures: List Two Table 13. Raw scores (n/N subjects) and percentage scores by cultural group Table 14. Positive role of facial expression Table 15. Contribution of facial expression for Hungarians and Japanese Table 16. Gestural subdivisions Table 17. Contrast between straight-line and curved movements Table 18. Nuances in straight-line and curved movements Table 19. Interpretation of photos of forefinger gestures Table 20. Verbal-spatial expression of time Table 21. Duration Table 22. Semantics of striking Table 23. Substitutions between head, hand, forefinger, and thumb Table 24. Types of relationship between functional signifiers

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FOREWORD During the last few decades, the interest of researchers, linguists, ethnologists, psychologists and semiologists has been increasingly drawn to the nonverbal aspects of communication, especially to gesture and facial expression. In fact, it would be more correct to say that their attention has returned to these subjects. As far back as the Greco-Roman period, rhetors were interested in coverbal gesturing. The great many manuals of declamation published from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries focused above all on gesture. Von Seckendorff's lectures, published in two volumes (Braunschweig, 1816) under the title Deklamation und Mimik, anticipate current research in that they deal with the relationship between gesture, facial expression, and speech. Cognitive theories of visual and vocal expression draw inspiration from Darwin's classic work The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, which presents a philogenetic and biological theory of emotive behavior. Even the electrophysiological analysis of facial muscles has a forerunner in the research of the Abbé Duchenne (Paris, 1862). It was only in the 1950s however that gesture and facial expression became the subject of numerous and varied analyses, both qualitative (functional) and quantitative. No aspect of visual communication has since escaped the attention of researchers. The spatial behavior of speakers, bodily posture and contact, the organization of face-to-face behavior, pointing, hand gestures, nods, gaze, and the facial expression of emotive attitudes, as well as sequences of body positions and the role of gesture in organizing discourse have all been analyzed under natural and experimental conditions in different social and ethnic groups. The distributional study of conventional gestures (through 1200 informants, by Morris et al. 1979) reveals the types of convergence and divergence. Methods for recording bodily movements, facial expression, and gazeand systems of notation for describing themhave become more and more detailed and sophisticated. A group of researchers in Berne (see Winkler, ed., 1981) has proposed and used a system in which the position and orientation of the head, hand, arm, torso, legs, and feet can be specified in the vertical and horizontal dimensions at given time intervals. This system distinguishes, for example, at least forty-one ways of touching a part of the body with the hand (without, however, being able to describe the forearm jerk').

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The evolution of gestural communication in infants, toddlers, and children, as well as their understanding of bodily expressions, have been the subject of a great many follow-up studies. Historical studies of gestures, based on verbal descriptions (in epic literature and chansons de geste) and illustrations (e.g., those in the Sachsenspieqel, an early thirteenth-century German manuscript which presents an exhaustive list of gestures associated with jurisprudence) open up a new diachronic dimension in the study of gestures (see De Jorio 1832, Reinach 1924, and Morris et al. 1979). There have also been studies, though very few, of the relationship between gestural and verbal communication, such as the parallel analysis of gesture, facial expression, and intonation which we owe to Dwight Bolinger (1986). One would like to ask historians of science the question 'How call this lull in nonverbal communication research between the end of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth century be explained? Is it due to some internal logic in the evolution of linguistics, or call this period of latency be related to more general social tendencies?' In light of the numerous and significant research results already obtained, it can rightly be asked what justifies my assertion that Geneviéve Calbris's book constitutes an original and very valuable contribution. This book encapsulates a four-volume, 1478-page dissertation, which I had the pleasure of supervising. Without any excessive reduction in the amount of information contained, it remains pleasantly readable. This is quite a feat and was possible only by exploiting the conventional and motivated nature of gestures, that is, the isomorphisim between gestural movements and the mental contents represented. Thus, the precise and systematic description of expressive bodily movements in the third chapter prepares and anticipates the semantic analysis of the contents expressed, which is the subject of the fourth chapter. This book is original on several grounds. It contains a systematic description of the gestures that accompany speech in contemporary French. Giving a precise description of the gestural signifiers, the author does not limit herself to an approximate description of their meaning. Instead, she delves deep into the realm of the signified, giving a detailed and convincing analysis of the semantic structure of the gestures analyzed. The book also incorporates experimental work in which films of conventional French gestures were shown to Hungarian and Japanese viewers. In this way, it was possible to quantify degrees of iconicity (or arbitrariness). Partial views of the same

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gestures were used to measure the importance of different parts of the body, or 'vehicles,' in transmitting the message. The strictly functional treatment, 'emic' in Pike's terminology (1967), of coverbal gestures constitutes in itself an original and important contribution. The book gives a comprehensive analysis of 'allo-gestures,' distinguishing between simple and complex gestures and between gestural homonymy and polysemy. It also deals with the question of multiple motivation. The author analyzes gestures in the framework of dynamic synchrony, and proposes challenging concepts such as 'gestural metaphors' and 'etymological gestures.' The coverbal nature of gesture is revealed not only on the physical level, but above all in the dialectic of verbal and gestural messages. The author points out the complementarity of the two types of message, and shows how a speaker's gestures can strengthen, nuance, or contradict what he or she says. Through an analysis of the typical semantic spheres of gesture, the author outlines the characteristics of gestural conceptualization. In doing so, she opens up a new perspective, that of a linguistic paleontology going back to preverbal communication in both its expression and its specific content. The identity between the spatial (contiguous) and temporal (sequential), and between the temporal and the causal, are distinctive features of a paleontological conceptualization also found in lexical and grammatical metaphors (Cassirer 1922). From this philogenetic perspective, it is interesting to see thataccording to the observations of Geneviéve Calbrisa gesture precedes its verbalization, reproducing in the span of a few seconds the millennial evolution of human communication. These observations will hopefully stimulate experiments and measurements to test such an important hypothesis. The author systematically introduces gestures in their co-textgesture, facial expression, and utterancein order to illustrate the multidimensional nature of verbal communication. It becomes clear that isolated analyses, visual or auditive, must henceforth give way to global analyses (see Cosnier et al., eds., 1987), even if one is interested only in a single aspect, such as intonation. The meaning of a given tonal curve may depend on the facial expression that accompanies it. Phoneticians are thus encouraged to back away at times from the laryngeal, pharyngeal, and oral cavities. Among other things, a multidimensional (i.e., acoustic and visual) analysis should make it possible to aesthetically interpret artistic use of gesture, facial expression, and voice, notably in drama.

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In short, readers can follow the author with confidence as she takes them, via gestural usage in Parisian circles, toward the heights of semiological theory. IVÁN FÓNAGY

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PREFACE The present study concerns coverbal gesturingthe set of expressive gestures and facial expressions that accompany or replace spoken language. This work is more semantic than pragmatic, addressing the signification of gestures more than their interactive role. It aims to establish the structural semantics of coverbal gesturing through a semiotic analysis of the French gestural system. To this end, gestures are studied from within (that is, in the way they work, in their symbolic mechanisms) rather than in their functions in interpersonal interaction. This study is original in its semiotic objective and its materialan extensive collection of utterances together with spontaneous gestures, collected by a native speaker in real-life situations. This study complements those heretofore performed on coverbal gesturing. It examines neither the segmentation and kinesic organization of discourse (rhythmic autosynchronizing and intersynchronizing gestures) nor the practical bodily aspects of interaction (interpersonal distance, posture, eye contact), for a number of authors have already studied these elements of the syntactic and interactive infrastructures, as much on the psychological level as on the sociological and cultural levels. ()n the semantic level, researchers have already compiled lists of culture-specific gestures that can substitute for speech (emblematic or quasi-linguistic gestures), and the role of substitution has already been distinguished from that of illustration (of configurations or movements) in the semantic function of such gestures. But no one had yet examined the full range of coverbal gestures to study the structure of their system of signification. Chapter 1 describes and gives results from a preliminary experimental study. French subjects were shown a film involving a limited number of French gestures that illustrate verbal clichés and may be substituted for them. A test was used to verify the comprehension of the gestures and facial expressions out of context; the results helped elucidate the signifying structure of the gestures. A second test, with foreigners, discussed in Chapter 2, demonstrates the conventionaland nonetheless analogicalnatureof coverbal gestures. The analysis of the subjects' errors yields valuable semiotic data, which are confirmed by the analysis of the French gestural system. How can we arrive at a complete inventory of French gestures? Physical classification (treated in Chapter 3) is the only way to conduct a relatively exhaustive study. Of itself, such a classification becomes physico-semantic to

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the extent that the physical movement carries a signifying intention. We find it necessary to distinguish gestures touching or brushing against the body (for which the localization of contact on the body is the most relevant feature) from detached gestures (those not directed at the body). Among detached gestures, linear or planar gestures are distinguished from curved ones, the relevant physical features being different for these two classes. Finally, the systematic search for signs uncovers the very important category of 'head gestures'signs constituted of various head movements, independent of facial expression. Samples of the outline of the resulting dictionaryarranged according to relevant physical featuresare given in appendixes, while the symbolic corollaries to these features are discussed within Chapter 3. Taking fully into account the physical characteristics of a gesture as well as its signification (which is indicated by the associated utterance), the physico-semantic classification can help us reconstruct the semiotic system of coverbal gesturing. Following this study of physical components, we consider (in Chapter 4) the semantic fields of the gestural signifier, that is, signifieds specifically illustrated or expressed bodily. Three particularly rich areas are presented as examples and are examined in detail: spatial representations of time, numerous abstract and stylized expressions of aggressiveness, and various contrasting pairs of judgmental notions, the signs of which seem to derive from the essential primitive expressions of well-being or discomfort. Having considered the physical and semantic sides of the gestural sign separately, we examine their relationship, ranging from the most obvious connections between the signifier and the signified to the least obvious. We begin, in Chapter 5, with the most clearly iconic representationmimic gesturesthe study of which nonetheless reveals many forms of abstraction. In Chapter 6, we will see that analogy, manifest in mimic gestures, remains in nonmimic gestures as well. It is in comparing the gestural variants (of body part, plane, axis, and so forth) which associate a signifier with a signified that one can unravel these multiple forms. Even though analysis reveals that a gestural sign is analogous, it nonetheless varies from one culture to another and may have several meanings within a given culture. The two principles explaining this polysemy are also used to explain the case of a dual analogical link. Motivation1 is then studied as a function of the information carried, that is, for gestural redun 1. The word 'motivation' is used in its semiotic and not psychological meaning. It designates the analogical link between the signifier and signified. i.e. between the physical manifestation of a sign and its signification.

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dancy as well as for gestural economy, in which a gesture simultaneously illustrates several signifieds. In Chapter 7, the motivation of refusal and its associated gestures are studied in an application of the principles set forth in the preceding chapter. Finally (in Chapter 8), having examined the signifying structure of coverbal gesturing, we consider gesture in relation to speechfirst with respect to the vocal sign (phono-gestural parallelism) and then as it relates to the verbal sign (in discourse or in language).

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank all those who collaborated in this workand whosenames appear in the text and notesfor their invaluable help.

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NOTATION The utterances corresponding to observed examples of coverbal gesturing are given in italics. An asterisk marks the position of the gesture in the utterance. There are several variants; * (simple gesture), ** (symmetric), *a (in a sagittal plane), *b (in a frontal plane), *r (repeated). Where helpful, the code follows the description of the gesture. The English translations preserve the order of the phrases and in particular the placement of the gesture in the logical structure of the utterance. Figurative expressions and colloquialisms in English are placed in quotation marks. Whenever there exists no English figurative expression literally equivalent to the original French, the latter is given in italics, and a translation is proposed in parentheses. Abbreviations coll. colloquial F full signifier FE facial expression Fr. French G gesture G Greek L. Latin L.L. Low or Late Latin lit. literally 0. Fr. Old French p partial signifier PS gesture a possible speech substitute Sd signified Sr signifier Sy gesture potentially symmetric

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I DETERMINING THE RELEVANT FEATURES OF A GESTURAL EXPRESSION AN INTRACULTURAL EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Goal and method The aim of this study (Calbris 1980) was to verify the understanding of complete French gestures (including facial expressions) out of context, and to study their signifying structure by determining the respective contributions of the gesture alone and of the facial expression. The physical expressions, out of context and without speech, were filmed by two cameras simultaneously. The first camera filmed the gesture alone (G); the second filmed the entire physical expression, including the face (FE:G) (Illustration 1, a and b). In the test, subjects are asked to associate the filmed image, partial or complete, with a signified from a list of utterances. The contribution of the facial expression can be deduced from the difference in responses given for the two images, i.e., FE:GG. To make the film, we selected several dynamic expressions with gestures involving various vehiclesthumb, thumb plus other digit(s), forefinger, fist, hand, etc.and situated at different levels of the body, from the waist, stomach, chest, shoulder, chin, mouth, nose or cheek, eye or temple, and forehead, to above the head. In all, thirty-four expressions were chosen (Table 1). How can one isolate, from the full signifier (F), the partial signifier (p) assumed relevant? For a physical expression involving movement at chest-level, camera #1 films only the chest, while camera #2 films the whole body. When the gesture occurs near the face, camera #1 takes the expression from the back (if G is on the side of the head, or goes from one side to the other) or three-quarters from behind (if G is in the middle of the face) in order to isolate the gesture from the facial expression.

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Table 1. Descriptions of filmed gestures and their corresponding clichés LIST ONE 1. FED UP

Hand traces line above head or in front of face. Ras le bol!

2. SMIRK

A smirk with raised eyebrows and half-closed lids. Faut se le farcir!What a pain!

3. THUMB TWIDDLE

[He twiddles his Hands crossed, thumbs turn one [Il se tourne les thumbs.]2 He loafs around the other pouces.] around all day.

I'm fed up!1

Il tout rien de la journée. 4. TEMPLE SCREW

Forefinger bores into temple.

Il est fou!

He's crazy!

Oh lá lá, il est gonflé!

My goodness, he's got quite a nerve!

6. FINGER PURSE

Hand pulled downward with the fingers clustered in a pyramid.

Il les avait à zéro!

He was scared stiff.

7. HAND TRAP SHUT

Fingers clapped once against

La ferme, hein! Shut up!

8. HAND TOSS

Hand throws an imaginary object over shoulder.

Qu'il aille se faire voir!

9. SIDEARM

Fist jabbed out perpendicular to stomach, with forearm parallel Et vlan! Dans le Wham! Right in the to body. baba! ass!

The hand, palm toward the 5. VERTICAL chest, is shaken up and down HAND SHAKE three times

10. THUMB- Thumb lightly rubs forefinger FINGER RUB and middle finger

He can get lost!

Hé, faut payer! Hey, pay up!

11. THUMBNAILTOOTH The thumbnail is flicked off an Que dalle! Pas Nothing! Not a red FLICKupper front tooth un sou! cent! The forefinger pulls down on 12. EYE PULL the lower eyelid

[Mon o eil!] Tiens! Je ne te crois pas.

[My eye!] C'mon, I don't believe you.

13. FINGER Forefinger pointing to side is UNDER NOSE slid under nose

[Pfuit. Sous le nez.] Trop tard! On l'a raté.

[Under the nose.] Too late. We missed it

14. LITTLE FINGER LISTEN

Little finger raised near ear, head tilted to listen

[C'est mon petit doigt qu me l'a [It's my little finger dit] that told me.] 'On' me l'a dit. A little bird told me

15. CHIN SCRAPE

Thumb scrapes forward three times under chin.

Na na na!

So there!

16. FINGER Raised forefinger touches OFF TEMPLE temple and 'pops' off it

J'ai une idée.

I have an idea.

17. THUMB UP

Comme ça! Chapeau!

Just like that! Well done!

Thumb raised at chest-level.

1 Approximate equivalents of attitude are given, without regard to the French imagery. 2The bracketed expressions, explicitly illustrated by the gestures and replaced in the experiments by more general utterances, are translated literally.

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Page 3 Table 1. Continued LIST TWO 1. CHEEK SHAVE

Backs of fingers scrape cheek several times. La barbe!

[The beard!] What a drag!

2. UPWARD GLANCE Eyes turned up.

Mon Dieu qu'il est bête!

My God he's stupid.

3. FOREHEAD KNOCK Fist knocks on forehead.

Têtu comme Stubborn as a une mule! mule!

4. PALM PLUCK

Thumb and forefinger pluck an imaginary hair out of opposite palm

[Il a un poil dans la main] [He has a hair Il est d'une in his hand.] paresse! He is so lazy!

5. HORNS

He's a cuckold Forefinger and middle finger raised in a 'V' (easily behind head. Il est cocu! deceived)

6. SHRUG

Shoulders raised, head turned left, smirk.

Crétin, va! You idiot!

7. PHALLIC FOREARM With clenched fist, right forearm jerks up JERK and is stopped by left hand.

Va te faire enculer! Fuck you!

8. FINGER SHAKE

Gare à toi, Watch out, Raised forefinger shaken forward and back petit! boy.

Flattened right hand chops diagonally 9. UPWARD upward twice, with the left hand stopping PALM CHOP the right forearm

Hé, on se tire?

10. CUPPED PALM FRONT In front of shoulder, cupped palm faces out. Ça...!

Let's get out of here, O.K.?

As for that...!

11. THUMBS Thumbs locked in armpits, fingers splayed, Me, I'm taking IN ARMPITS trunk leaning back. Moi, relax! it easy. 12. HAND WAVER

Fingers splayed and slightly curved; hand rotates back forth.

Coucicouça.

13. WAIST SLICE

Flattened hand, palm up, traces line from left [Ceinture!] [Belt!] to right in front of waist. Plus rien! None left!

So-so.

14. FINGER Fingers snapped while quickly lowering SNAP arm.

Zut...mince Rats.... Darn it alors! all!

15. TONGUE OUT Tongue stuck out.

Je t'ai eu!

16. FIST SHAKE

On a gagné!We won!

Fist shaken over head, big smile.

Got you there!

17. FINGER Thumb and forefinger joined in a ring, near CIRCLE the mouth. Délicieux! Delicious! Full views of filmed gestures corresponding to Lists One and Two of Table 1 are shown on pages 4-7. Certain movements are shown in complementary drawings by Zaü (for Calbris and Montredon 1986, by permission of CLE International)

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1.1 Fed Up

1.4 Temple Screw

1.2 Smirk

1.5 Vertical Hand Shake

1.3 Thumb Twiddle

(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 73)

1.6 Finger Purse (Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 96) 1.7 Hand Trap Shut

1.8 Hand Toss1.9 Sidearm Gut Punch(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 145)

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1.10 Thumb-Finger1.11 Thumbnail-Tooth Rub Flick

1.12 Eye Pull

1.13 Finger under Nose

(Zaü for C.& M. 1986: 102)

(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 101)

1.14 Little Finger Listen

1.15 Chin Scrape

(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 134)

1.16 Finger off Temple

1.17 Thumb Up

(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 16)

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2.1 Cheek Shave (Zaü for C. &M. 1986: 7) 2.2 Upward Glance

2.3 Forehead Knock (Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 58) 2.4 Palm Pluck

2.5 Horns

2.8 Finger Shake

2.6 Shrug

2.7 Phallic Forearm Jerk

2.9 Upward Palm Chop

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(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 75)


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2.10 Chopped Palm (Zaü for C. & M. 1986; 2.11 Thumbs in Front 132) Armpits

(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 82)

2.12 Hand Waver

(Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 19)

2.13 Waist Slice (Zaü for C. & M. 1986: 100) 2.14 Finger Snap

2.15 Tongue Out

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2.16 Fist Shake

2.17 Finger Circle


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Illustration I. Partial (a) and full (b) views of the emblem 'C'est mon petit doigt qui me l'a dit'

Test The common utterances listed below posed a methodological problem. Any logical person can associate by deduction the thumb-twiddle gesture with the utterance 'He twiddles his thumbs,' which describes it, without having to know its signification. To replace such descriptive utterances, equivalent ones are given which specify the signifier by attitude or situation (in italics): Commmon utterance

Equivalent utterance proposed

Il se tourne les pouces

Il ne fout rien de la journée

Il a un poil dans la main

Il est d'une paresse

Mon oeil!

incredulity: Tiens! . . .je ne te crois pas!

Pfuit, sous le nez!

failure: Trop tard: on l'a raté!

Ceinture!

going without: Plus rien!

C'est mon petit doigt qui me l'a dit.teasing a child: 'On' me 1'a dit!

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Of course, the subjects were informed that such substitutions had been made. I used the example of the thumb and forefinger pinching the lips to signify 'My lips are sealed' (Fr. Motus et bouche cousue; in this case, the utterance would have been replaced by a non-descriptive one such as 'Top secret.' The subjects were to choose one utterance for each filmed sequence. Since the complete list of 34 utterances was too long, it was divided in two. I separated closely related items such as Ras le bol! and La barbe! and tried to keep the same headings of signifieds in the same order to facilitate memorization (see Lists 1 and 2 in Table 1). In addition, it was not possible to show all of the partial and full views (68 in all) to a given subject. I therefore opted for two equivalent lists of utterances (Lists 1 and 2), two equivalent series of filmed physical expressions, each with a partial (p) and full (F) view, presented in random order, and two equivalent groups of subjects (Groups A and B). The distribution chosen, given in Table 2, eliminates factors that might skew the results (e.g., individual subject, order of lists, order of views). Each subject from Group A sees the full set of gestures, with as many partial views as full views but with a single view per gesture. The same holds for Group B subjects. In order to compare the partial and complete signifiers for a given attitudeeach signifier being seen by one groupit suffices to eliminate the influence of the group by performing the experiment with groups of roughly thirty subjects each. All of the subjects had to be French and to have lived in France (place of birth and of secondary school or university). These requirements were fulfilled with the generous help of the English language staff at the Centre de Linguistique Appliquée in Besançon who, during the summer of 1976, convinced their students to volunteer for a study on French gestures as part of the research of all ATP (Action Thématique Programmée) of the CNRS Table 2. Distribution of verbal and nonverbal items Group A (22 subjects)

Group B (25 subjects)

First Series:

Second series:

First Series: Second Series:

List 1

List 2

List 2

List 1

1/2 p views* 1/2 p views

1/2 p views 1/2 p views

1/2 F views

1/2 F views 1/2 F views

17

1/2 F views + 17 = 34 items

17

+ 17 = 34 items

* p : partial = gesture only; F : full = including facial expression

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(Centre National de Recherche Scientifique). Of the 47 French volunteers, divided into two groups (A and B) with 22 and 25 subjects respectively, 53% were students, 33%, teachers, and 14% from other professions. There were more men than women: 60% vs. 40%. While their ages ranged from 17 to 49, they were generally young: 84% were under 30, and the average age was 25 years. The majority of them came from the Paris area or Franche-Comté. To facilitate the statistical analysis the test was multiple choice, but in developing it we took into account the results of a previous test in which subjects were shown photographs of gestures and gave free answers. The subject has to associate an utterance to each filmed gesture. He has a list of seventeen sentences and is to check the one he thinks best corresponds to the gesture shown in partial or full view on film. For example, one expects the Group A subjects, seeing someone from the back draw a line over his head, to associate this isolated gesture (p) with the utterance Ras le bol! ('I'm fed up!'), just as do the Group B subjects who see the full, front view (F) of the gesture. The A subjects see the partial view in the first series (14th image), while the B subjects see the corresponding full view in the second series (29th image). The 16mm film is projected oil a large screen.2After each numbered image, the film is stopped to allow each of the 25 subjects present to check the box corresponding to the chosen utterance on his or her test sheet.

Results For each group, the raw results were recorded on a grid of gestural sequences vs. utterances. For each view, partial (pl) or full (F), the numbers of correct and incorrect answers are given in the corresponding box (Tables 3 and 4 for Group A, Tables 5 and 6 for Group B). The identification of filmed gestures was found to be clearly significant according to the X² test: p> 0.001. Next, the results from A and B were paired, and the percentage values were tabulated by list. Thus, for each gesture, we have the percentage of comprehension for the partial view and for the full view. See Tables 7 and 8 for the raw percentage results for Lists 1 and 2. The overall average recognition is quite good: 84%. The gestures assumed relevant proved to be in fact very relevant; they are necessary and 2. The film is 16mm black and white (10 minutes). filmed by François Luxureau and François Didio at the studio of the SERDDAV (Service d'Etude, de Réalisation et de Diffusion le Documents Audio-Visuels).

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Table 3. Group A, Series 1: List 1 (22 subjects)

* p: partial view (isolated gestures);l F: full veiw (gesture and facial expressions)

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Table 4 Group A, Series 2: List 2 (22 Subjects)

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Table 5. Group B, Series 1: List 2 (25 subjects)

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Table 6. Group B, Series 2: List 1 (25 subjects)

Page 15 Table 7. List One - Percentage results for Group A, Series 1 and Group B, Series 2.

Group A, Series 1, items 1-18 (22 subjects) Group B, Series 2, items 18-24 (24 subjects) *View repeated for reliability

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Table 8. List Two - Percentage results for Group A, Series 2 and Group B, Series 1.

Group A, Series 2, items 18-34 (22 subjects) Group B, Series 1, items 1-18 (25 subjects) *View repeated for reliability

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sufficient, since the same score is obtained for the isolated gestures and for the full face-and-body views: 83% and 85%. From this near equality between the scores for the relevant partial signifiers and for the full signifiers, must we conclude that the complementary signifiers of facial expression are insignificant? Not at all; we will show below that their positive and negative effects simply cancel each other out. Positive or negative role of the complementary facial signifier When the principal signifier is relevant, that is, recognized by two-thirds of the subjects (which is the case 94% of the time), the role of the complementary signifier may be null (44%), positive (25%) or negative (25%). In other words, for roughly half of the cases, it plays no role, while for the others it is as much negative (1/4 of the cases) as positive (1/4 of the cases). One can also say that when the principal signifier is relevant, it carries in half of the cases as much information as the full expression; a quarter of the time it carries less; a quarter of the time it is better perceived than the full expression because the other signifier, rather than being complementary, is superfluous and hinders the perception of the essential signifier. The complementary signifier plays a positive role when the gestural signifier has several meanings and the facial signifier destroys the polysemy by confirming one of the possible significations. For example, the UPWARD CHOP gesture ('Let's get out of here') was confused by some subjects with the PHALLIC FOREARM JERK when isolated, but the facial expression of calling confirmed the idea of a suggestion to leave. It should be noted that the facial signifier often eliminates the ambiguity of the gestural signifier simply by indicating whether the gesture should be interpreted in a positive manner (smiling face) or negative manner (unsmiling face or grimace). For example, the thumb and forefinger joined in a circle express both nothingness and 'delicious' perfection, the latter of which would be confirmed by adding a smiling face. The complementary signifier is more likely to play a negative role when the gestural signifier is particularly relevant and well interpreted: (1) A superfluous facial expression can modify the meaning of a gesture. For the gestural sign of fear, the FINGER PURSE, with 100% isolated recognition or the admiring THUMB UP gesture, also 100% recognized, the superposition of a superfluous exclamatory facial expression lowers the scores to 90% and 88% respectively, with the other subjects choosing the utterance Oh là là, il est gonflé! ('He's got quite a nerve!'). The addition of the exclamatory facial expression becomes synonymous in one case with 'there is reason

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to be afraid' and in the other case with 'that's worth taking your hat off to.' Hence 9% of the subjects chose, for the gesture of fear, the formulation 'He's got quite a nerve (in his place, I would have been scared stiff),' and for the gesture of admiration, 12% chose the same utterance, 'He's got quite a nerve (hats off to him).' (2) A mischievous face above the FINGER SHAKE (for 'Watch out, boy') led some subjects (12%) to select an attitude whose formulation recalls mischief: the roguish attitude Je t'ai eu! ('Got you there!'). But how, you may ask, is the gesture integrated into this new interpretation? As a supplementary explanation for the success, 'You should have paid attention; see how I got you!' (3) For 85% of the subjects, flicking the thumbnail off an upper front tooth and projecting it forward (THUMBNAIL FLICK) signifies that one has no money and consequently has not a bit to eat: Que dalle.! ('Nothing!'). But squinting and laughing eyes introduce a shade of amusement which led half of the subjects to choose the attitude of vengeful triumph Et vlan, dans le baba! ('Wham, right in the ass!') which is a possible extension of refusal, 'Not a red cent! You'll get nothingthat's what you deserve, so there!' Let us return to the previous cases. To the extent that the gestural signifier allows a very good identification, the complementary signifier becomes useless. It then serves to actualize the gestural signifier, and the added nuance sometimes turns a subject away from the essential meaning. What should be complementary becomes superfluous and leads to errors. This means, logically, that it is easier to get a consensus on the essential signification of a 'signifying' gesture than on its actualization by the facial expression. It also means that the emotional shading carried by the face sometimes overrides the essential signification carried by the gesture: mischief over warning, triumph over refusal (cases 2 and 3). Some subjects will be more attentive to the emotional form of the expression than to the information underlying it. However, their choice follows not from eliminating the element deemed less important, but from giving precedence to an element judged more important. This preference produces a new attitude which integrates the two elements in a different way. Consider again example 2, of mischievous warning. The importance placed on the facial expression (here a positive element) provokes an inversion of the positive and negative elements and hence a new signifying configuration in which pre-eminence is no longer given to the negative element carried by the gesture (warning), shaded by a positive attitude (mischief), but is given rather to the positive element of mischief with regard to someone who has failed to take the warning.

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What was the point of having introduced positive elements when the goal was to verify the identification of essentially negative expressions? A penchant for risk? Methodological refinement? No, the reason was psychological. If I eased several unpleasant attitudes by adding a positive touch, it was because I wanted as far as possible to present a pleasant face in order to compensate for the number of denigrating physical expressions which the subjects had to view. By their choices, certain subjects insisted on a logical point of view: the complementary signifier must serve to reinforce the meaning of the principal signifier, rather than actualizing it in a particular situation, which in any case is difficult to convey exhaustively. In other words, if the principal signifier indicates a negative attitude of threat, failure, or refusal, it is logical that the complementary signifier do the same or at least be consistent with the negative aspect of the attitude. In short, my error pointed out the significant structuring of gestural elements according to a 'psycho-logical' choice by the receiver. In summary, the complementary signifier plays a negative role if it carries a diversifying nuance, if it is in contradiction with the principal signifier, or if it generally supplements a different principal signifier. The facial expression of vengeful repartee superposed on the gesture of privation ('Nothing!') evokes vengeful refusal: '(Not a red cent) Wham! Right in the ass!' Errors due to the principal signifier These errors can be arranged under three headings distinguishing between those due to ambiguous signification, overly general signification, or partial decoding of the gesture. Here are two examples of ambiguous signification. (1) The fist knocks several times on the forehead to signify that it is difficult to get ideas in, either because the subject resists (Têtu comme une mule: 86%) or because he is stupid Mon Dieu, qu'il est bête: 14%). (2) When the nail of the forefinger touches the thumbnail to express the idea of precision or perfection worthy of admiration (Délicieux: 80% ), the fingers form a circle which is also used to express the idea of nothingness (Plus rien: 14%). Sometimes the gesture evokes a general notion whose interpretation depends on the situation imagined. For example, the gesture of the forefinger sliding under the nose depicts the seme passer sous le nez (lit. pass under nose = slip through fingers). The verb can be conjugated in the past or future, with a first, second, or third person pronoun qualifying the object. In the past, with a first person qualifier, it is the retelling of failure, 'Too late, it

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slipped through my fingers.' In the future with a second person qualifier, it becomes a refusal, 'You won't get anything; it will slip through your fingers,' and by extension a rude refusal, 'He can get lost.' Note that in parallel there is a reversal of role, one person's refusal being another person's failure. To illustrate the third heading, partial decoding of the principal signifier, we give examples of mismatches arising from features shared by two relevant signifiers. (1) The isolated UPWARD PALM CHOP ('Let's get out of here') was understood 20% of the subjects as 'Fuck you!' (PHALLIC FOREARM JERK). Indeed, both movements involve the left hand on the right forearm. (2) The FIST SHAKE over one's head in a sign of victory was interpreted by one subject as vulgar, 'Fucker!' It is true that in both gestures the forearm is raised and the hand makes a fist. Let us look at what differentiates the three gestures: the UPWARD PALM CHOP is distinguished from the FOREARM JERK b the hand being flat and in line with the forearm, while the FOREARM JERK is distinguished from the FIST SHAKE by the presence of the left hand on the forearm. With regard to errors arising from the complementary signifier, see the negative role of the facial expression discussed below. Errors due to the signified It must be remembered that the errors observed are limited to the utterances compared within each list of 17 items. Errors from the signified are most often noted for the entire expression, i.e., gesture and facial expression. An error is more revealing if it is also found for the partial signifier. Thus each of the physical expressions below, seen partially (p) or fully (F), was incorrectly associated (  ) by some subjects with the verbal expression opposite. Physical Expression

Verbal Expression

THUMB-FINGER RUB (p,F) Hé, faut payer! (Hey, pay up!)

® Que dalle! (Nothing!)

HAND TOSS (p,F) Qu'il aille se faire voir. (He can get lost.)


FINGER UNDER NOSE (p,F) On l'a raté. (We missed it.)


THUMBNAIL-TOOTH FLICK (p, F) Que dalle! (Nothing!)

® Et vlan! ( In your ass!)

CHIN SCRAPE (p,F) Na na na! (So there!)

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® Et vlan! (In your ass!)


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The mismatch is even more flagrant if it is reciprocal: VERTICAL HAND SHAKE Oh là là! UPWARD GLANCE Mon Dieu, qu'il est bête!

SMIRK « Faut se le farcir! SHRUG « Crétin, va!

The study of mismatches on the level of the signified leads to a certain classification. The proximity of two signifieds is related to various phenomena of equivalence, ambivalence, or a shift from one signified to another via a third which is more general and which includes the other two (a1®A®a2). Moreover, we observe the phenomenon of extension, that is, a shift between two signifieds within an imagined situation, often made possible by a cause and effect relationship. For example, 'I got you there!' because you are an idiot'. Here are illustrations of the various phenomena noted: EQUIVALENCE. The reciprocal mismatch between the two expressions Qu'il est bête ('He's so stupid') and Crétin ('Idiot') is indicated above. AMBIVALENCE a+ ¬A® a-. The fact that the VERTICAL HAND SHAKE gesture (Oh là là, il est gonflé'He's got quite a nerve': 74%) was understood in a negative manner (Faut se le farcir 'Whata pain': 21%) or in a positive manner (Chapeau!'Welldone!': 4%) is related to the ambivalence of this expression, an ambivalence which probably holds for all exclamations. The same mismatches occur, less frequently, for the full view. SHIFT THROUGH A MORE GENERAL INTERMEDIATE SIGNIFIED: a1®A®a2 Table 9 gives four examples: (1) The utterances Ras le bol! ('I'm fed up!') and Faut se le farcir! ('What a pain!') both express a feeling of annoyance, of saturation (cf. the FED UP gesture which evokes Faut se le farcir! for 9% of the subjects). (2) The utterances Qu'il aille se faire voir ('He can get lost': 72%), Que dalle ('Nothing': 9%), and Je ne te crois pas ('I don't believe you': 13%) have in common the idea of refusal. (3) Pretending to feel money by rubbing the thumb against the forefinger and middle finger evokes the idea of money that is required: Hé faut payer ('Hey, pay up!') or even refused: Que dalle, pas un sou ('Nothing! Not a red cent'). (4) If the teasing CHIN SCRAPE gesture for Na na na ('So there!') evokes the utterance Dans le baba ('In your ass!') for 18% of the subjects, it is because both utterances imply a triumph at someone's expense.

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Table 9. Shift in meaning: a1®A®a2 EXTENSION OF A SITUATION. The THUMB UP gesture corresponding to the signified 'Well done!' is associated with the item Oh là là, il est gonflé ('He's got quite a nerve'). The TONGUE OUT gesture signifying 'Got you there!' is associated with the item Crétin (idiot). The FINGER SHAKE, a sign of warning, 'Watch out, boy', is associated with the item Têtu (stubborn). These three mismatches suggest the following idea: to allow a shift between signifieds, the subject may imagine a particular situation which includes a paraphrase of or complement to the physical expression viewed, e.g., 'Well done, he's got quite a nerve,' 'Got you there, idiot,' 'Watch it. you stubborn brat.' The complement is often explanatory. Thus the word 'stubborn' explains the threat signified by the shaken forefinger, and the exclamation Oh là là, while reinforcing the admiration signified by the raised thumb, gives the reason for it. The subject places himself in a real situation in which the gestural information and verbal information complement one another. Here the gestural information is manifest and is complemented by verbal information (Chapter 8, Economy of information). DIVERSIFYING THE SITUATION BY CHANGING AN ACTOR. Suppose that a signified is synonymous with a particular action. This signified is maintained and at the same time varies according to the ways in which the action in question is performed (Chapter 6, 'Rather like an epidemic . . .'). The subject, object or moment of the action can change: ·Subject of the action: role reversal. Since the gesture is symbolic, I can mime an action as if it applied to me, my listener, or a third person not present. I cannot mime the actualization or the context of the action. For example, I would mime 'Slip under your nose' as 'Slip under my nose, sliding my finger under my own nose and not under my listener's! The same

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gesture expresses failure or the possibility of failure on the part of oneself or someone else. Thus we observe a certain number of role reversals. ·Object of the action. The clichés which accompany the gesture of rude refusal (HAND TOSS) such as qu'il aille se faire cuire un oeuf (lit.let him go have an egg cooked) or des clous (nails) or else ouais, à d'autres! (yeah, to others) involve different objects of refusal: refusing to do, qu'il aille se faire . . . , recognized by 72% of the subjects; refusing to give, or giving 'nails,' which is implicit in the choice of pas un sou ('not a red cent') by 9% of the subjects; and refusing to believe ('try someone else'), which 13% of the subjects made explicit by choosing the utterance of disbelief. Hence, with the same rudeness (HAND TOSS) one can refuse to do (72%) to give (9%) or to believe (13%). ·Tense of the action. (1) The same action 'slip under the nose' in the past tense (slipped under the nose) or future tense (will slip under the nose) corresponds to very different situations: failure, 'Too late. We missed it,' or refusal, '(You'll get nothing) Not a red cent.' (2) In the same way, 'screw' in the past tense gives 'Got you there (I screwed you),' and in the future, 'Fuck you(Goget screwed).' This explains how the PHALLIC FOREARM JERK evoked the utterance Je t'ai eu ('Got you there') for one subject. (3) We move without knowing it from threatening to doing, as when 12% of the subjects shift from the item Gare à toi ('Watch out') to Je t'ai eu! ('Got you there!'). In summary, the errors due to the signified can be explained by the phenomena of equivalence, ambivalence, or the mediation of a third signified that is either more general or shared. We also observe cases in which an attitude is extended to another within an imagined situation. Finally, certain mismatches can be explained by whatI would call a diversifying treatment of a signified. Semantic data deduced from mismatches Semantic components of a sign We can base our study of the components of a signified on the phenomena of convergence and dispersion. If elements are seen to converge toward a point, and if the same elements diverge from the same point, we are led to the conclusion that together the elements constitute this center of convergence and divergence; they are its components. Here is an example for the signified Que dalle! pas un sou! ('Nothing! Not a red cent!'). In Table 7, the spread in meaning from this signified appears on the horizontal line opposite the partial and total gestural signifiers, while the convergence appears in the column under the phrase Que dalle ('Nothing! Not a red cent!'). Below we give a list of sememes which can explain the situation (Table 10). They

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Page 24 Table 10: Components of the signified 'Que dalle': Nothing CONVERGENCE View shown ®

DISPERSION Signified chosen

View shown Signified ® chosen:

A. Qu'il aille se faire...

'Que dalle'

B. Hé, faut payer

'Que dalle'

C. Na na na

'Que dalle'

Que dalle

D. Raté

'Que dalle'

E. Et vlan

'Que dalle'

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Que dalle '

Qu'il aille se faire

: Common Sense : refusal

(a)

: money

(b)

Na na na'

: triumph

(c)

Que dalle

'Raté'

: failure

(d)

Que dalle

'Et vlan'


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sign of triumph, Na na na! ('So there!'). The signifieds of these two attitudes are similar, as are the signifiers: projecting the thumb out under the chin appears to be equivalent to sticking out one's tongue if we consider the aggressive version 'Bien fait pour toi' (You got what you deserved) in which a child pushes his thumb out once while sticking out his tongue. In addition, projecting the thumb out from under the chin (Na na na!) and flicking it off a toothpossible sign of vengeful refusal (Que dalle!)were both associated with the utterance of vengeful repartee (Et vlan!) signified by jabbing the fist out from the stomach. This means that vengeful repartee (Et vlan!) and refusal (Que dalle!) share the aspect of vengeance, while the repartee and the derisive attitude (Na na na!) both have a triumphant quality. One cannot help but see an analogy between these signifiers, all of which involve a projection, a sudden protrusion of some part of the body: the tongue (Je t'ai eu!), the thumb off a front tooth (Que dalle!), or from under the chin (Na na na!), and the fist out from the stomach (Et vlan!). One is all the more tempted to group these signifiers since the various mismatches reveal a common element on the level of the signifieds: the four utterances are manifestations of triumph over someone, whether it be vengeful refusal, a repartee that hits the mark, or a bet won. Does this mean that the sudden protrusion, evoking an erection, is a symbol of affirming oneself over someone else? Summarizing, the thirty-four physical expressions chosen were recognized out of context by 85.5% of the subjects. Their emblematic function is experimentally verified, as are the respective contributions of the gestural and facial signifiers. The isolated gesture is found to be highly relevant (recognized by 83% of the subjects), while the role of the facial expression is ambiguous. The observation of mismatches allowed both a microscopic and a macroscopic study of signs (components and hypersigns). Through these mismatches, we note that the gesturally indicated signified can vary, actualized differently according to the subject, object or tense of the action in question. This actualization leads to semantic derivatives (privation-failure-refusal). The mismatch analysis also uncovers the complementary role of gesture with respect to speech. While the test consists in finding the phrase 'synonymous' with a gesture, some subjects, by giving a verbal complement instead of an equivalent, seem to be placing themselves in real speaking situations. We have also learned that the pieces of information carried by the gestural and facial signifiers are not simply juxtaposed, independent entities. The combination, or signifying configuration, of the two changes according to the figure-ground relationship between them.

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II THE ICONIC AND CULTURAL NATURE OF GESTURE AN INTERCULTURAL EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Goal In order to verify the cultural nature of gesturing, the thirty-four French physical expressions (Table 1) were also presented to a small group of Hungarian students from Budapest3] (Calbris 1981) and a group of Japanese students from Tokyo.4 The general experimental procedure and the need for reformulating certain clichés were discussed in the previous chapter. Only the utterances differ here: each translator chose a verbal expression synonymous, or very nearly so, with the French signified. For example, the utterance: Il les avait à zéro! (lit. He had them at zero =. He was scared stiff) became in Hungarian Inàba szàllt a (Fear: He was very pale). For the bátorsága (lit. His courage went down into his legs) and in Japanese: translations and descriptions of the expressions in Lists 1 and 2, see Tables 11 and 12.

Comparison of results Table 13 gives an overview of the test results. The thirty-four-gestural expressions are presented in the order of decreasing scores by the French 3. In the Hungarian experiment Iván Fônagy, research director at the CNRS (Centre National de Recherche Scientifique), served as translator and adviser, and A. Szabolcsi researcher at the Institute of linguistics of the Hungarian Academy of Science, performed the experimentation in Hungary. 4. The Japanese experiment was run by Jacques Montredon (then pedagogical adviser to the French Cultural Services of Tokyo, Tsutomu Nakagawa (instructor at the Tokyo Foreign Language University who served as translator and experimenter, and Hideko Tsubota (interpreter and adviser).

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subjects. For each one, the raw scores are given, followed by the percentage scores, for the isolated gesture (p) and the full expression (F). The difference between cultures is clear: 85% correct identification by the French, 46% by the Hungarians, and only 29% by the Japanese. The drop in score is greater for the culture which differs more.

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France

Hungary

Japan

p

83%

34%

28%

F

85%

46.5%

29%


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The role of facial expression, weak when the gesture is already known (French: 85-83%) or when the culture is totally different (Japanese: 2928%), is relatively strong in the intermediate case (Hungarians: 46.5-34%). Certain facial expressions, shared with the French, seem to indicate to them the unknown attitude of the gesture. This observation, discussed in detail below, shows that facial expression is also conventional. Identification of certain gestures Gestural expressions identical with or highly similar to known gestures are well identified, on the condition that the familiar gestures have the same signification as those viewed. Among the gestures filmed, here are those familiar to the Hungarians: IDENTICAL GESTURES: boring the forefinger into the temple in an allusion to madness, 'He is crazy' (Item 1); tracing a line over the head or above the eyes with one's hand in a sign of exasperation, 'I've had it up to here' (12); the thumb rubbing the forefinger and middle finger as if to feel bills of money, 'Gotta pay' (15); lifting the forefinger and thumb, joined in a circle, off of pursed lips in a sign of avid admiration, 'Delicious' (20); raising the two forefingers behind the head to represent the horns carried by a husband whose wife has been unfaithful, 'He's a cuckold' (22); shaking the

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Document Page 33 Table 13. Raw scores (n / N subjects) and percentage scores by cultural group FRANCE Gesture 1 TEMPLE SCREW

2 HAND WAVER

3 CHEEK SHAVE

4 FIST SHAKE

5 THUMBS IN ARMPITS

6 FINGER OFF TEMPLE

7 FOREHEAD KNOCK

8 THUMB TWIDDLE

9 LITTLE FINGER LISTEN

10 UPWARD PALM CHOP

11 WAIST SLICE

12 FED UP

13 CUPPED PALM FRONT

14 FINGER SNAP

15 THUMB-FINGER RUB

16 PALM PLUCK

17 CHIN SCRAPE

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HUNGARY JAPAN

View* p

24/24 100 % 17/18 94 % 14/17 82 %

F [1.4]

22/22 100

15/15 100

12/18 67

p

24/25 96

5/18

28

11/17 65

F [2.12] 22/22 100

3/15

20

5/18

28

p

23/25 92

3/18

17

6/17

35

F [2.1]

22/22 100

10/15 67

1/18

5

p

23/25 92

6/18

7/17

41

33

F [2.16] 22/22 100

15/15 100

12/18 67

p

4/18

22

1/17

6

F [2.11] 22/22 100

7/15

47

1/18

5

p

13/15 87

11/18 61

F [1.16] 24/24 100

17/18 94

17/17 100

p

19/22 86

2/15

13

7/18

F [2.3]

25/25 100

5/18

28

13/17 76

p

18/22 81

13/15 87

1/18

5

F [1.3]

24/24 100

14/18 78

0/17

0

p

16/22 72

2/18

11

7/18

39

F [1.14] 24/24 100

4/15

27

11/17 65

p

18/25 72

0/18

0

0/17

0

F [2.9]

22/22 100

4/15

27

5/18

28

p

21/22 95

3/15

20

4/18

22

F [2.13] 24/25 96

5/18

28

3/17

18

P

20/22 90

13/15 87

2/18

11

F [1.1]

23/24 93

16/18 89

1/17

6

p

20/22 90

1/15

6

2/18

11

F [2.10] 24/25 96

2/18

11

0/17

0

p

19/22 86

7/15

47

12/18 67

F [2.14] 24/25 96

8/18

44

17/17 100

p

18/22 81

14/15 94

10/18 56

F [1.10] 23/24 96

14/18 78

9/17

53

p

22/25 88

0/18

0

1/17

6

F [2.4]

20/21 95

0/15

0

0/18

0

p

14/22 63

3/15

20

0/18

0

F [1.15] 22/24 92

4/18

22

1/17

6

23/25 92

20/22 90


39

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Document Page 34 FINGER PURSE

19 SIDEARM GUT PUNCH

20 FINGER CIRCLE

p

23/23 100

1/18 5

4/17

25

F[1.6]

20/22 90

3/15 20

4/18

22

p

21/24 88

3/18 17

8/17

47

F [1.9] 20/22 90

7/15 47

6/18

33

p

14/18 78

11/17 65

15/15 100

7/18

39

4/15 27

0/18

0

F [2.5] 22/25 88

16/18 90

2/17

12

p

15/15 100

6/18

33

F [2.8] 22/25 88

15/18 83

10/17 59

p

21/22 95

6/15 40

0/18

0

F [2.7] 22/25 88

9/18 50

4/17

24

p

4/15 27

1/18

5

F [1.17] 21/24 88

5/18 28

0/17

0

p

3/15 20

7/18

39

F [1.7] 21/24 88

9/18 50

6/17

35

p

17/24 74

0/18 0

0/17

0

F [1.5] 16/22 72

0/15 0

4/18

22

p

19/23 83

2/18 11

5/17

30

F[1.8]

16/22 72

0/15 0

5/18

28

p

8/25 32

5/18 28

4/17

24

F [2.15] 16/22 72

11/15 73

4/18

28

p

14/22 64

4/15 27

6/18

33

F [2.2] 13/25 52

8/18 45

4/17

24

p

22/24 92

10/18 55

6/17

35

F [1.2] 11/22 50

8/15 53

7/18

39

p

0/17 0

0/17

0

F[1.11] 10/22 45

8/15 53

0/18

0

p

9/24 38

1/18 5

1/17

6

F [1.13] 18/22 36

0/15 0

0/18

0

p

15/22 68

1/15 6

0/18

0

F [2.6] 8/25 32

1/18 5

0/17

0

20/25 80

F [2.17] 20/22 90 21 EYE PULL

p F [1.12] 20/22 90

22 HORNS

23 FINGER SHAKE

24 PHALLIC FOREARM JERK

25 THUMB UP

26 HAND TRAP SHUT

27 VERTICAL HAND SHAKE

28 HAND TOSS

29 TONGUE OUT

30 UPWARD GLANCE

31 SMIRK

32 THUMBNAIL-TOOTH FLICK

33 FINGER UNDER NOSE

34 SHRUG

AVERAGE

p

21/22 95

22/22 100

22/22 100

21/24 88

p

83 %

34 %

28 %

F

85 %

46.5 %

29 %

* p: partial view, F: full view. The gestures are listed in decreasing order of the score by the French subjects for the full view. The numbers of the corresponding photos are given in brackets.

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raised forefinger backward and forward in a sign of menacing warning, 'Watch it!' (23). HIGHLY SIMILAR GESTURES: raising the forefinger (synonym for 'attention') accompanied by a facial expression of happy surprise for a great idea, 'I have an idea' (6); snapping the fingers with a quick, diagonal downward movement of the arm when one becomes aware of failure or something forgotten, 'Rats!' (14). Among the expressions fairly well identified, three cases are observed. Here is an example of each: Item 8, 'He loafs around all day,' shows someone IDENTICAL GESTURE WITH FAIRLY SIMILAR SIGNIFICATION. twiddling his thumbs. The gesture can be a substitute for the cliché 'He twiddles his thumbs.' Hungarians have their own cliché, 'All day long, he sits with his hands in his lap,' but no gesture to illustrate it. At the same time, twiddling one's thumbs is for them a sign of impatience or idleness. Thus, since they did not see any utterance of impatience in the list proposed, they settled on the one that expressed idleness: 87% for the isolated gesture, 78% for the complete gesture. Consider Item 1, 'He's crazy.' While there are gestural ANALOGOUS GESTURE WITH IDENTICAL SIGNIFICATION. variants in French (tapping the temple or forehead with the forefinger, turning the hand near the temple), the gesture chosen as being the most typical was the forefinger boring against the temple. Among the thirtyfour gestures shown, this was the one best understood by the French: 100% recognition for both the partial and full views. The Japanese also have a gesture near the temple alluding to madness. Optional and a possible substitute for speech, it is used between children or by adults addressing children. The forefinger repeatedly traces a circle next to the temple; then the clustered fingers open abruptly outward. Both cultures have a gesture in which the forefinger turns against the temple, and association is possible: 82% recognition. The addition of a smirk in the full view hindered the Japanese (67% recognition). Since for them the gesture is performed between or toward children, we may imagine that the associated facial expression is more playful, teasing, or amused. Let us consider Item 6, 'I have an idea.' While in France the forefinger pops VARIANT PRACTICED BY A SUBGROUP. off the forehead, there exist in Japan three variants, each of which is associated with a specific group: (1) The right fist strikes the left palm (masculine gesture); (2) The hands are brought together and clasped (feminine gesture); (3) The fingers are snapped at head level and the arm is brought down diagonally (gesture

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performed by young people). The latter variant is the only one analogous with the French gesture, in the abrupt finger movement at head level. Moreover, practiced by Japanese youth, it is undoubtedly know by the subjects at the Foreign Language University of Tokyo. This would explain the 61% recognition score for the gesture shown from the back. The facial expression proved to have a positive influence and permitted 100% identification, an improvement of 39% This difference suggests that the variant chosen, as well as the two others, expresses the abruptness of discovery, That's it' (snapping of fingers; fist striking palm; hands clapped), more than the positive quality. carried by the facial expression of pleasant surprise. Mismatches The possible mismatches indicated by some of the French subjects were confirmed by the foreign subjects. At the level of the signified for example, the act of rubbing one's fingers evokes bills of money (for the French and Japanese), money either to be paid (81% and 56%) or money refused (9% and 33%). At the level of both the signifier and signified, the fist knocking several times on the forehead signifies for all three subject groups stubbornness or stupidity, and for the two foreign groups stupidity of another or of on or of oneself at the root of failure. This latter interpretation is absent among French subjects because they have a typical gesture to represent failurethe finger passing under the nosewhereas the Hungarians and Japanese do not. Why the possible confusion between stubbornness and stupidity? It can be explained on the level of the signified by) a lack of flexibility or open mindedness. It can also be explained on the motivational level. The head or forehead is the seat of both the will and the intelligence. The head is struck in one case in order to test its strength, its resistance, the stubbornness of the subject, and in the other case, because 'nothing gets in or because it is defective. The confusion can also be explained at the level of the signifier. In the finger sliding below the nose to illustrate the verbal cliché filer sous le nez, certain subjects see an indication of the level of saturation, the threshold of exasperation: I'm fed up.' Positive role of facial expression Facial expression, positive or negative, plays all even more positive role for foreign subjects whenever it lifts the ambiguity of an isolated gesture, or when it corroborates the information carried by the gesture Table 14). For example: Seen from the back, the fist raised and shaken in a sign of victory is understood by one French subject and by 'WE WON.' 28% of the Hungarian

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Page 37 Table 14. Role of facial expression FRANCEHUNGARYJAPAN Gesture Gesture+Face

92 % 100

33 % 100

41 % 67

On a gagné! We won ! Facial Expression

+8%

Gesture Gesture+Face

86 100

+67% 13 28

+26% 39 76

Têtu comme une mule Stubborn as a mule. Facial Expression

+ 14%

Gesture Gesture+Face

72 100

+15% 0 27

+37% 0 28

Hé, on se tire? Let's get out of here, O.K.? Facial expression

+28%

27%

28%

subjects as a vulgar insult, 'Fuck you.' 28% of the Japanese subjects saw it as a threat, 'Die.' Given the joyous facial expression, the French and Hungarians unanimously chose the utterance 'We won,' and the Japanese score improved by 26%. Seen three-quarters from the back, this gesture, which consists in knocking several times on the 'STUBBORN AS A MULE. forehead, is associated by all the subjects with stubbornness and stupidity. The Hungarians and Japanese also associate it with failure, doubtless caused by stupidity. Yet the tense facial expressionsquinting eyes, clenched teeth-which indicates some effort, is more appropriate to stubbornness than to stupidity. The utterance 'Stubborn' was chosen by 14% more of the French subjects, 15% more Japanese, and 37% more Hungarians. The isolated gesture of suggestion to depart is identified by 72% of the French subjects 'LET'S GET OUT OF HERE, O.K.?' (and confused by 20% of them with the PHALLIC FOREARM JERK). This gesture is totally unknown to the Hungarians (0%) and Japanese (0%). However, the facial expression, with a movement of the head and eyes to the side (towards the exit) is explicit enough to lead to unanimity among the French (from 72% to 100% recognition) and to increase the scores of the Hungarians and Japanese to 27% and 28%, respectively. Cultural nature of facial expression Some facial expressions well interpreted by the Hungarians allowed them to find the attitude without knowing the corresponding gesture. This

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Page 38 Table 15. Contribution of facial expression for Hungarians and Japanese Hungarians

Japanese

+30%

-14%

Squinting, laughing eyes

Et vlan!


Je t'ai eu!

+45

+4


Que dalle!

+53

0

Smirk

La barbe!

+50

-30

Smirk

La ferme!

+30

-4

mean that facial expression is also conventional. Some facial expressions shared by the French and Hungarian are not shared by the Japanese, or are not used in the same way Table 15). This seems to be the case for squinting, laughing eyes found in the physical expressions of vengeful repartee (SIDEARM GUT PUNCH), mischievous triumph (TONGUE OUT), and amused refusal (THUMBNAIL-TOOTH FLICK). Blinking, a self-protection reflex, is transferred to the psychological plane. The eyes are half-closed in anticipation of the shock to be received by the other (role reversal). They become a sign of vengeance or opposition to someone else. The laughing aspect introduces the positive nuance of triumph) or amusement. This is also true for the smirk of displeasure in the CHEEK SHAVE and HAND TRAP SHUT gestures recognized by the Hungarians but not by the Japanese, as signs of denigration or exasperation. Cultural and iconic nature of gesture A comparison of the identification scores for the three groups confirms the cultural influence. While the French language is foreign to both Hungarians and Japanese, the Hungarian subjects identified the gestures better. Of the thirty-four proposed, the Japanese knew only six. The Hungarians knew eleven, or nearly twice as many. Even some facial expressions have the same signification for them as for the French, such as laughing, squinting eves, and the smirk. Gestures are not arbitrary signs but are conventional and motivated (Fónagy 1956, 1961-62): conventional in that they are not understood by all, and motivated in that some of them can be guessed at. They are unanimously considered motivated since the interpretations given by foreigners can be explained either by an assimilation with a known sign or by a search for motivation. But simply finding one motivation (an analogical link) among several possible ones does not constitute a successful interpretation.

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Illustration 2. Ceinture! From Calbris 1987: 58, byZaü For example, drawing a transverse line at waist level to indicate privation ('Nothing left!'), based on the cliché Ceinture! (lit. belt) (Illustration 2), seems to be interpreted by the Hungarians either as a line in front of the stomach (expected association with privation), or as a line at mid-height (Közeprohadtul [moderately rotten], the translation of Couci-couça), or, in relation to the ground, as an indication a level not to be surpassed(aggravation: Unom a banánt [Enough bananas], translation of La barbe!). This same French gesture was associated by the Japanese with the gesture of hara-kiri, since it was interpreted as 'It's the end; there's no more' (equivalent to the expected utterance of privation, Plus rien!), and 'Die!' (vulgar insult equivalent to Va te faire enculer!). Through a classification of French gestures associated with speech, we will see that a given gesture can have several meanings and several motivations (Chapter 6, Plural motivation). The search for motivation, or for an assimilation with a known relationship between signifier and signified, resembles a lottery. However, gestures which illustrate clichés should logically be less well recognized, and this is in fact the case. Those that are based on a more universal motivation (nausea-disgust) or a common shared symbolism are more easily identifiable. As an example, for the French, Hungarians, and Japanese, all of the gestures referring to the brain (touching the

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skull, forehead, temple) evoke the following functions, performed well or poorly: memory or forgetting, intelligence-knowledgeidea, or stupidity. stubbornness, madness. Less linked to a cliché, less symbolic, less polyvalent, motivation seems to be all the more natural and transparent as it approaches depiction, or simple reproduction of movement. It seems all the more direct as it is narrowly linked with what is concrete. This is the case, for example, with the gesture of closing one's fingers in the form of a beak, depicting a jaw ('Shut up!') or with tile imitative gesture which mimes the use of an object by repeating a concrete action (reference to money). Motivation explains (a) the presence of gestures which are the same in two countries, and (b) the understanding of certain French gestures by Hungarians or Japanese despite the absence of an identical or analogous gesture. The conventional nature is evident in cases of misunderstanding in which a given gesture is associated with different meanings: the gesture of pulling down the skin below one's eyewhich in France is a sign of refusal or disbelief, 'My eye!'is for the Japanese an expression of childish derision, synonymous with the French Na na na!

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III PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF THE GESTURAL SIGN The analysis of the thirty-four gestural expressions based on the experimental film did not answer my question about signifying structure. To expose this structure, I had to arrive at a comprehension of the entire system of French gestures and facial expressions. However, given the wealth of the field, I limited my attention to gestures alone, more numerous and easier to identify than facial expressions, already studied by some. To allow the most exhaustive approach possible, the gestural classification is based on physical characteristics, or more precisely on the relevant physical feature linked with the signification, since the gesture is intended to signify. The corpus is composed of real examples observed in everyday situations, in a steady manner over several years with friends and relatives, colleagues, strangers on public transport or television, or confirmed by illustrations (generally taken from comic books). These latter have the advantage of presenting a direct association, widely attested to, between the drawn signifier and the written signified. Sociologists may reproach me for not having adopted a differential perspective that studies gesture according to the geographical origin, sociocultural milieu, age, and sex of the speaker, or the context of the statement. My goal was only to point out existing signs in order to study their signifying structure. I start from the premise that gestures performed by some but not others are nonetheless jointly understood. I have cleared the terrain by pointing out existing signs and their meaningthrough contrast with other signs-but not the manner in which they are used, though in a particular context this may influence the signification.

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Relevant physical features Type of movement and localization DISTINCTION BETWEEN STRAIGHT-LINE AND CURVED GESTURES. The features which prove to be relevant for gestures in straight lines or on planar surfaces are not relevant for gestures following curved lines or surfaces. For gestures of the first type, the distinctive elements are: · the bodily vehicle Lifted in a sagittal plane (i.e., in profile), the hand at head-level corresponds to an exclamation: the raised forefinger accompanies a declaration or a specification; the thumb signifies excellence; the thumb and forefinger perpendicular to one another depict a pistol or rifle. . . . and the plane in which it is held Lifted in a frontal plane, palm outward, the hand corresponds to an objection; the forefinger to a correction; the thumb to a request for a pause, Pouce! (lit. Thumb - 'Time out!'); the thumb and forefinger to the quantity 'two.' BODY PART

PLANE sagittal

frontal (palm out)

Hand

Exclamation

Objection

Forefinger

Declaration

Correction

Thumb

Excellence

'Time out!'

Thumb-forefinger

Rifle (shooting)

Quantity 'two'

· the directional axis carrying the intention Since the classification is physico-semantic, the forward/backward axis also covers the opposition outward/inward. Turning the palm (edge facing down) toward oneself and moving it forward situates an event in the near or distant future, while moving it sideways 'leaves aside.' The change in direction changes the signification of the gesture. . . . specified by the plane The hand, sliding forward in profile *a, indicates a goal to be attained, an objective (There is sure to be *a in the political perspective . . .), while with the palm facing inward *b, it pushes back the limit. (Why do you want me *b not to go further than General de Gaulle in nationalizing?) . . . or by the direction of the hand in a given plane

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A rapid downward movement of the hand in a vertical plane illustrates a separation, the cutting nature of something, a division in two (literally and figuratively) if the cutting-edge of the hand faces down, or a nosedive (literally and figuratively) if the ends of the fingers poke downward. · repetition When dropped, the edge of the hand cuts. Repeated in the same place, this movement illustrates chopping; if the hand moves to the side, it depicts slicing. One is also led to distinguish between (1) the same movement repeated, (2) an alternating movement, and (3) shaking. · symmetry The symmetric use of both hands, preferred for emphasis or harmony, becomes necessary for example to represent a comparison, a refusal of responsibility like Pontius Pilate 'washing his hands,' or a positive appraisal through applause. These four factors cease to be relevant for movements along curved lines or surfaces: · A horizontal circle is drawn indifferently with one finger, several fingers, the ends of all the fingers of one hand, or in a symmetric manner with the edges of both hands. The bodily vehicle is unimportant. · In drawing a circle in a plane, the hand changes direction: it moves up and down, backward and forward, outward and inward, or left and right. There is no directional axis. However, one can distinguish the progressive (clockwise) and regressive (counterclockwise) directions. · Since a circle is closed on itself; the repetition of the movement is in a sense without meaning. A sketch suffices: surpassing the half-circle point amounts to producing the entire circular signifier. In the same way, starting a second circle is equivalent to drawing two, or even more. · A cyclic phenomenon is signified by repeated circles with one hand or with two hands turning around one another. While not distinctive, the use of two hands allows nuances to be expressed. We shall see that the dichotomy between straight-line and curved movements which has been exposed in the physically relevant components of gestures will also be found on the symbolic level. DISTINCTION BETWEEN GESTURES ON THE BODY OR DETACHED. Whether they are linear or curved, gestures subdivide according as they touch or brush against (1) the speaker's body, (2) another's body, or (3) are executed

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Page 44 away from the body detached. In the first case, the body part localized predominates over the bodily vehicle used, its position, and its movement. For example, in alluding to being crazy, the only important element is the temple, about which the forefinger or all of the fingers move in a straight or curved line. The gestural variants are also found in the French verbal expressions. The forefinger taps the temple: Il est marteau (hammer), timbré (stamped), fêlé (cracked), or bores into it: Il est syphonné (siphoned), Il lui manque une vis (He's missing a screw). Or else the hand facing the temple sketches a circular movement: Ça ne tourne pas rond (lit. It's not turning round). The various body parts designated by gestures have been coded from top to bottom (Table 16). The lowest entry is the thighs, as if we were trunk speakers. Indeed, we note in mimicry a transfer from the lower to the upper body (Chapter 5, Transfer). Body segment: Theoretical issues DETERMINING THE RELEVANT BODY SEGMENT: ARM, HAND, OR FINGERS? Whether one 'throws up one's hands,' or raises one's fists in a sign of brotherhood in the struggle, or lifts one's arms in response to 'Stick 'em up!' or raises a hand or finger to vote, the arm is always lifted along with the finger, hand or fist. These gestures are placed in the category ARM since they involve the arm as a global functional unit. If attention is focused solely on the hand or if only the hand is involved, the gesture is placed in the category HAND. ARM

¬

All Part

®

HAND

¬

All Part

® DIGIT(S)

Consider two examples of ambiguous cases (Figure 1).5 Holding the palm vertically and advancing it slightly, fingers spread, may signify 'No' or 'Five.' In the former case, the gesture would be placed in the category HAND, in the latter, DIGITS.Closing the hand in a pyramid, with the fingers pointing up and touching at the tips, may accompany the utterances 'It's the essence of the phenomenon' or 'I have the impression that. . . .' In the former, the relevant element is the reduction by closing (thus HAND); in the latter, it is the fact that the fingers touch (thus DIGITS). The physical classification takes into account tile signifying physical char 5. The figures were drawn by Michel Calbris

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Figure 1- The relevant body segment is indicated by the corresponding utterance. acteristic indicated by the corresponding utterance. The attention to the relevant element as indicated above is tied to the signifying intention and hence to the motivation. SUBDIVIDING THE HAND: HAND A, B, C, D. Hand gestures are so varied that the hand has been subdivided according to whether it is (A) held flat, (B) closed around something, generally to mime actions with objects, (C) clenched in a fist, a sign of aggressiveness, or (D) opening or closing. In this last category are placed hand movements and configurations which are neither straight lines or planes nor curved lines or surfaces, whether this pertains to the physical nature of the gesture or to its metaphorical referent. This includes for example movements of opening or closing the hand, and the particular configuration for holding, taking, or seizing, literally or figuratively, i.e., with spread, curved fingers. The table summarizing gestural subdivisions (Table 16) shows that the code of the gestural vehicle (body segment performing the gesture) concerns only detached, straight line gestures. How can one identify the intentional movement of a spherical vehicle? I was not really able to observe head gestures HEAD. until I had noted their redundancy with hand gestures and clarified these latter. Indeed, the same forward movement of the chin can mean 'There,' 'Straight ahead,' 'Push,' 'Throw it away,' while these same significations would be specified by different configurations of the hand in its outward movement: palm upward for 'There,' lowered in profile for 'Straight ahead,' raised and turned outward for 'Push,' facing down with fingers projected outward for 'Throw it away.' In a sense, I had to hear and understand the signification and to know independently the link between the signified and the signifier manifested in the handin order to recognize the intentional movement of the head. For example, is lifting the head an allusion to a backward movement, an upward movement, or an outward movement? One can say that it refers backward if it accompanies a signification generally associated with a

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Table 16. Gestural subdivisions. TOWARD ONESELF Code of body parts localized by gestures 0 Face (all or part) 13 Mouth 26 Hand: digits 1 Skull 14 Lip(s) 27 Throat 2 Hair 15 Teeth 28 Chest 3 Forehead 16 Tongue 29 Heart 4 Temple 17 Chin 30 Thorax 5 Eyebrow(s) 18 Neck 31 Stomach 6 Eyelid(s) 19 Shoulder(s) 32 Waist 7 Eye(s) 20 Armpit(s) 33 Hip(s) 8 Under eye 21 Biceps 34 Abdomen 9 Nose 22 Elbow 35 Kidney(s) 10 Under nose 23 Forearm 36 Thighs 11 Ear(s) 24 Wrist(s) 12 Cheek(s) 25 Hand: palm TOWARD SOMEONE ELSE Straight-line gestures: /

DETACHED Curved gestures: )

Code of body part which performs gesture Arc One arm and two arms Repeated arc, with or without spatial translation Rotary movement Curved surface Circle

Hand(s), Hands A Hand(s), Hands B Hand(s), Hands C Hand(s), Hands D

Repeated circle, with or without spatial translation Circle about an axis

Digit 1, Digits 11 Digit 2, Digits 22

Curved movements performed by two body elements Digit 3 Digit 5 Digits 12, 122, 13, 23, 25 Digits 123, Digits 234 Digits 2345 Digits 12345 and Digits 123452 Head backward movement of the hand raised high: 'I haven't seen it for ages.' It refers upward if it accompanies a signification often indicated by one or two raised hands (in profile) at head level. In this case, the eyes are generally lifted skyward: 'Ah, if I only could!'

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To simplify, we consider the head as a sphere capable of executing rotary movement in a sagittal, frontal, or horizontal plane. The direction of movement and its intention are given by the projection of the curved line on the various axes. Consider the following example of gradation upward or downward in the sagittal plane. A difference of degree in the rotation corresponds to a change of axis and of intention. Considering Figure 2, we see that a difference of degree in the backward raising of the head expresses the opposition between the forward direction (smallest degree) and the backward direction (largest degree). The first degree of rotation (lifting) can accompany the utterance 'There, in front,' the second 'Above.' The third refers even higher, 'Ah, Lord!' and the fourth can imply a position situated far behind oneself or allude to the distant past: 'That's as old as the hills.' Inversely, still in the sagittal plane, the first degree of lowering designates the ground 'Here!' while the last indicates oneself 'Me!' Note that the head is not used only by default, i.e., not only when the hands are occupied. Often, it is preferred for expressing two significations at once. For example, it is common to lower the head, to press downward, in order to insist. Thus in the two previous utterances, the implied insistence 'Yes!' could be expressed by '(I said) Here!' and 'Me (damn it)!' Raising the head a given extent may correspond to various intentions, made explicit by the direction of the gesturer's gaze (Figure 3). (1) Gaze downward: to look at someone 'from above' or to eye a person from top to bottom. This is an expression of contempt. (2) Gaze far away: in order to see something better, to dominate, not someone but the situation. This expresses delayed understanding: 'Ah, I see!'

Figure 2 - Rotation of the head in profile: each degree of rotation (1-4) corresponds to a different axis.

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Figure 3 - The head raised a given extent corresponds to different motivations depending on the direction of gaze.

Figure 4 - A synthesis of two movements. (3) Gaze upward: to locate something above or to mimic upward movements. (4) Gaze skyward: to pray to the heavens or take them to witness something, generally negative: 'Ah, if I only could!' or 'If I had only known!' The movement can be the resultant of two others (Figure 4). An exclamatory rejection ('My God, he's stupid!' 'Ah, shut up!') is expressed by turning the head (refusal) upward (exclamation). Insistence (movement of downward pressure) on something negative (turning to the side), or marking disagreement at the exaggeration of another ('None too soon!) are expressed by an abrupt lateral drop, combining the two movements, downward and to the side.

A dictionary of gestures arranged according to relevant physical features Some samples are given in the appendixes. The classification follows the initial major distinction between straight-line and curved gestures. The first sample is thus an outline of circular movements, whose principal subdivi-

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sions, both physical and motivational, are found in Table 16. The distinguishing features of direction, plane, repetition, and symmetry, while fundamental for straight-line movements, constitute here only subheadings, and appear only in certain cases (Appendix 1). The second sample, on straight-line movements based on a given body segment, shows the subdivisions according to the relevant physical features indicated above: one or two hands, in a particular configuration, in a single or repeated movement, along a particular signifying direction further specified by a plane and the position of the body part in that plane. For example, the hand performs a straight-line movement (/). It is held flat or bent with the fingers perpendicular to the metacarpus (A), closed over something (B), clenched in a fist (C), or opening or closing (D). It is directed toward oneself (1), toward someone else (2), or it executes a detached movement (3). The movement (toward oneself) is repeated (1.1) or single (1.2). The onehanded gestures (or optionally two-handed) precede those which are necessarily symmetric. While imposing, the outline (Appendix 2) presents only those gestures detached from the body and in straight lines, performed with one hand, held flat, followed by two-handed gestures of the same type. The following remarks should facilitate the reading. Consider a gesture in which the hand does not touch or brush against either the speaker or another person. It is flat (A), possibly bent but not cupped; it executes away from the body (A-3) a repeated (A-3.1) or single (A-3.2) movement in a straight line (A3.2/). The physical variants to which semantic nuances correspond are numbered: /1,/2, /3. The hand illustrates straight lines or planar surfaces along various axes: up-down, forward-backward, right-left, transverse. Since the movements are corollary to signifying intentions, we will distinguish those that aim forward or outward from those that imply a backward movement or introversion. We thus introduce a new axis, outward-inward which physically merges with the forward-backward axis. The subdivisions depend on the type of movement. For example, compound movements (i.e., simultaneously up and back) are distinguished from simple movements (up), which are themselves divided into stopped, continuous, or stepped (Hand(s) A3.2/1.1). The divisions are also based on the configuration of the hand in a horizontal plane (prone or supine), or in a vertical plane (sagittal or frontal), e.g., /12.1, /12.2. When the physical subdivision is no longer relevant, we resort to a classification based on the underlying motivation (cf. subdivision of various downward gestures, Hand(s) A-3.2/2). In this case, the differences on the level of

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the signification are generally linked to more or less subtle gestural modifications. When the gesture is strictly the same but polysemous, we resort to a semantic subdivision (Hand(s) A-3.2/1.2.2.2 or /12. 1.1). Movements in which the body is touched are not subject to the primary distinction of straight-line vs. curved. The relevant feature is the part of the body touched (see Appendix 3). The head does not touch or brush against one's own body (1), nor another's (2). And with good reason. Therefore only detached movements are considered (3). The head can move in a straight or curved line. For example, it can be raised either by stretching the neck or by a rotation in a sagittal plane. Since the difference between these two movements is physical and not representative, the differentiation coded as '/' and ')' disappears in favor of a unique '-', a code also used under the headings ARMS and HAND(S)-D. In the following summary, movements specific to the head are listed first, followed by those which can be replaced by an analogous movement either of the hand, the forefinger, or the thumb. For example, under the heading of the lateral head-shake, listed first are the movements corollary to the utterances A se taper la tête contre les murs (lit. to knock one's head against the walls = It's enough to drive you up the wall), Ne plus savoir où donner de la tête (lit. Not to know where to give with one's head = Not to know which way to turn). These are followed by the sign of negation, which can be expressed by a lateral shaking of the head, of the out-turned palm, or of the raised forefinger (Appendix 4). Examples of circular gestures: 3)5 in Appendix 1 The gestures placed under this heading are motivated by the real or symbolic image of a circle. Recall that the signifier can be reduced to the sketch of a circle, i.e., an arc, provided that it exceeds half a circle. The circular shape may be represented either statically or dynamically (Figure 5: 1-5): · Statically, by two elements joined in a circle: the thumb and forefinger or middle finger, if the object is small (*1), or the two rounded hands facing each other if the object is considered large (*2). · Dynamically, by drawing a circle with the forefinger or the hand. However, the contour of a very small object can evidently be drawn only with the forefinger. For a horizontal circle, the direction the fingers are pointingdown (*3) or up (*4)proves relevant. The circular movement is reproduced by the forefinger or the hand, or else by both hands if it is a

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Figure 5-Static or dynamic representation of a circular configuration. question of surrounding or enclosing: with the hands roughly facing each other, the edges symmetrically trace a horizontal circle (*5). Within the subheadings for the different planes in which the movement can be executed, the gestures are further subdivided according to whether they signify a shape (.1), a movement (.2), or a symbol (.3). Fingers pointing down: (1) This shape can be a disk, a traffic circle, a round table, etc. The HORIZONTAL PLANE significations are numerous. The gestural signifiers present static and dynamic variants: We can't *1 analyze through the little end of the telescope.*2 We have a close-up which is not uninterestingDo you mean you're ready *3 to sit down at the conference table ( = for a round-table discussion)?(.2) Yes, *3 so the turntable will start.People were talking about it *3 all around BolognaAll women *5 are surrounded by a pack of men who eye them closely, who take possession of them.(.3) To the extent that the movement encircles something, it may refer to the zone (from G. zônê: belt) thus enclosed, and hence for example a cliquish group. The word cercle has among its meanings 'the company surrounding or associated with a person,' i.e., the circle of bystanders or close friends. It separates within from without and generally illustrates the internal character of something: Possibly, *3 if each one of us . . .What was said *3 this evening (i.e., between us). Fingers pointing up: The notion of totality (see )3.2.2) can be expressed by evoking a sphere in various ways. Among them are the horizontal circle, a sphere's projection on the plane, drawn with the raised forefinger: *4 For everyone.Because we will not yet have taken *4 general, structural measures. Note that the abstract meaning of a circle (totality) would appear to be specified by the upward-pointing forefinger, while the downward direction is reserved for the various concrete meanings indicated in )5. 1. 1. VERTICAL PLANE: SAGITTAL *a OR FRONTAL *b (.1) The gesture can evoke any circular object normally represented as upright, from wheels and hoops to halos and auras: He has *a some kind of weak negative aura. The

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squinting which accompanies the gesture might be an expression of both the difficulty in perceiving 'some kind of weak' aura and protection against its negative aspect.(.2) The gesture illustrates movement around or within something, e.g., the movement of hands on a clock when referring to someone who has slept 'around the clock,' the movement of a car flipping over, the movement of satellites: To think that there are*a satellites which inspect the whole world, or the movement within something: I hoped *a to circulate somewhat within the training programA contract is all the more integrated *b into company operation if . . . ,while the hand drawing a circle appears to incorporate the project into an already moving whole.(.3) Drawing or sketching a loop in a vertical plane call symbolically represent an intermediary, the indirect link between two things, mediation (I got the news *b through X), transmission of a tool or an idea (He is glad *a to pass the tools of his trade on to his son.There was a mechanism, *a finally a very legitimate reason to bring in. . .). This gesture is also representative of repetition: They do not need * different training. (.1) The small circumference formed by the thumb and forefinger or thumb and middle finger joined ARBITRARY PLANE in a circle at the tips * may represent the circumference of a ring or ping-pong ball, the size of a hole in a piece of clothing, the size of a bruise, etc.: We had the impression * of watching through a keyhole.-That is, bring young men into * these cores (of political activity).(.3) The gesture may depict the numeral (): Zéro pointé, *je me suis ramassé une bulle (lit.I picked up a bubble), a student might say, on receiving a grade of zero. The ring call be formed either with the thumb and middle finger, or with the thumb and forefinger illustrating a monocle in front of the eye. Since the eye can symbolize the anus, this sign probably means that the individual in question is nothing more than an 'asshole.' In fact, the ring formed by the thumb and forefinger, generally in a frontal plane, may represent either '0,' synonym of nothingness, or a circle, symbol of perfection (A stunning woman, *very, very beautiful, taking a shower). In the latter case, the gesture can be performed symmetrically with both hands ** for greater admirative emphasis. In reference to the Marx Brothers' movie Duck Soup. Wonderful, the mirror image broken up into two, then three, ** that is perfection. When applied to food, the gesture is most often performed near the face or in front of the lips and is synonymous with 'Delicious!' As an expression of quality, it is found in advertisements for certain consumer products. Presented during an intercultural test (Chapter 2), the gesture performed at shoulder height with a facial expression of delight was well recognized as a sign of avid praise: 'Delicious!' (see Table 13).

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Page 53 FINGER CIRCLE 'Delicious'

France p 80% F 90

Hungary 78% 100

Japan 65% 39

The gesture is identified by all, which confirms that the circle is a very generally accepted symbol of perfection (Chapter 3, Visual symbolism of the circle). The sudden widening of the eyes in a sign of exclamation was probably seen as negative by the Japanese, hence incompatible (39%) with the gesture itself interpreted as positive (65%). The isolated gesture is not unanimously recognized by the French (80%) since 16% of them associated it with the item 'Nothing left!' This corroborates the preceding discussion of the ambiguity of the FINGER CIRCLE. Examples of lowering the vertically held hand: A-3.2/2.3in Appendix 2 Since there are numerous ways of performing this gesture, the subdivisions take into account the underlying analogies and are thus semantico-physical. The raised hand, dropped in profile *, expresses the link between the heavens and the earth LINK FROM HIGH TO LOW. (You have to be a bit of a medium *, sometimes it just comes over you), or between generations (I'm studying them all over the earth and * in their filiation). With the fingers pointed to the ground, the hand pokes downward *: And then, I dived * under cover. A woman DROP. speaks of her aged, depressive mother: There's nothing we can do. She * (=is letting herself sink).The edge of the hand chops downward in a sagittal plane * to illustrate a devastating blow: They [horses] had * to be killed. Talking of current affairs: In any case, * she cut into you at a brutal pace.Palm(s)facing oneself, thumb(s) up, one * or two ** hands are dropped in a frontal plane. By this movement alluding to the fall (of the veil) of night, someone may ask for lights down in a room: ** Can we darken the room a little? Today your profession * is completely masked by these mistakes, comments a journalist. Comparing the various gestures associated with the notion of dividing or cutting, one finds a DIVISION. BREAK. CUT. modification of the gestural signifier parallel to the modification of the signified. A partition is depicted by lowering the palm in a sagittal *a or frontal *b plane (with one * or two ** hands): *a He'd knock on the walls.It's really*b boxed in, there are places where the*b cliff really drops straight down.We don't have the same education, *b there's a wall between us.**b Curtain! We find the same variants for the notion of rupture: I would prefer not to have the dichotomy *a assumed between. . . .We risk **b

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breaking off the contract. This can also be expressed by a transverse movement, tracing the cutting edge: It's a room that has been cut *c in two. As an interesting new variant, dropping the edge of the hands illustrates the trenchant nature of something (And that, **b that was characteristic) or someone (He is still **a very severe, **a very strict). The gesture can be doubled in the sagittal plane as well as the frontal plane. Indeed, the cutting gesture evokes the clear, rigid nature of something or someone and, when the two hands are lowered with palms facing, refers to anything well defined, structured, framed. One could say that the tense vertical hand position corresponds to stiffness, dropping the edge of the hand corresponds to a cutting nature, and channeling or limiting with both hands corresponds to a high degree of structure. This may be depicted by the palm which, when lowered, opposes forward movement, symbolically represented OBSTACLE. as toward the front *b or to the right *a, the direction in which we write: It is therefore necessary to know *a against what barriers, what obstacles, the majority. . . .*b I find it extremely frustrating to. . . . Comparing the gestural variants associated with each of the following significations, we find that the same gesture, *a for example, can have three motivations (Chapter 6, Plural motivation). It evokes either a partition (a vertical surface depicted by the lowered vertical palm), a break (that of a horizontal surface vertically cut by the edge of the hand), or an obstacle (a wall lowered against some progression). Examples of tipping the head to the side: 3.2-8.2.2 in Appendix 4 (1) The movement can portray a physical deformation or reproduce the oblique line of lopsided headgear. (2) Holding the head in a lateral tilt, or head-cock, is a sign of tenderness, arising from fondness or from a desire to be touching. As is often the case, there is the possibility of role reversal. Thus one might see two people talking, heads cocked: one asking, the other sympathetic; one imploring, the other compassionate; one seducing, the other seduced. Here are some examples: a friend asking what's wrong or trying to cheer you up; a vendor in front of his boutique listening to a client with business-like indulgence; a child trying to wheedle his mother for pocket money; a man suddenly moved by his wife's fatigue. As many cocked heads as there are sources of tenderness or desires for it. This fairly common physical expression is verbally expressed in French: Airs penchés, affected plaintive attitude, etc., to attract attention (end 18th cent.). From the start, the expression indicates 'a tender and melancholic

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look' and comes to be ironic. The cocked head (often accompanied by eye movements) is an acknowledged bodily expression of sentimentality. The verbal expression is related to several biblical texts in which the tilted, curved head is a sign of hypocritical devotion (e.g., Isaiah 58: 5-6). (Rey and (Chantreau 1976: 16) Concerning the last explanation, I think there is confusion between the lateral head tilt and a forward tilt which is a sign of submission or meditation before one's god. For Morris, the lateral head tilt is a relic gesture: an example of infant behavior carried over into adulthood. The Head Cock action is a Relic Gesture stemming from the juvenile movement of laying the head against the parent's body, when seeking comfort or rest, or during tender moments of body-contact loving. In the adult, relic version, the head is no longer directed towards the companion's body, but the cocking movement itself is sufficiently evocative to arouse protective feelings. (Morris 1977: 48) Montagner (1978: 282) cites chains of binding and reassuring actions between children: 'crouch downsmileoffertilt head sideways; crouchlightly touch the armtalk while pointing to something or someonetilt head sideways, etc.' The author notes that similar sequences are observed between adults 'when they are involved in an exchange which should lead to a privileged relationship (courtship, business deals, friendships, first meetings, etc.).' He remarks, 'E. Noirot, of the University of Brussels, has observed that among Brussels students, the frequency of lateral head tilting was much higher between a boy and a girl faceto-face than between two boys or two girls in the same situation (private communication). Here are two real-life examples in which the lateral tilt seems to correspond to asking to be excused and at the same time wanting to introduce a qualification, another way of seeing things (see below). On a television news program dealing with in vitro fertilization, a journalist who specializes in medical issues announces: Next, there will be cell division. The doctor interrupts: * No, not right away, tilting his head to the side in apology for correcting her and implying 'not exactly.' A writer does the same to correct the TV host who states that there are a lot of French characters in his novel: * They are mostly English. (3) The lateral tilt of the head that illustrates the expression 'To look at from a certain angle' is found in numerous situations, all of which come down to indicating a particular point of view. It may be a personal point of view, one's own (And that's the meaning, * it seems to me, of their choice of

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François Mitterrand) or someone else's (He crowned his sister who was the most virtuous, * according to him). It may be only one point of view; the gesture becomes restrictive (Yes, * well that depends how.A subtle difference, * but a big one). It may be a point of view as yet unconsidered. Here, the gesture represents the aspect of the unexpected and becomes synonymous with the expression of surprise 'Ah, I hadn't thought of that.' Yes * that's kind of funny, someone comments, quickly leaning his head to the side as if to consider the thing. It may be a possible point of view, a way of looking at the question. The gesture represents contingency, hypothesis, test: * Why not? Finally, the head movement may have as a verbal equivalent, 'You might look at it that way, if you like,' close to the notion of mediocrity or skepticism. One often sees people tilt their heads to the side to answer * All right to the ritual question 'How are you?' The movement implies 'So-so.' (4) The lateral tilt of the head accompanies utterances like: * Be careful.*Watch out. It is generally supplemented by an equivalent threatening or warning movement of the hand or of the forefinger. Given this parallel obliquity of the head and hand, one is tempted to see the head movement as a substitute for the threatening gesture of the hand, derived from the slap. Note, however, that one avoids a slap by tossing one's head to the side. The motivation of the movement is perhaps in this dodge. Moreover, a person who is on his guard tries to see his situation 'from all angles,' to choose his angle of attack just like a boxer who 'looks for a hole' while dodging and ducking his head. Finally, the 'sidelong glance' is associated with hypocrisy, the regard par en dessous (lit. gaze from underneath = shifty) with deceitfulness. Such gazes, which arouse suspicion, involve a diagonal lowering of the head. These motivations are not mutually exclusive and can be superposed. This movement is a way of marking or insisting on something negative. (1) It can ABRUPT LATERAL LOWERING *. express the speaker's disagreement with another person's exaggeration: Listen, I told him, I'd like to understand * but don't exaggerate. During a debate, one of the participants, intent on showing that another speaker is going too far in his stubbornness, tips his head twice to the left, at first gazing upward as if to call heaven to witness, then letting out a prolonged sigh to demonstrate how tiring the person in question is. (2) The gesture can accompany a statement of the obvious with a negative connotation: * All the same, I should have known! Since insistence is expressed by a movement of downward pressure and something negative by a lateral turning away of the head, the gesture of lateral lowering is apparently the resultant of these two (Figure 4).

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Symbolic corollaries to relevant physical features On the symbolic level, we find the same distinctions as on the physical level: the dichotomy between straight-line and curved movements, hence the particularity of the circle, the functional particularity of gestures toward one's own body, the specificity of signifieds attached to a particular body part in cases of substitution, the significations linked with a given direction. Lastly, the two relevant features of repetition and symmetry combine in symbolically rich alternating movements. Symbolism of straight-line and curved movements Opposition Linear movements represent what is straight, and therefore rigid, frank, and honestwhat follows directly, and hence is deemed predictable, assured, and certainwhat is delimited or framed, thus structured or organizedwhat is cut up and separated, thereby classified and orderedwhat is detached into isolated units, hence detailed or analyzed. We shall see that each of these straight or planar depictions is paired with a curved one that evokes the opposite signified (Table 17). While the shortest path from one point to another is a straight line, there is a variety of other paths; the DIRECT/INDIRECT. curved variants are numerous. The vertical line, depicted by lowering the edge of the hand, represents the cutting, breaking, sharp, or rigid nature of someone or something, e.g., the 'straight,' inflexible nature of someone, or the clarity of a phenomenon. The transverse line traced by the horizontal palm expresses 'directness': 1. someone's moral directness or frankness; 2. what follows directly, i.e., a temporal or logical consequence; 3. determinism; 4. certainty. True to his course, an inflexible man forges straight ahead, at the risk of running into an obstacle. The clever man goes around it. Rather than dangerously going straight to the point, the shrewd person advances with serpentine prudence. The timorous person will wind his way around and will prefer to use an intermediary, and drawing a loop * represents the intermediary, the means, mediation: I got some news * through Louis.. . . , that is, * how education is mediated. PERMANENCE/INSTABILITY. EVOLUTION. with an intermittent, transitive, vari-

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A continual, lasting, permanent, constant, stable nature is contrasted


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Table 17 - Contrast between straight-line and curved movements

able, changing, unstable nature. The former is expressed by a horizontal planar surface *1, the latter by a wavering movement from one side to the other of this horizontal plane, drawing a kind of undulating surface *2. A clergyman contrasts the two notional movements in speaking of celebrations that attest to something *1 perfectly lasting *2 whatever the vicissitudes. As regards undulation, the moment of 'wavering' depicted by alternately wiggling the fingers up and down contrasts with the quick decision, made on the spot. Immutable stability is contrasted with evolution (from L. volvere, to roll): reproducing the etymology of the word, the hand moves in one or more vertical loops, thus defining the sequence of transformations in a given direction. The whole, represented as spherical, is cut into pieces when detailed. In the same sentence, a teacher ELEMENT/WHOLE. contrasts a semicircle in a frontal plane, sketchily portraying a globe *1, with a slicing action by the

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edge of the sagittally held hand *2 to expose something *1 globally, *2 not in detail of course. An element is contrasted with the whole. the individual with the collective, the particular with the general. The representation shows several variants: a horizontal circle drawn in the air with the raised forefinger (* For everybody) or symmetrically with cupped palms facing each other (*It's a collective responsibility); a hemisphere (A memorandum I wrote up * which is too general) drawn symmetrically (At election time, * everybody proposes miracles); a sphere sculpted symmetrically from top to bottom by the two cupped palms (And * this whole thing, this editorial council). The hemisphere, the most common variant, seems to be only the sketch of a sphere since it illustrates the same notions. There are specific distinctions however. The sphere better illustrates the concept of a 'unit,' of compactness: Today, all of that * is a block, a compact mass. As for the circle, it better renders the idea of enclosure at the same time as totality: He lives in a * completely closed universe. The gestural contrast is parallel to the semantic contrast since to 'analyze' is, etymologically, 'to ANALYSIS/SYNTHESIS. de-compose,' and to 'synthesize' is to 'combine and bring together.' However, the distinction is no longer maintained when speaking explicitly of reasoning. While deductive or analytic reasoning is contrasted with inductive, I have not seen any contrasting gestural representation, to the extent that reasoning, of whatever type, is associated with the progression of thought, with an interior process, and hence is depicted by an inward-moving sequence of vertical loops. Intuition is related to inspiration and imagination or associated with 'flair,' with 'having a nose for,' by touching the nose *: Some doctors are good, * they have flair (pif: Fr. slang for 'nose'), instinct. Repeatedly chopping while moving the hand sideways depicts RANKING. ORGANIZATION/CONFUSION. CHAOS. the separation into a series, the division of time, or classification: It's a French fault to want to * catalog people. Both hands are needed to delimit, to frame. Lowered in parallel sagittal planes, the hands give a concrete representation of the notions of delimitation (. .. to the extent that the famine was * limited to this specific region), definition (I think that it is necessary * to clearly define the SAMU), or administrative, military, or moral supervision (Perhaps this will remain * the structure of societiesThere's a liturgy, fine, * it's framed). Contrary to the idea of organization, there is confusion. To mix is to turn different things in order to form a whole, a circle. To illustrate an unordered whole whose elements are intertwined, the two hands are turned one

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Page 60 around the other: * Obviously there's a sentimental story involved. The gesture also is an image for confusion: * I get all mixed up when I lie. I can't seem to get out of it. It's funny. How can one depict mental confusion? The circles are no longer interlocking in a sagittal plane, but in a frontal plane next to the head *: He went into a depression, a confusion; * eveything in him was muddled. With regard to children swamped with television: They register everything, and it becomes a kind of cosmic chaos * which we have trouble imagining. Nuances Let us now see how a given notion can be shaded by linear and curved movements. Consider first the notions of time (Table 18): CONTINUITY WITHOUT CHANGE / WITH CHANGE. In speaking one might not distinguish between the continuation or development of some affair, but the gestural expression recalls the etymological nuances of these synonyms. Continuation or extension implies a straight-line movement forward. Unfolding or development is depicted by a progressive curved movement. Drawing one or more vertical loops represents the unfolding of an envelope, or something unrolling by its own movement and energy. Here are some examples concerning continuity. In accordance with the cyclic notion of time, continuity is illustrated by a vertical circle (* I'm still undergoing treatment), or by several vertical loops, with one hand for the idea of progression (We have to * keep improving our competitiveness). Sometimes both hands turn one around the other if the phenomenon is endless, self perpetuating (*This could go on indefinitely). In contrast, continuity tied to the idea of steadfastness, of extension, is associated with a continuous straight line or a repeated movement along a given forward direction, *Always straight ahead. For example, an actress learns of the death of a director: He remains very much alive (her hands pointing forward slide in parallel as if on two rails) and will continue to exist. In this way, she expresses the idea that our memory of the filmmaker will be permanent (L. permanere: to remain until the end), lasting, and unchanged. Indeed, any possibility of change and evolution, which are part of life, is henceforth excluded. Drawing a forward semicircle with the forefinger or the hand depicts a leap into the future, to a moment in the FUTURE. cycles of time: * Next Tuesday. In contrast, a time limit is represented by sliding the hand, facing toward oneself, forward ten to twenty centimeters: * Until Tuesday IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCE / SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT. transverse axis by a rapid movement of

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Table 18 - Nuances in straight-line and curved movements.

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the horizontally held palm (* As soon as there is the slightest trace of hexachlorophene, it's in Series C-Every time there's rain, * it brings mosquitoes), a developed and repetitive consequence is represented by vertical loops: Afterwards, in general, * there is a cascade of consequences.

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SUCCESSION OF ELEMENTS: SEGMENTED / ALTERNATING AND LINKED. The edge of the hand laterally segments a story published serially, while the alternating succession of groups working in turn without interruption is depicted by one hand replacing the other in a single, endless circular movement. COUNTED ENUMERATION / REPETITIVE ENUMERATION. Successive elements which appear as detached units are counted on the fingers raised successively (thumbl, forefinger2, middle finger3...), while any element repeated in a stream will be accompanied by a new vertical loop. The sequence of loops corresponds to enumeration by ritournelle (Chapter 8, Parallelism in form). HEIGHT/VOLUME. Size is given in a two or three dimensional space. In one case, the height of something is indicated, in the other, its volume. QUANTITY/OVERABUNDANCE. A large quantity is depicted by a level line at a certain height. Overabundance is depicted by a large convex surface. In accordance with the meaning of the word (a quantity that exceeds one's needs) and the etymology of the word (L. unda: wave), the gesture depicts overflowing. TOTALITY/GLOBALITY. Pushing to the highest level in two or three dimensions, a large quantity becomes totality, either finite and complete, or united and indivisible. Totality may be considered as a set of things added one after another until a maximum level, indicated by a transverse movement of the horizontal hand, is reached: the set is full. ()r it may be seen as a composition of elements joined, or gathered, into a total mass, which connects with the notion of generality and universality. The reference to the universe or the globe seen as a sphere can be made concrete in several ways: by a sphere, a hemisphere (suggesting a sphere), or a horizontal circle (the projection of a sphere onto a plane). PERFECTION: COMPLETION/HOMOGENEITY. The judgment corresponding to totality, i.e., perfection, is represented by similar gestures: a transverse line and a circle. But the latter will not be drawn with the hand. Since perfection and precision are often related, the circle will be represented by the thumb and forefinger joined at the tips to form a ring as if to hold something very fine. CUMULATION/ADDITION. Cumulating is depicted by an increasing height, the palm rising parallel to the ground (The price of the dollar is rising, * rising. * It will go through the ceiling). Adding is depicted by a forward leap (We, should * add some, if I may say so).

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EXPANSION/DEVELOPMENT. While rapid expansion (Fr. essor) may be assimilated with flight, with 'taking off,' and hence is depicted by a forward rise (* There was the rise of Hitler), progress is represented by a forward 'leap' which portrays the beginning of development. REDUCTION/CONDENSATION. The gestural expression of reduction involves a shrinking of the space between the two palms held sagittally or horizontally, or between the thumb and forefinger held parallel. The equivalent notion of condensation assumes however that the unity of the whole is maintained. The concentration of a given mass is thus depicted by the spread fingers which, by coming together at the tips, compress the space enclosed by them. They converge to form a reduced whole. Let us now look at signifiers involving two elements. Some of the notions expressed are union, exchange, opposition, and enclosure. FRAMING/ENCIRCLING. The hands held in sagittal planes on each side of the eyes, limiting the field of vision, depict narrow-mindedness: You and I, in our forgotten little hole, * have blinders like this. Lowered with the palms facing, the hands illustrate the idea of framing or supervision. Is there a curved way to delimit? The curved version of framing is encircling, literally and figuratively. With cupped palms, the hands draw a horizontal circle: All women * are surrounded by a pack of men who eye them closely and take possession of them. CONFINEMENT FROM WITHOUT / FROM WITHIN. We distinguish between the person trapped by exterior elements, sandwiched between opposing forces represented by the flat palms, and the person who curls up in his shell, interior imprisonment is illustrated by cupped palms facing each other, closing in completely. CONTRARY: OPPOSITE/INVERSE. Conflict is represented by two antagonistic entities, the two hands (There is a lot * of squabbling between landlords) or the two forefingers directed one toward the other (* They are at daggers drawn). But contrast in the course of something can only be illustrated by a reversal of direction; a rough, backward, vertical circle depicts logical contrast in the course of reasoning: *Inversely* On the contrary* On the other hand. Moving the hand outward, then EXCHANGE: BARTER AND RECIPROCAL COMMUNICATION / SUBSTITUTION. toward oneself, depicts tit for tat. Performed alternately with both hands, the gesture * expresses an exchange of viewpoints or a negotiation: * That provoked a lot of debate and animation. A left-to-

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right flopping of the hand * corresponds to the impersonal, free circulation of ideas or products: The sciences are not a reflection of reality; moreover * the process of discussion.... How can substitution, or changing places, be depicted? An abrupt change can be an upheaval, an overturning, a turning around, a revolution. It is therefore logical that reversal be depicted by a circular movement of the hands, each one replacing the other in a sagittal or frontal plane: * It's interchangeable. UNION: BINDING/SOLIDARITY. The French words soudure and solidarité both derive from the word 'solid,' but the former is depicted by the union of two straight-line elements, and the latter by a curved movement. Indeed, the tips of the forefingers are joined to 'solder' or bind, and the palms are stuck together to depict the intimate union involved in merging. As for solidarity, it is defined by interdependent elements operating in a given overall process. The cupped hands are joined face-toface in a solidary whole (Even with different political stances, we stand * absolutely together) or with interlocked curled fingers to depict attachment or mutual aid (We must plan for both * even if the secondary school has to be linked to the primary school). ROUND TRIP / CYCLE. A round trip, coming and going, ebb and flow, are depicted by an advance and retreat of the hand. However, a progressive return can be illustrated only by a circular movement forward. Repeated, this gesture illustrates the notion of a cycle (G. kuklos, circle) which involves the repetition of a series of events in a determined order. APPROXIMATION: BETWEEN TWO LIMITS / ABOUT. Among the various possible gestures, the head moving back and forth repeatedly between two limits located to its left and right * seems to illustrate the notion of a margin (Now, I think so, * it is a 10- to 15-year deal), while the rounded hand oscillating (Illustration 3) conveys the etymology of the words grosso modo, en gros, grossièrement, autour de, and environ used to signify averageness, approximation (We made * a rough calculation, nearly . . .). This gesture, which is common and can substitute for speech, seems to be based on a general symbol, one that is found in Hungarian in the etymology of the word 'nearly': körülbelül (lit. aroundkör, circleand within). LOSS OF EQUILIBRIUM: UNBALANCE/UPHEAVAL. With the palms initially held horizontally side by side, unbalance is depicted by moving one up and the other down: * Sometimes, there's a risk that the passive tense will prevail over the active. A backward arc evokes a reversal of the situation, and a complete forward circle evokes its total disruption: No, because at that point * hell turns over and becomes heaven.

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NUANCES IN MOVEMENTS NEAR THE FOREHEAD: INTELLECT. The forefinger popping off the forehead depicts the idea which bursts out, the instant of discovery, the streak of genius. In the same way, the forehead is touched or designated to suggest the knowledge or intelligence of someone. In contrast to a linear, cutting movement, which depicts scientific analysis, vague circular movements at forehead-level suggest reverie and creative imagination: You are stating * artistic ideas* Everyone has fantasies running through his head. Mental confusion implies a mix-up in the brain; it is depicted by two symmetric, interlocking circles in a frontal plane, right in front of the forehead. Note that the existence of two possible gestural illustrations of stupidity or madnessone linear, the other circulardoes not indicate a symbolic nuance but is etymological in origin. Visual symbolism of the circle Here, I propose to address the specific physical and symbolic nature of circular movements and to show by placing them in parallel that the graphic symbolism and gestural symbolism of the circle are parts of a single whole: visual symbolism. Symbolism the circle outside verbal communication Referring to a dictionary of symbols ('Circle,' Chevalier and Gheerbrant 1973: 303-309), we note that the universe is perceived as a round whole containing a multiplicity of moving elements: the sphere and the circle (its projection on a plane) symbolize undivided totality. According to the movement of the sun and stars across the sky, the circle symbolizes time: The circle is also a symbol of time; the wheel rolls. From oldest antiquity, the circle has served to indicate totality and perfection, englobing time to better measure it. The Babylonians used it to measure time: they divided it into 360°, decomposed into six segments of 60°; its name, shar, designated the universe, the cosmos. Babylonian religious speculation thereafter derived from it the notion of infinite, cyclic, universal time. This notion was carried into antiquity, in the Greek era for example, under the image of a 'serpent biting its tail.' In Christian iconography, the motif of the circle symbolizes eternity; three joined circles evoke the Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. (Ibid.: 305) In Lower Mesopotamia, 0 is the perfect number, expressing all, hence the universe. Divided into degrees, it represents time. From the circle and from the idea of time grew the representation of the wheel, which was derived from them and suggests the image of a cycle corresponding to the idea of a period of time. (Ibid.: 307)

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Recalling the planets turning about the sun, the circle depicts the vortex of everything that moves: The circle, symbol ofanimation, is moreover the usual form for sanctuaries among nomadic peoples, while the temples of sedentary peoples are square (ibid.: 304). . . . A circle inscribed in a square is a symbol well known to adepts of the cabbala. It represents the spark of divine fire hidden in matter and animating it with the fire of life. (Ibid.: 305) Depicting the notions of time and movement (astral (r)evolution), the circle also represents heaven, principial unity. It is seen as the concentric extension of a point: The circle is essentially an extended point.... Pseudo-Denys the Areopagite described, in philosophical and mystical terms, the relationships between a created being and its cause, through the symbolism of the center and of concentric circles; moving away from the central unity, everything divides and multiplies. . . . According to Plotinus, the center is the father of the circle, and according to Angelus Silesius, the point once contained the circle (ibid.: 303). . . .The circle expresses the breath of the divinity with neither beginning nor end. This breath carries on continually and in all directions. (Ibid.: 306) or as a section of the primal egg: The primordial form is not so much the circle as the sphere, depicting the World Egg. But the circle is a section, or projection, of the sphere. (Ibid.: 304) As an image for heaven, for God, or for divine manifestation, the circle depicts spirituality: Jung showed that the symbol of the circle is an archetypal image of the totality of the psyche, a symbol of Self, while the square is the symbol of earthly matter, body and reality. (Ibid.: 308) Whether it be because the universe is seen as an infinite extension nonetheless enclosed within a sphere, whether it be by similitude with the movement of a satellite around a planet, seeming to enclose it, or whether it be a reference to the fetus enclosed and protected in its mother's womb, the circle symbolizes protective enclosure: As an enveloping form, like a closed path, the circle is a symbol of protection, of safety assured within its bound. Hence the magical use of the circle as a protective belt around cities, temples or tombs, preventing enemies, wander-

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ing souls or demons from entering. Wrestlers trace a circle around themselves before starting to fight. (Ibid.: 308) Symbolism of the circle in verbal communication Here we will consider neither configurational movements nor gestures reproducing literal or figurative movements, but only symbolic gestures. These directly represent an abstract signification which does not derive from a concrete meaning. They are presented in the same order as the visual symbols. Since the notions of time, totality, mixture, change, development, and encirclement have already been considered from a different angle (symbolism of linear vs. curved movements), examples will not be given for them. PLURAL UNITY: UNDIVIDED TOTALITY / MIXTURE. In the notions of generality and mixture, there is the paradox of plurality in unity, the latter being symbolized by the circle. The sphere or circle depicts a global or collective whole, what is general or shared: the unity of a plural. In a different way, the horizontal circle, or better each hand turning around the other in vertical circles, symbolizes either the action of mixing and uniting to form a whole, or else the result: a combination of different elements. In French, the same word can be used for both notions: mettre ensemble (put together) to form un ensemble (a set or whole). MOVEMENT: ANIMATIONCHANGE. Life is manifested by movement, which is symbolized, in reference to the movement of heavenly bodies, by a vertical circle (It is important to start up a mechanism * that will provide animation . ..). Moreover, movement involves change: 'transmute,' 'mutate,' and 'move' all have the same root. An abrupt change can be described in French by boule-verser (upset) and chambouler (turn upside down) with the root boule (ball). TIME. We will see that the arc, the circle, or loops depict the repetition of days, the cycle of seasons, the living evolution of things and their perpetual reproduction, i.e., 'celestial' time (Chapter 4, Time). DEVELOPMENT. The concentric extension of a point, the principial unity, which is difficult to draw gesturally, seems to be replaced by a series of loops (Figure 6: 1-4). It is as if the prime force (1) is unrolled (2) in a self-propelling (3) process (4). This gestural unrolling can evoke the development or continuation of an affair, as well as a chain of reasoning or an unfolding in time. Note that a personal train of thought is most often depicted by an unrolling toward oneself.

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Figure 6 - Various notions evoked by vertical loops. INTERNAL CHARACTER. To surround is to encircle or enclose. A horizontal circle thus represents the internal character of something, such as a circle of friends or acquaintances and its intimate quality, 'among us' (In France, in Belgium, * that is, in our countries), or a circular movement closed on itself (The union headquarters * seems to be going in circles) or self-sufficient operation (The campus housing was a place where you could live * in complete autarkyIdeology * is closed, self-justifying, and self-censuring). We thus pass from that which encloses to that which is enclosed, from the movement of encirclement to internal movement. While many of the interior spaces that man has created for himself are essentially cubes and boxes, the fundamental observation of the sky and of the body seems to have led us to associate the concept of interior with the sphere or circle. As 'World Egg,' the universe englobes the moving planets as the maternal womb envelops the fetus. And the spherical head contains all private thought! Finally, the movement of a satellite around a planet seems to enclose or contain it. These analogies have already been applied to the notion of protective enclosure. Complete enclosure is depicted by a (hemi)sphere. For example, a person raised sous cloche (under a bell-jar) and who has become apprehensive will live closed off, 'in his shell.' Finally, the image of a circle harmoniously reconciles opposites. To draw or sketch a circle is to gather into a unity (totality, mixture), to continue through change (evolution), to advance by starting over (cycle), to enclose or withdraw (internal character). Specificity of gestures toward one's own body Gestures toward oneself can either locate pain, indicate a particular permanent or temporary shape of a part of one's body, or depict things on the

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body (clothes or objects in relation to sensory organs) or used on the body, e.g., toiletry and make-up items. These gestures are generally descriptive, but not necessarily since psychosomatic disorders linking the physical and psychological allow for a transition to 'transfer gestures' signifying an abstract reality, for example, striking the top of one's head to suggest the hammer of fate landing on one's head, or raising a hand to one's cheek to depict an affront, an emotional blow. In the same way, certain gestures evoke clothing and its signification, for example the presumed stilted, haughty character of someone who wears a tie. Another series of gestures refers to bodily functions, either their normality, improvement, protection, or hindrance, such as selfpunishment following defective operation, or total cessation at death. The variety of gestures on the forehead or temple allows one to make a synthesis of the diverse reasons for movements toward the body. These movements can evoke a physical description, for example a bump represented by the cupped hand, or an added piece of clothing such as a headband drawn by the parallel thumb and forefinger. Derived from a physical reactionsweating profusely after a frightthe gesture of wiping the forehead with the back of the hand refers to fear: On a eu chaud (lit. we were feeling hot = It had us scared). As an example of localizing pain, the hand pressing against the forehead soothes the headache that results from intense concentration. Here, through a reference to the good or poor functioning of the brain, we shift to a symbolic gesture. Each intellectual activity is specified by a particular vehicle, configuration, or movement. Intelligence, knowledge, memory, discovery are signified by straight movements of the hand or forefinger, while vague circular movements better correspond to daydreaming or imagination. The strength of a thick-headed, narrow-minded, or stubborn person's head is tested by hitting it with the palm or fist. The brain with a failing memory is punished in the same way. The gestural reference to mental deficiency appears etymological: tapping on the temple refers to someone who might be called marteau (lit. hammer), toc-toc, or to the brain which is fêlé (cracked), timbré (stamped); boring into it indicates that someone's mind is tordu (twisted), complètement siphonné (siphoned), ne tourne pas rond (lit. does not turn circularly). Similarly, rumination (turning over in the head) or confusion (mixing up) are illustrated by a circle or two interconnected circles in front of the forehead. Finally, the gesture becomes even more conventional and opaque if it illustrates a verbal cliché. This is the case for the superstitious expression Touch wood,' which sometimes leads the speaker to touch his forehead, implicitly asserting that he is une tête de bois (lit. wood-headed = stubborn).

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Specificity of the body segment The shade of meaning carried by a substitution between vehicles can be explained by the specificity of each of them. Here are examples concerning the forefinger and the thumb. Specificity of the forefinger The forefinger, or index finger, serves to indicate. Extended along the axis of the forearm, it constitutes a directrix which makes it the prime instrument for situating or designating, literally and figuratively. However, it shares this function with the head, hand, and thumb. Although equivalent, each of these vehicles specializes in a given direction, clarifies a specific aspect, or carries a particular nuance. ABSTRACT, UPWARD DESIGNATION.The following significations, derived from an abstract spatial localization, are expressed only by the raised forefinger, never by the hand. Pointing toward the sky, the forefinger refers to a celestial divinity or to the Most High. To speak in the name of heaven, to be a representative of the Almighty, implies knowledge of the future and, more generally, gives authority or importance to the speaker, and value and truth to the 'message.' This gesture, distinctive of prophets, has been adopted by preachers, tribunes, and orators. It accompanies any declaration of a prophetic, preaching, or solemn nature, or one deemed of paramount importance. It should be noted that throughout the declaration, the forefinger is held raised at head level and marks the segments of the discourse. It thus sets the rhythm of the speech, underlines the major points, and by its reference to heaven, imposes the message on the listeners. The speaker may want to insist or make supplementary or restrictive points, but the index will be a bit lower, since the reference to heaven is no longer necessary. Depending on the situation, the forefinger gesture of 'making a point' serves to augment, amplify and enrich, or on the contrary, to restrict, to object, to signal a point of contention, to nurse suspense, to give or repeat a warning, or to set down a condition. All these significations focus attention on a point: a clarifying point, whether amplifying, restrictive or conditional, a point of contention, or one that is paramount and must be remembered. Warnings, often tainted with menace, are almost always accompanied by a stiff, raised forefinger. The conditions under which this finger is seen as threatening are specified below. While far from the notion of threat, suggestion and hypothesis, in the

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Page 72 sense of a solution glimpsed, are also liable to be marked by a raised forefinger, though differently. There is a certain analogy between making a suggestion and requesting permission, 'May I suggest. . . ' For the brilliant hypothesis that may be the solution to a problem or enigma, the forefinger is raised in front of the face, equally distant from the forehead, eves and nose to evoke the solution (brain-forehead) glimpsed (eve) and astuteness (the nose representing intuition, perspicacity, subtlety) at having found it. That the forefinger may be perceived as threatening is confirmed by the unexpected results of a test6 performed THREAT. with photographs of raised forefingers (Calbris 1979). The gesture is isolated by reframing the full-view slides corresponding to six situations: (a) indicating the direction 'up,' (b) indicating the quantity 'one,' (c) asking for authorization to speak, 'Excuse me' (Fr. S'il vous plaît), (d) asking for attention, Listen,' (e) threatening, 'Watch it!' and (f) refusing, 'No.' Only the height, verticality, rotation, and tension of the finger vary. In actual situations, the latter two gestures are distinguished from the others by a repeated front-back or up-down movement for threatening, and a left-right movement for refusal. I wanted to see whether, despite the suppression of speech, facial expression, and movement, these gestures could be decoded by reconstructing the movement from the position of the hand: parallel to the body, palm outward for the left-right movement of refusal, perpendicular to the body and in profile for the front-back movement of warning. Since the partial views were not very differentiated, the interpretations of the isolated gestures were inverted: Gesture

Interpretation Refusal

Warning

Warning (e)

7 subjects

3 subjects

Refusal (f)

1

13

However, the full-view photographs were correctly interpreted (Illustration 3(e) and (f)) due to the facial expression showing for refusal a neutral 6. The forefinger test involved 20 photographic slides of gestural poses (gesture isolated by reframing each slide). These were shown on two occasions a week apart, to 28 French subjects. They were instructed to write down the attitude which the gesture evoked for them, and to specify it with a sentence. Here is a sample of responses to gesture (c):

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Attitude

Sentence

Soliciting

Puis-je?

Asking for an explanation

Monsieur, s'il vous plaît ...


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Page 73 Table 19. Interpretation of photos of forefinger gestures Gestures and intended signifieds

Signifieds proposed by the subjects * Above (9)

Prophetic proclamation (4)

Asking to speak (4)

Warning or threat (6)

One (6)

Authority, assurance (10)

Insistence (5)

Warning (4)

a. Above - Hand raised to the side, at forehead level, forefinger pointing up.

b. One - Forefinger raised at shoulder level, fingernail outward

Request to speak or for authorization (12) c. Please - Hand relaxed, forefinger raised just above shoulder Shyness (2)

Indecision (2)

Abstentions (10) Asking for attention (6) d. Listen - Head tipped to the side, forefinger raised near ear Prudence, warning, threat (7) etc. Threatening warning (3) e. Watch it - Hand slightly tilted, forefinger raised diagonally to shoulder Negation (7)

Indication of direction (3)

etc. Disagreement (1)

Asking for attention (13)

f. No - Forefinger raised diagonally to the right, at chest level Prudence, warning, threat (13) * Among the answers, the expected attitude is in boldface; the number of subjects suggesting each attitude is given in parentheses (out of 28 subjects); the most frequent attitude overall, that of warning, is in italics. expression with the head tilted slightly back, and for threat, the head tipped to the side, a sideward gaze, eyes squinting, eyebrows raised and lips pulled into a slight grimace: Gesture + Face

Interpretation Refusal

Warning

Warning (e)

1 subject 13 subjects

Refusal (f)

10

5

It is possible that during the photographing session, the facial expressions were intuitively enhanced with respect to a natural situation in order to compensate for the loss of information due to the frozen gesture. The 28 French subjects were also asked to name the attitude which the gesture evoked for them and to specify that attitude by a sentence. This

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Illustration 3. Warning (e) and Refusal (f). From Calbris 1979: 99

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free interpretation yields the diverse significations possible for the photographed gesture. The results are given in Table 19. Aside from the permutation between refusal and threat, the attitudes were in general correctly identified, but it is very surprising that cautioning and warning are found as a leitmotiv in the responses for all but one of the photos: 6 for (a), 4 for (b), 7 for (d), 3 for (e), 13 for (f), but 0 for (c). Comparing the responses to the photographs shows that any raised forefinger from chest height to above the head, whether vertical or diagonal, can be understood as a cautioning, a more or less threatening warning, on the condition that the finger be stiff. The height and verticality are not relevant, only the straightness of the finger. This is confirmed by the interpretations given for the photograph (c) which, while showing a vertical forefinger raised above the shoulder, is the only one in which there is no tension: the forefinger is not entirely extended and the other fingers rest lightly on the palm. This slackness on the physical level seems to reflect timidity (2 responses) and indecision (2 responses) on the psychological level, and corresponds particularly to a question, asking to speak or asking for permission expressed by the utterance 'Excuse me . . .' or 'May I?' (12 responses). Of the 28 subjects, 10 did not give responses, but in contrast with the other photos, none of them suggested a cautioning or a warning. These results confirm the phallic symbolism of the forefinger (Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1970), since any phallic threat implies an erect phallus ... a stiff finger. To the phallic threat is added the threat of a slap. The forefinger in the most diagonal position is associated most with cautioning, warning or threatening. One cannot help but think of the diagonal constituted by the profile of a hand ready to slap, for which the finger would be a substitute. 'INDEX'FOREFINGER. Any action derived from the word 'index' is accompanied by a movement of the index finger, or forefinger. The word indiquer (indicate) has as equivalents: announce, reveal, signal, denounce, designate, draw, trace. All these actions are indeed accompanied by a raised forefinger, directed toward someone or something, or in motion. Denouncing someone. The French word indicateur can mean 'informer,' one who 'points out' someone else. The forefinger pointed towards another person is threatening and accusatory. This justifies the taboo inculcated in children: 'Don't point.' Indicating to someone. As a line of direction, the forefinger is used to give 'directives,' to order, or else to give an 'indication,' bringing someone's attention to a particular thing. Indicating something. The forefinger is often directed toward the partner to point out to him some element of the discussion: 'That's where I don't

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follow you.' The utterance 'Put your finger on it' is naturally mimed by the indicating finger. Less dangerous and less precise, directed upwardneither toward the partner nor toward a thingit gives an indication, advice, even a suggestion. In addition, the French dessiner (to draw) comes, as does désigner (to designate), from the Latin designare: the forefinger, representing a pencil, draws an object in order to define it. Indication. Indice in French has as a synonym 'presumption,' a notion close to that of supposition, that is, of hypothesis or suspicion; the forefinger is here raised near the nose, symbol of intuition. In summary, by its physical characteristics (directional, slender, pointed) or symbolic characteristics (designating heaven, or as a phallic substitute), the forefinger essentially functions to attract attention to someone or something, to give an indication, or to make an important, imperative, or threatening point. Specificity of the thumb As one digit among others, the thumb illustrates the unit 'one,' but as the leading digit, it represents that which is first, in an enumeration for example, and it generally accompanies the beginning of an explanation, 'First of all....' It serves to signify priority or excellence, the idea of 'first' going from the comparative to the superlative: Super . . . Comme ça! Separated naturally from the fingers and directed inward, it is of course the thumb which is lifted to the mouth, to be sucked or bitten. Biting it is a manifestation of anxiety or embarrassment in an adult. Sucking it is a sign of shyness or sulking in children. Biting and sucking appear to be manifestations of a single relic gesture: Thumb-sucking among childrenoften quite old childrenis fairly transparent in its relation to sucking at the breast, and its frequency increases and decreases with the rise and fall of moment-by-moment tensions; but once adulthood has been reached we have to put away childish thingsor, at least, those that are detectably childishand the oral-comfort actions have to undergo a metamorphosis. The nipple-sucking and teat-sucking of babyhood, after being transformed into the comforter-sucking of infancy and then the thumb-sucking of childhood, becomes the nail-biting and pencil sucking of adolescence, which later becomes the gum-chewing, sunglass-sucking, cigarette and cigar-sucking, and pipe-sucking of adulthood. (Morris 1977: 50) As a substitute for the nipple or teat, through which the infant draws its first liquid food, the thumb is associated by extension with drinks and poured liquids in general. The thumb is lowered toward the mouth in imitation of drinking à la régalade, i.e., with the head thrown back and

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pouring the liquid (thumb) into the mouth without letting the lips touch the container. The thumb is also used as a sign of failure, refusal, or privation: with Que dalle! (Nothing!), synonymous with Rien à se mettre sous la dent (lit. nothing to put under the tooth), the thumbnail is flicked off an upper front tooth. Perpendicular to the fingers, the thumb is naturally directed backward when held at shoulder level. It thus serves for all signifieds related to the backward direction. Being the strongest digit, the thumb is used to illustrate the application of any significant pressure, whether it be against a vertical surface, as when ringing a doorbell or honking a horn, or against a horizontal surface in order to crush something. In summary, as the foremost digit, the thumb represents the number 'one,' then priority, and, by extension, excellence; the ordinal number shifts from the comparative to the superlative. Separated from the fingers and naturally directed toward the speaker, the thumb is the digit brought near the mouth to symbolize drinking. It serves as a compensation for timid or pouting children and for nervous or embarrassed adults. Perpendicular to the fingers, it is naturally directed backward and thus is linked with all the notions associated with this direction. Specificity in cases of substitution Both the thumb and forefinger can be used to situate something above, below, or to the side, or to designate a concrete object or person, including oneself. Lifted in profile or inward, they represent the number 'one.' Lifted outward, they refer to a signification synonymous with stopping. Both digits, as well as the middle finger, serve to press down on or to insist on something. However, within the bounds of shared signification, nuances appear. LOCALIZATION. The thumb and forefinger indicate a high position, such as 'above,' but only the forefinger (doubtless because of the threatening character associated with it) can designate God and hence accompany a prophecy or important declaration. A similar situation obtains in the opposite direction. Only the forefinger can designate, with the same downward movement, spatial presence 'here,' or the present time 'now,' hic et nunc. The spatial localization can be extended; the forefinger gesture may apply to 'Here at my feet' or to 'In this world here below.' There is also differentiation between the various downward movements. Doubtless because of its special position with respect to

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the fingers, the thumb pours and turns over, while the forefinger, longer and more slender, 'plunges' or 'nose-dives. The thumb and forefinger indicate a spot, an object, or a person to the right or left. Here again, the forefinger seems preferred for abstract localizations: We're waiting for the latest information * on the Chinese side. In summary, the forefinger has a monopoly on abstract localization in all directions except backward, the latter being reserved for the thumb. Can we say that the thumb and forefinger are used indifferently to designate someone or localize (SELF-)DESIGNATION. something concrete? No, they are not entirely equivalent. The use of the thumb is considered cavalier: If I am busy and someone interrupts to ask me where an object is, I may respond by jerking my thumb in the appropriate direction. Such an action is considered rather impolite, and it is worth asking why. I am, after all, providing the required information. I am not ignoring the questioner, so why should he feel that my jabbing thumb is slightly insulting? The answer seems to be connected with the role of the thumb as the 'brutal digit' or 'power digit.' (Morris: 1977: 66) I would add to this interpretation the fact that the thumb, specialized in the backward direction for physiological reasons, seems to refer par dessus l'épaule (over the shoulder) which gives an impression of rudeness. ONE: PRIORITY/UNIQUENESS. The raised thumb or forefinger both represent the number 'one.' The thumb, the leading digit, is associated with the notion of priority, while the forefinger is associated with uniqueness. A sign of insistence, precision, and restriction, only the raised forefinger, nail pointing outward, can signify 'Only one.' HALT: REQUEST TO STOP / CORRECTION. Raised with the palm outward, in substitution for the hand, the thumb or forefinger halts. The thumb serves to call Pouce! (lit. thumb = Time out), both in sports and figuratively. The forefinger stops to make a point, or to correct. CONTACT. Anatomically, the forefinger is longer and more slender, the thumb stronger and thicker. While the thumb presses on the horn or crushes, the forefinger pokes, drives in, plants. The former erases; the latter crosses out. Directional symbolism: backward Pointing over one's shoulder with the thumb can designate physically following: * We were at the back of the train.* They're coming (= They're right

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behind us). In addition, the gesture depicts either what comes after something (unfinished enumeration: X * and company) or the act of following, whether it involves following someone's reasoning (understanding: * You'd better follow closely, it's difficult) or trying to do as well as someone (challenge: Tu peux toujours t'aligner [lit. you can always get into line = Just try to beat that]). A challenge implies the expected failure, hoped for or predictable, of another person. The most common verbal expression corresponding to this, II peut toujours courir (lit. he can always run = he can try as he likes), and the associated gesture evoke the image of a poor runner left behind. The failure of one is often due to the refusal of another. These are two terms related by a role reversal. For both of these attitudes, we find the same expression, Je/Tu (I/You) peux toujours courir, and the same thumb gesture, which in this case might signify not only being behind but also throwing over one's shoulder in rejection, as mimed by the hand in conjunction with expressions of offhand or rude refusal. Finally, the thumb pointing behind also illustrates a reference to something not present, be it someone or something missing, absent, or in the past, or something virtual: Did you hear * the other day, on TV?I'm calling * my aunt who lives in Nantes. * You'll see in the booklets. The reason for this gestural expression is simple: what is not real or not present is not visible, and hence not in front of oneself; it is logical to represent such a thing figuratively as behind oneself. It is the direction which is relevant, and not the body segment, since the head, turned over the shoulder, can replace the thumb for all these signifieds. Symbolism of alternating movement Alternating movements depict various signifieds according to the axis along which they are performed. The idea is expressed concretely by the word 'balance' and by the alternating rise and fall of the pans of a EQUILIBRIUM. balance about their equilibrium points. The pans are depicted by the two palms, often pointing upward: * It's the balance of payments-* Along with a commandment, there comes a responsibility. The same alternating movement evokes imbalance and re-equilibrating, whether the movement is performed with both hands (What you lose on one side, you get back on the other; * it's the principle of communicating vessels) or by the forefinger and middle finger, with the palm facing down (There are some details that have to be * corrected [= re-equilibrated]). Comparison implies both contrast (differences) and parallelism (resemblance). These are depicted by an COMPARISON. alternating front-back move-

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Figure 7 - Gestural representation of hesitation. ment of both hands, held flat in sagittal *a or frontal *b planes, respectively: There are things *a which can exist on the level of comparison.-*b It's a little bit like the rise of François I. This implies a choice limited to two options, often interdependent, which are considered each in turn. The ALTERNATIVE. gesture depicting this situation is an alternating rotary movement of the forearm (pronate-supinate-pronate) with the thumb and forefinger held perpendicular to one another *; each of the two digits thus seems to replace and succeed the other in a turning movement: What I am trying to set up * is another type of alternative. The same gesture illustrates the two-way relationship between elements: * And it is in that tension that faith is situated.The problem * of the relationship between mood and tense. HESITATION. This notion is illustrated by an arbitrary body segment oscillating from one side to the other about an equilibrium position (Figure 7: 1-4): a horizontal plane (1), a sagittal plane (2, 3), or a frontal plane (4). Each nuance on the level of the signifier expresses a nuance on the level of the signified: Wavering (1). Palm downward, the spread fingers are wiggled in a wavy motion * which remotivates the verbal metaphor of 'wavering,' an unsteady state due to hesitation: Yes, I think * she had a moment of wavering doubt.-* You've got three or four chairs. Intellectual hesitation (2). A listener tilts his head left and right along with the affirmation: The left/right [political] opposition is finished. This movement * depicts mental weighing, in making a prediction for example: Valenciennes vs. Caen? * I'd say it'll be a tie. The gesture is sometimes supplemented by a moue of doubt ° which makes the hesitation restrictive: She's going to fall in love with a Frenchman, *° but . . .*° Yes, maybe. Skeptical hesitation (3). Whereas the hand held flat in a sagittal plane (edge downward) depicts what is straight, rigid, and clear, its oscillation about this plane (by a rotation of the wrist) evokes something or someone dubious, to be careful of: * That looks a little shady.. . .while Moscow * remains prudent and wary.But in that case, I don't think * that can be true. Hesitation-test (4). With the thumbs pointing up, the hands are bent at a

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right angle, so that the fingers are in a frontal plane. An alternating front-backmovement of the fingers of each hand which keeps them from coinciding in the same plane represents a trial technical adjustment: The socialists do not know * what political stance to take. With regard to a soccer game: Because there * might be something with one of the selectors that wasn't quite right. APPROXIMATION. This, too, is illustrated by various alternating movements that indicate different shades of meaning: Oscillation 'about.' A lack of clarity and failed adjustment express imperfection, approximation. In one case, the oscillation of the hand, which is unable to stay in a sagittal plane * (Figure 7.3), expresses fuzziness: An image * that did not exactly coincide. In another case, the oscillation of the fingers of both hands from one side to the other of a given frontal plane * (Figure 7.4), the impossibility of aligning them, expresses inadequacy: Without X having told me * exactly under what conditions* Not entirely. A margin. By a lateral shaking of the head *, the gesturer depicts the interval between two given limits, one to the left and one to the right: We have * between 500 and 600 police officers on duty* Over nearly five years. Average or mediocre, 'So-so.' The notion of' balance, 'half-and-half,' more or less,' is not in this case illustrated by an up-anddown oscillation of' the two supine hands; instead, the two edges of one prone hand represent the pans of the balance. The gesture can be symmetric: ** So-so. Specificity of the head Aside from the reproduction of concrete gestures such as hitting one's head against a window or illustrating the movements referred to in utterances such as à se taper la tête contre les murs (lit. to hit one's head against the walls = It's enough to send you up the wall), the head also mimes attitudes whose underlying motivations concern sight, hearing, or eating. In the case of indignation at a reported scandal, a person might stick his whole head forward, with eyes wide open and eyebrows raised: * What!! The gesture depicts great curiosity; the neck is stretched forward so one can be 'all eyes and all ears,' to see and hear from closer up. The particular point of view indicated in sentences like *Me, I liked it and *She's not really wrong is expressed by a sideways tilt of the head allowing one to 'see from a certain angle.' To show disdain, one looks at someone else de haut en bas (from top to bottom), eyeing them scornfully from head to foot. Since a challenge implies the failure of someone, the speaker places

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himself symbolically above and in front of the adversary in order to look at him 'from above' and 'over the shoulder': * Wait just a minute! Who do you think you are? In provocation, the rapid lifting of the chin depicts hitting the listener with one's head (as in 'heading' a soccer ball) and looking at him 'from above': * So what? Is that your business? Concealment and, by role reversal, mistrust involve looking 'from below' ( = underhanded) and 'out of the corner of the eye' with a sideways tilt of the head. At times of delayed understanding, the head is slowly lifted back, doubtless by a natural movement of surprise but also to 'back up' or 'look over the question,' while the eyes squint in order to see and understand better: * Ah, I see! In illustrating the various figurative meanings, does the gesture recall their concrete origins? To refuse by turning the head away is a relic gesture, that of the infant refusing the breast, or the food offered on a spoon (Morris 1977: 50). While one turns away in order not to see (what is repugnant, bothersome, scary) and not to be seen (out of modesty, to hide emotion, to avoid someone), one also turns away in saying *Je ne peux pas le voir en peinture (lit. I can't see him in paint = I can't stand him), *Je ne peux pas le sentir (lit. I can't feel him = I can't stand him), or * Ah, ne m'en parle pas (lit. I)Don't talk to me about it = Don't remind me) which people often say before recounting some unlucky episode, claiming not to want to hear about it! Holding the head high or low and raising or lowering it are gestures rich in opposing significations. I will begin by recalling Morris's statements on submission (Morris 1977: 142-147): in man, submission does not differ from that of animals. The intention is to appear smaller by rolling the body into a ball and lowering it with respect to the attacker. From earliest antiquity, subjects, slaves, and prisoners completely prostrated themselves, as Catholic priests do today at their ordination. Full kneeling, once commonly practiced before sovereigns, was replaced in the Middle Ages by kneeling on a single knee, full kneeling being reserved for God as it is today. Curtseying, a start toward kneeling, appeared at the time of Shakespeare. Restricted to women in the seventeenth century, it is now practiced only in exceptional circumstances by women introduced to royalty. There now remains only a quick lowering of the head and eyes. Taking off one's hat has also been reduced to lightly touching the rim or else the temple. The diverse military salutes are variants of this. All gestures of submission are now quite attenuated: tipping one's head is a relic of full kneeling, just as in the Orient bowing seems to be an abbreviated form of the kowtow.

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These bodily expressions are the object of certain figurative utterances, mimed in their turn. One can s'incliner (bowadmission of defeat), plier la tête, courber le front (bend the head, bend down the foreheadobedience), s'incliner devant quelqu'un (bow before someonedeference), faire des courbettes (bow lowobsequiousness, lowliness). Inversely, one can se dresser contre quelqu'un (rear up against someoneresistance), marcher la tête haute (walk with head highpride), while being careful not to porter haut la tête, prendre des airs trop hauts, le prendre de haut (carry the head high, take on high airs, take something in a high and mighty wayarrogance) or traiter du haut de sa grandeur (look down ondespising and condescension). While the allusion to lifting off one's hat (tirer son chapeau, coup de chapeau, chapeau bas) accompanied by a nodding of the head is a sign of admiring deference, marcher la tête basse (walk with lowered head), baisser le nez (lower the nose), baisser les yeux (lower the eyes) express the painful feeling of inferiority, of being low in the opinion of others, in a word, shame. The head naturally reproduces the head movements described in literal and figurative expressions. In addition to these specific gestures, the head can also mime in a reduced manner the movement of the whole body, as when illustrating the sentence: * It took off right away.

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IV SEMANTIC FIELDS OF THE GESTURAL SIGN What subjects lend themselves to gestural expression? What first comes to mind is all that involves designation and concrete localization, i.e., deictics. Our vision of space derives from the position of our body in space and is linked with our bodily experience. In fact, we situate ourselves in time in the same way we do in space, both verbally (Cassirer 1955) and gesturally (Calbris 1985a). A child communicates physically and vocally with those around him before he is able to do so verbally. His nonverbal communication has an elementary content, and this primitive expression of mood continues into adulthood, accompanied by verbal expression. However, it gradually becomes more abstract in form and substance. Sketchy and stylized, it has as referents several signifieds which are abstract derivatives of the original signifieds. I will discuss as an example the gestural expressions related to aggressiveness. The primitive, childish, essential feelings of well-being and discomfort seem originally to be judgmental pairs: yes-no, agreeable-disagreeable, good-bad, right-wrong, beautiful-ugly, true-false, progressing toward abstraction. The judgment applies to an object in a broad sense, an event, an idea, a person, or a verbal or nonverbal act. But the object must be assumed to exist! We will distinguish three parameters: the evaluation of existence (certainty-doubt-disbelief), the evaluation of quality (perfection mediocrity nothingness),and finally the evaluation of interaction (agreement-disagreement).With regard to the quality of behavior to which a moral value is attached, we find, at least among the French, that the gestural references to positive qualities are few, while indications of faults are numerous. There are more than thirty of the latter, almost all of which illustrate figurative expressions; they will not be dealt with here (see Calbris and Montredon 1986).

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Time The spatial expression of time is overwhelmingly evident on the verbal level. The notions of length or duration, path, interruption, localization, point of departure, point of arrival, limit, interval, distance, sequel or prolongation, posteriority or anteriority are expressed identically in space and in time. The same prepositions, verbs, and adverbs are used indifferently in both domains (Table 20). In addition to spatialization there is the notion of objectivizing, both of which are evident in this sentence: 'In quick succession, in the space of fifteen days, two films starring Jane Birkin . . .'(Figaro TV, March 25, 1981). Time, assimilated with space (en l'espace dein the space of), is cut into individual units like objects (15 days). Our mental universe is an imaginary space replicating our conception of a physical world of material objects in spatial relation, and most of our concepts are physical metaphors (Whorf 1956: 155; Lakoff 1980) made explicit by a gesture: Since non-spatial experiences are most often evoked in spatial terms, we can see how a gesture constitutes an illustration that is fully appropriate for reinforcing and clarifying this type of metaphor. We can immediately hypothesize that an abundance of spatial metaphors in a given language must he accompanied by the extensive use of gestures for expression. (Claudot 1978) Whorf's comparison of S.A.E. (Standard Average European) languages with the Hopi language brings out the interconnectedness of the linguistic, gestural, and cognitive aspects of a culture, and hence the relativity of our conception of the physical and mental world. While French tends to objectivize and spatialize, Hopi analyzes 'reality largely in terms of EVENTS (or better, ''eventing"), referred to in two ways, objective and subjective' (Whorf 1956: 147). Our identical expression of space and time is particularly revealing of the metaphorical process mentioned. But how does one gesturally render the different temporal notions? What are the major dichotomies and nuances established, and the possibilities of substitution? The gestural transposition of the relationships between notions is subtle. An arbitrary moment will be localized differently from the present moment, and the expression of duration will not be reducible to the sole expression of a distance measured.

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Page 86 Table 20. Verbal-spatial expression of time SPACE

TIME long - long

a long rod

a long sick-leave

lengthen a dress by letting out the hem the days are lengthening court - short a short dress

Life is short

Dresses are getting shorter

The days are getting shorter

cours, continuité - course, continuity the course of a river

the course of the seasons

a continuous line

a continuous noise coupure - break, division

He broke his finger

break with your past

divide a room with partitions

divide up the day

où, là, ici - where, there (here), here [The temporal use of these words in French is not limited to colloquial diction as it is in English.] I found it where I had left it

This is the point where he comes in

I'm staying there

There he stopped his story to light his pipe

up to here (this place)

up to here (now)

from here to Paris

from here on dans - in

He is in his room

That happened to him in his childhood en - in

They put him in prison

It was in December

à partir de, depuis - from...on, from traffic jams from Paris on

from now on

sent from [depuis] Marseilles

since [depuis] March 15

jusque - to/until jusqu'à Paris (to Paris)

jusqu'à mardi (until Tuesday)

jusqu'ici (to here)

jusqu'ici (until now) depuis... jusqu'à, de ...à - from ... to

from high to low

from morning to night

from Paris to Marseilles

from Monday to Friday

loin, lointain, éloigné - far away, distant, remote see or hear from far away

a day not far away

travel to a distant country

in the distant future

in a remote town

remote ancestors pas loin de - not far from

not far from Paris

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Table 20. Continued proche, près de - near, close to very near Paris

He is near to retiring

We were close to theSpanish summits

It's getting close to midnight

suite - series a series of museums

History is a series of horrors s'étendre sur - stretch over

Clouds stretched over the sky

The trial stretched over several months

après, postérieur, suivre - after, posterior, follow run after someone

after 10 o'clock

after the bridge

the afternoon, the day after tomorrow

posterior of the scapula

a posterior date

the next person in line

next Sunday

avant, antéieur, précéder - before, anterior, precede the page before

the day before yesterday

I went further down the corridor

further into the night

anterior of the scapula

reestablish an anterior state

The vanguard precedes the rest of the troopsThe cause precedes the effect Localization Localization with Respect to the Present: Future, Past, and Present (Figure 8) In European cultures, the future is in the direction of walking or writing, that is forward or to the right. It may be FUTURE. situated either by a movement of the chin lifted forward to designate a date in the future (Ah Roland, * I'm supposed to see him Tuesday or Wednesday) or by a forward leap of the hand or forefinger (Two-and-a-half million unemployed * very soon). This jump or movement of transfer is clearly appropriate for expressing a postponement (We can't put if off *a until next week). PAST. The thumb and/or head turned over the shoulder (Illustration 4) situates the recent past directly behind the speaker (* There in the interview I did this morning), while the hand and/or the head raised high and backwards (Illustration 5) situates the distant past far behind the speaker (* Years ago). In the first case the movement is small and quick; in the second it is ample and slow. We note an analogical association of height with distance in time, like the one found by Morris in certain tribal societies, where distance is given by the angle that the forefinger makes with the ground: If I ask, 'Where is the nearest waterhole?' and it is close by, the forefinger will point almost horizontally; but if it is far away, then the forefinger will be

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Figure 8-Gestural localization of time with respect to the present moment.

Illustration 4. Recent past. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 140, by permission of CLE International tilted slightly upwards. The farther away it is, the higher the pointing finger is tilted up, just as an arrow would be fired higher to make it go farther. (Morris 1977: 65) The same analogical principle is found transposed into time: the thumb horizontal for the recent past, the hand raised high backward for the distant past.

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Illustration 5. Distant past. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 140, by permission of CLE International PRESENT. In contrast with the future and the past, and hence neither forward nor backward, the present is at the feet of the speaker and is indicated by a downward movement of either the head, the forefinger, or one or two hands. Here are examples of each of these cases: No, no, * this morning.Decisions * right away.The means have never been excessive, ** for the time being. Our mode of temporal localization is cultural. In certain African cultures, the future is associated with posterity and hence is mentally situated behind oneself (Calame-Griaule 1987:203). Localization with respect to a given moment: posteriority, anteriority An event in the future (i.e., posterior) with respect to a given moment is represented by a 'forward' leap, toward either the front or the right (* Three days later, he had come back). Inversely, an anterior event is illustrated by a backward leap, toward oneself from the front (I had told you * the year before) or from the right (Provided that you do a very good summary * of the preceding chapters). Figure 9 depicts the possibility of transferring the movement from the sagittal to the frontal plane. Indeed, the head can situate posteriority to the right and anteriority to the left. The advantage of this axis is that it allows a dual reference to anteriority and posteriority within the same statement, expressed respectively by a leftward *l or rightward *r movement of either the hand (The epidemic either *lpreceded or *rfollowed ...) or the head (*l Before or *r after the second round in the elections). REPETITION. The illustration of this notion presents an interesting case.The idea of starting again is accompanied by a hop of the forefinger or the

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Figure 9 - Gestural localization of time with respect to a given moment. hand either forward into the future, alluding to the second time (So that it * can be reworked afterward), or backward into the past, to start from zero (It's from that angle * that I wanted to reconsider the preceding question). The circle is a way of, returning to the starting point without going backward, in order to continue once again (Even if we think that the product * will need revision). Several loops depict a regularly reiterated phenomenon (* Twice, three times, several times.Like me, * every day). Perpetuity is usually evoked by turning the hands one around the other (Which is why she * endlessly manipulates . . .). Duration MEASURE OF TIME. A span of time to be measured is likened to a distance covered from left to right: [right hand placed on the left] From the 17th [hand moved to the right] to the 25th, for one week, we will be at the Tête d'Or Theater. Or else to a distance marked off by parallel limits given by (1) the two hands wide apart in the case of a long time interval (The inheritance tax will be paid * over ten years. It's not a question of working * so many hours), or (2) the thumb and forefinger for a brief period (I know what the pilot was able to tell me * in forty seconds). A time limit is depicted as a barrier against which one runs up, by the palm of the hand whose edge slides forward a certain distance. The long term is not illustrated by a longer distance, farther in front of oneself, but by a slower movement. The representation of a segmented succession is similar to slicing. This gesture was used by a professor to concretize a forgotten word: What do you call those publications printed * as they go along . . . ? Someone prompts: Serial! COURSE OF TIME. One is tempted to suppose that it is because the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, reappears in the east, etc., that any sequence or succession in time is likened to a circular movement. The course of time, its unfolding, the cycle of seasons, the repetition of events, and the succession of events are represented by one or more vertical loops moving

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forward in a progressive unraveling: No paid programs * for retraining (Fr. se recycler).But we thought the idea * had run its course.Fr. Looking more closely, one finds that the notions of transformation, alternating succession or chain of events are often depicted by repeating a given circle, with the hands turning one around the other: I mean that mechanization * has changed human relationships.It was transformed * into a different post.That forces * a rotation within the company. When you're * caught up in something, you've got to keep progressing. The idea of change or transformation implies the replacement of one element by another which partly resembles the first and is partly different from it. Similarly, there is substitution or replacement in an alternating succession of turns or shifts. Finally, there is interlocking, the interconnection of elements in a mechanistic chain. These notions of substitution, replacement, and interlocking suppose two elements, hence the use of both hands. The desire to start again, the search for the origin, lead us to work backward in time. Backward unraveling is depicted by one hand which draws one or more backward loops. A loop drawn counterclockwise brings us back to the beginning, to the origin:: . . and since there is a constant rebirth [inward sagittal circle repeated on itself] of faith within the Church. Here, rebirth is depicted by the movement back toward oneself, and constant renewal by the repeated circle. While the notion of anteriority is rendered by a single leap backward, distant anteriority is depicted by a curve extended backward in the form of vertical loops corresponding to the unfolding of time: . . .who * already had access to culture. The same gesture applies to provenance, the time which has passed between the present moment and the moment of origin: You know that legitimate defense organizations * were born out of an instinct for personal vengeance.I think it might be necessary * to go back further in order to understand. Table 21 gives a synthesis of gestural depictions of duration. The figure is based on the original dichotomy: a curved representation for the flow of time, and a straight line to measure it. Continuity is illustrated with the same gestural distinction according as the process in question is perceived as evolutive and changing or felt to be stagnant, simply a prolongation of state. Finally, the same contrast distinguishes a succession of elements that alternate in turn or are linked by a chain of events from an intermittent succession of segments (Chapter 3, Opposition of / to )). This cultural assimilation of space and time seems to occur on all levels, and is found in our social use of these notions. Hall (1966: 173) distinguishes monochronic, noncontact cultures from polychronic, contact ones. He observes the same use of space and time, centralized and synthetic

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Table 21. Duration.

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among the first, segmented and analytical among the second. For example, a speaker from a Mediterranean culture tends to place himself very close to his partner, whom he touches, looks at, even smells; he may perform several activities simultaneously (polychronicity). In contrast, an American, for whom the urban and domestic use of space is different, and who tends to keep a greater physical distance from others, tends to fix a time and specify a place for a given action (monochronicity).

Aggressiveness Aggressiveness can take several formsincluding sexual onesdepending on its object. It is generally directed outward, but can sometimes be turned on oneself. Cluster of signifieds The fist, a natural weapon, strikes the air: shaken, it is a threat; raised, a call to the fight; jabbed out at waist-level, it accompanies vengeful repartee, a cutting remark; mime-boxing is a playful way to indicate an aggressive reaction to someone; lastly, striking the table with one's fist aims to intimidate someone, to stop him before one reacts violently. By a role reversal, our own hand may represent the adversary, a person against whom, or fate against which, we rebel. Punching a palm, very common in comic strips, depicts among other things an anticipated fight. The listener is to understand that one has just made a manly decision, that one is ready to fight: * We've got to find the thieves* We must immediately free these poor people. More abstractly, the air punch is polyvalent according as it is implicitly aimed at someone or at an abstraction, such as the word that escapes one's memory. The fist is also a symbol of strength and hardness. Thus it serves to test the resistance of a hard head, strong-willed or imbecilic. With redoubled blows, it tests the chest and becomes a sign of physical superiority. The stance of bravado, fists on hips, probably has the same meaning. Finally, the fist can substitute for the adjectival phrase defer (of iron). A whole network of signifieds is thus covered, according as the strength in question is intended to be used (combative strength), to be held up in the face of an aggressor (resistance), or to restrain a rebel (authority). Consider combative force, which implies going into action. It can be signified by striking the fist against a palm, on a table, or into the air, or simply by clenching the fist(s).

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Does each of these modes have a specific meaning? Here is what we find: punching the palm is most appropriate for an abrupt decision, banging on a table is a sign of exasperation and a desire to act, the air punch expresses a reaction of aggressive energy, and clenching the fists indicates the will to remain steadfast in action. The sexual act is interpreted as an aggression by children (Freud 1942: 95-97) and in language (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 108). One French slang term for it, tirer un coup (lit. to fire a shot), assimilates the penis with an arrow, rifle, or machine-gun. Here is an example: the cover of Lui magazine (July 1982) showed a woman in a G-string on which hung a pencil and a test entitled Est-elle un bon coup? Punching the palm from underneath is a gestural illustration of 'screwing' someone, in particular from behind: l'avoir dans le cul (lit. to get it in the ass), l'avoir dans l'os (to get it in the bone, i.e., the sacrum), l'avoir dans le dos (to get it in the back). Bya role reversal, the gesture evokes either the attitude of the aggressor or of the victim, i.e., deceiving someone, or being deceived by him. Failure symbolized in this way is not necessarily caused by someone. It may be an event or a personal error. For example, an electrician explains to a friend: But if you put the circuits in parallel, * ( = you're fucked!). Another sign of sexual aggression, the punch straight out front the stomach, evokes vengeful repartee: * Bien envoyé * et vlan! (lit. well sent + onomatopoeia, e.g., wham!)They are so used to seeing the weaknesses of others that they forget their own, * et tac, they get beaten. At first sight, the gesture seems to illustrate a punch in the adversary's stomach, i.e., the punch back. But the verbal expression Dans le baba! to which it is often associated, reveals its true motivation. It is vet another representation of sexual aggression, since baba signifies here the female sex organ. This sexual aggression, more natural than from behind, evokes frank vengeance, while the underhand palm punch is synonymous with deceit. But one can also 'be had' by an abstraction: insufficient time, incorrect planning, or an unexpected event. The blow of bad luck is depicted in various ways, e.g., the above gestures of sexual aggression or la tuile (lit. the roofing tile) and la gifle (the slap). For a catastrophe, the hand falls flatly on the top of the head. For a slap in the face by bad luck, the hand strikes the cheek and stays on it. Punishment or self-punishment? One can make an act of contrition, even ironically, by striking the chest three times with the fist: * Mea culpa, mea culpa, mea maxima culpa. Upon forgetting something, making a blunder, or failing at something, one strikes the forehead, mouth, cheek, or thigh. When the blow does not specify the source of error by the area hit, the palm

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is used to represent the entire body of the subject punishing himself. Several variants exist. The palm may be struck by the list, palm, or back of the opposite hand. This last variant might recall a slap. Finally, it seems that instead of using both hands, one of which represents the body, the same thing can be depicted with one hand, abruptly shaken up and down at the moment one becomes aware of one's error. This gesture is analogous to snapping one's fingers*Oh zut!which gives us eight variants, more or less specific and marked, for self-punishment. Network of expressions The gestures which allude to a blow in one way or another are: the hand closed in a fist, the palm hitting some part of the body, clapping once with the hands, snapping the fingers, and even the head when it depicts a blow with the head against something or someone. We thus observe a set of mutual aggressions. The blow is aimed at an object, at oneself, at someone else, or at an abstraction; in each case, it can be made by oneself, someone else, or an abstraction. Thus we have striking (see Table 22): (1) Against something. With a forward jerk of the head, one mimes the head banging against a window for example. A collision is depicted by a single clap. Finally, knocking on the forehead with the fist seems to test its hardness, its lack of flexibility, indicating a simpleton or a stubborn person. Pounding on one's chest with alternating fists tests the strength of the thorax and hence depicts the physical superiority of a King Kong. (2) Against oneselfByoneself: see the eight variants of self-punishment indicated above.By someone else: someone who deceived or 'had' you (underhand punch against the palm) or who knows how to react (fist out from the stomach).By an abstraction: one that played a trick on you and fooled you (fist against palm). (3) Against someone else.Byoneself: Punching the palm from underneath depicts revenge by deceit. Punching the air, perpendicular to the stomach is a sign of vengeful repartee. Brandishing a fist in front of oneself is a threat to someone or a call to combative action. Pounding on a table is a gesture of angry intimidation. Punching the palm from above indicates the decision to fight. Clenching an immobile fist shows resistance to oppression.By someone else: Here again, we find vengeful repartee and deceit, while head-to-head fists depict the conflict between two individuals.-By bad luck which 'screws' and causes failure, or else slaps or destroys the individual. (4) Against an abstraction.Byoneself or someone else: Hitting the palm

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Page 96 Table 22. Semantics of striking Signifiers Fist lowered in air

Cheek slap

Signifieds Something forgotten

Motivation

Interacting elements

Hitting

® self, fate self (2,4)*

Intimidation

® other (3)

Determination

® abstraction (4)

Self-punishment

Hitting

self- ® self (2) ¬ fate (2)

Blunder. Thing forgotten. Fist jabbed out

Fist strikes palm from underneath

Vengeful repartee

Aggression

Vengeful repartee

(repartee)

self ® other (3) ¬ other (2)

To have 'punch'

other ® fate (4)

Triumph - 'Screw someoneSexual ' aggression

self ® other (3)

Failure - 'Get screwed

¬ other (2)

(deceit)

¬ fate (2)

Failure - 'Get screwed Fist strikes palm

Self-punishment: Failure Hitting

self ® self (2)

Combative decision ® other, abstraction (3,4) Hands clapped

Collision

Hitting

thing ® thing (1)

Self-punishment: Failure

self ® self (2)

Vengeance Finger snap

® other (3)

Failure. Thing forgotten

Hitting

self ® self abstraction (2,4)

Fists knocking one against the other

Conflict Conflict

® other (3) Other ® abstraction (4)

Hitting

*Striking : something (1), oneself (2), another person (3), fate (4) from above, or punching the air, depicts a combative decision, a call to struggle, and determination. Sent perpendicular to the stomach, the blow also represents a courageous, dynamic person, someone who has 'punch' (* She had punch.That gave me strength * to react). Pounding the air shows aggressiveness against something that escapes one, for example a name that one can't recall (What's his name *, he looks like X* I don't remember the name of that pilot).-Byan abstraction: The two fists headto-head can represent a conflict not only between two people, but also between two ideas: In fact that's why * there is a tough conflict between the two cultures.

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Judgment Judgment or appraisal is expressed gesturally in different ways according as it concerns the existence of something, the quality of something, or the relationship between people. The gradation of diverse attitudes will be considered from positive to negative. CertaintyDoubtDisbelief There are four gestures for certainty: two with the hand, and two with the head. They cover two different motivations, each of which can be expressed by one hand movement or one head movement (Illustration 6). First motivation: implied double negative. The utterance I'm sure of it is supplemented by a gesture synonymous with No doubt, either the palm raised outward: * Absolutely sure; or a shaking of the head: * (= no doubt) But it is certain that I was influenced by him. Second motivation. The two other gestures express the fact that what is certain cannot but take place. A continuous line illustrates the idea of temporal and logical consequence linked with the notion of certainty. This

Illustration 6. Certainty: (1) Implied double negative and (2) Logical consequence. Illustrations by Zaii for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 123, by permission of CLE International

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line can be drawn by a transverse movement of the palm, held parallel to the ground: * It's a sure thing.** I'm sure I haven't made a mistake, unfortunately. Less often, the line is drawn by a transverse movement of the chin: * If I tell you it's good, believe me, that means it's * really good. Doubt is shown by three lip expressions. (1) Pressing the lips together and lowering the corners. This lip gesture of appraisal, accompanied by a probably interrogatory raising of the chin and eyebrow(s) * is a sign of scepticism, e.g., concerning the resolution of a problem: . . ., Tourist Dupont (John Q. Public) vs. The Ministry of France, * he'll have a hard time winning. (2) Slowly lifting the head, with the puckered lips sucking in air, and with raised eyebrows, expresses prudent scepticism: * That remains to be seen; it's not signed yet. (3) The best known expression of doubt is characterized by a moue, or pushing out of the lips, and wrinkled eyebrows: * What's this you're telling me? All three facial expressions can substitute for speech. Disbelief seems to be shown primarily in casual contexts and in an amused manner. The cliché Mon oeil! (My eye!), which means 'I don't believe you, you're lying,' is illustrated by or replaced by the forefinger pulling down on the lower eyelid. This is the best-known emblem. Sometimes, one might say *Woah, I must be dreaming! A child wonders if he can believe his eyes, rubbing them with his fists, while an adult would stick his head forward and open his eyes wide (several times in a row), acting surprised in a playful or indignant manner, depending on the situation. Another variant of disbelief, showing suspicion that the listener is exaggerating, is to abruptly tilt one's head to the side, but in an amused manner: * Hey, you're exaggerating! Positive-Mediocre-Negative qualities The expression of quality is rich in variations of form and meaning. On the positive end, three signifieds stand out: PERFECTION. The French dictionary Le Robert gives as definitions of' the verb parfaire (to perfect) 'to make complete, finish'; for the adjective parfait 'at the top of' the scale of' values, that which exactly and strictly fits a given concept'; for the adverb parfaitement 'in a perfect manner, absolutely, completely, entirely.' We find in these definitions veiled images of the maximum level (equivalents for pafait: total, complete). Some of the equivalents have negative prefixes (pafait: impeccable, irreproachable, incomparable). It should also be noted that the adjective parfait used in the sense of 'strict' or 'exact' implies precision and meticulousness. As though they referred to the etymology of the word, all the various

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associated gestures confirm that the notion of perfection implies three postulates: Perfection cannot be surpassed. The maximum level is illustrated by a transverse movement of the hand held flat with the palm downward and the fingers joined: His talent is * insane. Another reference to totality and to its judgmental derivative, perfection, is the transverse movement of the chin as though one were sweeping the horizon with one's gaze: And some of them * are remarkable surgeons. Repeated from one side to the other, this lateral movement becomes a shaking of the head: * A very good welcome, very kind. Perfection implies precision. The circle, symbol of perfection (Chapter 3, Visual symbolism of the circle), is formed by the thumb and forefinger which, joined at their tips in a vertical ring, seem to be squeezing something very thin: * Au quart de poil (lit. to the quarter of a hair = extremely well, with precision)-** Now that, that's perfection. Perfection is flawless. It has no negative element. This implied double negative is expressed by two gestural variants of negation: raising the hand with the palm outward (That movie? * Remarkable!) or laterally shaking the head (* He was very kind). EXCELLENCE-SUPERIORITY. Some corresponding French expressions are Super, Comme ça, Extra, Champion, Sensass, Chapeau, Du tonnerre. The thumb sticks up, with the hand abruptly frozen at chest level *. A tilt of the head in a sign of admiration (see below) and a click of the tongue sometimes accompany this gesture: My grapes, * extra* Super, the pool!-She makes a bourguignon, * comme ça, a coq au vin, comme ça! Understood by everyone, it is often used in publicity: For all my dishes, Paic Citron, * Brillantissime! We find it everywhere, even on French T-shirts where Snoopy, thumb up, exclaims: C'est chié! ADMIRATION. Wonder is expressed by a panoramic movement of the hand in a frontal plane, as if tracing a rainbow: . . . for which ** I have immense admiration.There are pictures, things ** really superb.A program that is brilliant in fact, * that he wrote with a lot of panache. Or else one bows before the object of admiration. The tipping of the head * is often accompanied by an expression of oral appraisal. As though to taste something, the lips are pressed together with the corners turned down: Well I must say, * they've made progress in surgery. Another example: faced with the list of an actor's prestigious partners, an actress performs the same mouth expression and repeatedly nods her head. One may note that the lip movement is the same for scepticism and admiration. The nod lifts the ambiguity concerning the possible negative character of the facial expression.

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The French expressions of admirative homage, chapeau bas, tirer son chapeau, and coup de chapeau ('Hats off'), are illustrated by lifting off an imaginary hat. An ethnologist talking about pygmies: * And I take my, hat off to them; to live in the forest, you have to be a superior man. Du nanan! A croquer! The gesture which illustrates these expressions of devouring (both gourmandizing and erotic) also indicates delight: the fingers are pursed next to the lips, sometimes actually kissed, and then separated and projected forward. An actress talks thus of her work on the stage, once the stage fright has passed: But when it's over; * marvelous! A woman comments on an exotic cocktail recipe: * It's fantastic. Renown is expressed by one or two hands raised high in profile, with a smiling face and the head often tipped backward to better exclaim. An old man vaunts * the famous Raz Point.He was the son ** of the famous Virginia. She was * pretty, my dear woman. Thus, to admire is to describe the beauty (rainbow) or greatness (raised hands and head) of that before which one bows or that which one wishes to gobble up. The end of a performance, a particular situation, is generally hailed by more or less ardent and prolonged applause. To increase the praise, which is measured by the sound level, an enthusiastic crowd pounds the floor in time while continuing to applaud. Mediocrity is generally signified by (1) a gesture of approximation in which the hand, with spread fingers, oscillates by a rotary movement of the wrist: Did you like it? * More or less, so-so. It can also be indicated by (2) the pursed-lips expression of doubt already mentioned: Doing all right? Mm, * yeah. (3) A sign of questioning concerning the value to be accorded to something, with the eyebrows moderately raised: * We'll have to see. This euphemistic expression can be somewhat haughty. (4) Shrugging the shoulders to indicate the meager value attributed to the object in question. It is judged ordinary: Did you think that was good? Good enough, * nothing special. (5) Acting blasé, which suggests disgust, weariness, and indifference together. Lowering the jaw and contracting the chin muscle pull the corners of the mouth downward *. Often, the eyebrows are raised while the eyelids are lowered, as if weariness prevented their being opened: * Bof, nothing exciting.He's not, * he's not a great actor. Negative judgment is also very diversified. However, it seems to come down essentially to a depiction of emptiness by a projection of air or an illustration of negative verbal expressions. It is given by: (1) Noisily sticking

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out the lower lip: * Ppp, that doesn't get very far. (2) More or less noisily deflating one or both cheeks *, sometimes accompanied by a sigh of fatigue: Are you kidding, * nothing but hot air, not worth a thing. (3) Slightly pursing the lips and blowing out through the nose *, with the eyebrows raised and eyelids lowered: *Pff, insignificant. (4) Wrinkling the nose ( = that smells bad): * I don't like that. (5) Raising the eyes (and hand) toward the sky, as if to call it to witness. More typical and more marked, this expression implies: Ah Lord, don't tell me! (6) Often tied to this eye expression and to a smirk, the lateral shaking of the head * substitutes for a negative utterance, 'Isn't that unfortunate,' 'Unbelievable.' (7) Finally, the particular case of the zero grade: the number 0 is formed with the thumb and forefingeror with the thumb and middle fingerjoined in a vertical ring. Confusion with the gesture of perfection is avoided essentially by the negative facial expression. Agreement-Disagreement Agreement on some point of discourse is shown by abruptly moving the upward-facing hand, fingers joined, or the forefinger toward the speaker to show or point out the element approved. A woman confirms an opinion about a third person: * That's it, that's what's blocking her. Confirmation is generally indicated by tipping the head forward or, more discreetly, by simply lowering the eyelids, both of which signs are derived from attitudes of submission (Chapter 3, Specificity of the head). As for verbal expressions of approbation, 'entirely,' 'absolutely,' since they refer to the notion of totality, they are generally accompanied by a lateral shaking or transverse movement of the head. Agreement by capitulation, an amusing case, involves raising the palm(s) outward, a way of giving in to the argument of the speaker: Fine ** O.K. Two partners in a transaction come to an agreement; the handshake seals the contract between two businessmen, for example, while a deal between two people at a French country fair or between two buddies will be set by a Tope là, one person slapping the outstretched palm of the other. Disagreement may concern an idea put forth, an offer made or a service requested by the speaker. In the first case, the palm is raised outward: * That is out of the question.Oh * forget about calm, at night, they've got lots of noise. The forefinger can substitute for the hand: Ah, excuse me, * that's not what it was. Finally, pulling the head back is another sign of objection: * What? Yes, it is! Declining an offer by raising the palm outward is equivalent to 'No thank

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you', and is more polite if it is accompanied by a smile and a lateral cock of the head. The refusal of a cigarette or refusal of responsibility are shown similarly, with the palm forward. There is however a nuance that indicates whether the reason for the refusal is self-protecting prudence or disinterest. In the first case, the speaker simply raises his palms *, often leaning back: That's all I'm saying, * that's it ( don't put words in my mouth). In the second, illustrating a cliché referring to Pontius Pilate, he pretends to wash his hands * and then raises them outward: . . . while Mr. Barre started by saying: * I wash my hands of it. The refusal can be modulated: with a smile, the outward palm will be interpreted as polite refusal; with a sneer, as disgust; with the head thrown backward, as categorical or offended; with a grimace of nausea, eyes closed, eyelids wrinkled, and head turned away, as the strongest mark of disgust (Illustration 7). The refusal of a request is essentially signified by the accompanying attitude, e.g., offhandedness, vulgarity, or mockery. In an offhand manner, the speaker seems to throw something behind himself: (1) Over the shoulder. Can you replace him? Oh * I've got better things to do.-No, I've had it, * I couldn't care less. (2) Or past the side of the shoulder. This finicky approach, * we've had more than enough. The gesture is optionally supplemented by a facial expression of rejection: a moue, a smirk, or a puffed up (and deflated) cheek. This very common sign, performed by

Illustration 7. Refusal. Illustration by Zati for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 123, by permission of CLE International

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Illustration 8. Le bras d'honneurPhallic Forearm Jerk. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 103, by permission of CLE International children, and by men and women of all ages, accompanies or replaces one of the following expressions: Des nèfles, Tintin, Tu repasseras, Tu peux toujours courir, te gratter, te fouiller, Va te faire foutre. A sign of obscene derision, the phallic forearm jerk * (Illustration 8) becomes for some people simply a sign of offhand refusal. Come on, she's waiting for us at the supermarket. An adolescent answers: * . From an apartment, somebody shouts out at two bums, Hey, you guys shut your mouths. They answer simultaneously with a forearm jerk. In response to a proposition for a joint project, the gesture corresponding to 'My eye,' implying 'don't count on my participation,' becomes mocking refusal. Sticking out one's tongue is a casual and teasing way to refuse. Sacha Guitry used this gesture in one of his plays (Le mot de Cambronne) toward his English wife, to whom he did not want to reveal a vulgar word. The various gestures illustrating verbal clichés for privation, such as Que dalle, t'auras rien, pas un sou; Tu peux te serrer la ceinture; Ça te passera sous le nez, which also serve for refusal, have a vindictive edge to them. Further expressions of negation are considered below from the point of view of motivation (Chapter 6, Variants of negation).

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V MIMIC REPRESENTATION Henceforth concerned with questions of motivation, I begin with mimic gestures, the iconic character of which is evident. In the following chapter, the motivation of non-mimic gestures will be studied. During the summer of 1978, one of the TV programs of Alain Bombard dealt with historic shipwrecks. He recreated the events for us with many gestures, ample and symmetric. Thrown together were gestures portraying objects, gestures reproducing movements, and gestures giving the concrete origin of words taken in their abstract meaning. I note here only those which reproduce movements. Palm forward, the narrator plugs holes in the ship or sends it running before the wind. Forefinger pointed, he puts in new stainless steel bolts. With a repeated movement of the face-up hands, he brings up the Wasa. Later, his cupped hands pressed around the hull of a ship make it run gunwale under. His rounded arms come together to clamp down on it. He punches forward: the Titanic has just received a violent jolt. His hand stretches upward as the ship's bow rises up before she goes under, hand pointing down. Apart from the representation of movement, as in the above examples, mimetic gestures reproduce either the shape and dimensions of an object, the way it is held and used, or its operation. Also on the concrete level, certain gestures localize an area of pain on the body and comfort it with 'mananupuncture.' Is the reason physical or psychological? Sometimes one holds one's stomach to signify, not that one is hungry or has eaten too much, but annoyance and irritation (That gives me a sour stomach), anxiety or fear (It makes my head spin), or moral disgust (Disgusting, what he did). The passage from the physical signification, I had trouble digesting, to the psychological signification, It's horrible, occurs through a psychosomatic reaction: the event is horrible to the point of making one vomit. Similarly, sentences like You really scared me!That went straight to my heartThat broke my heartcan be said with the hand on the heart, given the cardiac reactions provoked by emotions such as surprise, joy, and grief. These psycho-

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somatic symptoms linking the physical with the psychological explain the transition toward metaphorical gestures which concretely signify an abstract reality. Having given these samples, I propose to show that mimic gestures are not shared by all and obey certain principles of symbolizing. Conventionality Mimetic gestures are conventional. To telephone (Illustration 9), a French person mimes, in a single gesture, the grip of the caller (digits 234 folded on the palm), the shape of the receiver (digits 15 spread), and the use of the phone (next to the ear and mouth), while a Neapolitan dials the number (small alternating circular movements) in order to be heard (in front of the ear). To evoke a drink, a Hungarian mimes drinking from a glass (cylindrically held hand lifted to the mouth), while the French, in addition to this gesture, can also drink à la régalade (head back, thumb pointing toward the mouth) as in on va s'en jeter un derrière la cravate (lit. We're going to throw one behind the tie). The first gesture refers to the container; the second depicts the contents. These are thus two ways to refer to the same notion, while in another culture, the distinction between the gestures relating to different functions might express different usage. In Bali, for example, there are separate distinguished and common ways to eat: thumb against fingers of

Illustration 9. Telephone. Illustration by Zaii for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 138, by permission of CLE International

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the right hand (distinguished), eating from the palm of the right hand (common) (Pelosse 1956). Encoding Size is encoded. One forefinger cuts the other at the first joint to indicate a small size: The rocks were no bigger than that. A pejorative reference to a very small size or quantitynot even that much, no bigger than thisisdepicted by part of a fingernail or finger. Onto concrete size, there seems to be superposed here a representation of the verbal symbolism in un bout de (a piece of), bout being literally the end or tip of something, since the same size can be represented by a separation between the thumb and forefinger. While a separation of 1 to 2 cm is reserved for a small quantity, 'a little bit,' one of 4 * to 7 cm represents a small size: Someone gave me a small sample of perfume *, and I brought it for you. The size of larger objects is depicted not by a separation of the fingers, but by a distance between the handsoften held at arm's length *proportional to the dimension evoked: We had * the big maroon suitcase. Encoded gestural measurements, which rarely correspond to real dimensions, thus distinguish the minute from the very small and small, and the relatively large from the largest. Etymology-revealing gestures Getting onto a bus, I saw the driver and a friend who was chatting with him simultaneously portray a nose dive with their hands and say together, L'à pic! (a plummet). The friend continues, this time lowering the edge of his hand, It's really * sharp. There are places where the cliff * falls straight down. While the movement is the same, the position of the hand is different. It is logical that for à pic (from piquer, 'sting' or 'go into a dive'), the tips of the fingers form a point which dives straight down, while the palm lowered in profile recalls the vertical partition which falls. An unconscious etymological distinction slips into the concrete description. For other examples, see Transfer below (also Chapter 8, Symbolizing the concrete). In certain cases, the speaker's gestures are contrary to what he is saying. For example, an announcer uses a gesture of substitution when he explains the absence of substitution: This embargo is aimed * at not substituting European sales for. . . Has he been led to absurdity by the animating function of gesture? I see rather a conflict between the various roles of gesturing, the requirement for etymological concretization of a word winning out over one of its psychological functions for the listener, i.e., to represent reality to him. The etymological role prevails over the principle of reality, as the

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following example shows. A television host asks the viewers to send interesting newspaper excerpts to his show. But please, * don't circle them, he says while drawing a frontal circle with his left hand. Obvious pedagogical error. In fact, the speaker is concretizing a notion without intending to stick to reality. In this was, one might go to the point of winding to depict unwinding, another type of contradiction between gesture and utterance. Thus a humorist, in talking of a small and intelligent politician (so many ideas in so little space) with whom the Japanese were so pleased that they wanted to keep him in order to take him apart, mimes the disassembly of a model by screwing to the right. By this gesture, he is simply illustrating the notion of screwing and unscrewing. In the same way, hands turning one around the other in a progressive direction * to depict mixing, represent both mixing up and unraveling or working out: * He worked it out in order to get it by a different treaty. Synthesis The arc of a pony-tail is reproduced by a curve of the hand from the top of the head, with the fingers joined at the tips. Hair in waves is represented by a flat palm with the aligned fingers undulating parallel to the scalp. The gesture does not simply indicate the line. In fact, the clustered fingers suggest the hairs in a pony-tail, and the flat palm the ordered arrangement of waved hair. The gesture attempts to render a synthesis of the relevant characteristics of the physical configuration. Consider two hands cupped over the ears. These two bumps on the ears have no physical reason, but if they were below the ears, they would depict the symmetric swelling of the parotid glands characteristic of the mumps. If the gesture does not refer to a swelling of the ears, it must refer to something on them, such as hair coils or headphones. Even out of context, a viewer would not hesitate, since hair coils have a flat surface, and not a convex one, and hence would be represented by a circular movement of the two forefingers around the ears, a movement which renders both the contour of the surface and the coiling of the hair over the ear. The gesture is thus intended to represent an object with convex surfaces placed on the ears. It indicates both the position of the object on the ears, the symmetric, convex shape, and the movement of putting on the headphones (Illustration 10). The mimed use of an object sometimes gives its shape. Concerning the eyes, one might mime a magnifying glass, a microscope, a telescope, binoculars, or a camera. While the use of a magnifying glass evokes the

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Illustration 10. Synthetic mimic gestures: Headphones, Mumps, Hair coils glass only through the answer to a riddle (What object is held under one eye, with the other eye closed?), the hands which mime the use of binoculars portray them at the same time. Selection An arc may refer to a signified with a circular form in that the gesture depicts only the part that is visible, whether a curve or a surface. For example, a necklace is not depicted by a circle around the neck, but by an arc over the front part of it. Similarly for a bracelet, one reproduces only what covers the exterior part of the wrist. The analogy between the signifier and the physical signified is therefore restricted. This is gestural synecdoche. The movement sometimes portrays or sketches the use of the object: pushing on a helmet, tying a headscarf, throwing a scarf over the shoulder. There is a compromise between miming an action and drawing a shape. The surface of a veil which covers the nose and mouth of a woman, leaving only her eyes visible, is reproduced by one or two palms held sideways in front of the nose and mouth. Held vertically, the hands still hide the nose and mouth, but since they no longer portray the transverse line of the veil, they evoke either a blunder, the giggles, or a sneeze. The position of the hand is relevant. Here is another example, one in which three gestures are compared. A bald spot or monk's tonsure is depicted by drawing a circular contour on the scalp. A skullcap, being a spherical section, is depicted by the convex form of a hand placed on top of the head with the fingers spread. To depict a bump, which has a greater convexity and a smaller circumference, the hand is more cupped and the fingers are closer together. The gestures reproduce the contrast between the contour of a bald spot and the surface of a skullcap, as well as the difference in convexity between a skullcap and a bump. They also portray the contrast in movement: the skullcap is placed on,

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Figure 10 - Gestural representations of a cylinder. the bump grows from. Thus, in order to avoid ambiguity, a gesture takes into account the relevant underlying distinctions. Figure 10 shows the diversity in representing a cylinder depending on whether it is immobile or can be turned or rolled up, and depending on its size. An immobile cylinder is defined by its cross section: the thumb and forefinger joined in a ring (neon tube) or the curved hands close together (a large vase) slide along the imaginary cylinder. Note that the long, straight shape of a pipe or curtain rod would be traced with the forefinger. In contrast, the gestural depiction of a steam roller, a roasting jack, or a hair curler corresponds to the geometrical definition of a cylinder: a solid generated by rotating a straight line about an axis parallel to it. Depending on the object, the entire forearm, the hand, or just the forefinger executes a repeated circular movement parallel to the ground. Note that finger movements correspond to small cylinders, while hand movements correspond to large cylinders. This is an example of a general principle: a manual representation corresponds to large objects, a digital one to small objects. The choice of body element and of movement gives several variants for representing a cylinder according to its size and the way it can be moved. A movement may be divided into two symmetric movements (one? two hands for the contour of an Afro) or on the contrary doubled to better render either the surface (one? two hands for a loose-fitting garment) or the symmetry (two hands descending from the rib cage to the hips for a close-fitting garment). However, the doubling seems to be avoided if it is physically awkward, such as crossing the forearms to represent a pair of puff sleeves. Even when the physical signified is necessarily symmetric, the

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gestural signifier need not be. Symmetry in the latter becomes necessary when there is a distinction between dual and singular in the referent. For example, the representation of rings under one's eyes is optionally symmetric, while that of round eyeglasses or wide open eyes is preferably doubled, since there is a choice between eyeglasses and a monocle, or between goggle eyes and a glass eye. For smaller referents, one or more fingers can be substituted for the hand(s). The tip of one finger replaces the ends of all of them to draw smaller lines; the edge of the forefinger replaces the edge of the hand to cut reduced surfaces; the surface of a finger replaces that of the palm to depict smaller obstacles; the separation between two fingers replaces that between the hands to measure something of smaller dimension, etc. For example, a vacationer recounts his first underwater dive: I saw one hell of a grouper, a fish this big [70 cm between his facing palms]. When I got it of the water. . . [20 cm between his forefingers]. Even smaller distances are measured between the thumb and forefinger held parallel to one another: With a little rum that you find [4 cm between the thumb and forefinger] in small bottles. Cutting with scissors is mimed with the forefinger and middle finger. What about bigger blades? I have seen the edges of hands abruptly crossed in a frontal plane in front of the privates, depicting the movement of pruning shears, to allude to castration. Closing or opening the fingers of one hand is equivalent to moving the two hands closer together or farther apart. Hence an initial whole under pressure and bursting into pieces is depicted either by abruptly opening a hand, projecting the fingers outward, or by abruptly separating side-by-side fists. The explosion is slightly nuanced however: the finger movement better reproduces the image of bursting or of impact: It's better argued, but you see, * the impact isn't quite as good; the fist movement renders more of the unleashing of violence: What slaughter there will be * if all of a sudden, violence is unleashed! Transfer While it evokes something concrete, the act of miming can imply an abstraction, a transfer: in time. Culinary pleasure for example is depicted in the same way whether anticipated, present, or recalled. of person. Here is how a woman relates and mimes to her husband the indulgence of a voyager intent on returning from a cruise with a newfound husband: He was hot [she places her hand on the forehead of her husband facing her], she wiped his forehead [she wipes his forehead], she held

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his hand [she takes his hand]. Thus the listener sometimes becomes a partner in the reported action. More often, the speaker mimes both protagonists in action, for example himself and a policeman: [palm turned outward] I show him my press card; [turning palm toward himself to examine it] he looks at it. of active body part. The act of climbing, running, or crawling implies a synergistic parallel movement of the upper and lower limbs. The various movements are reduced in mimic gestures to those of the upper body. More generally, one observes a transfer upward, the hands for the feet, the shoulders for the hips. It is the palms which avancent à petits pas de loup (lit. move forward with small wolf's steps = stealthily). The fists 'pedal.' Note that in this case, the fists represent the feet on the pedals. 'Accelerator to the floor,' the oblique palm pushes downward. He came out of gear with respect to a certain kind of reality, someone says, reproducing with his hands the movement of a driver's feet in switching gears. The striking similarity between the joints of the fingers and the legs seems to predispose the forefinger and middle finger to depict walking: There was a mean police line, * I crossed the line of protesters. The shoulder movement depicting the swaying walk of a coquettish young woman is a gestural euphemism: * She wriggles like this. Lastly, for skydiving, the hands fall, representing the movement of the whole body. of movement. So, I rented a chain saw, and then I went and *cleared it all out: the hand does not simulate holding the tool, but reproduces the action of the blade, at ground-level. Like a scythe, the edge of the supine hand cuts transversely. This movement, abstracted from concrete reality, illustrates any idea of cutting at the base. Another example: *I drove around (Fr. tourner dans: lit. to turn within) Marseiles for three-quarters of an hour (before being able to leave the city). The gesture does not reproduce holding the steering-wheel (reserved for the act of driving a car), nor the actual path of the car, but the etymology of the expression tourner en rond (go in circles) by a repeated, horizontal, circular movement of the hand. Even when evoking a concrete situation, a gesture does not reproduce the concrete action but the idea abstracted from the concrete reality. Gestural representation of acting and being acted on Several humoristic drawings with the common theme of slaving show the relationships of the body (acting) to the object (acted on) mimed differently for different situations. The actor acting. An old woman mounted on her husband's back is playing the cowboy: Westerns! Westerns. . . . She is miming the use of Colts,

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pulling the trigger with her forefinger. This gesture corresponds more to a game situation than to everyday conversation. The actor 'pre-acting.' They think they're cowboys, they're shooting down. . . . This time, rather than acting on an imaginary Colt, the hand represents a rifle, characterized by a barrel and stock, i.e., a more or less long cylinder in line with a shorter, fatter element. This form can be schematically represented by the closed fist (stock) and extended forefinger (barrel). Since the index is already occupied, serving to represent the barrel, it can no longer pull the only way to show 'acting' on the rifle is to perform the act which precedes, and is corollary to, pulling the trigger, i.e., aiming. The hand-rifle is close to the pressed-back shoulder; one eye is half-closed to allow the other to better sight along the axis of the forefinger-barrel. The object. Why don't we shoot. . . . The body serves only to symbolize the object: the rifles are represented by the closed hands, forefingers extended. Is it the generalization of the 'we' which motivates the multiplication of the rifles and hence the use of both hands? The object and the victim. The only thing left for him is suicide. The killer is his own victim. He holds the revolver to his temple. The result is immediate and certain. Is that why suicide is symbolized by this gesture rather than by a portrayal of slitting the wrists? Dynamic or static characterization of the signified Let us first consider the dynamic characterization of an object or animated being. An object is characterized by its manipulation. It is held in order to be squeezed (tweezers), pressed (a spray bottle), pushed (a carpenter's plane), turned (object with a crank), etc. By holding it, one indicates its form: the concave form of a bowl, the cylindrical form of a glass, the symmetric form of a headset. In addition, one localizes it with respect to the ground and the body, making the gesture easier to decode. Moreover, since the concrete signified often implies a person who acts, the use of an object often evokes either the user, the action, or the tool: a fisherman fishes with a fishing-rod. its use. Hands which move along a transverse line, with the fingers wriggling, evoke a piano. According to the selective procedure mentioned above, an automobile is symbolized by the handling of the steering-wheel, the bicycle by pedaling. However, driving an automobile involves a movement of the feet, and riding a bicycle requires holding the handlebars. The most visible movement is selected. In the same way, a moped or motorcycle

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are depicted by the throttle, i.e., by a bending of the wrists, with the hands closed. Thus, the use of one element can recall the entire object. its operation. A movement of the forearms can reproduce that of the connecting rods of a train. A horizontal circle with the raised forefinger reproduces the typical movement of helicopter blades. We have successively considered an object held in the hand, operated by the hand, or apparently moving by itself. Here is a particular case that seems to be an exception to the rule. Scissors, just like tweezers, a saw, or a hammer, should be identified by their use. But the actual repeated movement of the thumb against the forefinger visually portrays pinching and evokes the use of a stapler. Is it to avoid this confusion that one uses instead the movement of the blades of a pair of scissors (forefinger and middle finger likened to the cutting blades from the pivot point to the tips) as if they moved by themselves in the same sense as the connecting rods of a train? Are animals seen as autonomous beings or objects that are moved? Depending on whether one wishes to evoke horseback-riding or a horse, one describes the horse as an object moved by the reins or as an animated being that gallops. An animal is defined by the way it moves only if this is characteristic: a horse gallops, a flea jumps, a snake crawls, etc. If it lacks a particular mode of locomotion, the animal is mimed by some distinctive behavior: a rabbit constantly wiggles its nose, a monkey scratches itself often. Finally, very young children designate animals by vocal mimicry. The example of Marcel Jousse (1936: 209) is well known: a young country boy from Sarthes tells his mother that the cat has snatched a chicken: Miaou ham co. This imitation in sound is used in poetry: Pour qui sont ces serpents qui sifflent sur vos têtes?, and in music: e.g., Le Carnaval des Animaux by Saint-Saëns and Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf.` In the absence of a specific dynamic characteristic, an animated being or object may have a distinctive static trait, reproduced (1) statically or (2) dynamically. The entire surface of a dome might be depicted by (1) a hand held convex, face down, with the fingers spread, or (2) by drawing a semicircle from left to right with the surface of a hand, or else two symmetric quarter-circles with both hands. To evoke a small, round object, one has the choice between joining the thumb and forefinger in a ring or drawing the circumference with the forefinger. 'Static' or 'dynamic' gesture? Before or after action? All gestures imply movement, even to indicate a state. A dimension is represented by a stopped movement: wideness by separating the hands,

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narrowness by bringing them closer together. A configuration can be portrayed only by one or more movements of some body segment, and the gesture becomes the dynamic representation of a state, or of keeping in the same state: the gesture opposes movement, interrupts it. The outward palms, held vertically, react against (a push or aggression from) the outside. This is a common gesture, originally one of protection, which has come to signify stopping. An obstacle which prevents advancement, conventionally depicted toward the front or to the right, is represented by lowering the vertically held palm, some distance in front of oneself or to the right. The hand may also portray a movement by being placed in readiness. Abruptly raised diagonally to the side, the hand is ready to slap or spank. Similarly, the brandished fist announces a blow. Preparatory to a dangerous action, these gestures become a sign of threat. A state often seems to be considered as the result of a movement. For example, a summit results from a push upward, a heap from accumulation, the top level from elevation: the hand, held horizontally, rises. Thus, instead of illustrating the end result, the gesture recreates the history. Note that neutralization on the gestural level between state and movement is also found on the verbal level. For example, 'in' is used both to localize (ablative), It's in the box, and to indicate direction (accusative), I put it in the box. Space-time interaction We gesturalize time spatially (Chapter 4, Time) and space temporally. The principle is simple. Someone is walking: one step, then others, allow him little by little to cover a certain distance; he needs little time to go a short distance, and a lot of time to go far. The repetition of the movement, or its slowness, evoke time and also distance. By repeatedly throwing his fingers forward, a meteorologist explains that due to the north wind * the clouds will move away during the afternoon. Here is an amusing example: the UPWARD PALM CHOP gesture (see Chapter 1) has a repeated variant often used by adolescents who have done something wrong; the repetition evokes both the urgency and the distance to be covered in order to get far enough away! Similarly, the slowness with which the hand in profile is lifted forward indicates distance: It's a long wayaway! Inversely, we note a transfer from time to space. So, * a brief recapitulation now, proposes a TV newsman. Brevity was rendered not by a rapid movement, but by the smallness of the gesture which commonly illustrates the

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idea of recapitulation, i.e., the hemisphere: he sculpted a very small dome simply by rotating his wrist without moving his forearm. We mime everything that can be characterized by distinctive dynamic or static traits: actions, states, objects, animals, and people. Although it is intended to render concrete reality, mimic gesturing implies the power of abstraction. The abstraction concerns the thing to be characterized (what is the distinctive visible element, and should it be represented dynamically or statically?) and the way it is done (choice of the most appropriate body elements and movements). Mimic gesturing often involves a transfer in time, of person, of element in action, or of movement. Even in evoking a concrete situation, a gesture does not reproduce the concrete action, but the idea abstracted from the concrete reality. The dimensions of objects are mimed according to symbolic norms. Finally, the choice of a gesture is often determined as much by etymology as by the depiction of the object.

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VI THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGNIFIER AND SIGNIFIED MOTIVATION Motivation and conventionality I now return to the question of motivation7 and conventionality partially dealt with from an intercultural viewpoint (Chapter 2, Cultural and iconic nature of gesture) and an analogical one (Chapter 5, Conventionality). Common sense indicates that a gestural sign is motivated when it refers to something concrete, as with mimic gestures, and that it is conventional when it illustrates an abstract notion or a cliché. In fact, a gesture is conventional even when it refers to something concrete. While the principle of mimicry is universal, the mimed elements may not be obvious. The catalogue of mimic gestures is specific to a given culture. This is true for several reasons: physical activities differ, some concrete referents are unique to certain cultures, and the selection of relevant features of a given common activity or notion differs from one group to another. Conventionality is linked to particular choices on the level of the reality signified, whether concrete or psychological, on the level of the signifying gesture, and in the relationship between these two facets of the sign. Different choices on one or other of these levels(a) reality, (b) gesture, (c) relationship established between the twoexplain errors and misinterpretations, but the principle of analogy sometimes allows one to determine the original and culture specific choice. (a) Gesturally inviting someone to sit down differs depending on whether there is a seat or not. In France, one indicates the seat while in Africa, for example in the film Ceddo by Sembène Ousmane, one person invites an7. This subject was treated in Calbris 1987.

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other to sit on the ground by lowering a palm toward the ground several times. (b) We have seen that for a drink, the French have the choice between the container (hand closed around an imaginary glass) and the contents (thumb-liquid poured into the mouth). A Hungarian has no choice: he evokes a drink with the image of a glass. (c) How does one express exasperation or weariness in France and in Greece? The gestures differ while the physical motivation is the same. A person may be denigrated by being assimilated with a temperature that is 'hard to bear.' In both countries, this may be expressed by cooling oneself: in France, by blowing while lifting the eyes and smirking; in Greece, by energetically shaking one's lapel while lifting the head and whistling lightly (Papas 1972: 57). Gestures are always motivated even when their referents are abstract. Generally, the psychological domain is expressed by the physical world from which it comes (Calbris 1985b). The principle is the same for gestures and facial expressions and involves metaphor. But a reflex can only be mimed. Naturally, one passes from physical signification to psychological signification through psychosomatic symptoms. The conventional gesture for a psychological state is linked with the physical reaction of an indicated emotion, localized on the body. A mimetic gesture may be a reproduction, a sketch, an indication, or a symbol of the physical reality which it expresses. Upon analysis, the gesture is always found to be mimetic and conventional, even in its concrete representation, and motivated even in its abstract representation. Motivation and isomorphism Here we are concerned with the correspondence between the signifier and signified as evidenced by the existence of analogous relationships on both levels. The parallelism in phenomenareduction or reinforcement, contrast, shiftingobserved on the physical and semantic levels confirms the strength of the physico-semantic link. Parallel reduction or reinforcement THREAT-WARNING. The parallel attenuation in the signifier and signified in this case is so progressive as to admit of four degrees. As the signified threat weakens, a shift occurs from the real threat of a spanking or slap to a

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Illustrations 11-14. Threat. Threatening warning. Warning. Advice. Illustrations by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 36-37, by permission of CLE International threatening warning, then to a simple warning, and thence to advice or a condition set down. The signifier of threat decreases in parallel: the hand, shaken at first, then simply raised, is replaced by the forefinger, shaken, or raised (Illustrations 11-14).

Hand

shaken Threat (1)

Forefinger

Warning (3)

raised Threatening warning (2) Warning and derivatives: Advice, Condition (4)

(1) Shaking a hand * shows a threat, literally and figuratively: *You'll get a spanking when you get back, you'll see.*You've got to be wary of anarchists, to know if they're out for something. (2) The hand is raised * as if ready to slap: *And that's why I'm telling you, * watch out.* Be careful, he told me. (3) The forefinger shaken sagittally or diagonally * in a sign of warning appears either as a reduced threat or as a repeated indication. This sign is at the midpoint between the two extremes, on both the level of the signifier and that of the signified. Amused, the threat is attenuated: it is

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the forefinger, less 'striking' than the palm, which is shaken. Or what better way to insist on a piece of advice than by gesturally repeating the important information carried by the raised forefinger? * It's unthinkable to let Socialism be questioned.The Champs Elysées is very dangerous at night; * watch out. (4) With the forefinger simply raised *, we move from warning (* Look out, because Martine * doesn't kid around) to an important recommendation which becomes an instruction (* And if you need anything, call me.* But especially, bargain!) itself reduced to a condition set forth (All right, * on the condition that no one know). OUTWARD OPPOSITION. The palm is raised to push back physically, to stop something or someone and to protect oneself (Chapter 6, Single motivation: semantic shifts). The extent of the physically opposed surface appears to be proportional to the strength of the opposition or self-protection symbolized (Figure 11). Raising two hands in front of oneself shows a clear concern for self-protection in the refusal of responsibility (I don't know, ** I take no stance on the death penalty). Here, the gesture is necessarily symmetric. It is optionally so to insist on self-protection (Did you see * how careful I was), refusal, stopping, requesting a break or negation, where it is doubled for greater opposition. Several variants exist to depict incomplete opposition or negation that is not outright. It seems that the negative implication of Ça . .! (lit. That = As for that. . . )is somehow contained in the cupped palm lifted outward. It implies, among other things, denigration, ignorance. As a partial opposition, restriction presents the significant variant of the palm in an oblique plane, raised partially outward (symmetric **): Let's look at the press in foreign capitals, ** in three of them anyway. Another possibility for attenuating: in-

Figure 11- Parallel attenuation in the signifier and signified: Opposition to the outside.

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stead of adjusting the angle, reduce the opposing surface further by raising only one finger, the forefinger, in another common sign of restriction (With me you will fill your mind, * without tiring yourself out). As the indicator finger, the forefinger opposes in order to specify (*Excuse me, but that was not the same thing), while the thumb, the power digit, is raised outward to request a 'time out,' in French: * Pouce! Parallel contrast We distinguish the distant past, 'Years ago!', from the recent past, 'Last week.' One is evoked by the hand and/or head raised high backward, referring to a place far behind oneself; the other is evoked by rapidly pointing the thumb and/or turning the head over one's shoulder, designating a point right behind oneself (Chapter 4, Past). The contrast distant/recent past is rendered by a large/small distance and an ample/reduced, slow/fast movement of a body segment, and for the case of the hand, in whole/in part. The same physical contrast also distinguishes two unfinished lists: 'Not to mention the rest!' from 'And company. . . .The exclamation illustrating a very long list-'Not to mention the rest!'physically merges with the exclamation depicting a great distance in time: 'It's as old as the hills!' Here is another example, taken from curved movements. In going around something, one encircles or encloses it. The circle thus represents the act of revolving around something, the internal nature of something, or enclosure. Each of these three notions presents nuances expressed by a contrast between the horizontal and vertical planes, each implying in its own way an opposition between earth and sky. The concrete versus abstract meanings in the act of turning are associated with a circle depicted on the ground and with a vertical circle, respectively. Moreover, with respect to the internal or closed nature of something, there is a contrast between a static quality, closed in on itself (horizontal circle), and a dynamic quality, an internal movement, which seems to be inspired by the movement of celestial bodies (vertical circle). Depending on whether the statement underlines one or other aspect, autonomous or dynamic for example, the speaker chooses the horizontal or vertical plane. 'TOURNER AUTOUR' (revolve around). Let us consider the case of a problem which 'revolves around' something. It is symbolized

by a horizontal circle if it revolves around Afghanistan. Since a country is at issue, the hand directed downward evokes the ground. The same holds for the following figurative meaning, directly derived

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from the concrete: * II tourne autour du pot (lit. he's circling around the pot = He's beating around the bush).

by a vertical circle if it theoretically revolves around the famines of Louis XIV or is somewhere around 300,000 francs. INTERNAL NATURE. horizontal circle:

The internal, intimate nature derived from the 'circle' of friends around a person is depicted by a

In the compartment, * if people complain . . .And then, * they tell each other.There might be an * internal solutionIn France, in Belgium, * that is, in our countries.

If a dynamic quality is superposed on the internal nature, the circular movement becomes vertical, as in the following two cases. In one way or another, the sentences involve movement within something: * Inside all that, there are interrelations.To create a particular dynamic * within the research center. CLOSED ACTION. The same nuance is maintained when one goes from the notion of interior to that of confinement. For example, during an interview, a philosopher speaking of enclosure unconsciously makes a distinction between

the intimate nature of something closed in on itself, expressed horizontally: Ideology * is closed, self-justifying, and selfcensuring,

and the dynamic notion expressed vertically: They have a common tendency * to be closed, i.e., dogmatic. In short, whether the notion is of revolving around, enclosing, or moving around within, a nuance of self-enclosure or the etymological reference to the earth seems to impose the ground as a reference, while a dynamic component is inspired by celestial movement. Parallel shift TRANSFORMATION. Consider the passage from the notion of condensation or concentration to that of punctiliousness, precision, or perfection (Figure 12: 1-6). To condense is to compress, to reduce to a smaller volume, and figuratively, to reduce, to compact the expression of thought.

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Figure 12 - Parallel shift in signifier and signified. This may be depicted by bringing the facing palms closer together *1 to propose the condensed version of a thesis, for example. It may also be depicted by joining the fingers of both hands, reducing the volume between the hands *2, or by clustering the fingers of one hand together *3: I said to myself, that's exactly *3 the concentrated, condensed phenomenon. The limit of condensation or concentration is the reduction to a point. In fact the same gestureclustering the fingers of one hand with the tips pointing upward, downward, or outward *4is associated with the notions of precision, specificity, and isolated events. Here are some examples: What did you come here to see *4 exactly?We are in a case where there are *4very precise sources of funding.There can be *4 more specific ways . .I say this because it's happened to me *4 at certain times. The analogy is no longer in the reduction of the volume enclosed by the hand, but in the joining of fingertips, forming a point. Note that 'specific' is said of a thing or class having its own laws. It indicates an autonomous element, a particular unity depicted by a circle (an autonomous whole) reduced to a point (particularity). Precision, fineness, and meticulousness are even better illustrated by pinching two fingers together *5, rather than five. The natural pincer of the thumb and forefinger is perfectly made for holding something thin, delicate, minute, or miniscule. The examples are too numerous to give here. The gesture especially precedes the adjectives 'precise,' 'clear-cut,' 'exact,' rigorous,' or the corresponding adverbs, as well as negative expressions synonymous with 'not the slightest,' 'absolutely nothing,' 'none,' 'no one.'

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Exactness and precision are positive qualities associated with perfection. The latter is therefore also represented by joining the tips, or better, the nails of the thumb and forefinger; these are no longer pinched but joined in a ring *6 to form a circle, the image of perfection, and hence admiration: *6 A very clean piece of work.René Clair has had *6 his first big success.*6 Perfect, I tell you. EXTENSION. For curved movements, the shift from one signifier to another involves the extension of an arc to one loop and then to several circles. The forward arc becomes a series of forward loops (progressive), the backward arc a series of backward loops (regressive). The vertical loop * (Figure 13), as an indirect link between two things, represents mediation (I got news * through X). We move progressively from transmission (He is glad * to pass the tools of his trade on to his son) through the means of transmitting or prompting (He gives one idea, * and that brings in another) to the idea of linked succession. This latter is depicted with several vertical loops that evoke a chain of events (Therefore, * that risks setting in motion a chain reaction) or suggest a relay (Will * someone take up where you leave off?). The notion of linked succession is close to that of a mechanism. The latter involves the interlocking of transmission elements: The hands interweave in a circular movement * (When you're * caught in the mechanism, you've got to go on). Time may be alluded to in several ways (Chapter 4, Time). Let us reconsider it from the point of view of repetition: a forward arc, into the future, depicts the 'next time' or 'doing over'; the beginning of a second circle depicts 'one more time' or 'doing again'; and several vertical circles depict a cyclic and continual nature, i.e., habit. Perpetuity seems to require the interweaving of both hands in the same circle, while for uninterrupted renewal it seems that repeating a circle on itself with one hand is preferred. For regressive unfolding, which is also polysemous, we again find the same shift from one signified to another through the addition of one or more circles depicting a path covered. A backward arc *1 depicts anteriority

Figure 13.

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Figure 14 - Parallel extension of the signifier and signified. or returning toward oneself, hence evoking interiority or assimilation. Extending this arc into an unfolding *2, which depicts a temporal or internal path, modulates each of the signifieds (Figure 14). Anteriority becomes greater: I had told you *1 the year before ? I come from a family *2 (hand raised high behind the head) of lawyers (implying several generations of them). A single backward loop becomes a 'return to the source,' a return to the origins: The French press *1 is coming back to this summit meeting at Maastricht ? I think we may have to *2 go farther back in history You know that legitimate defense bodies *2 were born out of the instinct for private revenge. The inward arc depicting interiority (But out of *1 his own humiliation, *1 his body, *1 his flesh...) becomes an interior journey. The circular movement of returning inward *2 is performed near the forehead, the seat of thought, and near the nose, the symbol of intuition. It illustrates the evolution of thought, or more precisely a hypothesis, a conjecture, or suspicion: *2 Couldn't it be this Joseph...? In the same way, if an inward arc can depict assimilation (The author fed that *1 through his personal filter), its extension into circles represents the time necessary to assimilate something learned, for example. Thus, this unfolding movement representative of time distinguishes distant anteriority from plain anteriority, distant origin from the simple notion of return, and interior evolution from the idea of interiority. Motivation and variants The comparison of variants brings out the relationship between the signifier and the signified. Variants concern the diverse, hierarchically organized features of a gesture: direction with or without repetition vehicle: arm, hand(s), digit(s), head, part(s) of the face

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plane: horizontal or vertical (sagittal or frontal) position: direction of fingers, prone or supine hand One observes neutralization and substitution between two or more vehicles for a given movement, between a single movement and a repeated movement for a given vehicle, between the planes in which a given gesture is performed. These permutations between features introduce nuances linked with one of the physico-semantic characteristics of the feature, whether it be a vehicle or a plane. These characteristics are deduced from other signs of which the feature in question is a component. Body segment Table 23 gives a comparative synthesis of substitutes according to their signifying direction (up, down, front, back, etc.). It shows substitutions: between four vehicles: the head, hand, forefinger, and thumb are used indifferently to localize spatially or temporally, to designate concretely or abstractly (localization and designation), or to mime movements in various directions. Each carries a nuance however. between three vehicles: the head, hand, and thumb refer to a position behind, and in doing so evoke numerous signifieds. Of two head movements, one is equivalent to a hand movement, the other to a thumb movement. between two vehicles: the head or hand (vertical axis of Table 23) can be substituted one for the other for an upward movement, a sign of augmentative exclamation (depicting accumulation): for an ample backward movement referring to the distant past, i.e., to an imaginary point situated far behind oneself; for a sideward movement indicating a parenthetical comment for example; for a lateral tipping of the head, situating an anterior event on the left, a posterior event on the right; for a transverse movement, the sign of several signifieds such as totality and perfection, certainty, negation, and ending. It is obvious that while a head movement may be superposed on a hand movement, a movement of the fingers may not. The consequence of this appears in Figure 15. Substituting the thumb or forefinger for the hand, or the thumb for the forefinger, introduces semantic nuances (base of the trihedron), whereas substituting the head for any of these elements introduces nuances of style which do not change the meaning of the message (tip of the trihedron). A head movement alone is more discreet, and the head may take the place of an upper body segment whose movement is impossible or avoided for some reason or other. Situ-

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Page 126 Table 23. Substitutions between head, hand, forefinger, and thumb. HEAD HAND FOREFINGER THUMB UP *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Localization

Miming an upward movement

Augmentative exclamation

Negative exclamation

Negative ellipsis - Ça...! *

*

Stopping *

*

Opposition. Objection DOWN *

*

Concrete localization *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Temporal localization

Miming a downward movement FRONT OR OUT

Designation. Localization *

*

Provocation *

*

*

*

Interpellation

Asking for confirmation *

*

*

*

Point of agreement

Introducing a remark Lifted

Turned

BACK *

*

Concrete localization * Failure through refusal *

*

Failure through challenge * Unfinished enumeration * 'Not to mention the rest' *

*

'X and company' *

*

Distant past *

*

*

*

Recent past

Reference to invisible, unreal IN *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Self-designation

Call: 'Come'

'Follow me'

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Page 127 Table 23. Continued SIDE Abstract localization: * * parenthetical comment RIGHT: Future

* *

LEFT: Past

* *

BOTH SIDES * * Two-sided argument/discourse TRANSVERSE * * Totality. Perfection * * Certainty * * Negation. End

Figure 15 -Nuances in Hand/Forefinger/Thumb substitutions and Head/Hand-Forefinger-Thumb substitutions. ated at different levels of the body, these mutually substitutable elements are often superposed to strengthen the expression. Consider the text in Figure 15. Each of a variety of movements performed with the head or the hand has as referents various signifieds (left column). The thumb and/or head, in a backward movement over the shoulder, refer to the recent past, accompany an unfinished enumeration, point to someone

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or something absent, or signify failure and one form of challenge (right column). The raised head and/or forefinger (center) accompany verbal expressions of increase. However, substituting non-superposable elements one for another (hand-thumbforefinger) introduces nuances of meaning. For example, in the expression of opposition, the hand is reserved for objection, and the forefinger for correction. In the expression of 'one,' the forefinger is reserved for uniqueness, the thumb for priority. In the gesture for stopping, the thumb in place of the hand requests a pause. Finally, in depicting the past, the hand refers to the distant past, the thumb to the recent past. Other cases of substitution arise more from the context. The hand, forefinger, thumb, and head designate, but one might use one or another of these body elements depending on the situation or the intention. The forefinger, pointed and slender, precise and threatening, often designates someone or something in order to command or accuse. The hand, which constitutes a surface rather than a line, presents and offers. Its concrete designations are polite and not imperative, although an ostentatious indicationNow look at that!may be denigrating. Designation Forefinger

Hand(s)

Leave: order

After you: politeness

It's you: accusation Your turn (to speak) You have the floor As X (a colleague) says

As X (a superior) says

This seat

Sit down: polite offer

This plate

Help yourself: polite offer

Look

Now look at that!: denigration

Being more economical for the speaker, quick designation with the head in fact appears impolite, except of course if the hands are occupied. Moreover, provocative designation and challenge are expressed by a 'head slam' (evoking a shock). The thumb easily designates to the side or backward. In other directions, probably because of the symbolic signification of rejection or offhandedness attached to the thumb, its use is cavalier and offhanded, even rude and authoritative: it is the strongest digit. We noted that the use of the hand or head involves nuances of style. However, here is an interesting example of permutation between them for

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an upward movement, the sign of augmentative exclamation (depicting accumulation). The hand is raised in profile at head level: All of these reforms, * and God knows there have been many.With trains going by * until one o'clock in the morning!It's * excessively expensive now! Why does one often prefer only to lift the head backward? Out of discretion? From fatigue? No, it seems to be to better cry out, since the majority of the corresponding utterances are veritable exclamations: * Oh là, it's crowded!But in a northeaster * ouh là là!The temperatures will be rising, and Saturday, * they'll still be rising!* Ah, big question! Plane The best example of nuances in the equivalence between planes deals with the notion of cutting (Figure 16). The edge of the hand cuts space either (a) vertically or (b) horizontally, and may do so in different ways on either plane. Each of these ways specifies a nuance: (a) Vertically. In a sagittal plane, perpendicular to the body, the gesture evokes a physical cutting or the dichotomy between two points of view, while in the frontal plane, parallel to the body, it corresponds more to the notion of rupture. Indeed, the sagittal plane which divides space into left and right halves adds the notion of opposition to that of cutting (the very strong symbolic opposition between left and right is found in several cultures in the religious, social, and political arenas), while the frontal plane, an obstacle in front of the speaker, depicts stopping or a barrier: the border of Russia, the 'wall' between two people of different education, or the breaking off of a contract. (b) Horizontally. With the palm down, the cut, imbued with the other

Figure 16 - Cutting: Variants in different planes.

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significations attached to transverse movements, is complete and definitive and is synonymous with suppression: beheading or literally executing someone, or clear-cut and even slashing opinions. With the palm up, the edge of the hand becomes the blade of a scythe and cuts at the base; the gesture may evoke chopping down trees or razing the town of Praga, or, figuratively, the sapping of an organization by an administrative decision, property developers cut down by a mayoral decision, or a surgery patient taken by the 'Grim Reaper.' Axis The phenomenon of axial variants is particularly evident for temporal localization. The back-to-front axis is replaced by the axis from left to right, the direction in which we write, when the speaker wishes to oppose the temporal notions of anteriority and posteriority in a single sentence (see Figure 9). The contrast is rendered by a seesaw movement of the hand or head, to the left for anteriority, to the right for posteriority (Chapter 4, Localization . . .:posteriority, anteriority). In a more striking transfer, these two orthogonal, horizontal axes may replace the vertical axis, as if the latter fell forward and then rotated clockwise. The notion of improvement, generally situated above, moves forward, i.e., toward the front or right. For a comparative scale, distinguishing for example positive from negative numbers, or opposing top-of-the-line from bottom-ofthe-line products, the transverse axis is preferred. Rather than being localized under the table or behind the speaker, lower levels are placed, much more practically, to the left. In a similar way a politician situates to the right the vote obtained by the communist party, slightly over 16%, and the director of Talbot, interviewed on television, places his top-of the-line cars also on the right. The equivalence between these different axes allows the creation of diagonals which are also equivalent (Figure 17: 1-3). The N-E diagonal, with north in front and east to the right, corresponds to moving forward. While the horizontal oblique *1 depicts progression (progressive unfolding, poste-

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riority, future), a frontal oblique *2 represents the rising diagonal of a diagram: And who will then *2 move up the salary scaleWhen *2 this number increases, and a sagittal oblique *3 depicts a surge or new growth: *3 There was the rise of HitlerYour manager is responsible *3 for your career profile (the gesture depicts both forward advancement and upward promotion). Finally, the resultant of the three directions * seems to be reserved for hope: * Directions and hope for the future, announces a party leader on television, raising his hand along the N-E diagonal. At the same time, this spatial symbolism was depicted on an electoral poster ad by a perspective line rising to the right: Jacques Chirac, hope for the French. The gestural and graphic depictions come together in a single visual symbol, as we have noted for the circle (Chapter 3, Visual symbolism of the circle). It would be interesting to consider the notion of progression in cultures where one writes from right to left, in contrast with our culture. It may be that writing is not the determining factor since for most of these cultures, the right side is the pure, good, or strong side; it has a positive character. Moreover, countries in which a Semitic script is used share the scientific graphical representations (diagrams) of Western countries. Repetition The motivation of a great many repetitive gestures can be deduced from the single-movement variant. As a first example, consider the lateral head shake. This well-known sign of negation, which substitutes for speech, also illustrates the notions of totality and approximation in some utterances: (1) Negation-Refusal. The head is turned to the side to refuse food, or in order not to see or smell something unpleasant. It is a sign of disgusted refusal. The lateral head-shake of denial thus appears as a turning away to one side, then to the other, in a sign of refusal. (2) Totality. While the notion is signified without speaking by a transverse movement of the palm facing down, it can also be signified by a transverse movement of the chin *, as though the speaker were sweeping his gaze across the horizon: * All of the surveys show it.This morning the strike * was total.This process is false, * completely rigged. Another variant, the lateral headshake *, appears as a transverse movement, repeated for insistence. The examples below show that the character of totality is stronger in repeated gestures on both the gestural and verbal levels. The expression of totality is phono-gesturally more marked: It was * absolutely imperative. . . listening to the reviews * which are totally contradictory.* Always, always disinterested.

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(3) Approximation-Interval. The lateral head-shake can also be a concrete representation of the repeated passage between the two limits of an interval, thus defining their separation, the available margin: * It's a ten- to fifteen -year affair.Thirty billion * roughly, if the dollar stays as high. In contrast, the single movement to one side, then to the other, evokes a figurative interval: * But between two downpours, it was hard to tell that Borg was still Borg.* Between 36 and 41 dollars a barrel. Thus, the comparison of various signifieds attached to the lateral headshake shows that this gesture covers not one, but three motivations. The plural motivation of a polysemous gesture is discovered through its single movement variants (Figure 18): (1) as a sign of refusal, it is to be interpreted as an alternately repeated turning away; (2) associated with the idea of totality, it is to be considered as the repetition of a transverse movement which scans the horizon; (3) finally, by laterally shaking one's head, one indicates the interval between two given limits or the approximate margin.

Figure 18 - Polysemy of lateral head-shake. The lateral back-and-forth tipping of the head is another example of a polysemous gesture (Figure 19). It indicates either hesitation or exaggeration. The comparison of signifiers and signifieds shows once again the correspondence between a repeated movement and a single movement.

Figure 19 - Polysemy of lateral head-tip.

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(1) HesitationAlternative. Tipping the head to one side then to the other illustrates an alternative between two contradictory elements: 'Yes or no.' The repetition of the movement expresses a lack of decision, a psychological wavering, often supplemented by a facial expression of doubt. Cocking the head to one side to see 'from a certain angle' expresses a point of view, often restrictive: That's one way of looking at it. The gesture can be further specified by a facial expression of doubt: Yeah, I guess so. In short, the head waver which consists in tilting the head to one side and then to the other seems to say: From this point of view, yes; but from another angle, no. (2) IrritationReaction to exaggeration. An abrupt sideways lowering of the head is a way of insisting on something negative. More precisely, and more commonly, it marks disagreement when someone else exaggerates (Chapter 3, Abrupt lateral lowering). The repeated movement from side to side cannot be as abrupt. It loses some of the strength of disagreement. However, exaggeration is characterized by repetition which finally irritates: It's starting to get tiresome! Too much is too much: the meaning is given by a (slow) back-and-forth tipping of the head, with either a smirk or a sigh of fatigue. Both a concierge complaining of the scorching heat and an assemblyman pointing out the excessive comments of a minister use this gesture. And both without a word. Thus, a single, abrupt movement insists more on disagreement, the desire to stop someone's exaggeration, while the alternating movement, by its repetition, better renders the irritation that exaggeration begins to provoke. Motivation revealed by the variants within a given sign UNION OR ENCLOSURE. To depict union or solidarity, the cupped hands come together face-to-face to join in a single whole. Enclosure may be expressed by the same gesture, but its second variant (bell jar), which consists in symmetrically drawing a hemisphere, indicates that the motivation is different: the curved hands with spread fingers are brought together to form a sphere. VENGEFUL REPARTEE OR SPEED-FORCE-POWER. Jabbing a fist outward from the stomach, with the forearm parallel to the body, is an ambiguous gesture (Illustration 17). It signifies both (1) vengeful repartee, Good shot, Got 'em there, for which the fist jab is often punctuated by an onomatopoeia (Et vlan, et toc, et tac, et paf), or (2) maximum speed or force. The real-life examples show that this power can apply to any device or vehicle: phonograph, heater, fan, bus, sailboat, car. Finally, applied to anything, this notion of maximum becomes the superlative, since the same gesture accompanies

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descriptions of harsh light, sharp cold, or a great commissioner: We made record time * by forcing it.* My car really hauls.It's * (= really very) cold!It was really going *r, the ventilation.Now him, he's a, ** he's a great commissioner. While in both cases there is the idea of force due to the fist, the gesture does not cover the same motivation. To signify a blow landed on an adversary, with a gesture depicting sexual aggressiveness (Chapter 4, Cluster of signifieds) or even a punch in the stomach, the movement is generally single. In the second case, the gesture may be repeated (*r) and suggests the movement of a piston or the power of propulsion. More abstractly, it can be symmetric (**) to symbolize maximum force. Thus when a gesture refers to two different signifieds, the motivation of each signifier can be deduced from the variant presented by one of them. In other words, the different motivations of a polysemous gesture can be deduced from its variants. The variants of negation The numerous expressions of negation (Figure 20: 1-10) provide a complete view of the study of motivation through variants, since the comparison of variants uncovers a network of physico-semic components whose points of intersection seem to determine the nuances. Negation is signified

Figure 20 - Appropriateness of signifier for signified in (physico-semantic ) nuances of negation.

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in ten ways: by a lateral shaking of the head, the hand, or the forefinger; by a transverse movement of the hand (in a horizontal or frontal plane), the forefinger, or the head; or by raising the palm outward. The latter manifestation of opposition may be expressed in a different way by raising the forefinger in a sign of objection, or by pulling back the head with the neck stiff. Thus, the physical features which may be combined are: three vehicles (the head, the hand or its substitute, the forefinger), a particular plane, and two types of movement (transverse movement or shaking). An opposing, objecting nature ('There's not only'; 'But yes it is') is depicted by a movement of backing up or opposition against the outside performed with (1) the head: * But yes, he was working. (2) the hand: Oh, * absolutely not.It must be highly representative, * or else it isn't worth it. (3) the forefinger, which substitutes for the hand when the objection is made in order to specify, i.e., to rectify: Anne Golin, * Golon excuse me.Well goodbye. We'll see each other again in a month, * no, five weeks. The variants with a categorical, absolute, definitive character (none, never, no more, nothing) all have a transverse movement (4) of the head: A minister does not have unlimited resources, * under any regime or * in any government.The method of violence * is never the right method. (5) of the hand in a horizontal plane (Sy): No, * not at all; that doesn't tempt me at all.In that case * I won't say anything else.But when there are 50,000 cases of food poisoning, ** nobody talks about it. (6) of the hand in a frontal plane (Sy): I never understood, * never, * never.Excuse me, ** let's say no more about it. (7) of the forefinger in a frontal plane: * No, you'll never get me. The variants with the palm raised outward are distinguished by their self defensive character, especially when the protecting surface is broadened (6) by a transverse movement (Sy): Excuse me, ** let's say no more about it.* We are not discussing competence; that's not the topic. (9) repeated in a frontal shaking (Sy): Here again, * I'm not taking sides because I don't want to.Oh no, ** especially not that.

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Page 136 Perhaps because their physical insistence is more visible, the shaken variants (of the head or forefinger) are, with the palm raised outward, the only ones that can substitute for speech (Figure 20: 8, 10) (8) lateral head-shake: Is that yours? A young woman answers, *. (10) lateral forefinger-shake: Taxi! calls a pedestrian. The driver who has finished his day answers * from behind the window. In the same silent manner, a concierge forbids a door-to-door salesman to enter the apartment building. A note on the contribution of the substitute: The forefinger, substituting for the palm, is raised or shaken. To the opposition signified by the outward frontal plane, it adds the signifieds of precision and threat, attached respectively to the raised forefinger (in profile) or the shaken forefinger (diagonally). We obtain the following equations: Forefinger

Frontal plane

raised

outward

PRECISION

+ OPPOSITIONOBJECTION

shaken

outward

THREATWARNING

+ OPPOSITION

= CORRECTION

= FORBIDDING

To summarize, in this modulation of signs the limit of substitution is often determined by the relevant physical characteristics of the vehicle. Ultimately, the equivalences between planes, between axes, or between vehicles can be seen as parallel crosssections which constitute several more or less long series of homologous gestures. Each element of a homologous series is however clearly individualized. We enter a world full of nuance, in which one finds a very subtle correspondence between signifier and signified. Nonetheless, from the perfect appropriateness between the two facets of a gestural sign, one must not conclude a unique correspondence between a precise gesture and a notion. Motivation and polysemy Gestural polysemy is intercultural (Morris et al. 1979) and intracultural. Examples abound in the proposed dictionary (appendixes), but the question remains the same: How can we reconcile the fact that there are several

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significations for a given gesture with the notion of an analogical link between the gesture and its various significations? Twoexplanations stand out. Single motivation: semantic shifts In these cases, a unique link exists between the signifier and the signified, but the latter is subject to semantic shifts. For example, here are the signifieds attached with the palm raised outward (Appendix 2: Hand(s) A-3.2/ 1.2.2): 1. Repulsion; 2. Stopping: (1. End; 2. Requesting that someone stop, wait. Urging calm); 3. Restriction; 4. Polite refusal. Opposition. Objection. Negation; 5. Implied negative Ça . . . !; 6. Self protection; 7. Reassuring. Calming; 8. Implicit negation: (1. Agreement; 2. Certainty; 3. Perfection) The palm pushes back (1), stops (2. 1) or asks to stop (2.2), opposes (4). The opposition is sometimes only partial (3. Restriction) or implicit (5. Implied negative). Pushing the hands forward, a self-protecting reflex, has become a sign of selfdefense (6). Perhaps by role reversal, the gesture also serves to reassure someone else (7). To the extent that it is intended to calm, or to contain, the gesture sketches a downward movement and hence is situated more on an oblique plane. It is possible that it also implies a negative form ('Fear nothing'; 'Don't worry') as in the following cases, in which the gesture seems to correspond to a thought that does not appear on the verbal level. For example, one may stop a speaker because one agrees with him. This agreement, expressed with the hands raised in front of oneself, may be a form of defensive surrender: one 'gives in' to the speaker's reasoning (8. 1). Self-protective motivation is negative and always present, even for apparently positive meanings. To the extent that it opposes an implied negation, the outward-raised palm acquiesces: 'I won't say no' (8.1 Agreement), or judges something to be certain: 'Without a doubt' (8.2 Certainty), or perfect: 'Nothing to complain about' (Perfection 8.3). In another example, we have seen that a movement of the hand, head, or thumb directed behind the speaker carries numerous significations depending on whether the gesture localizes concretely, abstractly, or temporally (Chapter 3, Directional symbolism: backward). Concretely, it designates those who follow, suggests backing up, strongly advises someone to get in line. Abstractly, it designates the individual who has trouble following, a line of reasoning for example, or someone who finds himself at the back, such as an unlucky runner; the gesture then becomes one of challenge and signifies the foreseeable failure of someone. It also designates the place left

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behind (departure) or the possible tacit continuation (unfinished enumeration). Moreover, since we do not have eyes at the back of our heads, what is behind us is not visible and thus depicts what is absent, unreal, or virtual (reference to). What about the temporal point of view? Each person has his past behind him, and the distant past is quite logically placed physically farther behind than the recent past. Rather like an epidemic, which spreads as much by leaps as by direct contact, meaning is transmitted by transfers as well as through semantic shifts. The gesture symbolizes a notionoften reduced to a configuration, movement, or (inter)actionwhich applies just as well to oneself as to another, to a concrete object as to an abstract one, and within the world of abstracts, to one level as to another: intellectual or emotional. spatial or temporal, logical or moral. Another possibility: an act in a particular domainsuch as an act of contrition or a military salutebecomes, when transferred into everyday life, an ironic representation. Finally, implied in a more or less roundabout way (implied negative or double negative), the principal meaning of a signified (simple negative) is completely transformed by the inversion: the palm raised outward signifies refusal, 'No,' or defensive agreement, 'I won't say no.' The transfers that prove most fruitful are those from one person to another, those from a person to an object with the same quality, the passage from literal to figurative meaning, and the merging of the spatial and temporal planes. The most striking examples follow. ROLE REVERSAL. The pairs of signifieds expressed by the same gesture are many. One stretches out one's arms to welcome or to entreat, to take someone into one's arms or to be taken into those of another. With heads cocked, kindness answers entreaty, tenderness answers a plea for tenderness. The fist striking the palm from below depicts successful revenge, deceit (screwing someone), or failure through deceit (being screwed). The sidearm gut punch depicts vengeful repartee delivered or received. The tightly clenched fist evokes both authority and the resistance to it. The gestures which correspond respectively to Que dalle!Passer sous le nezPouvoir toujours courir (see Chapter 1) express either refusal or failure due to refusal. SPACE-TIME. The notions of sequence, limit, path, transfer, measure, separation, or localization are spatial-temporal. What follows physically is subsequent in time; an extended line shows continuation in time; a literal or figurative spatial relationship becomes a transfer in time; an obstacle represents a deadline; a distance is the time allotted, etc. (Chapter 4, Time).

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Plural motivation Here multiple links join signifying features of the gesture to the signifieds. A given physical signifier contains several functional signifiers, each attached by an analogical link (or motivation) to the corresponding signified. We have just seen how the lateral head-shake, a sign of negation or totality or approximation, covers three motivations, the motivation of each signified being uncovered through the single-movement variant (Figure 18). The lateral tip of the head constitutes another case (Chapter 3, Examples of tipping the head). According to the examples, the head may be cocked for several reasons: to reproduce an oblique line; unconsciously, to bring the head closer to someone else's shoulder ('softening up'); to see an object 'from a certain angle' (personal, restrictive, possible, or unexpected point of view); to dodge a punch, study the best angle of attack and/or regarder par en dessous (lit. look at from below - concealment, distrust). Here is another example of plural motivation taken from curved movements. A vertical circle indicates a circular shape which may be empty (hoop) or full (dial). It reproduces a circular movement, literally (a car flipping over) or figuratively (snowball effect). It can refer to a type of manipulation (turning a crank) or operation, literally or figuratively (moulin à paroles, lit. word mill = chatterbox). Finally, we have seen how it symbolizes mediation or transmission, animation and internal dynamics, repetition and time (Chapter 3, Symbolism of the circle in verbal communication). But the best example is the transverse movement of the prone hand, which contains five motivations. It depicts: (1) the line of the horizon extending from one side to the other ('Everywhere') or a level ('It's full'); (2) an obstacle with respect to a pushing up (growth) from the ground, or a transverse barrier; (3) a continuous, direct line; (4) a cut or break; (5) a horizontal plane. Note that in the latter case, the movement is slower. Combining the two principles: semantic shifts and plural motivation Nothing precludes combining these two principles of polysemy (Figure 21). A gesture that includes five different motivations can refer to fifteen signifieds. It suffices that semantic shifts occur for one or more of the motivations. This is the case for the gesture above, whose five principal motivations we have just considered. In the first case, the level, considered high or maximum, respectively

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Figure 21- Combination of two principles of polysemy: Plural motivation and semantic shifts. evokes quantity (Every Saturday night, * there was a pack of James Deans) or totality (I will * confess everything** There's some everywhere). These may be physical levels or value judgments. The signifieds corresponding to the latter are the superlative (Claude taught me * an enormous amount because he's * a real professional) and perfection (An * incredible talent* Very good, it's perfect). We thus already have four signifieds derived from a single motivation. The third case is interesting. The continuous and direct line represents the directness of someone or something, for example, directness on the moral level, i.e., the frankness of someone (* And I say this quite frankly). When a thing is involved, we shift from temporal consequence (Every time there's rain, * it makes them come [mosquitos]) to the logical, necessary, obligatory consequence of some fact. From this determinism (* It's mathematical, systematic), we shift to necessity itself or to the obligation to do something (* It's indispensable) due to unavoidable, certain consequences (* It's for sure). The gesture becomes a sign of certainty. The fifth physical aspect of the gesture refers to five or six signifieds. In drawing a horizontal plane, the gesture evokes the surface itself (a table, a plateau, a map), a second surface covering the first (a crust, varnish, an oil stain), laying flat, literally (* Arrange your things neatly on your bed) and figuratively (I think we need to put ** things in a little order), puttingor holdingsomething on the same level (coral showing on the surface of the water, Cagliostro brought to the level of men, the rate of sexual crimes staying the same, stagnation). Finally, the same gesture evokes a planar movement: the hand slides over the surface (rapid sideward or forward movement) or sands it to make it smooth (slow movement).

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Double motivation of a sign The lateral head-shake is a single physical gesture which synthesizes three doubly motivated signs: those of agreement, perfection, and certainty (Figure 22). We shall see that the double motivation of each of these signs can be explained by its polysemy on two levels, that of the signified (semantic shift) and that of the signifier (plural motivation). The double motivation is the product of the two principles of polysemy indicated above. (1) The lateral head-shake often accompanies the expressions Tout à fait (entirely), Absolument (absolutely), or, again as a sign of agreement, implies a double negative 'Yes' (No problem.I won't say no). Note that this emblem of negation can signify its opposite, assent, when it illustrates a verbal cliché of agreement or implies a double negative (- x - = +). It can thus be seen as the repetition of a transverse movement (Totality: 'Entirely') and/or one of turning the head away (Refusal-Negation). It combines two motivations. (2) The same is true when the gesture accompanies the notion of perfection, judgmental derivative of totality (repetition of a transverse movement), or implies a negative form, 'Nothing wrong' (repeated turning away of the head). (3) Finally, as a sign of certainty, the lateral head-shake can also be seen either as the repetition of a transverse movement designating, by a straight line, direct succession or logical consequence, or else as a repeated turning away of the head, since it sometimes implies or accompanies the expression, 'Without a doubt.' This double motivation is confirmed by comparing variants. The lateral head-shake can in fact be considered as the repetition of a transverse movement since both the movement of the head and that of the

Figure 22 - Double motivation of lateral head-shake (), as a signifier of agreement, perfection, and certainty.

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prone hand are both signs of totality and perfection. Moreover, the shaking, like the palm raised outward, expresses agreement, perfection, and certainty through antithetical paraphrases, explicit or implied. Motivation and gestural redundance Here we deal not with the combination of motivations leading to polysemy (qualitative aspect), but with combinations which strengthen a physical expression (quantitative aspect). A gestural expression may be reinforced in various ways. (1) A gestural expression may combine different motivations. Thus the expression of admiration, Ben dis done, super! (Illustration 15) consists in savoring, lips pressed together, corners turned down, the excellence, indicated by raising the prime digit, of a great feat hailed by a forward tip of the head. The various convergent motivations are added one to another on different levels of the body. The same holds for the triple expression of averageness (Illustration 18): the head tipped to the side seems to indicate a restrictive point of view, If you like, and the facial expression carries doubt: Mouais (hesitant 'yes') concerning that which the hand, by its alternating movement, declares to be ambiguous, average, or ultimately, mediocre: So-so. (2) A gestural expression may have a single motivation with several very

Illustration 15. Super! Extra! From Calbris 1987: 85, by Zaü

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different manifestations which may be added together as in the case of refusal (see Chapter 7). Thus, highly marked repulsion involves the hand pushing away, the head turning away and the mouth suggesting vomiting by a grimace of disgust (Illustration 7). For offhand rejection, one has the choice between the hand which throws 'over the shoulder,' the shoulder which, by a quick shrug, throws off something unimportant as if it were a slight burden, and the mouth which, with a flatulent Ppp, depicts the release of gas, of 'nothing.' In reality, the subject strengthens the expression by associating two of its manifestations, the oral 'fart' with, for example, a shrug or a hand over the shoulder. (3) A gestural expression may have a single motivation manifested simultaneously at different levels of the body, generally by the hand and the head (Chapter 6, Body segment). This redundant parallelism has the advantage of allowing the choice of a more or less discreet expression. As an example, consider the expression of powerlessness characterized by a rising and falling movement, or a rising movement stopped in suspension, which depicts futile physical effort at three possible levels of the body: the eyebrow is raised, but without being able to lift the eyelid; the shoulder is shrugged, preferably slowly as if with difficulty; the hand is raised, and let fall limply. The choice or combination of body segments performing the representative movement can be used to give gradation to the expression. There are other ways of doing this. For greater emphasis, the movement becomes broader, or the gesture becomes symmetric. Let us try to schematize the various possibilities. Let the parallel signifiers of powerlessnessraising (then dropping) the eyebrows, shoulders or handsbe represented respectively by 1, 2, 3; let greater amplitude be represented by boldface; and let symmetry be represented by a superscript 2. We note that the expressive range is wide between the weakest, most discrete gesture: 1, and the most emphatic, which accumulates redundant parallelism, breadth of movement and gestural symmetry: 12 + 22 + 32. Thus there appear three possibilities for intensifying an expression: combining convergent motivations, combining different manifestations of a single motivation, and superposing redundant manifestations of a single motivation. Motivation and gestural economy While in the preceding discussion a signified was emphatically illustrated by several signifiers simultaneously, here we have the reverse: a single signifier

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evokes two signifieds. There are different cases, depending on whether the gesture is simple or complex. Economical use of polysemous gestures A polysemous gesture generally evokes one signified at a time, but its polysemy may be exploited to illustrate two signifiers within a single utterance, as the following example proves. The notion of restriction is signified either by the palm(s) (partially) raised outward, or by the index raised to shoulder level. Substituting the forefinger for the hand allows an economical synthesis: Hand: * Even though there are still some great actors. . .He came with a panoply of ** very rudimentary objects. Forefinger: * At least at certain times.* But if you'll permit me, I hope the change . . .* But there are some points I would like to come back to.Amnesty for traffic tickets and suspended licenses, * on certain conditions however* But still, I'm the only one who does.* Unless perhaps the problem is posed in terms of power.* Except here, and this is a great day.Telephone communications within cities will be re-established Sunday, * but any conversation detrimental to the security of the country will be cut offA sword eater, * even though he's a bit young. In comparing the examples, one finds that the hand implies self protection. More precisely, the speaker adds a restriction to his own statement in order to parry (with the hand) a possible attack from someone else. In contrast, additional notions enter the sentences in which restriction is indicated by the forefinger: asking for permission (if you'll permit me), specifying (several points I'd like to go back to), uniqueness (the only one), suggestion (unless perhaps), or importance (but any conversation detrimental . . .). All of these notions are generally accompanied by the raised forefinger. The gesture's polysemy thus allows it to illustrate, in each of the statements, restriction plus one other notion. Economical use of complex gestures A complex gesture is the synthesis of two simple gestures and simultaneously illustrates their signifieds (Sd) by combining the relevant features of their signifiers (Sr) into a single gestural unit. Such a gesture combines information gain with economy of time and movement. Simple gestures are of several types depending on the nature and number of their components: (a) a single directional movement, (b) a particular configuration, or often (c) a set of distinctive traits, i.e., a type of movement (symmetric or not) to be performed with a given body part along a certain

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axis and in a certain plane, or in a specific direction. Thus, most complex gestures can be classified under two headings corresponding to two syntheses of the simple gestures, one being the combination of a movement and a configuration, the other, the combination of two movements. MOVEMENT AND CONFIGURATION (Figure 23: 1-5). Associating a movement, one sign of A, with a configuration, one sign of B, appears to be the most straightforward and natural combination. The product of the signifiers corresponds to the sum of the signifieds: Sr A x Sr B ® Sd A + Sd B. Thisprinciple of combination has already been pointed out: Tunisians, when threatening, often combine these two gestures ['zero' sign and Hand Chop] into a Hand Ring-Chop gesture. The thumb and forefinger form the circle while the other three fingers are held stiffly flattened. In this posture the hand is chopped repeatedly through the air. The message is 'I will kill you tomorrow.' It is a combination of the two parent messages 'worthless' and 'kill.' In effect, the signal says: 'You are so worthless that I will kill you tomorrow.' (Morris: 43) (1) An opening movement of the fists becomes synonymous with forceful extroversion. Thus, while projecting his fists to the sides, an actor explains: * You've got to devote yourself totally ever night; you can't cheat. (2) A movement of exchange outward and inward performed with the fist is synonymous with tough negotiation. A politician, alternately pushing out and drawing back his fist perpendicular to the stomach, comments: * Now we're starting to negotiate heavy! (3) An alternating up-down movement, with the thumb and forefinger joined at the tips *, combines the signification of equilibrium with that of subtlety to indicate a delicate balance. The speaker seems to be lightly moving the pans of a balance with his fingertips: We face catastrophe * whenever the delicate balance between production and consumption is upset. (4) A transverse line drawn symmetrically, with the thumb and forefinger of each hand forming a circle, combines precision, indicated by the configuration of the fingers, with totality, rendered by the transverse movement, to illustrate total, perfect precision: While with Graham Greene, * it was absolutely clear. (5) When the hand lifted far back to express the idea of distance or moving away has the palm exceptionally cupped in the prone position, a negative connotation is added: This is a change for us * because back there. . . ! COMBINATIONS OF MOVEMENTS (Figure 24: 1-5). The partial product of relevant features of two signifiers can suffice to evoke both significations.

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Figure 23 - Complex gestures: Movement and configuration.

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Figure 24 -Complex gestures: Combination of movements.

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The speaker performs a movement of signifier A along the axis, in the plane, or in the direction of signifier B: Sr A (al, a2) ® Sd A Sr B (bl, b2) ® Sd B Sr (al,b2) ® Sd A + Sd B where Sr X(xl, x2) represents signifier X with relevant signifying features x1 and x2. (1) A diverging movement, the sign of opening, generally performed outward, is performed toward the ground, symbolic of the concrete and real, to express opening schools up to the real world. (2) It's a more and more totalizing approach, explains a poet. He gestures in conjunction with his utterance: he begins to draw parallel, sagittal, forward loops with his hands to represent the evolution of the process, while progressively moving them apart to illustrate the 'totalizing' nature of the approach. (3) An actor expresses his view of the scenario by drawing two overlapping circles on a frontal plane with his palms: And all of that * is an absolutely perfect imbroglio. Entanglement is generally represented by the two hands turning one over the other in two interconnected circles in a sagittal plane. Here it is exceptionally represented in a frontal plane. Why? We note that this adds the idea of admiration in the face of perfection, which is generally evoked by a panoramic image or rainbow. (4) Can you tell us what Molière * did during the thirteen years he toured around (Fr. tourner en) France? asks an instructor, drawing with his hand a sagittal circle repeated on itself. The act of 'moving about within' (e.g., a country), in French tourner à l'intérieur, is usually represented by a horizontal circle. A fixed duration (thirteen years) is generally indicated by a spatial separation, but the idea of evolution is rendered, in accordance with its etymology, by one or more sagittal loops. The confrontation of a horizontal circle with loops in a sagittal plane is resolved by repeating a circle on itself in a sagittal plane; this illustrates both the word tourner and the idea of evolution (5) The belittling of something is often illustrated by a forward sequence of vertical loops with the hand: une espèce de petite. . ., un truc de pacotille, une babiole, etc. Combining this gesture with the movement representing anteriority, the President drew loops inward: * It's not the campaign that's been going on these past few days which. . . .By the circular, repetitive, serial movement, the speaker minimizes the denigrating nature of the campaign against him, while the direction of motion points to the beginning of this campaign

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In the above examples, the synthesis of two signifiers is obtained by combining the relevant movement of one with the relevant axis (Ex. 1-2), plane (Ex. 3-4), or direction (Ex. 5) of the other: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

divergent movement of opening, downward (not outward), sequence of loops, transversely (not simply forward), interconnected circles, in a frontal plane (not sagittal), repeated circle, in a vertical plane (not horizontal), vertical loops with one hand, rolling backward (not forward).

OTHER COMPLEX GESTURES (Figure 25: 1-3). Here are examples of gestural synthesis which do not fit into the above headings. (1) A journalist says that François Mitterrand and Valéry Giscard d'Estaing are debating in a closed circuit. His hands are cupped and face each other to form a sphere. This gestural representation is original and synthetic in that it illustrates both the dialog (facing hands) and the closed world

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(sphere). A circuit is generally depicted with a horizontal circle, as is enclosure. Total enclosure is depicted with a sphere, and controversy with the opposition of two elements. The gesture synthesizes all of these signifiers. (2) A philosophy professor speaks to me of a thesis whose structure he finds very appealing. Slowly, he turns his fists one over the other, so that each circle links to the next. The reason is clear from his statement: * The dialectical chain of the thesis was very interesting. The gesture renders not only the chain, but the interplay of the dialectic (between contradictory elements). The conflict between thesis and antithesis is depicted by the fists. The dual and contradictory movement is resolved in a synthetic whole (circle). This slow-motion boxing with rounded movements evokes a very harmonious rhetorical bout. (3) To illustrate at the same time both mixing (hands turning one over the other) and approximation (oscillatory rotation of the cupped, prone palm), a screen-writer and a philosopher perform the same synthesis, that is, an alternating oscillation of the two cupped palms, one behind the other, as though interconnected: (a) a screen writer speaks of the * sort of disarray in which men and women now find themselves, and (b) a philosopher notes: I don't very much like * the term Judeo-Christian (implying: 'this approximate assimilation'). These two examples show that a complex signifier can refer to different combinations (AB-1 or AB2) of the two signifieds which it illustrates. The notions of mixing and approximation evoke (a) a kind of disorder or (b) a rough mixture. We thus have the following equation: Sr(a 1, b2)®Sd A + Sd B?AB-1 or AB-2. We find complex gestures in comic strips. For example, while the acceptance of powerlessness is expressed by completely dropping one's arms, anger or irritation sometimes raise the arms to the horizontal: How do I know? Let's find a telephone and call the insurance company! Calling on heaven as a witness can also involve lifting the powerless arms: But what can you do about it? Thus the conflict between a movement upward and one downward is resolved by holding the arms horizontally and separating them. To summarize, in complex gestures the convergent motivations are combined. Two simple signifiers are joined in a hybrid, either by combining the configuration of one with the movement of the other, by combining the two (contrasting) movements, or else by performing the movement of one in the plane or with the direction of the other. In short, two relevant signifying features, one from each simple gesture, are joined.

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Relationships between motivations After uncovering the analogical link between the signifier and the signified through an examination of gestural variants, it is appropriate to study the various types of relationship that these analogical links may have within the gestural expression. Table 24 presents the various cases met with. I recall the distinction that certain polysemous gestures and complex gestures led us to make between the physical signifier and the functional signifier; a physical signifier (a gesture for example) may contain several functional signifiers (relevant signifying features of the gesture, each of which determines an analogical link). Let us first consider a polysemous gesture. Either it contains only one functional signifier which refers to n signifieds through semantic shifts (single motivation), or it contains several of them, each referring to a different signified (plural motivation). The combination of these two principles of polysemy, that is, semantic shifts superposed on several analogical links, clearly increases the polysemy of a gesture, as in the case discussed above of the transverse movement of the horizontal, prone hand. Moreover, the possibility of these combinations explains the phenomenon of double motivation of a sign, such as that of acquiescence by a lateral head-shake. Let us see what happens for one of the functional signifiers in a polysemous gesture with several analogical links and several signifieds. One often finds that each signified contains a faint hint of the other signifieds, which give it nuances. It is as if a kind of osmosis occurs, imbuing each element lightly with the nature of the others. For example (Figure 26), the transverse movement of the horizontal, prone hand is a sign of a cut or break, a negation, a totality, or the end. The cut or break signified by this movement appears total and definitive. The negation appears categorical, definitive, clear-cut. The finished character of something, expressed by this gesture, becomes synonymous with arrêté (fixed), achevé (terminated), supprimé (deleted). In general, a polysemous gesture becomes monosemous in context. However, it often happens that a speaker takes advantage of the polysemy in a particular situation. For example, to signify both restriction and at the same time singularity, permission, or a condition, he will raise the forefinger. In other similar situations, he would raise the hand to parry a foreseeable objection by adding a restriction. He might instead tip his head to the side to excuse himself for having to weaken the statements of his partner. By

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Figure 26 - Osmosis between the functional signifiers of a polysemous gesture. this synthesis, he allies precision and gestural economy. Another economical procedure is that of the complex gesture, which refers to two signifieds by combining the corresponding functional signifiers into a single physical signifier. Combination by hybridization is only one type of relationship between motivations. The lateral lowering of the head to insist on something negative is a special case from the point of view of motivation: two functional signifiers implied for a single signified. It has been interpreted as a compromise between the sagittal lowering typical of insistence, and the turning away of refusal (Figure 4). In the same way, a lateral lifting of the head corresponds to an exclamation of rejection, expressed by a turning away (refusal) upward (exclamation). The frontal arc may indeed be the resultant of a vertical movement and a movement to the side to refuse something negative. I believe this is corroborated by the gesture of an ascending arc in a frontal plane *, performed as an augmentative exclamation before a negative event (Ah, it was tragic, * oh my!), and by that of a descending arc * also performed to insist on something negative (You detest the city of Marseilles, * I know). The two movements were performed by the same person. The phenomena of convergence and motivational redundance indicated above serve simply for emphasis. Gestural synthesis of the signifier

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Page 153 Table 24. Types of relationship between functional signifiers TYPE OF EXPRESSION

FUNCTIONAL PHYSICAL SIGNIFIERS SIGNIFIER(S) SIGNIFIED(S) ROLE

Polysemous gesture

1

1

N * out of context

N osmosis

1

N out of context

1

2 sometimes Gestural simultaneously economy

Complex gesture 2 hybridization

1

2 simultaneously

Hybrid head movement

2 compromise

1

1

Facial and gestural expression

N convergent convergence

Polysemy

with single motivation Polysemous gesture with plural motivation

N

N

1 reinforced

N

1 reinforced

Gestural redundance

1 repeated redundance

N = number>2. by hybridization, osmosis, compromise, or convergence between several motivationsallows an exact definition of the signified. The world of gestures is comparable to the highly nuanced world of color. Specifying and strengthening a gestural signified correspond by analogy to the nuance and intensity (i.e., the tone and value) of a color.

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VII AN APPLICATION THE MOTIVATION OF REFUSAL Expressing disgust by a grimace, defending oneself by pushing the palm forward, refusing to help by tossing the palm over the shoulder, turning down an invitation by holding the palm outward, correcting a mistake by raising the forefinger, denying something by laterally shaking the head: these physical attitudes and gestures are all variants of refusal or rejection. Comparing and contrasting these gestural and facial expressions gives explanatory indications of motivation and leads to the following 'psychological' interpretation: people quite naturally mime and transfer to the psychological domain the physical discharge of a bothersome object, whether it be in front of them, on them, or in them, and whether the refusal be active or passive (Calbris 1985b). The following gives several of the examples I have observed and which have led me to this point of view. Active refusal One gets rid of an object in front of oneself by pushing away in several directions, like a person going through a jungle might do: repelling by an outward projection of the fingers (several times) *. It is in this way that one frees oneself from having to intervene: It wasn't up to me to do anything, * he has to take care of it himself, puts something off until later: * Problems I'll explain later; or refuses to intervene: Hold on! * I decline any responsibility or this thing. pushing to the side in two ways. (a) The right forearm brushes to the left . to clear a place in front of oneself: Because we'd have to * scratch what was done in '80, and that bothered me, explains a director. An engineer confides that he fears a series of layoffs: As soon as the students are gone, * there'll be some sweeping out. (b) The hand, held in a sagittal plane, pushes to the side * to put a problem 'aside': That * is another affair, declares a teacher at a union

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meeting. Except for some mechanical, * subsidiary measures, explains the presidential candidate. tossing to the ground. The fingers are raised, to be 'dropped' from the wrist in a sign of capitulation: * We'll have to drop it. The gesture is often accompanied by a smirk and a turning away of the head. More energetic, the movement of bending toward the ground is a way of stopping someone who is rattling on or making you laugh too much. throwing behind oneself, also in two possible ways. (a) Either above, with a broad movement of the hand over the shoulder *, like this lawyer during a televised debate: If he doesn't make a commitment, * he should refuse the case! (b) Or on the side, with the fingers folded back onto the face-up palm, at waist height or chest height *, like this woman who decides to stop taking certain medication: It's the only one I'm still taking; the others... . This very common gesture of offhand refusal (Chapter 4, AgreementDisagreement) can be a speech substitute. If the cumbersome object is on oneself, it is removed by shrugging the shoulder(s). A single physical movement corresponds to several different intentions: a shoulder can be raised in a sign of exclamation, or raised to be dropped in a sign of powerlessness, or to slough off some small thing offhandedly. In this shrugtraditionally associated with a blasé attitude (Fr. Bof), with indifference ('I don't give a damn'), or with offhandedness ('Too bad')I see the shedding of a light burden by jerking the shoulder, either because it is uninteresting or because it is beginning to be cumbersome. Something of little esteem is thrown off in a negligent manner, over the shoulder. This offhand rejection is suggested by a 60-year-old woman: I told him, ' * Don't pay any attention!' and adopted by one 50 years old: They're not here, * we can say what we think! Indeed, in both cases, the shoulder shrug might be synonymous with 'It doesn't matter.' rubbing the palms as if to remove dust after manual work, alternately one on the other *. This gesture, a sign of ceasing or ending, is associated with the French expression N, i, ni, fini! and is synonymous with 'Finished,' 'Good riddance.' It often complements a statement, or substitutes for one: As far as I'm concerned, I've done everything I was supposed to on this *, concludes a draftsman. When the bothersome element is internal, certain physiological manifestations are euphemistically transposed: The grimace derived from the vomit reflex corresponds to moral disgust: * That's a disgusting thing to do. Faced with a television program differ-

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ent from what she expected, a friend reacted with a very clear expression of disgust: nose wrinkled, very marked furrow from the nose to the corners of the mouth, upper teeth showing, corners of the lips turned down. Attenuated, the expression becomes a sign of contempt. This attitude, often signified simply by 'eyeing someone up and down,' is sometimes supplemented by a slight nasal exhaling which seems to me to symbolize the release of the insignificant, deprecated element. Signs with an equivalent motivation are found among gypsies, who signify contempt by spitting. They also show how little they make of someone or something by dusting off their coats or hands in mime. Is this a form of offhand rejection analogous to our shrug? To signify Nothing but hot air (depreciation) or Nothing (ignorance), the French mime the release of stomach or intestinal gas: (a) Releasing stomach gas is depicted by loudly deflating the cheek *: But it's bogus; half the time it doesn't work *.I have no idea *. The louder deflating of one or two cheeks using the forefinger and middle fingers stuck together, or either one separately (Illustration 16), is a typical gesture of deprecation which means Ça ne vaut pas tripette ('It's not worth anything') or C'est du bidon (It's bogus). The origin of the latter expression is in the

Illustration 16. Du bidon, du vent!Rubbish, hot air. From Calbris 1985b: 16

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meaning of bidon (belly), originally applied to a puffed-up sheet intended to fool people concerning a quantity of merchandise (Rey and Chantreau 1976: 84). Here are two examples: a young girl asks her boyfriend his opinion on the musical performance of her friends. The boyfriend inflates his cheek, abruptly deflates it by poking it with a forefinger and middle finger stuck together, and then makes a rather negative comment. Another adolescent, after criticizing a text, concludes by pressing his forefingers into his cheeks. (b) Intestinal gas is analogically represented at the opposite end of the digestive tube by a 'mouth fart,' i.e., a noisy projection of the lower lip *, Ppp! This lip noise, highly unpleasant and vulgar to foreign ears, is quite common, and may even be performed on televised literary programs: Pathetic, short-sighted, * ppp!, none of that goes very far (televised sketch).One writer notes, As Céline says, if you're not putting your hide on the page, * ppp, you're not writing.* Ppp, I was completely abandoned, says a filmmaker. This depiction of nothing is also appropriate for situations of ignorance. Concerning Savonarola, Françoise Sagan admits: But that he burned the Forum library, * ppp, I didn't know.Education centered on the learner, * ppp, no one knows what that means, remarks a professor during a televised round-table discussion. The motivation of this common, widely used sign is not conscious for native speakers. Why the jutted lip and noise? The mouth is analogically associated with the anus, the other end of the digestive tract, or with the vagina, another orifice ringed with lips (Fónagy 1970: 114, 124). Several signs prove that these latent analogies are widespread, though differentiated. A Japanese woman must not show her throat when laughing. In France, the rule holds when yawning. In the metro I have seen a middleclass woman use her scarf to hide the wide-open mouth of her ten-year-old son, who was yawning with delight. Passive refusal Many expressions of refusal consist in imitating reflexes. When mimed, the reflex of raising the forearms in front of oneself to push away or protect (Darwin 1872) becomes, with some variation, a sign of self-protection, defense, opposition, etc. The symbolic transfer from the physical to the psychological plane involves, on the one hand, generalization on the level of the signified (RepulsionRepugnance; Self-protectionRefusal of responsibility; StopEnd; RefusalOppositionObjection ; Restriction; Implied negative), and on the other hand, a possible reduction through substitution

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on the level of the gestural signifier; for the forearms one substitutes the hands, then a single hand, then the forefinger or thumb (Figure 11). Repulsion and repugnance are signified by pushing the palm outward. A TV host pushes back the aggressive intolerance of his guest: But * I don't like this intolerance. A researcher pushes away an abhorrent prospect: . . with the risk of going back to being a secretary, * not for anything! The hands are raised in front of oneself to refuse responsibility (Chapter 4, AgreementDisagreement). The speaker raises only one hand when the risk is weaker, such as when he is not or no longer concerned, i.e., when a third party or past event is in question. A young woman speaks of a secretary: And in those cases, * she doesn't dare say anything. A receptionist speaking with a colleague mimes the self-protection that a third person should be prepared for: I'll tell you, euh . . .*, she's going to take a beating. A woman in the street says, I was right * not to go. The examples of raising a hand to object, refuse, or deny are innumerable, and the gesture is very often illustrated in comic strips and billboard advertisements. The negative implication of Ça . . . ! (lit. that) is particularly French. The palm is raised outward while the chin is lifted forward and the eyebrows are raised *. These upward movements of the hand, chin and eyebrows are stopped in suspension. The raised palm is generally cupped, as if the implication were contained in it: * Ah that . . . ! If she had told me that . . . This very conventional, basic gesture is supplemented by a facial expression which specifies the implied attitude, for example, lifting one's eyes upward to denigrate someone, With him. . . ! (it's a guaranteed catastrophe) or insinuate obviousness, That . . . ! (we should have expected), or sticking out the lower lip in ignorance, Now that . . . ! (I don't know). These various physical expressions can substitute for speech. The raised palm stops or requests a stop: * Halt the construction.Before, I did a lot of workshops, then I said * 'Enough.' The thumb, substituting for the hand, does the same. This gesture is common among children to ask that a game be suspended, * Pouce! (lit. thumb), and it can have a figurative meaning. A singer interviewed on television admits the need for a break: You say to yourself, 'What do I want to do? I want a * time out (Fr. faire pouce).' Restriction is partial objection. Correspondingly, the physical opposition of the vertical partition is reduced to an oblique plane or to the surface of one finger (Chapter 6, Parallel reduction or reinforcement). Either the hand is raised proportionally to the restriction (*, *): Here's something * at the fringe, * very much at the fringe of the news. . . , or the raised forefinger partially contradicts: The mother is of Chaouïa origin, * partly.

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Another type of objection is correction. The speaker's partner, or the speaker himself, has made an error. In either case, the speaker raises his forefinger, palm outward, which opposes in order to 'redress': If you permit me, * that was not the same situation.Ah no, * excuse me! The self-protecting surface, which can be broadened statically by using both palms (refusing responsibility), can also be broadened dynamicallv by a transverse movement of one or both palms, either a single movement or one repeated in a frontal sweeping. These gestures are variants of negation (Chapter 6, The variants of negation). The self-protection reflex is not only gestural. It also manifests itself in the eyes and mouth. In excessively strong light, one knits one's brows * and squints. This reflex, when mimed and allied with a grimace of the mouth and a wrinkling of the nose, signifies any kind of displeasure, literal or figurative, and is also a sign of refusal. A child teases his friend (who is due to leave for a sanatarium): Hey, your eyes are red. You been crying? The friend answers, * You're crazy. It's conjunctivitis. In an ad for detergent, a man checks the cleanness of the wash his wife has laid out: Of course, but it could be better. The wife's face wrinkles, and she knits her brow: * What! Since squinting to see faraway things better or to see through something ('What is this?') is also accompanied by a knit brow, it seems that in the above example, this movement combines the notions of refusal and suspicion, and implies How? The fact that doubt and reprobation, i.e., intellectual and emotional refusal respectively, are expressed by pushing out the pursed lips, in addition to knitting one's brow, suggests that this type of moue is equivalent to the outwardly pushed palm. Indeed, the lips are puckered for various physical reasons: to kiss, to snap up, to hold onto, or to reject. By moving the lips out in one way or another, one can transpose to the mouth the acts of pushing away, taking, or touching. For example, when a suspect ironically proposes to show the commissioner out, the latter reacts with a moue of refusal: * That's entirely unnecessary. A journalist is interviewing the general secretary of a trade union: So it's a warning? The union representative protests with a moue, and the journalist corrects himself: Or a caution? The evasion reflex is also mimed. The mouth, nose, and eyes are moved away from the source of a taste, smell, or sight that is unpleasantliterally or figurativelyby turning the head (Darwin 1872: 249; Jakobson 1973: 1 13-119). The expression of disgusted refusal combines the various movements for refusing food: turning the head away from it with a grimace, as if

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to vomit, and sometimes lifting the palm outward to push it away (Illustration 7), making the repulsion concrete. In short, according to the degree of disgust felt or to be expressed, one withdraws, or pushes away, or both. It is also possible to withdraw by throwing the head back and to the side *: And you do gymnastics? An old woman exclaims, * Oh, not me! Other signs of refusal, such as a tongue click, a shrug, or a loud sigh are often added to the head-turn. Here is a silent interaction between two salesmen, mocking a new, young colleague. One of them points to the assiduous and sullen rookie. The other responds by puffing his cheeks and blowing out while turning his head away, implying, 'Don't remind me. He's a bore!' We know that an infant refuses food by turning his head to one side. If one insists, he turns his head to the other side. The lateral shaking in a sign of refusal or negation seems clearly based on this instinctive movement. Here again, the sign of refusal is strengthened by other signs such as a moue, blowing, or a knit brow. Listening to a colleague, a professor shakes his head while making a moue to indicate his disagreement without saying anything. In the metro, a teacher is correcting the work of what must have been a poor student: he is exhaling loudly through limp lips and shaking his head. A man is describing the film The Ballad of Narayama by Shoheï Imamura to a young girl who begins to shake her head, to knit her brow, and to grimace. Her expression of disgusted refusal anticipates the verbal reaction: It must be horrible! One plugs one's ears in order not to hear... complaints, for example. While this gesture is not mimed in France, a person may hide his eyes with one hand in order to mime the refusal to watch a catastrophe, at the same time lifting his head back, probably to call heaven to witness to the misfortune, like one man recalling an animated picnic: The bread was soaking in the rain, * oh! The backing-up reflex is a way of avoiding. In place of the body's rearing backward, the head traces a backward movement, with the neck stiff: * But yes, he was working! Tipping the head forward or lowering the eyelidswhich are signs of acquiescence, greeting, or obsequiousnessalso evoke the movement of the torso or whole body toward a posture of submission, from which these signs are derived (Chapter 3, Specificity of the head). Conversely, can the act of rearing up, of 'rising up against,' be transposed to the face? Such seems to be the case for the Greek 'No' (Papas 1972: 32), expressed by lifting the head back and raising the eyebrows and/or by suddenly interrupting the flow of air. These signs are found in sketchy form in the negative ellipsis Ça . . . ! which involves, in addition to the palm cupped outward, a lifting of the chin and a glottal stop.

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Blowing out air through relaxed lips, * Pouh, which indicates physical or mental fatigue and is a common sign of exasperation, also expresses refusal through weariness. A woman refuses to describe an accident: * Pouh, I don't like to talk about it. Another woman refuses to participate in a reading panel: * 0h, not again! Refusal through different signifieds The gestures that illustrate clichés of deprivation may become, in context and by role reversal, expressions of failure or refusal. In this case, the refusal consists in representing someone else's privation. He is informed that (1) he will get nothing, Que dalle, pas un sou (not a penny), by flicking the thumbnail off an upper front tooth, that (2) what he hoped to get va lui passer sous le nez (lit. will pass under his nose = slip between his fingers), by sliding a forefinger under the nose, or that (3) he will have to 'tighten his belt,' se serrer la ceinture: The right hand, supine, represents in a stylized way the tightening of the belt (by one or two notches) through a transverse movement across the waist. Most gestures of derision are insolent or mocking refusals, whose underlying obscenity rarely comes to mind. The most common are the forearm jerk, sticking out the tongue, and the pied de nez, which present as phallic substitutes the forearm (fist closed), tongue, and 'foot-long' nose, respectively. Note that the phallic nature of the protruding tongue is confirmed by the fact that it can accompany, as a redundant feature, the forearm jerk (Illustration 8) or pied de nez. Finally, the gesture illustrating Mon oeil! (My eye!), a euphemism for Mon cul! (My ass!) (Duneton 1978: 221), is more specifically an expression of refusal to believe, probably because the eye also symbolizes knowledge. It would be interesting to verify the analogy between physical and psychological expressions of refusal in other cultures and to know what each culture extracts, for expressive gestures, from the various physical reflexes (in the body and face) of rejection, self-protection and evasion. Are the postures of folding inward and resistance transposed gesturally? Is there a gestural transfer from one semantic field to another as is the case in France for the expression of refusal through deprivation. Finally, is insolent or mocking refusal, represented in France by a phallic forearm jerk or pied de nez (and in America by 'the finger'), expressed elsewhere by obscene gestures of derision?

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VIII GESTURE AND SPEECH Phono-gestural parallelism The synchronized association of gesture and sound is very common in all types of activity: aesthetic, athletic, technical, linguistic. This very ancient association is attested by 'the Greek word mousiké which designates dance, vocal and instrumental music, the metrical structures of poetry, and the prosodic elements of speech' (Fónagy 1983: 149). Why this association? It is because a change in frequency effected by vocal chords or an instrument is pictured in our minds as a spatial movement. The perception of rising corresponds to acceleration, to an increase in the number of vibrations per second. Descent corresponds to slowing, to a decrease in frequency. A waving melody has progressive, periodic changes. A steady tone lacks a change of frequency (op. cit.: 146). Intonation is thus perceived as a spatial projection of laryngeal movement. The German and Hungarian terms for intonation literally signify 'tonal movement' and 'tonal dance' (op. cit.: 12 1). Parallelism in time Identical vocal and gestural dynamics structure utterances and perform a syntactic, or sometimes syntactic-semantic, function. / allows one to distinguish Je ne veux pas For example, an abrupt melodic break between the two syllables/Ri/ in/ mourir idiot! (I don't want to die, you idiot!) from Je ne veux pas mourir idiot (I don't want to die an idiot). This break would be difficult to perform without a simultaneous, abrupt raising of the eyebrows, or some other facial expression. In addition to being separated by melodic breaks, the different segments of an utterance are marked by movements of the speaker and listener, phenomena known as autosynchronization and intersynchronization. It is almost as if the listener's body moved synchronously during the reception of speech, in the same way that the speaker's body moves synchronously

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during the emission of speech. . . .That expression and reception both involve synchronization suggests that synchronization may be a basic feature of neurobiological processing. Speaking and listening may both utilize the same rhythmic organizing processes of the brain. (Condon 1976: 310, 309) Condon's concept of a linguistic-kinesic organizing rhythm postulates that 'lower order organizations are integrated by circumscribing, simultaneously occurring, wider organizations' (Figure 27). The notion is further specified by Kendon (1972) who shows the isomorphism between the hierarchical structures of gesture and speech by placing them in parallel. According to Kendon changes in posture correspond to long verbal periods, while shorter phrases and words are accompanied by brief gestures and facial expressions, respectively. Tied to intonation, the gestural rhythm divides the verbal chain into segments (Figure 28) and highlights certain elements. Note that contrary to the terminology which distinguishes 'rhythmic gestures' from 'illustrative gestures,' the latter can simultaneously provide scansion: the raised hand is shaken threateningly in the rhythm of a menacing utterance: If you ever do that! The thumb and forefinger joined in a sign of rigorous precision can mark time: I forbade him to do it! Conversely, rhythmic gestures illustrate their function. They segment by chopping or cutting with the edge of the hand; they emphasize by pounding with the fist or marking with the forefinger or head directed downward; they highlight certain elements through a raising of the eyebrows. Fónagy (1983: 1 1 1) points out the aggressive aspect of stress: 'The Latin ictus and the Russian udarnie, which denote stress (metric or linguistic), signify ''a blow." It seems (Heese 1957) that these stressed syllables are often accompanied by gestures marking a blow: one "beats" the rhythm.' In short, the segmenting of the sentence and the

Figure 27 - A schema of the 'rhythm hierarchy' in speaker behavior. From Condon 1976: 297.

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Figure 28 - The unity of speech and body motion in speaker behavior. From Condon 1976: 297. highlighting of certain elements are indicated prosodically and gesturally in parallel. This phenomenon seems to extend well beyond the context of European languages (Creider 1986). For Bolinger, gesturing is a whole of which facial expression, body gestures, and intonation are components (Bolinger 1986: 198). He does not content himself with pointing out gestural-intonative parallels. His examples show that gesture can also provide a counterpoint to intonation (op. cit.: 199) or serve to distinguish, if only by lifting ambiguity left by the intonation (op. cit.: 208). Certainly, this synchronization is found for gestures that accompany or replace various verbal clichés. To syllabic repetition there corresponds a synchronous, repetitive gesture. ·An exclamation motivated by pain or blows received (literally or figuratively), such as Aïe aïe aïe! or Ouille ouille ouille! is signified by a vertical shaking of the hand. The same holds for the expression Oh là là! an exclamation concerning a large quantity, which applies as much to a negative situation: Oh là là, did he ever get yelled at! as to a positive situation of admiration: Oh là là, the strength he has! The correlation between gesture and sound is found in the rhythm of repetition: a fast or slow rhythm for Oh là là! and a fast rhythm for the reaction to pain Aïe aïe aïe! In an experimental film test (Calbris 1984: 235), a fast shaking of the hand was associated by two-thirds of the subjects with the reaction to pain and by one-third to the exclamation Oh là là! Conversely, a slow shaking of the hand was associated with Oh là là! or with the admirative exclamation Ben mazette! but not to Aïe aïe aïe! (which requires a rapid movement).

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·The expression Kif-kif, a colloquial synonym for 'equivalent,' is directly borrowed from Arabic. The notion of equality or equilibrium that it implies is evoked as the pans of a balance: the two hands, held horizontally, alternately oscillate up and down. Little by little, we shift from the notion of equality or equilibrium between two elements to that of their mean, and from there to averageness or approximation, 'More or less.' A single hand performs the general movement, turning from one side to the other: * Half and half, on the whole it wasn't bad. One person hesitates to answer, and his partner suggests mediocrity and asks for confirmation: ** Comme-ci, commeça? Thus the gestural 'weighing,' or seesawing, is answered by the syllabic seesawing of the corresponding expression: Kif-kif; Comme-çi, comme-ça; Couci-couça. More generally, the logical-semantic weighing of pros and cons, D'une part . . .d'autre part (on the one hand . . on the other), are accompanied by a parallel weighing with the hand placed to one side, then to the other. There are several possible variants: (1) One hand is flipped to one side, then to the other: Depending on agreements that * will be made or * not be made.Things * that I'd tell X, * that I wouldn't tell Y. (2) The right hand is opened to the right, the left hand to the left: * Some of them say that . . . , * the others say. . . . (3) The two hands are held parallel and placed first to one side then the other: * There are remedial measures that should be taken, * and others that should not. ·Children have several ways of expressing derisive irony, mischievous triumph. For the expression Bisque, bisque, rage! the top of the left forefinger, held stiff, is rubbed three times with the underside of the right forefinger; this expression is found especially in eastern France. One person's triumph causes another to be riled (bisquer) and enraged. As for the cliché Na na na! or the more widespread Na na nère! it is indissociable from a certain sing-song intonation which, applied to any sentence, gives it a character of derisive irony. The cliché is composed of three syllables on three notes, accompanied by the gesture of scraping the underside of the chin three times with the thumb, which is projected outward each time. The same triple rhythm is found on the verbal, vocal, and gestural levels. Parallelism in form We have seen that certain perceptual distinctions may be visual, auditive, or both, such as the perception of stable lines vs. unstable ones (chopped or sinusoidal), rising vs. falling (abruptly or gradually), height vs. depth, weightlessness vs. gravity, lightness vs. heaviness, clarity vs. obscurity. The movement of a musical line may recall that of a body in space. Since perception may be interior or exterior (feeling of lightness or movement of a leaf

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in the wind), the visual, kinesthetic, emotive, and poetic representations overlap or melt into one another. Of course, the temporal components isolated above (duration, repetition, speed, rhythm) interact with one another to enrich or complete the various representations. I will take as an example the phono-gestural variants of enumeration (1) counted, (2) litanized, (3) or rhythmized by a back-and-forth movement: (1) For a limited number of elements, the voice and fingers count, i.e., the elements are announced in a series of affirmations, counted by the lthumb, 2forefinger, 3middle finger, 4ring finger, 5little finger, successively raised and sometimes touched by the forefinger of the other hand: Her bourgeois education bought her rigor 1in her feelings, 2in her ideas, 3in her career, declares a biographer of Marlene Dietrich. (2) In contrast, an interminable enumeration which promises to be boring is voluntarily abridged. The reason for this is expressed by the speaker: he sings his enumeration as though it were a litany, which he illustrates gesturally with a sequence of vertical loops. Each new loop corresponds to a new element in the list. Speaking of future television stations, a journalist fears a general repetition, of the same kind of drama, the same kind of TV magazine, the same broadcast, the same kind of host, with slight differences. (3) If the list appears to be long, the speaker opts for a phono-gestural kind of cradling, tipping his head to the left and to the right in the rhythm of the stated units. This is what one television host did when speaking of the secret, special, marginal, or parallel service. It seems that the journalist chose an alternating movement because he was proposing several synonymous terms. The principle behind this parallelism is doubtless general. A Japanese woman told me that to perform the gesture synonymous with 'He's crazy!' the hand repeatedly draws a circle next to the temple and then opens abruptly, with the fingers projected outward. The gesture is accompanied by the verbal cliché /kulukulu pa/. The onomatopoeia /kulukulu/ suggests anything that turns. The turning (cyclic) movement corresponds to the syllabic repetition in /kulukulu/, and the explosion of the fingers accompanies the plosive syllable /pa/. Parallelism in meaning To the extent that analysis reveals the isomorphism between signifier and signified in vocal signs (Fónagy 1983) and gestural signs (Chapter 6, Motivation and isomorphism)i.e., the motivated nature of these signsit is not surprising that the parallelism indicated above between gesture and sound is also found in motivation. Sounds and gestures are motivated in parallel.

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·The interjections Aïe and Ouille cited above express pain and, by extension, an unpleasant surprise or a nuisance. The expression is often vocal and gestural: unexpected pain provokes a cry and an evasive reaction. In particular, to lessen the pain of a burn or a finger caught in a door for example, one quickly shakes one's hand. This reflex reaction has become a conventional sign. The vertical shaking of the hand is synchronized with the expression Aïe aïe aïe, said very quickly, or with Ouille ouille ouille, which might be pronounced more slowly. It has become an exclamatory expression of pain, blows received, or the prospect of reprimand. ·Landing a blow on an adversary is generally mimed by projecting the fist outward * (Illustration 17). Does the speaker mime both delivering (fist projection) and receiving the punch (perpendicular to the stomach)? We have seen that the gesture accompanies the expression of vengeful repartee Dans le baba! often reduced to the onomatopoeia Et vlan! imitating a strong, sharp noise. One young woman mimes a punch and vocally imitates the sound of it: You'll see, you'll be all alone in your bed * there, * paf! Another woman repeats the same gesture several times, synchronized with a repetitive onomatopoeia of her own invention: *r And po po po po, it looks like they're hitting below the belt now. Many intonative patterns have the same vocal and gestural motivation: ·The negative ellipsis Ça . . .! The gesture, which implies something negative, is characterized by a rising movement of the hand, chin, and

Illustration 17. Ambiguous gut-punch: Vengeful repartee or Speed-Strength-Power. From Calbris 1987: 67, by Zaü

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Page 168 eyebrows, abruptly suspended at the moment of the glottal stop (Fónagy 1979). There is a simultaneous abrupt interruption on the vocal and gestural levels. The parallelism appears in the motivation: like the hand raised outward, the glottal stop signifies protection, refusal, negation. The implied negative thus expressed is then specified by a facial expression which may be one of ignorance, prudent reserve, disenchanted modesty, denigration. ·Insistence in the face of doubt. When a listener doubts, one often leans on certain syllables with the voice or head: Mais si, je t'assure (But it is, I assure you). Applying this dynamic between intonation and gesture to any statement gives it a character of insistence: Il est parti (He's gone), with an implied 'I assure you.' ·Powerlessness. An intonative-gestural movement which rises then falls, as detailed below, is characteristic of an attitude of resigned powerlessness, the analogy being made with futile physical effort: lifting something up only to have it fall again. Intonation

rise

Gesture

lift the shoulder,

Utterance

fall

arm, or hand

let fall

Que voulez-vous

que j'y fasse?

What do you want

me to do about it?

·Incredulous irony. The intonation and facial expression show the ambiguity of the attitude. Irony may be defined as follows: a way of making fun of someone or something by saying the opposite of what one wants to get across. It often consists in repeating a speaker's affirmation while exaggerating the melodic line: starting higher, stretching out the end, and stopping more abruptly. The attitude is ambiguous. The affirmation is reasserted but is taken lightly, since it is sung. This type of ironic utterance usually starts at a high pitch (almost a falsetto voice) and on the last syllable abruptly drops by nearly an octave (Fónagy 1971a). Thus, one begins by imitating a childish voice in feigned amiability, and the negative intention is revealed only at the end, by a drop in pitch to a lower register. The facial expression is also ambiguous: the knit eyebrows, which indicate suspicion, are raised in a sign of amazement, while the mouth combines a smile (a positive sign) with a smirk (a negative sign). In these intonation patterns coupled with facial expressions and gestures, there is a parallelism between the vocal and gestural dynamics: the same

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triple rhythm for derisive irony, the same abrupt interruption for the negative ellipsis, the same emphasis for insistence (in the face of doubt), and the same rise-and-fall movement for powerlessness. Moreover, intonation and gesture express the same motivation. For the negative ellipsis, the same reflex of rejection or refusal is found in the glottal stop and outwardly raised palm. For powerlessness, the intonative and gestural dynamic of the rising and falling line expresses futile effort. Finally, the notion of ambiguity implicit in irony is found in both gesture and intonation. The phono-gestural parallelism is present in both sending and receiving. Fónagy (1983: 38-44) notes that the vocal and visual expressions of emotion are the same; there is an analogy between the movements of the speech organs and those of the entire body. Cineradiographic recordings of the tongue, the pharyngeal-buccal cavity, and the vocal chords show that when joy, tenderness, fear, anger, or hatred are expressed, the speech organs perform microscopic and audible gestures similar to the macroscopic and generally visible gestures of the body. Bodily expression is transferred to the speech organs. While glottal motion determines the intonative aspects of the message, emotive pharyngeal-buccal motion, which deforms phonemes, is perceived as a motivated gesture and is decoded as a 'difference-gesture,' i.e., with respect to the phonemic norm. For example, the tender puckering of the lips in the presence of a baby, Que c'est mignon, ça! (Isn't that cute), provokes a labialization of the into The distortion (s? ) is perceived as a facial gesture vowels and modifies the sibilants, transforming / by native speakers, as verified experimentally (op. cit.: 51). Another relevant distortion is that of vocal gesturing during the recitation of a poem, by which intonation can perform the depictive function generally reserved for bodily gestures. For example the vocal melody differs from the neutral melody to depict, through small successive risings, the flame of a match thrown to the ground, or by sinuous movements, the vengeance of the serpent crawling at the feet of the traitor (op. cit.: 298). Functional parallelism Voice and gesture provide what Cosnier and Brossard (1984) have called, borrowing the terms of Petöfi (1975), 'context' and 'co-text.' Vocal information and visual information define the contextual situation: the age, sex, and socio-cultural background of the speaker. They give indications of his physical and psychological condition and of his mood, emotions, and atti-

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tudes. Intonation and body motion (autosynchronization) combine to give form and life to a textthat is, to structure it by appropriate segmentation and emphasisand to enrich it through secondary messages which modulate, confirm, contradict, or supplement the primary verbal message. As features of nonverbal and co-textual communication, intonation and gesture contribute to the syntax and semantics, in particular to the expressive and esthetic functions. Thus intonation and gesture serve the same functions, probably because both have the same type of encoding. Parallelism in encoding The encoding of a nonverbal sign (vocal or gestural) contrasts in general with that of a verbal sign: Whereas most verbal signs are coded extrinsically, discretely and invariantly, many nonverbal signs are coded intrinsically, continuously and probabilistically. These differences in the type of coding point to the possibility that verbal and nonverbal signs have different utility for the transmission of specific types of information. (Scherer 1980: 228) (stop), (2) gesturally by the As an example, let us consider a single referent signified (1) verbally by the phonemic string outward-raised palm, and (3) vocally by an apico-alveolar click [c]. There is no relation between the phonemic string and its signification except an arbitrary association fixed by convention and which thus has the advantage of being invariant. However . .. The hand or tongue signal evokes 'stop' by effectively stopping something. The nonverbal sign (gestural or vocal) is part of the referent it signifies: it is intrinsic. Forcefulness or moderation in the hand or tongue signal expresses an abrupt or progressive 'stop.' Modifying the nonverbal signs leads to a modification of the referent; the sign is continuously encoded. ()n the verbal level, a new phonemic string would be required to specify the type of stop.' Finally, two raised hands may be interpreted as an insistent demand to stop, Gentlemen, calm down! or as capitulation in response to Stick 'em up! The sign is coded probabilistically. In short, while the verbal sign is generally arbitrary (extrinsic), analytic (discontinuous), and explicit (invariant), the nonverbal sign is by contrast most often motivated (intrinsic), synthetic and continuous, and 'probabilistic,' i.e., uncertain, therefore ideal for expressing the implicit. In fact, the speaker can always propose a physical reason to counter a psychological interpretation: the reproving tone was only a 'frog

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in my throat,' the wink of complicity was only 'something in my eye.' Nonverbal expression is probabilistic and secondary with respect to the linguistic textual informationalthough it structures and can sometimes substitute for the latter (vocal and gestural emblems)but it often comes first on the level of interactional communication. While it is analogical, the nonverbal sign is also conventional. This analogical character, generally admitted for gestural signs, is less often accepted for vocal signs. Nonetheless, the vocal sign is an involuntary reproduction of the vocal symptoms of an emotion, and the speech organs can represent other objects (other organs of the human body, external objects) which are associated to them by a functional analogy (Fónagy 1983: 18). For example, 'a heliotropic movement (upward, outward) of the tongue corresponds in emotive speech to joy or cheerfulness, while the opposite movement, heliophobic (pulled inward and downward), corresponds to sadness or melancholy' (op. cit.: 164). The vocal sign is part of the referent or presents an isomorphism between the expression and the content, and like the gestural sign, it is motivated. Motivated, symptomatic, and symbolic, nonverbal communication may be the phylogenetic and ontogenetic trace of preverbal languageserving to reduce physiological or mental tensiongrafted onto verbal language (Fónagy 1971b, 1980). Nonverbal communication is also conventional, as we have said. How is this so on the gestural level? The meaning of a given gesture is different from one culture to another. Morris et al. (1979: 147-160) give a good example of this in the 'fig' sign, the hand in a fist, with the thumb protruding between the forefinger and middle finger. The gesture is not arbitrary; it is conventional. It is only the choice from the range of possible motivations that is arbitrary. And on the vocal level? Motivated lingual or glottal movements are also conventional because they are perceived only as virtual 'difference-gestures' (Fónagy 1983: 153) with respect to a norm, the typical execution of a phoneme or neutral intonation. They consist in motivated distortions of the phonemic or intonative code of the language concerned. Another characteristic shared by nonverbal signs, in contrast with verbal signs, is that they may be complex, i.e., they may combine several pieces of information at a given instant. This phenomenon is not due, as one might think, to the polysemy by which they combine significations, but rather to their characteristics of continuous, analogical encoding and their secondariness with respect to the text. The superposition of certain signifiers (sometimes truncated) expresses the whole set of corresponding signifieds, to be confronted with the text. This is the case of complex melody and complex gesture, both of which condense several signifieds. The following

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Figure 29 - Schematic illustrating the superposition of simple melodies. From Fónagy 1983: 294. example of the vocal aspect is taken from Fónagy (op cit.: 293-295). An artistic metaphor is often 'worked' so as to condense several messages by a superposition of successively integrated melodies. In a semantic test, a line from the Hungarian poem 'Old Age,' Kik oly áldottnak véltetek egy arcot (who believed that a face was a blessing), was attributed a high value in diverse (almost contradictory) semantic dimensions: majesty, despondency, complaint, insistence, gentleness (Figure 29). 'The impression of sadness probably comes from the progressive fall [d] which characterizes the entire melodic structure. . . .The rising and falling by a half-tone within the accented syllable [a] is integrated into the melodic pattern of persuasion (or quarreling), which itself is integrated into the melodic curve of sighing [c] (resulting in [b]). This melodic curve, which especially dominates the beginning of the phrase, is resolved in a progressive and slow descent expressing a profound and gentle sadness. The absence of angularity, the very slow changes in pitch, and the clear but relaxed articulation recall caressing movements. They are probably the origin of the sadness attributed to the variant' (op. cit.: 295). Complex gestures consist in the hybridization of two simple signifiers into a third. To the product (of relevant features) of the signifiers corresponds the sum of the signifieds (Chapter 6, Movement and configuration). Phono-gestural parallelism has numerous consequences. The characteristics shared by vocal music and body movement have been exploited in many ways (redundance, substitution, complementarity, counterpoint, contradiction) in art, and particularly in cinema. However, for psychotherapy the correlation between the vocal and gestural symptoms, which are presently studied separately, might be considered in greater depth. More specifically on the level of linguistic communication, vocal-gestural parallelism in the expression of emotions and attitudes allows them to be transmitted by only one of the channels: auditory or visual. The correlation can be exploited in teaching: in subject matter and approach. Verbal, intonative, and gestural clichés (Fónagy 1982: 40-41) should be used in language teaching (Calbris and Montredon 1980). Just as sound facilitates gestural performance (work or gymnastics accompanied by music), gesturing can help spoken performance. Gesturally rhythmizing a verbal string can help a

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foreigner to acquire the rhythm of the target language. Moreover, it has been experimentally verified that body attitude and movement have an acoustic influence on phonation (Wuilmart 1972). Certain speech therapists, particularly for the reeducation of the deaf, facilitate the learning of (more or less invisible) phonatory gestures by a systematic, analogical transfer of 1967; Guberina 1955, 1972) or to the hand ( 1982). movements from the mouth to the whole body ( Gesture in discourse Here, I will not treat (auto)synchronizing gestures, which segment utterances, but those which illustrate, supplement, or replace speech. Since each gesture has its own signified, the order I have adopted for the cases catalogued below is one of decreasing importance of the gesture: replacing an utterance, replacing the end of an utterance, accompanying an utterance as a complement or synonym (Calbris 1985c). Functions of substitution Gesture replacing an utterance I will consider only gestures that substitute for speech in everyday conversation. They can be divided into two subsets, one associated with physical conditions, the other with psychological motives. PHYSICAL MOTIVE. To understand each other, two people far apart or separated by a car window or in a noisy environment have to use gestures. For example, a driver flashes his headlights and wags his finger at a jaywalker.A man hails a taxi. From behind the window, the driver shakes his forefinger from side to side. The answer is no; he has finished his workday.Here is a TV commercial: having taken a Supradyne multivitamin, a young woman decides to walk to work rather than take the bus. As the bus passes her, she gesturally explains to the surprised driver: she raises her hand to her chest (= me?), shakes her finger from side to side in a frontal plane (= no), lowers her hand forward in a sagittal plane (= I'm going there . . . on foot).At an intersection, the light turns from yellow to red. With two packages in her hands, a woman is preparing to cross as a truck, following a car which snuck through late on the yellow, moves into the intersection. Dumbfounded, the woman indicates the red light with her chin and with the package in her right hand; the truck driver answers by lifting his hand to his temple and stopping the truck. The woman bursts out laughing at this military salute, and the two exchange smiles. The 'dialog' might

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be: 'Hey, the light's red, isn't it?''Whatever you say, Ma'am!'A taxi driver who boasted of driving fast and well, described to me a gestural dialog with some motorcycle policemen: I was flying. So the motorcycle cops . . . , [he raises his right hand and shakes it along the NE-SW diagonal then, palm facing the ground makes it oscillate up and down, and finally, with the fingers joined and the palm facing forward, lifts it to his temple]. He thus reproduced the policemen's warning gesture followed by a suggestion to slow down, to which he had answered with a military salute of obedience. Give the number of speech-substitute gestures which are negative reactions to the behavior PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVE. or opinions of someone else, one is led to think that they are probably a way of denigrating or criticizing someone without much risk. The implicit is expressed while remaining prudently unspoken. The subject can denigrate, express irritation, skepticism, or disagreement, or refuse to believe, without exposing himself to reproach: he hasn't said anything! Here are several examples. During a televised debate, a clergyman sighs loudly and tips his head to the left to make it clear that the stubbornness of one participant is beginning to tire him seriously. At another moment, and for the same reason, he tips his head and lifts his eyes, to take heaven to witness to the speaker's exaggeration.A man decries the idiocy and fussiness of a colleague to a 35-year-old supervisor. The latter agrees entirely by shaking his head from side to side, with his shoulders raised. His head movement is here synonymous with a cliché of disbelieving commiseration: It's unbelievable!The denigration of someone else is not always intended to be expressed openly, as shown by this scene on a bus: seeing a drunkard on the sidewalk take a swig of wine, the old man sitting next to me shook his head. Given the situation, I understood that his head movement expressed a denigrating exclamation with a negative verbal form: Si c'est pas malheureux! (If that's not a real pity!).The president of a meeting tips her head several times left and right to express sceptical hesitation concerning a hypothesis put forth by one of the members of the assembly. Thus the head is tipped abruptly to one side to mark someone else's exaggeration, tipped from side to side for hesitation, shaken laterally to imply something in a negative form, or raised to take heaven to witness to one's misfortune. In the film L'Argent des Autres by Christian de Chalonge (1978), there are several unspoken sequences in which gesture replaces speech. In a waiting room, a receptionist enters and looks at the hero. Without saying anything, the latter designates himself with his forefinger, and not receiving a nega-

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Page 175 tive answer he stands.In answer to a taxi driver who asks him Where are we going? the hero, silent, lowers his hand several times in a sagittal plane (= 'Straight ahead').Later, receiving a visitor, he stretches his hand toward the latter's shoulders to invite him to take off his coat. Is the absence of speech, bordering on impoliteness in the first two cases, intended to show not only the dryness of the executive or technocrat, but also his sobriety and efficiency? No verbal redundance. Action! TO AVOID REDUNDANCE. Gesture can often be used to conclude, thus avoiding verbal redundance. A man is having lunch with some colleagues in a café. After an animated discussion, I see him (1) wipe his hands as if to wipe dust off them, then (2) by a symmetrical movement of the two facedown palms, trace a horizontal line, and finally (3) point his thumb behind himself. The gestural sequence might be translated as follows: (1) It's finished, (2) definitively. (3) Now, it's up to them. Mediterranean people have a reputation for expressing themselves through gestures. On a TV news program, a journalist asks a small group of pieds-noirs (Algerian-born French) who stayed in Algeria: It's no longer the way it was in the good old days of Bab El Oued? One of them answers with a sequence of two gestures: a repeated movement of the palm backward over his shoulder, then lifted open to the side, thus signifying that it's been a long time since that period ended (backward movement), obviously (hand raised and open to 'show'). Gesture replacing the end of an utterance Here, the first part of the message is verbal, the second part gestural. Serving as a relay, the gesture ends the sentence. Utterance

+ Gesture synonymous with:

Oh no . . .

what a pain!

The less I see her, the better I feel because . . . I'm fed up (with her). He said hello to Mathieu, and me right behind ... nothing! Numerous physical expressions can end utterances, such as those of refusal, rejection, offhand refusal, refusal of responsibility, ignorance, powerlessness, and so forth. The meanings of these gestures predispose them for use as endings. The same is true for the signifieds of ending, suppression, or falling. Gesture communicates these notions much more expressively than does speech. They are therefore found in gestural form at the ends of sentences. A woman, speaking of her depressive mother, points her hand downward: Nothing we can do; she * (= is letting herself sink).To refuse in

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an offhand way, one throws one's hand over the shoulder, with the palm facing it: So I'm starting to get sick of it, * (= I'm going to get rid of it).To refuse any responsibility prudently, one raises one's hands outward: I'll leave it like that, O.K., * (= I won't touch anything).With the edge of his hand, palm upward, a male nurse cuts sideways through the air as would a scythe: They operated on him, and three months later, * (= he died).Someone expresses surprise at a particularly small piece of luggage. The person carrying it answers by wiping his hands as if to remove dust: Ah my bag, there are my pyjamas, * (= and that's it, that's all I need).In a gesture synonymous with departure, the left hand slaps the right wrist (several times), with (a) the right hand in profile pointing outward or (b) palm facing down, fingers raised outward: He did it quietly, * (= he left). Gesture is quite naturally substituted for speech when one prefers not to say something or does not know how to say it. In cases of prudence or impossibility to translate, gesture is there. For example, We were sometimes cleaner than *, and the hand refers behind to others who will remain unnamed. I had flowers, * ! The old woman's sentence ends with a panoramic gesture by both hands to express in a single movement how she was surrounded by flowers and how she marvelled at the quantity of them. Lastly, for designating or localizing, it is more economical and more logical to show gesturally than to indicate verbally. It stuck there: *. The hand specifies: in my throat. A message is composed of a topic and a comment. In general, the tension provoked by curiosity concerning the subject (topic) is released by the information given (comment). Note that in the examples cited above the topic is verbal and the comment gestural:

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Topic

+ Comment

Tension

+ Release

Speech

+ Gesture

Verbal topic

Gestural comment

My mother. ..

is letting herself sink

And for me, right behind...

nothing

And three months later...

he died

I'm sick of it:

I'm going to get rid of it

My pyjamas...

that's all I need

He did it quietly:

He left

Now...

finished

I'll leave it like that:

I won't touch anything

Flowers...

abundant and superb


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Why is it that gesture, and not speech, supplies the essential information? There are of course several possible reasons. (1) The essential information generally corresponds to the action, and hence implies movement. This is more logically expressed by a gesture. (2) The essential information provides the release. To appreciate this release, the preceding tension must be relatively drawn out. We might say that for maximum effect, the tension and release must contrast temporally. The period of tension is given by speech which is linear (slow), the moment of release by a synthetic movement (fast). (3) The gestural expression, being rapid, has the advantage of being more expressive than the verbal expression and more accessible, since it can be easily decoded by all. A gesture may be the equivalent of a one-word sentence, i.e., a monoremous comment. It may happen that the gestural monoreme is coupled with a verbal monoreme. It is then the verbal expression which is redundant with respect to the gestural, in contrast with the usual situation. Here are some examples: The wind brr, * [the edge of the hand 'mows'] broke them.Someone is talking about a widow: You'll see, in two months, Carla will laugh, * [the edge of the hand, palm down, cuts the air transversely in a sign of suppression]: forgotten!Ayoung woman confides how she liberated herself: Once I got a job, * [a voiceless whistle and hand gesture sweeping forward]: sent packing! These fall into the following pattern: speech (+ onomatopoeia) + gesture + equivalent verbal monoreme. It would seem that for greater effect, the speaker, like a child, expresses himself through onomatopoeia (Brrr), whistling and gesture. Then, having misgivings about his mode of expression, he feels the need to add a verbal epilogue in the form of a monoreme: broke them, forgotten, sent packing. More exactly, the speaker makes it understood that he has not acted out of ignorance, but for greater expressiveness. Polysemous gestures as speech substitutes The lateral head-shake is polysemous and covers three different motivations, revealed through the study of its variants (Chapter 6, Repetition). This head gesture can depict (1) negation; (2) totality (A strange story, * I'll tell you everything), and through it, acquiescence (Absolutely, * entirely, of course) or perfection, the judgmental derivative of totality (* A very warm welcome, very kind); or (3) approximation (* Over roughly five years.We will be able to cure * (= roughly) 50,000 cases of different diseases). Of these signifieds, only negation can be expressed without speech. The rapid transverse movement of the horizontal, prone hand is another polysemous gesture with plural motivation. As such, it illustrates the no-

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tions of abundance or totality (and their derivatives: the superlative and perfection), negation, direct consequence (and derivatives) or certainty, and finally a cut or break. Out of context, it signifies an end ('That's all,' 'Finished'), combining the three notions of totality, stopping or negation, and cutting. Each of the two gestures just mentioned, though polysemous, refers to a single signifier when substituted for speech. Conversely, let us see if a single gestural substitute corresponds to a given signified. For example, for the French, the gesture synonymous with perfection consists in joining the tips of the thumb and forefinger in a vertical ring. But the two polysemous gestures considered abovethe lateral head-shake and the transverse movement of the horizontal, prone handmay also illustrate the notion of perfection. Similarly, if asked to signify approximation, the French spontaneously perform the gesture synonymous with Couci-couça: the fingers are spread, generally lax and curved, and by rotating the forearm, the hand oscillates about a vertical or horizontal axis (Illustration 18). At the same time, the French unconsciously illustrate approximation in a variety of ways (Chapter 3, Approximation), as shown in Figure 30: (1) the available margin is depicted by a lateral head-shake * which indicates the interval between two given limits, one to the left and one to the right; (2) imperfect adjustment or lack of clarity is depicted by an alternating movement, or more often a rotation, of the forearm which makes the hand oscillate in profile around a vertical axis; (3) certain adver-

Illustration 18. Couci-couçaSoso. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 19, by permission of CLE International

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Approximation: gestural variants

Figure 30 - The emblem Couci-Couça is a synthesis of other gestural variants. bial expressions are illustrated by sculpting a hemisphere: the equivalent, * roughly, of two hectoliters per hectare. However, it may be noted that the gesture chosen as a substitute (4) is a synthesis of the other variants, each of which illustrates an etymological equivalent: (1) an interval: Entre deux (lit. between two), (2) oscillation: Autour de (about), (3) the global character of something: En gros (around, roughly). It might thus seem that among the gestural variants of a signified, there is only one which may act as a speech substitute. This is not the case if we consider the variants of negation. Of the ten possible variants (Figure 20), the lateral head-shake and the finger shake in a frontal plane signify 'No' in isolation. As for the palm raised outward, while in context it may be a sign of polite refusal ('No thank you'), out of context it is more likely to be understood as 'Stop.' Complex gestures as speech substitutes In principle, this situation is unlikely. A complex gesture, composed of features borrowed from other gestures, is understood through confrontation with verbalized signifieds and their usual gestural signifiers. However, here is an example of the combination of two gestures which are common speech substitutes: the phallic forearm jerk and tossing the hand over the shoulder in a sign of offhand refusal. Initially a crude insult, the phallic forearm jerk is becoming a sign of offhand refusal, albeit vulgar. It is therefore logical to find a synthesis of the signifiers corresponding to this synthesis of signifieds. Va te faire foutre ('Fuck you!'): the forearm is raised, but rather than being closed in a fist, the hand is tossed, with the palm facing backward (Wylie 1977: 72). Of course the left hand on the biceps recalls the phallic forearm jerk. Thus it seems that a synthetic gesture can be a speech substitute only if its components may be substitutes individually. Economy of information Complementary gesture accompanying an utterance Here the utterance is not truncated; the gesture indicates the attitude of the speaker. This attitude may be, among other possibilities, a positive reaction

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(joy), or a negative reaction, whether active (anger, irritation) or passive (powerlessness, grief). Concerning the listener, the gesture may be a way to 'soften up' (to excuse oneself or ask for something), to reassure, or on the contrary, to denigrate, threaten, warn, etc. From attitude, we move to positive or negative commentary, the simplest being the highlighting or minimization of the utterance. The most common sign of emphasis is the gesture corresponding to the exclamation of abundance, Oh là là! Another is the gesture which consists in lifting the prone forearm in front of the chest and jabbing the fist outward. Here, it is a synonym of strength: Fort (strong); Très (very); Super (coll. great, very); Vachement (coll. very), and becomes a superlative. Inversely, a sideways tip of the head, synonym of 'If you like,' 'In a way,' nuances and restricts the statement, while a lateral head-shake will strengthen it by denying in advance a possible objection of the listener. Several examples corresponding to different types of complementary gestures follow. ATTITUDE TOWARD AN EVENT. No, no, six o'clock, *she'll invite me; that way, I'll eat, and the child rubs her hands with joy at the idea of the meal.* Nobody talks about it: a man expresses his anger by pounding the table once with his fist.* Oh là là!: relating someone else's criticism, a student recalls how she was irritated at the time by tapping her fingers on her satchel and smirking.* No, it's been going on for three months: the hands raised to shoulder height and let fall onto the thighs depict powerlessness and imply: 'There's nothing I can do.' ATTITUDE TOWARD THE LISTENER. An actress corrects a talk-show host, tipping her head to the side to indicate 'Excuse me': * President of drama programs (= only).To 'soften up' her mother and make her change her mind, a young girl cocks her head: * Even if I put a big sweater under the dress, you can't tell.The weatherman pushes his two hands forward, palm down, to reassure the TV viewers: * It will be better tomorrow.Under seven francs, * she wanted (to buy a present). Is the lateral headshake, here a synonym of the negative exclamation 'I can't believe it,' intended to denigrate the stinginess of the person in question?No, * you think the director will accept that?! By touching his temple with his forefinger, the speaker insinuates that the listener is crazy.The French President delivers a warning, shaking his finger: * But don't expect more than that from me. COMMENTING ON SOMETHING. Say the speaker considers a phenomenon to be certain, evident, typical, or doubtful. For certainty, the palm draws a continuous straight line in a transverse movement: M-A, M-I, * his name came before, he had nothing to worry about. Turning the palm up and to the side

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adds the quality of obviousness: Thirteen years * (= obviously). Lowering the edge of the hand depicts the clarity, the clear-cut nature of something: * And that was typical. On the contrary, oscillating the hand from one side to the other of the sagittal plane represents uncertainty. The vertical shaking of the hand, which is a substitute for the verbal cliché Oh là là! or Aïe aïe aïe, applies to phenomena expected to be or experienced as painful: * I'm going to have a phone bill (= pretty stiff).* If you get caught (= you're in trouble).* On the toe! (= that hurts). Accompanying or replacing the verbal expression Oh là 1à!, the vertical shaking of the hand is often a simple augmentative exclamation: * That caused some scandalThat took * a heck of a lot of courage.Did you see the portal, * wow, isn't that beautiful?Oh right, * there's a really long climb!* The metro was packed!But when the police go by, * it starts raining parking tickets.* If you knew the number of women who have had uterus operations.Really, old age * is dreadful! The gesture may also replace parts of a sentence. In the following utterances* I'm going to have a phone bill. . .The first programmers * entered bits one by one.* A half hour on the phone.the gesture evokes the large amount of money, work and time, respectively. An additional gestural expression seems to give the reason for the exclamation, as if the raised hand or head depicted the grandeur or quantity before which one exclaims. (a) The hand is raised in profile at head-level: * It's excessively expensive now.-* The noise, the disputes, it's incredible.* I've been hearing that for some time. (b) The head is lifted back, as if to better exclaim: * Oh my, it's cluttered!-* Ah, major question! Another way to accentuate is to jab the fist outward, symbolizing maximal strength and expressing the idea of the superlative: I didn't think that * it was as energetic as that.* Super salty water. As a sign of attenuation, the lateral tipping of the head, which is synonymous with 'If you like,' gesturally nuances an answer: * I'm all right. A lateral head-shake * often serves to refuse a possible objection. It thus strengthens an utterance. For example, Last summer, * we worked a lot: the head movement tacitly contradicts the notion, previously voiced, that business is bad during the summer. It is interesting to note that the complementarity of gesture with respect to speech already appeared in the study of mismatches during the semantic test based on the presentation of filmed gestures (Chapter 1, Extension of a situation). Synonymous gesture accompanying an utterance In the strict sense of the word, one cannot speak of gesture and speech as being 'synonymous,' since the two means of communication are coded fun-

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damentally differently. I am here speaking of synonyms in the metaphorical sense: a gesture is said to be synonymous if it can be verbalized in the form of the utterance. This said, I am tempted, given the examples at my disposal, to use the word 'synonymous' both (a) in the narrow sense, in which there is no semantic difference between the two terms, and (b) in the weak sense in which a certain number of different semantic traits are accepted. Thus gestures which can be verbalized in the same form as the utterances which they accompany are classified under the heading (a) of equivalent synonyms. There are other cases in which the meaning of the gesture is instead complementary to the textual message communicated verbally. Such gestures will be considered as (b) complementary synonyms. Of course this dichotomy is arbitrary since the distinction is more or less graded. However, it will help me to emphasize this distinction. Equivalent synonyms Utterance

Gesture

Then, * they whittle away at available income.

The face-to-face, horizontal palms are brought closer together to signify compress or reduce

*Finally. . .

The hand placed on the table signifies: having established this

*I am completely obsessed!

The hand lifted to the forehead implies: It's the only thing on my mind

She had the impression * of not evolving . . .

The circular, horizontal movement of the right hand expresses: of being in a vicious circle

The portioning * is hardly talked about The wavy, lateral movement of the fingers signifies: The question is vaguely touched on. * And it's there that faith is situated

The oscillation of the thumb and forefinger.

.

held parallel and separated, indicates: in this searching for a balance.

Incorporates, as the hand specifies by a vertical, circular . . . * which takes into account . . . movement. Here are two utterances accompanied by the same polysemous gesture: The sheets taken off the bed, folded: *first operation

Rapid transverse movement of the horizontal palm, here synonymous with On the double.

We will analyze the results * nationally, by percentage.-

Here the palm movement evokes totality: over all, for the entire country.-

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Complementary Synonyms Utterance

Gesture

The transverse movement of the horizontal palm Because this iron collar is supposed to here represents a planar surface, synonymous with insure * social cohesion uniformity I filtered, * I dropped certain things

The left hand, held sagittally, pushes to the left: I separated and put aside.

* They're giving you time to rest.

The thumb and forefinger joined in a pointer 'write' out the doctors orders to stop working

* I never stopped changing throughout The hands moving over an imaginary wall my novels. concretely paraphrase: groping. The sample is not * totally representative.-

The fanning movement of the forefinger signifies: cover the whole range of the population.

Giscard d'Estaing and Mitterrand qualifying for the second round: * that's The hand placed flat on the table supple ments: the first thing that we can count on (Fr. tabler sur).* That must be mentioned.

Specified, indicate the thumb and forefinger joined only at the tips.

But to * in two words . . .

The rapid outward projection of the fingers signifies: dispose of quickly

Here are three examples in which the lateral head-shake is an antithetical and complementary paraphrase of the utterance. The refusal of an implied negation strengthens the assertion: Yes, * exactly!

Without a doubt

We now have to turn * resolutely to the future Without hesitation * I'm going to keep Dash. I turn down the other laundry detergents. Lastly, the following table provides an example of parallel and complementary gestural communication on the part of a husband to his wife. These examples show that, while synonymous with the utterance, the gesture oscillates, according to its degree of ambivalence, between redundance and complementarity. Of course, it always adds expressiveness. Equivalent synonyms have the advantage of enriching the utterance without prolonging it, or tiring the listener. The same is true for complementary synonyms, which specify the comment.

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Page 184 (1)

(2)

right palm abruptly stretched forward parallel to the ground

moved transversely to lifted, palm the right outward

synonyms

Wait

Don't do anything

Be prudent

Utterance

Tu lui as rien dit?

Laisse,

c'est mieux

Don't bother,

it's better that way.

Gestures

(3)

Complementary

You didn't tell him anything? Simultaneous visual commentary

Certain gestures serve an explanatory function. The speaker shows, through a concrete representation, the movement executed by or on some technical object, or a configuration of features difficult to describe verbally; the visual representation of a spiral quickly makes it clear what a spiral staircase is. Again for clarity, a speaker who feels the need for concrete redundance will visually explain what he is saying. For example, a journalist is talking about the median salary, that is to say, not the average salary, but in the middle. For the mean salary which represents the point of equilibrium between lower and higher salaries, he oscillates his horizontally held palms up and down; to situate the median salary, at the middle of the scale, he joins his hands and pushes them straight out from the middle of the chest.A scientist establishes a parallel between the operation of certain nuclear particle accelerators and the centrifugal movement of better known machines: Let's say [forefinger draws a horizontal circle] they are a little like creamers.Someone is discussing Newton's law, * that is to say, the law of attraction between two bodies. The gesture of the two face-to-face fists which move apart and then come together becomes the manifestation of this law of attraction. From these examples, it would seem as though 'that is to say' sometimes implies a gesture, something 'that is to be done' by the speaker. The gesture sometimes plays an involuntary pedagogical role. In contrast with a foreign language teacher, the speaker does not intend to explain, but the concrete gestural representation of the utterance might allow a less informed listener to guess the meaning of words unknown to him. Such may be the case for a person of modest cultural background who hears words like 'anachronism,' 'logorrhea,' 'consolidate,' 'dichotomy.' The following examples were taken from television programs:

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Utterance

Gesture

Let's not fall into * anachronism

the hands turning one over the other are here synonymous with mixing up

When you fall a sketchy circular movement in a sagittal plane in front of the into * this kind mouth refers to a moulin à paroles (lit. word-mill = chatterbox), of logorrhea. . . and the outward movement refers to the projection of the words You can * consolidate them and then send them into the stratosphere the face-to-face palms are brought closer together to squeeze In addition to its explanatory function, an illustrative gesture lifts the ambiguity in a polysemous word by specifying the intended meaning. For example: You have to be sort of a medium [eyes upward, the hand is raised above the head and lowered again, depicting inspiration from the heavens or the connection between earth and 'the beyond'], it happens to you just like that. The gesture indicates the intended signification of the French word médium: someone gifted with the power to communicate with spirits, a meaning which differs from the usage in music ('middle register'), logic ('middle term') or painting ('thinner').One 'arranges' (Fr. classer) facts differently from files (put in their place) or business deals (closed). The gesture concretizes the meaning 'to divide and order' given to the word 'arrange': Because that allowed me to separate and * then to arrange . . .Agood example is the clarification of the word régulier, which has several meanings, each of which can be specified by a gesture (Figure 31). In each of the three cases, the

Figure 31 - Specification by gesture.

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gesture is itself polysemous. The combination of an equivocal word with a polysemous gesture leaves a single meaning (in italics below): Combining two polysemous features to yield a single meaning Verbal polysemy régulier: cyclic, uniform, in accordancewith regulations

Gestural polysemy

®G1rolling-up, development, evolution, change, ¬ repetition, linked succession-

régulier: cyclic, G2slow transverse movement of the face-up uniform, in accordance ®hand: totality, directness, break, negation, with regulations ¬ planar, smooth, even surface régulier: cyclic, uniform, in accordance ®G3lowering edge of sagittally held hand: with regulations ¬ obstacle, division, rectitude break. Here, we find the anchoring function proposed by Roland Barthes for the analysis of figure captions; but the relation is inverted since the anchorage is provided by the visual element. As we have seen, the gesture also relays the utterance, if only by replacing the end of a sentence, thus serving as a complement to the beginning. For example, shaking one's finger in a sagittal plane while saying, * C'est pas régulier; seems to add, 'You're in for trouble!' Associated with the sentence, the complementary gesture serves as both relay and anchor here, since through the signified warning, it implies the meaning: 'That's not allowed.' Gesture continually supplies remarks which complement speech, whether they concern an attitude or a judgment (positive, shaded, reserved, negative). Finally, it reinforces or attenuates the utterance. Gesture and the analysis of discourse Gestural argumentation We will deal successively with gestures that describe the action of arguing, those that gesturalize arguments, and those that are part of a dialectical strategy. Certain gestures etymologically describe the action of speaking: several

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times during a demonstration, one may hold one's hand out to the side as if to show in space some abstract object. This gestural transfer from concrete designation to abstract designation is, logically, a corollary to the same transfer on the verbal plane. A gesture and the corresponding word are both used literally and figuratively. Concrete

Abstract

Tenez (take)

Tenez, par exemple (explanation)

Vous voyez (you see) Vous voyez! (something obvious) Là (there)

Là (a point of argumentation)

Voilà (there [it] is)

Voilà! (conclusion)

C'est ça (that's it) C'est ça! (agreement) These demonstrative gestures accompany different phases of a statement, from the introduction of an example (* Take the Church, for example) to a consequence (Téléfoot 1, * on TF1 naturally [French TV station]) and to the conclusion. Often, to cover the whole of the demonstration, the gesture accompanying the conclusion can be broader or symmetric: ** So, we are going to do some reading comprehension exercises. The symmetric movement is reduced to a spreading of the thumbs outward if the speaker's hands are joined. To express obviousness, the gesture of opening the hand out to the side, synonymous with 'You see' (* Of course.** Ah yes!) can be substituted for speech. Another expression of obviousness, raising the shoulder(s) and/ or eyebrows(s) in exclamation, can be superposed on or substituted for the hand gesture. An example of raising the shoulder: Is it the life of the mind that interests you most? * Obviously, answers a writer. And raising the eyebrows (head tipped to the side, eyelids lowered): * Of course, yes, it has changed. When the argument is not evident, the listener asks for explanation or elaboration by the gestural depiction of unrolling, i.e., several loops in a vertical plane: * Explain it to me a little. To bring out his reasoning, a speaker often uses antithesis accompanied by a backward semicircle executed in various ways (Illustration 19, 1-3): with one hand *1, with the thumb and forefinger spread apart rotating sagittally backward 180° *2, or with both hands turning one around the other *3: *1 However, the success of pornographic movies . . .*2 It's the inverse phenomenon.*3 We should be thinking the opposite. Another form of return is the idea taken up again. To return to a point already touched on in a discussion, the speaker moves his hand or forefinger toward himself in a vertical, sagittal *a, or frontal *b plane: *a Well, let's go back to Vidal de Lablache.*b As for the family. . . . If the speaker returns to a point to reargue it, the backward arc that he draws is extended to the point

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Illustration 19. Antithesis. Illustration by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 22, by permission of CLE International of starting a forward movement, as if the gesture illustrated the fact of going back to a point only to carry the discussion further forward: And it is from that angle *a that I wanted to take up the preceding question again. In a way, the gesture returns to various points and resumes in order to conclude: *b In other words, these people . . .*b Therefore, I would say. . . . On a more conceptual and volitional level of argumentation, we can situate expressions of certainty (Chapter 4, CertaintyDoubtDisbelief), objection (Chapter 4, AgreementDisagreement), and restriction. The gestural variants of the latter show that it can be seen as: a partial objection. There are two possible forms: the hands partially raised present only a tipped plane in opposition, or the raised index presents a considerably reduced surface. a logical opposition. Beginning a backward circular movement typical of antithesis, the speaker goes back to a previous point to contradict it. The

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gesture might imply 'Contrary to what you think': * I'm only saying that you shouldn't think it's not possible* But if it means questioning the hierarchy.... a different point of view. The head is either turned or lowered to the side. In one case, it refers to another side, another aspect, of things, thus introducing a restriction or new nuance: There are contradictions that he would not be able to accept, * although one contradiction more or less. . . . In the second case, the lateral tipping of the head, which illustrates the expression 'from a certain angle,' depicts a point of view charged with numerous possible meanings, one of which is restriction: Yes, * but that depends how. Gestures of argumentation and judgment in various situations are the subject of a video tape designed for teaching French as a foreign language (Didi and Montredon 1987). Many gestures are part of a dialectical strategy. For example, they express agreement or disagreement or refusal, a request for an opinion, agreement or confirmation, giving or taking 'the floor.' Certain gestures are intended to prompt the speaker to go on, to reassure him, or on the contrary to interrupt him or make him wait before letting him speak. All of these attitudes and intentions are expressed by or accompanied by gestures, classified below according to motivation. PALM OUTWARD. Though polysemous, this gesture always implies negation and is derived from a defensive reflex that consists in raising the forearms in front of oneself as a shield. This (self-)protection sign, ** That's all I'm saying (= don't put words into my mouth), serves, through a role reversal, to reassure the speaker: Calm down, * don't worry, * it'll be all right.* Let me ask you one last question (= don't worry). This is the gesture used by one politician to mark his disagreement and to try to stop a journalist who is quoting him. Thus the same gesture serves, among other things, to protect oneself, to reassure, or to refuse. PALM PUSHED FORWARD, LEVEL.

Jabbed toward a partner, palm down, the hand interrupts him or makes him wait.

·Interrupting. Sometimes, very cleverly, the listener who gestures and shows his intention in an imperative way softens the speaker verbally by simulating agreement, which is another way to cut someone off and get a word in: Absolutely, absolutely, * but . . . Another diplomatic way of breaking into the dialog is to declare * Just one remark.... Continuing to speak. The same gesture is used to break off any attempt at interrupting, in order to go on talking: No wait, * let me finish.* One last thing so I don't forget. Parallel to gesture, there are several ways to intimidate

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vocally. An aggressive way is to speak louder and faster; another way, authoritative and assured, is to slow down and speak in a calm, staid voice. This gesture is often simply a request for someone to wait: * Yes, I'll be with you right away. PALM EXTENDED TOWARD PARTNER. A point of agreement is quickly indicated (in passing) with the hand *1 or forefinger *2, which designates the thing to the partner: Ah there, *1 like that, that's good. *2 Yes, that's right.*2 Exactly! A remark will generally be introduced by the same gestures, accompanying words like tiens (take this), justement (exactly), à propos, puisqu'on parle de. . . (since we're talking about . . .). In both cases, the point in question is abruptly pointed out to the speaker. The gestures seem to be strictly equivalent. However, the forefinger better expresses briskness and rapidity in the indication, whereas the hand, despite the abruptness, maintains a certain deference to the speaker, verbally expressed by certain utterances: *1 Precisely on that point, you need votes. While the forefinger can substitute for the hand to designate or localize, it cannot replace the latter to offer or request. Only the palm may be used when making a proposal, letting someone speak (* Please, go ahead), or asking for confirmation (* You'll come, of course?). We have seen that the complementarity of simultaneous gesture and speech saves time and allows an economical exchange of information (Chapter 8, Economy of information). This complementarity often provides for a clever balance or compensation between the verbal and nonverbal information with regard to the listener. A negative gesture might be balanced by a positive utterance, or a negative utterance by a physical sign of respect: a way of being tactful with the listener and improving one's position. For example, we have just seen that when interrupting, the gestural brutality is often compensated for with verbal politeness. Inversely, one might excuse oneself gesturally for having to correct verbally. Thus, to diplomatically correct a statement by someone else, the speaker might tip his head toward his shoulder. After that, there will be cellular division, and the doctor politely corrects: * No, not right away. Gesturalizing the implicit How can form be given to what is unsaid? Several functions of gesture can, as complements to speech (see above), serve this purpose. Here, I will cite several exchanges in which the gesturer, using discretion and playing on the ambiguity of the visual sign, transmits certain impressions at the ex-

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pense of someone (denigration), or gives information without a third party knowing (connivance). A pejorative judgment of the intellectual capacities or the behavior of someone must, out of prudence, be tacitly communicated. Several gestural expressions exist (Chapter 8, Psychological motive). The most typical consists of calling on heaven as witness by raising, rolling up, or closing the eyes, and sometimes by raising one or both hands. One can also denigrate using other expressions such as smirking in disagreement, shrugging one's shoulders in offhand indifference, abruptly lowering the head or tipping it back and forth in a frontal plane to indicate that someone is exaggerating, a prolonged, loose blowing to show tedium, or a lateral head-shake synonymous with certain verbal expressions of denigration. These signs may be combined. For example, a woman bothered by a caustic old lady on a bus discreetly performs several of them in sequence: she first tries to solicit moral support from the person facing her by a symmetric smirk (= She's hard to put up with), then she shakes her head very slightly (= This can't be true)and finally lifts her eyes up quickly (= Ah Lord!). The combined smirk, lateral head-shake, glance skyward, and sigh might mean: Oh my goodness, Lord, I might as well give up! Many figurative expressions referring to faults may be illustrated by or replaced by gestures (Didi and Montredon 1986). On the intellectual level, during an oral presentation for example, disagreement on, doubt about, or adherence to the speaker's statements are formulated gesturally, not verbally. Here are some examples. The listener refuses to accept an assertion by shaking his head; he hesitates as to the soundness of a thesis by tipping his head from left to right; he expresses a reservation by tipping his head to the side (= if you like, that's one point of view). The latter gesture will be more marked, closer to doubt, if the speaker lifts an eyebrow (question) and pushes his lips out in a moue or lowers the corners of his mouth in a movement of negative (gustative) judgment, a sign of scepticism. Inversely, he will indicate his agreement with various statements by a slight forward tip of the head, even when listening to a sermon or watching a speaker on television. Are these signs voluntary? We have a malicious tendency to consider them as such whenever they are negative. Indeed, to what extent are they spontaneous reactions to the speaker's statements or reactions consciously communicated to the other listeners under the hypocritical veil of spontaneity? However, there exists a typically French vocal-gestural expression for anything implied, and it accompanies or replaces the negative elliptical expression Ça . . .! (lit. that). Ignorance, indifference, powerlessness, denigration, prudence, warning, rudeness, refusal of responsibility, the derogatory ex-

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pression of obviousness, etc., may be implied by elliptical sentence fragments in which appear primarily demonstrative pronouns referring to the subject or person in question, Ça . . . ! Celui-là . . .! or personal pronouns, Avec eux . . . . ! (With them . . .you have to expect anything), Oh moi . . . ! (Oh me . . . I'm the fifth wheel of the coach), or else the adverb Là . . . ! (There . . . I have nothing to say), which may be defined as a context shifter. Differentiated, complementary gestures may be grafted to the basic kinesic expression to specify more precisely what is implied (Chapter 7, Passive refusal). When you cannot, do not want to, or do not know how to say something, gesture, compensating for verbal expression, is there. On one TV program, two old friends, eighty years old, are recounting their work as miners. One of them explains: * And then the two youngsters, they went to the mine. Her hands turn one around the other, interconnected in a rotary movement to signify that they, like their parents, were caught up in the mechanism and had to go to work in the mine. Here, the speechcomplementary gesture expresses an important idea that is perhaps difficult for the woman to formulate. She therefore chooses a gestural formulation of the concept. Gestural preformulation of verbal information Gestures help people to make themselves understood, to express themselves; body and mind participate in a single expression. The speaker can use gestural information to anticipate and complement an utterance. This aspect became clear to me as I watched an ethnologist bring each statement of an exposé to life. The beginning of each of the gestures listed below slightly preceded the word or phrase it illustrated. Gesture

Utterance

Hand pushed forward over the table as if to 'level the terrain' To prepare the action ... Thumb and forefinger joined in a pointer trace a line on the table

he writes down the result ...

Forearm prone, the fingers push off to the a little, I'm not saying side, signifying 'brushed aside' neglected but reserved for . . .

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Forearm supine, closed hand shaken

the noise that things make when they are handled. . .

Laid flat on the table, the hand signifies, 'having laid this down'

Finally . . .

Left hand opened out left Right hand opened out right

between the analysis of space and that of time


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Page 193 Two curved hands with spread fingers sculpt a hemisphere to express a global quality

and they system as a whole

Hand traces vertical loops inward to represent (internal) evolution of thought

the path

Face-to-face palms brought closer together condensed This gestural anticipation may have several roles: to help the speaker find the word with the appropriate imagery, to serve as communicative compensation if he is afraid of not finding the right term, and to keep the listener interested by inducing him to guess at and verify the words that follow. The following example concerns two professors in a televised round-table discussion in 1978 concerning French professional jargon. Having shown his disagreement with a moue and transverse movement of the head from left to right, participant X intervenes to specify. Note that the context is a spoken one, so that the statements are made hesitatingly, with things left implicit. The gesture described in brackets immediately precedes the part of the sentence concerned: [raised forefinger] Unless maybe the question is posed in terms of power, as Louis [designated with the forefinger] suggested posing it at the beginning, because it's conceivable [forefinger pressing down to insist] that on the contrary there are [with the forearm prone, the fingers sketch a horizontal circle, both to take control and delimit a zone] local cases of power being taken from the kind of intermediate power, a little bit [the hand traces a transverse line to announce the negative effect of the following word] blinding, that, [hesitant wavering of forefinger, which moves to the left and then, 'decided,' to the right] well, some of the people [forefinger points down] here were part of, [forefinger points down for localization or scansion?] here [the spread fingers move sideways to cover a certain surface] in a broad sense. But [he designates Louis with his hand in order to let him speak] you wanted. . . . The other speaker also marks his sentences with a downward movement of the forefinger, a frequent movement which I did not note down: Though I see clearly [forefinger sketches a regressive circular movement from back to front] what he has in the back of his mind, [movement of taking hold] which is to make the methodology autonomous as a place [movement to the left announcing a two-sided sentence structure] to come to, on the one hand, [encircling movement] that can be circumscribed and from which, then, we can have [the hand traces vertical loops to express the consequential development] a certain number of applications.

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Here, lastly, are two good examples of gestural anticipation of an illustrated utterance. Both sentences were uttered with the gesture (symmetric) of rubbing the tips of the fingers with the thumb: * The audience has to be hooked. It's a question of 'feeling.'* As time goes on, I 'feel' more and more uneasiness. Here, the gestural formulation considerably precedes the verbal formulation. This phenomenon seems to prove that gestural activity participates in the activity of speech generation. Other observations confirm this conclusion: The phenomenon of autosynchronization pointed out by Condon and detailed by Kendon. The latter showed the isomorphism between the hierarchical structures of gesture and speech. Gesturing even when one is not visible (on the telephone, with blind people, when hidden), recently demonstrated by Rimé (1983), corroborates the idea that movement is as much associated with the encoding of verbal information as with its transmission, and may even be more so. An experiment by Cosnier (1977), along the same lines as one by Dittman (1972), shows that the recitation of a text learned by heart is not accompanied by paraverbal gestural activity, nor are the reading or repetition of sentences, but that coverbal gesturing is especially used in the course of verbal improvisation. In the same way as vocal expression, gestural expression is a phylogenetic and ontogenetic trace of preverbal language, a useful and complementary trace of nonverbal language in verbal communication. Gestural preformulation of verbal information appears as a phenomenon of the hyperreduction of an acquisition process: the evolution of language through human history, relived by children, is synthetically translated by adults into the process of speaking itself. To the notions of phylogenesis and ontogenesis of language, we can add that of actogenesis. This anticipation of speech by gesture is found in psychoanalysis: Mahl (1976: 219310) notes that a patient first reveals nonverbally the things in his subconscious that he will subsequently verbalize. Does this preliminary nonverbal manifestation facilitate awareness? Gesture and language Gestural metaphor In a way, gesture attests to the metaphor passing from (a) something concrete to (b) the physical representation of something abstract. The face-to face palms are moved farther apart to represent either (a) A path * this wide,

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or (b) A fairly extensive work to be put into images.The same tracing of superposed lines is appropriate for both of the following sentences: (a) * So they constructed these rows, these rows of berths; (b) . . .* that is, the superposition of a whole series of signifieds.Raising high the vertically held hand refers to the summit: (a) * So it gets through, so the guys at the top hear; (b) Think of the '50s when * we carried to the pinnacle. . . .The scissors movement of the forefinger and middle finger can cut a text as well as cloth: (a) * I had cut the suspenders; (b) * So they cut it (concerning a history textbook in which 'Muslim fanatics' was replaced by 'Muslims').A diver and a secretary draw a level at a certain height: (a) There is a rise that ends * in a plateau, a kind of mountain * that levels off at a very high plateau; (b) They climbed very quickly, and now * they've reached a plateau in their careers. More frequently, the gesture recalls the concrete nature of a word taken in a figurative sense. It evokes the image contained virtually in the word. For example, the prone hands symmetrically indicate a single horizontal plane: He ought to be brought down to ** the level of men.Heldparallel and sagittally, they are moved to the other side: Television has become a * parallel power and parallel knowledge.The horizontal hand is lifted one 'notch': The administrative and technical personnel earn less, but they are psychologically * above us.Or lowered a notch: C. is the sales manager * under F.Theback of the hand pushes forward a decision to be made: I'm so unclear about what comes next that * I admit I'm putting it off.Orbrushes something to the side: They [women] must be integrated and not * rejected. We often observe an anticipated and apparently contradictory backing off from the metaphor. The speaker announces the approximate nature of his comparison, 'like that,' 'a kind of,' 'so to speak,' while feeling the need to illustrate it. For example, a philosopher slightly rotates his hand held sagittally to depict this hinge, like that, of the century.A politician mimes jumping over an obstacle: There is a kind of handicap [his hands make two parallel arcs which pass over, frontward] that we have to overcome.Fora personal metaphor, a professor mimes opening an umbrella * : I didn't agree * with the sort of institutional umbrella that he opened by saying. . . .A writer admits: I like [his cupped hands close] my shell, so to speak. These examples seem to me to converge toward the following interpretation. The speaker explains that a given phenomenon presents an analogy or similitude with something concrete. From there, in a way, comes the logical necessity of concretely recalling the thing in question, even though there is apparently a contradiction in using a word abstractly while representing it concretely. In fact, the analogy between the abstract and concrete meanings depends on 'abstraction', on pulling the symbol out from the

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concrete. Hence the need to depict the symbol which insures the link and renders the idea or action abstracted from the concrete. The approach seems very pedagogical: the speaker verbally announces the analogy and gesturally demonstrates the 'ab(s)tracted' relationship. In the same spirit, many 'figurative' expressions are depicted or illustrated concretely: When a smuggler is caught [with spread fingers, the prone hand mimes snatching] 'la main dans le sac' (lit. with his hand in the bag = red-handed) so to speak. The expression is not very appropriate since the smuggler was caught with his stomach full of bags of heroin. But the figurative expression cries out for illustration.[The fingers of the right hand, raised and supine, are opened and closed several times] Young people have a tendency to catch current trends on the fly.When they bring their discoveries in on a silver platter [simultaneously, the hands, palms up and side-by-side, are offered to the listener].It's a case of mythomania [fingers spread, the downward palms move apart to cover a broad surface] that's spreading (Fr. faire tache d'huile = lit. make an oil spot).But Great Britain [the hands held sagittally are lowered forward on either side of the eyes] had blinders on; they weren't realistic.Theforefinger points forward to criticize the way of pointing the finger of public condemnation.Thespeaker points down with his forefinger to say: Pierre Salinger put his finger on the prime constraint.Thespeaker crosses her fists as though they were tied together by a rope: You're tied hand and foot to your manager. Many expressions are personal creations. When they are figurative, they are of course illustrated gesturally. One biographer speaks of Jean-Paul Sartre thus: the man who [palms forward, the cupped hands close for a moment as though squeezing a sponge so that it absorbs better] quickly absorbs whatever you give him. One person comments that industrial society [with the fingers stretched in a horizontal tubea suction pipethe hand moves slowly to the right] sucks women into the home.Someoneis criticizing today's authors who are very picky about their rights: I've found a piece of work [the hand closes around an imaginary pole and is abruptly lowered], I plant my flag on it.While moving to the side, the downward palm is lowered then raised to trace a dip: When we were * in an unspeakable cultural ditch. Etymological gestures A gesture often gives the forgotten, concrete origin of a word, i.e., its etymology. Wondering why a particular gesture was associated with a particular word, I have often looked the word up in a dictionary and have

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found the gesture to be a description of the term's initial and concrete meaning. The gesture thus reveals the initial passage from concrete to abstract: it is a diachronic gestural metaphor. It remotivates the expression. It appears that the initial gesture is maintained, more or less unconsciously, under the surface, while the polysemous chain of the word is formed, evolves, and is enriched in time. Is the corollary gesture stable because it is concrete and subconscious? There are many examples of this; some have already been given. Here I present only a few samples: In accordance with the etymology of the words illustrated, vertical loops with one hand * or intertwined circles with two hands ** depict (a) the course and evolution of things (from L. evolutio: action of unrolling; volvere: to roll): I heard X say that companies * will develop better . . . , (b) unfolding, the cycle of seasons (from G. kuklos: circle): No, paid programs * for retraining (Fr. se recycler); (c) repetition of events, alternating succession in rounds (by rotation, in turn, etc.): Will somebody * pick up where you left offThere were 250,000 of them since ** in turns, a lot came and went; (d) the linked chain of events ad infinitum: ** That could go on indefinitely.When you're ** caught up in something, you've got to go forward. Speakers express the idea of opposition contained in the word 'inverse' (L. invertere: to return) by a backward or inward circular movement extended to the point of going in the opposite direction, i.e., forward or outward: * Et c'est l'inverse (It's the other way around).* Mais par contre (However). The movement may be performed in either a sagittal or frontal plane. The palms, held out to the listenerto accompany a proposal, an exposé, a demonstration, an explanation (Fr. explication), or a developmentrecall the etymology of the corresponding words, the concrete origin of these activities. A proposal is gesturally 'pro-posed,' an exposé 'ex-posed,' evidence or a demonstration is shown and seen, an explication (L. explicare: to fold out) is unfolded, a development is laid out (see Chapter 8, Gestural argumentation). With the fingers spread and curved toward the speaker, the hand seems to take hold of something. It 'comprehends,' 'grasps' an idea. The action may apply to oneself or to someone else. The gesture is performed by anyone who wishes to make sure someone else has understood him: * Do you understand; do you see what I'm saying? It may also illustrate the idea of conviction, as the following example shows: We're wondering if you want to support him [the spread fingers of the right hand are curled inward and very tense] with enthusiasm. Generally used to convince, this gesture represents conviction, the 'adoption' of a stance, and reproduces the action of 'taking upon oneself.' Information is manipulated, faith is transformed, a formula is re-

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arranged, music is rendered in a particular manner by a conductor. In each case, spread and curved fingers grasp, transform, and manipulate the abstraction as though it were a material in space, thus recalling the etymology of the words 'manipulate' (L. manipule: handful) and 'manner' (O. Fr. manierL.L. manuarius: of the hand, in hand). The etymological function of gesture is so prevalent that it predominates over its other functions. It gives the initial concrete meaning of a word. (a) It visually explains that to be permanent is to continue, to 'remain to the last,' and that to evolve is to '(un)roll' or 'unfold.' (b) The signifier of logical opposition gesturally represents the convergent etymology of the adverbial phrases 'on the contrary,' 'inversely,' which respectively imply the opposite direction and a turning around. These notions are synthesized in a backward semicircular movement performed in various ways (Chapter 8, Gestural argumentation). (c) The gesture corresponding to precision does not portray the etymology of the word 'precision' (L. praecidere: to cut off in front; abridge) but depicts and combines the etymological origins of the synonyms strict (L. strictus: drawn tight), minute (L. minutus: reduced), punctual (L. punctum: point), and exact (L. exigere: to weigh strictly, to push to the limit): the thumb and forefinger hold, delicately squeeze, something very thin, almost a point. Mentally and gesturally, we thus associate precision with fineness, minuteness, and punctuality. (d) Gesture may also reveal etymological differences between synonyms. Contrasting a straightline movement with a curved movement allows one to concretely differentiate between rapid growth and development or between reduction and condensation, for example. (e) In parallel, the gesture often specifies the meaning of the word used. Through an up-down movement that associates the earth with the beyond, the speaker may specify the meaning of the word medium as being a psychic medium rather than the middle register in music, the middle term in logic, or a thinner in painting. Thus, from an etymological point of view, gesture may serve as (a) a definition or (b) a semantic and synthetic analysis of a notion, or else (c) a parallel definition, (d) differentiating definition, or (e) selective definition of a word. Gestural and facial idioms Descriptions of gestures that reveal particular attitudes can be idioms for the attitudes. If an action, movement, or posture is typical of an attitude, reproducing it becomes a gestural sign of the attitude, and describing it

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becomes a verbal sign. It is then logical to associate the verbal and gestural expressions or to substitute one for the other. The verbalized physical expression may point to the physical, psychological, or symbolic domain. Physical Se lécher (pourlécher) les babines (to lick one's lips): licking the lips in a sign of satisfaction after a good meal. Se chatouiller pour sefaire rire (to tickle oneself to make oneself laugh): forcing oneself to laugh when not in the mood or when the joke is not worth it. Se taper sur les cuisses (to slap one's thighs): laugh loudly. Tirer la langue (to stick out one's tongue): be thirsty and, by extension, to be in need, to want but not receive. Avoir la main leste (to have a light hand): to be quick to hit or slap. Salut à poing levé (hail with raised fist): a sign of brotherhood in a struggle. Des regards en coin, en coulisse (glances to the corner, to the wings): furtive glances. Secouer quelqu'un comme un prunier (to shake someone like a plum tree): to shake someone vigorously, to rebuff someone. Psychological Airs penchés (tipped airs): affected, plaintive, etc., posture to attract attention. Bouche bée (gaping): expresses stupefaction. Bras d'honneur (arm of honor): sign of obscene derision performed by placing one hand inside the bend of the opposite arm and raisingor stretching outthe latter, fist closed, to depict an erect penis (phallic forearm jerk). Baisser les bras (to lower the arms): to abandon the struggle, to give up. Lever les bras au ciel (to raise the arms to heaven): a sign of painful surprise, powerless protest, indignation; calling on heaven, God, as witness. Ouvrir les bras à quelqu'un, tendre les bras (to open the arms to someone, to stretch out the arms): to welcome eagerly, in a burst of emotion. S'arracher les cheveux (to tear out one's hair): to be furious or desperate. Jouer des coudes (to play elbows): to beat a path through a crowd, and abstractly, to push oneself in order to succeed. Se mordre les doigts (to bite one's fingers): a sign of impatience, annoyance. Toucher du doigt (to touch with the finger): figuratively, to see for oneself, to understand intuitively. Passer la main dans le dos (to rub someone's back): to flatter with servility. Hausser les épaules (to shrug the shoulders): to raise them in a sign of indifference, ignorance, discontent, or contempt. Tomber, se jeter, demander à genoux (to fall, throw oneself, ask on one's knees): expresses servile submission or unmitigated admiration Tirer la langue à quelqu'un (to stick the tongue out at someone): to show derision Se mordre les lèvres (to bite one's lips): to regret what one has just said (variant of se mordre la langue: to bite one's tongue). Faire la lippe (stick out the lower lip): a grimace of disgust or disdain. Sefrotter les mains (to rub one's hands): to rejoice in, to congratulate oneself on. Retrousser ses manches (push up one's sleeves): setting to work with zeal.

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Page 200 Faire la moue (make a mouepressing the lips together and pushing them out): manifestation of disdain, disapproval, disbelief, discontent, pouting. Avoir les yeux qui sortent de la tête (to have eyes coming out of one's head): to be very angry. Protruding eyes (as in les gros veux) are traditionally considered a sign of rage. Donner un coup de poing sur la table (to pound the table): to explode, violently showing hostility, disagreement, etc. II faut serrer les poings (You have to clench your fists): figuratively, to gather one's energy or put up with in silence. Se frapper la poitrine, battre sa coulpe, faire son mea culpa (hit one's chest [in contrition], do one's mea culpa): to recognize and admit one's fault (direct allusion to the Catholic act of contrition: mea culpa, mea culpa, mea maxima culpa). Plier, courber la tête (bend, bow the head): to submit. Se gratter la tête, le front (scratch one's head, forehead): out of irritation, boredom, or during troublesome reflection. Symbolic Etre comme deux doigts de la main (to be like two fingers of the hand): closely united. Ne pas bouger remuer, lever le petit doigt (not to move, stir, raise the little finger): to do nothing, to refuse to act, the little finger corresponding to the smallest gesture. Mettre le doigt sur quelque chose (to put the finger on something): to discover precisely what one has been looking for. Je m'en lave les mains (I wash my hands of it): I exclude myself, I decline any responsibility (the New Testament allusion to Pontius Pilate's gesture is still clearly recognized). Defining an attitude verbally and gesturally The dictionary definition of an attitude, taken here from Le Robert, gives the semantic components that are found in concrete form in the gesture. The following examples are reduced to a small semantic network which includes the attitudes of repugnance, repulsion, disgust, contempt, disdain, whose origins are partly gestural (word in italics).

Attitude

Verbal semantic components

Gestural semantic components

(13th cent., 'opposition, contradiction') Strong sensation of nausea, movement of retreat Répugnanceprovoked by something very dirty or that one Repugnancecannot suffer. See repulsion

Grimace of nausea; head pulled back or turned to the side; palm outward to push back

(1829) Physical or moral repugnance Répulsion concerning something or someone that one Repulsion pushes back. See disgust.

Same as above.

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Page 201 Grimace of vomiting; moue and marked naso-labial furrows.

Dégoût Disgust See nausea, lassitude.

Mépris de: feeling in which one raises one's self Mépris above. Mépris pour: feeling in which one considers Attenuated moue of Contemptsomeone not worthy of esteem. See disdain, disgust. disgust; gaze down on. Expressed contempt. To consider with disdain, to Dédain eye scornfully, to look down on. See arrogance, Disdain height, contempt.

Head lifted to look from above and over the shoulder.

Attenuated moue, vocal Bof; eyelids Blasé raised with feigned Blasé See disgusted, tired of. difficulty It may be seen that contemptintermediate between disgust and disdain according to the definitionscombines the physical features of each in an attenuated way: a moue of disgust, a haughty eyeing. A blase attitude, derived from disgust with overtones of weariness, is characterized by a face which, in a way, doesn't even have the strength to vomit. The same attenuation, the same relaxation is found on the vocal level in the corresponding interjections: Pouah!

Expresses disgust, contempt

Peuh! Pff! Expresses contempt, disdain, or indifference Bof! Expresses a blasé attitude, indifference, or resignation The tension in the face and mouth muscles decreases synergistically: there is a parallel relaxation in the vowel and in the consonant (from /p/ to /b/) in going from Pouah! to Bof! By giving the definition and the etymology of the attitude, the dictionary gives the signifying structure and origin, respectively, of the gesture. Complex gestures and compound gestures in sign language By a synthesis of signifiers, complex gestures (Chapter 6, Movement and configuration) express a synthesis of signifieds. The phenomenon is found

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in a different way in American Sign Language for the deaf (Klima and Bellugi 1979). Here is an example of one kind of sign, said to be 'opaque,' produced by combining two mimic signs in succession. Lifting the closed hand to the mouth signifies 'to eat'; the cheek resting on the hand is 'to sleep.' The two signs in succession represent the house, 'the place where one eats and sleeps.' Subsequently, the combination has been reduced to a movement of the closed hand from the side of the mouth to the cheek, thus keeping the configuration of the first gesture and the localization of the second. In contrast with gestures that accompany speech, the compound gesture here (op. cit.: Figure 1.14) sketches the passage from sign A to sign B, and with signifying features from two signifieds (eat and sleep), it indicates a third signified (house). The operation can be schematically written as: Sr (al; b2)? Sd C. The examples of compound gestures given by the authors are reduction of the movements in time. (FACE STRONG): the gesturer begins the second sign (STRONG) while finishing the first (FACE) (op. cit.: Figure 9.11), or (TOMORROW MORNING): he gives the beginning of the first sign (TOMORROW) and the end of the second sign (MORNING), reducing the intermediate movements (op. cit.: Figure 9.15). anticipation of the second bodily element: from the start, instead of using the bodily vehicle of Sign 1, the gesturer uses the vehicle of Sign 2 (op. cit.: 222-223). Sign 1

+ Sign 2

= Sign 3

forefinger onmiddle finger on temple back of hand

middle finger moves from temple to back of hand

THINK

TOUCH

THINK-TOUCH

hand on forehead

thumb against thumb

one thumb, lowered roughly from the forehead, is pressed against the other

KNOW

STAY

REMEMBER

With economy of time and movement, the mind juxtaposes features in succession to form compound gestures. On the oral or graphic linearity of a sentence, a gestural linearity seems to be superposed. Why does one never juxtapose two gestural signifiers, in parallel with the utterance, by executing them simultaneously, one with each hand? Is it for reasons of gestural symmetry or muscle coordination? No, since semaphore requires that the arms simultaneously perform different gestures. Note that semaphore is an arbitrary code. In North American Indian sign lan-

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guage, the word 'beautiful' is a hybrid of the signs for 'good' and 'looking': the left hand is held palm down across the chest ('good'), while the right palm is raised, like a mirror, and looked into ('looking') (Morris 1977: 43). These are two examples of gestural signs that involve a different movement by each hand. Each of these is part of a code intended to replace speech. In sign languages, signs seem to be gesturally juxtaposed or sketched in succession. These gestural languages are intended to replace spoken language, which is conceived as a sequence of distinct units. The gestural representation of these units and of their overlapping combination into new compound units takes into account their analytical construction as distinct, juxtaposed features. When allied with speech, gesture no longer plays the same role. Instead of coding distinct units, it symbolizes notions. This difference is maintained in the combination of gestural signifiers into a new signifier, called 'hybrid' by Morris, 'compound' by Klima and Bellugi, and which I call 'complex.' The spatial or temporal juxtaposition of signifying features in sign languages reveals an analytical conception in terms of distinct features, whereas when gesture is associated with speech, gestural combination is a symbolic operation in which relevant features are integrated and directly expressed in a new global unit. Visual communication is primary in sign language, but when associated with speech, it is generally secondary, complementary to the primary oral communication. Since understanding is insured, the gesturing speaker has a certain poetic liberty: the gestures are more modulated, less rigid, and their function is essentially illustrative. Moreover, since the basic gestural signs are natural, manipulating them and combining them are motivated acts and hence are understandable to the viewers. Understanding is not threatened even when gestural neologisms are created on the spot. Associated with speech, gesture has a secondary illustrative function. Secondariness and motivation allow individual creativity and comprehension of complex gestures. Specificity of gesture: link between concrete and abstract Here I shall simply summarize points elaborated on above: gesture provides the link CONCRETIZING THE ABSTRACT. between the concrete meanings and the figurative or abstract meanings of words, both synchronically (metaphor, figurative expression) and diachronically (concrete etymology of a word become abstract).

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SYMBOLIZING THE CONCRETE. We have seen that the mimed reference to a concrete signified involves 'ab-(s)tracting' (Chapter 5, Encoding), at the very least in selecting the relevant characteristics of the element under consideration; I call this operation 'symbolization.' Miming implies a transfer in time, of person, of element in action, of movement, or of dimension. Here, as a demonstration, is a sample of gestural illustrations of concrete situations. Utterance

Gesture*

Held perpendicular to the body, the forefinger advances 1* We drilled a cupboard. horizontally 2.* They [horses] had to be slaughtered The edge of the hand chops down 3. *Can we darken the room a little?

The hands, palms facing toward the speaker and thumbs up, are lowered in a single frontal plane

4.* We're going to turn out the light The hand, palm down, is lowered 5. They were * sent to management.

Fingers thrown outward

6. *He's being transferred to a different prison Prone hands transferred from one side to the other The gesture does not reproduce the real actions performed, but portrays, in one way or another, the corresponding notion. In Example (1), rather than the use of a drill, the gesture shows its action, i.e., to puncture, to make a hole. In (2), the idea of putting to death (lit. suppressing) is shown, in (3) cutting off or falling (the curtain of night), in (4) reducing or lowering the light, in (5) and (6) the notions of sending and transferring. In short, the gesture is not a mimic one, in which the action is simulated, but one in which abstraction brings new elements into the act of communication. Gesture is 'ab-(s)tracted' from the concrete. In a way, it is the hinge between mind and matter; it provides two-way passage between concrete and abstract: it concretizes the abstract or symbolizes the concrete.

The capacity for abstraction in gesture is not surprising. It is a postulate of theories that attribute to gesture a major role in the genesis of language: 'Depictive behavior is indissociable from language. It is part of man's aptitude for thinking about reality in terms of verbal symbols, gestural symbols, or concrete images.' (Leroi-Gourhan 1964: 216).

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CONCLUSION In conclusion, we may affirm that kinesic signs are not arbitrary. Only the selection by each cultural group of particular analogical connections is arbitrary. The sign itself is both motivated and conventional as was shown by the intercultural semantic test based on filmed sequences of a certain number of French gestures and facial expressions, each of which was presented in full view and in a partial view (isolated gesture) in order to study the signifying structure. The results confirm the hypothesis of conventionality and of the relevance of the principal gestural signifier. Natives identified the expressions very well out of context. The influence of cultural differences is evident (85% correct identification by the French, 46% by the Hungarians, and 29% by the Japanese). The relevance of the gesture is also clear since the facial expression improved the French score by only 2%. The full facial/gestural expressions are shown to be conventional signs and are unanimously considered motivated, since the interpretations by foreigners can be explained either by assimilation to familiar signs or by the search for analogical connections. Certain mismatches are shared by the three groups, whether due to the signified, to the signifier, or to the relationship between the two. While facial expression appears to play a positive role for all three groups in connection with certain gestures (in that it lifts ambiguity in the isolated gesture), it can be seen that facial expression is also conventional. The very informative study of mismatches also (1) allows one to determine the components of a signified (based on the phenomena of convergence toward and dispersion from it), (2) reveals the existence of hypersigns, in which a hypersignified (overlapping signifieds) corresponds to a hypersignifier (physical analogies), (3) reconciles the effective polysemy of a gestural sign (indicated by the mismatches) with its iconic character. With regard to the latter point, the mismatch analysis reveals cases of semantic shifts in the signified or the possibility of multiple analogical links in the signifier. For a given gesture, the mind selects the particular physical aspect that motivates a particular sign. While the mismatches reveal the polysemy

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of the kinesic sign, their analysis shows that it is nonetheless motivated: it is polysemous and motivated. The study from the point of view of the signifier uncovered the specificity of the various physical elements and the possibilities of substitution. The combination of specificity and substitution produces nuance within equivalence. Various equivalences between different body segments, between planes, or between axes can be seen as cross sections of the gestural repertory, whose intersections give a number of more or less extensive series of homologous getures. Each element of a homologous series is nonetheless clearly individualized. Moreover, we note the possibility of a 'gestural neologism,' or complex gesture, a gestural synthesis of relevant signifying elements from two simple gestures referring to the signifieds of both of them. The gestural variants of a given signified extracted from the physical repertory might be used to compile an onomasiological dictionary of French gestures, and might reveal the implicit semantics of the signified in question. For example, the various gestures illustrating perfection imply that perfection is a form of completion, that it involves precision, and that it is faultless. Similarly, according to the gestures that describe it, restriction is partial opposition or a different point of view. The comparison of variants reveals the relationship between signifier and signified. Phenomena such as reduction and reinforcement, contrast, or shifting are observed to operate in parallel on the levels of the signifier and the signified. This isomorphism between the two facets of the gestural sign confirms the strength of the physico-semantic link and facilitates the search for a sign's motivation. While the motivation is relatively easy to find when two body elements are interchangeable to express the same signified with a given movement (each nonetheless carrying a particular nuance), the motivation of many repetitive gestures can be deduced from the corresponding single-movement variant. The different motivations of a polysemous gesture can also be deduced from its variants. Finally, the variants of a given signified may reveal the phenomenon of double motivation of a signifier, as well as the various ways of strengthening a facial and/or gestural expression. Through convergence, hybridization, compromise, and osmosis, gestural synthesis allows the exact definition of a signified. The world of gestures is comparable to the highly nuanced world of color. The definition and strength of a gestural signified are analogous to the tone and value of a color. In accordance with what was observed during the intercultural semantic

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test, the examples of polysemy within the French gestural system fall into two types. In the first, (a), the link between the signifier and the signified is unique, while the signified is subject to semantic shifts: there is a single motivation. In the second type, (b), there are multiple links associating one or more of the signifying elements of the gesture with one or more signifieds: the motivation is plural. The physical signifier contains several functional signifiers. The combination of the two sources of polysemy multiplies the possible significations of a gesture. Plural motivation on the physical level and semantic shifting are the two essential sources of polysemy in a gesture, whether the polysemy is intercultural or intracultural. (a) The polysemy of a singly motivated gesture is explained by semantic shifting. The gesture takes on new meanings as the meaning of the signified passes from literal to figurative, from concrete to abstract, from the spatial to the temporal world, from the physical to the psychological level, from a particular domain to everyday life. Since the gesturer can play himself or someone else, many gestures refer to pairs of signifieds, related through a role reversal. The gesture can change meaning in that the imagined reference can be changed: oneself, someone else, an object, an abstraction. Thus the fist, a sign of aggressiveness or force, evokes many signifieds. And depending on the direction in which the mimic force is applied, the signified is modified in correlation with the signifier. Semantic shifting does not preclude a very fine correspondence between the two facets of the sign. For example, the extent of the surface presented outward in opposition proves to be proportional to the importance of the opposition or self protection symbolized. (b) Plural motivation is explained by a very rich symbolism in the physcial signifier. The symbolism of a circle is a nice example, and one moreover which combines in a single visual symbol both graphics and gesture. A gesture with a concrete referent may portray the shape of the signified or else the characteristic shape of one of its elements. It may be an imitation of the way an object is held; it may reproduce a movement, that of using the object or of its operation. The gesture involves a concrete operation of abstraction which assumes a transfer in time, of active body part, or of movement. More abstractly, the gesture may mime the literal meaning of a figurative expression, illustrate the physical content of a metaphorical cliché, or reproduce the literal, original, and forgotten meaning of word, thus giving its etymology. When the etymological and mimic roles of gesture conflict, the gesture does not reproduce the reality in question but illustrates the abstract idea of that reality.

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Gestural expression seems to be as rich and complex as the reality it represents. By that I mean the internal workings and modes of operation of gestural expression as much as analogical depiction. Certain parallels appear. (1) Just as the mind chooses to mime a particular, relevant aspect of the reality to be expressed gesturally, it also selects within a given gesture a particular signifying feature (plural motivation). Simplifying the gesture, for example by progressively reducing it, may allow a better correspondence with the reality symbolized. (2) Coverbal gesturing, a typical activity of transfer between concrete and abstract and an essentially metaphorical one, exploits various types of transfer on the level of the signified, but also on the level of the signifier, by transposing certain bodily vehicles. (3) As an implicit signified is made explicit by the gesture, a given gestural form many also have several underlying signifiers. (4) Just as we may note a fusion of the notions of space and time, we observe an interaction between the spatial and temporal parameters of a gesture: slowness or repetition may render remoteness, and a large amplitude may portray a long period. In short, gestural expression, based on our perception of reality, proves to be, like perception, an activity of selection, abstraction, metaphor, and implication, in which even space and time are merged. As concerns the relationship between gesture and speech, Condon and Kendon introduced the concept of linguistic-kinesic organizing rhythm (autosynchronization and intersynchronization). However, the phono-gestural parallelism goes beyond the temporal framework. It is found in the form, the signification and the functions of vocal or gestural signs. Many examples lead one to see the association of gesture and voice as forming a single figurative expression that is both visual and auditive. Nonverbal communication may be seen as a phylogenetic and ontogenetic trace of preverbal language, grafted onto verbal language to structure it (demarcation function, encoding) and enliven it (expressive function). Comparable in certain aspects to the mixed semism of captioned images studied by Barthes, coverbal gesturing performs the functions of anchoring (gesture specifying a particular meaning) and relay (verbal topicgestural comment). It would seem that the meaning of a hypersemous or polysemous gestural sign narrows through intersection with kinesic signs on other levels of the body (visual superposition) and through confrontation with the signs of the vocal string. While they are intimately linked, gestural and verbal signs differ in the way they operate. This difference is flagrant if one compares the operation

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of a complex, coverbal gesture with that of a compound gesture in sign language, which is intended to replace verbal language. The more or less marked, but systematic, gestural anticipation of illustrated utterances confirms that gesture facilitates verbal generation and plays a role in verbal encoding. Moreover, this phenomenon proves to be compatible with linguistic-kinesic autosynchronization and allows one to advance, alongside the notions of phylogenesis and ontogenesis, the concept of the atogenesis of language. While many authors have spoken of gesture as illustrating or substituting for speech, the present study highlights gesture as complementary to speech, since it can paraphrase a segment of an utterance, or end a sentence. Gesture comments on utterance. Indeed, it explains or specifies the meaning of a word and, more often, adds complementary information, at the very least through kinesic judgments. This simultaneous, visual commentary obeys the principle of economy of information. Gesture shows the passage from literal to figurative meaning, both in conventional and personal figurative expressions: its role is metaphorical. The depiction of concrete meaning gives gesture an etymological role: from a semantic point of view, it often appears as a concrete, synthetic, and unconscious dictionary. Thus coverbal gesturing provides a synchronic linkmetaphorand diachronic linketymologybetweenconcrete and abstract. The link is dual since gesture concretizes the abstract and symbolizes the concrete. This pivotal role, allied with its symbolic richness, may constitute the central conclusion of the present study.

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EXCERPTS FROM A DICTIONARY OF GESTURES (FROM CALBRIS 1984)

Appendix 1: Curved, detached movements Detached gestures

3 )

In curved movements, optionally symmetric

)1

Non-repeated arc

1.1

Forward

.1 In a horizontal plane 1. Configuration: U-shaped table. Horseshoe. 2. Movement: (1. Progressive: Bypass. Surround; 2. Regressive: U-turn. Come back.) 3. Symbol: Tour de main (lit. turn of hand = knack). I)eftness. Skill. Experience. .2 In a frontal plane 1. Oscillograph; 2. Range. Collection: 3. Spectrum: 4. Panorama: (1. Overall tableau; 2. Admiration.) .3 In a sagittal or frontal plane 1. Shape: (1. Arc. 2. Curved line or surface.) 2. Movement: (1. Add; 2. Predominate: 3. Surmount.) 3. Leap in time: (1. Repetition; 2. Posteriority. Postponement; 3. Progress. Bound.) 1.2

Backward

.1 Inward 1. Interiority; 2. Assimilation; 3. Going inward (introversion); 4 Come back to mind; 5. Put back. Go back in. .2 Going back 1. In time: Anteriority; 2. On or to something; 3. To continue:Argu-mentation. .3 Opposite direction: Logical opposition. Restriction. ) 2 Repeated arc 2.1

Without translation in space

.1 Simple movement 1. Leaf through; 2. Presser quelqu'un comme un citron (lit. squeeze someone like a lemon = bleed someone white); 3. Turn screw; 4. Corkscrew; 5. Kev. Fermer à double tour (to double lock = to close securely); 6. Twisting: Wringing out. Wring someone's neck. .2 Alternating, oscillatory movement

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1. Movement of pendulum; 2. See-saw. Swing. Censer; 3. Windshieldwipers; 4. Rocking; 5. Approximation. Mediocrity. Couci-couça. 2.2

With translation in space

.1 Progressive 1.Arcades; 2. Festoons. Garlands .2 Alternating 1. Sinuous line and movement 1. About a longitudinal (frontback) line: Something that snakes, meanders. 2. About a transverse (leftright) line: Sinusoidal movement 3. About a vertical line: Scoliosis. 2. Sinuous surface and movement 1. Forward: Pitching of a boat. 2. Transverse movement: (1. Undulating surface: Valleys. Waves; 2. Wavering, hesitant aspect.) Curved surface

)3 3.1

Reference to part of a sphere

.1 Surface curved 1. With respect to a horizontal plane 1. Concave surface: Trough. Au creux de la vague (lit. in the trough of the wave = at the low point); 2. Convex surface: Arch. Arbour. 2. With respect to a vertical plane: Rotunda. 3. With respect to either plane: Bulge. Hem. .2 Hemisphere 1. Concave: Bowl. Dish; 2. Convex: Sous cloche (under a bell jar). Greenhouse. Dome. 3.2

Reference to a sphere

.1 Shape: Ball. .2 Symbol: Totality. Generality. Whole. Compact block. )4 4.1

Rotary movement Horizontal axis .1 Supination: Open, lift cover. .2 Pronation: Close, replace cover. Shutting. .3 Supination or pronation 1. Turning around. Overturning; 2. Flip over. Bowl over.

4.2

Vertical axis .1 Hinge. Double door. .2 'To turn one's coat.' Weather vane. Pirouette. About-face.

4.3

In any direction Front and back. 'Other side of the coin.'

)5 5.1

Circle Horizontal plane

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.1 Fingers pointing down 1. Circular shape: Disk, traffic circle, etc. 2. Circular movement: Turn. Go around. Surround. 3. Internal character: Action closed on itself. .2 Fingers pointing up Totality. 5.2

Vertical plane

.1 Shape: Wheel. Hoop. Halo. .2 Movement 1. Revolve around. 2. Move around within. .3 Symbol 1. Mediation. Means of transmission. 2. Repetition. 5.3

Arbitrary plane

.1 Shape: Ping-pong ball. Hole. .2 Symbol 1. 'A zero.' 'A nothing.' 2. Positive judgment: (1. Perfection; 2. Gourmand admiration.) Circle about a particular axis

)6 6.1

Vertical cylinder

.1 Shape: Slender vase. Pipette. .2 Movement: Turning a spit. Steamroller. 6.2

Horizontal cylinder

.1 Shape: Rolling pin. .2 Movement: Turning a spit. Circle repeated with one hand

)7 7.1

Without translation in space

.1 In a horizontal plane 1. Fingers pointing down 1. Manipulating: Potato-masher. Old coffee grinder. 2. Functioning. 3. Movement: 'Go in circles.' 'Vicious circle.' 2. Fingers pointing up 1. Manipulating: Slingshot. Lasso. 2. Functioning: Turnstile. Weather vane. Rotor. .2 In a vertical plane 1. Manipulating. Functioning: Moulin à paroles (lit. word mill = chatterbox). Rewinding. 2. Symbol: (1. Uninterrupted repetition; 2. Animation.) 7.2

With translation in space .1 About a particular axis 1. Equal circles

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1. About a vertical axis 1. Rising spiral; 2. Descending spiral. 2. About a horizontal axis 1. Tie up. Bandage; 2. Wind up; 3. Wriggling. Snaking. 2. Diminishing circles 1. Spiral tapering downward: Whirlpool. Tornado. Waterspout. 2. Spiral tapering upward: Spiral sea-shell. .2 In a particular plane 1. Forward loops l. Movement: Roll. 'Snowball.' 2. Explanatory development. 3. Sequence: (1. Subsequent development; 2. Repetitive enumeration. 3. Enumeration with implied 'and so on,' 'etc.'). 4. Evolutive development: Process. Cycle. Recycling. 5. Rhythm. Repetition. 6. Habit. Tradition. 7. Depreciation. 8. Chain of events. 2. Backward loops 1. Evolution of thought (personal). Hypothesis. Conjecture. Suspi2. Distant anteriority. 3. Origin: Provenance. 4. Return: Feedback. )8 8. 1

Curved movements performed with two vehicles Due to necessary symmetry .1 Symmetric shape of referent (voluminous): (1. Goblet; 2. Vase; 3. Amphora; 4. Pumpkin; 5. Plump woman). .2Symmetric handling, use, or operation of referent 1. Single movement: Balloon. 2. Repeated movement: (1. Rowing; 2. Jump rope; 3. Breaststroke: Swimming or figurative nager [lit. to swim = to be at sea, to be unable to do]). 3. Alternating movement: (1. Bicycle. Pedal-boat; 2. Driving a car; 3. Moped; 4. Juggling).

8.2

Referring to two elements .1 Substitution. .2 Alternative. Dual relation. .3 Joining. Connection.

8.3

Referring to 'more' .1 Abundance. .2 Vastness. .3 Development (Enlargement).

8.4

To bring together .1 Gathering. Concentration.

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.2 Union. Solidarity. .3 Enclosing. 8.5

To spread out, deploy.

8.6

Interconnected movements .1 Inactivity, 'twiddling one's thumbs.' .2 Linked succession: (1. Sempiternal character; 2. Transformation; 3. Alternating succession; 4. Mechanism. Gears.) .3 Overlapping. Mixing: (1. Mix up or get mixed up. 2. Untangle. Sort out.)

8.7

Reverse movement, turning backward and inward: Recovery.

Appendix 2: Straight-line movements of a body segment: Flat or bent hand in configuration A. Hand(s) A-3 One or two hands, detached gesture 3.1

Repeated movement

3.1.1 /1

Simple (repeated in same direction) Along a vertical axis 1. Upward: 1. Superposition; 2. Level. Degree. 2. Downward: 1. Espalier; 2. Chopping.

/2

Along a lateral axis 1. Testing the ground; 2. Classification. Division in time; 3. Request to hurry up.

3.1.2

Alternated

/1

Up-Down 1. Prone hand: 1. 'Go easy'; 2. Rattletrap. Boneshaker. 2. Supine hand: Weighing something. 3. Pivoting hand: Equilibrium. Balance.

/2 Right-Left 1. Hesitation; 2. Fishtailing. /3 3.1.3

Front-Back: Ebb and flow. Come and go. Shaking

/1

Vertical: 1. Aïe aïe aïe; 2. Oh là là!

/2

Transverse: 1. Negation; 2. Airing. Fanning.

/3

Diagonal: Threat. Warning.

/4

Trembling: 1. Fear; 2. Cold; 3. Fever; 4. Alcoholism; 5. Parkinson's disease.

3.2

In a single movement /1

Upward

1.1 Horizontal hand 1. Simple movement 1. Stopped: 1. Absolution; 2. Oath-taking: en mettre la main au feu (lit. put one's hand in the fire = swear to something); 3. Indication of size, height.

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2. Continuous: Accumulation. 3. In steps: Echelon. Higher degree. 4. Palms upward: Raise. lift up. 2. Compound movement 1. Upward and backward: Rear up. 2. Upward and forward: Inclined plane. Slope. 3. Same but continuous: Climbing the slope. Flight. Expansion. Growth. Progression. Hope. 1.2 Hand raised obliquely or vertically 1. As if to throw: Threat. Warning. 2. Against the outside: ( 1. Repulsion: 2. Stopping: [1. End; 2. Requesting that someone stop, wait. Urging calm]; 3. Restriction; 4. Polite refusal. Opposition. Objection. Negation; 5. Implied Negative Ça ... ! 6. Self-protection; 7. Reassuring. Calming; 8. Implicit negation: [l. Agreement; 2. Certainty; 3. Perfection]). 3. Alluding to a higher level. 4. Referring to heaven: ( 1. Calamity. Denigration; 2. Wish. Admiration; 3. Augmentative exclamation). 5. Other: ( 1. Taking an oath; 2. Any vertical configuration). /2

Downward

2. 1 Horizontal hand 1. Reducing the distance to the ground: (1. Diminish. Lower; 2. Cover. Smother). 2. Eliminating the distance to the ground. 3. Designating the ground to indicate the present. 2.2 Oblique hand 1. Referring to a state: Side. Slope. 2. Referring to a movement: Slip. Go adrift. 2.3 Vertical hand 1. Link from high to low. 2. Drop: (1. Dive. Sink; 2. Striking a blow; 3. Drop of a panel). 3. Cutting. Division: (1. Partition [Panel. Cliff. Fault. Border]; 2. Cutting in two; 3. Rupture. Dichotomy; 4. Trenchant, breaking, sharp, rigid nature of something.) 4. Obstacle. Limit. 2.4 Hand raised to be dropped 1. Capitulation in disgust, 'drop it'; 2. Rejection. /3

Upward-Downward

3.1 In an up-down movement at the same spot 1. Powerlessness. (Ignorance); 2. Excusing oneself. Apology; 3. Fatalism. 3.2 In an up-down movement along a line: 'Ups and downs.' /4

Forward

4.1 Plane of hand sagittal

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1. Single movement: 1. Straight ahead; 2. In the distance; 3. Continuation in space or time; 4. Miming a forward movement. 2. Compound movement: forward and to the side-Bias. 4.2 Plane of hand frontal 1. Limit in space or time (stage, end). 2. Impulse. /5 Backward 5.1 Pulled back, hand in a frontal plane 1. Backing up. Retreat; 2. Slowing. Braking. 5.2 Fingers folded back on upturned palm 1. Dismissal. Offhandedness; 2. Failure; 3. Departure. 5.3 Raised or thrown back over shoulder. 1. Ancientness, 'As old as the hills'; 2. Incomplete enumeration, 'And that's not all!' 3. Rejection. Offhand refusal. Disinterest; 4. Failure due to refusal or impossibility. /6 Forward-Backward 6.1 Forward-Backward: 1. Going away and coming back. Roundtrip; 2. 'One step forward, two steps back.' 6.2 Backward-Forward: Reculer pour mieux sauter (lit. to back up to jump better = to get a running start). /7 Outward 7.1 Fingers thrown outward: 1. Exit. Dismissal. Disposal; 2. Let alone, let go. 7.2 Hand pushed: To make something back up. 7.3 Hand splayed: 1. Contribution; 2. Delivery. Distribution. Diffusion; 3. Extroversion: (1. Open up oneself; 2. Reach out to others.) 7.4 Hand stretched toward someone or something 1. Horizontal, palm down: Stop. Request that someone wait. Insertion. Restriction. 2. Horizontal, palm up: 1. Request; 2. Excuse. Innocence. 3. Along various axes, palm up: Concrete designation. 4. Splayed open to the side: 1. Explanation. Example; 2. Conclusive consequence. Conclusion; 3. Obviousness. Evidence. 5. Stretched toward someone, palm up: 1. Abstract designation and reference to someone; 2. Agreement, 'That's it. On the nose'; 3. Request for confirmation; 4. Interpolation (remark). /8 Inward 8.1 Oneself: Designating oneself 8.2 To oneself: Calling others to oneself: (1. 'Follow me'; 2. 'Come closer). 8.3 In oneself: Make one's own: (1. Take in, assimilate; 2. Go within oneself, interiorize).

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8.4 For oneself: Gathering for keeps. 8.5 Importing. /9 Outward-Inward 9.1 Vice versa. Inversely. 9.2 Extroversion-Introversion. /10. To one side 10.1 To either side 1. In a sweeping or pushing movement: Leave or put aside. 2. Splaying the hand to the side: 1. Indicating the other side; 2. Insertion. Parenthesis: 3. Illustration of passing. 10.2 To the right 10.3 To the left /11 To each side Wavering in discourse. Opposition. /12 Transverse axis 12.1 Horizontal hand 1. Palm down: 1. Totality: (1. Physical totality: End; 2. Totality as a [moral] value: Perfection); 2. Quantity: (1. Physical quantity; 2. Quantity as a (moral) value: Superlative); 3. Directness: (1. Moral directness; 2. Directly following: temporal or logical consequence; 3. Determinism; 4. Certitude); 4. Negation. Refusal. End; 5. Cutoff. 2. Palm up: Cut (reap, undermine). 12.2 Vertical hand 1. In a frontal plane: 1. Palm outward: Negation. End; 2. Palm inward: Barrier or blockade. 2. In a sagittal plane: 1. Chase away. Clear out; 2. Slap. 12.3 Hand in arbitrary configuration 1. Tracing a line: 1. Spatial line or path, literally and figuratively; 2. Path in time. 2. Transfer: 1. Spatial transfer, literally and figuratively; 2. Transfer in time. /13 Compound movements 13.1 In a frontal plane: 1. Benediction. 2. Faire une croix dessus (lit. make a cross over = say goodbye to it). 13.2 In a horizontal plane: Sharing. Division. Crossroads. 13.3 Drawing straight lines which cross. 3.3

In a movement tied to a planar surface /1

Movement parallel to the imagined surface

1.1 Horizontal surface 1. Supine hand: 'On a platter.' 2. Prone hand: 1. Planar surface; 2. Second planar sur-

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face; 3. Laying flat; 4. On the same plane; 5. Planar movement. 1.2 Vertical surface 1. Frontal hand: Fresco. Screen. 2. Sagittal hand: 1. Wall; 2. Cascade. 1.3 Oblique surface or arbitrary plane: 1. Mirror; 2. Note. Proof. /2

Movement perpendicular to the imagined surface

2.1 Against a horizontal surface: 1. Sticking on. Gluing; 2. Lean on, figuratively. Something acquired, accepted; 3. Weigh down on. 2.2 Against a vertical surface: Poster. Display. 2.3 Against an oblique surface: Accelerator to the floor, literally and figuratively. Hands

A-3 Detached gestures with two hands 3. 1 3.1.1 /1

In a repeated movement Single movement Hands rubbed 1. Palm over back of other hand, turning movement: 1. Refusal of responsibility-'I wash my hands of it,' 'He washes his hands...'; 2. Anguish; 3. Preparing for a dirty deed. Vengeance. Threat. 2. Palm against palm or back of other hand: 1. Warming one's hands; 2. Preparation for action-'Let's get to work'; 3. Joy. 3. Palm against palm: N, i, ni, fini!-Finished!

/2 Hands clapped 1. Call to order; 2. Applause: (1. Admiration. Adherence; 2. Irony). 3.1.2

Alternated

/1

Upward, one over the other: Superposition.

/2

Up-Down 1. Crawl; 2. Swim like a duck; 3. Dog-paddle: 4. Flounder; 5. (Un)Balance.

/3

Frontward: Avancer à pas de loup (lit. move forward with wolf steps = move stealthily).

/4

Front-Back 1. Palms outward: Release the clutch, disengage, literally and figuratively 2. Palms folded toward oneself or in profile: 1. Hesitation; 2. Comparison; 3. Entre deux (neither one nor the other); 4. Fluctuation about: (1. Test; 2. Approximation); 5. One in front, the other behind: (1. Contrast; 2. Competition); 6. Circulation. Exchange.

/5

Lateral: Circulation. Exchange.

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3.1.3 3.2

Mime-playing various musical instruments. In a single movement.

3.2.1 /1

One hand or two hands in a fixed relationship. Hands in parallel planes

1.1 Placed in parallel planes 1. Horizontal: Planar surface. 2. Sagittal: Face to face. Parallelism. 1.2 Spread apart in parallel planes 1. Horizontal: 1. Height. Thickness; 2. Smallness. 2. Sagittal: 1. Dimension: (1. Width. Length; 2. Narrowness. Smallness). 2. Limit, space or time separation: (1. Margin. Bracket. 2. Measure of time). 3. Frontal: Dimension. Size. 1.3 Lowered in parallel planes 1. Sagittal: Delimiting. Classifying. Framing. 2. Frontal: Limiting. 1.4 Moved forward in parallel planes: Putting on rails. Channeling. /2

Upward

2.1 In a horizontal plane: 1. Superiority; 2. Increase in size. 2.2 In a frontal plane: Denial of responsibility. 2.3 In two oblique planes: 1. Roof; 2. Springing up /3

Downward

3.1 In a horizontal plane: 1. Inferiority; 2. Stretching; 3. Reducing by half. 3.2 In a sagittal plane: Tronc commun (lit. common trunk = core curriculum). 3.3 In two oblique planes: 1. Crevasse; 2. Crater; 3. Collapse of a roof. /4

Up-Down Seesaw. Phenomena of unbalance.

/5

Forward 1. Go together. Go along with. Put on track; 2. Go past. Overtake; 3. Cut in front of; 4. Prow; 5. Insertion.

/6

From one side to the other 1. Parallelism; 2. Correlation.

/7

Transverse

7.1 One hand on top of the other (sectioning): 1. Scraping; 2. Eliminating half; 3. Amputation. 7.2 Two hands: Reaching equality. Tying the score. 3.2.2 /1

Two hands moving with respect to each other Moving closer together, then farther apart

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1.1 Parallel: Elasticity. Margin. 1.2 Parallel, in frontal planes: 1. Crossing. Cutting across; 2. Substitution; 3. Contradiction. 1.3 In a frontal plane: Attraction. /2

Moving apart

2.1 In parallel 1. Moving vertically: Unrolling a poster. 2. Moving horizontally: 1. Opening. Unblocking; 2. Separating; 3. Setting back-to-back. Being poles apart; 4. Coming off: Cutting loose from. 2.2 Obliquely 1. Downward: (Opening a) Tripod. 2. Forward: Flaring. Opening. Diverging. 2.3 In a single frontal plane: Clearing. Opening. 2.4 In a single horizontal plane 1. Palms down: (Opening a) Hatch or trap door; 2. Palms up: Let escape, fly out of hands. /3

Moving apart, but touching at a point

3.1 Wrists touching: (Opening the) Jaw. Valve. 3.2 Little fingers touching: Book or reading. /4

Moving closer together

4.1 In horizontal planes: Compressing. Compacting. Reducing. 4.2 In sagittal planes: Contracting. Shrinking. Sandwiching. Enclosing. 4.3 In frontal planes: Reducing. Shortening. 4.4 In oblique planes: (1. Converging. 2. Concentrating.) /5

Coming together and touching

5.1 In horizontal planes 1. Palm to palm: Crushing; 2. Palm to back: Sticking. Plating. 5.2 In sagittal planes 1. Palm to palm: 1. Joining. Welding. Fusion; 2. Crushing. 2. Back to palm: 1. Wallpapering. Covering. Lining. Sticking onto. 2. Smashing against. 5.3 In a single horizontal plane: (Closing a) Trap door. 5.4 In a single frontal plane: 1. Closing; 2. Junction; 3. Antagonism. Confrontation. /6

Partly joined, closing

6.1 In a horizontal plane: Closing a jaw. 6.2 In a vertical plane: Closing a book. /7 Joined 1. Prayer. Supplication. Asking for forgiveness; 2. Catastrophe feared; 3. Compunction. Meditation. Concentration.

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/8

Clapped

8.1 For a noise: 1. Clash of cymbal; 2. Signalling a change. 8.2 To mark the abruptness of something 8.3 To represent a blow 1. Striking something: Collision; 2. Striking someone: Vengeance; 3. Striking oneself: Failure.

Appendix 3: Gestures targeting the body Curved movement: ) ) Optionally symmetric () Face 1. Round face; 2. Bump. 1 Skull 1. Bald spot; 2. Skullcap. 2 Hair 1. Diadem. Crown; 2. Halo; 3. Afro; 4. Wave hairstyle; 5. Ponytail; 6. Curled hair; 7. Bun. 3 Forehead 1. Ringlets: 2. Kiss curls; 3. Reverie. Imagination. Creation. Rumination. 4 Temple Madness. 7 Eve 1. Glass eye; 2. Monocle; 3. Black eye. 8 Below eye Rings under eyes. 9 Nose 1. Hook nose; 2. Turned-up nose; 3. Big nose; 4. Drunkenness: Avoir un verre dans le nez (lit. to have a glass-of something-in the nose) 11 Ear(s) 1. Earrings; 2. Hair coiled above the ears. 12 Cheek(s) 1. Swelling; 2. Puffiness; 3. Thick beard. 17 Chin Double chin. 18 Neck 1. Polo neck; 2. Cowl collar; 3. Goiter; 4. Mumps; 5. Necklet. Cardigan. Round neck. 19 Shoulder(s) Puff sleeves. 24 Wrist Big bracelet. 27 Throat Puff collar.

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28 Chest 1. Big bust; 2. Breast-feeding. 30 Thorax 1. Bib. Necklace; 2. Low-cut dress; 3. Long chain. String of pearls; 4. Bomber le torse (lit. to stick the chest out = to swagger about). 31 Stomach 1. Nausea. Strong emotion; 2. Potbelly. 32 Waist Loose-fitting garment. 34 Abdomen Bloatedness. Obesity. Pregnancy. x Anywhere Bruise. ) Necessarily symmetric () Face 1. Motorcycle helmet. Diving helmet; 2. Headscarf; 3. Grosse tête (big head, literally and figuratively) 2 Hair Hair curlers. 7 Eyes 1. Wide-open eyes. Round eyeglasses; 2. Binoculars; 3. Telescope. 11 Ears Headphones. 28 Chest Il y a du monde au balcon (lit. the balcony's crowded = she's stacked) 32 Waist 1. Wasp-waisted; 2. Waistcoat. Straight-line movement: / Hand(s) A-1 1.1

One or two hands held flat (A) touching one's own body (-1) In a repeated movement

/12 Cheek: Tedium-La barbe! /17 Chin: Driveling old man. 1.2

In a single movement

/0 Face or any part thereof: 1. Indicating dirt; 2. Listening or thinking; 3.1 Exasperation--'Fed up'; 3.2 Irritation'Had it up to here.' /1

Skull: 1. Massage; 2. Catastrophe; 3. Madness.

/2

Hair: 1. Hat. Headgear. Admiration--'Take one's hat off'; 2. Straight hair.

/3 Forehead: 1. Headache; 2. Thought. Concentration; 3. Intelligence. Know-how. 4. Idiocy; 5. Failing memory; 6. Suddenly remembering; 7. Stubbornness; 8. Superstition; 9. Retrospective fear.

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/4 Temple: 1. French military salute. Ironic obedience; 2. A bon entendeur, salut (A word to the wise is enough). /5 Eyebrows: 1. To see better. Catastrophic exclamation-'What's this I see?'; 2. Visor. /6 Eyelids: 1. Headache; 2. Concentration. Meditation; 3. Shame; 4. Affliction; 5. Catastrophe; 6. Horror. /7 Eye: One-eyed. /8 Below eye: Wearing a veil. /9 Nose: Derision-Pied de nez (lit. foot-long nose: derisive gesture). /11 Ear(s): 1. Ear infection; 2. To hear better; 3. Telephone. /12 Cheek(s): 1. 'Manupuncture'; 2. Something forgotten. Blunder; 3. Catastrophe; 4. Getting thin; 5. Listening. Reverie. Thought. /13 Mouth: 1. Regurgitation; 2. Fatigue. Tedium. Bother; 3. Snigger; 4. Gag; 5. Blunder. Something forgotten; 6. Fear. Surprise. Imminent accident; 7. Troubled thinking. Aggravation; 8. Secret; 9. Call. /14 Lips: Throwing a kiss. /17 Chin: 1. Beard; 2. Deceit--un long nez (lit. a long nose); 3. Exasperation-La barbe!; 4. Coiffure à la Jeanne d'Arc: Bobbed hair with a fringe; 5. Protruding chin; 6. Receding chin; 7. Thought. Calculation; 8.1 Bernique! (Not a chance!); 8.2 Refusal--Na! /18 Neck: 1. Sore throat; 2. Indicating a limit: (1. Satiety. 2. Predicament: 'up to my neck'); 3. A comment 'stuck in the throat' or 'hard to swallow'; 4. Beheading. Killing. /19 Shoulder(s): 1. Arthritis; 2. Long hair. /23 Forearm: Denigration of profiteer-'give him a finger and he'll take an arm' /24 Wrist: Suicide. /27 Throat: Greed. /28 Chest: 1. Self-designation; 2. Possession; 3. Indicating a level. /29 Heart: 1. Physical pain; 2. Psychological pain; 3. Affection; 4. Sincerity. /31 Stomach: 1. Hunger. Stomach cramps; 2. Satiety; 3. Physical or moral nausea; 4. Anxiety /32 Waist: 1. Privation. Failure. Refusal: Ceinture! (lit. belt); 2. Stupefaction: Ça m'a scié (lit. that sawed me up); 3. Indicating a level. /36 Thigh(s): 1. Laughing; 2. Self-encouragement; 3. Selfpunishment. 1.3 In a combined movement Forehead-Chest-Shoulders: Ironic fear (sign of the cross). Hands

A-1 1.1 /7

Two hands held flat touching one's own body In a repeated movement Eyes: taking a photo.

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/11 Ears: Derision: 'Donkey ears.' 1.2

In a single movement

/1

Skull: 1. Surrender; 2. Overt relaxation.

/4

Temples: 1. Narrow minded-'With blinders on'; 2. Face-lift.

/11 Ears: 1. To keep from hearing (noise, complaints); 2. Big floppy ears. /13 Mouth: Meditation. Concentration. /20 Armpits: Relaxation: 'I'm taking it easy.'

Appendix 4: Head movements 3.1

Head .1

Repeated movement Simple Baton for speech.

.2

Alternating, seesawing -1 Exaggeration. -2 Hesitation. Doubt. Mediocrity.

.3

Shaking or nodding -1 Vertical: 1. Insistent confirmation; 2. Encouragement; 3. Exclamation by insistence. -2 Lateral 1. Verbal expressions: 1. Ne plus savoir où donner de la tête (lit. no longer to know where to give with one's head = not to know which way to turn); 2. A se taper la tête contre les murs (lit. to knock your head against the walls = enough to drive you up the wall). 2. Approaching with tenderness. 3. Negation: 1. Simple negation; 2. Implied negation: (1. Any implied negation; 2. Positive exclamation; 3. Negative exclamation. Denigration); 3. Implied double negative: (1. Positive judgment. Perfection; 2. Certainty.) 4. Totality: 1. Total nature; 2. Acquiescence: 'Entirely.' 5. Margin. Approximation.

3.2

Single movement -1 Upward 1. In a straight line Curiosity. 2. In a curved line 1. Against submission: (1. Assurance. Pride. Superiority; 2. Resistance to.) 2. To dominate: (1. Arrogance. Contempt. Disdain; 2. Regarder par dessus l'épaule [lit. look over the shoulder = look down on with contempt]). 3. Surprise: (1. Surprise; 2. Discovery. Understanding. Reflection; 3. Unexpected meeting. Hailing).

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4. Against the outside: (1. Implied negative; 2. Prudence). 5. Exclamation: (1. Augmentative; 2. Wish. Regret. Denigration). 6. Localizing. 7. To mime various upward movements. -2 Downward 1. In a straight line Rentrer la tête dans les épaules (to hid one's head between one's shoulders) 2. In a curved line 1. Mimed dozing. 2. Submission. 3. Hailing. 4. Admiration: hat-tip 5. 'Yes' and its derivatives: Confirmation. Agreement. 6. Confusion. Shame. Guilt. 7. Insistence. 8. To mime various downward movements. 9. Localizing: 1. Spatial; 2. Abstract temporal. -3 Up-Down To mime a rising-falling movement. -4 Outward 1. In a straight line Knocking head against. 'To charge headlong into.' 2. In a curved line 1. Designation. 2. Localization: 1. Concrete; 2. Abstract; 3. Temporal. 3. Outward movement: 1. Sending away; 2. Reference to another time. 4. Movement toward listener 1. Provocation. Challenge. 2. Calling out to. 3. Asking to repeat, for opinion, for confirmation. 4. To get closer in order to (a) hear better; (b) be heard better. -5 Toward oneself 1. In a sagittal plane: 1. Self-designation; 2. (;rumbling. 2. In a sagittal or frontal plane: Calling'Come on. 3. In a frontal or horizontal plane: 'Follow me.' -6 Forward 1. In a straight line Interest. Surprise. Curiosity. Indignation. 2. In a curved line

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1. Localization: 1. Concrete; 2. Abstract temporal: (1. Future; 2. Repetition). -7 Backward 1. In a straight line Retreat. Opposition. Objection. 2. In a curved line 1. In a sagittal plane: 1. Incomplete enumeration-'Not to mention the others'; 2. Distant past. 2. In a horizontal plane: 1. Concrete following; 2. Interrupted enumeration-'x and company'; 3. Failure. Challenge; 4. Recent past; 5. Reference to invisible, unreal. -8 To the side 1. In a straight line Retreat, in the face of a threat. 2. In a curved line 1. In a horizontal plane: 1. I)isgusted refusal. Repulsion; 2. Insolent contempt; 3. Exclamation of rejection: Refusal to believe. Denigration. Expression Ah, tais-toi (Ah, shut up). 2. In a frontal plane 1. Oblique lateral tip 1. To portray an oblique line 2. Cock of the head. Tenderness: (1. Showing tenderness; 2. Softening someone up). 3. 'To see from a certain angle' (Personal, restrictive, hypothetical point of view). 4. To ward off a threat: Distrust. Warning. 2. (Abrupt) Lateral lowering to insist on something negative. Mark of exaggeration. Disagreement. 3. In a horizontal or frontal plane 1. Localization. 2. Injecting a comment. 3. Figurative reference to 'the other hand.' 4. To the right: Future. 5. To the left: Past. Anteriority. Return. -9 To both sides 1. Seesawing in discourse (For x ... For y ...). Alternative. 2. Enumeration (long). 3. Interval, figurative. -10 Transverse axis 1. Totality: (1. Physical: End; 2. Judgmental: Perfection). 2. Certainty. 3. End. Negation.

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REFERENCES Arnheim, Rudolf (1969). Visual Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bolinger, Dwight (1986). Intonation and It's Parts. Stanford University Press. Calame-Griaule, Geneviève (1987). Des cauris au marché: Essais sur des contes africains. Paris: Société des Africanistes. Calbris, Geneviève (1979). L'index signifiant. Etudes de linguistique appliquée 35, 91-109. (1980). Etude des expressions mimiques conventionnelles françaises dans le cadre d'une communication non verbale. Semiotica 29(3/4), 245-346. (1981). Etude des expressions mimiques conventionnelles françaises dans le cadre d'une communication non verbale testées sur des Hongrois. Semiotica 35(1/2), 125-156. (1984). Contribution à une analyse sémiologique de la mimique faciale et gestuelle française dans ses rapports avec la communication verbale (1. Experimentation; 2. Taxinomie; 3. Synthèse; 4. Annexe illustrative). Lille: Université de Lille III. [1983: Thèse de Doctorat ès lettres, Paris III]. (1985a). Espace-Temps: Expression gestuelle du temps. Semiotica 55(1/2), 43-73. (1985b). La mimique faciale et gestuelle du refus: Motivation. Geste et image 4, 11-37. (1985c). Geste et parole. Langue française 68, 66-85. (1987). Geste et motivation. Semiotica 65(1/2), 57-96. Calbris, Geneviève, and Jacques Montredon (1980). 'Oh là là'. Expression intonative et mimique. Paris: CLE International. (1986). Des gestes et des mots pour le dire. Paris: CLE International. Cassirer, Ernst (1922). Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, 2 vols. Berlin: Bruno Cassirer; (1955). The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Chevalier, Jean, and Alain Gheerbrant (1973). Dictionnaire des symboles. Paris: Seghers et Jupiter. Claudot, Hélène (1978). Techniques du corps en milieu touareg. Unpublished research proposal. Condon, William S. (1976). An Analysis of Behavioral Organization. Sign Language Studies 13. 285-318. Cosnier, Jacques (1977). Communication non verbale et langage. Psychologie médicale 9(11), 2033-49. Cosnier, Jacques, and Alain Brossard (1984). Communication non verbale: Cotexte ou contexte? In La communication non verbale, Jacques Cosnier and Alain Brossard (eds.), 1-29. Neuchâtel-Paris: Delachaux et Niestlé. Cosnier, Jacques, et al. (eds.) (1987). Décrire la conversation. Lyon: Presses Universitaires. Creider, Chet A. (1983). Inter-language Comparisons in the Study of the Interactional Use of Gesture. Semiotica 62(1/2), 147163. Darwin, Charles (1872). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, London: John Murray.

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De Jorio, A. (1832). La mimica degli Antichi investigata nel gestire. Naples: Napoletano. Didi, René, and Jacques Montredon (1986). La mauvaise langue: Mimiques de dénigrement en situation (video). Coproduction of University of Queensland and Université de Franche-Comté. (1987). La dent dure (video). Coproduction of University of Queensland and Université de Franche-Comté. Dittmann, Alan T. (1972). The Body Movement Rhythm Relationship as a Cue to Speech Encoding. Studies in Dyadic Communication, A. W. Siegman and B. Pope (eds.), 135-151. New York: Pergamon Press. Duchenne, Abbé B. (1862). Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine, ou Analyse électrophysiologique de l'expression des passions. Paris: Baillière. Duneton, Claude (1978). La puce à l'oreille: Anthologie des expressions populaires avec leur origine. Paris: Stock. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1970). The Biology of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Fónagy, Iván (1956). Über die Eigenart des sprachlichen Zeichens, Lingua 6, 67-88. (1961-62). Le signe conventionnel motivé. La Linguistique 7, 55-84 (1970). Les bases pulsionelles de la phonation. Revue Française de Psychanalyse 24, 101-136. (1971a). Synthèse de l'ironie. Analyse par la synthèse de l'intonation émotive. Phonetica 22, 42-5 1. (1971b). Double Coding in Speech. Semiotica 3, 189-222. (1979). Gamme sémantique des coups de glotte. Le Français dans le Monde 143, 43-46. (1980). Preverbal Communication in Linguistic Evolution. In Verbal and Nonverbal Communication, Mary R. Key (ed.), 167184. The Hague: Mouton. (1982). Situation et signification. Amsterdam: Benjamins. (1983). La vive voix: Essais de psycho-phonétique. Paris: Payot. Freud, Sigmund (1942). Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie [1905]. In Gesammelte Werke 5, 27-145. London: Imago. Gladic, Vinko A. (1982). Le graphisme phonétique: Du geste phonétique au geste graphique. Bruxelles: Labor. Gosponetic, Yuri (1967). The Role of Tension in the Rehabilitation of Hearing and Speech. Govor 1. Guberina, Petar (1955). A propos du sens tactile pour la compréhension de la parole. Journal français d'O.R.L. 4(3). (1972). The Teaching of the Phonetic System through Body Movements. In Case Studies. Zagreb: Institute of Phonetics, Faculty of Arts. Hall, Edward T. (1966). The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doubleday Heese, George (1957). Akzente und Begleitgebärden. Sprachforum 2, 274-285. Jakobson, Roman (1973). Le oui et le non mimiques. In Essais de linguistique générale, vol. 2, 113-119. Paris: Minuit. Jousse, Marcel (1936). Le mimisme humain et l'anthropologie du langage. Revue Anthropologique 57, 201-215. Kendon, Adam (1972). Some Relationships between Body Motion and Speech: An Analysis of an Example. In Studies in Dyadic Communication, A. W. Siegman and B. Pope (eds.), 177-210. New York: Pergamon Press. Klima, Edward S., and Ursula Bellugi (1979). The Signs of Language. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Lakoff, George, and Mark L. Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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INDEX

A A: See 2, 4-5, 11, 14, 15, 27-29, 33-34 Abstract referents alternative, 80, 132, 133 analysis, 58, 59 approximation, 62, 65, 132, 139, 149, 150, 165, 177, 178 authority, 93, 138 catastrophe, 69, 95 certainty, 84, 97, 127, 137, 140, 141, 152, 178, 180 condensation, 43, 61, 64, 121, 122 condition, 48, 118, 151 confinement (enclosure), 62, 64, 120, 121, 133, 149, 150 consequence, 60, 61, 97, 140, 178 cutting, 53, 54, 57, 111, 129-30, 152, 176, 178, 186, 204 deceit, 93-96 passim, 138 departure (suggestion for), B, 20, 37, 176 directness, 57, 58, 103, 140, 186 ending, 151-57 passim, 175, 178 enumeration, 43, 61, 63, 166 unfinished enumeration, 79, 120, 126, 127, 138 equilibrium (loss of), 62, 65, 79, 145, 146, 165 excellence, A, 17, 42, 76, 77, 99 exchange, 62, 64, 145, 146 failure, 19-25 passim, 35, 77, 79, 94, 96, 126, 127, 128, 138, 161 feeling, 45, 194 globality, 58, 61, 63 hope, 130, 131 idleness, A, 35 impact, 110 instability, 57, 58 interiority, 124 internal character, 51, 69, 120, 121 judgmental notions, xvi, 84, 98-101, 209 laziness, A mediation, 52, 57, 123, 139 mediocrity, B, 84, 100, 165 mixing, 168, 107, 147-50 passim, 185 nothingness, 17-24

passim, 52, 77, 84 organization, 58, 59 perfection, 17, 52, 53, 61, 64, 84, 98-99, 121, 122, 123, 127, 137, 140, 141, 178 point of view, 55, 81, 133, 139, 189 power, 133 precision, 98-99, 121, 122, 136, 145, 146, 198 priority. 76, 77, 127, 128 privation, B, 19, 25, 39, 77, 103, 161 quantity, 64, 76, 106, 140 reference to, 79, 126, 127, 138 return, 124, 187 specificity, 122, 144 speed, 133, 167 stopping, 114, 126, 137, 155, 157, 170, 189 strength, 93, 133, 146, 167, 207 superlative, 76, 133, 140, 180, 181 synthesis, 58, 59 totality, 51, 61, 54, 101, 127, 131, 132, 139, 140, 145-52 passim, 178, 186 transformation, 91 union, 62, 65, 133 uniqueness, 78, 127, 128, 144 See also Intellect; Localization; Negation; Objection; Opposition; Substitution; Time Attitude vocal-gestural, 165, 167-68 toward event and listener, 180 defining an a. verbally and gesturally 200-201 specific attitudes admiration. 17, 32, 99-100, 142, 147, 148 agreement, 84, 101, 137, 151, 161, 177, 189, 190, 191 aggressiveness, 84, 93-97, 207 annoyance, B, 21, 104, 132 blasé attitude, 100, 155, 201 bravado stance, 93 challenge, 79, 82, 126, 127, 128, 137 complicity, 171 contempt, 156, 201 contrition, 94 conviction, 197 declaration, 42, 48 delight, B, 32, 100 demonstration, 187, 197 denigration, 38, 119, 128, 158, 174, 191 depreciation. 156 disagreement, 84, 101-3, 160, 189, 191 disbelief, A, 40, 84, 97, 98, 161

disdain, 81, 201 doubt, 84, 97, 98, 191 exaggeration, reaction to, 48, 56, 133, 174, 191 exasperation, A. 21, 32, 38, 94, 104, 117, 133, 161, 180 extraversion, 145, 146 frankness, 57, 140 hesitation, 80, 132, 133, 174, 191 ignorance, 119, 156, 158 increase, 127, 128 indignation, 81 irony, 165, 168 indifference, 155 insistence, 47, 56, 152, 168 obviousness, 175, 187 obscene derision, B, 24, 103, 161, 179, 199 powerlessness, 150, 155, 168, 180 provocation, 82, 103, 126, 128 prudence, 98, 102, 184 to have punch, 94, 96 reassuring, 137, 180, 189 reprobation, 159 resistance to oppression, 93, 95, 138 self-protection, 119, 135, 137, 144, 157, 189 self-punishment. 70, 94, 96 scepticism, 56, 99, 191 submission, 82-83, 101, 160 tenderness (plea for), 54, 138, 169 threat, 23, 56, 72-75, 93, 95, 114, 117-18, 136, 145 triumph over someone, 21, 22, 25, 38, 96, 165 victory, B, 20, 36, 37 warning, B, 18, 22, 35, 72-75, 117-18, 134, 136, 174, 180 See also Exclamation; Refusal; Vengeance Axis as relevant feature, 42, 49, 79, 215-22, 225-27 and degree of head rotation, 47 substitution between axes, 130-31 synthesis of, 130

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B B: See 3, 6-7, 12, 13, 16, 30-34 Body part (vehicle) measuring informational importance of different -s, xiii, 1-25 as relevant feature. 42 determining the relevant, 44 as headings of detached gestures 46, 110, 215-22, 225-27 as subdivisions of bodyward gestures. 46, 222-25 specificity of. 71-77 substitution between different -s. 71, 125-29 analogies between, 110, 157, 159, 161 transfer of, 111 See also Finger; Fist; Forefinger; Hand; Head; Thumb; Tongue Bodyward gestures (toward oneself), xvi vs. detached gestures, 43 subdivided, 46 specificity of, 69 physical classification of, 222-25

C Concrete and abstract, link between: abstraction in concrete representations, xvi, 104, 115, 203, 207 symbolizing the concrete, 105, 111, 204, 209 concretezing the abstract, 196, 203, 209 specificity of gesture 203-4 Concrete referents: 69-70, 104-13, 195, 204, 207 money, A, 21, 22, 32, 36, Conventionality quantifying degree of, 33-34 and motivation, 116-17 of facial expression, 32, 37, 38 of gesture, 38-40, 70, 117, 205 of space-time use, 91 in mimic representation, 105, 116 Coverbal gesturing, analysis of semantic structure of xii, xv, xvii, 23-24, 84-104, 116-53 See also function Curved gestures examples of circular, 50-53, 120-21 drawings of, 39, 51, 58, 61-62, 69, 90, 92, 109, 122, 123, 124, 132, 147, 149, 179, 185, 188 symbolism of the circle. 68-69, 207 physical classification of, 211-15 mentioned, 104-15 passim, 139, 166, 178, 184-97 passim vs. straight-line gestures: physically, 42, 48

symbolically, 57-66

D Designation abstract. 48, 125, 187 concrete, 77, 125, 175, 176 variants of, 128 concrete vs. abstract, 187 Dictionary of gestures Notional, 206 examples of, 57-66, 84-104, 187-90 Physical relevant feature for, xvi, 42-50 semantico-physical subdivision of, 53 examples of, 51-56, 211-27 Direction: as relevant feature, 42, 49, 50, 87-89, 126-27, 215-22, 225-27 of gaze, 47-48 symbolism of, 78

E Economy gestural, xvii, 143-51, 153, 202 of information, 179-84, 190, 209 Emotion vocal-gestural expression 169, 171, 172 anger, 93, 180 disgust, 102, 104, 154-60 passim, 200 fear, A, 17, 70, 104 joy, 171, 180 See also Symptoms Encoding of size, 106, 115 and function.169, 203 of social and gestural signs, parallel in, 170-72 of verbal and nonverbal,contrast in, 170, 181 gestural encoding of verbal information, 194, 209 of coverbal and Sign Language, contrast in, 203 Etymological gestures, xiii, 106-7, 196-98, 207 examples of, 51, 63, 65, 111, 148 and synonyms, 60, 198 variants of, 66, 70, 99, 179,201 prevailing over depictive, 106, 115, 198, 207, 209 describing action of speaking, 186-87 Exclamation, 42, 155 of rejection, 48, 152 augmentative, 125, 126, 164, 181

F Facial expression (FE.), 27-32, 41, 168 Role of, as complementary signifier, 17-19, 25, 36-37, 73, 101, 133, 158 cultural nature of, 37-38 ambiguity of, 99 Figurative expressions and gesture, 83, 196, 198-200 Filmed gestures, 1-40 description, 2-3, 27-32 illustrations of, 4-8 Interpretative errors due to every signifier, 17-20 due to signified, 20-23, 36 convergent or divergent on a signified, 15-16, 23-24, 36, 205 semantic data deduced from, 21-24, 205 interculturally analogous, 36 Signification of, 2-3, 11-16, 27-34 translation of, 27-32 foreign gestures corresponding to, 27-32 Quantifying: emblematic nature of, 1-25 conventional nature of, 26-40, 53, 205 semantic structure of, 1-40 through partial and fall views, 8-17, 20, 29, 33-34, 205 Finger purse, A, 17 little finger listen, A snap, B, 35, 95, 96 circle, B, 32, 53, 99 101, 109, 113, 123, 145, 146 horns, B. 32 Fist sidearm gut punch, A, 25, 94, 95, 96, 133, 167, 180, 181 phallic forearm jerk B, 17, 20, 23, 24, 103, 161, 179, 199 shake, B. 20, 36, 93 striking forehead (forehead knock), B, 36, 37 raised, 93, 95, 114 striking palm over, 93, 96 striking palm under, 94, 95, 96, 138 striking chest, 94 against fist, 96 Forefinger under nose, A. 20, 161 off temple, A, 35 screwing temple, A. 32, 35, 180 pulling eye, A, 40, 98 shake, B, 18, 22, 35, 74, 118, 173, 180

raised, 42, 48, 75, 77, 101, 118, 119, 120, 125, 126, 128

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144, 154, 158, 188, 193 specificity of, 48 interpretation of photos of, 72-75 Function Coverbal gesturing of complement, viii, 25, 173, 179-84, 186, 190, 191, 202(ASI.), 209 of substitution (emblematic),xv, 25, 134, 136, 173-79, 209 substitution of polysemous gesture, 177-79 sustitution of complex gesture, 179 illustrative, xv, 173, 196, 203, 209 examples mentioned passim; of relay, 22,173-76, 179, 186, 208, 209 depictive, 69, 104-15 animating, 106 etymological, prevalent, 106, 115, 198, 207, 209 of the implicit, 174, 190-92 expressive, 177, 180-81, 184 of comment, 180-81, 184, 209 explanatory,184-86, 209 anchoring, 185, 186, 208, 209 of compensation, 190, 192 verbal preformulative, 192-94, 209 metaphoric, 209 Vocal-gestural signs syntactic, xv, 162, 208 syntactic-semantic, 162, 170 expressive, 170, 208 parallel, 169-72 and encoding parallel in, 169

G Genesis of language (phylo-g.,onto-g., acto-g.), 84, 171, 194, 208, 209 Gestural and facial idioms, 83, 198-200 Gestural argumentation, 186-90 Gestural comment, 176, 180-81, 184, 208 Gestural economy, metaphor, redundance See Economy; Metaphor; Redundance Gestural euphemism, 111, 155-57 Gestural languages, 202-3 Gestural monoreme, 177 Gestural neologism, 203 Gestural paraphrase, 184, 209 Gestural performulation, 192-94, 209 roles of, 193 in psychoanalysis 194

Gestural subdivisions, 46 Gestures See Bodyward g.; Curved g.; Filmed g; Interactional g; Typology of g Glottal stop, 160, 168, 169 Glottal motion, motivated, 171

H Hand toss, A, 20, 23, 102, 154, 155, 176, 179 above head (Fed up), A, 32 frontal vertical shake, A, 21, 164, 167, 181 trapshut, A, 40 cheek shave, B palm pluck, B hand waver, B waist slice, B, 39, 161 upward palm chop, B, 17, 20, 114, 176 cupped palm front, B, 119, 158, 160 sagittal raised, 42, 100, 101, 118, 125, 126, 129, 181, 191 subdivided, 45 prone transverse movement, 61, 98, 99, 127, 129, 130, 134, 139-40, 152, 158 striking one's body, 70, 94 raised high backward, 87, 89, 120, 125, 126 outward raised, 97, 99, 101, 114 (push), 119, 134, 135, 137, 151-60 passim, 170, 176, 179, 183, 189, 200 horizontal supine, 128, 175, 187, 190, 197 vertically lowered, 53 (examples),106, 114, 129, 175, 180, 185, 196, 204 transverse movement of the supine, 111, 129, 130, 175, 175 sagittal shake, 118, 119 horizontal prone, 189 classification of plane, 215-22 mentioned passim Head intentional movement of, 45 Rotation degree of, 47 raised, 47-48, 81, 82, 83, 87, 100, 117, 120, 126, 128, 160, 174, 181, 201, 225 and direction of gaze. 47-48 lowered, 47, 82, 83, 99, 101, 126, 226 hybrid movement of, 48, 152, 153 turned to the side, 48, 79, 82, 120, 127, 131, 132, 160, 174-81 passim, 227 tipped to the side, 54-56, 98 (abruptly), 132, 133, 138, 139, 152, 174, 180, 181, 189, 190, 227 specificity of, 81-83 transverse movement of, 97, 98, 99, 101, 127, 131, 132, 227

shake, 131-41 passim, 160, 174-83 passim, 191, 225 polysemy of h. shake,131, 132 double motivation of h. shake, 141 movements classified, 225-27 mentioned passim

I Iconic link dual, xvi, 141 single, 24, 38 multiple, 205 See also Motivation Iconic nature of gesture, 38-40, 104, 205 and polysemy, 205 See also Sign Implicative gestures, 174, 190-92 Implicit semantics of a signified revealed by interpretative analysis of errors, 23-24 revealed by gestural variants, 98-99, 188, 206 Intellect idea, 2, 35, 62, 66, 70 madness, A, 32, 35, 40, 44, 70, 166, 180 stubbornness, B, 19, 36, 37, 40, 70, 93, 95 stupidity, 19, 21, 22, 36, 37, 40, 70, 93, 95 delayed understanding, 47, 82 intuition, 59 reasoning, 59, 79, 124 narrow-mindedness, 64 reverie, 62, 66 mental confusion, 62, 66, 70 thing forgotten, 70, 96 Interactional gestures, 186-91 examples of, 54-56, 82, 83, 93-103 passim, 114-21 passim, 128-80 passim, 200-201 Seealso Attitude; Objection; Refusal; Vengeance Intonation, xii, xiii, 162-72 passim Isomorphism between expression and content in signs:gestural, xii, 117-24, 206 vocal, 171 vocal-gestural, 165-66, 201 See also Phonogestural parallelism

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L Localization distinguishing bodyward and detached gestures, 43 as classifier for bodyward gestures, xvi, 222-25 concrete, 77, 84, 126, 137, 176 abstract, 48, 78, 127, 137 temporal, 87-89, 90, 126, 137 See also Designation; Direction; Time

M Metaphor gestural, remotivating verbal m xiii, 24 (possession), 80 (wavering), 85-86 space-time, 194-97, 203, 207, 208, 209 physical m. as concept, 85 and psychosomatic symptoms, 105, 117 personal, 195 diachronic, 197 vocal artistic, 172 Mimic representation, 104-15 Abstraction in, xvi, 104, 115, 204, 207 See also Concrete referents Mixed semism, 208 Motivation(s) plural (multiple), xiii, 39, 54, 132, 139-40, 151, 153, 205, 207 deduced from variants, xvi, 124-36, 151, 207 of refusal, xvii, 154-61 single (semantic shifting), 21-23, 119, 137-38, 140, 143, 151, 153, 205, 207 universal, 39 search for m. like a lottery, 39 compromise of, 48, 150, 152, 153, 206 convergence of, 56, 151, 206 double, 97, 141, 151, 206 and conventionality, 116-17 and isomorphism, 117-24 same physical m. for different gestures, 117 of polysemous gesture, 137-40 self-protective, 137 combination of s in a gestural expression, 142 redundance of, 142-43, 152, 153 combining manifestations of single, 143 relationships between, 151-53

hybridization of -s in a complex gesture, 152, 153, 206 osmosis of, 151, 152, 153, 206 vocal-gestural, 166-69 of lingual or glottal motion, 171 arbitrary choice between possible, 171, 205 See also Isomorphism Movement signifying intention of the head, 45-48 rectilinear vs. curved, 42, 57-66, 91, 92, 109 of both hands, 43, 109, 214-15, 219-22 progressive vs. regressive, 43, 91, 92, 123-24 combination of -s. 48, 145-53 passim: as referent, 68, 139 symbolism of alternating, 79-81 transfer of, 89, 90, 111 representation of, 104 selection of, 112-13 state as result of, 114 single vs. repeated m. as variant, 125, 131-32, 139, 206 and configuration, 145, 146 conflict between -s, 150 spatial perception of laryngeal, 162 tonal, 162, 169 distinctive rhythm of, 164 intonative-gestural, 168 microscopic audible vs. macroscopic visible., 169 of speech organs, motivated, 169, 171 heleotropic vs. heliophobic (of tongue), 171 to express action, 177 different in. by each hand, 203 direction of, mentioned passim

N Negation, 119, 127, 131, 132, 137, 139, 140, 151, 178, 186, 189 variants of, 99, 134-37, 152, 159, 179 Negative ellipsis, B, 119, 126, 127, 137, 145, 146, 158, 160, 167, 191, 208 Non-verbal communication, xi, xii, xiii, 84 See also Coverbal gesturing; Function; Gestures; Phonogestural parallelism; Vocal; and gestural communication Nuances semantic and stylistic, 125, 127 physico-semantic n. of negation, 134-36 phonogestural n. of enumeration, 166. See also Variants

O Objection correction, 42, 126, 127, 128, 134, 136, 152, 159 restriction, 56, 119, 120, 137, 144, 151, 157, 158, 188

forbidding, 134, 136 See also Opposition; Refusal Onomatopeia, 100, 113, 133, 157, 167, 177, 201 Opposition conflict, 62, 64, 95, 96, 150 logical (antithesis), 62, 64, 187, 188, 197, 198 outward, 119, 134, 136 See also Objection; Refusal

P Phallic substitutes, 24, 25, 50, 161 Phonogestural parallelism, xvii. 162-73, 208 and preverbal language, 194 See also Isomorphism Physical components, 41-83 hybrid from two gestures. 145-50 See also Axis; Body part; Direction; Movement; Plane Plane(s) as relevant feature, 42, 49, 51-53 80-81, 120, 121, 129-30, 215-22 substitution between, 89, 90, 125, 129-30 specificity of frontal, 135-39, 157-59, 189 Polysemy examples of, 51-56, 121-27 Of the circle, 51-53, 68-69, 139 of lateral head tip, 54-56, 132, 139 of outward raised palm, 119, 137, 157 of forward or backward loops, 123-24 of lateral headshake, 131, 132, 139 intercultural and intracultural, 136, 207 of transverse movement of the prone hand, 139-40, 151, 152 two explicative principles of, 137-40, 151 combination of two principles of, 139, 140, 151, 207 and double motivation, 141 and gestural economy, 143, 153 advantage of, 151 recapitulation on, 153 and function of substitution, 177, 178 specification by combining verbal and gestural -s. 185, 186 Preverbal communication, xiii, 84, 194, 208

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See also Genesis of language; Gestural; preformulation

R Redundance gestural, xvi, 45, 142-43, 153 gesturing to avoid verbal, 175 of information Referents. See Abstract; Concrete Reflex self-protection, 38, 159, 161, 189 imitating. 117, 157, 159, 161 vomit, 155 evasion, 159, 161 backing up, 160 vocal-gestural, 167 Refusal motivation of; xvii, 154-61 offhand, 23, 103, 155, 156, 176, 179 vengeful, 25 mocking, 38, 103, 161 of responsibility, 102, 119, 157, 176 polite, 102, 137, 179 disgusted, 102, 160 active, 154-57 passive, 157-60 See also Objection; Opposition Relevant (physical) feature determining, by experimentation, 1-25, 205 for classification, 42-48 body part, 42, 44, 46 axis, 42, 49, 79, 215-22, 225-27 plane, 42, 49, 51-54, 80, 120, 121, 129-30, 215-22 direction, 42, 49, 87-89, 90, 126-27, 215-22, 225-27 repetition, 43, 49 indicated by the corresponding utterance, 43 dictionary according to, 48-56, 211-27 symbolic corollaries to, 82-83 selection and synthesis of -s, 108 and functional signifier, 139, 152, 207 combining two -s of gestures, 144-50 See also Motivation, plural; Typology, complex gesture Repetition as relevant feature, 43 as referent, 52, 90, 92, 123, 139, 186

to express distance, 1 14 as gestural variant, 131-33, 139, 141 movements of, 211, 215, 219, 223, 225 Rhythm vocal-gestural, 162-65 Linguistic kinesic organizing, 163, 208 hierarchy, 163, 164, 194 distinctive, 164 same verbal-vocal-gestural, 165, 169 gestural r.and teaching, 172

S Semantic test intracultural, 1-25 results of, 10-16, 73 intercultural, 26-40, 205, 206 results of, 26, 29, 33 Sign verbal vs. non-verbal, xvii, 170, 171 hyper-, 24-25 motivated (iconic) and conventional (cultural), 38, 116-17, 171, 205 arbitrary, 38, 170 doubly motivated, 141 synthesis of -s, 144-50 'fig,' 171 opaque 202 sign language. 202-3, 209 polysemous and motivated, 206 Signified(s) cluster of, 93-95 dynamic or static characterization of, 112-13 sum of, 144, 172, 206 See also Attitude; Emotion; Referents Signifier(s) view of, full vs. partial, 1, 8, 15, 16 complementary (facial) vs. principle(gestural) 17, 19 errors due to complementary, 17-19 errors due to principle, 19-20 relevant, 25 relationship between (figure-ground), 25 appropriate, 134 functional Vs. physical, 139, 151, 152, 153, 207 relevant feature of, 144, 148, 149 product of, 144, 172, 202, 206 relationships between functional, 153 juxtaposing, one with each hand, 203

See also Physical components Space-time interaction, 114-208 in cultures, 93 See also Transfer Stress aggressiveness of; 163 vocal-gestural. 168 Substitution as referent, 62, 64, 91, 106 between body parts, 110, 125-29, 144, 158, 187, 188, 205 nuances in, 125, 126 specificity in cases of, 77, 118, 119, 127, 129-30, 136, 206 function of; 173-79 of polysemous gesture, 177-79 of complex gesture, 179 of compound gesture, 209 between verbal and gestural expressions, 199-200 limit of, 136 See also Phallic substitutes; Typology; speech substitute; Variants Symbolism of linear vs. curved movements, 57-66 visual, 66-69, 131, 207 directional. 78 of alternating movement, 79-81 principles of symbolizing, 105 symbolizing the concrete, 111, 204, 209 of left and right, 129 spatial, 131 of eye, 161 Symptoms: psychosomatic, 105, 117 Vocal and gestural, 172 Synchronization (auto-, inter-), xv, 162, 170, 194, 208 examples of, 164-166

T Thumb twiddle, A, 8, 35 up, A, 17, 22, 42, 77, 99, 119, 120, 157 thumbnail-tooth flick, A, 20, 25, 161 chin scrape, A, 20, 21, 24, 165 finger rub, A, 20, 21, 32, 194 in armpits, B; specificity of; 76 to the mouth, 76, 104, 117 over shoulder, 78, 87, 120, 126, 127, 175 as 'fig' sign, 171 mentioned, 125-28

passim, 187, 202 Time verbal-spatial expression of, xiii, 84-87, 138 measure of, 90, 92 Course of, 91-93 continuity, 58, 60, 91, 92; perpetuity, 60, 92, 123 succession, 61, 63, 90, 91, 92, 123, 149, 186, 197 habit, 90, 92, 123 evolution, 57, 169, 147, 148, 186, 197 Localization, 87-91 past,. 47, 87-89, 120, 125-28 passim, 138, 175 future, 60, 87, 88 present, 88, 89 anteriority, 89, 90

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123, 124, 125 distant, 91, 92,124, 127, 147, 148 posteriority, 89, 90, 125, 127 See also Repetition; Space-time Tongue out. B, 22, 24, 103, 161, 199 mentioned, 99, 160, 170, 171 Transfer of person (role reversal), 20, 22, 38, 54, 93, 94, 110, 137, 138, 161, 189, 207 of object, 23, 110, 138 of time, 23, 110 to psychological plane, 38, 154, 157, 161 of gestural dichotomy (physical vs. symbolic), 43, 57-66 upward, 44, 110, 208 of circular symbolism, graphic vs. gestural, 66-69 from space to time, verbal, 84-87, 138 from space to time gestural, 87-91, 138, 207 in mimic representation, 110-11, 115 euphemistic, 111, 155-57 of axis, 130-31 from literal to figurative, 138, 187, 195, 207 from semantic field to other, 161 between body and speech organs, 169, 173 Typology of gestures, according to Motivation complex, xiii, 144-50, 152, 153, 172, 202, 206, 209 economical use of complex gestures. 144 c.g. as speech substitute, 179 conditions of comprehension of c.g. 203 relic, 55, 76, 82 compound, 202, 209 hybrid, 203 Original meaning of idiom, See Metaphor; Etymological gestures Physical aspect straight-line vs. curved, xvi, 42, 46,57-66, 91, 92 detached vs. on the body, xvi, 43, 46, 50 analogous, between cultures. 40 'static vs. dynamic.' 50, 51, 113-14 Referent deictic, xi, 84 mimic, xvi, 40, 69, 101, 104-17 passim symbolic, 51, 68-70 historiographic. 114 Signification

examples of polysemous gestures, 51-56, 123, 124, 132, 137, 140, 151, 152 153, 177-79, 186, 189; economical use of p.g., 144 p.g. as speech substitute, 177-79 homologous gestures, 136, 206 Utterance synchronizing (rhythmic), xv, 162, 163, 170, 194 speech substitute (PS), xv, 101, 131, 136, 155, 173-79 PS tested,1-7 PS and polysemous, 177-179 PS and complex, 179 PS as synthesis of other variants, 179 learning of phonatory, 173 speech complementary, 180-81 speech synmonymous with, 181-84 Other varieties allo-gestures, xiii transfer gestures, 70 difference-gestures. 169, 171

V Variant(s) of gestures rectilinear vs. curved, 42, 57-66, 91, 92 of enumeration, 61, 63, 166 etymological, 66, 70, 99, 106, 121, 179, 198, 201 of hesitation, 80 of approximation, 80, 178, 179 of perfection, 98-99, 178, 206 of certainty, 97, 152 and motivation, 124-36 and semantic nuances, 125, 127 body part, 125-29 of designation, 128 plane, 129-30, 205 of cutting. 129, 152 axial, 130-35, 205 repetitive, 131-32, 206 of end, 152 of negation, 134-35, 152 double motivation confirmed by, 141, 206 of denigration, 174, 191 emblem, synthesis of, 179 of emphasis, 180 of obviousness, 187 of antithesis, 187, 188 of restriction, 188 See also Nuances

Vengeance vengeful refusal, 25 Vengeful repartee, A, 24, 25, 38, 93, 94, 95, 96, 133, 138, 167 Vocal and gestural communication research on, xi, xii parallelism, xvii, 162-73 contrast between nonverbal and verbal sign, xvii, 170, 171 variants of enumeration, 61, 63, 166 childish expression, 84 dynamics. 162, 168 rhythm, 162-66, 208 isomorphism, 163, 165-66, 194, 201 attitude, 165, 168, 172 motivation, 167-69 expression of emotion. 169, 171, 172 trace of preverbal language, 171, 114, 208 symptoms, 172 expression and language teaching, 172 See also Function Vocal mimicry, 113

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