The Psychology of Personnel Selection

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The Psychology of Personnel Selection This engaging and thought-provoking text introduces the main techniques, theories, research and debates in personnel selection, helping students and practitioners to identify the major predictors of job performance as well as the most suitable methods for assessing them. Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic and Adrian Furnham provide a comprehensive, critical and up-to-date review of the constructs we use in assessing people – intelligence, personality, creativity, leadership and talent – and explore how these help us to predict differences in individuals’ performance. Covering selection techniques such as interviews, references, biographical data, judgement tests and academic performance, The Psychology of Personnel Selection provides a lively discussion of both the theory behind the use of such techniques and the evidence for their usefulness and validity. The Psychology of Personnel Selection is essential reading for students of psychology, business studies, management and human resources, as well as for anyone involved in selection and assessment at work. tomas chamorro-premuzic is a senior lecturer at Goldsmiths, research fellow at UCL, and visiting professor at NYU in London. He is a world-renowned expert in personality, intelligence and psychometrics, and makes frequent media appearances providing psychological expertise on these issues. adrian furnham is Professor of Psychology at UCL. He is also a consultant on organisational behaviour and management, and a writer and broadcaster. His columns have appeared in management magazines such as Mastering Management and Human Resources, as well as the Financial Times, Sunday Times and Daily Telegraph.

The Psychology of Personnel Selection Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic Adrian Furnham

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521868297 © Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic and Adrian Furnham 2010 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2010 ISBN-13

978-0-511-77005-0

eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-13

978-0-521-86829-7

Hardback

ISBN-13

978-0-521-68787-4

Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

For my father, in the hope that he survives this and many later editions – TC-P For Alison, who is particularly talented at personnel selection – AF

Contents

List of boxes List of figures List of tables Prologue and acknowledgements

Part 1: Methods of personnel selection 1 Early, unscientific methods

page viii ix xiii xv 1 3

2 The interview

30

3 Letters of recommendation

52

4 Biodata

62

5 Situational judgement tests and GPA

75

Part 2: Constructs for personnel selection 6 General mental ability

93 95

7 Personality traits

124

8 Creativity

175

9 Leadership

191

10 Talent References Index

216 235 278

vii

Boxes

2.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 10.1 10.2 10.3

viii

Aspects of the candidate assessed in an interview SJT sample item or ‘scenario’ Summary of 1920s–2000s research on SJTs SJT scoring methods Situationalism: undermining personality traits No aversive impact The polygraph and the quest for an objective personality test Theft estimates in the workplace How do you identify your critical talent? Performance/promotability matrix Factors contributing to high-flyer performance

page 38 76 76 77 131 133 159 162 220 223 227

Figures

1.1 Graphology: what does this say about the candidate’s motivation? page 5 1.2 Physiognomical interpretations of character 12 1.3 Astrological signs 20 1.4 Ambiguous inkblot stimulus 22 2.1 Percentage of employers using interviews 31 2.2 Five common guidelines for improving the interview 32 2.3 Phases of the interview 34 2.4 Functions of the appraisal interview 35 2.5 Dimensional structure of interviews 36 2.6 How to improve the validity of structured interviews 40 2.7 Validity and reliability 42 2.8 Predictive validity of interviews 43 2.9 Reasons for low validity of job interview 44 2.10 Factors influencing candidate’s acceptance of interviews 45 2.11 Perceived fit and employment interview 49 2.12 What do interviewers assess? 50 3.1 Sample reference letter 53 3.2 Percentage of employers using references 53 3.3 Employment Recommendation Questionnaire (ERQ) 54 3.4 Referees’ characteristics bias their evaluation of candidates 55 3.5 Distribution of negative and positive references 57 3.6 Improving recommendation letters 58 3.7 Positivity of information and use of examples in reference letters 59 3.8 Evolutionary-based hypotheses regarding reference letters 60 4.1 Percentage of employers using application forms in different countries 63 4.2 Scoring biodata 64 4.3 Biodata correlates of job performance in applicants and incumbents 66 4.4 Validity of elaborative vs non-elaborative biodata items 67

ix

x

List of figures

4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.1 7.2

Meta-meta-analytic validities for biodata inventories Meta-analytic validities of biodata across job types Structure of biodata Biodata and cognitive ability correlates of job performance Twelve dimensions of biodata: reliabilities and correlations with impression management Incremental validity of biodata dimensions Personality vs biodata as predictors of ethical behaviour Criterion-related validity of SJTs (McDaniel et al.’s 2001 meta-analysis) Meta-analytic correlations between SJT and intelligence tests (McDaniel et al.’s 2001 meta-analysis) Incremental validity of SJT over personality and intelligence Achievement in life as a function of earlier academic performance Erratic effect sizes for GPA as predictor of job performance between 1922 and 1973 Effect sizes for GPA and job performance found in Bretz (1989) White–black difference in GPA Meta-analytic validities of GPA as a predictor of job performance and salary Validity of the MAT predicting academic and occupation success Intellectual competence as the common source of variability in academic and occupational success Graphical representation of the hierarchical structure of cognitive abilities identified by John Carroll Some correlates of Spearman’s g factor (after Spearman, 1904) Two examples of Raven-like items Percentage of employers using aptitude tests in Western Europe (Price Waterhouse Cranfield survey, 1994) Occupational consequences of IQ Validity of GMA across occupations in the UK Validity of GMA across occupations in the EC Training performance is predicted by GMA rather than specific abilities Job knowledge mediates the effects of GMA on job performance and ratings Ability and non-ability determinants of grade point average (GPA) Ways of assessing personality traits

69 69 71 71 72 73 74 78 80 81 83 85 85 87 88 89 89 96 98 99 103 104 108 110 113 118 126 127

List of figures

7.3 Percentage of companies using psychometric tests in Western Europe (Price Waterhouse Cranfield data, 1994) 7.4 Behaviour as a function of both personality and the situation 7.5 Big Five as universal language of personality 7.6 Validity of personality traits across occupations (early meta-analytic evidence) 7.7 Validities for ABLE personality traits 7.8 Meta-analysis of Big Five predicting objective and subjective work criteria 7.9 Personality and job performance in the EC (validities from Salgado’s meta-analysis) 7.10 Publications related to personality and selection between 1985 and 2005 7.11 Structure and facets of Conscientiousness 7.12 Structure and facets of Neuroticism 7.13 Yerkes–Dodson law 7.14 Structure and facets of Extraversion 7.15 Structure and facets of Agreeableness 7.16 Structure and facets of Openness 7.17 Importance of the Big Five as predictors of motivational outcomes 7.18 Big Five as predictors of job and life satisfaction 7.19 Review of faking 7.20 Meta-meta analysis of the Big Five and job performance 7.21 Meta-meta analysis of the Big Five and different job outcomes 7.22 Meta-meta-analytic estimates of the validities of cognitive ability and personality scales 7.23 Validating emotional intelligence as a personality construct: three ‘ifs’ 7.24 Meta-analytic validities for different EI scales (corrected correlations and their SDs) 7.25 Aspects of EI that predict work outcomes 7.26 Meta-analytic correlations (and their SDs) of EI with the Big Five and GMA 7.27 Performance as a function of the person–environment fit 7.28 Holland’s RIASEC 7.29 Individual characteristics integrated into a two-dimensional RIASEC interest circumplex (from Armstrong et al., 2008; reproduced with permission)

129 131 133 135 136 137 138 139 140 143 144 145 148 149 150 151 154 156 157 157 166 167 168 168 171 172

173

xi

xii

List of figures

8.1 Number of articles with ‘creativity’, ‘creative’ or ‘originality’ as keywords in applied journals until 2008 8.2 Components of the creative syndrome 8.3 Sternberg & Lubart’s (1995) model of creativity 8.4 Personality facets associated with creativity (organised by the Big Five) 8.5 Threshold theory of creativity and intelligence 8.6 Biodata correlates of creativity 8.7 Amabile’s componential model of organisational innovation 8.8 Guilford’s scoring criteria for divergent thinking tasks 8.9 Creativity measures 9.1 Leadership-related articles published throughout the years 9.2 Approaches to leadership 9.3 Validity of intelligence as predictor of different leadership criteria 9.4 Stogdill’s (1974) leadership traits in Big Five language 9.5 Big Five correlates of leadership emergence and effectiveness 9.6 Predicating self- and other-rated work criteria by narcissism scores 9.7 Early descriptions of leadership styles 9.8 Regression of five leadership styles onto five work criteria 9.9 Personality traits, transformational leadership and leadership effectiveness 9.10 Validity of two management-by-exception and laissez-faire styles at work 9.11 Validity of transformational and contingent reward leadership at work 9.12 Transformational and contingent reward leadership styles as predictors of occupational criteria across different settings 9.13 Effect sizes for gender differences in leadership styles 9.14 Zaccaro’s integrative model of leadership

176 177 178 180 182 183 185 187 187 192 193 194 199 201 201 202 207 209 210 211 212 214 215

Tables

1.1 Two factors underlying graphological scoring page 6 1.2 Evaluations of items by sixty-eight personnel managers when presented as a ‘personality’ analysis 25 1.3 Ratings of the feedback from the ‘medical Barnum’ 26 2.1 Typical questions asked in an employment interview 34 2.2 Potential qualities assessed by a structured job interview 37 2.3 Potential areas assessed by a structured job interview 38 2.4 Applicant attributes that affect rating bias 47 2.5 Interviewer attributes that affect rating bias 48 2.6 Situational attributes that affect rating bias 48 4.1 Biodata items with elaboration request 67 4.2 Incremental validity of biodata (over personality and cognitive ability) in the prediction of four work outcomes (adapted from Mount et al., 2000). 70 5.1 SJTs across the decades 79 6.1 Wonderlic Personnel Test: sample items 101 6.2 GMA across civilian jobs in US Army; simplified adaptation of original source 103 6.3 GMA correlates of job and training performance across various job complexity levels 105 6.4 Other meta-analyses on the validity of GMA since 1980 106 6.5 Ability validities for job and training performance in the UK 107 6.6 Ability validities for job and training performance in the EC 110 6.7 Explanations for practice effects (test score gains) on IQ 121 7.1 Conscientiousness and health-related behaviours (from Bogg & Roberts, 2004, with permission from Roberts, APA copyright) 142 7.2 Task-dependent correlates of Extraversion 146

xiii

xiv

List of tables

9.1 Locke’s (1997b) leadership traits 9.2 Traits of effective or emergent leaders as identified by past reviews 9.3 Leadership styles as defined by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 10.1 Most and least important skills and attributes for effective leadership

198 199 205 226

Prologue and acknowledgements

If it weren’t for the fact that nobody really asked us to do it (and we say this with due apologies to our commissioning editor), writing this book was a bit like doing any other job: its success can be measured in various forms, namely (a) whether it sells well, (b) whether people enjoy it and (c) whether it is somehow useful to others. We have actually tried to address each of these three areas, thus hoping that some of you (perhaps the wealthier public, comprising consultants and businesspeople) will buy it, others (perhaps the poorer audience, comprising students, including those wishing to enter the wealthier world of consultancy and business) would read it and others (maybe fellow academics in need of a quick quote) would cite it. However, given that nobody asked us to do this, we can only regard this book as a hobby, and the main aim of any hobby is that one enjoys doing it and learns something from it. In that sense, this book is already a great success, but we have to admit that with the readers’ and buyers’ contribution it could be even greater. We would like to thank Andrew Peart and Cambridge University Press for tolerating the late delivery of our manuscript without putting any pressure at all (wisely knowing that it would make no difference whatsoever). Andrew’s proactivity and enthusiasm is living proof to one of the leitmotivs of this book, namely that you have to hire the right people for the right job. Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic Adrian Furnham London

xv

PA RT 1

Methods of personnel selection

1

Early, unscientific methods

1.1

Introduction

Since the beginning of time, individuals have had to make ‘people decisions’: who to marry, to employ, to fight. In recent decades, sociobiology and evolutionary psychology have suggested that many of these apparently (quasilogical) decisions are based on powerful people markers that we respond to, but are unaware that we are doing so. We assess people on a daily basis. There is, however, in every culture, a rich and interesting history of the techniques groups have favoured in making people decisions. Many of these techniques have quietly passed into history but others remain in use despite being rigorously tested and found wanting. It appears that there have always been schools of thought with their ingenious methods that assess and reveal the ‘true nature’ of individuals, specifically their qualities, abilities, traits and motives. It is patently obvious that people are complex, capricious and quixotic. They are difficult to actually read, to understand and therefore to predict. Neither their virtues or values nor their potential for disaster are easily apparent. People are deceptive, both in the impression management and self-delusional sense. Some are self-aware: they know their strengths, limitations, even what really motivates them; they may even be able to report their condition. Many others are not. Charlatans, snake-oil salesmen and their ilk find easy pickings among those who feel they need to evaluate or assess others for work purposes. The odd thing is that many of these disproved, pre-scientific, worthless and misleading systems still exist. They have advocates who still ply their trade despite lack of evidence that their systems actually work in the sense of providing reliable and valid assessments (see Section 2.6 and Figure 2.7 for an explanation of the technical meaning of ‘reliability’ and ‘validity’, which are the two main psychometric requirements that accurate instruments ought to fulfil). We shall consider some of these. These are essentially pre-scientific methods that pre-date the beginning of the twentieth century. Most have been thoroughly investigated and shown to be both unreliable and invalid. That is, there is ample evidence to suggest it is very unwise to use these methods in selection. However, they continue to be used. One reason for this is that scientific methods are often based on more common sense than these pre-scientific, counterintuitive approaches are. Ironically, counterintuitive methods and approaches have wider appeal than 3

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methods of personnel selection

simple, logical methods. In that sense employers and companies are fooled by non-qualified consultants because, like Oscar Wilde, they ‘believe anything as long as it is incredible’. Some of these discredited but still used methods are reviewed in this chapter. This book attempts a comprehensive, critical and up-to-date review of the different methods used to assess people. It covers all the well-known and wellused techniques, looking at both theory and evidence for their usefulness, validity and efficacy. However, because it has been wisely pointed that that those who do not know their history are compelled to repeat it, we believe it important to look critically at some of the earlier, ‘pre-scientific’ methods which remain in use. The interesting question is why some of these techniques remain in use despite the overwhelming evidence that they are invalid. French organisations still use graphological analysis of potential employees. Astrology is widely practised and almost every newspaper contains some sort of ‘star readings’, presumably because people consult them and act upon them. Whilst classic phrenology has almost completely disappeared, it has been argued that the current enthusiasm for PET and MSRI scanning is really no more than a form of electrical phrenology. Over the years there have been two types of research investigation into earlier and largely discredited methods. The first has been attempts to investigate validity claims by examining concurrent, construct, discriminant, but mainly the predictive validity of these tests. Most of these investigations have shown that claims made by the methods are essentially false. The second topic of interest has essentially been why, if the technqieues are demonstrably invalid, do people continue to use them. We will review both of these research traditions in this chapter.

1.2

Graphology

Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting, and has been used for centuries as an aid in personnel selection. The use of graphology is still prevalent in Europe, where estimates for the percentage of organisations using the technique range from 38 per cent (Shackleton & Newell, 1994) to 93 per cent (Bruchon-Schweitzer & Ferrieux, 1991). In the United States, graphology gained some acceptance in many corporate workplaces during the late 1980s and early 1990s (Davey, 1989; Edwards & Armitage, 1992). In Europe, the French lead the way in the use of graphologists (Furnham, 2004); this is in line with a strong psychodynamic tradition in France, particularly compared to the UK. Part of the appeal of graphology is that people cannot supposedly fake their ‘real’ personality because they are unaware of how they project it. This assumption applies not only to graphology but also to psychodynamic techniques in general (e.g., projective tests and the currently in-vogue implicit association tests). The problem is that since interpretation is subjective, different ‘raters’ (even when they are clinical experts) end up making different interpretations, making

Early, unscientific methods

Figure 1.1 Graphology: what does this say about the candidate’s motivation?

graphology untestable at best, and unreliable at worst. There also appear to be different schools of psychology which interpret specific aspects of handwriting differently. Although it is difficult to assess how many organisations currently use graphology – or when and why they use it – it does appear that hiring decisions regarding a large number of job applicants around the world are determined, in part at least, by handwriting. Some organisations are happy to boast of their usage of graphology, while others often keep it quiet for fear perhaps of ridicule or perhaps because they believe they have an efficient but hidden means to evaluate candidates’ suitability. Although studies of the relationship between handwriting and character or personality date back to the seventeenth century, it was not until the late nineteenth century that the foundations of modern graphology were laid by the French abbot Jean-Hippolyte Michon (1872). Michon claimed he was able to discern the particular features of handwriting that writers with similar personalities had in common. Thus he developed an inventory of about 100 graphological features or ‘fixed signs’, such as a particular way of crossing the t or dotting the i, which were associated with certain types of personality. A few decades later, Jean Crepieux-Jamin (1909) further developed this research, and claimed to have found further associations between particular features of handwriting and personality traits. The result was additional features which, when analysed in combination, were believed to indicate different personality traits. Inevitably, however, this process of matching particular features of handwriting with particular types of personality began to produce conflicting results: the associations found by one graphologist would often contradict those found by others (Hartford, 1973). This remains the case today with different schools of thought emphasising the ‘meaning’ of particular letters. Interinterpreter reliability is nearly always unacceptably low. Further validity is preconditioned on reliability of ‘diagnosis’. It is hard for unreliable measures to be valid.

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methods of personnel selection

Table 1.1 Two factors underlying graphological scoring (adapted from Furnham et al., 2003) Dimensions Size of handwriting Width of handwriting Pressure of handwriting Slant of handwriting Use of bottom loops Crossed t’s (quantity) T-crosses (type) I’s dotted (quantity) Connectedness Percentage of page used

Details

.84 .84 .48 .37 .36 .87 .82 .49 .40 .35

Note: Loadings ⬍.35 not shown.

Later, the German school of graphology under Ludwig Klages (1917, 1930) took a different approach to the subject. This favoured a more intuitive, theoretical psychology of expressive behaviour. It is probably this approach to handwriting that has had the greatest influence, and Klages is held in high esteem by most contemporary graphologists (Lewinson, 1986). Contemporary graphologists still use these ‘insights’ to determine personality characteristics of individuals through analysis of their handwriting. For example, a predominance of strokes to the right is said to indicate ‘goal-directed’ people, whereas a predominance of left movements indicates concern with the self. Other information about personality can be ‘gleaned’ from the interpretation of letter formation, zones representing different spheres of the human psyche and so on (for a review, see Greasley, 2000). Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic and Callahan (2003) factor analysed fourteen graphological criteria and found they were reduced to two fundamental areas: dimension of writing (size, width, slant) and details (connections, loops, etc.) (see Table 1.1). However, these variables were unrelated to established (and validated) personality inventories. Eysenck and Gudjonsson (1986) suggested that there appear to be two different basic approaches to the assessment of both handwriting and personality, namely holistic vs analytic. This gives four basic types of analysis. Holistic analysis of handwriting: this is basically impressionistic, because the graphologist, using his or her experience and insight, offers a general description of the kind of personality he or she believes the handwriting discloses. Analytic analysis of handwriting: this uses measurements of the constituents of the handwriting, such as slant, pressure, etc., which are then converted into personality assessment on the basis of a formula of code. Holistic analysis of personality: this is also impressionistic, and may be done after an interview, when a trained

Early, unscientific methods

psychologist offers a personality description on the basis of his or her questions, observations and intuitions. Analytical analysis of personality: this involves the application of psychometrically assessed, reliable and valid personality tests (questionnaires, physiological responses to a person, and the various grade scores obtained). This classification suggests quite different approaches to the evaluation of the validity of graphological analysis in the prediction of personality. Holistic matching is the impressionistic interpretation of writing matched with an impressionistic account of personality. Holistic correlation is the impressionistic interpretation of writing correlated with a quantitative assessment of personality, while analytic matching involves the measurement of the constituents of the handwriting matched with an impressionistic account of personality. Analytic correlation is the measurement of the constituents of handwriting correlated with a quantitative assessment of personality. 1.2.1 Scientific evidence for graphology

Early studies appeared to provide some support for this form of personality assessment (Allport & Vernon, 1933; Hull & Montgomery, 1919). Some more recent studies have also claimed to have found evidence that graphologists can recognise certain personality traits from handwriting samples (Linton, Epstein & Hartford, 1962; Nevo, 1988; Oosthuizen, 1990). There are also many articles in professional journals and serious newspapers advocating graphology through evidence involving personal experience (Lavell, 1994; Watson, 1993). However, when studies are carefully selected in terms of their methodological veracity, then the evidence is overwhelmingly negative (Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1986; Neter & Ben-Shakhar, 1989; Tett & Palmer, 1997). Furnham (1988) listed the conclusions drawn from six studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s: (1) ‘It was concluded that the analyst could not accurately predict personality from handwriting.’ This was based on a study by Vestewig, Santee and Moss (1976) from Wright State University, who asked six handwriting experts to rate 48 specimens of handwriting on fifteen personal variables. (2) ‘No evidence was found for the validity of graphological signs.’ This is from Lester, McLaughlin and Nosal (1977), who used sixteen graphological signs of Extraversion to try to predict from handwriting samples the Extraversion of 109 subjects whose personality test scores were known. (3) ‘Thus, the results did not support the claim that the three handwriting measures were valid indicators of Extraversion.’ This is based on the study by Rosenthal and Lines (1978), who attempted to correlate three graphological indices with the Extraversion scores of 58 students. (4) ‘There is thus little support here for the validity of graphological analysis.’ This was based on a study by Eysenck and Gudjonsson (1986), who employed

7

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methods of personnel selection

a professional graphologist to analyse handwriting from 99 subjects and then fill out personality questionnaires as she thought would have been done by the respondents. (5) ‘The graphologist did not perform significantly better than a chance model.’ This was the conclusion of Ben-Shakhar and colleagues (1986) at the Hebrew University, who asked graphologists to judge the profession, out of eight possibilities, of 40 successful professionals. (6) ‘Although the literature on the topic suffers from significant methodological negligence, the general trend of findings is to suggest that graphology is not a viable assessment method.’ This conclusion comes from Klimoski and Rafael (1983), based at Ohio State University, after a careful review of the literature. Yet many of these studies could be criticised methodologically in terms of measurement of both personality and graphology. Furnham and Gunter (1987) investigated the ‘trait’ method of graphology, which attempts to predict specific personality traits from individual features of handwriting. Participants completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and copied a passage of test in their own handwriting. The writing samples were coded on thirteen handwriting-feature dimensions (size, slant and so on) that graphologists report to be diagnostic of personality traits. Only chancelevel correlations were observed between writing features and EPQ scores. Similarly, Bayne and O’Neill (1988) asked graphologists to estimate people’s Myers-Briggs type (Extravert–Introvert, Sensing–Intuition, Thinking–Feeling, Judging–Perceiving) from handwriting samples. Though highly confident in their judgements, none of the graphologists’ appraisals accurately predicted the profile of the writers. In a meta-analysis (a review of many studies in an area that provides a quantitative estimate of the average statistical relationship among the examined variables) of over 200 studies assessing the validity of graphological inferences, Dean (1992) found only a small effect size for inferring personality from handwriting and noted that the inclusion of studies with methodological shortcomings may have inflated the effect-size estimate. The liberal estimated effect size of 0.12 for inferring personality from neutral-content scripts (scripts with fixed content not under the control of the writer) is not nearly large enough to be of any practical value and would be too small to be perceptible. Thus, even a small, real effect cannot account for the magnitude of handwriting–personality relationships reported by graphologists. Furthermore, gender, socioeconomic status and degree of literacy – all predictable from handwriting – may predict some personality traits. Thus, any weak ability of graphology to predict personality may be merely based on gender or socioeconomic status information assessed from handwriting. Graphological accuracy attributable to these variables is of dubious value because simpler, more reliable methods for assessing them are available.

Early, unscientific methods

1.2.2 Graphology and job performance

Graphological assessments for personnel selection focus on desired traits such as determination, sales drive and honesty. Given its apparent lack of validity for predicting personality, it would be surprising if graphology proved to be a valid predictor of job performance. Indeed, the results of research investigating the validity of graphology for predicting job performance has generally been negative (Kravitz et al., 1996; Rafaeli & Klimoski, 1983). Ben-Shakar and colleagues (1986) used two empirical studies to test the validity of graphological predictions. In one study, bank employees were rated by graphologists on several job-relevant traits. A linear model developed for the study outperformed the graphologists. In the second study, the professions of forty successful professionals were judged. The graphologists did not perform significantly better than a chance model. The results of both studies led to the conclusion that, when analysing spontaneously produced text, graphologists and non-graphologists achieve similar validities. In a meta-analytic review of seventeen studies, Neter and Ben-Shakhar (1989) found that graphologists performed no better than did non-graphologists in predicting job performance. When handwriting samples were autobiographical, the two groups achieved modest accuracy in prediction. When the content of the scripts was neutral (that is, identical for all writers), neither group was able to draw valid inferences about job performance. Thus, belief in the validity of graphology, as it is currently used to predict job performance, lacks empirical support. As a necessary condition for valid inference, the reliability of predictions based on graphology must first be established (Goldberg, 1986). However, reliability of graphological prediction has its own precondition: handwriting features must first be reliably encoded. This precondition appears to be met; the mean agreement between different judges measuring objective handwriting features (such as slant or slope) is high, and the mean agreement about subjective handwriting features (like rhythm) is still respectable (Dean, 1992). But agreement about what these features signify is less impressive. In studies reviewed by Dean (1992), the mean agreement of interpretations made by graphologists was r = 0.42. Even lay judges exhibit some agreement in their naive interpretations, with a reliability (r = 0.30), only slightly lower than that of the graphologists. Measuring graphological features can be made reasonably precise. The error is in suggesting that graphology is systematically related to things like individual ability, motivation and personality. Further, the theory of how, when or why a person’s abilities or personality shapes their handwriting (or indeed vice-versa) is unclear. How or why should handwriting as opposed to many other activities be such a good marker of personality? This obvious question is never answered. Why, then, does graphology persist? Ben-Shakhar and colleagues (1986, p. 176) have pointed out that graphology ‘seems to have the right kind of

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properties for reflecting personality’. Both personality and handwriting differ from person to person, and it might be expected that one offers insight into the other. Unlike other pseudosciences like astrology, graphology provides a sample of actual expressive behaviour from which to infer personality (Ben-Shakhar, 1989). That is, handwriting bears many features that graphologists use to predict personality, including characteristics that the writer would prefer not to disclose or perhaps is not even conscious of possessing. Moreover, many of the purported relationships between handwriting and personality appear almost intuitive. For example, small handwriting is believed to imply modesty and large handwriting implies egotism. In many examples like this, the empirical relationships between handwriting features and personality traits identified by graphologists closely parallel semantic associations between words used to describe handwriting features (for example, regular rhythm) and personality traits (for example, reliable). Research by Chapman and Chapman (1967) suggests that where semantic relationships such as these exist, the intuitive statistician may infer non-existent or illusory correlations in the direction dictated by semantic association. For example, Chapman and Chapman (1967) presented naive judges with a set of Draw-a-person (DAP) drawings, along with contrived symptom statements about the patient who provided the drawing. The DAP is a projective test in which patients are asked to draw a person, and from those drawings clinicians make inferences about their underlying psychopathology. Chapman and Chapman (1967) found that, although symptom statements were uncorrelated with features of the drawing, naive participants perceived illusory correlations between the same semantically related pairs of drawing features and clinical symptoms that clinicians believed to be related. For example, like clinicians, naive participants perceived drawing a big head as correlated with concerns about intelligence and elaboration of the eyes as correlated with paranoia. This has been confirmed by a careful study by King and Koehler (2000), who showed that illusory correlations in graphological evidence was rife. They also concluded that this may partially account for continued use of graphology despite overwhelming evidence against its predictive validities (p. 336). This is an example of what is known as the ‘confirmation bias’ (Nickerson, 1998). When a person is inspecting some evidence in a search of systematic relationships, semantic association is likely to guide the formulation of hypotheses about what goes with what, producing a kind of expectation. Other potential relationships may not be considered and hence not detected even if they are consistent with the observed evidence. In other words, graphology persists because when we examine evidence in the light of semantically determined hypotheses, ambiguous aspects of the evidence are interpreted in a manner consistent with the hypothesised relationship. Driver, Buckley and Frink (1996) asked ‘should we write off graphology?’ as a selection technique. Their answer was ‘yes’. They note ‘the overwhelming results of well-controlled empirical studies have been that the technique has not

Early, unscientific methods

demonstrated acceptable validity . . . (and that) while the procedure may have an intuitive appeal, graphology should not be used in a selection context’ (p. 76). Recent reviews of the literature have by and large supported previous reviews on the low validity of graphological analyses and their potential harm for personnel selection. This is true even for reviews that assessed evidence provided by graphological societies in different countries (Simner & Goffin, 2003).

1.3

Physiognomy and body build

Physiognomy is the study of inferring personal attributes, such as personality traits, through physical traits. In simple terms, this implies that a person’s outer appearance (head and body shape) reflects their character or personality; thus body shape or facial features would reveal psychological aspects of the person (just like graphology is meant to do). For example, wider faces and levels of aggression are both positively affected by testosterone levels during puberty and would therefore co-vary (physiognomic readings are largely based on interpreting faces or the bony structure of the skull, on which soft tissues lie). This belief has an exceptionally long history, dating back to ancient Greece. Both Aristotle and Plato made frequent reference to theories of this sort, and the ancient Greeks more generally believed that physical beauty was linked with moral goodness. Nor was this a particularly European phenomenon: examples of Chinese physiognomy show that this ‘science’ was practised in parts of Asia. Most contemporary attempts at providing a scientific account for physiognomy can be dated back to the eighteenth century, when Johann Caspar Lavater published his Essays on Physiognomy (1775–8). Lavater’s ideas on physiognomy, and in particular the divination of a person’s character from his facial features, were based on the writings of the Italian Giambattista Della Porta, the French physiognomist Barth´elemy Cocl`es, and the English philosopher and physician Sir Thomas Browne. For all three, it was possible to discern inner qualities of an individual from the outer appearance of his or her face: morphology reflects psychology. The idea was that a person’s temperament influenced both his or her facial appearance and character, and it was thus possible to infer one from the other. Thus active people develop different body shapes than lazy people. For example, Della Porta used woodcuts of animals to illustrate human characteristics, what Magli (1989) refers to as ‘Zoological Physiognomics’. This element of physiognomy relied on a prior anthropomorphic physiognomy of a certain animal then being applied to humans (for example, representing someone as lion-like, or courageous). A related method for divining the character of a person during this period was that of metoposcopy, or the interpretation of

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Figure 1.2 Physiognomical interpretations of character

facial wrinkles (especially those on the forehead). Girolamo Cardano worked out about 800 facial figures, each associated with astrological signs and qualities of temperament and character. He declared that one could tell by the lines on her face which woman is an adulteress and which has a hatred of lewdness! While Lavater’s ideas were not original, they were unique in their popularity and influence. By 1810, there were a total of fifty-five editions of Lavater’s Essays on Physiognomy, variously priced to suit all pockets (Graham, 1961). Moreover, physiognomy had an important influence on nineteenth-century Victorian art and literature. For example, physiognomy appears in the work of many of the major nineteenth-century novelists, including Charles Dickens, Balzac and Charlotte Bront¨e. More generally, nineteenth-century physiognomy offered the possibility of assuaging fears about the ‘other’ – the characterisation of others based on their outer appearance proved to be an important tool in legitimising nationalism and colonialism (Gould, 1981). At the beginning of the twentieth century, physiognomy enjoyed renewed popularity, this time taking on a more ‘scientific’ nature. Various vocational institutes used physiognomy as one of their main tools in assessing candidates, while others put physiognomy to more dubious use. Cesare Lombroso’s Criminal Anthropology (1895), for example, claimed that murderers have prominent jaws and pickpockets have long hands and scanty beards. Yet others developed the idea of ‘personology’, a New Age variation of physiognomy which holds that outward appearance (especially the face) is the key

Early, unscientific methods

to a person’s predominant temper and character (Whiteside, 1974). According to personology, there is a ‘scientific’ connection between genetics and behaviour, and genetics and physical appearance. Therefore, personologists conclude, there must be a connection between behaviour and physical appearance. This led some personologists to argue that there are sixty-eight behavioural traits, which a trained observer can identify with sight, measurement or touch. There are five ‘trait areas’ and the placement of each trait into an area develops from its location and relationship to a corresponding area in the brain. However, everything we know about the development and plasticity of the brain does not support these notions (Gould, 1981). Whatever we might believe about physiognomy and personology, it is clear that many people make inferences about others based on appearance. There is an extensive literature on lookism, which will be considered shortly. Hassin and Trope (2000) argue that there are four reasons to assume that the face and physiognomy play an important role in social cognition: 1. The face is almost always seen whenever an interaction takes place. Thus the face always represents information that is available and is hard to neglect for any judgements. 2. Until quite recently in human evolution, facial features (unlike facial or behavioural expressions) could not be willfully altered. 3. The structure of the face is relatively stable (except in extreme conditions, such as accidents or surgery). 4. There are areas in the human brain specialised for face perception and processing. Considerable experimental evidence suggests that people can and do infer personality traits from faces (Secord, 1965; Strich & Secord, 1965; ZebrowitzMcArthur & Berry, 1987). Taken as a whole, this research shows that the process of inferring traits from faces is highly reliable. That is, different judges tend to infer similar traits from given faces. Some studies have shown that this interjudge agreement is cross-cultural, thus suggesting that the cognitive work of reading traits from faces has some universal characteristics (Zebrowitz-McArthur & Berry, 1987). However, the picture that emerges regarding the validity of physiognomic judgements is more ambiguous. Early studies that attempted to answer this question concluded that there was no significant correlation between facial features or physiognomic inference and the traits individuals actually possess (Cohen, 1973). In a later review of the literature on physiognomic inferences, Alley (1988) reached a similar conclusion. More recent research suggests that face-based impressions may sometimes be valid (Berry, 1991; Zebrowitz, Voinescu & Collins, 1996). Berry (1990) asked students to report their impressions of their classmates (after one, five and nine weeks of the semester had elapsed), and used these impressions as the criterion with which she compared independent evaluations of the classmates’

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photographs. She found significant correlations between peer and photographs on three dimensions: power, warmth and honesty. Recent studies of what has been called lookism have noted that features associated with an individual’s physical attractiveness (face, body shape) can have a great influence on their employment opportunities (Swami & Furnham, 2008). One of the most widely researched settings of weight-based discrimination is in the workplace, where overweight individuals are vulnerable to stigmatising attitudes and anti-fat bias (Phul & Brownell, 2003). The literature points to prejudice and inequity for overweight and obese individuals, often even before the interview process begins. Experimental studies have typically investigated hiring decisions by manipulating perceptions of employee weight, either through written descriptions or photographs. One study of job applicants for sales and business positions reported that written descriptions of target applicants resulted in significantly more negative judgements for obese women than for non-obese women (Rothblum, Miller & Gorbutt, 1988). One study used videotaped mock interviews with the same professional actors acting as job applicants for computer and sales positions, in which weight was manipulated with theatrical prostheses (Pingitoire, Dugoni, Tindale & Spring, 1994). Participants indicated that employment bias was much greater for obese candidates than for average-weight applicants, and that the bias was more apparent for women than for men. An earlier study using videotapes of job applicants in simulated hiring settings showed that overweight applicants were significantly less likely to be recommended for hiring than average-weight applicants, and were also judged as significantly less neat, productive, ambitious, disciplined and determined (Larkin & Pines, 1979). Where overweight individuals have been hired, negative perceptions of them persist throughout their career (Paul & Townsend, 1995). Roehling (1999) summarised numerous work-related stereptypes reported over a dozen laboratory studies. Overweight employees were assumed to lack self-discipline and be lazy, less conscientious, less competent, sloppy, disagreeable and emotionally unstable. Further, these attitudes have a negative impact on wages, promotions and decisions about employment status (Register & Williams, 1990; Rothblum, Brand, Miller & Oetken, 1990).

1.4

Assessing physiognomy

Can physiognomy provide us with reliable cues to a person’s underlying character or personality? Are physiognometric measures systematically related to intelligence and ability? Furthermore, can one explain that relationship? Lavater certainly believed this was possible and many psychologists believe that physiognomy is an integral part of social cognition (Hassin & Trope, 2000). However, others have not been so quick to proclaim the universal reliability of physiognomy. The main problem is that in attempting to abstract a static physiognomy

Early, unscientific methods

from facial features, researchers take an erroneously atemporal view of the face (Magli, 1989). The body and face are continually in flux (Twine, 2002), and can change both in the short and long term: the former being the subtle changes in a face informed by motion and light, and the latter the changes to the body over the life course. In addition, sociologists point out that the belief that we can assess the morality of a person from their appearance discounts the fact that appearance is socially constructed. A person may come to be understood as ‘looking intelligent’ or ‘looking good’ but this is merely down to the socially constructed association of one signifier with one signified (Finkelstein, 1991). Sociologically, physiognomic knowledge is problematic because appearance is unpredictably located within an array of changeable meanings and also because what we understand as a ‘good’ or ‘bad’ character varies across time and space (Twine, 2002). This is not to say that, in our everyday social practices, we do not use judgements based on physiognomic inferences (Swami & Furnham, 2008). The point, however, is that perception based on such physiognomical inference prevents meaningful interaction with others. While physiognomy can be said to provide for social relations, these are of poor quality. More seriously, they encourage a perceptual filter that objectifies others in ways that are often erroneous and discriminatory. In this sense, though it clearly occurs implicitly, it is extremely unwise to consider using physiogometric data for job selection. There is a large literature on body build dating from Hippocrates but made most famous by Kretschmer (1925) and later by Sheldon (1940). Kretschmer believed that people could be divided into four distinct categories according to body type: (1) asthenic (slight, long-boned, slender persons with a predisposition towards a schizophrenic personality type); (2) pyknic (round, stocky, heavy individuals with a predisposition towards manic-depressive reactions; (3) athletic (strong, muscular, broad-shouldered people with a tendency more towards schizophrenic than manic-depressive responses); and (4) dysplastic (individuals exhibiting disproportionate physical development or features of several body types with personality predispositions similar to the athletic type). The argument was that body shape was systematically related to personality, specifically mental illness. Sheldon argued for the existence of three distinct body types; endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. It represented a long-standing interest in anthropometrics. First a great deal of the research concentrated on the delineation of clear physiological types based on a variety of skeletal measures. This remains far less in contention than the second claim, namely that these types are related to personality and ability. Research in the area produced weak and equivocal correlations between anthropomorphic measures and personality. Phares (1984) observed that interest in these ideas emerges from time to time but that it is not supported by the data. Furthermore, the ideas never take into consideration the possibility of social behaviours being learnt as a function of interaction.

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For instance, the strongly built individual may learn early that assertiveness and dominance are easily employed to gain his or her ends. The obese person may discover that humour and sociability are ready defenses against a fear of rejection. Or the ectomorph may soon realise that solitary pursuits are more likely to become a source of enjoyment than unsuccessful physical encounters with athletic peers. In any case, however, it would seem that human social behaviour is so complex that mere assignment of people to simple typological categories will never be an adequate basis for prediction or explanation. (pp. 28–9)

Whilst there is now considerable interest in the psychology of body shapes (Body Mass Index; Waist-to-Hip Ratio), this is concerned with evolutionary psychological explanations of attractiveness. There remains very little evidence that body shape is a robust marker of temperament or ability and should therefore be used for personnel selection. That said, it is to be expected that people’s (for example, interviewers’) perceptions of others’ (e.g., interviewees’ or job applicants’) psychological traits will be influenced by physical traits, but this will inevitably represent a distorted and erroneous source of information and should therefore be avoided. That said, there is currently a good deal of interest in related topics like fluctuating asymmetry and digit ratio. Fluctuating asymmetry consists of withinindividual differences in left- vs right-side body features (length of ears, fingers, volume of wrists, etc.). Asymmetry is associated with both ill health and lower IQ. In a recent study, Luxen and Buunk (2006) found 20 per cent of the variance in intelligence was explained by a combined measure of fluctuating asymmetry. However, unless these factors are very noticeable in an individual they are unlikely to affect hiring decisions. The 2D:4D digit ratio has been known for some 100 years and has recently attracted a great deal of attention. The idea is that a person’s hand shape – particularly the length of these two digits – is determined by physiological processes in the womb which influence the sex-linked factors (Brosnan, 2006). In line with this view, a seminal study by Lippa (2003) showed that 2D:4D determined sexual orientation (though only for men). Subsequent studies in this area have attempted to link 2D:4D to individual differences in established personality traits, notably those related to aggression or masculine behaviours. Although evidence has been somewhat inconsistent, a number of meaningful connections have indeed been found. In a large-scale study, Lippa (2006) found positive, albeit weak, associations between 2D:4D and Extraversion, as well as a negative, albeit weak, link between 2D:4D and Openness to Experience. Overall, however, associations between finger-length measures and personality were modest and variable. In a similar, smaller-scale, study, 2D:4D was a significant predictor of different aggression subscales (e.g., sensation-seeking, verbal aggression, etc.) (Hampson, Ellis & Tenk, 2008). The authors concluded that ‘the 2D:4D digit ratio may be a valid, though weak, predictor of selective sex-dependent traits that are sensitive

Early, unscientific methods

to testosterone’ (p. 133). More recently, Lindov`a, Hruˇskov`a, Pivonkov`a, Kubena and Flegr (2008) reported that more feminine women – those with higher right hand 2D:4D ratio – were more neurotic and less socially bold than their less feminine (those with a lower right-hand 2D:4D ratio) counterparts. Although 2D:4D measures are still unlikely to be used as a personnel selection device, there is growing research in this area and the above-reviewed findings show some promising potential to provide an alternative approach for assessing individual differences (see Chapter 7 for traditional approaches to personality assessment).

1.5

Phrenology

About a quarter of a century after the resurgence of physiognomy under Lavater, a new ‘science’ claimed to be able to determine character, personality traits and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head. Developed by the German physician Franz-Josef Gall at the end of the eighteenth century, phrenology became very popular in the nineteenth century and is usually credited as a protoscience for having contributed to medical science the ideas that the brain is the organ of the mind and that certain brain areas have localised, specific functions. Although there are important differences between Lavaterian physiognomy and Gall’s phrenology, the latter’s thinking was clearly influenced by the former. For example, Gall observed that his fellow students who had good memories all had prominent eyes, and so he assumed that the part of the brain concerned with memory was located behind the eyes (Davies, 1955). However, Gall went on to extend these basic ideas into what was, at the time, the most significant theory of mind yet. In particular, Gall formalised the view that the mind and brain were one and the same thing. His ideas developed the notion of cerebral localisation, that is, the view that various parts of the brain have relatively distinct functions. In his main work, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular (1796), Gall argued that every brain function could be localised to a particular part of the brain, which was dedicated to that single function alone. For him, understanding the brain would come through identifying which pieces were responsible for which functions. Subsequent phrenologists like Johann Spurzheim argued that parts of the brain which correspond to functions that an individual used a great deal would hypertrophy, while those functions which were neglected would atrophy. Their vision of the brain, therefore, was that it had a lumpy and bulbous surface, with a landscape unique to each individual based upon their particular set of intellectual and neurological strengths and weaknesses. They further argued that the skull overlying the lumpy parts of the brain would bulge out to accommodate the hypertrophied brain tissue underneath. Therefore, by measuring those bumps, one can

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infer which parts of the brain are enlarged and therefore which characteristics are dominant (Novella, 2000). This idea later acquired some fame with the ‘phrenology head’, a china head on which the phrenological faculties were indicated. This head, while symbolising much of the work of phrenologists, also entailed that phrenology would continue physiognomy’s fascination with outward physical appearance. A typical phrenological chart outlines thirty-seven brain functions, each with a corresponding bearing upon the shape of one’s head (see Davies, 1955, p. 6). During the nineteenth century, phrenology gained a rapidly growing interest. By the 1820s, every major British city had its own phrenological society, and many people consulted phrenologists to get advice in matters like hiring personnel or finding a marriage partner (see Cooter, 1984; Davies, 1955). Although the theory of phrenology was eventually rejected by official academia, the phrenological parlours remained popular for some time, but they were considered closer to astrology, chiromancy and the like. In the early twentieth century, phrenology benefited from a new interest, particularly with its greater entwinement with physiognomy. But like physiognomy, much of this resurgence had to do with questions of racial difference and degeneration (Cooter, 1984). Frequent pictorial representations of racialised groups (notably black Africans and Australian Aborigines) are found within the phrenological journals at this time. For their effectiveness, they depended on the view of the external body as a site that could be used to divide assumed racial superiority from inferiority. Phrenology was part of the climate of that time which used science to naturalise racism, class inequality and patriarchy (Gould, 1981). 1.5.1 Appraising phrenology

Gall and other phrenologists were correct when it came to the central debate of neurology of the time (Miller, 1996): the brain is somewhat compartmentalised, with each section serving a specific function. However, the modern ‘map’ of the brain does not correlate at all with the classic map used by phrenologists. Theirs was more personality (even morality) based, while the modern map is based on fundamental functions, such as the ability to perform mathematical functions (Butterworth, 1999). Furthermore, all the other assumptions of phrenology are false: r The brain is not a muscle; it does not hypertrophy or atrophy depending on use. r The brain is very jelly-like in consistency: the soft brain conforms to the shape of the skull and the skull does not conform itself to the brain.

Modern phrenology is not based on head shape but on brain structure and function. In fact the speed of developments in PET scanning and other related technologies suggests that this may be in time the new selection methodology. Understanding individual difference in brain structure and function is the new science of the twenty-first century. Furthermore, it is possible that future candidates

Early, unscientific methods

may be brain scanned as part of their selection process. That raises interesting ethical issues, though it will be a long time before the science is going to be sufficiently specific to be used to inform selection decisions.

1.6

Psychognomy, characterology and chiromancy

Although phrenology suffered an early demise, Paul Bouts began working on phrenology from a pedagogical background, using phrenological analysis to define an individual pedagogy. Combining phrenology with typology (characterising a person by personality types) and graphology, he coined a global approach called Psychognomy. Bouts became the main promoter of the renewed twentieth-century interest in phrenology and psychognomy. A different strand of character reading developed in the 1920s, combining revised physiognomy, reconstructed phrenology and amplified pathognomy (the study of passions and emotions). Designed by McCormick, characterology was an attempt to produce an objective system to determine the character of an individual. In particular, characterology attempted to fix problems in the phrenological systems of Gall and Spurzheim. McCormick suggested that uses for characterology included guiding parents and educators, guidance in military promotion of officers, estimation of the kind of thinking patterns one has, a guide to hiring and a guide to marriage selection. A more popular pseudoscience is chiromancy (or palmistry), the art of characterisation and foretelling the future through the study of the palm. It consists of evaluating a person’s character or future life by ‘reading’ the palm of that person’s hand. There are twenty-nine features that may be read. Various lines (‘life line’, ‘heart line’ and so on) and mounts (bumps) purportedly suggest interpretations by their relative sizes and intersections. Some palmistry mimics physiognomy in claiming that you can tell what a person is like by the shape of their hands. For example, creative people are said to have fan-shaped hands and sensitive people have narrow, pointy fingers and fleshy palms. However, there is about as much scientific support for such notions as there is for characterology or phrenology. There are traditionally seven hard types, including artistic, idealistic and philosophical, while modern classifications tend to have fewer types. Palm readers are more likely to be found at the ‘end of the pier’ than in a selection interview.

1.7

Astrology

Astrology is any of several traditions or systems in which knowledge of the apparent positions of celestial bodies is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting and organising knowledge about reality and human existence on earth. Most astrologers consider astrology to be a useful intuitive tool by which

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Figure 1.3 Astrological signs

people may come to better understand themselves and others, and the relationships between them. Astrology not only fascinates large parts of the general population, but has also been of interest to scientists. Johannes Kepler, one of the modern founders of astronomy, created a surprisingly valid horoscope for Albrecht Wallerstein, the Habsburg monarchy’s general in charge during the Thirty Years War (Mann, 1979). Centuries later, Eysenck and his colleagues examined relationships between astrological and personality factors (Gauquelin, Gauquelin & Eysenck, 1979; Mayo, White & Eysenck, 1978). For example, some astrologers claim that Mars occupies certain positions in the sky slightly more often at the birth of sports champions than at the birth of ‘ordinary’ people (the so-called ‘Mars effect’, based on Gauquelin, 1969). Indeed, there have been a couple of studies – notably Gauquelin et al. (1979) – reporting associations between established traits and astrological factors. More specifically, extraverts were significantly more frequently born just after the rise or upper culmination of Mars and Jupiter, whereas introverts where more frequently born when Saturn had just risen or passed their upper culmination. Psychoticism, on the other hand, has been found to relate to the position of Mars and Jupiter. More recently, Sachs (1999) attempted

Early, unscientific methods

to put astrology on a scientific footing by using statistical methods to explore associations between the zodiac and human behaviour (in particular, criminal behaviour). Although these and various other studies found significant correlations, many other results failed to support the role of astrology in personality (van Rooij, 1994). Carlson (1985) found that astrologers had no special ability to interpret personality from astrological readings and performed much worse in tests than they predicted they would. Similarly, Clarke, Gabriels and Barnes (1996) explored the effect of positions of the sun, moon and planets in the zodiac at the moment of birth, and found no evidence that tendencies towards extraversion and emotionality are explained by such signs. Even when whole charts are used in ‘matching tests’, astrology comes out looking unreliable and therefore invalid. Using the Eysenck Personality Inventory, Dean (1987) selected 60 people with a very high introversion score and 60 people with a very high extraversion score. He then supplied 45 astrologers with the birth charts of these 120 subjects. By analysing the charts, the astrologers tried to identify the extraverts from the introverts. The results were disappointing for astrologers: their average success rate was only about 50 per cent (that is, no better than random guessing). Astrologers also fail comprehensive tests when they themselves provide the required information (Nanninga, 1996). In a comprehensive review, Kelly (1997) concluded that: r The majority of empirical studies undertaken to test astrological tenets did not confirm astrological claims; and r The few studies that are positive need additional clarification. (p. 1231)

Various authors have similarly dismantled Sachs’ (1999) ‘scientific’ claims, leading at least one group of authors to claim that (von Eye, L¨osel & Mayzer, 2003: 89): 1. If there is a scientific basis to astrology, this basis remains to be shown; and 2. If there exists a link between the signs of the zodiac and human behaviour, this link remains to be shown too. Despite the lack of association between astrological predictions and personality, many people still believe in astrology (Hamilton, 1995) and accept the personality descriptions it offers (Glick, Gottesman & Jolton, 1989). For example, Hamilton (1995) found that undergraduates, presented with one-paragraph descriptions of the characteristics of their own astrological Sun sign and an alternative Sun sign, chose their own Sun sign paragraph as a better representation of their personality than the alternative Sun sign description. Van Rooij (1999) found that participants presented with individual trait words associated with the personality descriptions of each of the twelve Sun signs chose the traits of their own Sun sign as more personally descriptive than the traits associated with the other eleven signs. These results have implications for personnel selection because they indicate that people (employers) are not unlikely to make inferences on others’

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Figure 1.4 Ambiguous inkblot stimulus

(job applicants’ or employees’) personality characteristics simply on the basis of their date of birth or zodiac sign. Even if these inferences are invalid, they may have self-fulfilling effects. Thus one explanation for these results is that individuals who possess astrological knowledge tend to behave according to their respective sign of the zodiac (van Rooij, 1994, 1999). That is, persons exposed to astrological character analysis are likely to incorporate this information into their long-term self-concept. The alternative explanation – that astrology and its derived personality descriptions are valid – is rendered less likely by the finding that this tendency to endorse astrology-consistent personality descriptions is found only in those people with some knowledge of astrology (Hamilton, 1995; van Rooij, 1994).

1.8

Other projective tests

Projective tests (such as graphology) assert that participants project their innermost thoughts and feelings onto the projective stimulus, be it a Rorschach inkblot (Figure 1.4) or Thematic-Apperception-Test (TAT). The TAT was designed by Murray (1943) to assess clinical constructs but was soon widely employed in the context of work psychology. The original version of TAT had twenty black and white pictures of people and objects that enabled respondents to project their own feelings, needs and motives in their interpretations of these images (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark & Lowell, 1953). Thus the TAT manual explains that test stimuli invite respondents to ‘expose the underlying inhibited tendencies which the [respondent is] not willing to admit, or cannot admit because he is unconscious of them’. In a similar vein, other projective tests tend to include ambiguous characters as stimuli in order to enable participants to identify with the hero or central picture. Stimuli come in various different forms including solid objects, even auditory stimuli, as do responses that may include sentence completion or free drawing. Lilienfeld, Wood and Garb (2000) have classified all projective techniques into five types: associations (i.e., Rorschach), construction (e.g., Draw-a-person),

Early, unscientific methods

completion (sentence completion), arrangement/selection (i.e., Luscher Colour Test) and expression (handwriting analysis). Kline (1994) listed both psychometric problems with projective tests but also reasons for their continued use, if not popularity. Psychometrically the evidence suggests they have poor reliability and validity; are over-sensistive to contextual effects (i.e., test conditions); have little rationale for their scoring systems and are rarely theoretically driven. However, they continue to be used because they provide a unique data source; they can be powerful techniques for revealing unusually rich insights; and some scoring methods can be insightful. Studies continue to evaluate the TAT and the Journal of Personality Assessment frequently carries articles on the topic (an excellent example is Ackerman, Clemence, Weatherill & Hilsenroth, 1999). Although the psychometric standards of the TAT have been criticised for their low predictive validity (Klinger, 1966) and reliability (Entwisle, 1972; Fineman, 1977), one may argue that projective tests should not be evaluated with the same criteria as psychometric tests. Some studies have shown that TAT-derived profiles – in relation to anxiety and narcissism – are congruent with those sketched using other projective tests, such as Rorschach (Harder, 1979; Hurvich, Benveniste, Howard & Coonerty, 1993; Mayman, 1968). Other studies, however, found very low correlations between performance on TAT and objective or psychometric measures of need for achievement (Hansemark, 1997; Fineman, 1977). In one of the most rigorous longitudinal tests of the validity of TAT – an eleven-year study – Hansemark (2000) concluded that the TAT has no validity at all in the prediction of entrepeneurial activity. With regard to the Rorschach inkblot test, a seminal review of the validity of this test memorably noted that it ‘has the most reviled of all psychological assessment instruments’ (Hunsley & Bailey, 1999, p. 266). Certain areas of the literature have always been interested in projective techniques, particularly those interested in linguistic (Breedin, Saffran & Schwartz, 1998) or discourse-narrative techniques (Billig, 1997). Further, researchers interested in achievement motivation, health and sexual issues have taken particular interest in getting at ‘real motives’ where participants are as likely to be ‘unable’ as unwilling to give truthful and insightful answers (McClelland, 1989; Kitzinger & Powell, 1995). A recent comprehensive review of the validity of all projective techniques is however damning. Lilienfeld et al. (2000) wrote: We conclude that there is empirical support for the validity of a small number of indexes derived from the Rorschach and TAT. However, the substantial majority of Rorschach and TAT indexes are not empirically supported. The validity evidence of human figure drawings is even more limited. With a few exceptions, projective indexes have not consistently demonstrated incremental validity above and beyond other psychometric data. (p. 27)

Naturally a consequence of their review is to recommend that less time is devoted to projective techniques and ethical implications of relying on projective indexes that are not well validated.

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1.9

The Barnum effect

The most plausible reason why people believe in graphology and astrology is that the interpretations they provide are ‘true’. They are true because they consist of vague positive generalisations with high base-rate validity, yet are supposedly derived specifically for a named person (Dean, 1987; Furnham, 2001). For several decades, psychologists have investigated the ‘Barnum effect’ (sometimes known as the ‘Forer effect’), the phenomenon whereby people accept personality feedback about themselves because it is supposedly derived from personality assessment procedures. In other words, people believe in astrology and graphology because they fall victim to the fallacy of personal validation. People accept the generalisations that are true of nearly everybody to be specifically true of themselves. Stagner (1948) gave a group of personnel managers a personality test, but instead of scoring it and giving them the actual answers, he gave each of them bogus feedback in the form of statements derived from horoscopes, graphological analyses and so on. Each manager was then asked to read over the feedback (supposedly derived from the ‘scientific’ test) and decide how accurate the assessment was. Over half felt their profile was an accurate description of themselves, and almost none believed it to be wrong (see Table 1.2). Similarly, Forer (1949) gave personality tests to his students, ignored their answers, and gave each student an identical evaluation. They were then asked to evaluate the description from 0 to 5, with 5 meaning the recipient felt the description was an ‘excellent’ evaluation and 4 meaning the assessment was ‘good’. The class average evaluation was 4.26. More recently, Furnham (1994) ‘tricked’ his students with a ‘medical Barnum’. Students were told that a ‘physical and chemical analysis’ of hair can give clues to body health, and were asked to provide hair samples. The following week, they were shown advertising from an organisation that purported to do such an analysis, and were given an envelope that contained their hair samples and Barnum items that they were asked to rate on a seven-point scale for accuracy (7 being extremely accurate; 1 being not accurate at all). A third of the feedback items received a score of 60 per cent or above. Some of the highest ratings were about normality, while other items rated as accurate referred to variability in behaviour. The item that yielded the lowest score referred to quite specific physical behaviours (for example, urine colour) (see Table 1.3). Research on the Barnum effect has, however, shown that belief in bogus feedback is influenced by a number of important factors (Furnham, 2001): some to do with the client and the consultant (for example, their personality, naivety) and some to do with the nature of the test and feedback situation. One of the most important variables is perceived specificity of the information required. The more detailed the questions (for example, a horoscope based on the year, month

Early, unscientific methods

25

Table 1.2 Evaluations of items by sixty-eight personnel managers when presented as a ‘personality’ analysis Judgement as to accuracy of item: percentagea choosing A. You have a great need for other people to like and admire you. B. You have a tendency to be critical of yourself. C. You have a great deal of unused capacity which you have not turned to your advantage. D. Whilst you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them. E. Your sexual adjustment has presented problems for you. F. Disciplined and self-controlled outside, you tend to be worrisome and insecure inside. G. At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the right thing. H. You prefer a certain amount of change and variety and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restriction and limitations. I. You pride yourself as an independent thinker and do not accept others’ statements without satisfactory proof. J. You have found it unwise to be frank in revealing yourself to others. K. At time you are extraverted, affable, sociable, whilst at other times you are introverted, wary, reserved. L. Some of your aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic. M. Security is one of your major goals in life.

ab 39

b 46

c 13

d 1

46 37

36 36

15 18

3 1

0 4

34

55

9

0

0

15 40

16 21

16 22

33 10

19 4

37

31

19

18

4

63

28

7

1

1

49

32

12

4

4

31

37

22

6

4

43

25

18

9

5

12 40

16 31

22 15

43 9

7 5

e 1

Notes: a Not all percentages add to 100% because of omissions by an occasional subject. b Definitions of scale steps as follows: (a) amazingly accurate; (b) rather good; (c) about half and half; (d) more wrong than right; (e) almost entirely.

and day of birth, rather than one based on the year and month of birth alone), the more likely it is a person will think it pertains to just themself (Lillqvist & Lindeman, 1998). Forer’s (1949) own explanation for the Barnum effect was in terms of human gullibility. People tend to accept claims about themselves in proportion to their desire that the claims be true rather than in proportion to the empirical accuracy of the claims as measured by some non-subjective standard. This confirms another principle in personality assessment – the ‘Polyanna principle’ – which suggests that there is a general tendency to use or accept positive words or feedback more frequently than negative words of feedback.

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methods of personnel selection

Table 1.3 Ratings of the feedback from the ‘medical Barnum’ (from Furnham, 1994b)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Your diet, while adequate, would benefit from an increase in fresh fruit and vegetables. You are probably hairier than most other people of your sex and age. Not all your measurements are symmetrical (e.g., your hands, feet, breasts are not exactly the same size/cup). Your sex drive is very variable. There is evidence of a tendency to arthritis in your family. You are prone to feel the cold more than other people. Your skin texture changes under stress. You are prone to occasional patterns of sleeplessness. Your metabolic rate is at the 40 percentile (just below average for your age and sex). You sometimes feel very tired for no reason. You can get depressed for no apparent reason. You are occasionally aware that your breath smells for no reason. Your nose bleeds occasionally. You are more prone to tooth decay than others. Your appetite varies extensively. You have a tendency to put on weight easily. You sometimes experience symptoms of anxiety (e.g., tension headaches, indigestion). There are no major hereditary defects in your family. Your bowel movements are not always regular. Your cardiovascular efficiency is average for your age and sex. You experience frequent changes in your urine colour. You occasionally get a craving for certain food. Your body fat distribution is not perfectly normal. You frequently get indigestion.

Accuracy 0–100

Those giving maximum (100%) accurate scores

65.6

19.1

44.9

4.3

55.6

2.1

56.3 47.7

4.3 12.8

58.0 54.4 62.6 50.1

19.1 10.6 25.5 4.2

64.7 58.7 44.9

23.4 14.9 2.1

34.9 42.8 63.5 44.6 65.9

8.5 10.6 23.4 8.5 23.4

75.6 51.3 67.7

34.0 8.5 14.9

41.3 66.5 56.8 43.7

4.3 25.5 12.8 4.3

For example, Glick and colleagues (1989) found that students initially sceptical about astrology were more likely to both accept the personality description it offered them and to increase their belief in astrology as a whole if that description were favourable. In other words, those for whom astrological theory provides a more attractive self-portrait are more likely to express belief in the validity of astrologers (Hamilton, 2001). Dickson and Kelly (1985) have examined many ‘Barnum effect’ studies and concluded that overall there is significant support for the general claim that

Early, unscientific methods

Barnum profiles are perceived to be accurate by subjects in the studies. Furthermore, there is an increased acceptance of the profile if it is labelled ‘for you’. Favourable assessments are more readily accepted as accurate descriptions of subjects’ personalities than unfavourable ones. But unfavourable claims are more readily accepted when delivered by people with high perceived status than low perceived status. There is also some evidence that personality variables such as neuroticism, need for approval and authoritarianism are positively related to belief in Barnum-like profiles (Glick et al., 1989). Hence the popularity of astronomy and graphology: feedback is based on specific information and it is nearly always favourable. In addition, it is often the anxious who visit astrologers and the like: they are particularly sensitive to objective information about themselves and the future. Thus, for example, research has shown that increasing uncertainty in the environment increases interest in astrology and other paranormal phenomena (Keinan, 1994), and astrological information also verifies an individual’s self-beliefs and possibly reduces negative feelings linked with uncertainty (Lillqvist & Lindeman, 1998).

1.10

Accepting feedback

Several studies which have considered the influence of personality factors on the Barnum effect have attempted to show that the acceptance of feedback is consistent with particular traits. The literature has as much to do with self-verification (Swann, 1987), namely the notion that individuals are highly motivated to verify their self-conceptions even if those are negative. Snyder and Clair (1977) looked at the effects of insecurity on the acceptance of personality interpretations, both as a trait and as situational manipulation. The major finding of this study was that the greater the insecurity of the participants, the greater was the acceptance of feedback. Ruzzene and Noller (1986) noted that individuals who exhibited high levels of desire for feedback did not discriminate between favourable (positive) and unfavourable (negative) accurate feedback, or between accurate and inaccurate favourable feedback. In other words, desire for feedback per se did not affect the acceptability of feedback. Various studies have related Extraversion and Neuroticism to the acceptance of bogus feedback. Layne and Ally (1980) used the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and found that the more accurate the feedback, the more positively it was accepted. Neurotics endorsed neurotic (and accurate) feedback more than stable (inaccurate) feedback, and stable people endorsed stable (and accurate) feedback more than neurotic (inaccurate) feedback. This suggests that some personality variables were logically and predictably related to feedback acceptance. Yet Kelly, Dickson and Saklofske (1986) found no relationship between extraverts’ and neurotics’ non-neurotics’ acceptance of general vs specific positive and negative feedback. They found that extraverts, compared to introverts, showed a significantly greater acceptance of general positive and specific positive

27

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methods of personnel selection

feedback. Compared to non-neurotics, neurotics showed a greater acceptance of general positive, specific positive and general negative feedback, but not specific negative feedback. Neurotic extraverts showed significantly more acceptance of general and specific negative feedback. The impulsiveness and low reflectiveness of extraverts accounts for their readiness to accept positive feedback, or the fact that being more sociable, which is a desirable trait, actually results in receiving more positive feedback in everyday life, which was confirmed in this study. Because both introverts and extraverts perceive extraversion as a more desirable or ideal trait than introversion, it is possible that extraverts accept positive feedback as being more accurate than negative feedback (but not vice versa) precisely because it is true. Fletcher, Taylor and Glanfield (1996) found that subjects who completed the 16PF were able to identify their test-derived personality more accurately than would be expected by chance. However, they did find that education, sex and personality were related to acceptance of feedback. Three personality factors accounted for 22 per cent of the variance in accuracy ratings – these were mental capacity, conscientiousness and imaginativeness. They noted: ‘To define which personality characteristics those giving feedback should be wary of would be difficult: on the other hand, some evidence suggests that individuals with less positive charactersitics are less likely to seek test feedback anyway’ (Fletcher et al., 1996, p. 155).

1.11

Summary and conclusion

Ideally those in the business of selection want to use reliable and valid measures to accurately assess a person’s abilities, motives, values and traits. There are many techniques available and at least a century of research trying to determine the psychometric properties of these methods. Over the past twenty years there have been excellent meta-analyses of the predictive validity of various techniques. In this chapter we considered some assessment and selection techniques that have alas ‘stood the test of time’ despite being consistently shown to be both unreliable and invalid. They are perhaps more a testament to the credulity, naivety and desperation of people who should know better. However, it is important to explain why these methods are still used. One explanation is the Barnum effect whereby people accept as valid about themselves and others high base-rate, positive information. The use to a client of personal validation of a test by a consultant or test publisher should thus be questioned. Part of the problem for selectors is their relative ignorance of the issues which are the subject of this book. Even specialists in human resources remain uninformed about research showing the poor validity and reliability of different methods. There is, however, one other issue that in part may account for the use and

Early, unscientific methods

abuse of ineffective methods. This concerns the issue of applicant reaction to testing and the related issue of litigation. The business of selection is a way an organisation can show it is up-to-date and fair in its procedures. However, some candidates do not like tests and processes that have proven to be highly valid, such as intelligence tests (see Chapter 6). They therefore rely on methods that candidates might like but which are very poor indeed as an aid in selecting the best candidates and weeding out the worst.

29

2

The interview

2.1

Introduction

It seems almost inconceivable that any form of selection task and decision is not informed by one, indeed many, job interviews. These have been used in selection for over two centuries (for example, the Royal Navy used job interviews as early as 1800). Whether it comes at the beginning or the end of the selection process, whether there are one or many interviewers at a time and whether it lasts a few minutes or several hours, the selection interview is thought as a crucial and central part of the process whereby the employer and employee can get a good sense of one another. People use the words ‘chemistry’, ‘fit’ and ‘feel’, all of which speak primarily to the intuitive nature of the process. Candidates expect interviews. An interview candidate may have to sit before large panels of people eager to have a ‘good look’ at him or her or else go through a large number of sequential ‘one-to-ones’ from the often many stakeholders in the job. Interviews differ on many dimensions: how long they last, how many interviewers there are; how much they are pre-planned; what the real purpose of the interview is. The very popularity and ubiquity of interviews has spawned a huge industry in interview training. It has also spawned a number of books for both interviewers and interviewees. Interviewers are ‘taught’ how to ask ‘killer questions’ that get ‘to the heart of the interviewee’. Equally, interviewees are taught how to give diplomatic (somewhat evasive) answers to those really ‘tough’ questions. Interviews are therefore presented as a minefield of dishonesty; a game of intellectual charades, where both parties are essentially out to ‘trick’ and ‘out manoeuvre’ one another. This is, of course, far from the truth but has no doubt served to influence how both parties see selection interviews. As a result, some organisations have argued that the data showing the extremely poor reliability and validity of (mostly unstructured) interviews effectively means that they often hinder rather than help effective decision making. Interview data and ratings have been accused of being invalid, unreliable and biased. Further, considerable time and travel costs are often involved for both parties. Hence, in UK it is still common for universities not to interview prospective undergraduate students, believing that the school exam results, letters of recommendation and other application form data provide sufficient information for them to make the ‘optimal’ decision. Some universities do interview for highly selective courses 30

The interview

Turkey Netherlands Sweden UK Norway Spain Germany Ireland France Portugal Finland Denmark

Percentage of employers using interviews

0

20

40

60

80

100

Figure 2.1 Percentage of employers using interviews (based on Dany & Torchy, 1994)

because they are interested in weeding out unsuitable candidates (as judged by personality, motivation or values) rather than selecting desirable candidates. Yet interviews are perhaps part of nearly all selection decision, data-gathering methods because they are rated as the most acceptable (fair, reasonable, important) method. They are used to collect information, make inferences about suitability and determine an individual’s communication skills. It is estimated that 90 per cent of employment selection decisions involve interviews (Cook, 2004). Figure 2.1 (from a Price Waterhouse Cranfield survey of Western European countries) shows the large percentage of employers in each country using the interview. Although accurate US estimates are harder to come by, US figures can be expected to be at least as high as UK ones and it has been pointed out that the employment interview is the most widely used method of assessment in the US (Judge, Higgins & Cable, 2000). Both parties seem to expect and want them. This chapter attempts both to review the salient literature on the reliability and validity of information obtained by interview but also to look at the researchbased advice to those interested in better interview practice. The literature on this topic is scattered between various academic and applied disciplines from Human Resource Management to Differential Psychology. Some researchers appear to be less disinterested that others in their attempt to demonstrate the validity of particular types of interview techniques or styles. However, there remains considerable consensus on the validity of structured and non-structured interview data. We will start with what is currently considered to be evidencebased good advice for doing interviews.

2.2

Basic guidelines for a good selection interview

The central question for those interested in the selection interview is the old but crucial psychometric issues of reliability and validity. In short, they refer to the question of whether interviewers’ ratings of the candidates agree

31

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methods of personnel selection Train interviewers

Use standardised scales for ratings

Rate candidates after the interview

Know and focus on the job analysis

Ignore prior info (CV, test profiles, etc.)

Figure 2.2 Five common guidelines for improving the interview

(sufficiently) with one another. Do candidates leave the same impression about their skills, aptitudes, dispositions and attitudes with all those that interview them? Second, and always more salient, do the interview ratings predict future job performance? The answer to this simple question is far from simple. The reliability and validity of the interview is dependent on all sorts of things from the skill and training of the interviewers to the types of ratings made and the length of the interview, and rather than asking ‘whether’ interviews predict performance the question is ‘to what extent’ they do. As a consequence of a great deal of research and excellent recent meta-analyses it is possible to list some rules of thumb that have been shown to increase the reliability and validity of the interview: train interviewers; ask standardised questions; do a good job analysis; ignore salient prior information; do the ratings before and after the interviews; make specific ratings (see Figure 2.2). Interviewers need training in how they present themselves: how to pose questions and how to interpret often subtle non-verbal cues as well as certain answers. This is mainly about social skills and emotional intelligence (see Sections 7.19 to 7.23). More importantly they need to know what salient questions to ask that relate to the very specific nature of the job that they are selecting for. A careful job analysis should reveal the full range of skills, aptitudes and dispositions required. Hence this should drive the interview structure. Interviewers need not only to know what questions to ask and why but also how to interpret the answers. In addition, interviewers need to make judgements on only the salient features of the candidates and to ignore various impression-management techniques (tactics used to portray a desired and planned image to others) that candidates may employ either on the CV or face-to-face. Next, interviewers need training on how to accurately distinguish between the different criteria assessed. Just as wine and tea tasters have to be taught to make reliable and accurate ratings, so interviewers have to be taught – through both practice and special training – how they and other raters see the same candidate and to ensure that they provide consistent or at lest compatible evaluations. Finally, it is important that the rating scales used by interviewers are clear and comprehensive, allowing a wide range of ratings, including an index of uncertainty.

The interview

2.3

Description, types and functions of the interview

Research on the interview addresses a number of quite specific issues. First, it is important to distinguish between different types of interview given both their purpose and methodology. Second, there is a long literature on the cognitive psychology of interviews that looks at how people obtain, evaluate and combine information to derive a final judgement. Third, by far the greatest research effort has gone into looking at the psychometrics (reliability and validity) of the interview, as well a how to improve it. Fourth, there is a growing literature on candidate evaluation of the interview. Fifth, there is a small literature on legal aspects of the interview. It is difficult to characterise the typical selection interview. Certainly it is probably true to say most are unstructured and semi-structured at best; few interviewers are properly trained; the easiest aspects to assess (i.e., self-confidence, presentation) are frequently relatively unimportant job criteria; the interview is usually done by the person (alone or with others) who will ‘manage’ the candidate; the only preparation the interviewer has done is a perfunctory reading of the completed application form and the candidate’s CV. Despite the wide range of interviews, most tend to ask a relatively invariant number of questions, such as ‘What persuaded you to work for us?’, ‘What are your greatest strengths and weaknesses?’ and the clich´e finale of ‘Have you got any questions for us?’ (see Table 2.1, based on www.advancedqanda.com/interview; retrieved 21 Feb 2008). There are many different types of interview: the appraisal, disciplinary, motivational and selection interviews, though there is probably most research on the selection interview. Certainly people have a clear expectation of interviews, though they vary a great deal in form and content. They usually expect an interview to be thorough, lasting anything from 30 to 120 minutes. They expect the interviewer to be in some sense prepared, to ask most of the questions and to take notes. They expect that they must be smartly dressed (where ‘smart’ means better dressed than they would normally be in that job!), that they will answer questions honestly and that they will be allowed themselves to ask various questions at some point. Thus there are four phases to the interview: welcome, information gathering, supplying information and the conclusion. The first phase is usually thought of as welcome or courtesy. It lasts a few minutes and is designed to put the candidate at his/her ease. The second phase – gathering data – may constitute as much as 80–90 per cent of the total interview. The third, relatively short phase near the end occurs when the interviewer/s invite/s the candidate to pose any questions he/she might have. Some of these questions are genuine and others often impression-management questions designed to impress the interviewer. The final phase usually involves the interviewers explaining to the candidate the decision-making process and how and when they will be informed as to the outcome. There are many courses that attempt to teach managers interview skills, especially how to plan and run an interview, as well as how to ask perceptive questions.

33

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methods of personnel selection

Table 2.1 Typical questions asked in an employment interview What information have you got about our company? What persuaded you to get a job in this company? Tell us about yourself and your background. How would you/co-workers describe you/yourself? Why should we hire you? What makes you the right person for this job? Give us an example of situations in which you displayed attributes that are relevant to this job? What aspects of your previous experience do you think will be most helpful to you in this role? What are your greatest strengths and weaknesses? How do you deal with failure? Please provide an example where you dealt with failure in the past. How do you feel about working with others/in a team? Please provide examples from the past. How do you feel about working under pressure/tight deadlines? How do you react to criticism? What is your greatest achievement to date? Why are you thinking of leaving your current job? Where do you see yourself in five/ten years time? What other jobs are you applying for? What kind of salary are you expecting? When would you be able to start? Have you any questions for us?

Welcome phase (greeting, placing, introductions, etc.) Gathering phase (asking relevant questions) Supplying phase (providing relevant info to candidate)

Conclusion (end and exit)

Figure 2.3 Phases of the interview

To some extent the issue is how to obtain sufficient valid data upon which to make a good rating. This, in turn, is different from a target-setting interview, an appraisal and a disciplinary interview. They have various skill requirements in common. Thus one of the major issues for the target-setting interview is agreeing clear,

The interview

Promoting work performance

Periodic appraisal based on law

Assigning work more efficiently Meeting employees’ need for growth Assisting employees in their goal setting

Promotion based on merit

Rewards for past performance

Identifying potential for management Ensuring employees know their duties

Review of probationary periods

Improving job placement Identifying training needs Validating selection and training methods

Warning about unacceptable acts Career or training development needs

Fostering good relationship with bosses Fostering good relationship with teams

Lateral reassignment

Figure 2.4 Functions of the appraisal interview (for organisation and employees, and personnel actions)

measurable targets. These can or should have highly defined criteria measurable usually by one of five factors: time, money, quality, quantity or customer feedback. All interviews should have an agenda that demonstrates that at least the interviewer has planned the process. Also it should end with a clear summary statement from both parties regarding what they got from the interview. Appraisal interviews have very specific functions: to improve utilisation of staff resources by promoting work performance, assigning work more efficiently, meeting employee’s need for growth, etc. (see Figure 2.4). Often training programmes concerning interviews spend a great deal of effort on looking at formulating, asking and interpreting the answers to questions. Appraisal interviews, often considered much more problematic, look at how best to give (both positive and negative) feedback. Thus clear recommendations are made such as: r r r r r r r r

Begin with a clear brief about the context and purpose of the feedback. Start with the positive feedback. Be specific in both positive and negative comments. Refer always to behaviour that can be changed. Offer alternative suggestions to how things can be done differently. Always be descriptive rather than evaluative in feedback. Attempt to get the person to acknowledge the feedback. Check on whether there are any hidden agendas in how, when and why you are giving the feedback. r Leave the person with choice in how they accept and respond to the feedback. r Consider what the feedback says about you.

35

36

methods of personnel selection unstructured

Informal discussion, without goals or agenda, flexible interviewer

semi-structured

Some goals and structure but some autonomy and flexibility for interviewer

structured

Standardised, goaldriven, no autonomy for interviewer, based on strict job analysis

Figure 2.5 Dimensional structure of interviews

Equally, it may be advisable to train people in how to receive feedback in interviews. So they are usually advised to listen to, and to consider carefully, precisely what is being said before rejecting it or arguing with the giver. It is important to understand and be clear about what is being said. Receivers of feedback should be encouraged to ask for feedback that they wanted but did not get. They may also be encouraged to check it out with other senior people who know them rather than rely on only one source. Further, they will need to decide on precisely what they intend to do with the feedback.

2.4

Structured vs unstructured interviews

It has long been common practice to differentiate between what have been called structured and unstructured interviews, though strictly speaking they are really on a continuum from completely unstructured (and possibly unplanned) to rigidly and inflexibly structured. The ultimately unstructured interview is a little like an informal discussion where interviewers ask whatever questions come to mind and follow up answers in an intuitive and whimsical way. Crucially, questions are open-minded and attempt to avoid ‘leading’ the interviewee’s answers in any specific direction. The structured interview on the other hand is pre-planned to ensure every candidate receives exactly the same questions in the same order at the same pace. Structured interviews also employ rating scales, checklists for judgement; allow for few or no follow-up questions (to limit interviewees’ response time and standardise it); take into account previous job analyses; and leave little autonomy for the interviewer. In that sense, totally structured interviews resemble standardised psychometric tests (see Chapter 7). The question is how much structure vs flexibility should be built in to maximise the point of the whole exercise. A structured interview is essentially a planned interview. In fact it often requires interviewers to make pre- and post-interview decisions. The idea is that a job

The interview

37

Table 2.2 Potential qualities assessed by a structured job interview Energy and drive Work discipline Decision making Intellectual effectiveness Relationships Flexibility Emotional stability

General level of work output, ability to stay with a problem, persistence, enthusiasm, motivation General efficiency, ability to plan, control and monitor work and time, ability to set objectives and standards Quality of judgement on personnel and technical matters, willingness and ability to make decisions Analytical ability, speed of thinking, creativity Sociability, ability to work individually and in teams, extent of guidance and support needed from boss, ability to delegate Ability to adapt to new and different people, technology and environments, responsiveness to change Ability to work under pressure, response to setback and failures

analysis leads one to decide on a limited number of essential qualities or competencies that one is looking for. These are often a mixture of abilities and personality traits. Consider the potential qualities and areas listed in Tables 2.2 and 2.3. A structured interview then follows a rigorously planned sequence of question areas in an attempt to get all the salient information upon which to make an accurate rating. This might result in either ratings on each of the dimensions specified in Tables 2.2 and 2.3 or a written report such as the one shown in Box 2.1. The importance of structured interviews to ensure validity cannot be overrated, as we shall see. As a result, textbook writers often offer hints or tips to those embarking on the process. For example, Figure 2.6 summarises main areas of attention for improving structured interviews (based on Arnold, 2005, p. 182).

2.5

The cognitive basis of interviews

The result of an interview is usually a decision. Ideally this process involves collecting, evaluating and integrating specific salient information into a logical algorithm that has shown to be predictive. However, there is an academic literature on impression formation that has examined experimentally how precisely people select particular pieces of information. Studies looking at the process in selection interviews have shown all too often how interviewers may make their minds up before the interview even occurs (based on the application form or CV of the candidate), or that they make up their minds too quickly based on first impression (superficial data) or their own personal implicit theories of personality. Equally, they overweigh or overemphasise negative information or bias information not in line with the algorithm they use. Earlier research (Harris, 1989) was conducted on whether information was added or weighted, that is, how people combined positive and negative ‘pieces

38

methods of personnel selection

Table 2.3 Potential areas assessed by a structured job interview Upbringing

• Base point against which person makes decisions • Info needed – where born, siblings (ages, academic and work achievements), childhood events Evaluate: economic and social stability, degree of supportiveness

Education

• Focus is on intellect • Info needed – schools, university, exam results, other interests and achievements (cultural, social, technical) Evaluate: choice of subjects, performance, causes and results of failures • Look at most recent experience first • Info needed – job titles, main tasks, relationships, objectives/results, part of job liked/done well and vice versa, reasons for changing Evaluate: significance of job within the organisation, standing of the firm in the industry, competence of candidate against demands of job

Work history

Aspirations

• Reality check • Info needed – what candidate wants to do in short/long term, what plans for achieving ambitions Evaluate: how realistic aspirations are when set against academic and work achievements to date plus personal attributes

Circumstances

• Establish pressures on career • Info needed – willingness to move, marital status, social family constraints, financial liabilities, driving licence Evaluate: any constraints which may affect work effectiveness by exploring marital and financial stability • Ask what they enjoy about their interests to find out motivations • Info needed – main interests, with what intensity and for how long Evaluate: to what extent proposed job gives an outlet for these interests, and to what extent it is a barrier

Interests

Box 2.1 Aspects of the candidate assessed in an interview

Energy and drive The candidate is a very ambitious, focused, task-oriented individual. There is a strong sense of someone who is strongly driven to prove his worth and to achieve specific goals. He has been in HR since the beginning of his career and has a clear vision of where he wants to be. Further, he has the capacity, stamina and drive to achieve those ends. The candidate is very articulate and honest, and shows particularly high levels of self-insight. He admits to being a driven individual but that of late he is less so, because he has begun to achieve his goals and get recognition for them. This is not to say that his energy has diminished but rather that he is probably more relaxed. He is energetic and enthusiastic – more a

The interview

socialised extravert than a pure strong extravert. But he is enthusiastic and possibly at times rather too much so.

Work style and values The candidate is a hard worker. He freely admits that at school and university he had to work hard to ‘compensate’ for his lack of ability relative to his peer group. He is clearly a ‘mover and shaker’ preferring to ‘get on with it’ rather than sit about discussing strategy. His claims he is ‘tough on performance’ and no doubt drives others as much as he drives himself. Where necessary he says he can be controlling and very directive. He prefers to delegate but only if he believes his people are up to the challenge. Asked what other bosses/appraisers have said about him, he pointed out that they said he always delivered, but there was a hint of ‘achievement at what cost?’ I do not, however, get the impression that his is ever unfair or unreasonable with his staff, but rather that he wants them, like him, to work at their maximum capacity. He seems to like a ‘work hard, play hard’ culture where you get on with the job but have a lot of fun while doing it. He sees the ‘glass half full’ and likes to work with people like himself.

Decision making and judgement Three things characterise his decision-making style. The first is honesty/integrity. He admits that he does not like ‘confronting others’, but where he feels various ethical, moral and decency barriers are passed he speaks out. Second, he is not risk-averse, which means that he can and does accept failures when they occur. Third, he does not like procrastination and ambiguity. This means that he demands clarity and provides it for those around him. He is clearly a man of both ‘heart and head’ who can and does balance decisions where necessary. He appears to read situations well.

Flexibility and adaptability The candidate is fit, curious and ambitious. He has, can and will adapt to situations well. But more than that, he has no problem in trying to adapt and change others and their way of working to achieve certain goals. His self-insight and self-confidence and abilities mean that he can easily rise to challenges requiring adaptation.

Emotional stability and maturity The candidate comes from a very stable background with an articulate and affectionate mother. He is quite able to cope with stress and very unlikely to buckle under pressure. His coping strategy is primarily cognitive: withdraw,

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methods of personnel selection

attempt to analyse the situation, get things in proportion . . . and then get on with it.

Intellectual capacity and effectiveness The candidate performed well on the tests but not quite as well as one might expect from his academic record. There is no doubt that he is more than capable intellectually of doing the job and learning new things. Further, he has a history of believing that if things are not easily understood and learnt, with effort they can be. He will certainly put effort into doing that. There is no fear of someone whose academic strength and curiosity leads to a situation of ‘analysis paralysis’.

Relationships Asked about relationships, the candidate made some astute and interesting observations. Asked about how he works with others, he made it clear that much depends on the task and the ability of the team. His preference is to be ‘first among equals’ in a bright and active team. He believes his reports find him energetic, focused, enthusiastic . . . and, he added, possibly egotistical. He likes to understand the problem, set goals and then delegate. He claims not to enjoy but to be able, when necessary, to confront poor performance. His agreeableness in that sense should not then prove to be a handicap.

Improving structured Interviews

Base questions on a thorough job analysis

Ask each candidate same questions and limit time of elaboration

Plan questions ahead and group them in categories (situational, biographical and knowledge)

Rate answers using uniform scales, take detailed notes and quantify your ratings

Use multiple interviewers in order to increase the reliability of ratings

Figure 2.6 How to improve the validity of structured interviews

Don’t allow questions by the candidate until ratings have been made

The interview

of information’ about an individual to come up with some overall rating. Thus researchers in the area of interpersonal perception examined the way interviews looked for ‘favourite cues’ or facts they believed particularly diagnostic. Some wondered whether people did ‘linear regressions’ in their head in the sense that they assigned different importance to certain predictors of a given outcome. The question is how interviewers make configural judgements: what causes them to have multiple cut-off points (e.g., are candidates qualified enough, young enough, friendly enough, etc.) or, instead, single disqualifying factors, such as evidence of going to a mental hospital or having taken drugs? Clearly, more research is needed to answer these questions. Social psychologists have also been interested in implicit personality theories, which are concerned with how individual, idiosyncratic, lay theories of personality influence a person’s judgement in the interview (Cook, 2004). They have also worked for years on attribution theories, which are concerned with how people attribute social causation, notably whether they explain success and failure in terms of personal or situational factors. In the interview it is common to ask candidates why certain events occurred, i.e., to try to assess their attribution style, but the interviewer also infers causation. Thus a candidate may be asked why their school results were so different from their university results, or why they seem to change jobs so regularly. Certainly understanding how people collect and integrate information in the interview must be central to the whole enterprise.

2.6

The psychometrics of interviews

The two strong pillars of psychometrics are reliability and validity, both of which come in many forms (see Figure 2.7). Further, they are interdependent: interviews cannot be valid if they are not reliable. For interviews, it is crucial to have inter-interviewer (judge, observer, rater) reliability. This means that two people doing or watching interviews with the same person must have the same ratings. Low reliability, particularly in unstructured interviews, is no doubt mainly due to interviewer variability. Interviewers ask different questions, record and weight answers differently and may have radically different understandings of the whole purpose of the interview. Most reviewers have seen that the single simplest way to improve reliability is to introduce a consistency and structure to the interview. Thus it is almost tautological to suggest that consistency leads to reliability as they are in essence the same thing. Studies also show that it is possible to increase interviewer reliability by different but important steps, including: doing a job analysis; training interviewers; having structured interviews; having behaviourally based and anchored rating scales. Many studies have examined the issue of reliability with a useful meta-analysis by Conway, Jako and Goodman (1995), who reviewed 160 empirical studies. They

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methods of personnel selection

content

VALIDITY

RELIABILITY

What are we measuring?

How well are we measuring it?

face

criterion related

Does the measure look valid (on surface)?

Crucial when designing or developing the measure

Does it correlate with other measures of the same variable?

Does it predict the events it is meant to predict?

interitem

Are all items consistently related?

alternate forms

Do different versions or sections yield similar scores?

interrater

Do different people provide similar ratings?

construct

concurrent predictive All key aspects or facets being measured?

test–retest

Does it yield the same score under same conditions?

Does it measure the underlying or latent construct it claims to measure?

discriminant incremental

Judged by experts, researchers or practitioners

Is it measuring something new?

Does it improve prediction of outcome?

Figure 2.7 Validity and reliability

found reliabilities of 0.77 when observers watched the same interview, but that this dropped to 0.53 if they watched different interviews of the same candidate. Given that candidates react to different questions by different interviewees often quite differently, some would argue that 0.53 is surprisingly good. Research in this area has gone on for fifty years at least. Over the years small, relatively unsophisticated studies have been replaced by ever more useful and important meta-analyses. There are now a sufficient number of meta-analyses that some have done helpful summaries of them. Thus Cook (2004) reviewed Hunter and Hunter (1984) (30 studies); Wiesner and Cronshaw (1988) (160 studies); Huffcutt and Arthur (1994) (114 studies) and McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt and Maurer (1994) (245 studies). These meta-analyses covered many different studies done in different countries over different jobs and different time periods, but the results were surprisingly consistent. Results were clear: the validity coefficient for unstructured interviews as predictors of job performance is around r = .15 (range .11 – .18), while that for structured interviews is around r = .28 (range .24 – .34). Cook (2004) calculates the overall validity of all interviews over three recent meta-analyses – taking job performance as the common denominator of all criteria examined – to be around r = .23. There may be rather different reactions to this validity coefficient. An optimist might point out that given the many differences in interview technique – some are

The interview

0.7 0.6 0.5 Wiesner & Cronshaw (1988) Huffcutt & Arthur (1994) McDaniel et al. (1994)

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Unstructured

Structured

Unstructured corrected

Structured corrected

Figure 2.8 Predictive validity of interviews

psychological, some situational, some job related – and the fact that they were attempting to assess very different issues from creativity to conscientiousness, the validity is impressively high. Indeed, compared to various other job selection methods, this result is rather impressive (see Figure 2.8). The pessimist, however, may point out that a value of r = .25 means in effect an interview is accounting for a paltry 5 per cent in explaining the variance in later work behaviour. That is, it is not accounting for 95 per cent of the variance. However, given the unreliability of the criterion, the unaccounted variance may be as low as 70 per cent, and even seemingly small percentages of variance explained may have very important utility. If, for instance, 5 per cent of the variance in an outcome is explained, the categorical (yes or no) prediction of that outcome would improve from 50 per cent (the chance rate) to 55 per cent, and probably more (as the 5 per cent figure is 5/70 rather than 5/100). That said, given that interviews are used to infer information about candidates’ abilities or personality traits (see Section 2.9 and Chapters 6 and 7), they provide very little unique information about a candidate and show little incremental validity over established psychometric tests (of ability and personality) in the prediction of future job performance (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). It is not difficult to list reasons for the relatively low reliability. Essentially, these have to do with three issues: factors associated with the interviewer; factors associated with the interviewee; factors associated with the process. From an interviewer’s perspective low validity may be attributable to individual difference in values, intelligence, perceptiveness, etc. of the various interviewers; the motives of interviewers in the selection process; the training they received; their understanding of the job itself. Whatever their training, interviewers differ in terms of their natural ability, perceptiveness and courage to make ‘thorough but accurate’ ratings. From an interviewee’s perspective there are two major problems which come under the heading of dissimulation: notably impression management and self-deception. This means in effect not presenting themselves honestly either because of their desire to get the job or not having sufficient self-insight to tell

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methods of personnel selection

Most Interviews are different (hard to generalise)

Interviewers’ attention span and motivation varies across interviews

Aggregating data from different studies balances out lenient and harsh raters

Criteria are also unreliable (different supervisors rate performance differently)

Candidates often receive coaching to do well on interviews

Candidates use impression management during the interview

Candidates successfully lie during the interview

Candidates often receive coaching to say the right things

Figure 2.9 Reasons for low validity of job interview (based on Cook, 2004)

the truth. Thus the person who is presented at the interviews is not the same as the person at work on the job. The third factor lies not in the two parties involved but in the information provided. What criterion/criteria is the interviewer trying to predict? Is there clear, reliable and valid evidence on the criteria? Is the rating scale such as not to lead to ceiling effects, restriction of range? In short, how easy is it for the interviewer to do a good job even if both parties are well briefed and honest? Cook (2004) offers evidence-based recommendations for improving interview reliability and validity. 1. Select interviewers with talent. As in every aspect of life, some people appear to have the optimal mix of abilities, temperaments and traits to do good interviews. Many studies have demonstrated considerable interviewer variability. Though it can cause organisational problems, it is recommended that interviewers are selected for this task, which inevitably leads to some being rejected. This inevitably leads to the interesting question of how interviewers are selected. Is the best interviewer selected by interview? 2. Train interviewers in the relevant skills like asking open-ended questions, doing sufficient preparation, etc. It is possible to improve all skills though training, but only within the limits of the ability of the trainee. 3. Be consistent using the same interviewers for all interviews. This simply avoids unwanted variance. Though for practical and political reasons it may not always be possible to have the same (well-chosen and well-trained) interviewers for all interviews. 4. Use dyad, board or panel interviewers because they are more reliable. This point does not contradict the above point. Rather it suggests that a wellchosen, well-trained, perceptive group of interviewers will be more accurate and reliable.

The interview

Information about the job and requirements

Quality and control over the process

Candidates’ acceptance of interview

Transparency of entire process

Feedback (amount and type)

Figure 2.10 Factors influencing candidates’ acceptance of interviews (based on Schuler, 1993)

5. Have planned, structured interviews with clarity about precisely what questions to ask. And when and why. It means taking notes, making systematic ratings and later checking interview reliability and validity.

2.7

The ‘acceptability of interviews’

The interview is a two-way process of observation and rating. By and large, candidates approve of interviews and are surprised if they are not asked to them. Thus they have two types of validity: that from the organisational perspective (which has been the focus of academic validity studies on personnel selection techniques) and that from the candidate perspective. Schuler (1993) described the latter as the social validity of the interview. He argued that people tend to base the social validity of interviews on four factors: how informative they are to the candidate in terms of the total information they get about the job; the quality, quantity and control they have over participation in the process (and its outcome); how transparent the whole approach is; and the amount and type of feedback provided (see Figure 2.10). Another perspective on the acceptability of interviews is that from social justice theory, which distinguishes between distributive and procedural justice. This allows for the derivation of theory-based, testable hypotheses to predict how fair a candidate finds an interview (Gillibrand, 1993). Results in this field have led to a number of conclusions. First, when given a list of, or actually exposed to, different selection methods, candidates approve most of the more traditional methods (interview, application form, reference letters) and those clearly job relevant (work samples). By the same token they like

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methods of personnel selection

lie-detector, graphology or obscure personality tests the least. A recent review of selection methods and how they are perceived around the world reported that interviews are favourably perceived in Europe, the US, Asia and Africa (Lievens, 2007). Second, although there are broad patterns of agreement in candidates’ reactions, there are also cultural differences, not all of which are clearly explicable. Culture dictates what questions may be asked and the sort of answers that are given. Legal, anti-discriminatory changes in legislation mean that in some, predominantly western, countries people are not required to answer questions about their age, previous job history, family structure, etc. The formality of the interview, the probability of group interviews, as well as the length of the interview, are all influenced by corporate and national culture. This means that a person from one culture who is interviewed in another culture may feel unfairly dealt with or simply surprised by the questions that they are asked. Third, because lay people are not always fully familiar with various methods – they may not be exactly sure what a cognitive ability test or biographical inventory is – their reactions are different depending on whether they rate methods in the abstract or they actually undergo the test (Marcus, 2003).

2.8

Fairness, bias and the law

Most developed countries have legislated against forms of discrimination in terms of age, gender, race and religion. Whilst there are no laws about lookism (discriminating by physical appearance), weightism (discriminating by body mass index), classism (discriminating by dress or accent), there are reasons why individuals and organisations try not to let appearance and social background influence their decision making. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that interviews in the past have been, and no doubt will continue in the future to be, systematically biased against ethnic minority groups, older people and women (Cook, 2004). This tends to occur where raters are not trained or interviews are not structured. All sorts of extraneous factors like the perfume a person wears at interview have been shown to influence ratings. The literature is essentially driven by two main areas of research: one well established, namely the social-psychological literature on discrimination, favouritism and prejudice; the other, more recent research on sociolegal features of selection. Studies on the legal and illegal aspects of selection have nearly all come out of the US, whose reputation for litigation is well known. Inevitably one has to acknowledge many national differences in legal procedures and the law itself, suggesting that studies are less likely to generalise.

The interview

47

Table 2.4 Applicant attributes that affect rating bias Attributes

Examples of research findings

Gender bias

Influenced by type of job (role-congruent jobs) and competence. Female interviewers gave higher ratings than male interviewers. Early impressions were more important than factual information for interviewer judgements. Decisions to hire were related to the interviewer’s causal interpretation (attribution) of an applicant’s past outcomes. Interviewers’ evaluations of job candidates were influenced by the quality and characteristics of the previous candidates. Applicants who looked straight ahead, as opposed to downwards, were rated as being more alert, assertive and dependable; they were also more likely to be hired. Applicants who demonstrated a greater amount of eye contact, head moving and smiling received higher evaluations. More attractive applicants received higher evaluations.

First-impression effect

Contrast effect Non-verbal communication

Physical attractiveness

However, there do seem to be various principles that emerge from legal cases, all concerned with bias and unfairness in selection procedures. The three themes are: 1. It is believed structured interviews are less biased because all candidates are asked the same questions in the same way. 2. It is argued that if a job analysis is done so that rated criteria are exclusively related to the task itself and specified in objective behavioural terms, discrimination is less likely to occur. 3. It is suggested that interviewers do not use application form biographical data because it often leads them to make unwarranted references about the ability of individuals. There are many sources of interview-rating bias. Bernardin and Russell (1993) drew up a useful list under three headings (see Tables 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6).

2.9

Interviewing skills

There is no shortage of books, chapters and papers on training people in interviewing skills. These range from describing and listing different skills for different types of interviews (i.e., counselling, disciplinary, survey) to describing the typical styles of interviewers. Another approach has been to divide skills into different bands. Thus Bogels (1999), in examining the diagnostic interview in mental health care, distinguished

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methods of personnel selection

Table 2.5 Interviewer attributes that affect rating bias Attributes

Examples of research findings

Similarity effect

Interviewers gave more positive ratings to applicants perceived to be similar to themselves. Interviewers resisted using additional information to evaluate applicants once they perceived the applicants to be similar to themselves. Interviewers gave more positive ratings to candidates they liked. Interpersonal attraction was found to influence interviewers’ perceptions of applicant qualifications. Interviewers judged applicants against their own stereotype of an ‘ideal’ job candidate. These stereotypes may be unique to each interviewer, or they may be a common stereotype shared by a group of raters. Interviewers weighted negative information more heavily than positive information. Interviewers spent more time talking when they had already formed a favourable decision. Interviewers placed different importance (weights) on the information content of the interview, resulting in idiosyncratic information-weighting strategies. Discrepancies often arose between interviewers’ intended (nominal) information weights and the actual information weights they used to arrive at a decision.

‘Likeability’

‘Ideal stereotype’

Information favourability

Information utilisation

Table 2.6 Situational attributes that affect rating bias Attributes

Examples of research findings

Job information

Interviewers who received more information about the job used it for evaluation decisions. Increased job information reduced the effect of irrelevant attributes and increased reliability between raters. Interviewers’ pre-interview impressions of applicant qualifications had a strong influence on post-interview impressions and recommendations to hire. Interviewers with favourable pre-interview impressions of applicants evaluated those applicants as having done a better job of answering the interview questions. Interviewers reached a final decision early in the interview process; some studies have indicated the decision is made after an average of 4 minutes. Decisions to hire were made sooner than decisions not to hire.

Applicant information

Decision time

The interview

Interviewer’s perception of company’s values and goals

Interviewer’s perception of candidate’s values and aptitudes Interviewer’s perception of candidate’s ‘fit’ with the company

Job offer recommended

Figure 2.11 Perceived fit and employment interview (adapted from Judge et al., 2000)

between content skills (getting the required information/data), process skills (concerning all the techniques used) and cognitive skills (hypothesis formulation and testing and integrating information). Margie and Tourish (1999) note that skilled interpersonal behaviour, like skilled motor behaviour, has identifiable components. Interpersonal skills manifest in interviewing can be characterised by: r r r r

Fluency: smooth, controlled, unflustered progress. Rapidity: speedy responses to answers and issues. Automaticity: performing tasks without having to think. Simultaneity: the ability to mesh and coordinate multiple, verbal and non-verbal tasks at the same time. r Knowledge: Knowing the what, how, when and why of the whole interview process. Skills also involve understanding the real goal of the interview, being perceptive, understanding what is and what is not being said, and empathy. Recent research in the past decade has argued that the key issue assessed by the employment interview is the person–organisational fit (see also Section 7.26). Thus Judge, Higgins and Cable (2000) argued that when interviewers perceive that the candidate’s profile is congruent with (the interviewer’s perception of) organisational values and goals, job offers are recommended (see Figure 2.11). Indeed, previous evidence suggested that different interviewers show acceptable levels of agreement in their ratings of ‘fit’ (Rynes & Gerhart, 1990), though interviewers are not very accurate at assessing the candidate’s aptitudes and dispositions (Cable & Judge, 1997). That said, recent evidence suggests that interviewers rarely assess person–organisation fit, preferring to focus on the characteristics of the candidate (even though they are unable to assess these accurately!). In a

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4

4 3

10

35

16

28 Personality Knowledge skills Organisational fit

Social skills Interests and preferences

Intelligence Physical attributes

Figure 2.12 What do interviewers assess?

meta-analysis, Huffcutt Conway, Roth and Stone (2001) reported that most interviewers try to assess candidate’s personality traits, followed closely by social or interpersonal skills, and not that closely by intelligence and knowledge. On a few occasions, interviewers focus on assessing interviewees’ preferences or interests and physical attributes, and the variable of least interest appears to be fit (Huffcutt et al., 2001; see Figure 2.12). It is noteworthy that all these variables can be assessed via reliable and valid psychometric tests (see notably Chapters 6 and 7), which begs the question of what if any unique information (that is reliable and valid) can be extracted from employment interviews.

2.10

Summary and conclusion

The interview is a central feature of business life. It seems inconceivable that one would make a selection decision without one or more interviews. Equally, managers are called upon to appraise their staff via interviews as well as occasionally discipline them. Interviews are nearly always face-to-face, though technology allows video conferencing and interviewing these days. Some organisations believe that the time and money cost of interviews, combined with their low validity, means they can and should be dispensed with and replaced by such things as assessment centres. However, candidates like and expect them precisely because they are an inter-view: both parties are able to make a judgement of the other. Interviews can be designed to ensure they are seen to be fairer and to yield ratings, assessments and evaluations which are reliable and valid: the efforts necessary to do this are clearly worthwhile because of the very poor-quality data which are usually obtained in unstructured, unplanned and unprofessional interviews (appraisal, selection, etc.), which are, alas, all too common.

The interview

Quite clearly, validity studies indicate that unstructured interviews are associated with a number of problems and drawbacks that do not affect structured interviews. Thus employers should have a natural tendency to opt for the latter rather than the former. At the same time, structured interviews still do not remove the bias caused by subjective and unstandardised evaluations of the candidates. Moreover, given that interviewers tend to assess factors that can be assessed equally well (or even better) via other means, such as purpose-built and wellestablished and validated psychometric tests (see Chapters 6 and 7), interviews can be hard to justify at times, especially as they are less cost-effective than remote testing. That said, good interviews still provide important information, even when other methods are taken into account. Astute and perceptive interviewers, attentive to vocal and visual clues, can often assess the truthfulness of a specific answer. Furthermore, the way certain questions are answered means that specific issues can be further probed to reveal opinions and facts that otherwise may not be revealed. Indeed, it is often in conjunction with other methods that interviews work best, though employers tend to overrate the usefulness of interviews compared to other selection methods, like personality and ability tests.

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3

Letters of recommendation

3.1

Introduction

Another widely used method in personnel selection is the reference report or letter of recommendation, simply know as the reference, whereby a referee (e.g., former employer, teacher or colleague) provides a description and usually, but not always, a statement in support of a candidate or job applicant (see Figure 3.1 for an example). Thus referees are expected to have sufficient knowledge of the applicant’s previous work experience and his or her suitability for the job applied for. References are almost as widely used in personnel selection as the interview (see Chapter 2). The Price Waterhouse Cranfield (Dany & Torchy, 1994) review of assessment methods (see Figure 3.2) found that the vast majority of employers in Europe use references to inform their hiring decisions (especially in Scandinavia and the UK) (L´evy-LeBoyer, 1994), with US estimates (Burean of National Affairs, 1988; Judge & Higgins, 1998; Muchinsky, 1979a, 1979b) similar to UK ones. Yet there has been a surprising dearth of research on the reliability and validity of the reference letter; and, as shown in this chapter, an assessment of the existing evidence suggests that the reference is a poor indicator of candidates’ potential. Thus Judge and Higgins (1998) concluded that ‘despite widespread use, reference reports also appear to rank among the least valid selection measures’ (p. 207). References are essentially observational data, that is, statements or ratings by bosses or peers, and therefore subjective. There is an extensive literature on multisource or 360-degree feedback – the process whereby your peers, subordinates and supra-ordinates all provide ratings on you – aimed at assessing the reliability of self- and other-ratings.

3.2

Structured vs unstructured references

Like the employment interview (see Chapter 2), references can be classified on the basis of how structured/standardised they are, ranging from completely unstructured (‘What do you think of X?’) to totally structured (e.g., standardised multiple choice questions, checklists and ratings). The latter require referees to 52

Letters of recommendation

Genco Olive Oil

Date: 24 February 2008 Dear Dr Chamorro-Premuzic,

RE: Joey Tattaglia The above mentioned has applied for a temporary position with our organisation and has given your name to provide a reference on their behalf. We would be most grateful if you would kindly comment on the individual by answering the questions below and then return the completed form by fax/email ASAP.

Dates course started/ended? Do you consider them to be honest & trustworthy? No. of sick days taken (if known)

2006 -7 YES 2

PLEASE COMMENT ON THE APPLICANT’S PERFORMANCE Excellent Good Quality of work X Productivity X Commitment to X course Attitude X Attendance/punctuality X Teamwork X Initiative X Communication skills X Leadership skills X

Fair

Poor

Figure 3.1 Sample reference letter

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Sweden

UK

Denmark

Turkey

Finland

Figure 3.2 Percentage of employers using references

Spain

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methods of personnel selection

Competence, ability or aptitudes

Skills, motivation, personality traits (can do’s and will do’s)

Reputation or character

Reliability, honesty, trustworthiness, integrity

Special qualifications

Any specific training or skills that would be especially relevant for the job?

Employability by referee

Would you employ this person for this position?

Previous problems at work

Has the candidate had any previous issues (record of counterproductive behaviours) at work?

Figure 3.3 Employment Recommendation Questionnaire (ERQ)

address predefined areas and often merely tick boxes (see Figure 3.1). One of the most well-known structured references is the US Employment Recommendation Questionnaire (ERQ), developed for the US civil service and investigated in many psychological studies. The ERQ covers five core areas referring to the candidate’s (a) competence or ability, (b) reputation or character, (c) special qualifications (relevant to the job offered), (d) employability by the referee and (e) previous record of problems at work (see Figure 3.3).

3.3

Reliability of references

Early research on the reliability of the employment reference produced pessimistic results (Muchinsky, 1979b). For example, a study examining letters of recommendation in the US civil service found that different ratings from different referees correlated only at .40 (Mosel & Goheen, 1959). This value is somewhat lower than – but still comparable to – that obtained in multisource or ‘360-degree’ feedback settings, where the inter-rater reliability can approach .60 (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995). This is to be expected as people may show ‘different aspects of themselves’ to different people – and, as Murphy and Cleveland argue, there would be little point in using multiple sources if we expected all of them to provide the same information. This is a well-known contradiction in academic grading, where exams are frequently double-marked by faculty only to agree similar marks in the end (Baird, Greatorex & Bell, 2004; Dracup, 1997). However, interrater agreements of .60 are low and mean that only 36 per cent of the variance in candidates’ attributes is accounted for, leaving a substantial percentage of variance unexplained.

Letters of recommendation

Referee’s dispositions/traits

Referee’s mood states

Referee’s evaluations

Reference

Source of bias

Candidate’s attributes

Figure 3.4 Referees’ characteristics bias their evaluations of candidates (based on Feldman, 1981, and Judge & Higgins, 1998)

The low reliability of references has been explained in terms of evaluative biases (Feldman, 1981) attributable to personality characteristics of the referee (see Figure 3.4). Most notably, the referee’s mood when writing a reference will influence whether it is more or less positive (Judge & Higgins, 1998). This is in line with Fiske’s well-known finding that emotional labels, notably extreme ones, are used to categorise factual information about others (Fiske, 1980). Thus when referees retrieve information about candidates their judgement is already clouded by emotional information (often as simple and general as ‘good’ or ‘bad’). Some of the sources of such mood states are arguably dispositional (e.g., emotionally stable and extraverted individuals more frequently experience positive affective states, whereas the opposite applies to neurotic introverted people), and personality characteristics can have other (non-affective) effects on evaluations, too. For example, agreeable referees (see Section 7.9) can be expected to provide more positive evaluations, and conscientious/responsible referees (see Section 7.6) may do more rigorous checks on the information they are providing. In that sense references really are in the ‘eye of the beholder’ because they say more about the referee than the candidate. Thus the ability, personality and values of the referee shape the unstructured reference so much that they have more to do with compatibility between referee and candidate than with the candidate’s suitability for the job. It is, however, noteworthy that little research has been conducted in this area so most of these hypotheses are speculative. More reliable information from reference letters can be obtained if different raters base their ratings and conclusions on the same information. For instance, as early as in the 1940s the UK Civil Service Selection Board (CSSB) examined multiple references for the same candidates (e.g., from school, university, army and previous employment), written by different referees. Results showed that inter-reliabilities for a panel of five or six people can be as high as .73 (Wilson, 1948). However, few employers can afford to examine such detailed information. Furthermore, even if internal consistencies such as inter-rater reliabilities are adequate, that does not mean that employment references will be valid predictors of job-related outcomes. Indeed, the validity of references has been an equally

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important topic of concern when assessing the utility of this method in personnel selection.

3.4

Validity of references

How valid are letters of recommendation in predicting relevant job outcomes? Again, research into the validity of references has been scarce, especially in comparison to the frequent use of references in personnel selection. This is no doubt partly because it is unclear what the criterion variable is. Most of this research has focused on structured references, not least because it is easier to quantify the validity of these references (particularly compared to the highly variable and, by definition, hard to standardise, unstructured letters of recommendation). For example, studies on the ERQ (see Figure 3.3) showed that reference checks correlated in the range of .00 and .30 with subsequent performance. In a meta-analysis, Reilly and Chao (1982) reported a mean correlation of .18 with supervisory ratings, .08 with turnover and .14 with a global criterion. A more generous (corrected for unreliability and restriction of range) estimate was provided by Hunter and Hunter’s (1984) meta-analysis, namely .26, and one of the largest validities was (again, corrected) .36 for head teachers’ references and training success in the Navy (Jones & Harrison, 1982). It has been pointed out by Jones and Harrison that teachers’ (or, for that matter, professors’) references tend to be more accurate because they are more motivated (than past employers) to maintain credibility as they are likely to write more references in the future. On the one hand, it would be incongruent to expect higher validities from the reference letter if it is not reliable in the first place. On the other hand, there are several other converging factors that threaten the validity of this assessment and selection method, namely: 1. Referees tend to be very lenient, which produces highly skewed data (see Figure 3.4 for a hypothetical example). This effect, often referred to as the Pollyanna effect, reduces the real variance between candidates (producing more heterogeneous outcomes than predictors) and means that ‘most applicants are characterised as somewhat desirable’ (Paunonen, Jackson & Oberman, 1987, p. 97). This is hardly surprising since referees are nominated by the candidates themselves and referees’ ‘primary interests are not with the organisation but with the applicant’ (Colarelli, Hechanova-Alampay & Canali, 2002, p. 316). Recent research shows that even in academic settings (grant proposals) applicant-nominated assessors provide biased and inflated reviews of the candidates (Marsh, Bond & Jayasinghe, 2007). Clearly, referees who are asked to provide a reference have no incentives to be harsh and may indeed be afraid of being too harsh as they may be sued by the candidates. Moreover, given that harsh comments are so rare and seen as a ‘kiss of death’ (typically, negative points are given more weight than positive ones), referees

Letters of recommendation 5

Positivity of reference

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Frequency

Figure 3.5 Distribution of negative and positive references

are even more sensitive about making them, though research suggests that mixing up negative and positive comments makes references be perceived as more genuine and even results in positive hiring decisions (Knouse, 1983). It is also likely that referees abstain from providing a reference if they cannot be too positive about the applicant, which would explain the poor response rates found (Schneider & Schmitt, 1986). 2. Referees tend to write similar references for all candidates. In fact it has been pointed out that references – particularly unstructured ones – provide more information about the referee than the candidate (Baxter, Brock, Hill & Rozelle, 1981). Moreover, and as mentioned above (Section 3.3), dispositional traits (personality factors) and affective states (mood) distort references significantly (Judge & Higgins, 1998). This leads not only to low reliability but also lower criterion-related validities. 3. Referees (often acting in benefit of the organisation) may wish to retain good employees and know that a positive reference may have just the opposite effect. Moreover, for the same reasons they may choose to write overly positive references for staff they are eager to see off. These ‘hidden agendas’ are hard to verify but indicate that employers’ motivations can have a huge effect on the type of reference provided. There are now many serious legal issues associated with references, so much so that some organisations refuse to give them. People are directed only to say that the candidate was employed for the specified time they worked there and nothing else. Litigation has followed where a person has been hired partly on the basis of a reference only to discover the person was extremely poor at the job. In this instance it appears references have been over-positive to ‘get rid’ of the employee (see above). However, what has more recently occurred is that people and organisations have been sued if they refused to give a reference knowing the candidate is in some sense problematic (e.g., has criminal or anti-social tendencies). In this sense some employers claim with respect to references you are ‘damned if you do, and damned if you don’t’.

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methods of personnel selection ‘Forced-choice’ items

‘Percentile scoring’ (rank candidate)

Preserve referee anonymity

‘Classify content’ and count key terms

More valid reference letters

Figure 3.6 Improving recommendation letters (adapted from Buss, 1955, and Colarelli et al., 2002)

3.5

How to improve the validity of references

In the light of the above-reviewed literature, it is clear that the extent to which employers use and rely on references is unjustified and not backed up by research evidence. However, research in this area provides some useful guidelines to improve on the validity of recommendations letters (see Figure 3.6). First, it has long been suggested that ‘forced-choice’ items, for example does X like ‘working in a team or working alone’, reduce the effects of overall leniency and can increase accuracy (Carroll & Nash, 1972). Yet forced items must be carefully selected and even then it is likely that candidates could be equally described by either extreme (as items are rarely truly mutually exclusive) (see also Section 7.3). Second, employers should count ‘key-words’ (e.g., able, creative, reliable, etc.), which are to be previously determined on the basis of job analysis. This technique provides some order to unstructured references, though it is certainly not immune to the referee style. Peres and Garcia (1962) scrutinised over 600 references and identified five key areas that could be used to organise the key-word count: cooperation, intelligence, Extraversion (‘urbanity’), vigour, and Conscientiousness (‘dependability’). Three decades later Aamodt, Bryan and Whitcomb (1993) analysed students’ references and found support for these categories. Although it is questionable whether these categories truly represent the best way to organise and classify the content of references – notably because established personality taxonomies, such as the Big Five, and cognitive ability models (see Chapters 7 and 6, respectively) have a stronger and more generalisable theoretical basis – it is clear that having a taxonomy or framework to assess unstructured references does help. Third, the predictive validity of references tends to increase when referees are asked to use ‘relative percentiles’, i.e., comparative rankings of how well the

Letters of recommendation

Positive examples Negative examples Positive no examples Negative no examples

Information

Positivity

Knowledge of candidate

Would hire

Figure 3.7 Positivity of information and use of examples in reference letters

candidate does in any given area relative to the group the referee uses as frame of reference. Although percentiles are not normally distributed and inflated (80th percentiles being the average; McCarthy & Goffin, 2001), they still force referees to distinguish between candidates. Last, but not least, it has been argued that if the anonymity of the referees were preserved, references would be less lenient, more heterogeneous and more accurate/valid (Ceci & Peters, 1984). Research also indicates that using concrete examples to back up statements about the candidate’s attributes and including both positive and negative information about the candidate lead to improved references. This was the conclusion of a study by Knouse (1983). As shown in Figure 3.7, including examples (e.g., ‘X’s leadership skills are evidenced in his/her roles as president of the management club, rowing society and wine-tasting club’) and some negative information (‘George tends to be arrogant at times’) resulted in references that were rated richer in information, reflected the fact that the referee knew the candidate better and led to more hiring decisions. The worst-case scenario on the other hand was for references that had no examples and included some negative information.

3.6

Popularity of references: an evolutionary perspective

Given the unreliability and poor validity of letters of recommendation, it seems hard to understand why this method of assessment is used so widely. One reason may be that employers are unaware of the problems associated with these data (Terpstra & Rozell, 1997), though given that references are used even in business and psychology schools (where employers have access to this literature and tend to be aware of the low validity and reliability of recommendation letters)

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methods of personnel selection Cooperative relationships

Reciprocal altruism Tit-for-tat and non-kin cooperation

The closer the referee to the applicant, the more positive the reference

Natural selection (evolutionary theory) Mating interests

Men are more likely to prefer younger women

Men will write longer and more positive letters for young women

Figure 3.8 Evolutionary-based hypotheses regarding reference letters

there may be other reasons. Colarelli et al. (2002) explained the widespread use of references in terms of what evolutionary theory calls ‘reciprocal altruism’ (tit for tat), which is the basis of cooperation among non-kin (Buss, 1995). As is usually the case with evolutionary explanations of behaviours, this hypothesis seems untestable and somewhat far-fetched. However, it does offer some interesting insights into the core determinants of the pervasiveness of the reference and, in the absence of any alternative theoretical explanation, it shoud be considered. As shown in Figure 3.8, Colarelli et al. applied the principle of reciprocal altruism to the relationship between the applicant and the candidate, specifically how closeness between them determines the favourability of the references. Thus Colarelli et al. argued that ‘a recommender will be inclined to write favourably if the applicant is perceived as a valuable resource or if there has been a history of mutually beneficial social exchange. An evolutionary psychological perspective suggests that cooperation, status competition and mating interests should affect the tone of letters of recommendation’ (2002, p. 325). A second hypotheses derived from evolutionary theory is that men’s preference for younger females should be reflected in more favourable references. Specifically, the authors explained that ‘males typically desire attractive, younger females as mating partners because youth and beauty are cues of health and fertility. As such, males are likely to be most solicitous towards younger females and regard them in a positive way. This positive regard, in turn, is likely to be reflected in letters of recommendation’ (2002, p. 328). In an analysis of 532 letters referring to 169 candidates, the authors found support for the idea that closeness (strong cooperativeness) of relationship was reflected in more favourable references, even after controlling for competence indicators (publications and years since obtaining a PhD). The second hypotheses – that men would write more positive references for younger women – was not supported, though references for women were more positive than those for men. The authors also note that there was a range restriction in women’s age (with over 90 per cent of them aged between 25 and 38).

Letters of recommendation

3.7

Conclusion

The present chapter reviewed the evidence in support of the validity of letters of reference or recommendation as a tool for personnel selection. As seen, the high frequency with which employers use references is unmatched by the predictive power of references, which only have modest validity – especially if they are not structured. Indeed, this has led many employers to ask for references only after candidates have been offered the job (and simply as a standard legal requirement but without actually taken into account any evaluative judgements made on the candidates). Why are references not more valid? Because referees have no interest in helping the potential prospective employers of the candidate by providing accurate information about the candidate (in fact, if the candidate is worth retaining they may be less motivated to speak highly of him/her and if the candidate is not worth retaining they may have an extra incentive to persuade prospective employers to hire him/her!); because referees are biased; because candidates seek referees who can only comment positively on them; and because all to often the same things are said about all candidates (e.g., bright, hard-working, reliable and talented). All that said, there is the potential of improving the validity of references by using standardised forms, multiple referees and comparative ranking scales, and even by preserving the anonymity of the referee. Still, the question remains as to whether in that case referees can provide any additional information to, say, psychometric tests (see Chapters 5, 6 and 7), interviews (discussed in Chapter 1) and biodata.

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4

Biodata

4.1

Introduction Consider the past and you shall know the future.

Chinese proverb

Biographical data – simply known as biodata – have informed selection decisions for many decades and are still widely used in certain areas of employment, such as sales and insurance. In broad terms, biodata include information about a person’s background and life history (e.g., civil status, previous education and employment), ranging from objectively determined dates – date of first job, time in last job, years of higher education – to subjective preferences, such as those encompassed by personality traits (see Chapter 7). The diversity of constructs assessed (explicitly or implicitly) by biodata is such that there is no common definition for biodata. Indeed, ‘biodata scales have been shown to measure numerous constructs, such as temperament, assessment of work conditions, values, skills, aptitudes, and abilities’ (Mount, Witt & Barrick, 2000, p. 300). Some have argued that biodata represent a more valid predictor of occupational success than traditional personality scales (Mumford, Costanza, Connelly & Johnson, 1996), as well as reducing aversive impact in comparison to cognitive ability tests (Stokes, Mumford & Owens, 1994). The main assumption underlying the use of biodata is that the ‘best predictor of future performance is past performance’ (Wernimont & Campbell, 1968, p. 372), though biodata focus as much on the predictors of past performance as on past performance itself. Indeed, it has been argued that one of the greatest potential routes for understanding and improving the prediction of work performance is the link between individuals’ life history and their performance at work (Fleishman, 1988), a question directly related to biodata. Biodata are typically obtained through application forms, which are used extensively in most western countries (see Figure 4.1, based on Dany & Torchy, 1994). It is, however, noteworthy that application forms are generally not treated or scored as biodata. Rather, they represent the collection method for obtaining biographical information and employers or recruiters often assess this information in non-structured, informal, intuitive ways. However, the technical use of biodata adds two important elements to the standard application form, namely:

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Figure 4.1 Percentage of employers using application forms

(a) It collects biographical information that has previously been correlated with desirable work criteria (notably job performance). (b) It incorporates ‘weighted scoring’ by which questions are coded and treated as individual predictors of relevant work criteria. In that sense, biodata represent an approach to treating biographical information (collected through application forms or different means, such as CVs, personal essays or statements, and letters of reference) in a statistically sound way and building up biographical profiles that classify job applicants according to their potential for future work performance.

4.2

Scoring of biodata

A crucial issue with biodata is how to score them. In some cases, it is the very scoring of biodata that sets it apart from the more informal use of application forms, references or CVs (where employers may simply eliminate candidates on basis of eye-balling these documents). A rigorous and effective approach for scoring biodata is the so-called empirical keying method (Devlin, Abrahams & Edwards, 1992), which codes each item or question into yes = 1 or no = 0 and weights them according to their correlations with the criterion (as derived from previous samples or a subset of the current sample). Finally, item scores are all added up for each candidate. It has been reported that empirical keying shows incremental validity in the prediction of occupational success over and above personality scales and cognitive ability measures (Mount et al., 2000) (see also Section 4.4). Empirical keying makes biodata markedly different from standard personality inventories, which are scored in terms of reliability or internal consistencies (e.g., grouping questions that assess the same underlying dimension together) but not on the basis of their association with the criteria they are used to predict. In that

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Empirical keying

Factorial keying

Rational keying

Any item that predicts performance in previous samples is deemed a predictor of future performance

Items are grouped statistically in order to reduce the data to fewer general factors

Meaningful items are included according to specific features of the job

Figure 4.2 Scoring biodata

sense, personality measures are internally constructed whereas biodata items are externally constructed (Goldberg, 1972). However, biodata can also be scored via factorial keying, which identifies higher-order domains or common themes underlying groups of items, just like personality scales group questions on the basis of specific traits. For instance, Mumford and Owens (1987) identified the factors of adjustment, academic performance, extraversion and leadership in over twenty studies. Others have scored biodata items in terms of family and social orientation (Carlson, Scullen, Schmidt, Rothstein & Erwin, 1999) and money management (Stokes & Searcy, 1999) (see also Section 4.5). When this approach is taken, the only difference between biodata and personality inventories is that the latter – but not the former – are designed specifically to assess established individual differences or traits (see Chapter 7). Other than that, factorial-keyed biodata are ‘indistinguishable from personality items in content, response format, and scoring. Personality tests typically contain items regarding values and attitudes and biodata items generally focus on past achievements of behaviours, but even this distinction is not obvious in many biodata applications today’ (Schmitt & Kunce, 2002, p. 570). Finally, rational keying is used to design biodata inventories that are based on the specific job requirements or characteristics. Fine and Cronshaw (1994) proposed that a thorough job analysis informs the selection of biodata items (see also Stokes & Cooper, 2001). In that sense, rational keying refers to the construction phase rather than the analysis or scoring phase of biodata and there is no reason why it cannot be combined with factorial keying. Drakeley, Herriot and Jones (1988) found rational keying to be more valid than empirical keying, though more recent and robust investigations estimated both methods to have comparable validities (Stokes & Searcy, 1999). Figure 4.2 summarises the three approaches discussed. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The somewhat dated approach of empirical

Biodata

keying is advantageous in that it makes biodata ‘invisible’ and hard to fake for the respondents, as many predictors of occupational success are bound to be counterintuitive and identified purely on an empirical basis. At the same time, however, this makes the inclusion of certain items hard to justify. As noted by Ree: During one typically heated debate [with the US Navy] over the inclusion/exclusion of items, I complained that I found an item that asked about attendance at dance in high school unacceptable [to predict performance in the Navy]. On the surface, this item seemed to measure ‘sociability’. I was concerned that it was potentially a surrogate for religious denomination, as certain religions frown upon dancing. This leads to the problem of forbidden questions. In the US, you cannot ask about religion, marital status, and numerous others characteristics, even though they might be empirically predictive. (Ree, 2003, pp. 506–7)

Two additional problems with empirical keying are that it does not generalise well to other samples and it does not advance our theoretical understanding of the reasons for which items predict occupational success (Mount et al., 2000). On the other hand, rational keying may be easy to justify from a theoretical point of view and provides an opportunity for excluding items with adverse impact. No wonder, then, that rational keying has been used extensively in recent years (Hough & Paullin, 1994; Schmitt, Jennings & Toney, 1999). However, the advantages of rational keying may come at the expense of making ‘correct responses’ too obvious for respondents and increasing the likelihood of faking (Lautenschlager, 1994) (see Section 4.3 below). Finally, factorial keying, whether applied in conjunction with rational keying methods or not, makes biodata identical to personality inventories, especially if attitudinal or subjective items are also included. It has been argued that even experts would fail to distinguish between personality scales and factorial-keyed biodata (Robertson & Smith, 2001). Moreover, personality scales have some advantages over biodata, such as being more ‘theory-driven’, assessing higherorder and more stable dispositions, and generalising quite easily across settings and criteria (see Chapter 7).

4.3

Verifiability of biodata and faking

The main difference between personality and biodata inventories is that biodata inventories include a larger number of verifiable or ‘harder’ items, such as basic demographic or background information. These items are uncontrollable (what can one do about one’s place of birth or ethnicity?) and intrusive compared to the ‘softer’, more controllable unverifiable items assessing attitudes and behaviours: e.g., ‘What are your views on recycling?’, ‘How often do you go to the gym?’, ‘Do you think people should drink less?’, ‘Do you like country music?’ It has, however, been suggested that unverifiable items increase the probability of faking (Becker & Colquitt, 1992). Indeed, although some degree of inflation does

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Verifiable items

Non-verifiable items

Figure 4.3 Biodata correlates of job performance in applicants and incumbents

exit for verifiable items, early studies reported intercorrelations in the region of .95 between responses given to different employers (Keating, Paterson & Stone, 1950; Mosel & Cozan, 1952), showing that verifiable items yield very consistent responses even across different jobs. Yet a thorough review of the literature concluded that faking affects both verifiable and non-verifiable items and that attempts to control it have been largely unsuccessful, though empirical-keying prevents faking more than other keying types (Lautenschlager, 1994). A recent study compared the validity of verifiable and non-verifiable biodata items in call centre employees and applicants (Harold, McFarland & Weekley, 2006). Results, depicted in Figure 4.3, showed that although applicants did not score significantly higher on overall biodata items than their incumbent counterparts, non-verifiable items had lower validities in the applicant sample. This led Harold et al. to conclude that ‘the good news is that a biodata inventory comprised of all verifiable items was equally valid across incumbent and applicant samples regardless of the criterion examined’, but ‘[T]he bad news, however, is that the validity of non-verifiable items shrank in the applicant sample’ (2006, p. 343). Regardless of these results, modern jobs, such as services and team work (Hough, 1998a), call for attitudinal and interpersonal constructs to be assessed in order to predict occupational success. Thus non-verifiable, soft, subjective items will inevitably be incorporated in contemporary biodata scales. Schmitt and Kunce (2002) proposed that in order to reduce faking and social desirability respondents should elaborate on their answers – a method previously used in ‘accomplishment records’, e.g., ‘Give three examples of situations where you showed to work well under pressure’ or ‘Can you recall past experiences where you showed strength and leadership?’ (Hough, 1984). Examples used by Schmitt and Kunce are reported in Table 4.1. Results indicated that respondents tended to score lower (be more modest) on items that required elaboration (Schmitt & Kunce, 2002); indeed, scores on elaborative items were .6 SD lower, which is roughly the difference found between

Biodata

67

Table 4.1 Biodata items with elaboration request (based on Schmitt and Kunce, 2002) 1. How many groups have you led in the past 5 years? 2. How often do you rearrange computer files? 3. In how many previous jobs have you had to interact with clients for more than 1 hour per day? 4. How many software packages have you used to analyse data?

(a) 0, (b) 1, (c) 2, (d) 3, (e) 4 or more. If you answered options (b) to (e), briefly describe the work you did. (a) Very frequently, (b) often, (c) sometimes, (d) rarely, (e) never. If you answered (a) to (c), provide dates and how much time you spent doing it. (a) 0, (b) 1, (c) 2, (d) 3, (e) 4 or more. If you answered (c), (d) or (e), please describe the nature of each job. (a) 0, (b) 1, (c) 2, (d) 3, (e) 4 or more. If you answered (b), (c), (d) or (e), please describe the software packages and nature of the data analyses.

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Figure 4.4 Validity of elaborative vs non-elaborative biodata items

participants instructed to respond honestly and those asked to ‘fake good’, in laboratory studies (Ellingson, Sackett & Hough, 1999; Ones, Visvesvarian & Reiss, 1996). Furthermore, a subsequent study showed that the validities of elaborative items were in line with standard biodata items and in some cases even higher (Schmitt et al., 2003). As shown in Figure 4.4, validities (predicting self-ratings, self-deception, impression management, grade point average (GPA) and attendance) were unaffected by elaboration instructions even though lower means were found for the elaborative items. Other methods for reducing the likelihood of faking in respondents have included warnings (Schrader & Osburn, 1977), such as ‘Any inaccuracies or fake information provided will be checked and result in your no longer being considered for this job’, to the more creative use of ‘bogus’ (fake) items that may trick respondents into faking good (Paunonen, 1984), for example ‘How many years have you been using the HYU-P2 software for?’ However, including bogus items is widely deemed unethical.

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4.4

Validity of biodata

Just how valid are biodata? Early empirical evidence on the validity of biodata was provided by England (1961), who reported an average correlation of .40 between weighted application blanks and turnover. Another investigation by Wernimont (1962) identified three main variables that predicted length of service in female officers from 1954 to 1959 with similar accuracy, namely high proficiency at shorthand, whether they left their previous jobs because of pregnancy, marriage, sickness or domestic problems, and whether they were willing to start with their news job within the next week. Since the late 1970s large-scale and robust validity studies on biodata have been reported thanks to the adoption of meta-analytic techniques. Meta-analyses are particularly important in biodata research because of the heterogeneity of different biodata studies and the importance of testing whether validities generalise from one sample to another. Unsurprisingly, validities for biodata have varied significantly, e.g., from the low-to-mid .20s in Hunter and Hunter (1984) and Schmitt, Gooding, Noe and Kirsch (1984) up to the .50s in Reilly and Chao (1982). Although even the lower-bound validity estimates are higher than the validities reported for most personality scales (see Chapter 7), and Schmidt and Hunter’s seminal meta-analysis of eighty-five years of validity studies estimated a validity of .35 for biodata (1998), it is important to provide an accurate estimate of the validity of biodata, which requires identification of the factors that moderate the impact of biodata predictors on occupational criteria. In an attempt to do just that, Bliesener (1996) meta-analysed previously reported meta-analysis paying careful attention to methodological differences among different validity studies. Over one hundred samples including 106,302 participants were examined, yielding an estimated (uncorrected) validity of .38 (SD = .19). However, when correcting for methodological artefacts and statistical errors, the overall validity for biodata inventories dropped to .22 (usually, corrected estimates tend to yield higher rather than lower validities), which still meets the criteria for utility and incremental validity (Barthel & Schuler, 1989). Interestingly, Bliesener’s results showed that biodata were a more valid predictor of occupational success for women (.51) than for men (.27). Larger-than-average validities were found for studies that concurrently administered all measures (.35). Figure 4.5 summarises the validities for each criterion (i.e., tenure, training success, performance ratings, objective performance and creativity). Thus Bliesener concluded that ‘Biographical data are a valid predictor of an applicant’s suitability. This, combined with their high economy, their universal applicability and the ease of combining them with other predictive procedures, makes them a valuable instrument in personnel selection’ (1996, p. 118). With regard to the generalisability of biodata, Carlson et al. (1999) constructed a five-factor biodata inventory, which they found to correlate at .52 with occupational success in one organisation. They then administered the same inventory

Biodata

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Figure 4.5 Meta-meta-analytic validities for biodata inventories 0.6

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Figure 4.6 Meta-analytic validities of biodata across job types

to 24 organisations (including 7,334 employees) and found an overall validity of .48, indicating that biodata scales do indeed generalise to different organisations. That said, validities for biodata scales have been found to vary depending on job type. As shown in Figure 4.6 (based on three meta-analytic sources), biodata have been found to be consistently more valid for clerical jobs, followed by managerial jobs. Sales jobs have yielded more heterogeneous results, and military jobs have produced consistently lower validities. Studies have also provided evidence for the incremental validity of biodata over established personality and cognitive ability measures. These studies are important because of the known overlap between these measures and biodata; they show that even if personality and intelligence are measured and taken into account, biodata scales provide additional useful information about the predicted outcome. Incremental validity of biodata over cognitive ability tests has been demonstrated in samples of army recruits (Mael & Ashforth, 1995) and air traffic controllers (Dean, Russell & Muchinsky, 1999); see also Karas and West (1999). Another study found that people’s capacity to cope with change, self-efficacy for change and past experiences, as assessed via biodata items, predicted occupational success over and above cognitive ability (though cognitive ability was a more powerful predictor) (Allworth & Hesketh, 2000). With regard to personality,

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Table 4.2 Incremental validity of biodata (over personality and cognitive ability) in the prediction of four work outcomes (adapted from Mount et al., 2000)

Criterion

Tenure, cognitive ability and personality (combined explained variance)

Biodata (additional variance explained)

Quantity/quality of work Problem-solving performance Interpersonal relationships Retention probability

14% 17% 5% 8%

5% 2% 7% 17%

studies have shown biodata scales to predict performance outcomes incrementally in US cadets (Mael & Hirsch, 1993); for a replication see McManus and Kelly (1999). Moreover, Mount et al.’s (2000) study simultaneously controlled for the Big Five personality traits (see Section 7.3) and general cognitive ability (see Section 6.2), and found that biodata still explained unique variance in four occupational criteria. As seen in Table 4.2 (adapted from Mount et al., 2000), biodata explained 2 per cent of unique variance in problem-solving performance (even this incremental validity was significant, albeit marginally), 5 per cent of unique variance in quantity and quality of work, 7 per cent of additional variance in interpersonal relationships and 17 per cent of extra variance in retention probability.

4.5

Structure of biodata

Until recently, little research had been conducted on the structure underlying biodata (Schmidt, Ones & Hunter, 1992), that is, addressing the question of how large sets of personal data can be organised into and reduced to wider, latent factors or meaningful categories. Mumford et al.’s ecology model (Mumford, Stokes & Owens, 1990) postulated that biodata can be organised in terms of core knowledge, skill, ability, value and expectancy variables that explain how people develop their characteristic patterns of adaptation at work and beyond. These constructs ‘facilitate the attainment of desired outcomes while conditioning future situational choice by increasing the likelihood of reward in certain kinds of situation’ (Mumford & Stokes, 1992, p. 81). Nickels (1990) posited that these constructs can be organised as shown in Figure 4.7, namely personality – often inferred by employers when they assess biodata (Cole, Feild, Giles & Harris, 2004) – social and intellectual resources in one block, followed by choice and filter processes as mediators, and performance as well as rewards as criteria. In a recent study (Dean & Russell, 2005), these constructs were replicated using 142 biodata items and over 6,000 newly hired air traffic controllers. Part

Biodata

Personality resources

Intellectual resources

Social resources

Choice processes (values and interests)

Filter processes (self-efficacy) Criteria (performance & rewards)

Figure 4.7 Structure of biodata (adapted from Nickels, 1990)

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Figure 4.8 Biodata and cognitive ability correlates of job performance

of the success of this study can surely be attributed to the fact that the authors combined rationally designed items – based on Mumford and Owens’ (1987) approach – with traditional empirical keying (see Section 4.2). Figure 4.8 reports the correlations between the various biodata scales, cognitive ability scores and a composite performance criterion found in this study. As seen, overall biodata correlated with job performance almost as highly as did cognitive ability. Furthermore, the authors corrected restriction of range in cognitive ability (the uncorrected correlation between cognitive ability and the criterion was only .16, and the corrected correlation for biodata and the criterion was .43). Although the wider literature has provided compelling evidence for the fact that cognitive ability tests, particularly general mental ability scores, are the best single predictor of work performance (see Chapter 6), Dean and Russell’s (2005) results provide a robust source of evidence in support of the validity of coherently constructed and scored biodata scales, not least because they organised

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Figure 4.9 Twelve dimensions of biodata: reliabilities and correlations with impression management

their items according to established constructs (interpersonal skills, personality and values). Among the different scales or aspects of biodata (as shown in Figure 4.8) intellectual resources predicted job performance best, followed by choice processes, social and personality resources; filter processes were only weakly related to job performance. Dean and Russell’s results also illustrate the validity of biodata as measures of personality. Indeed, recent investigations underline the usefulness of purposebuilt biodata inventories as an alternative to traditional self-reports of personality, such as the Big Five (Sisco & Reilly, 2007). As biodata scales place greater emphasis on verifiable and objective items than traditional personality scales do, they are less likely to be affected by respondents’ faking and misinterpretations. Studies have also shown that using purpose-built biodata that include a defined structure (different scales) can be used successfully to predict performance in college, even when entry exam scores (SAT) and personality factors are taken into account (Oswald, Schmitt, Kim, Ramsay & Gillespie, 2004). Oswald and colleagues looked at biodata (115 items) in a sample of 654 college students and identified twelve major dimensions, such as knowledge (‘Think about the last several times you have had to learn new facts or concepts about something. How much did you tend to learn?’), citizenship (‘How often have you signed a petition for something you believe in?’), leadership (‘How many times in the past year have you tried to get someone to join an activity in which you were involved or leading?’) and ethics (‘If you were leaving a concert and noticed that someone left their purse behind with no identification, what would you do?’), which they used to predict final academic grades. Internal consistencies (Cronbach’s ␣) and correlations with an impression management scale are shown in Figure 4.9. As

Biodata

Leadership

Citizenship

GPA

Interpersonal Absenteeism Health

Ethics

Peer ratings

Learning

Figure 4.10 Incremental validity of biodata dimensions (based on Oswald et al., 2004)

seen, most ␣’s were higher than .6, with the exception of adaptability, career and interpersonal (which had lower internal consistencies). On the other hand, all factors except ethics correlated only modestly with impression management. Oswald et al. also tested the extent to which their twelve biodata factors predicted GPA, absenteeism and peer ratings while controlling for SAT and personality scores. Their results (shown in Figure 4.10) showed that six facets were still significantly linked to these outcomes even when previous academic performance and psychometrically derived trait scores were included in the regression model. As seen, leadership and health were linked to GPA, citizenship, interpersonal and learning-predicted peer ratings, and absenteeism was predicted by health and ethics. In a recent validity study, Manley and colleagues compared the predictive power of two self-reported measures of personality (locus of control and conscientiousness) with biodata measures of the same constructs (Manley, Benavidez & Dunn, 2007). Results – shown in Figure 4.11 – revealed that the biodata versions of these two constructs predicted ethical decision making better than the self-reported (personality-style) measures did.

4.6

Summary and conclusions

The present chapter examined the usefulness of biographical information – biodata – in personnel selection, which is based on the premise that the best predictor of future performance is past performance. As seen, biodata have been used in personnel selection research and practice for many decades and continue to be used extensively in the developed world. Although biodata vary widely in

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Figure 4.11 Personality vs biodata as predictors of ethical behaviour (based on Manley et al., 2007)

their structure and form, and in how they are collected and scored, they include both objective (hard and verifiable) and subjective (soft and unverifiable) items. The latter are more easily faked – and influenced by socially desirable responding and impression management – than the former, though faking can potentially affect any form of biodata. One way of reducing faking appears to be to request respondents to elaborate further on their answers to biodata items. Biodata scales can be designed and scored in different ways. Traditionally, the inclusion of biodata items has been guided by a purely empirical approach (empirical keying) based on any variable that has been found to correlate significantly with the desired outcome. Yet this approach is completely a-theoretical, uninformative, hard to justify and quite job-specific. Thus rational keying has been proposed in order to build biodata scales that target relevant constructs in a conceptually valid way. As for the scoring of biodata items, the best approach seems to be to identify higher-order factors (measured by a group of single variables) in the manner of personality inventories. The most important conclusion with regard to biodata is no doubt that they represent a valid approach for predicting occupational success (in its various forms). Indeed, meta-analytic estimates provided validities for biodata in the region of .25, and this is probably a conservative estimate. In any case, this means that biodata are as valid predictors as the best personality scales, though the fact that biodata scales overlap with both personality and cognitive ability measures limits the appeal of biodata. That said, incremental validity studies have shown that even when established personality and intelligence measures are taken into account, biodata still predict job performance.

5

Situational judgement tests and GPA

5.1

Situational judgement tests

Situational judgement tests (SJTs) – of one form or another – have been used in personnel selection and examined in applied psychological research for many decades. However, the term ‘SJT’ is relatively more recent and the boundaries of what should constitute a SJT have only been defined relatively recently. In a seminal review of the topic a few years back SJTs were defined as ‘any paper-and-pencil test designed to measure judgment in work settings’ (McDaniel, Morgeson, Finnegan, Campion & Braverman, 2001, p. 730). Although this definition is too broad in a sense (cognitive ability tests, for instance, are not considered SJTs even though they may be designed to measure judgement at work) and too specific in others (SJTs are not only available in paper-and-pencil forms and can also be used to assess things other than judgement at work), it represents a useful operationalisation of SJTs. Indeed, McDaniel et al. organised many decades of research on the SJT on the basis of this operationalisation, as well as providing a widely cited meta-analytic estimate of the correlation between SJT and work criteria on the one hand, and cognitive ability on the other. Needless to say, the SJT is a measurement method rather than a construct (hence it is included in the first half of the current book rather than the second one, which deals with constructs; see, for instance, Chapters 6, 7 and 8). Although there are many different SJTs, they tend to be similar in the sense that they present test-takers with work-related problems or scenarios that require judgement. Box 5.1 presents a sample scenario from a SJT used during World War II to assess soldiers’ judgement (Northrop, 1989, p. 190). Other SJTs assess ‘agreement’ or ‘disagreement’ level rather than the ability to identify the correct response. Indeed, even in SJTs containing items such as that in Box 5.1 the ‘correctness’ of answers may be hard to determine objectively, a key difference from tests of cognitive ability (see Chapter 6). Thus different scoring methods have been used to score SJTs (see Box 5.3). Based on their initial qualitative review of the literature on eight decades of research on SJTs, McDaniel et al. concluded that SJTs were an assessment measurement method rather than construct and that they assessed a variety of constructs depending on the measure. They also noted that most SJTs were standard paper-and-pencil inventories that were administered in written form, and that they comprised similar types of items – hypothetical work scenarios 75

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methods of personnel selection Box 5.1 SJT sample item or ‘Scenario’ (based on Northrop, 1989, p. 190) A man on a very urgent mission during a battle finds he must cross a stream about 40 feet wide.

Walk to the bridge and cross it.

A blizzard has been blowing and the stream has frozen over. However, because of the snow, he does not know how thick the ice is.

Run rapidly across the ice.

He sees two planks about 10 feet long near the point where he wishes to cross.

Break a hole in the ice to see how deep the stream is.

He also knows where there is a bridge about 2 miles downstream.

Cross with the aid of the planks, pushing one ahead of the other and walking on them.

Under the circumstances, which of the five options on the right should he consider.

Creep slowly across the ice.

Box 5.2 Summary of 1920s–2000s research on SJTs (based on McDaniel et al.’s (2001) review of the literature)

(1) SJTs are a measurement method that can be used to assess various constructs (2) Most SJTs have similar features: paper-and-pencil (at least until 2000), include hypothetical scenarios that occur at work, require knowledge and judgement (3) SJTs have demonstrated adequate validity in regards to work-related criteria (4) Correlations between SJTs and cognitive ability measures have been variable

(as those shown in Box 5.1) being the most obvious. Their initial inspection of the studies also led to suggestions that the SJTs were adequate predictors of work-related criteria, though they tended to be generally correlated with cognitive ability or intelligence tests (although there is no objective statistical cut-off point for determining how high correlations can be before the two measures are deemed conceptually ‘too similar’, correlation coefficients ⬎.6 are generally considered problematic). Most of McDaniel et al.’s conclusions have been supported by subsequent evidence and are still valid, except the remark that ‘paper-and-pencil’ was the typical way to administer SJTs. In fact a recent study found that with the popularity of the World Wide Web SJTs are increasingly administered online and that this

Situational judgement tests and GPA

Box 5.3 SJT scoring methods

Empirical: on the basis of previously identified correlations with desired outcomes Theoretical: on the basis of rational relationships established between answers and performance differences, as well as desirable traits linked to them Hybridised: combining different methods (for example empirical and theoretical) Expert: asking subject-matter experts (bosses or high-performers) what the best and worst response to each scenario would be Factorial: grouping of items via statistical methods (such as factor-analysis); can be used in combination with other scoring methods, especially theoretical Subgrouping: grouping respondents – rather than items – who have similar patterns of answers

form of administration yields better distributional properties, lower means, higher internal consistencies/reliabilities and more variance (Ployhart, Weekley, Holtz & Kemp, 2003), which seems to justify the trend to move from paperand-pencil to web-based tests (it is noteworthy that these conclusions do not apply only to SJTs but also extend to biodata and personality inventories) (see also McHenry & Schmitt, 1994, and Weekley & Jones, 1997, for video-based situational testing, and McHenry & Schmitt, 1994, for multimedia versions of SJTs and other methods). To some extent, the constructs measured by SJTs will vary according to the method of scoring employed. For example, cognitive ability will be more important when items have responses that can be objectively rather than subjectively determined, whereas the opposite is true for personality traits (which tap into stylistic dispositions and behaviours rather than maximal performance). Yet it should be noted that SJTs are rarely scored objectively. Rather, a variety of methods – not dissimilar to those discussed in the context of biodata (see Section 4.1) – are available, from theoretical to empirical, and expert to factorial scoring (see Box 5.3). In a recent examination of these scoring methods Bergman and colleagues noted that the validity (construct and predictive) of SJTs is largely moderated by the scoring method (Bergman, Drasgow, Donovan, Henning & Juraska, 2006) (but see next section).

5.2

Validity of SJTs

How valid are SJTs? McDaniel et al. (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 102 coefficients and 10,640 participants, which represents the best available

77

methods of personnel selection Corrected

Uncorrected

urren t Predic tive

Conc

lated with intell Unco igenc rrelate e d wit h inte lligen ce

Corre

ral qu estion s ed qu estion s Detail

Gene

RBH to sup ervis e How

Base d on job a nalys Not b is ased on jo b ana lysis

Supe

rviso ry Ju dgme nt

RAL

L

Test

0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0

OVE

78

Figure 5.1 Criterion-related validity of SJTs (McDaniel et al.’s 2001 meta-analysis)

source to date on the validity of this measurement method. As shown in Figure 5.1, the corrected overall validity of the SJT (adjusted for unreliability in the criterion but not for restriction of range) was almost .35, which is a very healthy figure (see, for instance, Chapter 6 for the criterion-validity of cognitive ability tests, which are the most powerful single predictor of job performance, and Chapter 7 for personality inventories, which tend to yield lower validities than the SJT). A more specific inspection of the results also reveals interesting differences in the validity estimates of the SJT according to the tests examined. As shown, the Supervisory Judgment test was more valid than the Richardson, Bellows & Henry (RBH) and, especially, the How to Supervise test (see Table 5.1); SJTs that took into account the specific characteristics of the job (‘based on job analysis’) were more valid than those that did not; SJTs that included general questions were slightly more valid than those comprising detailed questions; SJTs that were highly ‘g-loaded’ (see Sections 6.1 and 6.2), that is, correlated substantially with tests of cognitive ability or intelligence, were more valid than those with low ‘g-loadings’ (‘uncorrelated with intelligence’). Finally (as is often the case in validity studies), concurrent studies – which assessed SJT and the criterion at the same time – showed higher validities than predictive studies (which assessed SJT at time 1 and the relevant work outcomes at time 2, for example three years later). McDaniel et al. also examined the empirical link between SJTs and tests of cognitive ability (described in Sections 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4). Conceptually, it is important to examine the correlation between STJ and standardised cognitive ability tests in order to clarify whether SJT measures or assesses a construct that is different, and potentially unrelated, to intellectual ability. From an applied/personnel selection perspective this question is important as the validity of any new or different

Situational judgement tests and GPA

79

Table 5.1 SJTs across the decades Test

Description

Problems

George Washington Social Intelligence test (subtest: Judgment of Social Situations) (Moss & Hunt, 1926)

Multiple choice test measuring ‘keen judgment, and a deep appreciation of human motives, to answer correctly’ (p. 26).

Low correlations with social outcomes and high correlations with standard intelligence (Thorndike & Stein, 1937).

Judgment test for soldiers (see <xref xlink:href="c51454-1201"⬎Box 5.1