The Prophetic Word of Hosea: A Morphological Study

Martin

J. Buss

The Prophetic Word of Hosea A Morphological Study

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Verlag Alfred Tope1mann Berlin 1969

-Beihcfte zm Zcitschrift fur die alttcstamentliche \Visscnschaft J lcLlllsgcgcbl'n von Cl'org Fohrer

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ISRAEL, THE WHORE

[The word of Yahweh which came to Hosea, the son of Becri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezckiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam, the son of ]oash, king of Israel.] 1. A Prostitute Wife

12

The beginning of Yahweh',; speaking through Hosea. Yahweh said to Hosea: "Go, take a wife of whoredom, and children of whoredom, For the land goes greatly whoring away from Yahweh." He went and took Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim; and she conceived and bore him a son. And Yahweh said to him: Call his name J ezreel: For in a little while I will visit the blood of J ezreel on the house of ] elm. I will end the kingdom of the house of Israel. [And it will be in that day] I will hreak the bow of Israel in the valley of J ezreel. And she conceived again and bore a daughter. And he said to him: Call her name Not-pitied: For I will not pdy yet again the house of Israel, That I should forgive them. UJ [But the house of Judah I will pity. I will save them through Yahweh their god. I will not Sil7'e through bow :md sword and war, through horses and riders.] She weaned i\' at-pitied and cOJlcei7'cd and bore a son. And he said: Call his name Not-mY-,fJeoj>l.:: For you arc not mv people, and I am not for you, (?)

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Chapter 1 I'. The Data in Translation

Chapter II: The Data in Translation

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Blow the horn in Giheah, the trumpet in Ramah, Raise the war crv in Bcth-awcn, "After you, ·Benjamin 2•5 !" (?) Ephraim is destined to desolation in the day of reprooL Among the tribes of Israel I announce the truth. The fJrlnces of Israel have become (MT: Judah) as boundary thieves -

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Conjectural!\' as,;il1lilated til th,' lllnte"t and frn'h' tr~"lSbted. l~ead thliS (I~atlially with LXXI i ' React as 3nl pL'rs"n kJl1inilll'; (1. \' 0. Some ~!SS ;)l tu;t1h' 11;\\'" :1r'!3l:1 (;c, ""nline: to }]aqwr), \\hil'h is th"l1 pro!>a!>ly also prl''illp!,(b''d h\' lhl' \IT,,ions (rilth"r lh;)n

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Yahweh has no picaslllc in them! N ow he will remclIIoa their i niqllity

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[Israel has forgotten his maker and has built palaces, And Judah has lIlultiplied fortified cities. I will send a fin' into his cities and it will de\'our his strongholds.] (Cf. 813 with U 3.

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4.

The days of ZJ1:sitation have come, (proph. perf.) the days of 'fulfilmcnt' have come, Israel will know it. (?) "A fool is the prophet, a madman the lllan of the spirit" Because of the r.:reatlle~s of your iniquity --a great enmitv !42 The watchman of Ephraim with (my) God, the prophet A fowler's snare is on all his ways, there is enmity in the house of his god. They have become deeply corruptecl, as in the clays of Gibeah -

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14(a). Trouhle for God's House 9

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Do not rejoice, Israel, do not exult'16 like the peoples; For you have whored awav from \'our god, you have loved hirc on every thresliinf, floor. The threshing floor and the wine press will not feed them, and the must will fail thel11 37 . They will not rcmain in the Lmd of Yahweh Ephraim \\'ill retuYJI to Egvpt [and in Assyria thc~' will cat nnclean food]. Thev will not pour out \\·ine to Yahweh, they will not bring him:JS sacrlFces; [As bread of mOlllners to th('m 39 , (?) all who cat of it will he defiled.] For their food will 1)(' for thcmselves, it will not come into the house of Yahweh. \Vha t will ~'Oll do on t he a Jlpoin ted day, on the dar of til\' ft-a~t of Yah\ych? For behold, a; the,,' will go from destruction - (?) Egypt will gatlwr them, Memphis will IllllT t )1I'1ll ! The 'desired place'~o o'r tli,·ir hooths ll wceds will inherit; (?) thorns will be in tli"ir t('lIt', (dIF\',

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Cycle IV. Israel's Sin in History 15. (Baal-Pear and Gilgal) E~tablishl1]('nt in Palestine: A Failure

Like grapes in the wilclerness I found Israel, Like an early fig on a young tru' I saw your fathers. They came' to Baal-Pear and dedicated themselves to Shame (Baal), And thev became dete~table like their lmJe. n Ephrairr~ - like a bird their glory flies away. No birth, no pregnancy ("womb"), no conception! (Place here 16 b) 12 If they do raise children -I will berea<Je them, leaving none; Verily woe to them, (with) their offspring 43 I 13 Ephraim, as far as I can sec, 'is planted on a rock as a (or: in the) meadow44 ;' Ephraim must bring forth his children to the ~Ia vcr. 14 Give them, Yahweh . wha t will you give. ?

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the context in which they now stand? The immediate answer to such a question is that the book of Hosea is full of very small fragments, which arc by no means necessarily or even strongly tied to what precedes or follows. Jerome already commented all this, in an oftquoted sentence, "Hosea is concise and speaketh, as it were, in detached sayings"4. The pronouncements imbedded in the narrati\'e of Hos 1 (especially the main statements in v. 2.4 [? J. () and \J) exhibit the length of a short unit-paragraph equivalent to a stanza to be discussed later. They further include what may be called one-word or one-phrase oracles, namely the names "Jezreel," "Not-pitied," and "Not-mypeople". These resemble similar pregnant words or phrases appearing elsewhere in prophetic literature; even the "sibilant and gutteral sounds" which R. B. Y. Scott has noted in embryonic oracles 5 are present. Next one may ask \\'hether there are indications that the small expressions are parts of larger ones. One working hypothesis that can be set up is that individual utterances began in a full manner, i. C., mentioning Israel by name rather than opening with an expressed or unexpressed "they" without antecedent. Another possibility lies in noting the repetition of words. Such repetitions may be due to two somewhat different causes. Either the collector of the oracles arranged these in such a manner that catchword connection would aid the memory, or the prophet himself repeated within an oracle a significant word he had just uttered. A major difficulty now lies in determining whether a repetition is original in the saying or secondary as part of the arrangement, if it is not simply accidental and to be ignored. Generally, one may postulate that a tight or rich connection indicates an originally intended continuity. A superficial, mechanical bridge probably reflects a later juxtaposition. Is one justified in assuming the existence of both types of conscious verbal associations? Actually, though the existence of external connections is perhaps the better known and the more widely discussed of the tw0 6 , it is precisely the phenomenon of stylistic repetiAs translateu by E. B. Pusey. The l\!inor J'rophds, I 1888. If,. , T. H. Robinson-Fpstschrift. I9[)1". Iii!). 6 Perhaps the first to have maul' use of this p:'ilhipk is E. T\6nig'. NKZ H (18!J8). 933 (on Second Isaiah). In Husea, this phenomenon has been discussed (not all'lays convincingly) by Gressmann, l'\yberg. Lindblom. \V(·iscr. \Volff, Ruuolph, Birkeiand (Norsk '1'1' 38 [U137], 30:.?). B. W. And('r~on (Interpretation 8 [1964]. 290-3031. and, most exten,;ivcly. Coot!. To be l'l'gankd as accidental arL'o L'. g., the repetition" of "ignominy." -17.10;. ant! "spirit." 412.1(1. 4

Chapter 111: The \Yard as Literature

I. The Size of Units and the Process of Transmission

tion which has been the more firmly established through a series 01 studies. Though not all analyses in ~ the field are equally convincing (some fail to go far enough), word-repetition has been found in Isaiah, ] eremiah, and other prophets, in the Pentateuch, in the Psalms and other writings of the Old Testament, as well as in both neighboring and unrelatedliteratures7 • Some of the repetitions noted arc probably either coincidental or secondary; but the existence of deliberate original reiterations can hardly be denied. Though in practice a distinction is hard to draw, the 'division of word-repetitions into the threl' aroups of acci(kntal t primary' and secondary associations cannot bl' b ' avoided. A differentiation among these groups is made especially difficult by the fact that ancient poets could employ mechanical associations already in the primary process of production. So A. Erman states for the Egyptian: "The (poet) is improvising, and accordingly any word which he has used in the last verse leads him on purely extraneous grounds to a new idea, which he immediately expresses s." 'Whatever the explanation for their occurrence may be, a difference between external and internal associational repetitions may bl' observed. An especially clear example of the situation is presented bv Hos 101-8. External mechanical connections arc evident at the b~ginning and end of the section by the appearance of the words "fruit" and "hill" in different senses from those which these same words bear in the adjacent passages. Internal organic repetition is strong with the reiteration of "fruit." "multitude," "goodness," "altars," "pillars," "king," "Awen," and "shame."

The hypothesis of a full beginning and the criterion of catchword association support each other in the outlining and separation of sections; for non-stylistic, secondary repetitions always have between them a break marked by a strong opening, It is true, in certain cases a full grammatical beginning occurs at some point other than between external conne~tors, .but such cases are not numerous and usually there are conSIderatIOns of content that militate against makintf a separation at these points; a full expression may occur not only a~ the beginning of a section. The resulting wholes exhibit a relatively homogeneous compositional structure, which would be violated by accepting divisions elsewhere. Each unit begins and ends in a characteristic manner. Openings consist of an address or call in the second person 9 , an announcement of a rib or day of judgmentlo, or a historical reference which usually presents a lamenting or especially an ironical description of Israel's fall ll . In most cases, the opening includes an accusation l2 . The closing not~ i~ always one of disaster, either as it has already happened or as It IS expected, or else of hope. Five oracles end in a general 'Nord of judgment; four of these climactic words announce a "visitation" or "returning" of Israel's evip3. In a few cases there is no significant verbal connection between ~djacent oracles. At such points, however, there is either a major shift I~ content between groups of oracles, to be called "cycles," or a transitron to a hopeful oracle which has been assigned its place without rega~d to catchwords, in order to end a collection on a positive note. PreCIse details are given in the translation, above. . The oracles of Hos 4-11 form one large collection, subdivided mto cycles. Cycle I - comprising 4!-\1 (10) 411-14 415-l(l and 51-7 deals ;;rith t~e c~~t. The c?nstituent sections are bound together by the term whorIng; one mIght even speak of arrangement by content rather than by catchword. Cycle II - which seems to comprise the gr?ups 58-10 5 11-7 7 7 8-16 8 1-7 8 8-10 - deals ,,'ith social and political eVIls; occasional cultic references had already been included in these oracles before they were joined to each other. The recurrent use of the Words "king" and "princes" is as much a matter of content as of catchword associations; but distinctly external connections between oracles are also apparent. Cycle III - with 811-13 and91-0 (composed of two separate oracles ?) - deals with the cult and includes the motif

30

7

D. 11. Miiller, Pic l'rophett'n in ihrer urspriingliLhen Form, 1 IS!Hi (H.. Smend COIll mented in TL 21 [IS!)!.]. 22•. that this phenomenon is "allbckannt," w-ell-known); Biblische Studic!1, f) \"ols. 1!)fI-lIUOS; Pas ]oh,wnes-E\"angclium, 1!)(lD; E. Kautzscll, Die 1'oes;(' und die poctis,ht'll Hi;,lln di'S .\]ten Testaments, /(1(12, -tt,; A. Concld min, Le Li\"rc d·lsale. 1!1I1;-,. 1'"i'IlH" II.: h Hihk, 1!J3'F; Le Livre ric .1 ,'r0mie, HJ3il; .1. Zie~ler, on Isaiah. BZ n (t~l:n)],)1 J~!j, \' Cassutu, La question,' della GeneS! lfl3~, :2/I'H. 3Ii:) (rekrrjll~ also to rq)('titi"n" dnS('llz\\"l·il-(l. 1lil' ", hrift ullcl ihr" \-ercleu( schung-, 1!1,\I" :211--:2:\t-: :!Ii:!- 2/;, (f"r th,' ['cnt"t"ll,'h), ] \[uikllLurl-(, CongresV"lum,' 1%:~ (SVT, (l. \(1:\ ]0:) ('i"it' "idel\), L. J. /.id'rei'h, .IQH. :-.is ~(; (lfJ:);,(:-.Ej, 2:,!I--:2"; -lI (I~I:,I;. :,7), 1J ~ 1;],--: II \1\ 2/ II!!;-,I,) , 181--1U:2; :\. Sam", 1'5 8!1, in: ,\ ;\Itmam), Biblical ,tntl (Ithl'1 Stulhes, IUI,:2, :2H --~Ii; :\.11. H.icltlerbus, TIll' !',sa]ms, uS J:\ (I!h,:l). -l:l ,./1>, I.. \lull"U S' hi,!;,'!. E,tlldi()~ de ],ol-tica Hebrr'" [!JI;;\ ;ll)!! ;\;3;-,. :\1;;\ n~1. II. I.ul",z,'j, 1",\ US!II~ ;tIl, .\g-\'ptcn, I!JI,:\, Furth,: :-;tudil'S, il)(']udin.l4 SOlnl' \\"C~rI.;...; in J h'hn'\\. oc:trv 1!II,·,. lIlste>ad of "hemistich." C; 'Yollng l.'lf l\r('~('nt ill Ii ,.11'

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ihe doubll'-period group indeed can be widely found in Old Testament poetry 73 and is prominent in a large part of Akkadian and Egypti;m litcrature 74 and elsewhere'5. In "'ear Eastern traditions. strophes thus bnilt up do not always represent rigid sense units, and variations appear frequently, Sanscrit poetry, however, developed a rigorous form of this basic pattern, namely in strongly isolated stanzas divided into two parts, each of which is composed of one or (usually) two short padas. A continuation of the old form is preserved in the Masoretic versification, which breaks each verse into two parts, one or both of which are usually again subdivided. In fact, in many cases the delineation of units as conceived here coincides with Masoretic verse divisions.

}Iembers of periods in Hosea's poetry stand regularly in ideational parallelism, with varying degrees of preciseness in correspondence. Complete parallelism, in which each element of one member can be matched with an clement in the other member 76 , occurs almost forty times. Incomplete, even if close, synonymous parallelism (with an unmatched element) occurs somewhat more than eighty times; about ten of these instances, however, are unbalanced only by a "therefore" or some other word not easily repeated, In content, parallelism can be stated either positively or negatively; but the only instances of the negative form are to be found in 2 ]8 94 ("their food will be for themselves; it will not come into the house of Yahweh") 121 (?) and in the wisdom addition 1410. In a good number of cases, however, the second colon does not simply restate the essential point of the first, but forms what may be called directional parallelism, in which one member builds on the other. The major types belonging to such a construction are as follows: forms expressing causality or ground, regularly introduced by'"?, "for" or "since" (2 (\ 46 H 17 14 1. 2) ; sequential relations, such as the following: "They came to Baal-Pear and dedicated themselves to Shame" (H 10); '" Op. cit. 178. 73 See the analysis and history of discussion by C. [';:raft. The Strophic Structure of Hebrew Poetrv, 1838. In addition, J. \V, Rothstein, Grundziige des hebraischen Rhythmus, 1 f)(18, G·.lff., and Hebraische l'ol'sie, 1 fll-l; J. Beg-rich, TR NF 4 (1932), 89; and many individual studies, including H. Gunkel, Die Psalmen, 192(j, 'I E. g., W. F. _\lbright, JPOS 2 (1922), 70; Falkenstein-Soden, 40f. 240-247. 270-273. 381£. 388; S. Mo\VinckeI, The Psalms ill Israel's Worship, II 1HG2, 191; S. Herrmann, Die prophetischell ! Ieiiserwartungen im ,\Iton Testament, 1%:), 2G, etc. 7>

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76

Cf. C. Budd, Chinese Poems. HJ1:!, :!2 (though this discussion is one-sided). In SyriaC', ."'rabie, primitive, and modern poetry, the same group is a popular, though by no means an exclusive, form. For Bedouin poetry, J. Smart, JSS 11 (laGG). :!02 to 21G; 12 (1%7), 2-l:j-2G7. Gray op. cit. 59.

Chaptcr III: The Word as Literature

II. Poetry

contrast, for instance in comparing Yahweh's action to Israel's response (7 13b. 15 812 112); reciprocity, with analogous mutual relations (19b 24.25); circumstantial relations, such as, "If it should make some, strangers will swallow it" (87); consequence or response (417 10 2a. 12a. 13a); an object of thought or speech (72 1310 1-13). Without close ideational synonymy or directional organization there exists what may be called loose parallelism, wherein two related concepts are juxtapo~ed (so, 47 63a 7 2b 85 9 15b 103b 125 14 8. !J). This pattern, together \vith "directional parallelism," is often classed as "synthetic;" but this use of the term is different from that of R. Lowth, who included incomplete synonymous parallelism but expected a correspondence in construction in the two parts of the synthetic form 77 . In addition, many periods are divided into parts, one of which cannot grammatically stand by itself. Several typical constructions emerge. One part can be introduced by ("to"), designating an aim when related to a verb, or a reference point when attached to a noun; . '" ('" 111, " " W h en ") ; 1.'-I. . f ("as' '), k rna 'll1g a companson 0 f some sor t ; "t ("from") ; or l;!¥ ("because of," "on"). Temporal designations using the word "day" (59 75 99 109.14), direct objects (14.6 210), and subordinate characterizations (214 1011 14 8) also appear. Sometimes no clear internal division is at all apparent, except for a rhythmic caesura in a long clause (84 b 1015 b 1~ 15 [end] ). On the whole, such constructions may be considered a little-developed form of directional parallelIsm. \Vhen a period contains only such intraclausal parallelism as was discussed in the last paragraph, it may be considered to be weakly divided. A tristich or the conjunction of two weakly divided periods may be considered to form a weak stanza. Such stanzas as a rule stand at the beginning or end of a passage (4] and see above for triplets) or in pairs with two weakly formed quatrains (59f. 78f.) or two triplets (61f. 75f. SSf. 13 916f.) or one of each kind (411HSa GOf. 910 10111210L). Rows of three triplets occur three times (2 sf. 11 5-7 145-7). Synonymy between periods is looser than between cola on thl' average; no very neat patterns arc discernible. Relations between stanzas are even more tenuous, if present at all. Parallelism occurs also within cola, though not frequentlv (4 III 71clL To compare Hosea's poetry to that of other prophets would require a more thoroughgoing analysis than can here be attempted. The ratio of complete to incomplete para]]cli,,;m appears to approximate that found in Lamentations hy C, n. (;ra\' and in Amos by

L. Newman, while the phenomena of intraclausal relations bear similarity to those discussed by W. Popper in a study of Is 1-35 78 • Like parallelism, meter or rhythm is a form of repetition. K. Budde has pointed out that ancient poetry is characterized by the breaking of speech into small units 79 . The regularity of the recurrence of a break and, in some poetic traditions, of the recurrence of still smaller units called "feet" constitutes a repetitive feature. The concept of a foot, however, is probably not appropriate to Hebrew literature, unless one identifies it with a unit composed of a strong word or of a phrase including such a word. A single colon can contain from two to four, or exceptionally one or five, such units, without following a discernible rule 80 . Each unit naturally contains one relatively heavy accent; in this sense and in this sense only it is possible to speak of an accentual rhythm 8l •

44

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l\Olbt:lndanI. Til" order (lr \'('rl>;tI s"n1t'l\' '" \t Itith also are the mol', frcqlH'n1 t\·pl' .... j:-: prol>a1>1\· IHUl'!t IllOf{' :-;ignijjl'a,n1 hut !l(l large-scale data al" axai!aldl' f(lT" it J n J 10:-> ·l ·-1 f, d('~,.. (arati\·v \'l'rLal ~/'llt"lll c:-:. an: ,~)r) per cent nUll-

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:l1l(1 <jut":,tions an' llalundh'

\It,j,,~ll(T, lIlt.' 11;d)~·kl(li:-;l·h-a.~~~Tisdl('J,itt'ratul'

1!1:.'~'. I;';t; illrtltl'r,

1/6.\ Id'·!'''!'II .. i''','lslt :\IlIsi" !l';"

l;. 111»)-';[

il!'/

dl'l",

Jl,d filld

I

;!C""IlJ',C"; ill

Jl\l!\-~'

l~':lj.

r,'g'llLtr :l:>

E. \\l'Il\t'1" . 11'1;, (II :;!)';.

111(" ~l'\!.'1l

""\

lL:Lk ll)l"l'r

I

iJl)lllHJl1

(:-';yri~1 III

\ 1·1'-)1.:..1II1-.;t, 1~1:{:!. :!P:!)

II"-'.I,;t...,, ,Ll. 1\'I,il,tll\" Ill; Illlk 1'11[" "1\ (lr ~1'\'1'1l ,\llill~Jt.:-; (ig-lloring half ..

;l!tllfJugh t.llt,\, appt',l!'

III

1])('1('r:--: \\1111 eight or

l"l?lZl

Hos 25. g. 12 4lfi. 19 511.12-15 / 4-g. 111. 89 9 g-IO. 16 101. 4. 7. 11-13 111-4.101. 133.7.15 14 f.-g. On their emotionality, Eichhorn (Jp. cit. IIf G, as earlier Longinus, On the Sublime. XV.

Meta.phors: 5 If. 7 ~ 8 ~ 10 1. 11 111. Similes: 4 133. 7f. 14 6-9 (i. e., with +,). 10~ E. g., 413914 108 14 I. '

S~Tiill

S\'I];lllll'~

111

and i1f~~ ;'1.?':~ (10 7). A compound subj"ct is followed by a singular verb in 92 108 (8.S rarely. according to Gesenius-Kautzsch. § 125d). TR NF 20 (195:.'), 2G4f. (following E. Balla).

101

103 ill

\'owels and final :\Iasoretic HI\\C)S not supported by the consonantal text), making a consistent fourfold accentuation (as seen by some) and especially the presence of an ordered cae,ura unlikely. On intonational phrases, see J. Mukarovsky, Archives ncerlandaises de phonctique experimentalc 8--9 (1933), If)3-·l(i5. . Two :xtreme cases of grammatical peculiarities (related to word order) are:

;,~?o/ ~n¥1~ (G g)

99

1110n·

104

49

III [) g, 14

74.

c1. 111. !) 10

114. 10f.

Hos 85 95 109 118 1310 14 \1. The ironical 41(; b may be a question. (H. ~Iitchell in: Harper-Festschrift. I l!lUS, 11.'}·-129, notes the omission ot the interrogative particle in Hebrew irony.) Hos 12.4. G. 9 23f. 41. 10.15.17 51.8 81 !lJ 1012 127 142f. Buss

4

T Chapl.l'f 111: Tit" \VurL! as Literature'

ill. Narrative

marked by peculiarities in \"ocabulary, which raise its level out of the ordinary -- including archaisms. rare words (especially for purposes of parallelisms)105, terms used in a figurati\"(~ sense 106 , and generalh' more elaborate phraseologv 107 , In these features, howe\"cr. there arises the problem of the boundary between poetic devices and prophetic tradition. Since poetry and prophecy are closely allied, an absolute division cannot be made, As will be seen below, many of the figures used by the prophet arc neither chosen arbitrarily nor new to him. Little can thus be said on the basis of images used in the writing either about the personal background of the author or about his richness of imagination; for instance, not the roaring of lions in the Jordan jungle, but a standardized stylization of enemy descriptions is responsi hle for references to a lion. A few of the images may be original, but Hosea's main contribution is in the free use he makes of existing figures. Poetic concreteness (though often associated with vagueness in specific predictive content) and the use of questions and commands have long been recognized as features of prophetic speech 108 . The poetic organization of Hebre\y pl'l!phecy has close parallels in other seer traditions. Ancient Delphic oracle style has been described as including vagueness, pictorial images (especially with animal metaphors), and sharp assonance and alliteration deriwd from primiti\'e poetry, together with sarcasm, brusque address, and sharp fluctuations in grammar 109 , H. :\1. and~. I":. Chad\\'ick describe Polynesian political prophecy as "highly elusi\"e. rhetorical, and exclamatory," with rapid changes in content and address form and dominated by "metaphors and veiled sayings Ilo ." The absence of the phra,;e "tlllh C\llIk,,! III. 1/.~.llJllidt, lJi'·l.:r"l.kli 1""1'11l"111

1°' E ".

lK:l 1'-"1, !\III,ddi ,~.'I .~!I 1110 Il. Park< .111.1 I' \\'''1'111''11. II", Jkll'll;. (Ira, I" 110 Tbl.' l;l'()\\til ]11

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II 1:1:"j, "'II

i, 111!lj\i!!"illl!

,,,. al"l, t!:r' \hy~siniall GaiLl'

51

Beside poctry, the book of Hosea contains narrative material. \Vithin prophetic stories, a distinction has been made between "biog~aphical" an:l "au.tobiographical" narrativell:l. These two types dIffer overt~y 111 theIr usc of the third or first person, respectivelv, when refcrnng to the prophet ~ provided that the grammatical for;n is employed in an ordinary manner. The essential difference between the t\~·o types, however, is provided by their situation and function. That. IS, .a ~tory car: have i~s Sitz im Leben either in the circle of prophetic cl1sClples or 111 the bfe of the prophet himself. If ~ story has a place in the life of the prophet, it is part of that prophet s hterature or word. Prophetic first-person narration covers a rathe: .large fic:ld. One type of such narrative is that of the report of a V1SlOn, \\'h.1Ch usually includes an audition. Another, a very common, type IS the report of a simple audition, especiallv with a command to bring a certain message. Still another is the acc~unt of a sYrr:bolic act, which usually includes the report of an audition and may m some cases describe a merely visionary' experience. Unfortunately, prophetic autobiographical narrative has not yet been studied systematically with a survey of its entire field rather than of single aspects. Thes? ~utobi?graphies focus on the prophetic message or, in part. on the dinne ongin of that message. Unlike Nehemiah's memoirs, they do not glorify an activity but stand in the service of the divine word. Glorifi::ation of.a prophet (or of the god whom he serves) belongs to the functlOn of thIrd-person accounts, the prophetic "legends", Fo.r an anal~7sis ~f the sto.ries in Hosea l14 , it is wise to begin with eh. 3, smce the sltuatlOn here IS relativcly clear. This chapter is a pro~hetic "ser~~n':' namely one leading to a message of hope after conSIderable clIsClplme. vVhat matters fundamentally is not the situation of the prophet, but rather the relation of Yahweh to Israel. As a narrative of the prophet's life, ch. :3 leaves much to be d.esired. Some important elements of story-telling are lacking, espeClally all descriptions of time and place l15 . These elements are generallv absent ~rom prophetic narrative sermons, whether they report vision;, symbolIc acts, or simple conversations between Yahweh and the

113 S o ' 11" . 114 > espell;, \', 1. H,l{"jllllsun (lAW 42 [1~)24J> 211:1 -:Z21, and L'lsewlwre). For survey~ (If 0pmlOll". S"C Harper 208-21fi; H. H. r{owlev. \!cn of God. 1!"H.i:l, 115 66-97; G. Fohrer,. Die symbolischcll Handlungen der Proph;tell. 1~53, E. Robertson c0nslllers three' elements to be "necessary" fur ;, story: "something must be done. bv someone. and in some place" - S0 that there is activit\· witl~ a "setting" (TIll' Old Testaml>nt Problcm, 1(j!',(). 210), .

T

111. Narrative

Chapter 11 I: The ,Vord as Literature

52

53

prophet, while they are usually present in prophetic "legends1l6.~' The absence of setting is, of course, only apparent, since the real settlllg of the sermon stories is in Israel's life with God. Ch. ;3 begins with the words, "Anel the Lord said to me," a phrase which often occurs in first-person narratiw's to introduce a word of Yahweh to the prophet. There is no reason to believe that such words were literally private; in most cases they arc obviously told by Yahweh with the intent that others hear of this conversation. This seems to be the purpose in Hos ;3. God's words in Hos ;3 1 begin with a command. Such an opening is very common in prophetic oracles, even in such as do not present a narrative sermon. From :\1ari prophecy to Jeremiah and still later, a saying often begins with the report of a command by God to the prophet before the message itself is given ll7 ; that this report was presented in public speech seems to be clearly implied in several places in which a prophetic word is quoted 1l8 . Commands are particularly important in symbolic narratives, just as questions are prominent in

literally can hardly be determined on a stylistic basis, just as it is difficult to decide on that basis whether genuine visions lie behind visionary accounts. Actually, to the prophet's mind, there may not have been a sharp distinction between ecstatic experience and what the modern mind considers reality. Moreover, first-person form is often used in Near Eastern fictional narratives121 . In the last analysis, it does not matter greatly whether the actions were executed literally or not. Human life operates essentially on the level of symbolic stru~­ hIres. Its physical, "literal," aspects are, in themselves, incidental and, if seen in isolation, subhuman. Thus, leaving the question open, one can say, with R. G. Moulton, that there is here, whether "in reality or in a parable," an "emblem prophecy122." Yet, a few critical observations may be made, which at least raise doubts about a literal interpretation. The fact that the author reports his own symbolic action speaks against its actuality rather than for it. For self-reported actions commonly exhibit a tendency toward nonhistoricity, as in the following cases.

VlSlOns.

Altogcthl'r unhistoriul! are the events of J er 2515-2" (action with a cup of wrath); Ez ~ B-B.3 (the cating of a scroll); Zech 11 4-17 (a shepherd allegory), Elements of significant foresight are involved in Is H 1-4 (the birth of a male child): Jer 32,,-15 (thl' coming of an uncle); cll. 3:) (the action of thc Rechabites); Ez 2415-24 (the wife's death): though none of these events are very unusual and some are easihanticipated. thl' prophet stresses in his presentation miraculous or unobservable aspects 1e 3. The actuality of the rest of the self-reported events is debated, hut one may make the following' tentative judgments. J er 131-11 (a waist-cloth in the Euphrates), if genuine, is a visionary experience; Jer 1H 1-12 (a potter's vessel) is an interpreted e,'ent, analogous to the class involving foresight; the muteness of Ez 32Gf. and 33211. was either voluTltary (thus not literal) or else interpreted in hindsight; a possible original form of the very difficult Ez 121-1" (an exile's flight) remains as a potentially straightforward symbolic action, but its problem cannot hcre be discussed, In summary, it i, clear that several of the self-reports arc completely unhistorical, while others involve tendentious elements lU

Next, in Hos :3, the interpretation of the action commanded is given in the form of a comparison of the deed with Yahweh's relationships to Israel. Thereupon follows a report of the prophet's action, couched in mysterious terms which supply a high degree of concreteness characteristic also of other reports of symbolic actions. The action includes a word to the woman bought by the prophet, which apparently points to an enforced seclusion for the time being. The ending of the chapter is related to the future situation of the peoplE'. The chapter plainh' contains allegorical motifs, which arc generally strong in sermonic narratives, especially in visions and symbolic reports 1l9 . The connection of such stories with dreams, which also bear sym bolic character, has been noted rqH'atedly120. In how far the svmlx;!ic acts which are reported autobiographically were carried out J Hi

Tlll' prt'SL'rlCT of ti me refercncTs in bit 'g'ftl ph It''''' thc.if

11l>st'lllC

in first-person narrati\'(':-)

ILlS

()f

11l'1."!1

.J l'f('lniah - - l"ontrasting \\'itll I1lltt'd

:!II 117

C;",

,L!rl"lIh', j Ibm,l, \las Erk"llnen (;pt!,',

]wi ,kll C;,

by H SLhn1idt op. cit.

ilriltpr<Jplll'tL,tl, 1fj~,1, 11'1

Fpr j"f1['11] III Ezcki;'r, l~tt:l) and H ClIthrii'.lr, !-:zeki..l :?1, Z.\\\' 71 (Hili:2). :?KII. F.zI.ki!.]'~; dc:-\criptirl11s of s~'nlho1i(' action wen' 1)1'iginally in tn-lef poetic {onn; did tl,,'v' ac,Omp"'1\' som,' gestures) Fohrcr (l':ze,l\i[·I. 1'';,,-,. ;1111 thinks tbat Ez"l,i,1

The purchase form is not a regular marriage contract but is that of an acquisition of a concubine or slave woman, which yielded the man greater power 128 , Ch. 1 of Hosea is more complicated in structure. Certain features of a legend or report are present; but others arc absent, and contrar\! indications can be seen. -' "Biographical" character appears most obviously in the use of the third person for Hosea 129 . There is no evidence, however, of the usual interest of a legend in the person of a hero, who in prophetic stories ordinarily appears as an able prognosticator or determiner of the future 130 , as a miracle workerl~H, or as a sufferer 132 , with an ultimate emphasis on divine action through or in him. On the other hand, "autobiographical," or sermonic, features are present. To begin with, the structure of Hos 1 is very similar to that of the autobiographical Is 81-4, which may be called a namingsermon. They share the following items: God gives a command, a woman "conceives and bears" a child, and God "says: Call its name ... , for ... ;" an effort is made in both to provide for realism. Even assuming that the chapter is a report by someone other than the prophet, it is likely that Hosea presented one or more naming-sermons, either in an oral or a written form, which then became the basis of the report as it has survived. In other words, some first-person message form undoubtedly lies behind the present text. A sermonic feature of Hos 1 appears in the fact that the story contains both accusation (v. 2) and threat, which are to some extent pointed toward each other. The three threatening names with their

128

l·!~l It is far fnJtll certain. (';1

at ka~t ""j;trl,·t\" til l"'dorm lh,' aIe,ilisch('n Propheten. 1H:.n, lUI, regarding 110, ~J JO-l-t 1 as Illonologu('s (,f rdkc·tiun. togdhcr with -t 11,]\1 :? 1"'~:' 8 4-Jll, Lippi Ul. for H0sea frum ~) 10 pn). and \\'cis,·r (3). Wolff thinks of l'ri\ate instrudioll in the eir' Ie' of disciplcs as the plaL:e of most utterances after fj 10. ,11-\ n

1 I

Chapter I V: The \\'onl as Communication

60

indeed be correct; nevertheless, it is clear that the words were put into a form in which they were designed to become known, for tlw book of Hosea is hardly a diary which happened to be discovered contrary to the intention of the prophet, To some students, Hosea's messages have appeared stylistically as "monologues 5 ." Yet the third-person style should not keep one from recognizing the true intent of the words. Style is a precarious basis on which to rest reconstructions of the precise physical circumstances of an individual saying, since it indicates only the functional place of the word. The use of the second person docs not prove an actual face-to-face encounter, nor does the usc of the third person deny it. The style of Hosea's words reflects a situation deeper than the physical setting, namely a confrontation of Israel by God, i. e., by the ultimate reality on which its life depends. Thus the message transcends a mere communication betwecn prophet and audience.

A. Threats

First, attention may be paid to the speaker, the source of the \vord. Like most prophets, Hosea uses the divine "I", presenting God as speaking in the first person. On occasion, however, God is mentioned in the third persall; in these passages presumably the prophet is the speak CT. :\Iany statements, or cvrn groups of such, do not rder to Goel at all, so that it is hard to tell whether God or the prophet is thought to be the source. In these, the determination of the speaker can perhaps -- but not with certainh' -- br made through an attempt to feel oneself into the words anel tn judge whether thr\' emanate from Yahweh or from a human being, .\n ell-mrnt of 'empathy has played a role in the dcn'lopIlll'nt of the anah'sis that is to follow, but the discussion of the problem will naturally emphasize more observable data upon which a clear decision must I1I'cc'ssarily be based. TIll' most important que"tion confronting the student is whether then· is a eli ffen'nct' in content lH't \\'tTn di \'llll' words ancl prophetic wont,;, that is to sav, whether the chan!!.c· in "tvle is significant ill l1ll'aning or not, Accordingly, a useful proo'dnrl' is to mark the saying" for grammatical style, for subject matter, anI] lor fecling - in linl' with rmd" (\'un l{abcnau, WZ lini\'. Halle. G.-s.;') [1955I'll)], (ji8) "I, Yahweh. hit\·" spoken" (or its thirdperson form, d, Lindblom, Ho:;,'". is); for a divinc' declaration need not stn'ss that it speaks thl' truth. It is I:losc' to the" Legitil11ic,rtlngsfl,rll1cl" of '''l'r ",,,rds (D. vettcr, Unt,'rsudlllngen Zlllll Scherspruch jill .\ltell Testalllent, Diss. 11 c'idell)(':'CO; , 1f1G8, 2:2Gf.), ",hich is continuc'c! in l'r"phdic !look" (including r 15 7:!). To be found exclusively in prophetic speech are some description..; of disaster: )~? (716), liNo/ (10 u). ::I"'J}J (71G 11 G 141), :1~~ (11 (\), w~~ (91G I;) 1;-.); :10W (1:3 1;,). C'::J.?tf (H Ii), ,~W (10 8), ~::I' (414 ?), WtJ (4 19 10 G), :1~tp (f) 9), 'l'~ (10:!), ~Cl (7 7 ? 1Ii 14 1), ~W~ (4;, 5 5 14:]. I II - not all genuine), (10:!, d.'fl.i below), ::I'W (to Egypt: 813 na 11 5), I'1nw (1:3 9), and the following terms describing Yahweh's action: 0" (f> 9 D 5. 7)29, ::I" (4 I 123), n:l' (4 .. 5 II), C?~ (D 7). Some notable words appearing in both types of contexts are: 'pc, "visit" (Yahweh: 14 :2 15 49.14; Prophet: 81399 123), OWN, "suffer in guilt" (Yahweh: :J 15; Prophet: 4 I;' 102 131 14 1), 'W, "destruction" (Yahweh: 713, in a curse; Prophd: DG 1014 12:1), :1,), "uncover" (Yahweh: 21:1 (1) or "depart" (Prophet: 105), ':ll, "remember" (Yahweh: 72; Prophet: 8 13 9 \1), ON~, "reject" (Yahweh: 4 G; Prophet: (17), :1~', "und(j', (Yahweh: 45f.; Prophet: 107.15), ::I'tPij (Yahweh: 4 0; Prophet: 12 3. 1;,), also the HTV common np~. Admittedly, the substantin' distinction between the two types can be upheld only if one credits to di\'ine speech no more than tho,,(' sayings in which the divine ''['' explicitly occurs. But two argumenh point in favor of assigning doubtful cases to prophetic speech. First. the prophet is the actual speaker; "di\'inc speech" is merely a term for thuse words in which an "1" other than the prophet's becomes stylistically prominent. The burden of proof lies on the side of an assignnwnt to Yahwch. Secondly, and mort· important, in content and "\'i,ll-nth' in f(·I'Jin;.;. grammaticalh' neutral stateml'l1ts are closer, as the ab()~'l' anah'sis has shown, to ~'karh' nOlHli\'inc statemrnts than to c!earh' cli\:inc ones. Thus they should Ill' grouped with the former.

The opmlOn has been advanced by some that Hosea contains almost entirely divine speech30 . Behind such a view there usually lies the assumption that within a given unit only Yahweh or the prophet can be speaking; thus a single instance of divine "I" in a passage leads to an assignment of the whole to God 31 . One of the results of this assumption was the breaking up of prophetic writings into small units 32 . Yet in Hosea one cannot lead a single style consistently through every unit, however one may divide the book. Lindblom rightly recognized and championed the changeableness of grammatical style within prophetic speech, though he appears to have assumed that the alternation of spraker was arbitrary. Rather than being predominantly composed of divine speech, the book of Hosea reveals itself as prophetic word with divine style appearing occasionally, in a manner somewhat reminiscent of the "quotations" of divine speech noted by H. \Vildberger within Jeremiah's own words 33 . Such an analysis of Hosea with succinct divine speech has been anticipated by Paul Riessler, who did not, however, pay attention to the significance of content in association with the form 34 . As a result of the conclusions reached here, it is no longer necessary to exclude the book of Hosea from the generalization that there is a distinction between divine and human word in prophecy 35. Their close relationship within a single order, however, indicates that prophetic speech and divine word are not separable genres existing independently but that they are factors of style, perhaps even not necessarily rigid ones.

64

,'w

,'W

29

'1'111f speaks; (2) the prophet speaks of the future as though it has So, Sellin 17 (with considerable emending of the text); H. Hertzberg, Prophet und Gott, 1923, 107; Lindblom 138f. More extensive prophetic speech has been accepted by F. Giesebrecht, Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten, 1897, '12f.. with better recognition of the changeableness of speaker. Fairly frequent divine speech is assumed by Deissler (G3. 77. 80L BO). 31 So also \Volff passim. His designation of Yahweh~sayings is very similar to that of Giesebrecht, bu t he sees them as separable rhetoric'al entitje~. 32 So, for instance, L. E(ihler, Amos, 1:117, who assigns each Slll;\11 piece to either the prophd or God. 33 Op. cit (e. g.. 81). 3~ 1'. Riessler at one' time regarded individu;\[ sentenct's of divine specdl as the "Grundstock" of Hosea (Die kleinen I'ropheten. 1911); later, his translation (Die Hei!ige Schrift des alten und neuen Bundes, 1901)') marks numerous very short quotations of divine speech, though a little more generously than the present study does. 35 Wolff excludes Host'a and Habakkuk (Z.\ \\' f,2 [l~JI-!J. (); Das Zitat im Prophetensprueh. 1937, 107).

30

Buss

5

Chapter IV: The \Yord as Communication

II. The Speaker

already happened, using the perfect; (3) a "demonic-enigmatic tone;" and (4) all abrupt, jumpy style 36 , To generalize for prophetic literature, non-divine style is more detailed and more extended 37 than the divine. It is more visionary38 and emploYe more frequently the "prophetic perfect" (though the latter phenomenon is admittedk somewhat uncertain)3•. its feeling is more on tlll' side of the people, as reflected in the laments and dirges widely used in prophecy ..\s in the \york of ancient seers, i\

ence of VISIOns belong to different aspects of prophecy and are not to be grouped together as a single form of ecstacy in any specialized sense.

66

is inclined to be rational and to analyze the inhn('nt drift of events· o

The two styles of divine and human speech reflect two different structures which may have been originally separate. They probably belong to the God-possessed nab£' ("prophet"), on the one hand, and to the objective "seer" who serves human need, on the other 41 . Another possibility is that the role of the priest or cult prophet lies behind one style, while the indepeudent prophet (not necessarih a reform prophet) stands in the background of the other 42 . The h\'o possibilities are probably closely allied, since the nabi' was evident I!" closely related to the regular cult, while the seer could operate pnvatelv 43 . If a distinction is made, it can be noted that a pronounced "ecst~tjc" style - abrupt, poetic, and visionary44 - belongs not tn the nabi' -words but to the structure of the human seer-words. That means then that a formal identification with Yahweh and an experi"" Droh- und Scheltworte 48f (He does not find this in .\mos.) "' U. E. Elliger, Das Buch der zwiilf kleinen Propheten, II 1950, 12 (in a comment on the book of Nahum). "" So, also, \\'ildbcrger op. cit. 1:!1, for Jeremiah. 39 ,\In'a(l\' h. Eeil (:'vIanllal of Historico-Critical Introduction. I ISG!). 2(5) stated thaI "till' prophets in the Spirit behold the futurc as if it \"ere present." Similarl\·. G. llYhnii, Studier iiver stilen i de gallllllaltl'stal11cntliga profetbiickerna, 1929, ,U ,\ . .Je'psen, ~abi, l~ill 1:!~', speaks of the "pl'rfel t of simllltancity," with whi,], mav bc compared the perfe"t of ,,,,elution (;esenius --Kalltzsch § 106m); in a'cOl'dancc with this llsa~l' (d. \Vestcrmann, EvTh 24 [1:31,4], 3Gil), the perfcct is also occasionally found in diyitH' speedl at the beginning- of the "oracle of ans\ver.· namely at Is 4110.11 43 J 4~J '. That th,~ prophdic perfe(·t is found above all in non-di,-inc, and especially in \'islonary, spe,.,,'h ran 1H' gathered fro In an cxanlinati()); of listin~c 1,\' S. Driver, .\ Treatis,' on the \ 'sc' lif '1'11151"; in llebrc\\', 1881, 22-~1 and d lind \'isilJn~tr}'-11~:pnt)tjl' inspiratillJ1 (:'.!o!I;tlluncd, j!I:~:), .!,Sf.~.

TJll' l'rt\l,il"l", -t:);) ~-l

.. \s

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JJ

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,,, ••

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(':'~1'11\'.,,:1. J

VII.8n). .,'

II. The Speaker

Chapter IV: The Word as Communication

68

B. Accusalions It is more difficult to make a distinction between human and divine word in accusation than in threat. The terminology used by the two styles overlaps, no matter what principle one uses in separating the two. Continuity of mood, indeed, often speaks agamst too rigid a boundary around divine word; in many cases, one may want to bl' more liberal in assigning accusations to Yahweh than has been done in the course of the translation above. Nevertheless, a certain tendency appears. On those occasions in which the divine "I" is prominent, accusation often has a highly pers()}lal tone. The people, or the l?rie.c;ts, are ac.cused of having sinne(~ against Yalnveh (-17), and of havlllg broken hiS covenant (81). The) are said to have rebelled against him (713L) and against his "knowledge" and law (-1 6 8 1), to have acted treachc:rous,l.r .( G7), or t~; ha v~ departed from him (112.7). They haw made kll1gs wlthou.t.me (84), they have forgotten God (21;; 1:3 6) or his law (46 812), faIlmg to call to him (77.14). They do no~ disce~n his l~~~~ng .(113): Ind~ed, Go~: complains that "the\' speak hes agalllst me, dev.lse eVil agamst me, and "surround me" like enemies (7 13.1;', 121). It IS natural, of coursc, that accusations il1\'olving the divinl' ''I'' are highly personal; yet it is significant both that similar statements appear less often with Yahwch in the third person S1 and that the personal references appear as frequently as they do, . , . A further tendencv can be seen in that prophetic accusatlOn IS on the average more c01/c'rele than is divine reproach, especiallJ,' i~ Yahweh's ''\"orcls are taken with a narrow construction, though It IS possible that this difference should not be stressed. Divine first-person accllsations, when not personal, tend to be generaL They speak of Israel's "evil" or of their "deeds" or "ways5~." In one instance, Yahweh uses the svmbols "snare", "net," and "pit," without specifving the transgn's~ion53, The most specific di\'ine accusations a~e t~at thc priests "eat the sin of my people," if this refns to the E'XplOltatlOn of sinoffnings (-+ ~). aml that "mv Jwoplc" inquin' of wood a~d st.a:f (-+ J::) :hs\lming that "mv peopk" is sait! h\' '\'ah\';eh. SpeclfJc transgressions, lib' murder (including "hlo()([")51. cur"ing or pel'j ury55.

">I H(,~

:)7 -;-

t)11

~:::

"E,'il "

';3

"\\"d\''''' 1rf)C-: ;p) J"

:-11 ll()~ i>5

1 '2

1 It )~I:!

~ It

~l

III

~117

1;-,

1 '. 11Hln·di,"Il\t'· 1:.? ;(; I

!: I ,r I

,; ,,1 III 1

(I t \ r II (

I:! i:,

~t

.. !

C. Positive M otils. Relations to lITe

C~tlt

"Exhortations," or appeals, in prophecy can either come from the prophet himself or be cast as divine speech. So also in Hosea. The protecti'ue calls of -115 and 14 2 arc non-divine. In two general demands (1012 127), a curious stylistic phenomenon occurs. Judging from the introduction of the preceding verse, a divine word might be indicated; but the exhortation mentions Yahweh in the third person. These two belong to parenesis, or cultic wisdom, for which the word ,r.ltV (as in 127) and promises of blessing are typical67 . An authoritative instrllctioll is given as it divine word in Has 66. Parenesis and instruction reflect levitical and priestly tora. Hos 11 10 2. ~ 1:! '3. (But sec also I:.! 1.) Hos G911 l:.!s. 5' Eos 42. 1If. H. ]" 7 H. 5
I·:

c:

11

J

;{f

1:210

1:~ If.

()thvr histClri. al

r('fr'n,}1i'('''; ( l ( l l l r

II \1 and:-; 1\ Ch:l(I\\'i( k. 'Ill(' (;",,\\111 "I

,0 S(), fur

ll():'l'd,

\\'{,)ft.

t',

~. )11'-i, "\\'llrd Ilf di"'plltt', '

;) tl'\"hr;jl'al 1('fJ11 fIll' I1Ull-di,'jllt.' Spf'(>,

for altl'}'! ;\ t illll~ (! 71 "SvvJ:..;l,ngl'I'

Cunkl'i

I

1'-(,

)11'

1.>1
c i 111Y~,(lis •Isral·j 1',· ,,])oken of in the thin 1 . , . 'll . ' ll,'ll\' '" tht, emphatic pronoun "t11("\" i', lIsed ckrisi\'ely and

In

Lid,

\\111. tIll'. rnlJ)I'llll:-, \'it,'w

·l:~ll.

ft

is not a

that I) I-I; j~

~,)ng"

an :U1S\\I'r tl) It, (

~pf',l \111~ II , , " :-"," " .: " l'Illjd", 111.'111 'If th(· ";llllt' S('haoth a.t Ll\'phalltllll"

~~ The

I'

!~Il

Pall.. «'

\ \ Ill' (·Pt

l)a.\-td:--Illl

!':lI'l){h'

illl,l \\'"n~l"l:

l,a n'ligifll1 d('~ ill

.Il1(k·II._\rrI1ll{'l'Tl"

.h·\\i:.:.11 f.it,·raturt'

1'1' ,it

II \.\i,

1~1117

~.13 !llfl132, also ell-1. Similarh-. I~ 121>:;]0 ]r'r:;" P" 10i;l.~. So probahly then Ps 1,210 G,') 10 !1411 1207 (against J. Patton, Canaanite P,u.dlel" in thl' Book of PSitlms, 1\144, 37).

"' ll"c"31 G7 , . 8 •.

lH-n1!"\)C(', as frccllll'ntly l'w)11

1'(

f 1..;, ~ 3.

1"11"1.1'" ,d' IC ' " t"r i~ lib,'" in "j .. " (,f a \','rl"Li ,i'lliLirit'· "ith t;cn .:1229. See ah' :-;, harl,,"! ";"ii",nital in :-;.'W·m '.111rsy in (lin"I't Lcmfrontation with an opponent

Part 1\' \\'ith ' "II l'Joec I,er, R e d donnen des Rechtslebens im Alten Testament 1nG4 ' 3 2lJ-' +,, " ~8-I,1 ' It sho " lId e 1 no t'd ' , e tI1at t I le term' rzb refers espe,'ially to "prdc"al"

(better , extnleD'al") c~on t roversIes, 'I , 'b t lOugh a rib can then also be brouO'ht t" ' court for lwlp, DO" 100 Ibid, • 1-111. 101 Ibid 1')0) FiO fa's 'I t 0 d"Istl11gUlsh , between general declarations applying- to anyone , ',---',' ':~o (~mlTI1t~ a, certal11 e\'il" which arc stated in the third person, and sp,:cific ] gmcnts, ,\Inch may use eIther the second p~rson (1 S"lTI 14 H')') I" I" R') 7) the thl I tl I --" s (~ or " n" 1C atter when determining a punishment in absenti" (Gen 38"4 Num 1,) 35 II ~"m 125[ I I\:ings ,) 2 ) . I I ' - • 102 T S' ,).) , , ' all( \\ lel1 otherWIse convenil-nt (I l{ings 327), , , 'I11 it lllfferent , h, am __ 11,-1- anc! ' , I hl11gs -') "3-0S - -' 1) r'mg do, re,lson way, '\Ul11 1;, 3;:'[ (t e only rt'1l1alIll11'" MTOunt of a ." ' . , ' _ D • n exeLutIon!) I" ,loSt'h' "ssoriat"d with tl . V form of 10 31 S 'I 1°3 ' " lC I 103. ' " ' ,e,' ,l sO p, ~ and 1\, I\odt, \'T 12 (1%:!) , ::lUr;-~H;, ' , , \\ .lgll

E~\I't.""1 ,f

lUI

Sf>1l1Tl)('1

lliltions . .11.'1' :!.-.:lL rl·ft.rrrll,l( til

.I

Zall'[,-'"

I le,ttl;

'IS :til

Ix..: 111":1 riplillJ)s .\ritll"·'t'l1Tlt'S (il- ~lin"

{'n '(lllflkt

illthv trt'ats pa;--.s;q..::c ill. 1-;

}',,l'~ appl'Y

FI;r:-,tt'nspil'gcl, 1~1:'{: 1,L"olli,1',,'lw

'!);111 ritual \-,1,·: H \l" :~Ii 3. Similar phras('s are fOtllH[ ill l's n 12 3:> 2/J 31;;, ;,23. ::3 For the correct usage of

3'

::1::10, e. g., l's 22

13

10!) :1, In Has 7 2 the evil deeds simi\arl\

"surround" Israel. See abo p. 102. Jer 3[111 (with a l'ontc"t strong-ly reminiscellt ()[ flus ;,J:I) I.e" 21;·101. Lam 2! Is G310 inclirectk elst,where (e. g- .• Is }; 14 Job 1:\ ~1: Cf S. Mowim'kcl, Psalm('" . 'II , 1")"')' 001) "',(1_'>')'), :-. t lit j ten ; --, :)'-).. -' - ..... - .I'' Volz , )):" I "nH,ni" he in .Jalnl'l', 1~J2.j. I. \. \Yl'l:-'t'r, l)lP IJrnpht·tie des A1l10S. IH~~!, 1:), II l'rt·dfl!u':-;()ll, Jahwc als J,riegl_T

38

39

40

Die jUdische Ehescheidung, II 1912, 1-!--40; C. Gordon, ZA 43 (lU3G). 1G2; E. Neufeld, Ancient Hebrew l\brriage Laws, 1~144. IHOf.; ,\. Falkenstein, Neusumerische Gericht~urknnden, I 1 ~';)I), 10. [: 1'. l'estIllan, l\Iarriag'e and Matrimonial Property in ,\ncient Egypt, 1~'I;l. rib-I:!. TIl flll"g'c111"1l (Il,)..;, 1:~ 11)111 Sl\l Judg :):

(;t1nl\~·I-HI'\.!ri~

1

~;lIJI

1~ 'I

.11'1'

:~ ~I

,,1,

'.

Ps 4421 5022 787.]] 1032 1 OG 13. 21 and often in 1's 119. (These are clergy psalms or late.) So, in an unhappy phraseology, C. T"uhl, ZA \V 52 (1934). 102·-109, while his analysis is not actually incorrect. Hos 29 may imply a divorce, but is not an original part of the chapter. So in Sumerian. Akkadian. ~nzi, Aramaic, Egyptian. and Jewish forms: L. Blan,

H

42

A, "an Selms, Die Formule "Yy is lIl~- . . . ; ek is jon ... ", Hervormde Teo!ogil'<e Studies ]4 (1%9), 130-1.10; W. Edgerton, ~otes on Egyptian Marriage. 1a31, 1. 1'sp('(;ally, l\I. Sell..,rr up. lit.

11.

Chapter V: The \Vonl as :\ll's,age: Terms

88

latter case that the negative expression is not itself a legal divorce form but a prelegal or extralegal expression of repudiation, indicating a desire for separation or a refusal to comply with the relationship, an expression which can lead to judicial action. In Hammurabi's code (§§ 142f.) a repudiation by the wife in the form, "you may not have me," leads to a legal process ending either in a divorce, if the husband has unjustly disparaged her, or in a punishment for the woman. 'Marriage contracts in the Near East (especially in Egypt) specificll that the husband furnish his wife with certain, sometimes carefully stipulated, amounts of food, clothing and personal supplics 43 . Yahweh announces that he will withdraw these marital provisions, especially since the land has improperly credited her lovers with having given them to her as hire; he will apply the sanction of nakedness, appropriate for unfaithful wives44 • (But the promise of 2 16-:l:l holds out gifts after "speaking kindly" to the woman, in order to avoid divorce 45 .) The children become involved in the proceeding since their status and welfare are threatE'l1ed; Yahweh takes them to be illegitimate offspring (2 (j), so that any eviction and non-support that is meted out to her applies to them, too. It is thus in their interest to settle the matter. Somewhat sharper divorce terminology is used elsewhere. Among the Hebrew words for divorce is tthl, "to drive out;" a common term for the sexual or personal revulsion leading to a separation is ~1jz;, "to hate46." These two words occur together in Hos 9 15. The passage Hos 910-17 is indeed generally pervaded with sexual terminology, including rderences to birth and conception; the verb O~~ in its final announcement (v. 17) can denote the rejection of a, wife, as in Is 54 n. Allied to divorce is disinheritance or the reversal of an adoption. Old Sumerian and Babylonian legal text,: present formulas for repudiation "vou are not mv son" or "\'OU an' not mv father," which are pl1nish~ble, except fo~ serious cause after an elal;oratc legal proces,;47, The "not" of these formulas has probably influenced or colored the fatdul names "~ot-mv-peopl('''and ":\ot-Pitied," and the declaration, "\'OU an' not my people and (thus~) I will not be fur you" (10), Tlll's(' usages of the word "not," hO\\'evcr, belong, to a special tr~tdition of nl'gati\'(' expression, Dtn :L~, to which Hosea is related, speaks ot' Israel as "not his children" (v, OJ), "!lot wise" (v. 6, simil~1.rly

41 I,

II", ]ewisil \larriage Contra't,

1\1::" ~,:)I

' I )llfl', HZ ::3

B. Terms

I~

,\I1'ead\ J 1;1;111 "I' ,;1 I II' ::1 ~7'I.I);:I\·itll)jl \d,\P\\(ltlllll,t1tb;d.\,lcotli . . . ,IH'tlH,·,I\f,1~1:2~,\';lJ1....:.1·1111~{)JL,'it.1Blff.; (_' i I

~ ~

11 i.-': t

8()

0/

Threat and Destruction

1. Judicial Controversy (rib) "Hear the word of Yahweh, children of Israel, for the Lord has a controversy with those that dwell upon the earth" (Hos 41). With these words Hosea opens an oracle. In Hos 123, again he announces that "Yall\,,-eh has a controversy with Israel." No elaboration of the detaIls of the controversy are given; the style appears to be a technical one known to the audience. In 41-3, in fact, Hosea seems to reflect the words of his contemporaries. That passage contains a number of elements not found elsewhere in Hosea's oracles - the expression "word of Ya~weh," a form~l catalogue of sins in v. :), and the description of the suffer~ng of nature m. v. 3. In v. 4, Hosea appears to reject a judicial speakmg by the culhc leadership on the ground that it itself is no ?etter than the people and is indeed responsible for the conditions III the land (4. 4-S). Hos 4 ~ -3 evidently represents a pattern of cultic word current III Hosea's hme, which is also reflected in :VIi 752 . I~ is one.o~ the fundamental convictions of Near Eastern, including IsraelIte, relIgIOn that suffering is due to divine wrath, presumably

(1935;%),

1~,;) 1~", 1-: I.,)( ld.', k.'ns, Ag\'pl isdle Eh','\'"rt 1';1,[(',' 1!ILII (', (;"1',["" !,\\\:,j (1!1:1Iil, ~jj ::1'11: H, f ,1,., cI( It,] )as Liec! Moses, 1958, if. ' Falkenstein-Soden ISH. ,1-

The phrase O~O }:7 occurs only in Bos 1:3 J.~ and Dtn ,3:2 ,j; for ~ ~ 1'~, d. til,· 51 somewhat softer ~? '1;i!1. common in Pro\-crbs, and 1:~ ~~ in Prov 1, HI. s. H. G.C\lay. ,\]SL 48 (1931/:-3::1. 7i. sa; E. Jacob, RH!'R 4'3 (10G3), :25,')f. - B . Reich • HTR l'0 (1'l(j-) )" I • .., ,,'y"I. - ..,,h,-I, regards thiS, .. h~ptC'r as basiealh' NorthIsraelite. S (I!l!ili, ;l:.>1. :,7 l.al11('lIt" , I,'r 1·12 J,wl 1111,12 Lalll:2- I, :;"','

:l'\

],1'\"

llll~)

1~I:\~j

dfl)Il~Itt'

:.!Ilf

>1 Idlt"

III

,qntilllH':';' ;\:'

an inq)(lrt;\J11 111\'\)1!\ in Ldr'r .JudaisH) (]\, l\\t:li

Am 95

Jer 114 G 12

720 2530 Zeph 1 2f. (with the verb t'JDN as in Has 43)

6e E. g., Am 12 8 R 9:) Nah 1 4. 63 lialdar, Stu,lies in the Book of Nahum. 104. 01'. cit. 111 f.; 0, Grether, Name und \Vort Gottes im Alten Testament, i934,1-1.0-14:3 65Joh fl3 102 (for Yahweh) 1;36 402. Even the verb n:l' can be used for human arguing with God (Job 1i3 3,15).

S, Langdon

66 j'37T: IIns 714 82. The word is common as a synonym for "howl" (c. g., fs 1431) ;'nd, especially, as an expression for calling t() Cod in trouble (c. g .. Judg 10 H). 6? For Babylonian and other tra,litions: W, Rauclissin, Eyrios, III 19:.'9.561 ff.; the term e"l'n becomes "l'rst:urt" (;,1;(;). For Egvpti

1],rllTI/\\·(,d

71;

II",.; !'l:1

I I ~,lll) 1L ~I), (I( :111\ >~! fIll

~

I h:

1:1,,,,li: 1'. \lillcr. C]lO:!'j n:II;:, :::>li ::1>1 85

~~ CreSSri)tlIlll, I Il'r

\ll"·';"';L\.:-;

IH~H. ~q

93

.J er :21i I.",

91

leph ;l, ''It-N;,, "' II", Iii

II

~l!t

III:!

11:~f \'1

11~ Ifli

1",,1 ·1 ~

!l"::li' '"

ill II,,, "'

II"

3. Other Threatening Terms Hosea uses several synonyms to designate God's anger (as discussed in Chapter IV). The terms are exceedingly common in the Old Testament and the emphasis on divine wrath is widespread enough in Near Eastern literature that no proof needs to be given for Hosea's connection herein with tradition. Standardized terminology determines even details of phrasing, such as the expression "I will pour out ... my wrath" (510) and the idiom "the heat of my wrath" (11 Q). Even

95 96 97

In Joel and Zephaniah also ;'/t/t'P7, Is 13 6 Joel 115 (both ~1~~ ,w:p·). Has 713 96 10 It 122. .

In pleas: titles of Ps 57 58 5D 75 Is 6:) 8, ctc. In assurances: Gen 1828 II Kings 819, etc. (On the stem, M. Pope, JEL 83 [1%4J, 2\)9-270.) 99 Dtn 2D 22 Am 411 Is 19 1319 J er 4!) 18 50.u Zeph 29 (largely with Fahrer, Studien, 156f.). 100 R. Press, ZAW f)l (1933), :2;32-:234; for Hittitc wat, A. Goctze, Iraq :2 f) (191;;1), 126f.; J. W. Jones, The La\\' and Legal Theory of the Greeks, 1:);)1), 249. s,,(' abovc, p. 76. 101 See W. Moran and J. Harvey (separatelv). Biblica -l3 (1962), 103. 180ff. 318. 98

Chapter \': The \Vonl as ;\Iessage: Terms

II. Negative Terms

2 Yahweh ,s "hating" has l)arallels outside Hosea10 . "\Voe to them" (713 \11:]) reflects a standard curse form. ", . " .. , Among the results to be expected from d1vme ,ltta~k IS Shd~lt. A typical construction illtIO(~ucc,s with l~ ("fr~m") theob),ect 0; \vlUC~l a person will be ashamed. 1 he Item thus deSIgnated IS usual.l) something in which he had trusted or dclighted 103 , bU~ can also SImply his "wickedness104 ." According to Hosea, Israel WIll be ashamed of I~S "altars" (419) and of its "counsels" (100). "Ignominy" (47. IS) h a synonym for dishonor. The motif of a substituti~n of ".sh~mc for glo~'y," ~s expressed in 47, reappears in Hab 2 Iti. 10 put It mother words there is "stumbling"105 and "falling106 ." A rather ?bscure passage ('117) seems to say, "no one raises them," with whIch one may compare ] er 50 32 :

~hat .there .will be "no ~~n" (C'J~1;1). The last-mentioned phrase is IdentIcal WIth, or very SImIlar to, the expressions "no man" and "no inhabitant" in the book of Jeremiah 111 . The horrors of war are pictured by saying, in highly standardized phraseology, that children will be dashed in pieces and pregnant women ripped- open112. Other specific threats include the destruction of altars the downfall of the ,king, a drying of the land, and an exile. These ~redictions, too, contam symbolic or traditional motifs. The destruction of altars is announced also by Amos and Ezekiel. The statement, "Undone will be the king of S.amaria, like a snapped twig on the water" (107), not only uses the WIdespread phrase "undone"113 but may also allude to flooding water which figures as a means of destruction in the Old Testament as in its neighboring religions 1l4 . The "wilderness" (216) has.to some ext~'nt the connotation of the netherworld 115 . The strong116, drymg "east wmd" of 1315 is a destructive image; it is called "the wind (or spirit) of Yahweh," a concept which may carry some mythological meaning ll7 . The threat of exile at the hand of a conqueror is current in Near Eastern words 118 . The threat that Israel is to return to Egypt (813 93 11 5) has a symbolic meaning. Dtn 2868 lists as a consequence of disobedience thi~: "The Lord will make you return to Egypt in ships, on the way whIch I had told you you would not see again," presupposing a promise now lost. Earlier in the book a direction had forbidden a ruler to "return the people to Egypt," since God had promised - or commanded - that Israel never go on that way again (Dtn 1716). A command along these lines may have had its roots in a reaction against Solomon's international practice; more certainly, the directive or promise has some connection with the persistent theme of wilderness stories that the murmuring people desire to return to Egypt 119 . Some

96

?t'

The proud one will stumble and fall, and 110 on(' will raise him up.

Hos 1;3 3 employs the images of chaff (yb) blo:vn away by the wind and of vanishing smoke Olf~), both applied typIcally to the fate of the wicked or of Yahweh's enemies. The same verse adds the (~OU?le picture of a disappearing morning cloud and of an. early-vamshll~g dew, probably metaphors created by the l:rophe~. hImself an~ USl d also in ~ll1other context (Ii~) to illustrate the mstablhty of Israel s love. Concrete threats announce hunger, infertility, and the death ,:f children. The sentence, "they \\'ill eat but not be satisfi.ed," as It appears in Hosea and several other placesl~\ is a ::ariatlO~. of the standard positive phrase, "to eat and be satIsfIed10B . In~ertIhty and Jack of progeny -_. as threatenl·d for the people seemmgly saf~'ly settled in Palcstin,' (!J II. [(I) is a t\'pical cl('me~lt of cur~:s gl:ard~~~ treaties and inscriptions known from :\lesopotanll~ and ASia 1\Imor . Bereavement will be caused by Yah\\'eh him~dfllo, mdeed so thoroughly

111

11>2

1111, (II:, IHI1 l~, (12' .I,·r I:!, \[al 1:: !'\

lll~\ WI

il

He

I', :,,,, 11:, '\1, (in a,ldition to a hating of

1-.; I 2\1 ~Il.~\ JI'r :2 ;~Ii ~R .1 ('r ~:2 2"2 Ez :~Ij :~~ ( ) I

10:)

Ill,,",

-l;) ;);) 1-~

IOfi

Ill,"';

i,; ilH's;ck:-:.

107 HI)"'; -.llil 1.('\'

11"')fkll

l(l

2.

ltl

l:t

\Ii "

II).

(as often l'f:.;(·\dH'n'l

n-(('),('I1\'(':-;

~1)21; 1~ ~J

1),-)«(,)'>11)])\'

1\1

to fallinf! h~'

\li () J.t Ha.~ 11'"

Ehc·\\·h,·ro:·

:-;\\()rd llll'nti()l1t'/l earlier).

tIll'

1i,' S,'nonym,1. ll('~ \\'ahren HlId dl's (:'11"11 ill d"l! "emiti:,c'I",1t Spr'''.1Jen, 187:? \) 71), theft (71), adultery (74), intrigue (7',L). Jer !l 1-7 and Ps ;-)011;-21, in a related manner list as general descriptions of wickedness: falsehood, stealing o~ oppression, adllltcr)', and secrC't machinations against associates 145 ; Job ~-! I:H 7 mentions murdern,.;. thi .. n~s, adulterers, and housediggers (?) as friends of darkness. "Cursing" (i1~l\) is a designation for

146

147

1'011, ,wing Falkensll'in- C;oden ~~·I; of .\:\ ET ';~,,, no Il'ph 1 \11):-; ;-)7 :l-'1u :~Kla .-.;)211)1"11\ 1'2;,1' l't,

13"

141 ';"I,:~ 1 11"

Ln' ;->21:'. !~III C;", .. f"nll"r. \\·"III,.;J \", 1 II \Ii 7,-,f La,,, 12 .\\1·:1

S", 1'-; :>.->2If 1~1.-)

:3:,

:!'t~.

11:,111~1

Ii) I>.n .\i]'],·an pro\'crh: E. 1.'''-' Il , I\";ln,,,,,,,,

q:"

Lamh'Tt 01'. Lit. \m1111 Folklon', IG:ll,

148

lGG5, 4G, the llegati\'e form in apodictic law represents "das Eiise, :i'ichtige, Gcmeinschaftszerstorende oder -gefahrdende." Among other studies, see R Kilian,

:3:-3-1 F,a1111'I,·-; from olh"r "ultur,'s lould he gl\','n l', 1"" I'r"v :!11:, Lam -II\). For "1,10,,tn 17:! 17)';. I . . -1-·1

1;7:" I

11;.,~1

I

il

~!)ll

~~';'d

111 (;cnnan

\

\":lli

FlIrtI",r. 1:-,

t"rm reflects a general UOi ""It ion from wisdom to apodictic law, 1'" E, ((" II Sam It1\7;], :\Iontgomerv, JITRC\:! (I1JJ:l), IOl; G, Larue, Introduction to: :" C!u.:ck, l;k'c.1 ;n the Bible, 1f1G7. " It :-- :t1. ;)7 (!!I:jR), :?4~lf ~ll E. g. 7.(·ph 35 Set.- S\alen. Pie Bq;,riffc "Lit ht IJnd "I'lll.st,·mi.'. 'l!!:,l; B. ?-lcil.\· ner 01'. 'It :l/ "n Sham.-,sh; (; I:

I,

V. CONCLUSION

Hose~ni~:~l:~~ as th~ preceding di~cus~ion goes beyond the book of

1 h 1 can gIve only tentatIve mdications Yet it has b c ear t at Hosea is deeply de endent on d'" . ecome largely standardized A fl'n lP. 1 tra ItlOn, that hIS terms are . a examp e may be' h' h . h gIven, w lC YlClds parallels to several aspects treated It· which another part has be n . IS a ymn to Shamash, from are italicized. . e quoted above; Items paralleling Hosea Spread is your wide lIet ... over him, \\'ho turned his eyes toward the wile 01 his campa Ilion. On a day not meant for him (?) '" he ... There is laid for him a horrible snare

\Vhen your weapon turns on him he finds no reSCIter, In his controversy there stands by him not even his father, At the time of the judge's word " not even his brothers speak up, \\lth a metal bird-trap . he is felled to the ground, unawares. \', hoever does something horrible his horn you drstYt'y, For him who aets cunningly. full of trickery. the ground Is cut away2H

f :.; sn"ll h, II \'Inlh of the Temple,

1~1.\1,1~1. \\"it11 rl'fl'l"l'llI.: evil" (Ill!!). F"r thc stylizations applll
Der Tod 1m :\ lll'n Test"nwnt. 1!l(;7. ~4~ H. Hirkl'land, Thl' E,iJd""rs in the Book ull'sallll';,

19.'):, :!7 11I,lds that i\ similaritv bl,tween proplwt 11
Similarly. the literary critic M. Eowra, The Propheti, Element. Inii9, 18. 1'11. Bodkin, Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, 1nilS, 35, speal's appropriately of "cmotional symbolism." F. Haeussermann, \VMtempfang und SnnlJol, In32, 30-3:!, divides Old Testament symbols into those for evil, thns(; for good, and those that are ambivalent.

252

253 245

115

254

The relational character of righteousness and evil has !Jc('n emphasized by l\:. Fahlgren, $edal,:a, 1!J32; E. Achtemeier, IDE, IV 8(J-8~); [{lopfcnslein op. cit. So, often, in Mesopotamian incantations; further, Widengrcn, Psalms, 202-214; 1'II. \Vitzel, Tammuz-Liturgien, ] 835, passim; for Egyptian, Zandcc op. cit. 2] 7. 259-2G3, etc.

E. Podechard, Le Psautier, I 1949, 45; W. Lambert, .-\fO 1!1 (InGO), 117; Zandee op. cit. 217; J. Conda, nie Religionen Indiens, I 42, d'..

l. The FHnction of l'rophecy in its Context

Chapter VI: The \v' ord as 1\Icssage: Structure 1. THE FC,CTlU:\ OF l'ROPHECY T:\ iTS CU:\TEXT

Israelite culture distinguished between the priests, the prophets, and the wise. Wisdom was a strongly humanistic activity, representing what may be called the mastery relation of man. The ability to pursue wisdom was, it is true, considered to be a divine gift, but the pursuit itself laid emphasis on the exercise of intelligence. Priestly and prophetic word, on the other hand, were essentially thought of as receptive, though joined in part to reflection and obscn·ation. Priest and prophet thus present divine speech, which is absent from wisdom. The categories of priestly and prophetic speech have their roots in religious structure as such. It is an essential feature of a culture that it define the basis and thus the norm of its existence. Commonly, this is done through creation narratives and various mythological traditions. It is also an inevitable characteristic of a group that it concern itself with that which lies ahead. Two main avenues of approach for the latter are possible. Either one can attempt to insure a good prospect by means of ritual - thought to be divinely given at the origin - or one can seek to pierce the developments of future events and attempt to adjust onesdf to them by appropriate action or inaction. These two options provide a certain built-in tension between priest and prophet, but in theor~· and generally in practice their roles are complementary. At any rate, it is the prophet's pre-eminent task to see ahead so that a ~atastrophe can be avoided and good fortunes maximized. The decbrations of the future are not at all ilTC'\'ocable; for if an oracle is unfa\·orable, the person ill\·ol\·ed will simph· not proceed with his plans an(1 thus prevent the prediction from \wing fulfilled!. The proplwtic announcement docs not POSS(·"'; an ah-.;olut(· character, at least in ".() far as it j", r()oted in a changeable human situation. It only clarifies tIll' din'ction or trend ()f th;' indidrlllal TlWTl1t'nt. which one can thE"n l.itlwr ;lI'ccpt or ~w('k to change. Tlwrelw tilt' prophds arc related to the pr(l("l''''''' (If (kcision~. l

F. ~., I

~ In

Salll

11)I">l11'rl1

~:')

:l~('

l:2f

;h

g'elh'ralh-

ill prillliU\'t. ,Int! d1\·l('llt

lifl'

Ill!' rnaxirni:rillg III dt·.... in·d flIt un' lolll'1 t:-- h liltilill..tlizL'd in what is

knuwn ;hdl" i:-:inll

tlll'(,n

"~n

II \\"a",'-';('T'lll;\11

and I-"

.\n .\1lIHl1all·,j I~JiljjIJg'r:lJdJ\' 1!.;~)r; \\Ith :'lIppklll l ·[J:

:-':-I];lI1(ll-1"

1!")~

lkli:-iion-~1aking',

117

The specialization ~f prophet and priest probably was not altogether mutually exclusIve. In the surviving Israelite literature as presented m the canon, however, the separation of structures is rather pronounced. There are, indeed, almost no references to the historical :'credo" in prophetic books; the few that do occur, as in Hosea, stand III the service of an accusation pointing out Israel's inadequate respon.se 3 . Hosea, more than any other prophet, does refer positively to an Ideal p~s~; perhaps he stood personally, or as a member of the northern traclItIOn, close to the priesthood. Yet even his employment of refe~ences to the i.deal past is either one of parody or one of introducmg an accusatIOn, or both. The relationship between the offices can be seen in the followin u mann~r4. While it is the task of the priest to remember and mak~ eff?c.tIve the mythical time of an ideal past (more precisely, of an Ongm), the prophet relates the individual moment of existence to the divinely given order and evaluates that moment accordingly. The prophet refers to the ordering system as one violated or fulfilled, in order to provide either guidance or curses and, sometimes, blessings. Pri?stly declarations, like all norms, have a general appli~ation; !),rOphetic speech, as evaluation, relates to a certain specific conditionS. I herefore, the con.tent of priestly knowledge needs to be given only once, to be applIcable thereafter, while prophetic word requires constantly renewed insight. The priest's "knowledge" and tora docs not rely on his own reception of new truth but harks back to a divine revelation in the past, given to a prophet such as Moses. Thus while the content of priestly speech is strongly revelatory - as in the laws of the Pentateuch - the priest himself as an individual is not a revelatory person. The new information applicable to each situation, how3

4

Hoo 11 In·. I:? 10. 14 1341. Am 29ff. 3 If. Mi f;.[ Ez 205ff. Cf. \Veslermann. Grund~ formen. 13l. The con, _'",,' etc' n

(:\1 ~ilsson, Cults, :\Iyth,;, (lra,'!es. al1'[ !'olili,,; in .\nl i"I1l (;rw',-,·, 1!). >1 , 12·L 13 ). In the Old Testanlcnt, alnlo~t all o:-acles are placed IllHkr a nanlC', l:\Tn under Slll'll an artificial one as :\!alachi, an,l ,;uch nameS arc not archetvp:tI like :\!oses or Solomon for other traditions. , I \e" II c. g, I ,\' (., J !vlm (;;\Inla 1"cstamcnteh .'1. priesth' oracit' in pill' tn' form IS l;ttt.'ratllrhi~tori,t, l~J:~K, ;)!)-- l.;), but ("\'('n 1 ~;l1n 11-; (t!urd-pl'l:-;r)ll jll:-;sive?) is l}(Jt \'lTV g()O'[ ('"alllp!". :\!echanical orade,; appc"r il~ .I',sh 71"·1' 1 S;~J11 1'+3,\ .• 1[, 23 9'1:~ Eg\'Pl ian pril"sts f[(·ely us,'d a mechalllcal p"'''''1 S Th, pq!mlsts stood ~t least (1~ t:l()..;~- til tlw pn>plH·t:-\ a ... to t1lf' ",ric':"t",

"

I; Srl,

al~(),

E.

11'111li

1 Jjl'

p()}jti.-:'I

hell

\'Ofilllss;lg'('H

I ,T'll!) I Jt. I I'll I «('r

Files,

catv,L:'II1"\' '7,"':~

~('I'

ab'I\"

p

~If)

of sin are not very well attested in Israel, they must be assumed to have taken place, on the basis both of direct evidence elsewhere and of at least indirect indications within the Old Testament. What distinguished the great prophets of Israel from most of their contemporaries was not that they discovered evil which underlies an already present catastrophe - as in the pattern of Has 4, 1-3 - but that they saw present evil active in such a way that it culminates in doom still to come IO ; in other words, they see an operation of evil even without being required to do so by circumstances. One can now ask how, or whether, prophetic literature should be di\·ided into genrcs l l . It has been shown (in Chapter IV) that in Hosea the forms of divine and human speech can be distinguished but cannot be separated as belonging to different oracles. It is even more fruitless to make boundaries between the future and the present, for these are interrelated hoth in form and meaning, as will be seen in some detail helow. :lIore promising is a division according to the negative or positive character of a saying. Doom and hope are the two possible decisions which a prophet can render in regard to a specific situation. \Vhcther a sharp line can be drawn between the two, or whether doom and hope may belong together, is still a difficult question; after all, a prophet may make a more complicated analysis than a simple yes or no and may combine the two. In any event, however, the positive and negative structures are the two alternatives inherent in the question' of fate.

If. THE NEGATIVE STJn;CTURE

The bulk of Hosea's prophecy is taken up by accusation and threat intimately related to each other. The manner of connection between the two elements can take various forms. Very frequently the conjunction "for" (!d) introduces a reproach. Ordinarily the subordinate clause follows the main clause 12 . The re\0

So. rightly (even if an occasional exception should he found), A. Kapelrud, JBL 71 11 fJ;12) , 38.

\I

The question of whether the genre is represented bv an elementary motif or bv a larger structure is al,;o rai""d bv I~. von Rahl'nall, WZ H;dlc, G.-s. [) (1 !);l:3j5G) , G73. and is resolved hy him, to.'lltati\·,.Jy, in terJns of the fornwr. E, Scherer, l:np"r-;linli,h f"rm1Jlierte prophC"tischc' (lrak",l, ! >iss. Kirchlithe Ilochschule, B... rlin, lfJGt att~mpts lu deal with non-dlvinc indired-address prophedcs as a separate genre, ,lcri\'C'c1 from blessing" and cursing,

12

Ilos 4 I. 10. H 5 :>r. II 7 1:1 S 9 () I. 17 103 11 lIos0a, d. Wolff, Z,\ \\' ;,2 (l!J:3'+I, R.

1~r\I;,1:\i·\hl'()riL."til1;d

tornl /}f pnq')lll'! I'·...; 1.";\lfllL'tilllC:-i ~('I'ull(larlly ((111l n·ti/l.. dl ~ E ~, F. L. ]-:\,lll' 1'1,1, !1;lr, ~ll J Io~ j 1 ~illl1L\rh' ..-) 3 72. 17

21 ,Faldg'n'l1

"j'

and Crin1inal

'II

;,lIfl; similar!\' ill (;n'v','

1.:1\\ III

\thl.'IlS, I I~':":!. :~:.~\

~unstrll, ti'lJl

rs

linsolt. 1':-"1'1 4ality; for he goes beyond practical programs of betterment (which generally avoid ironic satire) to a more absolute vision of existence. The presence of irony illustrates the complexity of Hosea's speech. His negative structure may not be subdivided into separate genres, as though the component parts were independent of each other. Rather, the ~tructure as a whole represents man and God in a relation of enmity, which is not altogether irrational54 but is the end point of the human direction. This conflict spells fundamental disruption and death, even for a sacrcel people.

It is true that many Old Testament traditions promise reward fur a faithful and good life, but almost nowhere does one fincla word to the present generation which assures it a good future 011 the basis of its having achieved moral excellence 56 • A reward structure, it is true, is by no means irrelevant to prophecy; for, in its negative form, it is presupposed by the words of threat. But it belongs to general law, as it is pronounced and observed by priest and wise man 5i . God's goodness is said to exert itself in spite of Israel's activitv... Yahweh loves the children of Israel, though they turn to othe; gods and love raisin cakes" (Hos 3 1). The question accordingly arises how positive statements arc related to negative ones. Certain positive forms, namely those declaring God's goodness in the past, form the background for accusations. Israel's sin is viewed as one of false response to God. The nation has failed to acknowledge or remember his kindness (210 7]5 11:!f. U G) and has ignored his laws (4 (\ 81:!). tora and exhortation perform a dual function. toyci is quoted in order to illustrate the divine direction violated by the people (6 (\ 101:! 127). Other words point out the road now to be taken or to be avoided (415 14 2f.). The second meaning is to a certain extent implied by the first group of sayings. Exhortations for the future are closely related to promises, often conditional, as already in Mari prophecy. Amos ([nH.) exclaimed, "Seek good and not evil, so that you may live. '" Perhaps Yahweh, the God of hosts, will have mercy on the remnant of Joseph." The word "perhaps" belongs in the context of attempts to avert the \vrath of God 58 . For that which is to be done, or can be done, is not to build or earn a good future but to cast oneself on the mercy of God, seeking the substitution of a reality grounded in divine mercy for the one appropriately arising from man. 1\lan thus seeks something beyond his control or determination. "I will love them of my own free will" (Hos 145) is Yahweh's reassuring promise. The people arc encouraged to believe that his coming is "set" (ready) when there is opennl'SS to it (Has 63). The thrust of both tora and other calls indeed, is that Israel should seek and "wait for" Yahweh (127). Israel is to seek Yahweh "until he come and rain righteousness" on them (10 ]2). Negatively

126

HI THE l'(lSITJ\'E ST!{U'lTIU:

The positive form of Isradite prophecy docs not ground its prediction in human activity. The prospect presented therein is not the future arising from man but an occurrence based in God. The mowment of human life is toward doom, but the purpose of Yahweh is directed toward the good of his people. Most promises in Hosea lack any sort of grounding. One, however, gives a reason: "For I am God - and not man, the Holy One in your midst" (11 Il). Hosea's pattern reflects the situation generally prevailing in Old Testament oracles of weal. \\'hatever grounding is given lies in the di\'inl' pmpose 55 . E. g .. lJ. Lang. judaism 11 (1:1\;21. 2.t!, ·--2:) l For an ~ thqro:L.:'·:II\

,~

is glurifil d by HOSl':L

>tak ,I! (li,;,,!',[, ~ '. : i istoricdh', Y:tllil'::,m \\'as a; n()I1Lld;c lh\(t()lIi~li~lil \\·ith it~ eillplta:-:.i:-; (J~l ~..;c·lf-n . \ljanci,_" ia

-('I"'atc'll

(J!)~){l
Tl\'l'h:tion;lr)' force o[ a "utopia". unrealized within" gi\'l':1 social orrler, was "".]] ]",jllt>.. ,l out by l \ :lL,lI1nlwim, Id"o!o.C;y and l'topiZl. HI:~i;, 1 Ii. 1 ifl. :: For ;l cautions scmi",,!,j,ytivist (l,;J,irallv correct?) StJ.l',l11cllt.S'·'· H. Han' in B. illitchc'll (c'd,), Faith and Logic, 10'-,i, liG-19T 7~ See S. Pepper in \'. Ferin (cd.), :\ Histury of Philosophical System,;, l!i:,II, -!'!;\-,',II:;; l-
!1'::-:.tilllll,· ,Iii d~llf;'

J'il)pl,ctil.' zur hl·id·

)\"1· 1\,

111;d

"I'

1i'.ll\

'!1

l~j~),'"

,~,.~

brothers, adultery, and a generally evil world 85 . In the last age, according to Hesiod, fathers and children, guest and host, companions and brothers fight each other; oaths arc not kept, might is right, envy rules s", Other examples of such expectations could be cited, for instance in Rome and in Persia. Hosea views such evils as currently present and sees himself as living' just before the end of the historical era. Egyptian traditioll experienced se\'erc social disorder toward the end of the third millenium B. C.; that situation led to denunciations, exhortations, and announcements, which Seem to have influenced the form and content of Israelite prophecy, as noted for Hosea. The establishment of order thereafter in the Egyptian ::'Ilidd[e I\:ingdom seems to have !cd to an experience of profound re[ief; the consequent motif of national salvatioll may also have left an eventual mark on O[d Testament religions7 . The Egyptian Book of the Dead (eh. 1(5) declares, in a rare approximation of a fullsea[e eschato[og)', that at the end the Creator Atum remains alone in the water as at the beginning. ::'desopotamian texts feature descriptions of good and bad periods 8B , which probably ha\'e left their imprint on Old Testament prophecy. One set of "\kkadian apocalyses describes past good and bad reigns (the latter with strife, famine, destruction of sanctuaries, etc.) as though they are future and ends apparl·nth· in a somewhat \'ague future hope B9 • The Babylonian Erra Epic describes a uni",'r",[ catastrophe, to be followerl by a world leadership by Babylon; but it has a ritual use for repeated application 9o An unclear fragmentary text of doom describing moral evil w'ith family strife and political dissensions may reflect a time when Babylonia was threatened by Assyria 9'. Despite certain inner tensions, Kear Eastern society remained sufficiently secure in the hands of heroic or aristocratic figures. such as a king, to remain fundamentally thisworld[y. A similar perspective pervaded I [omeric religion and Brahmanism, at a comparable stage of culture. A more shattering and transcending eschatological perspective comes somewhat later Zoroastrianism made a human struggle between good and evil leading to an imminent End its central theme. \Vithin Hinduism, the theory of 11lOksha - free release from the cycle of life - developed to set forth a hope of transcending imperfect existence. Buddhism made such transcendence the central aim of its religious practices. Some Buddhists, especially Nichiren with a relatively pragmatic perspectiYe, e"pecled a speed v o\'erthrow and redemption of tbe present evil reality9". Especially (Jll a popular !c\'c!, there arc strong hopes for a future (Hindu) Krishna or Vis[mu 93 or a coming Buddha; on central Asian mountains, "Come, Maitreya, come!" is ins, ribed 94 . In China, the idealistic lower-class C\Io-tzl\ expected a future Golden Age ,', E . .\Iudrak, Korclische Gatter- uncl I-Iclden-Sagcn, l:JGl. 1):1. ,,; Works and Days, lines 180~-200. " C:ce AXET 407-410.411--446; G. Lan,z].;:o\Vski, c\ltiigyptiscbc:r Prophetisnllls. HJ(i(l " E. g., H. Gi'lterbock, ZA 42 (f0iH), I--lj1. "'\:\ET 451£.; ,\. Grayson and "-. Lambert, Journa[ of Cuneiform Studies Hi (I~l{jt), 7 -130; W. Hallo, Israel Exploration Journal IG Il:JGli), 2,31-242. ,," cO. o , B. :\regg "p. cit. U+ (ett'.) .

,',I

:\1',11,',111',',

II

,-"!I,

135

,., E. ('onze, Budclltist S'.Tiptlires. Ifl:ifl. :!17 .

contrasting sharply with present S\'stems"'. In short, decisi\'e individual or collective eschatolog ies devclop in connection with a sense of the problematrcs of thc human situation The marc desperate and disturbed the human ordcr appears - espeCIally :harply ~elt in the more dcvelope,! religions - the strongl'r is an expcctation of an End"". A SpCl ia! tL'st case is furnished 11\' so-called "messianic movemcnts" of reCl'nt times, In prilHitin' societies threatelwd "ith i,!co]ugi"al dissolution through contact with the modern world strong hopes for a decisivc rencwa! and restoratIOn have frequently ariscn. Expectations usually invo!\'c a more or less passivc - frequently an ecstatic - ,,'aiting for an imminent di\'ine salvation. :"ot an acluevement-onentcd goal-dircctc'!ncss, but a receptive relation to the spcedv coming of a paradisiacal good, characterizes thcir attitude, \"hich can thus be properly termed an cschatological one 97 . Thcrc are indications tlwt such a "foolish" approach - from a pragmatic standpoint - is closely related to a disorder in the society's valuc system and self-conccpt"S GenerallY speaking', it appears that pure physical hardshi.p,. unaccompanicd. In' moral malaise, docs not lead to a "messianic" mo\'ement; for It IS spIrItual or cultural disorder to which such eschatological hopes n'Spo'lll. Chiliasti,: e"pcetations ha\'c f10nrished among disadvantaged and confused groups within larger societies"". Both primitive and lowcrclass movements ~re often led. bv a charismatic prophet who recci"es divine re\'elatlOns about dehveranee. Somctimes thc'se groups c"lwd to be able to hastcn the End through a moral refor· mation of thc·ir own li\'cs; th('11

\\.

'-'.•

;qdl,'r!"

1\1,111.:'>,:,

li T

and d(·r(lg;l1i,.. (·l~,' 1'< ljlllT\'

;·1

r·::·,

(:-~ 1

·t

1'" ~t,

I

(')1111)I!ll

ij~

1:,111 ]:; ... J·I ;', ;\...; (11-':" 11-....;(,11

11 lOr.

, )

;;~I "u

. .10e!.

,j"

...... +7.

oS 7

i -;

....

:1 7 II" ~ I I n-1 ~

:il

· •.•••

:2

'.J

11. ]:: (;_~-,

. -;

I;

l:l

. . . . . ,~:)i

;) Jj.••

l::j7J.

. . . . :3,,1

:) I:'".

1:~ 1 u . Lj -1-1

L--,

;-)~. ~ -L ~;l.i 11 11 l~~,'

.

i: ~ ( .

. . . . . •. 1•

J:I[

It; .

1')1

.... )1

.7-1•••• i) 1 ~ Pi

L~ [;-) 11- J t -t :i 1·1-:: 11;;-". . t-l ;j -" 1-1- ~

.. IU.

1(]:) 1 I 'i

1(I

)

....

1:·) (;

(II i:! ..

,>

11!·[ . . . . . :Ii> ~ with J)\' C \Yjf.~_ p"IIII" Pi"n d:l!l .... ! :\ n('11 'n T('~~Lllli('nt 1 1':l: ~(;-- ~~fl), 1!J.tl 11""';";1 ·..:.\·IltlJt,..... il"-.,: Haalisti( pk -.1' II -1-:!1 ,-; I (j-1:::

'I

Ih .. I

, .•,!

..

~-11

-7

-t_

I

-, -,

I

" I : -, 1'-,- IC,t ( ') I~i j(j ~I:

I; I f.

I;

I;

1'1

·h::

~

v

,) ~--t

......... III:;

( !)

"I l1

:,~

,I C'

"

,

I ;

" +, j~

-t·l· ·1:: H ~ .)

i :.2['

I

')

I::

f.

-1-:!

!J 7 ,I

" "h')

-I:! -1-:: -11

:J

~I

4::

!J

JOb.

~ I ,~l

H

Index

142 H D.... !)

I:>....

.41 lOIn....

41 l~

.

'i. 4~ l~ II .. 4~ U 12-'~a . . . . .

. .4~ 11l 1:>

44 11] f.

!J 16L

4~ 11:J

102 10~-8a 1(1~

l0IIb

11112.

.

. .

41 1:21'-,.

4~ 11:;-7.. 41 11 ilb 44 pO'

. .. 4~ 1~ 7 ..

.

..

44 1:11 41 l'l2 -11 H 41. .41 1:31l

4~118 H

44

t:) 10 -

.4~1141

...4114~(')

41114:;-7.

...

'
~'O l)t ~

10!Jf.140 123. U5 9lf. , .. 107 (l8.112

I;yh h.-esacd ~p~

tTl'

bus,

vd' , , . ,()G v6m

berit

82.102f. ]2:3 vkh

da't';('k hlk

znh z''1

()R )'sr·

102 Ik,h]/., l02f. (11 Jo'

n!) 108f.l11 .,.,. 106f. 105 R4 !J2.10G

.44

4~1

Zu]etzr crschienen:

. .. 4~, , .. 41 i

labi ~ laken m's , sbb srI' 'a~ab .. ,

84 'i8. ]20 7!l. 86. 88 86 12. 102 , .. 104 !J3 'as ' , , . , , .. , , 8G fl1.9:1 'aWi (;2.124 , :H. 84 pii~l R4 , ,.,., '. : ,:,2.(~,f(K P'1d (12 f J 2:31

:3!li

pr' ,. 87--S!) ps' u

Herausgegebcn von GEORG FOHRER

..4~

Studien zur alttestamentlichen Prophetic (1949-1965). Von G. FaHRER. XII, 303 Scitcn. 1967. Ganzleinen DM 60,- (Heft 99) Jlidische Lehre und Frbmmigkeit in den paralipomena Jeremiae. Von G. OELu\:c. VUf, 77 Seiten. 1967. Ganzlcinen DM 24,- (Heft 100)

C. Index of Selected Hehrew Words 'Ll 'hb 'iiharit 'a:lohaj

2ur

.42 (I) . . .f~ 14 1 .. .41 ..

111~1

Beihefte Zeitschrift fUr die al ttestamentliche Wissenschaft

q bt~' !J·1 ra fJR rib 33f. 76f. R3. R!I. Hl-!1:195.115.]25 sn 88. !Hi Sllb 92. 97.10Cl 107. 12:\ sl;t (84) !);,!J8 skI., , ,1'7 t

; \1.

U,'tL"r"llchu,~;,(,.'Jl l'!lx "

}~;l:'rL'n WHJ

1 SUnl111ukI.