The Problem Solving Memory JoggerTM
rn
is the best source tor you and everyone in your organization to systematically identify problems and their root causes and to create innovative solutions.
Buy in Quantity for Special Discounts 1-9 copies ..................$10.95 each 10-99 ........................... 15% discount 100499 ....................... 30% discount 500-1999 .....................35% discount For quantities of 2000 or more, call for a quote.
Customization Options Available Give the I-'rohlem Soking Memory JoggerTM(or any o t h e d Memory Jogger'M product) your company's own personal style. Customization allows you to creatively corn binc thc contents of GOAL/QPC products with y o u a own docurncnts and training materials, and in many cases, allows you to print in the language of your choice. Anything's possible, just call and ask.
w
To place an order, get a quote, or ask about cust(>mization,call
GOALIQPC
1-800-643-4316 or 603-891-194 or Fax: 603-870-9122 E-mail: sen~iceBgoalqpc.com Web site: http://www.goalqpc.com
The
ProblemSolving Memory JoggerTM Seven Steps to l mproved Processes
~lrst Edition
GOAIJQPC
The Problem Solving Memory Jogger" Seven Steps to Improved Processes
02000 by GOAL/QPC. All rights reserved. Reproduchon of my part of thispublication without the written permission of GOAL/QPC is prohibited. Development Team Writers Michael Brassard Carolyn Field Fran Oddo Bob Page Diane Ritter Larry Smith Copy Editors Fran Oddo Dan Ficard Cover and Book Design Michele Kierstead Graphics Production Carolyn Field Michele Kierstead Fran Oddo Dan Picard
GOALIQPC 12B Manor Parkway, Salem, NH 03079-2862 Toll free: 800-643-4316 Phone: 603-893-1944 Fax: 603-870-9122 E-mail:
[email protected] Web site: http://www.goalqpc.com Printed in the United States of America First Edition 10987654 ISBN 1-57681-031-3
a
Acknowledgments We extend our sincere thanks to the following people for their insights, suggestions, and encouragement throughout the develo~mentof this book.
, R
Concept and Content Reviewers
Linda Antonie American Airlines
Weston Milliken CUE Consulting
Charles F. Boudreau Qualifu D~mensrons,Inc.
Linda Phillips Honeuwdl Electronic ~ote;ials
Dou Daetz ~ewgtt-l'ackavd Co. Pamela Dunham GE Aircraft Engines Alan H. Field MicroTouch Swstems. Inc. Nicolas P. Governale Governale &Associates Leieh Anne Griffin pac$~are
, ,
LorinHouse
Pac+care Francis Kim Medtron~c,lnc. Peggy McGibney First Data Merchant Services
Sumathi Ravindra Raj Global Quality G. Engineering Consulting Aleta Richards Baycr Corporation Lynne Rosiak PaclfiCare Larry Smith Ford Motor Company Luby Weaver North Carolina Community College System John 8. Wright Lifetime Learning, Znc.
How to Use The Problem Solving Memory Joggerm The Problem Solving Memory loggerTMis designed for you to use on the job or in the classroom. This book uses a problem-solving model based upon a variety of data and knowledge-based tools. The emphasis of this model is on root cause analysis and innovative solutions. Use this book as part of a self-study program or as a reference before, during, and after training to learn the concepts, methods, and basic tools for effective probP Solving Memoy lem solving. Each step in T ~ Problem JoggerTMdetails the key concepts and the practical skills that you should master. The book also highlights a case example that demonstrates how the tools are used in each step in the process. You'll also find page refcrrnr~.;tu suppc)rting books on tool rnn.itructi.
If the problem-solving process is not complete, answer these questions: What have you donelaccomplished so far? What do you have left to do? What obstacles have you encountered? Do yo^ nave any prel mlnary recomrnendalons?
..
a
. .:'--',". ."L%~..-. '
.-
What have team members learned about themselves and other team members? What have team members learned about their work, the organization, and the organization's suppliers and customers? A
Who will paruc~parein the presentation? Try to Include as many team members as 1s feaslole. Distrdbute a typeo report. lncl~dlng handouts of sapporting documentation. Reserve ana know how to Jse tne auoiovisual equipment needed for the prcsenwl on.
108 Step 6: Review and Evaluate
~m,xw.,wc
d 911des or a comp n can help focus your aud on the important polnts
I
1
aunts of data are bes or tables. A detailed exp oblem-solving process and c re best presented in a written bers of your audi
~ Z W O G O ~ F C
The 7Step Model 109
-Y
ABC Team Standardizes ,e,mpmrnent
Rased on the results of the t e s t of the revised process, team members f e l t they had implemented an effective, lasting solut~ont o the problem of t o o many reworked graphics. The team f~nalizedthe new process Flowchart, documented the standard o erating procedures for the rcvrsed process, a n l p t both the Flowchart and operating procedures on the company Intranet so t h a t anyonecould e a d y referto them.
-.--.-
P--
-2
,"
- --
110 Step 6: Revlew and Evaluate
-OPLW G O A ~ P C
4. Continue to monitor the process for changes.
Designate a process champion. This is someone who has the ongoing responsibility for monitoring process measures and reporting changes to the organization. This person should be knowledgeable about the process, its documentation, procedures, and required training. Use theappropriate tools to monitor the process. (See Step 3, page 54 for a list of tools.) Establish a monitoring plan for collecting data. Address these issues: - How much data should be collected? - Who will collect it?
-
How often should it be collected? What records will be kept? By whom?
BPOWGOAUOPC
The 7-Step Model
111
%
ABCTeam Moniixrs %heChange
The ABC team submitted i t s final report t o the management group. This report contained a recommendation for appointing someone from managementto be responsible for monitoring key performance areas t o ensure t h a t ABC was able t o "hold the gain" in t h e new roduct development process and t o identify otRer possible ways of improving the proces6 in the future. The team recommended t h a t t h e reviews focus on t h e following: Feedback from the book reviewers on t h e quality of t h e graphics The number of unacceptable graphics The frequency and duration o f delays caused by reworking unacceptable graphics Jeremy accepted responsibility for tracking and reporting these measures a t monthly management meetings.
112 Step 6: Review and Evaluate
0 axx)G O ~ P C
... .. ..
How can I turbo-charge this step?
2p
Teams should consider using these tools to help the organization, customers, and suppliers to more thoroughly understand the solution and how the change(s) will affect them. Use computers and Intranets for instantly communicating information. Use Force Field Analysis to identify the driving and restraining forces that will influence the required process change(s). (See MJII, p. 63.) Work on strengthening the driving forces and/ or removing the restraining forces. Use the Affinity Diagram and the Interrelationship Digraph to organize the data and focus on the important issue(s) affectingthe change. (See MJII, pp. 12 and 76, respectively.) Use the IS0 9000 Standards as a formal or informal process to standardize your processes and documentation. (See MJ9000R000, pp. 19-40.)
e m GOALMPC
The 7-Step Model 113
Reflect and Act on Learnings: Act Learn~ngfrom and fmprovrng your team's problem-solvfng process What does this step do?
mo
Helps teamsaddress thelessons leamed from the problem-solving process and identify the next improvement opportunities. What concepts must I understand to do this step?
Learning Organization In a learning organization, knowledge is defined, documented, reviewed, updated, and easily available to everyone in the organization. The knowledge that team members and leaders have aained about what worked, what didn't work,kdwhatneeds to bedonenext (if anything), should be clearly understood and documented. When teams share their results, it helpsreinforce what they learned and helpsothers in the organization to benefit from the team's experience so that future problem-solving efforts and team performance can be improved. Human Dynamics and Team Spirit To have good teams and good teamwork, team members need to: Continually build on their knowledge and skills. Build and manage cooperative relationships with others. 114 Step 7: ReflectlActon Leatnings
02W300AUQPC
Develop their skills in identifying and solving problems. Do what they can to create environments and processes that encourage people to excel in their work. What actions must be taken in this step? Use Classic Brainstorming Construct and interpret the Radar Chart Celebrate! How do I do it?
-7-
1. Assess the problem-solving process the teamused and the results achieved. Recommend changes, if needed. When teams make reflection and assessment part of the regular problem-solving process, they can avoid making costly mistakes in the future and can develop more productive ways of working. Pay special attention to the processes that produced the results, not just the results. - How well did the problem get solved? How could it be better next time?
-
Howwelldid the process for s o l v ~ t h e p r o b l e m work? How could it be better next time?
Assess the team's effectiveness on each part of the PDCA Cycle: - Plan: What did the team plan to do?
-
Do: What did the team actually do? Check: What did the team find when they checked?
- Act: What will be done about the differences?
o m GOALIOPC
The7StepModel 115
Assess the training, if training was provided as part of the team's problem-solving process. - What areasneed improvement (tools,process, teaming, etc.)? -
H
What new areas need to be covered?
Brainstorm a list of lessons learned. What did you learn about: - Yourself as an individual? - Yourself as a team player?
¤ H
- Your customers? - Your organization?
H I
To assess the team's eff processes, consider chart (MJII, p. 137 ) This too assess multiple performance illustrates to the team what's needs ~mprovement,and if team members' percephons.
116 Step 7: ReflectlActon Learnings
H
m 2wo GDAWC
-Y
ABC Team Evaluates the ,pieme
TheABCteam had afinal meeting toconduct performed a s a team a self-assessmenton how ~t and t o identify areas t h a t needed t o be addressed in the future by other problem-solving teams. The team used a Radar Chart t o assess five areas of performance, on a scale of 0-10, w ~ t h0 equal to'non-functioning"and 10 equal t o "excellent" Individual team member scores for the five areas of performance are illustrated In the chart below
Y/
3
ABC Team Evaluates t h e Experience, continued
The team looked for clustered scores t o see where members were In agreement and for extreme scores (h~ghand low) t o understand why members were n o t In agreement The lowest score was a "2" for "Tralnlng Effect~veness,"whde t h e other scores f o r t h a t category were ' T o r h~gher Stephano, who ass~gnedthe "2," expla~nedt h a t he rated i t so iow because he already knew the subject matter fa~rlywell and d ~ d n ' tneed the tralnlng Afterthe tra~nlngwasover, headmttted t o htmself t h a t he could have probably helped the team more by using t h a t time t o do research or other work. In light of this, the team made a recommendation to Delaney, the Director of Human Resources,to improvethe department's process for determinine training needs ty providing s t a f f with more detailed information about course objectives and content. The highest score of "10" was given t o "Participation." while the other scores for t h a t c a t egoryrangedonlyaslowas"7."Lani,whoassigned the "10," said t h a t in the p a s t she had worked almost exclusively by herself and this was a refreshing change t h a t resulted in one of the best work experiences t h a t she had in years. Team members congrat~llatedthemselves for having only one score below '5," which they used a s a cut-off point t o indicate a serious problem or area needing attention.
f i 8 step 7: ReRectlAct on Learnings
o rn GOALIOPC
... .. ... ...
2. Continue the improvement process where
needed; standardize where possible. Continue talking with customers. Seek other opportunities for improvement. Consider reviewing the team's Pareto Chart (from Step 1)to select the next problem area to focus on. Consider new problems that were identified during the problem-solving process hut were put on a "to do" list (or "parking lot"). These problems may have been in &e parking 10; because they: - Did not relate to the~roblem beine " addressed.
1
- Were beyond the scope or capability of the
I
team. If this is true, charter a new team to address the problem or refer the problem to management or an improvement steering team.
3. Celebrate success.
Celebrate the contribution of team members and everyone else inside or outside of the organization that supported the team's efforts. It helps to reinforce the positive feelings that come from working together to solve problems. There are many ways to celebrate: Hold a party ...go out to lunch ...say "thank you" ... present a small gift ...recognize participants' successes in front of their peers. However your team chooses to celebrate, make sure it will be enjoyable for everyone.
I e m GOALXIPC
The 7-Step Model 119
_(I ABC Team
Celebrates
The ABC team celebrated by host~nga luncheon Team members, the project sponsor, the company president, keysuppl~ersandcustomers, and a photographer were ~ n v ~ t e dEach . team member received a g i f t desk s e t embossed w ~ t h the project name and s t a r t and end dates
;p
How can I turbo-charge this step? Use the Intranet to post the team'slearmngs Thls communication will contribute to the mamtenance of a leanung organlzahon Recognize and reward people for their work.
120 Step 7: RefleeVAct on Learnings
Q m GOIUMPC
..
.
H
Creating a Storyboard What does a storyboard do?
A storyboard is a self-explanatory, graphic summary of the key analyses, decisions, and actions of the problem-solving process. It keeps the organization informed of the team's progress during the Plan, Do, Check, and Act steps. What concepts must 1 understand to create a storyboard?
How the team's problem-solving effort addresses a customer-related problem. The team's purpose and objectives (the problem statement). How the team used the tools, and what actions were taken to address the problem. Who was involved in the problem-solvingprocess. What data were collected, and how the team interpreted the data. The proposed solution. The targets, milestones, and results of the project.
-.
What actions need t o be taken to create an effective storyboard? Summarize the team's activities and results so that the storyboard text is simple, clear, and
interesting to non-team members. Create graphs and charts that are accurate and easy to understand. BPMO GOAUQPC
Creating a Storyboard 121
Present information for quick understanding, using photographs, drawings, cartoons, and other graphics. Organize information to show the sequence of events and actions as they occurred during the problem-solving process. Show the relevance of the team's obiectives to the organization's objectives.
rn
How do I create a storyboard?
1. Assemble the materials and people needed to create the storyboard. Have ready: - A corkboard, whiteboard, or other flat surface you can post paper on
-
Index cards or Post-it "Notes
- Pushpins or tape - Colored markers or pens
rn
- Camera
.
- Computer
Use these supplies to capture your team's ideas and results during meetings.
r
rn
.The.ideal storyboarding toplc 1s a project or mbahve that has a fixed timeframe, affects and lnvolves people, ~mprovessomethmg, e.g., a process, product, culture, technology, and shows measurable change Choose a teammember torecord information for the storyboard.
122 Creating a Storyboard
(I
2.
Post the storyboard where it will be visible to everyone in the organization. Use the storyboard to chart progress and to keep others informed. Display the storyboard on a commonly used bulletin board, meeting room, or other heavily used public wall space. Consider using the company's 1n.tranet to post the storyboard. When your team IS decidmg the eatmg and hsplaymg the storyboard, b mmd the ltkely durat~onof the problem-sol process, the wear and tear the storybo recelve, and the confldenhallty requl ents of your organlzahon Also constd hat areas In your organlzahon need to kno bout your team's efforts.
3. Develop the storyboard.
The storyboard your team creates can be developed either dunng or after the implementation of the process improvement effort. Post the problem statement on the storyboard. Post information about the team, such as team member names, roles, and tasks assigned. Summarize the work that is completed in each step or sub-step of the problem-solving process. - Avoid jargon and explain technical terms - Keep the graphics and text simple so that
everyone in the organization can understand the storyboard.
O ~ G O A ~ F C
Creating a Storyboard 123
-
Highlight the results of each step. Use photographs, graphs, and data wherever possible rather than narrative. Clearly show any improvement in the problem area selected, and the team's and organization's measures of success. Mention what the team has learned about teamwork, a particular process, the organization, its suppliers, and its customers.
Make the graphtcs easy to understand by % m !p n gp b f the design of the chart (not the data). Full grids are rarely needed, and u4e shades of gray rather than patterned fill Avoid the use of legends whenever poss~ble. Instead, write labels on the graph rtself.
tv
+Feu
When you present your results, make sure order the data in ways that serve your purpose. Ask "What is the trend we want to show7" 'Ilus trend mav not be the order in which you collected the data. 3
How can I turbo-charge the storyboarding process?
~
2 v
Display the storyboard during meetings to focus the teamon theimprovementeffort. Storyboards also help maintain continuity when team membership changes. Consider using a software package to generate and store the storyboard
124 Creating a Storyboard
.. .
Handy Checklist for Creating an Effective Storyboard
.
ows the relevance of the team ectives to the organization's
1 Does ~texplain what actlons were taken?
f 7 I
i areis selected? !
O ~ W O G O ~ P C
text are clear. --U
a
Shows by who correct
whatihe teain has learned
I
Clearly labels the x and y axes of graphs with the measures used, e.g., number of complaints, monthly sales in dollars, percent of goods returned.
Creating a Storyboard 125
?
Storyboard Example
I I
The S i t u a t i o n The Browning E e m e n t a y School District recently finished a four-year building project, whch combined two smaller schoois into one For grades K-6. Now t h a t the space needs of i t 5 growing student population had been me the staff and administration felt t h a t they should addreas other important issues. For the f i r s t time, the annual survey of i t s stakeholden showed a decrease In satisfaction Bchooi board meetings had come t o be dominated by parents and t e a c h e n unhappy with the educational programs.
I
!
~
I
The administration decided to form a team w improve the quality of h e educaton program. and Ianned a follow-up survey of stakeholdee. The &d survey revealed t h a t although parents and students were v e y happy with the buiiding and equipment, they were n o t happy with the 1 existing physical education (PE) program. Jim Hoyt, the 5choo1's physical education teacher, led the team% effort to improve the PE program.
Artwork courtesy of Sharon McCarly
126 Creating a Storyboard
OMWQO,UKJPC
I
?
Step 1. Describe the Problem
?
I
Problem Statement: There is a hgh percentage of children who are dissatisfied with PE class. Reason selected: A follow-up survey revealed t h a t dimatisfaction with the PE program was a major cause of the growng dissati5faction w ~ t hthe educational program. Sources of . Dissqtisfa I o n In ~ducatlonal?rogram
Milestone5
Team Members
statement wrltten, d~strlbuted
2 Jan ce Ww principal Tom Hem
(9112)
Storyboard begun 5ueKo56~5chmlboard.Problem statement rev~sed, dstnbuted toteam, school staff,
~
~
0
Creating 0 a Storyboard ~ 127
1?
M p 2. Describe t h e C u r r e n t P r m a s
?I.
1 An analyss of the key process measures showed t h a t
128 Creating a Storyboard
@ZWOU~AW~FC
.
?
?
Step 3. I d e n t i f y t h e R o o t Cause(e) of t h e Problem Problem: Number of students who are d ~ s s a t ~ s f ~we~dt hPE claee 1s h~gh Driver Cuniculum not age appmpnate ln=OOut=4
Too much time spent on rules I n = l out=2
\, \
Outcome Not enough time!o c exerase ln=5 Out=O
----__
-
Behavior problems In=3Out=I
f
Number excuses from nurse high I n = l Ou=l
-
/
*
Students s lit on likesp disltkes i n = l Out=3
5tudents are frustrated by the small amount of
time they actually spend exercising. Ths was caused by a curriculum that had been stretched to flt too many students of different ages (1124).
Milestones FOGUS group formed, collected comments and data (1111) Interrelat~onsh~p Dlgra h (llk). created and ver~f~ed
I
? Step 4. Develop a Solution and Action plan? The team brainstormed
part-tim w c h c g innpcnen'ed cand~dmc s e w
130 Creating a Storyboard
Step 5. Implement the Solution Projec' Prolect Plar~Area Plan
7
Variance Reason
Schedule
The newteacherwas h ~ r e don schedule The advertlslnq and survey
.
Milestones Finance committee approved proposed budget with some debate (3116). O f f e r accepted, new hire began a t t h e s t a r t of the new school year with a oneyear contract
(6114). Principal, team approved new curriculum (1011).
H
O~~~GOAWPC
Creating a Storyboard 131
P
; ; Y ; {1~ I 0
7
s t e p 6. Review a n d E v a l u a t e t h e R e g u l t s of t h e Change Annual Survey last yearb survey
2nd Suwe of Program
yeas
d
Z
1.65%of the annual surveys are returned, showing 25'1. improvement in satisfaction with overall quality. 2.2nd survey of program areas shows 60%decrease in dissatisfaction w ~ t hPE program. 3. Number of behavior problems reported to principal is reduced by 20%. 4. Number of excuses from nurse decreases 10%.
,
Milestones Team sent survey results and a l e t t e r w the school board recommending t h a t the new teacher be reta~nedpermanently (1014) Team presented survey results a t a school board meeting (1017) Team leader wrote parent newsletter art~cle descnbrng currtculum ~hangesand the results uf the sutvey (1017)
132 Creatlng a S t o r y b o a r d
'
OZWOGOA~PC
step 7.Reflect. and A c t on Learnings
Effective use of"
-------'Teamwork
b There was also concern about the team3 knowledge of how to measure stakeholder sat15fadion A new sub-team wascrsatad
educe the Impact of
Milestones T e a m played a softball game and had a plcn c lunch t o celebratel
?
Storyboarding References
I
Forsha, Harry I. Show Me: Tlze Complete Guide to Storyboarding and Problem Solving. Milwaukee, WI:ASQ Press, 1995. Raymond, Larry. Reinventing Communication: A Guide to Using Visual Language for Plamzing, Problem Solving, and Reengineering. Milwaukee, WI:ASQ Press, 1994. Ritter, Diane and Michael Brassard. The Creativity ~ ~ . N H : GOAL/QPC, 1998, Tools Memoru" .i o p ~ e rSalem, 165-167. uu
Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning information. Cheshue, CT: Graahics Press. 1990.
134 Creating a Storyboard
OZMOGDAUQPC
. w
Types of Measures
Quality
I
I
1
Key product or servlce characterstlcs of j Interest to you and the customer mistakes, 1 8 fallures compla~ntsreturned tlme,etc__-_f;nformatlon about the peable i that will impact perbrmance~r~radict:~;ade i level, aqe, experience, skill, individual.
Equipment
: Equ~prnentused to produce product or
! servlce comlluters. heaw. eaulmnent. . j
i
1
Procedure
Environment
presses, mpkrs, phones, buses, ovens, W s . ~~~~~~~~~~~by ktnd, manufacturer, lot, etc.
1 How th~ngsare done or carr~edout
I what cond~t~ons,methods, orders, arrange. Conaltlons around the process tnat IIII~~II
Impact the qua IQ of proouct or serr ce d bu~ldina.room. lemoerature Tlme, expenses, staffing
--.---- .---".
*.
What may impact dellvery of the product or storner Instructtons, s In payments, delays In
0 2 ~GOAMPC 0
Consnued on next page Appendix A 135
Types of Measures. continued
' Safety
Accidents, mlstakes, breakdowns
! Reliability
I
The ab~lltyto produce the servlces prom~sed,
1
;dependably and accurately 'lingness to help customers and provi
Verbal interactions with the customers-keeping customers informed, using language they understand, and listening to them and -
H
;!- sat sfaGt~on of the c~slomcrs . --.. : ----levels -..-
'
,
i
Tang~bles
H j H ,
, The physical facil~teesin wh~cntne servlce a /,i .~rovided,the eaui~mentused in its delivery, f tne appenrilnc; of (he serv ce personnel, and tne mater als .sed lo comm~nicale.
136 Appendix A
H 0 2 ~G0O A ~ P C
Advanced Techniques Resource List This appendix contains brief descriptions and references to more advanced techniques for problem solving.In-depth descriptions of these methods arcbeyond the scope of this book. However, readers who want to refine their problemsolving skills can refer to the resources listed below.
Design of Experiments A statistical process for determining the effects of changes that are introduced into a process under controlled conditions. The purpose of the experimentation is to make a process more robust by reducing possible sources of variation that could destabilize the process. Taguchi, Genichi and Yoshiko Yokoyama. Taguchi Methods: Design of Experiments. Quality Engineering, Volume 4. Novi, MI: American Supplier Institute, 1993. Barrentine, Larry R. An introduction to Design of Experiments. A Simpli5ed Approach. Milwaukee, WI: ASQ Press, 1999. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis An analytical process, usually conducted during product development, in which potential product defects and problems with use are identified and evaluated for severity. Once failure modes have been identified, design modifications are made to e l i i a t e these sources of failure. O Z W O G D A ~
Appendix B 137
Stamatis,D. H. Failure Modeand Effect Analysis: FMEA
fromTheonj toExecution. Milwaukee, WI:ASQPress, 1995. McDermott, Robin E., Raymond J. Mikulak, and Michael R. Beauregard. The Basics of FMEA. New York, NY: Quality Resources, 1996. I d s Not Analysis An analytical technique for identifying and validating
the root cause of a problem. The analysis involves the identification of distinctive features in the problem condition (where it "is") that do not appear where the problem condition does not exist (where it "is not"). These distinctions are possible causes of the problem and are subjected to further testing to verify the true root cause of the problem. Kepner, Charles, and Benjamin Tregoe. The New Rational Manager. Princeton, N J : Princeton Research Press, 1981. (See Chapter 2.) Six Sigma Quality Six sigma quality is both a philosophy and a methodology in which an organization continuously improves its processes until they are virtually defect-free. Six sigmais astatistically derivedmeasureof aprocess that consistently produces no more than 3.4 defects (or failures) for every one million outputs. The higher the sigma level, the lower the defect rate, e.g., a "one sigma process" produces 32% defects, a "two sigma process," 5% defects, a "three sigma process" 0.356, and a "six sigma process" is 99.9997% defect-free. Harry, Mike1 J. The Nature of Six Sigma Qualify. Schaumburg, 1L:Motorola University Press, 1997.
138 Appendix B
O~WOGOAL~PC
Breyfogle, Forrest W. Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statrstical Methods. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.
TRIZ TRIZ, which in Russian stands for "Theory of Inventive Problem Solving," is a systematic approach for creating innovative solutions to technical problems. It is es@eciallyuseful for new product development, service delivery, and solving production problems. Genrich S. Altshuller and others devoted more than 50 years of research into understanding how inventive or breakthrough solutions were found. This research defined 11 conceptual elements that have been used to solve problems and produce patentable solutions. Altshuller, Genrich S. 40 Principles: T R E Keys to Technical Innovation. Worcester,U Technical Innovation Center, Inc., 1997.
w
Altshuller, Genrich S. The Innovation Algorithm: TRlZ Sysfemntic Innovation and Technical Creativity. Worcester, M A : TechniCal Innovation Center, Inc., 1999. WAL/QPC Research Committee. T R Z Research Report: A n Approach to Systematic Innovation. Salem, NH: GOAL/QPC, 1997.
Appendix B 139
Control Charts-Recognizing Sources of Variation This appendix describes how to cowtruct and interpret severaltypes of Control Charts. The information isreproduced from The Memory JoggerTM 11, pp. 3G51. For additional information oncontrol Charts, consult the Coach's Guide to The Memoy JoggerTMI!, pp. 45-62 or the Control Chart guides available as part of The Memoy JoggerTM11 Off-the-SheyModulnr Tminmg Materials.
140 Appendix C
o mO
O
A
~
Control Charts
Am Recognizing
sources of variation
----LCL
Why use it?
To monitor, control, and improve process performance over time by studying variation and its source. What does it do?
Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring process variation over time Distinguishes special from common causes of variation, as a guide to local or management action Serves as a tool for ongoing control of a process Helpsimprove aprocess to perform consistently and predictably for higher quality, lower cost, and higher effective capacity Provides a common language for discussing process performance now do I do it?
S
There are many types of Control Charts. The Control Chart(s) that your team decides to use will be determined by the type of data you have. Use the Tree Diagram on thenext page to determine which Control Chart(s) will best fit your situation. Other types of Control Charts, which are beyond the scope of this book, include the Pre-Control Chart, the Moving Average & Range Chart, the Cumulative Sum Chart, and Box Plots.
a m GOAUQPC
Appendix C 141
Based o n the type o f data and sample size y o u have, choose the appropriate Control Chart.
measured & plotted on a conllnuous scale,
Attribute data: discrete events, e.g. shipping errors. % waste. absenteeism
I I
I
Defective*
Chart
*
Chart
* Defect = Failure to meet one of the acceptance criteria. A defective unit might have multiple defects.
** Defective =An entire unit fails to meet acceptance
criteria, regardless of the number of defects on the unit.
142 Appendix C
B2XC QOAUOPC
Constructing Control Charts 1. Select the process to be charted. 2. Determine sampling method and plan. How large a sample can be drawn? Balance the tune and co\t tc~ca>lItrt a \ample t\,~th thramount ot lnformatron vou will " zather SEEthe Tree D i a gram on the previous page for suggested sample
sizes.
As much as possible, obtain the samples under the same technicalconditions: thesamemachine, operator, lot, and so on. Frequency of sampling will depend on whether you are able to discern patterns in the data. Consider hourly, daily, shifts, monthly, annually, lots, and so on. Once thc process is "in control," you might consider reducing the frequency with which you sample. Generally, collect 20-25 groups of samples before calculating the statistics and control limits. Consider using historical data to set a baseline.
Tip Make sure samples are random. To establish the inherent. variation of a process, allow the process to run untouched, i.e., according to standard procedures. Initiate data collection. Run the process untouched, and gather sampled data. Record data on an appropriate Control Chart sheet or other graph paper. Include any unusual events that occur.
w
B m GOAMPC
Appendix C 143
4. Calculate the appropriate statistics. a) If you have attribute data, use the Attribute Data Table, Central Line column. Attribute Data Table
np = # oelecl w Ln 1s c = a 01 oefeC(s
T ~ I Slormdlaoeates c n r , g rag conlr? I I Y ~ ~ TO 8.~0 61 s .sr. arcragc r3!nl,l< s rcs n .or tn n -zu .r 01tre
+.
I,. SJP~DC SUP U O I ~ ~ V tnOFT1 .....S.I.~ ~,, , I . \ 811.1~ J ~ C
each subgroup
k = %ofsubgroups
144 Appendix C
average sample size. Calculate Individual limrs for the samples exceeding -0%.
BMWGO~PC
rn
b) If you have variable data, use the Variable Data Table, Central Line column. Variable Data Table
2:pF
lP~~~~tral Average &Range
4 0 ,but
-
usually 3t0
X and R
central Line'
i=(i,+x,+ ...x,) k
LCLE= X -A,$
k
Usually 210
-s = (s,+s,+
iand s
...s,)
'JC4 = BB L C 4 = B,E
...R,)
UCLZ=!+~% L C L ~= X A,R
k
-
?=(%,+%,+ k -
