The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems

THE PRECIOUS TREASURY OF PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS THE SEVEN TREASURIES SERIES This series consists of the volumes writt...

Author: Longchen Rabjam

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THE PRECIOUS TREASURY OF PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS

THE SEVEN TREASURIES SERIES

This series consists of the volumes written by Longchen Rabjam that, as a group, have come to be known as The Set'elt Treasuries. Although Longchenpa did not intend them to be a series, scholars traditionally treat them as such because of their interrelated themes. Published Volumes

The Precious Treasury of the W,1)' of Abiding The Precious Treasury of the B,1sic Space of Phenomena and its commentary, A Treasure TroL•e of Scriptztral Transmission The Precious Treasury of Pith lmtructio11s

The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems A Treatise Elucidating the Meaning of the Entire Range of Spiritual Approaches

Longchen Rabjam

Translated by Richard Barron (lama Chokyi Nyima)

PAD.MA PUBLISHING 2007

Published by Padma Publishing P.O. Box 2-9 Junction City. California 96048-02-~

© Padma Publishing !oo-

All rights resen·ed. ~o portion of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means. electronic or me.:hanical. including phoro.:opying. re.:ording. or any information storage or retrie\"al system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of .-\meri~.t first Printing

Ubr.1r)· of Congress C.1t.1loging in Public.Jtimz D,1f,1 Klmi -chen-pa Dri-med-'od-zer. l_,o8-r _,6 _, The precious treasury of philosophi~al systems I Longchen Rabjam: translated by Richard Barron !Lama Chilkyi :\yima1. p.

em.

Includes bibliographical referen.:es. ISB:-H;: 9-8-r-88184--H-1 1alk. paper! ISB:-.o-ro: 1-88184--H-6 1alk. papl'r• 1. Rriin-ma-pa 1Secti-Doctrincs-Early works to 1800. I. Barron. Richard II. Tirle. BQ-:-662+"4341.~ !oo!94·3'4!04!3-d~!!

Contents

ForeU'ord, His Eminence Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche

Vll

Introduction, Venerable Tulku Thondup Rinpoche

IX

Transh1tor 's Prelace

XV

Introduction

3

I

The Buddha

2.

The Buddha's Teachings

7 23

3 The Approaches and Their Philosophical Systems

5I

4 The Paths of the Cause-Based Approaches

12.7

5 The Fruition-Based Secret .\!antra Approach 6 The Sarma Tradition

2.39 2.61

7 The Nyingma Tradition 8 The Extraordinary Teachings: The Vajra Heart Essence

2.89

Colophon

337 385

Notes

389

WordUst

465

Sources Cited

483

lndex

52.9

\"

Foreword His Eminence Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche

The publication of Longchen Rabjam's Set•en Treasuries should be a cause for rejoicing among deeply committed English-speaking Buddhists who aspire to realize the Dzogchen, or Great Perfection, teachings ofVajrayana Buddhism. Though there are many spiritual traditions in this world, Buddhism offers the deepest examination of what constitutes the root of samsara, and of how to deal \\"ith all levels of obscuration and attain liberation. Among Buddhist teachings, none are more profound, more capable of freeing the mind from its most subtle obscurations, than those of the Great Perfection. Yet, because Great Perfection transmission leads to wisdom beyond words and concepts, the translation of Dzogchen texts presents tremendous difficulties. Some lamas have said that it is not even worth the attempt, that too much distortion results. I respect their opinion, but feel that those of us with the supreme fortune to have received authentic transmission from great Dzogchen masters have a responsibility to maintain the oral lineage, including the translation of texts, as well as the mind-tomind lineage of realization. If we eschew this work, the precious Great Perfection teachings will remain inaccessible to some excellent Western practitioners who have potential as meditators but who do not know Tibetan. An avenue for the flourishing of the transmission will be cut off. I am also gravely concerned about the translations of Great Perfection texts produced by Westerners who know Tibetan but who rely solely on scholarly knowledge, without recourse to teachers. Intellectual understanding alone, without the ripening process that takes place under the direction of qualified Dzogchen teachers, will certainly result in misguided translations, perpetuated in misguided meditation by those who base their spiritual practice on such translations. But again, if qualified \"II

viii

FOREWORD

Dzogchen masters refrain from working on translations because they fear imperfect results, can they lament when even more erroneous translations are published? The translator of these texts, Richard Barron (Lama Chokyi Nyima), has truly mastered both literary and spoken Tibetan, but his deeper understanding is based on an extended retreat under the guidance of His Eminence Kalu Rinpoche, on a number of six-week Dzogchen retreats, and on listening to and translating the teachings of many eminent lamas. He has translated other Great Perfection texts and sadhanas, notably Dudjom Lingpa's Buddhahood Without Meditation, under my direction. He thus brings more capability to his work than mere theoretical and intellectual competence. While we have not necessarily produced flawless translations, we have confidence in this groundbreaking attempt. It should be understood that works of this kind are not casually read and easily comprehended. In fact, for most people, the texts are quite difficult to fathom; their meaning unfolds according to the depth of the reader's spiritual preparation. However, simply having these books in one's home is more valuable than having statues or stu pas, for they are truly relics of the dharmakaya. Such holy works carry powerful blessings and are worthy objects of faith and devotion. The project of translating Longchen Rabjam's Set1en Treasuries is ongoing. We encourage anyone with knowledge and experience of the Great Perfection to contact us with suggestions, clarifications, or corrections, which we will consider for incorporation into future editions. May these precious texts illuminate the minds of all who read and venerate them.

Introduction Venerable Tulku Thondup Rinpoche

All the teachings of Buddhism are contained in just one treatise:

The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems. A treatise as sublime as this has never appeared beforein either India or Tibetand it will newr •lppear again. This I can assure you. 1 Paltrul Rinpoche

The Precious Treasttr)' of Philosophical Systems (Grub mthr.1' rin po che'i mdzod) is one of The Sez•en Treasuries (mDzod bdun), the most renowned sacred treatises on Dzogchen composed by the omniscient master Longchen Rabjam (T)08-1.)6.~). Among these volumes, The Precious Tre,1Sttry of Philosophical Systems and The Precious Tre,zsury of \Vish Fulfillmellt have long been studied in the sanctuaries of great monasteries and nunneries as part of the curriculum essential for mastering scholastic subjects and attaining meditative realization, as well as in the silent solitude of the high mountain caves of Nyingma yogis and yogin is. The main focus and essence of The Sez•en Treasuries is Dzogchen, or Dzogpa Chenpo (Skt . •1tiyog,1), the pinnacle of Buddhist teachings. However, The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems also elucidates in detail the philosophical views of the Hinayana. Mahayana (surra), and Vajrayana (tantra) teachings of Buddhism. Buddhism was born about twenty-six centuries ago in India, and Longchen Rabjam first brietly reviews the tenets of the five major phil1

Abu Hralbo !Paltrul Rinpochel. mD:ud bdun lu /t,l b,zr bskul bu, in Pultul Sung bum. ml. Ka, ff. 2a/3 !Sikh ron .\lirig Perrun Khang).

IX

X

INTRODUCTIO!\

osophical traditions of the non-Buddhist schools of ancient India. The main thesis begins with the tenets of exoteric (surra) or common Buddhism: the shravaka and pratyekabuddha schools of Hinayana, and the Chittamatra, Svatantrika Madhyamaka, and Prasangika Madhyamaka schools of Mahayana. The master then expounds the tenets of esoteric {tantra), or Vajrayana, Buddhism in general and the four classes of tantra of the New Tantric, or Sarma, canon in particular. The new tantras are those followed by the Kagyii, Sakya, and Geluk schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Longchen Rabjam then analyzes the views of the three outer tantras: kriyatantra, charyatantra, and yogatantra, and especially the three inner tantras: mahayoga, anuyoga, and atiyoga from the Old Tantric canon. These are the tantras followed by the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. He explains the \vay in which each tenet is superior to the ones that precede it. Dzogchen is based on three main principles: the basis (or ground), the path, and the result (or fruition). Self-arising wisdom, the absolute awareness of the ultimate sphere, is spontaneously present in all of us. So long as we are not enlightened, however, our wisdom is obscured by stains. That state is called "the basis." It is where we ordinary beings remain. Spiritual training that entails the two accumulations-those of merit and wisdom-purifies the emotional and intellectual stains of the basis. This process is called "the path." It is along this path that the Treasury guides us. The perfection of this purification causes our own spontaneously present buddha nature to awaken and our buddha qualities to shine forth. This is called "the result," the goal of our attainment. From this perspective, the basis and the result share the same nature, although the basis is the aspect that is still obscured by stains, while the result is the aspect that is free of all stains. 1 The primordial basis, self-arising wisdom. is itself free of the extremes of limiting concepts-existence, nonexistence. both, or neither. Its essence is emptiness, or openness, like the sky. Its nature is dear, like the light of the sun and moon. Its compassion, or power, is all-pervasive, like light. These three facets remain, indi,·isible, in the ultimate sphere, which is unchanging throughout beginningless time as the tive aspects of buddha ~ Sec Longe hen Rahjam. Grub nJth,z' rin po ch 'ei 111d:.od L\.dzom ed.}"' ff.J91b/4 and 18;h/_;.

INTRODUCTION

Xl

wisdom and the three buddha bodies, or kayas. The essence as emptiness is the dharmakaya. The nature as clarity is the sambhogakaya. And allpervasive compassion is the nirmanakaya. 3 Readers might wonder. "Why do I need to study various tenets that focus on the accumulation of merit? I am interested only in wisdom, emptiness, and Dzogchen .., The reason is that although both merit and wisdom are indispensable for reaching and realizing the ultimate wisdom of Dzogchen, we must start our journey from where we are. if we still perceive mental objects with tight grasping, if we are still inflamed by negative emotions like greed, hatred, or jealousy, then we are largely ordinary people perpetuating the never-ending cycle of suffering that is the wheel of life. We need merit to first tame our afflictive mental states and emotions so that we may then concentrate on realizing the wisdom that destroys these at the root. The accumulation of merit involves positive concepts such as virtuous thoughts, feelings, and deeds. To complete the accumulation of merit, we must follow the laws of karma, observe the three precepts, and serve all beings with compassion. The accumulation of wisdom is the realization of freedom from concepts, as well as the realization of emptiness and effortlessness. Buddhahood will be attained only through these two accumulations, and wisdom will be realized only with the support of merit. Longchen Rabjam says: So long as you haYen't [ewn] suppressed your bad thoughts and purified your negariw emotions, [views of I emptiness and effortlessness will not [yet] benefit you. 4 In addition, he says:

If you have contempt for karma and favor mere blank emptiness, believing that dharma with "no effort" is the ultimate, then you are cheating yourself of the chance to train [make progress], as you will be rejecting the two accumulations. So train in the two accumulations; this is my heart advice. 5 3 4

See ibid., ff. r82.b/4. Longchen Rabjam, R.mg l..z gros su gd..zms p,z, in gSmzg thor bu (Adzom ed.), vol. I,

ff. 306fi.

Longchen Rabjam, sN)'illg gtam sum helm pa, in gSzmg thor bu (Adzom ed.), vol. I, ff. 357/4.

xii

INTRODUCTION

Paltrul Rinpoche writes: [Realization] of the innate absolute wisdom comes as the result of having accumulated merit and purified the obscurations. 6 Ultimately, we must unite the two accumulations, as Longchen Rabjam advises: By observing the law of cause and effect in the state of emptiness, by preserving the three precepts through the realization of no effort, by serving beings through compassion that is free of concepts: train in the union of the two accumulations; this is my heart advice.To attain the two buddha bodies, dharmakaya (the ultimate body) and rupakaya (the form body), we must perfect the two accumulations. The master Nagarjuna, who codified the philosophy based on the Buddha's teachings on emptiness, explains: The form body of the buddha is created by the accumulation of merit. The ultimate body of the buddha is created mainly by the accumulation of wisdom. Therefore, the two accumulations are the cause of the attainment of buddha hood. So please alwa~·s rely on merit and wisdom. s The translation of all the volumes of The Set•en Treasuries into English was one of the monumental projects envisioned by the late Dzogchen master Chagdud Rinpoche (I93o-.z.oo2). The completion of four of the seven so far is a great contribution by Rinpoche's students to the fulfillment of his enlightened aspirations and is a great gift of blessings to all of us. ~>

Paltrul Rinpoche, in Kzm b;:,mg b/11 m.1"i ::b.Ji lung ,Sitron :\1irig Petrunkhang, 1988), pp. 460!1. - Longchen Rabjam, sNying gt.Jm sum helm pa. in gSzmg thor bu IAdzom ed.l, vol. I, ff. 359l4. s ~agarjuna, rGyal po Ia gt.Jm bya b.J rill po ch 'e ·; phmzg b.1, in dBu ma rigs tshogs drug !Buddha Educational Foundation, 2ooo1, pp. 95l;..

ISTRODUCTIO!'

XIII

As a humble de\·otee of the Omniscient Longchen Rabjam and his words of dharmakaya, I offer my heartfelt thanks to Chagdud Rinpoche for making this Tredsztry available in English. I also offer my gratitude to Lotsawa Chokyi Xyima, the Padma Publishing editorial and production teams, and all of the generous sponsors for making this historic translation project successful. May the sunlight-like blessings of the Omniscient Longchen Rabjam, of all the lineage masters. and of the Dzogchen dharma protectors cause the flower-like hearts of compassion and wisdom of all beings to blossom, especially of those who may see, touch, hear, and enjoy the sacred words and profound meaning presen·ed in this precious volume.

Translator's Preface

The Precious Treasur)' oi Pbilosophical Systems is the fourth volume to be translated in Longchenpa's Set'e11 Treasuries series envisaged by the late Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche. The tide of the work is slightly misleading, as only the third of the eight chapters discusses the tenets of Buddhist philosophy; the scope of this book is, in fact, much wider. The structure of The Predotts Treasury oiPhilosophical Systems is traditional. Longchenpa begins in Chapter 1 with a discussion of the coming of the Buddha into this world, interpreting this phenomenon according to various levels of Buddhist teachings. He uses the term "Buddha" to refer not merely to the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, but to the totality of the three kayas, which is consistent with the Dzogchen teachings that remain Longchenpa's primary focus throughout The Seven Treasttries. Chapter 2 examines the origin and development of the Buddhist teachings. It includes a discussion of the roles of teacher and student, for in spite of their complexity, the teachings were never meant to have a purely academic focus, but to entail a process of application and personal transformation. Longchenpa continues to de\'elop this theme in Chapter 3, perhaps the most challenging part of the book, in which he introduces the tenets of traditional systems of philosophy, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist. The Tibetan understanding of the latter systems was based on Tibetan translations of Indian Buddhist commentaries, which tended to quote non-Buddhist authorities out of context and to present their tenets in a cursory and less than flattering light. Historically, Tibetan treatments of the Indian philosophical tradition ha,·e been confined to analyses of that tradition as it existed at the time of Buddha Shakyamuni and have been for the most part based on Indian Buddhist sources that cite non-Buddhist scriptures, X\"

xvi

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE

rather than on those scriptures themselves. It is nevertheless instructive to examine the perspective from which masters such as Longchenpa discussed traditional alternatives to the Buddha's message. Turning his attention in the same chapter to the four major philosophical trends in the Indian Buddhist tradition, Longchenpa not only presents the tenets of each system, but also critiques the three lower schools, in each case from the perspective of the next stage in the development of Buddhist philosophical inquiry. His approach is to subject the view of a given system to a higher order of reasoning, so that one is led to more authentic conclusions concerning the ultimate nature of reality. In this sense, the progression from the materialist positions through the Chittamatra (Mind Only) system and culminating in the .\1adhyamaka (Superior) system serves as a model for the maturation of an individual's philosophical outlook. Given that the philosophical underpinnings of Buddhist thought are never intended to be an end in themselYes. in the remaining five chapters Longchenpa outlines the stages and principles of the "transcendent paths"-those that lead to some degree of insight and enlightenment beyond the confines of samsara. After examining the paths of the sutra approach (those of the shravaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva) in Chapter 4 and providing a general introduction to the Vajrayana in Chapter 5, he turns in Chapter 6 to the classes of Vajrayana teachings transmitted by the Sarma tradition (comprising those schools that developed from the tenth and eleventh centuries onward). During l.ongchenpa's lifetime, before sectarian conflict became a more prominent feature of the Tibetan cultural and religious landscape, there \Vas a great deal of interaction between teachers of the various traditions: these flourished in the wake of new translations of Indian sources, a period that began with the great translator Rinchen Zangpo in the eleventh century. Longchenpa's primary affiliation was with the Nyingma tradition, in which he trained under a number of masters, foremost among them his main guru, Kumaradza. However, earlier in his life, he also sought our such Sarma masters as the third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje (!284-1339), of the Kagyii tradition, and the Sakya master Yakde Panchen (Il.99-IJ78). In Chapters 5 and 6, Longchenpa draws on the knowledge he acquired during this eclectic period of his life. The two final chapters of the Tre.lsttr)' concern the ~yingma teachings on the Vajrayana, according to the Nyingma model of the "three yogas":


XVll

mahayoga, anuyoga. and atiyoga. Chapter 7 provides an overview of these teachings, while Chapter 8 focuses on the transmission Longchenpa received from Kumaradza, the pinnacle approach of .. the most secret and unsurpassable cycle·· of teachings unique to the Category of Direct Transmission in atiyoga. Throughout the text, Longchenpa cites a large number of scriptural sources, and where feasible I have attempted to locate the passages in the original texts and to give citations in the notes. The Sources Cited gives information on texts that are readily found in published collections 5 but given the Tibetan penchant for referring to a given text by more than one title, and e\·en by what amount to popular nicknames, the identification of sources can often be problematic. Longchenpa quotes from memory, drawing on his years of study in monastic colleges, and so he occasionally cites a source incorrectly; where possible, 1 have noted the source in which a citation is actually ro be found. ~Ioreover, Longchenpa sometimes cites a verse from a lengthy scriptural source, making a search for the relevant passage extremely difficult; hence such sources are not cited in the notes. Certain passages that Longchenpa quotes differ from those in texts that are currently in common use. It was only during Longchenpa's lifetime that Buton Rinchen Drup (IZ.90-1364), who passed away in the same year as Longchenpa, made a systematic effort to catalog the works that were to be considered authentic teachings of the Buddha and thus established the "official" edition of the Kangyur, the Tibetan canon of the Buddha's words. In doing so, Buton chose certain translations of Indian sources over others, and even excluded entire groups of texts. In particular, he omitted all of the Nyingma tantras, none of which were included in the Kangyur until the Derge edition was prepared under the more tolerant direction of the Kagyii master Situ Panchen Chokyi Jungne (I?OOY774l· Thus, it is possible that many of the sources cited by Longchenpa were never included in the official canon and are no longer available. As well, given that the Tibetan translations that became the standards were codified only during Longchenpa's lifetime, it is entirely possible that when he cites a passage that differs somewhat from the "standard" version, he is referring to an alternative translation that was omitted from the Kangyur and so never gained currency. The language of The Treasury of Philosophical Systems is fairly straightforward, with one notable exception: that of Chapter 3, which presents the tenets of the four traditional schools of Buddhist philosophy.

xviii


Like philosophers worldwide, Buddhists developed their own highly specialized vocabulary and syntax for discussing the issues they deemed important. Added to this is the fact that Longchenpa wrote almost eight centuries ago and that he used a somewhat idiosyncratic style of argument in presenting these tenets. His treatment of the four schools presupposes a great familiarity with the subject matter on the parr of his reader, and it has been necessary to augment the translation with endnotes to help guide the reader through the often intricate issues involved. I have adopted a somewhat free approach to rendering these passages, rather than translating so literally as to make them almost inaccessible. As with the other volumes in The Set,en Treasuries, the sources are three Tibetan editions of the text. Two are printed from wood blocks carved at Adzom Chogar in eastern Tiber in the late nineteenth century; one, based on the original blocks, was published as a photo offset reproduction in Gangtok, Sikkim, by H.H. Dodrupchen Rinpoche; the other was printed in the 198os, by which time the blocks had been slightly reedited. The third edition is a photo offset of blocks carved at the printery of Derge in eastern Tiber, published by Sherab Gyaltsen and Khentse Labrang. The translation of The Treasury of Philosophical Systems has been a very challenging and rewarding process that began in 1987, when Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche first set in motion the project of translating The Seve1z Treasuries into English. Over the years, a number of Tibetan scholars and masters have contributed their knowledge to the task. I am grateful to the late Chagdud Rinpoche for overseeing the project, as well as for providing clear explanations of difficult passages. Others who contributed substantially to the accuracy of this translation were Yon-ge Mingyur Rinpoche, Khenpo Tsewang Gyatso, the late Khenpo Gyurmed Tinley, and Lama Sonam Tsering. Special thanks go to Khentrul Lodro Taye Rinpoche for his patient and insightful help. It goes without saying that any errors in this translation are entirely my own. I am deeply indebted to the following people for their help in bringing this project to completion: Susanne Fairclough, for assisting with the translation; Robert Racine (Lama Orgyen Zangpol, for carefully reading and commenting on the text; Mary Racine, for editing and proofreading; and Linda Baer, for typesetting and production.

The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems A Treatise Elucidating the Meaning of the Entire Range of Spiritual Approaches

In Sanskrit: Yana sakalartha dipa siddhyanta ratna ko~a nama

In Tibetan: Theg pa mtha' dag gi don gsa[ bar byed pa grub pa'i mtha' rin po che'i mdzod ces bya ba

~l

lq1·~,·~ 1 i~·q·~"'~·1~·~·~~·~~12.1·q2\·s,·q· ~ q·q~·~"'~·~~·cri~·~r,·~~·~·q 1

Introduction

In the language of India, the title of this treatise would be translated as Yana sakalartha dipa siddhyanta ratna ko~a nama; in the language of Tibet, it is Theg pa mtha' dag gi don gsa/ bar byed pa grub pa'i mtha' rin

po che'i mdzod ces bya ba (The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems: A Treatise Elucidating the Meaning of the Entire Range ofSpiritual Approaches). I pay homage to the youthful Manjushri! The sublime, accomplished Buddha is praised by seers, honored by Brahma and Indra, and extolled by gods, demigods, kinnaras, and the excellent naga rulers. 1 The Omniscient One, foremost among beings, is the sublime wish-fulfilling gem who ensures that all our goals are accomplished. So that my hopes may be completely realized, I honor him by bowing my head with the deepest faith. To bring about benefit in the world, countless victorious ones and their heirs [2a] have turned the wheel of the sacred dharma according to the makeup and interests of beings. For these times, I will briefly elucidate what I have learned from my gurus of the extensive variety of spiritual paths renowned in this world. For fortunate and motivated people whose brilliant intellects can discern what is valid and who are naturally wise in following scriptures, reasoning, and profound pith instructions.

4


I will describe here the methods of diverse spiritual approaches. Listen respectfully in order to drink the rain of nectar that falls from the douds of my learning, and so progress more and more. Having awakened to enlightenment as a manifestly perfect buddha, the glorious Samantabhadra abides as the very adornment of Ghanavyuha, the spontaneously present pure realm of the utterly lucid nature of phenomena, [2b] and is the ruler of all mandalas in the ten directions and four times. 2 For the benefit of all beings, whose nonrecognition of awareness blinds them, Samantabhadra, with the supreme might of the immeasurable and manifold display of a tathagata, has caused the world to be illuminated in diverse ways. 3 The enlightened activities thus accomplished have ensured, and continue to ensure, that all beings are brought to one of the three degrees of enlightenment, according to their individual destinies.4 Among the countless beings in the ten directions and four times, an inconceivable number, beyond reckoning, have become enlightened to an extent commensurate with those destinies. In keeping with their own aspirations, they have then turned the wheel of dharma in all realms, so that the teachings of a variety of spiritual approaches have appeared. [3a] This has continued throughout beginningless time. The tantra Vajrasattva: The Supreme Web of Magical Display states: With the connection forged through supreme compassion, teachings have appeared to beings of the six classes, in all places and times. Throughout the inconceivable range of the ten directions and . four times, various subjects have been taught in order to guide beings. Manifestations appear to everyone everywhere, meeting specific needs, as higher or lower spiritual approacheseven as an inconceivable number of erroneous viewsand as the assembly of peaceful and wrathful deities. This means that in as many eons-past, present, and future-as there are atoms in the universe and throughout the whole of boundless space, emanations of buddhas appear as peaceful and wrathful deities; in the forms of various ordinary beings; as shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas; and even as such things as medicine, gems, fine homes, and

INTRODUCTION

5

parks. Such a variegated array manifests through the blessings of supreme compassion and the flourishing of all that is positive in individual beings. From this come the things that beings desire in the moment and that satisfy their personal needs, such as food, drink, dwellings, clothing, and anything else they might require. All that is wished for comes as though from a wish-fulfilling gem. As for the manifestation of innumerable spiritual teachings and approaches according to beings' interests, a rain of teachings is imparted to some by spiritual mentors, buddhas, bodhisattvas, or ordinary individuals. [3b] For others, teachings come from a lotus, a wish-granting tree, or the expanse of the sky. Just as this takes place in our universe, so too does it occur within worlds in all ten directions. In some realms, beings are guided entirely by the Mahayana teachings, in others entirely by the Hinayana teachings, in others entirely by a mixture of these, and in others entirely by an abundance of approaches. Moreover, these approaches appear by the blessings of vajra form, speech, mind, qualities, and activity; by the power of consummate skillful means and sublime knowing; and by the merit of individual beings. In the glorious tantra The Heart Essence of Secrets, we read the following: Such things as wish-granting trees, wish-fulfilling gems, and all the elements have no substantial existence. Their occurrence depends on the merit in one's own mind. 5 Such superb phenomena, amazing and miraculous displays, do not come about as a result of anything other than sublime knowing based on skillful means. It is within such a context that they occur. 6 Thus, just as there is an immeasurable array of spiritual teachings in all worlds, an immeasurable variety of teachings has appeared and become widely known in our universe during the excellent period called the "Fortunate Eon." This universe, "Difficult to Renounce," lies within a greater universe, "Basis Whose Center Is Adorned with a Flower," and is made up of a billion world systems, each with four worlds surrounding a central mountain. 7 [4a] Beginning with the initial formation of the universe during this eon and on up to the present, the blessings of the transcendent and accomplished conqueror, glorious Samantabhadra, have caused the form of Vajradhara to emanate in the realm of Akanishtha and to teach the secret mantra approach of the Mahayana-the vast Vajrayana-to an

6


immeasurable array of retinues that includes Vajrapani. 8 It is because of Vajrapani and others in these retinues that the teachings appear in such domains as those of gods, nagas, and yakshas. 9 The teachings are upheld by many dakas, dakinis, siddhas, and masters of awareness, who disseminate them in their respective domains, compiling them in volumes of scriptures and venerating them. Of the thousand buddhas who will have actually appeared in this eon, Vipashyin taught kriyatantra and other supreme secret approaches. 10 Shakyamuni spoke of these, and one source mentions that "the buddha Adhimukta will speak of them." 11 The secret mantra teachings of the Mahayana given by the succession of previous buddhas were brought from the domains of gods, nagas, yakshas, and gandharvas by accomplished dakas and dakinis with power over longevity, then upheld by dakas and dakinis in our human world at Mount Malaya, a volcano in the kingdom of Sahara, and so continued to exist. As well, collections of tantras that existed in regions like Oddiyana, Sri Lanka, and Shambhala were revealed by such great masters as Nagarjuna, Padmakara, and Vimalamitra.12 These teachings became widespread in India and Tibet, [4b] and thus many mahasiddhas appeared. Among the varieties of spiritual teachings that have appeared in these ways, I will present a concise classification of those that are currently well known in Tibet. My presentation has two major divisions: a classification of the general range of ordinary teachings and a classification of the extraordinary teachings concerning the vajra heart essence of utter lucidity. The first division has two parts: a general discussion of the development of Buddhism and a detailed discussion of philosophical systems. The first part consists of Chapter I, which concerns how the Buddha appeared as a teacher, and Chapter 2, which concerns the nature of the sacred dharma that he taught.

1

The Buddha

I. THE TEACHER

A. The Hinayana Interpretation According to the Hinayana interpretation, our Teacher gave rise to bodhichitta, or "the awakening mind," in the presence of the buddha Mahashakyamuni three immensely long eons ago, with the following words recorded in The Scriptural Transmission of Vinaya: 0 Sugata, whatever your form is like, whatever your retinue, life span, and realm, and whatever your noble and sublime marks of perfection, may I swiftly accomplish the same! Thereafter, during those three immensely long eons, the Bodhisattva pursued spiritual development, serving fifty-five thousand buddhas during the first eon, sixty-six thousand during the second, and seventy-seven thousand during the third. 1 The Foundation of Scriptural Transmission states: From the enlightened guide Rashtrapala to the buddha Vipashyin, I venerated a total of fifty-five thousand buddhas. During that time, I was not discouraged. [5a] From the buddha Sadhu to the sage Indradhvaja, I ,·enerated a total of sixty-six thousand buddhas. During that time, I was not discouraged.

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From the buddha Dipamkara to Ratnashikin, I venerated a total of seventy-seven thousand buddhas. During that time, I was not discouraged. According to The Treasury of Abhidharma: Vipashyin, Dipamkara, and Ratnashikin came at the close of the three immensely long eons. Preceding that succession, 2 the first was Shakyamuni. 3 Finally, it is maintained that he awakened to buddhahood through a process entailing twelve deeds and, having passed into nirvana with no trace of his mind-body aggregates remaining, abides in the basic space of peace. 4 Thus, the Buddha developed the positive qualities associated with the path of accumulation for three immensely long eons. Then, at Vajrasana, with attainment of the highest level of this path of accumulation as the basis, he traversed the rest of the five paths-those of linkage, seeing, meditation, and no more learning-in a single sitting. 5 This interpretation is consistent with the process undergone by a pratyekabuddha of keen acumen. The same source states: The enlightenment of the Teacher and those who are like rhinoceroses is fully attained in a single, final state of meditative stability. 6 Moreover, the following verse attests to the fact that in his final lifetime in conditioned existence, the Bodhisattva was an ordinary being: Service to one's parents, sick people, those who give spiritual teachings, and bodhisattvas in their final rebirtheven though none of these are spiritually advancedis said to be of inestimable value. 7 [5b]

B. The Ordinary Mahayana and Vajrayana Interpretations In the Mahayana tradition as well, some maintain-in keeping with the Hinayana interpretation-that the Bodhisattva first gave rise to bodhi-

THE BUDDHA

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chitta, then pursued spiritual development for three immensely long eons, and finally became a buddha in this human world through a process entailing twelve deeds. But they further hold that the Buddha simultaneously manifested enlightened embodiments elsewhere in the universe Difficult to Renounce, benefiting beings. The sutra The Complete Array of Qualities states: From the point that I first gave rise to the intention to attain unsurpassable enlightenment, I pursued spiritual development with great diligence for three immensely long eons. When the average span of human life was one hundred years, I saw that ordinary beings were blind and without a guide; I awakened to buddhahood in this human world and completely turned the inconceivable wheel of dharma. Certain authors in the secret mantra approach agree for the most part with this interpretation, but more specifically maintain that while the Bodhisattva was practicing asceticism, although his body was seated by the banks of a river, his mind was in Akanishtha, being empowered with great rays of light. 8 By cultivating a profound state of nondual meditative absorption, he thus awakened to buddhahood. Immediately after this, he manifested at Vajrasana in the manner of one awakening to buddhahood. In The Sphere of Freedom, the venerable Buddhajnana writes: Although Shakyamuni pursued spiritual development for three immensely long eons, he had not realized the goal, so at Nairanjana he dwelled in the meditative absorption of "nothingness." 9 At that time, the sugatas of the ten directions 10 brought an end to his mental patterns [6a] and thoroughly revealed to him the nondual state of profound lucidity, 11 totally pure like the expanse of the sky. At midnight, just like other victorious ones, he meditated on thatness, and at dawn in a single instant he realized truth. To guide ordinary beings, 12 he remained at Bodhimanda and conquered the great hordes of Mara. 13 To care for beings. he turned the wheel of dharma. 1-'

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Similarly, Magical Display as the Guiding Principle states: For Siddhartha, the person practicing austerities, victorious ones of the ten directions gathered like clouds, and for his spiritual enrichment, in the evening and at dawn they bestowed the empowerment of the eclipse of sun and moon. 15 With the source of this display having been shown to him, the Tathagata arrived at suchness. The preceding are the ordinary interpretations of these approaches.

C. The Extraordinary Mahayana and Vajrayana Interpretations According to the extraordinary Mahayana interpretation, having first aroused bodhichitta and pursued spiritual development, the Bodhisattva awakened to buddhahood in the realm of Akanishtha Ghanavyuha. 16 Subsequently, he manifested in the manner of one awakening to buddhahood in an immaculate abode, and shortly thereafter he manifested in the manner of one awakening to buddhahood at Vajrasana. 17 In The Journey to Sri Lanka, we read the following: The Buddha did not actually awaken to buddhahood in the realm of desire or in the realm of formlessness; you, who were free of desire and attachment, became a buddha in Akanishtha in the realm of form. 18

In the delightful realm of Akanishtha Ghanavyuha, [6b] beyond the immaculate abodes, the completely awakened Buddha awakened to buddhahood. 19 It was an emanation who awakened to buddhahood in this world. Some authors in the secret mantra approach hold a similar view and maintain that, immediately after attaining buddhahood in Akanishtha, 20 the Buddha descended from the peak of Sumeru to Bodhimanda and there awakened to buddhahood at the foot of the bodhi tree. The Summary of Such ness states: The transcendent and accomplished conqueror, having awakened to buddhahood, knew that he had become the embodiment of the

THE BUDDHA

II

enlightened form, speech, and mind of all tathagatas. Soon after, he descended from the peak of Sumeru to Bodhimanda. To conform to the perceptions of ordinary people, having taken a seat of grass at the foot of the bodhi tree, ... Others, however, explain that it was after being empowered in Akanishtha by all buddhas that the Buddha awakened to buddhahood as Vajradhara in the Akanishtha realm of our world system. 21 He then immediately awakened to buddhahood as Shakyamuni at Vajrasana and so benefited beings. According to the tantra The Empowerment of the Vajra Holder: The Bodhisattva, the great spiritual hero, the all-noble one, the holder of the vajra, was naturally empowered in the greater universe known as Basis Whose Center Is Adorned with a Flower. After that, within our universe, Difficult to Renounce, in the human worlds throughout the intermediate-sized universe of world systems that comprise four worlds each, the transcendent and accomplished conqueror, with the name Shakyamuni, having defeated Mara, awakened to a manifestly perfect state of enlightenmentY [7a]

D. The Interpretation of the Unsurpassable Approach The foregoing ordinary and extraordinary interpretations were given in response to certain kinds of beings to be guided. However, the quintessential and definitive meaning, which is found in the unsurpassable approach, is as follows: Our Teacher awakened to buddhahood an inconceivable number of immensely long eons ago. Through the Tathagata's immeasurable and manifold display, ordinary beings were benefited in whatever way was necessary to guide them. The Teacher guided beings solely through emanations, such as those who manifested as though first giving rise to bodhichitta (so that beginners would not feel inadequate), those who attained higher and higher spiritual levels (so that bodhisattvas could attain those levels), and those who performed the twelve deeds. This is discussed in the following passage from the sutra The Reunion of Father and Son: In the past, countless eons ago, in a realm composed of as many uniYerses as there are grains of sand in the bed of the river Ganges. a tathagata known as Indraketu awakened to buddhahood,

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benefited beings, and passed into nirvana. From that point until the present eon, this buddha manifested an inconceivable number of times in the manner of one awakening to buddhahood. This buddha continues to manifest as ordinary beings who first give rise to bodhichitta and then eventually awaken to buddhahood, and will continue to do so until samsara is emptied.... 0 great spiritual hero of skillful means, in order to bring ordinary beings to complete spiritual maturity, you revealed yourself as a buddha, a true victorious one, to billions. [7b] Even now you, 0 guide, will reveal yourself as many buddhas. Moreover, the sutra The White Lotus states: 0 children of spiritual heritage, many hundreds of thousands of millions of billions of eons ago, I awakened to the state of a manifestly perfect buddha. There are teachings of the unsurpassable approach of the supreme secret that accord with this interpretation. They say that, with enlightenment taking place in the context of primordial being, there is a state of evenness in immutable basic space that eludes measurement in terms of eons. Without straying from that state of dharmakaya, countless sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya manifestations have appeared to all beings in whatever ways are necessary to guide them, and they will continue to manifest everywhere for as long as the universe exists. According to the tantra The Array of the Precious Wish-Fulfilling Secret: The buddha who awakened prior to all, the supremely secret, victorious holder of the vajra, revealed a manifold display in an inconceivable number of realms. Throughout a succession of immensely long eons, benefit was ensured in myriad waysthrough countless peaceful and wrathful modes, even in such forms as hunters and prostitutes. Moreover, now in this fortunate eon, a thousand enlightened guides will manifest who similarly adopt myriad modes, benefiting countless beings.

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While not wavering from the basic space of dharmakaya, within the context of the lucid manifestation of sambhogakaya, an inconceivable miraculous display spontaneously shines forth in the environments of the six classes of beings to benefit them. [8a] The glorious tantra The Heart Essence of Secrets: The Ascertainment of Suchness (a synopsis of the teachings found in the cycle The Supreme Web of Magical Display) states: The phrase "through supreme compassion, blessings are granted" is a reference to the six sages, spiritual beings who are emanations of awareness. They emanate from the vajras of the enlightened form, speech, and mind of the Tathagata. As they emanate, owing to the influence of beings' karma, a great sage-a transcendent and accomplished conqueror-appears in every world system in the six directions-zenith and nadir-as well as other dimensions, in every one of the vast three-thousand-fold universes throughout the boundlessness of the ten directions. 23 These sages benefit the five kinds of ordinary beings by guiding them in four ways. 24 The four ways of guiding are as follows: guiding through the enormous merit of enlightened form, whereby the twelve deeds are carried out; guiding through the collections of teachings-enlightened speechwhich provide a variety of spiritual approaches; guiding through sublime states of perception, whereby enlightened mind entails knowledge of beings' levels of acumen; and guiding through inconceivable qualities and activities of enlightenment, manifesting various miraculous displays, emanating light rays, and so forth. The Highest Continuum describes how the twelve deeds are carried out: It is the nature of the nirmanakaya that, in various ways,

it comes into being through manifest forms of rebirth, while not straying from dharmakaya. Descending from Tushita, entering a womb, taking birth, being trained in all the arts and martial skills, enjoying the company of a retinue of queens, resolving to gain release from samsara, practicing austerities, going to Bodhimanda, [8b] defeating the legions of Mara, awakening to perfect enlightenment,

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turning the wheel of dharma, and passing into nirvana: all those who demonstrate these deeds 25 do so within the total range of impure realms for as long as there is conditioned existence. 26

II. THE TEACHINGS After having thus awakened to buddhahood, the Buddha turned the wheel of dharma in the following ways.

A. The Hinayana Interpretation According to the shravaka schools, the Buddha did not teach for a period of seven weeks after his enlightenment. Then, in response to supplications by Brahma and Indra, he journeyed to Varanasi, where he taught the four truths. His audience, made up of "the five noble ones" as well as eighty thousand gods, perceived the truth. 27 From that point until his eightieth year, the Buddha presented his teachings in three stages. These schools maintain that he taught in response to specific situations, giving a distinct teaching in each place according to the capacities of those to be guided. The Scriptural Transmission of Vinaya states: On the banks of the Varata River, he gave to the nagas a great outpouring of teachings concerning the ten kinds of positive actions .... The descendants of Vasishtha, together with their five hundred attendants, simultaneously gained unclouded vision free of distortions through the teachings on unsurpassable enlightenment.28 Regarding the Buddha's passing into nirvana at the age of eighty, The Great Treasury of Detailed Explanations explains: In each of the following locations, the Sage, the sublime person, spent one year: the sacred site where he turned the wheel of dharma/ 9 Vaishali, Makkola, the abode of the gods, Shishumara, Kaushambhi, Atavaka, Chaityargira, the bamboo grove ofVenuvana, Vairata, and the city of Kapilavastu. [9a] He spent two years at the sacred site of Blazing Cave,

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four in rhe medicinal groves of Bhaishajyavana, and five in the city of Rajagriha. He spent six years practicing austerities, twenty-three in Shravasti, and twenty-nine at the palace. Thus, the Victorious One was eighty when he, the holy and sublime sage, passed into nirvana. 30 Some shravaka authors maintain that he prolonged his life for two months, as we read in The Commentary on "The Hundred Thousand

Stanzas": Having vanquished Mara, the lord of death, he prolonged his life for two months. 31

B. The Ordinary Mahayana Interpretation According to the well-known interpretation of the ordinary Mahayana, in the excellent place of Varanasi, on excellent occasions, the excellent teacher Shakyamuni spoke to an excellent retinue made up of the five noble ones and eighty thousand gods, teaching the excellent dharma-the first cycle of the Buddha's words, the various teachings pertaining to the four truths; this he did between the ages of thirty-six and forty-two. He began by teaching principally the training in discipline, what came to be known as the compilation of Vinaya. The ethical codes of Vinaya contain extensive overviews that classify actions according to their nature or their relation to formal precepts. The discourses of Vinaya concern the stages of meditative absorption and the celibate way of life undertaken in yogic practice. The further teachings of Vinaya give extensive, detailed explanations and analyses of these topics. Then, at the excellent place of Vulture Peak, [9 b) the excellent teacher Shakyamuni spoke to several excellent retinues. Among the four relatively ordinary retinues were about five thousand arhats, including Shariputra and Maudgalyayana; 32 about five hundred nuns, including Shakyamuni's stepmother, Prajapati; and groups of laypeople, including the householder Anathapindaka and the laywoman Sagama. As well, there were enormous numbers of gods, nagas, demigods, and gandharvas. The extraordinary retinue was made up of an enormous number of bodhisattvas-including Bhadrapala, Ratnasambhava, and Jaladatta-who had truly attained great le\·els of realization. On excellent occasions, he taught these reti-

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nues the excellent dharma-the intermediate cycle of the Buddha's words, the various teachings pertaining to the characterization of phenomena as nonexistent; this he did between the ages of forty-three and seventy-two. He taught principally the training in mind, what came to be known as the compilation of Surra. The ethical codes of Surra classify the precepts of the bodhisattva vow. The discourses of Surra discuss meditative absorption in profound and extensive ways. The further teachings of Surra analyze related topics-spiritual levels and paths, powers of recall, and meditative absorption-in great detail. Then, in excellent places-not any one place-such as the human world and the abodes of gods and nagas, on excellent occasions, the excellent teacher Shakyamuni spoke to an excellent retinue of innumerable monks, nuns, gods, nagas, bodhisattvas, and others, [roa] teaching the excellent dharma-the final cycle of the Buddha's words, the various teachings pertaining to definitive truth; this he did between the ages of seventy-three and eighty-two. He taught principally the training in sublime knowing, what came to be known as the compilation of Abhidharma. The ethical codes of Abhidharma have to do with taming the afflictive states in ways that are easy to implement and involve little hardship. 33 The discourses of Abhidharma discuss the vast range of techniques for engaging in the experience of suchness. The further teachings of Abhidharma analyze in great detail the mind-body aggregates, the fields of experience, the components of perception, the controlling factors, consciousness, and tathagatagarbha (the innately, totally pure "buddha nature") and discuss related topics. 34 As the sutra The Seven Hundred Stanzas states: The Sage taught the collections of the dharma thoroughly to benefit beings. In stages, at various places and times, the Buddha imparted his teachings in melodious tones.

C. The Extraordinary Mahayana Interpretation According to the extraordinary interpretation, in terms of the intelligence of those to be guided, for those whose karma allowed them to comprehend the teachings gradually, it seemed that the Buddha taught in three successive cycles. For those whose intelligence enabled them to comprehend everything all at once, he seemed to teach, in its entirety and on a

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single occasion, everything that needed to be taught. According to the sutra The Majestic Array of Qualities: Without saying anything at all, [1ob] I manifest to beings in infinite and pervasive ways. 35 When there are those who sincerely wish to comprehend in a gradual way, that is what occurs for all of them. For those who comprehend all at once, the varieties of spiritual teachings manifest in their entirety. Such is the great quality of enlightened speechto fulfill beings' hopes just as they wish. Some masters hold exclusively that the three cycles were taught all at once, while others maintain that they were taught in stages. Both points of view amount to nothing more than ignorance of the significance underlying the distinction between the ordinary and extraordinary interpretations, which is based on the acumen of individual beings. Like a precious wish-fulfilling gem, then, the Teacher ensured benefit for beings exactly according to their interests. This benefit came about because, by his blessings, individual beings heard him, his speech marked by sixty melodious qualities, as if he were speaking in their respective languages. Nevertheless, these words and sounds actually had no autonomous existence. Their manifestation was similar to that of an echo and arose because of the coming together of three things: the interests of those to be guided, the Buddha's blessings, and the occasions on which these two factors coincided. The Highest Continuum explains: The sound of an echo occurs within someone's consciousness; it is nonconceptual and unfabricated. Similarly, the enlightened speech of the Tathagata occurs within someone's consciousness, but it is not located externally or internally. 36 Referring to the same theme, The Amassing of the Rare and Sublime states: 0 Shantimati, from the night that I awakened to manifestly perfect buddhahood to the night that I pass into nirvana, [na] I will nor have spoken even a single syllable of spiritual teachings.

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Some ignorant people say that this means he did not teach in the ultimate sense, only in the relative sense. But they seem to be confused about what is actually so-that enlightened speech, which is beyond words and letters, seems to be expressed in words and letters that conform to the perceptions of beings. Therefore, regarding these cycles of the Buddha's words, which manifested in the perceptions of those to be guided, let us put aside the question of whether he taught in a single or in numerous locations. When those to be guided differ in three ways-in terms of bias, character, and interest-what each of them hears the Tathagata speak will be a different teaching, and all of these teachings will occur simultaneously. In The Majestic State of Meditative Absorption, we read the following: Benefactor of the world, a single instance of your enlightened speech arises as sounds that accord with different interests. Each one thinks, "This is what the Victorious One taught me." That is why you smile. Moreover, the sutra Prophetic Enlightened Intent states: In a single instance of vajra speechnonconceptual, unchanging, and delightfulthere are many different interpretations based on the mentalities of those to be guided. Because it seemed to some that the Buddha spoke these three cycles of teachings in succession at different times, there exists such a classification. As The Intermediate-Length "Mother" indicates: How marvelous that in the human world there occurred the second turning of the wheel of dharma! According to The Perfection of Sublime Knowing in Seven Hundred Stanzas: Restating his teaching three times, [nb] he turned the wheel of dharma in twelve ways. 37 There are also cases in which what the single Teacher spoke on a single occasion in a single place was perceived as different teachings by the individuals to be guided. The sutra The Array of Treasure Urns states:

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On that occasion, some bodhisattvas heard a variety of teachings about supreme compassion, while others heard a variety of teachings about the characterization of phenomena as nonexistent. As we find in The Definitive Commentary on Enlightened Intent: ... for while different teachings were spoken, they were not explained in separate places on separate occasions. You may wonder, "Doesn't the preceding citation disprove the claim that the Buddha ever spoke in stages?" However, the intended meaning of the foregoing passages is that a single theme of the teachings is subject to different analyses and that no other location or occasion is involved; but this does not imply that he did not speak on other topics in other places and at other times. Ill. THE BUDDHA'S NIRVANA Then, at age eighty-two, the Buddha saw that he could no longer ensure benefit by continuing to manifest physically, so it became his intention to demonstrate his passing into nirvana. The surra The Exalted Passing into Complete Nirvana states: At this time, when the life span is one hundred years, it is only fitting that I pass into nirvana at eighty. But for your sake, 0 brahmin, I will endeavor to prolong my life for an additional two. 38 The ordinary scriptural sources state that he lived for eighty years, whereas the extraordinary sources state that he lived to be eighty-two. 39 [12a] Although different methods of calculation are involved, these sources are considered to be in fundamental agreement. An excellent explanation is given by the master Bhavadeva, who states that if one counts the actual years, there were eighty, whereas if one counts from the Buddha's birth (disregarding the ten months he spent in the womb) and adds up the intercalary months, one arrives at a total of eighty-two. That is, by separately counting the intercalary month that was traditionally added e,·ery three years, at the end of eighty years one obtains a total of twentyfour months (or two years) extra, thus giving the total of eighty-two; there are also the two months by which the Buddha deliberately extended ~is life ..-\lternatiYely. there are twenty days that can be counted as the

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equivalent of two extra years; both the "year" of his birth and "year" of his passing into nirvana are counted as full years, though each is only ten days long. 40 In any event, he passed into nirvana while lying between two shala trees in the town of Kushinagara, the region in which the Malia, a clan of powerful athletes, arose. His funeral pyre spontaneously burst into flames, and his sacred remains were divided into eight portions. One of these was given to the Malia dan of Kushinagara, one to the Malia dan of the region of Papa, one to the Mahabuluga clan of the warrior class in the region of Avakalpana, one to the brahmins of Vishnudvipa, one to the Shakya clan of Kapilavastu, and one to the Licchavi clan of Vaishali. One was worshiped by the Bheda clan of the brahmin class of Magadha. The vase that held the Buddha's remains was given to the brahmins Drona and Sama. 41 The ashes from his funeral pyre were taken by the Pippala clan of the brahmin class. The clans all went their separate ways with their portions, which they enshrined in great stupas. Of his canine teeth, [I2b] the fourth was taken to the naga domain by the nagas of the city of RavanaY The third was worshiped by the king of the rakshasa demons of Kalinga. The second was given to Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha, as his share; this, together with the relics that multiplied from it, was enshrined in a stupa ornamented with designs of lotus garlands. These relics were later brought with honor to Tibet and are said to reside at present in the White Stupa at Samye. The first tooth was brought with honor by Indra to the Trayastrimsha abode. 43 All of this is referred to in The Scriptural Transmission of Vinaya: Of the eight portions of the Seer's remains, including the canine teeth, seven were worshiped by people in the human world. 44 Of that sublime being's four canine teeth, one was worshiped in the Trayastrimsha abode, a second in the lovely city of Rajagriha, a third in the country of the king of Kalinga, while the fourth canine tooth of this sublime being was worshiped by the naga king in the city of Ravana. King Ashoka, dwelling in Pataliputra, spread the contents of the seven stupas far and wide. By the power of this act, the earth, the foundation of our prosperity,

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was clearly adorned with the tangible signs of the king's aspirations. In this way, the Seer's remains were highly honored by gods, nagas, human sovereigns, kinnaras, and yaksha lords as they worshiped and venerated them. Thus, the portions of the remains, including the four teeth, were kept as objects of worship in the different domains. [13a] In particular, in keeping with his aspirations in previous lives and his miraculous abilities, the Buddhist king Ashoka, the son of King Patala, took the seven portions left in our human world and, on the Indian subcontinent and in surrounding regions, erected as many stupas as there are grains in two handfuls of sand. There were said to be ten million such stupas, or chaityas. This is what The Fortunate Eon means by "the Buddha's remains will continue to increase."

From The Precious Treasury of Philosophical Systems: A Treatise Elucidating the Meaning of the Entire Range of Spiritual Approaches, this is the first chapter, a classification of the histories concerning the Teacher.

2 The Buddha's Teachings

Next, I will discuss the nature of the sacred dharma taught by the Buddha under three major headings: compiling the Buddha's words, the nature of the Buddha's words and the shastras, and the duration of the teachings. 1

I. COMPILING THE BUDDHA'S WORDS The first heading has two parts: compiling the teachings of the mantra approach and compiling those of the paramita approach.

A. Compiling the Teachings of the Mantra Approach The mantra teachings are those that the Bhagavat spoke on the summit of Sumeru, in Akanishtha, and at other locations. 2 Maitreya and innumerable other bodhisattvas, a multitude of dakinis, and many mahasiddhas who were holders of the mantra approach of awareness gathered in the south of India on a mountain called Bhimasambha. Traditionally, Manjushri is renowned for having compiled the tantras of enlightened form, Avalokiteshvara the tantras of enlightened speech, and Vajrapani the tantras of enlightened mind, qualities, and activity. 3 [13b] The tantras compiled at this time were those spoken by Shakyamuni himself, manifesting as Vajradhara. All those tantras whose nature was such that they were spoken countless eons ago by the primordial guide-called Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, or Vajrasattva-were not compiled at this point. This was because they had already been compiled by retinues of dakinis, siddhas, and vajra holders on those previous occasions when they were spoken, and so were already in the enlightened mind of Guhyapati and preserved in the realms of the dakinis. 4

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People with little exposure to the teachings maintain that there are no tantras of the secret mantra approach other than those spoken by Shakyamuni, manifesting on the inner level as Vajradhara, during the period when the span of human life was one hundred years. This is not a reasonable opinion, for we find explanations such as the following: In the first age, that of perfection, there was kriyatantra. In this eon alone, from the beginning up to the present, the great Vajradhara, appearing over an inconceivable period of time-in Akanishtha, in the charnel ground of the supreme secret approach, and in the places where dakinis gather-taught innumerable categories of tantras in stages. 5 He taught in the past, still teaches in the present, and will continue to teach in the future. Reciting the Names of Manjushri explains: What was taught by budd has in the past, and will, moreover, be taught by those in the future, is what is taught again and again by perfect buddhas appearing in the present. 6 [14a] Moreover, the tantra The Display of Timeless Awareness states: From the beginning, before all the eons, to the furthest point in the future, for that long I, the original Vajradhara, have taught, now teach, and will teach the dharma of the unsurpassable secret approach, marvelous and majestic, to ordinary beings.

B. Compiling the Teachings of the Paramita Approach I. THE

FIRST COUNCIL

The sutra teachings were compiled by three councils. It should be known that the first council was characterized by nine factors, as is noted in the following verse: The occasion, the gathering, the location, the supplication, the articles offered, the sponsor, the purpose, the points of dispute, and the main project of compilation: the learned speak of these nine factors.

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To elaborate, the occasion was the summer of the year after the Buddha passed into nirvana. The location was near the city of Rajagriha, at the Cave of Secrets of Asurava on the northeast slope of Vulture Peak, where five hundred arhats gathered. King Ajatashatru was the sponsor. To counter the criticism of the children of the gods, Ananda undertook the compilation of Sutra, Upali that of Vinaya, and Mahakashyapa that of Abhidharma. 7 By thus collecting the twelve branches of the Buddha's excellent speech and grouping them into these Three Compilations, they ensured that they would not disappear. 8 The Minor Scriptural Transmissions states: The summer after the Teacher's nirvana, in the Cave of Secrets at Rajagriha, the provisions for the five hundred arhats assembled there were furnished by Ajatashatru, and the Three Compilations were codified. The categories of general discourses, discourses in verse, [qb] prophecies, didactic verses, and aphorisms: these five were included in the compilation of Sutra. The categories of ethical directives, morally instructive biographies, the works called historical accounts, and the accounts of the Buddha's previous lives: these four were included in the compilation of Vinaya. The categories of the most extensive teachings, accounts of the marvelous qualities of enlightenment, and teachings that define phenomena: these three were included in the compilation of Abhidharma. It is held that the compilation of Sutra was undertaken by Ananda, that of Vinaya by Upali, and that of Abhidharma by the elder Mahakashyapa. 2. THE SECOND CouNciL

The second council took place in Vaishali, eighty years after the Buddha's nirvana, to resolve the questions raised by the monk Mahadeva as to whether the following would be allowed: .-\s to the propriety of reciting nonsense syllables, rejoicing, tilling the soil. using jars, using salt,

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traveling, touching food or stirring drinks with the fingers, using sitting mats, and handling gold: these were held to be ten instances of inappropriate behavior. 9 Seven hundred arhats, including Shantin and Chandrabhota, assembled in the temple of Kusmapuri in Vaishali. The reverend monk Yashas having made the supplication, the arhat Upagupta recited the Three Compilations.10 The Buddhist king Ashoka was the sponsor. After the council, the four fundamental schools that had gone their separate ways during the controversy over the foregoing issues were once again four schools united under a single doctrine. These schools were the Mulasarvastivadin, the Mahasanghika, the Sthaviravadin, and the Sammatiya. [rsa]

3.

THE THIRD COUNCIL

The third council was convened more than three hundred (actually closer to four hundred) years after the Buddha had passed into nirvana, when five hundred bodhisattvas with the power of complete recall, five hundred arhats, and sixteen thousand monks gathered in Pushpakuta Park at Jalandhara in Kashmir. King Kanishka was the sponsor. The teachings were recited by Vasumitra, a bodhisattva in his final incarnation, and the great arhat Purnika. The supplication was made by the king himself, and the eighteen separate schools that had developed were united as one spiritual system. Of the eighteen schools, the Mulasarvastivadin and its subschoolsthe Kashyapiya, Dharmaguptaka, Mahishasaka, Bahushrutiya, Tamrashatiya, and Vibhajyavadin-made a total of seven. These were the lineages developed by students of Rahulabhadra, a member of the warrior class who, had he not taken monastic ordination, would have become king of the Shakya clan. Instead, he took ordination and was proclaimed by the Bhagavat to be the best of those devoted to his training. These schools used the sublime Sanskrit language, similar to that spoken by the Trayastrimsha gods. Their formal outer robes were made with odd numbers of cloth strips (from nine to twenty-five) and embroidered with their emblems, which were water lilies, lotuses, and jewelsY [rsbl The Mahasanghika and its subschools-the Purvashaila, Haimavata, Prajnaptivadin, and Lokottaravadin-made a total of five. These were the lineages developed by students of a common founder, the elder


27

known as Mahakashyapa, a member of the brahmin class who took Buddhist monastic ordination and was proclaimed by the Buddha to be the best of those having the qualities of spiritual training. The language these schools used was Prakrit-that is, the local dialects of individual regions-similar to that spoken by the Abhasvara gods. 12 Their formal outer robes were made with odd numbers of cloth strips (from nine to twenty-three) and embroidered with their emblems, which were swastikas and endless knots. The Sthaviravadin had three subschools: the Jetavaniya, Abhayagirivasin, and Mahaviharavasin. These were the lineages developed by students of the venerable Katyayana, a member of the rattan workers' caste who took monastic ordination and was proclaimed by the Buddha to be the best at converting people in border countries. The language used by these schools was Apabramsha, a corrupt vernacular similar to that spoken by pishacha demons. 13 Their formal outer robes were made with odd numbers of cloth strips (from nine to twenty-one) and embroidered with their emblem, a conch shell. The Sammatiya had three subschools: the Kaurukullaka, Avantaka, and Vatsiputriya. These were the lineages developed by students of the venerable Upali, a member of the barber caste who took monastic ordination [16a] and was proclaimed by the Buddha to be the best of those upholding the ethical codes. The language used by these schools was Paishachita, another language similar to that spoken by pishacha demons, as well as by the gods of the immaculate abodes. Their formal outer robes were made with cloth strips in the same way as those of the Sthaviravadin school, and their emblem was a conch shell. Furthermore, at the first council, the teachings were recalled in the minds of the compilers and transmitted mentally to the arhats while they were in a state of meditative equipoise. 14 At the second council, the teachings were transmitted through oral recitation. At the final council, the oral recitations were written down and thus compiled.

II. THE NATURE OF THE BUDDHA'S WORDS AND THE SHASTRAS ~ly discussion of the nature of the Buddha's words and the shastras has four parts: a classification of the Buddha's ,,·ords, which he taught in

28


such an excellent manner; a classification of the shastras that comment on the Buddha's enlightened intent; the difference between the Buddha's words and the shastras; and how the teachings should be explained and received.

A. The Buddha's Words The first part consists of five topics. I. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BUDDHA'S WORDS

The characteristics of the Buddha's words are that they manifest as syllables, words, and phrases as a result of the governing condition-buddhas, the teachers who communicate with enlightened speech-and that they are found in the collections of sutras and tantras. 2. THE CoNTENT AND TREATMENT

The content is an explication of the three exalted trainings. The presentation is communicated with flawless speech. The proof lies in three kinds of valid cognition. 15 The result is that which is positive in the beginning, middle, and end. Such is the nature of the Buddha's words. Maitreya states: They present the three exalted trainings; the words spoken are flawless; they are marked by three kinds of valid cognition; and they are positive in the beginning, middle, and end. Such are the Buddha's words, the superior speech of victorious ones. It should be known that anything else is a scriptural source of another tradition. The three exalted trainings are those in discipline, mind, and sublime knowing. 16 The three kinds of valid cognition are those of direct experience, deductive reasoning, and scriptural authority. [16b]

3·

THE BASIS OF THE TERM "THE BUDDHA'S WORDS"

What is characterized as the Buddha's words is based on the manifestations of the enlightened speech of the Teacher in the form of syllables,


29

words, and phrases that arose in the minds of those to be guided. That is, these manifestations-in the form of the verse and prose found in the sutras and tantras-came about because of the interests of the audience. The teachings, which conformed to the destinies of those to be guided, also came about through the Teacher's blessings. These manifestations were like an echo; in actuality they did not exist as words or parts of speech. As explained in The Highest Continuum: The sound of an echo occurs within someone's consciousness. 17 The Vaibhashika system of the shravakas maintains that the Buddha's words are essentially groups of words that are organized in the listener's mind; this system considers these to be subsumed within the aggregate of distinct formative factors. 18 The Sautrantika system maintains that the Buddha's words are essentially a collection of phrases that are organized in the speaker's mind; it considers these to be subsumed within the aggregate of form. For our purposes, however, the Buddha's words consist essentially of the manifestations of syllables, words, and phrases arising from the condition of the Teacher and the audience coming together. These manifestations are organized primarily by the afflictive aspect of consciousness, and they are subsumed within the aggregates of both form and formative factors. 19 This is established by scriptural references such as the previously quoted "occurs within someone's consciousness." The Treasury of A.bhidharma explains: The eighty thousand collections of teachings that were spoken by the Sage are syllables and words. They are subsumed within forms and formative factors. 20

4·

AN ANALYSIS OF THE BUDDHA'S WORDS

The Buddha's words can be analyzed in five ways.

a. Essence Ii we analyze the Buddha's words with respect to their essence, we find :hat there are two aspects: scripture and realization. [r7a] The same :;our..::e states:

30


The sacred dharma of the Teacher has two aspects, epitomized by scripture and realization. It is this and this alone that is to be upheld, discussed, and put into practice. 21 The dharma as scripture comprises the twelve branches of the Buddha's excellent speech as they are explained in The Major Commentary on "The Eight Thousand Stanzas": The categories of general discourses, discourses in verse, prophecies, didactic verses, aphorisms, morally instructive biographies, historical accounts, ethical directives, mst extensive teachings, accounts of the Buddha's previous lives, teachings that define phenomena, and accounts of the marvelous qualities of enlightenment: thus, these twelve are the twelve branches of the Buddha's excellent speech. The dharma as realization comprises the particular spiritual levels, paths, and states of meditative absorption and realization that are experienced by holy beings, whether those who are still learning or those for whom no more learning is necessary. 22

b. Progression If we analyze the Buddha's words with respect to their progression over time, we find that there are three successive cycles of teachings. As for the first cycle, when one is a beginner, one's afflictive states are reinforced by the perception of a dualism that seems to exist in its own right. Thus, there are a variety of spiritual teachings on the four truths, which demonstrate primarily the process of ethical discernment-deciding what to eliminate and what to use as an antidote-in order to protect the mind from these afflictive states. The intermediate cycle comprises teachings that characterize phenomena as nonexistent in order to put an end to a preoccupation with antidotes. The final cycle comprises a variety of teachings that definitively ascertain ultimate truth, revealing how the fundamentally unconditioned nature of being abides. These are the three cycles.

c. Acumen If we analyze the Buddha's words with respect to beings' levels of acumen, we find that there are the approach of shravakas, that of pratyeka-


3I

buddhas, and the unsurpassable approach. [r7b] Regarding these three, Reciting the Names of Manjushri states: In the results ensured by three spiritual approaches lies the fruition of a single approach. 23

d. Governing Condition If we analyze the Buddha's words with respect to the governing condition, we find that there are three kinds of teachings: those communicated directly by buddhas, those that came about through blessings, and those that came about through permission being granted. i. Teachings Communicated Directly Teachings of the first kind were communicated directly by the transcendent and accomplished conqueror Vajradhara in Akanishtha and by other buddhas in other realms. The tantras of enlightened form were taught in the pure realm of Ghanavyuha, and the teacher was Vairochana. The tantras of enlightened speech were taught in Sukhavati by the teacher Amitabha. The abode of the tantras of enlightened mind was Abhirati, and the teacher was Akshobhya. The tantras of the qualities of enlightenment were taught in Ratnapurna by the teacher Ratnasambhava. The tantras of enlightened activity were taught in Sukarmasiddhi by Amoghasiddhi. The retinues consisted of countless buddhas, bodhisattvas, gatherings of dakinis, and others. Moreover, the teachings given by these five teachers in these five pure realms came about through the display of the single wholly positive state, Samantabhadra, the embodiment of which is the heruka \ -ajradhara; they manifested in these ways according to the requirements ·::>t specific situations. Similarly, abodes such as "the bhaga of the vajra -1ueen" have the same nature as Akanishtha and these other realms. These, :hen, are the teachers and the abodes of the sambhogakaya teachings. Regarding the nirmanakaya teachings, [r8a] in separate locations the :ranscendent and accomplished conqueror Shakyamuni communicated ::,.ese teachings in the midst of a retinue, his enlightened speech manifest:::g with sixty melodious qualities.

ii. Teachings That Came About Through Blessings T~c following are examples of the Buddha's words that came about :::r0ugh 1:-lessings:

32


The Buddha's words that came about through the blessings of enlightened form, as when the Buddha placed his hand on the head of Vajragarbha and blessed him, so that Vajragarbha had the confidence to explain the sutra The Ten Spiritual Levels as a discourse in response to a request by Vimuktachandra. 2. The Buddha's words that came about through the blessings of enlightened speech, as when the Buddha instructed Manjushri, "Relieve the guilt of Ajatashatru," after which Manjushri taught the sutra Relieving the Guilt of Ajatashatru. 24 3. The Buddha's words that came about through the blessings of enlightened mind, as when the transcendent and accomplished conqueror rested in the meditative absorption of profound perception, thus blessing Shariputra and Avalokiteshvara so that The Heart Essence of Sublime Knowing was communicated. 25 4· The Buddha's words that came about through the blessings of the spontaneously present qualities and activity of enlightenment, as described in the introduction to The Hundred Thousand Stanzas, when the Tathagata's form appeared from an effulgence of light and taught the dharma. Other examples include the melodious sound of teachings issuing from mountains, trees, birds, lotuses, drums, and so forth. The Explanatory Essays states: 1.

Through the blessings of this Teacher, teachings came even from birds, pieces of wood, pebbles, lotuses, wish-granting trees, and powerful drums. Because they arose from the blessings of the Victorious One, these teachings are held to be "the Buddha's words." [18b] According to Aralli: Although they came from mountains, pebbles, pieces of wood, lotuses, wish-granting trees, and powerful drums, because they arose from the blessings of the Victorious One, these teachings are held to be "the Buddha's words." Similarly, teachings given by any shravakas who were moved to speak by the Buddha's blessings, and those given by men, women, boys, girls, and others who were influenced by the Buddha's supreme enlightened ac-


33

tivity, were all included in the Buddha's words as well. The Compendium states: Whatever teachings were given by any shravakas who were followers of the Victorious Oneteachings that were explained and expressed with understanding and then gave rise to sublime and exalted bliss and the attainment of their fruitionthey all came about through the influence of the spiritual being, the Tathagata. Why, you ask? Because whatever the methods taught by the Victorious One, the excellent people who were his students first trained in them and, having gained direct experience, instructed others in such training, just as the Buddha intended. This was ensured by the Buddha's influence, not by their own powers. It can thus be seen from this presentation how sections of the sutras and tantras in which the enlightened speech of the Buddha himself is interspersed with the words of others are nevertheless considered the Buddha's words.

iii. Teachings That Came About Through Permission .\n example of the Buddha's words that came about through permission being granted can be found in the sutra Passing into Nirvana, in which the Buddha says: 0 Ananda, when I have completely passed into nirvana and the teachings are being compiled, introduce them with "Thus have I heard. On one occasion ... ";insert connective narrative throughout the text; [r9a] and conclude with the phrase "All unreservedly praised what was spoken by the transcendent and accomplished conqueror." Compile them in this way.

e. Antidotes and Their Enumerations

1: we analyze the Buddha's words with respect to antidotes and their enu~erations.

we find that there are eighty-four thousand groups of teach_::g:s. Tl.'t? ll/umi11.zti11g L:mzp states:

34


The great sage having spoken eighty-four thousand groups of teachings ... Of these, twenty-one thousand groups of Vinaya were taught as antidotes to twenty-one thousand variations of attachment, while twenty-one thousand groups of Sutra, Abhidharma, and the Three Compilations in equal measure were taught respectively as antidotes to twenty-one thousand variations of aversion, ignorance, and these three afflictive states in equal measure. As The Revelation of the Inexhaustible Treasure indicates: As antidotes to the twenty-one thousand forms of attachment, aversion, ignorance, and these three mental poisons engaged in equally, that number of groups of teachings were spoken. According to the glorious Heart Essence of Secrets: As antidotes to eighty-four thousand afflictive states, eighty-four thousand teachings were spoken, are spoken, and will be spoken. 26 The Three Compilations provide the respective antidotes to the three mental poisons; these antidotes constitute the cause-based dialectical approach. 27 The phrase "Three Compilations in equal measure" refers to the secret mantra approach of those who maintain awareness, which is the antidote to the unlimited ways in which the three mental poisons function in combination. This constitutes the fruition-based approach of the Vajrayana. 28 We thus arrive at a total of eighty-four thousand. [r9b] The tantra The Array of Qualities states: The Three Compilations, which are exoteric, were taught as antidotes, respectively, to attachment, aversion, and ignorance. The secret mantra approach, unsurpassable in that it applies to these equally, was taught as the antidote to all afflictive states. In all, these are the eighty-four thousand groups of teachings taught by victorious ones as antidotes to afflictive states. The term "body" or "aggregate" refers to an assemblage of limbs and appendages. In a similar way, the term "groups of teachings" refers to the groupings of all the various teachings that present the aspects of ground, path, and fruition; that act as conditions for uprooting specific afflictive


35

states; and that contribute to the attainment of liberation. These should be understood to be like a pharmacopoeia, which includes every specific type of medicine that acts as an antidote to a particular illness. The Treasury of Abhidharma explains: As antidotes to patterns of behavior, appropriate groups of teachings were spoken. 29 According to The Illumination of the Three Worlds: To conquer afflictive states, there should certainly be a similar number of groups of teachings. Regarding the size of a group of teachings, the Kashmiri scholar Jnanavajra and certain others assert that it amounts to one thousand stanzas. The Categories of the Spiritual Levels comments: Those eighty-four thousand groups of teachings recalled by the elder Ananda make up the Three Compilations. It might be asked, "What is the size of a single group of teachings?" One group of teachings is equal to one thousand stanzas. [2oa] Nagabodhi and others maintain that it consists of as many words of a given teaching as could be borne on the back of a young elephant in its prime, if these words were written on bark or palm leaves as fine as silk, if the writing covered both sides of the leaf without spaces between words, and if a fraction of a hair's tip was used as a pen. Others hold that it refers to a complete presentation of a single topic, such as the mind-body aggregates, the fields of experience, or the components of perception. Still others posit that the size is that of a shastra of moderate length; they say that it is like that of an Abhidharma text written by Shariputra, which ..::onsists of four thousand stanzas and is considered a group of teachings . .-\s The Treasury of Abhidharma states: Some say it is the length of a shastra or that it constitutes a single topic, such as the mind-body aggregates. 30 These interpretations, however, assign some fixed quantity to all of teachings that discuss antidotes to a specific afflictive state. But such a ::xed quantity does not necessarily exhaust all of the teachings on a topic, ~o :r 1s best to consider a "group" to be the sum total of teachings that are :ie dntidotes to any gi,·en afflicti,-e state. :~e

36


5.

THE TERM "THE BuDDHA's WoRDs"

The Buddha's words are defined as "what is spoken by a supreme and sublime being." They were spoken for the dual purpose of ensuring shortterm and ultimate benefit for beings. The Unfolding of Timeless Awareness states: To accomplish the two kinds of benefit for beings, the words of the Bhagavat were proclaimed with a lion's roar in the midst of his retinue. They caused all that is positive to increase [2ob] and all illnesses-afflictive states-to be thoroughly pacified.

B. The Shastras That Comment on the Buddha's Enlightened Intent Now, my classification of the shastras that comment on the Buddha's enlightened intent is discussed under two headings: the qualifications of the masters who wrote these texts and the nature of the shastras they wrote. I.

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE AUTHORS

The ideal author was someone, such as Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, or Asanga, who perceived the truth that is the nature of phenomena. 31 A lesser kind of author was someone who had been graced with a vision of a chosen deity and so received permission to write; Chandragomin and Shantideva, for example, were blessed by the bodhisattva of supreme compassion. 32 At the very least, the author-someone like the master Shrigupta, Jnanagarbha, or Shakyamati-should have been learned in the five traditional fields of knowledge and have received instructions on teachings deriving from a lineage of gurusY The five traditional fields of knowledge comprise the "outer" subjects, including grammar and valid cognition; the "inner" subjects, such as the Three Compilations; 34 the arts, including those of constructing temples and painting images of deities; the medical sciences, such as those discussed in The Eight Branches and Somaraja; and areas of expertise such as the eight secular skills, which involve classifying the characteristics of men, women, mountains and forests, lakes and springs, clothing design, gemstones, horses, and elephants. An example of instruction that derives from a lineage is found in Reasoning Through Detailed Explanations:


37

To those who wish to explain the sutras, I will give a few words of instruction. The instruction is as follows: [2ra] You should provide an explanation of the purpose, a summary, a refutation of objections, an overview of the contents, the words, and the underlying meaning. Those who are thus learned in the different fields of knowledge and who have gained accomplishment are innumerable, but the mo.st renowned authors are "the six ornaments" and "the eight sublime ones," who are like the sun and moon or like precious gems. The six ornaments are Nagarjunagarbha, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dinnaga, Dharmakirti, and Gunaprabha. The eight sublime ones include the foregoing with three figures added-Aryadeva, Chandragomin, and Vira-and Dinnaga omitted. 35 2. THE NATURE OF THE SHASTRAS

The nature of the shastras that were written can be discussed in five ways.

a. The Characteristics What characterizes the shastras is that they were written by authors qualified to comment on the enlightened intent of the Buddha's words and they fulfilled the two functions of correcting and protecting. In Reasoning Through Detailed Explanations, we read the following: Whatever corrects the enemies-afflictive states-without exception, and protects one against ignoble states of existence, is a shastra; these two qualities of correcting and protecting are not found in other traditions.

b. The Basis of the Characteristics .\s for the basis of these characteristics, the nature of a shastra is such rhat, as a result of the author acting as the governing condition, the conrem-which manifests in the speech or writing of the one presenting the :ext-becomes clear in the listener's mind.

c. An Analysis .\n analysis of the shastras demonstrates that their sources are found in :he Three Compilations. Specifically, there are shastras that address the

38


first of the three exalted trainings, the exalted training in discipline. The Ornament of the Sutras states: [2I b] Because they discuss moral failings, circumstances, restoration, the certainty that comes with renunciation, candidates, historical precedents, detailed analyses, and dear moral guidelines, their concern is Vinaya. 36 Others address the exalted training in mind. The same source explains: Because they deal with locations, characteristics, categories, and deeper meanings, their concern is Sutra. 37 Still others address the exalted training in sublime knowing. We read in the same source: Because they direct one, provide details, prevail over objections, and bring understanding, their concern is Abhidharma. 38 Composed in these ways, the shastras have been assigned to the individual categories of Vinaya, Sutra, Abhidharma, and the secret mantra approach. They are, moreover, devoid of the six flaws found in non-Buddhist treatises and have three qualities that are characteristically Buddhist. The Definitive Conclusion on the Levels of Realization Resulting from Hearing Teachings states: Neither meaningless nor erroneous, but endowed with meaning; neither merely theoretical nor contentious, but concerned with spiritual practice; advocating neither deceit nor lack of compassion, but the elimination of suffering: Buddhist shastras are held to be devoid of these six flaws and to have these three positive qualities. To elaborate, treatises that are not ultimately meaningful are works like the four Vedas. Treatises that are erroneous maintain that freedom can be attained through such philosophical views as realism and nihilism. 39 Treatises that are merely theoretical are works on poetics and the like. Those that are contentious are works of logic and so forth. Those that advocate deceit are works on military strategy and related subjects. [22a] Treatises that advocate a lack of compassion are those that profess, for example, that the sacrifice of cattle is spiritual practice, and thus are harmful to oneself and others. Treatises found in Buddhist traditions are


39

devoid of these six negative qualities and instead have three positive ones, for they discuss the important topic of bringing about happiness in the short term and freedom ultimately, as well as the attainment of enlightenment and the complete elimination of the suffering of samsara. There are countless variations on the ways in which these topics are discussed. There are treatises that synthesize information from diverse sources, make hidden meanings evident, present extensive treatments of topics, explain difficult points, give word-by-word exegeses, summarize the meaning of a text, or analyze a subject developmentally. Texts can include Tre.wtr)' oi Abbidharm.1. 67. The term "visible" implies that such forms are perceptible to the visual consciousness of ordinary beings. "Physically obsrructiw'' implies that when two such forms (or even the particles of which they are composed I come into contact, they cannot pass through. but instead block. one another. 68. The Vaibhashikas (like the Sautrantikasl do not believe that the particles that combine to form obvious matter are in contact with one another. The term -real entity" is more or less equivalent to "substantial entity- and refers to anything that can perform a function, i.e., all forms, consciousnesses. and distinct formative factors. 69. The sense faculties are not the sense organs in question. hut more subtle factors that are the supports for their respective sense consciousnesses. 70. According to the Vaibhashikas, when someone rakes a ,·ow. that person's mind acquires a quality (an invisible, intangible forml that alters its makeup. This form may im·olve "ordination.'' such as taking a vow to refrain from killing for the rest of one's life: "the antithesis of ordination," such as raking a vow to kill for the rest of one's life; or "partial ordination." such as making a commitment for a shorter period of time or subject to certain restrictions. "''· From the Vaibhashika point of ,·iew, inanimate objects in the external world

NOTES TO PAGES 70-7 I

407

(such as a cup) are composed of eight kinds of particles. The physical body, with its tactile sense faculty. is composed of nine kinds of particles, the foregoing eight plus the particles of the tactile faculty itself. The remaining sense faculties are composed of ten kinds of particles. the foregoing nine plus the particles of the particular faculty. 7:z.. For the Vaibhashikas. ultimate reality consists of two factors-minute indivis· ible particles and irreducible moments of consciousness-and is arrived at when the mind reaches the limit to which these factors can be analyzed. 73. The Treasury reads: ..As with a ,·ase or water, there is no existence on the relative level." 74· Vasubandhu. The Tre.Jsllr)' o; Abhidh.:zrma, ch. 6, v. 4· 75· In this context, the terms "mind" and "consciousness" are for the most part synonymous. "Coordinating mental faculty" is a translation of the term yid. According to Herbert Guenther, "Buddhism developed a functional, rather than a static, interpretation of mind, and described it by three different terms: sems, yid, and mam-rp.m shes-cpaJ. Of these terms, the last one denotes man's perceptions; the middle one the co-ordination of the data of his senses and his 'thoughts.' The first one describes man's responsiveness and indicates the fact that all awareness is intentional or relational, from a subjective pole to an object of some sort; in other words, it names the bipolar structure of immediate experience, because this faculty's function is that of 'the co-ordination of the data of lone's] senses and lone'sl 'thoughts"' !Buddhist Philosophy in Theory and Practice, p. 911. Gh·en that )'id has both a conceptual and a nonconceptual mode, it would be misleading to translate it as something like ;ter"s miraculous birth in Lake Dhanakosha. 14. The aperture above the nine orifices. ar the crown of the head, is that through which consciousness leaYes the body at death when the transference of consciousness is successful. 15. This line is nor found in the wrsion of the source text a\·ailable to us. 16. Here "yogins·· refers ro Vajrayana practitioners. 17. Dharmakirri, Tbe Asce1·t.li11mmt o; \~1/id Cog11itilm. ch. 2.., v. 4· This passage deals with different aspects of inferential knowledge. Taking the light of the lamp to be the gem is a ~ase of erroneous inference: raking the light of the gem to be the gem is a case of correct inference. Both are equally wrong in that they do not entail direct knowledge. but correct inference is ~om·entionally more accurate than erroneous inference. By an•tlogy. \'ajrayana techniques such as meditating on deities do nor entail direct knowledge of the true nature of reality, but they are com·entionally more ac~urate. as an approximation thereof, than the techniques of the diale~ti~al approach. rS. Ideally, the master has already undertaken a personal retreat !the stage of approach, in this contextl on a gh·en practice to prepare for bestowing the empowerment for that practice: the master may hrl.1hs p.1'i rgyud Copper Letters Tib. Z.mgs yig c.m :l\YZ. mi..~. pp. _q;-438 Cutting Through the B.1sis of Confusion Tib. 'Khrul g~hi rts,ui gcod Cutting Through the J-low o(.\-femory Tib. Dr,m p.1 rgy1111 gcod Cutting Tongues of f!.une Tib. gCod byed me Ice Cycle of f..x.mlin,lfionl)fTerminology Tib. sGr.1 brt.1gs 'klwr lo Cycle of the \ ~1se of the Knou•,Jble Tib. Shes by.1 hum skor D,lkini T.mtr.l of Bliss Tib. mKh,1' 'gro 111.1 hde lh1'i rgyud Dakini's Secrets Tib. mK/1.1' 'gm 111.1 gs.mg b.1 'i rgyud Dancing Y,1ksh.1 Spirit Tib. gNod sbyin g.ll' k/.>,m gyi rgyud Dark Secret Moon Tib. Z/,1 gs.mg 11.1g po 'i rg)•ttd 1\'GB. ,-ols. 25-6, Tb. 468-~1 De{initi1•e Conrme11t.1ry on Enlightened Intent Skt. Arya Sd1J1dhi nirmoc,uz.lndm.z mahJylillF--1-IMajestic Army o(Qtt.1lities Skr. Ary.1 sarm dh.mnsence Tib. 1./nm grub )'i ge Maricbi Tib. 'Od ~er c.m Mer.llzilzgiul Diligelll'e Tib. brTson p.z do11ld.m g)·i rg)'lfd Memzingtitl.\-fedit.ztiOir Tib. sGom p.1 don gmb Medit.ztiz·e St,zbility: Cycle o{Sieep Tib. h.S.zm gt.mll)'•ll h.z'i 'khor lo Medit.rtil•e St.zbility oi the F. yes Tib . .\1ig gi bs.zm gt.m Miltol' Scriptur.zl Tr.msmissicms Skr. \ 'ilt.l)'.l k~udr.zk.zmstu Tib. 'D11I b.1 pln·.m tshegs kyi g;,bi Dg. K., 'Dul h.z. ,·ol. Tha, ff. Ih-_Hoa !Toh. 61 Mirror 11/lfmill,zting the R.zsis o{ Confitsion Tib. 'Kimtl gzbi gs.tl h.,·; me long Mirror oi tbe Secret Tib. gS.mg b.z'i me long Monc~rl'h

of Sp.1ee Tib. Nam mkh.z'i rgy.zl po ~GB, ,·ol. 1, pp. 601-6

Most Conce,zled Hidden fr.zgmellt Tib. Y,mg g,zb sb..zs p,,·; dum bu Most Secret He.1rt Drop. by klong chen rab 'byams pa Dri med 'od zer Tib. Y.uzg gs.mg snying tig Most S11blime Secret Tib. gSr1ng h.z mdmg gi rgyud Natural Freedom oi.-\m~reness Tib. Rig p.1 wzg grol d1e11 po thams c.td 'grel pa'i rgyud 1\GB, \'OJ. I J. pp. 699--;-

501

502

SOURCES CITED

Naturally Abiding Medit.ztit•e St,lbilit)' Tib. bSam gtan mng gnas Naturally Arising Azmreness Tib. De l1zhin gshegs pa th.11ns cad kyi ting nge i:hin yongs su bsl1.is,tt.zm.z szttl't!IZdr.lr.ij,Jn,im.l muh.iy.ina szttm Tib. 'Ph.1gs p.z gsa ·"d d.zmfl.llll.f, • sde ,fh.m~ pu ·; rgy.1l po zhes b)'•1 b.1 theg

p.1 eben po ·; md• • Dg. K.,rGyud 'hum. \ol. P;l.

ti.

1' 1 b-.!-.;.1

iToh. 556l

S.1cred .md Mighty One Tib. rfe btsun d.mzfJ.z :-..iGB. n>L

1.

rr- 5').!- 4

S.JCred Timeless All'.II'I!IU'SS Tib. Ye shes d.mz p.z SamLJnt,zbh,ldr.l: Tbe ;\lirror ol f.Jzlightened .\find Tib. Kun tu h::.mg po thugs k)·i me long gi rgyud ces by.1 b.1 th.uns cad ston p,z'i z-g~·ud ~GB. \'01. I.!,

pp . .!-15-80

Second,zry Auxili,zry T,mtr.z: ...\ Thorougb Dismssion olSupreme Sp.1ce Tib. X.Jmmkb.z' cbe f>hyi m,,·; pbyi m,z'i rgyud yongs su bgro ba Secret B.1ckgwwzd Tbeory Tib. gS.mg b,z"i rgy.zb yig and rG)'•lb yig gsang b.1 Secret Buddb,zlmud Tib. S.mgs zxy.zs gs.mg b.z Secret Comme11t.1ry Tib. gS.mg lhl ·; ti k.z Secret Conduct: The T.mtr.1 olthe Pote11ti.1l See Only Child ol the Te.1chings Secret Goddess Tib. Yon t,m gyi rgyud l1J.1 mo gs.mg b,1 Secret Session Tib. Thzm gs.mg Secret Sound Tib. gS,mg b.1 sgr.1'i rgyud Secret Tmztr.1 of the Af.mi{est Dispf,1y Tib. gS.mg l>.1'i rgyud rn.mz p.1r rol p.1 Secret Test.unent Tib. gSang b,(i ;:h,ll chems Secret o{ Vajra Equipoise Tib. rDo rie snyoms ·;ug gs.Jng b,z'i rgyud Seedling of Bliss Tib. l1De lh1'i myu gu

508

SOURCES CITED

Set•e11 Hundred Stdn;:,ls See Perlection o{Sublime Knowing in Sez·en Hundred St
51;

516

SOURCES CITED

Tib. 'Phags pa beam /dan 'das kyi ye shes rg)'JS pa'i mdo sde rin po che mtha'

)'as pa mthar phyin p..z zhes bya b,l theg p.1 chm po'i mdo Dg. K., mDosde, vol. Ga, ff. 1b-2;;b (Toh. 99)

Unfolding of Timeless Azthlreness, Equ.1l to the Eurth Tib. Ye shes rgyas pa Sd g::,hi d.mg m11ymn P•l'i rgyud Unified Intent of All Buddhas Tib. Sangs rg)'•lS thams cad k)·i dgongs P•l aus p.1 ~GB.,

vol. 16, Tb. 373

Unified Sphere Tib. Thig le 'dus pa'i rgyud Union of Buddhas in Eqtt,llness (!\"yingma source! Tib. Sangs rgyas mn)'•lm sbyor rrgyud phyi m,(i phyi m.1J NGB, vol. 18, Tb. 402-.~

Union of Buddhas in Eqzt.1lness (Sarma source I Skt. Sarz•a kalpa s.mwcc,1)'•1n.'im.1 s.1rz',1lmddh.1 s.11n.'i)·og.1 t;lakini ;ala sambara uttarottara tmztr
Vajrasattl'a: Tbe Mirror of the Heart Tib. rDo rie sems dpa·· snying gi me long NGB, \"01. T 2, pp. 19~-245 Vase of Nectar, by kLong chen rab 'byams pa Dri med 'od zer Tib. bDud rtsi bum p.1 Vase of Spiritual Att.1imnent Tib. dNgos grub bum pa Vast Array of Bliss Tib. bDe b.1 rab 'b)·,wrs NGB, vol. 1, pp. 618-21 Vast Ra11ge of Secrets Tib. gS.mg ba rgy.1 mtsho'i rg)'lld d.1m pa'i d.1m P•11mt11'byor g)·i rnal'byor I gsang ba thams c,1d k)•i tig k.1 rgyud kyi rg)'•11 po NGB, vol. '.h Tb. 313 Vast Range of (\lajra} D,lk,Js Skt. Sri tjakar~rat•a m,Jha yogini tantr.1 r.'ij.J nJm.1 Tib. dPal mkha·' 'gro rgy.1 mtsho m.1l'byor m,1'i ,·gy11d kyi rgy,JI po che11 po :hes bya b.1 Dg. K., rG)·ttd ·'bum. mi. Kha, ff. 1ra-264b 1Toh. r21 Vijay.1 Tib. rN.1m p.1r rgy,11 liM

Weapo11 of Speech Tib. sMr,1lM'i mtsh01r c/1.1 W.'eb of M.1gic.1l Dispi.J)' Tib. sGyu 'phml drmiM Web of Magic.JI Displ.:~y: The Fzmd.:~ment.1l T.mtr.1 of .\tf,mittshri Tib. :f,mz dp.1/ rts.1 rg)·ttd sg)'tt 'phrul drz•,J b.1 We/1-Se,Jied Locket Skt. S,mrp~tf.l n.'int.J 11r.1h.'i t.mtr.l Tib. Yang d.1g p.1r sh)·or b.1 :hes by.1 b,J'i rg)'lld chen po Dg. K., rG)·ttd 'bttm. mi. Ga. ff. -3b-15Hh 1Toh ..~Nil Vf.'heel of l.ife force Tib. Srog gi 'khor lo ~GB. vol. 1, pp. 598-601 Vf.'heel of Medit.1tion Tib. sGom p.1'i 'khor lo Wheel of Sublime Bliss Skr. T.mtr.l r.'i;.l sri I.Jglm s.mtiMr.Jn.'int.J

SOURCES CITED

519

Tib. rGyud kyi rgy.lf pu dp.1/ hde mchog nyzmg ngu ~hes by.:~ b,l Dg. K.. rGyud 'bum. mi. 1-.:.t. ff. z I3b-z46b !Toh. _:;68 I

Wlheel o(Sublime Knolt'ing Tib. Shes r.1b 'klmr {IJ Wheel ofTerminulogy Tih. sGr.1 gn.1s 'k/}(Jr lo \Vheel of Time Skt. Pl. Tsh.tff. tt . .!59b-2.X9a !Toh ..~HHl

Lamp on the P.1th. by :\tis3 Skt. Bodhi p.1th.1 pr.ulip.z Tib. By.mg dmb l,mz gyi sgronm.z Dg. T.• dBu m,z, ,-ol. Khi. H. .!_~Ha-.!413 !Toh. 3947) l.amp oithe Three ,\Jethods. hy Tripirakamal3 Skt.l\,1)'•1 tr.1y,7fmzdip.1 Tib. Tslml gsum gyi sgronnz.1 Dg. T.• rGyud. mi. Tsu. ff. 6b-.!6b !Toh. )':'07) Light Ra)'S oiSpeech. by \"igm Tib. brDa sprod Ng.1g gi 'od ::er Major Comment.11·y on ,; The Eight Thousand St,m:;:;as, ., by H3ribh3dr3 Skt. ,-~ry.1 .z~f,z s.'il1l. Cha. ff. 1b-3413 (Toh. F9T l One Hundred .md One Actiz·ities, by GuQ3pr3bha Skt. F.kott.1r.1 k.mn.1 $,if,1ka Tib. LIS brgy.1 rts,1 gcig P•1 Dg. T., 'Dul b.1. mi. Wu, ff. LOob-.!)93 (Toh. 4118l Oral Tmnsmission oi M.miushri Tib. :1.11n dp.1l ::h.li lung Omament of}vfaniiest Re.1li::.1tion, by :\13itrey3 Skt. Ahhis,un,1)'JimJzk.ir.1n.in!.l pmj1i,i p.iramitopadesa s.istra kiirika Tib. Shes r,1b k)·i ph.1 rol tu phyin pa'i m,m ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs p,1'i rgy.m ::hes bya b,;'i tshig le'ur byas pa Dg. T.• Ses phyin, mi. K3, ff. 1b-133 (Toh. 3786) Omamellt oiMmziiest Timeless Aw,;reness Tib. Ye shes sn,mg ba rg)'•111 Omamellt oi the Sutms. by :\taitreya Skt. M,!l,ayl. Ge, ff. 1o-a-126a (Toh. 4158)

526

SOURCES CITED

Reasoning Through Detailed Explanations. by Vasubandhu Skt. Vyakhya yukti Tib. rl\:am par bshad pa'i rigs pa Dg. T., Sems tsam, \"OI. Zhi, ff. 29a-r 34b (Toh. 4061) Refutation of Arguments, by Kagarjuna Skt. Vigraha L')'362, 364 Guenther, Herbert, 407n75 Guhyapati (Lord of the Secret Approach), 23, 395n4 guiding, four ways of, I3 Gunaprabha, 37, 398n35 guru, 42, 185, 248. See also master habit patterns, 72., 89, II3, 2.62., 344-5, 4IOn98, 459n2I hardship; in Mahayana vs. Vajrayana, 2.4I,2.42,246 harmful actions, exhaustion of effects of, I8I-2. Hashang Mahayana, 2.58, 452n3o Heaped jewels, 337,339,365,366,368,

377

hearing, faculty of, 33I, 458n65 heart center, 34I, 342., 344, 356, 360, 36I Heart Drop of the Dakini, The (Longchenpa), 403012 Heart Drop ofVimalamitra, The, 463n81, 463n83 heart essence of being, I 5o, I62, I66, I68-7I,I72.,36o,361-2,462.n58 tantra as, 360-1 Heart Essence of the Golden Flower, The,361 Heart Essence of the Middle Way, The (Bhavaviveka), 12.5 Heart Essence of Secrets, The, 5, I3, 34, 52.,243,245.308,34I,346,354. 389n6,4s9n23 Heart Essence of Sublime Knowing, The,32 heart essences of tantra, three, 366 Hedonists, 65 Hell of Endless Torment, 44, I63, 399n5I Hevajra, 454n4o Hevajra Tantra, The, 343 Highest Continuum, The (Maitreya), I3,17,2.9,40,43,44>84,I28,I45> ISO, ISI, I 55, I63, 157, 159, I6I, I69,2.00,2.06,2I0,2I3,214,219, 22.0,232.,234,235,237,238,2.58, 344 Highest Continuum of Nomenclature, The, 279, 2.86 highest (state of) mundane experience, I2.9,132.-4,I94,I96-7,433n8, 442.019I Himasagara, 390n7, 392n23. See also Vairochana Hinayana, 5, 52, I48, 156, 393n32, 396010, 42.6n2s6 concept of Three Jewels, 66 as foundational approach, 52, 432.n2 interpretation of Buddha, 7-8 interpretation of teachings, 14-I5 and knowledge.of the ground, 4170157 philosophical systems of, 54, 68-79 pratyekabuddha approach, I42-9 shravaka approach, I27-42

INDEX

Hindu gods (and fourfold classification oftantra), 274-5 Hitaishin, r75-6 Hundred and One Activities, The, 48 Hundred Thousand Stanzas, The, 32 identity and afflictive aspect of consciousness, 90,42Ini95,422n207 belief in/fixation on, 90, r72, r92, I96, 443n207 as imputation, 83 lack of, 9I, 95-6, I3I, I35, I7I, 4330!7 nonexistence of personal, 52, 54, 78, 8o,8r,I30,I34,I40,4IInro6, 4I7ni57, 4330!4 nonexistence in phenomena, 52, 67, 73,80,96,I30,I89,I92, 4Irnro6,4I7ni53,4I7ni58, 4330!4 on path of linkage in bodhisattva approach, I97 on path of linkage in shravaka approach,r33-4 on path of seeing in bodhisattva approach, 203 personal, Vatsiputriya tenet of, 69 two kinds of, 8r, 95-6, r89, I97, 203, 402n2 ignorance,34,II5,I44,264,265 Illuminating Lamp, The (Chandrakirti), 33,273 Illumination of the Three Worlds, The, 35 immaculate abode, ro, 39rnr7 immediate karmic retribution, five acts of, 44, 249, 4oon52 imperceptible object, 75, 408n88, 4I3nii7,4I3ni20,4I3ni22, 4r6nr40 impermanence, 57, 58, 67, 69, 72, 73, 74, 77, 94, II2, I30, I3I, I33, I43,Ijr,I89,I92,I94,2I4,a23, 224,23o,4o8n9o,4o9nn94-5· 4IInro6,4I2nii2,426n252, 426n254, 426n26r, 429n297, 43In324,433nr7,457n5I imputation, 83, 96, 97, 4r8nnr63-5 in Prasangika, I25

539

in shravaka approach, I34 untenability of, 95-6, 425n243 In Praise of the Basic Space of Phenomena (Nagarjuna), 206, 2r5 In Praise of the "Mother" (Rahula), 233 Inconceivable Rali, The, 242 Inconceivable Secrets, The, r82 indiscernible forms, 74, 4r2nnrr3-r4 indivisible truth, 243, 45on6 Indra,r4,20,64,209,234,275, 389nr,394n43,445nn242-3 Indrabhuti, 248, 45rnr3 Indrahavaja, 7 Indraketu, II-!2 inferential knowledge, 78, rr3, 252, 45Ini7 infinite consciousness, state of, r38, 208, 445n25I infinite space, state of, 54, r38, 208, 445n25I inner tantra, 26r, 279, 280-8, 29r, 297-8,307 differences between outer tantra and, 279-82 Innermost Heart Drop: The WishFulfilling Gem, The, 3 82 insignia, 292,295, 455n7 integral factors, five, 7r, 89, 407n8o, 408n87, 42Ini97 interdependent connection, ro6, ro9, II3, I43> I90 twelve links of, 52, r28, r43, r44-5 Intermediate-Length "Mother," The, r8,52,ro8,I75,I77,22r,237 Investigators, 62 Ishvara, 275 Ishvaradas, King, 47 Ishvarakrishna, 57 Ja, King, 259, 45rnr3 Jain system, 63 Jaladatta, I5 Jambudvipa, r53, 2ro, 257 Jeweled Staircase, The (Longchenpa), I95, 442nr89 Jina, 63, 405n48 jnana-dharmakaya, 2rr-r2, 437n8r jnanagarbha,36,397n33,426n258 Jnanakumara, 333

540

INDEX

Jnanavajra, 35 journey to Sri Lanka, The, 3, 10, 94, 98,147.2.16 Kamadeva, 401n72. Kamalashila, 45, 42.6n2.58 Kanada,6o,404n42. Kangyur, 453n2.4 Kanishka, King, 2.6 Kapila, 56, 57, 404nr8 karma, 12.8, 152., 172., 313, 341, 344-5, 459n10 karmic potential, 89, 91, 42.2.n2.01 Karna, 63 Katyayana, 2.7 Kawa Paltsek, 378-9, 463n83 kaya of timeless awareness, 2.49, 352. kayas,five,353,461n48 kayas, three, 66, 157, 159, 169, 2.10, 2.11,2.2.1,2.51,2.53,2.64,307,309, 32.5,32.8,331,332.,338.340,370 taken as the path, 2.54-5 and tantras of pith instructions, 370 knowable, five bases of, 99. 105, 397n18 knowing, three kinds of, 81, 417n158 knowledge of reality just as it is, 2.2.1, 2.31,2.32.,430n3o6,437n81, 448n2.84 knowledge of things in their multiplicity, 2.2.1, 2.2.2., 2.2.8, 2.31, 2.33.430n3o6,437n81,448n2.84 kriyatantra, 6, 2.4, 54, 2.65, 2.66, 2.71, 2.73 atiyoga critique of, 303 empowerments, 2.80 and manifestation of deity in six ways, 2.92.-3 and nine spiritual approaches, 2.91 and physical and verbal actions, 2.66, 2.92. and priestly class, 2.69, 2.70 and sexual desire, 2.71-2., 2.74 for those of low acumen, 2. 70 for those of phlegmatic temperament who worshiped Brahma, 2.74 for those who practice ritual purity, 2.74 texts of, 2.76-7, 2.93-4 Kumara Shanmukha, 2.78, 453n2.6

Kushinagara, 2.0 Kusmapuri temple, 2.6 lalana channel, 343, 349, 350 Lalitavajra, 2.78 Lamp of the Middle Way, The (Bhavaviveka), 12.4 Lamp on the Path, The (Atisha), 175 Lamp of the Three Methods, The (Tripitakamala), 2.42., 2.46 lamps (oftogal), 358, 36o, 361, 369, 370,46In46 life force, 63, 72., 77, 95, 393n34, 408nn9o-1 Loden Sherab, 47, 4orn69 logic Chittamatra vs. Sautrantika, 418nr62. conventional vs. Madhyamaka, 406n64 in Svatantrika, 104,-106-8, rro threefold process of, in Svatantrika, 109-10, 42.9n2.92. and two truths in Prasangika, II4, 118, 12.0, 12.2., in Vaibhashika, 70 Logicians, 6o, 63 lords ofthe three families, 2.3, 395n3 lotus level of nonattachment, 2.45 Lotus Pinnacle, The, 2.51 Lucid Expanse, The, 311 lucidity in Category of Direct Transmission, 32.4, 32.6, 332. in Category of Expanse, 319, 32.4 and Chittamatrins who hold flawless position, 85, 419n174 vs. consciousness as basis of ordinary experience, 349 meditative experience of, 2.64, 2.86, 2.88 as nature of awareness/being, 340, 344,458n59 three aspects of, 362., 363 Ma Rinchen Chok, 2.93, 455n8 Madhyamaka system, 99-12.6. See also Prasangika Madhyamaka system; Svatantrika Madhyamaka system

INDEX

and arousal of bodhichitta, 175, 176, 183,184 and Chittamatra view of consciousness, 95-6 critique of Chittamatra, 95,98-9 ground, path, and fruition aspects of, 12.0 interpretation of term, 417nx6x Prasangika Madhyamaka, 54, II2.-2.6,413ni2.I as sublimely profound secret, 99, 42.6n2.56 Svatantrika Madhyamaka, 54, I00-12., 413n12.I Magical Display cycle, 48 Magical Display as the Guiding Principle, IO Mahabrahma gods, 2.09, 445n2.43 Mahakanakala,2.87 Mahakashyapa,2.5,2.7,396nxo,396nx4 mahamudra, 455nii Mahasanghika,2.6-7 Mahashakyamuni, 7, 8, 390n3 mahasiddhas, eighty-four, 2.57, 45Ini2. Mahavair,ochana, 2.16 Mahayana,51,79-12.6,149-2.38 bodhisattva approach, 186-2.38 cause- vs. fruition-based approach, 2.39-48 concept of the Three Jewels, 66-8 as context for Vajrayana, 5, 6 extraordinary interpretation of Buddha, xo-u extraordinary interpretation of teachings, 16-19, 48-50 as greater approach, 52. ground, path, and fruition aspect of, 2.40 ordinary interpretation of Buddha, 8-9 ordinary interpretation of teachings, I5-I6, 45-8 perspective on pratyekabuddha approach, 147-9 superiority of, to Hinayana, 79-82., 4un1o6 mahayoga,2.98-3oo atiyoga critiqae of, 304 as class of inner tantra, 2.9 I

541

term defined, 2.98 texts of, 2.99-300 for those with aggression and a multitude of thoughts, 2.98 Maheshvara,6o,61,2.09,2.I5,2.78, 404n39,405n44,445n2.43 Maitreya, 2.3, 163 Majestic Array of Qualities, The, 17 Majestic State of Meditative Absorption, The, 18 Major Commentary on "The Eight Thousand Stanzas,» The (Haribhadra), 30, 197 mandala, 4, 42., 2.15, 2.41, 2.43, 2.44, 2.47,2.51,2.52.,2.54,2.76,2.8I,2.83, 2.84,2.85,2.95,2.96,2.97,2.99,310, 346,4sxn18,453n2.3,454n3o, 454nn37-8,455n10,455nxs, 456n2.6 Manifest Enlightenment of Vairochana, The,2.72.,2.75,2.76,2.77,2.94 Manifest Realization, 42. manifestation, 196 Manjushri, 3, 2.3, 32., 42., 309n9, 395n3 cycle of tantras of, 2.94 and enlightened form, 2.56, 301 Manjushri: The Web of Magical Display, 2.99 mantra approach. See secret mantra approach mantras, 2.47, 2.63-4, 2.65, 2.66, 2.92., 346,452.n5 mantraydna, 2.63 Mara,9,I1,I3,15,2.2.I,39In13 marks of perfection, 7, 157, 2.14, 2.16-17, 2.37, 2.69 master. See also guru characteristics of, 41, 399n47 and empowerment, 2.52., 451nx8 of the family, 2.84 materialists, 104, us, 2.2.8, 4I6n144, 42.8nn2.79-80,42.9n2.91 Materialists, 65. See also Barhaspatya system; Charvakas Maudgalyayana, I 5 Mayadevi, 40on6x Me Aktsom, 452.n3o Meaningful Diligence, 362.

542

INDEX

meditation, 43, 46, 127 in atiyoga approach, 307, 309, 457n44 in bodhisattva approach, 179, 189, 191,192,194.441nl66,441nl71, 4420191, 443n20I in Category of Direction Transmission, 327, 328, 329 in Category of Expanse, 318,319, 321-2 in Category of Mind, 315 on eight mental images of corpses, 433013 mundane state of, 196, 197 in pratyekabuddha approach, 14 3 in shravaka approach, 128, 131, 132,134,138,139,141,394n37, 416n142 in vajra heart essence approach, 338, 347.368,371,459n21 in Vajrayana, 248,251,253, 254,255, 262,267,279,294,295.296,297. 451nl8,452n7.453n9.453n23, 455nll meditative absorption, 9, 30, 32, 53, 55, 403nll, 403018 as aid to enlightenment, 137 in atiyoga, 308, 328 as basis of mental states, 71 in bodhisattva approach, 179, 189, 191,193,197,203,206,225 as branch of noble eightfold path, 138, 445n247 as controlling factor, 393n34 exalted training in, 397016, 399n45 as focus of discourses and further teachings in Sutra, 16 as focus of discourses in Vinaya, 15 four (formless) states of, 53, 54, 391n9,445n251,460n35 four kinds of, 131 as governing power, 131,194 in hearing teachings, 42 in innertantra, 288, 455n1o in kriyatantra, 276, 292., 293 in Mahayana concept of the dharma, 66 in mahayoga, 299 in pratyekabuddha approach, 147

in shravaka approach, 141 as strength, 434018 in vajra heart essence approach, 338, 347.348.350,352·354.357.370, 371,460n33 vajra-like state of, 89, 162, 168, 4210198 in Vajrayana, 244, 246, 247, 254 in yogatantra, 267,295,296,455010 meditative equipoise, 27, 232, 430n3o7, 430n316,435n37 in bodhisattva approach, 191-2, 195, 231,232,238,442n188,444n223 in Chittamatra, 4200182 nine successive states of, 13 8, 212, 445n251 in perception of pure realms, 4180168 in Prasangika Madhyamaka, 112, 115, 116, 120 in relative truth, 119 in shravaka approach, 141 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, 101 in Vajrayana, 244, 245, 250 meditative stability, 8, 41, 177, 205 in bodhisattva approach, 179, 193, 198,201,204,210,232 of cessation, 72, 77, 90, 408nn9o-1, 415nl30,444n223,445n251 in Chittamatra, 88, 9 3, 94 as distinct formative factor, 72 and factors to be eliminated, 201, 208 four states of, 51-2, 53, 138, 139, 208, 403nll, 405n54· 435n37· 4410181, 460n35 in kriyatantra, 266, 292 nine successive degrees of, 138 in realm of form, 412n113 in Sautrantika, 77, 78, 416n142 in shravaka approach, 131, 140, 141, 144.424n232 six stages of, 193,4410181 three states of, 77, 9 5 of trance state, 72, 408n91, 415n130 in vajra heart essence approach, 350, 352 meditative warmth in atiyoga, 330, 327, 328 in bodhisattva approach, 187, 194, 196, 197. 237

INDEX

in Mahayana, r87, I94, r96, I97 in mahayoga, 299 in shravaka approach, I29, I3I, I32, 433n8,433niO in Vajrayana, 254 memory, heart as the seat of, 368,369, 462n68 mental functions for ascertaining objects, five, ?I, 407n8I, 408n87 mental investigation, 85, 86, Io4, Io5, Io6,Io7,420ni8o,428n278, 429n297 mental poisons three, 34, 85, I28, I4I, I89-9o, 263, 264,4I9ni76 five,85,33I,4I9ni76,454n28 mental states, attendant on primary factor of mind, 75, 76, 85, 87, 89, 90,92-5,422n2I0,424n22I, 424nn226-7,424nn229-30, 424nn232-3,425n236 mental states, bases of, 430n307 in Chittamatra, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92-5,97,422n2I0,423n2II eleven positive mental states, ?I, 40?n82 fifty-one, 7 I five integral factors, ?I, 407n8o, 423n2I8 five mental functions for ascertaining objects, ?I, 407n8I four variable mental states, ?I, 407n85, 42oni8o in Prasangika Madhyamaka, II2, II3, II5 in Sautrantika, 73,75-6, 77, 4IIni03,4I2nii5,4I5ni29 six primary afflictive states, 7I, 40?n83 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, Io6 twenty secondary afflictive states, ?I, 407n84 in Vaibhashika, 69, ?I-2, 393n33, 408n87, 408nn90-I mind confused or unconfused in Prasangika Madhyamaka,II2-I4 experience of mind only, I96 four aggregates of, I44, 436n56

543

mother and child aspect of, 327, 356, 458n6I nonconceptualvs.conceptualmodes 0~76,I95,4I4ni26

ordinary, as basis for spiritual path, 460n34 sacred aspect of, 3IO synonymous terms for, 407n75 training in, I6, 28, 38,46 undermining of samsaric, 348-52 mind, bases of, in Chittamatra, 86, 87-92, 97, 424n230 in Sautrantika, 75-6 in Vaibhashika, 69, 70-2 mindfulness as aid to enlightenment, I37 as basis of mental states, ?I in bodhisattva approach, I85, 238 as branch of noble eightfold path, I 38, 445n247 as controlling factor, 393n34 as factor contributing to enlightenment, 446n25I four applications of, !28, I29-30, I45,I48,I88,I9I-2 as governing power, I94 in meditative stability, 403nu as strength, I3I, 434nr8 in vajra heart essence approach, 370 Minor Scriptural Transmission, The, 25,45 Mipam Nampar Gyalwa, 4I4ni23, 4I7ni6I,427n276,438n90 miracles, three kinds of, 236 mirror-like timeless awareness, 222, 223, 224-5, 353 Most Majestic State of Meditative Absorption, The, r25, I86 Most Sublime Secret, The, 53 mother and child aspects of mind, 327, 356,458n6I mother tantra, 277, 278, 282, 283, 284, 285,286,28?,288,298,454n39 motile energy in anuyoga, 300 in mahayoga, 298, 455nr4 in Vajrayana, 268-9,275, 279,283, 286,288,349-50

544

INDEX

Mount Malaya, 6, 2.57, 2.59 mudras, 2.47, :z.66 Mulasarvastivadin school, 2.6 Mune Tsenpo, 4om66, 463nS3 Nagabodhi, 35 Nagarjuna, 6, 36, 37, no, n:z., II9, 3S7, 390012. Nagarjunagarbha, 2.57 Nairanjana River, 9, 391nii Nairatmya, 2.S7, 454n4o Nalanda University, 451n2.9 Natural Expression of Awareness, The, 365 Natural Freedom of Awareness, The, 366,36S,373.374.375 Naturally Arising Awareness, 365, 366, 36S Naturally Occurring Perfection, 365, 366,36S,376 nectar pills, :z.S:z., 454n33 negation, qualified, 42.7n:z.6S negation, unqualified, IOI, 42.7n2.6S neither existence nor nonexistence, state of, 13S, :z.oS, 445n2.40 NetofBrahma, The, 65 nihilism, 3S, 54, 55, 64, 65, n:z., u7, I35,399n39,403ni2.,4I7ni6I, 42.9n303, 457n43 nirmanakaya, 12., 13, 31, 4S, 49, 117, 15S, 159, IS9, 2.II, 2.I9-2.I, 2.2.5, 2.33-4,2.53.2.5S,2.64,33S,353· 355,37S,39Ini7,392.niS,395ni, 395n3,40In73,40In76,402.nn77S,44Sn:z.79,45In2.0,45In2.2., 45In2.4 approaches of, 2.91, 454n6 as aspect of aware responsiveness, 309,340 nature of, :z.:z.o-I Nirmanarati gods, 2.09, 2.73, 445n2.43 nirvana, 43, 45, 67, SI, 9S, Ioo, 102., IOS,IIJ,39Sn3S,4I7ni5~

430n3IJ, 434017 as axiom of Buddhist doctrine, 67-S, 73,IS9 in bodhisattva approach, IJI, 153, I6I,IS3 of the Buddha, 8, 14, IJ, 17, 19-2.1,

2.J, 2.6, 33.46-7, 4S, 6S, 394n4I, 395n7 manifestations of, 3 II as one oftwelve deeds, 14 in pratyekabuddha approach, 147, 44Ini69 in shravaka approach, 142., 436n5o, 44Ini69 in vajra heart essence approach, 362. noble eightfold path, 12.9 noble ones, five, 14, 32.9n2.7 noble truths, four, 14, 15, 30, 52., 136, 392.n2.7, 394n37. 39Sn3S, 443nn2.U-I3 in bodhisattva approach, 149, 192., I94,I9S,I99-2.00,2.0I-3 in pratyekabuddha approach, 145 in shravaka approach, uS, 134, 135, I36,I37,I40,I43,145 sixteen topics of, 131-3,433017 truth of cessation of suffering, uS, 43Jn:z.S,435n34 truth ofthe path, 73, uS, 136, 4IOni00,4IIni03,435n2.S,435n34 truth of suffering, uS, 135, 136, 2.2.4, 434n2.3,434n2.7,435n2.S,435n34 truth of universal origin of suffering, I2.8,435n:z.S,435n34 viewed from three perspectives, IS, 394n37 non-Buddhist systems, 55-65 nonrecognition of awareness, 4, S4, II3,I52.,2.2.6,2.2.7,32.9,345 nonreturner, 46, 66, 4oon6o, 4oon6:z., 40Jnns4-5 nothingness, state of, 9, 13S, :z.o8, 39In9,40Sn91 NyakJnanakumara, 2.93, 455nS Nyang Ting-nge-dzin Zangpo, 37S, 463nS3 Nyayas (Logicians), 6o Nyima Ngodrup, 451n2.9 Nyima Sherab, 47, 40m69 Nyingtik (Heart Drop) teachings, 379, 463n83 obscurations, 44, 1-39, 158, 161, 2.09, 2.IJ,2.32.,2.37,2.J4,368,44I0I66, 443n2.00

INDEX

adventitious, 213, 231, 262, 437n81 afflictive and cognitive, 43, 141, 2oo, 205,207,236 in arhats, 141 in bodhisattva approach, 177, 178, 179,197,200-1,236-7,443n200 in Category of Mind, 312 and ground of being, 46rn4o instinctive afflictive, 207 and level of freedom, 46rn4o obvious cognitive, 445n238 on path of meditation in bodhisattva approach,2o5,207-8,440n145 and relative truth, rr5, rr8 six, in realm of desire, 208 subtle cognitive, 147, 391n15, 445n238 twenty, in realm of form, 208 twenty, in realm of formlessness, 208 in Vajrayana, 345-6,356 Oddiyana, 6, 257, 281 omnipresence powerful mastery of, 268, 453n9 of spiritual potential, 155-6 omniscience of a buddha, 228-9, 449n296, 449n302 and dharmakaya, 212, 445n251 and timeless awareness, 417n157 once returner, 46, 66, 4oon62, 405nn54-5 One Hundred Cases of Karma, 49 one taste, 350 Oral Transmission of Manjushri, The, 249 ordinary state of being, 72, 408n91 ordination as basis of form, 70, 4o6n7o in bodhisattva approach, 183-6, 44In166 as foundation for bodhichitta, 175-6 seven kinds for individual liberation, 127,175,432nn2-3 twenty-four-hour vow of abstinence, 127, 1i6-7, 432n4 Original Sacredness, 346 Ornament of Manifest Realization, The (Maitreya), 79, 8o, 82, 145, 160, 176,1778,195,199,212,214,216, 217,222,228,234,417n158

545

Ornament of the Middle Way, The (Shantarakshita), 427n276 Ornament of the Sutras, The (Maitreya), 38, 41, 79, 81, 84, 156, 157,158,159,177,180,181,189, 190,193,195,196,197,199,204, 206,220,221,222,224,226,229, 232,237,437n84 outer tantra, 261, 280, 281, 291, 297, 307 differences between inner tantra and, 279-82 Padma: The Web of Magical Display, 299 Padmaka, 147 Padmakara,6,257,258,293.355, 390n12,451n13,462n7o Padmanarteshvara, 288 Padmasambhava,452n3o Paishachita language, 27 Pandaravasini, 272, 285 Pandita Smriti, 260, 452n32 Pantanjaliputra, 45, 404n19 paramita approach, 23,24-7,239, 250,397n27 Paranirmitavashavartin gods, 209, 273,445n243 particles, minute in Chittamatra, 88, 96, 420n188, 425n246 in pratyekabuddha approach, 79 in Sautrantika, 75, 79, 415n134, 417n147 in Svatantrika, 106, 107 in Vaibhashika, 69-70, 73-4, 406nn67-8,4o6n71,407n72, 409n93,411n109,417n147 Passing into Nirvana, 33, 176, 258 path of accumulation in bodhisattva approach, 187-93 and arousal of bodhichitta, 178, 180 distinctive features of, 188-93 and four applications of mindfulness, 191-2 and four bases of supernormal powers, 192-3 positive factors in, 187-8

546

INDEX

path of accumulation in bodhisattva approach (continued) significance of, 179 three phases of, r88 path of accumulation in pratyekabuddha approach, 142., 148 path of accumulation in shravaka approach,8,r:z.8,r:z.9-3I,I48, 397n:Z.:z. path aspect of11adhyamaka,1:z.o of mahayoga, 2.99 of spiritual potential, r 58 path of linkage in bodhisattva approach, 193-8 anticipatory phases of, 195-7 and arousal of bodhichitta, 178 distinctive features of, 197-8 and highest state of mundane experience, 196-7, 442.n191 and meditative warmth, 196, 197 and patient acceptance, 196, 197 and peak experience, 196, 197 shift from conceptual to transcendent awareness, 197, 442.n196 significance of, 179 path of linkage in shravaka approach, 12.9,131-4,433n8 and five strengths, 132., 434018 and highest state of mundane experience, 132.-4 and meditative warmth, 131-:z. and patient acceptance, 132.-4 and peak experience, 131-:z. path of meditation in bodhisattva approach,166,178,:z.o3-10 antidotes employed in, 2.07, 444n:Z.35 distinctive features of, 2.07-10 and nine spiritual levels, 2.04-6 process of elimination in, :z.oo-1, 2.07-8 and twelve capabilities, :z.o8-9, 350-l:, 460n33 path of meditation in pratyekabuddha approach,143,148 path of meditation in shravaka approach,1:z.8,1:z.9,134,137-9 process of elimination in, 138, 435n38

path of no more learning in bodhisattva approach,66,179,186,187, 193-4,I98,:Z.04,:Z.I0-38,397n:z.:z., 408n91,450n9 and dharmakaya, :z.II-14 distinctive features of, 2.36-8 and enlightened activity, 2.33-6 and kayas as supporting factors, 2.11-2.1 and nirmanakaya, 2.19-2.1 andsambhogakaya,:z.14-19 and ten attributes requiring no more learning, :z.n, 445n:z.47 and timeless awareness, :z.:z.r-33 path of no more learning in shravaka approach,8,397n:z.:z. path of seeing in bodhisattva approach, 166,179,19:Z.,194,197,198-:z.o3, 397n:z.:z. factors to be eliminated in, :z.o1, :z.o:z., 44:Z.0198,443n:Z.09 first and second steps of, :z.o:z., 443n:Z.II as first transcendent stage, 199 and nonexistence of both types of identity, 2.03 and patient acceptance and understanding, 199, 2.01-3 time frame of, :z.o:z.-3 and twelve capabilities, 2.03 path of seeing in pratyekabuddha approach,143,146 path of seeing in shravaka approach, 12.8,12.9,134-7 factors to be eliminated in, 134-5, 137,434n:Z.7,435002.8-32. onset of, 434n:z.3 process of elimination in, 137 in Sautrantika, 136 and seven aids to enlightenment, 137 in Vaibhashika, 134-6 path of sublime knowing, completion stage as, 2.98 patience, 179, :z.o5 patient acceptance in bodhisattva approach, 194, 1_96, 197 in pratyekabuddha approach, 146

INDEX

in shravaka approach, I29, I32-4, I46, I94, I96, I97, 433n8, 434nl9 patient acceptance and understanding, eight states of, 443n2I3 peak experience in bodhisattva approach, I94, I96, I97 in shravaka approach, I29, I3I-2, 433n8, 434ni9 Pearl Garland, The, 355, 358, 359, 36o, 36I, 362, 3 63, 364 , 3 65, 3 66, 368-9,376,46In48 perception of body's uncleanliness, I 89, I90 of buddhas vs. ordinary beings, II? in Chittamatra, 78, 85, 88, 9I, 93-4, 98,4I5ni38 components of, I6, 35, 83, 393n34 direct, 76, I02, u3, 348, 352, 430n3o8 as eight avenues of consciousness, 83 in Prasangika Madhyamaka, II3-I8 purification of entire range of, I89, I90-I in Sautrantika, 75, 408nn88-9, 4I2nus, 4I4ni25 sublime states of, I3 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, Io6, I07 three kinds of, 363 Perfect Dynamic Energy of the Lion, The,298,36s,366,369,375 Perfection of Sublime Knowing, The, IOI Perfection of Sublime Knowing in Eight Thousand Stanzas, The, I75,

440niSO Perfection of Sublime Knowing in Seven Hundred Stanzas, The, I8 perfectly developed aspect of spiritual development, I58-9, 438n87 philosophical systems Buddhist, twofold and threefold divisions, 52-3, 402n8 definition of term, 402n7 non-Buddhist, ss-6s relationship among, SI-s superiority of Buddhist, 66-8

547

pith instructions, 242,259,325,326, 33I,333,356,368-9,370,373,374 extensive, 379-82 four major tantras of, 368-9 profound approach of, 377-9 tantras of, 299, 30I, 302, 367, 37I positive actions, ten kinds of, I4, SI, B-4, 403niO positive qualities in bodhisattvas, four, I86 postmeditation, IOI, u3, us, u9, I2o, I9I-2, I96, 206, 232,244, 245, 37I,420ni82,430n307,430n309, 430n3I6, 442m88 powerful mastery, eight aspects of, 268, 453n9 Prajapati, IS, 46, 40on6I Prakrit language, 27 Prasangika Madhyamaka system, II2-26 absence of conceptual tenets in, I23-6 and applying understanding in practice, II9-20 on confusion and its absence, II2-I4 on imputation, 125 on nonexistence of phenomena, 426n257 syllogisms refuting forms of production, I20-3 and two levels of truth, II4-20 and ultimate reality, 4I3ni2I pratyekabuddha approach, 4, 8, 30-I, SI,s2,s3.s6,79,8o,82,I2~

I42-9,I6I,I66,389n4, attainment of arhat, 389n4 followers, and metaphor of rhinoceros, 8, 79, I42, I44, 39on6 followers, three kinds of, I42, I46, I46-7 and four noble truths, 52, 392n27 and interdependent connection, 52 and. lack of identity of phenomena, 433nl4 and lack of vision of buddha nature, I70,I7I and nine spiritual approaches, 29I as one of three approaches, 402n5

548

INDEX

pratyekabuddha approach (continued) and three degrees of enlightenment, 389n4 and ultimate reality, 417ni 47 Precious Garland, The (Nagarjuna), 12.0,2.87 precise experience, 76, 4I5ni2.8 Presence of Timeless Awareness, The, 2.43,2.47 Primacy of Buddhahood, The, 2.II primal matter, in Samkhya, 56-8, 59-60, 404n2.1 primordial buddha, 395n3. See also Samantabhadra; Vajradhara pristine cognition, I39-40, 436n45 profound insight, 42., II5, I2.9, 178, 189,I93,2.40,2.44•2.47,2.50, 433DIO, 440DI47 Prophetic Enlightened Intent, IB protective deities, 2.44 Punyabha,I75 pure realms, I47, I79, 2.2.9, 362., 449n301 Purnika, 2.6 Pushpakuta Park, 2.6 qualified negation, IOI, I09, III, 42.7n2.68 qualities unique to buddhahood, eighteen, 2.37, 2.38 quantifiable ultimate truth, 103-4, 105, 108,42.6n2.58,42.7n2.76,429n302. Queen Shrimala, I 55 quiescence of shravakas and pratyekabuddhas, So, BI, 82., 147 Rahula, 233 Rahulabhadra, 2.6 rainbow body, 46on37 Rajagriha, 2.5 Rali, the Secret King of Nectar, 2.63, 2.86 Ralpachen, King, 463n83 Rama, King, 47 Ramisvarina, 47 Rare and Sublime Meteor, The, I8o rasana channel, 343, 349, 350 Rashtrapala, 7 Ratnakarashanti, 43, 454n35 Ratnapurna, 31

Ratnasambhava,I5,3I,2I6,243,285 Ratnashikin, 8 realism, 38, 54, 55, 65, n2., I27, I35, 399n39,403ni2.,417n16I,42.9n303 Realm of Bliss of Amitabha, 4I8m67 realms, three, 40, 134, 139, I40, 141, 2.15,3I2.,3I3,32.6,32.7,330, 331,341,348,349,352.,399n42., 400n62.,4I2nii3,433n17 Reasoning Through Detailed Explanations (Vasubandhu), 36, 37.39 rebirth, 8, 13,44, 53, 54, 62., 64, 84, 85, 89,I47,2.03-4,2.09-I0,22.0,2.30, 2.50,2.57,2.93,294,2.95,297.339 Reciting the Names of Manjushri, 24, 31,53,195,2.50,2.55 recollection, power of, 354 refinement, process of in Vajrayana, 2.61-2.,2.64,2.7I Refining Away Lower States of Rebirth, 2.56 reflexive consciousness in Chittamatra, 85,98-9, 4I9n175, 42.2.n2.I0,425n2.44,42.5n2.47> 42.6n255 in Madhyamaka, 98-9 in Sautrantika, 73, 74, 76, 4o8n89, 412.nniiO-II,4I3ni22,4I4ni2.6 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, Io6, 107 in Vaibhashika, 72., 408n89 refuge, taking of, 56, 2.19, 405n56 Refutation of Arguments, The (Nagarjuna), 12.3 refutations of production, in Prasangika Madhyamaka,12.0-3 relics, 2.0-1, 338, 458n3 Relieving the Guilt of Ajatashatru, 3 2. renunciation, 75, 4I2.nn3 four aspects of correct, 128-9, 130, 188 Request of Chandragarbha, The, 45 Request ofSagana, The, I75 Request ofSubahu, The, 190, 266, 2.76, 2.94 Request of Susthitamati, The, I98 responsiveness, 309, 340, 344, 360, 362.,407n75,458n59

INDEX

Reunion of Father and Son, The, II, 103 Revelation of the Inexhaustible Treasure, The, 34 Reverberation of Sound, The, 289, 290, 291,334.345.365,366,368,372, 375 Rinchen Zangpo, 260, 452n33 rupakayas,120,221,227,352,448n279 Sacred Golden Light, 48 Sadhu,7 Sagama, 15 Sagaramegha,180,440n152 sages, six, 13 Sahora,6,257,259 Sakya Pandita, 414n126 Sarna, 20 Samantabhadra, 4, 5, 23, 269,322, 354.355 Samantabhadra: The Mirror of Enlightened Mind, 365,366,368, 375 samaya aspect of deity, 455nn10-11 samayas, 354, 368 sambhogakaya,12,13,31,49,157,211, 214-19,395n3 and Akanishtha, 390n8, 39rn8, 392nn20-1,447n261 in atiyoga, 307, 309 and deity meditation, 253 and dharmakaya, 219, 448n279 and enlightened activity, 233 ever-present, 49, 218-19, 401n76 and Ghanavyuha, 215,355, 389n2 as manifest aspect of spiritual potential, 159 as nature of kaya of buddhahood, 221 as source of Buddha's words, 395n1 as source of nirmanakaya, 233-4, 401n76, 402n77 as sovereign lord, 49, 402n79 and thirty-two major and eighty minor.marks, 214, 216-18 and timeless awareness, 225, in vajra heart essence approach, 340, 353. 355 in Vajrayana approach, 264 Samkhya system, 56-6o

549

consciousness as mirror, 99 primal matter and spirit, 58-9 as progenitor of five traditional systems, 55 subsiding of energies in central channel and soul, 349-50 view of production, 120 view of soul, 55· 56 Sammatiya school, 26,27 samsara and Akanishtha, 39rn17, 392nr9 in atiyoga, 313, 314 as corruptible state of suffering, 67 as enlightened intent of Samantabhadra, 322 in Samkhya, 59-60 and spiritual potential, 15f undermining mind of, 348-52 in vajra heart essence approach, 362 samsara and nirvana and basic space, 340 merging into equal taste, 3 27-8 and spiritual potential, 15f Samyak, 301 sangha,66 Sanskritlanguage, 26, 247 Sarma tradition, 261-88 and cause and effect, 438n9o and conduct, 293 definition of term, 259-60 empowerments of awareness, 453n28 style of translation, 260 threefold logic compared with that of Nyingma tradition, 429n292 time frame of, 260 Satya, 63 Sautrantika Svatantrika Madhyamaka system, 105, 106, 428n283, 428n286 Sautrantika system, 74-8 bases of form, 74-5 bases of mind and mental states, 75-6 Chittamatra critique of, 77...:8, 415n137 conditions for perception, 75, 412nnu5-16 consciousness and objects, 75-6, 78, 407n77,413n122

550

INDEX

Sautrantika system (continued) continuity of objects through time, 75, 412nn6 critique ofVaibhashika, 73-4, 412nll2 definition of Buddha's words, 29 distinct formative factors, 76-7, 4150129 followers of, as materialists, 428n279 indiscernible forms, 74-5, 412nnll3-14,425n239 logic compared with that of Chittamatra, 4180162 path of seeing in shravaka approach, 136 presentation of relative reality, 413nl21 reflexive consciousness, 76, 410n110, 413nl22 ultimate reality, 413n121 uncompounded phenomena, 77 Schemata, The, 133 scriptural transmission, time of, 46 Scriptural Transmission ofVinaya, The, 7, 14, 20, 67, 258 seals of practice in yogatantra, four, 296,303,455011 secret mantra approach, 5-6, 9, 10, 24, 34.38,52,68,239-6o,261-5. See also Vajrayana derivation of terms, 263-4 Nyingma tradition of, 289-336 Sarma tradition of, 261-88 synonyms for, 264 Secret Session, The, 268 Secret Sound, The, 338 secrets, three (Vajrayana), 247 self belief in, 135, 397019, 443n207 nonexistence of, 145, 317, 417n153, 433017 in Samkhya, 57, 404nn25-6 in Vaibhashika, 407n83 in Vatsiputriya, 68-9, 4o6n63 self-knowing (timeless) awareness, 66,106,107,108,169,233,312, 330,334.339.348,361,372, 4390122

Senalek, King, 463n83 sensory appearances in atiyoga, 3II, 312, 314-23, 328, 457n41 in Chittamatra, 87, 88, 95, 96, 97, 228,419ni75.420nl86 in Prasangika Madhyamaka, II3 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, 101, 103, 106, 108, 109 in Vaibhashika, 70 in vajra heart essence approach, 349, 352,354.361,371,372 in Vajrayana, 247, 292, 293, 298 Seven Hundred Stanzas, The, 16 Shaivite system, 6o-2 Shakyamati, 36, 88, 397n33, 4200188 Shakyamuni, 6, 7-21,46-7, 23, 24, 31, 45· 66, 215, 389nl, 390nll, 391n17,395n3,403n17,464n2.See also Buddha and nirmanakaya teachings, 454n6 as teacher of four classes of tantra, 256 Shambhala, 6, 257 Shantarakshita, 293, 400n58, 4130121, 426n258 Shantideva, 36, 231, 397n36 Shantin, 26 Shantipa, 284, 454n35 Shariputra, 15, 32, 35 shastras, 23,36-40, 395n1 analysis of, 37-40 characteristics of, 37, 39 derivation of term, 39 difference from Buddha's words, 40 qualifications of authors, 36-7 Shining Lamp, The (Vimalamitra), 332 shravaka approach, 4, 48, 51, 54, 106, 127-42,161,170-1,230,394n39• 4400147 arhats of, 139-42, 147, 166, 170, 171 and bodhisattva vow, 185,4410165 compared with Chittamatra, 95 compared with Madhyamaka, II4 compared with pratyekabuddha approach, 79,.8o, 143, 148, 433n14 compared with vajra heart essence approach, 353 compared with Vajrayana, 242, 291

INDEX

concept of Three Jewels, 56 as first of nine approaches, 291 four fruition states of, 46, s6, 4oon6o,4oonn62-3,405nns4-5 and four noble truths, 52, 392n27 four stages of entrance in, s6, 405nn54-5 interpretation of Buddha, 7-8 interpretation of nirvana, 127, 436n50,441n169,441n174 interpretation of teachings, 14-15, 29, 30, 32, 33 nonexistence of personal identity, So, 433n14 path of accumulation, 129-31 pathoflinkage, 131-4 path of meditation, 137-9 path of seeing, 134-7 philosophical systems of, 54, 68-78, 134,417n148 and pristine cognition, 436n45 relative and ultimate truth in, 129-30 as second of five approaches, 52 and spiritual potential, 160 and three degrees of enlightenment, 389n4,454n2,454n6 three stages of dwelling in, s6, 4osnns4-5 Shridhanyakataka stupa, 257, 45m26 Shrigupta, 36, 397n33 Shumbha (deity), 241 siddhis, 250,268,283,285,288,294, 295. 296, 338, 339 eight major, 241, 450m situational paradigms. See distinct formative factors Six Expanses, The, 376-7 six ornaments, 37, 398n5 Sixty Verses of Reasoning (Nagarjuna), 124 skillful means, 5, So, 81, 120, 178, 205, 234,300 emphasis .of, in father tantra and mahayoga,277,282-3,288,298, 299,454n39 as postmeditation phase, 120 tantra as, 357, 358-6o, 363, 364, 372 in vajra heart essence approach, 352, 353· 357.369

551

in Vajrayana, 241, 242, 246, 248, 250,253,263,264,265,268,295 Smaller Commentary, The, 187 Smaller Commentary on "The Ornament ofManifest Realization," The (Haribhadra), 79, 106 social classes (and fourfold classification of tantra), 269-70 Somaraja, 36 soul, 407n83 in Barhaspatya system, 65 in Samkhya system, ss-6o, 349-50, 404n21,404n23,405n47 in Shaivite system, 61-2 Source Verses of the Ornament of the Middle Way, The (Shantarakshita), I21ri413 Source Verses on Sublime Knowing, The (Nagarjuna), ns, n6, 125, 143 sphere of authentic being, 331, 337, 338, 342,458n63,458n2 Sphere ofFreedom, The (Buddhajnana), 9 Sphere of the Secret Moon, The, 215 Sphere of Timeless Awareness, The, 249,280 spirit, in Samkhya, 58-9 spiritual approaches nine, 290, 291 sixteen, 54, 403n12 term defined, 402n7 spiritual development (twofold), 7, 9, 10, 390m, 435n35 in atiyoga, 332 in bodhisattva approach, 158, 16o, 181, 210, 242 and path aspect of Madhyamaka, 120 in pratyekabuddha approach, 143, 147,436n53 in shravaka approach, uS, 432n2 in vajra heart essence approach, 363 in Vajrayana, 246, 254-5, 269 spiritual levels, ten of bodhisattva approach,11,112,113,115,160, 16J,166,168,177,178,199, 204-7,244-5.350,354.418n168, 419n176, 421n198, 430n3o7, 438n86,444n219,444n223, 444n229,444n235,448n272, 450n9,460n33

552.

INDEX

spiritual potential, I49-74 definition of, I49, 436n58 and impure, transitional, and pure situations, I59-6I increasingly evident aspect of, I 58, 438n87 and Maitreya's nine analogies, I63-7I manifest and empty aspects of, I 57, 438n87 and Nagarjuna's six analogies, I62.-3 naturally abiding aspect of, I 57, I 58, 437n84 nature of, I49-55 Omnipresence of, I55-6, I6I perfectly developed aspect of, I 57, I58,438n87 rationale for relying on, I7I-4 and samsara and nirvana, ISI sensitivity to, I 55-6 and spiritual development, I6o and supporting and supported factors, I57-9 and three spiritual approaches, I6o, 438n93 spiritual strength, transcendent perfection of, 2.06 spontaneous presence, 54, 2.45, 2.63, 3II,32.4,338,346,352.,358 Spontaneously Present Vast Range of Timeless Awareness, The, 2.53 Sri Lanka, 6, 2.57 stages of entrance, four, 66, 405nn54-5 Sthaviravadin school, 2.6, 2.7 stream winner, 46, 66, 405nn54-5 strengths, five, I2.9, 132.-4, I95, 434n18 strengths, ten of buddhahood, 2.37 student, characteristics of, 41-2. Subhuti, 52. Sublime Awareness, 2.64, 2.76, 2.94 Sublime Bliss, 2.68, 2.73, 2.86 Sublime Heart Essence of the "Mother," The (Ratnakarashanti), 52. sublime knowing, 5, 54, So, 174, 190 in arhats, I4I in atiyoga, 332. as controlling factor, 393n34 definition of, 179, 194 as governing power, 131, 194

as meditative equipoise, 12.0 and mother tantra, 2.77, 2.83, 2.86, 2.87,2.98,454n39 as one of ten attributes that require no more learning, 445n2.47 on path of accumulation in bodhisattva approach, 188-9 on path of meditation in bodhisattva approach, 437n81 on path of seeing in bodhisattva approach, 2.03 as a result of hearing, contemplating, and meditating on teachings, 43, 45,r88,r89 in shravaka approach, 81, 4170157 as strength, 434ni8 training in, 16, 2.8, 38, 46, I77, I79, 399n45 transcendent perfection of, 178, 2.05, 2.33 in vajra heart essence approach, 346, 352.-3,374 in Vajrayana, 2.46, 2.63, 2.65, 2.80, 2.82.,2.86,2.95 Subsequent Tantra of Meditative Stability, The, 2.66, 2.74, 2.76, 2.8I, 2.94 substantial entities in Chittamatra, 87, 91-2., 96, 4I8ni65,42.4n2.30,42.5n2.39, 42.5n2.45 in Sautrantika, 74-7, 414n12.4, 415nl34.42.5n2.39.42.5n2.41 in Shaivite system, 61, 405n43 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, 112. in Vaibhashika, 69-73, 406n65, 406n68,4o8n9o,4o9n92., 4IIni06,4IIni08,4I2.nii2., 42.5n2.39.42.5n2.41 subtle energy, in atiyoga, 32.6, 32.8, 34I, 343.350,363 sucbness, I6, 95, 102., 105, 149, 155, 159. 168-9, 179, 196, 2.44· 2.5!, 2.98,352.,356,35B,3B9n3 as synonym for timeless awareness, 3IO SuchnessofSecrets, The, 2.73 Sudarshana gods, 2.16, 447n2.61 sugatagarbha,2.35 Sukarmasiddhi, 31

INDEX

Sukhavati, 31, 147 Sumeru, IO-II, 2.3, 2.81, 394n43 Summarizing the Definitive Meaning, 351 Summary ofSuchness, The, 10,2.77 SummitofSumeru, the Vajra Mountain, The, 2.93 supernormal powers in adorned arhats, 140 and four ages, 2.71 four bases of, 12.9, 131, 145, 188,93, 447n2.7I on path of linkage in bodhisattva approach,197 on path of no more learning in bodhisattva approach, 2. 36 on path of seeing in bodhisattva approach, 2.03 powerful mastery of, 2.68-9, 453n1o Supreme Amassing of the Rare and Sublime, The: Categories of Dharma, 348 Supreme Array, The, 2.89, 2.97, 2.98, 32.4 Supreme Chariot of Definitive Meaning, The (Longchenpa), 66-7, 86,145,186 Supreme Commitment of Rali, The, 2.88 Supreme Magical Illusion, 2.63, 2.78, 301 Supreme Web of Magical Display, The, 13 Suryasiddhi, 2.58, 45102.9 Sutra, compilation of, 16, 2.5, 34, 38,46 sutra tradition, 2.57-8, 391n15, 395n8 atiyoga critique of, 303 svabhavikakaya,157,2.I1-12.,437n81 Svatantrika Madhyamaka system, 54, 99, 100-12., 397n33, 42.6002.57-9 compared with Prasangika, 12.0 divisions of, 100, 42.6n2.58 five major lines of reasoning of, 108-II and nonexistence of phenomena·, 42.6n2.57 Prasangika refutation of, 111-12. style of argumentation, 42.6n2.57 and tenets of other systems, 105-6 and two levels of truth, 100-2., 42.6n2.59.

553

and ultimate reality, 413012.1 and ultimate truth, Ioo-II, 42.6n2.58 tantra, 54, 2.57-8, 363-4 division of, into Nyingma and Sarma traditions, 2.59-60 four classes of, 2.6 5-9 four cycles of, in Category of Direct Transmission, 331-3 fourfold classification of, 2.69-75 as ground, 357, 360 as ground of being, 3 64 as heart essence of being, 360-1 as nature of being, 3 60-2. and nine spiritual approaches, 2.91 outervs. inner, 2.79-82. as path, 357 pervasiveness of, 358, 359 as quintessence, 361-2., 363 as realization, 357 as scripture, in vajra heart essence approach, 364-77 as skillful means, 358-60 as taught by Vipashyin and Shakyamuni, 2.56-7 as ultimate reality, 357-62. as what is demonstrated and demonstration thereof, 358, 359, 364,372. Tantra Without Letters, The, 341,365, 368, 375 tantras (scriptures) of anuttarayogatantra, 2.77-9 ofanuyoga,3oo-2. of Category of Direct Transmission, 333-6 of Category of Expanse, 32.4 of Category of Mind, 3I 5 explanatory, 331-2., 357 of extensive pith instructions, 379-83 of father tantra, 2.78 of k~iyatantra, 2.76-7, 2.93-4 ofmahayoga,2.99-300 of mother tantra, 2.78-9 of profound pith instructions, 377-9 secondary to eighteen primary texts, 375-7 spoken by Buddha, 2.3-4

554

INDEX

tantras (scriptures) (continued) spoken by manifestations of Vajradhara, 255 texts not found in India, 257-9 unsurpassable nondual, 279 of upatantra, 277, 294 ofyogatantra, 277,296-7 tathagata, 4, 160, 206, 389n3 tathagatagarbha, 16 teachings, 41-2 communicated directly, 31 through blessings, 31 through permission, 33 Ten Spiritual Levels, The, 32 termas, 378-9 Thoroughly Distinguishing Between Center and Extremes (Maitreya), 88,192,193,194,195,200 Three Compilations, 25, 26, 34, 36, 37, 395n8 Three Jewels, 66-8, 183, 184-5 three stages of dwelling, 66, 405n55 three things that are never relinquished, 363 time congruence of, 92, 424n226 Longchenpa's method of calculating, 400n64 and simultaneous occurrences, 424n230 in Vaibhashika, 72, 409n92 time frame in anuyoga, 300 in kriyatantra, 293 in lower approaches, 337 in mahayoga, 298 of path of seeing in bodhisattva approach, 202-3 in sambhogakaya, 218 for shravaka and pratyekabuddha arhats, 147 in upatantra,_ 294 in vajra heart essence approach, 338, 347 in yogatantra, 29 5 timeless awareness, II5, 149, 153, 174, 223,225,226,227,240,280,346, 430n3o6,430n315,436n45 and anuttarayogatantra, 267 authentic view of, 229-3 3

as basic space of phenomena, 221-2, 223,262,353,419n174,455n11 in Chittamatra, 84, 89 classification of, 221-4 deity as form of, 252, 293, 295 and dharmakaya, 120, 169, 211,213 discerning, 222, 223, 224, 241, 353, 455nii as equalness, 222, 223,224,225,353 erroneous opinions about, 226-9 five aspects of, 253, 262, 331, 332, 338,353.454n28,459nl2 four aspects of, 222, 223, 448n284 in Hinayana vs. Mahayana, So individual aspects of, 224-6 and jnana-dharmakaya, 212, 437n81 kayas as support of, 157, 211 and mahayoga, 299 mirror-like, 222,223,225,353, 419n174 motile energy of, 268-9 naturally occurring, 149, 153, 299, 302,304,307,309-21,323,325-6, 331,334, 337, 338 340-2, 345,349, 356-7,360,362,363-4.370,374, 463n79 and omniscient awareness of a buddha,228-9,449n296,449n302 on path of accumulation in bodhisattva approach, 189 on path of linkage in bodhisattva approach,195-6,197 on path of meditation in bodhisattva approach, 206 on path of no more learning in bodhisattva approach, 210 on path of seeing in bodhisattva approach,179,198,199,202,203 in Prasangika Madhyamaka, 112, II5, II9, 120 presence of, in body, 344-5 self-knowing, 66, 106, 107, 108, 169 and SI>iritual potential, 150, 153, 154, 157, 158 as spontaneous fulfillment, 222, 223, 224, 226, 353 and subtle channels and bindu, 244, 342 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, 101, I06

INDEX

synonyms for, in ati yoga, 310 transcendent perfection of, 178, 206 unity of, with kayas, 251, 253 in Vajrayana, 244, 45on8 and validation of ultimate truth, 4310330 vast scope of, 341, 459n12 times, four, 4, 389n2 toga!, 352, 353, 356, 358, 359,461046 Total Accomplishment of the A1ahayana, The,239 total immersion, ten states of, 212, 445n221 trance state, 72, 408n9o, 409n91, 415nl30,424n231 transcendent approaches, three, 290, 454n2 transcendent perfections six, 42, 43, 176, 177, 178, 179, 246 ten, 178, 204-6, 444n219 transference of consciousness, 249, 344, 451014 supreme, 355, 46on37 Trayastrimsha abode, 20, 26, 64, 274, 394n43.445n243 Treasure Chamber oflewels, The (Longchenpa), 442n189 Treasury of Abhidharma, The (Vasubandhu), 8, 29, 30, 35, 70, 73· 86, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134,135,138,139,140,142,144. 4o6n66,4o8n90,4I9n178 Treasury of Secrets, The, 250 trekch6,352,353,356,358,359 Trisong Detsen, King, 47,257,293, 401066, 463n83 truth, provisional, 44 truth, relative, 70, 100-1, 102, 105, 115, 120, 240, 398n37. 427n267, 430n3o8,4310321 characteristics of, 115 Sanskrit term defined, 118 in shravaka approach, 129-30 in Svatantrika, 104, xo6-7 twofold analysis of, 116,4310321 valid and erroneous, 103, 114, 116, 4I7n274.430n309 truth, two levels of, 58 analysis of, 103-4 atiyoga critique of, 303

555

in bodhisattva approach, 194, 228 definitive enumeration of, 102-3 and five bases of the knowable, 105 in Madhyamaka, 99, 120, 426n26o in Prasangika, 112, 114-20, 124, 125-6 Sanskrit terms defined, 102 in Svatantrika, xoo-2, xo6, xo8, 426n259. 427n265 in Vajrayana, 243, 292, 297, 45on6 truth, ultimate, 30, 6o in atiyoga, 305,310 in bodhisattva approach, 130, 131, 149. 171, 190 characteristics of, n 5 in Chittamatra, 98 in Prasangika Madhyamaka, I I 3, 114, 115-16, 119 quantifiable vs. unquantifiable, xo3-4,xos,xo8,426n258, 427n276 Sanskrit term defined, 118 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, xoo-2, 103-4,I07,I08,III,426n258, 427n269,429n304 in Vaibhashika, 70, 407n72 in Vajrayana, 240,243,292 truth of the cessation of suffering. See noble truths, four truth of the path. See noble truths, four truth of suffering. See noble truths, four truth of universal origin of suffering. See noble truths, four Tushita realm, 13, 209, 220, 273-4, 445n243 Twenty Vows, The (Chandragomin), 184,186 Two Sections, The, 82,273,274,287, 344 Uluka,6x,404n42 Uma, 6o, 404n4o uncompounded phenomena in Chittamatra, 87, 95,97 in Sautrantika, 77 in Svatantrika Madhyamaka, 105 in Vaibhashika, 69, 73 unconsciousness, 88, 89, 416n142, 419ni74.42Ini92 unerring absolute, 86, 420n182

556

INDEX

Unfolding of Timeless Awareness, The, 6,65,299 Unified Intent of All Buddhas, The, 259 Union of Buddhas in Equalness, The, 249 Universal Renown of Enlightened Intent, The, 282 unqualified negation, IOI, III, 427n268 Upagupta,26,393n30,396nio Upali, 25, 27, 396n14 upatantra, 26 5, 267 atiyoga critique of, 303 balanced approach of, 277, 453n25 and four social classes, 269 and second of four ages, 27I and sexual desire, 272 texts of, 277, 294 for those of angry temperament, 274-5 for those of middling acumen, 270 Uttarakuru, 444n2I7 utter lucidity, 6, 54, I? I, 2I3, 24I, 244, 26I,269,304,305,3I8,353,360 approach of, 337-56 freedom in, 355,363 three degrees of, 343, 459n2I visions of, 338, 344, 350, 352, 46m46 Vaibhashika system, 69-74, 393n3o, 406n66,428n279 bases of form, 69-70 bases of mental states, ?I-2, 92-4 bases of mind, 70-I compounded and uncompounded phenomena, 72, 73, 409n93 definition of Buddha's words, 29 distinct formative factors, 72-3, 4I2nii2, 425n239 followers of, as materialists, 428n279 path of seeing in shravaka approach, I34-36 perception of objects, 7I, 408nn88-9 reflexive consciousness, 4I3ni22 Sautrantika critique of, 73-4 sense faculties, 407n77, 4I3ni2I and Svatantrika, 105 time as substantial entity, 72, 409n92

Vairochana, 3I, 2I4, 2I6, 243, 272, 284,285,288,390n7,392n23, 4 54n36. See also Himasagara Vaishali, 25, 26 Vaisheshikas (Analysts), 6o Vaishnavite system, 6I-2 VajraArray, The, 4I, 245 Vajra Crown Prominence, The, 272, 276 Vajra Cutter, The (Kamalashila), 45, 232 Vajra of Delight, 256,286 Vajra Equal to Space, The, 362 vajra form, speech, and mind, 265 Vajra Garland, The, 275, 278, 346 vajra heart essence approach, 6, 337-83 compared with lower systems, 350 and cultivating the path, 347-8 and enlightened intent, 352-3 four stages of empowerment, 345-7 observation of sa maya, 354 ordinary and extraordinary preliminary practices, 347 subtle structure of body, 34I-5 superiority of, 337-9 terminology, 362 undermining samsaric mind, 349-52 and way of abiding, 34I-5 Vajra Heart Essence, the I11corruptible Source, 354 Vajra Pavilion, The, 270, 283 Vajra Pinnacle, The, 236, 246, 262, 272-3, 277> 296 vajra shards (line of reasoning), Io8, I09,429n29I Vajra Underground, The, 259, 294 Vajradhara, 249, 304, 339 Buddha as, II, 23, 24, 2.57, 392.n2.I manifestations of, 255-6, 39onn8-9, 395n3,45In20 teachings spoken by, 5, 24, 3I, 54, 2.57 Vajragarbha, 32 vajrakaya, 249, 353 Vajrakila, 30I, 455m8 Vajrapani as codifier of tantras, 2.3, 255, 2.56, 257,390n8,395nn3-4 andKingJa, 259 in retinue ofVajradhara, 6

INDEX

Vajraraja, 2.88 Vajrasana (Vajra Seat), 8, ro, rr, 2.15, 390n5. See also Bodhimanda Vajrasattva, 2.3, 2.57, 2.73, 2.88 Vajrasattva: The Mirror of the Heart, 346,365,366,368,375 Vajrasattva: The Supreme Web of Magical Display, 4 Vajrasattva: The Web of Magical Display, 2.90 Vajrasura, 2.88 Vajrayana, 2.39:-60. See also fruitionbased approach; secret mantra approach accomplishment of, through ordinary circumstances, 2.41, 2.45, 2.54 and anuttarayogatantra, 2.67-9 approximation of fruition, 2.51-5, 45!017 derivation of terms, 2.63-5 differences between outer and inner tantra, 2.79-82. fifteen distinctive features of, 2.42.-3 fourfold classification of tantra, 2.69-75 as highest expression of Mahayana, 2.64,452.n4 interpretation of Buddha's enlightenment, 9-rr and kriyatantra, 2.66 nature of, 2.61-5 Nyingma tradition of, 2.89-336 origins of, 2.55-60 Sarma tradition of, 2.6r-88 superiority of, 34, 2.39-55, 397n2.8 swift accomplishment of, 2.40, 2.44, 2.45,2.46,2.48-so synonyms for, 2.64-5 as taught by Vajradhara, s-6 twelve or thirteen spiritual levels in, 2.44-5 and upatantra, 2.67 and yogatantra, 2.67 Vajrayogini, 2.79 valid cognition, 2.8, 36, ro7, 396nrs· Valid Cognition: A Treasury of Reasoning (Sakya Pandita), 4I4ni2.6 Valmiki, 64, 405nsr

557

Varanasi, 14, rs Varata River, 14 Vasistha, 14, 392.n2.8 Vast Range ofDakas, The, 2.84 VastRangeofSecrets, The, 2.53 Vast Range ofVajra Dakas, The, 2.64 Vasubandhu,37,398n3s,4o6n66, 408n90 Vasumitra, 2.6 Vatsiputriya system, 68-9 Vedas,38,48,62.,63 Vimalamitra, 6, 2.57, 2.93, 332., 333, 35S,382.,389n6,390nr2.,462.n7o, 463n82.,464nn87-8 Vimuktachandra, 32. Vinaya, rs, 2.5, 34, 38,46 Vipashyin, 6, 7, 2.56, 39onro Vira, 37, 398n35 Vishnu, 62.-3 Vision ofAdornment, The, 63 vital essence, three aspects of, 362., 363 Vulture Peak, rs, 2.5

Web of Magical Display, The, 2.48, 2.59, 2.77,2.79,2.99 Well-Sealed Locket, The, 2.48, 2.74, 2.87, 2.88 Wheel of Time, The, 2.57 White Lotus, The, 12. White Lotus of Compassion, The, 45 White Lotus of the Sacred Dharma, The,147 White Stupa at Samye, 2.0 word-based ideas in Chittamatra, 87, 96, 416nnr45-6 in Sautrantika, 78 Wrathful Black Goddess, The, 365, 366,369,377,462.n7o Yama, 2.09, 2.78, 445n2.43 yana, meaning of term, 2.63-4 Yashas,2.6,395n9,396nro Yeshe Yang, 2.93, 455n8 Yogachara Svatantrika Madhyamaka system, ros-6, 42.8n2.84, 42.8n2.87 Yogachara system. See Chittamatra system

558

INDEX

yogatantra, 54, 2.67, 2.70, 2.73-4, 2.75, 2.80,2.95-7 and five aspects of manifest enlightenment, 2.95-6 and four seals of practice, 2.96, 455nii rituals practiced in, 2.96

and sexual desire, 2.72., 2.74 texts of, 2. 77 and third of four ages, 2.71 Yudra Nyingpo, 333, 458n67 Zang-yak Drak, cliff of, 379 ZhaiLhakhang,378,463nn83-4

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