The Philosophy of 'As if': A System of the Theoretical, Practical and Religious Fictions of Mankind

,

International Library of Cp~ychology Philosophy and Scientific Method

The Philosophy of 'As if'

1) 11 i 1() s () 1) 11 Y () f , As i f' A System of the Theoretical, Practical anLl Religious Fictions of Mankind

By

II. VAIII I Nt;{l',H

C.

K. O(;{)EN

IJONDON

KEGAN PAUL, TRIi:NCH, TRUBNER &: CO., LTD. ~EW

YORK: lIARCOUl1T. >.'lRACE & COMPANY.

1935

'" in Great Britai" b}' Made and Primed PEnCY

L,mn>.

HtJMPllmEB Il1J co. I:ro.

u Bedford Sqt,are, T,om{on, W.C.t and at Bradford

PREFACE

TO THE ENGLISH EDITION THE publication of this work in an English translation gives me very great pleasure. From early youth I have studied English literature, and later English philosophy. During the period when my philosophical views were taking sha.pe, at1d especialIy, in the years 1874-1876, it was David Hume and still more J. S. Mill whose influence on my thought was paramount. Thus I was early attracted by English philosophy, and I formed the project of writing a History of English Thought.. But, like" many similar hopes, this plan was destined to remain unrealized. ! soon found that th(~ importance of Fictions had already been partly recognized by English philosophers. English Notninalism of the Middl~ Ages showed traces of such a recognition. W;,th Joh.n Dum Scotus, who died in 13 08 1n Cologne, when' only in hIS thirty-fourth year, there began a Hceptical movement which tended in the same direction. nut it was in William of Occam, who took refuge with Ludwig of Bavaria, and died in Munich in 1347 at the age of 77, that we find for the first time a clear and definite treatment of the fictional nature of general ideas, de" veloped in a manner which is still a model for to-day. He fully understood that flcta, as they were called in the writings of the Middle Ages, although their theoretical non-existence might be admitted, art;,.practically necessary and must be recognized in this sense. Un the other hand this was not realized by Bacon or even by Hume, though in Berkeley there are at least indications of an understanding of Fictions. But in Hobbes we find a considerable knowledge both of Fictions themselves and of the theory of their use. Empty space, the idea of a 'bellum omnium contra omnes, and of an H origi~al contract II are for Hobbes conscious Fictions. A special study of Hobbes' theory of Fictions had been contemplated by O1y late colleague Professor Frischeisell-Kohler who was well versed in English vii

viii

THE PHILOSOPHY OF 'AS IF'

philosophy and hoped to write a history of its development; but owing to his early death neither project was t'ealized. Fictions, part of England's heritage from the Romans, have played a large part in English jurisprudence and political philosophy, both in practice and theory; more so than in other countries. There is room for a special monograph on this subject, covering the use of Fictions both in Adam Smith's political economy and in Jeremy Bentham's political philosophy. In the present work the methods of Adam Smith and Bentham have been treated in some detail, but they would appear in quite another light, if brought into relation with the whole history of English thought. Thus particularly in England conditions point to a favourable reception for the theory of Fictions as developed in The Philosophy of I As if} " Pragmatism," too, so widespread throughout the English-speaking world, has done something to prepare the ground for Fictionalism,~ in spite of their fundamental difference. Fictionalism does not admit the principle of Pragmatism which runs: "An idea which is found to be useful in practice proves thereby that it is also true in theory, and the fruitful is thus always true." T~e principle of Fictionalism, on the other hand, or rather the outcome of Fictionalism, is as follows: II An idea whose theoretical untruth or incorrectness, and therewith its falsity, is admitted, is not for that reason practically valueless and useless; for such an idea, in spite of its theoretical nullity may have great practical importance:' But though Fictionalism and Pragmatism are diametrically opposed in principle, in practice they may find much in common. Thus both acknowledge the value of metaphysical ideas, though for very different reasons and with very different consequences. It can be shown, and has been demonstrated at length in the present volume, that the theory of Fictions was more or less clearly stated by Kant, who was proud of his Scottish descent. Nearly 100 pages of the work are devoted to this question and it is there proved in detail that for Kant a large number of ideas, not only in metaphysics but also in mathe~ matics, physics and jurisprudence, were Fictions. The metaM physical ideas were somewhat confused by Kant himself in his Critique of Pure Reason'" (Theory of Method), but were definitely called II heuristic Fictions." This was overlooked

PIUjIi'ACI~

TO TIU"; IJ:NGLISH EDrfION

ix

and not understood in Kant's own day and for a long time after j and Kant was quite right when he said of himself" I am a century too early with my works; it will be a hundred years before they are properly understood." That was in 1797. The hundred years of incubation which Kant prophesied for his theories have now gone by, and the times are ripe for this his profoundest contribution, which I !Uay mention has now been given due value by Professor Norman Kemp Smith of Edinburgh in his admirable commentary on the Critique (recently published in a second Edition). HANS VAIHINGER.

ANALYTICAL CON'l'EN'fS PAGIIS

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL xxiii-xlviii GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1-13 CHAPTER I.-Thought. considered from the point 01 view 01 a plltPosive organio Funotion . 1-8 Empirical utility or adaptation to a purpose manifested by organic and logical functions-The organic formative force of the psyche-Stein.thal-The teleological treatment of the logical functions heuristically permissible-Psychical mechanism and pm'posiveness not mutually exclusive-The test whether the logical functions have attained their pUl"pose can only be pYacticrLl and not theoreticalThought primarily an instrument of self-prcservation--Hcrbart and Schoponbauet-Logical purposiveness expressed ill the invention of logical aids-The ways of thought not the ways of reality; they are only subjective, but are expedient-The devious ways of thollgbt--Fundamental O1'1"or of dogmatism; its cQnfusion ai' thought and reality. ClIAP'l'IU~ I l.-Thougbt as an Art, Logic ll4I Technology . . 8-9 The purposive organic fl1nctiOll attains the level of an AJ:t-'l'huliI arise Rules, wWch arc collected by Logic lW the" '!'()chnology of Thought." CHAl'1'~R

U I.-The Diflel'(luce Rules of Thought

between

the

Artifices

and 10"! 2

Distinction between the artificial Rules. as Qtdirtary, regular methods, and the Artifices, as irregular methods 0:£ thoughtOrigin of these artifices: Leibnh: aud Newton-They show the purposiveness of the logical function.

CHAP'£ER IV.-The Transition to Fiotions

12-13

Fictions are devices of this sort and auxiliary operations of thought -Preliminary sketch of the fictional thought-construct-Epistemological SIgnificance of fictional accessory concepts.

PART I

BASIC PRINCIPLES

15- 1 77

General Introduotory Remarks on Fictional Construots

I

5- I 6

The regular, natural methods of thought-Their object is the creation of objectively valid ideational cOllstructs--The whole world of ideas is an instrument to enable us to orientate ourselves in the real world, but is not 4 copy of that world-The logical functions are an integral part of the cosmic process, but not a copy of it -Within the world of ideas logic disj;inguishes again between relatively objective ideational constructs and -those which are subiective or fictional-Pure 'fictions and half.fictions.

xi

THE PHILOSOPHY OF 'AS IF'

xii

VAGUS

A. THE ENUMERATION AND DIVISION FICTIONS CHAPTER I.-Artiflcia.l Classitlcation

OF

SCIENTIFIC 17-77 17-19

Natural and artificial systems-Their relation to ~he question ~f species-Difficulties of natural systems-The deVIce of a proVIsIOnal artificial division-Practical and heul"istic advantages of snch artificial systems-Theoretical contradictions of artificial divisions-Artificial definition.

CHAPTER

I1.-Abstractive (Neglective) Fictions

19- 2 4

The deliberate omission of certain elements of reality in complicated phenomena-Standard example: Adam Smith's fiction in his political economy-This is not an hypothesis, but a subjective, fictive method, by which an abstract system is created-Application of this method in the complicated phenomena of sociology and also in mechanics and psychology (Herbnrt and Steinthal)-The uselessnells of lI11ch ideational COlllltrllCts not to be deduced from their unreality-Disputed examples: e.g, a period in which language consisted only of "roots.' Fictions of isolation-Relation to the method of approximation and tentative fictions-Average fictions, e.g. l'hontnte moyen in statistics.

Ur.-Schematic, Paradigmatic, Utopian and Type Fictions . . 24- 2 7

CHAPTER

Schemata, models, and schematic drawings-The fiction of simple cases-Example: ThUnen's idea in economics-Paradigmata: method of imaginary cases to facilitate scientific pl"oof-Rhctodcal fictions-Utopias-The original state and the like-·Value of such ideas and theu misuse-Imaginary archetypes-Goethe's fiction of a, .~' plant archetype" and Schiller's opinion of it. CHAPTER IV.-Symbolic (Analogical) Fictions 27-32 The psychical mechanism in analogical fictions-Schleiermacller's theological method rest\; on the conversion of dogmas into analogical fictions-This epistemological device derives from KantThe Kantian " as if "-Categories as analogical fictions-Through the categories there can be no understanding of the world-The necessity of a "Theory of Understan.ding" (comprehensiona.l theory)-Analogical fictions and the illusion of knowledge to which they give rise-Expediency of such fictions-Symbolic knowledge according to Maimon-If such fictions are converted into hypotheses contradictions result-Errors and illusory problems due to the misuse of analogical fictions-Critical Positivism dis.tinguishes these additions of the psyche from pure experienceResignation, wise and unwise: negative understan.ding of the world-Other analogical fictions. CHAPTER

V.-luriBtic Fictions .

33-35

A special form of the analogical fiction is found in'the legal fiction, a juristic device of frequent application-Importance of judstic methods for logical theory-The logical function applies the same devices in very various fields-The [ictio juris and its essential difference from the pra8sumptio-Examples from the German Co.mmercial. Co~e-;-SimiJarity of these juristic methods to the eplstemologlcal nction-Both are valuable in practice, but them:etically worthless, since they are based on a deviation from reality. CHAI;'TER

VI.-Personiftoatory Fictions

36-38

The form in which perSOll'!-lity is apperceived-Hypostatization of phenomena-Abbreviations, Nommal fictions, Auxiliary words ';['autological fictions. ' CHAPTER

VII.-Summationai Fictions (General Ideas)

The general idea as a mere fiction.

38-39

ANALYTICAL CONTENTS

XUl PAGn~

CHAPTER

VI 1I.--Heuristio FiotiQI1lI .

39-4 2

The assumption of unl" :fictions-Intelli~ble freedom and ini;ellectual intuition-The retention of a fictton as such requires C(ln~idetable energy-The creation of a logical consclenl'e--The development of post-Kantian philosophy from this stallc1p'oint-Harttiful and beneficial effects of the Law of Ideational SbIfts-The transformation of objectively false hypotheses into subjectively expedient fictions-Significance of such fictions for thought in general.

C. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HISTORY AND TBE()ll.Y OF FICTIONS. . . . . . . . . • 135-156 Preliminary Remarks. The 'l'heo17 and Practice of Fictilltll8 135 CHAPTER XXVIII.-The Fiction in Greek Scientu\c Pro-c&dure . . . . . . . . . 135- 1 39 Relatively late a?pearance of the fiction-It implies an eJnancipation from immed1ate pe:rception and from the belief that thought is identical with reality-Scepticlsm-elumsy method~ of the ancients, particulaxly in mathematics, though signa of scientific fictions are not altogether wanting-Express avoidance of nctional constructs-HyPotheses and fiCtionS-Platonic myths and similar fictions-Parmenidean fiction of the elements of the 'wQrld of appearance-----The world of appeal anee as a fictional C011StructThe fiction of the !lpheriGal form of the Absolute in Parm.enidesSymoolic thought.

XIX.-Begjnnings of a Theory of Fictions &lXt.ong the Greeks . . . . . . . . . 139- 1420

CHAPTER

Illsuflicient familiarity with the use of nctions naturally t:esults in an absence of adequate theory-No critical distinction between a necessity of thouglit and reality-Aristotle's methodology deficient in this respect-llll'6t1E/Ttr and V7('01'tfUPl1oL in Plato attd Aristotle-Aristotle recognil:ed the fictional nature of math.e1Ulltical

ANAL Yl'lCAL

xvii

(~ONl'ENTS

abstl"ilctions-Latl'l' Greek philosophy-The gradual differentiation of hypothct.ic«l and fictional aSHumptions-Thc SccpticsTheir negativism cOl1trD,stcll with modern sceptical Positivism, CHAPTER

XXX.-The Use of the Fiction among the Romans

[43

The forccd and arbitrary character of legalfietions-Their purpose . -Examples: actiones tltiles,

xxx I.-Beginnings of a' Theory of Fictions among the Romans . 144

CHAPTEl~

The Romans realized the ambiguity of the term inr60EO't;-(i) Suppos'ilio and (ii) Fictio. CHAP1'ER XXXI I.-Medieval Terminology . 145 The significance of Nominalism which recognized general ideas as fictiones-One-sid....~ negative sense of the term in NominalismImpor.tance of schoiiistic terminology for modern times. CHAPTER XXXI II.-The Use of Fictions in Modem Times 146-154 More extensive use of legal fictions in modern times-Discussion of legal fictions in relation to logic by Lcibniz-Utopia.n fictionsFictions chiefly applied in mathematics-The development of modern mathematics by means of fictional auxiliary conceptsMcrtschinsky's fiction of minima of constant size-His relation to Bruno-" Inlillitcly ,Hstant points "·-Lack of a. methodology o£ 1ictional concepts, ()spedally in mathematics. Mail11on'g vIew of t.he Mona
CHAPTER

The dogmatism whiCh fails to realize the fictional, falsifying nature of thought, and equates thought with reality, is logical Optimism -Scepticism is logicll,l Pessimism--Logical Criticism.

•

b

THE PHILOSOPHY 01i' 'AS IF'

xviii

-Ca.tegories as Fictions (with a Gel/eral D,,164- 17 2 of the Pract:cal PttrjJ