The Persian Manual: A Pocket Companion

THE

PERSIAN MANUAL, A POCKET COMPANION INTENDED TO FACILITATE THE ESSENTIAL ATTAINMENTS OP CONVERSING WITH FLUENCY AND COMPOSING WITH ACCURACY, IN THE MOST GBACEJUL OF AIL THE LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN

THE EAST.

FART

I.

A CONCISE GRAMMAR OF THE LANGUAGE,

With Exercises on its more prominent peculiarities, together with a Selection of Useful Phrases, Dialogues, and Subjects for Translation into Persian.

PART

A VOCABULARY OF USEFUL

II.

WORDS, ENGLISH AND PERSIAN, SHOWING AT THE SAME TIME THE DIFFERENCE OF IDIOM BETWEEN THE TWO LANGUAGES.

BT

CAPTAIN

H.

WILBERFORCE CLARKE, "Royal Engineers.

LONDON: WM. H. ALLEN &

CO., 13,

WATERLOO PLACE,

1878.

S.W.

LONDON

:

GILBERT AND EIVINGTON, PBINTEBS, 52, ST. JOHN'S SQUABE, E.C.

Wirult,

1- SI.

WHO ENCOURAGED ME

.,

IX

BOYHOOD, YOUTH, AND MANHOOD,

THIS

WOBK

IS,

WITH AFFECTION,

PREFACE BY THE AUTHOR. THIS work Part

I.

is

divided into

Section

1.

Two Parts

:

The Grammar. Lessons and Exer-

2. Progressive cises.

3.

Miscellaneous

Dialogues

and

Exercises.

Part 2.

Part

II.

Vocabulary.

Sections 2

and 3 of Part

The Grammar sian

I.

and the whole of

II. are entirely original. is,

in part, compiled from the Per-

Grammars by Dr. Lumsden, LL.D., 1810.

Mirza

Muhammad

Ibrahim

ShirazI, 1841.

Mr. A. H. Bleeck, 1857. Dr. D. Forbes, LL.D., 1862. Its

arrangement is entirely new much original matbeen introduced ; and the whole rendered as ;

ter has

concisely as possible.

The Exercises and Sentences (English to be turned

PREFACE.

X into Persian)

have been taken from Dr. Forbes' It

Manual of Hindustani. exercises

was considered that these

and sentences were possibly as good and as as any others which could be devised,

well arranged

this work, the student by adopting them for would have the advantage of being able to compare The great the Hindustani with the Persian idiom. success which Dr. Forbes' Manual of Hindustani

while,

has obtained was a further inducement to adopt the

same plan. 3.

The aim throughout

this

work has been

to

useful idioms, gather under each sentence as many That portion expressions and synonyms as possible. of a sentence which may be represented by other

in brackets ; equivalent expressions is enclosed and the equivalent expressions also placed within are put at brackets and separated by semi-colons

the end of the sentence.

Thus, on page 126 of the

Vocabulary, against the word "robbed," it is to be understood that the expressions " duzd burda ;" " dast-burd-i-duzd gardida;" "ba sirkat rafta;" "duzdida shuda," may each be substituted for the " ba duzdi in the expression

rafta,"

sentence.

This plan of rendering the sentences will, it is believed, give great aid to the student in mastering He will see at a glance the several the language.

PREFACE.

XI

in which a sentence may be rendered, will observe the force of words, and will be able to com-

ways

pare idiom with idiom.* 4. It has been customary to regard Persian as a language easy of attainment this is far from being ;

A certain degree of proficiency may easily

the case.

be reached

;

but to obtain a thorough knowledge of

the language is exceedingly difficult, owing to (a) The vast number of words (said to be 80,000) in the language

;

The ambiguous expressions in which a Persian

(-

A

5

have

h will

Roman

the

characters

letter," or 4. It

"

;

omitted when written in "

nama

[not

namah]

a

written communication." difficult

is

h

as aUiU

to

distinguish

between the

sounds of the letters forming one of the following

groups a

:

.

]o

1

eu

t^ j ^

The Persians never attempt

^

CL;

to pronounce them they content themselves by sounding them according to the Persian letters, to which they

as the

Arabs

most nearly

;

assimilate.

VOWELS AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS,

7

Observation 5.

When

and

s

h,

or z

separate letters following

" as,hal,

"

more

plants/' a

or

comma

and

represent two

h,

'C

each other, as in JvfJ

most easy/' and .Ifcfl az,h(ir, will be inserted, as shown in

the examples. At the end of Arabic words

s

is

li

often

marked

with two dots, thus 'i, and sounded like t. In such words the Persians generally convert the into t^_> t; sometimes unaltered, and they leave the 'i

'i

frequently they omit the two dots, in which case the letter becomes imperceptible in sound.

YOWELS AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL

SIGNS.

6. The primitive vowels in Arabic and Persian are three in number. *fr*

The thus _

first ,

is

called

:

zer,

^

pesh,

i

a consonant

l

has j (waw)

f

ab,

L__>!

ib,

the sound of

c

w

>!

ub.

in the

words we,

went.

The modern Persians pronounce the waw in

like v

words such as *y& shavam, ^jj^ shavL

^

(ya)

is,

in sound, like

y in the words you,

yet.

LONG VOWELS OR LETTERS OF PROLONGATION.

When , inert, is preceded by a letter moveby fatha, the fatha and alif coalesce and give a lengthened sound, as J6 Mr, "work;" the sound 9.

I

able

is like

that of a in war.

Alif, inert, is

always preceded by fatha ; hence

LONG VOWELS OR LETTERS OF PROLONGATION.

10

dlif, not beginning a word or syllable, has always a lengthened sound.

10. When is preceded by a consonant ^, inert, moveable by zamma, the zamma and ^ coalesce and form a sound like u in rule.

When ^ ,* inert, is preceded by a consonant, moveable by fatha, the fatha and . coalesce, and form a sound like ou in soundWhen j *

,

inert, is

preceded by a consonant move-

*

When j is preceded by ^ lowed by alif, the sound of j in the words

,

moveable by fatha and folalmost imperceptible, as

is

khwab, "sleep," pronounced

Jch.db.

"

I desire," pronounced kh,dham. In such cases the j will not be sounded, and in the

khwdham,

Eoman

it will be represented by w. preceded by ^, moveable by fatha, and sometimes by zamma, or Jcasra, is followed by any of the nine

character

When j

letters

:

,

<j

occasionally loses

SUU-'L/'J>> its

I>

sound, as in the words

V

)

.jji.

pronounced

Tfhad,

not khaud or Jchawad.

pronounced

kfiyd,

not

.jji.

^ji. pronounced

t ^ie

J

:

Jchiid.

khesh, not Jchiwesh.

This rule applies only to words purely Persian. In the the w will in such words be omitted, and

Eoman character,

the vowel marked with a dot, as

M
Jjj

bud

;

'(,

&zci,

J^j

&cZ

;

C-^

o*

Two diphthongs, Jju laid, Jy laud; Two long vowels peculiarly majhul, "unknown," or " 'ajami,

O

Persian," Jjj be1,j*.

roz.

12

RULES

READING.

FOB,

RULES FOR READING. 13.

There are very few Persian works, manuscript all the vowels are marked.

or printed, in which

The primitive short, vowels -, ~, _, as well as _ and _ are almost always omitted. The following remarks

may be

of service

:

The last letter of every word is inert, hence the mark _ (jazm) is omitted. (&) The short vowel 1 (fatha} is of more frequent (a)

occurrence than kasra or ing,

it is

(c)

zamma;

hence, in print-

omitted.

The short vowel _

(fatha) should be supplied

for every consonant in a word, except the last

and

marked with _, or one of the vowels. (d) The letters 1, ^, ^, are generally inert, when not initial ; hence they are not marked with jazm. those

,

(e)

When

^,

^,

not

initial,

are moveable conso-

nants they are marked with their proper vowels. (/) When ^ (10010) or (ya) follow a consonant

^

unmarked by a

short vowel, or

the majhul or 'ajamt sound

an ant."

jye mor,

When

;

by jazm, they have

as

"

-x

sher,

a lion."

a consonant moveable

is

(g) preceded by ^ by zamma, and ya by a consonant moveable by

the sound

is

m'aruf, or

known

;

" 4)***,

sud,

" gain."

|

^Ji

kasra,

as shir,

milk."

RULES FOR READING.

1

3

When waw and ya follow a consonant marked (7i) with jazm, they are consonants, and are sounded as j

(iv)

able

and

^

(y)

When waw

(i)

.

and ya follow a consonant, move-

by fatha, they form diphthongs

*$ kaum, "a 14.

tribe." |

Some symbols have

^ still

to

as

;

"a

sair,

walk."

be noticed. They

madda, hamza, tanwtn, tashdid, the article of Arabic nouns, and wasla. are

:

(a)

SJK

(madda) [^]

when placed over an

extension, and

signifies

broad and open that of a in water. The

alif gives it a

sound, almost equivalent to madda is used to avoid the meeting of two the beginning of a word.

"

Thus, instead of water."

definite

L-J!

1

,

alifs at

the Persians write L_J! ab,

8^ (hamza) [j or -] is used, instead of alif, (ft) when one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and [according

our ideas of orthography] the following syllable begins with a vowel ; that is, virThus we have tually with an alif. to

:

-*

f-

^Ij pa,e, instead of jjl

^lU

fa } ida, instead of

In Persian the sound of hamza Arabic the sound of hamza

is

is

;

sjlli

.

that of alif; in

that of 'ain.

Strictly,

14

RULES FOR READING.

hamza ought

to be used

ning with a vowel, inflexion, as

"

^jj

badl,

This rule

whenever a

added

syllable, begin-

to a root in the

way

of

:

JoJ didem,

*j

is

is

Practically,

"

we saw," from

root, did ;

badness," from root, bad.

seldom observed.

hamza in the middle of a word

is

equivalent to our hyphen in such words as re-open. At the end of words, terminating in the imperceptible 3 , hamza has the sound of e.

Roman character, hamza will be reprecomma between the vowels, as in SJJU

In the

sented by a

(c)

^fi

the

(tanwln) [-, ~, -] signifies the using It is formed by doubling the

letter

^. vowel point of the last letter of a word. The vowel is then pronounced as though it terminated in ^ n. In the Roman character it will be represented by n.

In Arabic, tanwln serves to mark the inflexion

of nouns

;

J

j

fa,ida.

of

;

thus the symbol

:

- (double zamma) marks the nominative^) / sing. ~ marks the > .

genitive ^ (double fath a) marks the accusative

,

(double ~kasra)

&

,

}

In Persian only the _ (double fath a) (accusative form) is used, and that adverbially ; as

RULES FOR READING. 9

"

lJU*5sr

takhminan, le

Is'Jul

15

by valuation."

by chance."

ittifdkan,

*

The symbol

(double fatha} requires alif, which,

however, does not prolong the sound of the

last

syllable.

The

is

1

when

not required

- (hamza) or

,

as

the

word ends with

:

" *

shai~an,

.*

willingly,"

*. hikmatan " nor

when

the

word ends with

which case

alif [in

skilfully ;"

alif only

surmounted by

ya,

is

pronounced]

;

as,

"

of prolongation, as

alif is

"

a or

God."

this

[-],

doubles the letter over which Oil

(e)

symbol

J

I

;

be repre-

)

"

or

corroboration,"

it is w

M urram

will

o.

(taslidld)

IV*"

like the alif

"end," "futurity."

'ukbu,

Roman character

sented b

sounded

:

ta'ala

jJUJ

In the

lovingly."

haivq-an,

J.yb

Without tanwtn the

/

'joyful/* vXor
^ j j j ^j~ (jo (jo

^

letters

the

of the Article assumes the sound of the initial

J

Noun, which

letter of the

is

then marked by tashdid;

thus f

So^ 1

jiJJ

" ,

the light,"

" ^H*A^J

^

jj

I

" !

the sun,"

the faith,"

is

pronounced an-nuru.

is

pronounced ash-shams.

is

pronounced ad-din.

The J must always be its

written, though

has lost

it

own sound.

When

the

Noun

Article is omitted,

marked by >

begins with

and the

taslidtd, as

initial

J the J of the J of the Noun is

:

f

-6

bJ) al-lailatu,

"the night/' instead of

^c

2Ljlil.

(/) .^

^^juU.^JL.^c) amzru-l-muminin,

"Commander

of

the Faithful." Ml

J>

>

'

^.^Jl -.lo

" Salahu-d-dln,

Saladin, or

Peace

of Religion."

SUBSTANTIVES, ADJECTIVES, AND PRO-

NOUNS. 15. Th.e

Grammarians

of Arabia

and

Persia

GENDER.

reckon three parts of speech '

17 the Noun, ism

:

Verb,/Z; and the Particle, harf. The Noun includes substantives,

;

the

adjectives, pro-

nouns, and participles.

The Verb agrees in its nature with ours. The Particle includes adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. GENDER.

Males* are masculine, feinales are feminine, and all other words are of no gender. 16.

*

Animals have

different

names

to express the male or

female; thus + j

mard,

" "

pisar, *-

a man."

zan,

a son."

khurus,

"

woman.

dukhtar,

"

a daughter.'

makiyan, "a hen." ~ mesh, " an ewe."

a cock."

\i,

" a

t

Animals have sometimes^ (war), "male," and " (mdda~),

female," affixed or prefixed to them, as sher-i-nar,

"a

oU^-i

iL

:

sher-i-mdda,

"a

lioness."

lion."

maU madaran.

:

plur.

a horse,"-'

^UJ

aspan.

*}

murgh., "a,

i

shutur

aspha.

lyju

[

.*

^r

bird,"

murS^n>

'

^ .!Li!

(

")

((

ushtur

\

Nouns denoting inanimate by adding ha JJ>

objects form the plural

and

to the singular,

" kalam,

JJ ^Z, "a

sliuturan.

UJLi shuturhd.

/

\

.iJLi

.

rarely an

a pen," plur.

l^Jji

flower,"

L^ gulha. "

;

as

kalamha.

'sA^.J dirak/itlia. (pi. 'sA^.

," 1

diraMtan.

U

OBSERVATIONS ON THE AFFIX aw. 18. If the

the letter

noun ends is

in

\"L

(a),

inserted before ^1

or ^ (), or^ (an) to

(o),

prevent

I

FORMATION OP THE PLURAL.

19

Sometimes, though rarely, the letter omitted after _j ; as

^

the hiatus. is

x*

"

U! J daria,

a page," plur. ^V-H J dunayan.

jijl pari-ru, "fairy-faced,"

" &OZM,

_jj'j

_f,

i

as

^jjj^ bazmvan.

the arm," plur.

In nouns ending in obscure into

pZwr.

s

(A),

the

is

changed

:

X-

*r

auLi,^ jirishta,

an angel/'

pZ-ur. ^'JoLi^j -firish-

tagan. **x*

bachcha,

4fc^

Sometimes the t

"& 8 is

child," ^>Zw. ^iXsr bachchagan.

retained

;

as f

"

jyc murda,

dead," plur.

^tdj* murdahgan.

When s is preceded by a long vowel the plural formed in the usual way ; a'^j'j

padshah,

"a

king," plur. ^lalij'j pad-

sJiahan.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE AFFIX 19.

Jid.

In nouns ending in the obscure

disappears

;

iili-

s

(h)

as _

b J ,

"

the house of the man."

"

*\^*> muht,e darya, u banda,e khuda,

the fish of the sea."

"the servant of God."

Observe that both _ and

are pronounced as

ya,e majhul.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. "

22.

Kurd,

a knife." Plur.

Nom.

kardha.

Jcard.

f-i-Mrd. Gen.
!

inan, our

;

at,

^U

thy;

tan,

may be rendered by

his. ^jZ] ash,

your

;

^li

s/iaw, their.

29

PRONOUNS. f

When

noun ends

the

termination

is

rejected

in

1

and

or

^

of the . long, the inserted in its place ; 1

as

my

foot.

c^o^c may at, thy

hair.

pay am,

*j'j

.Jij.

When tained

;

the

ruyasli, his face.

.

noun ends

.JSl&ili-

In other cases +j

Jo

,

s,

alifis re-

padarat, or

house.

kjtana-am,

my

khana-at,

thy house.

khana-ash, his house.

^ j<j y

~,Jo padarasli, or

.Jv.Jo

quiescent

alif is rejected

padaram, or

LTJ.cXj

in

as

;

as

padar-i-man,

t^ padar-i-tu, thy ^

,Jo

padar-i-man, or

my

father.

father.

padar-i-o, his father. 'uo

jJo padar-i-mu ,

our

"father.

Jj.Jo padar-i-tan, or IA

,

^ ^

in mard,

^Jj-o

m

one word,

men.

~kitab,

that book.

o?i

kitabha,

those books.

prefixed to a noun, so as to form

sometimes changed into

J im ;

as

"this day;" imshab, "this night;" imsul,

imruz,

"

it is

is

man.

an

T

When ^1

this

*n mardtin, these

this year."

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. There are three in number

30.

of

o

are rejected,

\

the preceding word jji

dar

i-ilij

jj\

az

0,

when they ;

in him.

from him.

are closely connected with

as

bar eshdn, on them. o,

:

jja.

^^

cliun o, like him.

dar an, in that.

^j* dar

In, in this.

PROXOUNS.

32

who?

ki,

Ttira,

whom?

to

whom?

(appli-'

Sing, or

cable to persons.)

what?

C/H,

chira,

what?

to

(applicable to things.) ? out of any

kudam, which

kudam kudam

what? why?

number

which person which road ?

sliakhs, rail,

;

Plural.

as

?

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

These are

31.

all

indeclinable. harchi, whatsoever.

chand, some. yake, one,

some one.

har

some one.

has,

tane

haryak, everyone.

all.

sundry

thing.

all.

anki or harki, who-

soever. liar

whatsoever

har cMz,

individuals.

liar

both.

hard-it,

chand,

har, every,

harja,

harkas, everybody.

hech, any.

hama,

or

kuja

wheresoever.

shakes, a person.

kudam, whosoever, which so ver.

har shab, every night. har ruz, every day. har wakt, whensoever.

bahar

however.

hot,

EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 32.

There are no Eelative Pronouns

cles &$ ki, for persons,

and a^

clii,

;

the parti-

for things, are

THE VERB. sometimes regarded as

33

relatives.

This matter will

be considered in the Syntax.

THE VERB. 33. There

only one conjugation.

is

All the tenses are formed from the root, or from the infinitive, as will be seen

from the following

example of the Verb ^Jo*-, rasidan, "to arrive;" root

^j~j

ras.

TENSES OF THE ROOT. Aorist.

"

I

may, or can,

rasam

rasem.

2. rasz 3.

"

Plural.

Singular. 1.

arrive.

rased.

rasad

rasand.

Present Tense. I arrive, or 1.

mt-rasam

2.

vu-rasi

3. tnt-rasad

am

arriving."

mz-rasem. mz-rased.

ml -rasand. 3

THE VERB.

34

Simple Future.

"

I shall, will, or

may

Singular.

bi-rasam

1.

bi-rasem. bi-rased.

2. bi-rasi

bi-rasand.

bi-rasad

3.

arrive."

Plural.

Imperative.

"

me

Let

arrive/'

1.

ras am

rasem.

2.

ras

rased.

3.

rasad

rasand.

The Noun

of

Agency

formed by adding *jj_

is

(anda) to the root; as rasanda, "the arriver."

The Present

Participle is

formed by adding

^

1

;

'

as

..it* ; 1

rasan,

arriving."

The Causal Verb landau, as

is

formed by adding amdan, or

:

" ^jaiUwj rasamdan, ^lioUw^

to cause to arrive."

rasandan, "to cause to arrive."

OBSERVATIONS. 34. Aorist.

The Simple Future

differs

but

little

from the

35

THE VERB. Native grammarians

that tense the Aorist

call

here styled the Simple Future, and they say that when the Aorist (our Simple Future) is used in

which

is

the subjunctive mood, the particle bi is omitted, as bdsham, I may be. bi-bdsham, I be.

:

|

The Simple Future

most often used

is

as follows

:

I promise that I will come,

vfada mi-kunam ki biydyam.

The second person

and

(singular

plural) of the

Imperative has frequently the particle thus arrive thou, bi-ras

When

the

first letter

for its vowel, bi

bi prefixed;

arrive ye, bi-rased.

\

of the Imperative has

may become

bu

zamma

as

;

do thou, bu-kun.

The

third person singular of the Imperative

may

be

rendered benedictive by lengthening the vowel /a^dt of its final syllable let

O

him

;

as

arrive, rasad.

that he

may

arrive

!

rasdd.

Similarly

kunad, from kardan, "to do," makes kundd. " to shudan, shavad, become," makes shavdd. dihad,

buvad,

garddnad

dddan,

" to

give,"

_budan, "to be,"

garddnidan,

makes garddnad.

makes dihdd.

makes buvdd or

" to cause

bad.

to become,"

TENSES FROM THE INFINITIVE.

36

Except in poetry, and on occasions of particular formality,

it is

rather pedantic to use this benedictive

The Aorist

form.

is

more frequently

used.

TENSES FROM THE INFINITIVE. Preterite or Indefinite Past.

35.

" I arrived." Singtilar*

Plural.

rasldam

rasldem.

1.

2. rasldl 3.

raslded.

rasldand.

rasld Imperfect.

"

I

was arriving/'

1.

ml-rasldam

ml-rasldem.

2.

ml-rasldl

ml-raslded.

3. ml-rasid

mi-rasldand.

Past Potential or Habitual. " "I might arrive," 1.

rasidame

I used to ai-rive."

rasldeme.

2. rasldl

rasldede.

3. raslde

rasidande.

Compound Future. " I will arrive."

khwahem rasid

1.

k/iwaham rasld

2.

khwahl rasld

khwahed

3.

khwahad rusld

khwahand

rasld. rasld.

PRETERITE PARTICIPLE.

37

OBSERVATIONS. 36. In the Imperfect ^-A* (liami) is often prefixed instead of ml .

The Past Potential

is

formed by adding ya,e majhul

to all the persons of the Preterite, except the

2nd

person singular. In the Compound

Future, the auxiliary is the Aorist of the verb khwastan, "to wish/' root khwdh.

The

letter

j

is

not to be sounded (see p. 10).

PRETERITE PARTICIPLE. "

37. StXx-. rasida,

arrived," or

The following three

tenses

"

having arrived."

are derived from the

Preterite Participle.

Perfect Tense.

" I have arrived." Plural.

Singular. 1.

rasida

am

randa em.

2. rasida I

rasida ed.

3. rasida ast

rasida and.

Pluperfect Tense.

" I had arrived." 1.

rasida budam

rasida budem.

2.

rasida bfidl

rasida bitded.

3. rasida

lud

rasida budand.

PERSONAL TERMINATIONS.

38

Future Perfect. " I shall have arrived." Plural.

Singular.

raslda bdsham

raslda bdshem.

2.

raslda bdshl

raslda bashed.

3.

raslda bdshad

raslda bdshand.

1.

may be conjuthe tenses the termination of the

verb in Persian Similarly^ every

In

gated.

all

2nd person singular In the terminations

is

ya,e m'aruf.

*.>

(em) &> (ed) (1st and 2nd

persons plural), ya,e majhul

is

sounded.*

PERSONAL TERMINATIONS. 38.

These are Plural,

Singular.

am, am. r & or

^1

*?.)

em, are. ed, are.

I, art.

y

and, are.

The personal terminations may be joined *

An

to a

educated native of Shiraz informs the writer

that the terminations em, ed (1)

(2) (3)

should properly be pronounced im,

The sound of e

in the

Id,

em, ed,

may may never 2nd case

is

aim, aid. " bear." that of ea in

PERSONAL TERMINATIONS.

39

substantive.

In compo-

or

pronoun, adjective, sition

(a)

The

man

Ai^-i ^> yj'-io!

word ends

If the

retained, as

e^*J (c) If

"

he

a scholar.

^

Sultan.

is

in obscure

s

(Ji),

alif is

:

SiiJu

j!

o

banda

ast,

he

is

a slave.

the substantive be an abstract noun, as,

"

boldness,"

existence," dUiri,

hastt,

am

eshan nek and, they are good. o sultan ast,

(ft)

;

shagird am, I

(

iXiGj

omitted

initial alif is

noun

ness," the final ya of the

sliadl,

omitted

is

;

"gladas

>

O^^Jj ^JJUJD

thou art glad.

tu sliud-l,

^Jli,

jl

diltr ast,

o

hastem,

we

he

is

(d) In the case of the pronouns

"

what ?" the

final

of the termination

s

is

is

changed into

who ,

the

*>

"who?"

omitted, and the

t,

(e) If

bold.

are, or exist.

word ends

in

initial

alif

as

is it ?

what .

y~t ;



or

^\

- andan,

formed by adding ^ikjjl^ unldan to the root of the primitive verb

;

thus j

Just an, '

" to leap,"

root,

jah

;

jahanidan or jahan-

(/ti/i,"to cause to leap," rooi,ja/idn: gashtan, "to *f to cause to bebecome," root, gard ; gardanidan,

:

come," &c.,

root,

gafddn.

45

(

)

NEGATIVE VERBS.

A verb

44.

is

" particle

&i

rendered negative by prefixing the

not ;"

na,

or